'■m$Z d^Z'^O ® k CWfjuTto/* ^^ACULfYON^ d-^ o 2. ^ -' ->'• SURGEON GENERAL'S OFFICE LIBRARY. Section,____ l& Hi) v ^2?A? \ THE ELEMENTS MATERIA MEDICA THERAPEUTICS. BY JONATHAN PEREIRA, M.D. F.R.S. & L.S. LICENTIATE OF THE ROYAL COLLEGt OF PHYSICIANS IN LONDON; EXAMINER IN MATERIA MEBICA AND PHARMACY TO THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON; AND ASSISTANT PHYSICIAN TO, AND LECTURER ON MATERIA MEDICA AT THE LONDON HOST1TAL, ETC. ETC. ETC. WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. Seronb American, from % Cast Condon .(Edition, ENLARGED AND IMPROVED. WITH NOTES AND ADDITIONS, • BY JOSEPH CARSON, M. D. PROFESSOR OF MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACY IN THE PHILADELPHIA COLLEGE OF ^PHARMACY, EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHARMACY, MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, ETC. ETC. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. ^J^'CJN GENERAL'S OFFICC PHILADELPHIA: LEA AND BLANCHARD. • 1846. -v <3v P43 b 184-6 v.i Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1845, By Lea and Blanchard, fn the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. C SHERMAN, PRINTER, 19 St. James Street. TO HENRY CLXJTTERBUCK, ESQ. M.D. MEMBER OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS, PRESIDENT OF THE MEDICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, FORMEHLY PHYSICIAN TO THE GENERAL DISPENSARY, ALDERSGATE STREET, AND LECTURER ON THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE, . ETC. ETC. ETC. (El)is illork is HJebtcatcb, AS A TESTIMONY OF HIGH RESPECT FOR HIS GREAT PROFESSIONAL TALENTS AND ESTEEM FOR. HIS PRIVATE WORTH, BY HIS FAITHFUL FRIEND, AND GRATEFUL PUPIL, THE AUTHOR. J PREFACE TO THE SECOND AMERICAN EDITION. In preparing the second edition of Pereira's Elements of Materia Mcdica for publication, the editor has made such additions as were required by the pro- gress of information and improvement in the sciences of which it treats, so as to place the work on the same footing as when first issued from the press, as a full and complete exposition of Materia Medica and its associate branches. The matter that has been introduced consists of an account of substances that have attracted attention recently by their therapeutic employment, the mode of forming, characters and uses of new pharmaceutic preparations, and the details of more elaborate and particular chemical investigations, with respect to the nature of previously-known and already described elementary principles. In making the additions the same care has been taken to conform to the original plan of the work, as in the first edition, and they are designated in the same manner. November 1, 1845. 1* PREFACE TO THE FIRST AMERICAN EDITION. The very great merit of Pereira's Elements of Materia Medica and Thera- peutics having attracted the attention of the profession in the United States, it is believed that an important service is performed, in rendering it accessible, by the publication of an American edition. It is by far the most comprehensive treatise upon the subject in the English language. Replete with erudition, and at the same time most satisfactory with respect to references, it is admirably suited to the wants of the advanced student and the practitioner ; while from the distinctness of the facts, their methodical arrangement, and the clear philosophical explanations connected with them, it meets the wants of the student who is in search of the first lessons in the science. It may, therefore, with equal benefit be employed as a work of reference, or as an elementary text-book, in which twofold character it occupies an unusual position. More completely to adapt it to the demands of this country, such additions have been made as are deemed to be essential. Thus, the portion devoted to pharmaceutical information, is in the original work too strictly local, as it is con- fined almost exclusively to the peculiarities of the three British Colleges ; to ob- viate this, the nomenclature of the last edition of the United States Pharmacopoeia has been introduced, by inserting the name of each article adopted by that standard, in connexion with those assumed by the authorities uniformly cited by the author, or by. expressing a correspondence of name with one or more of them by the symbols (U. S.) in union with similar symbols used by him to indicate the authority. The formulae of the United States Pharmacopoeia have also been set forth, with the formulae of the standards previously mentioned, and where a for- mula has been adopted, or a medicinal preparation assumed by our own work, Vlii PREFACE TO THE FIRST AMERICAN EDITION. entirely differing from those found in the text, it has been presented, with all the details necessary for its employment. Succinct histories of the most important indigenous medicines of the United States, of which no account, 6t a very cursory one, had been given, have been introduced in their appropriate places, as Cassia Marilandica, CJienopodium, Cimicifuga, Cornus Florida, Eupatorium, Gillenia, Juglans, Pix Canadensis, Podophyllum, Primus Virginiana, Sanguinaria, and Veratrum viride; others of minor importance have also been noticed, and a sufficient exposition of their properties made, for their employment under circumstances that may render them expedient. The matter that has been added, has been included within brackets, and dis- tinguished by the insertion of the initials of the editor. February 1, 1843. PREFACE TO THE FIRST LONDON EDITION. The object of the author, in preparing the present work for the press, has been to supply the Medical Student with a class book on Materia Medica, con- taining a faithful outline of this department of Medicine, and embracing a con- cise account of the most important modern discoveries in Natural History, Chemistry, Physiology, and Therapeutics, in so far as they pertain to Pharma- cology. These subjects he has treated of in the order of their natural historical relations. This method he has followed for many years past in his Lectures, believing it to be the most convenient, and, on the whole, the least objectionable mode of classifying the objects of Pharmacology ; and he is glad to find that some of the most eminent professors (among whom he may mention his friends Drs. Christison and Royle), follow a similar order in their lectures. Hitherto, however, no systematic work has been published in the English language in which this order has been adopted.1 It must be admitted, that, as the ultimate object of all our inquiries into the Materia Medica is the attainment of a knowledge of the physiological effects and therapeutical uses of medicines, an arrangement founded on the effects and uses would be much more valuable to the medical student than one based on proper- 1 The Therapeutic Arrangement and Syllahvs of Materia Medica, by J. Johnston, M. D., can hardly be regarded as constituting an exception to this statement. X PREFACE TO THE FIRST LONDON EDITION. ties only indirectly related to those for which the agents possessing them are employed. For it would enable him more readily to practise on general indica- tions, and to substitute one remedy for another, belonging to the same class or order. Under this point of view, the author is fully impressed with the value of a physiological or therapeutical arrangement of medicines, and, could it be effected, would readily acknowledge its vast superiority, considered in a medical point of view, over all other classifications ; but he is of opinion that pharmaco- logists are too imperfectly acquainted with the operation of therapeutical agents to enable them to effect a classification of this kind with much success. Scarcely .two medicines give rise to precisely the same effects ; and, as we are unable to determine the nature of the modification produced by each,' «it is impossible to bring the substances used in medicine under a general good arrangement."1 Every writer who has attempted it, has found the facts hitherto ascertained in- sufficient for his purpose, and has, therefore, been necessarily obliged to call in the aid of theory : hence the so-called physiological classifications of medicines are in reality founded on the prevailing medical doctrines of the day, or on the peculiar notions of the writer. Opium and mercury may be referred to in iliustration oftbe authol,s meanin„ They are substances in ordinary use, and their effects are well known Yet wnters are neither agreed as to the nature of the primary influence which these a entacercseover the animal economy, nor as to their proper ^ in physiologlcal classification. puMiion in a Thus several physicians (as Dr. John Murray'and Dr A T Th it as a sedative ; one (Maver8} as hnth • , ' regard -either; whfle others (as SI0„:r;:^;:,^:^-^r(0,,,a, ' Eleme*ts of Physiology, by J. MCiller M D . , , , 0 Quoted by Orfila (Tn ■ , ■ / '' Pans' 1824- y wnia Uoxicologie Generate) ' Toxic°logie Generate, 3- ed 1827 2 t t> - e Op cit ' 41> 2 tom-> Pans. PREFACE TO THE FIRST LONDOX EDITION. xi Again, mercury is by several writers (as Drs. Cullen,1 Chapman,* Young," and Eberle4) placed in the class of sialagogues ; by many (as Dr. A. T. Thom- son,8 MM. Edwards and Vavasseur,6 and MM. Trousseau and Pidoux?) among excitants ; by some (as Conradi, Bertele, and Horn8) it is considered to be seda- tive ; by one (Dr. Wilson Philip8) to be stimulant in small doses, and sedative in large ones ; by some (as Dr. John Murray10) it is placed among tonics; by ano- ther (Vogt11) among the resolventia alterantia; by one (Sundelin13) among the liquefacients (verflilssigende Mittel) j by the followers of Broussais (as Begin13) among revulsives ; by the Italians (as Giacomini14) among contra-stimulants or hyposthenics ; by others (as Barbier15) among the incertce sedis ! ! The author is fully aware of the objections which some will be disposed to raise to the natural-historical and chemical details contained in this work. But with due reference to the opinion of others, he thinks the absence of these sub- jects would render the present volumes incomplete. A knowledge of them, it is true, is not essential to the successful practice of our profession ; but surely a physician will not make a worse practitioner because he is acquainted with the natural history and chemistry of the agents he is employing in the treatment of disease. The author is not ambitious to raise into unnecessary importance these topics ; yet he cannot help expressing his belief, that they who are the loudest in decrying the value and utility of natural history and chemistry to the medical practitioner, are those, for the most part, whose information on these points is most limited. In drawing up the Historical and Bibliographical Table, the author thinks it but justice to acknowledge the assistance he has received :—In the Hindoo De- 1 Op. cit. 2 Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, 2 vols., 4th ed., Philadelphia, 1825. 3 An Introduction to Medical Literature, art. Pharmacology, 2d ed., London, 1823. * Treatise on Materia Medica and Therapeutics, 2 vols., 2d ed., Philadelphia, 1825. s Op. cit. 0 Manuel de Matiere Medicate, Paris, 1831. 7 Traite de Therapeutique, torn, i., Paris, 1836. 8 Quoted by Richter (Ausfiirliche Arzneimittellehre, Bd. v. 307.1830.) 9 On the Influence of Minute Doses of Mercury, London, 1834. 10 Op. cit. 11 Lehrbuch der Pharmakodynamik, 2 Bd., 2te Aufl., Giessen, 1828. 13 Handbuch der speciellen Heilmittellehre, 3te Aufl. Berlin, 1833. *3 Traite de Therapeutique, Paris, 1825. '* Trattato fdosqfico-sperimentalc dei Soccorsi Terapeutici, Padova, 1833. li Op. cit. xii PREFACE TO THE SECOND LONDON EDITION. partment, from his friend, Professor Royle; in Scandinavian Pharmacological Literature, from Dr. Hoist, Professor in the University of Christiana ; in the American department, from Dr. Wood, Professor of Materia Medica and Phar- macy in the University of Pennsylvania,-to all of whom his best thanks are justly due. London, November, 1838. PREFACE TO THE SECOND LONDON EDITION. Encouraged by the rapid sale of a large impression of the first edition of this work, the author has endeavoured to make the present edition still more deserv- ing the favour of the profession, by various additions, alterations, and omissions. Among the additions will be found articles on Mental Impressions, Light, Heat, Cold, Electricity, Magnetism, Diet, Climate, and Exercise, considered as therapeutic agents. The processes of the British Pharmacopoeias (including those of the new Edinburgh one) have been described in a more detailed manner. Upwards of a hundred wood-cuts have been added. They comprise figures of crystals, and of some insects used in medicine ; microscopic views of the amylaceous grains of commerce; and illustrations of chemical manufactures, and of the modes of preparing some vegetable products. And, in the typogra- phical part, various improvements have also been effected. As some reviewers have spoken in terms of commendation of the very ex- tended index, the author thinks it but just to state that it was carefully made by his wife, to whose pencil he is indebted for the figures of the grains of fecula, drawn to one scale by an excellent microscope, and camera lucida, lent him for that purpose by his friend and colleague, Mr. Luke. CONTENTS OP VOL. I. Title - - Dedication Preface to the Second American Edition Preface to the First American Edition - Preface to the First London Edition Preface to the Second London Edition - Table of Contents in Vol. I. List of Woodcuts in Vol. I. - Historical Table ... PART I.—GENERAL THERAPEUTICS. Therapeutics, Acology, Remedies - - - - 1. Psychical or Mental Remedies External affections of the mind Internal affections of the mind - 2. SOMATICAL OR CORPORAL REMEDIES I. Physical but Imponderable Agents Light ■ - -. - Heat - - - - - * - a. Radiant heat ------ a. Solar heat ..... b. Artificial radiant heat .... 6. Conducted heat ..... 1. Dry heat ------ 1. Hot-air bath - 2. Solid substances heated not above 100° - 3. Metal heated to 212° - 4. The actual cautery - 2. Moist heat •....- a. Aqueous vapour - 1. The vapour-bath - 2. The inhalation of warm vapour - 3. Steam - b. Water - 1. Tepid, warm, and hot, baths - vol. I. y XIV CONTENTS. 2. Warm Affusion 3. Warm fomentation and poultices 4. Warm aqueous drinks and injections 5. Boiling water Cold a. Cool Air b. Cold Water 1. Cool, cold, and temperate baths 2. Affusion 3. The shower bath 4. The douche 5. Lavation, washing, or sponging 6. Cold lotions 7. Cold drinks 8. Cold injections - c. Ice and snow - 1. Employed externally 2. Employed internally Electricity a. Friction Electricity 1. The electric bath 2. The electric aura 3. The electric spark 4. The electric shock - 5. The electric current /3. Voltaic Electricity Electro-puncture y. Magnetic Electricity Magnetism II. Hygienic Agents - Food ..... a. Aliments 1. Alimentary principles 2. Compound aliments a. Animal /3. Vegetable b. Drinks .... c. Condiments Dietetical Regimen Diet tables of the London Hospitals Exercise - Climate .... Circumstances which affect the climate of Varieties of climates 1. Climates of England 2. Climates of France - 3. Climates of Spain and Portugal - 4. Climates of Italy and the Mediterranean 5. Atlantic Climates Diseases for which change of Climate is resorted to a country III. Mechanical and Surgical Agents CONTENTS. XV IV. Pharmacological Agents, or Medicines - . . - 119 1. Pharmacognosy - . . . . ng General observations, works on, &c. - . . - 119 2. Pharmacy - . . . . . 120 Definition, and works on ..... J20 3. Pharmacodynamics - - - - . 120 Chapter I. On the means of ascertaining the effects of medicines - 120 Chapter II. Of the active forces of medicines - - - 127 1. Mechanical - - - - - - - 127 2. Chemical - - - - - - 128 3. Dynamical - - - - - - - 129 Chapter III. On the physiological effects of medicines - - 130 1. Local effects ....... 130 2. Remote effects - - - - - - 130 Chapter IV. On the absorption of medicines - 132 Proofs of absorption ------ 132 Vessels effecting absorption - - - - - 134 Veins • - - - - - 134 Lacteals and Lymphatics - - - - - 135 Mechanism of absorption ..... 136 Absorption by physical agency {imbibition; exosmose and endosmose) - - - - - - 136 Absorption by a vital agency .... 136 Absorption of a medicine, or poison, essential'to the production of its remote effects - - - - - -136 How do medicines and poisons, which have entered the blood-ves- sels, affect distant organs? .... 140 By modifying or altering the properties of the blood, and thereby unfitting it for carrying on the functions of the body 140 By pervading the structure of the organ acted on - - 140 By acting on the lining membrane of the blood-vessels - 144 Chapter V. On the operation of medicines by nervous agency - 145 Chapter VI. Of the parts affected by the remote action of medicines 150 Chapter VII. Of the general nature of the effects of medicines - 148 1. Stimulants - - - - - - 149 a. General vital stimuli - 149 (3. Special stimuli - • - - - 149 2. Sedatives ------ 149 3. Alteratives ...--- 149 CONTENTS. 1. Brunonian theory - - ' ." > 2. Doctrine of contra-stimulus (JVez* /tate Doctrine) Giacomini's classification of medicines 149 150 150 Chapter VIII. On the circumstances which modify the effects of medi- cines - Relating to the medicine Relating to the organism 152 152 153 Chapter'IX. On the therapeutical effects of medicines Mode of production - - - - By the influence of a medicine over the causes of disease - By modifying the actions of one or more parts of the system Fundamental methods of cure ..... Antipathia .... Homoeopathia - - - " . " . " Allopathia (antagonism, counter-irritation, revulsion, deriva- tion) - - - - - 157 157 157 158 158 158 159 161 Chapter X. Of the parts to which medicines are applied Applications to the skin - The enepidermic method The iatraleptic method The endermic or emplastro-endermic method - The method by inoculation Applications to the mucous membranes Gastro-pulmonary membrane Urino-genital membrane Applications to the serous membranes - Applications to ulcers, wounds, and abscesses Injection of medicines into the veins {infusion) 163 163 164 164 164 165 165 166 167 167 167 170 Chapter XI. On pharmacological classification Empirical arrangements - - Rational arrangements - a. Classifications founded on the sensible qualities (3. Classifications founded on the natural-historical properties Classification of crystalline forms Artificial method of Linnseus Methods founded on the parts employed - y. Classifications founded on the chemical constituents o. Classifications founded on the physiological effects 1. According to the general quality of the effects 2. According to Brunonian principles 3. According to the doctrine of contra-stimulus 4. According to the doctrine of Broussais 5. According to chemico-physiological principles 6. According to the part affected s. Classifications founded on therapeutical properties 171 171 172 172 173 174 178 178 178 179 179 181 182 182 182 182 183 CONTENTS. XVI Chapter XII. On the physiological classes of medicines Class 1. Cerebro-spinants Class 2. Stimulants Class 3. Tonics Class 4. Emollients Class 5. Refrigerants Class 6. Evacuants Sub-class 1. Liquefacients Sub-class 2. Diaphoretics Sub-class 3. Diuretics - Sub-class 4. Errhines Sub-class 5. Sialogogues Sub-class 6. Expectorants Sub-class 7. Emetics Sub-class 8. Cathartics Sub-class 9. Emmenagogues Sub-class 10. Cholagogues Class 7. Ecbolics Class 8. Acids - Class 9. Alkalines {Eithonttiptics) Class 10. Topical remedies 184 185 190 195 198 200 200 201 203 204 206 207 208 209 210 211 214 214 215 215 216 PART II.—SPECIAL PHARMACOLOGY. Natural-historical arrangement 221 I. INORGANIZED KINGDOM. (Ulctss X $on>JlletaUu: Substances. Order I.—Oxygen and its aqueous solution. Oxygenium . . - - - Aqua oxygenii - 221 224 Order II.—Chlorine and its combinations with .oxygen. Chlorinium ------ Aqua chlorinii - »*♦ Hypochlorous, chlorous, chloric, and perchloric acids 225 228 230 Order III.—Iodine and its combinations with oxygen. Iodinium ...--• 1. Tinclura iodinii - 230 241 XVIII C0NTENT3. 2. [Liquor Iodini compositus] 3. lodtdum amyli 4. Unguentum iodinii , % Iodic acid 241 241 242 242 Order IV.—Bromine and its combinations with'oxygen, chlorine, and iodine. Brominium - *% Compounds of bromine with oxygen, chlorine, and iodine 242 245 Order V.—Hydrogen and its compounds with oxygen, chlorine, and iodine. Hydrogenium Aqua 1. Aqua destillata 2. Aquee medicatce 3. Infusa 4. Decocta a. Aquae communes - 1. Aqua pluvialis 2. Aquafontana - 3. Aqua exjlumine 4. Aqua ex puteo - 5. Aqua ex lacu 6. Aqua ex palude - /3. Aqua marina - Balneum maris factitium • y. Aquae minerales Class 1. Chalybeate or ferruginous waters Order i. Carbonated chalybeates Order ii. Sulphaled chalybeates Class 2. Sulphurous or hepatic waters - Class 3. Acidulous or carbonated waters Class 4. Saline waters - Order i. Purging saline waters Order ii. Saline or brine waters Order iii. Calcareous toaters Order iv. Alkaline waters Order v. Silicious waters Artificial mineral waters Acidum hydrochloricum 1. Gaseous hydrochloric acid 2. Liquid hydrochloric acid - Acidum hydrochloricum dilutum Acidum hydriodicum Order VI.—Nitrogen and its compounds with gen. Nitrogenium .... Xitrogenii protoxydum Aquce nitrogenii proloxydi oxygen and hydro- 245 246 249 250 250 251 251 251 251 251 252 253 253 254 255 255 256 256 257 257 258 260 260 260 260 261 261 264 264 264 266 270 270 270 271 272 CONTENTS. XIX Acidum nitricum ----... 272 \. Acidum nitricum dilutum - 277 2. Unguentum acidi nitrici - - - . . 278 Acidum nitro-hydrochloricum ------ 27-i Balneum nitro-hydrochloricum - - - . 279 Ammonia -.....__ 279 Aqua ammonia? (liquor ammonia) - .... 2sl 1. Linimentum ammonice - - l - . 281 2. Linimentum ammonice-compositum - - - 281 3. Unguentum ammonice - - - - . -238 4. Tinctura ammonice composila - - - - 2S* Ammoniac carbonas ----... 288 1, Spiritus ammonice ..... 289 2. Spiritus ammonice fxtidus ..... 290 3. Spiritus ammonice aromaticus - - - - 290 Ammoniae sesquicarbonas - - - - - - 290 1. Liquor ammonice sesquicarbonatis - - . - 294 2. Linimentum ammonice sesquicarbonatis - - - 294 Ammoniae bicarbonas . - - - - - - 294 Ammonise hydrochloras - - .... 295 1. Lotio ammonice hydrochloratis - - - - 301 2. Emplastrum ammonice hydrochloratis - - - - 301 Liquor ammonias acetatis ------ 301 *** Sulphate, nitrate, and citrate of ammonia .... 303 Order VII.—Carbon and its compounds with oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Section I.—Carbon. Plumbago ........ 304 Carbo ligni ........ 305 Cataplasma carbo ligni - - - - . 307 Carbo animalis ....... 307 Carbo animalis purificatus ----- 308 Section II.—Oxycarbons Acidum carbonicum ------- 308 Aqua acidi carbonaci - • - - - 313 Acidum oxalicum ....... 314 1. Ammonice oxalas - - - - - - 317 2. Potassce quadroxalas - - - - - - 317 Section III.—Oxyhydrocarbons. Alcohol - - - - - - - - 317 1. Spiritus vini gallici (Brandy) ..... 330 2. Mistura spiritus vini gallici - - - - 331 3. Spiritus sacchari (Rum) ..... 331 4. Spiritus frumenti compositus (Gin, Whisky, Compounds) 332 5. Arrack ------- 332 1. Tincturce ...---- 333 2. Spiritus ..---•- 335 XX CONTENTS. /Ether sulphuricus - - , ." 1. Spiritus cctheris sulphurtci - 2. Sjnnlus cetlieris sulphurici compositus Oleum Eeihereum Spiritus aethens nitrici iElher hydrochloricus - - Spiritus cetlieris hydrochlorici ./Ether aceiicus Acidum aceticum - Malt vinegar Wine vinegar German vinegar - Pvroligneous acid Pyroxilic spirit Eblanin - 1. Acelum destillatum 2. Acidum aceticum dilutum - 3. Acidum aceticum aromaticum - 4. Acidum aceticum camphoratum 5. Oxymel Acidum citricum - 1. Artificial lemon juice - 2. Effervescing citrates Acidum tartaricum Effervescing tartrates - Acidum benzoicum Creasoton - 1. Mistura creasoti 2. Unguentum creasoti Petroleum Succinum - 1. Oleum succini - 2. Acidum succinicum 335 342 342 343 345 350 350 350 351 352 353 353 354 355 356 362 363 363 364 364 364 367 367 367 370 371 373 377 377 378 379 380 381 Section IV.—Compounds containing carbon and nitrogen. Oleum animale ...... Acidum hydrocyanicum ----- Order VIII.—Compound of boron and oxygen. Acidum boracicum - - ... Order IX.—Phosphorus and phosphoric acid. Phosphorus ...... 1. Tinctura cetherea cum phosphoro 2. Oleum phosphor atum .... Acidum phosphoricum dilutum .... Order X. Sulphur and its non-metallic compounds. Sulphur ..... 1. Unguentum sulphuris .... 2. Unguentum sulphuris compositum - 3. Sulphur prcecipitatum .... 4. Oleum sulphuralum 382 382 396 397 402 402 402 404 408 408 408 409 CONTENTS. XXI Acidum sulphuricum - 1. Acidum sidphuricum dilutu?n 2. Acidum, sulphuricum aromaticum 3. Unguentum acidi sulphurici Acidum sulphurosum - Sulphuris iodidum Unguentum sulphuris iodidi Ammonia? hydrosulphas 409 417 417 418 418 419 .420 420 (Elass 31. Metallic Substances. Order XI.—Compounds of potassium. Potasses hydras - 1. Liquor potassce .... 2. Potassa cum calce ... - Potassii iodidum - - - 1. Unguentum potassii iodidi 2. Unguentum iodinii compositum 3. Tinctura iodinii composita 4. Liquor potassii iodidi compositus - Liniment of Hydriodate of Potassa Lugofs preparations of iodide of potassium Potassii bromidum . . . - - Unguentum potassii bromidi Potasii sulphuretum - 1. Solutio potassii sulphureti 2. Balneum sulphuratum 3. Balneum sulphuratum et gelatinosum Potassas bisulphas . . - - - Potassce sulphas - Potassce sulphas cum sidphure Potassa? nitras - - Potassae chloras . . - - - Potassa? carbonas - - - - - Liquor potassce-carbonatis Potassae bicarbonas . . - - 1. Liquor potassce effervescens 2. Lemon and kali - - - - Potassa? acetas - - - - - Potassae bitartras - 1. Imperial - - 2. Serum lactis tartarizatum Potassa? tartras - 422 426 428 428 433 433 433 434 434 434 435 437 437 438 439 439 439 440 441 442 446 448 452 452 455 455 455 456 458 458 458 Order XII.—Compounds of sodium. Sodii chloridum Sodse hypochloris Soda? sulphas Sodae biboras - Mel boras Sodic nitras - 460 465 468 470 472 472 xxj[ CONTENTS. 473 Soda> phosphas - _ ^-g Solutio sodce phosphatis - 47g Soda? carbonas - - - ^g Sodce carbonas exsiccata - - • Soda? sesquicarbonas - - - ._„ Soda? bicarbonas - - " .»„ . 1. Pulveres effervescentes - J^Z 2. Seidlitz powders ----- 4«*4 I. Trochisci magnesia . . - 516 2. Aqua magnesice bicarbonatis - . 518 Magnesia? sulphas ... - 518 Pulvis salinus compositus . *^19 " 522 CONTENTS. XXlll Order XVI.—Compounds of aluminum. Alumen ........ 522 1. Alumen exsiccatum - - - - -528 2. Liquor aluminis compositus ----- 528 3. Pulvis aluminis compositus .... 528 4. Cataplasma aluminis - - - - - -528 *** Other compounds of aluminum (red Armenian boje) ... 528 Order XVII.—Compounds of Arsenic. Acidum Arseniosum ------- 528 1. Liquor Potassce arsenitis ----- 550 2. Pilulce asiaticce ...... 550 3. Unguentum arsenici ----- 550 4. Pasta arsenicalis - - - - - - 551 Other compounds of Arsenic. 1. Arsenici iodidum - - - - - 551 2. Realgar - - - - - - - 551 3. Orpiment - - - - - - - 551 Order XVITI.—Compounds of antimony. Antimonii sesquisulphuretum ------ 552 Antimonii sulphuretum prceparatum • - - - 554 Antimonii sesquichloridum ------ 554 Antimonii oxysulphuretum ..... 555 Antimonii sesquioxydum ...... 558 Pulvis antimonii compositus ..... 559 Potassa? antimonio-tartras ...... 562 1. Vinum antimonii potassio-tartratis • - - 574 2. Unguentum antimonii potassio-tartratis - - - 574 Order XIX.—Gold and its compounds. Aurum -------- 575 Pulvis auri ------- 576 Auri terchloridum ------ 576 Sodii auro-chloridura - - - - - - - 577 Auri teroxydum ------- 577 1. Aurate of ammonia - - - - • - 578 2. Purple of Cassius - - - - - 57 H Auri iodidum -------- 578 Auri tercyanidum ------- 578 Order XX.—Silver and its compounds. Argentum ----- -5/9 Argenti nitras ----- 5o() 1. Liquor argenti nitratis - - - - -585 2. Solutio argenti ammoniati • - - - - 58s Hair dye and marking ink ------ d8c* XXIV CONTENTS. Argenti cyanidum - - - - *«* Other compounds of silver (chloride and oxide) 588 589 Order XXI.—Mercury and its compounds. Hydrargyrum - Hydrargyrum purificatum Hydrargyrum cum creta Hydrargyrum cum magnesia - - . - Pilulae hydrargyri - - - - Unguentum hydrargyri 1. Unguentum hydrargyri mitius 2. Ceratum hydrargyri compositum 3. Linimentum hydrargyri compositum Emplastrum hydrargyri ... Emplastrum ammoniaci cum hydrargyro Hydrargyri oxydum - - - Lotio nigra .... Hydrargyri binoxydum Lotio flava - - - - Hydrargyri nitrico-oxydum ... Unguentum hydrargyri nitrico-oxydi Hydrargyri chloridum 1. Pilufa hydrargyri chloridi composites 2. Pilulce calomelanos et opii 3. Unguentum hydrargyri chloridi - 4. Pilulce calharlicce composilce Hydrargyri bichloridum - ' Liquor hydrargyri bichloridi Hydrargyri amrnonio-chloridum - Unguentum hydrargyri ammonio-chloridi Hydrargyri iodidum ... 1. Pilulce hydrargyri iodidi 2. Unguentum hydrargyri iodidi Hydrargyri biniodidum Unguentum hydrargyri biniodidi Hydrargyri bisulphuretum Hydrargyri bisulphuretum cum sulphure - Hydrargyri bicyanidum Unguentum hydrargyri nitratis Hydrargyri acetas - Hydrargyri subsulphas flavus Liquor hydrargyri et arsenici iodidi Order XXII.—Copper and its compounds. Cuprum -... Cupri sulphas - Ammonia? cupro-sulphas - 1. Pilulce cupri ammoniati 2. Liquor cupri ammonio-sulphatis - Cupri subaceias • 1. Cupri subcocetas prceparatum # 2. Linimentum ceruginis 3. Unguentum cupri subacetatis ^upri acelas - 589 606 606 607 607 608 610 610 611 611 611 611 613 613 614 615 617 617 624 625 625 625 625 631 631 634 634 635 635 635 637 637 638 638 642 644 645 646 647 649 652 652 652 654 655 655 655 655 CONTENTS. XXV Order XXIII.—Bismuth and its compounds. Bismuth Bismuthi trisnitras 656 656 Order XXIV.—Tin. Stannum Pulvis stanni 658 659 Order XXV.—Lead and its compounds. Plumbum .... Plumbi oxydum - 1. Plumbi oxydum hydratum 2. Calcis plumbis Plumbi oxydum rubrum Plumbi chloridum - - - - Plumbi iodidum - - Unguentum plumbi iodidi Plumbi carbonas Unguentum plumbi carbonatis Plumbi nitras - - - - Plumbi acetas - - 1. Ceratum plumbi acetatis 2. Pilulce plumbi opiatce Liquor plumbi diacetatis 1. Liquor plumbi diacetatis dilutus - 2. Ceratum plumbi compositum - 3. Ceratum saponis • Emplastrum plumbi 1. Emplastrum resince 2. Emplastrum saponis - 3*. Unguentum plumbi compositum . . 660 . . 664 . 665 . . 666 . 666 - ■ 667 667 - - 669 ■ 669 - - 671 . 671 - - 672 . 675 - - 675 - 675 - - 677 . 677 - - 677 - 677 - - 678 . 679 . . 679 Order XXVI.—Zinc and its compounds. Zincum Zinci oxydum - - 1. Unguentum zinci 2. Zinci oxydum impurum Zinci chloridum Zinci sulphas Zinci acetas - Zinci ficetatis tinctura Zinci carbonas 1. Calamina prceparata 2. Ceratum calamina ►„* Zinci cyaniduin 679 680 684 684 684 685 685 688 688 689 689 689 vol. i. XXVI CONTENTS. Order XXVII.—Iron and its compounds. Ferrum Ferri oxydum nigrum Ferri sesquioxydum - Emplastrum ferri - Ferri sesquioxydum hydratum Tinctura ferri sesquichloridi Ferri ammonio-chloridum - - Tinctura ferri ammonio-chloridi Ferri iodidum - - - - Ferri iodidi syrupus - Ferri sulphuretum - Ferri ferro-sesquicyanidum Potassii ferro-cyanidum Ferri sulphas - 1. Ferri sulphas exsiccatum 2. Pilula ferri sulpluxtis Ferri carbonas - 1. Ferri carbonas saccharatum 2. Mistura ferri composita 3. Pilula ferri composita 4. Supercarbonated chalybeates Potassa? ferro-tartras Ferri acetas - - - - 1. Ferri acetatis tinctura 2. Tinctura acetatis ferri cum alcohole *,* Other ferruginous compounds (persulphate, pernitrate of iron, solution of si^squi- nitraie of iron, ferro tartrate of ammonia, lactate of iron, citrate of iron, and iron wine) ...... 690 695 696 698 699 701 703 703 704 706 706 707 708 712 715 715 715 715 716 717 717 718 720 720 720 721 Order XXVIII.—Binoxide of manganese. Manganesii binoxydum 723 LIST OF WOOD-CUTS IN VOL. I. Figs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.) 13. [ 14. ^ 15. J 16. J 17. S 18. i 19. \ 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Ancient baths ... Apparatus for medical electricity Flower of raphanus sativus - Flower of glechoma hederacea Fruit of picea vulgaris Inflorescence of fceniculum vul gare .... Lolium temulentum Festuca quadridentata - Cactus opuntia. ... Amanita muscaria Apparatus to illustrate physical absorption Apparatus used by Messrs. Morgan and Addison in their experiments on the absorption of poisons Page. 60 75 123 123 123 123 123 124 133 134 136 139 Ditto Ditto - 143 144 29. 30 31 32. 33. :( 34. 35 36 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. :1 Inhaling bottles - - - - 167 Octohedron - - - - 175 Dodecahedron - - - - 175 Cube......175 Hemioctohedron or tetrahedron - 175 Square octohedron - - - 175 Square prism .... 175 Combination of octohedron and prism ..... 175 Images caused by the action of cal- careous spar on polarized light 176 Rhombohedron - - - - 176 Hexagonal prism - - - 176 Combination of the rhombohedron with the hexagonal prism - - 176 Scalenohedron .... 176 Images caused by the action of nitre on polarized light - - 177 Octohedron with a rectangular base 177 Right rectangular prism - - 177 Octohedron with a rhombic base - 177 Right rhombic prism - 177 Oblique octohedron with a rectan- gular base .... 177 Figs. Page. 42. Oblique rectangular prism - - 177 43. Oblique octohedron with a rhombic base.....177 44. Oblique rhombic prism - - 177 45. Doubly oblique octohedron - - 178 46. Doubly oblique prism . . - 178 47. Fuci yielding iodine ... 231 48. New Geyser - - - - 255 49. Hydrometer - - - - 323 50. Tincture percolator - - - 334 51. Vinegar generator ... 354 52. Section of a pyroligneous acid still 355 53. Crystal of citric acid ... 365 rr'> Crystals of tartaric acid - . 369 56. Boracic acid lagoons ... 398 57. Chambers for crystallizing and dry. ing boracic acid - - . 399 58. Sarcoptes hominis* ... 407 59. Caecade de Vinagre ... 410 60. Oil of vitriol chamber - - - 411 61. Prism of bi sulphate of potash - 439 62. 1 63. > Crystals of sulphate of potash - 441 64.^ 65. Tessellated appearance of a plate of sulphate of potash in polarized light - . - . .441 66. Crystal of nitre .... 444 66. Prism of ditto .... 444 K7 i -q" > Crystals of carbonate of potash - 454 _n* V Ditto of bitartrale of potash - 457 - 458 - 469 71. Crystal of tartrate of potash - 72. Prism of sulphate of soda 73 i -.' \ Crystals of carbonate of soda - 477 ^ (Ditto, of tartarized soda - - 483 77. Chlorometer - - - - 504 78 ) 70"> Crystals of sulphate of magnesia - 520 80. Crystal of alum .... 523 81. Berzelius's reduction tube for arse- nic - .... 531 XXVIII LIST OF WOOD-CUTS. Figs. Page. 82. Apparatus for passing sulphuretted hydrogen through metallic solu- tions .....534 83."| 81 i g/ > Marsh's apparatus ... 536 86* J 87. Apparatus for subjecting arseniu- retted hydrogen to the action of heat or nitrate of silver - . 537 £8. Octohedron of emetic tartar - - 564 89. Apparatus for reducing sulphuret of antimony .... 564 | Figs. Page. 90. Crystal of nitrate of silver - - 581 91. Henry's apparatus for the subli- mation of calomel - - .619 92. Crystal of calomel ... 620 93. Crystal of corrosive sublimate - 626 q,- \ Crystals of bicyanide of mercury 640 96. Crystal of acetate of lead - - 671 97. Crystal of sulphate of zinc - - 710 98.) Crystal of ferrocyanide of potas. 99. \ sium.....710 100. Crystal of sulphate of iron - - 713 TABULAR VIEW OF THE HISTORY AND LITERATURE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. 1. WORKS ON THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE GENERALLY. Le Clerc (Dr. D.) Histoire de la Medecine. Gen. 1696. 4to.; Amst. 1723. 4to.; a la Haye, 1729. (Brought down to the time of Galen. An English translation, by Drs. Drake and Baden, 8vo. Lond. 1699.) Freind (Dr. J.) The History of Physick from the time of Galen to the beginning of the Sixteenth Century. 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 3d ed. 1727. Schulze (Dr. J. H.) Historia Medicinae a ferum initio ad annum urbis Romae dxxiv. deducta. Lips. 4to. 1728. Ackermann (Dr. J. C G.) Institutiones Historian Medicinas. 8vo. Norimb. 1792. Sprengel (Kurt). Versuch einer pragmatischen Geschichte der Arzneikunde. 3tte. Aufl. 5 in 6 Thle. 8vo. Halle, 1821-28. (There is a French translation in 9 vols, by A. J. L. Jourdan, of the 2nd ed. 8vo. 1815-20.) Choulant (Dr. D. L.) Tafeln zur Geschichte der Medicin nach der Ordnung ihrer Doctrinen. Leipzig, 1822, fol. Augustin (F. L.) Vollstandige Uebersicht der Geschichte der Medicin in tabellarischer Form. 2te. verbess. Ausg. 4to. Berlin, 1825. Hamilton (Wm.) The History of Medicine, Surgery, and Anatomy, from the Creation of the World to the commencement of the Nineteenth Century. 2 vols, small 8vo. Lond. 1831. Bostock (Dr. J.) History of Medicine, in the Cyclopeed. of Pract. Med. Vol. 1. Broussais (Dr. C.) Atlas Historique et Bibliographique de la Medecine, ou Histoire de la Mede- cine. Paris, 1834. (A translation of Choulant's Tables, with some additions.) 2. WORKS CONTAINING A SPECIAL HISTORY OF PHARMACOLOGY. Cullen (Dr. Wm.) Treatise of the Materia Medica. 2 vols. 4to. 1789. Burdach (Dr. K. F.) System der Arzneymittellehre. 3 vols. 8vo. 1807-9. Voigtel (Dr. F. G.) Vollstiindiges System der Arzneimittellehre. 2 vols. 8vo. 1816-17. Choulant. Op. sunra cit. * 3* » xxx HISTOHICAL TABLE OF THE mItEKIA MEDICA. B»»». (Dr. C. H. E., Be Lehre v.r, de, chen, isehen HeiWneln ode, Handbuch der A™- mittelehre. 3 vols. 8vo. Bonn. 1825-31. Bro,ssais(D,C.) 0P. supra cit. (Choulant's Table in French, without additions.) ^ 3. CATALOGUES OF PHARMACOLOGICAL WORKS. B aldinger (E. G.) LitteraturaUniversa Materia Medics, Alimentary, T™ic0£f*'^m?S et Therapiae generalis medic* atque chirurgicae potissimum Academica. 8vo. Marb. 179J. Burdach (K. F.) Die Literatur der Heilwissenchaft. 3 Bde. 8vo. Gotha, 1810-21. (The 2d volume contains the Materia Medica.) Rfuss (J D) Repertorium Commentationum a Societatibus Literariis editarum secundum REUd s IphnaWm oXem digestum. Vol. x. ad xvi. ad Anatomiam, Artem Medicam chirurgi- cam et Obstetriciam. 4to. Gotting. 1813-21. (The eleventh volume, a. d. 1819, contains Materia Medica and Pharmacy.) Ersch (J. S.) Handbuch der Deutschen Literatur seit der Mitte des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts bis auf die neueste Zeit, systematisch bearbeitet und mit den nothigen Registern versehen. Neue Ausgabe. 3tter. Band enthaltend. I. Medicin. II. Naturkunde. Leipzig, 1822. Young (Dr. T.) An Introduction to Medical Literature, &c, 1813. 2d ed. 8vo. Lond. 1823. Watt (Dr Robt.) Bibliotheca Britannica, or a general introduction to British and Foreign Lite- rature. 2 pts. authors and subjects. 4 vols. 4to. Edinb. 1824. (See vol. iv. ; subjects Medica, Materia; Medicines; Pharmacopoeia, and Pharmacy.) Sprengel (C.) Literatura Medica externa recentior seu enumeratio librorum plerorumque et commentariorum singularium, ad doctrinas medicas facientium, qui extra Germaniam ab anno inde 1750 impressi sunt. Lipsiae, 1829. Roy (C. H.) Catalogus Bibliothecae Medicae, t. vi. Amstel. 1830. (The 2d volume contains the '' Matches Medica.") Enslin (F. C. F.) Bibliotheca Medico-Chirurgica et Pharmaceutico-chemica. 5te. Auflage. Leipzig, 1838. See also Ploucqitet, " Literatura Medica digesta," 4 vols. 4to. Tubingae, 1808-9; and " Con- tinuatio et Supplementum I." Tubingae, 1813. [vol. 3. art. " Medicamenta," and " Medi- cina subd. Literatura."];—Bernstein, " Medicinisch-ahirurgische Bibliothek." Frankf. 1839 [Art. " Materia Chirurgica." p. 333] ;—Voigtel, op. supra cit.; Buchner, " Einlei- tung in die Pharmacie," Numb. 1827; Schwartze, " Pharmakologische Tabellen," Leip- zig, 1833; Dierbach, " Die neuesten Entdeckungen in der Materia Medica," Bd. 1. Heidb. 1837; and Bailliere's " Catalogue des Livres," 1840. B. C. EGYPTIAN MEDICINE. Thout or Thault (also called Hermes or Mercury) regarded as the founder of Medi- cine. Medicine practised first by priests, afterwards by physicians who confined themselves to the study ot one disease. (Herod. Euterpe lxxxiv ) The sick exposed in public places (Strabo). Purges, vomits, and clysters, used for three days successively in every month Ibid BSandiSntr5 t6tiCal reSulations: th* hog regarded as unclean! WOr(Pauw)d E bUlb0US plant(K'",Wu<»'; SquUlat) to which they erected a temple Employed aetites, slime of the Nile, frictions with crocodile's fat in rheumatism andmucuageof S^a™,Z^. Salt, „>«,„ (carbonate of soda?), aCpTas S and unguents ; white leadf and verdigris occasionally entered into SS'lS ter Alexandrian School [see Greek Medicine]. C°nTmYmZ (M" De>' " PHiL DlSSert- 0n the E^Pt-nS and Chinese," vol. I. Alpinus (Prosper), "De Medic. ^EffVDt " Lno-H 174* ai r. General sur l'Egypt." 2 vols 8m Paris 1890 1S° Clot-Bey> "AP^ 1729 1680 HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATEBIA MEDICA. XXXI HEBREW MEDICINE. The infliction and cure of diseases on various occasions ascribed by the Sacred His- torian to the direct interposition of God. {Exod. ix. 15. Numb. xii. 10.) Remedial agents consisted principally in strict hygienic means. Circumcision, dietetical rules, separation, ablution, combustion of infected garments. (See Gen. xvii. 10; Lev. xi. &. xiii.; 2 Kings, v.) Medicine practised by the priests. {Lev. xiv.) Gold, silver, lead, tin, iron, and brass (copper ?) mentioned by Moses. Odoriferous ointment and confection; the most ancient recipes on record. {Exod xxx. 23-25, & 34, 35.) l " There are named in the Pentateuch about 20 minerals, 10 vegetables and animals" (Alston). Music employed as a remedy. (2 Sam. xvi. 16.) Sesquisulphuret of antimony used as a face paint. (2 Kings, ix. 30.) Fig poultice. (2 Kings, xx. 7.) Physicians (not priests) referred to. {Jerem. viii. 22.) N. B. The so-called Egyptian physicians {Genes. 1. 2) were probably ivra^taarai, undertakers, or embalmers. The following substances are referred to in the Bible: the Olive, Saffron, Barley, Wheat, the Fig, the Vine, Myrrh, Bdellium, Galbanum, Cumin, Coriander, Flax, Garlic, Balm of Gilead, Olibanum (Frankincense), Cassia, Cinnamon, the Almond, the Pomegranate, Dill (in our translation incorrectly called Anise)— Colocynth ? Ricinus ? Herod was let down into a bath of oil. (Josephus, Bell. Jud. lib. I. cap. 33, % 5.) Oil and wine applied to wounds. {Luke, x. 34.) Various superstitious practices. (Adam Clarke Comm. Note to Mark, v. 26.) For further information respecting Hebrew medicine consult the " Bible;"—J. H. Horne's " Introd. to the Crit. Study and Knowl. of the Holy Script." vol. hi. 8th ed. 1839;—Lautenschlager, "Dissert.de medicis veterum Hebraeorum, eorumque methodo sanandi," Strasburg, 1786;—K. Sprengel, "Analecta Historica ad Medicinam Ebraeorum," Hal. 1796.—D. Carcassone, "Essai His- torique sur la Med. des Hebreux, anciens et modernes." 8vo. Montp. 1815.— A "Flora Biblica" is contained in Sprengel's "Historia Rei Herbariee," t. i. Amstel. 1807. B. C. ASSYRIANS. The Babylonians had no professors of Medicine. They exposed their sick in public places, in order that passengers might communicate their experience as to the best mode of cure (Herodotus, Clio xcvii.) Extracted oil from the Sesamum. (Ibid, cxviii). Consult,—Smoll (D. G.), " Venerandae antiquitatis Assyriorum Chaldaeorum, &c. Philosophorum Medicorum Regum et Principum philosophica et med. Princi- pia." 4to. Lubec, 1609. A.D. CHINESE MEDICINE. 229 Of its ancient state but little is known. The Chinese pretend that its study was co- eval with the foundation of their empire, and that their medical code was the production of Hoangti, B. C. 2009. (Grosier.) Before the Christian era there was a constant communication between China and India. {Asiat. Journ. July, 1836.) Medical science commenced with Chang-ka; for all works before that (said to be dated B. C. 1105 & 189) treat of medicine, without giving prescriptions. {Trans. of Med. Soc. of Calc. i. 146.) As the Chinese have retained their ancient man- ners and customs, we must judge of what their medicine was by what it is. Pun-tsaou (or Herbal), the most considerable Chinese work on Materia Medica, in- cludes minerals, vegetables, and animals. (Davies, ii. 278.) [A copy in the British Museum.] Ching che chun ching {Approved marked line of Medical Practice), a celebrated work in 40 vols.; of which, eight are devoted to Luy-fang {Pharmacology). The articles of the Materia Medica are very numerous. Ginseng is their panacea. Aromatics and gums in apoplectic cases. Opium as an anodyne and in dysentery. Mercury both raw and oxidized. Musk, rhubarb, tea, camphor of the Dryobala- nops, asafcetida, spices, larvae of the silk-worm, bones of tigers and elephants, vegetable vwix, horns, fins, &c. Moxa. Croton Tiglium. Consult,—Du Halde, (J. B.), "Descript. Geogr. et Hist, de la China," t. 3, p. 318, 1770; Grosier (L'Abbe), "Descript. Gen. de la China," t. ii. p. 466, 1817; Davies (F. J.), "The Chinese," vol. 2, p. 278; Gutzlaff, "Journ. of the Asiat. Soc," vol. iv. p. 154. B.C. 1491 1491 1063 884 713 600 A.D. 40 XXXM HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. B.C. A.D. 2H- r'3 OS' IHs 2 w Avicenna'and Rhazes. His work is extant, but not translated. Susruta, son of Viswamitra, was pupil of Dhanwantari and contemporary of Rama. Treats chiefly of Salya and Salekya or Surgery, and divides medicines into loco- motive (animals both viviparous and oviparous, and produced m moist places) and non-locomotive (plants and minerals). Gold Silver, Arsenic, Mercury Diamonds, Earths, and Pearls, are enumerated; also Heat and Cold, Light and Darkness, the increase and decrease of the Moon's age, as remedial means. Lithotomy, the Extraction of the Foetus, Venesection. 127 weapons and instru- ments. Actual cautery. Alkaline caustics. Heated metallic plates. Leeches. Gourds used as cupping glasses. Astringent and emollient applications. Leaves, pledgets, threads, and bandages. Drastic and mild purgatives, emetics, diaphoretics, baths, and aspersions of water. Stimulants, Sedatives, Narcotics, and Acrid poisons all employed. Datura, Nux Vomica, Croton Tiglium, Myrobalans, &c, were adopted by the Arabs. Susruta (The); or System of Med. taught by Dhanwantari and composed by his disciple Susruta. Vol. i. 8vo. Calc. 1835.—For a list of Sanscrit medical and other works, see Ainslie, "Mat. Med." vol. ii. p. 491. JJ^ f)^ 2. Early Translations from Hindoo Works. a. Tamul, by Maha Rishi Aghastier, who is named in the Ramayana, the oldest Hindoo profane work, and which is supposed to have been revised by the poet Calipas in the reign of Vikramaditya, whose era commences B. C. 57. (For a classification of drugs in a Tamul work called the Kalpastanum, see Royle's Essay, p. 54.) p. Cingalese. (See a list in Ainslie's Mat. Ind. vol. ii. p. 526; also Heyne's Tracts on India, p. 125-171.) y. Tibetan made in the eighth century. (See Csoma de Korb's, in Journ. Asiat. Soc. iv. 1.) 715 substances are mentioned, most of which are indigenous to India. 3. Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine. Cannot be determined by Hindoo chronology or authors; hence must be ascer- tained from other sources. The great antiquity of Hindoo Medicine is proved by the following circumstances. a. Indian products are mentioned in the Bible. (Royle, p. 138.) In early times commerce was established between India and Persia, Syria and Babylon; also, by the Persian and Arabian Gulfs, with Egypt, &c. Q. At a very early period India was peopled and in a high state of civilization. (For proofs, see Royle, p. 150 to 179.) As many chemical arts (e. g. distillation, bleaching, dyeing, calico printing, tanning, soap and glass making, manufacture of sugar and indigo) were practised by the Hindoos, who were acquainted with, and their country contains, all the chemical substances mentioned by Geber, it is not improbable that they, and not the Arabs, originated Chemistry. The Grecian sages travelled in the East: hence the coincidences between the systems and discoveries of the Greeks and those recorded in Sanscrit Works. y. Indian products are mentioned by the Greeks and Romans (e. g. by Hippocrates Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny, Oribasius, iEtius, and Paulus.) They were doubtless employed in the countries where they were indigenous before they were exported. J 1. Ancient Inscriptions show the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine. A medical edict by King Piyadasi, directing the establishment of depots of medicine and the planting of medicinal roots and herbs throughout his dominions and in the countries where Antiochus and his generals commanded. This, therefore must have been issued and cut in rocks and metal pillars as early as B. C 220' A. D. «• The Persians translated Hindoo Works A. D. 531 to 579. (Royle's Essay p 68 ) 5. Hindoo physicians were in high repute at the Court of Harum Al-Rashidand Al- Mamoon,from A. D. /86 to 850. HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. XXxiii HINDOO MEDICINE.—Continued. r). The Arabian authors (Rhazes, Serapion, Mesue, and Avicenna) mention Charak, and quote from the Susruta. Consult,— Wilson {H. H.) "Orient. Mag." Calc. 1823; and "Trans. Med. and Phys. Soc." Calc. vol. 1; Heyne {B.); "Tracts on India," Lond. 1814; Ainslie{W.), "Mat.Ind." 2d vol. Lond. 1826; Dietz{F.R.), " AnalectaMed." Lips. 1834; Royle {J. F.), "Essay on the Antiq. of Hindoo Med." 1837; Geldemeister, " Scriptorum Arabum de rebus indicis loci et opuscula inedita." 8vo. Bonn, 1838. Taleef SHereef, or Indian Materia Medica. 8vo. Calc. Eng. trans, by G. Playfair, 1833. £ t ~f}t 4. English Writers on Indian Materia Medica. 1810 Fleming (Dr.) Catalogue of Indian Medicinal Plants and Drugs in the Asiatic Re- searches. Vol. xi. . 1813—26 Ainslie (Dr. W.) Materia Medica of Hindoostan. 4to. 1813.—Materia Indica, 2 vols. 8vo. 1826. , . , r, 1832 Royle (J. F.) List of Articles of Materia Medica obtained in the Bazaars of the Western and Northern Provinces of India. In the Journal of the Asiatic So- ciety of Bengal. 1vol. 1832. . 1841 0'Shaughnessy(W. B.) The Bengal Dispensatory and Pharmacopoeia. Chiefly compiled from the Works of Roxburgh, Wallich, Ainehe, Wight and Arnott, Royle, Pereira, Richard and Fee, and including the results of numerous special experiments. Published by order of Government. Calcutta. [Three parts, including pp. 622, have appeared.] Much valuable information on Indian Materia Medica is contained m Royle's " Il- lustrations of the Botany and other branches of the Natural History of the Himalayan Mountains," 4to. 1824—41. Several interesting papers on the same subjects have appeared in the Anglo-Indian Journals. See also the works of Heyne, Buchanan, {Hamilton), and Crawford. B# c# GREEK MEDICINE. 1. Before the time of Hippocrates. 1398 Melampus, a soothsayer and physician. Cured impotence by iron wine (Apollod Bibl. Fr. transh lib. i. cap. ix. p. 75); and madness by hellebore (Pliny, xxv 21.) 1270 Chiron, a Centaur, a physician and surgeon. Was cured of a wound by he Ce/t- taurea CentauriumI (Ibid. xxv. 30). Had several pupils, as Hercules (to whom the invention of the warm bath is ascribed) and Asculapius. 1263 jEsculapius or Asclepias, renowned for his medical and surgical skill. Employed amulets, incantations, charms, potions, incisions, and topical remedies [Le Clerc.] His sons Machaon and Podalirius also famous surgeons; the latter practised venesection. 1184 Destruction of Troy.^ , . ___,__, Asclepiadeje. 1134 The first temple to ^Esculapius founded. Eurofhon, author of the rvupai VLviiiai or Cnidian Sentences. 968 ) Homer mentions the Papaver somniferum, 907 > sulphur fumigations, v^tvOk {Canna- 884 ) bis Indica ? opium ? ?), Moly (?), &c. Aristjeus discovered Silphium (see vol. ii. p. 481.) fii 7 Pythagoras' employed Magic, Dietetics, former attempted to unite reasoning with 617 FTT^AuGs04AdseXise, and Vinegar of experience ; those of the latter attached Mustard, 580—500 Squills, (Pliny xix. 30.) Descendants and followers of iEscula- pius and priests of his temples. Extended over 700 years, i. e. until Hippocrates. The temples became schools of medicine, the most celebrated of which were the Coan and the Gnidian. The priestsof the themselves to observations and matters of fact. The remedies used were Gnidian berries, juice of euphorbium, hellebore, scammony, colocynth, briony, elaterium, mineral waters, &c. (Le Clerc, Sprengel, Bostock). Votive tablets were erected in the temples. 2. Hippocrates. .v. « rv.»i.~ «/ MeJirine " Born at Cos. The 18th by his father 46O-to360t Hi-^J^^^^gS^ ^alterations of the h^urs (blood Stfofffim and yellow and black bile). An antipathic Employed diet baths exercise " ood-letting (venesection, cupping, and scarification), the actual cauterrrhTknife%nd,a very extensive ser.es ot medicines. Alston found in ffwTrks which pass under the name of Hippocrates "about 36 inmeral 300 vegeTable, and 150 animal substances," and he adds, " I cannot pretend to have ovlrlooked none." The Hippocratean materia medica includes: XXXIV HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. R „ GREEK MEDICINE.—Continued. --=ie^^^ 2dlva^l?^^ 2dlyca^arcfnnSamon,acolocynth, conium, coriandrum.{™Xv5E»'5& elater urn (?) euphorbia, fceniculum, galbanum, gallae, glycyrrniza, gniaium, helEms hyoscyamus juniper, lactuca, laurus, hnum, malva, marrubium, DiDer nix pulegium, pun ca, quercus, rosa, rubia, rumex, ruta, samDucus, S'en^m,Pscamm0nia, scilla, silphium, sinapis, staphisagna, styrax, turpen- 3d\YUlnimih!-SPk (Mylabris Fiisselini?), castoreum, sepia, ova, cornua, mel, serum lactis, and cera. Dierbach {Dr. J. H), " Die Arzneimittel. des Hippokrates. Heidelb. 1H^4. 3. From Hippocrates to Galen. 380 ANCIENT DOGMATIC {or Hippocratean) SCHOOL. {Theory in Medicine.) 380 Founded by Thessalus and Draco (Sons of Hippocrates), in conjunction 354 with Polybius (their brother-in-law).----354. Diocles Carystius (called the 341 second Hippocrates) wrote on plants and dietetics. Gave a leaden bullet m 336 ileus.----341. Praxagoras of Cos, (the last of the Asclepiadeas); vegetable medicines.----336. Chrysippus of Cnidus, opposed bleeding and purging, and vegetable medicines. . , . , 304 Alexandrian School.----304. Erasistratus (pupil of Chrysippus) opposed bleed- ing ; used simple medicines.----307. Herophilus of Chalcedony, a demi-em- 285 piric, used compound and specific medicines.----285. Medicine divided into Die- tetics, Pharmacy, and Surgery. 384—322 NATURAL HISTORIANS. 384—322. Aristotle; wrote on animals (also on 371—286 plants and pharmacy). 371—286. Theophrastus, the founder of botany. 290 EMPIRIC SECT {Experience the sole guide)—290 founded by Philinus of Cos 240 (disciple of Herophilus).----240. Serapion of Alexandria.----230. Heraclides 233 of Tarentum (" Prince of Empirics") used conium, opium, and hyoscyamus, as 140 counter-poisons. Nicander of Colophon, wrote on poisons and antidotes: his 135—63 Qripiaicb. 'A\i%t(j>apiiaKa, still extant.----135 to 63. Mithridates; his supposed 168 antidote {Mithridatium Damocratis) contained 54 substances.----158. Zopyrus 138 employed a general antidote {Ambrosia); classified medicines according to their effects. Cratevas a botanist.----138. Cleophantus described medical plants. 160 Gentian first used by Gentius, king of Illyria. 100 METHODIC SECT.—100. Asclepiades of 2Ji^y«ia rejected all previous opinions, and termed the Hippocratean system " a meditation on death."----63. Themi- son of Laodicea, pupil of Asclepiades, founder of the sect. Explained all physi- \t J). ological and pathological doctrines by the strictum and laxum of the organic pores, and regarded all medicines as astringents or relaxants. Employed leeches. 54 ? Dioscorides (Pedacius). The most renowned of all the old writers on Materia Me- dica. His work is the best (of the ancient ones) on the subject, and for 1600 years was regarded as the first authority. "In him I counted about 90 minerals, 700 plants, and 168 animal substances, that is 958 in all, without reckoning the different simples the same substance often affords." (Alston, Led. i. 15.) Dr. Sibthorp visited Greece for the purpose of studying on the spot the Greek plants of Dioscorides. {Flora Graca; and Prodr. Fl. Graca, by Sir. J. E. Smith.) 131—200 Galen (Claudius) a brilliant genius, of vast erudition and rare talents. Explained the operation of medicines by reference to their elementary qualities (heat, cold, dryness, and moisture), of each of which he admitted four degrees. This doc- trine was held in the schools until the time of Paracelsus. Galen gives the names and virtues of 540 plants, 180 animal, and 100 mineral substances (Alston.) 4. From Galen to the fall of the Greek School. 360 Oribasius. Transcribes and abridges Dioscorides and Galen. Both he and Aetius were called Simiae Galeni. (Alston.) 550 Aktius. Employed musk medicinally. 560 Alexander Trallianus. First mentions rhubarb, which he states was used in diseases of the liver and in dysentery. Notices hermodactyl. Used mild laxa- tives. Is the first who speaks of the use of steel in substance 600) Paulus^gineta. First notices the purgative properties of rhubarb. Distinguishes <00$ between Rha and Rheon. Describes the effects of hermodactvl 'Sulb"ea 1034 Seth (Simeon). Notices camphor. (Minor Greek Authors.) ]\m\ AcTU.ARIU.^iJohn)- ¥entjons capsicum (,&/,,»,,). The first Greek who mentions q™> v the mi de>-purgatives (as cassia, manna, senna, myrobalans). mentions 1300 Myrepsus (Nicholas). HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. XXXV GREEK MEDICINES— Continued. A. D. 5- Modern Greek Medicine. 1837. BWrjviKri *ap//a*fO!ro(ia. Pharmacopoeia Graeca jussu Regio et approbatione Collegii Medici edita auctoribus Joanne Bairo, Xaverio Landerer, Josepho Sartori. pp. 542, 8vo. Athenis. A. D. ROMANS OR ITALIANS. In the early periods of Roman history medicine was practised by slaves and freedmen. 23 Menecrates. Employed escharotics. Invented Diachylon plaster. 13—55 Celsus (A. Cornelius). De Medicina. A methodist ? An elegant writer. Lays down hygienic rules. Distinguishes foods according to the degree of their nutri- tive power and digestibility. His remarks on these subjects, as well as on the use of remedial agents generally, display great judgment. Speaks of the use of nourishing clysters, gestation, baths, frictions, &c. Employed in dropsy fric- tions with oil. 41 Scribonius Largus. An empiric. His work (Compositiones Medicae) is the first pharmacopoeia known. 23—79 Pliny the Elder (Caius). A natural historian. In his work (Historia Naturalis) he has collected all that was known in his time, of the arts, sciences, natural his- tory, &c. He displays prodigious learning and a vast fund of erudition. In botany and materia medica henas copied almost verbatim the remarks of Theo- phrastus and Dioscorides. • 230 CjELius Aurelianus. A methodist. The only one of this sect whose works have descended to us. B.C. PERSIAN MEDICINE. 1491 Must be very ancient, but its history scarcely known. Products of Persia (ex. gal- banum, asafoetida, sagapenum, &c.) mentioned in the Bible or by Hippocrates: it is to be presumed that the Persians knew the medicinal qualities of their indi- genous drugs previous to selling them. 400 Ctesias of Cnidus, physician for seventeen years to Artaxerxes Mnemon. A. 1). Dschondisabour (Jondisabur of Nisabur) founded. Greek physicians sent by the 272 Emperor Aurelian. Almanzor, the second Caliph of the house of Abbas, a great encourager of the sciences and medicine. 1055 Abu Mansur Mowafik. Liber fundam. Pharmacol. Lat. trans, by R. Seligmann Vindob. 1830—33. 1392 Ikhtariat Buddee. Said by Toohftul Moomineen to be the first work, m the order of time, written on medicines, in the Persian language (Royle, p. 27). Pharmacopoeia Persica, ex idiomate Persico in Latinum conversa. Paris, 1681. 1528 Shirazy (Nouraddeen Mohammed Abdullah.) Ulfdz Udwiyeh, or the Mat. Med. in the Arab. Pers. and Hindevy lang. Eng. transl. by F. Gladwin. Calc. 1793. 1669 Meer Mohummud Moomin. Toohft al Moomineen. The most esteemed of the Persian works. The author states that he is the third, in the order of time, who had written on medicines in the Persian languages. (Royle, p. 26.) 1769 Mukhzun al Udwick or Storehouse of Medicines. Hoogly. 1824. 2 vols, small fol. (Royle, p. 26.) See also Gladwin's " Compendious Vocabulary, English and Persian, including all the Simples in the Materia Medica employed in Modern Practice," 4to. Malda 1780; Dr. R. Seligmann, " Ueber drey huchtseltene Persische Handschriften. Ein beytrag zur Literatur der Orientalischen Arzneymittellehre," Wien, 1833; Royle, op. supra cit. p. 26, and the list of Persian and Arabic Medical and Scientific Books in Ainslie's "Mat. Ind." vol. ii. p. 504. Dr. Royle has suggested to me the propriety of making a distinction between the Materia Medica of the Persians previous and subsequent to that of the Arabs. But convenience and limited space have prevented me from adopting his sugges- tion. A.D. ARABIANS. 767 Bagdad built. The sciences munificently patronised by the Caliphs. A college formed. Hospitals and dispensaries established. Schools of Damascus and Cordova. ,„.,,, The doctrines of Hippocrates and Galen taught. Mild laxatives (as cassia, tama- rinds, manna, rhubarb, and senna) substituted for drastics. Chemical medicines mentioned. Various pharmaceutical preparations (syrups, juleps, conserves, loochs, robs, and distilled waters and oils) contrived. Dispensatories published. XXXVI HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. - U ARABIAN MEDICINES—Continued. 622 Aaron or Ahron (The Pandects). Died 872 Ebn-Sahel (Sabor) Krabadin, the first Dispensatory. n «H ftfin At khende (J ) Wrote on the proportions and doses of medicines. Bom 702 GeJer ThePatriarch of Chemistry. Mentions nitric acid, vinegar, aqua regia, Born ,02 ^**f ^eQf$* carbonates of potash and soda, caustic soda, nitrate, rf potash sal ammoniac, alum, sulphate of iron, borax, nitrate of silver, bichloride and binoxkTe of mercury, cinnabar, litharge, and red lead. May have obtained his knowledge from the Hindoos. (See Hindoo Medicine.) Died 846) Mesue (J0hn). De simplicibus et de electuariis. 865) 742 i Serapion (John, jun.). De simplicibus medicinis. Abn Guefith or Abhen Gnefith. De simplic. medicam. virtut. 852 to 932 Rhazes. De simplicibus medicinis. One of the most celebrated Arabians. Lm- ployed mercurial ointment. . ■ 978 to 1035 Ebnsina or Avicenna, "The Prince of Physicians." His Canon Medicinse is a compilation from Galen, Aetius, and Rhazes: for five centuries it was regarded as an infallible guide. Mentions croton tiglium, camphor, nux vomica, mace, nutmegs, &c. 1680 Haly Abbas. (Amalek or the Royal book). 1179? Avenzoar at Seville in Andalusia. Died 1198) or 1199 > Averrhoes, a native of Cordova. 1206) 12thorl3th) century > Albucasis or Alsaharavius. Mentions the preparation of rose-water. 1085) Died 1248 Avn Bitar or Ibn-Beitar. His works have not been printed, but they are con- stantly quoted by Persian authors on Materia Medica. (Royle, Essay, p. 28.) He has a most extensive influence in the East. Consult.—Amoreux {P. J.), " Essai Historique et Litter, sur la Medec. des Arabes." Montp. 1805, 8vo. Reiske {J. J.), " Opusc. Med. ex Monum. Arabum et Ebrseorum." Halae, 1776. 8vo. In the " Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt f. 1839," p. 313, is a notice, by Dr. A. Buchner, of a collection of Arabian medicines made by Dr. Schubert, in Arabia. EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITERS ON MEDICINE. A. D. (Dark Ages.) Medicine practised by Monks. Magic and Astrology employed in medicine. The period of superstition and alchemy. The grossest impositions practised. The Neapolitan Schools of Monte-Cassino and Salerno founded by Benedictine Monks. Died 1107 Constantine the African. Wrote on diet, and simple and eye medicines. 1100 John of Milan. The supposed author of the Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum, a collection of dietetical precepts, in rhyming Latin verse, addressed, by the Medi- cal School at Salerno, to Robert, son of William the Conqueror. Above 160 editions of this work have been published—(see Sir Alexander Croke's ed., Oxford, 1830, 8vo.) 1110 Nicholas surnamed Propositus. Dispensatorium ad aromatarius; the first Euro- pean pharmacopoeia. 1150 Matthew Platerius. 1169 ^Egidius of Corbeil. 1180 Hildegard, Abbess of Bingen. Born 1098. Wrote on Medicines. Mentions Chris- tiana (supposed to be Helleborus niger). 1259 Gilbert, an Englishman. Prepared acetate of ammonia and oil of tartar per deli- quium. Extinguished mercury by saliva. 1193—1282 Albertus Magnus. An alchemist. Mentions zinc. 1260 John of St. Amand. Commented on the works of Nicholas. 1214—1284 Roger Bacon. The most philosophical of the Alchemists 1240-1313 Arnold of Villa Nova. Wrote a commentary on the Regimen Salernitana. rrepared the oils of turpentine and rosemary. 1235—1315 Raymond Lully. Prepared the oil of rosemary, acetate of lead, ammonio-chloride ot mercury, nitric oxide of mercury, and spirit of wine 1295 Simon deCordo. 1317. Matthew Sylvaticus. 1320. (death) Peter de Apono. ty j,™ t> im Frta™is of Piedmont. 1343. Dondis, father and son. Died 1320 Platerius (John). Antidotanum Nicolai cum expositione 1343 St. Ardouin. Red oxide of mercury Born 1394 Basil Valentine. Prepared chemical medicines. Introduced antimonials {currus 'z^^r^Sizr**with the double chMe °f - «* HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. XXXVU A. D. EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITERS ON MEDICINE— Continued. 1418 Valescus de Tarenta. 1491 Orlus sanitatis (first botanical figures). 1492 Columbus discovers America. Tobacco and its use for smoking first known. 1497 Mercury employed externally in syphilis. 1508 Guaiacum introduced into Europe by the Spaniards. 1493—1541 Paracelsus. A vain, ignorant, arrogant, drunken quack, fanatic, and impostor. He burnt publicly the works of Galen and Avicenna, declaring that his shoe- strings possessed more knowledge than those two celebrated physicians, and asserted that he possessed the elixir of life! He was a cabalist, astrologer, and believer in the doctrine of signatures. He conferred several important benefits on medicine: he overturned Galenism, introduced chemical medicines (employed mercury in syphilis), and substituted tinctures, essences, and extracts, for various disgusting preparations. (A more favourable opinion of the character of Paracelsus is entertained by some writers.) 1505 Sarsaparilla first appeared in Europe. f Early botanists in whose works several medicinal plants are distinctly referred to, in 1532 J some cases, for the first time. 1530. Brunfelsius; Cardamine pratensis; Scro- 1542 ] phularia nodosa. 1532. Tragus; Foxglove (Campanula sylvestris); Belladonna [ (So'lanum hortense nigrum), Dulcamara. 1542. Fuchsius; Stramonium; Digitalis. A.D. GREAT BRITAIN. 1579 Winter's Bark brought to Europe. 1633 Serpentary root noticed by Thomas Johnson. 1674 Willis (Dr. 1 hos.) Pharmaceutice Rationalis. 8vo. 1675 Sulphate of Magnesia obtained from the Epsom Waters by Dr. Grew. 1687 Floyer (Sir J. M. D.) 4>apitaico-Baaavoi: or the Touchstone of Medicines. 2 vols. 8vo. 1691 Bate (Dr. G.) Pharmacopoeia Bateana, by Fuller. 12mo. 1693 Dale (Dr. S.) Pharmacologia, seu Manuductio ad Mat. Med. 8vo. 1693.—3tia. ed. 4to. 1737. 1697 Sulphuric acid made from sulphur. 1702 Mead (Dr. Richard). A Mechanical Account of Poisons. 5th ed. 1756, 8vo. 1718 Quincy (Dr. J.) Pharmacopoeia officinalis et extemporanea; or, a Complete Eng- lish Dispensatory. 14th ed. 1736. 1724 Douglas (James). Index Materia? Medicae, or a Catalogue of simple Medicines. Lond. 1724, 4to. 1730 Bradley (R.) A Course of Lectures upon the Materia Medica, Ancient and Mo- dern. 8vo. 1740 Spigelia as an anthelmintic made known. 1742 Senega introduced by Dr. Tennant. 1747 James (D* R.) Pharm. Univ., or a New Engl. Dispens. 8vo. 1751 Hill (Dr. J.) A History of the Materia Medica. 4to. 1753 Brookes (Dr. R.) The General Dispensatory. 8vo. 1754 Lewis (Wm.) The New Dispensatory. 8vo. Several editions were published during the lifetime of the author.—The Edinburgh New Dispensatory, published after his death, was essentially a new edition of his work. It was successively edited by Dr. Webster, Dr. Duncan, Dr. Rotheram, and Dr. Duncan, jun. 1758 A red astringent gum (Kino?) described by Dr. Fothergill. 1761 Lewis (Wm.) An Experim. Hist, of the Mat. Med. 4to.—4th ed. in 2 vols. 8vo . by Dr. Aikin, 1791. 1763 Bark of Salix alba used by Rev. Mr. Stone. 1763 Receipts for preparing Ward's Medicines. 1768 Alexander (Wm.) Experimental Essays. 8vo. 1770 Alston (Dr. Ch.) Lectures on the Materia Medica. 2 vols. 4to. 1770 Monro (Dr. D.) Treatise on Mineral Waters. 8vo. 2 vols. I733—1804 Priestley (Dr. J.) discovered oxygen, protoxide of nitrogen, and hydrochloric acid, ammoniacal and sulphurous acid gases. 1775 Rutty (Dr. J.) Materia Medica, Antiqua et Nova. Rotterod. 1775. 1775 Withering (Dr. Wm.) Account of the Foxglove. 8vo. Birm. 1780 Brown (Dr. John). Elementa Medicinae. Regarded all medicines as stimulant.", and as differing from each other in little more than the degree in which they exert their stimulant power. (Brunonian theory.) 1781 Home (Dr. F.) Methodus Materia? Medicae. 12mo. 1782 Saunders (Dr. W.) Observations on Red Peruvian Bark. 1783 Home (Dr. F. R.) Clin. Experim. Hist, and Dissect. 8vo. 1785 Aikin (Dr. J.) A Manual of Materia Medica. 8vo. \ armouth. 1786 Duncan (Dr. A.) Heads of Lectures on the Materia Medica. 8vo. 1788 Monro (Dr. Donald.) A Treat, on Med. and Pharm. Chym. and the Mat. Med. 3 vols. 8vo. 1788 Angostura bark imported into England. 1789 Cullen (Dr. Wm.) A Treatis* of the Materia Medica. Regarded all medicines as acting by motions excited in, and propagated by, the nervous system. VOL. I. 4 XXXVIII HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. A.D. 1790—94 GREAT BRITAIN—Continued. Woodville (Dr. W.) Medical Botany.-4 vols. 4to. 2d ed. 1810.-3d ed. in 5 vols. by Hooker and Spratt, 1832. 1792 Moore (J.) Essay on the Materia Medica. 8vo. 1793 Alderson (Dr. J.) Essay on Rhus Toxicodendron. 8vo 1794-5 BEDDOES(Dr.Thos.)andWATT(Jas.) Consid on the Use of Factitious Airs. 3pts. 1794 Relph (Dr. J.) Inquiry into the Medical Efficacy of Yellow Bark. 1794 Pearson Dr. R.) Thesaurus Medicaminum. „, , 19(19 1797 Pearson (Dr R ) Pract. Synops. of the Mat. Alim. and Mat. Med. 8vo. 2d ed. 1808. \Z SKUjEAih New Dispensatory.-llth ed. 1826. Supplement 1829. 1800 Saunders (Dr. Wm.) Treatise on Mineral Waters. 8vo. n/r.t««. 1800 Pearson (John). Observations on the Effects of various articles of the Materia Medica in the cure of Lues Venerea. 8vo. ,M ,. 1801 Pearson (Dr. G.) Arrang. Catal. of the Art. of Food, Drink, Seasoning, and Medi- 1804 Murray (Dr. J.) System of Materia Medica and Pharmacy. 5th ed. 1828. 2 vols. 8vo. 1804 Graves. Conspectus of the Pharmacopoeias. 12mo. Lond. 1805 Hamilton (Dr. J.) Observations on Purgative Medicines. 8vo. 1805 The existence of Cinchonia inferred by Dr. Duncan, jun. 1809 A Practical Materia Medica. Lond. Small 8vo. 1809 Wilson (J.) Pharmacopoeia Chirurgica. 8vo.—2d ed. 1811. 1810 Thomson (Dr. A. T.) Conspectus of the Pharmacopoeias. 13th ed. 1841. 1811 Thomson (Dr. A. T.) The London Dispensatory. 8vo. 9th ed. 1837. 1812 Stokes (Dr. Jonathan). A Botanical Materia Medica. 4 vols. 8vo. 1812 Paris (Dr. J. A.) Pharmacologia. 8vo. 6th ed. 1825.—8th ed. 1833.—Append. 1838. 1813 Ainslie (Dr. W.) Mat. Med. of Hindoostan. 4to.—Mat. Indica. 2 vols. 8vo. 1826. 1813 Young (Dr. Thos.) Classif. and Lit. of Mat. Med. in the Introd. to Med. Lit. 8vo. 1815 Rootsey (S.) General Dispensatory. 12mo. Bristol. 1818 Gray (S. F.) Supplem. to the Pharmacopoeias. 8vo.—6th ed. 1836. 1821 Medico-Botanical Society of London established. Some "Addresses" and "Trans- actions" have been published by the society, but irregularly. 1826 Gray (S. F.) The Elements of Pharmacy, and of the Chemical History of the Materia Medica. 8vo. 1824 Phillips (R.) Trans, of the Pharm. of the Roy. Coll. of Phys. Lond. with Notes and Illus. Ditto. 1837.—4th ed. 1841. 1825 Brande (W. T.) Manual of Pharmacy. 8vo.—3d ed. 1833. 1826 Rennie (J.) New Supplem. to the Pharmacopoeias. 8vo.—4th ed. 1837. 1827—30 Flora Medica. 2 vols. 8vo. 1829 Christison (Dr. Robt.) Treat, on Poisons. 8vo. 3d ed. 1835. 1830 Barker (Dr. F.) and Montgomery (Dr. W. F.) Observ. Chem. and Pract. on the Dublin Pharm. 8vo. 1831 Billing (Dr. A.) First Principles of Medicine. 4th ed. 1841* 1831 Bardsley (Dr. J. L.) Hospital Facts and Observations. 1831 Stephenson (Dr. J.) and Churchill (J. M.) Med. Botany. 4 vols. 8vo Fig —2d ed. by G. Burnett, 1834—36. 1831 Kane (R. J.) Elements of Practical Pharmacy. 1832 Stephenson (D. J.) Med. Zoology and Mineralogy. 8vo. 1832. 1832-3 Thomson (Dr. A. T.) Elem. of Mat. Med. and Therap. 2 vols. 8vo.—2d ed. in 1 vol. 1835. 1833 Jones (T. W.) Manual of Pharmacology. 18mo. 1835 Johnstone (Dr. J.) A Therapeutical Arrangement and Syllabus of Materia Medica 1835-7 Pereira (J.) Lectures on Materia Medica and Therapeutics in Lond Med Gaz ' 1836-8 Sigmond (Dr. G. G.) Lect. on Mat. Med. and Therap. in the Lancet i1!!!? rTEGGAI'^Dr^Ji ,A P*1 Book of Materia Medica and Therapeutics. Small 8vo. 1837 Collier (Dr. G. F.) A Translation of the New Pharmacopoeia of the Royal Col- i ma i g€ ^PhysJ,cians "} Loiidon, with Notes and Criticisms. Royal 8vo. Lond. 1838 Lindley (Dr. John). Flora Medica. 8vo. ^««u. 1838 UREc^[ldAol^-) Pra-ctical Compendium of Mat. Med. adapted for Infancy and 1839 Collier (Dr. G F.) Companion to the London Pharmacopoeia. Royal 8vo. 839 Brande (W. T. Dictionary of Materia Medica and Practical Pharmacy 840 Lane (Dr. J H.) Compendium of Materia Medica and Pharmacy. Y 1840 Beasley (H.)igThe Pocket Formulary and Synopsis of the Pharmacopoeias. 24mo. 1839-40 1841 1842 Pereira (Dr. Jon.) The Elements of Materia Medica. 2 vols 8vo —2d ed 1A49 CHKSB^„REdk;bI,iSPe',Sat0ry• "' C<"™«"T °" «"» Pharmacy of Pharmaceutical Transactions, edited bv Jarnh Roll r«~™ j ,„.. ^ HISTOBICAL TABLE OF THE MATLKIA MEDICA. XXXIX A. D. FRANCE. 1542-4 Sylvius (James). 1566 Antimony proscribed. 1666 Antimony permitted. 1672 Tartarized soda discovered by Seignette. 1686 Ipecacuanha celebrated in Paris. 1694 Pomet (P ) Hist. Gen. des Drog. des Plantes, &c. Eng. Transl. 1712. 1697 Lemery (N.) Pharmacopee Universelle. 1697 Lemery (N.) Traite Universel des Drog. simples. 1713 Simaruba bark sent to Paris. 1708 Tournefort (J. P.) Materia Medica. 1709 Chomel(J. B.) Abrege de 1'Hist, des Plant, usuelles. 8vo. 1741 Geoffroy (S. F.) Tract, de Mat. Med. 3 vols. 8vo. 1756 Helminthocorton sent to Paris. 1760 Goulard (Thos.) Traite" sur les Effets des Prep, de Plomb. 8vo. 2 vols. 1762 Baume (A.) Elem. de Pharm. theor. et prat. 2 vols. 8vo.—3me ed. 1818. 1770 Lieutaud (Jos.) Precis de la Mat. Med. 2 vols. 8vo. 1773 De la Beyrie et Goulin. Diet, raisonne-univ. de Mat. Med. 8 vols. 8vo. 1787 Venel. Precis de Mat. Med. 8vo. 2 vols. 1789 Desbois de Rochefort. Cours Elem. de Mat. Med. 8vo. 2 vols. 1803 Narcotine discovered by Derosne. 1804 De Candolle (A. P.) Essai sur les Propr. Med. des Plantes. 8vo.—2d ed. 1816. Alibert (J. L.) Nouv. Elem. de Therapeut. 3 vols. 8vo. 5me ed. 1826. 1805 Schwilgue (C. J. A.) Traite de Mat. Med. 3me ed. 1818. 2 vols. 8vo. 1805 Barbier (J. B. G.) Princip. Gen. de Pharmacol.—Traite Elem. de Mat. Med. 2nde ed. 1824. 3 vols. 8vo. 1806 Chortet (J. J.) Traite de Pharmacologie. 1811 Picrotoxin discovered by Boullay. 1811 Virey(J.J.) Traite dePharmacie theoriqueet pratique. 2 vols. 8vo. Nouv.ed.1819. 1811 Iodine discovered by Courtois. 1814 The existence of Morphia confirmed by Robiquet. 1814 Orfila (P.) Traite des Poisons; ou Toxicol. Gen. 3me ed. 1827. 1817—20 Pelletier and Caventou discover emetine, strychnia, brucia, veratria, and quina. 1818 Menard (J. L. M.) Essai de Mat. Med. et de Therap. 8vo. 1819 Martin (C. P.) Essai de Pharm. gen. 8vo. 1819 Caventou. Traite Elem. de Pharm. theoriq. 8vo. 1819—20 Hanin. Cours. de Mat. Med. 8vo. 2 vols. 1820 Virey (J. J.) Hist. Nat. des. Medicam. des. Alim. et des Poisons. 8vo. 1820 Guibourt(N. J. B. G.) Hist. Abreg. des Drog. simpl. 8vo. 2 vols. 3me ed.—1836. 1821 Labarraque recommends the chlorides of lime and soda. 1821 Roques (Jos.) Phytographie Medicale. 2 vols. 4to. 1821 Magendie (F.) Formulaire pour la preparation et l'emploi de plusieurs Nouv. Medicam. 8me ed. 1835. 1823 Richard (A.) Botanique Medicale. 1825 Begin (L. J.) Traite de Therap. 8vo. 2 vols. 1826 Meconine discovered by Dublanc jeune. 1826 Edwards (H. M.) and Vavasseur (P.) Manuel de Mat. Med. 1826.—An English Translation of this. 1826 Bromine discovered by Balard. 1827—29 Chevallier (A.), Richard (A.), et Guillemin (J. A.) Diet, des Drog. 8vo. 5 vols. 1829 Jourdan (A. J. L.) Pharmacopee Universelle. 2 vols. 8vo. 2nde ed. 1840. 1828 Fee (A. L. A.) Cours d'Hist. Nat. Pharm. 2 vols. 8vo. 1828 Henry (N. E.), et Guibourt (N. B. G.) Traite de Pharm. theoriq. et prat. 8vo. 2 vols. 2me ed. 1834—3me ed. in 1 vol. 1841. 1828 Martinet (L.) Manuel de Therap. et de Mat. Med. 1828. 1828—37 Bayle (A. L. J.) Bibliotheq. de Therapeut. 4 vols. 8vo. 1829 De Smyttrre (P. J. E.) Phytoloeie Pharm. et Med. 1829 Ratier (F. S.) Traite de Mat. Med. 8vo. 2 vols. 1829—34 Merat (F. V.) et De Lens (J. A.) Diet. Univ. de Mat. M£d. 6 vols. 8vo. 1831 Chevallier et Idt. Manuel de Pharmacien. 2 vols. 8vo. 1831 Foy (F.) Cours de Pharmacologie. 8vo. 2 vols. 1831—5 Richard (A.) Elemens d'Histoire Naturelle Medicale. 3 vols. 8vo. 1832 Codeia discovered by Robiquet. 1832 Narceina discovered by Pelletier. 1835 Cottereau (P. L.) Traite Elem. de Pharm. 8vo. 1836 Soubeiran (E.) Nouveau Traite de Pharmacie. 2 vols.—2nde ed. 1840. 1836—32 Trousseau (A.) et Pidoux (H.) Traite de Therap. et de Mat. Med. t. i. 1826. t. ii. part Ire. 1837. t. ii. part 2e. 1839. 1839 Bouchardat (A.) Elemens de Matiere Medicale. 8vo. 1839 Galtier (C. P.) Traite de Matiere Medicale et des Indications Therapeutiques des Medicaments. 1841 Galtier (C. P.) Traite de Pharmacologie et de l'Art de Formuler. 1 vol. 8vo. Also Bulletin de Pharmacie, from 1809 to 1815. Journal de Pharmacie, from 1815 to the present time ; and Journal de Chimie Medicale, from 1825 to the present time.—Also Journal de Pharmacie du Midi. xl HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. A.D. 1588 1631 1658 1669 1641 1679 1684 1681 1686 1701 1712 1714 1728 1740 1740 1741 1755 1758 1760 1762 1774 1774 1791 1790 1793 1793—7 1795—6 1797 1797 1800 .1802 1803 1804 1805 1807—9 1808 1808—24 1809 1809 1810 1815 1816 1816—17 1819—22 1820 1821—3 1824—30 1824 1824 1825 1825 1825—31 1826 1826—23 1827 1827—28 1827—34 1828 1829—34 1829 1829 an authentic GERMANY. Camerarius (J.) Hort. Med. et Philosoph. Emetic tartar mentioned by Mynsicht. Sulphate of soda discovered by Glauber. Phosphorus discovered by Brandt. . Schroeder (J.) Pharmacopoeia Medico Chymica. 4to. Wepfer (J. J.) Historia Cicutse Aquaticae. 4to. Wedelius (G. W.) Amaen. Mat. Med. 4to. 1704. Nitric ether noticed by Kunkel. Cascarilla mentioned by Stisser. Rivinus (A. Q.) Censura Medicam. Ofhcin. 4to. Kjsmpfer (E.) Amaenitates exoticae. 4to. Zorn (B.) Botanologia Medica. 4to. Stahl (G. E.) Materia Medica. 8vo. Neumann (Dr. C.) Preelectiones Chemicae, by J. C. Zimmermann . edition in 1756, under the title of Chymia medica, dogmatico-expenmentahs ; and his Chemical Works, by Dr. Lewis. 4to. 1759. Hoffmann (F.) Opera omnia physico-medica. 6 vols. fol. Cartheuser (I. F.) Rudiment. Mat. Med. 8vo. Lusecke (I. L. L.) Mat. Med. 8vo. Vogel (Dr. R. A.) Hist. Mat. Med. 8vo. Storck (Ant.) on hemlock, stramonium, aconite, hyoscyamus, and colcmcum. Crantz (H. I. P.) Mat. Med. Syst. 8vo. 3 vols. ed. 2nda. 1779. Spielmann (I. R.) Institutiones Mat. Med. 8vo. ed. nov. 1784. Murray (Dr. J. A.) Apparatus Medicam. 8vo. ed. alt. cur. Althort. 179J. Arnemann (Dr. J.) Praktische Arzneimittellehre. 8vo. 6te Aufl. by Kraus. 1819. Arnemann (Dr. J.) Chirurgische Arzneimittellehre. 6te Aufl. by Kraus. 1818. Gren (F. A. C) Handbuch der Pharmakologie. 3te Aufl. 1813. Baldinger (E. G.) Litteratura Universa Materiae Medicae, &c. 8vo. Schlegel (J. C. T.) Thesaurus Materiae Medicae. 3 vols. 8vo. Gmelin (J. F.) Appar. Medicam. regnum minerali complectens. (See J. A. Mur- ray.) 8vo. Segnitz (F. L.) Handbuch der praktische Arzneimittellehre. 8vo. Jahn (F.) Auswahl der wirksamsten Arzneimittel. 8vo. Swediaur (D. F.) Materia Medica. 12mo. Frank (I. S.) Versuch einer theoretisch praktischen Arzneimittellehre nach den Principien der Erregungstheorie. Erliingen. Oberreich (C. F.) Umriss einer Arzneimittellehre nach den Grundsatzen der Erregungstheorie. Morphia and Mechonic acid discovered by Sertiirner. Bertele (G. A.> Handbuch einer dynamischen Arzneimittellehre. 8vo. Burdach (Dr. K. F.) System der Arzneymittellehre. 8vo 2d ed. 1817-19. Wurzer (F.) Grundriss der Arzneimettellehre. 8vo. Pfaff (C. H.) System der Materia Medica nach chemichen Principien. Leips. Bd. vii. 8vo. Ebermaier (Dr. J. C.) Taschenbuch der Pharmacie. 8vo. Muller (J. H.) Handbuch der Lebens—und Arzneimitellehre. Hahnemann. Organon der rationellen Heilkunde. Schone (K.) Praktische Arzneimittellehre nach der Grundsatzen der Erregungs- theorie. Sprengel (Dr. K.) Institutiones Pharmacologiae. 8vo. Voigtel (Dr. F. G.) VoUstiindiges System der Arzneimittellehre. 2 vols. 8vo. Herausg. von Kuhn. Schwartze (Dr. G. W.) Pharmacologische Tabellen. fol. 2te Aufl. 1833. Tiedemann (F.) and Gmelin (L.) Versuch iiber die Wege auf Welchen.Substanzen aus dem Magen und Darmkanal ins Blut gelangen. Heidelburgh. Vogt (Dr. P. F. W.) Lehrbuch der Pharmakodynamik. 2 vols. 8vo. 2 Aufl. 1828. Geiger (P. L.) Handbuch der Pharmacie. 3 vols. 8vo. 5 Aufl. 1837. Niemann (J. F.) Pharmacopaea Batavacum cum notis et additamentis medico-phar- maceuticis. Lips. 2 vols. 8vo. 2d ed. 1824. Martius (Dr. C. F. P.) Specimen Materiae Medicae Braziliensis. 4to. Jorg (Dr. J. C. G.) Material, zu einer kunft. Arzneimittell. Sundelin (Dr. C.) Handbuch der speciellen Heilmittellehre. 3te Aufl 1833 Bischoff (C. H. E.) Handbuch der Arzneimittellehre. 3 vols. 8vo Bergen (H. von.) Versuch einer Monographie der China. 4to. plates Richter (G. A.) Ausfu'hrliche Arzneimittellehre. 6 vols. 8vo. Dulk (Dr. F. P.) Die preussische Pharmacopoe iibersetzt und ertiiutert. 2pts. 2d Hergenrother (Dr J ) System der allgemeinen Heilungslehre. 2 vols 8vo Goebel (Dr F) andKuNZE (Dr. G.) Pharmaceutische Waarenkunde. 2 vols 4to. Dierbach (Dr. IE) Der neuesten Entdeckungen in der Materia Medica 2?e Aufl Hayne. Darstellung und Beschreib. d. Arzneigewachse welche in d . neue preussSri IT..?6 Ph«m«J«>P0« a"feenommen sind. Von Brandt and Ratzebur " P nARTMANN (f. C.) Pharmacologia dynamica. 2 vols 8vo ° Nees von EsENBEcK(Dr. Th. F. L.), Weyhe (M. F.), Wolter (Dr J W) and Funke (P. W.) Beschreibung officineller Pflanzen. HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. xli A.D. 1829—33 1829 1830 1830 1830—32 1830—37 1830 1831—39 1831 1831 1831 1832 1833 1833 1834 1836 1837 1837 1837 1837—38 1838—41 1838 1838 1830 GERMANY— Continued. Brandt (J. F.) and Ratzeburg (J. F. C.) Medizinische Zoologie. 2 vols. 4to. Michaelis (Dr.) Art. Arzneimittel. in the Encyclopiidisches Worterbuch der medi- cinischen Wissenschaften. Wendt (Dr. J.) Praktische Materia Medica. 8vo. Martius (T. W. C.) Das Neueste aus dem Gebiete der Pharmacognosie, als Nachtrag zu Guibourt's Waarenkunde mit Beru'cksichtigung der zweiter Originalausgabe bearbeitet. Niirnberg. Nees v. Esenbeck (Dr. T. F. L.) and Ebermair (Dr. C. H.) Handbuch der medi- cinisch-pharmaceutischen Botanik. 2 vols. 8vo. Sachs (L. W.)and Dulk (F. P.) Handworterb. d. prakt. Arzneimittell. 19 Lief. A—St. Creasote discovered by Reichenbach. Wibmer (Dr. K.) Die Wirkung der Arzneimittel und Gifte. 3 vols, and 1st part of the 4th vol. Pfaff (C. H.) Pharmacop. Slesvico-Holsatica. Kiliae. 4to. Dierbach (I. H.) Abhandl. lib. der Arzneikrafte der Pflanzen. 8vo. Phoebus (Dr. P.) Handbuch der Arzneiverordnungslehre. 2d ed. 2 parts, 1835-6. 3d ed. 1839, 1840. The first edition was entitled " Specielle Receptirkunst." Zenker (Dr. J. C.) and Schenk (Dr. E.) Naturgeschichte der vorziiglichsten Han- delspflanzen. 2 vols. 4to. Schroff (Drs. E. S. and K. D.) Arzneimittellehre und Receptirkunst. 12mo. Martius (Dr. T. W. C.) Grundriss d. Pharmakogn. d. Pflanzenreichs. 8vo. Brandt (I. F.) and Ratzeburg (J. F. C.) Deutschl. phanerog. Giftegewachse. 4to. Radius (Dr. J.) Auserlesene Heilformeln. Dierbach (Dr. J. H.) Die neuesten Entdeckungen in der Materia Medica. 1st vol. Bachmann (W. L.) Handworterb. d. prakt. Apothekerkunst. 2 vols. Mitscherlich (Dr. C. G.) Lehrbuch der Arzneimittellehre. First part of 1st vol. 1837. Grabau (Dr. W.) Chemisch-physiologisches System der Pharmakodynamik. 2 pts. 8vo. Kiel. Winkler (Edw.) Vollstandiges Real Lexicon der medicinisch-pharmaceutischen Naturgeschichte und Rohwaarenkunde. 8vo. Leipzig, les Heft, 1830; 10 Heft, 1841. Martius (Dr. T. W. C.) Lehrb. d. pharmaceut. Zoologie. 8vo. Phoebus (Dr. P.) Deutschl. kryptog. Giftgewachse. 4to. Schwartze (Dr. G. W.) Allgem. u. spec. Heilquellenlehre. 2 parts. Folio. A considerable number of pharmaceutical journals are published in Germany. The following are, perhaps, the most important: 1. Almanachoder Taschenbuch fur Schiede-Kiintsler und Apotheker. 12mo. From 1780. 2. Berlinisches Jahrbuch fur die Pharmacie und fur die damit verbundenen Wissen- schaften. 12mo. (From 1795 to the present time.) Now edited by Dr. Lindes. 3. Trommsdorff (J. B.) Journal der Pharmacie. 8vo. 1794 to 1817. Neues Journal, der Pharmacie. From 1817 to the present time. 4. Buchner (J. A.) Repertorium fur die Pharmacie. 12mo. (From 1815 to the present time.) 5. Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt. 8vo. From 1830 to the present time. Edited by Dr. A. Weinlig. 6. Annalen der Pharmacie. 8vo. From 1832 to the present time. A continuation of the Magazin fiir Pharmacie. From 1823—1831. 7. Archiv der Pharmacie. From 1822 to the present time. 8vo. Edited by R. Brandes.and H. Wackenroder. 8. Jahrbuch fur praktische Pharmacie. 8vo. 1838. By Drs. J. E. Herberger and F. L. Winckler. A. D. HOLLAND. 1517—85 Dodon^eus (R.) 1577—1644 Van Helmont (John B.) 1605 Clusius(C) Exoticorum. libr. x. Lugd. fol. 1648 Piso (G.) De Medicina Brasiliensi. Mentions ipecacuanha, copaiba, tapioca, &c. 1674 Marggravius (C) Mat. Med. Contract. Amst. 4to. ed. 2nda. 1682. 1719 Boerhaave (H.) Mat. Med. et Remed. Form. Ludg. 8vo. 1740 DeGorter(D.) Mat.Med.exhibensviriummedicamentorumcatalogus. Amst.4to. 1793 Baltiiasaar (A.) Verkorte doch klaare en oefennende Materia Medica. Amst. 8vo. 1757—1802 Voltelen (F. J.) Pharmacologiae Universes. 3 parts. Lugd. 8vo. 1799 Ypey (A.) Introductio in Materiam Medicam. Lugd. 8vo. 1811 Ypey (H.) Handboek der Materies Medica. Amst. 8vo. 1817 Van Honte (J. A.) Handleiding tot de Materies Medica, of Leer der Geneesmid- deln. Amst. 8vo. 1829 Van Water (J. A.) Beknopt doch zoo veel mogehjk volledig Handboek voor de Leer der Geneesmiddeln. Amst. 8vo. . See C. H. d Roy, Catalogus Bibliothecae Medicos, t. ii. Amstel. 1830. xlii HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. A D BELGIUM. 1824 Kluyskens (J. F.) Matiere Medicale pratique. Gand. 2 vols. 8vo. SCANDINAVIA. (Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.) . • -r| 1. Denmark. 1640 ' Pauli (Simon) Quadripartitum botanicum de simp^ium medicamentorum faculta- tibus. Rostochii 4to. Argent. 1667, 1668, 1675, 1708. 1658 Bartholinus (C. Th.) Dispensatorium Hafmense.Hafn. 4to. 1772-1840 Pharmacopoea Danica. Hafn. 1772. 1786 1805. I?*?. 1788 Bang (Fr. L.) Pharmacopoea in usum Nosocomn Fridencam. Haln. I^mo. 1799 Mangor (C. E.) Pharmacopoea Pauperum. Hafn. 4to. 1800 Mangor (C. E.) Armenapothek. Hafn. .,.^11__♦«., tt,i„ 1804 TYCHSEN(Nicolai). Theoretisk og praktisk Anvnsning til Apothekerkunsten. Udg. ved J. F. Bergsoe. Kbhn. 1 & 2 D. 8vo. 18O9—10 Mynster (0. H.) Pharmacologie. Kbhn. 2 D. 8vo. t>i„„.„. 1810-12 Wendt (J. C. W.) Anviisning til at samle, torre og conservere medicinske Planter og Plantedele. Kbhn. 8vo. 1811 Wendt (J. C. W.) Anviising til Recepteerkunsten. Kbhn. 8vo. 1813 Pharmacopoea militaris. Kbhn. 12mo. 1828 Pharmacop. in praxi publ. a med. Dan. sequenda. Hain. 1834—5 Djorup (M.) Haandbog i Pharmacologien. Kbhn. 8vo. 2 D. 2 Udg. l«J7-«. 1838 Otto (Carl.) Haandbog i Toxikologien. Kbhn. 8vo. Many articles on pharmacology will be found in the following Danish medical journals: 1. "Bibliothek for Laager." 1809—1839. Kbhn. 30 vols. 8vo. 2. "Hygasa." Udvigel vel Otto. 1826-7. 3. " Medicinsk-chirurgiske Tidskrift." 4. " Ugeskrift for Laeger." 1839. For further information respecting Danish and Norwegian works on pharmacology consult: Winther {M.) "Biliotheca Danorum Medica Hafniae." 1832. 2. Norway. The Danish and Norwegian literature was common to both countries till their political separation in 1814, when Norway was united with Sweden. The language used in Norway in writing, and by all educated persons in speaking, is identical with the Danish. Hence, then, every medical work published in Denmark till 1814 may be considered as also belonging to Norwegian literature. Since that year no work on pharmacology has been published in Norway. The King has, however, appointed a committee to prepare a new pharmacopoeia for that country. The Pharmacopoea Danica has hitherto been used there. Several articles on pharmacology have ap- peared in the following Norwegian periodical:—Eyr, et medicinsk Tidskrift. 11 vols. Commenced in 1826, and continued by Dr. Hoist till 1837. 3. Sweden. 1686 Pharmacopoea Holmiensis. Holmiae, 4to. 1705—1817 Pharmacopoea Suecica. Holm. 1705. 1775.'Alt. 1776. Holm. 1779.1817. 4to. and8vo. 1749 Linne (C. A.) Materia Medica Stockh. 8vo. ed. Schreb. 1772. 1782. 1787. 1735—1784 Bergmann (T.) A distinguished chemist. 1769 Retzius (A. J.) Kort begrep af grunderne til Pharmacien. Stockh. 1769, 8vo. ; 1742—1786 Scheele (C. W.) Discovered Tartaric Acid in 1770, Chlorine in 1774, solid Citric Acid in 1781, and hydrous Prussic Acid. 1771 Retzius (A. J.) Primae lineae Pharmacise, suecico idiomate editae, jam Latine con- versae. Gottingae. 8vo. 1776 Bergius (P. J.) Materia Medicae Regno Vegetabili. Ed. 2 t. 8vo. Stockh. 1782. 1789 Pharmacop. milit. nav. et eorum usui accommod., qui impensis publ. curantur. Holm 1789, 8vo. 1825—25 Ronander (C. W. H.) System e Pharmacologien. Stockh. 1 Deel: 1, 2. Afdeling. 1834 Pharmacopoea in usum Nosoc. milit. Holm. 1834, 12. Berzelius. Besides several pharmacological papers in the following Swedish journals: " Syenska Liikare—Sallskapets Handlingar." Stockh. 1813—1833 8vo "Niia Handlingar." 1 Bd. 1837. " SvenskaLakare—SallskapetsArsberattesser." Stockh. 1813—1838. 8vo 20vols. 1 idskrift for Lakare och Pharmaceuter." Stockh. 1832—1838. 8vo 6 vols _________ ' Hygaea. Medicmisk og Pharmaceutisk Monadskrift." Commenced April 1839. A. D. RUSSIA. 1534 Herbal in the Russian Language with figures. 1588 Treatise on Medicines in ditto. HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. xliii 1665 Apothecaries' Garden at Moscow. 1778 Pharm. Rossica. Petropol. 4to.—1782. 8vo. Pharm. castrens. Rossica Petropol. 4to. 1784 Bacherach (A.) Pharm. Rossica navalis. Petrop. 8vo. 1801 Grindel (D. H.) Grundriss d. Pharm. Riga. 1803—8 --------------Russiches Jahrbuch d. Pharm. Riga. 1806 Giese (F.) Lehrb. d. Pharm. Riga. 1807 Pharmacopeia in usum Nosocomii Paup. Petropol. 8vo. 1809—10 Giese (F.) and Grindel (D. H.) Russ. Jahrb. d. Chem. und Pharm. 2 Bde. Riga. 1809.—Dorpat. 1810. 8vo. 1819 Grindel (D. H.) Med. Pharm. Blatter. 8 Hefte. Riga. 1819 and 1820. 8vo. 1829 Horaninow (P.) Systema Pharmacodynamicum 8vo. Petrop. 1840 Wylie (Sir James.) Pharmacopoeia castrensis Ruthenica. Ed. 4to, Petropoli. Further information on Russian medicine may be obtained in the following works: Grahl{J.F.) "Dies.Med.systemquaedemmedicam.Rossor.domest." Jenae. 1790. Richter{W. M.) " Geschichte d. Med. in Russl." Bd. 3. 1813—1817. Moskwa. A. D. FINLAND. 1797 BjSrnlund (B.) Mat. Med. Select. 8vo. Abo. 1819 Pharmacopoea Fennica. Aboae. A.». ITALY. 1500—55 Brassavola (A. M.) Examen omnium simplicium. 1501—77 Matthiolus (P. A.) Commentarii in libros sex Dioscoridis. 1502—53 Serveto (M.) 1502 Valerian recommended in epilepsy by Columna. 1553—1616 Alpinus (Prosper). On the medicine and plants of the Egyptians. 1647 SALA(Ang.) 1707 Sugar of milk made known by Testi. (Beckmann, Hist, of Invent, iv. 602.) 1734 Mazini (J. B.) Mechanica Medicamentorum. 1791—5 Carminati (B.) Hygiene, Terapeutice et Materia Medica. 4 vols. 8vo. Papia. 1803 Brugnatelli (F.) Farmacopea ad Uso degli Speziali, e Medici moderni d'ltaka, 8vo. Venez.—A French translation by Planche in 1811. 1808 Doctrine of contra-stimulus by Rasori and Borda. 1821 Targioni. Di Materia Medica Tozzeti Lezioni di. Firenze. 8vo. 1824 Alberti(A.) Flora Medica. 6 vols. 8vo. Milan. 1824 Ambrosiani(P.) Manuale por Droghiere. Pavia, 2 vols. 8vo. 1825 Trattato delle Droghe semplici. 6 vols. Milan. 1825 Stellati (V.) Elementi di Mat. Med. 2 vols. 8vo. Napoli. 1826—7 Taddei. Farmacopea generale. 4 vols. 8vo. Firenze. 1827 Dizionnario de Medicamenti. Modena. 1827 Dizionnario farmaceutico galeno-chemico. Ncapl. 1827 Barzelotti (I.) Epitome delle instruzioni theoretico-pratiche. 8vo. Pisa. 1828 Bruschi (D.) Institutioni di Materia Medica. 1830 Argenziano (P.) Elementi di Materia Medica. Napoli. 1833 Vigna (C.) Manuale di Mat. Med. 1833 Giacomini (G.) Trattato filosofico sperimentale dei Soccorsi Terapeutici. 4 vols. 8vo. Padova. 1833 Folchi (I.) Materiae Medicae compend. 2 vols. 8vo. Ad Thermas Agrippae. 1837—10 Taddei (Dr. G.) Elementi di Farmacologia sulle bali deila chimica. Ediz. 2nda. 4 vols. 8vo. Firenze. A. D. SPAIN. 1569 Monardez (Nic.) Historia medicinal de las cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias Occidentals que sirven en medicina. Sevil. 4to. Lat. transl. by Clusius 1574. Antw. Engl. Transl. by Frampton, Lond. 1580. Monardez mentions Cebadilla, Sarsaparilla (carcaparilla), Sassafras, Balsam of Peru, Balsam of Tolu, Logwood, &c. 1578 Acosta (Chr.) Drogas de las Indias. 4to. Burgos. 1615 Hernandez (Fr.) Nova plant, anim. min. Mexican, historia. Rom. 1651. Fol.—(A Spanish edit, by F. Ximenes in 1615.) 1632 Cinchona imported into Spain. 1729 Pharm. Madritensis, 4to. 1794. 8vo. 1798. Lips. 1822. Ruiz (Don Hipp.) and Pavon (Don Jose.) Flora Peruviana. Cinchona, Kramena. 1786 Tavares (Fr.) De Pharmacologia libellus. Coimbra. 8vo. 1787 Roderiguez y Salv. Soliva(J.) Des efficaces virtudes nuevamente descubiertas o comprob. en varias plantas. Madrid. 1789 Rance (J.) Tratado theor. prat, de Mat. Med. Barcelona. 1789. 1798 Hernandez de Gregorio (M.) Diccionario dem. de Pharmacia. Madrid. 4to. 1800 Carbonel (F.) Pharmaciae elementa, chem. recent, fundament, innixa. Barcinon.— French transl. by J. H. Cloquet, from the 3d ed. Pans, 1821. 1841 Iimenez (Dr. M.) A work on pharmacy in 2 vols.; but I have not seen it. xliv HISTORICAL TABLE OF THE MATERIA MEDICA. A.l>. 1536 1785 1794 1797 1800 1810 1836 A.D. 1768 1782 1801 1803 1806 1807 1807 1813 1817 1817—18 1817—20 1822 1822 1825 1827 1828—30 1828 1828 1830 1830—34 1831 1831 1831 1835 1836 1839 1841 1842 1842 1843 1845 PORTUGAL. Garcias ab Orta, Coloquios dos simples y droguas he cousas medicinais da India. Goa. 4to.—Lat. transl. by Clusius, 1567. Antw. 8vo. Henriquez de Paiva (J. J.) Pharm. Lisbonn. Lisb. 8vo. , . , Pharmacopeia Geral para o Reino e Dominios de Portugal. 8vo. 2 vols. Lisbon. Pharmacopeia do Pinto. Coimbra. Brotero described the ipecacuanha plant. Gomes obtained crystallized Cinchonia. . Albano (Dr.) O Codigo Pharmaceutica ou Tratado do Pharmacia. Coimbra. A pharmaceutical journal is published at Lisbon, under the title of " Jornal da So- ciedade Pharmaceutica Lusitana." Of this I have seen one number only, viz. " Tomo II. 60 Anno Numero X." Lisboa, 1839. It is published monthly. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Chair of Materia Medica and Botany in the University of Pennsylvania established. (Dr. Wood's Address, 1836.) Botany separated from Materia Medica in that University. Barton (Dr. B. S.) Collections for an Essay towards a Materia Medica of the United States. 3d ed. 1810. Chimaphila introduced by Dr. Mitchell. Coxe (Dr. J. R.) The American Dispensatory. 8vo. 8th ed. 1830. Ergot of Rye introduced by Dr. Stearns. Lobelia inflata introduced by the Rev. Dr. Cutler. Thacher (Dr. I.) American New Dispensatory. 8vo. 2d ed. 1813. Chapman (Dr. N.) Elements of Therapeutics and Materia Medica. 2 vols. 8vo. 4th ed. 1825, Philada. Barton (Dr. W. P. C.) Vegetable Materia Medica of the United States. 2 vols. 4to. fig. 2d ed. 1825, Philada. Bigelow (Dr. J.) American Medical Botany. 3 vols. 8vo. Boston. Eberle (Dr. J.) Treatise on Materia Medica and Therapeutics. 8vo. 5th ed. 1841. Bigelow (Dr. J.) A Treatise on the Materia Medica, intended as a sequel to the Pharmacopoeia of the United States. Boston. Ellis (Dr. B.) Medical Formulary. 8vo. Philada. 6th ed. 1843, edited by Dr. S. G. Morton. Eclectic and General Dispensatory. 8vo. Philada. Rafinesque (C. S.) Medical Botany of the United States of North America. 2 vols. 12mo. Philada. Barton (Dr. W. P. C.) Outlines of Lectures on Materia Medica and Botany de- livered in Jefferson Medical College. 2 vols. 12mo. Philad. Togno &. Durand. A Manual of Materia Medica, by Edwards & Vavasseur. Translated. 8vo. Philada. Jalap plant. Ipomoea purga (ialapa) described by Mr. Nuttall. Journal of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. Ed. by Dr. B. Ellis 1830 to 1834 4 vols. 8vo. ' The Pharmacopoeia of the United States of America. By authority of the National Medical Convention, held at Washington, A. D. 1830. 1st ed. 1831, Philada. Carpenter (G W.) Essays on some of the most important Articles of the Materia Medica. 12mo. Philada. W°°^(D^ ?«£° Sum B/CHfi (Dr- R) The Dispensatory of the United States. 8vo. bth ed. 1845. Philada. AmrirC;fflti^r,n«ac,170f ^fT0 V TOntin"«»tw>n of preceding. Edited by Dr. R. E. Dun? rS? ,n, J ,' "r Y Dr,%Cvarson an.d Bndges «> the present time. 16 vols. 8vo. S« «%. Pk-GfeSeral Th,erAaPeutlcs. or Principles of Medical Practice, with Tables of the Chief Remedial Agents and their Preparations. 8vo DuNGLisoN(Dr.R.) New Remedies: the Method of preparing and administering them, their effects on the healthy and diseased economy. 8fo. Philada 4th^d Bell (Dr. John). A Practical Dictionary of Materia Medica, including the comoo- sition, preparation, and uses of Medicines, and a large numbe-of extf mporanZL Formate, together with important Toxicological Observations On^he basis of Brandes' Dictionary of Materia Medica and Practical Pnarma™ «?I Vuf a Paine (Dr. Martin). A Therapeutical Arrangementof the M^ri/iv£r" ,v?" Materia Medica arranged upon physiolSprinciples and i^ tt ' 7 f general practical value That remedial agents hoKdSihVirivT ft °rd" °f tions and in conformity withthe physiological SSS^^TS^^1^ and Physiological Commentaries. 12mo. New York Meaicai Pharmacopoeia of the United States, by authoritv of tb'p 'vi^um^ r ■ i_ u at Washington, 1840. 8vo. Philada ? National Convention held THE ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. |3avt fxvst THERAPEIA GENERALIS.-GENERAL THERAPEUTICS. Therapeutics (Therapeia, Therapeutice, Therapeutica, from ©spacrsuw, Icure) is that branch of medicine which has for its object the treatment of diseases. It is divided into general {Therapeia generalis) and special {Therapeia specialis). Authors are not agreed as to the proper limits of Therapeutics. In the most extended sense qf the word, and which I have adopted in the text, it embraces all the known means of cure, and, consequently, all surgical operations. Guersent (Dictionnaire de Medecine, torn. xx. art! Therapeutique, 1828), however, excludes Amputations, Lithotomy, Tracheotomy, &c, from its domains, though he includes Bloodletting, Issues, Setons, Acupuncture, and all those opera- tions which are useful in the treatment of diseases, by producing modifications of the vital properties. Sprengel {Institutiones Medica, torn. i. p. 7) applies the term Iatreusologia (from /*t/>h/», / cure; and \oyos, a discourse) to general Therapeutics. Acology (Acologia, from ctxoc, a remedy, and Xoyos), or Iamatologia (C. H. E. Bischoff, Die Lehre von den chemischen Heilmitteln. Bd. i. S. 22, Bonn, 1825), (from ia^a, a remedy, and.Xo^os), is that department of Therapeutics devoted to the consideration of remedies. Some authors (Sprengel; and C. H. E. Bischoff; op. supra cit.) limit Acology to the conside- ration of surgical and mechanical remedies. Remedies {Remedia, from re and medeor, I heal; Auxilia medica) are agents used in palliating or curing diseases. They are of two kinds: pscychical, or mental; and somatical, or corporal. The first affect the bodily functions, and influence disease by the agency of the mind; the second act on the body directly.1 1. REMEDIA PSYCHICA—PSYCHICAL OR MENTAL REMEDIES. Affections of the mind influence the corporal functions,3 favour or oppose the action of morbific causes on the system, and modify the progress of diseases. p 'Strictly speaking, this division may, perhaps, be inaccurate. We know that changes in the condition of the brain produce corresponding alterations in the slate of mind ; and it may be fairly inferred, that changes in the state of the mental faculties are necessarily associated with some molecular alteration in the cerebral substance. If this be true, all remedies are somatical or corporal. But, in the absence of direct and positive evidence of this, we may continue to speak of mental as distinguished from corporal agents, just as we speak of functional jis distinguished from organic diseases. ^ For sonic pertinent observations on, the powerful influence of mental causes in deranging the functions of the body, see Dr. J. Johnson's Essay on Indigestion, lOlh ed. 1840. VOL. I. 5 50 ELE^EIN'TS of materia medica. Their employment as therapeutical agents is necessarily limited; on account of the difficulty experienced in producing, regulating, and controlling them. Yet they are by no means unimportant, or to be neglected. They may be conveniently divided into two sets or classes,—the one including those affections which immediately result from the presence of objects external to the mind, and which may be denominated external affections /—the other com- prising those affections which arise in consequence of certain preceding affections of the mind itself, and which may be termed internal affections.1 Class, l. External Affections of the Mind.—To this division belong those phenomena or states of the mind commonly termed sensations, and which may arise either from influences external to the body {external sensations), or from organic causes existing within the body {internal sensations). They suggest, by the association of ideas, other affections, which, as they arise from preceding states of the mind, are truly internal. But, in considering external affections as reme- dial agents, it is scarcely possible to estimate their influence independent of the internal affections which immediately arise from them. Indeed, the great remedial value of some external affections depends on the internal affections which they suggest; as in the case of Music, the therapeutical effects of which are referrible, not to the mere perception of the sounds, but to the resulting emotions. The mental affections of this class, which will require a brief notice, are the external sensations; viz., those ascribed to the organs of smell, taste, hearing, vision, and touch. 1 & 2. Smell and Taste—a. An important object in the art of prescribing is to cover the unpleasant taste and smell of medicines by other substances possessed of an agreeable flavour and odour. j&. In some nervous affections we endeavour to increase the faith of our patients in the power- ful agency of the remedies employed, by augmenting the odorous and sapid qualities of the sub- Btances used. 3. Hearing—*.. Monotonous noises favour sleep; as the humming of bees, the ticking of a clock, the murmur of a rivulet, a dull discourse, &c. We avail ourselves of this fact in thera- peutics, and combat want of sleep by directing an attendant to read aloud to our patient. 0. Silence frequently disposes to sleep. Under some circumstances, however, it " may become a stimulus, while sound ceases to be so. Thus, a miller being very ill, his milt was stopped, that he might not be disturbed by its noise; but this, so far from inducing sleep, prevented it alto- gether; and it did not take place till the mill was set agoing again." (Dr. Robert Macnish'a Philosophy of Sleep, p. 32. Glasg. 1830.) y. Music has been employed in the treatment of diseases (especially those of the mind) from very remote times. (F. A. Steinbeck, Diss. Inaug. De Musices atque Poesos, Bcrol, 1826.) The most ancient notice of its remedial use occurs in the Bible {Samuel xvi. 15-23), where the Sacred Historian tells us that David cured the melancholy of Saul by music. This happened more than a thousand years before Christ. The ancient Greeks also had recourse to mu«ic in medicine, though Hippocrates makes no mention of it. It would appear to be principally adapted lor the relief ot the melancholic form of insanity; but its beneficial effects are very tran- - -....... recovery. To the con- valescent however, it proved advantageous." A more recent writer (Dr. Conolly) also observes," hat little regard is probably due to music as a remedial means, its effects being usually only temporary. Violent patients often become silent, and then moved to weeping, when the piano is played to them."-A-, ,„ the ther.pcu.icl employment of music in insanity" Tr object s to create agreeable emotions, by recalling the happy events of bygone times, and by restoring old associations and trains of thought, particular attention should be paid to adapt the chancier of the music to the peculiarities of each case; for it is obvious that what may prove beneficial to one patient, may be injurious to another. y P uenencial to 4. V,sion.-« Sleep is promoted by "the sight of any thing waving; as of a field of stand- inff corn, or of the hand drawn up and down before the face by a mesmeri^ ataX ITZS.) more than an object at rest-" (Dr- Elliotson's h»™» Ph^:XZ 'Cnnsniair.TliomasBrowirs Lectures on the Philosophy of the TTamnr, Jir.w . i • » The Report of the Resident Physician of the HanwellllnltuJ^ZT^.\l\ V' 341, 2d" ed- !824' onsfor Middlesex, at the MiddUsez Sessions, le-lu. ^ylum, presented to th* Court of quarter Scs- PSYCHICAL OR MENTAL REMEDIES. 51 lisposes to sleep. -...ig with severe head- ache. "I knew a lady » says Dr. Elhotson, (p. 609) " who often remains awake, in .spite of every thing, till her husband very gently rubs her foot: and, by asserting to a patient my conviction that the secret of an advertising hypnologist, whom I allowed to try his art upon the sleepless individual, and which he did for a lime successfully, was to make him rub some part of his body till he slept, he confessed this to be the fact." 0. "Gentle friction acts on the same sense; and a combination is still more effective: whence experience has taught nurses to rock, and otherwise agitate infants, while they hum them to sleep." (Ibid.) y. Freedom from pain and uneasiness of any kind favours sleep. i. In some soporose affections, as poisoning by opium, apoplexy, &c, remedies are resorted to which, by exciting the sensibility of the body, are calculated to rouse the patient. Various me- thods of causing pain have been devised : one of the oldest is urticalion, or flagellation by a bunch of nettles {Urtica dioica). This practice is mentioned by Celsus. (Lib. iii. cap. 2.) Class 2. Internal Affections of the Mind.—This class includes the intellectual states of the mind and our emotions. But, as the observations which I have to make on the therapeutic employment of this class, are rather general than spe- cific, it will be unnecessary to attempt any systematic division of the internal affections. <*. An important part of the treatment of mental affections, as well as of many corporal derangements, is the removal of all moral or mental circumstances which either have produced or keep up the morbid condition. This, however, cannot be effected in many cases, or only with extreme difficulty. In a considerable number of nervous and hypochondriacal affections, appeals to the reasoning faculties are not only useless, but, in many instances, absolutely inju- rious, " by exciting irritation in the mind of the sufferer, who thinks his counsellors arc either unfeeling or incredulous towards his complaints."3 In such cases, no remedy is equal to travelling, especially in a mountainous country; for it combines the salutary influence of ab- straction of mind from painful reflections, change of scene, respiration of pure air, and employ- ment of bodily exercise. If the extent of the mental disorder, or the circumstances of the patient, preclude the trial of this remedy, removal from home is calculated to act beneficially, by withdrawing the patient from the influence of domestic circumstances calculated to add to, or at least to keep up, the morbid condition, and by presenting new objects to his view, which arrest his attention, and excite new trains of ideas. (Consult Esquirol, op. supra cit. torn. ii. p. 743.) In lunatic asylums, seclusion proves a simple but most valuable means of tranquillizing violent maniacs.3 Amusement and employment are powerful psychical remedies in the treatment of the insane.4 0. Emotions and passions of the mind have a most powerful influence upon the disorders of the body.5 Much of the evidence, however, which establishes the trulh of this statement, is rather curious than practically useful; and as the general fact is well known and admitted, I shall confine myself to a few practical illustrations. Hope is a mildly stimulating or tonic passion, which may be beneficially employed in all diseases, and which proves injurious in few, if in any cases. Most patients receive with satisfaction and benefit assurances of the prospect of recovery from their medical attendant. Even in diseases of a mortal character, life may be sometimes prolonged by concealing from the sufferer the fatal nature of his malady.0 Faith in the beneficial agency of the remedies employed, and confidence in the skill of the medical attendant, are important adjuvants in the treatment of most diseases. To them both physician and empiric owe part of their success ; and it is, therefore, the duty of the practitioner to encourage these feelings in his patient by every legitimate and honourable i The friction above referred to should be very light and gentle.—Strong or violent friction by the hand or horsehair gloves is used for other purposes; as, fur allaying itching and irritation of skin, and promoting cutaneous circulation. Dinneford's "Patent improved Electrical Horse-hair Renovators" are, for these purposes, a great improvement over the ordinary horse-hair gloves.—On the subject of Friction as a remedial agent, consult Celsus, lib. ii. cap. 14. » Change of Air, or the Pursuit of Health and Recreation; illustrating the beneficial influence of bodily exer- cise, change of scene, pure air, and temporary relaxation, in sickness and in health. By James Johnson, M. D. 4th ed. 1KW. • See Dr. Conolly's Report before referred to, p. 53.—Bodily coercion is now no longpr resorted to at the Mnnwelt Lunatic Asylum. Farther experience, however, is still required to establish the propriety or even humanity of omitting it in all cases. « Consult Sir \V. C. Ellis's Treatise on the Nature, Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment of Insanity, 1838; and Dr. Connlly's Report before quoted, p. 51. » t^ee Dr. Win. Falconer's Dissertation on the Influence of the Passions upon Disorders of the Body, 2d ed. London, 1791. o Fur some judicious remarks, by Sir H. Halford, on Uie duty of the physician, in withholding from, or communicating to, a patient the probable issue of a disease displaying mortal symptoms, see London Medical Gazette, vol. vii. p. 6(12. I fully agree with the learned President of the College of Physicians, that the first duty of the physician is " to protract the life of his patient by all practical means." 52 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. j- u_« Ur» Kppn known, and is a fruitful means. The influence of the imagination on d»«"/"J^SS/K'asCribed to inert source of fallacy in therapeutics. Extraordmary cur .have[ ^^J^ lhe imagina1ion.. and useless means, when "fact they "^^f^^^a^ the practitioner Fear is a depressing and debilitating passion, of whose power ov" pr)ileotic ,Uacks nTsometimes availed himself. Thus, Boerhaave P^^L^n^ (brought on by a person falling down in a ^ ^ ^r^^^ &£T^ red-hot iron to be applied to the person who should next be attcctea. ^ p^cM-5Ws.as KUfr ^ SymPt°mS (WhlCh laSt6d lW° d3yS j" my CaS6> were'ti™! of reliS, w.'^profuTe ia» See Dr. James Hunter's work, On the Influence of Artificial Light in causing Impaired Vision, Edinburgh, On^i'ncideTt r'aTthere aTuSued .t^""— ^^ of coloured glasses to be as follows:- Coloured glass. Rays transmitted. I Coloured trio„ n ■.. i Deep violet.................... .. 53 Rri»ht n Rays transmitted. Vivid red......... .... .47 m£ ye"°W.........................:,4 Clear blue......... 11 fc1'*'*11.........................93 .................** I Verydeepblue.......................ju HEAT. 55 a. On Vegetables—A certain degree of heat promotes all the vital processes of plants. It accelerates germination, the growth and developement of all vegeta- ble organs, inflorescence, fecundation, and the ripening of the fruit; and it quickens the movements of parts susceptible of motion. Too elevated a tem- perature, accompanied with dryness, deranges the health of plants. (De Candolle, Physiologie Vegetale, torn. iii. p. 1098.) An intense heat decomposes the vege- table tissues. b. On Man and other Animals.—A certain degree of external heat (different in different beings) promotes the vital manifestations of animals, and hence we denominate it an excitant or stimulant. Its prolonged operation, however, i3 followed by debility and exhaustion, proportionate to the previous excite- ment. The influence of tropical heat on the human species furnishes an" illustrative example of the effects just mentioned. It is well known that the mental powers of children are sooner de- veloped, and the sexes arrive earlier at puberty, in warm than in cold countries. Moreover, the languor, indolence, and relaxed fibres, 60 commonly observed in the inhabitants of tropical climates, are probably to be ascribed, in a great measure, to the exhausting and enervating influ- ence of external heat. The effects of topical heat are first, a sensation of warmth, redness, turgescence, and a slight augmentation of temperature of the part heated. The diameters of the minute capillary vessels expand under the influence of caloric, and thus the red blood-disks are enabled to enter tubes previously impervious to them. The augmented volume of the part arises, therefore, in a great measure from the pre- sence of an increased quantity of blood; but in part also from the dilatation of the solids and fluids caused by their augmented temperature. The living tissues become more relaxed, soft, and flexible, under the influence of a moderate heat, and admit of a more rapid transpiration. A more violent degree of heat causes burning pain, redness, and vesication. A still more intense heat destroys vitality and organization. Whenever a large portion of the surface of the body is destroyed (as in burns and scalds), great constitutional disturbance, or even death, results from the shock given to the ner- vous system. If the whole body be subjected to an elevated temperature, not incompatible with prolonged life, its effects are manifested first in the vascular system, and in the organs connected therewith. The superficial vessels enlarge; the skin be- comes redder; and the pulse quicker and fuller; respiration more frequent; the animal heat is augmented ; and the expired air is hotter, and more loaded with vapour. The exciting influence of heat, on the vascular system, points out the impropriety of employing this agent in inflammation or congestion of the organs (heart and lungs) engaged in the circula- tion of the blood; in dilatations of the heart; in aneurism; in apoplexy; and many other cases which will readily suggest themselves. Increased exhalation (first of insensible and vaporous matter, then of visible and liquid sweat) and augmented secretion of the periphery soon succeed. The rapid conversion of a liquid into an aeriform fluid (insensible perspiration) is attended with the production of cold ; and thus animals are enabled to counteract external heat, and to maintain nearly their original temperature, when exposed to a temperature considerably higher than that of their own bodies, by the in- creased perspiration which they suffer under these circumstances. The deter- mination to the surface, and the increased transpiration and secretion of the skin, are attended with a contemporaneous diminution of activity in some of the inter- nal organs. Thus, the secretions of the kidneys and the mucous membranes are diminished in consequence of the increased secretion and exhalation of the skin. The mutually antagonizing influence of determinations of blood to different parts—as well as of the secretions of differcnl tissues—is a circumstance the knowledge of which is of great elements of materia medica connected with the sudden disappearance ot a cutaneous «, uF^ • referrible { the use of external heat in gastritis enteritis cyst ££*J^*^n*in *, ^^ the same antagonizing influence. External heat is also *n'"P™ theJdrv and unperspirable of diabetes: it checks the excessive secretion of urine and relieves.me * operation bv state of the skin. Whenever we exhibit sudorific me ic.nes we pro no»« ^^^ keeping the surface warm; wh.le w^ above explained. .. __ The augmented secretion of bile, and the tendency to hepatic diseases, so com- monly observed in Europeans when they become residents in warm climates, are other effects of the continued operation of heat on the body. That heat, aided by inactivity, abundance of solid food, and little or no drink, is capable of indue ng hepatic disease, is well shown on the goose. The celebrated patis de foies gras pre- pared ?i StLburg and Melz, are made from the livers of geese artificially enlarged These animals are crammed with food, kept from drink, nailed to a plank by the webs of their feet, and placed quite close to a fire: and, in due time, their livers become greatly enlarged. Relaxation of the living tissues is another consequence of the employment of moderate heat. This effect, which is best observed when moisture is conjoined with caloric, commences first in the part to which heat is applied : and, when the whole surface of the body has been subjected to an increased temperature, its relaxing influence soon extends to internal parts: hence arise atony, diminution of muscular power, .a feeling of languor or fatigue, and an indisposition to cor- poral exertion. We take advantage of this relaxing influence of heat in the treatment of spasmodic diseases, in the reduction of dislocations, in the application of the taxis in hernia, and on many other occasions where our object is to relax or soften muscular or other tissues. On the other hand, we avoid the employment of heat where preternatural relaxation or atony of the general system, but especially of the surface, exists. The primary effect of moderate heat on the nervous system is excitation ; the secondary effect, exhaustion. In the first instance sensibility is agreeably pro- moted, the action of the voluntary muscles assisted, and the intellect somewhat exalted. But to these effects succeed languor, relaxation, listlessness, indisposition to corporal and mental labour, and tendency to sleep. Lastly, the prevailing maladies of hot climates may be referred to as farther illustrations of the effect of continued heat on the body. Fevers, diarrhoea, dys- entery, cholera, and liver diseases, may be regarded as the special maladies of the burning equatorial regions. The exhaustion, which follows the excitation caused by heat and other stimuli, would seem, to use the words of Miiller, {Op. cit. vol. i. p. 52,) to "show that the organic force is consumed, as it were, by the exercise of the functions;" and to employ a simile of Dr. Priestley,2 we may say, that as a candle burns out much faster in oxygen gas than in air, so we may be said to live out too fast when under the exciting influence of an elevated temperature. Uses—Heat is employed as a remedial agent for various purposes, of which the following are the principal:— 1. To cause an afflux of blood to a part; by which,— a. Healthy circulation and temperature may be restored. b. The equalization of the distribution of blood may be effected; and thereby a preter- natural afflux to other organs checked. c. The secretions and exhalations of a part may be re-established or increased. 2. To promote the general circulation of blood. Dr,.l?ly8.0™irade1ph!a,7":"rkS °" *" " anta^onism" °f tlie ^^ons, in MuJlef. Element, of Physiology, by a Experiments and Observations on different kinds of Air, vol. ii. p. 169. Birmingham, 1790. radiant heat. 57 3. To relax tense, rigid, or spasmodically contracted tissues. 4. To alleviate pain. 5. To hasten organic changes; as the termination (resolution or suppuration) of inflam- mation. 6. To destroy the vitality and organization of a part. The most important circumstances which conlra-indicate its employment, are— 1. Great vascular excitement, plethora, aneurism, hemorrhage, &c. 2. Great relaxation and flabbiness, especially in the superficial organs. 3. Profuse secretion and exhalation. 4. Great nervous excitability, with little power. Heat is communicated to the body in two ways; viz., by radiation and by conduction. a. Radiant Heat. Radiant heat proceeds from the sun and terrestrial bodies, in straight lines or rays. Therapeutically it has been employed as a stimulant or excitant, to pro- mote circulation and warmth in the old, the debilitated, and the paralytic; and as a cautery. a. Solar Ileat.—The rays which proceed from the sun, are of three kinds,— illuminating, heat-making, and chemical. Their important influence—as illumi- nating rays—has been already alluded to. (See p. 52.) The ancients1 were well acquainted with the salutary influence of solar heat on the human frame, and frequently employed it for therapeutical purposes. Insolation {insolatio, apricatio, solicatio, heliosis, rjXiwtfis) may be employed as a stimulant for the purposes already mentioned. It is also valuable in scrofula, and as a restorative after lingering and painful maladies. Whenever it is used, the head should be carefully guarded from the direct influence of the sun, in order to prevent the occurrence of the sun-stroke, or ictus Solaris, before referred to. (Page 52.) Occasionally erythema or erysipelas is produced by the direct action of the sun on the naked skin. Faure concentrated the solar rays by a burning-glass, and employed them to stimulate indolent ulcers, especially those which follow frost-bites. Formerly, cauterization was effected in the same way.3 2. Artificial Radiant Heat.—Exposure to the rays of a common fire is resorted to, as a stimulant and calefacient, in old paralytic and other cases attended with coldness and blueness of the extremities, and other symptoms of insufficient cir- culation of the blood. The heat radiating from a burning body, (as a candle) or ignited iron, is some- times employed as a stimulant to produce rubefaction in the tract of the vertebral column, in paralytic and neuralgic affections of the spinal cord. " A much more durable impression of heat," observes Miiller, (vol. i. p. 59,) " better than moxa or the actual cautery, is produced by holding a burning candle near to the affected part for a long time, so as to produce pain ; by which means all the beneficial effect of heat is obtained, without the formation of an eschar and the subsequent suppuration, which is often of no service. The mode in which the caloric acts in these cases is not evident." The radiant heat from a red-hot iron or burning coal has been employed as a » Hippocrates, De Morbis, lib. ii. 66 and 68; Celsus, lib. i. cap. 2 and 3; Caelius Aurelianus, Morb. Chronic. ''» MaMohn, in Dicl.de Medecine, art. Cauterisation. Most, in his Eneyklopkdieder gesammten medicin. u. c/nrur^.pLis, Leipzig, lo37. art. I„,olatio. uuntes two authors on insolal.on whom I have had no opportu- nity of consulting; they are Diesig, De solicationevulgo insolatione veterum. Lips. 1/37; and Ricnler, Diss. Insolatio, seupotcstas solis in corpus humanum, Gotting. 1747. 58 elements of materia medica. cautery .0 cheek herbages, and ^-J ^j'rffi^ rectum and uterus, and of hernia. I his practice con* objective of the French writers. jS. Conducted Heat. 1. Color siccus—Dry Heat. This includes hot air, bottles filled with ^t water, hot sand, &c 1. Hot-Air Bath.-Air, at a temperature of from 100 olrfO.P stimulant and calefacient, but is less relaxing and^ soothmg;trmri m y When required to operate as sudorific a temperature of ^J0^^0^; (Dr. Gower says 85°) is found most advantageous. The hot-air batr v .. ■ ii . ._________i:„l nrrnnt wrrtan trip hloOO SsS^oTITjo^ "^ ch^ic-iin diseases (especiaUy .he dry -^SZ^^Zr^^^y •-P^na.iag .he ho. al, whh sc.e gas or vapour; as with sulphurous acid gas or chlorine. (See Chlorine and STSSMtL, heated not beyond IW-Bottles filled with hot watery applied to the feet, to excite the circulation and augment the animal heat, in various diseases attended with cold extremities. The same remedy is conve- niently applied to the abdomen, to relieve spasmodic pain. (The bottles may also be made of tin, and of such size and form as to be adapted to the part to which applied. They should be covered with flannel.) Hot sand {arena calida), enclosed in a bag or bladder, may be employed for similar purposes. Sometimes hot sand is used as a bath.2 Ij is rarely resorted to in this country, but is had recourse to in the maritime departments of the south of France. (Schwilgue, Traite de Matiere Medicale, t. ii. p. 324.) A sand-bath operates as a stimulant and sudorific; and is employed in rheumatism, spasm, paralysis, &c.3 Rot ashes or bran have been applied to similar uses; as also hot bricks. The leaves of the common birch {Betula alba) are employed in Sweden. (Bergius, Materia Medica, t. ii. 778, ed. 2"«a, Stockh. 1782.) 3. Metal heated to 212°___The late Sir Anthony Carlisle {Lancet, 1826-27, vol. xi. p. 315 and 384), proposed to excite speedy vesication by the application to the skin of a polished plate of metal, heated to 212° by immersion in boiling water. He recommended it as a substitute for cantharides, than which he declared it to be less painful. Moreover, it is not liable to cause strangury. 4. The Actual Cautery {Cauterium actudle.)—The term actual cautery is used to indicate a heated substance, employed to burn or disorganize a portion of the living body, to which it is applied. A potential cautery disorganizes by its affinity for the constituents of the living tissues. i For farther information respecting the hot-air bath, consult the Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine, art. Warm-Air Bath, by Dr. Forbes, Philadelphia, 1845—Also, Dr. Gower's Auxiliaries to Medicine, Lond. 1819, Tract 1, An Account of the Sudatorium. Various simple and ready modes of making a hot-air bath have been suggested. A very simple method is that recommended by Mr. Alcock {Lancet. 1825-0, vol. ix. p 86'2.) It consists in burning spirit in a cup or saucer under a blanket; the patient lying on the bed with his head and face outside the blanket, as the air is not fit for respiration. The blanket is supported over the bed by a cord. 2 The phrase balneum arena is incorrect. Celsus (lib. ii. cap. 17), limits the term balneum to a water-bath artificially heated in a private house. 3 The therapeutical use of sand is denominated arenatio br psammismus, {ipajipto-uo;, from xpappoc, sand.) See Quiring, De balneis arte parandis Diss. Inaug. Berol. 1837.—" Saburratinn was a species of bathing in ancient use. The body was buried in sand, and exposed to the sun." (Sutherland's Attempts to revive Ancient Medical Doctrines, vol. i. p. 48, Lond. 1763.) — Sand is employed therapeutically for other purposes than to communicate heat. Thus, a bag of sand has been applied to the abdomen, to compress, by its weight, the uterus, and thereby to restrain uterine haemorrhage after the removal of ihe placenta ; but incomplete inver- sion of the uterus is said to have been produced by it (see Most. Encyklopiidie der gesammt.med. u. chir. Praxis, Bd. i. S. 175. Leipzig, 1836.) Sand has also been used as a mechanical support in fractures of the leg. CONDUCTED HEAT. 59 Several agents have been employed as actual cauteries, viz. red-hot iron, moxa, and the flame of hydrogen. The first, however, is the one generally used, and commonly meant, when we speak of the actual cautery. The lat.er'two will be noticed in subsequent parts of the work. (See Hydrogen, and Artemisia Moxa ) I have excluded boiling water, steam, and metal heated to 2]2°, from the list of cauteries. These agents coagulate and harden the albuminous and fibrinous portion of the living tissue, and exc.le acute inflammation; that is, they scald. They neither decompose nor effect anv UieTiv'in UsIm '" °rgan'C prindpleS ; "•<*. therefore, chemically speaking, they do not burn In this country the actual cautery (red-hot iron) is seldom used. It is some- times resorted to as a styptic, where the hemorrhage is from a great number of small vessels, or from a vessel so situated that the ligature cannot be applied. It is also used to destroy morbid growths, which cannot be reached by the knife—as fungus of the antrum. Lastly, it has been applied to stop caries, to excite an artificial ulcer, to open abscesses, to close fistulous ulcers, in bites by poisonous animals, and in some affections of the brain—as epilepsy, to destroy the part from whence the aura epileptica sets out.1 2. Color humidus.—Moist heat. a. Aqueous Vapour. The practice of bathing is of great antiquity, and precedes the date of our earliest records. It was adopted sometimes for the purpose of cleanliness, some- times for the preservation of health, and frequently as a recreation and luxury. The ancient Hebrews {Leviticus xiv. 8.-2 Kings v. 10.) practised ablutions. Josephus {Bell.Jud. lib. i. cap. 33, § 5.) mentions that Herod was let down into a bath of oil. The Greeks employed bathing. Homer,3 on various occasions, mentions hot baths and ablutions. In the writings ascribed to Hippocrates {De diceta, lib. ii. § 35. De affectionibus, § 47), baths are mentioned, and their effects described. Baths are also noticed by Celsus (Lib. i. cap. 3; and lib. ii. cap. 17), Pliny {Hist. Nat. lib. xxix. cap. 8; lib. xxxi. cap. 2, et seq., ed. Valp.), and other Roman writers. Prosper Alpinus {Medicina xEgyptiorum, lib. iii. cap. 14-19) says, that the Egyptians employed hot baths for cleanliness and health; and Freind states, that when Alexandria was plundered, in A. D. 640, there were 4000 baths in that city. {History of Phi/sick; part. i. p. 7, 3d ed. Lond. 1727.) Among the Persians, baths were in use.3 The Arabians also were acquainted with hot baths, as we learn from Avicenna. {Canon, lib. iii. fen. xvi. tract, iv. cap. 10.) The ancient Hindoos employed baths and aspersions with water. (Royle's Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, p. 53. Lond. 1837.) These examples sufficiently establish the great antiquity of the practice of bathing.4 The following is a sketch of the baths of the Romans, copied from a paintino- found at the Thermce of Titus. (De Montfaucon, H Antiquite expliquee et repre- sentee en Figures, torn. iii. part. ii. p. 204, 2nde ed. Paris, 1722.) 1 For farther details respecting the actual cautery and "cauterization, I must refer the reader to Percy's Pyrotechnie. chirurgicalepratique, Paris, 1811; Marjolin, art. Cautcre and Cauterisation, in the Diet, de Mede- cine ; mid S.inson, in the Diet, de Med. et Chir. pratiques. * a Iliad, xxii. 444. Odyss. viii. 451.—It would appear from Homer, that the offices of the baths were performed by females ; though, from a passage in Herodotus, {Erato, six.} we may infer that this custom was not peculiar to the Greeks. » Xcnophon, Cyropadia, lib. viii.—Plutarch, in his life of Alexander the Grsat, mentions that this celebrated conqueror was astonished at the sight of the baths of Darius. * Fi>r further information respecting ancient baths, consult An Account of the Ancient Baths, and their use in Physic, by Thomas Glass, M. D. Lond. 1752.—Attempts to revive Ancient Medical Doctrines, by Alexander Sutherland, M. D., vol. i. p. ]•>, et *eq. Lond. 17U3.—Also, De Baliteis omnia qua extant apud Graicos, Latinus Ii Arabas. Veiiet. 1553. 60 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDIOA. Fig. 1. On the right is the tleothe- rium (a.Mt7rr»f>iov) where the oils and perfumes are kept in vases; next to this is the frigidarium (*7rcfvT»picv) or dressing-room : the third apartment is the tepidarium: the fourth is the sudatory, (concamerata sudatio,) in which are seen the laconicum, (so called from being first used in Laconia,) a brazen furnace to heat the room, and persons sitting on the steps: the fifth is the balneum, with its huge basin, {labrum,) sup- plied by pipes, coinmunicat- Ancient Baths. j wjtj1 jjiree large bronze a. The Strigil (a scraper or currycomb, used at baths, to scrape the Vases, called milliaria, from skin)- their capaciousness; the lower one contained hot, the upper one cold, and the middle one tepid water. The bathers re- turned back to the frigidarium, which sometimes contained a cold bath. The subterranean portion of the building, where the fires were placed for heating the baths, was called the hypo. caustum. 1. The Vapour Bath.—As aqueous vapour, like air, is a worse conductor of caloric than water, its influence, as a source of either heat or cold, is neither so powerfully nor so speedily felt as that of the latter. Hence, therefore, the temperature of the vapour bath should always exceed that of the water bath. If, however, the whole body be immersed in vapour, which is consequently in- haled, the temperature must be a little less than if the trunk and limbs alone were subjected to the influence of vapour; because the inhalation of vapour stops the cooling process of evaporation from the lungs. The following is a comparative view of the heating powers of water and of vapour, distinguishing the latter ac- cording as it is or is not breathed. (Dr. Forbes, Cyclopcedia of Practical Medi- cine, art. Bathing, vol. i. p. 265.) Water. Vapour. 850 _ 920 92° — 980 980 __ 106O Not breathed. Breathed. 96o — 106° 106° — J 20° 120° — 160° 90O _ ]00.o 100° — 110O IMP — 130° The general effects of the vapour bath are those of a powerful stimulant and sudorific. It softens and relaxes the cutaneous tissue, expands the superficial ves- sels, accelerates the circulation of blood, augments the frequency of the pulse and respiration, and produces copious perspiration. These effects are succeeded by a feeling of languor and a tendency to sleep. The vapour bath is distinguished from the hot-air bath by its soothing, relaxing, and greater sudorific influence; from the hot-water bath, by its inferior power of communicating heat, by its greater sudorific tendency, and by its causing scarcely any superficial compression of the body, whereby it does not occasion the prsecor- dial oppression experienced on entering the water bath. The vapour bath, like the hot-air bath, may be employed when the blood has receded from superficial parts, and congestion of internal organs has in conse- quence occurred;—as during the cold stage of intermittent fever, in malio-nant cholera, and during the stage of chilliness which ushers in various febrile "com- plaints. But its great value is experienced when our object is to relax the skin, MOIST HEAT. 61 and to produce profuse sweating. Thus in chronic rheumatism and gout, in slight colds from checked perspiration, and in chronic skin diseases, accompanied with a dry state of the cutaneous surface, it often proves highly serviceable. In old paralytic cases, unaccompanied with signs of vascular excitement of the brain, it sometimes gives relief. In some uterine affections, as chlorosis, ame- norrhoea, and irritation of the womb ; in dropsy of old debilitated subjects; in old liver complaints ; and in some scrofulous affections, the vapour bath is occasion- ally employed with advantage.1 In this country the vapour bath is employed for therapeutic purposes only. In Egypt, Turkey, Persia, and some other parts of the East, and in Russia, ■ however, it is in common use as a hygienic agent and luxury ; and is accompanied by a process of friction, kneading, and extension of the muscles, tendons, and ligaments, constituting the massing* of the Egyptians, and the shampooing (Mahomed's Treatise on Shampooing.—I have not met with this work.) of the East Indians. This process is thus described by Dr. Gibney:—{Op. supra cit. p. 84.) « After exposure to the bath, while the body is yet warm from the effects of the vapour, the shampooman proceeds, according to the circumstances of the case, from gentle friction gradually increased to pressure, along the fleshy and tendinous parts of the limb;—he kneads and grasps the muscle repeatedly, presses with the points of his fingers along its course, and then follows friction, in a greater or less degree, alternating one with the other, while the hand is smeared with a medicated oil, in the specific influence of which the operator has considerable confidence. This process is continued for a shorter or longer space' of time, and, according to circumstances, is either succeeded or preceded by an extension of the capsular ligament of each joint, from the larger to the smaller, causing each to crack, so as to be distinctly heard, which also succeeds from the process being extended to each connecting ligament of the vertebras of the back and loins. The sensation at the moment is far from agreeable, but is succeeded by effects not dissimilar to what arise from brisk electrical sparks, taken from the joints in quick succession." In rigidity and stiffness of joints, this process of massing or shampooing may prove of considerable service. The Russian Vapour Baths have lcng been celebrated. The vapour is produced by throwing water over red-hot stones. Its temperature, according to Lyall, {Character of the Russians, p. 112, Lond. 1823,) is from 122° to 144-5° 1". Besides being exposed to the influence of this vapour, the bathers arc subjected to a system of friction, flogging with the leafy branches of the birch, and affusions of warm or cold water. It is customary with them to issue from the bathing houses while quite hot, and, in the summer, to plunge into cold water,—in the winter, to roll themselves naked in the snow, without sustaining injury, or ever catching cold. (Dr. E. D. Clarke's Travels in various Countries of Europe, part i. p. 143, et seq.) Brcmner {Excur- sions in the Interior of Russia, vol. i. p. 185. Lond. 1829.) describes the supposed bracing effects as being all imaginary; and declares that the practice of bathing, followed by the Rus- sians, rapidly enervates and undermines the constitution. Several medical writers (Dr. Granville's St. Petersburgh, vol. i. p. 509. Lond. 1828.) have borne testimony to the efficacy of the baths in alleviating rheumatism. The Egyptian Vapour Baths are in constant and general use. The bathers having been subjected t"o the operation of massing, already described, are then rubbed, and afterwards washed.3 The Turkish* as well as the Persian (Fowler's Three Years in Persia, vol. i. p. 269. Lond. 1811.) baths are somewhat similar. ' For n more detailed account of the uses of the vapour bath, the reader is referred to Dr. Gibney's Treatise* on the Properties and Medical Application of the Vapour Bath. Lond. 1825. ,-„„, A * Masser. from the Arabic verb masses, to touch lighlly. See. Savary'* Letters on Egypt, vol. i. p. 130, 2d ed. L"nFor .^description and representation of the Egyptian baths, consult Description de rEgypte.Etal Moderne t ii. (2.1,. partie p. tlKl. Vol. i. planche 49: and vol. ii. planche 94.-AIso Lane s Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, vol. ii. p. 35, Lond. IrtJT.-Sir J. G. U ilkinson, in his Manner* and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians vo]. iii. p. 3HH, Lond. JK17, has given a sketch, from a painting in a tomb at Thebes, renrcseiitinc a lariv in a bnth, with four attendants. . #«..,.• I D'OhssoTs Tableau Qeniral de rEmpire Ottoman, torn. i. p. 160, Pans, l.c.-An engraving of a bath is given. VOL. I. ° 62 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Topical or local vapour baths are sometimes employed in the treatment of local diseases, as affections of the joints. Dr. Macartney {A Treatise on Inflam- mation, p. 176. Lond. 1838.) recommends the topical use of vapour, as a soothing and anodyne application, in painful wounds, contusions, and fractures, and has invented an apparatus for generating and applying it, which is sold by Mr. Stod- dart, 401, Strand, London. The vapour douche may be regarded as a topical vapour bath. It is a jet of aqueous vapour (whose temperature does not exceed that of a general vapour bath) directed on some part of the body, and its action depends principally on the temperature of the fluid ; for its mechanical effects are comparatively trifling. In some affections of the ear, as otitis, otorrhcea, and otalgia, a stream of warm aqueous vapour is sometimes introduced into the meatus auditorius externus with considerable relief; and the most ready means of effecting it is by a funnel inverted over a vessel of hot water, the meatus being applied to the orifice of the funnel. The medicated vapour bath is prepared by impregnating aqueous vapour with the odour of medicinal plants. There is no good reason, however, for supposing that it possesses any advantage over the simple vapour bath. Sulphur vapour, sulphurous acid gas, chlorine gas, and the vapour of camphor, are sometimes employed in conjunction with aqueous vapour. Their effects will be described hereafter. The application of vapour to particular parts of the body has been accompanied with the simultaneous removal of atmospheric pressure, constituting the air-pump vapour bath. It has been employed in gout, rheumatism, and paralysis.1 2. Inhalation of Warm Vapour.—The inhalation of warm aqueous vapour proves highly serviceable, as an emollient remedy, in irritation or inflammation of the tonsils, or of the membrane lining the larynx, trachea, or bronchial tubes. It may be employed by Mudge's inhaler, or by inspiring the vapour arising from warm water. Various narcotic and emollient substances are frequently added to the water, but without adding much (if any thing) to its therapeutical power. Dr. Paris Pharm.acologia, vol. i. pp. 198 and 379, ed. 6th. Lond. 1825.) states that, in some pulmonary complaints, he has been long in the habit of recom- mending persons confined in artificially-warmed apartments to evaporate a certain portion of water, whenever the external air has become excessively dry by the prevalence of the northeast winds, which so frequently infest this island during the months of spring; and the most marked advantage has attended the practice. In rooms artificially heated by hot-air stoves, the necessity for this proceeding is still more obvious. The benefit which pulmonary invalids are said to have derived from a residence in cow-houses* is in part referrible to the moist warm air with which such places are tilled, though something, perhaps, may be ascribed to the carbonic acid gas which is present.3 b 1 Facts and Observations respecting the Air- Pumn Vnnn,,*- R„»fc ••„ «■ . n. '■ '--------------------- By Ralph Blegborough, M. D Lond 1803-LaXpmf™rfhath,ntGout' Rheumatism, Palsy, and other Diseases. * See Dr. teddo^Observationson theVMcdhtlanTn^?rerTl°nS °n thef"P™V Vapour Bath. Lond. purpurea, and on the Cure of Scrophula. Lon.lI. 18ol " ■ManaZemcnt °f the Consumptive, on the Digitalis 3 See Vogt's Lehrbuck der Pharmakodynamik, 2er Band S -V) ■ otu a„a n- ,^ . Steinhaeuser (a very intelligent pupil of minel a nativenf i»! <■' G,£ss™- 1S$>—I am indebted to Mr. cowhouses, as a remedial agent in diseased! of 'the £• «In W.,' th?,fol'ow"'g note on residence in commonly recommended as a preventive in suspected niTlmrm.,™ ^erma,,y tlle balsamic air of cow sheds is a confirmed phthisis. Although this latter deaSh £S T' '* 3S a "lea'1S °f Pr°)onginS life in cases have fallen under my own observation, fr whicTthl n In *„? , T """"ence in Saxony, yet several effecting it lias varied according to circumstances in solPll .*reiUmpnt was adopted. The mode of crowded town to a farm-house; in others, the sitting anih»L?™ 1 Patlent nas merely retired from a denres for cows. Of the former, I have known several instanceswh-rTn actual|y 1,ea" converted into resi- by seeping in apartments built over cow-stalls; and th s I shoold c» Pal'cnls have been ereatly benefited the latter, I can only record one case, which is somewhat reniark»hi»y' T? • Ini0Sl Usual Plan adopted. Of Russian exile, resident in the vicinity of Dresden, and vvTknown\hpr,S that °f lhe late Prince Pu,iati- a His young, beautiful, and only daughter, the Counted 1. ** 0n, accou"t of his eccentricities. (phthisis), to which she eventually fell a victim the warm air'nf ™,',? I 5C,ed wilh tnis destructive maladv Cians, as a mode of prolonging her life. The Pr nee ordered the lnwW,'ds ?as recr»nniended by her physi- curiously constructed mansion (Schachwitz) to be convfried into ■ roifc? ?f a Win^ of hi* >na/nificent but sit >ng and sleeping apartments of his daughter were"so arran"ed thLV I l0'' and Ule «'legantly furnished with the cattle, from which she was separafed merely by a low pmit Sn " C WaS aCtUal,y in tl,e same room MOIST HEAT. 63 3. Steam.—Steam {i. e. aqueous vapour heated at least to 212° F.) is some- times employed as a powerful rubefacient and caustic. It contains more specific and latent heat than boiling water, but its conducting power is less. It is applied by a small copper or tin boiler (called an eolipile) furnished with a tubular mouth and stop-cock, and heated by a spirit-lamp. Its action on the body is limited by a perforated piece of pasteboard. If applied sufficiently long, it causes an exten- sive and deep eschar. In this respect, its action is similar to that of boiling water, from which it principally differs in the circumstance of having a much larger quantity of specific heat, and in the greater facility with which we can limit its effects. It greatly resembles moxa, but its action is less readily localized, and the wound which it causes is less manageable. It has been used as a powerful counter-irritant, in diseases of the hip-joint, neuralgic pains, chronic rheumatism, &c. The objections to its employment are the great pain which it causes, and the danger of its effects. b. Water, Hot, but not scalding water, augments the temperature, volume, and redness of living parts, relaxes the tissues, and increases the vital actions. 1. Tepid, Warm, and Hot Baths.—a. The Tepid Bath has a temperature of from 85° to 92° F. It gives rise to a sensation of either heat or cold, according to the temperature of the body at the time of immersion. It cleanses the skin, promotes perspiration, and allays thirst. It is sometimes employed as a preparative to the temperate, cool, or cold bath. When there is a tendency to apoplexy, the simul- taneous immersion in the tepid bath, and affusion of cold water over the head, have been recommended. b. The Warm Bath has a temperature of from 92° to 98^ F.:—that is, about that of the body, or a little below it. In general it causes a sensation of warmth, which is more obvious when the body has been previously cooled. It renders the pulse fuller and more frequent, accelerates respiration, and augments perspi- ration. It causes languor, diminution of muscular power, faintness, and a ten- dency to sleep. As a relaxant, it is employed to assist reduction in dislocations of the larger joints, and in hernia. In the passage of calculi, whether urinary or biliary, it is used with the greatest advantage : it relaxes the ducts, and thereby alleviates the pain, and facilitates the passage of the concretion. In gastritis, enteritis, cystitis, and nephritis, it proves a valuable and powerful agent. In exanthematous diseases, when the eruption has receded from the skin, in chronic cutaneous diseases, rheumatism, amenorrhoea, and dysmenorrhcea, it is highly serviceable. The coxceluvium, or hip-bath, is resorted to in inflammatory or spasmodic affections of the abdominal and pelvic viscera, and in amenorrhoea, and in dys- menorrhcea. It is also sometimes employed as a substitute for the general bath, where some affection of the lungs, heart, or great vessels, prohibits the use of the latter. The bidet is employed in piles, prolapsed rectum, strangury, ischuria, &c. The pediluvium, or foot-bath, is used as a revulsive or counter-irritant in slight colds; to promote the menstrual and hemorrhoidal discharges; and for various topical purposes. The brachiluvium or arm-bath, and manuluvium, or luznd- bath, are principally applied in topical affections of the upper extremities. c. The Hot Bath has a temperature of from 98° to 112° F. It causes a sen- sation of heat, renders the pulse fuller and stronger, accelerates respiration, occa- sions intense redness of the skin, and subsequently copious perspiration; gives rise to violent throbbing, and a sensation of distension of the vessels of the head, with a feeling of suffocation and anxiety. Long immersion may cause apoplexy. Being a powerful excitant, its use requires considerable caution. It is principally employed in paralysis, rheumatism, and some other chronic diseases. The above remarks apply to common or fresh.water baths. But Sea Water, Mineral Waters, and various Medicated Waters, ure employed for general or topical baths. Of the medicated 64 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. water.baths, those in most frequent use arc the nitro-muriatic, the ioduretted. the sa T^ .^ alkaline, and the alkaline sulphuretted. These will be described hereafter, a • eiatinous fusion of bran, and a solution of bichloride of mercury, are used as pediluv a iBi« | aniBial, /t9uufc are employed as nourishing baths. B/oorf, and <» used m France, as a kind of bath against rheumatism, and in Poland against syr hilw. Men and l*. Lens, Diet, de Mat. Med. art. Bain). The husk of the grape, and tejefuse oj'Jke ohv, from which the oil has been drawn, undergo fermental.on, and, in this Bla%^r^ Ma7 S arf employed in Paris against acute rheumatism. (Merat and De Lens, Diet, de Mat. Med. art. a%2 Nvarm Affnsioil.—Warm affusion excites very pleasant sensation, followed by chilliness, and often by pulmonary affections. It has, however, been used in mania. It reduces the frequency of the pulse and of respiration, and occasions a tendency to repose; but its effects are much more temporary than those of the warm bath. (For farther details respecting Affusion, see p. 61.) 3. Warm Fomentations and Poultices.—Warm fomentations are employed to re- lieve inflammation, pain, tension, and spasm. In inflammation of the abdominal and pelvic viscera, and in strangury, they are highly serviceable. My friend and colleague, Mr. Luke, has employed, for several years, warm water as an emol- lient application to burns and scalds, and his account of its effects is as follows :— " After several years' experience in the use of warm water as an application in the first treatment of scalds and burns admitted into the London Hospital, I am enabled to say, that the general result has been very satisfactory. It has, almost in every instance, appeared to soothe and mitigate pain; and, in many instances, to facilitate the recovery of the patient from the great constitutional depression so frequently attendant upon cases of severity. In these respects 1 think it exceeds in value all other means which I have seer/ used. It appears also to me to have exerted a beneficial influence in mitigating the consecutive inflammation, render- ing the after consequences less severe locally, and the reparative procrjs^ more speedy, than under other modes of treatment. The most striking exemplifica- tions of its value have been seen in the treatment of the scalds and burns of young children, and of those cases where the vitality of the skin has not been com- pletely destroyed. The water has generally been used in the form of fomenta- tions; repeatedly changing ihe flannels, and taking care that the surface of the skin was exposed as little as possible. The occasional use of poultices has also been adopted, and with much benefit; although their weight, when large, has rendered them not so convenient as fomentations: they obviate, however, the evil arising from the frequent renewal of the latter, and the consequent mechani- cal irritation. Inability to continue the warm bath, for the requisite length of time, has been the reason for its not being used in these cases." Emollient poultices act as a kind of local bath. They are employed to relieve pain, spasm, and tension, and to promote the termination of inflammation by reso- lution or suppuration. 4. Warm Aqueous Drinks and Injections.—Tepid or warm water is t%ken into tlie stomach to promote vomiting; to dilute the contents of the stomach, in cases of poisoning by acrid substances ; to excite diaphoresis in rheumatism, catarrh, gout, &c.; and to allay troublesome cough, especially when dependent on irritation at the top of the larynx. Warm water is injected into the rectum to excite a!vine evacuations; to promote the hemorrhoidal flux; to diminish irritation in the large intestine, or in some neighbouring organs, as the uterus, bladder, prostate gland, &c.; and to bring on the menstrual secretion. Thrown into the vagina, it is nii^61"' ^^ '" CaP X a"rt 3--Sunderland< ^tte"'Pts to revive Ancient Medical Doctrines, vol. i p. 45. Lond. COLD. 65 used to allay uterine irritation and pain, and to promote the lochial discharge. Injected into tlie bladder, it is sometimes employed to relieve vesical irritation, or to distend the bladder previously to the operation of lithotrity. It has also been injected into tlie urethra to allay pain, irritation, inflammation and spasm. Lastly, Magendie injected warm water into the veins in hydrophobia, but with- out saving the life of the patients. I have repeated the experiment, but without any successful result. The same remedy has been employed by Verniere (Christi- son's Treatise on Poisons, p. 35, 3d ed., 1835.) to distend the venous svstem, and thereby to check or stop absorption in cases of poisoning by those substances (opium, for example,) which operate by getting into the blood. Moreover, warm water is sometimes used as a medium for the introduction of more powerful agents (as emetic tartar) into the circulating system. 5. Boiling Water.—Water at the temperature of 212° F. is a powerful irritant, vesicant, and cautery. Its effects are similar to those of steam before mentioned. It has been applied to the skin as a powerful counter-irritant in maladies of internal organs, and as a speedy vesicant when the object is to introduce medicinal sub- stances (morphia, for example) into the system by the cutis vera. But the ex- cessive pain which it gives rise to, the uncertainty of its ctlccts, and the difficulty of localizing its action, are great and almost insuperable objections to its use. Frigus.—Cold. Physiological Effects.—The general effect of cold on living bodies is a diminu- tion of vital activity ; which terminates, if the cold be intense and its application continued, in death; but, if moderate and temporary, in increased activity of the vital powers, i. e. in reaction. Hence, then, we distinguish two orders of effects:— 1. The direct, primary, or immediate. 2. The indirect, secondary, or mediate. In the warm-blooded animals there are two modes of checking or diminishing their temperature:— 1. The abstraction of caloric, by the application of cold substances to the body. 2. The diminution of the generation of heat within the body, by use of refrigerants or se- datives. The influence of cold is threefold :— 1. Physical; including diminution of volume, of temperature, and of fluidity. 2. Chemical; comprising a diminished tendency to changes of composition, and to decom- position. 3. Dynamical, Physiological, or Vital; comprehending changes in the condition of the vi:.u properties, induced by cold. These changes are of two kinds:— at. Primary; sedation, or a diminution of vital activity. 0. Secondary; reaction. a. On Vegetables.—The effects of cold on plants are greater in proportion to the combined humidity. The first effect is a certain state of languor or torpor manifested in germination, the growth and developement of all the vegetable organs, inflorescence, fecundation, and maturation of the fruit. Cold also favours the dis- articulation of articulated plarrts. Lastly, by an intense frost the aqueous juices freeze,—an effect which is often attended with the death of part or the whole of a plant. (De Candolle, Physiologie Vegetale, t. 3mc, p. 1117. Pans, 1832.) b On Man, and other Animals.—The first effect of diminished temperature is that which we denominate a sensation of cold. Its intensity depends not merely on the actual degree of cold to which the living surface is exposed, but is in pro- portion to the conducting power of the cooling agent, as well as to the previous heat of the living surface. »If, in winter, a person, with bare feet, were to step from the carpet to the wooden floor, from this to the hcarth-stone, and from the stone to the steel-fender, his sensation would deem each of these in succession colder than the preceding. Now the truth being that all had the B,mc n■n.pcrature, only a temperature inferior to that of the living body, the best conductor 66 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. when in contact with the body, would carry off heat the fastest, and would, therefore, be deemed the coldest. (Arnott's Elements of Physics, Phila. ed.) .. . A substance, having a temperature of 60° F., will feel warm to the hand or other living part previously exposed to a temperature of 32° F., but cold to a part which immediately before was exposed to a heat of 96° or 98° F. The sensation of cold is soon followed by a reduction of temperature and a diminution of volume of the part. This last effect is partly physical, partly vital. Of course the solids and fluids of the body, in common with inorganized substances, must have their bulk reduced when their temperature is diminished. But a living part lessens in size from a vital manifestation—viz. the contraction of the living tissues. This contraction, or astriction, is especially manifested in the skin when exposed to a cooling influence. The cutaneous tissue becomes dry and shrivelled, while the bulbs of the hairs become elevated and manifested; constituting the state called goose-skin {cutis anserina.) In muscular tissues, spasmodic contraction results from cold. Moreover, this effect extends by sym- pathy to other muscular parts beyond those to which the cold is applied. The blood-vessels, in common with all other living parts, suffer contraction; and the quantity of blood circulating in them is thereby lessened, while its motion is re- tarded. The secretions and exhalations are checked or stopped ; partly as a con- sequence of the effect on the circulation of the part, partly by the contraction of the secreting and exhaling vessels. If the cold be excessive, or its action pro- longed, the part, after suffering more or less uneasiness, loses its sensibility. This state or torpefaction, or benumbing, when fully established, is denominated frost-bite; and, unless speedily relieved, will be soon followed by the death of lhe part. " I perceived, one day on a journey," says Beaupre, {A Treatise on the Effects and Proper- ties of Cold, p. 132. Translated by Dr. Clendinning, Edinl' 1826.) "that two officers, priso- ners of war, and my companions in misfortune, had the points of their noses of a horn white, the colour of old wax. I warned them, and frictions with snow were sufficient to remove this iirst stage of congelation, which they had not suspected. But what appeared to them very singular was, that, while I gave them advice, I myself needed the same—my nose was in the same condition; sibi non cavere et aliis consiliam dare. From that moment we were on the alert; we kept on our guard; and, that we might not fall victims to a security alike fatal and involuntary, each begged his neighbour, on terms of reciprocal service, to watch over his nose and ears." " After entire cessation of pain, the part remains cold and insensible ; sometimes phlyctenre arise: sometimes the change of colour in the skin, which is livid and blackish, evinces from the commencement that there is mortification." {A Treatise on the Effects and Properties of Cold, p. 132. Translated by Dr. Clendinning, Edinb. 1826.) Such is a sketch of the primary topical action of continued intense cold. When, however, it is either moderate or only temporarily applied, reaction is readily induced. The disagreeable feeling of cold is succeeded by an agreeable sensation of warmth; the natural temperature returns, relaxation takes place, and the parts acquire their usual volume, colour, and sensibility. When the cold to which the part has been exposed is excessive, and the heat subsequently employed to excite reaction be too suddenly applied, inflammation and gangrene ensue. Pernio, or chilblain, is the effect of inflammation caused by cold. That gangrene and death readily result from the sudden application of warmth to a frozen part, was known to Hippocrates, {De usu liquidorum, p. 425, ed. Fsesii.) who states that a man having had his feet frozen, lost them by the application of warm water. The true method of recovering frost-bitten parts consists in very gradually restoring their natural temperature by the use, first, of snow or ice frictions, then of cold water and subse- quently of luke-warm water. Hitherto I have considered the effects of cold used topically: I must now no- tice its effects when employed generally. Temporary exposure to moderately cold air (from 30° to 45° F.) is agreeable and, by the reaction which it establishes, exciting to the young and the vigorous! COLD. 67 The coldness of surface and diminished capillary circulation, which it at first oc- casions, are soon followed by reaction, especially if exercise be conjoined. Per- spiration is checked and urine promoted. A more intense or a longer continued cold causes shivering, goose-skin, determination of blood to internal organs, cold- ness of surface, and a kind of spasmodic stiffness. These effects are much more severely experienced by the old, the debilitated, and the paralytic. When the degree of cold is excessive, or its application too prolonged, it causes torpor, irresistible tendency to sleep, apoplexy, asphyxia, and death. A remarkable and well-known instance of the strong tendency to sleep induced by cold oc- curred in one of Captain Cook's voyages.1 Sir Joseph Banks, Dr. Solander, and some others, landed on Terra del Fucgo, and were overtaken by night on the hills. Dr. Solander warned the party against giving way to sleep. "Whoever sits down," he observed, " will sleep, and whoever sleeps will wake no more." Yet he was the first who experienced this irresistible desire to sleep, and he insisted upon being suffered to lie down. He was, however, dragged along. Neverthe- less, he slept for five minutes, and it was discovered that the muscles of his feet were so con- tracted that his shoes dropped off. In both ancient and modern times, military expeditions have furnished dreadful and notorious illustrations of the disastrous effects of cold on the human frame. The Greeks under the command of Xenophon, {Cyropaidia, lib. iv.) in their retreat from Persia, and on two occasions under the com- mand of Alexander the Great,3 suffe.ed severely from the cold. In more modern times, we have examples of much greater military disasters from cold. In 1719, the Swedes lost, by cold, 5200 out of 7300 men in their retreat from Norway. {Historical Register for 1719, vol. iv. p. 308-310.) In 1742, in the retreat of Prague, 4000 Frenchmen perished from cold and misery in ten days. (Beaupre op. supra cit. p. 96.) The dreadful sufferings of the French army, in 1812, on its return from Moscow, are too well known to need much notice on the present occasion.3 Buonaparte invaded Russia with an army of 400,000 men. He left Moscow with only 120,000; and by the time he arrived at Smolensko, great difficulty was experienced in assembling 40,000 men in fighting order. About 10,000 Frenchmen, and 25,000 auxiliaries, alone remained to return to their native country. The diseases produced by cold are numerous. (See Dr. Clendinning, in the Lond. Med. and Phys. Jour, for June, July, and Sept. 1832.) Chilblains and frost-bites have been already referred to. Pulmonary affections are by far the most common of the internal maladies induced by cold. Scrofula is a disease of cold and moist climates. Rheumatism is another malady brought on by cold and moisture conjoined. Apoplexy and paralysis, especially in the aged, are occa- sioned by cold. {Diet, of Pract. Medicine, art. Cold. By J. Copland, M. D.) In addition to the diseases now mentioned, there are many others the progress of which are more or less promoted by cold. On examining the bodies of persons killed by cold, congestion of the cerebral vessels, and effusion into the ventricles of the brain, (Kellie, Trans, of the Me- dico-chirurgical Society of Edinburgh, vol. i. p. 84.) have always been found. Therapeutical Uses.—We emply cold for the purpose of obtaining its primary, its secondary, or its total effects. (Gallot, Diss. Inaug. De Frigoris Usu Tlie- rapeutico. Berol. 1838.) When our object is to procure the first of these effects, we use a more intense degree of cold, and continue it for a longer period than if we are desirous of obtaining the secondary effects only. The following are the principal purposes for which we use cold :— 1. To lessen preternatural heat; as in ardent fever. 2. To reduce excessive vascular action ; as in inflammation. 3. To allay exalted sensibility and pain ; as in burns. 4. To constringe the living tissues; as when we apply cold to arrest hemorrhage, to relieve congestion, to check profuse exhalation or secretion, to counteract relaxation, and to reduce the volume of enlarged or displaced parts. 5. To make a sudden and powerful impression on the nervous system; as when we use aspersion of cold water to relieve syncope, and immersion in cold water to allay spasm. i ilawlu'sworth's Account of the Voyages for making Discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere, vol. ii. p. 46. a Pratt's Translation of Quintus Curtius's History of Alexander the Great, vol. ii. pp. 157 and 233. Re- vised fid. 1821. 3 Count Scgur's History of the Expedition to Russia, undertaken by the Emperor JVapoleon in 1812. Lond. 1825.—Beaupre, op supra cit. p. 93.—Sir H. Halford, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xix. p. 903. 68 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. 6. To strengthen or give lone to a part or. the whole of the body; as in the ordinary hygienic uses of the cold plunge-bath and the cold shower-bath. As cold is thus adapted to produce several objects, so it frequently happens in practice that it is employed to fulfil, simultaneously, several indications. a. Coo 1 Air. In febrile diseases, accompanied with preternatural heat, exposure to mode- rately cool air (from 50° to 60° F.) is both grateful and efficacious. It dimi- nishes the temperature of the body, and reduces excessive vascular action. In the admission of fresh and cool air to patients affected with febrile disorders, consists one of the most important features of the modern improved methods of treating fevers. b. Cold Water. 1. Cold, Cool, and Temperate Baths—a. Cold Bath. The temperature of this ranges from 33° to about 60° F. When below 50° F., the bath is considered very cold. Its primary effects constitute the shock,—its secondary effects, the reaction or glow. The sudden abstraction of heat from the surface of the body, and the pressure of the water, produce a powerful effect on the system : a sensation of cold (speedi- ly followed by one of warmth), contraction.of the cutaneous vessels, paleness of the skin, diminution of perspiration, and reduction of the volume of the body, are the immediate effects. Shivering, and, as the water rises to the chest, a kind of con- vulsive sobbing, are also experienced. Continued immersion renders the pulse small, and, ultimately, imperceptible, and the respiration difficult and irregular; a feeling of inactivity succeeds; the joints become rigid and inflexible ; pain in the head, drowsiness, and cramps, are experienced ; the temperature of the body falls rapidly ; and faintness, followed by death, comes on. Many of these symp- toms are readily accounted for : the contracted state of the superficial vessels pro- duced by the cold, and the pressure of the water, together cause the blood to accu- mulate in the internal vessels. The palpitations arise from the efforts made by the heart to rid itself of the increased quantity of blood thrown on it; but the pulse continues small, because the arteries remain contracted. The internal veins becoming gorged, the functions of the brain necessarily suffer:—and hence arise headache, drowsiness, cramps, and, in some cases, apoplexy. The difficult respi- ration depends on the accumulation of blood in the lungs. The contracted state of the superficial vessels accounts for the diminished perspiration; while the in- creased secretion of urine is referrible to the blood being driven towards the inter- nal organs. In general, the immersion being only temporary, reaction quickly takes place; a sensation of warmth soon returns; the cutaneous circulation is speedily re-esta- blished ; a glow is felt; perspiration comes on ; the pulse becomes full and fre- quent ; and the body feels invigorated. In weakly and debilitated subjects, how- ever, this stage of reaction may rot occur, or at least may be imperfectly effected ; and usually, in such cases, the cold bath will be found to act injuriously. The cold bath is employed with the view of obtaining the nervous impression or shock,—the refrigeration,—or the reaction or glow. {Cyclopcedia of Practical Medicine, art. Bathing, by Dr. J. Forbes, Am. Ed.) It is evident that it ouo-ht not to be applied unless there be a sufficient degree of tone and vigour in the system to cause a perfect state of reaction ; and, therefore, in weak subjects, its use should be prohibited. So, also, in visceral inflammation, more especially peripneumo- nia, it is a dangerous remedy; since the determination of blood to the internal organs is increased by the cold, and it seems even within the rano-e of probability that death might be the immediate result. Apoplectic subjects, who are unaccus- tomed to cold bathing, had also, for a similar reason, better avoid tryino-it In some affections of the nervous system it has been found highly useful • for examole in tetanus and insanity. In many cases, where it is desirable to increase the COLD WATER. 69 tone and vigour of the body, and where the before-mentioned objections do not exist, the cold bath may be used advantageously. It is a common opinion that immersion in cold water is dangerous when the body is heated by exercise, or other exertion; and hence it is customary with bathers to wait until they become cool. Dr. Currie1 has strongly combated both the opinion and the practice: the first, he says, is erroneous, the second injurious. b. The Cool Bath (whose temperature is from 60° to about 75°) is analogous in its operation to the cold bath, but is less powerful. It is commonly used as a luxury, and for cleanliness; but it may be employed, therapeutically, in the same diseases as the cold bath, where we are in' doubt as to the power of the patient's constitution to establish full reaction, after the cold bath. It is frequently resorted to as a preparative to the cold bath. c. The Temperate Bath ranges from 75° to 85° F. Its effects and uses are similar to the cool bath. 2. Affusion {Perfusio ; Kcw-a^utfis). Affusion was employed, as a hygienic agent and luxury, by the Greeks and Orientalists, at a very early period. Homer {Odyssey, x. 362,) makes some allusions to it; Hippocrates {Aphorismi, sect. v. aph.21 ; and sect. vii. aph. 42.) used it in medicine; and Celsus (Lib. i. cap. 4.) recommends it in some affections of the head. The last-mentioned writer also states, that Cleophantus (a physician who lived about 300 years before Christ) employed hot affusion in intermittents. (Lib. iii. cap. 14.) The affusion on the head is thus effected :—The water is to be poured on the head (inclined over a pan or tub), by means of an ewer or pitcher, from a height of two or three feet. If the patient be confined to his couch, the head should be inclined over the side of the bed. In children, it is sufficient to squeeze a large sponge (previously soaked in water) at some height above the head, as recom- mended by Dr. Copland. {London Medical Gazette, vol. x.) When the object is to apply affusion to the whole body, the patient is placed in a large tub or pan {e. g. a bathing tub or washing pan), and then an attendant, standing on a chair, may readily effect it. The time that the affusion should be continued varies, according to circumstances, from a quarter of a minute to two or three minutes; but in some cases it has been employed for twenty minutes. After the affusion, the body should be carefully wiped dry, the patient wrapped up warm, and placed in bed. The effects of affusion depend partly on the temperature of the liquid, and partly also on the sudden and violent shock given to the system by the mechani- cal impulse; hence the reason why the effects vary, according to the height from which the water is poured. a. Cold Affusion.—When water whose temperature is between 32° and 60° F. is used, we denominate the affusion cold. To a certain extent the effect of cold affusion is analogous to that of the cold bath, but modified by two circumstances, namely, the short period during which the cold is applied, and the mechanical influence of the stream : hence, its primary effects are very transient, and reaction speedily follows. By a long continuance of affusion, however, the heat of the body is considerably reduced, and the same diminution of vital action occurs as when the cold bath is employed. The sensation of cold, the constriction of the skin, and the contraction of the superficial vessels, first experienced in the part to which the water is applied, are very speedily communicated to the rest of the system by sympathy; and the effects are perceived in the nervous, vascular, secreting, and cutaneous systems. The temperature of the whole body falls, the pulse is reduced in fulness and frequency, the respiration becomes irregular, con- vulsive shiverings take place, faintness, and, in fact, all the previously described effects of the cold bath are produced. During this condition the excretions are suspended. " When," says Dr. Copland, " the stream of water is considerable, iMcdical Reports on the effects of Water, cold and warm, as a Remedy in Fever and other Diseases, vol. i. p. 112. 70 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. and falls from some height upon the head, the effect on the nervous system is often very remarkable, and approaches more nearly than any other phenomenon with which I am acquainted, to electro-motive or galvanic agency." After affusion, reaction is soon set up, the heat of the body is re-established, the pulse becomes full and regular, though sometimes reduced in frequency, the thirst is diminished, and frequently perspiration and tendency to sleep are observed. Cold affusion is used principally in those cases where it is considered desirable to make a powerful and sudden impression on the system : for as a mere cooling agent it is inferior to some other modes of applying water. It is objectionable in visceral inflammation, on account of the determination of blood which it produces to the internal parts. It has been employed with great benefit in fevers, both con- tinued and intermittent. Ifmay be used with safety, according to Dr. Currie {Op. supra cit.) and others, " when there is no sense of chilliness present, when the heat of the surface is steadily above what is natural, and when there is no general or profuse perspiration." It is inadmissible during either the cold or the sweating stage of fever, as also in the hot stage, when the heat is not greater than ordinary. In some instances it seems to act by the shock it communicates to the system ; for the effect is almost immediate, the disease being at once cut short. The pa- tient has fallen asleep immediately afterwards, profuse perspiration has succeeded, and from that time recovery commenced. This plan of extinguishing a fever, however, frequently fails; and in that event the patient may be in a worse con- dition: hence the practice is not often adopted. I think the cases best adapted for the use of cold affusion are those in which there is great cerebral disorder,— either violent delirium or a soporose condition. My friend, Dr. Clutterbuck, {Inquiry into the Seat and Nature of Fever, 2d ed. p. 451.) says he has seen pulmonic inflammation and rheumatism brought on by cold affusion in typhus ; but he adds, " I have not, in general, observed that the situation of the patient was rendered materially worse by the combination." In the exanthemata, cold affusion has been applied during the fever which pre- cedes the eruption, as also after this has been established ; it has been used in scarlet fever, and also in small-pox; likewise in measles ; but its employment in the latter disease is objectionable, on account of the tendency to pulmonary inflam- mation, in which affection cold affusion is prejudicial. Croup is another disease in which cold affusion has been used with advantage, principally with the view of removing the spasm of the glottis, which endangers the life of the patient. In inflammatory affections of the brain, especially of children, after proper evacuations have been made, it is useful. In many cases of narcotic poisoning, cold affusion is of the greatest service; as in poisoning by hydrocyanic acid, and in asphyxia caused by the inhalation of carbonic acid ; so also in poisoning by opium, belladonna, and other narcotic substances; in intoxication ; {Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. ix. p. 502.*) in asphyxia from the inhalation of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, or of the vapours of burning charcoal, it is most advantageous. In hysteria and epilepsy it is oftentimes serviceable: it diminishes the duration of the parox- ysms, and relieves the comatose symptoms. In puerperal convulsions, Dr. Cop- land relies on cold affusion and bloodletting. In mania it is oftentimes service- able ; as also in tetanus. In malignant cholera it sometimes proved valuable ■ {Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. ix. pp. 452, 502, and 505.) principally, however, in mild cases. In severe attacks the power of reaction was insufficient. b. Cool affusion has been employed instead of the cold ; and in weak irritable subjects it is always preferable. Dr. Currie regards it as a milder form of the cold affusion, as a preparatory means to which it is sometimes used. It has been applied in febrile diseases and paralysis. c. Tepid affusion—The affusion of tepid water is frequently resorted to as substitute for that of cold water, where great dread is entertained of the latter COLD WATER. 71 agent, or where there is doubt as to the production ofa perfect reaction after the application of cold water, or where there is some pulmonary disease. It may be regarded as a safer, though less powerful means. Thus it is very useful in febrile complaints, especially of children. It is very beneficial in scarlet fever, as I have seen on several occasions. Dr. Currie thinks that it reduces the temperature more than cold affusion ; first, because the evaporation is greater ; secondly, because it does not excite that reaction by which heat is evolved. It diminishes the fre- quency of the pulse and of respiration, and causes a tendency to sleep. The same writer tells us that he has not found its effects so permanent as those of the cold affusion ; and that he never saw it followed by the total cessation of regular fever. In other words, it produces a much less powerful shock to the system, and, there- fore, is less influential over disease. In hectic fever, however, the paroxysm is sometimes completely extinguished by the affusion of tepid water at the commence- ment of the hot stage. Warm affusion has been already noticed. (See p. 64.) 3. The Shower-Bath {Impluvium.)—The shower-bath is very similar in its ef- fects to, but milder than, affusion. It is frequently employed as a hygienic agent. In insanity it is used with the greatest benefit to allay mental excitement. In violent cases, "the application of the shower-bath, the patient being up to the mid- dle in warm water, seldom fails to subdue the paroxysms." (Dr. Conolly's Re- port, before quoted, p 74.) The period during which it should be continued is a circumstance of some moment. Dr. Conolly observes that it " should be suspend- ed when the patient appears overcome, and instantly renewed when symptoms of violence recur. A strong shower continued even for a minute, has sometimes considerable effect;" and it should never be " many minutes prolonged without careful observation of the patient's state. After four or five applications of this kind, the patient becomes entirely subdued, and should then be taken out of the bath, rapidly dried, warmly covered up, and put into bed ; with every possible demonstration of kind attention. Calmness and sleep are the usual results; and more permanent effects frequently follow. A bath of this kind appears to pro- duce a moral as well as a physical impression ; being succeeded, in recent cases, by tranquillity for a few days, and in chronic cases by quietness and improved be- haviour for many weeks, and sometimes even for months." The shower-bath is sometimes a valuable substitute for the cold bath or cold affusion, than which it is less likely to occasion cramp or other disorder of the nervous system. Tepid or even warm water may be used where^we wish to re- duce the violence of the shock. An extemporaneous shower-bath may be produced by the aid ofa cullender. It may be used to allay the violent delirium of fever ; and is rendered more beneficial if the patient can be persuaded to sit in a semicupium of warm water. (Dr. Len- drick, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. ii. N. S. p. 104.) 4. The Douche {Duccia.) The term Douche is applied to a column or current of fluid directed to, or made to fall on, some part of the body. It is uncertain at what time it came into use. Cselius Aurelianus {Morbor. Chronicor. lib. ii. cap. 1.) has been supposed by some to refer to it in the following passage:—" Item aquarum ruinis partes in passione constitute sunt subjicienda?, quas Grceci xaraxXutf/j.ouff appellant, plurimum etenim earum percussiones corporum, faciunt mutationem." The fluid employed is either water or aqueous vapour : hence we have the liquid douche and the vapour douche. According to the direction in which the fluid is applied, we have the descending, the lateral, and the ascending douche. The effect of the liquid douche depends in part on mechanical action or per- cussion, which, by continuance, excites topical pain and inflammation ; and in part on the temperature of the liquid. The local excitement more speedily occurs from hot than cold water; indeed the long continued action of a stream of cold 72 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. . water may act as a sedative, and cause the primary effects of cold before de- scribed. The effect of the douche is not wholly local, since the neighbouring parts, and even the whole animal economy, soon become affected. A column of water twelve feet high, made to fall perpendicularly on the top of the head, ex- cites such a painful sensation, that, it is said, the most furious maniacs, who have once tried it, may sometimes be awed merely by the threat of its application ; and hence one of its uses in madness, as a means of controlling the unfortunate patient. " At this moment a controversy is proceeding among certain French phy- sicians concerning the application of the douche; which some are disposed to use as a specific against delusive notions. The patient is kept under the douche until he entirely recants. The principle is extremely doubtful; and it should be re- membered of every severe application, that lunatics are seldom able to make their real sufferings distinctly known. M. Esquirol subjected himself to the douche; and he describes the sensation as very painful; resembling the continued breaking ofa column of ice on the head, followed by a feeling of stupefaction, which lasted an hour afterward." (Dr. Conolly's Report, before cited, p. 68.) Probably all the good effects of the douche may be obtained by the shower-bath, the application of which is much less distressing to the patient. The cold douche is applicable to some cases of local diseases requiring a pow- erful stimulus ; as old chronic affections of the joints, whether rheumatic, gouty, or otherwise;1 paralytic affections; sciatica; old glandular swellings; chronic headache ; deafness, &c. Dr. Butzke, {London Medical Gazette, N. S. for 1839, 1840, vol. i. p. 893.) has recently employed it with good effect in old ulcers of the feet. In some of the preceding cases a warm, is used instead of the cold, douche. The operation of pumping practised at Bath, may be regarded as a kind of douche, and is used in the same cases. The degree or extent of the application is determined by the number of times the handle of the pump is raised or de- pressed. From 20 to 200 strokes of the pump is the number generally directed to be taken at one time, which, however, may be increased or diminished accord- ing to the age, sex, strength, or other circumstances of the patient.3 The water does not issue in gushes, but in a continuous stream. 5. lavation, Washing, or Sponging.—Cold, cool, or tepid washing or sponging, may be used in febrile diseases, with great advantage, in many cases, where affu- sion is not admissible, or where timidity on the part of the patient or practitioner prevents the employment of the latter. (Dr. Currie, Reports, vol. i. p. 72, 4th ed.) remarks, that in all cases of fever where the burning heat of the palms of the hands and soles of the feet is present, this method of cooling them should be re- sorted to. A little vinegar is frequently mixed with the water, to make the effect more refreshing. Washing or sponging must be effected under precisely the same regulations as those already laid down for affusion. 6. Cold Lotions.—Aqueous and spirituous liquors are employed as lotions to generate cold by evaporation, and thereby to relieve local irritation and inflamma- tion. They should be applied by means ofa single layer of thin muslin or linen, and not by compress. The cold is considerably increased by blowing on the part. Evaporating lotions are applied to the head with great relief in cephalalgia, phrenitis, fever with disorder of the cerebral faculties, and poisoning by opium. In ophthalmia, fractures of the bones of the extremities, severe bruises, and ery- sipelatous inflammation, cold lotions are used with benefit. Dr. Kinglake, {A Dissertation on tlie Gout. Lond. 1804.—Additional Cases of Gout. Lond. 1807.) recommended the application of cold water to parts affected with gout, but the practice is somewhat hazardous. One method of treating burns is by the appli- cation of cold water to the injured part. In modern times, Sir James Earle 3 i See some observations of Lisfranc on the use of the Douche in White Swelling in the Lancet vol ii 1834-5. p. 337. ' '' "■ » A Practical Dissertation on the Medicinal Effects of the Bath Waters, by William Falconer M. D. 17C0 ' An Essay on the means of lessening the Effects of Fire on the Human Body. Lond. 1799. ICE AND SNOW. 73 was the great advocate for this plan, which proves more successful in scalds and slight burns. The burnt part should be covered with rags, and kept constantly wetted with water, in which ice is placed from time to time; "care being taken never to remove the rags from the burnt surface."1 If the cold fluid be continually renewed, the practice has been called irriga- tion. (Macartney, Treatise on Inflammation, p. 158. London, 1839.) It is effected either by allowing cold water to drop on the affected part, from a stopcock inserted in the side ofa bucket of water, or by conducting a stream of water from a vessel by means ofa strip of cloth, on the principle of a syphon. 7. Cold Drinks.—Hippocrates, {De usu liquidorum.) Celsus, (Lib. iii. cap. 7.) and other ancient writers, employed cold water as a drink in ardent fever. In modern times also it has been extensively used in the same malady. Dr. Han- cocke2 called it ihe febrifugum magnum. Its employment, however, has not been limited to fever. From its supposed great efficacy in gouty complaints, Heyden3 termed it the arthritifugum magnum. Within the last ten years, thir- teen or fourteen establishments have been set up in Germany, for the cure of dis- eases by cold water. This mode of treatment is denominated Wasserheilkunst,. or Wasserkur (Water-cure.4) We are indebted to Dr. Currie for the examination of the circumstances under which the employment of cold water in fever is proper. According to him, it is inadmissible during the cold or sweating stage, but may be employed with safety and advantage when the skin is dry and burning : in other words, the regulations for its administration are precisely the same as for cold affusion. When exhibited under proper circumstances, it operates as a real refrigerant, reducing preternatu- ral heat, lowering the pulse, and disposing to sweating. Occasionally, however, serious and even fatal consequences have resulted from the employment of large quantities of cold water by persons who have been rendered warm by exercise and fatigue. Besides fever, there are several other affections in which cold water is a use- ful remedy. For example, to facilitate recovery from epilepsy, hysteria, and fainting; and to alleviate gastric pain and spasm. Large draughts of cold water have sometimes caused the expulsion of intestinal worms, (Tcenia and Ascaris vermicularis.) 8. Cold Injections.—a. Cold water is thrown into the rectum to check hemor- rhage, to expel worms, to allay local pain, to rouse the patient in poisoning by opium, to stop hemorrhage, and to diminish vascular action in enteritis. b. Dr. A. T. Thomson6 speaks very favourably of the effects of cold water in- troduced into the vagina, by means of the stomach-pump, in uterine hemorrhage. 3. Ice and Snow. The temperature of these agents does not exceed 32° F. They are employed both internally and externally. 1. Employed externally.—The topical effects (primary and secondary) of cold agents have been already described. (See page 66.) Ice, snow, and ice-cold water, are employed externally to obtain sometimes the primary, at other times the secondary, effects of cold. a. For the Primary Effects.—Ice is used to check hemorrhage, more espe- cially when the bleeding vessel cannot be easily got at and tied. Thus, after operations about the rectum, (more especially for piles and fistulse,) bleeding sometimes occurs to a most alarming extent; and, in such cases, our principal reliance must be on cold. In two instances that have fallen under my own 1 Two Lectures on the Primary and Secondary Treatment of Burns, by H. Earle. Lond. J832. a Febrifugum magnum; or Common Water the best cure for Fevers, and probably for the Plague. 5th ed. ond. 1723. 3 Arthritifugum Magnum ; A Physical Discourse on the Wonderful Virtues of Cold Water. Lond. 1724. 4 I must refer llio reader to the article Aqua, for a short notice of this mode of treatment. 6 Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics; vol. ii. p. 7d. Lond. 1833. VOL. I. 7 74 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. observation, I believe the lives of the patients were preserved by the introduction of ice within the rectum. In many other cases of hemorrhage, the external application of cold (either in the form of ice or ice-cold water) is exceedingly useful. Thus, applied to the chest in dangerous hemoptysis, and to the abdomen in violent floodings, it is oftentimes very beneficial. In some of these cases, especially in uterine hemorrhage, more benefit is obtained by pouring cold water from a height, {cold affusion or douche) than by the mere use of ice. A bladder, containing pounded ice, has been applied to hernial tumours, to diminish their size and facilitate their reduction ; but notwithstanding that the practice has the sanction and recommendation of Sir Astley Cooper,1 it is, 1 believe, rarely followed, not having been found successful; while, if too long continued, it may cause'gangrene. In this, as well as in other cases, where ice or snow cannot be procured, a freezing mixture may be substituted. For this purpose, five ounces of muriate of ammonia, five ounces of nitre, and a pint of water, are to be placed in a bladder, and applied to the part. Ice has also been applied in prolapsus of the rectum or vagina, when inflammation has come on, which threatens to terminate in mortification. In inflammation of the brain, the ice-cap {i. e. a bladder containing pounded ice) is applied to the head with great benefit. In fever, also, where there is great cerebral excitement, with a hot dry skin, I have seen it advantageously employed. In apoplexy, likewise, it might be useful; as also in mania, with great mental excitement. In the retention of urine, to which old persons are liable, ice-cold water applied to the hypogastrium is sometimes very effective, causing the evacuation of this secretion. b. For the. Secondary Effects.—Friction with ice or sno,w is employed to pro- duce the secondary effects of cold in diminished sensibility of the skin, and in the rheumatism or gout of old and enfeebled persons; but its most common use is as an application to frost-bitten parts. The feet, hands, tip of the nose, and pinna of the ear, are the organs most frequently attacked. In order to guard against mortification, and other ill effects arising from a too rapid change of tem- perature, the vital properties must be slowly and gradually recalled. In order to effect this, the frost-bitten part should be rubbed with snow or pounded ice, or bathed in ice-cold water, very gradually raising the temperature of the applica- tions until the part acquires its natural heat. 2. Employed internally.—When ice or ice-cold water is swallowed, the sensation of cold which it produces is neither so acute as that occasioned by the application of ice to the skin, nor so prolonged. For the sensibility of the alimentary tube is less than that of the external integument, while its temperature is higher ; so that the ice is sooner melted, and the liquid quickly raised to the temperature of trie body. But when swallowed in considerable quantity, the effects of ice are of the same kind as those already described for cold generally. A sensation of cold at the epigastrium is experienced, and sometimes shivering occurs. The pulse is diminished in frequency. Temporary contraction of the alimentary canal, and diminution of irritability and secretion, are produced. When ice is taken in small quantity only, these primary effects are very slight or scarcely noticed, and the stage of reaction quickly succeeds. A feeling of warmth follows that of cold at the epigastrium, and quickly extends over the whole body ; the circulation is somewhat accelerated; and the secretions of the alimentary canal, of the kid- neys, and of the skin, are promoted. U the reaction be excessive, o-astric inflammation may be induced. Ice, or ice-cold water, is swallowed for the purpose of obtaininc either the primary or secondary effects of cold. Thus it is taken to cause contraction of the gastric vessels, and thereby to check or stop sanguineous exhalation from the mucous membrane of the stomach. It has also been found beneficial in nasal 1 The Anatomy and Surgical Treatment of Inguinal and Congenital Hernia, p. 25. Lond 1804 ELECTRICITY. 75 bronchial, and uterine hemorrhage. In the latter cases, the constriction of the bleeding vessels must be effected through sympathetic relations which exist be- tween the stomach and other organs. Ice is also employed to relieve cardialgia, vomiting, and spasmodic pain of the stomach. In the latter stage of typhus fever, the internal use of ice is sometimes beneficial. 3. Elkctricitas.—Electricity. Physiologists1 have long suspected that electricity was the cause of some vital phenomena; and various circumstances lend support to this notion. Among these may be mentioned the extensive agency of this, force in the production of the physical and chemical phenomena of the external world;—its well-known remarkable influence on the animal economy; and, lastly, its developement by some fishes, as the Torpedo vulgaris and Gymnotus electricus. Hitherto, however, no one has succeeded in establishing the identity of electricity and the cause of vital phenomena. . Electricity may be obtained from various sources; but the quantity and condi- tion of this agent, as procured by different methods, are by no means uniform. The common electric machine yields, by the friction of its glass cylinder or plate on the rubber, a small quantity of electricity, whose tension or elasticity is great, and which, therefore, is capable of exerting attractive and repulsive forces not merely at sensible, but at considerable distances. We denominate this, friction, ordinary, common, or Franklinic electricity. The electricity procured from the atmosphere, by the cleavage of crystals, and by pressure, is of the same kind. By chemical action, however, we put in motion an immense quantity of electricity, whose tension is very low, and we distinguish it by the name of Voltaic electricity or Galvanism. The electricity obtained by a magneto-electric machine is of the latter kind. Fig. 2. Electrical Apparatus for Medical Purposes. FRICTION electricity. a. Cylinder Machine. b. Medical Electrometer. c. Insulating Stool. d d. Leyden Jars. e e e. Insulated Directors. /. Discharging Rod. g. Glass Tube, traversed by a wire, which terminates at one end by a loop, at the other by a brass ball. VOLTAIC ELECTRICITV. h. Cruickshank's Wooden Trough. i i. Directors, each consisting ofa glass tube traversed by a wire, an extremity of which is connected with one end of the trough, while the other extremity is sur- mounted by sponge or flannel moistened with salt and water. MAGNETIC ELECTRICITY. k. Clarke's Magneto-electric Machine. I. Directors. 1 Mr. Abernelhy, {Inquiry into the Probability and Rationality of Mr. Hunter s Theory of Life, Lond. 1814,) electiicity of low tension ; and the accuracy of this opinion Dr. Wilson I the Laws of the Vital Functions) has endeavoured to prove experimentally. 76 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. a- Friction Electricity. (Common or Franklinic Electricity.) The apparatus requisite for the medical application of friction electricity, con- sists of the following instruments:— 1. A cylindrical or a plate machine. If a cylinder, the diameter should be at least from 8 to 14 inches; if a plate, from 18 to 24 inches. The amalgam used for the rubber is composed of one part tin, two parts zinc, and six parls mercury. # 2. A medical electrometer, to regulate the force of the spark or shock. 3. One or two Leyden jars. 4. An insulating stool or chair. 5. A discharging rod. 6. Two or three insulated directors. The brass ball which surmounts each director may be occasionally unscrewed and removed, and a point brought into view. ^ 7. Flexible metallic wire or chain. A brass chain is generally employed; but the spiral brass wire employed for braces is more convenient: it may be enclosed by a silk riband. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.— It is a popular opinion, per- haps founded in fact, that atmospheric electricity promotes vegetation; but the arguments adduced to prove it are somewhat vague. It is said that those years in which the greatest number of thunder-storms occur, are the most productive; and that hops, barley, wheat, vines, &c, shoot up much more rapidly after a storm. These statements may, however, be true, without the inference which has been drawn from them being correct. Mushrooms form, it has been said, an exception to this statement; their growth being retarded by electricity. (De Candolle, Physiol. Veg. t. iii. p. 1091.) Some electricians have affirmed that artificial electricity promotes the germination of seeds as well as the growth and green colour of plants ; but the accuracy of the statement is exceedingly doubtful. De Candolle says he has observed transpiration increased by it. The move- ments of the sensitive plant and of the stamina of the barberry may be excited by electricity. b. On man and other animals.—The effects of electricity on animals vary according to the mode of applying it; and hence they may be conveniently de- scribed under five heads :— 1. The Electric Bath.—In this mode of employing electricity the patient is placed on the insulating stool, (or chair,) and in connexion with the prime con- ductor of the machine. The whole surface of the body becomes electro-positive, while the air which surrounds the body is, by induction, rendered electro-negative. The positive electricity is constantly and silently discharged from all pointed parts of the surface, as from the hairs, fingers, &c. In a darkened room the discharge is seen to be attended with the evolution of light. The effect of the electric bath does not appear to be uniform on different individuals. In some the pulse is at first quickened, in others it is unchanged; while in some it is, after ten or fifteen minutes, reduced in frequency.1 These different effects are, undoubtedly, in part referrible to the influence of mental emotion. Copious perspiration sometimes breaks out while the patient is on the insulating stool. 2. Electric Aura.—This is produced by the action of a current of electrified air on the skin. It is applied by means of an insulated pointed director, con- nected with the prime conductor by a wire or chain ; its point being turned to the part intended to be electrified. In this way a current or breeze of highly excited air is directed towards the part. Or the aura may be drawn from the of electricity being the cause of vital phenomena to a most extravagant length (see Miiller* Elem of Phvs trans, by Raly, vol. i. p. 73). That the active principle of the nerves is electricity, has long been n favourite opinion. Though many objections have been raised to it, (see Miiller, op. supra cit. pp. ?2 and (i33 ) vet it has recently received additional support from Prof. Zantedeschi and Favio {Lond. Edin. and Dubl Phil Mag. for April, IrMl), who assert, that independent of common electrochemical and thermo-electric currents there exist in animals two electro-vital or neuro-electric currents—one external or cutaneous movinc from the extremities to the cerebro spinal axis; the other internal, going from the cerebrospinal axis to the in ternal organs situated beneath the skin. Pain, it is said, weakens or suspends the current while the vo" luntary or convulsive automatic movements give a very strong current, which may be named discharge of current. ' " 1 See Mr. Smiths experiments in Dr. Hodgkin's Translation of Edwards' work, On the Influence of Physical Agents on Life, p. 335. Lond. J 632. J J FRICTION ELECTRICITY. 77 patient while placed on the insulating stool, by means of an uninsulated metallic point. The electric aura operates as a mild stimulant, and is occasionally used when we are desirous of electrifying delicate parts—as the eye, ulcers, excoriated surfaces, the testicles, &c. 3. The Electric Spark.—This is one form of the disruptive discharge. It may be communicated by presenting to the part to be electrified, the ball or knob of an insulated director connected with the prime conductor. Or it may be drawn from the patient by placing him on the insulating stool, (or chair,) and bringing the knuckle or the ball of an uninsulated director near him. The opposed surfaces, between which the spark passes, are in oppositely electrified conditions. The nearer they are together, and the smaller the ball, the weaker is the force of the spark. A succession of very small sparks is obtained by sub- stituting a wooden point for the metallic ball. The spark occasions a sharp, painful, pungent sensation, redness, and some- times a small circumscribed spot or wheal, which, however, in general quickly disappears. For internal parts, as the bottom of the meatus auditorius externus, a glass tube is used to insulate the conducting wire, the end of which terminates hi a very small knob, contained within, or placed at the end of, the tube. {Fig. 2,g.) A favourite mode of employing electric sparks is to draw them through flannel, as recommended by Cavallo, {Complete Treatise on Electricity, vol. ii. p. 136, 3d ed. Lond. 1786.) and since practised with great success by vr.j friend, Mr. Charles Woodward. This method is called by some electricians electric friction. The patient being placed on the insulating stool, takes hold of the chain communicating with the prime conductor, by the hand opposite to the side to be electrified. Over the naked part is then placed a piece of flannel, and, the machine being turned, the operator places the knob of an uninsulated director in close contact with the flannel, and moves it steadily but rapidly so as to draw a vast number of very small sparks. Mr. Woodward says it is essential, for the success of the practice, that the motion of the ball should be down the part affected; that is, in the direction of the ramifications of tne nerves. The opera- tion is to be continued for twenty or thirty minutes. It excites an agreeable warmth, but no very disagreeable sensations. When an uneven surface (as of the face and hands) is to be electrified, the ball of the director should be covered with flannel. 4. Tlie Electric Shock___This is a violent effect of the disruptive discharge, and is thus effected. Charge a Leyden jar: then connect its outside by a chain or wire with the ball of an insulated director, which is applied to one extremity of the part through which the electricity*is intended to pass. The knob of the jar is then applied to the other extremity of the part, and the discharge instan- taneously takes place. The force or the strength of the charge is graduated by interposing in the cir- cuit a medical electrometer, which is employed thus:—Place the Leyden jar so that its interior may be in communication with the prime conductor, while its exterior is connected with the patient by a chain and insulated director. One of the knobs of the electrometer is then put in communication with the opposite side of the patient by a second chain and director. If the machine be now turned, the jar charges, and, when the tension is sufficiently high, a spark passes from the prime conductor to the ball of the electrometer, and the discharge takes place, the patient experiencing the shock. To increase or diminish the force or strength of the shock, we augment or lessen the space between the prime con- ductor and the ball of the electrometer. Sometimes a coated glass tube is substituted for the Leyden phial in the above arrangement, the medical electrometer being employed. The patient then receives a rapid succession of slight shocks, constituting what some electricians denominate electrical vibration. 7* 78 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. When a portion of the body makes part of the circuit through which the dis- charge of a Leyden phial is effected, a sudden, instantaneous, and painful sensa- tion is produced, which is denominated the shock. If the charge be passed through the arms, the effects are principally experienced in the wrists, elbows, and across the breast. "If the charge is passed through the spine, it produces a degree of incapacity in the lower extremities; so that if a person be standing at the time, he sometimes drops on his knees, or falls prostrate on the floor. (Singer, Elements of Electricity, p. 296. Lond. 1814.) If the diaphragm form part of the circuit, it is immediately thrown into a temporary state of contraction. Mr. Singer " once accidentally received a considerable charge from a battery through the head ; the sensation was that of a violent but universal blow, followed by a transient loss of memory and indistinctness of vision, but no permanent injury ensued." If a strong charge of a battery be passed through the head of a rabbit, temporary blindness or death ensues. In persons killed by lightning, red streaks are frequently observed on the skin. It is said that marks are often observed indicating the passage of the electric fluid along the spine. The blood is usually fluid, and the muscles flaccid; though occasionally rigidity of muscles has been found. The greater or less violence of the shock depends not on the quantity merely, but on the intensity of the charge. Thus a small jar highly charged will pro- duce a greater effect than a large battery feebly charged. But of course if the intensities be equal, the greatest shock is perceived when the largest quantity is employed. 5. The Electric Current.—To cause a current to pass through a patient to the .ground, connect some part of the body directly, or indirectly by a chain or wire, ■with the prime conductor of the machine ; the patient standing on the ground. By this means the current passes into the body at the point of connexion, and escapes by the feet. Its effects are exceedingly slight, and scarcely, if at all, obvious. • Uses.—The uses of electricity are partly rational, partly empirical. When the indications are to excite a nerve of sensation or of motion, or to produce a temporary contraction of muscles, or to promote transpiration and secretion, its employment may be regarded as rational. But it is used, sometimes benefi- cially, in several diseases in which these indications are by no means obvious. In such, its methodus medendi is unknown, and its use may be regarded as em- pirical. 1. To stimulate the nerves of sensation.—In nervous deafness electricity is sometimes employed. Sparks are thrown on, or drawn from, the mastoid pro- cess, the parts around the meatus auditorius externus, or the bottom of the mea- tus. In some cases slight temporary relief is obtained. In amaurosis, the cur- rent, the aura, and sometimes slight sparks and shocks have been tried, but rarely with success.1 In topical numbness unconnected with lesion of the nervous centres, electric friction, sparks, or very slight shocks, are occasionally service- able. 2. To excite the motor nerves.—In partial paralysis, benefit is at times ob- tained by the use . of electric friction and slight shocks. When the disease depends on some lesion of the cerebro-spinal centre, relief by electricity is not to be expected. Electricity is calculated to be serviceable when the malady arises from some functional disorder of the nerves. It may also contribute to restore the use of parts originally paralysed by effusion in some part of the cerebro-spinal centre, but which has been gradually absorbed, leaving the limb paralysed from desuetude. These cases, however, are comparatively rare. Notwithstanding the favourable account of its efficacy given by Dr. Golding Bird, {Guy's Hospital 1 Mr. Hey published several successful cases of its use in amaurosis. He never saw the least benefit from its employment when the disease had existed for two years. {Med. Observ. and Inq vol vol I onH 1795. 2d ed.^ Y" • • f- • i-una. its _ 1795, 2d ed.) VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY. 79 Reports, vol. vi. p. 98.) my own experience of its use leads me to give an unfa- vourable report of it in cases of paralysis properly so called. In chronic rheu- matism I have occasionally seen benefit from the use of electricity. In stiffness and rigidity, after sprains and bruises, when all inflammation and tenderness have subsided, it has also been employed. 3. To promote secretion.—In amenorrhea, considerable benefit is obtained by passing shocks through the pelvis (from the sacrum to the pubis). I have, on several occasions, found the practice successful. Electric friction, or slight shocks, are sometimes employed to promote the biliary secretion. My friend, Mr. Wood- ward, is very sanguine as to its efficacy for this purpose; but I have had no experience of it. 4. To promote absorption.—In indolent tumours, electricity in the form of sparks, slight shocks, and friction, has been employed, and, it is said, with occa- sional benefit. In enlarged cervical glands I have tried it in several cases, but without observing that any benefit resulted therefrom. 5. Inclwrea and some other allied convulsive disorders, considerable benefit is occasionally obtained from the employment of electricity, in the form of friction or slight shocks in the course of the spine and limbs. I am acquainted with seve- ral remarkable successful cases of its use. Dr. Addison {Guy's Hospital Reports, vol. ii. p. 493.) and Dr. Golding Bird {Guy's Hospital Reports, vol. vi. p. 84.) have also found it beneficial. Its methodus medendi is quite inexplicable. ^e. Voltaic Electricity. (Galanism; Voltaism.) The apparatus usually employed for the medical application of voltaic electricity consists of— 1. Two wooden troughs, (devised by Mr. Cruickshanks,) each containing 50 pairs of copper and zinc plates, 2 or 2£ inches square. These may be charged with a solution of common salt, or with a weak acid liquor. Some electricians employ 1 part of common muriatic acid, and 16 or 20 parts of water. Singer thinks that j Jo of muriatic acid will be found the most useful. In some cases where the skin was very susceptible I have used water only. 2. A pair of insulated directors, each consisting of a glass tube traversed by a copper wire. One extremity of the wire is in communication with one end of the trough ; the other extremity is covered with sponge or flannel, moistened with a solution of common salt. 3. Copper wire to connect the directors with the ends of the troughs. Harrington's electrizers are plates of copper and zinc, or silver and zinc, made in various forms. Thus for the toothache a plate of copper is soldered edgeways to one of zinc, and worn in the mouth ; the saliva serves to excite the apparatus. In another contrivance an hexagonal plate of zinc is con- nected by its face to a plate of silver ; and a series of these compound plates are connected together by a wire, so as to move on each other like hinges. These are worn next the skin for the relief of rheumatism. The perspiration serves to excite the plates. Silver and zinc spangles also have been employed, instead of the plates just mentioned. Physiological Effects.—The physiological effects of voltaic electricity are threefold, viz:— 1. The production of certain sensations. 2. The contraction of muscular fibres. 3. An influence over secreting organs. 1. Production of certain sensations. — Although electricity acts on all the organs of sense, yet the nerve of each sense is affected in a manner peculiar to itself. Thus, by acting on the nerves of touch, we produce pain, the shock* and other disagreeable sensations : by affecting the optic nerve, we occasion a sensation of light: by influencing the gustatory nerve, a remarkable taste is excited: by affecting the auditory nerve, a peculiar sound is excited. (Volta, Phil. Trans, for 1800, p. 403.) The olfactory nerve is influenced by elec- tricity with more difficulty. Volta could not succeed in producing an effect on the sense of smell; which he ascribes to the circumstance of the electric effluvia not being expanded in and conveyed by the air, which, it is thought, is the pro- per vehicle for exciting sensations in the olfactory nerves. Cavallo (Wilkinson's Elements of Galvanism, vol. i. p. 223. Lond. 1804.) and Ritter (Muller's 80 elements of materia medica. Elements of Physiology, translated by Baly, vol. i. p. 623. Lond. 1838.) each assert, however, that they have produced peculiar smells by electricity.1 The sensations excited by the passage of the voltaic current through the sensitive nerves may be owing to the mechanical or chemical influence of the current; and not any thing peculiar the electricity. Thus the nerves of touch, the optic nerve, and the auditory nerves, have; eacn their special sensations excited by mechanical violence. The acid, or the alkaline taste Protm"" by electricity, may be referred to the electrolysis of the salts of the saliva, and the developemeni of an acid and an alkali at the opposite electrodes ; and the metallic taste may be owing to i ne chemical action of the constituents of the saliva on the electrode, by which a soluble metallic compound is produced. . . 2. Contraction ofmuscular fibre.—-Voltaic electricity excites muscular contrac- tions when applied to the motor nerves, or to the central organs of the nervous system. The effect is produced not only on living, but on recently killed, am- mals; and is more powerful on the voluntary, than on the involuntary, muscles. MM. Prevost and Dumas (Edwards, De Vlnjluence des Agens Physiques, p. 531. Paris, 1824.) have proposed an electrical theory of muscular contraction, which appears to me to be disproved by anatomical and physiological, as well as by physical, considerations. They assert that the nervous fibres run transversely across the muscular fasciculi; that when the muscu- lar fibres become shorter by contraction, they do so by assuming a zigzag inflexion ; that the nervous fibres are conductors ofa voltaic current; and, lastly, that zigzag inflexion is pro- duced by the mutual attraction of the parallel rectilineal currents in the nerves, the muscular fibre itself being passive. But not one of these assumptions can be admitted. Schwann, (Mtil- ler, op. supra cit. p. 900.) has shown that Prevost and Dumas mistook entire nervous fasciculi for primitive nervous fibres. Prof. Owen and Dr. A. Thompson, (Ibid. p. 887.) doubt whether the zigzag inflection exists during contraction. Prof. Owen says that the fibres become shorter and thicker, and only assume a wavy or zigzag arrangement after contraction has ceased. Lastly, we have yet to learn how the voltaic current is insulated in the nerves, and prevented passing off laterally ; for the neurilemma, and the other soft tissues, arc excellent conductors of electricitv. (Ibid. p. 635.)' . 3. Influence over the secreting organs.—Of the great influence exercised by the nerves in the process of secretion, no doubt can be entertained. Now it appears highly probable, that as the voltaic current excites the functions of the sensitive and motor nerves, it also may exercise a similar influence over those nerves which are distributed to the organs"of secretion. Dr. Wilson Philip9 has endeavoured to establish the truth of this opinion in the case of the secretion of the gastric juice. He divided the nervi vagi in a rabbit, and found, as he supposed, that the digestive process was stopped. In another experiment he restored, as he tells us, the functions of these nerves by the voltaic influence. But subsequent expe- riments have shown that the division of the nervi vagi does not wholly stop the digestive process, and that electricity cannot restore it to its original state. (Miil- ler, op. ante cit. p. 549.) Uses.—The therapeutic uses of voltaic electricity, like those of common electri- city, are partly rational, partly empirical. 1. To stimulate the sensitive nerves.—In cases of nervous deafness, voltaic elec- tricity has been used to stimulate the auditory nerve. For this purpose, one wire (pole or electrode) is introduced into one ear, and the other wire (pole or elec- trode) into the opposite ear. The circuit is then to be rapidly broken and com- pleted a number of times. In amaurosis, the same remedy has been used empi- rically, to stimulate the retina, when other remedies have failed. It must, how- •ever, be employed with great caution, as its mechanical effect is calculated in many cases to aggravate the malady. 2. To excite the motor nerves.—In paralysis, voltaic electricity is occasionally resorted to, but, for the most part, empirically. It can, of course, be of no avail if the disease arise from organic changes in the nervous centres. But when the ' The peculiar smell evolved by working the ordinary electric machine in the atmosphere —bv electric sparks, and in some electro-chemical decompositions, is ascribed by Schonbein to a new elementary substance which he terms ozone (from o£w, I smell,) and which is evolved at the anode or positive surface He «nn ' it to be a constituent of an electrolyte, small quantities of which exist in both air and water. (AthenaSeS a An Experimental Inquiry into the Laws of the Vital Functions, pp. Ill, 213, 256, &x. 3d edit. Lond lgoc VOLTAIC electricity. -1 malady appears to be functional only, or when there is reason to suppose that the blood effused in the brain has been absorbed, and that the paralysis remains from desuetude only, stimulating tne motor nerves by electricity may perhaps prove serviceable. In asphyxia from drowning, hanging, the inhalation of noxious gases, &c, voltaic electricity is occasionally employed to excite the muscles of respiration. It appears to be a very plausible remedy, but in the cases in which it has hitherto been tried on the human subject, it has mostly failed to effect re- suscitation.1 In sanguineous apoplexy, Dr. W. Philip suggests that it might be used to enable the lungs "to perform their functions for a longer time than without this aid," and that by it the life of the patient may be prolonged. In the asphyxia produced by concussion, galvanism has been suggested by M. Goudret. 3. In Asthma and Dyspepsia.—Dr. Wilson Philip, having observed that with- drawing a considerable part of the nervous influence from the stomach and lungs deranges the digestive powers, and produces great difficulty of breathing, was led to expect relief from galvanism in indigestion and habitual asthma. He describes the benefit obtained as greatly exceeding his expectations. The positive pole {anelectrode) is applied to the nape of the neck,—the negative pole {cathelectrode) to the pit of the stomach. A weak power should be commenced with, and the strength gradually increased until some uneasiness is experienced. In some in- stances perfect cures were obtained; in others relief was gained.2 4. To electrolyze urinary calculi—Prevost and Dumas {Journal de Physiolo- gic, t. iii. p. 217.) have proposed voltaic electricity as a means of destroying some kinds of urinary calculi. They stale that a fusible calculus, in one case contained in a basin of water, in another introduced into the bladder ofa dog previously dis- tended with water, was completely disintegrated by voltaic electricity, from a battery of 120 pairs. The wires were introduced through a canula into the blad- der. The operation, it is said, did not occasion the least apparent uneasiness to the animal. During the action of the battery on the calculus, the bases and phos- phoric acid first arrived at their respective poles, then re-entered into combination, forming a pulverulent salt. Bonnet proposed to inject the bladder with a solution of nitrate of potash, and to galvanize the calculus in this liquor. The nitrate will be decomposed ; the phosphates dissolve in the liberated nitric acid,—and uric acid, or urate of ammonia, in the disengaged potash. These propositions are in- genious, but at present no practical use has been made of them. 5. To coagulate the blood within an aneurismal tumour.—If the electrodes ofa voltaic apparatus be immersed in an albuminous liquor, the albumen is coagu- lated. It has, therefore, been suggested " that galvanism might be applied to the important purpose of coagulating the blood within an aneurismal tumour, and thus removing the disease without resorting to the ligature." (Apjohn, Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine, art. Galvanism.) For this purpose two needles are to be in- troduced into the tumour, and their projecting extremities connected with the op- posite electrodes of the battery. 6. To cauterize.—Pravaz {Revue Medicale, Dec. 1830.) has proposed to cau- terize the bites inflicted by rabid animals, by introducing the electrodes of a bat- tery into the wound. Fabre-Palaprat {Du Galva?dsme applique a la Medecine, p. 57. Faris, 1828.) has proposed to produce the cauterizing effects of the moxa by voltaic electricity; this kind of therapeutical agent he calls a galvanic moxa. 7. To promote the absorption of medicinal substances.—In 1832, Dr. Costor, 1 The Professors of the Irish College of Surgeons, in 1829, failed to restore by it the respiratory movements in a person who had hi'en hung (Dr. Apjohn, in Cyclopedia of Practical Medicine, Art. Galvanism.)—Electricity , in conjunction with other means, was tried, but without success, in the case of ^cott, the American diver, who had been accidentally hung for five or six minutes (see Times, Jan. 13. 1841.) o See Phil. Trans. 1817, p. 22 .; and Dr. Wilson Philip's Treatise on Indigestion..—A\so, La Beauine, On the Me- dical Effects of Electricity and Galvanism in Nervous and Chronic Disorders. 1820. 82 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. {Archives Generates de Medecine, t. ii. p. 432.) and in 1833, M. Fabre-Palaprat, (Ibid. llme serie, t. ii—Also. Becquerel, Traite de VElectricite, t. iv. p. 321.) em- ployed voltaic electricity to assist the introduction of certain medicinal substances into the blood. They adopted Sir H. Davy's {Phil. Trans. 1807, p. 1.) opinion, (subsequently shown by Mr. Faraday (Ibid. 1838 and 1834,) to be erroneous,) that the poles {electrodes) ofa voltaic battery have attractive and repulsive powers for certain substances: the positive pole {anelectrode) for oxygen, chlorine, and iodine,—the negative pole {cathelectrode) for hydrogen and the metals. M. Fabre-Palaprat asserts, that by the aid of galvanism he has caused certain che- mical agents to traverse the body, and appear at some distant part. He bound on one arm a compress, moistened with a solution of iodide of potassium, and covered by a platinum disk, connected with the negative pole {cathelectrode) of a voltaic battery of thirty pairs of plates. On the other arm was placed a com- press, moistened with a solution of starch, and covered by a platinum disk, con- nected with the positive pole {anelectrode) of the battery. In a few minutes the starch acquired a blue tinge, showing that the iodine had been transported from one arm to the other. But Davy's idea that the poles {electrodes) possess attrac- tive and repulsive properties is not correct, as I have before remarked. That electricity may promote absorption, either by increasing endosmosis or by acting as a stimulus to the bloodvessels and lymphatics, is not improbable; but that the poles {electrodes) can draw medicinal substances either into or out of the body is not true. I have twice repeated Fabre-Palaprat's experiment; but, though I em- ployed fifty pairs of plates for fifteen minutes, I was unable to obtain the slightest evidence of the passage of iodine through the body. [A mode of employing galvanism is practised in this country, which was first suggested by Mans- ford, in his Treatise on Epilepsy. Two plates of convenient size, one of silver, the other of zinc, are con- nected together by means of a silver wire of sufficient length to reach between the points of application that may be desirable, and to favour the adjustment a portion of it should have the spiral form. By this appa- ratus a galvanic circuit is established through the parts into apposition with which the plates are brought, by the wire on one side, and their nervous communication on the other. To prepare the parts for the galvanic impression, the cuticle should be removed by a blister the size of the plates, and strips of adhesive plaster may be used to keep them in their situation. The galvanic action is favoured by placing beneath the plates a piece of moistened buckskin, parchment, sponge, or fresh muscle. The latter is most efficient, but inconvenient.from the speedy decomposition which takes place, requiring to be changed oftener. The plates should be removed and cleansed of the oxide deposited on their surfaces twice in the twenty-four hours. In the treatment of Epilepsy, Mansford directs the location of the silver plate upon a blistered surface on the back of the neck at the base of the brain, and the zinc plate upon a similarly prepared surface on the leg just below the knee; the wire descending the back till it reaches a belt of chamois leather buttoned round the waist, following the course of the belt to which it is attached until it arrives opposite the groin, then passing down the inside of the thigh until it reaches its position. Other points, however,.may be selected. For an account of several interesting cases of Neuralgia treated in this manner, see Paper, by Dr. Thomas Harris, in American Journ. of Med. Sciences, No. xxviii. p. 384. August, 1834.—j. c.] Electro- Puncture. (Galvano-Puncture.) The operation of electro-puncture was proposed by Sarlandiere, {Memoires sur VElectro-Puncture. Paris.) in 1825. It consists in introducing two acu- puncture.needles in the usual way, and connecting them with the poles ofa weak voltaic battery ; the contact being occasionally suspended and renewed, in order to produce a succession of shocks. This practice has been successfully adopted for the relief of rheumatism, neuralgia, local paralysis, sciatica, spasmodic affec- tions, and other maladies in which the operation of simple acupuncture has been used, than which it has been thought, by some, to be more efficacious. In neu- ralgia and in rheumatism it should be employed only in the interval of the parox- ysms. (Trousseau and Pidoux, Traite de Therapeutique, l. i. p. 57g# parjs 1836.) M. Bourgeois1 proposed to employ the operation of electro-puncture of the heart, to promote resuscitation, in cases of asphyxia. 1 Quoted by Merat and De Lens, in the Diet. Univ. de Mat. Med. art. Electro Puncture. MAGNETISM. 83 7. Magnetic Electricity, The apparatus required for the medical application of magnetic electricity con- sists of— 1. A magneto-electric machine. y. A pair of directors. The most convenient, simple, and powerful magneto-electric machine is that devised by Mr. E. M. Clarke, of the Strand. It consists of a battery of six curved permanent magnets, and an intensity armature, around whose cylinders 1500 yards of fine insulated copper wire are coiled. The ends of this wire communi- cate respectively with a pair of directors, each holding a piece of sponge (dipped in vinegar or a solution of common salt). When the armature is rotated, and a portion of the living body interposed between the directors, a succession of shocks is received. A magneto-electric machine is not affected by the moist state of the atmosphere : this gives it an advantage over the common electric machine; and as acids are not required to excite it, one inconvenience of the voltaic battery is obviated. It is employed in medicine as a convenient substitute for the ordinary voltaic battery. 4. Magnetismus.—Magnetism. (Mineral Magnetism.) jEtius, {Sermo ii. p. cap. 25,) who lived about a. d. 550, is the oldest author who mentions the application of magnetism to the cure of diseases ; for, although Hippocrates {Opera; De inter ft. affect, p. 543; and De his qua uterum non gerunt, p. 686, ed. Fcesii.) speaks of the magnet as a remedial agent, he refers to its in- ternal use only. About the end of the 17th century, magnetic tooth-picks and ear-picks were made as secret preventives against pains in the teeth, eyes, and ears. (Beckmann, History of Inventions and Discoveries, vol. i. p. 74.) The power of a magnet to affect the vital functions is not generally admitted in this country; but it must be remembered that the experience which British practitioners have had of its use is exceedingly limited. Becker says that the sensations which his patients experienced from the use of the magnet were, cold (probably from the coldness of the steel) ; heat (this is the most frequent effect, especially in the ears, and it often amounts to unpleasant burning); traction (from the slightest degree, when it is an agreeable feeling, to the strongest, when it is almost painful, like that of a cupping-glass); an indefinite sensation (in the ear, called a working or roaring); throbbing, pain, and numbness or loss of feeling in the magnetized part. Some years ago, Mr. Faraday allowed Dr. Keil to try his magnets, in every way he thought proper, on himself (Mr. F.), but without any effect resulting. {Lancet for 1835-36, vol. i. p. 716). In some instances it has appeared to exercise a most remarkable influence over neuralgic pains and spasmodic affections; at one time apparently curing, at another palli- ating, and occasionally augmenting all the patient's sufferings. But, in a large proportion of cases, it fails to produce any obvious effect. The employment of magnetic plates is sometimes attended with itching and an eruption of pimples. Toothache, neuralgia, painful affections of the stomach, rheumatic pains, spasmo- dic asthma, angina pectoris, and palpitation of the heart, are the maladies which have occasionally appeared to be relieved by the magnet. It is said that, in some cases, neuralgic pain is alleviated by the application of the north pole of the magnet, but is augmented by the south pole. (Ibid. 1832- 33, vol. ii. p. 312.) Laennec1 speaks highly of the efficacy of magnetized plates in neuralgia of the lungs and in angina pectoris. He applied two strongly mag- netized oval steel plates, one to the left precordial region, the other exactly oppo- site on the back, so that their poles were opposed. He says the relief is increased if a blister be applied under the anterior plate. The late Dr. Thomas Davies 1A Treatise on the Diseases of the Chest, translated by Dr. Forbes, pp. 402 and 693. Lond. 1827. 84 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. {Lectures on the Diseases of the Lungs and Heart, p. 497. Lond. 1835.) tried this plan, and with good effect. There are several modes of using magnets. For toothache, a simple straight or bar magnet, sometimes called a magnetic staff, is used. It is first made warm, and its north pole applied to the tooth; if the pain be not relieved, the south pole should then be substituted. Or the poles are applied to, or passed over, the gums or cheeks. In neuralgic pains, a compound magnet, called a magnetic battery, is commonly employed. This consists of several curved (horse-shoe, lyre-shaped, or U-shaped) magnets, placed one over the other, with all their poles similarly disposed, and fastened firmly together. Dr. Schmidt {Lancet for 1835- 36, vol. i. p. 338.) employed a battery of five magnets of unequal length, the centre one being the longest and thickest. This kind of battery is usually called by workmen a magnetic magazine. Magnetic collars, girdles, bracelets, &c, are made of several artificial magnets, with their opposite poles in contact, en- closed in linen or silk. Magnetized steel plates {magnetic plates), of various forms, are fitted to any part of the body. They are applied to the naked skin, and worn by the aid of a bandage.1 To attempt to explain the methodus medendi of an agent whose therapeutical influence is not generally admitted, appears to me somewhat premature. I may remark, however, that should the existence of electro-vital or neuro-electric currents in the animal body, as announced by Prof. Zantedeschi and Dr. Favio,2 be hereafter fully established, we shall have a ready expla- nation of the medicinal power of magnetism in the well-known influence of a magnet over a voltaic current.3 II. AGENTIA HYGIENICA.-HYGIEI\TIC 'AGENTS. (Non-Naturals.) Under the absurd name of the Non-Naturals {Non-Naturalia), the ancients included six things necessary to health, but which, by accident or abuse, often became the cause of disease;—viz.: Air, Aliment, Exercise, Excretions, Sleep, and Affections of the Mind.* These are now denominated Hygienic Agents.6 I propose very briefly to consider, as therapeutic agents, Food, Climate, and Exercise. Affections of the Mind have been already noticed. (See p. 49.) 1. Cibus.—Food. The substances employed as Food {Cibus), may be conveniently arranged in three groups, respectively denominated Aliments {Alimenta), Drinks {Potulenta), and Condiments {Condimenta). a. Alimenta.—Aliments. It will be convenient to consider aliments under the two heads of Alimentary Principles and Compound Aliments.6 1. Alimentary Principles. Dr. Prout? has divided the alimentary principles into three great classes or 1 Figures of the different forms of magnetic instruments here referred to, are given by MM Andrv and Thouret, in their very elaborate and able article on Medical Magnetism, in the Memoires de la Soeiete Royale de Medecine, Annee 1779, p. 531. i Report on the Memoir on Electric Currents in Warm-blooded Animals, by Prof. Zantedeschi and Dr Favio presented to the Royal Academy of Sciences of Brussels, on the 4th April, 1840. By M Cantraine In Lond Edinb. and Dubl. Mag. for April, 1841. s For farther information respecting Magnetism as a therapeutical agent, I must refer to Andrv and Thou- let's Memoir, before quoted; as also to Dr. Becker's Der mincralischc Magnetismus und seine Anicendune in der Heilkunst, Muhlhausen 1H29 ; Dr B^merincq's BMtr^e wr urztlichen Behandlung mittelst des mineralischen Magnetismus, Berlin, 1835; and Dr Schnitzer s Ueber die ratwnelle Anwendung des mineralischen Magnetismus Berl.n, 1837,-Also, Most's Encyklopadiedergesammten medicinischen und chirurgischen pTzlf^lMaZe. tismus nunerahs, 2er Band. b. .194. Leipzig, ia.il. & 4 For an account of the No^Naturals consult Sutherland's Attempts to revive Ancient Medical Doctrines vol ii. p. 113. Lond. 1763—Also, Willichs Lectures on Diet and Regimen, 3d edit. Lond 1800 JJ0Clrlnes> v°'- s Rostan, {Diet, de Medecine, art. Hygiene) terms them Mati'ere~de l'Hygiene.-On Ilviriene' consult n,.n„i;=«n On the Influence of Atmosphere and Locality; Change of Air and Climate; Seasons ; Food " CftA 7n* BaflZ■ Eicrcise; Sleep; Corporeal and Intellectual Pursuits, Sec. Sec. on Human Health; constituting Elements of Hy- eSee Tiedemann's mitersuchungen ueber das Nahrungs-Bedurfniss, den Nahrungs-Trieb und die Nahr,,r,39 ) *Ann. de Chim!et Phys. t. xiii. p. 351. 3 Gmelin. Hand. d. Chimie, Bd. ii. S. 43P, « Ibid s Ann. de Chim. xciii. 225. Braconnot terms all the solid fats, stearine; but Lecanu {Ann. de Chim et Phvs Iv. 19-2) has shown that the solid fat of the vegetable oils is margarine. ' '»*• e The Colza is the Brassica campestris, which is closely allied to Brassica Napus, the seeds of which yield NITROGENOUS ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES. 89 Stearine, Margarine, Elaine, and Butyrine, yield, by saponification, fatty acids a sweet basic principle called glycerine (or the oxide of glycerule), and water. They are probably, therefore, hydrated salts of glycerine. The acids (stearic, margaric, and oleic,) obtained respectively from stearine, margarine, and elaine, are fixed; while those (butyric, capric, and caproic acids,) procured from butyrin, are volatile and odorous. Oleaginous aliments are highly nutritious, but exceedingly difficult and slow of digestion. The last-mentioned circumstance is familiar to every dyspeptic, and has been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Beaumont,1 made on a Canadian, who had, two inches below the left nipple, a permanent artificial opening into his stomach, produced by a gun-shot wound. Dr. Beaumont remarks, that the bile is not ordinarily found in the stomach; but that, after the use of oily food, it is often observed there: and, he concludes, that it assists the digestion of the fatty substances. The operation of heat on the fatty bodies is injurious to their digestibility, especially in the case of butter. This appears to be owing to,the developement of acrid fatty acids, and empyreumatic oil matters. Hence buttered toast, melted butter, substances cooked by frying in oil or butter, and pastry, are highly injurious to dyspeptics. Oleaginous foods often agree so remarkably well with diabetic patients, "that some have gone so far as to propose them as remedies. When freely taken, they usually cause a flow of saliva, and thus diminish the urgent thirst. When they agree, also, they give a sensation of satisfaction and support to the. stomach, which other alimentary substances do not. Perhaps butter is the most agreeable form in whicli they can be taken, and this, under proper circumstances, may be taken freely. When oleaginous matters disagree, as is sometimes the case, they should be care- fully shunned." (Prout, op. supra cit. p. 43.) Sir John Ross (Narrative of a Second Voyage in search of a Northwest Passage, p. 201. Lond. 1835.) considers, and his opinion is probably correct, that the natives of cold countries seem to require a more fatty diet than the inhabitants of tropical regions, in order to promote the production of animal heat. Class 3.—Nitrogenous or Azotized Alimentary Principles. (Albuminous Aliments, Prout.) The most important alimentary principles, containing nitrogen or azote, are Fibrines, Albumen, Caseum, Gelatine, and Gluten. The animal extract, called Osmazome, is also a nitrogenous principle. With one exception (Gluten), these principles are obtained from the animal kingdom, and they have in consequence been frequently denominated animal aliments." They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, in the following proportions:— Fibrine of a Cow's Arterial Blood (Mulder2) " of ditto Venous Blood (Mulder) - - -of Muscle of the Ox (Sass &. PfafP) Carbon. Hydrogen. Nitr gen. Oxygen. 53-019 53-476 48-30 53-960 53-009 52-650 5253 50048 50-757 540 6 828 6 952 10-64 7-052 6-993 7-359 7-82 6-477 6-44 7-50 15-462 15-291 15-92 15-696 15-562 15 505 1620 18350 18-313 14 60 1 24-691 24-281 17-64 & fixed salts 7-50 23-292 24-436 24-484 2345 25 125 24 286 23-90 " of Arterial Blood (Michaelis4) . . -" of Venous Blood (Michaelis)- - - -Gelatine of Hartshorn (Mulder)...... (Ji.i'TEv(R()iissinff!iult0)............ 1 Experiments and Observations on the Gastric Juice and the Physiology of Digestion. By Wm. Beaumont, M. I) Ki'printt'd from the Hlattslmrg edition, with notes by Dr. Combe. Edinb. 183S. o Pharmaceutisches Central Blatt far 1^37, S. 325. » .Miitler's Elements of Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 3C9. I strongly suspect some error in this analysis, t ll.-rzelius, Traite dc Chimie, l. vii. p. 75. • Pharm. Central-Blatt fur lt-39, S. 491. e Ann. de Chim. et Phys. Ixiii. s!-jy. 8* 90 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. In Diabetes, the diet should be principally of nitrogenous principles. Dr. Rollo advocated the exclusive use of animal substances in this malady, and, of its power to check the secretion ot sugar, no doubt seems to be entertained. But the craving for vegetable food which some patients experience is so great, that considerable difficulty is experienced in inducing them to submit to a diet exclusively animal. Moreover, violent fever has been ascribed to it.a Hence the recom- mendation of Dr. Prout, to allow a certain quantity of farinaceous food, has been very genera.iy assented to and followed. More recently, however, Dr. Christison (Edinb. Monthly Journal oj Medical Science for April, 1841,) has published some cases, showing that a mixed diet ot animal and vegetable food is sometimes inadmissible; and "that if a sensible amelioration is to be looked for with any confidence, tlie injunctions of Rollo and his imitators, to enforce a rigorous animal diet, must often be faithfully followed." In the Oxalic Acid Diathesis, the plan of diet is the same as for Diabetes. 1. Fibrine.—In the liquid form, or in the state of suspension, it exists in the blood. In the solid state it is the principal constituent of the muscles or fleshy parts of animals. It is eminently nutritious, and easy of digestion. 2. Albumen.—This principle constitutes the most important part of animal foods. In the liquid state it exists in eggs {ovalbumen) and the serum of the blood {seralbumen). In the solid or coagulated state it is a constituent of the flesh, glands, and viscera of animals. The chemical properties of coagulated albumen are almost identical with those of fibrine. Albumen is highly nutritious, and when either raw or lightly boiled, is easy of digestion; but when boiled hard, or especially when fried, its capability of being digested is considerably impaired. (See Eggs, p. 94.) 3. Caseum. Lactalbumen, or Curd.—This is the coagulable matter of milk, and is closely allied to albumen, of which it may be regarded as a modification. Coagulated, dried, somewhat changed in its nature, and more or less mixed with butter, it constitutes cheese. It is nutritious, and moderately easy of digestion. 4. Gelatine. Animal Jelly,—Gelatine is obtained by boiling certain animal ■tissues in water : the concentrated decoction forms, on cooling, a tremulous mass, called jelly. The bones, antlers, skin, tendons, and aponeuroses of mammals, and the swimming bladder of fishes, are the especial sources of it. It is an exceedingly nutritive principle, though probably somewhat less so than fibrine and albumen. As far as my own observations extend, it is readily digestible; but it is said not to be suited to the digestive powers of many dyspeptics. " Gelatine may be considered as the least perfect kind of albuminous matter existing in animal bodies; intermediate, as it were, between the saccharine principles of plants and thoroughly de- veloped albumen. Indeed, gelatine in animals may be said to be the counterpart of the saccha- rine principles of plants; it being distinguished from all other animal substances by its ready convertibility into a sort of sugar, by a process similar to that by which starch may be so con- verted." (Prout, On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases, p. xiii.) Gelatine from Bones is employed in Paris for the preparation ofa nutritious soup for hospitals and other pauper habitations.3 Hartshorn Jelly is principally used by invalids. Patent Gelatine is procured from the skins of animals. (See The Mechanic and Chemist of July 4th, 1840. Lond.) Confectioner's Jelly is made from isinglass, calves' feet, and patent gelatine. Soups and Broths owe their nutritive properties principally to gelatine. Young meats yield more gelatine than old ones. The Sounds offish and Isinglass are gelatinous substances. 5. Osmazome. Alcoholic Extract of Meat.-—This is an alcoholic extract ob- tained from the flesh, brain, and other parts of animals. It has a reddish brown colour, and the smell and taste of soup. It is generally mixed with lactic acid, the lactates, and common salt. To this principle broths and soups owe their flavour, smell, and part of their nutritive qualities. 1 An Account of two Cases of Diabetes Mellitus, Lond. 1797.—Cases of the Diabetes Mellitus, Lond. 1798. 2d ed. with large additions, 1806. 2 See the statements of Dr. Marsh', in the Dublin Hospital Reports, vol. iii. Dubl. 1822; and of Dr. Prout in his Inquiry into the Nature and Treatment, of Diabetes, Calculus, and other Affections of the Urinary Ora-ans p. 79. Lond. 1825. s ' ^D'Aicet, Recherehes sur les Substances nutritives que renferment les Os. Paris, 1829.—Edwards and Balzac in the Annates des Sciences Nat. Juillet, 1832, p. 31J.—Also, Edwards' Recherehes Statistiques sur VEmploi de la Qelatine. Paris, 1835. ANIMAL ALIMENTS. 91 6. Gluten.—This substance is found in corn ; especially in wheat. By washing wheaten dough with a stream of water, the gum and the sugar are dissolved, the starch is washed away, while the gluten is left in the form ofa ductile, tenacious, elastic, gray mass, which, by the action of alcohol, is resolved into albumen, mucin, and glutin. a. Albumen is insoluble in alcohol, but soluble in water. b. Mucin is soluble in boiling alcohol, but deposits as the liquor cools. c. Glutin is soluble in alcohol, but is almost insoluble in water. Gluten is believed to be highly nutritious, and to confer on wheat flour its well- known superior alimentary qualities. " It is the presence of gluten in wheaten flour that renders it pre-eminently nutritious, and its viscidity or tenacity confers upon that species of flour its peculiar excellence for the manu- faclure of macaroni, vermicelli, and similar pastes, which are made by a kind of wire-drawing, and for which the wheat of the south of Europe (more abundant in gluten than our own) is particularly adapted. The superiority of wheaten over other bread depends upon the greater tenacity of its dough, which, in panary fermentation, is puffed up by the evolved carbonic acid, and retained in its vesicular texture, so as to form a very light loaf." (Brando's Manual of Chemistry, p. 1091, 5th ed. 1841.) 2. Compound Aliments. These we subdivide into animal and vegetable. a. Animal Aliments. We may conveniently arrange these in six classes;—viz. 1. Mammals. 3. Reptiles. 5. Crustaceous animals. 2. Birds. 4. Fishes. 6. Mollusks. Class 1. Mammalia.—Mammals. In this country, the mammals employed by man, as food, are the Ox, the Sheep, the Hog, the Deer, the Rabbit, and the Hare. Herbivorous are generally preferred to carnivorous animals for food; as the flesh of the latter has a somewhat disagreeable odour. Mammals furnish their flesh, their viscera, their blood, and their milk, as arti- cles of food. 1. Flesh.—This consists principally and essentially of muscle, intermixed, however, with tendons, aponeuroses, nerves, vessels, cellular tissue, blood, serum, and fat. Its chemical constituents are fibrine (principally), albumen, gelatine, hcematosin or the colouring matter of the blood, osmazome, fatty matter (stearine and elaine), creatine,1 a peculiar nervous matter, and salts. The following are the proportions of the first three principles in the muscles of some kinds of flesh :— (Brande, op. supra cit.) 100 parts of Albumen or Total of Muscle of Water. Fibrine. Gelatine. Nutritive Matter. Beef --- 74 - - - 20 ... 6 ... 26 Veal --- 75 - - - 19 - - - 6 ... 25 Mutton - - 71 - - - 22 ... 7 ... 29 Pork ... 76 - - - 19 ... 5 ... 24 The flesh of young animals is more tender than that of old ones. That of castrated males is not only more delicate and finer grained, but has a more agree- able odour and flavour, than that of the uncastrated animal. Spaying is said to improve the flavour of the flesh of the female. With regard to digestibility, Dr. Beaumont found that digestion is facilitated by minuteness of division and tender- ness of fibre; and retarded by opposite qualities. Venison he ascertained to be one of the most digestible substances ; a circumstance which he refers to its being 1 Creatine (from kpeat, flesh), is a nitrogenous, crystallizable substance, insoluble in alcohol. It was disco- vered by Chevreul (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. viii. p. 548.) 92 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. easily divisible into shreds or small particles. Beef and mutton are also easy digestion. r fl h The following table shows the mean time of digestion of several kinds of nesn, according to Dr. Beaumont's experiments :— Hours. Minutes. Venison steak, broiled,.....1 ^ Sucking' pip- roasted,.....2 Jv Lamb, fresh, broiled,.....z °" Beef steak, broiled,......3 ^ Mutton, fresh, broiled.....3 ° Pork steak, broiled,......3 15 Veal, fresh, broiled, - - - - - - 4 0 Beef, old, hard, salted, boiled, - - ■ 4 15 By boiling flesh in water, the fibrine is corrugated, the albumen coagulated (though, bv a prolonged action of heat and water, it yields a soluble nitrogenous matter); the hsematosine is also coagulated ; the cellular tissue, the tendons, and the aponeuroses, yield gelatine ; the fatty matters melt; while the osmazome and the creatine are dissolved.1 2. Viscera.—The brain, the liver, the spleen, the kidneys, the thymus,3 the lungs, and the alimentary canal of mammals,3 are employed as food. They abound principally in albumen. Composition of the Liver of the Ox* Vascular and Cutaneous Tissues - 18-94 Parenchyma (i. e. soluble parts) - 8105 Liver.......10000 Brown oil, containing phosphorus, - 3-89 White fatty flocculi Nitrogenous matter - - - 6.07 Albumen.....2019 Blood...... ? Salts......1-21 Water......6864 Composition of the Thymus of the Calf.5 Albumen.....14-00 Osmazome.....1'65 Gelatine.....600 Peculiar animal matter ... 030 Margaric acid .... 0-05 Fibrine......8-00 Water......7000 Thymus.....10000 Parenchyma of the liver - - 100-00 The following are the mean times of digestion of several viscera, according to Dr. Beaumont:— Hours. Minutes. Tripe, soused, boiled,.....1 0 Brains, animal, boiled,.....1 45 Liver of the ox, fresh, broiled, - - 2 0 Sausages made of the flesh, viscera, or blood of animals, and cured by smoking, have some- limes acquired, by keeping, highly deleterious qualities, which Buchner ascribes to the presence ofa peculiar fitly acid, whicli has been termed botulinic acid (Wurst-fett-saiire). (See Christison's Treatise on Poisons, p. 585, 3d ed. Edinb. 1835.) Bacon also sometimes becomes poisonous. (Ibid. p. 592.) 3. Blood.—Among civilized nations, the pig is the only animal whose blood furnishes a distinct article of food. Mixed with fat and aromatics, and enclosed in the prepared intestines, the blood of this animal constitutes the substance sold in the shops under the name of black pudding {apexabo). The deleterious qualities which blood puddings sometimes acquire, have been above referred to. 4. Milk.—Properly speaking, milk should be considered among Drinks • but 'See some interesting observations on the effects of heat and water on meat, in Snubeirin'a xf„, rr. ■ . de Pharm. t. i. p 130, 2nde ed. Paris, 1840. e"an s •Ar°u»- Traite « The thymus of l he calf is commonly termed sweetbread. 3 The stomachs of ruminants when prepared as food, constitute tripe. « Braconnot, Ann. de Chim. et Phys. x. 189. > Morin, Journ. de Chim. Med t iii n 450 MILK. 93 as it contains a large quantity of alimentary matter, and, farthermore, as it yields some solid foods (butter and cheese), it will be most convenient to consider it here. The composition of several kinds of milk is thus stated by MM. O. Henry and Chevallier. {Journ. de Pharm. t. xxv. p. 340.) Milk of the Constituents. Cow. Ass. Woman. Goat. Ewe. Cascum........4-48 - 1-82 - 1-52 - 402 - 4.50 Butter........313 - 0-11 - 3-55 - 3-32 . 4-20 Sugar of Milk.......4-77 - 608 - 6-50 - 5-28 - 5-00 Various Salts.......0-60 - 0-34 - 0 45 - 0-58 - 0 68 Water........8702 - 91-65 - 87-98 - 86-80 - 85 62 Total........100-00 100-00 100-00 100 00 100-00 Solid substances.......12-98 8-35 13-00 13-20 14-38 The nutritive principles of milk are (excluding water),—caseum, butter, and sugar of milk. Perhaps the phosphate of lime, found in milk, ought to be consi- dered as an aliment for young animals ; inasmuch as it is necessary to the deve- lopement of their osseous system. For the most part, milk is readily digestible; but, with adults, this is by no means universally the case. With some dyspep- tics, it proves heavy and difficult of digestion. I find that those with whom it disagrees, are obnoxious to the use of butter; whence, I infer, that the injurious qualities of milk are ascribable to the oily constituent; and, with such patients, ass's milk (which contains but little butter) usually agrees. The quantity of nutritive matter contained in milk, varies not only with the species, but with the individual,—nay, with the same individual under different circumstances. The quality of the milk is affected by constitution, age, food, period after parturition, mental emotion, dis- ease, the use of medicines, &c. Dr. Young (quoted by Cullen, Mat. Med.) found, that a bitch, fed on vegetable aliment, yielded an acescent and spontaneously coagulable milk; but, when animal food was substi- tuted, the milk became alkaline, and did not spontaneously coagulate. Dr. Cullen says, " I allege it to be a matter of experience, that, supposing the quantity of liquid to be the same, nurses living entirely, or for the greater part, upon vegetable aliment, afford a greater quantity of milk, and of a more proper quality, than nurses living upon much animal food. This I venture to assert—from the observations of fifty years." The influence which many medicines, taken by the mother, have over the sucking infant, is a circumstance known to every nurse, though Cullen denies it. We can modify the colour of the milk by mixing saffron or madder with the food; the odour may be affected by various cruciferous and alliaceous plants ; the taste may be altered by the use of bitters, as wormwood; and lastly, the medicinal effect may be also influenced. Children may be salivated by sucking nurses under the influence of mercury, or purged by the exhibition of drastics, or narcotized by the administration of opiates to the nurse. These facts are so familiar to every one, that farther evidence of them is scarcely requisite. It is curious, however, that Simon (Journ. de Pharm. xxv. 354.) failed to recognise in the milk various salts, which were taken by the mouth, and were found in abundance in the urine. Mental emotions also affect the quality of the milk. I have frequently seen the bowels of the child disordered in consequence of some sudden emotion on the part of the mother. It is also not improbable that diseased conditions of the parent may render the milk unhealthy. Labillardiere (Diet. Mat. Med. iv. 23.) states that the milk of a cow, affected with a kind of tuberculous phthisis (pommeliere,) contained seven limes more phosphate of lime than usual. Dupuy1 also speaks of the large quantity of calcareous matter in the milk of cows, in whose lungs abundant deposits of the same sub- stance were found. Other morbid changes in the milk have been observed by Donne, Robi- quet, and I.assaigne. The facts now mentioned are of the greatest moment, not only in re- ference to the frequency of disease in cows, and, therefore, to the possible morbific character of their milk, but they are of considerable importance in reference to the milk of the human subject. I think, with this statement before us, it is highly improper to allow a female, with any trace or suspicion of tuberculous disease, to suckle. Not that a few grains, more or less, of phosphate of lime in the milk, can possibly do any injury to the child; but the fact once established, that the milk may be thus altered by disease, leads to the suspicion that some other substances not yet recognised by their physical or chemical characters, may be in the milk of diseased nurses, and which may have an injurious influence on the child ; and the sus- 1 Quoted by Andrei, Treat, on Pathol. Anat.; by Townshend and West, vol. i. p. C75. 94 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. picion does not confine itself to those affected with tuberculous diseases; other hereditary or constitutional affections may also be attended with altered conditions of the milk. I his sus- picion is strengthened by the common observation, that the milk of nurses will not equally suit different children. A child, quite healthy, and in good condition, will sometimes, without any evident disease, falloff, and get into what is commonly called a bad condition, apparent y from a change of the nurse. I am aware that we cannot always refer this to any positively hurtful matter in the milk. The quantity of nutritive matter in the same q^"11^ ?' ml!* °' two nurses may be very different: according to Paycn, (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. iv. p. 118.) milk with too much nutritive matter in it may disagree with the child. Another point worthy of attention is the quantity of milk yielded in a given time. Payen says it vanes in different women as much as from one to ten and a half in the same time. a. Butter.—Butter is employed rather as a condiment than as a direct alimen- tary matter. Its properties have been already noticed. (See p. 89.) When ren- dered rancid by keeping, or empyreumalic by heat, it is exceedingly injurious to the dyspeptic. Cream consists principally of butter, but mixed with a certain portion of caseum or whey. b. Cheese—The basis of this is caseum or curd coagulated, somewhat altered in its nature, and mixed with more or less butter. Its richness is in proportion to the quantity of butter present. Stilton cheese is prepared from milk to which cream is added. Cheshire, and the best Gloucester clieeses, are prepared from unskim- med milk. Suffolk, and Parmesan cheeses, are prepared from skim-milk. Cheese is nutritious, but difficult of digestion. When old and strong, it is taken as a con- diment, to promote the secretion of saliva and gastric juice, and thereby to assist digestion. Toasted cheese is bad for dyspeptics. Cheese, like sausages and bacon, sometimes acquires poisonous properties by keeping. (Christison, op. supra cit.) Class 2. Aves.—Birds. The eggs and flesh of these animals are used for food. 1. Eggs.—Both the white, or glaire, and the yelk, are employed as food. The former owes its nutritive property to albumen,—the latter to both albumen and oil. Albumen - - - 120 Mucus .... 2-7 Salts .... 0-3 Water .... 85-0 White of Egg - - - 1000' Albumen - - - 17-47 Yellow oil and fat - - 28 75 Water .... 5378 Yelk of Egg . - - 100-008 Eggs are highly nutritive, and, under some circumstances, are readily digested. When beaten up, in tea, or slightly boiled, they are usually easy of digestion, though with some persons they are very apt to disagree. When boiled hard, and especially when fried in butter or oil, they are exceedingly difficult of digestion, and prove highly injurious to the dyspeptic. The following are the mean times of digestion of eggs, as observed by Dr. Beaumont:— Eggs whipped, raw Eggs fresh, raw ... Eggs fresh, roasted Ego-s fresh, soft boiled Eggs fresh, hard boiled - Eggs fresh, fried - The oil of the yelk renders this part of the egg scarcely so easy of digestion as the white or glaire. 2. Flesh.—The flesh of the common dunghill fowl is white, contains but little osmazome, and, when young, is exceedingly tender. The quantity of nutritive matter, in chicken flesh, is thus stated by Mr. Brande:— Hours. Minutes 1 30 2 0 2 15 3 0 3 30 3 30 Bostock, quoted by Gmelin. s Prout, Phil. Trans. 1822, p. 388. FISHES. 95 100 Parts of Albumen or Total of Nutritive Muscle of Water. Fibrine. Gelatine. Matter. Chicken. ... 73 .... 20 .....7 .....27 Chicken flesh is easily digested and nutritious. It is the least irritating or sti- mulating, perhaps, of all animal foods; and is often retained on the stomachs of invalids when other meats would be immediately rejected. Chicken broth is well adapted for irritable stomachs. The flesh of wild gallinaceous birds, as the pheasant and the partridge, is darker coloured, firmer, richer in osmazome, somewhat less digestible, and more stimulating than that of chicken. The flesh of water-fowl, as the goose and duck, is mostly firm, penetrated with fat, and often difficult of digestion. It is scarcely adapted for the invalid.1 The employment of the enlarged liver of the goose, in the preparation of the pates de foies gras, has been already referred lo. (See p. 56.) These livers were highly esteemed in the time of Pliny. (Nat. Hist. lib. x. cap. 27, ed. Valp.) They contain a quantity of phosphoric oil, which renders them difficult of digestion. Dr. Prout (Op. supra cit. p. 244.) suggests, that indolent and dyspeptic individuals, who partake of these diseased productions, "run considera- ble risk in inoculating and converting their own livers, or other organs, into a similar mass of disease." Class 3. Reptilia.—Reptiles. The Green or Edible Turtle {Chelonia esculenta, or C. midas) is the only rep- tile used in this country as food. It is highly nutritive, and, probably, when plainly cooked, is easy of digestion; but when taken in the form of the highly esteemed " turtle soup," is very apt to disagree with dyspeptics. Class 4. Pisces.—Fishes. The quantity of fibrine, albumen, and gelatine, found in some kinds offish have been ascertained by Mr. Brande, who states them to be as follows :— 100 Parts of Albumen or Total of Nutritive Muscle of Water. Fibrine. Gelatine. Matter. Cod....... 79..... 14 ...... 7 ......21 Haddock .... 82 ..... 13 ...... 5 ......18 Sole ...... 79 ..... 15 ...... 6 ......21 Morin {Journ. de Pharm. t. viii. p. 61.) analyzed the flesh of the Smelt, and found it to consist of yellow phosphoric oily matter, osmazome, gelatine, mucus, albumen, fibrine, sal ammoniac, phosphates of potash, lime, iron, and magnesia, chloride of potassium, and carbonate of lime. Fish are less satisfying to the appetite than either mammals or birds. They are also less nourishing. Those fish (as salmon and eels), which abound in oily matter, are more nutritive than other kinds, but are proportionably less digestible. The thirst and uneasy feeling at the stomach, frequently experienced after the use of the richer kinds of fish, have led to the use of spirit as a condiment for this kind of food. Hence the vulgar proverb, that " brandy is Latin for fish." (See Dr. George Cheyne's Essay of Health and Long Life, p. 41.) Skin diseases are said to be more prevalent among those who live much on fish. (Troil's Letters on Iceland, p. 319. Lond. 1780.) By the continued use of fish, the seminal secretion is said to be promoted, and the sexual feelings raised. This effect is ascribed to the phosphoric oil which these animals contain.3 The following are the mean times of digestion of several fish, according to Dr. Beaumont's experiments:— ________________________________________________________e_________________________________ 1 For farther details respecting the properties of the flesh of birds^I must refer the reader to Cullin's Trea- tise of the Materia Medica, vol. i. p. 376, Edin. 178!); and Plenck's Bromato/ogia. Vienna;, 1783. » Foster (Observations made during a Voyage Round the World, p. 315, Lond. 1778,) has endeavoured to prove " that feeding on fish by no means contributes to the increase of numbers in a nation." 96 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Hours. Minutes 1 30 1 30 2 0 3 30 4 0 Trout (Salmon,) fresh, boiled " fried Cod-fish, cured dry, boiled . Flounder, fresh, fried . Salmon, salted, boiled . The white fish, as whiting, haddock, sole, flounder, the cod, and turbot, are the most easily digestible of the fishes in common use, in consequence of containing less oil. They are also less stimulating to the system, and, therefore, are the best adapted for the use of invalids. The whiting and the haddock are the most delicate and tender ; the turbot and the cod the least so. Ifmust be remembered, how- ever, that the sauces (melted butter, Ace), usually taken with these fish, are ex- ceedingly obnoxious to the stomach, and, therefore, must be excluded from the table of the invalid. Salmon, eels, herrings, and sprats, abound in oil; and, in consequence, are difficult of digestion, very apt to disturb the stomach, and are exceedingly injurious to the dyspeptic. By drying, salting, and smoking, the digestibility offish is diminished. Some species of fish, especially in tropical climates, possess poisonous proper- ties either at all times, or at certain seasons. Certain individuals are more sus- ceptible of fish-poison than others. (On the subject of Fish-poison, the reader is referred to Dr. Christison's Treatise on Poisons.) Some of the viscera offish are prepared and used separately as articles of food. Thus, the swimming-bladder constitutes the well-known sound and isinglass,— substances ofa gelatinous nature, and already noticed. (Seep. 90.) The roe or ovary (commonly called the hard roe, to distinguish it from the milt or testicle, called the soft roe) of most fishes is eaten. It contains a phosphoric oil. The substance, called caviare, is the prepared roe of the sturgeon. The following is the composition of isinglass and caviare. (Gmelin, Handb.d. Chem. ii. 1468 and 1469.) Yellow odorous fatty oil . . . 4-3 Soluble albungen . . . .6-2 Insoluble albumen .... 24-8 Chloride of sodium and sulphate of soda . . . . . . 6'7 Gelatine, with some salts . . .0-5 Water......57.5 Gelatine .... . 700 Osmazome [?]••■ . 16-0 Membrane, insoluble in boiling water .... . 2-5 Free acid and salts . 40 Water .... . 7-5 1000 I Fresh unpressed Caviare 1000 Isinglass "The flesh of any fish is always in the highest perfection, or in season, as it is called during the period of the ripening of the milt and the roe. After the fish has deposited the spawn, the flesh becomes soft, and loses a great deal of its peculiar flavour. This is owing to the disappear- ance of the oil or fat from the flesh, it having been expended in the function of reproduction." (Fleming s Philosophy of Zoology, vol. n. p. 373.) r Class 5. Crustacea.—Crustaceous Animals. To this class belong. Lobsters, Crabs, Cray-fish, Prawns, and Shrimps.— " They have a white, firm flesh, which contains much gelatine. In the mem- brane which encloses the calcareous shell, is found a resinous substance which in the living animals, is of a brownish-green colour, but becomes red bv'boilin"' From this matter proceeds the peculiar odour and taste of the broth of these ani- mals. The flesh is difficult of digestion ; the broth is stimulant. In febrile and inflammatory complaints their use is injurious." (Tiedemann, op supra cit 136.) A cutaneous eruption, and even colic, sometimes follew their ino-^tinn Several of the Crustacea are poisonous. r ingestion. Class 6. Mollusca.—Mollusks. The Oyster, the Mussel, the Periwinkle, the Cockle, the Whelk, and the SEEDS. 97 mrs. Minutes 2 55 3 15 3 30 3 30 Limpet, belong to this class.' The flesh of the Oyster was analyzed by Pas- quier, (Gmelin, Handb. d. Chem. ii. 1478.) who found it consists of water, 67-4; and of osmazome, mucus, albumen, fibrine, and gelatine, together, 12-6. It fur- nishes a delicious article of food; and is more digestible in the raw state than when cooked (by roasting, scalloping, or stewing) ; for the heat employed coagu- lates and hardens the albumen, and corrugates the fibrine, which are then less easily soluble in the gastric juice; and the heated butter, generally used as an accompaniment, adds still more to the indigestibility of the oyster. "The follow- ing are the mean times of digestion of oysters, according to the experiments of Dr. Beaumont:— Oysters, fresh, raw Oysters, fresh, roasted Oysters, fresh, stewed Oyster soup, boiled As far as my own personal observation extends, the finest raw oysters of the London market, usually called natives, rarely disagree even with dyspeptics; and Dr. Cullen declares oysters to be easy of digestion. Very opposite, however, is the experience of some other writers.3 Poisonous effects even have been ascribed to oysters. (See Christison's Treatise on Poisons.) Considering the enormous consumption of these animals, their supposed ill effects must be of extremely rare occurrence. The accuracy of the statement of Dr. Clarke, Trans, of the London College of Physicians, vol. v. p. 109.) that oysters, taken immediately after delivery, are apt to occasion apoplexies or convulsions, appears to me to be improbable. An aphrodisiac property is usually ascribed to oysters. These mollusks have been recommended in phthisis, and in some abdominal affections. The Mussel has on many occasions operated as a poison. (Christi- son, op. supra cit.) The Great or Vineyard Snail {Helix pomatia) is a popular remedy for emaciation, with hectic fever and phthisis, on account of its supposed nourishing qualities. (3. Vegetable Aliments. These may be arranged in eight classes:— 1. Seeds. 2. Fleshy fruits. 3. Roots, Subterranean Stems, anJ^Tubers. 4. Buds and Young Shoots. v^^ 5. Leaves and Leafstalks. ^*» 6. Receptacles and Bracts. 7. Stems. 8. Cryptogamia, or Flowerless Plants. Class 1. Semina.—Seeds. The Seeds used as food are of two kinds, farinaceous and oleaginous. I^Wbalv ok Farinaceous Seeds.—The most important of these are the CdfralGrains and Leguminous Seeds. The Chestnut also belongs to this kind of seeds. ^^.\ The nutritive^rjfliciples of the Cereal grains are Starch, Gluten, Gurn, and Sugar. Of these grains^none equal Wheat in nutritive qualities, which it owes to the large quantity of gluten which it contains. It yields the finest, whitest, 1 The mollusks just mentioned, and the crustaceous animals used as food, constitute the Shell Fish of the shops. Of course, strictly sueak^rjg, they are not fish at all. » Pearson, Pract. Synopsis of the Materia Alimentaria, Lond. 1808 ; Paris's Treatise on Diet, 5th ed. Lond. 1837. VOL. I. 9 98 elements of materia medica. and most digestible kind of bread. Oats are nutritive, but less so than wheat* Oatmeal « is especially the food of the people of Scotland, and was formerly mat of the northern parts of England ; countries which have always produced as healtrrv and as vigorous a race of men as any other in Europe." (Cullen s Materia Medica, vol. 1, p. 278.) Unfermented oat-bread, in those unaccustomed to it, is apt to occasion dyspepsia, with heart-burn, and was formerly thought to have a ten- dency to cause skin diseases, but without just grounds. Gruel is a mild, nutri- tious, and easily digested article of food, in fevers and inflammatory affections. It is well adapted for irritable conditions of the stomach. Barley, when deprived of the husk (which is slightly acrid and laxative,) is highly nutritious. Count Rumford {Essay on Feeding the Poor.) regards barley-meal, when used for soup, as three or four times as nutritious as wheat-flour. Barley-bread is said to be more difficult of digestion than wheaten bread. Barley-water is a mild, easily digestible liquid. Rye is nutritive, but less so than wheat. In those unaccus- tomed to it, rye-bread is apt to occasion diarrhoea, which Cullen ascribes to its readily becoming acescent. Rice is the ordinary sustenance of many oriental nations. Being less laxative than the other cereal grains, it is frequently pre- scribed, by medical men, as a light, digestible, uninjurious article of food, in diarrhoea and dysentery ; and, in consequence, it is, with the public, a reputed drying and astringent agent. Various ill effects, such as disordered vision, &c, have been ascribed to its use;1 but without any just- grounds. Neither does there appear to be any real foundation for the assertion of Dr. Tytler, {Lancet, 1833-4, vol. i.) that malignant cholera (which he calls morbus oryzeus!) is in- duced by it. Maize, or Indian Corn, is nutritive ; but, being deficient in gluten, is not adapted for manufacture into bread. It is apt to occasion diarrhoea in those unaccustomed to it. (Dunglison, Elements of Hygiene, p. 289. Philad. 1835.) In America, Asia, and some parts of Europe, it is used largely for human suste- nance.3 Millet, both common and Italian, is cultivated in Italy as an article of food. Sorghum, Durra, or Guinea Corn, is another of the cerealia employed, in some parts of Africa, as an article of food. Various foods are prepared from the meal or flour of the cerealia. The most important of these is Bread. 1. Bread.—There are two principal kinds of bread,—the one fermented or leavened, the other unfermented or unleavened. a. Fermented or leavened bread.—The best is that made from wheat, as I have before stated. Fine bread, prepared from flour only, is the most nutritive and digestible. That which con- tains the bran is laxative, and is used by persons troubled with habitual constipation. Rolls, and other kinds of fancy bread, are|jess digestible than the common loaf bread. All kinds, when eaten new, are injurious to dyspeptics. b. Unfermented or unleavened tread.—Biscuit is the best kind of unleavened bread, and some- times suits the stomach of the dyspeptic when leavened bread disagrees. That which is free from butter is to be preferred. 2. Pastry. Baked Paste.—The action of heat on the butter or lard used in the manufac ture of pastry, renders this compound highly injurious to the dyspeptic. "All pastry is an abomination/' justly observes Dr. Paris. " I verily believe," he adds, " that one half, at least, of the cases of indigestion which occur, after dinner-parties, may be traced lo this cause." 3. Puddings, Pancakes, &c.—" The most digestible pudding is that made with bread or biscuit and boiled flour: bailer pudding is not so easily digested; and suet pudding is to be con- sidered as the most mischievous to invalids in the whole catalogue. Pancake is obieltA&ble on account of the process of frying imparting a greasiness, to which the dyspeptic itnnvWi U not often reconciled." (Paris's Treatise on Diet, p. 233, 5th ed. 1837.) won"** Of the Leguminous Seeds, peas and beans are the best known. Their com- position, as determined by Einhof, is as follows:— 1 Bontius, Account of the Diseases, Natural History, etc. of the East Indies. Trancla.,,,1 • . ^, 17C9—Bricheteau, in Tortuelle's Elem. d-Hygiene, 4me ed. -translated into English, p. 129, a For farther particulars respecting Maize,consult Cobbett's Treatise on Cobbetr* n„~„ .-, . * cult, i.; Mem. de I'Acad. Roy de Med. t. ii. p. 206. Paris, 1833. Lorn • Q"<*«. Journ. Agri- SEEDS. 99 Peas Garden Bean Kidney Bear (Pisum sativum). (V icia Faba). (Phaseolus vulga Starch 32-45 . . 34-17 . 35-94 Amylaceous fibre 21-88 . , 15-89 . 11-07 Legumin 14-56 . . 10-66 20-18 Gum 6-37 . . 4-61 . 19-37 Albumen 1-72 . 081 1-35 Extractive matter 2-11 . 3-54 3-41 Membrane . — t 10-05. 7-50 Water 14-06 . , 15-63 (dried) Salts 6-56 . 3-46 0-55 Loss 0-29 . - 0-98 — 10000 100-00 100-00 Peas and beans are nutritious; but they are apt to disturb the digestive organs, and to occasion flatulence and colic. Their difficult digestibility increases with their age. When young, they are less nourishing, but more digestible. They are usually regarded at being somewhat stimulating and heating, and, therefore, not adapted for febrile and inflammatory affections. Their stimulant influence on horses is well known to veterinarians. The Chestnut possesses considerable nutritive power, and in Lombardy is used as food by the lower classes. Its sweetness, especially when roasted, indicates the presence of sugar. No oil can be obtained from it by pressure. In the raw state, it is very difficult of digestion : it requires to be cooked (roasted) to split the starch grains which it contains, and thereby to render them readily digestible. Dyspeptics should carefully avoid chestnuts, even in the cooked state. 2. Oily Seeds.—To this division belong the Almond,1 the Walnut, the Hazel- nut, the Cashew-nut, the Pistachio-nut, the Stone-Pine-nut, (Pignoli-Pine,) and the Cocoa-nut. These contain a quantity of fixed oil, which, while it confers on them great nutritive qualities, renders them very difficult of digestion. Their use should be carefully avoided bj' all dyspeptics. Class 2. Fleshy Fruits. A considerable number of the esculent fleshy fruits will be described in a sub- sequent part of this work : hence, a brief notice of them will be sufficient here. 1. Stone Fruits. DrupeQ—The Peach, the Apricot, the Nectarine, the Plum, and the Cherry, are the principal stone-fruits used in this country. They are usually regarded as difficult of digestion ; and the popular opinion is probably the correct one, for Dr. Beaumont found that from six to ten hours were required for the artificial digestion of peaches. They are apt to disorder the digestive organs, and to occasion griping and relaxation. 2. Pomaceous Fruits. Apples.—The Apple, the Pear, and the Quince, are difficult of digestion ; the Pear being the least so. 3. Baccate Fruits. Berries.—The Grape, the Gooseberry, and the Currant, are berries. Their skins (opicarps) and seeds are indigestible. The pulp is apt to relax the bowels. The Grape, if taken without the skin and seeds, is the safest of these fruits. ■1. Aurantiaceous Fruits. Hesperidium or Auraniium.—The Orange, the Lemon, the Citron, the Lime, and the Shaddock, belong to this group. The Orang<\ when unripe, is apt to cause griping; but when quite ripe, is rarely inadmissible : the seeds and white tissue of the rind should, however, be re- jected. 1 The properties of this seed, which may be taken as the type of the oily seeds, will be fully described in a subsequent part of this work. 100 elements of materia medica. 5. Cucurbitaceous Fruits. Pepones.—To this head belong the Melon, the Pumpkin, the Vegetable Marrow, and the Cucumber. They yield but little nutri- tive matter, and readily disagree with the dyspeptic. 6. Leguminous Fruits. Legumes.—The Tamarind contains but little nutri- ment. The legume of the Phaseolus vulgaris, or kidney-bean, is brought to the table when boiled. 7. Syconus.—Figs are nutritive, but are apt to occasion flatulence, griping, and relaxation of bowels, especially in children. 8. Sorosis.—The Mulberry yields but little nutritive matter, and readily dis- orders the bowels. The Pine-apple belongs to this division of fruits. 9. Et^erio__The fleshy receptacle of the Strawberry is not, for the most part, injurious; especially when the achenia (commonly termed seeds) are removed. Class 3. Roots, Subterranean Stems, and Tubers. The most important of these is the Potato ; which when in good condition and boiled, furnishes a highly nutritious and easily digested article of food. Potatoes are more palatable and nutritive when boiled so as to make them moderately soft, though not to injure their shape; but they are more digestible when boiled so as to be easily mashed. Waxy and new potatoes are less digestible than old mealy ones. Potatoes which have germinated, have sometimes proved noxious to cattle, and which is said to arise from the large quantity of solanina contained in the buds. The process of cooking potatoes is probably useful in two ways : it splits the starch grains, and thereby renders them readily digestible ; and secondly, it destroys or extracts some noxious matter. The latter circumstance seems proved by the fact, that the water in which potatoes have been boiled, has, on some occa- sions, been found to possess poisonous properties. Of the Cruciferous or Siliquose roots used as food, the Turnip contains the most nourishment, and is readily digested, though occasionally it creates flatu- lence. The Umbelliferous roofs, in common use, are the Carrot and'the Parsnip. These are saccharine, and slightly nutritive; but the volatile oil which they con- tain, renders their flavour unpleasant to many persons, and causes them to be apt to disagree with dyspeptics. Class 4. Buds and Young Shoots. Onions, Leeks, Garlic, and the Shallot, are usually ranked among roots. They are, however, subterranean buds, with thick and fleshy scales. When deprived, by boiling, of their acrid volatile oil, they are slightly nutritive. The young shoots of Asparagus are nourishing. ." When eaten, they communi- cate a peculiar odour to the urine. The melted butter eaten with them is inju- rious to the dyspeptic. Class 5. Leaves and Leaf Stalks. The herbaceous part of the Water-Cress, the leaves of Lettuce and of Endive, and the seed-leaves of White Mustard and Common Cress, are eaten raw under the name of salads {Acetaria,) with the addition of vinegar, oil, salt, and pepper. They yield very little nourishment. The Cabbage, the Cauliflower, Broccoli, the Savoy, Spinach, &c, are employed only when boiled. They are apt lo disagree with dyspeptics. Spinach usually relaxes the bowels. The stalks of Rhubarb leaves are used for tarts and puddings. Their use is objectionable when there is a tendency to oxalate of lime calculi. " I have seen " observes Dr. Prout, {Op. supra cit. p. 65.) " well-marked instances in which a'n oxalate of lime nephritic attack has followed the free use of rhubarb, (in the shape of tarts, &c), particularly when the patient has been in the habit, at the same time, of drinking hard water" Class 6. Receptacles and Bracts. The fleshy receptacle and bracts of the Artichoke are jised as food. drinks. 101 Class 7. Stems. From the stems of several Cycadaceae, as well as of some Palms, is obtained a farinaceous substance, which is employed, in the countries where iuis procured, as an article of food. Sago is procured from this source. Class 8. Cryptogamia.—Flowerless Plants. No important articles of food are obtained from this class. 1. Ferns.—Erom the rhizomes of ferns is obtained, in some of the Polynesian islands, as well as in some other parts of the world, a farinaceous or ligneous matter, which is employed by the natives as a nutritive substance. (Tiede°mann, op. supra cit. p. 203.) 2. Lichens.—Several species of Gyrophora (as G. proboscidea and cylindrica) are employed by the hunters of the Arctic regions of America as articles of food, under the name of'tripederoche. They supported Captain Sir John Franklin and his companions, in 1821, for many days. The bitter principle of these plants, however, proved noxious to several of the party. {Narrative ofa Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea. Lond. 1823.) Iceland moss also yields nutritive mat- ter ; but, to be available as food, the bitter matter of the lichen must be sepa- rated. 3. Alg^. Sea Weeds.—Several species of the inarticulated Algce are occa- sionally employed, in some parts of the British islands, as articles of food, or as condimentary substances. (See Greville's Alga Britannicce. Edinb. 1830.) Laver is sometimes met with in the London shops. 4. Fungi. Mushrooms.—Though a considerable number of species of fungi are edible—in fact several form delicious articles of food—a small number only is in common use in this country. This has arisen, in great measure, from the difficulty experienced by the public in discriminating wholesome from poisonous species. Nay, it would appear that the same species is under some circumstances edible, under others deleterious. This, if true, is a very proper ground for dis- trust. " So strongly did the late Professor L. C. Richard feel the prudence of this, that although no one was better acquainted with the distinctions of fungi, he would never eat any, except such as had been raised in gardens in mushroom beds." (Lindley, Nat. Syst. of Bot. 2d edit. p. 442.) The edible species in most common use in this country are, 1st. Agaricus campestris, {common field or cultivated mushroom?) which, in the adult state, is employed in the prepara- tion of ketchup, and is eaten fresh, either stewed or broiled; the young or button mushroom is pickled. 2dly. Morchella esculenta, {common morel,) employed to flavour gravies, ragouts, &c. 3dly. Tuber cibarium, {common truffle?) a sub- terraneous fungus, used for seasoning. No less than thirty-three species of fungi are eaten in Russia. (Dr. Lefrere, Lond. Med. Gaz. xxiii. p. 414.) b. Pot u lent a. — Drinks. The liquids taken by the mouth to quench thirst, are denominated drinks. Of these, a very brief notice is all that can be given here. Several of them will be more fully noticed in subsequent parts of this work. 1. AauA. Water.—This is probably the natural drink of all adults. It is a vital stimulus, and is more essential to our existence than aliment. It serves at least three important purposes in the animal economy : firstly, it repairs the loss of the aqueous part of the blood, caused by the action of the secreting and ex- haling organs; secondly, it is a solvent of various alimentary substances, and, therefore, assists the stomach in the act of digestion, though, if taken in very large quantities, it may have an opposite effect, by diluting the gastric juice; thirdly, it is probably a nutritive agent,—that is, it assists in the formation of the solid parts of the body. From the latter opinion, which I hold with Count Rum- ford, {Essays, vol. i. p. 194, 5th ed. 1800.) many, however, will be disposed to dissent. 9* 102 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. Soft water is to be preferred as a drink to hard water, because it is a better solvent of vegetable and animal matters; and, farthermore, because the continued ingestion of the saline constituents of hard water may slowly prove injurious in some' diseases. The presence of decomposing organic matter renders water highly noxious. Dr. Lambe1 considered iL to be the cause of various constitu- tional diseases, and hence he advocated the use of distilled water; but of the accuracy of his opinion we have not sufficient evidence. The obvious effect which results from the use of water containing putrescent matter, is dysentery.2 It is a curious, but well-established fact, that pure water more readily acquires a metallic impregnation from leaden cisterns or pipes, than hard water. Distilled water, aided by atmospheric air, readily corrodes lead: but if a neutral salt, as chloride of sodium or sulphate of soda, be added to the water, the corrosive action is impaired. Hence, rain-water is more apt than well-water to become impreg- nated with lead. 2. Toast-Water.—Water is rendered much more palatable and agreeable when impregnated with toasted bread or biscuit. The toast communicates to it a little gum, and an empyreumatic matter. From the latter the water acquires colour and flavour. 3. Tea.—Notwithstanding the extensive employment of tea in this country, it is no easy matter to ascertain its precise effects on the system. Its astringency is fully proved by its chemical properties. Its peculiar influence over the ner- vous system, and which is especially manifested after the use of green tea, is another well-established effect. This-influence is, in some respects, somewhat allied to that exercised by fox-glove: for both tea and fox-glove diminish the tendency to sleep, and act as sedatives to the vascular system. Hence, tea is employed as a drink by those who are accustomed to nocturnal study. Strong green tea, taken in large quantities, is capable, in some constitutions, of pro- ducing most distressing feelings ; (Dr. E. PerciVal, Dubl. Hosp. Reports, vol. i. p. 219.) and of operating as a narcotic. Part of the effects sometimes ascribed to it are referrible to the water, the temperature at which it is swallowed, or to the substances (milk and sugar) added to it. Weak tea rarely disagrees with the invalid, and is admissible and refreshing in a variety of maladies. It is well adapted for febrile and inflammatory complaints; and is particularly valuable when we are desirous of diminishing a tendency to sleep. 4. Coffee is a tonic and stimulating drink. It occasions thirst, and not unfrequently disorders the bowels. It is usually described as having constipating effects; but I know two individuals on whom it has a relaxing effect. It pos- sesses anti-soporific powers, and is used, therefore, by those who desire nocturnal study. 5. Chicory, or Succory, yields a wholesome beverage, but which wants the fine aromatic flavour for which coffee is so celebrated. I am informed, however, that the flavour of coffee mixed with chicory is preferred by some persons to that of unmixed coffee. 6. Chocolate is a very nourishing beverage, devoid of some of the ill qualities ascribed to tea and coffee ; but, on account of the oil which enters into its composi- tion, it is difficult of digestion, and is apt to disagree with dyspeptics. 7. Coco is less oily, and being somewhat astringent, is adapted for persons with relaxed bowels. 8. Beer. Malt Liquor.—Under this head are included Ale, Stout, Porter and the weaker kinds of beer, commonly known as Table or Small Beer. All 1 A Medical and Experimental Inquiry into the Origin, Symptoms, and Cure of Constitutional Disc Lond. 1805. a Dr. Cheyne, in the Dublin Hospital Reports, vol. iii. p. 11.—Dr. Copland's Did. of Pract Med art rt tery, p. 698-99.—At the Nottingham Assizes, in 1836, it was proved at a trial, on which I was a witnes th"! dysentery, in an aggravated form, was caused in cattle by the use of water contaminated with oi t • t vegetable matter, produced by the refuse of a starch manufactory. (See a brief renm-t nf .v,o P.uu^sc<;nt Veterinarian for 1836. p. 457.1 P°U °f lhe tr,al ,n tne DRINKS. 103 these are fermented decoctions of malt and hops. follows :— Their specific gravity is as Sp. gr. Sp. g de, Burton, 1st sort, 1-111 to 1-120 Porter, common sort, 1-050 " " 2d sort, 1-097 to 1-111 " double, - - 1-055 » " 3d sort, 1-077 to 1-092 Brown Stout, • - 1-064 " Common, - - - 1-070 to 1-073 " " ditto best 1-072 Beer, common small, 1-014 " good table, - 1-033 to 1 •039 Beer consists of water, alcohol, lupulite (the bitter principle of hops), volatile oil of hops, gum, sugar, gluten, brown extractive, a small portion of tannic acid, carbonic acid, and the phosphates of lime and magnesia, held in solution by plws- phoric and acetic acids. The quantity of alcohol in beer is as follows:— Proportion of spirit (sp. gr. 0-825) Ditto, per cent. per cent, by Measure. by Weight. 8-88 .... 7-326 6-87 .... 5-667 6-80 .... 5-610 4-20 .... 3-465 1-28 .... 1-056 Ale, Burton, - " average, - Brown Stout, - London Porter (average) " Small Beer, By distillation the alcohol may be readily separated. On evaporation, beer furnishes a brown extractiform residue. Beer differs from wine in several important particulars. Thus, it contains a much larger quantity of nutritive matter, and a considerably less proportion of alcohol; but it has, in addition, a peculiar bitter and narcotic substance. That its inebriating quality does not wholly depend on the alcohol which it contains, is shown by comparing the quantity of spirit obtained by Mr. Brande, from brandy, wine, and porter. From his experiments, it appears that the same quantity of spirit is contained in the following quantities of wine, brandy, and beer:— ron wine, -Claret, . . 0.-UU 1-52 Champagne, - - . 1-82 Brandy, . . 0-43 Burton Ale, - - . 2-58 London Porter, . . 5-46 Small Beer, - - . - 1816 Now, if the intoxicating quality of beer depended on the spirit merely, the effect of five and a half pints of London porter, or two and a half pints of Burton ale, should be equal only to that of a pint of port wine; whereas its actual ine- briating power greatly exceeds this. That beer is nutritive, and, when used in moderation, salubrious, can scarcely be doubted. It proves a refreshing drink, and an agreeable and valuable stimulus and support, to those who have to undergo much bodily fatigue. The poor labourer who has repeatedly experienced its invigorating property, will by no means admit the truth of Dr. Franklin's assertion, {Select Works, by W. T. Franklin, vol. i. p. 36. Lond. 1818.) that a penny loaf and a pint of water yield more nourish- ment than a pint of beer. The hop operates as a tonic, and assists digestion. With dyspeptics, beer, as well as other fermented liquors, are very apt to disagree. By them, therefore, its use should be carefully avoided. Farthermore, it is objec- tionable for those liable to lithic acid deposits, and for plethoric persons who have a tendency to apoplexy. The difference between ale and porter deserves a slight notice. The first is pale-coloured and sweetish, being prepared from pale or amber-coloured malt, 104 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. which contains a large quantity of saccharine matter. Porter, on the °[}^er a. ' is deep-coloured and devoid of any sweet taste. It is prepared from high anea or rather charred malt, which has had its saccharine matter destroyed by near. Hence, ale is more objectionable for diabetic and dyspeptic patients than Por^r- From this statement we ought perhaps to except the ales prepared for the Jna.a market, which are free from"saccharine matter, and contain double the usual pro- portion of hops. (See Prout, op. supra cit. p. 44.) . .... 9. WiNEs.LjAannot be denied, that the most perfect health is compatible with total abstinence from wine; and that from the use of this liquid various ais- eases have been produced, kept up, or aggravated. I am by no means, however disposed to deny the accuracy of the statement of Dr. Paris, {Treatise on Diet p. 268, 5th ed.) that «there exists no evidence to prove that a temperate use of good wine, when taken at seasonable hours, has ever proved injurious to healthy adults;" since he has so qualified this sentence, that in any cases where ill effects appear to result from the use of wine by adults, they may safely be ascribed to the non-fulfilment of some of the conditions here mentioned,—(viz. the temperate use of wine,—the goodness of the liquor,—the seasonable time of taking it,—or the health of the individual). ... It must be admitted, that the most perfect health is compatible with the mode- rate enjoyment of wine, and that many individuals who attain a good old age, have, during a considerable period of their life, been in the habit of using wine daily. Moreover, persons who have been accustomed to the temperate use of wine, are likely to suffer if deprived of their accustomed stimulus. In a subse- quent part of this work, some remarks will be offered on the different qualities of different wines, and their medicinal uses. I shall merely remark here, that in forming an opinion as to the kind of wine best adapted for the dietetical use of our patients, we should consider its colour, its alcoholic strength and intoxicating property, its sweetness, the nature and quantity of acid which it contains, and its age. The red wines contain more extractive and colouring matters, (derived from the husk of the grape,) which are apt to disagree with some dyspeptics. With regard to its alcoholic strength and intoxicating quality, it deserves to be espe- cially remembered that the inebriating property of wine is not proportional to the quantity of contained alcohol; since champagne is more intoxicating, though less alcoholic, than port wine. (See p. 103.) Its sweetness requires especial conside- ration in dyspeptic and urinary diseases; in some of which, (as in diabetes,) the employment of saccharine matter is highly objectionable. Without adopting the prejudices of Sir A. Carlisle, {Essay on tlie Disorders of Old Age,) against the use of acids, it cannot be doubted that the employment of acid wines (as claret and hock) is calculated to prove, on many occasions, injurious; and in such cases sherry is used in preference to other wines. In phosphatic urinary deposits, however, they prove serviceable. By keeping, wine deposits bitartrate of potash, and colouring and extractive matters, which are very apt to disagree with some patients. Hence old wines are to be preferred to new ones. 10. Ardent Spirits.—Brandy, Rum, Gin, and Whisky, are the ardent spirits most frequently used in this country. Various compounded spirits (those im- ported are termed Liqueurs) are also employed as cordials. The injurious effects of spirit will be pointed out in a subsequent part of this work. I shall here con- fine my attention to its dietetical use. Brandy is frequently used at the table, as a gastric stimulant, to promote the digestion of substances difficult of solution in the juices of the stomach, as the oily fish. That various uneasy sensations, re- ferred to the scrobiculis cordis, are often relieved by it, cannot be denied ; but of the existence of any other benefit we may fairly doubt; while the ill consequences of frequently resorting to spirit are undoubted. Dr. Paris states that in some cases of dyspepsia, wine and beer equally disagree with the stomach, producing acidity and other distressing symptoms; and in such, he observes, "very weak spirit may, perhaps, be taken with advantage." In confirmation of the accuracy CONDIMENTS. 105 of the observation I can bear testimony ; having repeatedly found the substitution of a very weak spirit preferable to fermented liquors. 11. Carbonic Acid Waters.—To this head belong Soda Water, Ginger Beer, and Effervescing Lemonade. These are refreshing, grateful beverages; though by distending the stomach with gaseous air, they must prove injurious to'the process of digestion. 12. Acidulated Waters.—Lemonade and imperial are pleasant, refreshing drinks, which, however, are apt to disagree with dyspeptics. 13. Saccharine and Mucilaginous Drinks.—Sugar-water and Gum-water are also liable to disturb the stomach of the dyspeptic. 14. Infusions or Decoctions of Animal Substances.—Under this head are included Beef Tea, Mutton, Veal, and Chicken Broths, and Soups. Beef Tea is a light, pleasant, and slightly nutritive article of diet, adapted for invalids. Spices are sometimes advantageously added to it. Mutton Broth is apt to disagree with persons having delicate stomachs, especially if the fat be not skimmed from it. It is frequently given to promote the operation of purgative medicine. Chicken Broth is the least disposed to disturb the stomach of all the animal decoctions. It is especially adapted for invalids with great irritability of stomach. Veal Broth is less frequently used. Soups are not adapted for invalids. Their basis is gelatine, whose nutritive qualities have been already described. (See p. 91.) 15. Gruel and Barley Water—Gruel is prepared from groats or oatmeal. It is a bland, nutritious, easily digestible, emollient liquid, well adapted for the use of invalids, and rarely disturbing the stomach. Sugar, lemon juice, aroma- tics, or butter, are frequently added, but they (especially butter) are by no means generally admissible. Barley Water is a thinner, less viscid liquid. It is used as a mild, demulcent, slightly nutritive drink, for invalids, in feeble and inflam- matory disorders. 16. Milk.—Milk is the natural drink of man during the first period of his in- fancy. Its nutritive qualities have been already noticed. (See p. 93.) On account of the butter which it contains, it is apt to disagree with some adults : in common language, it sometimes lies heavy at the stomach. Cream is still more injurious. Whey is an agreeable beverage. c Condimenta. — Condiments. These are substances which are taken with the food to improve its flavour, to promote its digestion, or to correct any injurious quality which it may possess. Some of them are also nutritive. 1. Saline Condiments.—Common salt, or the chloride of sodium, is the only saline condiment essential to health. It is taken by man, as well as by many animals, on account of its agreeable flavour ; but the existence ofa greater or less appetite for it, in all individuals, appears to me to show that this substance must serve some more important uses in the animal economy than that of merely gra- tifying the palate. In considering these, we observe, in the first place, that it is an essential constituent of the blood, which fluid probably owes some of its essen- tial properties to its saline matter. Now as the blood is constantly losing part of its saline particles by the secretions (the tears, bile, &c.), the daily loss is re- paired by the employment of chloride of sodium as a condiment. In the second place, the free hydrochloric acid found in the stomach, and which forms an essen- tial constituent o'f the gastric juice, is obviously derived from the salt taken with our food. Thirdly, the soda of the blood, and of some of the secretions, is doubt- less obtained from the decomposition, in the system, of common salt. These are some (probably only a portion) of the uses which chloride of sodium serves in the animal economy. It deserves especial notice, that while salt is thus essen- 106 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. tial to health, the continued use of salted provisions is injurious. But their noxious quality is probably to be referred rather to the meat, whose physical and chemical qualities are altered, than to the presence of the salt; though we can readily con- ceive that an excessive use of salt, or of any other article of food, will be follow- ed by injurious consequences. However relishing salted fish (as anchovies, her- rings, cod, &c), may be, they are difficult of digestion. 2. Acidulous Condiments.—Vinegar is a grateful condiment, and is used either alone, or with pickles. When taken in small quantities, it is quite wholesome. It allays thirst, and operates as a refrigerant. It probably promotes digestion, not merely by the stimulus which it communicates to the stomach, but by its power of dissolving several alimentary principles,—as fibrine, albumen, and gelatine. The frequent use of it is supposed lo diminish obesity. It checks the secretion of milk, and at the same time injures the quality of this liquid. Lemon juice, or a solution of citric acid, is an acidulous condiment. 3. Aromatic and Pungent Condiments—This division includes the spices (as Pepper, Nutmegs, &c), the savoury herbs of the family Labiatse as (Thyme, Sage, &c), some Umbelliferous fruits (as Caraway,) several products of the family Cruciferae (as Mustard, Horse-radish, &c), and the alliaceous substances (as Onions, Garlic, &c.) They are employed as condiments, partly for their flavour, and partly to promote the digestion of some kinds of food which experience has shown are not by themselves easily or readily digested. Moreover, the cruciferous and alliaceous condiments are esteemed anti-scorbutics. By the inhabitants of the torrid zone they are extensively used to counteract the debilitating influence of heat, as already mentioned. (See p. 55.) In tem- perate climates their employment is not so important; on the contrary, their copi- ous use is injurious. 4. Oily Condiments.—Butter and oil are used at the table as condiments. Their general effects, as nutritive substances, have been already noticed. (See p. 89.) They become more difficult of digestion and more noxious to the dys- peptic, in proportion to the heat to which they are subjected in the process of cooking. 5. Saccharine Condiments.—Sugar, honey, and treacle, are employed as condiments. The nutritive properties of saccharine substances have been before noticed. (See p. 86.) When taken in small quantities, and largely diluted, as in tea, coffee, &c, sugar is said to be very apt to disagree, and give rise to flatu- lency and gastric uneasiness. Used in the form of preserves, it is also apt to disorder the stomach of dyspeptics. Under the name of Sauces, are used at the table mixtures of various condiments. Ketchup (made from either Mushrooms or Walnuts,) Soy, and Essence of Anchovies, are those which are most frequently employed. Salt and spices are essential ingredients of them. Vinegar is also a constituent of some. Dietetical Regimen. In the treatment of many diseases, attention to diet is a point of considerable importance. In none is it more necessary than in non-febrile disorders of the digestive and urinary organs. In acute maladies, in which abstinence or low diet is requisite, there is usually no disposition to take food : on the contrary, solids of all kinds are generally loathed. In such cases, therefore, there is less chance of any error of diet being committed. Dietetical regimen is more important in chronic diseases of the assimilating organs, in which the appetite is unimpaired, or even increased,—since in such the patient is more apt to overstep the bounds of prudence, by the employment of a diet, improper either from the quantity or quality of the food used. In chronic local diseases, when the constitution is un- impaired and the appetite for food remains natural, I would by no means advo- cate the adoption of a spare or low diet; since I believe that in such cases the dietetical regimen, 107 indulgence of a moderate appetite for plain food, is attended with beneficial re- sults. From this statement, however, maladies affecting the organs of assimila- lion must be excepted. Several diets or kinds of dietetical regimen are employed in the treatment of diseases. The most important of these are the following :— 1. Animal Diet.—This term is applied to a diet composed of animal food, either exclusively or principally. The only disease, in which a diet exclusively of animal food is recommended, is diabetes. In this malady, strict abstinence from vegetable substances is attended with the diminution or cessation of the saccharine condition of the urine, and a reduction in the quantity of this fluid passed. It deserves especial notice, that the quantity, as well as the quality, of the food taken in this disease, requires to be carefully attended to, as the craving for food is apt to induce the patient to indulge to an injurious extent. As an ex- ample of a dietary of animal food for a diabetic patient, 1 select the following, adopted by Dr. Christison, {Edinb. Monthly Journal, April, 1841, p. 236.) for a patient in the Edinburgh Infirmary:— Ounces of dry nutritive principles contained * Ounces. therein.1 Fresh Meat 40 10-8 Cheese 2 2-0 Two Eggs — 1-0 New Milk 48 8-0 Beef Tea 16 0-25 Total . 22-05 In a second case only 20 oz. of meat were allowed. In private practice, it will be convenient to allow other kinds of animal food in addition to the foregoing: as butler, chicken, sausages, fish, shell-fish, brawn, and poultry. For common drink, water, or beef-tea, or mutton-broth, may be spar- ingly allowed.3 The beneficial effects of a diet of animal substances exclusively in diabetes is, in most cases, temporary only; while its rigorous adoption is apt to be attended with febrile or inflammatory affections.3 Moreover, a difficulty in its employ- ment is often found in the inordinate craving for vegetable substances, and the loathing of animal food, experienced by the patient. Hence most practitioners have permitted the use of a limited quantity of farinaceous food, in the form of biscuit or bread. Rice may be occasionally admitted. Arrow-root, potatoes, and other low kinds of farinaceous substances, are less proper. Dr. Prout recom- mends sound porter in preference to wine or spirits. In several other maladies the use of animal substances chiefly has been advised ; as in the oxalate of lime diathesis, and in scrofula. Farthermore, it is admissible in other cases, where we are desirous of employing a highly nutritious and sti- mulating diet. 2. Vegetable Diet.—The exclusive employment of vegetable foods has been very rarely adopted. It has been eloquently advocated by Dr. Lambe,4 who re- commends it, in conjunction with the use of distilled water, as a remedy for cancer, scrofula, consumption, asthma, and other chronic diseases; but he has, I suspect, gained few, if any, proselytes to his opinions and practice. 1 The quantities stated in this column appear to me too high. They are taken from Dr. Christison's state- ment at p. 240, op. supra cit. a For some further remarks on the use of animal diet in diabetes, see p. 89 and 90. 3 Dr. Marsh, in the Dublin Hospital Reports, vol. iii. p. 453, 1S'J2. * Reports of the Effects of a Peculiar Regimen on Scirrhous Tumours and Cancerous Ulcers. Lond. 1809. Additional Reports on the Effects of a Peculiar Regimen in cases of Cancer, Scrofula, Consumption, Asthma, and other Chronic Diseases. Lond. 1815. 108 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. The term spare or abstemious diet is sometimes used to indicate the employ- ment of vegetable substances principally (not exclusively). It generally includes the use of the white fish, sometimes alternating with a limited quantity of Pou'try or butcher's meat. In plethoric habits, where the appetite is unimpaired, this diet is ordered in cases of threatened apoplexy, gout, &c. By its adoption we diminish the quantity of nutritive matter supplied to the system, while we keep the diges- tive organs actively employed. • • 1 ,-i c 3. Milk DiET.-Besides cow's milk, which constitutes the pnnc.pal article of food, this diet includes the use of farinaceous substances (such as arrow -root, sago, and tapioca,) bread, and light puddings (of rice, bread, or batter.) , Milk diet is ordered when we are desirous of affording support to the system with the least possible stimulus or excitement. It is well adapted for inflammatory diseases of the chest (phthisis especially,) of the alimentary canal, and of the bladder, when it is considered expedient to employ a nutritious but not stimulating diet. After hemorrhages, when the powers of the system have been greatly exhausted, a milk diet is frequently beneficial. It has also been considered one of the best means of preventing and of curing the gout. It is a good diet also for many of the diseases of children, especially those of a strumous or scrofulous nature. In some of the above-mentioned maladies, where the stomach is weak and irritable, cow's milk is apt to occasion vomiting and other unpleasant effects, in consequence of the butter which it contains. In such cases, skim-milk or ass's milk may be advantage- ously substituted. 4. Low Diet.—In acute inflammation, in fever, and after serious accidents, surgical operations, and parturition, patients are directed to adopt a low diet, con- sisling principally of the use of slops (as tea, toast-water, barley-water, and weak broth). Small quantities of milk and farinaceous matters (in the form of bread, arrow-root, or tapioca, gruel, and light pudding) are sometimes permitted. The terms, thin diet, spoon diet, fever diet, simple diet, and broth diet, are applied to particular modifications of low diet. 5. Full or Common Diet.—On many occasions where it is desirable to re- store or support the powers of the system, patients are permitted to satisfy their appetite for plain vegetable and animal food. In many indolent diseases, in scro- fula, in some affections of the nervous system (as chorea and epilepsy,) and in the stage of convalescence after acute diseases, &c, this kind of diet is frequently directed. In these cases beer is usually permitted. Wine, and even ardent spirit, are sometimes required. In some diseases of, and in accidents occurring in, confirmed drunkards, it is frequently found injurious to withhold the stimulus to which the patient's system has been long accustomed ; and thus, wine, brandy, rum, or gin, is ordered, according to circumstances. In concluding these remarks on the subject of dietetical regimen, I have thought it advisable to give a tabular view of the Diets employed at the different hospitals of this metropolis.1 1 The Diet-tables of the County, Scotch, and Irish hospitals, will be found in Dunglison's New Dictionary of Medical Science, art. Diet, p. 233. Philadelphia, 1842. DIET-TABLES OF THE LONDON HOSPITALS. 109 DIET-TABLES PF TBE LONDON HOSPITALS. %* In addition to the substances specified in the following Tables, other articles (as chops, steaks, fish, wine, spirit, porter, &c.) are permitted, when specially ordered by the medical officers. These are denominated extras. LONDON HOSPITAL. Per Day.. Breakfast. Dinner. Common Diet. ! oz. Bread. r pts. Beer, Men. pint, Women. rnel. oz. Beef, with Po- tatoes, thrice a week.' oz. Mutton, with Potatoes, twice a week. oz. Potatoes and Soup, with Vege- tables, twice a week. pint Broth. Middle Diet. The same, except that 4 oz. of meat shall be given, in- stead of 8 oz. Low Diet. 8 oz. Bread. Gruel. Gruel or Broth. Milk Diet. 12 oz. Bread. Gruel. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Milk. ST. BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL. f Meat Diet. Broth Diet. Thin or Fever Diet. Milk Diet. Milk Porridge. 12 oz. Bread. 6 oz. Mutton or Beef 1 pint Broth, [with Peas or Potatoes, 4 times a week] 2 pints Beer, Men. 1 pint. Women. 1 oz. Butter, twice a week. Milk Porridge. 12 oz. Bread. 2 pints Broth. 1 pint Beer. 1 oz. Butter. Milk Porridge. 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint of Milk, with Tapioca, Arrow-root, Sago, or Rice, as may be pre-scribed. Barley water. Milk Porridge. 12 oz. Bread. 2pts. Milk, with Ta-pioca, Arrow-root, Sago, or rice, as may be prescribed. Barley water. 1 oz. Butter. Bread Pudding, 3 times a week, when ordered. GUY'S HOSPITAL. Daily. Full Diet. 14 oz. Bread. 1£ oz. Butter. 1 quart Table Beer. 4 oz. Meat, when dressed. Middle Diet. 12 oz. Bread. 1J oz. Butter. ) pt. Table Beer. 4 oz. Meat, when dressed, and & pint Broth. Low Diet. 12 oz. Bread. 1 oz. Butter. Tea and Sugar. Milk Diet. 12 oz. Bread. 1 oz. Butter. 2 pints Milk. Fever Diet. 6 oz. Bread. 1 oz. Butter. Tea and Sugar. Haifa pound of Beef (for Beef tea), or Arrow-root or Sago, when ordered. For each diet, Gruel or Barley-Water, as required. NORTH LONDON HOSPITAL. f Full Diet. 16 oz. Bread. J pint Milk. Jib. Meat and}lb. Potatoes fourdays. 1 pin( Soup or Rice three days. Middle Diet. Low Diet. Milk Diet. 16 oz. Bread. i pint Milk. 1 pint Soup or Rice. 8 oz. Bread. a pint Milk. Oatmeal for Gruel. 16 oz. Bread. 2 pints Milk. VOL. I. 10 110 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. ST. THOMAS'S HOSPITAL. Daily..... Breakfast. Dinner............■{ Supper. Full Diet. 2 pints of Beer. 14 oz. of Bread. Water Gruel. i lb. of Beef, when dress'd twice a week; 4 oz. of Butler, or 6 oz. of Cheese, thrice a week; £ lb. Mut- ton, when boiled, thrice a week. 1 pint Broth, four times a week. Milk Diet. Dry Diet. 12 oz. of Bread. 1 pint of Milk. 1 pint of Milk four times a week. Rice Pudding thrice a week. 1 pint of Milk. 14 oz. of Bread. 2 pints of Beer. Water Gruel. 4 oz. of Butter four times a week; Rice Pudding and four oz. of Butler, three times a week Fever Diet. 12 oz. of Bread, 2 pints of Beer. Water Gruel. J of a lb. of Beef for tea. ST. GEORGE'S HOSPITAL. f 1 1 I Extra Diet. Ordinary Diet. Fish Diet. Fever Diet. Broth Diet. Milk Diet. 12 oz. Bread. Men. 2 pints Beer. Women. Ii pints Beer. 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Beer. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. Barley Water ad libitum. 12 oz. Bread. 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Tea. i pint Milk. 1 pint Tea. i pint Milk. 1 pint Tea. j pint Milk, 1 pint Tea. j- pint Milk. 1 pint Tea. i pint Milk. 1 pint Tea. i pint Milk. f 12 oz. Meat, roasted, (weighed with the bone be-fore it is dress-ed) four days, —boiled three days. ilb. Potatoes. One half the meat allowed for extra diet. | lb. Potatoes. 4 oz. of plain boiled white fish (as Whit-ing, Plaice, Flounders, or Haddock). Arrow-root, &.c. must be especially ordered. i pint Broth. 6 oz. light Pudding. H pints Rice. Milkfourdays. £ lb. Bread or Rice Pudding three days. Supper.......J 1 pint Gruel. i pint Milk. 1 pint Gruel. i pint Milk. 1 pint Gruel. i pint Milk. 1 pint Tea. i pint Milk. 1 pint Gruel. i pint Milk. i pint Milk. WESTMINSTER HOSPITAL. Full Diet. Middle Diet. Low Diet. Fixed. 1 lb. Bread. 1 pintofTea, with Sugar and Milk. Casual. Breakfast. • • • < 1 pint Milk Porridge, or Rice Gruel. 1 pint. Milk Porridge, or thin Gruel. | lb. Meat, roasted, boiled, or chops. Jib. Potatoes. i lb. Meat, roasted, boiled, or chops. J lb. Potatoes. No fixed diet for Dinner. 1 pint of broth, or £ pound of Bread or Rice Pudding, orl pt. Beef Tea, or a Chop, or Fish. 1 pint Milk Porridge, or Rice Gruel. 1 pint Milk Porridge, or thin Gruel. 1 pint Tea, with Sugar and Milk. -- Spoon or Fever Diet. J lb. Bread. 1 pint Tea, with Sugar and Milk. Barley Water. 1 pint Tea, with Sugar and Milk. Incurables' Diet. i lb. Bread. i lb. Meat. & lb. Potatoes. £ pint Milk. 1 pint Porter. DIKT-TABLES OF THE LONDON HOSPITALS. Ill MIDDLESEX HOSPITAL. Daily..... Breakfast. Dinner. Supper- Diceta Carnis, or 'Diata Jusculi, Diceta Lactis, Dia>Ja Simplex QanCpT n;et Meat Diet. | or Soup Diet, or Milk Diet, or Simple DietJ 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Milk. ' Physicians' Patients. J lb. Potatoes, 4 oz. dressed meat (beef or mutton), roast and boiled alter- nately, 4 days. 4 oz. Meat in Soup, 3 days. Surgeons' Patients. J lb. Potatoes, 4 oz. dressed meat (beef or mutton), roast and boiled alter- nately. 1 pint Gruel, alter- nately with 1 pint of Barley Water. 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint of Soup, made with 4 oz. Beef, alter- nately with 1 pint of Broth with Barley. 1 pint Gruel. 12 oz. Bread. 1 pint Milk. i pt. Milk, with Rice Pudding, four days, and with Batter Pudding three days. Jpint Milk, or 1 pint Gruel. 1 pint Barley Water. 1 pint Gruel. 12 oz. Bread. i lb. Meat. I lb. Potatoes. 1 pint Milk. I pint of Gruel or Barley water. KING'S COLLEGE HOSPITAL. Full Diet. Middle Diet. Milk Diet. Low Diet. Fever Diet. 1 pint Beer, or £ pint Porter. 14 oz. Bread. 1 pint Milk Por-ridge. i lb. Meat. i lb. Potatoes. 1 pint Milk Por-ridge. 14 oz. Bread. 1 pint Milk Porridge. i lb. Meat. i lb. Potatoes. 1 pint Milk Porridge. 1 lb. Bread. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Milk. 1 pint Gruel. 8 oz. Bread. 1 pint Gruel. 1 pint Broth. 1 pint Milk Porridge. 1 pint Gruel. 2 pints Barley Water. 1 pint Milk Porridge. 2. Exercitatio.—Exercise. (Gymnastics.) Exercise is an important hygienic agent. Its proper consideration, however, requires far more space than can be devoted to it in this work. I must, therefore, content myself with a few remarks on its general effects, and refer the reader to some treatises in which it is more fully considered. Though the word exercise, in its most extensive signification, has reference to the action of all the organs of the animal economy, yet it is usually limited to those of locomotion ; and in this sense I employ it. The exercise of the muscular system is followed by several marked effects :— of these, the first to be noticed are mechanical. Whenever the muscles are called into activity, they exert a local influence, ofa mechanical kind, on the blood-vessels 112 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. ia their immediate vicinity, and accelerate the circulation of the blood. This is followed by an augmentation of the animal heat; and, if the exercise be of a kind to call into activity a considerable number of muscles, the general circulation soon participates in the effects; the pulse is quickened, and the respiration and secretion are augmented. Another effect, which, in its origin, is probably of a mechanical nature, is the absorption of the fat between the muscles and their fas- ciculi. It seems to arise from the pressure exerted by the contracted muscle on the soft tissues immediately around it. A second class of effects caused by muscular action may be denominated organic or vital. I refer now to the augmentation of volume, firmness, and elasticity, and increase of strength or power, which a muscle acquires from fre- quent but moderate use. Blacksmiths, fencers, and prize-fighters, furnish excel- lent illustrative examples of these effects. But the action of the muscles can only be effected through the medium of the nervous centres and nerves. So that the latter are called into activity, and through them the whole system becomes influenced, when a number of muscles is exercised. These effects may be denominated nervous. The fourth and last class of effects to be referred to, may be called psychical or mental. (See p. 49.) To this belong the different mental effects produced by agreeable and disagreeable,—by voluntary and compulsory,—exercises. Employed moderately, agreeable exercise acts as a salutary excitant to the intel- lectual faculties and sensations. I agree with Dr. James Johnson, {Change of Air,or the Pursuit of Health and Recreation, 4th ed. 1838.) "that travelling exercise, while it so much improves all the bodily functions, unhinges and unfits the mind, pro tempore, for the vigorous exercise of its higher faculties." But the first excitant being over, " the memory of scenes and circumstances, together with the reflections and recollections attendant thereon, furnish an ardent mind with rich materials and trains of thought, that may, by gifted individuals, be con- verted into language; and thus conveyed to thousands." Thus, then, it appears that exercise, employed moderately, has a tonic and stimulating influence on the system, and is calculated to be beneficial in a great variety of complaints. Used immoderately, it exhausts boib. the mental and bodily powers, and produces great debility. In fever, in vascular excitement or inflammation of the brain, in inflammatory affections of the lungs, in maladies of the circulating organs (especially dilatation of the cavities of the heart, diseased valves, and aneurism,) in violent hemorrhages, gastro-enteritic inflammation, acute rheumatism, &c, muscular exertion is manifestly injurious; repose and inaction being indicated. In sprains and lacerations of the muscles, in fractures and dis- locations, &c, it is obviously improper. In hernia, or a tendency thereto, great muscular exertion must be carefully avoided. Exercises may be divided into the active, the passive, and the mixed. To the first belong walking, running, leaping, dancing, fencing, wrestling, &c.; to the second are referred, carriage exercise and sailing; while horse exercise belongs to the third or last division.1 3. Climate. Under the word Climate are included those topographical, atmospheric and other conditions of a region or country, which have a beneficial or injurious in- fluence on the health and lives of the inhabitants. It is probable that we are yet ignorant of many circumstances which contribute to give the climatic character to a place; and, of those that are known it is often not easy to define the separate influence of each. ' For farther information on the subject of Exercise, the reader is referred to Celsus lih i ran o , . . -- cap. 15; Sir J. Sinclair's Code of Health and Activity, Edinh. I80G; Dunglisnn's Elements ofjjll'- m, i Vi" phia, 1835: Diet, de Medecine, art. Gijmnaitiqne; Diet de Medecine et deChirurgie pratiques art «' ,. Manuel d'Education physique, gymna^ique, et morale, par le Colonel Amoios. Paris 1830 ' v;/mnastiaue; CLIMATE. 113 The most obvious circumstances which affect the cTimate of a region or coun- try, are temperature, humidity, purity of the atmosphere, ici?id° atmospheric pressure, intensity of light, and atmospheric equability or vicissitudes. 1. Temperature.—In considering the temperature of a place, we must regard, not merely its annual mean, but its extremes. Inland tracts of country experience greater extremes than the coasts. This arises from land being more rapidly heated and cooled than water. Hence it attains a higher temperature in summer,—and a lower one in the winter. It also deserves notice that the western coast of the extra-tropical continents have a much higher mean tern- perature than the eastern coasts. This is explained by the heat evolved in the condensation of vapour, swept from the surface of the ocean by the eastern winds. (Danicll's Meteorological Essays, p. 105, 2d ed. Lond. 1827.) The effects of heat and cold on the human bodyliave been already considered. (See pp. 54 and 65.) Warm climates are adapted for pulmonary invalids (especially consumptive patients,) the rheumatic, the scrofulous, and the paralytic. Cold, or ralher moderately cool, climates are bracing, and are fitted for relaxed constitutions. 2. Humidity. Hygrometric Slate of the Atmosphere.—Evaporation from the cutaneous and pulmonary surfaces is augmented by a dry state of the atmosphere, and checked by a damp or moist state. But the transudation which depends on vital action is augmented by a warm or moist atmosphere. (Edwards, De VInfluence des Agens Physiques, p. 338. Paris, 1824.) "Of all the physical qualities of the air," observes Sir James Clark, (The Sanative Influence of Cli- mate, 3d ed. Lond. 1841.) "humidity is the most injurious to human life." A moist, or rather a soft, climate promotes vital transudation, and, therefore, is adapted for chronic bronchitis of a dry, irritable kind, frequently denominated dry catarrh, and for some other maladies attended with a harsh, dry, parched skin. A dry climate, on the other hand, checks vital transudation, and, therefore, is better fitted for relaxed, languid constitutions, with profuse secretion and exiia- lation; as humid asthma, and those forms of chronic catarrh accompanied with copious expec- toration. 3. Purity of the Atmosphere.—A pure condition of the atmosphere is an essential element of all healthy climates. The greater mortality of cities than of the country is principally referri- ble to the respiration of air vitiated by the congregation of a large number of persons in a com- paratively limited space. Emanations from the soil, and from decomposing organic matter, also, contribute to the contamination of atmosphere.1 The injurious effect of fogs on pulmonary invalids is well known to every one. Curiously enough, however, some patients affected with spasmodic asthma breathe better in a smoky atmosphere (as that of London) than in pure air. 4. Wind.—Wind greatly modifies the effect of temperature on the body. Thus two succes- sive days, whose temperature, as indicated by the thermometer, may be the same, shall produce in us—the one a sensation of warmth, in consequence of the calm, still condition of the air,— while the other creates a feeling of cold, from tlie presence of a violent wind. So that, as Sir James Clark (Op. supra cit. p. 156,) has justly observed, "the influence of temperature on the living body is indicated much more accurately by our sensation than by the thermometer." Moreover, the humidity and the purity of the atmosphere are greatly modified by the motion or calmness of the air. The precise effects produced on climates by wind, must of course depend on ils direction, violence, &c. 5. Atmospheric Pressure.— Diminished atmospheric pressure promotes evaporation. Ele- vated regions, therefore, are colder, drier, more bracing, and, cateris paribus, better adapted for relaxed individuals, with profuse secretion and exhalation, than the opposite localities; but, on the other hand, they are injurious in bronchial or tracheal irritation, with diminished secretion. In extra-tropical climates, a fall in the barometer, without a change or rise of wind, is usually followed by rain. Now a humid condition of the atmosphere checks evaporation, while thu reduced barometrical pressure augments it. Hence, we have two opposing influences in opera- tion. This condition of the air induces a feeling of languor and fatigue, and gives rise to sweat- ing on the slightest exertion. 6. Intensity of Light.—The influence of light has been, already considered. (See p. 52.) » The production of Ague, by the exhalations from stagnant water and marshy soils, is well known to every one. My friend. Professor Daniell (Lond. Edinb. and Dubl. Phil. Mag. July, 1841.) has shown that the waters upon the western coast of Africa, to an extent of 40,000 square miles, are impregnated with sulphu- retted hydrogen, to an amount, in some places, exceeding that of some of the most celebrated sulphur springs of the world; and he suggests that the existence of this deleterious gas in the atmosphere, which must neces- sarily accompany its solution in the waters, may be connected with the awful miasma, which has hitherto proved fatal to the explorers and settlers of the deadly shores of Africa, as well as of other places. The origin of sulphuretted hydrogen in sea, and some other waters, has been ascribed, by Dr. Marcet (Phil. Trans. IHl'.l, p. 1!)5,) Air. Malcomson (Trans, of the Geological Society, 2(1 Ser. vol. v. p. 564, Lond. 1840,) Dr. A. Fontan, (Ann. dr. Chem. et de Phys. July, 1840,) and Professor Daniell (op. supra, cit.), to the decomposition of Bulphates of the waters, by putrefying vegetable matter. 10* 114 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. 7. Atmospheric Equability <5r Vicissitudes.—Rapid atmospheric changes are s'wa3[S(rht^ rious to health. Invalids, and those with delicate constitutions, often appreciate the siig alterations in the condition of the atmosphere, and which are not observable by the nealtny the robust. These are some only of the circumstances which affect the quality or character of a climate. Others doubtless exist; but their precise nature and influence have scarcely been ascertained. For example, we have yet to learn the influence of Electricity and Magnetism on the climate ofa place. I propose," now, to glance at the characters of those climates most commonly resorted to by invalids for therapeutical purposes. In doing so, I beg to acknow- ledge the great assistance I have received from the valuable work of Sir James Clark, to which I must refer the reader for farther details. Climates may be conveniently arranged as follows:— 1. Climates of England. 2. Climates of France. 3. Climates of Spain and Portugal. 4. Climates of Italy, and the Mediterranean. 5. Climates of the Atlantic. l. Climates of England. "The British Islands are situated in such a manner as to be subject to all the circumstances which can possibly be supposed to render a climate irregular and variable. Placed nearly in the centre of the temperate zone, where the range of temperature is very great, their atmosphere is subject, on one side, to the impres- sions of the largest continent of the world; and, on the other, to those of the vast Atlantic Ocean. Upon their coasts the great stream of aqueous vapour, per- petually rising from the western waters, first receives the influence of the land, whence emanate those condensations and expansions which deflect and reverse the grand system of equipoised currents. They are also within the reach of the frigorific effects of the immense barriers and fields of ice, which, when the shift- ing position of the sun advances the tropical climate towards the northern pole, counteract its energy, and present a condensing surface of immense extent to the increasing elasticity of the aqueous atmosphere." (Daniell's Meteorological Essays, p. 114. 2d ed. 1827.) Sir James Clark thus arranges the climates of England:— 1. London. 2. The South Coast. 3. Southwest Coast. 1. London.—The mean annual temperature of London somewhat exceeds that of the suburban parts. " The excess of the temperature of the city varies through the year, being least in spring, and greatest in winter; and it belongs, in strict- ness, to the nights, which average 3.7° warmer than in the country; while the heat of the day, owing, without doubt, to the interception of a portion of the solar rays by a constant veil of smoke, falls, on a mean of years, about a third of a degree short of that in the open plain." (See Luke Howard's Climate of Lon- don, 1818-20. 2d ed. 1833.) Hence, in the winter, delicate invalids sometimes experience benefit in coming to London from the country. But the impure state of the atmosphere generally counterbalances these good qualities.1 In some cases of spasmodic asthma, however, respiration is easier in London than in the country. 2. Sooth Coast.—This comprehends the tract of coast between Hastings and Portland Island. Its mean annual temperature is about that of London but the 4. Cornwall, Land's End. 5. West of England. 1 For farther details respecting the Climate of London, consult Professor Daniell's Fss™ nn im. .„i,i..i Also, Dr. Bateman's Reports of the Diseases of London, Lond. 1819. C ASSay on thls subJect" CLIMATE. 115 summers are somewhat cooler, and the winters somewhat warmer, than the cor- responding seasons of the metropolis.1 The principal places of resort for invalids, on this line of coast, are the following:— a. Hastings.—A mild winter residence; phiced low and well protected from the northerly winds. Sir James Clarke (Op. supra cit. p. 177.) regards its climate " as somewhat intermediate between that of Devonshire and Clifton ; less warm, but also less relaxing than the former. It is about the same temperature ; but less dry and bracing than the latter, and it is inferior to it as a spring climate." It is well adapted for pulmonary invalids during the months of December, January, and February. The distinguished author above quoted declares, that it " is unfavoura- ble in nervous complaints, more especially in nervous headaches connected with, or entirely depen- dent upon, an irritated condition of the digestive organs, and also in cases where a disposition to apoplexy or epilepsy has been manifested." St. Leonards is about a mile from Hastings, and possesses a similar climate. b. Brighton.—The air is dry and bracing. The climate is most beneficial during autumn and the early part of winter, when it is milder and more sleady than that of Hastings. It is adapled for relaxed individuals, with copious secretion and exhalation. Tt usually agrees well with chil- dren (especially those ofa scrofulous habit) and convalescents. c. Isle of Wight.— Undercliff presents an agreeable, mild, sheltered, dry, bracing climate, well adapted for the residence of many pulmonary and other delicate invalids throughout the year. It differs from the climate of Torquay (which is soft, humid, and relaxing) by its dry and bracing qualities. Hence it is suited for relaxed constitutions, with copious secretion. Cowes and Ryde are delightful summer residences. d. Southampton.—This part of the coast is objectionable, on account of its temperature being equally variable with that of Ihe environs of London. 3. Southwest Coast.—This comprehends the tract of coast extending from Portland Island to Cornwall. Its general qualities are those of a mild, soft, humid climate, soothing but somewhat relaxing. It is adapted to pulmonary affec- tions, especially those which are dryand unaccompanied with much expectoration. In dyspepsia, with symptoms of irritation or inflammation, constituting the gas- tritic dyspepsia of Sir James Clark, it is also beneficial. But in all forms of chronic diseases, with copious secretion and exhalation, and a languid and relaxed state of the constitution, it is injurious. The following are the principal places of resort for invalids along the Southwest Coast:— a. Salcombe.—The Montpellier of Huxharn. The warmest spot of this coast. 6. Torquay.—This is drier than the other parts of this coast, though its general character is soft and humid. c. Dawlish.—Next in dryness to Torquay. d. Exmoutii.—The higher parts of the town exposed to winds; the lower parts liable to occasional damp. Sir James Clark declares that it is not adapted for persons with delicate chests. e. Salterton.— Preferable to Exmouth. It is well protected from winds, especially the northerly ones. /. Sidmouth.—Damp. 4. South Coast of Cornwall. Land's End.—In its general characters this climate resembles that of the south coast of Devon. From the latter, however, it differs, in its greater humidity, and in being more exposed to winds. It is, consequently, more relaxing. The class of cases in which it is calculated to be beneficial or injurious, are much the same as those for the south coast of Devon.3 The following are the chief places of residence for invalids along this coast:— a. Penzance.—Exposed to the northeast winds during the spring months. b. Falmouth.—The winter temperature is a trifle lower than that of Penzance. 5. West of England.—Under this head are grouped the places along the borders of the British Channel and the estuary of the Severn. The mean tempe- rature of this group is, during the winter, rather lower, but in March and April rather higher, than that of the south coast. i For the character of this part of England consult Dr. Harwood's Curative Influence of the Southern Coast of England, especially that of Hastings, with Observations on Diseases to which a Residence on the Coast is most bene- ficial. Lond. lHfcJ. a On i In- climate of this part of England, consult Dr. Forbes's Observations on the Climate of Penzance and the District »/ the Land's End. Penzance, 1620.—Also his Medical Topography of the Land's End, in the Pro- vincial Medical Transactions, vol. ii. 116 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Clifton.—This is the mildest and driest climate in the West of England. It is bracing, and well adapted for scrofulous and relaxed constitutions, with copious secretion and exhalation. 2. Climates of France. The southern climates of France resorted to by invalids, may be divided into those of the Southwest, and those of the Southeast of that country. 1. Southwest of France.—According to Sir James Clark the climate of this part of France is soft, relaxing, and rather humid ; resembling in its general quali- ties that of the southwest of England. It is favourable to phthiscal invalids, for those labouring under bronchial affections, with little expectoration, and for other chronic cases attended with a dry skin. a. Pau.—Dr. Playfair (Sir J. Clark's Sanative Influence of Climate, p. 192.) thus sums up the qualities of this climate. "Calmness, moderate cold, bright sunshine of considerable power, a dry state of atmosphere and of the soil, and rains of short duration. Against these must be placed,—changcableness, the fine weather being as short-lived as the bad; rapid variations of the atmosphere within moderate limits. In autumn and spring there are heavy rains." b. Bagneres de Bigorre, in the department of the High Pyrenees, has a mean temperature, during the months of June, July, August, and September, of 66° F. Dr. William Farr (A Medical Guide to Nice. Lond. 1841.) declares the climate to be anti-irritating and moist, and to be favourable to the consumptive. Its season is from June to September. 2. Southeast of France.—Sir J. Clark says the general character of the climate is dry, hot, and irritating. It is adapted for torpid, relaxed habits, but is decidedly improper for the consumptive and those labouring under irritation and inflammation of the air-tubes. a. Montpelier.—Long but undeservedly celebrated as a residence for phthisical invalids. b. Marseilles.—Exposed to cold winds. Soil dry and arid. c. Hyeres.—Sir J. Clark declares it to be the least exceptionable residence in Provence for the pulmonary invalid. * 3. Climates of Portugal and Spain. Precise information respecting the climates of these countries, to which pulmo- nary invalids occasionally resort, is much to be desired. 1. Portugal.—Dr. Bullar(.A Winter in the Azores. Lond. 1841.) states that the mean annual temperature of Lisbon is 12° F. higher than that of London ; and that the mean temperature of its winter is 16° F. higher than that of London. But notwithstanding its mildness, it is objectionable for persons affecteti with phthisis, on account of the inequality of its temperature. 2. Spain.—Biscay is subject to sudden and extraordinary changes in tempera- ture ; the mercury having been known to rise and fall from 3° to 4° F. within a few minutes. (Inglis, Spain in 1830, vol. i. p. 39. Lond. 1831.) This must, of course, make it an unfit residence for pulmonary invalids. Madrid is elevated more than 300 fathoms above the level of the sea. Its annual mean temperature is 59° F. (Humboldt, in De Laborde's Vieiv of Spain, vol. i. p. clxiii. Lond. 1809.) Cadiz, being nearly surrounded by the sea, has a comparatively tern- perate climate. 4. Climates of Italy and the Mediterranean. The climates included under this head are exceedingly diversified so that it is difficult to lay down any general character of them. a. Nice.—The climate of this place is somewhat similar to that of the Southeast of France It is mild, equable, and dry ; being adapted for torpid, relaxed individuals, with abundant secretion from the mucous membranes. Dr. William Farr (A Medical Guide to Nice p 10 Lond. 1811.) says, the great objection to it is its dryness, and the exciting and irritating CLIMATE. 117 nature of its atmosphere. It is beneficial in chronic bronchitis, with copious expectoration,—in chronic rheumatism,—scrofula,—gout, and atonic dyspepsia. 6. Genoa.—Climate dry and healthy, with a sharp exciting air. It is adapted for relaxed constitutions, bul is unfit for phthisical invalids. c. Florence.—Not favourable for invalids. d. Pisa.—According to Sir James Clark, the climate "is genial, but rather oppressive and damp. It is softer than that of Nice, but not so warm; less soft, but less oppressive, than that of Rome." Pisa is frequented by consumptive invalids. e. Rome.—The climate of this city is one of the best in Italy. Sir James Clark characterizes it as being mild, soft but not damp, rather relaxing and oppressive, and remarkable for the still- ness of its atmosphere. It is well adapted for phthisis, bronchial affections of a dry irritating kind, and chronic rheumatism. /. Naples.—The climate of Naples is warm, variable, and dry. Sir James Clark compares it to that of Nice, but states that it is more changeable, and, if softer in the winter, is more humid. Dr. Cox, (Hints for Invalids about to Visit Naples, p. 17. Lond. 1841.) however, declares that the mean diurnal variation is far less than is generally supposed. It is an unsuitable residence for most pulmonary invalids, especially those afTected with tubercular phthisis. In bronchial cases, with profuse secretion, benefit is sometimes obtained from it. In general debility and deranged health, it is also serviceable. Dr. Cox says it is beneficial in dyspepsia, rheumatic neu- ralgia, and scrofula. g. Malta.—The climate of Malta is mild, dry, bracing, and pretty equable. It is serviceable in chronic bronchitis, [with profuse secretion,] scrofula, dyspepsia, and hypochondriasis. 5. Atlantic Climates. The climates of the Atlantic islands, resorted to by invalids, may be arranged in two groups,—the one eastern, the other western. 1. Eastern Atlantic. This group includes Madeira, the Canaries, and the Azores. a. Madeira.—The climate of Madeira is mild, equable, humid, and steady. Sir James Clark regards it as the finest in the northern hemisphere. It is superior to all other climates for inci- pient phthisis. This superiority consists in the mildness of the winter, the coolness of the sum- mer, and the remarkable equality of the temperature during the night and day, as well as throughout the year. Experience, moreover, seems to have fully demonstrated the advantage which patients, with incipient symptoms of consumption, derive from a residence in this island.1 b. The Canaries.— Teneriffe is the only island of this group possessing accommodation for invalids. Though its mean annual temperature is higher than that of Madeira, its equability is less. c. The Azores or Western Islands.—Dr. Bullar declares these to be " rather colder than Madeira, and somewhat more equable, and perhaps more humid ; but they have not at present those accommodations for strangers which the latter island possesses, nor have they communica- tions by steam with England." (A Winter in the Azores. Lond. 1841.) St. Michaels, the largest of the Azores, has a mild, humid, equable climate. 2. Western Atlantic—This group includes the Bermudas, the Bahamas, and the West Indies. It is more subject to rapid changes of temperature than the Eastern Atlantic group. a. The Bermudas.—The climate is warm, variable, and dry. The mean annual temperature is considerably higher than that of Madeira; but the climate is variable and windy during the winter, and hot and oppressive in the summer. (Sir J. Clark.) b. The Bahamas.—The climate is warm, but is subject to rapid changes of temperature. Dry cold winds prevail. Hence the Bahamas are unsuited to consumptive invalids. c. The West Indies.—The temperature of these islands is too high, and its variations too great, to admit of their being a desirable residence for patients affected with pulmonary con- sumption ; but as a prophylactic for those predisposed to this disease, it is highly spoken of. In scrofula, the climate proves beneficial. Calculous complaints and ossific deposits are rare. The most healthy islands of the group are Jamaica, Barbadoes, St. Vincent's, Antigua, and St. KitVs. ■For farther information respecting the medical qualities of thp island of Madeira, the reader mnv refer with great ndvaulnjre to Sir James Clark's work, before cited; Dr. Gourlav's Observations on the Natural History, Climate, and Diseases of Madeira, J811; Dr. Renlon, in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, vol. xxvii. 1817; and Dr.Heineken's paper in the Medical Repository, vol. .\xii. 18-J4. 118 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA medica. The diseases for which change of climate is most frequently resorted to are— 1. Pulmonary Complaints, especially Phthisis, Chronic Bronchitis resembling Phthisis, Asthma, Hemoptysis, and diseases of the Larynx and Trachea. 2. Dyspeptic and Hypochondriacal Complaints. 3. Chronic Rheumatism. 4. Scrofula. 5. Urinary Diseases. 6. Liver Complaints. 7. In the Convalescence from Fever, and other acute maladies. 1- Pulmonary Complaints.—These maladies are benefited by removal from a colder to a warmer climate. Equability, purity, and calmness of the atmosphere, are other desirable qualities in a climate for pulmonary invalids. The nature of the malady and constitution of the patient, however, render all climates possessed of these qualities not equally suited for every case. a. Phthisis.—" For such consumptive patients," observes Sir James Clark, " as are likely to derive benefit from climale, I consider that of Madeira altogether the best. Teneriffe and the Azores approach most nearly in the character of their climate to Madeira." Of the climates of the south of France and Italy the same experienced writer says, when " there exists mucli sensi- bility to harsh arid keen winds, and, more especially, if immediate vicinity to the sea-coast is known to disagree, Rome or Pisa is the best situation for a winter residence. When, on the contrary, the patient labours under a languid, feeble circulation, with a relaxed habit, and a dis- position to congestion or to hemorrhage, rather than to inflammation; and, more especially, when the sea air is known by experience to agree, Nice deserves the preference." Late expe- rience has shown, that Montpellier, Marseilles, and other places in the southeast of France, once celebrated as affording a good winter climate for consumptive patients, are decidedly improper for phthisical invalids. Of English climates, those of Undercliff, Torquay, and Hastings, are best adapted for this disease. Torquay and Penzance disagree with persons of a relaxed habit, Clifton, during the spring months, often agrees well. b. Chronic Bronchitis.—In relaxed constitutions, with copious expectoration, the climates of Undercliff, Clifton, Brighton and Nice, are those which agree best. But, on the other hand, for dry, bronchial, and tracheal irritation, Torquay, Madeira, Rome and Pisa, are to be preferred. 2. Dyspepsia and Hypochondriasis.—In selecting a climate for these complaints, wc must attend to the character of the malady and the constitution of the invalid. Thus, in the atonic dyspepsia of relaxed and sluggish individuals, with copious secretions, we select a dry and bracing climate; and in such, Brighton, Clifton, Nice, or Naples, would probably prove beneficial. But when the dyspepsia assumes an inflammatory form, with dry tongue and a febrile condition of system, the soft and humid climates are to be preferred,—such as Torquay, Pau, Rome, and Pisa. 3. Chronic Rheumatism.—In this malady, mild climates generally have been found beneficial. According to Sir James Clark's experience, Rome and Nice are the best climates on the continent. In relaxed and cachectic individuals, the latter place is to be preferred. 4. Scrofula.—In this malady the West Indies prove highly serviceable. Nice and Rome, on the continent, have appeared to be favourable. In this country Clifton is perhaps the climate best adapted for scrofula. 5. Urinary Diseases.—Warm climates relieve most affections of the urinary organs, especially calculous complaints, diabetes, and vesical irritation. The benefit probably arises from the excitement of the skin and the abundant cuta- neous secretion, and is to be explained on the principle of antagonism already alluded to. (See p. 55.) In the West Indies calculous complaints are very rare. 6. Liver Complaints.—Various hepatic derangements are induced by a residence in tropical climates (see p. 56.); and in such cases benefit is obtained by a return to the more temperate climates of Europe. 7. In the Convalescence after fevers and inflammatory diseases, change of climate is often found highly beneficial. PHARMACOGNOSY. 119 III.-AGENTIA MECHANICA ET CHIRURGICA.-MECHANICAL AND SURGICAL AGENTS. The consideration of these subjects does not fall within the province of this work. IV—AGENTIA PHARMACOLOGIC A SEU MEDICAMENTA- PHARMACOLOGICAL AGENTS OR MEDICINES. [Medicamina; Qappaica.) Pharmacological Agents or Medicines are substances, not essentially ali- mentary, used in the treatment of diseases, and which, when applied to the body, alter or modify its vital actions. Aliments are vital stimuli (see p. 52, foot note,) which vivify, and can themselves be vivified; (see Mailer's Elements of Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 31.) since they are assimilated to our organs, and become integrant parts of the living body. Poisons are distinguished from medicines principally in Ihe degree of their effects, and the uses tq which they are applied; for the most powerful poisons become, when administered under proper regulations, very valuable medicines. Pharmacology {Pharmacologia, from tpa^axov, a medicine ; and Xops, a dis- course,) or Materia Medica, is that branch of Acology devoted to the considera- tion of medicines. a. General Pharmacology (Pharmacologia generalis) treats of medicines generally. i 0. Special Pharmacology (Pharmacologia specialis) treats of medicines individually. Pharmacology is divided into three departments, termed respectively Pharma- cognosy, Pharmacy, and Pharmacodynamics. 1. PHARMACOGNOSIA.—PHARMACOGNOSY, (Physiographische Arzneimittellehre, Pfaff; (System der Materia Medica, ler Band, S. 2. Leipzig, 1808.) Phar- maceutische Waarenkunde, Ooebel; (Goebel and Kunse's Pharmaceutische Waarenkunde, Eisenach, 1827-29.) Histoire des drogues simples, Ouibourt; (Histoire Abregee des Drogues Simples, 3me ed. Paris, 1836. (Phar- ma comathie, Cottereau.1) Pharmacognosy (from Acids, appear in combination. Succinic V Benzoic J (C.) In a decomposed state. Tartrate \ M- late ( °f Potash, or soda, are changed into the carbonate of the same alkali. Acetate ) Sulphuret of potassium, changed, in a great measure, into the sulphate of potash. 1 Dr. Locock, in The Cyclop, of Pract. Medicine, Am. edit. art. Lactation. The same authority states that a patient of Mr. Kcate took Mercury by giving the Nitrate of this metal to an ass, and drinking the milk. VOL. I. 12 134 ELEMENTS of materia medica. If the accounts published respecting the Amanita muscaria be correct, its effects arc most extraordinary. A variety of this fungus has a powerful narcotic or rather inebriating effect; and that the active molecules get into the blood is proved by the fact of the urinary secretion being impregnated with them, and thus possessing an intoxicating property ; and we arc told that the inhabitants of the northeastern parts of Asia use it for this property. A man, for example, may have intoxicated him- self lo-day by eating some of the fungus; by the next morn- ing he will have slept himself sober; but by drinking a tea- cupful of his urine, he will become as powerfully intoxicated as on the preceding day. " Thus," says Dr. Greville, on the authority or Dr. Langsdorf, " with a very few Amanita, a party of drunkards may keep up their debauch for a week ;" and "by means of a second person taking the urine of the first, a third of the second, and so on. the intoxica- tion may be propagated through five individuals."1 Vessels effecting Absorption.—The parti- cles of medicinal and poisonous substances are ab- sorbed by the veins principally, but also by the Amanita muscaria. lymphatics and lacteals. 1. Absorption by the Veins,—The circumstances which seem to prove venous absorption are the following :— a. Detection of substances in the venous blood. — Tiedemann and Gmelin {Op. supra cit.) administered a variety of colouring, odorous, and saline sub- stances to animals, mixed with their food, and afterwards examined the state of the chyle, and of the blood of the (splenic, mesenteric and portal) veins. The colouring substances employed were — Indigo, Madder, Rhubarb, Cochineal, Litmus, Alkanet, Gamboge, and Sap-green ; none of them could be detected in the chyle, but some were found in the blood and urine. The odorous substances used were—Camphor, Musk, Spirits of Wine, Oil of Turpentine, Dippel's Oil, Asafoetida, and Garlic : they were for the most part, detected in the blood and urine, but none were found in the chyle. The saline substances tried were— Acetate of Lead, Acetate and Cyanuret of Mercury, Chloruret and Sulphate of Iron, Chloruret of Barium, and Ferro-cyanide and Sulpho-cyanide of Potassium. A few of these were detected in the chyle, and most of them in the venous blood and urine. From these experiments we may conclude, that although saline sub- stances occasionally pass into the chyle, odorous and colouring matters do not; all the three classes of substances, however, are found in the venous blood. These results, observe Tiedemann and Gmelin, are opposed to those of Lister, Mus- grave, J. Hunter, Haller, Viridet, and Mattei, but agree with those of Halle, Dumas, Magendie, and Flandrin. b. Division of all Parts but Blood-vessels.—Magendie's Experiment.—Ma- gendie and Delille (Magendie's Elementary Compend. of Physiology, translated by Dr. Milligan, p. 284. Edin. 1823.) performed a striking experiment, with the view of settling, if possible, the question of venous or lymphatic absorption of medicines and poisons. They divided all the parts of one of the posterior ex- tremities of a dog, except the artery and vein, the former being left entire, for the purpose of preserving the life of the limb. A portion of the Upas Tieute was then applied to a wound in the foot: in the short space of four minutes the effects of the poison were evident, and in ten minutes death took place. To the inferences drawn from this experiment, however, several objections have been stated : first, the exhibition of opium, to diminish the pain of the operation, has been said to vitiate the whole of the experiment; secondly, the coats of the arte- ries .and veins contain lymphatics, by which absorption might be carried on ; and thirdly, as the poison was introduced into a wound, the poison might have com- bined with the blood, and have rendered it deleterious, without the process of i See also on this subject, The History of Kamtschatka and the Kuriliski Islands, translated by Dr J Grieve p. 258. Gloucester, 1764. . absorption of medicines. 135 absorption taking place. The first two of these objections have been obviated. In a second experiment, Magendie severed the artery and the vein, and recon- nected them by quills, so as to preclude the possibility of absorption taking place by the lymphatics of these vessels : the effects were the same. Some years since I. assisted my friend Mr. Lloyd, assistant surgeon of St. Bartholomew's Hos- pital, in performing an analogous experiment, using Strychnia instead of the Upas Tieute, and without administering opium: death took place in twelve minutes. The late Dr. Thomas Davies (Lectures on the Diseases of the Lungs and Heart, p. 213. Lond. 1835.) observes on this experiment, that as the absorbents and veins communicate, it is possible that the poison flowed first into the absorbents, and from thence into the veins of the amputated portion of the limb. c. Lacteals tied: effects of poison still produced.—Magendie says that symp- toms of poisoning were observed in six minutes, when nux vomica was applied to the intestine, though the lacteals had been tied. d. Blood-vessels tied: poisons do not act.—Segalas tied the veins of a portion of intestine, and applied poison, but no effects were produced. Emmert observed, that when the abdominal aorta was tied, hydrocyanic acid was applied to the foot without producing any effect; but when the ligature was removed, symptoms of poisoning came on. (Miiller's Elements of Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 242.) Mr. Blake {Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. liii. p. 45,) found, that if a liga- ture be put around the vena portae, and then poison be introduced into the stomach, it failed to act. It deserves notice, that the Academy of Medicine of Philadelphia found that nux vomica, in- troduced into the intestines, produced tetanus, although the vena portce was tied. (Miiller, op. supra cit. vol. i. p. 240.) e. Rapidity of absorption and circulation too great for the lymphatics or lac- teals.—Mayer (Miiller's Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 239,) found that Ferro- cyanide of Potassium could be detected in the blood, in from two to five minutes after its injection into the lungs. From this it has been inferred that it enters the blood too speedily for it to be explained by the slow circulation of the lymph. From later experiments, it appears that the rapidity with which poisons enter the blood has been greatly underrated. Professor Herring, of Stuttgardt, (Quoted by Dr. Christison, in his Treatise on Poisons, p. 8, 3d ed. 1835.) found that the time which a solution of Ferro-cyanide of Potassium, injected into the jugular vein, requires to reach that of the opposite side, was, in various experiments, from twenty to thirty seconds. And Mr. Blake {Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. liii. p. 42,) states, that the time required for a substance which does not act on the capillary tissue, to pass from any part of the vascular system back to the same part again, in dogs, varies from twelve to twenty seconds. Rapid as is the circulation of poisonous molecules, it has been supposed not to be sufficiently so to explain the operation of certain poisons which have been said to act instantaneously; and hence an argument has been raised in favour of the nerves being the medium by which the deadly impression is conveyed. But Mr. Blake (Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. liii. p. 42,) asserts that an interval, always more than nine seconds, elapses between the introduction of a poison into the capillaries or veins, and the first symptom of its action;—a period sufficiently long for a poison to be brought into general contact with_the tissues it affects. 2. Absorption by the Lacteals and Lymphatics.—The particles of medicinal and poisonous substances are probably absorbed by the lacteal and lymphatic vessels, as well as by the veins. But the process seems to be slow, and, moreover, is confined to certain agents. Tiedemann and Gmelin, whose experiments I have above referred to, were unable to recognise either colouring or odorous substances in the chyle, but occasionally detected certain salts. The absorption of saline, and non-absorption of colouring matters, have likewise been noticed by others. (Miiller's Physiology.) Some of the experiments performed by the Academy of Medicine, at Philadelphia, appear to be in favour of absorption being effected chiefly by the lymphatics; but they are not conclusive. 136 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. ' Mechanism of Absorption.—The facts connected with absorption are best explained by assuming the existence of two powers or agencies by which this pro- cess is effected ;—the one physical and the other vital. 1. Absorption by physical agency {Imbibition, Magendie; Exosmose and En- dosmose, Dutrochet).—Two fluids separated by an interposed dead membrane, mutually, though not equally, permeate the membrane, so as to become intermixed with each other. If a current of water, coloured by litmus, be allowed to pass from a bottle (fig. 11), through YiG H a vein immersed in diluted sulphuric acid, contained in a glass dish (h), into a reservoir (c), the litmus liquor is soon observed to become reddened by its passage through the vein, in consequence of the acid permeating the venous coats. If the relative position of the fluids be altered,—that is, ihc litmus put in the'dish (6), and the acid passed from the bot- tie (a) through the vein, the litmus will still become reddened, showing that the acid has passed in this case from within outwards. . A .„ . . D, . , Gases and vapours, as well as liquids, also readily permeate Apparatus to illustrate Physical ^ ^.^ Jembranei But ^ same raembrane is une- Absorption. „ . j u jl-axed System, Rose. The 4-membered System.) Characters.—Geometric; Axes three, rectangular; only two equal. Optical; Refraction double in all directions except one, (one axis of double refraction). Thermotic; Expansion equal in two rectangular directions; but unequal to these in the third rectangular direction. UZF As the crystals of this system have only one axis of double refraction, they present a single system of rings, intersected by a cross, when tested by polarized light. (See figs. 29 and 30.) Forms.—To this system belong the Octohedron with a Square base, and the [Right] Squar£ Prism. Fig. 26. Fig. 27. Fig. 28. Square Octohedron. Square Prism. Combination of the Octohedron and Prism. Examples.—The following substances belong to this system:— Calomel. | Bicyanide of Mercury. | Ferrocyanide of Potassium. SYSTEM 3. RHOMBOHEDRIC SYSTEM. (Rhombohedral System, Miller. The 3 &-l-axed System, Rose.) Characters.—Geometric; Axes four; three equal to one another, and placed in one plane, crossing at angles of 60°; the fourth axis differs from the others in length, and is placed perpen- dicular to all of them. Optical; Refraction double in all directions except one (one axis of dou- ble refraction). Thermotic; Expansion equal in the directions of the three equal axes, but une- qual to that of those in the direction of the fourth axis. JKrAs the crystals of this system, like those of the preceding system, have only one axis of double refraction, they present a single system of rings, intersected by a cross, when tested by polarized light, as in Calcareous Spar. (See figs. 29 and 30.) 176 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Single system of rings seen by looking through a slice of Calcareous Spar (cut perpendicular to the axis of the Crystal) placed between two plates of Tourmaline (cut parallel lo the axis of the crystal). Fig. 30. HW* Fig. 23 is seen when the plane of the axis of the Calcareous Spar is parallel or perpendicular to the plane of polarization. A. B. C. and D. are the arms of the black cross. Fig. 30 is seen when the Calcareous Spar is turned 45° to the preceding positions. Forms.—To this system belong the Hexagondodecahedron, the Rhombohedron, frequently called a-Rhomboid) or Hemidodecahedron, the Hexagonal Prism, and the Hemididodecahedron or Scalenohedron. Fig. 31. Rhombohedron. Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Combination of the Rhombohedron with the Hexagonal Prism. Fig. 34. Scalenohedron. Examples.—The following substances belong lo this system:— Antimony. Arsenicum. Plumbago. Ice. Cinnabar. Chloride of Calcium. Calcareous Spar. Carbonate of Iron. Carbonate of Zinc. Dolomite. Nitrate of Soda. Hydrate of Magnesia. SYSTEM 4.-RIGHT PRISMATIC SYSTEM. (Prismatic System, Miller. The l&laxed System, Rose. The 2 &2membered System.) Characters.—Geometric; Axes three, rectangular, all of different lengths. Optical • Refra tion double in all directions except two (two axes of double refraction). Thermotic • Exnansic relatively unequal in the direction of all the axes. c- pansion [LTAs the crystals of this system have two axes of double refraction, a double svstem of rings, intersected by bands, is seen when they are tested by polarized lioht (See fio-s 35 and 36.) b ' K & Double system of rings seen by looking through a slice of Nitre (cut perpendicularly to the axis of the crystal) placed between two plates of Tourmaline (cut parallel to the axis of the crystal). 9945 CLASSIFICATION OF CRYSTALS. 177 Fig. 35. Fig. 36. Fig. 35 is seen when the plane of the axis of Nitre is parallel or perpendicular to the plane of polarization. Fig. 36 is seen when the Nitre is turned 45° to either of the^se planes. Forms.—To this system belong the Octohedron with a Rectangular base, the Right Rectangular Prism, the Octohedron with a Rhombic base, and the Right Rhombic Prism. Fig. 37. Fig. 38. Fig. 39. Fig. 40. Octohedron with a Rec- tangular base. Right Rectangular Prism. Octohedron with a Rhombic base. Right Rhombic Prism. Examples.—The following substances belong to this system :— Iodine. Sulphur (native). Pyrolusite (Binoxide of Manga- nese). White Antimony (Sesquioxide). Bichloride of Mercury. Chloride of Barium. Sesquisulphuret of antimony. Orpiment. Carbonate of Lead. Carbonate of Baryta. Carbonate of Ammonia. Arragonite. Sulphate of Potash. Sulphate of Magnesia. Sulphate of Zinc. Sulphate of Baryta. Sulphate of Strontian. Bisulphate of Potash. Nitrate of Silver. Nitrate of Potash. Bitartrate of Potash. Rochelle Salt. Emetic Tartar. Citric Acid. Morphia. SYSTEM 5.-OBLIQUE PRISMATIC SYSTEM. (The 2-&-l-membered System, Rose.) Characters.—Geometric; Axes three, all unequal; two of them cut one another obliquely, and arc perpendicular to the third. Optical; Refraction double in all directions except two (two axes of double refraction). Thermotic; Expansion, in the direction of the axes, relatively unequal. O* As the crystals of this, like those of the preceding system, have two axes of double refraction, a double system of rings, intersected by bands, is seen, when they are tested by polarized light. Forms.—To this system belong the Oblique Octohedron with a Rectangular base, the Oblique Rectangular Prism, the Oblique Octohedron with a Rhombic base, and the Oblique Rhombic Prism. Mr. Brooke (Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, art. Crystallography,) refers the Right Oblique- angled Prism to this group. Fig. 41. Fig. 42. Fig. 43. Fig. 44. —> Oblique Octohedron with a Rectangu- lar base. Oblique Rectangular Prism. Oblique Octohedron with a Rhombic base. Oblique Rhombic Prism. 178 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Examples.—The following substances belong to this system :— Sulphur (by slow cooling). Realgar. Red Antimony. Carbonate of Soda. Trona (Sesquicarbonate of Soda). Bicarbonate of Potash. Sulphate of Soda. Sulphate of Tron. Sulphate of Lime. Chlorate of Potash. Phosphate of Soda. Borax (TineaI). Acetate of Soda. Acetate of Copper. Acetate of Zinc. Acetate of Lead. Binacetate of Copper. Tartaric Acid. Oxalic Acid. Sugar. Crystals from Oil of Cubebs. SYSTEM 6.-DOUBLY-OBLIQXJE PRISMATIC SYSTEM. (The l-&.-l-membcred System, Rose.) Characteristics.—Geometric; Axes three, all unequal, and oblique-angular to one another. Optical; Refraction double in all directions except two (two axes of double refraction). Ther- motic; Expansion in the direction of the axes relatively unequal. ET The crystals of this system present a double system of rings, intersected by bands, when they are tested by polarized light. Forms.__To this system belong the Doubly-Oblique Octohedron and the Doubly-Oblique Prism. Fig. 45. Fig. 46. Doubly-Oblique Octohedron. Doubly-Oblique Prism. Examples.—The following substances belong to this system :— Boracic Acid. Nitrate of Bismuth. Sulphate of Copper. Sulphate of Cinchona. Gallic Acid. 1. Artificial Method of Linn^cs.—This appears to me the best place for noticing those pharmacological works in which the Linncean artificial method of arranging plants is followed. Car. A. Linnd, Materia Medica, ed. 4a. curante J. C. D. Schrebero. Lipsiae et Erlangae, 1782. P. J. Bergius, Materia Medica e Regno vegetabili, 2 torn. ed. 2nda. Stockholmise, 1782. P. L. Geiger, Handbuch der Pharmacie, 3"e. Aufl. 2 Bde. Heidelberg, 1830. 2. Methods founded on the parts of organized beings employed.—In some works the vegetable and animal substances employed in medicine are classi- fied according to the parts used; as barks, roots, seeds, secretions, &c. R. A. Vogel, Historia Materiae Medicae. Lugd. Batav. et Lipsiae, 1758. C. Alston, M. D., Lectures on the Materia Medica, 2 vols. London, 1770. J. C. Ebermaier, M. D., Taschenbuch der Pharmacie. Leipzig, 1809. N.J. B. G. Guibourt, Histoire abregee des Drogues simples, 2">• Div. Div. 1. Aqua communis 8. F.xtractiva amara 15. Alcalitia 2. Gummosa, mucilagi- 9. Adstringentia seu 16. Salina nosa Tannica 17. Metallica X Farinosa, amylacea 10. jEtherea-oleosa 18. Corpora simplicia, solida, 4. Gelatinosa 11. Resitiosa non metallica 5. Albuminosa 12. Narcotica 19. Kalia sulphurata 6. Saccharina 13. Spirituosa '20. Sapones. 7. finguia-oleosa 14. Acida It will be observed that the author has not always founded his division on the chemical pro- perties of medicines ; since some of them refer partly or whully to the effects produced by these agents on the body. The nomenclature is not always perfect: thus, his seventeenth class is called " Metallica," as if it alone contained metallic substances; whereas divisions fifteen and sixteen also contain them. Again, some of the divisions, for example " Resinosa," contain sub- Btances whose effects are most dissimilar ; while substances of analogous operation are placed in separate divisions. S. Classifications founded on the Physiological Effects of Medicines. As the ultimate object of all our inquiries into the materia medica is to obtain a knowledge of the mode of operation of medical substances, it follows, that the most desirable and useful, because the most practical, classification of these agents, would be that founded on the similarity of their effects. But so many difficulties exist in the way of producing such an arrangement—so much remains yet to be determined with respect to the nature of the modifications impressed on the organ- ized tissues by the influence of medicines—that it must be evident to every one who attentively studies the subject, that in the present state of our knowledge no such classification can be satisfactorily effected. Physiological classifications are variously formed. Those that I am acquainted with may be reduced to six groups, or classes. Thus, they may be formed:— 1. According to the General Quality of the Effects. 2. According to Brunonian Principles. 3. According to the Doctrine of Contra-Stimulus. 4. According to the Doctrine of Broussais. 5. According to Chemico-Physiological Principles. 6. According to the Part affected. 1. According lo the General Quality of the Effects. These arrangements are founded on the nature, quality, ox general character of the effects ; as in the following works :— W. Cullen, M. D, Treatise of the Materia Medica. Edinburgh, 1789. R. Pearson, M. D, A Practical Synopsis of the Materia Alimentaria and Materia Medica. London, 1808. C. I. A. Schwilgue, Traite de Matiere Medicale, 2 torn. Paris, 1818. J. Arnemann, Chirurgische Arzneimittellehre, 6te Aufl. von A. Kraus. 1818. J. Arnemann, Praktische Arzneimittellehre, 6te von L. A. Kraus. 1819. T. Young, M. D., An Introduction to Medical Literature, art. Pharmacology, 2d edit. 1823. J. B. G. Barbier, Traite Elementaire de Maiiere Medicale, 2nde ed. 3 torn. Paris, 1834;— 4e ed. 1837. 180 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. N. Chapman, M. D., Elements of Therapeutics and Materia Medica, 4th edit. Philadelphia, 1825. Dr. Nut tall, Lancet, 1825-6, vol. ix. p. 578. H. M. Edwards, and P. Vamsseur, M. D., Manuel de Matiere Medicale. Paris, 1826.— English Translation, by Davis, 1831. C. Sundelin, Handbuch der speciellen Heilmitlellehre, 2 Bde. 3te Aufl. 1833. John Murray, M. D., A System of Materia Medica and Pharmacy, 5th edit. Edinburgh, 1828. A. Duncan, M. D., Physiological Classification of the Materia Medica. In the Supplement to the Edinburgh New Dispensatory, 11th edit. 1829. J. Wen Anthelmintics. lodged in the alimentary canal............ $ Antacids. I. Mi.'dicines calculated to correct certain ) morbid conditions of the system, by f _, . acting on the tonicity of the muscular t Tonics- fibre...................................... ) II. Medicines calculated to correct certain mor- 1 bid states of the system by acting on the > Astringents. contractility of the muscular fibre.......... J I. Medicines calculated to promote the men- ) „ stnial discharge........................... j Emmenagogues. II. Medicines calculated to increase the partu- \ .. .- rient efforts of the womb................... j ADortlva- I. Medicines that lessen the sensibility and j v irritability of the nervous system......... j Narcotics. II. Medicines that increase and equalize the ) » . -,. nervous energy.......................... j Antispasmodics. I. Medicines that increase the action of the ? a.- , heart and arteries...................... $ Stimulants. I. Medicines that act on the cula-5 GeneraK 7 IH»P>>°retici. neousexhalents...............) _ .. ) Ep.spast.es. f Topical. < Lrrhines. ( Emollients. II. Medicines that increase the action of the ? _. urinary organs.......................... I Diuretics. III. Medicines thai alter the state of the urinary ? . ..,-..- secretion................................ j Antihthics. IV. Medicines that promote the secretory action ) <-,. , of the salivary glands.................... J Sialagogues. I. Medicines calculated to increase the mucous ) r nprtnrnnt secretion in the bronchia, and to promote /■ fjXPeclo.ranls- its discharge.................... ....... 5 Illations. II. Medicines whose action is truly topical.....S E^harotlca VOGT'S CLASSIFICATION. Vogt makes three classes of medicines : the first including those agents which specially affect the sensibility of the body ; the second containing those which alter the irritability of the system; and the third embracing those agents which influence what he calls the vegetation of the body,— that is, the organic functions, namely, nutrition and reproduction. f Class 1. Medicines ope- rating specially on the nervous system, and < particularly used t nervous agents...... Class 2. Medicines ope- rating specially on ir- ritable life............ Class 3. Medicines ope- f rating specially on the vegetative [organic] system, and which arc particularly used in diseases of vegetation [nutrition and repro- duction]............. DIVISIONS. orders. f 1. Opium and its allies. | 2. Nux Vomica, and medicines simi- Medicines which limit the | lar to it. vital manifestation of the 4 3. Hydrocyanic Acid, and vegetables nervous system (Narco- I allied to it. tica)....................... ) 4. Belladonna, and medicines similar ^ to it. Medicines which exalt and r 1. Nervinia volatilia (Ammonia, strengthen the vital ma- | Musk, &c.) nifestatious of the ner- ^ 2. Nervino-alterantia antispasmodic vous system (JVerwjna). •• 1 ca (Ipecacuanha, Copper, Zinc, 1 Bismuth, &c.) , Weakening {Antiphlogistica) as the Neutral Salts, Cold, &c. Medicines which heighten t 1. Excitantia volatilia (as Camphor, and strengthen the vital ) Mints, &x.) manifestations of the irri- 1 2. Tonica. table system.............. ' 3. Antiseptica (Acids, Chlorine, &c.) r 1. Heat. ., ,. . .. 2 Gummi-Resinosa, Balsamica, and . Medicines operating spe- ,' Re<-imisa cially on the secreting and i 3 Reso|ventia ' (Acrids, Mercury, excreting system.......... ■ Antimony, Sulphur, Alkalis, t_ Iodine, &c.) . Medicines which specially C 1. Aromata (Pepper, Pyrethrum, Nut- operate 011 the formative < megs, &c.) process .................. ( 2. Nutrientia. s. Classifications founded on Therapeutical Properties. • The curative and remedial powers of medicines are not absolute and constant, but relative and conditional; so that we have no substance which, under every circumstance, is a remedy for a particular disease. This will explain why no 184 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. modern author has attempted to classify remedies according to their therapeutical properties. Such a classification, if attempted, must be an arrangement of dis- eases, and an enumeration of the medicines which experience had found fre- quently, though not invariably, beneficial for each. On this principle, an Index of Diseases and of Remedies according lo the opinions of the ancient Greeks, Latins, and Arabs, has been given in the following work :— J. Rutty, M. B., Materia Medica ariliqua et nova, repurgata et. illustrata, 4to. Rotterodami, 1775. Strictly speaking, therefore, there are no substances to which the term Spe- cifics {specifica qualitativa, Hufeland,1) can be properly applied. Yet it cannot be denied that there are many medicines which are particularly appropriated to the cure of certain diseases, or to the relief of particular symptoms; experience having shown that they more frequently give relief than other agents. As exam- ples, 1 may refer to the use of Mercury in syphilis, Sulphate of Quinia in ague, Arsenious Acid in lepra, Sulphpr in the itch, and Hydrocyanic Acid in vomiting. Moreover, I cannot admit that any satisfactory explanation has yet been given of the modus medendi of many of these agents. The relief obtained in constipation by the use of Senna, and in pain by that of Opium, is explicable by reference to the known physiological effects of these substances. But the benefit procured in venereal diseases by Mercury, in ague by Sulphate of Quinia, &c, cannot be accounted for by reference to any known physiological effects which these sub- stances produce, and our use of them, therefore, is at present empirical. It can- not, however, be doubted, that had we a more intimate acquaintance with, and precise knowledge of, the action of remedies, the therapeutical properties of medi- cines would no longer appear incomprehensible and mysterious. Though no systematic therapeutical classification has, to my knowledge, been attempted by modern authors, yet in some recent works several therapeutical classes have been admitted ; especially in the following :— F. Foi/,M. D., Cours de Pharmacologie, 2 tomes. Paris, 1831.—[His class of Specifics includes Antisyphilitics, Antipsorics, Febrifuges or Antiperiodics, Anliscrofulous medicines, and Anthel- mintics.] J. H. Dierbach, M. D., Die neuesten Entdeckungen in der Materia Medica. 2te Ausg. ler Band. Heidelberg und Leipzig, 1837. CHAPTER XII.—ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL CLASSES OF MEDICINES. 1 have already (p. 175.) expressed my opinion that, in the present state of our knowledge, a physiological classification of medicines cannot be satisfactorily effected. It is principally on this ground that I have thought it advisable, in the following pages, not to follow any attempted arrangement of this kind in describ- ing the substances used in medicine. It, however, appears to me advisable to precede the account of medicines individually, by some notice of the more im- portant groups which they form when arranged on physiological principles. Medicines may be arranged physiologically on two principles ;—according to the parts or organs which they affect, or according to the nature or quality of the action which they set up. But to the exclusive adoption of either principle, obstacles almost insurmountable oppose themselves. These mainly arise from the difficulty experienced in discriminating between the primary and secondary effects of medicines. In a classification of medicines according to the parts or organs affected, it would be found, I suspect, that four-fifths of our Materia Medica might be placed in one class, under the denomination of medicines affecting the nervous system (cerebral, true spinal, and ganglionic systems2); while in a classification strictly 1 Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Heilkunde, S. 194. 2te Aufl. Jena, 1830. a See some remarks on the therapeutics of these systems, in Dr. Marshall Hall's work On the Diseases and Derangements of the Nervous System, pp. 36, 113, and 129. CEREBRO-SPINANTS. 185 founded on the nature or quality of the action which they induce, most of our medicines would belong to the class of alteratives.1 Class 1. MedicaxMenta Cerebro-spinantia.—Cerebro-spinants. (Narcotics, Auctorum.) Definition.—Medicines which produce or prevent sleep, or which affect the intellectual functions, sensation, or the irritability of the muscular fibres, I deno- minate Cerebro-spinants, because they affect the functions of the cerebro-spinal system (cerebral and true spinal systems of Dr. Marshall Hall). Physiological Effects.—The only essential physiological property which these agents possess in common, is that of specifically affecting the cerebro-spinal system. In other respects they present a considerable diversity of operation,— though they are so mutually related that we cannot with propriety place them in separate classes. Cerebro-spinants differ among themselves with regard to both their topical and remote effects. The topical effect of Opium is that of a very slight benumbing agent; Aconite causes numbness and tingling; Conia occasions local paralysis; Tobacco, Foxglove, &c, operate on the alimen- tary canal as acrids; Alcohol and the Metallic Cerebro-spinants are caustics. In their remote effects we observe the same want of uniformity. Alcohol renders the pulse fuller and more fre- quent ; while Foxglove reduces its power and frequency. Opium causes constipation, while To- bacco relaxes the bowels. Lastly, in the modifications occasioned in the functions of the cerebral and spinal system, we observe an equal diversity of operation. Considered with regard to their effects on the cerebro-spinal system, these agents may be arranged in ten orders, as follows:— Order 1. Convulsives( Tetanies). Agents which augment the irritability of the mus- cular fibre, and in large doses occasion convulsions.—This order includes Strychnia, Brucia, and all substances which contain one or both of these alkalis; as Nux Vomica, St. Ignatius's Bean, Snake-wood, (lignum colubrinum,) the Upas Tieute, and probably the Tanghin poison. These agents are principally employed in torpid or paralytic conditions of the muscular system, under regulations which will be pointed out hereafter. Order 2. Paralysers. Agents which cause paralysis of voluntary motion, and lessen the irritability of the muscular fibres.—This order contains Conia, an alkali procured from hemlock, and which, considered physiologically, would appear to be the remedy for augmented irritability of the muscles, as in Tetanus and Hydrophobia. Order 3. Benumbers. Agents which cause topical numbness [paralysis of the sentient nerves?] and muscular weakness.—Monkshood, and its alkali Aconitina, occasion numb- ness and tingling in the parts to which they are applied. They give rise to a feeling analogous to that produced, on the return of sensation, after the removal of pressure upon a nerve, and which is commonly denominated " pins and needles." When swallowed, they also occasion muscular weakness. As they diminish feeling, they are adapted for the relief of neuralgia. Order 4. Convulsive Stupefacients, acting rapidly and suddenly. (Epileptifa- cients?) Agents which cause sudden loss of intellect, sensation, and volition, and usually occasion convulsions.—This order includes Hydrocyanic Acid, the Cyanides of Potassium and Zinc, Bitter Almonds and their Volatile Oil, and the Cherry-laurel and its Volatile Oil and Distilled Water. The narcotic gases (Carbonic Acid, Sulphuretted Hydrogen, &c), when inhaled, belong to this order. In celerity of effect, and rapidity with which they prove fatal, no agents exceed, and few equal, the poisons of this order. The sudden loss of sensation and of consciousness, with violent convulsion?, which are the charac- teristic effects of this order, constitute also the essential symptoms of an epileptic paro- xysm : they also sometimes occur from the loss of large quantities of blood. The analogy between these three conditions (i. e. hydrocyanic poisoning, epilepsy, and the effect of hemorrhage,) is farther shown by the fact that the symptoms of all are relieved by Ammo- nia. As therapeutical agents, hydrocyanic acid and its allies prove exceedingly useful in certain painful affections of the stomach, unaccompanied by inflammation. Order 5. Convulsives which cause Delirium followed by Sleep or Stupor. Agents which, i?i moderate doses, act as cardiaco-vascular stimulants, and exhilarate; 1 Medicines may augment, lessen, or alter vital action. £e; p. 148. 16* 186 elements, of materia medica. in excessive doses cause confusion of head and impaired volition, followed by delirium, convulsions, and insensibility.—This order was contrived to include Camphor. Order 6. Paralyzing, pupil-contracting Stupefacients (Narcotics; Apoplectifa- cients ?) Agents which lessen feeling, and the irritability of the muscular fibres, and cause contraction of the pupils, and paralysis of voluntary motion, and sleep or stupor.— Opium, and its alkali, Morphia, constitute the type of this Order, to which, probably, Lactucarium also belongs. In small doses they usually excite the vascular system, check the mucous secretions of the alimentary canal, and promote sweating. In larger doses they lessen sensation, diminish the irritability of the muscular fibre (when fatal doses have been taken, actual paralysis precedes death), cause contraction of the pupils, and occasion sleep or stupor. The apoplectic condition thus induced is denominated narcotism. In therapeutics, these agents are used— a. To*check profuse mucous secretion of the gastro-intestinal membrane. b. To promote sweating. c. To diminish augmented irritability of the muscular system (spasm or convulsion). When thus used, they are termed antispasmodics. d. To relieve pain. In this case they are called anodynes (from <*, privative, and cJ'wh, pain), or paregorics (from 7rctpyiyofxa>, to soothe or alleviate). e. To procure sleep. When thus used, they are denominated hypnotics (i/a-va-moc, from vwoc, sleep), or soporifics (from sopor, a deep sleep, and facio, I make). Order 7. Inebriating, paralyzing Stupefacients (Inebriants; Intoxicants). Agents which produce a peculiar disorder of the intellect, called inebriation or intoxication, im- pair volition, and, when used in excess, occasion paralysis of voluntary motion, and stupor. —Alcohol, Wine, and Ether, belong to this Order, which is closely allied to the preceding one. The agents composing it are remarkable for their exciting influence over the car- diaco-vascular system, and for the peculiar form of intellectual disorder which they occa- sion, but which varies somewhat in different persons. By long-continued use, alcohol gives rise to the disease termed delirium tremens, which is characterized by wakefulness, delirium, and tremor. The substances of this group are employed in medicine principally as excitants and stimulants. a. Protoxide of Nitrogen should, perhaps, constitute a subdivision of this order. When inhaled it causes exhilaration, temporary delirium, and blueness of the lips. Stupor is sometimes produced by it. /8. Indian Hemp (Cannabis indica) should form either another subdivision, or, per- haps, a distinct order. It causes a very agreeable kind of delirium, augmented appetite, venereal excitement, and impaired volition, followed by insensibility, during which the patient retains any position in which he may be placed. Its effects, therefore, simulate catalepsy.1 {Cataleptifacient?) Order 8. Delirifacients2 which Dilate the Pupil and Paralyze the Throat. Agents which cause dilatation of pupil, obscurity of vision, dysphagia, aphonia, and de- lirium, terminatimg in stupor.—Belladonna, Stramonium, and Hyoscyamus, belong to this order. They cause dilatation of pupil, obscurity of vision or actual blindness, dryness of the throat, difficulty or entire loss of power of deglutition, aphonia or difficult articulation, weak pulse, fainting, and delirium, followed by sopor or lethargy. Convulsions are not constant. These effects have been compared to the symptoms of hydrophobia. Spasmodic difficulty of breathing, and angina pectoris, have been alleviated by these agents. Bella- donna is employed to dilate the pupil, and to allay neuralgic pain. Order 9. Nauseating, cardiaco-vascular Sedatives, which occasion Trembling and Weakness of Muscles and Confusion op Intellect. — Agents which produce nausea, sometimes vomiting and purging, iceakness and irregularity of pulse, syncope, impaired vision, giddiness, and confusion of ideas. Paralysis, convulsions, delirium, and stupor, are occasional symptoms. Foxglove and Tobacco belong to this group. Order 10. Metallic Cerebro-spinants.—Metallic substances having a local chemical notion, and ichich affect the functions of the true spinal system.—This order is a very heterogeneous one, and admits of several subdivisions. n\?n\ ^ ^rJ-rarlTt °f- tht IrtUnt HT'e% ?Unjah (Can"a"? indi,c< tMr Effects on the Animal System in Health, and their Utility tn the Treatment of Tetanus and other Convulsive Disorders Rv W K nsiian.hni.Kii M. D. Calcutta, 1639. ' * ' ouaugnnessy, » From delirium and facio, I make. CER EBRO-SPINANTS. 187 *. Plumbeous Cerebro-spinants.—The preparations of Lead occasion colic and paralysis. From their constringing effects on the capillary vessels they have been termed astringents. 0. Manganesic Cerebro-spinants.—According to Dr. Coupar (British Annals of Medicine, Jan. 13, 1837, p. 41.) they occasion paraplegia without colic or tremor. y. Mercurial Cerebro-spinants.—By long continued use, in small doses, mercu- rials occasion paralytic tremor (tremor mercurialis,) and ultimately convul- sive agitation of the limbs. (Choreafacients?) S. Antispasmodic Metallic Cerebro-spinants.—This group includes the Prepara- tions of Arsenic, Bismuth, Copper, Silver, and Zinc. Their influence over the true spinal system is shown by their remedial influence in epilepsy and chorea (whence their denomination of antispasmodics,) as well as by the cramps or convulsions or paralysis which they occasion when taken in poi- eonous doses. In small doses they sometimes cure ague and other periodical maladies, and have, in consequence, been termed tonics This group corre- sponds very nearly to that called by Vogt (Lehrbuch der Pharmakodynamik. Bd. 1. S. 269. 2te Aufl. Giessen, 1828.) ner vino-alter antia. Arsenic, when swallowed in an excessive dose, sometimes occasions narcotism. Locality and Quality of the Action of Cerebro-spinants.—Those cere- bro spinants which occasion lesions of the mental functions, of sensibility, or of voli- tion, or which prevent or produce sleep, affect the cerebrum or cerebellum. These lesions put on a great variety of forms. Mania, delirium, inebriation, erroneous perceptions or judgments, and stupor or coma, are morbid conditions of the mental facul- ties. Pain, numbness, tingling, loss of feeling, spectra, impatience of light, impaired vision, amaurosis, &c, are disordered conditions of sensibility. Paralysis (cerebral) of voluntary motion is a lesion of volition, one of the cerebral functions. Those cerebro-spinants which either augment or lessen the irritability of mus- cles, affect the true spinal system. Spasm or convulsion is the result of an augmentation of the irritability of muscles. If the influence of the true spinal marrow over the muscles be destroyed, the muscles are no longer irritable. This state, which may be denominated spinal paralysis, or paralysis of irritability, must not be confounded with cerebral paralysis, or paralysis of voluntary motion. (See Dr. Hall's paper on this subject in the Medico-Chirurg. Trans, vol. xxii. [vol. iv. N. S.] p. 191.) Mr. Grainger (Observations on the structure and Functions of the Spinal Cord. Lond. 1837.) has shown that the centre of the true spinal system is the gray matter of the true medulla oblongata and medulla spinalis. From this centre proceed the incident excitor and the reflex motor nerves. The affection of either the cerebral or true spinal systems induced by cerebro- spinants, may be primary or secondary; for these two systems are so mutually related, and have such an influence over each other, that if one be disordered, the other readily becomes implicated. Thus convulsions arise from a lesion of the true spinal system ; yet it is well known that they frequently attend diseases of the encephalon. The "cause," observes Dr. Hull, "appears to be either irritalion or counter-pressure: the former may act through the medium of the nerves dis- tributed lo the membranes,—as the recurrent of the trifacial of Arnold,—as in epilepsy induced by a spicula of bone; the latter is illustrated by the case of meningitis, by Dr. Abercrombie, in which the anterior fontarielle became prominent; pressure upon it induced convulsion." {On the Diseases and Derangements of the Nervous System, p. 97. Lond. 1841.) On the other hand, affeclions of the true spinal system may induce lesion of the cerebral faculties. Thus convul- sions may, by stopping respiration, cause coma. Attempts have been made to localize more precisely the action of cerebro- spinants, but without much success. Thus Flourens1 says that Opium acts spe- cifically on the cerebral lobes; that Belladonna, in a limited dose, affects the tubercula quadrigemina, and in a larger dose the cerebral lobes also; that Alcohol, in a limited dose, acts exclusively on the cerebellum, but in a larger quantity, it 1 Recherehes eiperimentales sur les Proprietis et les Fonctions du Systcme Nerveuz dans les Animaux vertebres. pp. 254, 258, 261, and 2C2. Paris, 1824. 188 elements of materia medica. affects also neighbouring parts; and, lastly, that Nux Vomica more particularly affects the medulla oblongata. It cannot be doubted, that most of the peculiarities which attend the operation of individual cerebro-spinants arise from different parts of the nervous centres being unequally affected by different agents. Great difficulty attends all attempts made to ascertain the nature of the changes, which cerebro-spinants induce in the nervous centres. This arises, in part, from the fact, that similar symptoms attend dissimilar affections of these parts. Thus coma may be induced by compression of the cerebrum, or by loss of blood. Delirium may arise from irritation of the cerebrum, or from loss of blood. Convulsions may be produced by irritation, or lesion of the medulla oblongata and spinalis, or by loss of blood. Paralysis may arise from lesion of the encephalon, destructive injury of the medulla oblongata or spinalis, and loss of blood. Alterations in the quantity or quality of the blood supplied to the different parts of the cerebral and true spinal systems, are probably the primary causes of the changes which cerebro-spinants induce in the condition of the functions of these systems. By long continued use of these agents, slight chemical changes may, perhaps, be induced in the nervous tissue (see p. 129.) Augmented arterial action, or venous congestion, sometimes attends the operation of cerebro- spinants. Flourens {Op. cit.) declares that Opium, Belladonna, Alcohol, and Nux Vomica, give rise to phenomena resembling those which attend mechanical lesions of the parts on which he asserts these agents operate (see above;) and farthermore he states, that in birds it is possible to observe, through the cranium, changes of colour [some alterations in the vascular condition of the parts] which these agents effect in the brain. Cause of Death.—In general, the immediate cause of death, in cases of poi- soning by the cerebro-spinants, is an impediment to respiration or circulation. Thus, the process of respiration may be stopped by a paralytic or a spasmodic condition of the respiratory muscles, or by closure of the larynx; and the circula- tion of blood may cease in consequence of paralysis of the heart. These are obvious and readily understood causes of death. But in some cases the crebro- spinants appear to destroy life in some other way. Thus, Hydrocyanic Acid injected into the veins kills within a few seconds, without stopping the action of the heart, which continues to beat for some minutes after the chest has been laid open. Now in such cases, it appears to me, that the death is too rapid to be fairly ascribable to the stoppage of respiration,—nor can it be referred to cessa- tion of the heart's action. a. Paralysis of the muscles of respiration.—In some cases the respiratory muscles do not receive their proper supply of nervous energy, in consequence of which respiration is per- formed with increasing difficulty, until, ultimately, asphyxia is produced. The failure of the excito-motor power, in these instances, arises from the action of the poison on the true spinal system.1 This kind of death is caused by Opium, and sometimes by Diluted Hydrocyanic Acid. If the body be opened immediately after death, the heart is found beating, oftentimes with considerable force, and for some minutes. These are the cases in which it has been proposed to prolong life by artificial respiration until the effect of the poison has passed off. The proposition is not supported merely by its ingeniousness and plausibility, but by expe- rience. The following is a case in point, related by Mr. Whateley, and quoted by Dr. Chris- tison:—{Treatise on Poisons, p. 680. 3d. ed.) A middle-aged man swallowed half an ounce of crude Opium, and soon became lethargic. He was roused from this state by appropriate re- medics, and his surgeon left him; but, the poison not having been sufficiently discharged, he 1 Dr. Marshall Hall {On the Diseases and Derangements of the Nervous System, p. 63) gives the following Table or the System of the Respiratory Nerves. 1. The Excitors. II. The Centre. III. The Motors. 1. The Trifacial, QH 1. The Spinal Accessory, 2. The Pneumogastric, o;m 2. The Intercostal, 3. The Spinal. = =< 3. The Diaphragmatic, w S? 4. The Lower Spinal, &c. CEREBRO-SPINANTS. 189 fell again into a state of stupor; and when the surgeon relumed, he found the face pile, cold, and deadly, the lips black, the eyelids motionless, so as lo remain in any position in which they were placed, the pulse very small and irregular, and the respiration quite extinct. Toe chest was im- mediately inflated by artificial means; and, when this had been persevered in for seven minutes, expiration became accompinied with a croak, which was gradually increased in strength till nahiral breathing was established; emetics were then given, and the patient eventually recovered. Another most interesting case of recovery from poisoning by Opium, by artificial respiration, has been detailed by Mr. Howship. {Medico Chirurgical Transactions, vol. xx. p. 86.) I have several times restored animals apparently dead, from the use ofllydrocyanic Acid, merely by keeping up artificial respiration ; and Sir Benjamin Brodie has done the same with animals apparently killed by the Oil of Bitter Almonds. /?. Convulsions or spasm of the respiratory muscles.—Another cause of death brought on by cerebro-spinants is spasm of the respiratory muscles, whereby the function of the respiration is stopped, and asphyxia produced. In such cases the reflex action is augmented. We have an example of this mode of operation in death by Strychnia, Brucia, and the substances containing these alkaloids. y. Closure of the larynx.—When an attempt is made to inspire pure Carbonic Acid, as well as some other gases, the larynx spasmodically closes, and death results from asphyxia. In a case of complete insensibility from intoxication related by Mr. Sampson, (Mcdico-Chir. Trans, vol. xx. p. 46) the comatose state was thought to arise, not from apoplexy, " but from torpor of the brain, in consequence of that organ being imperfectly supplied with blood not duly oxygenated; for the shrill tone and extreme difficulty of respiration showed the existence of collapse of the glottis, and imperfect transmission of air into the lungs, which might be accounted for by a paralysed state of the eighth pair of nerves and recurrent branches." Tracheotomy was performed, and with complete success; in about half an hour the respiration was regular and easy through the wound.1 ef. Paralysis of the heart.—In some instances the immediate cause of death appears to be para- lysis of the heart; for the heart ceases to beat before respiration has stopped,—as when the Alco- holic Extract of Aconite is applied to wounds in dogs. If the chest be opened, the heart does not contract as usual when irritated by a needle. The infusion of Tobacco appears to kill dogs and cats by paralyzing the heart. In the case of poisons acting in this way, it has been proposed to stimulate the heart by slight galvanic shocks, in order to avert the fatal termination. Even acupuncture has been advised, if the patient appeared in articulo mortis. Bretonneau (Bayle, Travaux Therapeutiques, t. i. p. 432.) has repeatedly punctured the brain, heart, lungs, and stomach of young dogs, without the least inconvenience; and Carraro1 has successfully tried this practice on animals in a state of asphyxia. Active Principles.—A considerable number of the vegetable cerebro-spinants owe the whole or part of their activity to an organic alkali. The cerebro-spi- nants belonging to the Almond tribe yield hydrocyanic acid. Lastly, volatile oil is, in some cerebro-spinants, the active principle. 1. Organic or Vegetable Alkalis; or the Alkaloids.—These substances are peculiar to vegetables. As the juices of the plants in which they reside are acid, it is evident that the vege- table alkalis must exist in them in the form of salts. The method of extracting them is not uni- form ; but for the most part they may be procured by boiling the substances containing them in water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and neutralizing the filtered decoction with ammonh, lime, or magnesia, by which the organic alkali is precipitated, and is to be subsequently purified, which is usually effected by dissolving it repeatedly in alcohol. Most of the organic alkalis are solid, inodorous, and crystallizable; e.g. Morphia and Cin- chonia. Some are pulverulent, as Veratria. Conia is liquid at ordinary temperatures, volatile, and highly odorous. All are combustible. They have an alkaline reaction on vegetable colouring matter, and unite with acids to form salts; but their saturating power is very low 1 Dr. Marshall Hall {op. supra cit. p. 280) designates this operation as " one of the most splendid achievements of modern surgery." He considers the case to have been one of " paralysis of the pneumogastric nerve and of the dilator muscles of the larynx :'" and that the same condition occurs, not only in intoxication, but pro- bably in other cases of coma, as in that of apoplexy, of epilepsy, from opium, &c. He gives the following Table of the Closure of the Larynx. I. The Excitor. II. Centre. III. The Motor. The Superior Laryngeal. -H The Inferior Laryngeal or erm Recurrent. 2 --* ' p » Erpericnccs sur des animaux asphyxiis et ramenis a la vie par Tacupunclure du ceur, in Bayle, op. cit.t. i p. 405. 190 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. (i. e. their atomic weights are very high.) The alkalis with which we are best acquainted are only slightly soluble in water; but, in general, they readily dissolve in boiling alcohol, and some of them separate in a crystalline state from this liquid as it cools. Their taste is for the most part bitter ; that of some is also acrid. Tannic acid unites with them to form tannates, which usually are very slightly soluble only in water. Hence the infusion of galls (which con- tains this acid) is employed for detecting the alkaloids, and as an antidole in poisoning by them. Iodic acid, in excess, precipitates several of them ; but is decomposed by Morphia, iodine being set free. Concentrated nitric acid reddens Morphia and Brucia, and gives a yellow tinge to Narcotina; but a green one to Aricina. Bichloride of Mercury precipitates the hydrochlo- rates of some of these alkaloids, forming, with them, double salts. The sulphates, nitrates, hydrochlorates, and acetates of the alkaloids, are generally soluble in water. Ammonia and Magnesia decompose their solutions, and precipitate the alkaloid. Carbazotic acid causes yellow precipitates with solutions of Quinia, Cinchonia, Brucia, Strychnia, Codeia, and Oxy. canthina; but not with Morphia, Narcotina, Veratria, Solanina, Conia, and Emetina. (See Mr. Kemp's paper in the London Medical Gazette, for April 24, 1840.) If chlorine gas be passed through a solution of Disulphate of Quinia, and Ammonia be subsequently added, an emerald-green liquor is obtained. If Morphia, in the place of the Quinia, be similarly treated, a dark-brown colour results. (Dr. Meeson [by mistake printed Roper,] in London Medical Gazette, vol. xi. p. 320.) The constituents of all the organic alkalis, are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. In each equivalent of the alkali there is only one equivalent of nitrogen. The organic alkalis operate powerfully on the animal economy. Some of them are energetic cerebro-spinants : as Morphia and Strychnia ; some are acrids, as Veratria ; while others are tonic, as Quinia and Cinchonia. 2. Hydrocyanic Acid.—The properties of this acid will be described in a subsequent part of this work. Though readily obtained from the bitter almond, and other substances of that tribe, it does not exist in them ready formed; but is produced by the mutual reaction of amygdalin, emulsin, and water. 3. Volatile Oil.—The general properties of the volatile oils will be described under the head of Stimulants. Tobacco and Hops owe part of their medicinal properties to volatile oil. Cam- phor may be regarded as a concrete volatile oil. Class 2. Stimulantia.—Stimulants. (Excitants; Incitants; Calefacients.) Definition.—An agent which increases the vital activity of an organ is termed a stimulant (from stimulus, a goad or spur), or sometimes an incitant (from ificito, to incite or spur on), or excitant. Those which, by exciting the nervous and vascular systems, affect all the organs or functions, are termed general stimu- lants ; while others, which influence one or two organs only, are called local stimulants. Those which excite the parts to which they are applied are denomi- nated irritants. The distinction to be made between the vital stimuli and the medicinal agents called stimu- lants (special stimuli,) has been already pointed but. (See p. 149.) Physiological Effects.—Most stimulants are odorous,—many of them, in- deed, powerfully so. Their taste is warm, acrid, and pungent. Swallowed in moderate quantities, they give rise to a sensation of warmth in the stomach, expel gaseous matters, and assist digestion. In larger quantities, they excite thirst, and often give rise to nausea or vomiting. Many of them increase the force and frequency of the heart's action, and promote the warmth of the surface of the body. Stimulants produce their effects through the agency of the nervous system {i.e. the true spinal and ganglionic systems) by a reflex action. Many of them become absorbed, and have been recognised in the blood and secretions. They are closely related to some other classes, especially to cerebro-spinants, tonics, and evacuants. Thus, Alcohol and Ether are, at the same time stimu- lant and narcotic ; Myrrh, Cascarilla, and the Ferruginous Compounds, possess both stimulant and tonic qualities; lastly, several of the stimulants are sudorific diuretic, emmenagogue, &c. The division of stimulants into groups, founded on the parts or organs which STIMULANTS. 191 they respectively affect, has been already noticed. (See p. 149.) I shall here arrange them into five orders, founded partly on their chemical properties, and partly on their physiological effects. Order 1. Cojjdimentary Stimulants.—This order contains those stimulants which are employed as condiments. They contain a volatile oil, to which they owe their reme- dial and condimentary uses. The action of many of them is principally limited to the alimentary tube. They form the three sub-orders, or groups, as follows:— a. This group, called by Dr. Duncan {Supplement to the Edinburgh Dispensatory, p. 229.) volatile pungent stimuli, contains the alliaceous and siliquose stimulants. The allia- ceous stimulants are Garlic, the Onion, and the Leek, which are obtained from the natural order Liliaceee. The siliquose stimulants are Mustard, Horse-radish, Scurvy-grass, and Cardamine, which are procured from Cruciferw. Most of the substances composing this group contain, or yield, an acrid volatile oil (composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulphur,) to which they owe their medicinal qualities. Several of them are employed as condiments. In medicine, we use Mustard as a rubefacient and emetic; Horse-radish as a masticatory; and Garlic as a stimulating expectorant. From their beneficial effects in scurvy, the substances of this group have been denominated anti- scorbutics. fi. This group contains the labiate and umbelliferous stimulants. Several of the aro- matic plants of the natural order Labialce are used in cookery as pot herbs, or as sweet or savoury herbs; and the carminative fruit of several Umbelliferous plants are aromatic. Some of the Composites, as Tansy, are used as pot herbs. Volatile oil is the active prin- ciple of the whole group. In the Labiate plants this resides in small receptacles in the leaves; while, in the Umbelliferous fruit, it is, contained in clavate vessels, called vittee, situated in the pericarpial coat. Cooks employ some of the substances of this group to form seasoning for certain kinds of dishes or meats. The liqueur-maker uses some of them for flavouring his cordials. In medicine, we employ them principally as flavouring or carminative substances. Thus, they are added to many other medicaments, the un- pleasant odour or taste of which they are intended to cover, and whose nauseating pro- perties they check. They are also useful in flatulency, and in spasmodic affections of the alimentary canal, especially the flatulent colic of children. y. The third group consists of the substances called Spices {aromata). These are the products of warm climates, as the Molucca or Spice Islands, Ceylon, the West Indies, die, and are obtained from the orders Zingiberaceee, Lauracece, Myrlacece, Piperacea?, Myristacece, Solanacece, &c. They owe their strong and grateful odour and taste prin- cipally to an acrid volatile oil. When applied to the skin, some of them (as Pepper) act as powerful acrids, and excite local inflammation. Taken internally, in moderate quantities, they stimulate the stomach, create a sensation of warmth in this viscus, and promote digestion and assimilation. In larger quantities, they occasion thirst, increase the fulness^of, and accelerate, the pulse, and produce a febrile condition of body. In doses of two drachms, Nutmegs have acted as narcotics. Spices are distinguished from the last group of stimulants by their more agreeable flavour; by their greater acridity ; by their* less tendency to occasion nausea; and by their more powerful agency in promoting the assimilation of substances reputed difficult of digestion. Both groups, however, yield condiments. (See pp. 106 and 122.) In medicine they are used as flavouring ingredients, as carminatives, antispasmodics, and as cordials or stimulants. Thus, they are added to other medicines to correct their nauseous flavour, or their griping qualities. They are given to relieve flatulency and cramp at the stomach ; to assist digestion in enfeebled or relaxed habits ; to allay griping pains of the bowels; and to check purging in some mild forms of diarrhoea. Some of them (Pepper and Ginger) are applied to the skin as rubefacients, or are chewed as masticato- ries. Pepper has been successfully employed in intermittents, Cubebs in gonorrhoea. The volatile oil of some of the spices (as of Cloves or All-spice) is occasionally placed in the hollow of a carious tooth to allay toothache. On account of their acrid and heating properties, spices are objectionable in inflamma- tory conditions of the alimentary canal, and in febrile conditions of system. Order 2. Resinous Stimulants.—All the stimulants of this order contain resin. Some {resins) of them, indeed, consist almost solely of it. Others {oleo-resins) contain also volatile oil. A third group {balsams) contains benzoic acid and resin. A fourth group {gum-resins) consists of gum, resin, and volatile oil. As these groups differ not 192 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. only in their chemical composition, but also to a certain extent in their effects and uses, they will require separate examination. a. Resins {resina.)—Under this head I include Elemi, Mastic, and Guaiacum, obtained, the first two from Terebinthacea, the last from Zygophyllacea:. They exude either spontaneously or from incisions made in the stems of the plants yielding them. Common resin (called rosin) obtained as a residue in the distillation of the Turpentines, may, in regard to its chemical and medicinal qualities, be placed in the same group with the natural resins. The local action of resins is irritant: applied to the skin they produce rubefaction, and when swallowed in large doses, occasion heat of stomach, nausea, vomit- ing, or even purging. Their constitutional effects are those of stimulants. Thus they occasion thirst, quicken the pulse, raise the temperature of the surface, and promote the secretions, especially of the skin and kidneys. Elemi and mastic are rarely employed in medicine : their effects are analogous to the Turpentines, but much milder. Guaiacum is used as a stimulant and sudorific. 0. Oleo-resins {oleo-resinai; liquid resins; balsams devoid of benzoic acid ; lerebin- thinates).—These are oleo-resinous, semi-liquid, or glutinous juices, which flow sponta- neously, or by incisions, from various vegetables, especially those belonging to the orders Coniferce, Terebinthacea, and Leguminosce. Their liquidity or semi-liquidity, their odour, and most of their medicinal activity, are owing to the volatile oil which they con- tain, and which may be procured from them by distillation. From the true balsams they are distinguished by not yielding benzoic acid. They have a strong odour, which, in some, is very fragrant,—in others, so peculiar as to be taken as the type of certain odours under the name of terebinthinate. Those oleo-resins, employed in medicines, are the Turpentines, Copaiva, and Opobalsamum (commonly termed Mecca Balsam). Their taste is hot and acrid. They are all local irritants, causing rubefaction when applied to the skin ; some of them giving rise to active inflammation. When swallowed they occa- sion more or less irritation of the alimentary canal, according to the dose in which they are taken; the symptoms being epigastric heat, loss of appetite, nausea, or even vomiting; and, sometimes, when the quantity swallowed is large, griping or purging. Their con- stitutional effects are thirst, dryness of the mucous membranes, increased frequency and fulness of pulse, and great heat of skin, frequently accompanied with sweating. They exercise a stimulant influence over the urinary organs, whicli is manifested by uneasiness in the region of the kidneys, increased desire of passing the urine, heat in the urethra, and sometimes strangury and bloody urine. Under the influence even of small doses the urine acquires a remarkable odour; which, when any of the Turpentines have been taken, is that of violets. The mucous membranes generally are stimulated, and have their secretions diminished by the oleo-resins. By repeated use they sometimes cause a cutaneous eruption. In large doses Oil of Turpentine causes an affection of the nervous system, which will be noticed hereafter. The oleo-resins are principally employed in medicine to relieve diseases of the mucous membranes, especially the urino-genital mucous membrane. Thus they a*3 employed, and with great benefit, in gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, gleet, and chronic catarrh of the bladder. In chronic pulmonary catarrhs they are sometimes advantageously employed ; but not unfrequently prove injurious, as Dr. Fothergill {Medical Observations and Inquiries, vol. iv. p. 231.) has shown. Oil of Turpentine nas been used in neuralgia, against tape-worm, in puerperal peritonitis, and in other cases to be mentioned hereafter. y. Balsams {balsama naturalia: balsams containing benzoic acid).—The term balsam was formerly applied to all liquid vegetable resins, as well as to many pharmaceutical preparations. But to avoid confusion, the French chemists confine the term balsam to vegetable substances composed of resin and benzoic acid, with more or less volatile oil. But as this would exclude Copaiva and some other substances popularly called balsams, most of the German chemists retain the old acceptation of the term, and divide balsams into those which do, and those which do not, contain this acid. Balsams (under which term [ include those only which contain benzoic acid) are solid, soft, or liquid substances, according to the quantity of volatile oil which they con- tain: they have an aromatic, usually agreeable, odour, and a warm, acrid taste. They dissolve in alcohol; and the solution, when mixed with water, becomes milky, owino- to the deposition of resin. By sublimation, as well as by other methods, they yield benzoic acid. Those employed in medicine are Benzoin, Styrax, Tolu, Peruvian Balsam, and Liquidambar. They are obtained from the orders SlyracecR, Leguminosee, and Balsama- ceee. They owe the principal part of their medicinal activity to the contained benzoic acid. The liquid balsams (of Styrax and Peru) are sometimes applied to chronic indo- STIMULANTS. 193 lent ulcers, to allay pain, to improve the quality of the secreted matter {detergents), and to promote cicatrization {epulotics or cicatrisantia). Taken internally, the balsams act as stimulants; their operation being principally directed to the mucous membrane of the air-passages; on this account they are termed expectorants, and are employed in chronic catarrhs. MM. Trousseau and Pidoux {Traite de Therapeutie, t. i. p. 467.) assert, from their own experience, that " there are few substances in the materia medica so powerful in combating chronic pulmonary catarrhs and old laryngeal inflammations, as the balsams." In chronic inflammation of the larynx, whether accompanied or not by ulceration, balsamic fumigations are more serviceable than the internal exhibition of the balsams. The air of the patierit's chamber may be impregnated with balsamic vapours by placing a little Ben- zoin or Tolu on some live coals, and allowing the vapour to escape into the room : or the patimt may inhale the vapour of boiling water to which a drachm or two of the balsams have been added. (T. Foetid or antispasmodic gum-resins {gummi-resince fcetida). — The gum-resins, usually denominated foetid or antispasmodic, are Assafoetida, Ammoniacum, Galbanum, Sngapenum, and Opoponax, all of which are obtained by incision from plants of the order Umbelliferce, growing, for the most part, in Persia. They are composed principally of gum and resin, but with a small quantity of volatile oil, to which they are mainly indebt- ed for their odour. Rubbed with water, they form a milky fluid or emulsion. They are not completely soluble in pure alcohol, though they form therewith a clear tincture, which becomes milky on the addition of water, by the precipitation of the resin as a white powder. They dissolve, however, in boiling dilute alcohol. They are likewise soluble in vinegar. Their odour is strong and remarkable; their taste warm and acrid. Applied to the skin, they act as mild stimulants. Taken internally, they give rise to a sensation of warmth in the stomach, and cause eructations. The odorous particles of. Assafoetida become absorbed, and may be recognised in the blood and secretions. The foetid gum-resins have been principally, and most successfully, employed in hysteria,. flatulent colic, spasmodic asthma, chronic bronchial affections, and in uterine disorders. From their beneficial influence in the first of these diseases, they are inferred to possess. a power of specifically affecting the nervous (the tiue spinal) system. They probably ope- rate by a reflex action. Myrrh is a gnm-resin procured from a plant of the order Terebinthacecs. It does not possess the antispasmodic power of the foetid gums, but approaches nearer to the tonics. Olibanum is also a gum-resin, obtained from the same order as myrrh. Its stimulant properties are principally directed to the mucous membranes; and, in this respect, it is analogous to the resins, or rather to the oleo-resins. Order 3. Ammoniacal, Empyreumatic, and Phosphoric Stimulants.—This order contains Ammonia and its salts, the Empyreumatic Oils, Phosphorus, Musk, and Casto- reum. It is termed by Vogt {Lehrbuch der Pharmakodynamik, Bd. i. S. 184. 2te Aufl. Giessen, 1828.) volatile nervines {nervinia volatilia). All the substances of which it is composed agree in producing a primary and specific effect on the nervous system, the energy and activity of whose functions they exalt. According to Vogt, {Op. cit. Bd. i. p. 186.) the more volatile the remedy the more it increases the activity of the nervous functions, and the more fixed the more it raises their energy. Thus, according to the same writer, the preparations of ammonia raise the activity more than the energy of these functions; the empyreumatic oils somewhat less; musk still less; while castoreum in- creases the energy of the functions principally. However, I shall hereafter show that the la.'-t-mentioned remedy really possesses very little power. These remedies act as excitants lo the organs'of circulation, increasing the force and frequency of the pulse, augmenting the warmth of skin, and promoting diaphoresis. On account of the latter effect they have been termed diaphoretica calida. The effects of the substances composing this group are very quickly produced, and soon disappear. Consequently these remedies are adapted to urgent and acute cases, when the danger is imminent, and an immediate effect desired : for the same reason they require to be frequently repeated, in order to keep up their effects. From their exciting operation, they are indicated in cases of debility and sinking of the vital powers. Thus they are employed in syncope, low fevers, cholera, &c. On account of their specific influence over the nervous system, they are administered in various spasmodic or convulsive diseases, especially in hysteria, and also in epilepsy and chorea. Order 4. Campiioraceous Stimulants.—This order includes Camphor, Serpentary, Contrajerva, Valerian, the Oil of Cajuputi, die. It corresponds with that division of vol. i. 17 194 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. volatile excitants called by Vogt cetherio oleosa: it is a less perfect group than any of those already mentioned. To a certain extent it agrees in its effects with the last-mentioned: thus, it specifically stimulates the nervous system, increases the activity of the vascular system, and produces diaphoresis. Its effects, however, are much less powerful, are not so speedily produced, nor are they so fleeting. Some of these (for example, Serpentary and Contrajerva) are serviceable in low nervous fevers; others are used in spasmodic dis- eases, as Valerian in epilepsy. Order 5. Alcoholic Stimulants.—This order is the spiriiuosa of Vogt. It compre- hends Alcohol, Wine, and Ether, already mentioned under the head of Cerebro-spinants. Their effects and uses will be fully described in a subsequent part of this work. Active Principles.— Volatile oil, resin, and benzoic acid, are the active prin- ciples of a considerable number of stimulants. 1. Volatile Oil (oleum volatile, vel eethereum, seu essentiale).—Volatile oil is found in both the inorganized and organized kingdoms of nature: it is most common in vegetables. Petro- Ieum and Naphtha are examples of volatile oil in the mineral kingdom. Among animal sub- stances, Castoreum may be referred to as containing it. It is found in various parts of vegetables —as in the cortical parts of their stems, in Cinnamon and Cassia; in their rhizomes—as in Gin- ger and Acorus Calamus; in the root—as in Valerian and Horse-radish ; in the leaves—as in Buchu, Labiates, and Myrtacece; in buds—as in the bulbs of Garlic and Onions; in the flower— as the Rose, Lavender, and Clove; in fruits—as the Orange, and Umbelliferce; and sometimes, though very rarely, in the seeds—as in the Nutmeg. From these different parts it is occasionally obtained by pressure, but more commonly by distillation. Thus, Oil of Lemons is procured by pressure, Oil of Turpentine by distillation. Several volatile oils are obtained by the decomposi- tion of organic substances. Oil of Bitter Almonds is one of the products of the mutual reaction of amygdalin, emulsin, and water. The volatile oils maybe solid or liquid, at ordinary temperatures; when solid, they are crystalline. They may be lighter or heavier than water; their specific gravity varying from 0-627 to 1094. (L. Gmelin, Handbuch der theorelischen Chemie,2er Bd. S. 351. 1829.) They may be coloured or colourless; if the former, the tint is various in different oils. All the essen- tial oils have a strong odour, and a hot acrid taste. They are easily volatilized by heat; are combustible, in consequence of the large quantity of carbon and hydrogen which they con- tain ; and are decomposed by chlorine, iodine, bromine, and the acids. Some of them (as the Oil of Turpentine) combine with hydrochloric acid. They are very slightly soluble only in water. The distilled waters of the Pharmacopoeia are saturated solutions of them. If the oils be previously rubbed with sugar, they dissolve more readily in water. The mixtures or compounds of volatile oils and sugar are called eleeosacchara. According lo the Prussian Phar- macopoeia, they are composed of one drop of oil and a scruple of sugar. Volatile oils dissolve readily in alcohol, ether, pyroxilic spirit, and naphtha, and easily mix with the fixed oils and resins. The volatile oils, as ordinarily met with, usually consist of two oils—the one liquid, at ordi- nary temperatures (volatile oil, properly so called; the eleoplene of Berzelius; the hygrusin of Bizio)—the other solid (sliaroptene of Berzelius; slereusin of Bizio; camphor of the German chemists). When the latter predominates, the oil readily concretes in cold weather — as the Oil of Anise and the Oil of Star-anise. Tlie Camphor of the shops is solid volatile oil (stear- optene). In regard to ultimate composition, the volatile oils maybe divided into three classes: 1st, some of them are hydro-carbons; that is, are composed of carbon and hydrogen only—as the Oils of Turpentine, Juniper, Savin, Lemon, and Bergamot: 2dly, some are oxy-hydro-carbons; that is, they consist of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon—as the Oils of Lavender, Anise, Mint, and Rosemary : 3dly, some are Azoturelled or Sulphuretted, and contain no less than five ingre- dients ; namely, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, and nitrogen; as the Volatile Oil of Mustard. It is remarkable that all the volatile oils which contain carbon and hydrogen only, have the same ultimate composition (10 C -f- 8 H); or, at least, they consist of the same elements in the same relative proportion. The volatile oils undergo chemical changes when exposed to the air. They become deeper coloured and thicker, absorb oxygen, and give rise to the formation of carbonate acid and resin. The resins of Turpentine and Copaiva appear to be simple oxides of their respective oils. 2. Resin (resina).—This is rarely found in the mineral kingdom, or in animal substances; but is common in vegetables. In the latter it exists almost invariably, if not universally in com- bination with volatile oil, from which, perhaps, it may be formed by the action of the oxygen of the air. It is a transparent or partially opaque, hard, soft, or elastic solid; coloured or colour- less; lighter or heavier than water, its specific gravity varying from 0-93 to 1-2 • (Gmelin, on. supra cit.) fusible and combustible. It is a bad conductor of electricity and becomes nega- tively electrical by friction. As commonly met with, it is odorous, but probably, if completely tonics. 195 deprived of volatile oil, would be inodorous. Its taste is usually more or less acrid; sometimes billcr, and, occasionally, is not perceptible. It is not soluble in water, though some resins form hydrates with this liquid. It is soluble in ether and volatile oil, and frequently more or less so in alcohol; and on the addition of water to the alcoholic solution, the resin is thrown down as a white powder, which gives a milky appearance lo the fluid. Most resins possess acid properties; that is, they redden litmus, and combine with alkalis and other metallic oxides. This is the case with the two resins (Pinic and Sylvic acids) of which Colophony is composed; as well as the resin of Copaiva (Copaivic acid); of Guaiacum (Guaiacic acid); of Gamboge (Gambogic acid), &c. The salts formed by the union of resins with alkalis, or other basic substances, are called resinous soaps. The sapo-guajacinus and sapo-jalapinus of the Prussian Pharmacopoeia, as well as the savon de t6rebinthine (Starkeifs soap) of the French Codex, are soaps of this kind, and will be noticed hereafter. The resins are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.1 Some of them (e. g. Turpentine and Copaiva resins) appear to be oxidized essential oils. It is not improbable that the first degree of oxygenation of the volatile oils forms resins insoluble in cold alcohol, while the most oxygen- ated arc soluble in this liquid. Class 3. Medicamenta Tonica.—Tonics. (Corroborants.) Definition.—Under the denomination of tonics, are usually comprehended those therapeutic agents which, by continued administration in debilitated and relaxed conditions of the body, increase gradually and permanently the tonicity of the whole system, and thereby render the fibres tenser and stronger, and give greater firmness and density to all the tissues and organs. They have received their names from tovoj, tone or vigour, on account of their strengthening or invi- gorating properties. Physiological Effects.—Tonics produce their proper or real tonic effects in certain conditions of the system only ; that is, they do not invariably strengthen. In some cases they give rise to no obvious results—in others they act as irritants and stimulants. In the healthy state moderate doses produce no sensible effects, or, perhaps, a slight excitement of the appetite merely, while large quantities give rise to nausea and vomiting. In irritation or inflammation of the stomach and intestines, and in febrile conditions of system, attended with a hot and dry skin, and a furred and dry tongue, tonics act as local irritants and excitants, and add to the severity of all the morbid symptoms. In a weak and debilitated con- dition of body, they act very differently. Their immediate effects are to increase the appetite and assist digestion. After they have been administered for some time, the soft solid (as the muscles, cellular tissue, &c.) become firmer, the mus- cular system more powerful, and the pulse stronger, though not quicker. In fact, all the functions are performed with more energy, and the patient is capable of greater exertion. Tonics sometimes purge, at others constipate. When diarrhoea arises from, or is kept up by, a weakened state of the intestinal tube, tonics, by restoring strength, may produce constipation. On the other hand, when constipation depends on a debilitated and torpid condition of this tube—a circumstance not uncommon in females, tonics not unfrequently occasion alvine evacuations. Dr. Cullen, having noticed how frequently bitters act as laxatives and purgatives, has inserted them in his list of cathartics. Tonics are closely connected with stimulants; and on many occasions, the so-called tonic substances act really as stimulants. Thus in weak but irritable subjects just recovering from a protracted state of fever, Sulphate of Quinia will frequently act both as a local irritant and stimulant, and produce nausea, vomiting, furred tongue, a febrile state of system, headache, &c. In fact, the two classes (tonics and stimulants) mutually approach and gradually pass the one into the 1 Profissor Johnston lias published a series of elaborate papers On the Constitution of the Resins, in the Phi- losophical Transactions for RJ39 and 1840. 196 elements of materia medica. other; and several substances may, with equal propriety, be arranged under either. Tonics are also closely related to the cerebro-spinants. Several of the vegetable bitter tonics especially affect the cerebro-spinal system (for example, Quassia); while some of the cerebro-spinants, (as Strychnia,) in very small doses, act as tonics. Moreover, the beneficial influence of some of the vegetable tonics (as Cinchona) in intermittent diseases, should probably be referred to the specific effects of these agents on the nervous system. And, in the same way, we ought 10 explain the power of tonics to increase the tone of the muscular system; for it appears from Dr. Marshall Hall's experiments {On the Diseases and Derange- ments of the Nervous System, p. 78. Lond. 1841.) that one function of the true spinal system is to give tone to the muscles. The Preparations of Arsenic, Silver, Copper, Bismuth, Zinc, &c, are usually, but, as I think, most improperly, denominated tonics. They are agents which, in small and repeated doses, as well as in large and poisonous doses, specifically affect the nervous system, and I have already referred to them under the class of cerebro-spinants. They have been called tonics principally for the following reason:—Cinchona, the most powerful of the vegetable tonics, and, in fact, the type of the class, has long been celebrated as a curative agent in ague and other periodical diseases; hence it has been assumed that any substances capable of fulfilling the same indication must he possessed of the same properties, and thus Arsenic has been called a tonic. But the conclusion is erroneous; it is indeed true that Cinchona and Arsenic have, in common, the power of curing an ague, but the same effect is frequently produced by many other very dissimilar sub- stances: for example, by Bloodletting, by Alcohol, and by Mental Influences. If, therefore, Arsenic be a tonic, so also must bloodletting, die. If we admit this, it follows tonics can no longer be regarded as substances promoting strength, but merely as agents curing particular diseases. Before we have any right to asso- ciate Arsenic among tonics, we must completely alter our definition of these sub- stances, or show that Arsenic improves the appetite and promotes the strength of the body. Tonics may be arranged in orders or groups, as follows:— Order 1. Simple Bitters—This order includes those vegetable tonics which possess bitterness with little or no astringency, and which have been termed bitters, (amara,) or sometimes pure or simple bitters (amara pura seu simplicia). To this group are referred Quassia and Simaruba, obtained from the order Simarubacea; Gentian, American Calumba, (Frasera,) Chirayta, Com- mon Centaury, and Buckbean, from Genlianacece ; Calumba and Pareira brava from Menisper- macece; and Cetraria islandica, from Lichenacete. The latter is a mucilaginous or demulcent tonic. These remedies are employed to promote the appetite and assist digestion in atonic and enfeebled conditions of the slomach ; as general tonics in feebleness and debility of the whole system, and especially of the muscles; as antiperiodics in intermittent diseases ; and as anthel- mintics. Their beneficial operation in expelling intestinal worms has been referred to their poi- sonous influence over these parasitical animals, but ought perhaps rather to be ascribed to their improvement of the condition of the alimentary canal, and to the removal of those slates which favour the production of these beings. The power which they possess of retarding the acetous fermentation may perhaps contribute to their beneficial operation in some dyspeptic cases accom- panied with acidity and flatulence. Order 2. Pure Vegetable Astringents.1—This order comprehends those vegetable tonics which possess considerable astringency wilh little or no bitterness. These are the pure astrin- gents (astringentia pura). In this group arc contained Oak-bark and Nut-galls, from tlie order Cupulifera; Uva ursi, from Erica ceee ; Catechu and Logwood, from Le gummosa.; Rhatany, from Polygalacem; Tormentilla, from Rosacea; the pomegranate-rind, from Myrtacea; Bistort, from Polygonacea; and to these may be added Kino. These agents are principally remarkable for causing locul contraction and corrugation (or astriction) of the tissues. They contract and give greater density to the muscular fibres: diminish the caliber of the blood-vessels and exhalants, and thereby check hemorrhage, (whence their denomination of styptics,) and diminish secretion and exhalation when applied to mucous membranes or other secreting surfaces. In the mouth 1 For some observations on the distinction between astringency and bitterness, see Percival's Essays vol i 2d edition. London, 1772. ' ' TONICS. 197 they give rise to a peculiar sensation of roughness and stypticity. Some writers have ascribed these effects to a chemical or physical agency. Thus Dr. Cullen places astringents among substances acting on the simple solids, though, in another part of his treatise, he admits that they act on the living, as well as on the simple solids. The late Dr. Adair Crawford (An Experimental Inquiry into the Effects of Tonics, <5rc, 1816.) ascribed the effects of both astrin- gents and bitters to their influence in promoting the cohesion of the animal fibre. He im- mersed some pieces of intestines, of skin, &c. in various bitter and astringent infusions, while others were placed in water, merely as a standard; and he then observed the comparative weights required to break them, from which he inferred the relative strength of different tonics. But this mode of reasoning naturally leads to erroneous inferences, since the vital powers of the system are quite overlooked. The relaxed state of parts, which astringents are useful in obviating, depends not on a mere mechanical or chemical alteration, but in some change in the state of the vital powers: and, therefore, the agents which counteract it must have some other than a mere physical action. Moreover, tlie results obtained by Dr. Crawford depended proba- bly on the different degrees of antiseptic power possessed by the substances employed. Astrin- gents produce the constitutional effects of the bitter tonics: administered in moderate doses, they promote the appetite, assist digestion, and increase the tone and vigour of the general system. They are capable of fulfilling the same therapeutic indications as the bitter tonics. Thus, they have the power of preventing the occurrence of a paroxysm of intermittent fever ; and, in cases of debility are often useful, independently of their power of checking debilitating discharges. But this group is principally employed for its local effects; to obviate relaxation of fibres and tissues, and to prevent or check excessive discharges. Order 3. Astringent Bitters.—This order contains those vegetable tonics which possess both bitterness and astring-ency in an eminent degree; it may, therefore, be denominated astringent bitters. It includes Cinchona-bark, from Cinchonacea ; Spigelia, from Spigeliacea; Elm-bark, from Ulmacea ; and Willow-bark, from Salicacea. It combines the effects of both bitters and astringents, und is by far the most important group of the class, since it contains Cinchona-bark, the most powerful of the vegetable tonics. Order 4. Aromatic Bitters.—This order contains the aromatic hitters, which possess bitter- ness, with an aromatic flavour (derived from the presence of volatile oil), and, in some cases, astringency likewise. This group contains Wormwood and Elecampane, from the order Compo- sita ; Cascarilla, from Euphorbiacea; Angustura-barkJ from Rutacea ; and Hops, from Urtica- cea. They possess the combined properties of aromatics and bitter tonics, and are, therefore, useful where these are indicated. Order 5. Acid Tonics.—This order contains the acid tonics ; namely, the Mineral Acids, to which, perhaps, may be added Alum. These, taken in the dilute state, allay thirst, promote the appetite and digestive process, and augment the secretion of urine. By continued use, they reduce the heat of the body ; diminish the fulness and quickness, but increase the firmness, of (he pulse: check the cutaneous and pulmonary exhalation and secretion; and heighten the general tonicity of all the fibres arid organic tissues. If their employment be continued for too long a period, the digestive functions become much disturbed, chronic inflammation of the mucous lining of the alimentary canal is set up, accompanied with wasting and disorder of the whole system. They are employed as cooling and temperant means in fevers, especially of the hectic kind, and likewise as tonics. They are useful adjuncts to some of the bitter infusions. Order 6. Metallic Tonics.—This order consists principally of the Preparations of Iron. These combine tonic and stimulant properties, and will be noticed hereafter. Active Principles.—The active principles of the vegetable tonics are vegeta- ble alkalis, non-alkaline crystalline substances analogous to the alkaloids, certain vegetable acids, and the substance called extractive. 1. Vegetable Alkalis.—Quinia, Cinchona, and Aricina, are tonic vegetable alkalis. The general properties of this class of substances have been already examined. (See p. 189.) 2. Non-alkaline Neutral Crystalline Principles.—Salicine, Quassine, &c, have some analogy to the vegetable alkalis, but are too imperfectly known to permit any general account of them to be given. 3. Certain Tonic Vegetable Acids.— Tannic, Gallic, and Catechuic Acids, appear to^possess tonic properties. ot. Tannic acid (acidum tannicum).—As this substance is employed in medicine, it will be described in a subsequent part of this work. It will be sufficient, therefore, here to state, that its presence in the astringent tonics is shoftn by the whitish, or yellowish-white, precipitate (tanno- gelalin), which infusions of these substances form with a solution of isinglass, and by the blue precipitate (pertannate of iron) which they give on the addition ofa perfcrruginous salt. It also causes precipitates (tannates) with the vegetable alkalis. 198 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. g. Gallic acid (acidum gallicum).—The properties of this acid are very similar to those of tannic acid. From this circumstance, as well as from the fact that gallic acid is easily pro- duced by the action of air on tannic acid, it is difficult to prove whether certain vegetable sub. stances contain both these acids, or only tannic acid. Gallic acid agrees with tannic acid in pro- ducing a deep blue colour with the pcrsalts of iron, but it does not precipitate gelatine nor the vegetable alkalis. Though obtained from several vegetables, yet it probably either does not exist in many of them, or is present in very small quantities only : it is to be regarded, in most cases, as a product rather than an educt. Thus, though nutgalls yield one-fifth of their weight of gallic acid, Pelouze thinks that, originally, they contain none of it, but that what is procured is obtained by the action of atmospheric air on the tannic acid. Taken internally, in small doses, gallic acid causes no inconvenience. It has been given in the dose of from fifteen to thirty grains, against the Tania Solium, but without any benefit. Swallowed to the extent of twenty- four grains, it gave rise to a sweetish taste and a slight feeling of internal heat, but no other symptom. (Chevallier, in the Dictionnaire des Drogues simples et compos6es,t. i. p. 93. Paris, 1827.) y. Catechuic Acid.—This is a constituent of several vegetable astringents; as Ciitechu, Gam. bier, &c. It probably constitutes the essential part of the substance called by Pelletier red cinchonic. It produces a green colour with the salts of iron, but does not occasion any precipitate in a solution of gelatine. Its physiological effects have not been ascertained. 4. Extractive.—Some of the vegetable tonics are said to owe their bitlerness and medicinal activity to a principle to which the terms materia hermaphrodita, materia saponacea, and extrac- tive matter, have been applied. It is described as being ofa brown colour, soluble in water and alcohol, insoluble in ether, and becoming insoluble in water, by long-continued boiling, and by exposure to light and air. That a substance, or mixture of substances, possessed of these pro- perties, may be obtained from various plants, cannot be doubted, but it is not probable that che- mists have yet succeeded in obtaining a proximate principle to which the term extractive can with propriety apply. What has hitherto been procured is a mixture or compound of several principles, such as vegetable acids and their combinations with potash and lime, colouring matter, sugar, gum (rendered soluble in alcohol by its combination with other substances), vege- table bases, &c. Class 4.—Medicamenta Emollentia—Emollients. (Demulcents.) Definition.—Agents which diminish tone or insensible contractility of the living tissues to which they are applied, and thereby cause relaxation and weak- ness, are denominated emollients (from emollio, I soften). Physiological Effects.—They have an operation diametrically opposite to tonics, especially to those which are astringent. They relax, soften, and swell the tissues, and render them more flexible. Applied to inflamed parts they dimi- nish heat, tension, and pain, and oftentimes assist in producing the resolution of the disease, and when the inflammation is too violent, or too far advanced, for this to be effected, they are useful by promoting suppuration. They have a relax- ing effect on the muscular fibre, and are, therefore, employed to relieve spasm. These effects have been referred, by some, to a physical, by others, to a vital agency. During life the particles of the body are kept in approximation by two forces—attraction and the vital principle; and as emollients render the parts to which they are applied soft and flexible, (that is, they produce relaxation,) it becomes a question whether they operate by overcoming the cohesion of the molecules, or by modifying the vital properties. Most writers have regarded them as mechanical agents, and explain their influence just as they account for the action of warm water, or oil, on inorganic substances—leather, for example. But we should always be cautious in applying physical explanations to vita! pheno- mena ; and, in the present instance, this is particularly necessary. Emollients act physically on inorganized parts of the body (the cuticle, for example,) but on living parts they exert another kind of influence ; for cold water, which diminishes the cohesion of dead parts and renders them softer and more flexible, has not the same effect on living tissues. Moreover, Dr. A. Crawford {op. cit.) has shown that some medicinal agents diminish the cohesion of dead animal tissues, and Jiave an opposite effect on the living ones. EMOLLIENTS. 199 The constitutional effects of emollients are for the most part those of nutrients, not of medicines; though the continued use of some is said to diminish the tone or vigour of the system generally—an effect ascribed by Barbier {Traite Elemen- taire de Matiere Medicale, ie ii. 2nde ed. Paris, 1824.) to their absorption and local action on all the fibres of the body. This statement, however, is unsup- ported by fact in the case of gum, starch, sugar, gelatine, albumen, and some other principles. Emollients are used to prevent the action of irritating matters on the body, by involving them, or by sheathing or defending surfaces from ihe action of sub- stances capable of acting on them injuriously. When used for these purposes they are denominated demulcents {demulcentia, from demulceo, lo mitigate or soften). Thus we administer them when acrid poisons have been swallowed. They are applied externally, in the form of local baths, poultices, fomentations, &c, both as emollients and demulcents, in local inflammations, painful ulcers, &c. In irritation, inflammation, and ulceration of the alimentary canal (as in gastritis, enteritis, diarrhoea, dysentery, &c), they are taken either by the mouth or in the form of clyster. In catarrh, peripneumony, and pulmonic affections in general, where the cough is dry and harsh, and the expectorated matters are acrid, the use of emollients is often attended with very beneficial effects. By their lubri- cating and soothing influence over the nerves distributed to the fauces, they probably affect the bronchial membrane and pulmonic structure by a reflex action. In affections of the urinary passages, as ardor urinae, emollients (especially aqueous fluids) are very serviceable. Emollients may be arranged in the following orders :— Order 1. Aqueous Emollients.—This order contains Water, the principal and most im- porlant substance of the class. In order, however, that it may act as an emollient, it must have a certain temperature; for neither very cold nor boiling water has any emollient effect. Dr. Cullen fixes 62° F. as the lowest temperature at which this fluid can be emollient; and observes, that the greater its warmth the greater will be its emollient power, provided that pain or scald- ing be not produced. Aqueous vapour is, for two reasons, more emollient than liquid water: in the first place, it penetrates the organic tissues more powerfully ; and, secondly, a greater degree of heat can be applied by it than by liquid water. Dr. Cullen was doubtful whether advantage could be gained by any addition made lo water. Order 2. Mucilaginous Emollients.—This group has been subdivided into the pure muci- laginous emollients (as Gum Arabic, Tragacanth, Mallow, Marsh-mallow, &c), the sweets (as Figs), the bitters (as Cetraria islandica, Coltsfoot, and Sarsaparilla), and the oily (as Linseed, Sweet Almonds, Poppy Seeds, &c.) Order 3. Amylaceous Emollients.—This order includes starchy or farinaceous substances; as Wheaten Flour, Oatmeal, Barley, Arrow-root, Sago, Tapioca, ordinary Starch, &c. Order 4. Saccharine Emollients.—This order consists of the saccharine substances; as ordinary Sugar, Honey, Liquorice, &c. Order 5. Oleaginous Emollients.—This order includes the waxy, fatly, and oily substances ■ such as the animal fats, &c. (as Lard, Motion, Suet, Butter, Wax, and Spermaceti), and the vege- table oils (as Olive, Almond, Sesami, Palm, Poppy, Linseed, &c.) Order 6. Albuminous Emollients.—This includes the White and Yelk of Eggs, and Milk. Saliva and gastric juice are employed on the continent for medical purposes. Order 7. Gelatinous Emollients.—This order comprehends the gelatinous substances; as Gelatine in its pure form, Isinglass, Hartshorn shavings, &c. Active Principles.—Water and oily substances are, perhaps, the essential emollient principles. For though gum, starch, sugar, albumen, and gelatine, are termed emollient principles, they do not act as such unless water be present. The properties of these principles will be described in other parts of this work. 200 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Class 5.—Medicamenta Refrigerantia.—Refrigerants. (Temperants). Definition.—Medical substances which diminish the temperature of the body when it is preternaturally increased, are denominated refrigerants (from refri- gero, I cool), or temperants (from tempero, I moderate). Physiological Effects.—The only agent which in all cases reduces animal heat, is cold, used in the form of ice, cold air, cold baths, cold lotions, cold drinks, &c. Their agency is obvious : they abstract heat, and thereby lower the intensity of the vital movements, diminish vascular action, and reduce the calorific func- tions. (See p. 65.) But there are certain medicinal substances which, by con- tinued internal use, allay febrile heat, and usually promote the secretions, though they have no power of diminishing the ordinary or healthy temperature, and to these the term refrigerant is usually applied. How they act is not completely understood. Dr. John Murray {A System of Materia Medica and Pharmacy, 5th ed. vol. i. p. 508. Edinb. 1828.) thought they furnished oxygen to the system, and in that way prevented so large a quantity of it being consumed in the process of respiration,—an explanation borne out by the observations of Mr. Spalding and Dr. Fyfe, {Annals of Philosophy, vol. iv. p. 334. Lond. 1814.) that vegetable diet reduces the consumption of oxygen gas in respiration. Refrigerants may be arranged in two orders, as follows:— Order 1. Acidulous Refrigerants.—This order consists of the mineral and vegetable (Sul- phuric, Hydrochloric, Acetic, Citric, Tartaric, &c.) acids, as well as the acid or supersalts (Alum and Bitartrate of Potash). To the same order also belong certain acidulous fruits (as Oranges, Lemons, Mulberries, Tamarinds, Prunes, fruit of the Dog-rose, &c), and herbs (as Wood Sorrel, Lettuce, &c), and Acid Whey (serum laclis acidum). Order 2. Saline Refrigerants.—This order includes certain neutral salts; namely, the Nitrate and Chlorate of Potash. Active Principles.—Acids and the Alkaline Salts are the active principles of this class. Class 6.—Medicamenta Evacuantia.—Evacuants. (Vito-secerning Agents, Nutlall; Vital Agents which operate on the secerning system, A. T. Thomson.) Definition.—Agents which provoke a discharge by some emunctory, are termed evacuants (from evacuo, I evacuate or make void). Physiological Effects.—As evacuants promote secretion, their action on the secreting organs must be that of excitants; and, when carried too far, is followed by inflammation. They are employed to restore natural secretion, the diminution or stoppage of which has arisen from torpor, or deficient vascular activity of the secreting organ. But their secondary effect is exhaustion ; and thus these agents, having a weakening or depressing influence on the system, are employed as anti- phlogistics, and are denominated contra-stimulants or hyposthenics by the sup- porters of the doctrine of contra-stimulus. (See p. 150.) They diminish the quantity of circulating fluid; and hence they are obviously indicated in plethora. By their depressing influence over the vascular system, as well by their power of unloading the blood-vessels, they indirectly promote absorption; and are, in con- sequence, used in dropsical cases' to hasten the removal of the effused fluid. I have already alluded (pp. 55 and 163) to the mutual influence which the secre- tions have over each other,1 and whicb constitutes what has been denominated the antagonism of the secretions. In therapeutics we sometimes take advantage of this and excite the secretion of one organ, with the view of diminishing that 1 " Since all secretions, inasmuch as they extract certain ingredients from the blood, produce a change in its composition.no one secretion can be altered in quantity or quality without disturbing the balance which exists between all in their action on the blood; hence, the increase of one secretion gives rise to the diminu- tion of another." (Miiller's Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 473.) LiaUEFACIENTS. 201 of another. Moreover, we frequently employ evacuants as revulsives (See p. 161,) to relieve local determinations of blood to parts remote from those on which the evaouant operates. Thus purgatives are employed in affections of the head. Some of the milder evacuants, which gently and moderately promote the action of two or more secreting organs, are beneficially employed in chronic diseases under the name of alteratives, or purifiers of the blood. The agents called resol- vents (as Mercury, Iodine, and the Alkalis), and which are used to combat visceral and glandular enlargements, augment the activity of the secreting organs. Modus Operandi—In a considerable number of cases evacuants exert a topical, stimulant, or irritant influence over the organs whose secretions they augment. In some instances we apply them directly to the part on which we wish them to act; as in the case of Errhines, Masticatories, and Cathartics (usually). In other instances, the active principle of the evacuant is absorbed, circulates with the blood, and is thrown out of the system by the secreting organ, whose activity it augments. It is probable, therefore, in this case, that the increased secretion arises from the local stimulus communicated to the secreting vessels by the evacu- ant (or its active principle) in its passage through them. The operation of the Turpentines and Copaiva on the mucous surfaces, and of many diuretics on the kidneys, is readily accounted for in this way. Active Principles.—An acrid principle is found in a considerable number of the medicines of this class. The salts of the alkalis operate as evacuants. Acrid Principles.—Acrids are organic substances which irritate or inflame living parts with which they are placed in contact, independently of any known chemical action. They were formerly supposed1 to owe their activity to a peculiar proximate principle, which was denomi- nated the acrid principle of plants (principium acre planlarum); but modern chemistry has shown that there is no one constituent of organic substances to which this term can be exclu- sively applied; but that many dissimilar principles agree in possessing acridity. Thus acrid substances are found among acids (e. jr. Crotonic, Ricinic, and Gambogic), vegetable alkalis (e. g. Veratria and Emelin), neutral crystalline matters (e. g. Elalerin), volatile oils (e. g. Canthari- din, and the Oils of Mustard, Garlic, and Rue), resins (e. g. the resins of Euphorbium and Mczereon), and extractive matter (e. g. Colocynthin). The acrid matter of some plants (e. g. of Ranunculus) has not yet been isolated. This arises from the facility with which it becomes decomposed. Sub-class 1. liquefacientia. — Liquefacients. (Verflilssigende Mittel, Sundelin.) Definition.—Medicinal agents which augment the secretions, check the solidi- fying, but promote the liquefying, processes of the animal economy, and which, by continued use, create great disorder in the functions of assimilation, may be termed liquefacients (from liquefacio, I liquefy). Practitioners must have long felt the want of some term which should indicate the physiologi- cal action of Mercury, Antimony, Iodine, the Alkalis, and other medicinal agents employed as resolvents. To supply this desideratum I have adopted, in the absence of a better, the word Liqucfacient. Physiological Effects.—Liquefacients promote secretion and exhalation gene- rally. Thus Mercurials augment the secerning functions of the mucous follicles of the mouth, the salivary glands, the alimentary canal, the liver, the kidneys, and the skin ; and it is probable that they also increase the secretions of the pan- creas and the exhalation from the pulmonic surface. Antimonials, Iodine, and the Alkalis, exert a similar, though not equally powerful, influence over the same organs. So that in their effects on these parts, liquefacients correspond with the ancient panchymagogues (from *av, all; xvV-°Si jmce 5 an(^ a7w» I drive away), or mfdicines which were supposed to purge away all sorts of humours. They also check solidifying, while they promote liquefying, processes in the i See the Principles of Modern Chemistry systematically arranged by Dr. F. C. Gren., translated from the German, vol. i. p. 428. Lond. 1800.—Also Gura, De Principio Planlarum acri. Halse, 1791. 202 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. animal economy ; and on this account I have ventured to name them liquefacients, a term which corresponds nearly with the phrase verflilssigende Mittel, used by Sundelin.1 Thus these agents soften and loosen textures, and assist the removal of adhesions and exudations. This effect is best seen after the use of mercurials, the action of which, observes Dr. Far re,a " is positively anti-phlegmonous. If it be pushed far enough, it produces an effect the exact reverse of the phlegmonous state, namely, the erythematous inflammation ; the tendency of which is to loosen structure, while that of phlegmonous inflammation is to bind texture." Under the influence of Mercury the gums become spongy, the intestinal and pulmonic membranes softened, (Ferguson's Essays, p. 216.) and deposits of coagulable lymph (as in Iritis) are removed. The beneficial effects of Mercurials, Anti- monials, Iodine, Alkalis,3 &c, in promoting the resolution of visceral and glan- dular inflamjnation, and in relieving active congestion, may be ascribed to this anti-phlegmonous action referred to by Dr. Farre. These agents are opposed to the exudation of plastic or coagulable lymph (hence they check union by adhesion), and to the formation of false membranes. During their use, visceral and glandular enlargements and indurations, thickening of membranes (as of the periosteum,) and morbid, but non-malignant, growths of various kinds, are some- times observed to get softer and smaller, and ultimately to disappear. Dr. Ash- well {Guy's Hospital Reports, No. I. 1836.) graphically.describes indurations, and hard tumours of the uterus, as having "melted away" under the influence of Iodine. In hepatization of the lungs, the solid matter, deposited in the air-cells, is often absorbed, and the cells rendered again permeable to air, by the use of Mercury. It is on account of the influence of liquefacients in check- ing phlegmonous inflammation, obviating its consequences, and promoting the removal of enlargements, indurations, &c, that they are frequently denominated resolvents (from resolvo, I loosen or dissolve). Lastly, the long-continued use of liquefacients gives rise to a considerable disorder of the functions of assimi- lation. A course of Mercury, it is well known, produces paleness or blanching ; an effect which Dr. Farre (Ferguson's Essays, p. 216.) ascribes to the diminished number of red globules of the blood. A prolonged use of this mineral gives rise toother symptoms of cachexy. The long-con- tinued employment of Alkalis appear to induce a scorbutic cachexy.4 Iodine causes a morbid state which has been termed iodism. Our acquaintance with the extent of the order of liquefacients is too limited to enable us to group them for any useful purpose. As a provisional arrangement of them I suggest the following:— Order 1. Mercurial Liquefacients. Order 2. Antimonial Liquefacients. Order 3. Iodic Liquefacients. Order 4. Alkaline Liquefacients. Order 5. Saline Liquefacients, including probably Sal Ammoniac, Common Salt, Chloride of Barium, &c. Order 6. Sulphurous Liquefacients, comprehending Sulphur, and the Alkaline Sulphurets. Modus Operandi.—The resolvent operation of medicines.of this order is usually explained by referring it to an augmented activity of the absorbents. But this explanation is imperfect, and does not account for all the phenomena. The effect is ascribeable to a change in the nutrition of the parts affected. My friend, Dr. Billing, {First Principles of Medicine, pp. 69, 70, 4th ed. Lond. 1841.) is of opinion that "Mercury and Iodine remove morbid growths by starving them, 1 Handbuch der speciellen Heilmiltellehre, Bd. i. S. 180, 3te Aufl. Berlin, 1833. a Essays on the most important Diseases of Women, by Robert Ferguson, M. D., Part i. p. 215. Lond. 1839. » Mascagni„in the Memorie delta Socicta Italiana delle Scicnze. Modena, 1804.—Also Negri, in London Medical Gazette, vol. xiv. p. 713. * See Huxham's Essay on Fevers, pp. 48 and 308. 3d edit. 1757.—See also Dr. Burrows's Gulstonian Lectures in the London Medical Gazette, vol. xiv. diaphoretics. 203 which they effect by contracting the capillaries." But I conceive there must be something more in the influence of these remedies than a mere reduction in the quantity of blood supplied to the affected parts. The enlargements which these agents remove are not mere hypertrophies ; their structure is morbid, and they must, in consequence, have been induced by a change in the quality of the vital activity; in other words, by morbid action. Medicines, therefore, which remove these abnormal conditions, can only do so by restoring healthy action,—that is, by an alterative influence. By what force or power they are enabled to effect changes of this kind must, for the present, at least, be a matter of speculation. Miiller {Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 363.) thinks it is by affinity. " They produce," he observes, " such an alteration in the composition of the tissues, that the affinities already existing are annulled, and new ones induced, so as to enable the vital principle—the power which determines the constant reproduction of all parts in conformity with the original type of the individual—to effect the farther restoration and cure; the Mercury itself does not complete the cure." Sub-class 2. Diaphoretic a. — Diaphoretics. (Sudorifica; Diapnoica.) Definition.—Medicinal agents which promote cutaneous transpiration are denominated diaphoretics (from mcapopsw, 1 transpire), sudorifics (from sudor, sweat, and facio, I make), or diapnolcs (from diatfvor), perspiration). The terms diaphoretic and diapnoic have been used to designate substances which augment the insensible perspiration ; while the word sudorific indicates a substance increasing the sweat or sensible perspiration. But insensible perspiration and sweat differ in their physical conditions only,*—the former being the vaporous, the latter the liquid state of the same fluid. Hence, there can be no essential difference between diaphoretics and sudorifics, and I, therefore, use the terms synonymously. Physiological Effects.—The agents which, under certain circumstances, augment cutaneous exhalation, are both numerous and heterogeneous. External heat, assisted by the copious use of diluents, constitutes an important and power- ful means of promoting sweating. Whenever a large quantity of fluid is taken into the system, the excess is got rid of by the kidneys, the skin, and the lungs; and if we keep the skin warm, as by warm clothing, or the use of hot air or hot vapour-bath, (See pp. 55, 58, and 60.) the action of the cutaneous exhalants is promoted, and sweating results; but if the skin be kept cool, the kidneys are sti- mulated, and the greater part of the liquid passes off through them. Friction, exercise, and all agents which excite vascular action, have a tendency to promote sweating. The sudden* and temporary application of cold, as in the affusion of cold water, (See p. 68.) sometimes proves sudorific by the reaction which it occasions. Lastly, many medicinal agents, acting through the circulation, cause sweating. The latter are the substances which are usually indicated by the word sudorific or diaphoretic. Diaphoretics are relative agents ; they succeed only in certain states of the body. Moreover, for different conditions, different diaphoretics are required. They constitute an exceedingly uncertain class of remedies, with regard both lo the production of sweating and to the advantage to be derived therefrom. Dr. Holland {Medical Notes and Reflections, p. 52. Lond. 1839.) suggests that when benefit follows the use of diaphoretic medicines, it is often ascribable, not to their direct influence on the exhalant vessels, but to other changes which they excite in the system, of which sweating is to be regarded rather as the effect and proof than as the active cause. » The operation of diaphoretics is promoted by the exhibition of large quantities of warm mild diluents, and by keeping the skin warm. Moreover, they are more effective when given at bed-time, since there appears to be greater disposi- tion to sweating during sleep than in the waking state. The exhibition of diu- 204 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. retics should be avoided during the operation of diaphoretics, as they appear to check the operation of the latter. The same rule has been laid down with regard to purgatives; but it is well known that perspiration is often the consequence of hypercatharsis. Diaphoretics may be arranged in seven orders, as follows :— Order 1. Aqueous Diaphoretics.—Under this head are included not only simple Water, but Gruel, Whey, and Tea. These, when assisted by external warmth, often prove very effective diaphoretics, even when used alone, while to all the other groups they are valuable adjuvants ; and in no cases are they injurious. Order 2. Alkaline and Saline Diaphoretics.—The salts of the alkalis are frequently used to promote perspiration. Acetate and Carbonate of Ammonia, Alkaline Citrates and Tartrates, Sal Ammoniac, and Nitrate of Potash, are employed for this purpose in fevers. Order 3. Antimonial Diaphoretics.—The liquefacient operation of Antimonials has been already referred to. Diaphoresis is one of its consequences. We use this group of diaphoretics in febrile and inflammatory cases. It is preferred to the opiate diaphoretics when there is in- flammation or congestion of the brain, or a tendency to either of these conditions. * Order 4. Opiate Diaphoretics.—Opium and its alkali Morphia have a remarkable tendency to produce sweating. The former is often used as a diaphoretic, commonly in the form of Dover's Powder, when no disorder of the brain exists; and especially when an anodyne is indi- cated. When tlie stomach is very irritable, an opiate diaphoretic is preferred to an antimonial one. In rheumatism, and slight catarrhs, Dover's Powder proves highly serviceable. In dia- betes and granular disease of the kidneys, it is the best sudorific we can use, especially when conjoined with the warm bath.1 Opium and Camphor form a serviceable sudorific compound when the surface is cold, as in Cholera. Order 5. Oleaginous and Resinous Diaphoretics.—This group includes a large number of substances, some of which owe their activity to volatile oil, as the Labiatee and the Lauracete (e. g. Sassafras and Camphor); others to resin, as Mezereon and Guaiacum ; while some con- tain both oil and resin, as Copaiva and the Turpentines. The substances of this order possess stimulant properties. They probably act locally on the cutaneous vessels through the blood; for some of them (ex. Copaiva) can be detected by their odour in the perspiration, and they occa- sionally excite a slight eruption on the skin. The diaphoretics of this group are useful in chronic rheumatism, secondary syphilis, and chronic cutaneous diseases. Order 6. Alcoholic Diaphoretics.—Alcohol and Wine augment cutaneous exhalation. Order 7. Ipecacuanha.—I believe the diaphoretic property of Ipecacuanha to be conside- rably less than is commonly supposed. Dover's Powder owes it power of producing sweating almost exclusively to the Opium which it contains. Modus Operandi.—Dr. Edwards {De PInfluence des Agens Physiques sur la Vie. Paris, 1824.) has shown, that cutaneous transpiration is effected in two ways,—by a physical action or evaporation, and by an organic action or transu- dation. Evaporation, or the physical action, is the consequence of the porosity of bodies, and takes place equally in the dead and living state. It is influenced by the hygrometric states of the surrounding air, by its motion or stillness, by its pressure, and by its temperature. Thus, dryness, agitation, and diminution of the weight of the air, increase it. Transudation, or the organic action of trans- piration, is a vital process, effected by minute spiral follicles or sudoriferous canals, and depends essentially on causes inherent in the animal economy, although it may be influenced to a certain extent by external agents. Thus, ele- vating the temperature of the surrounding air, preventing its frequent renewal, and covering the patient with warm clothing, are means which promote the organic, but check the physical, action of transpiration. Diaphoretics affect the transudation or the vital process. They probably affect the exhalants in one or both of two ways ;—by increasing the force of the general circulation,—or by specifically stimulating the cutaneous vessels. Sub-class 3. Diuretica. — Diuretics. ' Definition.—Medicines which promote the secretion of urine are denominated diuretics (from Sia, through; ougov, the urine ; and psw, I flow). 1 See Dr. Osborne's paper in The Dublin Journal of Medical and Chemical Scitnet, Jan. 1834.—Also Dr. Chris- tison, On Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys. Edinburgh, 1839. DIURETICS. 205 Physiological Effects.—There are two principal modes of promoting the secretion of urine, the one direct, the other indirect. The indirect method con- sists in augmenting the quantity of fluids taken into the stomach, or in removing any cause which checks the secretion. The direct mode is to stimulate the kid- neys by means which specifically affect these organs. These means are the diu- retics, properly so called. But almost all the substances thus denominated are most inconstant in their effects. The quantity of urine secreted in the healthy state is liable to considerable variation. Temperature, season of the year, climate, time of day, quantity of fluid consumed as drink, state of health, &c, are among the common circum- stances modifying this secretion. Whenever an unusual quantity of aqueous fluid is taken into the system, the kidneys are the organs by means of which the excess is, for the most part, got rid of. If the customary discharge from the skin or lungs be checked, by cold, for instance, the kidneys endeavour to make up for the deficiency of action in the other organs. Thus, in winter and in cold climates, more urine is secreted than in summer and in hot climates. Again, if transpira- tion be promoted, as by external warmth, the secretion of urine is diminished. Hence, when we wish to augment the renal secretion, diluents should be freely administered, and the skin kept cool. Mr. William Alexander {Experimental Essays. Edinb. 1768.) endeavoured to determine, as nearly as possible, the relative powers of different diuretics, and he has given the following tabular views of his results :— A Table of the different quantities of urine always discharged in an equal time; viz. from- nine o'clock in the morning till two o'clock in the afternoon, when an equal quantity of the same liquid was drunk, but with different diuretics, in different quantities, dissolved in it. 3 3 9 By Ibj. 3vijss. simple infusion of bohea' tea, standard 15 4 0 By do. with 3ij. of salt of tartar.....22 7 2 By do. " 3ij. of nitre.......22 0 0 By do. " 4 drops of oil of juniper ... 30 3 0 By do. " 3j. salt of wormwood - - - - 19 7 1£ By do. " 3ij. Castile soap......19 11 By do. " a teaspoonful spt. nitr. dulc. - - 17 6 1£ By do. " 15 drops of tinct. cantharides - - 16 4 0 By do. " 3ij. of sal. polychrest ----1630 By do. " 3ss. of uva ursi......16 1 0£ By do. " 3j. of magnesia alba.....15 5 0 By do. " 3ij. of cream of tartar - - - - 10 2 0J A Table of the different quantities of urine evacuated in the same space of time, after drinking the same quantity of different liquors. 3 3 9 By lbj. 3vijss. of weak punch, with acid - - - - 21 2 3 By do. " new cow whey......18 6 0 By do. " decoct, diuret. Pharm. Edin. - - 17 5 0 By do. " London porter.......16 7 0 By do. " decoct, bardan. Pharm. Edin. - - 14 7 0 By do. " warm water gruel.....1462 By do. " small beer........13 7 1 By do. " warm new milk......1170 These tables are to a certain extent useful, but as diuretics act very unequally at different times, and cannot therefore be relied on, the value of Mr. Alexander's experiments is considerably diminished. By augmenting the secretion of urine we diminish the quantity of blood in the blood-vessels, and thus create thirst, and promote absorption from the serous cavities. Hence, diuretics are commonly resorted to in dropsical complaints ; but they are most uncertain in their operation. Moreover, when they increase VOL. I. 18 206 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. the quantity of urine, their influence on the effusion is not always curative. In dropsy, attended with albuminous urine, and which arises from granular degene- ration of the kidneys, diuretics have usually been considered objectionable, on account of their stimulant influence over the kidneys. Dr. Christison, {On Gra- nular Degeneration of the Kidneys, pp. 133, 149, and 160.) however, thinks the distrust has been carried too far, and asserts that they " do not increase the coagu- lability of the urine in the early stage: in many instances they seem to diminish it." He also suggests that the irritation set up by the diuretic may be of a diffe- rent kind from that of the disease; and that the one may not possibly increase,— nay, perchance, may diminish, the other. In relieving the effusion and the coma, he thinks them serviceable, and prefers Digitalis and Cream of Tartar to other agents in this disorder. Diuretics may be arranged in the following groups:— Order 1. Aqueous Diuretics.—Aqueous drinks promote diuresis indirectly, when the skin is kept cool, as I have before mentioned. Order 2. Saline Diuretics.—This order consists principally of the Vegetable Salts of the Alkalis; especially Bitartrate and Acetate of Potash. These undergo partial digestion in the system, and are converted into carbonates. Hence, they communicate an alkaline quality to the urine. Their supposed influence in the respiratory process has been before alluded to. (See p. 142.) To this order also belong Nitraie and the Carbonates of the Alkalis. Order 3. Sedative Diuretics.—To this order belong Digitalis and Tobacco, whose power of reducing the force and frequency of the heart's action has been already referred to. (See p. 186.) The diuretic effect has been referred, by Dr. Paris, (Pharmacologia, p. 179, 6th ed.) to their sedative operation. For as the energy of absorption is generally in the inverse ratio to that of circulation, it is presumed that all means which diminish arterial action must indirectly prove diuretic, by exciting the function of absorption. Order 4. Bitter Acrid Diuretics.—To this order belong Squills, Colchicum, and Common Broom. These agents, in an over-dose, readily occasion vomiting. They owe their activity to an acrid principle, which probably operates, through the circulation, on the renal vessels as a local stimulant or irritant, and in this way proves diuretic. According to my own observa- tions, Common Broom less frequently fails to prove diuretic than most other agents of this class. Order 5. Oleaginous Acrid Diuretics.—To this order belong Juniper, Turpentine, Copaiva, and Cajuputi. The volatile oil probably operates through the blood on the kidneys, as a topical stimulant. Cantharidin, the active principle of Cantharis Vesicatoria, is of the nature of volatile oil, and operates in the same way. Order 6. Acid Diuretics.—The diluted Acids frequently prove diuretic. Order 7. Alcoholic and Ethereal Diuretics.—Dilute Spirit and Nitric Ether are diuretics. Order 8. Alkaline Diuretics. Modus Operandi.—I have referred to the modus operandi of diuretics in speaking of the Orders ; and, in a former part of this work, (See p. 133.) I have given a list of the substances which have been detected either unchanged, or more or less changed, in the urine. Sub-class 4. Errhina.— Errhines. Definition.—Errhines (from sv, in, and piv, the nose,) are medicines which produce an increased discharge of nasal mucus. Substances which excite sneezing are denominated sternutatories {sternutatoria), or ptarmics (from tfraipw I sneeze). Physiological Effects.—All the substances employed as errhines or sternu- tatories, are applied to the nose. The liquefacients, when administered by the stomach, augment the secretion of the pituitary membrane as well as of all other secreting organs; and 1 have several times remarked the increased discharge of mucus from the nose of patients under the influence of Iodide of Potassium and have detected the smell of Iodine in their handkerchiefs, so that I believe the SIALOGOGUES. 207 particles of this substance are thrown off by the mucous membrane of the nose, as well as by other secreting organs. Most foreign matters when applied to the pituitary membrane promote its se- cretion, and frequently also occasion sneezing. The latter is a reflex action of the true spinal system; the excitor or incident nerve, by.which the impression is conveyed to the medulla oblongata, is the nasal branch of the trifacial nerve. Sugar and the Labiate plants, when reduced to powder, operate as very mild errhines. Euphorbium, Veratrum, and more especially the alkali Veratria, are the most powerful of the order. Tobacco is intermediate. Absorption readily takes place from the pituitary membrane, and I have several times experienced ihe constitutional effects of Tobacco (such as nausea, giddiness, depression of the muscular power, and disorder of the mental functions,) from the use of the moist snuffs (Rappees). The continued employment of snuff injures the sense of smell and alters the tone of the voice. In syphilitic affections of the nose, and where there is a disposition to nasal polypus, the frequent use of errhines may perhaps be injurious. Errhines have been principally employed to relieve chronic affections of the eyes, face, and brain ; for example, chronic ophthalmia, amaurosis, headache, &c. They can only be useful on the principle of counter- irritation. Schwilgue {Traite de Matiere Medicale, t. ii. p. 208.) enumerates the follow- ing purposes for which sneezing is excited : to excite respiration when this func- tion is suspended ; to promote the expulsion of foreign bodies accidentally intro- duced into the air-passages ; to occasion a general shock at the commencement of dangerous diseases which we wish at once to suppress; to augment the secretion of nasal mucus, and of tears ; to favour the excretion of mucus collected in the nasal sinuses; to rouse the action of the encephalon, of the senses, of the uterus, &c.; and to stop a convulsive or spasmodic state of the respiratory apparatus. We should not, however, forget that the concussion occasioned by sneezing is not always free from dangerous results, especially in plethoric habits, and persons disposed to apoplexy, or affected with hernia, prolapsus of the uterus, &c The Errhines may be arranged in the following groups :— Order 1. Mechanically-irritating Errhines.—To this order Sugar and other inert substances belong. Order 2. The Labiate or Aromatic Errhines.—Sage, Marjoram, Lavender, and other Labiate plants, form mild snuffs when reduced to powder. They are seldom used singly or alone. Order 3. Cerebro-spinant Errhines.—To this order belongs Tobacco, which con- stitutes the basis of ordinary snuff. Order 4. Acrid Errhines.—Euphorbium, Veratrum, and Asarum, belong to this order. Order 5. Inorganic Errhines.—Common Salts, Sal Ammoniac, and Subsulphate of Mercury, belong to this group. Sub-class 5. Sialogoga,— Sialogogues. Definition.—Medicines used to augment the salivary discharge are denomi- nated sialogogues (from diakov, the saliva; and uyu, 1 convey or drive out). Physiological Effects.—Sialogogues are of two kinds: some act topically, others by specific influence over the salivary organs. This, therefore, is the foundation for arranging them in two groups or orders. Order 1. Local Sialogogues.—These are sialogogues which are applied to the mouth. When used in a soft or solid state they are called masticatories (masticatoria, from mastico, to eat or chew). They act on the mucous follicles of the mouth and the salivary gland?. Most solid or soft bodies, when chewed, increase the flow of saliva; thus Wax and Mastic produce this effect. Acrids, however, as Horse-radish, Mezereon, Pelli- tory of Spain, and Ginger, possess this property in an eminent degree. 208 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. In almost all parts of the world masticatories are more or less used. In the East Indies Betel-nuts (the seeds of Areca Catechu) are chewed with Quick-lime and the Betel-leaf (the leaf of Piper Betel.) The Indians have a notion that these substances fasten the teeth, clean the gums, and cool the mouth. (Ainslie's Materia Indica.) In this country the masticatory commonly employed by sailors is Tobacco. As the saliva is generally swallowed, masticatories do not confine their action to the mouth, but excite likewise the stomach. Peron {Voyage aux Terres Australes. Paris.) was convinced that he preserved his health, during a long and difficult voyage, by the habitual use of the Betel; while his companions, who did not use it, died mostly of dysen- tery. For habitual use, and as mere sialogogues, mucilaginous and emollient masticato- ries might be resorted to, but we find that acrids of various kinds have always been pre- ferred. Masticatories, as therapeutic agents have been principally used either as topical applications, in affections of the gums, tongue, tonsils, salivary glands, &c, or as counter- irritants in complaints of neighbouring organs, as in earache, rheumatism of the pericra- nium, affections of the nose, &c. The stronger masticatories, as Mustard and Horse- radish, excite an increased discharge of nasal mucus and tears, as well as of saliva and mucus of the mouth. Order 2. Specific or Remote Sialogogues.—Several substances have had the repu- tation of producing salivation or ptyalism by internal use. Of these the preparations of Mercury are the only ones on which much reliance can be placed, and even they some- times disappoint us. The preparations of Gold, of Antimony, and of Iodine, occasionally have this effect. The continued use of the Hydrocyanic or Nitric Acid has, in several instances, produced salivation. In poisoning by Foxglove the same has been observed. Lastly, nauseants increase the secretion of saliva. Mercurials are given in certain dis- eases to excite ptyalism, and in some cases it is necessary to keep up this effect for several weeks. It is not supposed that the salivation is the cause of the benefit derived, but it is produced in order that we may be satisfied that the constitution is sufficiently influenced by the medicine. Sub-Class 6. Expcctorantia. — Expectorants. Definition.—Medicines which promote evacuations from the bronchia, trachea, and larynx, are denominated expectorants (from expectoro, I expectorate). Physiological Effects.—In the healthy state, the liquids secreted or exhaled by the aerian membrane are got rid of by evaporation and absorption. But when from any circumstance the balance between the two processes of production and removal is destroyed, and an accumulation of mucus takes place, nature endea- vours to get rid of it by coughing. Hence some have applied the term expecto- rant to irritating substances (as Chlorine gas, the vapour of Acetic or of Benzoic acid, &c), which, when inhaled, produces coughing, as well as an augmentation of secretion. " We provoke cough," says Schwilgue, {Traite. de Matiere Medi- cale, torn. ii. p. 296.) " to favour the expulsion of foreign bodies introduced from without into the aerian tube, and especially of liquids ; we have recourse to it to favour the expectoration of mucus, of membraniform concretions, and of pus, which have accumulated in the aerian passages, whenever the local irritation is not sufficiently great." It has been thought by some, that the mucus secreted may be too lough and viscid to admit of its being easily brought up by coughing, and the term expec- torant has been applied to those medicines which have been supposed to render it thinner and less viscid. But as Mr. Moore {An Essay on the Materia Medica. London, 1792.) has justly observed, thick phlegm is sometimes more easily ex- pectorated than thin ; and if this were not tbe case, we have no specific means of rendering the phlegm either thicker or thinner. Liquefacients, however, are the agents most likely to effect it. Frequently the term expectorant is applied to substances supposed to increase or promote the secretion of bronchial mucus, and in pharmacological works a long list of medicines, thought to have this effect is usually given. Most of the agents employed with this view act relatively,__ that is, they obviate the causes which check the healthy secretion. Some are topical agents, as various Gases and Vapours. There are others however EMETICS. 209 which, when taken internally, are supposed to affect the aerian membrane in a specific manner, and are beneficially employed in chronic catarrhs. Such are the Balsams, the Oleo-resins, the Foetid Gums, Squills, &c. Many of the sub- stances which give relief in chronic pulmonary complaints, do not promote, but check, the secretion of bronchial mucus: as the Sulphate of Zinc,—to which Begin {Traite de Therap. t. 2, p. 561.) adds the Balsams. Yet these agents are usually classed with, expectorants; and Dr. Paris {Pharmacologia.) makes one class of expectorants to consist of " medicines which diminish the inordinate flow of fluid into the lungs, and render the expectoration of the remainder more easy." In fact, it appears lo me that a large majority of the agents used under the name of expectorants, in bronchial and pulmonary affections, are substances which modify the vital activity of the aerian membrane by an alterative influence, and that expectoration is by no means an essential effect of their operation. This appears lo be particularly the case with Antimonials, Senega, and Ipecacuanha. Of all classes of the Materia Medica, none are more uncertain in their action than expectorants. The following is a provisional arrangement of the substances most commonly used as expectorants :— Order 1. Vapours or Gases used as Topical Expectorants.—Chlorine and Ammoniacal G.i.ncs ; the Vapours of Iodine, of Water, of the Volatile Oils, of Tar, of Benzoic and Acetic Acids; and the Smoke of Tobacco and Stramonium. Order 2. Stimulating, Resinous Expectorants.—This order includes the Foetid Gums, the Oloo-resins, and the Balsams. Order 3. Nauseating Expectorants, as Emetic Tartar, Ipecacuanha, Squills, Garlic, and Senega. Modus Operandi.—Several of the so-called expectorants become absorbed, and are recognisable by their odour in the breath; as some of ihe Oleo-resins, Garlic, and Asafoetida. It is probable, therefore, that their influence over the bronchial membrane is by a topical action. Emetina and Emetic Tartar have, according to Magendie {Formulaire.) and Orfila ( Toxicologic Generale.), a specific influence over the lungs, and the lungs of animals killed by these substances are said to present traces of inflammation. Sub-class 7. Emetica. — Emetics. (Vomitoria.) Definition.—Medical agents used for the purpose of provoking vomiting are called emetics (from Sfxsw, 1 vomit,) or vomits. Physiological Effects.—Usually within twenty or thirty minutes after taking nn emelic, a general feeling of uneasiness and nausea comes on. The pulse becomes small, feeble, and irregular; the face and lips grow pale; a dis- tressing sensation of relaxation, faintness, and coldness of the whole system, is experienced ; the saliva flows copiously from the mouth ; the eyes lose their lustre; and the whole countenance appears dejected. These symptoms, which constitute the first stage of vomiting, continue for a variable period, and are fol- lowed by the ejection of the contents of the stomach. As soon as actual vomiting commences, the general phenomena are altered : the pulse becomes frequent and full, the temperature of the body increases, and a sweat breaks out on the face and other parts. During the act of vomiting, in consequence of the pressure made on the abdominal aorta, and the interruption to the circulation through the lungs, from the impeded respiration, the blood returns with difficulty from the head, the face swells and becomes coloured, the conjunctiva is turgid and red, the jugular veins are gorged, and tears burst from the eyes. The violent straining is often attended with pain in the head and eyes, and with the involuntary expulsion of 210 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. the urine and fssces. The matters vomited vary according to circumstances : they may consist of the alimentary substances, bile, &c, contained in the stomach and duodenum previous to the exhibition of the emetic ; of the fluids collected by the action of the emetic ; and, lastly, of the emetic itself. Sometimes striae of blood are observed, which usually come from the pharynx. The number of vomitings, and the ease with which they are effected, are liable to considerable variation, arising from the state of the digestive organs, the temperament of the patient, the state of the cerebral functions, &c. When the vomiting has entirely ceased, the patient feels languid, oppressed, and drowsy, and the pulse becomes weak and slow: the exhaustion is sometimes so great as to be attended with fatal conse- quences. A case of this kind is alluded to by Dr. Paris {Pharmacologia, vol. i. p. 163, 6th ed. 1825.), in which an emetic was imprudently given to a patient in the last stage of phthisis, with the intention of dislodging the pus with which the lungs were embarrassed: syncope was produced, from which the patient never re- covered. Among other occasional ill consequences of vomiting may be mentioned comatose affections, uterine or pulmonary hemorrhages, hernia, abortion, suffoca- tion, prolapsus of the uterus, rupture of the abdominal muscles, &c. These effects are produced by the violent muscular exertions which attend the act of vomiting. They suggest cautions as to the use of emetics. Thus, in apoplexy, and some other cerebral affections, or when a tendency thereto exists ; in pregnancy, espe- cially when miscarriage is threatened; in prolapsus uteri, hernia, aneurism, &c, the danger to be apprehended from emetics is obvious. The concussion which they excite sometimes dislodges gall-stones. The intensity and duration of the different stages of vomiting have no necessary relation to each other. Thus, the Sulphates of Zinc and Copper excite speedy vomiting, with but little nausea;—and are, therefore, preferred as emetics in nar- colic poisoning. Tobacco and Tartarized Antimony, on the other hand, produce great nausea and depression of system. Hence, when the depressing effects of emetics are required, as in inflammatory and other diseases, we employ the last- mentioned emetic. (See p. 162.) The irritation produced by the exhibition of emetics gives rise to an increased •secretion from the mucous follicles of the stomach and duodenum, as is shown by the thick, filamentous, and viscid matters frequently ejected. We infer, also, that the action of the exhalents must be increased, inasmuch as persons who have taken only a few spoonsful of emetic liquids sometimes bring up a very considera- ble quantity of fluid. Darwin mentions a man who vomited six pints of liquid, although he had only swallowed one. Bile is frequently thrown up, either alone or mixed with other fluids; but we must not infer from this that it had existed in the stomach previous to the exhibition of the emetic, for bile is not ordinarily ejected in the first efforts, but only in the subsequent vomitings; and the quantity increases in proportion to the length of time the vomiting continues. Emetics promote the secretion of bile, and probably of the pancreatic juice also. We pre- sume that they likewise augment absorption during the stage of nausea, previously to the act of vomiting, and when the force of the circulation is reduced. The number of medicinal substances employed as emetics being but few, little benefit can attend any attempt to classify them. There are, however, two modes of arranging them; either into vegetable emetics and mineral emetics; or into, first, those which seem to possess a specific power of exciting vomiting (as Emetic Tartar), since they induce it, not only when contained in the stomach, but also when thrown into the veins or otherwise introduced into the circulation {specific emetics),—and, secondly, those (as Mustard) which create vomiting only when taken into the stomach {topical emetics).1 1 For an account of the uses of emetics consult Dr. Fothergill's ' Inaugural Dissertation,' " De Emeticorum Usu invar iis Morbis tractandis." Edinb. 1736.—An English translation of this is published in his Medical Works, by J. C Lettsom, 1\I. D. Lond. 1784. CATHARTICS. 211 Modus Operandi—Vomiting is a reflex spinal act. It may be excited by touching the fauces, velum pendulum palati, &c. In this case the excitor nerve is the trifacial, the branches of which are distributed to these parts. Tickling the back part of the pharynx excites an act of deglutition.1 Irritation of the sto- mach, and upper part of the intestines, also produces vomiting. In this case, the pneumo-gastric and splanchnic nerves act simultaneously, according to Miiller, [Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 509.) in transmitting the irritation. Emetic Tartar causes vomiting, both when taken into the stomach, and when injected into the veins. As its operation is probably alike in both cases, it becomes a question whether, when introduced into the stomach, it must be first taken up into the circulation before it can cause an act of vomiting;—or, when injected into the veins, it acts on the parts engaged in the act of vomiting through the medium of their blood-vessels. I believe the latter is ihe more probable expla- nation ; because, in the first place, we know that ordinary gastric irritation, where absorption is out of the question, will excite vomiting;—and, secondly, because Miiller has found, that lacerating with a needle the nervous splanchnicus of the left side, in the rabbit, will produce contraction of the abdominal muscles. If this opinion be correct, emetics, when introduced into the stomach, affect the medulla oblongata through the excitor nerves (the pneumo-gastric), and the con- traction of the muscles necessary to the act of vomiting is effected by the reflex nerves (the spinal nerves to produce the expiratory efforts, and, according to Dr. Hall, the pneumo-gastric to close the larynx, and open the cardia). When, how- ever, the emetic is introduced into the circulation, it is doubtful " whether its more important action is upon the organs from which the nervous energy for the movements of vomiting are derived, or upon the organs of motion themselves." (Miiller, op. supra cit. p. 510.) The mechanism of the act of vomiting is too exclusively a physiological sub- ject to permit any observations on it in this place. I must refer to the works of Miiller and Dr. M. Hall for information concerning it. Sub-class 8. Cathartic a. — Cathartics. (Purgatives.) Definition.—Medicines which produce alvine evacuations are denominated Cathartics (from xadaipw, I purge). Physiological Effects.—Cathartics cause alvine evacuations by increasing the peristaltic motion of the intestines and by promoting secretions from the mu- cous lining. The milder purgatives, however, operate principally by their influ- ence on the muscular coat of the intestines ; while the stronger ones stimulate the mucous follicles and exhalants, and give rise to liquid evacuations. These are denominated Hydragogues (from vSup, water; and ayu, I drive off). Some of them create nausea, faintness, occasionally vomiting, colicky pains, abdominal tenderness, and tenesmus. The more violent ones, if given in an over-dose, produce inflammation of the alimentary canal,3 characterized by violent vomiting and purging, abdominal pain and tenderness, cold extremities, and sinking pulse. These are denominated Drastics (from Spau, I am active). Emollient or demul- cient drinks (as barley water, gruel, and broth) are taken to favour their safe ope- ration. As the intestinal surface consists of about 1400 square inches,3 from the whole of which secretion and exhalation are going on, it is obvious that purging 1 Dr. Marshall Hall, On. the Diseases and Derangements of the JVcrvous System, p. 103. A feather, introduced into the throat to excite vomiting, has, by being pushed too far down, been actually swallowed, without causing vomiting. a The deaths from the use of Morison's Pills are referable to this. The active ingredient of these medicines is gamboge (see Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xiv. p. C12 and 759 ; vol. xvii. p. 357, 415, and 623 ; vol. xviii. p. 75, and 927 : vol. \ix. p. (.»7ti.) a This measurement has been calculated from the statements as to the length and diameter of the intestines in Meckel's Manueld'Anatomieginirale, descriptive et pathologique. Traduit par J. A. L. Jourdan et G. Bres- chet. Paris, l«-'5. 212 elements of materia medica. offers a very powerful means of diminishing the quantity of the fluids of the body ; and accordingly we find that some cathartics, especially Elaterium, cause very copious watery discharges ; and their employment is followed, as might be expected, with thirst and augmented absorption from the serous cavities, so that they sometimes reduce or even remove dropsical swellings. The more violent purgatives promote the discharge of bile and pancreatic liquor, by the irritation they produce at the termination of the ducts which pour these secretions into the alimentary canal. A distinction is usually made in practice between cooling and warm purgatives. By the former are commonly meant saline purgatives which, while they cause purging, without having any tendency to excite inflammation, are supposed to have a refrigerant influence over the system, and are adapted for febrile and in- flammatory cases. By the latter are meant the more violent cathartics, which are presumed either to quicken the pulse, or at least to excite the abdominal vas- cular system, and, therefore, are considered to be less fitted for febrile cases.1 Cathartics may be conveniently arranged in five groups or orders, as fol- lows :— Order 1. Laxatives or Lenitives.—This group contains the mild cathartics, such as Manna, Cassia pulp, Tamarinds, Prunes, Honey, Bitartrate of Potash, and the fixed Oils (as Castor, Almond, and Olive oils). These very gently evacuate the contents of the intestinal canal, and usually without causing any obvious irritation, or affecting the gene- ral system. Manna, however, is apt to occasion flatulence and griping. Laxatives are employed in any cases where we wish to evacuate the bowels with the least possible irri- tation, as in children and in pregnant women ; in persons afflicted with inflammation of any of the abdominal or pelvic viscera, with hernia, prolapsus of the womb or rectum, piles, or stricture of the rectum; and after surgical operations about the abdomen and pelvis. Order 2. Saline, Antiphlogistic, or Cooling Cathartics.—This order is com- posed of the saline purgatives, such as the Sulphates of Soda, Potash, and Magnesia, &c. They increase the peristaltic motion of the alimentary canal, and augment the effusion of fluids by the exhalants of the mucous surface, thereby giving rise to watery stools. They do not appear to possess the power of inflaming the intestinal tube, or of heating the general-system. They are adapted for febrile disorders, inflammatory affections, plethoric conditions, &c. Order 3. Milder Acrid Cathartics.—This order includes Senna, Rhubarb, and Aloes. These are more active substances than any of the preceding. They are acrids and stimulants, but their local action is not sufficiently violent to cause inflammation. Senna is employed where we want an active, though not very acrid or irritant, purgative. Rhubarb is administed in relaxed and debilitated conditions of the alimentary canal, on account of its tonic properties. Aloes is used in torpid conditions of the large intestines, and in affections of the head. It is usually considered objectionable in piles and diseases of the rectum. Order 4. Drastic Cathartics.—This rrroup comprehends the strong acrid purga- tives ; such as Jalap, Scammony, Black Hellebore, Gamboge, Croton oil, Colocynth, and Elaterium. These, when swallowed in large doses, act as acrid poisons. They are em- ployed as purgatives in torpid conditions of the bowels ; as hydragoafues in dropsical affec- tions ; and as counter-irritants in affections of the brain. They are objectionable remedies in inflammatory and irritable conditions of the alimentary canal. Order 5. Mercurial Cathartics.—The principal of these are the Hydraro-yrum cum Creta, the Pilula Hydrargyri, and Calomel. We employ them as alterative "purgatives, and to promote the hepatic functions. As they are uncertain in their operation, they are usually combined with, or followed by, other purgatives. Modus Operandi.—The more powerful cathartics are acrids or local irritants. Some of them {e.g. Gamboge) operate almost solely in this way ; for they do not excite purging except when they are introduced into the alimentary canal, and they easily excite vomiting when swallowed. But most of the drastics 1 An anonymous writer, in the London Medical Gazette, vol. iv. p. 139, contends that Aloes is not a warm purgative, though usually considered to be so. CATHARTICS. 213 exert, in addition, a specific influence over the alimentary canal, so that they ex- cite purging when injected into the veins, or when applied either to the serous membranes or cellular tissue. Senna, Castor and Croton oils, Black Hellebore, Colocynlh, and Elaterium, operate in this way. This circumstance, therefore, favours the notion that they act, in part at least, by absorption. That the purgative principles of some cathartics are absorbed, is quite certain. Gamboge, Rhubarb, Sulphate of Potash, and Oil of Turpentine, have been de- tected in the blood. Senna, Rhubarb, and Jalap, communicate purgative qualities to the milk. The colouring matters of Cassia pulp, Rhubarb, Senna, and Gam- boge, have been recognised in the urine. Some cathartics act also as diuretics,—as Bitartrate of Potash and Gamboge. Dr. Christison {On Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys, p. 150. Edinburgh, 1839,) observed, that where diuretics have been given for some time without effect, he has frequently seen their action brought on " bv a single dose of some hydragogue cathartic,—such as Gamboge." The resinous particles, in their passage out of the system through the renal vessels, probably acted as topical stimulants. Cathartics probably act, in part at least, by a reflex action of the ganglionic system. Miiller {Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 511.) observes, that galvanizing the splanchnic nerve or the cceliac ganglion, gives rise to a generally increased activity to the peristaltic movements, while division neither of the pneumo-gastric nor of the sympathetic nerve, puts a stop to them. This appears to show that the splanchnic nerve is concerned in propagating the irritation set up by cathar- tics. The tenesmus occasioned by some cathartics is a reflex action of the true spinal system. Different parts of the alimentary canal are unequally affected by different ca- thartics. Thus, Aloes is remarkable for its action on the large intestine; more- over, many of the drastic cathartics,—as Gamboge, Colocynth, Savin, and Black Hellebore,—create more irritation in the large, than in the small, intestines; and Orfila {Toxicologic Generale) mentions, that in animals killed by these substances, he found the stomach and rectum inflamed, while the small intestines were healthy. In some cases, perhaps, this may be ascribed to the rapidity with which these agents pass through the small intestines, and on their longer continuance in the stomach and rectum; hut the same appearance has been noticed when these ca- thartics have been applied to the cellular texture of the thigh. According to Liebig,1 concentrated saline solutions have a physical, as well as a medicinal, action. They extract water from the coats of the stomach, and thereby create thirst. Part of the solution, thus becoming diluted, is absorbed ; but the greater portion enters the intestines, dilutes the solid matters, and thus acts as a purgative. Sub-class 9. Emmcnagoga.—Emmcnagogues. Definition.—Medicines which excite or promote the catamenial discharge are termed emmenagogues (from s^rivia, the menstrual discharge, and ayw, I drive away). Physiological Effects.—As the suppression or retention of this secretion may be occasioned by very different circumstances, no one agent can be expected to prove emmenagogue in all, or even in many cases. Deficient menstruation is rarely, perhaps, an idiopathic disease, but usually a morbid symptom merely; and, therefore, those agents which remove it must be relative,—lhat is, must have reference to the disease which produces it. Thus, when deficient menstruation is connected with a deficiency of power in the system, tonics and stimulants are the best remedies. Again, in plethoric habits, bloodletting and other debilitating agents are most likely to be serviceable. > Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, edited by Lyon Playfair, p. 33-1 Lond 1840. 214 ELEMENTS of materia medica. But the term emmenagogue is usually employed in a more limited sense; namely, to indicate those substances which are supposed to possess a specific power of affecting the uterus, and thereby of promoting the catamenial discharge. There are, however, few bodies to which this definition can be strictly applied. Indeed, two reasons have led some pharmacological writers to doubt the existence of any medicines which can be properly termed specific emmenagogues, namely, the uncertainty of all the means so named, and the uterus not being an organ intended for the excretion of foreign matters. The substances usually regarded as specific emmenagogues are, for the most part, medicines which, when taken in large doses, act as drastic purgatives. Such are Savin, Black Hellebore, Aloes, Gamboge, &c. They excite the pelvic circu- lation, give rise to a sensation of bearing down of the womb, especially in females disposed to procidentia uteri, increase uterine hemorrhage, or the menstrual dis- charge, when given during these conditions,—and when administered in chlorosis, or amenorrhoea, sometimes bring on the catamenia. Savin is decidedly the most emmenagogue of all the drastics just mentioned. The most effectual mode of obtaining its uterine influence is by exhibiting its oil. Substances that irritate the urinary organs also evince a stimulant influence over the uterus. I have known abortion produced by Cantharides given as an emmenagogue. Rue is a reputed and popular emmenagogue. It possesses cerebro-spinant pro- perties, and has on several occasions produced miscarriage. Madder was a favourite emmenagogue with the late Dr. Home, {Clinical Ex- periments, p. 422, 2d ed. Lond. 1780.) who declared it to be the strongest and safest known. The Fetid Gums and Castoreum have also been supposed to pos- sess a similar property. The Chalybeates are exceedingly valuable remedies in uterine obstructions attended with an anaemic condition of system. Mercurials, by their liquefacient properties, promote the secretion of the uterus in common with that of other organs. Ergot of Rye possesses an unequivocal influence over the uterus. But it rather promotes uterine contractions than the menstrual function ; though it has, on many occasions, been successfully employed in amenorrhsea. Sub-class 10. Cholagoga.—Chol;agogues. (Xolotics or Bilitics, Nuttall.) Definition.—Medicines which promote the discharge of bile into the alimen- tary canal are denominated Cholagogues (from %oXrj, bile, and ayu, I drive off). Physiological Effects.—It is probable that most, if not all, drastic purgatives increase the secretion and excretion both of bile and pancreatic juice, by irritating the opening of the ductus choledochus in the duodenum ; just as certain substances, taken into the mouth, provoke an increased discharge of saliva by irritating the mouths of the salivary ducts. Graaf (Barbier, Traite Element, de Mat. Med. t. iii. p. 1252, 2nde ed.) says, that if a purgative be administered to a dog, and when it is beginning to operate, the abdomen be laid open, the bile and pancreatic juice will be observed flowing into the duodenum. The term cholagogue, however, has been more particularly applied to substances which have been supposed to have a specific influence in promoting the secretion or excretion of bile. Mercury, Aloes, and Rhubarb have been considered to pos- sess this property. The Alkalis are believed, by some, to render the biliary secre- tion more copious and thinner. Class 7. Ecbolica.—Ecbolics, or Contractors of the Uterus. (Abortiva ; Amblotica; Accelerators Partus.) Definition—Medicines which excite uterine contractions, and thereby pro- mote the expulsion of the contents of the uterus, are called ecbolics (from exfiohiov, a medicine which expels the foetus). acids. 215 Physiological Effects—Some medicines excite the vascular system of the uterus, as Savin and other Drastic Purgatives. These promote the menstrual discharge, and are, therefore, denominated emmenagogues. But there is another class of agents which excite muscular contractions of the uterus, and, therefore, are adapted for expelling substances (as the foetus, hydatids, clots of blood, &c.) contained in the uterine cavity. These are the Ecbolics. The only unequivocal agent of this class is Ergot, which appears to operate on the uterus by a reflex action, and will be fully noticed hereafter. Probably the ergot of all grasses acts in the same way. A similar property has been ascribed lo Borax. Class 8. Acida.—Acids. (Antalkalina.) Definition.—Acid medicines which, by repeated use, produce a chemical change in the fluids, have been formed into a separate class under the name of Acids. Physiological Effects.—The Mineral Acids, when concentrated, decompose the organic tissues, (See p. 130.) Swallowed in this state, they are corrosive poi- sons. When sufficiently diluted, they cease to be corrosive, though they still exert a chemical influence. Thus, when applied to the skin, they harden the cuticle by uniting with its albumen; and when applied to the mucous surface, they produce astriction, and a slight whitening of the part (from their chemical influence). The diluted Mineral and Vegetable Acids, when swallowed in mo- derate doses, at first allay thirst, sharpen the appetite, and promote digestion. They check preternatural heat, (See p. 200,) reduce the frequency of the pulse, lessen cutaneous perspiration, frequently allay the troublesome itching of pru- rigo, operate on the solids as tonics, (See p. 197,) and frequently prove diuretic, (See p. 206,) at the same time that they alter the quality of the urine, which they generally render unusually acid. The milk acquires a griping quality, and the bowels are usually slightly relaxed. Under their long-continued use, the tongue becomes pale, and coated with a whitish but moist fur, the appetite and di- gestion are impaired, while griping and relaxation of bowels, with febrile disor- der, frequently occur. If their use be still persevered in, they more deeply injure the assimilative processes, and a kind of scorbutic cachexy is established. Acids are used as caustics, as refrigerants, as tonics, as diuretics, as antalka- lines, as antilithics, and to check sweat and pruriginous itching. Class 9. Alkalina.—Alkaline Medicines. > (Antacida.) Definition.—Alkaline medicines, which by repeated use produce a chemical change in the fluids, have been formed into a distinct class, under the name of Alkalina. Physiological Effects.—The alkalis in a concentrated form are powerful caustics, and when swallowed, act as corrosive poisons. From their solvent action on the organic tissues, they have a softening influence even in the dilute form, and, in consequence, are saponaceous to the touch. When taken into the sto- mach, in the diluted state, they destroy the acid condition of the alimentary canal, and slightly augment secretion. They become absorbed, act as diuretics, and at the same time alter the quality of the urine, to which they communicate an alka- line reaction. By repeated use they operate as liquefacients. (See p. 201.) Their long-continued employment gives rise to great disorder of the assimilative organs, and a condition analogous to that of scurvy is induced. (See p. 202.) In such cases, it is said that the blood drawn from a vein does not coagulate on coolinf. Alkalis are used as escharotics, as antacids, as resolvents, as antiphlo- gistics, (See p. 202,) as diuretics, and as antilithics. 216 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Lithontriptics ; Antilithics.—Medicinal agents which effect the solution or disintegration of urinary ciilculi within the body, are denominated Lithontriptics, (from htOot, a stone, and Tri,8u>, I rub or wear out, or destroy.) The long-continued action of large quantities of simple water on urinary calculi is capable, apparently, of disintegrating, and in some cases, of dis- solving them.' This fact deserves especial notice, since it points out the propriety of aiding the operation of the most powerful lithontriptics by the copious use of water. The medicinal agents which readily dissolve these concretions out of the body, belong to the two preceding classes, Acid and Alkaline substances. Thus the phosphates readily dissolve in hydrochloric and nitric acids,—while alkaline solutions are solvents for uric acid. But the introduction, by injection, into the bladder, of either acid or alkaline solutions, sufficiently strong to exert much chemical influence over calculi, would be attended with dangerous irritation of the vesi- cal coats. And, if we exhibit them by the mouth, they undergo important changes in passing through the system, so that by the time they reach the bladder, their chemical influence, aa solvents, is in a great measure, if not wholly, destroyed. Yet it cannot be denied that at times they have appeared to give considerable relief, and to act as real lithontriptics. But Dr. Prout (On the Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Urinary Diseases. Lond. 1840.) asserts that urine, when in a perfectly healthy condition, is one of the most universal as well as powerful solvents we possess for urinary deposits; and as it contains no free and uncombined alkaline or acid ingredient, he concludes that lithontriptics "are to be sought for among a class of harmless and unirritating compounds, the elements of which are so associated as to act at the same time with respect to calculous ingredients, both as alkalis and acids." At present, no substance of this kind is known, but the solutions of the-supercarbonated alkalis, containing a great excess of carbonic acid, approach the nearest to them: and the mineral waters of Vichy,8 which have long been celebrated in calculous affections, are natural solutions of this kind. The operation of these waters is not confined apparently to their solvent effects ; for they possess also a disin- tegrating power: that is, they disturb "the attraction, both cohesive and adhesive, by which the molecules of calculi are held together, so as to render them brittle, and easily broken into fragments." Class 10. Topica.—Topical Remedies. Definition.—External remedies, which are used on account of their topical influence, have been formed into a distinct class under the name of topica. Physiological Effects.—-This class is a very heterogeneous one, and con- tains substances which possess a very dissimilar mode of operation. On this, as well as on other grounds, objections may, with great propriety, be made to its ad- mission in a physiological arrangement; and the only apology I can offer for it is that of convenience. Topical remedies may be conveniently arranged in six orders, as follows :— Order I. Caustica. Cauteria Potentialia. Topical agents, which disor- ganize by a chemical action, are called caustics (from xaiu, I burn). The stronger ones, as Potassa fusa, are called escharotics, or erodents; the milder ones, as Sul- phate of Copper, catheretics, or cauterants. The general action of these has been already noticed. (See p. 130.) Some of the substances used as caustics (as Arsenious Acid) become absorbed, and produce constitutional symptoms. The substances used by surgeons as caustics may be arranged in sub-orders thus:— Sub-order 1. Concentrated non-metallic Acids.—As Sulphuric, Nitric, Hydrochloric, Phos- phoric, and Acetic Acids. Sub-order 2. Alkalis.—Potassa fusa, Liquor Ammoniae, and Quicklime. Sub-order 3. Metallic Compounds.—A considerable number of these are used, viz:__ «. Oxides; as Binoxide of Mercury and Arsenious Acid. jg. Chlorides ; as the Sesquichloride of Antimony, Chloride of Zinc, and Bichloride of Mercury. y. Oxysalts; as Nitrate of Silver, Sulphate and Acetate of Copper. Caustics are employed for various .purposes, the principal of which are the fol- 1 Chevallier, Essai sur la dissolution de la gravelle et des calculs de la vessie. Paris 1837.__Also Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xx. p. 431. a Ch. Petit. Quelques considerations sur la nature dela goutte et sur son traitement par les eaux de Fichu. Paris 1835.—JVouvelles observations de guerisons de calculs urinaires au moyen des eaux de Vichy. Paris 1837 topical remedies. 217 lowing :—To remove excrescences or morbid growths of various kinds, such as ^ warts, condylomata, some kinds of polypi, and spongy growths or granulations ; to decompose the virus of rabid animals, and the venom of the viper and other poisonous serpents ; to form artificial ulcers,—as issues; to open abscesses ; for the cure of hydrocele they have been applied to the scrotum, so as to penetrate through the tunica vaginalis; to change the condition of ulcerated and other sur- faces; lastly, caustics are applied to strictures of the urethra. Order 2. Topical Stimulants.—These are remedies employed to augment the vital activity of the parts to which they are applied. When they produce irritation or inflammation, they are called Irritants. If they be organic sub- stances, and cause local irritation, independently of any known chemical agency, they are denominated Acrids. (See p. 201.) Sub-order 1. Cutaneous Stimulants. Rubefacients, Vesicants, and Suppurants.—These arc agents which, when applied to the skin, cause redness, and sometimes vesication and suppuration. The milder ones, such as Friction and Warm Fomentations, stimulate the skin temporarily, without producing actual inflammation. The stronger ones, such as Mustard and Cantharides, excite active inflammation. Those that cause the exhalation of a thin serous fluid beneath the cuticle, are called vesicants or epispastics ; Mustard, Euphorbium, Mezereon, Acetic Acid, Am- monia, and Cantharides, are of this kind; while Tartar Emetic, and some other substances, whicli produce a secretion of pus, are denominated suppurants. Tlie medicines of this class are employed as counter-irritants in various diseases. Their modus medendi has been before investi- gated. (See p. 161.) Sub-order 2. Ulcer Stimulants.—Surgeons employ a variety of topical applications tc> wounds and ulcers, for the purpose of augmenting or altering the vital activity of the part.. Those which promote healthy suppuration are called Digestives (Digerentia seu Digestiva), as the Ceratum Resina. Those which are supposed to promote cicatrization are denomi- nated Epulotics (Epulotica, from in-ouhooi, I cicatrize), or Cicatrisantia, as Ceratum Calamina. Under the name of Detergents (Detergentia) are included substances which cleanse wounds, ulcers, &c, and comprehend various kinds of agents; some of which, however, are topical stimulants. Order 3. Astringents and Desiccants.—Agents which, by their affinity for fibrine and albumen, constrict fibres and coagulate albuminous liquids, are denominated Astringents. When employed to check hemorrhage, they are called Styptics. The vegetable astringents have been already noticed : (See p. 196.) they owe their activity to Tannic Acid. A considerable number of mineral substances act as astringents when used in a dilute form,—such as Sulphate of Copper, Nitrate of Silver, Chloride of Zinc, Sulphate of Iron, Acetate of Lead, Alum, &c. In a concentrated state, the same agents are caustics. Some sub- stances, when applied to secreting and exhaling surfaces, check secretion and exhalation, and causes dryness of the parts, but have scarcely any corrugating power on the solids,—as the Oxide of Zinc. These may be termed Desic- cants. Order 4. Benumbers.—Certain cerebro-spinants are employed as topical anodynes in neuralgia. For example, Aconite, Belladonna, and Opium. (See page 186.) Order 5. Antiseptics and Disinfectants. Antipestifera; Antiputre- scents.—Agents which prevent or are opposed to putrefaction, are called Anti- septics (from avTi, against, and dr\. Inhalation of iodine vapour has been used in phthisis and chronic bron- chitis. In the first of these diseases it has been recommended by Berton, Sir James Murray, and Sir Charles Scudamore. I have repeatedly tried it in this as well as in other chronic pulmonary complaints, but never with the least benefit. The apparatus for inhaling it has been already described (See p. 167). The liquid employed is a solution of ioduretted iodide of potassium, to which Sir C. Scudamore adds the tincture of conium. {London Medical Gazette, vol. viii. p. 157.) r,. Chronic diseases of thejiervous system, such as paralysis and chorea, have been successfully treated by iodine, by Dr. Manson. r). In some forms of the venereal disease, iodine has been found a most servicea- ble remedy. Thus Richond (quoted by Bayle, Op. cit.) employed it, after the usual antiphlogistic measures, to remove buboes. De Salle cured chronic vene- real affections of the testicles with it. Mr. Mayo {London Medical Gazette, vol. xi. p. 249.) has pointed out its efficacy in certain disorders which are the conse- quences of syphilis, such as emaciation of the frame, with ulcers of the skin ; ulce- rated throat; and inflammation of the bones or periosteum,—occurring in patients to whom mercury has been given. i. In checking or controlling the ulcerative process, iodine is, according to Mr. Key, {Medico-Chirurg. Trans, vol. xix.) one of the most powerful remedies we possess. " The most active phagedenic ulcers, that threaten the destruction of parts, are often found to yield in a surprising manner to the influence of this medi- cine, and to put on a healthy granulating appearance." x. Besides the diseases already mentioned, there are many others in which iodine has been used with considerable advantage: for example—chronic skin diseases, as lepra, psoriasis, &c.; (Cogswell, Essay, p. 81.)—dropsies; {Ibid.) in old non-united fractures, to promote the deposition of ossific matter; {London Medical Gazette, vol. vi. p. 512, 1830.) and in chronic rheumatism ; but, in the 'latter disease, iodide of potassium is more frequently employed. As an antidote in poisoning by strychnia, brucia, and veratria, iodine has been recommended by M. Donne, {Jour, de Chim. Med. tom. v. p. 494.) because the compound formed by the union of these alkalis with iodine is less active than the alkalis themselves; as an injection for the cure of hydrocele, Velpeau {London Medical Gazette, vol. xx. p. 90.) has employed a mixture of the tincture of iodine with water, in the proportion of from one to two drachms of the tincture to an ounce of water: of this mixture from one to four ounces are to be injected and immediately with- drawn ; lastly, to check mercurial salivation iodine has been successfully used. {London Medical Gazette, vol. xiii. p. 32 ; and vol. xx. p. 144.) X. As a topical remedy iodine is exceedingly valuable in several classes of diseases. Mr. Davis, {Selections in Pathology and Surgery. Lond. 1839.) of Hertford, has drawn the attention of the profession to its employment in this way, and pointed out the great benefit attending it. In most cases the tincture is the preparation employed. The part affected is painted with this liquid by means of a camel's-hair pencil* In some few cases only, where the skin is very delicate, will it be necessary to dilute the preparation. When it is required to remove the stain which its use gives rise to, a poultice or gruel should be applied. In lupus it proves highly beneficial. My attention was first drawn to its efficacy in this disease by my colleague, Mr. Luke. Under its employment the process of ulceration is generally stopped, and cicatrization takes place. The tincture should be applied not only to the ulcerated portion, but to the parts around. In eczema it is also an excellent application. In cutaneous scrofula likewise, as I have already remarked. In several other cutaneous diseases, such as lichen, IODINE. 241 prurigo, pityriasis, psoriasis, impetigo, porrigo, ecthyma, and scabies, Dr. Kennedy {London Medical Gazette, vol. xxvi. [May 8, 1840,] p. 260.) has found its use beneficial. According to the testimony of Mr. Davies, and an anonymous writer, {London Medical Gazette, vol. xxv. [March 20. 1S40,] p. 913.) it is a valuable application to chilblains. In the treatment of diseases of the joints it is used with great advantage. In erysipelas, I have seen it highly beneficial. In phlegmonous inflammation, sloughing of the cellular membrane, inflammation of tlie absorbents, gout, carbuncle, whitlow, lacerated, contused, and punctured vjounds, and burns, and scalds, it is most highly spoken of by Mr. Davies. Its topical uses are, therefore, nearly as extensive as those of nitrate of silver. Moreover, it is used very much in the same classes of cases, and with the same views. Administration.—Iodine is rarely administered alone, but generally in con- junction with iodide of potassium, to the account of which substance I must refer to formulae for the combined exhibition of these substances. In the administration of iodine, care should be taken to avoid gastric irritation. On this account we should avoid giving it on an empty stomach. Exhibited im- mediately after a meal, its topical action is considerably diminished. This is especially the case when amylaceous substances (as potatoes, bread-pudding, sago, tapioca, and arrow-root) have been taken, as the iodine forms with them an iodide of starch. Iodine has been given in the form of pills, in substance, in doses of about half a grain. But this mode of exhibition is objectionable, and is now never resorted to. 1. TINCTURA IODINII, D. Tinctura Iodinei, E.— Tincture of Iodine. (Iodine- 9ij. Rect. Spirit 3j. [by weight.] D.—The Edinburgh College orders Iodine 3j! Rect. Spirit f 3xvj.) [This formula has been adopted by the U. S. P.] Prin- cipally valuable as a topical remedy. For this purpose, it is applied as a paint by a camel's hair pencil. It is also used, mixed with four or six parts of soap- liniment, as an embrocation. For internal exhibition, it is inferior to the Tinctura Iodinii composita, L. hereafter to be mentioned. In the first place, by keeping, part of the iodine is deposited in a crystalline form, so that the strength is apt to vary; secondly, it undergoes decomposition, especially when exposed to solar light; the iodine abstracts hydrogen from the spirit, and forms hydriodic acid, which, acting on some spirit, forms a little hydriodic ether. These are not the only objections: when added to water, the iodine is deposited in a solid state, and may thus irritate the stomach. The dose of it is TTl v. to f3ss. Each drachm of the Dublin tincture contains five grains of iodine. The best mode of exhibiting it, to cover its flavour, is sherry wine. Where this is inadmissible, sugared water may be employed. 2. [LIQUOR IODINI COMPOSITUS, U. S.—Take of Iodine six drachms, Iodide of Potassium, an ounce and a half, Distilled Water, a pint; dissolve the iodine and iodide of potassium in the water. The dose is 20 drops. This preparation, adopted by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, closely approaches that of Lugol, given as the " Concentrated Solution of Iodine in Iodide of Potassium," (See article Iodide of Potassium,) and varies only from the « Liquor Potassii Iodidi Compositus^L." in strength.] 3. IODIDUM AMYL1; Iodide of Starch.—The following is Dr. Buchanan's (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xviii. p. 515,) formula for preparing this substance: — « Rub 24 grs. of iodine with a little water, and gradually add one ounce of finely. powdered starch: dry by a gentle heat, and preserve the powder in a well-stop- pered vessel." In persons not labouring under any dyspeptic ailment, or consti- tutional delicacy of habit, Dr. Buchanan commences with half an ounce for a dose, and increases this to an ounce three times a day,—equivalent to about 72 grains of iodine daily. It frequently caused costiveness, attended with griping pains of the bowels, and pale-coloured evacuations. Sometimes, though, namely, VOL. I. 2l 242 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. it produced purging. The dose is 3ss. gradually and cautiously increased. I have found the colour of this preparation objected to by patients. 4. UNGUENTUM IODINII, D.; Iodine Ointment. (Iodine, 9j.; Prepared Hog's Lard 3j.)—[Iodine, twenty -grains, Alcohol, twenty minims, Lard, an ounce. Rub the Iodine first with the Alcohol, and then with the Lard, until they are thoroughly mixed.—U. S.] This ointment has a rich orange-brown colour; but by keeping, it becomes pale on the surface, and hence should always be made when wanted. It is employed as a local application to scrofulous tumours, bronchocele, &c. If it prove too irritating, the quantity of lard should be augmented. Antidotes.—In the event of poisoning by iodine, or its tincture, the first object is to evacuate the poison from the stomach. For this purpose, the vomitings are to be assisted by the copious use of tepid demulcent liquids,—especially by those containing amylaceous matter; as starch, wheaten flour, sago, or arrow-root, which should be boiled in water, and exhibited freely. The efficacy of these agents depends on their combining with the iodine, to form iodide of starch, which has very little local action. In their absence, other demulcents, such as milk, eggs beat up with water, or even tepid water merely, may be given to promote vomitino-. Magnesia is also recommended. Opiates have been found useful. Of course the gastro-enteritis must be combated by the usual means. COMPOUNDS OP IODINE WITH OXYGEN AND CHLORINE. None of these are employed in medicine. Iodic Acid (I + O5) is used as a test for Morphia and Sulphurous Acid, both of which substances deoxidize iodic acid, and set iodine free. 1. Order IV.—BROMINE, AND ITS COMBINATIONS WITH OXYGEN, CHLORINE, AND IODINE. BROMIN'IUM, L.—BROMINE. (Brominum, U. S. Secondary List.) History and Etymology.—This substance was discovered by M. Balard, of Montpellier, in 1826. He at first termed it muride, (from muria, brine,) in allu- sion to the substance from whence he procured it; but, at the suggestion of Gay- Lussac, he altered this name to that of brome, or bromine, (from 8pu}xoc., a stench, ox fetor,) on account of its unpleasant odour. Natural History.—It is found in both kingdoms of nature, but never in the free state. a. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—Hollander detected it in an ore of zinc, and Cochler recog- nised it in Silesian cadmium. (Gmelin, Handbuch der Chemie.) It exists in sea-water, and many mineral waters, in combination wilh either magnesium or sodium, or sometimes wilh both. Thus it has been found in the waters of the Mediterranean, the Baltic, the North Sea, the Frith of Forth, the Dead Sea, many of the brine springs of Europe and America, (as those of Middle- wich, Nantwich, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, and Shirley wich, in England,) and in many other mineral springs of Europe and America, (as the Piltville spring at Cheltenham, the water of Llandridod, and of Bonnington, in western Pennsylvania.) The saline springs near Kreuznach, in Germany, are especially rich in it. It has been justly observed by Dr. Daubeny, (Phil. Trans. 1630,) that the detection of bromine in brine-springs is a fact interesting in a geological point of view, as tending to identify the product of the ancient seas, in their most minute particulars, with those of the present ocean. ji. In the Organized Kingdom.—Bromine has been found in the sea-plants of the Mediterra- nean, and in the mother-waters of Kelp. It has likewise been detected in various marine animals. Thus in the Sea Sponge (Spongia officinalis,) in the stony concretion found in this animal, in the ashes of the Janthina violucea, one of ihe gasteropodous mollusca, and in cod's liver oil. Preparation.—Bromine was formerly prepared, by a complicated process, from bittern, (the molher liquor of sea-water, from which chloride of sodium has been separated by crystallization.) It is now procured by a simpler method, from the mother-ley of the salt springs near Kreuznach, in Germany. From thirty pounds of the concentrated ley, Liebig obtained twenty ounces of bromine. Of these springs, that of Karshall contains, according to Dr. G. Osann,1 6.6025 1G. W. Schwartze's Allgemeine und specielle Heilquellenlehrt, Abt. 1, S. 224. Leipzig, 1839. BROMINE. 243 grs. of bromide of calcium, and 1-3672 grs. of bromide of magnesium, in sixteen ounces of the water. According to the same authority, 100 parts of the mother- ley of the Munster-am-Stein spring contain 24-12. parts of bromide of calcium, and 0-48 parts of bromide of magnesium. Sixteen ounces of the mother-ley of the Theodorshall spring contain 338-72 grs. of bromide of calcium, and 92-82 grs. of bromide of magnesium. The process followed at Kreuznach, according to Dr. Mohr, {Annalen der Pharmacie, Band. xxii. S. 66. Heidelberg, 1837.) is that recommended by Des- fosses, {Journal de Chimie Medicale, t. iii. p. 256^ 1827.) but modified by Lowig. {Das Bron und seine cliemischen Verhdltnisse. Heidelberg, 1829.) To about four quarts of the mother-ley contained in a retort, are added one ounce of binoxide. of manganese, and five or six ounces of commercial hydrochloric acid. On the application of the heat of a sand-bath, water and bromine pass over into Ihe re- ceiver. When all the bromine has passed over, the vapour is observed to be colourless, and to consist of aqueous vapour and hydrochloric acid. The following is the theory of the process:—Two equivalents or 74 parts of hydrochloric acid react on one equivalent or 44 parts of binoxide of manganese, and yield one equivalent or 64 parts of protochloride of manganese, two equiva- lents or 18 parts of water, and one equivalent or 36 parts of chlorine: the latter, in its nascent state, reacts on one equivalent or 98 parts of bromide of calcium, and produces one equivalent or 56 parts of chloride of calcium, and one equiva- lent or 78 parts of free bromine. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. leq. Bromide Calcium......98 j J J; *«£.. 2 eq. Hydrochloric Acid......74 I eq. Binoxide Manganese. -.44 \ \ £ ^^ 216 216 PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Bromine... .78 —1 eq. Chlor. Cal...56 -7S—2eq. Water... 1 eq. Protocht. Manganese. The mixture of binoxide of manganese and hydrochloric acid is rendered too dilute by the mother-ley to produce, by their reaction, free chlorine, when no bromide is present with whose base it can combine. Hence, when all the bromine has passed over, we find hydrochloric acid, and not chlorine, in the vapour which is passing over. Properties.—At ordinary temperatures, bromine is a dark-coloured very vola- tile liquid, which, seen by reflected light, appears blackish red; but viewed in thin layers, by transmitted light, is hyacinth red. Its odour is strong and unpleasant, its taste acrid. lis sp. gr. is 2-966; water being 1. Its equivalent weight is 78 [78-39 Berzelius; 78-4 Turner;] by volume, in the gaseous form 1. When exposed to a cold of—4° F., it is a yellowish brown, brittle, crystalline solid. At ordinary temperatures liquid bromine evolves ruddy vapours, (similar lo those of nitrous acid,) so that a few irops put into a small.vessel immediately fills it wilh the vapour of bromine. At 11610 F. bromine boils. The vapour is not combustible: a lighted taper plunged into it is immediately extinguished; but before the flame goes out, it be- comes red at the upper and green at the lower part. Antimony or arsenicum take fire when dropped into liquid bromine: when potassium or phosphorus is dropped in, a violent explosion takes place. Bromine is a non-conductor of electricity : it is a bleaching agent: it dissolves very slightly only in water, more so in alcohol, and much more sp in sulphuric ether. It communicates a fine orange colour to starch. Characteristics.—Liquid bromine is recognised by its colour, odour, volatility, and the colour of its vapour. To these characters must be added its powerful 1 eq. Bromine Vapour. = 78 244 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. action on antimony, arsenicum, and potassium, before mentioned, its dissolving in ether, forming a hyacinth red liquid, and the orange colour which it communi- cates to starch. It causes a yellowish white precipitate (bromide of silver) with a solution of the nitrate of silver. In its external appearance it resembles the ter- chloride of chromium and the chloride of iodine. I have known it confounded with the tincture of iodine. The soluble bromides cause white precipitates with the nitrate of silver, acetate of lead, and protonitrate of mercury. The precipitates are bromides of the respec- tive metals. Bromide of silver is'yellowish white, clotty, insoluble, or nearly so, in boiling nitric acid, and in a weak solution of ammonia, (by which it is distin- guished from chloride of silver) but dissolves in a concentrated solution of this alkali. Heated with sulphuric acid it evolves vapours of bromine. If a few drops of a solution of chlorine be added to a solution of bromide, and then a little sul- phuric ether, we obtain an ethereal solution of bromine, of a hyacinth red colour, which floats on the water. The bromates when heated evolve oxygen, and become bromides. The bro- mates cause white precipitates {metallic bromates) with the nitrate of silver and the protosalts of mercury. Bromate of silver is not soluble in nitric acid, but dis- solves readily in a solution of ammonia. If a few drops of hydrochloric acid be added to a bromate, and.then some ether, a yellow or red ethereal solution of bromine is obtained. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—I am unacquainted with any experiments made with bromine on plants. (3. On Animals generally.—The action of bromine on animals has been ex- amined by Franz,1 by Barthez, by Butzke,3 and by Dieffenbach.3 The animals experimented on were leeches, fishes, birds, horses, rabbits, and dogs. But, not- withstanding the numerous experiments which have been performed, nothing satis- factory has been made out with respect to its mode of operation, beyond the fact of its being a local irritant and caustic, and, therefore, when swallowed, giving rise to gastro-enteritis. Injected into the jugular vein it coagulates the blood, and causes immediate death, preceded by tetanic convulsions. No positive inferences can be drawn as to the specific influence of bromine on any organs of the body. Some of the symptoms (such as dilated pupil, insensibility, and convulsions) would seem to indicate a specific affection of the brain. Franz frequently observed inflam- mation of the liver. y. On Man.—Bromine stains the cuticle yellowish brown, and, by continued application, acts as an irritant. Its vapour is very irritating when inhaled, or applied to the mucous lining of the nose, or to the conjunctiva. Franz, by breath- ing the vapour, had violent cough, and a feeling of suffocation, followed by head- ache. Butzke swallowed a drop and a half of bromine in half an ounce of water, and experienced heat in the mouth, oesophagus, and stomach, followed by colicky pains. Two drops occasioned nausea, hiccup, and increased secretion of mucus. The constitutional effects resulting from the continued use of bromine have not been»determined. They are probably analogous to those of iodine. Hitherto no cases of poisoning with it in the human subject have been seen. Uses.—It seems to possess the same therapeutic influence as iodine, and has been administered in bronchocele, in scrofula, in tumours, in amenorrhoea, and against hypertrophy of the ventricles. It is usually regarded as possessing more activity than iodine. Administration. It may be administered dissolved in water. An aqueous solution, composed of one part by weight of bromine and forty parts of water, may be given in doses of five or six drops properly diluted and flavoured with ' Quoted by Wibmpr, Die Wirkung d. Arineim ler Bd. S. 433; also in Journ. Chim. Med. t. v. p. 510. * De Efficacia Bromi interna ezperimentis illustrata. Berol. 1829. J Christison, On Poisons, p. 187. HYDROGEN. 245 syrup. This solution has also been used as an external agent in lotions. (For other formulae, see Bromide of Potassium.) Antidotes.—The treatment of cases of poisoning by bromine should be the same as for poisoning by iodine. Barthez has recommended magnesia as an antidole. COMPOUNDS OF BROMINH WITH OXYGEN, CHLORINE, AND IODINE. None of these have been employed in medicine; nor have they hitherto been applied to any useful purposes in the arts. Order V.—HYDROGEN, AND ITS COMPOUNDS WITH OXYGEN, CHLORINE, AND IODINE. 1. HYDROGEN'IUM.—HYDROGEN. History and Synonymes.—Cavendish may be considered as the real discoverer of hydrogen, though it must have been occasionally procured, and some of its properties known, previously. He termed it inflammable air. Lavoisier called it hydrogen (from vdup, water, and ysvmu, I beget or produce,) because it is the radicle or base of water. Natural History.—It is found in both kingdoms of nature, but always in combination. a.. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—Next to oxygen, it may be regarded as the most impor- tant constituent of the terraqueous globe. It constitutes 11-1 per cent, by weight of water, presently to be noticed. It is an essential constituent of some minerals (as coal and sal am- inoniac,) in which it does not exist as an element of water. Lastly, it is evolved from vol- canoes, or from fissures in the earth, in combination with carbon, sulphur, chlorine, or nitrogen, under the forms of light carburetlcd hydrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen, hydrochloric acid, and ammonia. . . 0. In the Organized Kingdom.—Hydrogen is an essential constituent of all organized beings (animals and vegetables,) either combined with oxygen, to form water, or otherwise. Certain fungi exhale hydrogen gas both night and day. (De Candolle, Phys. Vcg. tom. i. p. 459.) Preparation.—Hydrogen is always procured by the decomposition of water, but this may be effected in three ways—by the action of electricity, of heat and iron, or of sulphuric acid and a metal (zinc or iron). The latter method only will require notice here. Add some granulated zinc to a mixture of 1 part sulphuric acid and 5 or 6 parts of water by measure. One equivalent or 32 parts of zinc decompose one equi- valent or 9 parts of water, and unites with one equivalent or 8 parts of oxygen, forming one equivalent or 40 parts of the oxide of zinc, while an equivalent or 1 part of hydrogen is evolved from the water. This equivalent of oxide of zinc combines with an equivalent or 40 parts of sulphuric acid, and forms one equiva- lent or 80 parts of the sulphate of zinc. PRODUCTS. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. , w. st, Encykloptidie der gesamm- ten medicinischen und chirurgischen Praxis, Band, ii S -158, art. Methodus hydriatica, Leipzig, 1837. a Fur farther detail* respecting the water-dressing, se«, besides the work already quoted, Mem de I'Acade- mic Royalc de Medicine, Fasc. 1, 1830; Lancet, vol. ii. for 1834-5, pp. 121, 277, and 484; and vol. 1. for 1835-36. p. 450. s Pharmaceutical Nomenclature of MM. Chereau and Henry, in Duncan's Supplement to the Edinburgh JVeio Dispensatory, p. 152. 250 ELEMENTS of materia medica. acid, and other volatile impurities. The latter portions are not to be distilled, to guard against empyreuma. The still in which the operation is conducted ought not to be employed for any other purpose, otherwise the water is apt lo receive a faint smell, and taste of the last matters subjected to distillation. Distilled water remains unchanged on the addition of any of the following tests :—Solu- tions of the Caustic Alkalis, Lime, Oxalic Acid, the Barytic Salts, Acetate of Lead, Nitrate of Silver, and Soap. If turbidness, milkiness, or precipitate, be occasioned by any of these, we may infer the existence of some impurity in the water. But water which has been repeatedly distilled gives traces of acid and alkali when examined by the agency of voltaic electricity, which, therefore, is the most delicate test of the'purity of water. Nitrate of Silver is the most sensible test of the presence of organic matter. Dr. Davy, (in Jameson's Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, Dec. 1828, p. 129.) states that a solution of* this salt in pure water, preserved in a well-stoppered bottle, undergoes no change of colour by exposure to light; but if any vegetable or animal matter be present, the metal is partially reduced, and the liquid acquires a dark or reddish tint. 2. AQUAE MEDICATAE ; (U. S.) Medicated Waters; Aqua Destillatce, L.; Aquce Distillates, D.; Distilled Waters, E.; Hydrolata, or Hydrolals—(Obtained by submitting either fresh, salted, or dried vegetables, or their essential oils, to dis- tillation with water; or by diffusing the essential oils through water by means of spirit, sugar, gum or magnesia.) The medicated waters prepared by distillation from recent vegetables have a finer flavour than those obtained by the diffusion of the oil; but the latter are purer and more permanent. Rose and Elder Waters are prepared either from the fresh or pickled (salted) flowers. The medicated waters in most common use may be extemporaneously prepared "by carefully triturating a drachm of any distilled Oil with a drachm of Carbonate of Mag. nesia, and afterwards with four pints of distilled water. Lastly, let the water be strained."— Ph. Lond. The magnesia effects the minute division of the oil. Moreover, when the oils possess acid properties (as the old oils of pimento, cloves, and cinnamon,) it pro- bably serves to saturate them. Prepared in this way the medicated waters usually contain a minute portion of magnesia in solution: hence, by exposure to the air, they attract carbonic acid, and let fall flocculi of carbonate of magnesia. More- over, the magnesia unfits them for the preparation of solutions of some of the metallic salts {e. g. bichloride of mercury and nitrate of silver). Sugar is fre- quently employed, instead of magnesia, to aid the diffusion of the oil through water. Or the oil may be dissolved in rectified spirit, and the solution thus pre- pared, mixed with water. 3. INFUSA, L. D. (U. S.) Infusions, E.—These are aqueous solutions of ve- getable substances obtained without the aid of ebullition. They are prepared by digesting soft water (cold or hot, according to circumstances) on the substance sliced, bruised, or reduced to coarse powder, in a glazed earthenware or porce- lain vessel, fitted with a cover. Polished metallic vessels retain the heat better, but are objectionable on account of their ready corrosion. Hard water is a less perfect solvent of organic matter than soft water, and, moreover, it becomes turbid (from the deposition of chalk) by keeping: hence it should not be employed in the preparation of infusions. Cold water is used when the active principle is very volatile ; or when it is desirable to avoid the solution of any substance solu- ble in hot water. Thus, when the object is to extract the bitter principle from Calumba or Iceland Moss without taking up ihe starchy matter, cold water is pre- ferred. In general, however, boiling water is used. Infusions are preferred to decoctions when the active principle is either volatilizable by a boilino- heat, as in the case of essential oil; or readily undergoes some chemical change by ebulli- tion, as in the case of senna. COMMON WATERS. 251 i. DECOCTA, L. D..(U. S.) Decoctions, E—These are prepared by boiling organic substances in water. They should be strained while hot; since, in some cases {e. g. cinchona,") the liquid becomes turbid on cooling. Division.—Natural waters may most conveniently be arranged in three classes; (See Dr. Thomson's System of Chemistry, vol. iii. p. 191, 6th ed. Lond. 1620.) viz. Common Water, Sea Water, and Mineral Waters. a. Aquae Communes. — Common Waters. Under this head are comprehended those waters which are used for dressing food, and for other purposes of domestic economy. It includes the waters com- ■ moniy known as rain, spring, river, well or pump, lake, and marsh waters. 1. AQUA PLUVIALIS; Aqua Pluvia; Aqua Imbrium ; Rain Water.—This is the purest of all natural waters. Its composition, however, varies somewhat in dif- ferent situations, owing to the foreign substances floating in the atmosphere, and with which it becomes contaminated. It contains air, carbonic acid, some traces of nitric acid, salts, and organic matter. The nitric acid is presumed to be formed by the combination of the oxygen and nitrogen of the air by the agency of electricity. Liebig1 has shown that rain water contains carbonate of ammonia, to which he ascribes its softness. Carbonate of lime is another constituent, as is also, accord- ing to Bergmann, chloride of calcium. Zimmermann found oxide of iron and chloride of potassium in rain; but Kastner could discover no trace of iron in it, though he found in dew, meteoric iron and nickel. Brandes detected various other inorganic substances, viz. chloride of sodium (in greatest quantity,) chloride of magnesium, sulphate and carbonate of magnesia, and sulphate of lime. He likewise mentions oxide of manganese. The putrefaction to which rain-water is subject, shows that some organic matter is present. The term pyrrhin (from ffuppo?, red) has been applied by Zimmermann to an atmospheric organic substance which reddens solutions of silver. Whenever rain-water is collected near large towns, it should be boiled and strained before use. As it contains less saline impregnation than other kinds of natural waters, it is more apt to acquire metallic impregnation from leaden cisterns and water pipes. (See p. 102.) Snow Water (Aqua ex nive; Aqua nivalis) is destitute of air and other gaseous matters found in rain; and hence fish cannot live in it. It has long been a popular, but erroneous opinion, that it was injurious to the health, and had a tendency to produce bronchocele. But this malady " occurs at Sumatra, where ice and snow are never seen; while, on the contrary, the disease is quite unknown in Chili and Thibet, although the rivers of these countries are chiefly supplied by the melting of the snow with which tlie mountains are covered." (Paris, Pharmacologia, 6th ed. vol. i. p. 79.) Snow does not quench thirst; on the contrary, it augments it; and the natives of the Arctic regions "prefer enduring the utmost extremity of this feeling, rather than attempt to remove it by eating of snow."3 When melted, however, it proves as efficacious as other kinds of water. 2. AQUA FONTANA ; Aqua, E ; Spring Water.—This is rain water which, having percolated through the earth, reappears at the surface of some declivity. Durinc its passage it almost always takes up some soluble matters, which of course vary according to the nature of the soil. Its constituents are similar to those of well water. " For pharmaceutic use, spring water must be so far at least free of saline matter as not to possess the quality of hardness, or contain above a 6000th of solid matter."—Ph. Ed. I, AQUA EX FLUMINE; Aqua Fluvialis; River Water—This is a mixture of rain and spring water. When deprived of the matters which it frequently holds in suspension, its purity is usually considerable. The following are the solid con- 1 Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology ; edited by Lyon Playfair, Ph. D. Lond 1840. » Narrative of a Second Voyage in Search of a Northwest Passage; and of a Residence in the Arctic Regions during ihe years 1829, 1830, 1831, 1832, and 1833, p. 360. Lond. 1835. 252 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. stituents of the waters of the Thames and Colnc, at different localities, according to the analyses of Mr. R. Phillips:—l QUANTITY OF WATER. 1 Gallon=10 lbs. Avoirdupois, at 62° F. or 70000 grs Avoirdupois. Carbonate of Lime - Sulphate of Lime Chloride of Sodium - Oxide of I ron - - - Silica..... Magnesia - - - - Carbonaceous matter - J Solid matter held in solution Mechanical impurity - - Total solid matter THAMES WATER. Brentford.] Barnes. Source of j Source of the Grand the West Junction Water Works Company. Middlesex Water Works Company. Grs. 16-000 3-400 Very minute portions 19-400 0-368 19-768 Grs. 16-900 1-700 \ Ditto. Chelsea. Source of the Chelsea Water Works Company. 18-600 0368 18-968 Grs. 16-500 2-900 Ditto. 19-400 0.238 19-638 COLNE WATER. Otterpool. Spring near Bushey. Grs. 18-800 2-500 Ditto. 21-300 0-185 21-485 Main Spring in the valley that supplies theColne Grs. 19-300 2-500 Ditto. 21 80.0 0-262 22 062 Colne Itself. Grs. 18-100 3-200 Ditto. 21.300 0.126 21-426 No notice is taken in these analyses of the gaseous constituents river water. (air and carbonic acid) of 4. AQUA EX PUTEO ; Aqua Puteana ; Well Water.—This is water obtained by sinking wells. As it is commonly raised by means of a pump, it is frequently called pump water. The constituents of ordinary well water are similar to those of river water above mentioned; but the earthy salts (especially the sulphate of lime) are found in much larger quantity. It usually decomposes and curdles soap, and is then denominated hard water, to distinguish it from river and other waters, which are readily miscible with soap, and which are termed soft waters. The hardness of water depends on earthy salts, the most common of which is sulphate of lime. By the mutual action of this salt and soap, double decompo- sition is effected : the sulphuric acid unites with the alkali of the soap, setting free the fatty acids, which unite with the lime to form an insoluble earthy soap. Hard water is a less perfect solvent of organic matter than soft water; hence in the preparation of infusions and decoctions, and for many economical purposes, as for tea-making and brewing, it is inferior to soft water; and, for the same rea- son, it is improper as a drink in dyspeptic affections. Moreover, it proves injurious in urinary deposits. The unfavourable effects of hard waters on the animal system are especially manifested in horses. " Hard water, drawn fresh from the well," observes Mr. Youatt, {The Horse, p. 359. Lond. 1831.) "will assuredly make the coat of a horse, unaccustomed to it, stare, and it will not un- frequently gripe and otherwise injure him. Instinct, or experience, has made even the ho°rse himself conscious of this; for he will never drink hard water if he has access to soft; he will leave the most transparent and pure[?] water of the well for a river, although the water may be turbid, and even for the muddiest pool."3 Artesian Wells. —These are vertical, cylindrical borings3 in the earth, through which water rises, by hydrostatic pressure, either«to the surface (spouting or overflowing wells), or 1 Renort from the Select Committee of the House of Lords, appointed to inquire into the supply of Water to the Metropolis, p. 91, 1840.—See also Dr. Bosiock's analysis in the Report of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the state'of the supply of Water in the Metropolis. 1828. a Some trainers have so much fear of hard or strange water, that they carry with them to the different courses the water that the animal has been accustomed to drink, and that they know agrees with H. . 3 For description of the mode of boring, and of the tools used, see Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines, p. 57. London, 1839. COMMON WATERS. 253 to a height convenient for the operation of a pump.1 They have been denominated Artesian, from a notion that they were first made in the district of Artois, in France. It is probable, however, that they were known to the ancients, for a notice of them is said to occur in Olym- piodorus.3 Proposals have been made for supplying London with water by these wells; which would derive their water from the stratum of sand and plastic clay, between the London clay and the chalk basin.3 But it does not appear that a sufficient supply can be obtained in this way.4 5. AQUA EX LACU; Lake Water.—This is a collection of rain, spring, and river water, usually contaminated with putrefying organic matter, the ill effects of which on the system I have before alluded to. (See p. 102.) 6. AQUA EX PALUDE; Marsh Water.—This is analogous to Lake water, except that it is altogether stagnant, and is more loaded with putrescent matter. The sulphates in sea and other waters are decomposed by putrefying vegetable mat- ter, with the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen ; hence the intolerable stench from marshy and swampy grounds liable to occasional inundations from the sea.. (See p. 113, foot note.) Tests of the usual Impurities in Common Waters.—The following are the- tests by which the presence of the ordinary constituents or impurities of common, waters may be ascertained :— 1. Ebullition.—By boiling, Air and Carbonic Acid gas are expelled, while Carbonate of Lime (which lias been held in solution by the carbonic acid) is deposited. The latter constitutes the fur or crust which lines tea-kettles and boilers. 2. Protosulphate op Iron.—If a crystal of this salt be introduced into a phial filled with the water to be examined, and the phial be well corked, a yellowish-brown precipitate (sesquioxide of iron) will be deposited in a few days, if Oxygen gas be contained in the water. 3. Litmus.—Infusion of litmus or syrup of violets is reddened by a free Acid. 4. Lime Water.—This is a test for Carbonic Acid, with which it causes a white precipitate (carbonate of lime) if employed before the water is boiled. 5. Chloride of Barium.—A solution of this salt usually yields, wilh well water, a white preci- pitate, insoluble in nitric acid. This indicates the presence of Sulphuric Acid (which, in com- mon water, is combined with lime.) 6. Oxalate of Ammonia.—If this salt yield a white precipitate, it indicates the presence of Lime (carbonate and sulphate.) 7. Nitrate of Silver.—If this occasion a precipitate insoluble in nitric acid, the presence of Chlorine may be inferred. 8. Phosphate of Soda.—If the lime contained in common water be removed by ebullition and oxalic acid, and to the strained and transparent water, Ammonia and Phosphate of Soda be added, any Magnesia present will, in the course of a few hours, be precipitated in the form of the white ammoniacal phosphate of magnesia. • 9. Tincture of Galls.—This is used as a test for Iron, with solutions of which it forms an inky liquor (tannate and gallate of iron). If the test produce this effect on the water before, but not after, boiling, the iron is in the state of Carbonate; if after as well as before, in that of Sul- phate. Ferrocyanide of Potassium may be substituted for galls as a test for iron, with solutions of the scsquisalts of which it yields a blue precipitate, and with the protosalts a white precipitate,. which becomes blue by exposure to the air. 10. Hydrosulpiiuric Acid (Sulphuretted Hydrogen).—This yields a dark (brown or black) precipitate (a metallic sulphuret) with water containing Iron or Lead in solution. 11. Evaporation and Ignition.—If the water be evaporated to dryness, and ignited in a glass tube, the presence of organic matter may be inferred by the odour and smoke evolved, as well as by the charring. Another mode of detecting organic matter is by adding nitrate of lead to the suspected water, and collecting and igniting the precipitate; when globules of me- tallic lead are obtained if organic matter be present. The putrefaction of water is another proof of the presence of this matter. Nitrate of silver has been before mentioned as a test. (See p. 250.) 1 In the Penny Cyclopedia, art. Artesian Wells, is a popular and interesting account of these wells. » Passv, Description Geologique du Dcpartemcnt de la Seine Jnfericure, p. 2!)2. Rouen, 1832. ' See an interesting account of Artesian Wells, by Mr. Webster, in the Athenaum for 1839, p. 131. ♦ Ibid. Also, Transactions of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. iii. part iii. vol. I. 22 254 ELEMENTS of materia medica. (3. Aqua Marina. —Sea Water. (Aqua Maris.) Under this head are included the waters of the ocean, and of those lakes, called inland seas, which possess a similar composition. The Dead Sea, however, differs exceedingly in its nature from sea water, and may properly be ranked amongst mineral waters. The quantity of solid matter varies considerably in different seas, as the follow- ing statement from Pfaff1 proves :— 10,000 parts of Water of The Mediterranean Sea .... English Channel - .... f At the Island of Fohr " " Norderney .In the Frith of Forth At Ritzebiittel German Ocean Baltic Sea ' At the Apenrade, in Sleswick At Kiel, in Holstein At Doberan, in Mecklenberg At Travemiinde At Zoppot, in Mecklenberg At Carlshamm We shall not be far from the truth if we assume that the average quantity ol saline water is 3| per cent.; and the density about 1*0274. The composition of sea water varies in different localities, as the following ana- lyses3 show:— Sc lid Constituents. 410 grs. 380 " 345 « 342 « 312 " 312 « 216 " 200 « 168 " 167 " 76 « 66 " Sea Water. Of the English Channel. Mediterranean (Schweitzer.) (Laurens.) Grains. g Grains. Water .... 964-74372 . . 959-26 Chloride of Sodium 27-05948 . - 27-22 " " Potassium - 0-76552 . 0-01 " " Magnesium 3-66658 . 6-14 Bromide of Magnesium 0-02929 . __ Sulphate of Magnesia - 2-29578 . 7-02 " " Lime 1-40662 . 015 Carbonate of Lime 0-03301 and Magnesia 0-20 1000-00000 1000-00 Iodine has been found in the Mediterranean by Balard. Physiological Uses and Effects.—Sea water, taken internally, excites thirst, readily nauseates, and, in full doses, occasions vomiting and purging. The re- peated use of it, in moderate doses, has been found beneficial, on account of its alterative and resolvent operation in scrofulous affections, especially glandular enlargements and mesenteric diseases. Its topical action is more stimulant than common water. It is used as an embrocation in chronic diseases of the joints. Employed as a bath, it more speedily and certainly causes the reaction and glow; and, consequently, the sea-water bath may be used for a longer period, without causing exhaustion, than the common water bath. It is a popular opinion, which 1 Schwartze's Allgcmeine und specielle Heilquellenlehrc, 2te Abt. S. 186. Leipzig, 1839. * Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. vol. xv. p. 51, July, J839. Also, Graham's Elements of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 266. MINERAL WATERS. 255 is perhaps well founded, that patients are less likely to take cold after the use of salt water as a bath, than after the employment of common water.1 From sea-water is procured Sulphate of Magnesia. BALNEUM MARIS FACTITIUM; Artificial Sea-Water Bath.—A solution of one part of common salt (Chloride of Sodium) in thirty parts of water is a cheap sub- stitute for a sea-water bath. When, however, a more faithful imitation of sea- water is desired, the following formula2 may be used :—Common Salt, 390 grs. ; Crystallized Sulphate of Soda, 172 grs.; Crystallized Chloride of Calcium, 36 grs.; Crystallized Chloride of Magnesium, 144 grs.; Water, 1 wine quart. If to these, 1 grain of Iodide of Potassium, and the like quantity of Bromide of Potas- sium be added, the imitation will be still more faithful. y- Aquae Minerales. — Mineral Waters, History.—Mineral waters were known to mankind in the most remote periods of antiquity, and were employed, medicinally, both as external and internal agents, for the prevention, alleviation, and cure of diseases. Homer {Iliad, xxii. 147.) speaks of tepid and cold springs. The Asclepiadeae, or followers of Mscu- lapius, erected their temples in the newhbourhood of mineral and thermal waters. (Sprengel, Hist, de Medec. par Jourdafi, t. 1", p. 144.) Hippocrates {De aeribus, aquis, locis.) speaks of mineral waters, though he does not prescribe them when speaking of particular diseases. Pliny {Hist. Nat. lib. xxxi.,) notices their medi- cal properties. Natural History.—The principal source of mineral waters is the atmosphere, from which water is obtained in the form of rain, snow, hail, and dew, and which, after percolating a certain portion of the earth, and dissolving various substances in its passage, reappears on the surface, at the bottom of declivities, {spring water,) or is procured by sinking pits or wells, {well water.) But springs are sometimes observed under circumstances which are inconsistent with the supposition of their atmospheric origin. "The boiling springs which emerge on the verge of per- petual snows, at an altitude of 13,000 feet above the level of the sea, as in the Himalayahs, cannot be derived from the atmosphere, not to mention the peculiar relations of the Icelandic Geysers." (Gairdner's Essay on Mineral and Ther- mal Springs, p. 289.) Other sources, therefore, have been sought for, and the writer just quoted enumerates three; viz. the focus of volcanic activity, the great mass of the ocean, or other masses of salt water and subterranean reservoirs. Considered with reference to their temperature, mi- neral waters are divided into cold and hot. The hot or thermal waters are those which possess a tempe- rature more or less elevated above the mean of the latitude or elevation at which they are found, and the changes of which, if any, observe no regular periods coincident with the revolutions of the seasons. Three causes have been assigned as the source of the heat of mineral waters; viz. volcanic action, now in exist- ence ; volcanic action, now extinguished, but the effects of which still remain ; and a central cause of heat, which increases as we descend from the surface to the interior of the earth. (Gairdner, op. cit.) New Geyser. The Geysers, or boiling springs of Iceland, are Fig. 45. 1 On the medicinal properties of sea-water, consult Logan's Observations on the Effects of Sea- Water inScurvy and Scrofula, Lond. 1770 ; and Dr. R. White, on The Use and Abuse of Sea- Water, Lond. 1775. » This formula agrees with that uiven by Soubeiran, (.Vouveau Traite de Pharmacie, p. 003, t. 2me, ed. 2nde, Pari*, 1840,) and which is founded on Marcet's analysis of sea-water. 256 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. evidently connected with volcanic action. They are intermittent fountains, which throw up boiling water and spray to a great height into the air.1 The origin of the saline and other constituents is another interesting topic of inquiry connected with the natural history of mineral springs. As water in its passage through the different strata of the earth must come in contact with various substances which are soluble in it, we refer certain constituents of mineral waters to solution and lixiviation merely: as chloride of sodium, carbonates of lime and magnesia, iodides and bromides of sodium and magnesium, iron, silica, &c. Che- mical action must, in some cases, be the source of other constituents. Thus, sulphuretted hydrogen is probably produced by the action of water on some me- tallic sulphuret (especially iron pyrites); sulphurous and sulphuric acid, from the oxidation and combustion of sulphur, free or combined. The carbonic acid found in the acidulous or carbonated waters is referrible to the decomposition of carbo- nate of lime, either by heat, or by the action of sulphuric acid. Hydrochloric acid is doubtless produced by the decomposition of some chloride or muriate, (probably chloride of sodium or sal ammoniac.) Carbonate of soda must also be considered as the product of some chemical process ; thus, that found in the natron lakes of Egypt is supposed to be formed by the action of chloride of sodium on carbonate of lime. (Berthollet, Essai de Statique Chimique, ler part. p. 406.) "The different orifices of the Karlsbad Spimdel discharge annually about 13,000 tons of carbonate of soda, and 20,000 of trie sulphate, in the crystallized state;" (Gairdner, op. cit. p. 325 :) but a " very simple calculation is sufficient to show that the Donnersberg alone, the loftiest of the Bohemian Mittelgebirge, a cone of clinkstone 2,500 feet in elevation, contains soda enough to supply the Karlsbad waters alone for more than 30,000 years." (Ibid. p. 338.) Division and Properties.—Mineral waters may be classified according to their temperature, their chemical composition, or their medicinal properties. But hitherto no satisfactory classification has been effected by any of these methods, nor, perhaps, can it be formed. The most convenient arrangement is that founded on chemical composition, and which consists in grouping mineral waters in four classes. CLASS 1.-CHAL7BBATI! OR FERRUGINOUS WATERS. (Aquai ferruginoseae seu raartiales.) These are mineral waters whose predominating or active principle is Iron. Most mineral waters contain this metal, but the term chalybeate is not applied to them unless the quantity of iron be considerable in proportion to the other constituents. These waters have an inky or styptic taste, and become purplish-black on the addition of tannic or gallic acid, (or substances, as galls and tea, which contain one or both of these acids.) Waters which contain the protosalts of iron, yield, on the addition of ferrocyanide of potassium, a white precipitate, which becomes blue by exposure to the air. Those which contain the sesquisalts of iron give a blue precipitate with ferrocyanide of potassium, and become red on the addition of sulphocyanide of potassium. Chalybeate waters are of two kinds, carbonated and sulphated. Order I. Carbonated Chalybeate Waters.—These waters contain the carbonate of the protoxide of iron. By exposure to the air, or by boiling, they attract oxygen, evolve carbonic acid, and deposit the whole of the iron in the form of sesquioxide. When the carbonate of iron is associated with a large quantity of carbonic acid, which renders the waters brisk, sparkling, and acidulous, they are denominated highly carbonated or acidulo-carbonated chalybeates, or aciduloferruginous waters. The Spa and Pyrmont waters are of this kind. When, however, the quantity of carbonic acid is not large, and the waters do not sparkle in the glass, they are termed simply carbonated chalybeates, or, from the earthy and alkaline salts which they contain, saline carbonated chalybeates. The waters of Tun- 1 For farther information concerning them, I must refer to Sir G. S. Mackenzie's Travels in Iceland during the Summer of 1810, Edinb. 1811; and to Barrow's Visit to Iceland, by way of Tronyem, 8cc, in the Summer of 1834. Lond. 1835. » <* > mineral waters. 257 bridge Wells, Oddy's saline chalybeate at Harrowgate, and the Islington Spa near London, are of this kind/ Order 2. Sulphated Chalybeates—These contain sulphate of iron. Neither exposure to the air, nor boiling, precipitates all the iron, and in this respect the sulphated chalybeates are dis- tinguished from the carbonated ones. Some of them contain sulphate of alumina, and are deno- minited aluminous sulphated chalybeates. Of these the Sand Rock Spring, in the Isle of Wight, the Strong Moffat Chalybeate, Vicar's Bridge Chalybeate, and the Passy waters, are examples. The waters of Buckowina, in Silesia, are of this kind; but they contain also chloride of iron. Those sulphated chalybeates which are devoid of sulphate of alumina, may be termed simply sulphated chalybeates. The Chalybeate waters operate in a similar manner to the other ferruginous compounds hereafter to be noticed. They are stimulant, tonic, and astringent. By repeated use they cause blackening of the stools. The acidulated carbonated chalybeates sit more easily on the stomach than other ferruginous agents, in con- sequence of the excess of carbonic acid which they contain. The aluminous chalybeates are very apt to occasion cardialgia, especially if taken in the undiluted state. The use of this class of waters is indicated in cases of debility, especially when accompanied with that condition of system denominated anaemia. They have long obtained a high celebrity for the relief of complaints peculiar to the female sex. Their employment is contra-indicated in plethoric, inflammatory, and febrile conditions of system. CLASS 2.—SULPHUREOUS OR HEPATIC WATERS. (Aquae Sulphures seu Hepaticae.) These waters are impregnated with hydrosulphuric acid (sulphuretted hydro- gen) ; in consequence of which they have the odour of rotten eggs, and cause black precipitates (metallic sulphurets) with solutions of the salts of lead, silver, copper, bismuth, &c. Those sulphureous waters which retain, after ebullition, their power of causing these precipitates, contain a sulphuret (hydrosulphuret) in solution, usually of calcium or sodium. All the British sulphureous waters are cold, but some of the continental ones are thermal. The most celebrated sul- phureous waters of England are those of Harrowgate j1 those of Scotland are Moffat and Rothsay; of the continent, Enghein, Bareges, Aix, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Baden. DR. M. GAIRDNERS TABLE OF THE dUANTITY OF SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN IN SULPHUREOUS WATERS. Cubic inches 100 Cubic inches of the water of of Gas. Authority. r Bareges in the Pyrenees, contains........... 20 0 Liidemann. Cauterets in ditto.......................... 50-0 Ditto. St. Sauveur in ditto......................... 166 Ditto. Schinznach in C. Aargau in Switz.......... 30-11 Peschier. Aachen in the Lower Rhine................. 4578 Monheim. Warmbrunn in Silesia...................... 17-17 Osann. Landeck in county ofGlatz.................. 14-83 Ditto. Baden near Vienna......................... 11-83 Ditto. Thermal........................... f Harrowgate in England (old well)........... 594 Scudamore.^ Moffat in Scotland.......................... 7-58 Thomson. Stralhpeffer in ditto (upper well)............ 9-44 Ditto. Enghein in France.......................... 1-60 Longchamps. Nenndorff in Hesse......................... 40-90 Osann. Winslar in Hanover........................ 51-51 Ditto. Eilsen in Lippe............................. 2721 Ditto. Coi.d..............................■( Meinberg in ditto........................... 3091 Ditto. Weilbach in Nassau........................ 22-32 Ditto.' Berka in Thuringia......................... 20-60 Ditto. Bockletin Franconia........................ 1717 Ditto. Doberan in Mecklenburg.................... 1820 Ditto. Bentheim in Germany...................... 15-45 Ditto. Sironabad in Hesse.......................... 2(33 Buchner. j, Dinkhold in Nassau....................... 86 Kolb. ' See Dr. A. Hunter's Treatise on the Mineral Waters of Harrowgate. Lond. 1830. » I have not admitted the waters of Cheltenham into this list, in consequence of the extreme inconstancy of the sulphureous impregnation. Other reasons, however, render it very doubtful if any of the analyses of some of the recent springs represent their natural composition.—M. G. » 30 9 Creve (Stifffs Nassau, p. 577).—M. G. 22* 258 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. The general operation of these waters is stimulant, and is adapted for chronic complaints.1 They are supposed to possess a specific power over the cutaneous and uterine systems. They are employed both as external and internal agents ; in chronic skin diseases (as lepra, psoriasis, scabies, pityriasis, herpes, &c.)— in derangements of the uterine functions (amehorrhcea and chlorosis)—in old syphilitic cases—in chronic rheumatism and gout, and in other diseasesin which sulphur and its compounds have been found serviceable, and which will be noticed hereafter. On account of their stimulant effects, they are contra-indicated in all plethoric and inflammatory conditions of the system, and their employment requires caution, especially in weak and irritable constitutions. CLASS 3.-ACIDULOUS OR CARBONATED WATERS. (Aquae Aciduls.) These waters owe their remarkable qualities to carbonic acid gas, which gives them an acidulous taste, a briskness, a sparkling property ; and the power of red- dening litmus slightly, but fugaciously, and of precipitating lime and baryta waters. When they have been exposed to the air for a short time, this gas escapes from them, and the waters lose their characteristic properties. Most mineral and common waters contain a greater or less quantity of free carbonic acid. Ordinary spring or well waters do not usually contain more than three or four cubic inches of carbonic acid gas in 100 cubic inches of water. Dr. Henry found, in one experiment, 3»38 inches. (Thomson's System Chem. vol. iii. p. 193, 6th edit.) But the waters called acidulous or carbonated contain a much larger quantity. Those which have from 30 to 60 cubic inches of gas are considered rich ; but the richest have from 100 to 200 or more inches. (Gaird- ner, op. cit. p. 30.) Alibert {Nouveaux Elemens de Therapeutique, tom. 3me, p. 517, 5me ed.) states that the waters of Saint-Nectaire contain 400 cubic inches in 100 of the water. Most of the waters of this class contain carbonate or bicarbonate of soda : these are termed acidulo-alkaline. The Setters3 (often called Seltzer), Altwasser, Saltz- brunn, Reinerz, and Pyrmont, waters are of this kind. Frequently they contain carbonate of the protoxide of iron also : they are then termed the acidulous carbo- nated chalybeates, which have been already noticed. The only acidulous or carbonated spring in Great Britain is that of Ilkeston, near Nottingham, and which has been described by Mr. A. F. A. Greeves {Account a s a d ! & h! §M 2905 34-50 208 1118 31-45 2-95 3309 31-99 5-29 640 24-55 1-75 1300 23-90 2-45 0 72 24-47 0-27 2 43 1 14-87 2-65 5 95 5-98 0 o 279 529 205 4-74 090 1-32 2-74 0 0-86 312 001 1-55 | 243 0 117 i 117 0-82 0 80 2-42 090 0 29 6-62 0 36 0-28 019 104 2-35 238 0-92 0-85 114 0 1-45 1-80 0-77 028 0 0-59 0 043 '053 018 0 04 O 319 1-39 005 002 014 001 065 0 003 010 0 015 0 0 0 003 0 0-40 0-5G 0-26 0-75 100 0 trace 0-42 0-37 210 540 116 373 0 0 0-42 0 Sum. Authority and Dale. 9444 7403 57-63 54-59 53-94 42 75 42-74 24-43 20 53 13-39 10-75 9-96 8-47 8-19 6 96 6 24 270 Giudice Ditto............. Kastner, 1823....) Berzelius, 1822..) Berthier. Ditlo. Kastner, 1830..... Giudice.......... Phillips........... Berthier. Black, 1791....... Berthier. Black, 1791....... Carrick, 1797..... Kastner, 1823.... Berzelius, J822... Scudamore, 1820.. Remarks. Iron in the state of ferruginous alu- mina; sub-borate of soda 2 79. Iron as in San Resliluta. Free carbonic acid 18 9; azote; potash 0-83; alumina 056; orga- nic extract 2-37. Minute traces of phosphoric and fluoric acids; strontian, alumina, and manganese. Alumina, a trace; oxide of manga- Potash 2-73. [nese 242. The magnesia by Scudamore. Alumina 0 48. Alumina 005. Free carbonic acid 1299. Free carbonic acid 6 0. Phosphoric acid; potash; alumina Azote 2 01, by Pearson. Vicar's Bridge. Pullnass...... Saidschutz............... Leamington (Royal Pump). Harrowgate (old sulphur) well..................S Airlhrey (first spring)...... Cheltenham (old well)..... Hartfell Aluminous Chalyb, Isle of Wight............. Marienbad (Ferdinands- ) quelle)...............J Dunblane (north spring)... Vals-.................... Bilin.................... Franzcnbad (Franzens- ) brunn)..............) Pitcailhly................ Roisdorf............... < Epsom................... Sellers (Nieder)........... Fachingen............... Soden................... Moffat................... Pyrmont................. Marienfels............... StralhpcfTer (pump-room).. Geilnau.................. Weilbach................ Hartfell Spa.............. Langcnschwalbach ) (Weinbrunn) " \ Spa..................... Carlsbad (Sauerling)...... Tm 1 bridge............... Malvern................. Scotland., Bohemia. Ditto___ England. Ditto___ Scotland. England. Scotland. England. Bohemia. Scotland. France... Bohemia. Ditto___ Scotland. Rhenish . Prussia .. England. Nassau.. Ditto___ Ditto___ Scotland. Germany Nassau .. Scotland. Nassau .. Ditto___ Scoiland. Nassau .. Germany. Bohemia. F.ngland.. Ditto____ 0 463 20300 18283 018 17-20 fO-16 7500 256 20-38 4-81 97-43 1-43 14 20 602 0 20 80 71-90 57-90 1200 1-20 08-0 76-83 60-50 4-47 0 0 0 0 4-25 1105 63-23 48-58 76-46 50-65 0 2-95 3210 45-80 0 6-85 32-50 4-26 0 5-68 9-52 27-60 9-50 38-05 2-87 0.30 22-48 2051 2-23 029 3-40 33-55 300 1-44 15-30 33-34 28-47 14-04 1-60 2-47 5-44 1850 6-21 26-70 1-26 0-30 0-73 27-20 8-50 1399 j 6-76 2-50 5-37 11-49 335 0 250 970 1600 1-78 1480 018 012 0 07 280 4-21 9 92 263 12 30 13 60 5-64 1606 15-63 10-72 12-75 11-80 1-37 1-83 408 0-68 4-03 9-83 0-99 1-29 8-56 4-83 018 1-88 3-42 2-20 0 600 361 0 9 32 007 0-81 276 217 0-18 1-31 305 6-18 508 4-60 0 2-33 1-46 1-55 2-30 3 84 012 012 0-34 1-55 6-63 051 033 0-92 0-74 028 013 007 0-23 016 0-20 032 014 014 029 0-08 019 0-55 039 003 103 00 0 0 0-24 563.10 3411 trace 016 177-4 1-09 0 153-9 0 0 145-4 0 trace 4000 1460 0 0 0 0-96 127-4 111-6 103-3 88-21 012 050 86-18 0-23 0 06 010 0 0-45 0 63-21 61-17 57-46 0-37 0-48 5580 Irace 0 46-95 0-07 021 3811 0 012 007 008 0 0 038 011 106 0 37-94 34 00 32-98 30-89 3003* 0-36 0-68 27-89 010 trace 15-99 0 013 0 2 49 0 014 0 0 15-35 14 66 14 40 995 0-67 trace 8-58 7-90 0 68 5-92 006 0-61 1-42 0-38 004 0.07 ° 1-32 101 Connel, 1831...... Struve........... Ditto............. Thomson, 1830.... Scudamore, 1819. Thomson, 1828. Scudamore, 1819.. Thomson, 1828.... Marcet........... Steinmann,1820... Murray, 1814. Berthier. ■Reuss, 1788. Tromsdorff, 1820.. Murray, 1814. Bischof,1826...... Daubeny, 1830.... Bischof, 1826..... Ditto............ Meyer, 1820. Thomson, 1828. Slruve.......... Kastner.......... Thomson, 1828.... Bischof. 1826...... Creve, 1810....... Thomson, 1828.... Kastner, 1829..... Struve........... Berzelius, 1822.... Scudamore. 1816.. Phillip, 1805. Potash, a trace Potash 3-55 C Nitric acid 775; phosphoric acid; < potash 361; strontian 03; alu- ( mina; oxide of manganese. Traces of iod. & brom. by Daubeny Trace of iodine by Daubeny. Alumina 510. Alumina 7-77. ^ Phosphoric acid.lithion.slrontian I alumina,manganese,by Berzelius ( Phosphoric acid.lithion.stronlian ( alumina.manganese.byBerzelius Potash. Trace of bromine. Phosphoric acid 0-19. Phosphoric acid 0 005. S Phosphoric acid, potash, slronlian, manganese. ( Potash 119; strontian, mangn- } nese, phosphoric acid. Potash ? Phosphoric acid 0 19. Sulphur resin 0-48. Alumina a trace. ( Potash, lilhion, iodine, strontian, } alumina, manganese, phos. acid. Phos. acid, potash 058, manganese. ( Phosphoric acid, fluate of lime, ( alumina, oxide of manganese. Oxide of manganese. 264 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. For farther details, respecting mineral waters in general, the reader is referred to the following works :— Dr. J. Rutty, Methodical Synopsis of Mineral Waters. Lond. 1757. Dr. D. Munro, Treatise on Mineral Waters. Lond. 1770. Dr. W. Saunders, Treatise on the Chemical History and Medical Powers of some of the most celebrated Mineral Waters. Lond. 1800. C. F. Mosch, Die Bader und Heilbrunen Deutschlands und der Schweiz. Leipzig, 1819. Alibert, Precis hislorique sur les Eaux Minerales. Paris, 1826. Also, in his Nouveaux Elemens de Therapeutique, 3me tom. 5me ed. Paris, 1826. E. Osann, Physikalish-medicinische Darstellung der bekannten Heilquellen der vorzuglichsten Lander Europa's. Berlin, le<" Theil, 1829. 2e' Theil, 1822. Dr. T. Thomson, Cyclopaidia of Practical Medicine, art. Waters, Mineral, vol. iv. Lond. 1835. Mr. Lee, An Account of the most frequented Watering Places on the Continent. Lond. 1836. Patissier et Bourtron-Charlard, Manuel des Eaux Minerales Naturelles, 2nde ed. Paris, 1837. Dr. A. B. Granville, The Spas of Germany, Lond. 1837. 2nt> ed. 1838. G. W. Schwartze, Alljemeine und specielle Heilquellenlehre. Leipzig, 1839. Mr. Lee, Principal Baths of Germany, 1840. Dr. J. Johnson, Pilgrimage to the Spas. Lond. 1841. Dr. A. B. Granville, The Spas of England, Northern, Midland, and Southern. 1841. ARTIFICIAL MINERAL WATERS.—In this country the demand for artificial mineral waters is exceedingly limited, and I do not, therefore, think it necessary to enter into any details respecting their manufacture; but shall content myself with refer. ring those interested in the matter to the works of Soubeiran1 and Guibourt3 for full details.3 3. ACIDUM HYDROCHLO'RICUM.—HYDROCHLORIC ACID. (Acidum Muriaticum, Muriatic Acid, U. S.) History am Synonymes.—Liquid hydrochloric acid was probably known to Geber, the Arabian chemist, in the eighth century. The present mode of obtain- ing it was contrived by Glauber. Some modern chemists term it chlorhydrie acid. Scheele, in 1774, may be regarded as the first person who entertained a correct notion of its composition. To Sir H. Davy we are principally indebted for the establishment of Scheele's opinion. Natural History.—It is found in both kingdoms of nature. tt. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—Hydrochloric acid is one of the gaseous products of vol- canoes. Combined with ammonia, we find it in volcanic regions. /8. In the Organized Kingdom.—Free hydrochloric acid is an essential constituent of the gastric juice in the human subject. Hydrochlorate of ammonia (sal ammoniac) was found, by Berzelius, in the urine. Chevreul states he detected free hydrochloric acid in the juice of Isalis tinctoria. l. Gaseous Hydrochloric Acid. Preparation.—Hydrochloric Acid, in the gaseous state, is procured by the action of oil of vitriol on dried chloride of sodium. The ingredients should be introduced into a tubulated retort, the neck of which is lined with bibulous paper, and the gas collected over mercury. Or they may be placed in a clean and dry oil flask, and the gas conveyed, by means of a glass tube curved twice at right angles, into a proper receptacle, as a bottle, from which the gas expels the air by its greater gravity. In this process, one equivalent or 60 parts of chloride of sodium react on one equivalent or 49 parts of the protohydrate of sulphuric acid (strong oil of vitriol), and produce one equivalent or 37 parts of hydrochloric acid (gas), and one equi- valent or 72 parts of the sulphate of soda. i Nouveau Traite de Pharmacie, t. ii. 2nde edit. Paris, 1840. > Pharmacopee Raisonnee, ou Traite de Pharmacie pratique et theorique, par N. E. Henry et G. Guibourt. 3me edit, revue et considerablement augmenlee par N. J. B. G. Guibourt. Paris, 1841.—The Codez Pharmacopee Francaise also contains formula; for the preparation of artificial mineral waters. s The manufacture of Sodiac and Magnesian Waters will be described hereafter. GASEOUS HYDROCHLORIC ACID. 265 MATERIALS. 1 eq. Chloride ( 1 eq. Sodium.. 60) 1 eq. 1 eq. Liquid } 1 eq. Sulph. Acid 49 i j COMPOSITION. Ifi" 24. 1" Water 9 WW*™*-\ 1 Oxygen-Sulphuric Acid..... 109 109 PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Hydrochloric Acid....... 37 1 eq. Soda 32 .1 eq. Sulphate Soda. Properties.—It is a colourless invisible gas, fuming in the air, in consequence of its affinity for aqueous vapour. It is rapidly absorbed by water. Ils specific gravity is, according to Dr. Thomson, 1-2847 [1-269 Berzelius.] It has a pun- gent odour and acid taste. Under strong pressure (40 atmospheres) it becomes liquid. It is neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion. When added to a base (that is, a metallic oxide,) water and a chloride are the results. The atomic weight of hydrochloric acid is 37 [36.47 Berzelius; 36-42 Turner.] Characteristics.—Hydrochloric acid gas is known by its fuming in the air, by its odour, by its reddening moistened litmus paper, by its forming white fumes with the vapour of ammonia, and by its action on a solution of nitrate of silver as will be mentioned when describing the liquid acid. sy Composition.—The composition of this gas is determined both by analysis and rnthesis. Thus, one volume of chlorine gas may be made to combine with one volume of hydrogen gas, by the aid of light, heat, or electricity, and the resulting compound is two volumes of hydrochloric acid gas. Potassium or zinc heated in this acid gas, absorbs the chlorine and leaves a volume of hydrogen. Constituents. Results. I 1 eq. Hydro- chloric acid gas. = 37 Chlorine.. Hydrogen. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct. ... I .... 36 .. 97.297 Chlorine gas. Hydrochl. Acid .. 37 Vol. Sp. gr. 1 .... 25 Hydrogen gas.......... 1 .... 0-0694 Hydrochloric Acid , gas.............< I .... 2 2347 Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—Mixed with 20,000 times its volume of atmospheric air, this gas is said, by Drs. Christison and Turner, (Christison's Treatise on Poisons,) to have proved fatal to plants, shrivelling and killing all the leaves in twenty-four hours. But according to Messrs. Rogerson, {London Medical Gazette, vol. x. p. 312,) it is not injurious to vegetables when mixed with 1500 limes its volume of air. Dr. Christison ascribes these diffe- rent results to Messrs. Rogerson having employed jars of too small size. We have good evidence of the poisonous operation of this gas on vegetables in the neighbourhood of those chemical manufactories in which carbonate of soda is procured from common salt. The fumes of the acid which issue from these works have proved so destructive to the surrounding vegetation, that in some instances the proprietors have subjected themselves to actions at law, and have been compelled either to pay damages, or to purchase the land in their imme- diate vicinity. j3. On Animals this gas acts injuriously, even when mixed with 1500 times its volume of atmospheric air. Mice or birds introduced into the pure gas, struggle, gasp, and die within two or three minutes. Diluted with atmospheric air, the effects are of course milder, and in a ratio to the quantity of air present. In horses it excites cough and difficulty of breathing. When animals are confined in the dilute gas, in addition to the laborious and quickened respiration, convul- sions occur before death. Messrs. Rogerson state, that " in a legal suit for a general nuisance, tried at the Kirkdale Sessions-house, Liverpool, it was proved that horses, cattle, and men, in passing an alkali-works, were made, by inhaling this vol. I. 23 266 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. gas, to cough, and to have their breathing much afTected. In the case of White- house v. Stevenson, for a special nuisance, lately tried at the Staffordshire assizes, it was proved that the muriatic acid gas from a soap manufactory destroyed vege- tation, and that passengers were seized with a violent sneezing, coughing, and occasional vomiting. One witness stated, that when he was driving a plough, and saw the fog, he was obliged to let the horses loose, when they would gallop away till they got clear of it." It acts as an irritant on all the mucous mem- branes. y. On Man this gas acts as an irritant poison, causing difficult respiration, cough, and sense of suffocation. In Mr. Rogerson's case it caused also swelling and inflammation of the throat. Both in man and animals it has appeared to produce sleep. The action of hydrochloric acid gas on the lungs is injurious in at least two ways : by excluding atmospheric air, it prevents the decarbonization of the blood : and, secondly, by its irritant, and perhaps also by its chemical properties, it alters the physical condition of the bronchial membrane. The first effect of attempting to inspire the pure gas seems to be a spasmodic closure of the glottis. Applied to the conjunctiva, it causes irritation and opacity. Use.—It has been employed as a disinfectant, but is admitted on all hands to be much inferior to chlorine. The Messrs. Rogerson deny that it possesses any disinfecting property. It is perhaps equally difficult either to prove or disprove its powers in this respect. The experiments of Guyton-Morveau, in purifying the cathedral of Dijon, in 1773, are usually referred to in proof of its disinfecting property. If it possesses powers of this kind, they are certainly inferior to chlo- rine, or to the chlorides [hypochlorites] of lime or soda; but in the absence of these, hydrochloric acid gas may be tried. In neutralizing the vapour of ammo- nia it is certainly powerful. Application.—In order to fumigate a room, building, or vessel, with this gas, pour some strong oil of vitriol over dried common salt, placed in a glass capsule or iron or earthen pot, heated by a charcoal fire or hot sand. Antidote.—Inhaling the vapour of ammonia may be serviceable in neutralizing hydrochloric acid gas. Symptoms of bronchial inflammation are of course to be treated in the usual way. 2. Liquid Hydrochloric Acid. (Acidum Hydrochloricum, L. Acidum Muriaticum, E. D. (U. S.) Hydrochloric Acid, E. Muriatic or Marine Acid; Spiritus Salis, or Spirit of Salt.) Preparation.—This is obtained by submitting a mixture of Common Salt (chloride of sodium) and Oil of Vitriol to distillation in a proper apparatus, and condensing the Hydrochloric Acid gas which passes over in water contained in the receiver.—Manufacturers of hydrochloric acid generally employ an iron or stoneware pot set in brickwork over a fire-place, with a stoneware head luted to it, and connected with a row of double-necked bottles, made of the same material, and furnished with stop-cocks of earthenware. The last bottle is supplied with a safety tube, dipping into a vessel of water. The liquid obtained by this process is yellow, and constitutes Commercial Muriatic Acid {Acidum Muriaticum venale ; Hydrochloric Acid of Commerce, Ph. Ed.) Since the manufacture of carbonate of soda from the sulphate of soda, and the consequent necessity of obtaining the latter salt in large quantities, another mode of making hydrochloric acid has been sometimes adopted. It consists in using a semi-cylindrical vessel for the retort: the upper or flat surface of which is made of stone, while the curved portion exposed to the fire is formed of iron. The chloride of sodium is introduced at one end, which is then closed by an iror» plate, perforated to allow the introduction of the leg of a curved leaden fun- nel, through which strong sulphuric acid is poured. The funnel is then removed, and the liquid hydrochloric acid. 267 aperture closed. Heat being applied, the hydrochloric acid gas is developed, and is conveyed by a pipe into a double-necked stoneware bottle, half filled with water, and connected with a row of similar Lotties likewise containing water. The British Pharmacopoeias give directions for making hydrochloric acid. The Edinburgh College directs the common salt to be previously purified__ " By dissolving it in boiling water; concentrating the solution; skimming off the crystals as they lorrn on the surface; draining from them the adhering solution as much as possible; and, subsequently, washing them wilh cold water slightly." The London College uses Chloride of Sodium dried, lbij. ; Sulphuric Acid, 3xx. ; Distilled Water, f3xxiv. The Edinburgh College employs equal weights of Purified Salt, Pure Sulphuric Acid, and Water. The Dublin College orders of Dried Muriate of Soda, 100 parts; Sulphuric Acid of commerce, 87 parts; and Water, 124 parts. The Chloride of Sodium is to be introduced into a glass retort, and the Sulphuric Acid mixed with part [fjxij. L.; one-third, E.; one-half, D.;] of the Water [and allowed to cool, E.] is then poured over the Salt; the remainder of the Water being placed in the receiver. Distillation is then to be effected, [by a sand-bath, L., or by a naked gas-flame, E.] so that the gas may pass over into the Water contained in the receiver, [which is to be kept cool by snow, or a stream of cold water, E.] The Acid thus procured is called, by the Edinburgh College, Acidum muriaticum purum. The theory of the above process is precisely that already explained in the manu- facture of hydrochloric acid gas (p. 265). The salt is dried, lo expel any water which may be mechanically lodged between the plates of the crystals, and to obtain uniform weights. The quantity of strong sulphuric acid (SO1-}-HO) required to saturate 2 lbs., of common salt is 19A oz.; so that the London College employs a sl'ght excess only ; whereas the Edinburgh College directs a much greater excess. A pure muriatic acid is obtained in the manufacture of the liquid called spirit of tin. Tin is dissolved in commercial muriatic acid, and the solution submitted to heat in green glass retorts : pure muriatic acid distils over, and the residue in the retort constitutes spirit of tin. Properties.—Pure liquid hydrochloric acid {acidum hydrochloricumpurum) is colourless, evolves acid fumes in the air, and possesses the usual characteristics of a strong acid. It has the odour and taste of the gaseous acid. Its specific gravity varies wilh its degree of concentration. The London College fixes it at 1*16,—the Edinburgh College at 1-170. It is decomposed by some metals {e. g. zinc and iron), hydrogen being evolved, and a metallic chloride formed. It reacts on those oxyacids whicli contain five equivalents of oxygen each {e. g. nitric, chloric, iodic, and bromic acids): the oxygen of these acids unites with the hydro- gen of the hydrochloric acid to form water. When it acts on a metallic oxide, water and a metallic chloride are produced. Characteristics.—Hydrochloric acid yields, with nitrate of silver, a white, clotty, fusible precipitate {chloride of silver), which is insoluble in nitric acid, soluble in ammonia, and blackens by exposure to light. (See p. 226.) When pure, it is without action on gold leaf, and does not decolourize sulphate of indigo. A rod dipped in a solution of caustic ammonia produces white fumes (sal ammoniac) when brought near strong liquid hydrochloric acid. Composition.—Liquid hydrochloric acid is composed of water, holding in solu- tion hydrochloric acid gas. When its sp. gr. is 1*162, its composition, according to Dr. Thomson,1 is as follows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Thomson. Hydrochloric acid gas - - - 1 - - 37 - - 33*95 Water - - - - - - 8 - - 72 . - 66-05 Liquid hydrochloric acid, sp. gr. 1*162, 1 - - 109 - - 100-00 1 An Attempt to establish the First Principles of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 87. Lond. 1825. 268 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. In the London Pharmacopoeia it is stated that one hundred and thirty-two grains of crystallized carbonate of soda, saturate 100 grains of acid, sp. gr. 1*16. This would indicate a per-centage strength of 33*916. Dr..Thomson's Table, exhibiting the Specific Gravity of Hydrochloric Acid of determinate Strengths. Atoms of Real Acid in Atoms of Real Acid in Water to one WO of the Specific Water to one 100 of the Specific of Acid. Liquid. gravity. of Acid. Liquid. gravity. 6 - - 40*659 - - 1-203 14 - ■ 22*700 - • 1*1060 7 - • 37-000 - • 1-179 15 - . 21*512 - • 1-1008 8 - ■ 33*945 - . 1-162 16 - ■ 20-442 - . 1*0960 9 - ■ 31-346 - . 1-149 17 - • 19*474 - 1-0902 10 - 29-134 - ■ 1-139 18 - . 18-590 - ■ 1-0860 11 - . 27*206 - . 1-1285 19 - . 17-790 - . 1*0820 12 - ■ 25*517 - ■ 1.1197 20 - . 17*051 - - 1-0780 13 - - 24-026 - - 11127 Purity.—Pure hydrochloric acid {acidum hydrochloricum purum) is colour- less, or nearly so, without action on gold leaf, and, when diluted with distilled water, is not altered by a solution of chloride of barium. Commercial hydrochlo- ric acid {acidum hydrochloricum venale) is yellow, and contains usually sesqui- chloride of iron and sulphuric acid ; and sometimes chlorine, nitrous acid, (or some other oxide of nitrogen,) and perhaps bromine. The Edinburgh College fixes its density at 1*180. The presence of iron is shown by saturating the acid with carbonate of soda, and then applying tincture of nutgalls, which produces a black tint. Another mode is to supersaturate the liquid with ammonia or its sesquicarbonate, by which the red or sesquioxide of iron will be precipitated. If the liquid acid contain either free chlorine (or bromine) it will possess the power of dissolving leaf-gold, or even of decolourizing a small quantity of sul- phate of indigo. A solution of protochloride of tin is the readiest test for detecting any gold, which may be dissolved, with which it forms a purplish or blackish precipitate. Sulphuric acid (free or combined) may be detected by adding to the suspected acid a solution of chloride of barium (or nitrate of baryta) : if sulphuric acid be present, a heavy white precipitate of sulphate of baryta is procured, which is in- soluble in nitric acid. In applying this test, the suspected acid should be previ- ously diluted with five or six times its volume of water; otherwise a fallacy may arise from the crystallization of the chloride of barium. Nitrous acid (or some other oxide of nitrogen) is recognisable by protosulphate of iron (See Nitric Acid). Physiological Effects.—a. On Dead Animal Matter.—Very dilute hydro- chloric acid, mixed with dried mucous membrane, has the properly of dissolving various animal substances (as coagulated albumen, fibrin of the blood, boiled meat, &c.,) and of effecting a kind of artificial digestion of them, somewhat analogous to the natural digestive process. (Miiller, Elements of Physiology, p. 544.) /3. On Animals.—The effects of liquid hydrochloric acid on living animals (horses and dogs) have been investigated by Sproegel, Courton, Viborg, (Wib- mer, Die Wirkung der Arzneimittel und Gifte.) and by Orfila. {Toxicologic Generate.) Thrown into the veins it coagulates the blood, and causes speedy death. Small quantities, however, may be injected without giving rise to fatal results. Thus Viborg found that a horse recovered in three hours from the effects of a drachm of the acid diluted with two ounces of water, thrown into a vein. Administered by the stomach to dogs, the undiluted acid acts as a power- LIQUID HYDROCHLORIC ACID. 269 ful caustic poison. Exhalations of the acid vapours take place through the mouth and nostrils, and death is generally preceded by violent convulsions. y. On Man.—Properly diluted, and administered in small but repeated doses, hydrochloric acid produces the usual effects of a mineral acid before described, (pp. 197, 200, 206, and 215): hence it is tonic, refrigerant, and diuretic. It usually causes a sensation of warmth in the stomach, relaxes the bowels, and increases the frequency of the pulse. Larger doses are said to have excited giddiness, and a slight degree of intoxication or stupor. In a concentrated farm, it operates as a powerfully caustic poison. The only recorded cases of poisoning by it (in the human subject) with which I am acquainted, are one mentioned by Orfila, (Tozicolog. Generate.) and another related by my friend and former pupil, Mr. John Quekett. {London Medical Gazette, vol. xxv. p. 285, November 15, 1839.) In the latter case, the stomach and duodenum were found, after death, to be charred, and the gall-bladder was observed to have a green tint at the part where it was in contact with the stomach, [from the aclion of the acid on the bile?]. It is remarkable that the contents of the stomach manifested no acidity to litmus; nor could any chloride be recognised by nitrate of silver, either in the decoction of the stomach and duodenum, or in the contents of the stomach. The particular nature of the chemical changes effected by it in the organic tissues with which it comes in contact, is not so well understood as in the case of sulphuric or nitric acid. Its chemical action is less energetic than either of the acids just mentioned. Uses. a. Internal ox Remote.—Hydrochloric acid has been employed in those diseases formerly supposed to be connected with a putrescent condition of the fluids ; as the so-called putrid and petechial fevers, malignant scarlatina, and ulce- rated sore throat. It is usually administered, in these cases, in conjunction with the vegetable tonics; as cinchona or quassia. We frequently employ it to coun- teract phosphalic deposits in the urine. After a copious evacuation, it is, according to Dr. Paris, the most efficacious remedy for preventing the generation of worms; for which purpose the infusion of quassia, stronger than that of the Pharmacopoeia, is the best vehicle. It has been employed with benefit in some forms of dyspepsia. Two facts give a remarkable interest to the employment of this acid in dyspeptic complaints; namely, that it is a constituent of the healthy gastric juice; and, secondly, when mixed with mucus, it has a solvent or digestive power in the case of various articles of food, as before mentioned. Lastly, hydrochloric acid has been used in scrofulous and venereal affections, {Land. Medical Review, vol. ii. p. 278. Lond. 1800.) in hepatic disorders, &c. (3. External.—In the concentrated form, it is employed as a caustic to destroy warts, and as an application in sloughing phrgedaena, though for the latter pur- pose it is inferior to nitric acid. Van Swieten {Commentaries, Eng. Transl. vol. iv. p. 31. Edinb. 1776.) employed it in cancrum oris; and, more recently, Bre- tonneau1 has spoken in the highest terms of its efficacy in angina membranacea, commonly termed diphtheritis. It is applied to the throat by a sponge. Properly diluted, it forms a serviceable gargle in ulceration of the mouth and throat. The objection to its use as a gargle is its powerful action on the teeth : to obviate this as much as possible, the mouth is to be carefully rinsed each time after using the gargle. It is sometimes applied to ulcers of the throat by means of a sponge. Water acidulated with this acid has been applied to frost-bitten parts, to chilblains, &c. An injection composed of from eight to twelve drops of the acid to three or four ounces of water, has been employed as an injection in gonorrhoea. In those forms of dyspepsia accompanied with or dependent on a deficiency of this acid in the gastric juice, it is calculated to prove serviceable. Administration—It is given, properly diluted, in doses of from five to fifteen or twenty minims. 1 Recherehes sur I'ijjammation specials du tissu muqueux, et en particulier sur la diphthirite, angine maligne, ou croup epidemique. Paris, 1826. 23* 270 elements of materia medica. Antidotes.—In a case of poisoning by hydrochloric acid, the antidotes are chalk, whiting, magnesia or its carbonate, and soap; and in the absence of these, oil, the bicarbonated alkalis, milk, white of egg, or demulcents of any kind. Of course, the gastro-enteritis is to be combated in the usual way. ACIDUM HYDROCHLORICUM DILUTUM, L.; Acidum Muriaticum Dilutum, E. (U. S.) (Hydrochloric Acid, fgiv.; Distilled Water, fgxij. " The density of this preparation is 1-050," E.) (U. S.) The dose is from 3ss. to 3j. The most agree- able mode of exhibiting it ia^in the infusion of roses, substituting the hydrochloric for sulphuric acid. 4. ACIDUM HYDRIOD'ICUM.-IIYDRIODIC ACID. Dr. Buchanan {London Medical Gazette, vol. xviii. p. 517.) has employed a solution of this acid in water. His formula for making it is as follows:—Dis- solve 330 grs. of Iodide of Potassium in Jiss. of Distilled Water, and to this add 264 grs. of Tartaric Acid, also dissolved in giss. of Distilled Water. When the Bitartrate of Potash has subsided, strain; and to the strained liquor add sufficient water to make fifty drachms, (= Jvj. 3ij-)—This solution, according to Dr. Bu- chanan, possesses all the therapeutical powers of iodine, without its irritant pro- perties. He has given as much as 3j- of it three times a day, or 3ij- of iodine daily. He regards 3ss. as the ordinary dose; but it would be much safer to begin with a smaller dose. Order VI.—NITROGEN, AND ITS COMPOUNDS WITH OXYGEN AND HYDROGEN. 1. NITROGEN'IUM.—NITROGEN. History and Synonymes.—This gas was first recognised in 1772, by Dr.^ Rutherford, who termed it mephilic air. Priestley called it phlogisticated air. Lavoisier named it azote, (from a privative; and fwrj, life.) Cavendish, finding it to be a constituent of nitric acid, gave it the appellation it now usually bears, ni- trogen, (from vir^ov, nitre ; and ysvvau, I beget.) Natural History.—It is found in both kingdoms of nature. a.. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—It lias not hitherto been found in non-fossiliferous rocks. It is a constituent of coal, of nitrates, of ammoniacal salts, and of some mineral waters. It forms 79 or 80 per cent, of the atmosphere. 0. In the Organized Kingdom.—It is a constituent of various vegetable principles, as the organic alkalis, gluten, and indigo blue; and is particularly abundant in the families Crucifem and Fungi. It enters into the composition of most animal substances, as albumen, fibrin, gela- tine, mucus, urea, uric acid, &c. It is found in the swimming-bladders of fishes. Preparation.—The readiest method of procuring nitrogen is to burn a piece of phosphorus in a confined portion of atmospheric air. The phosphorus combines with the oxygen of the air, and forms metaphosphoric acid. The residual gas, after being thoroughly washed, is nearly pure nitrogen. Properties.—It is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas; neither combustible II nor a supporter of combustion. It neither reddens litmus, nor whitens Nitnwn I *'me water- Its SP- gr- >s 0-9722 [0-976 Berzelius.] It is very slightly —14 absorbed by water. Its equivalent by weight is 14 [14-19 Berzelius; ' 14.15 Turner], by volume 1. Characteristics.—Nitrogen is usually distinguished by its negative properties just described. The only positive test for it is combining it with oxygen to form nitric acid. This may be effected in two ways; either by electrifying a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, or by burning a stream of hydrogen in a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen. The nitric acid thus produced reddens litmus, and when absorbed by potash, may be recognised by the tests hereafter to be mentioned. (See Nitric Acid.) Physiological Effects.—The effects of nitrogen gas on vegetables and ani- mals are analogous to those of hydrogen before mentioned. (See p. 246.) Thus, protoxide of nitrogen. 271 when inspired, it acts as an asphyxiating agent, by excluding oxygen ; when in- jected into the blood it acts mechanically only. It is an essential constituent of the air employed in respiration. L'ses.—It has been mixed with atmospheric air, and inspired in certain pulmo- nary affections, with the view of diminishing the stimulant influence of the oxygen, and thereby of acting as a sedative. 2. NITROGEN'II PROTOX'YDUM.—PROTOXIDE OF NITROGEN. History and Svnonymes__This gas was discovered by Dr. Priestley in 1776. He termed it dephlogisticated nitrous air. Sir H. Davy1 called it nitrous oxide. Its common name is laughing gas. Natural History.—This compound is always an artificial production. Preparation.—It is obtained by heating nitrate of ammonia in a glass retort. Every equivalent or 80 parts of the crystallized salt are resolved into four equiva- lents or 36 parts of water, and two equivalents or 44 parts of protoxide. materials. f 1 eq. Nitric Acid 54 1 eq. crystd. [ Nitrate Am-^ inonia-.. .80 COMPOSITION. 1 eq. Nitrogen Oxygen.. Oxygen.■ PRODUCTS. <2e9. (3eq. 1 eq. Ammonia .... 17 j \ % hydrogen " 2 eq. Protoxide Ni- trogen.............44 3eq. Water..........27 -leq. Water.......... 9 . 80 1 eq. Pr itoxide 1 N trogen j = 22 (leq. Water....... 9--------------------------- 80 80 Properties.—At ordinary temperatures and pressure it is a colourless gas, with a faint not disagreeable odour, and a sweetish taste.—It is not combustible, but is a powerful supporter of combustion, almost rivalling in this respect oxygen • gas. Protoxide of nitrogen does not affect vegetable colours. It undergoes no change of colour or of volume when mixed with either oxygen or the binoxide of nitrogen. Its equivalent by weight, is 22 [22-2 Berzelius,] by volume 1. Its sp. gr. according to Dr. T. Thomson, is 1-5:277. When subjected to a pressure of 50 atmospheres, at 45° F., it is condensed into a limpid colourless liquid. Characteristics.—The only gas with which it is possible to confound it, is oxygen, with which it agrees in being colourless, not combustible, but a powerful supporter of combustion, re-inflaming a After combustion, glowing match. From this it may be and readily distinguished by mixing it with 1 eq. Water an equal volume of hydrogen, and ex- — -* ploding it by the electric spark, by which we obtain one volume or 14 parts of Nitrogen, and an equivalent or 9 parts of water. If a taper be burnt in a jar of this gas over water, a brown vapour {nitrous acid gas) is produced. Composition.—It consists of one equivalent or 14 parts of nitrogen, and one equivalent or 8 parts of oxygen; or, by measure, a volume of nitrogen and half a volume of oxygen condensed into the space of one volume. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Davy. Vol. Sp. gr. Before combustion. Nitrogen............. 1 Oxygen.............. 1 63G 3G-4 63-3 36-7 Nitrogen gas........... 1 . Oxygen gas............ 0-5 09722 0-5555 Protoxide Nitrogen 1 ........22..........1000......1000 Protox. Nitrogen gas... 1 ........ 15277 Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables—Germinating seeds (peas,1! when watered with a solution of this gas, seemed unaffected by it. Plants intro- duced into vessels filled with the gas mostly faded in about three days, and died 1 Researches, Chemical and Philosophical, chiefly concerning Nitrous Oxide, or Dephlogisticated Nitrous Air, and its Retpiration. 1800. 272 elements of materia medica. shortly after. (Davy's Researches.) But Drs. Turner and Christison did not find that it was injurious to vegetation. (Christison, On Poisons, p. 756.) (3. On Animals.—The effects of this gas on insects, annelides, mollusca, am- phibials, birds, and mammals, were examined by Sir H. Davy. On all it acted as a positive poison. It produced "peculiar changes in their blood and in their organs, first connected with increased living action; but terminating in death." (Davy, p. 449.) Slowly injected into the veins of animals, considerable quan- tities were found by Nysten to produce slight staggering only; larger quantities produced the same disorder of the nervous system noticed when the gas is re- spired. {Recherehes, pp. 77 and 78.) , y. On Man.—When inhaled, its effects on the nervous system are most re- markable: I have administered this gas to about one hundred persons, and have observed that after the respiration of it from a bladder for a few seconds, it usu- ally causes frequent and deep inspirations, blueness of the lips and countenance, an indisposition to part with the inhaling tube, and a temporary delirium, which subsides in the course of three or four minutes. The sensations are usually pleasing. The delirium manifests itself differently in different individuals; as in some by dancing, in others by fighting, &c. In some few cases 1 have seen stupor produced. Singing in the ears, giddiness, and tingling sensations in the hands and feet, are sometimes experienced. Uses.—It has been employed in some few cases only of disease. Beddoes used it in paralysis with benefit, but found it injurious to the hysterical and ex- quisitely sensible. (Davy's Researches, p. 542.) In a remarkable case of spas- modic asthma, related by Mr. Curtis, {Lancet, vol. ii. for 1828 and 1829,) it acted beneficially. In a second case it also gave relief. AQUA MTROGENII PROTOXYDI; Protoxide of Nitrogen Water; Searle's Patent Oxygenous Aerated Water.—At ordinary temperatures and pressures, water^ dissolves about three-fourths of its own bulk of protoxide of nitrogen; but by pressure the quantity may of course be augmented. The patent solution is said to contain five times its bulk of gas; or each bottle of the liquid is stated to hold a full quart of gas. Its effects on the system are not very marked. Sir H.Davy drank nearly three pints of the ordinary solution in one day, and says that it appeared to act as a diuretic; and he adds,-"I imagined that it expedited diges- tion." {Op. cit. p. 237.) The proprietor of the patent water asserts that it ex- hilarates, and is adapted for torpor, depression of spirits, asthma, &c 3. ACIDUM NITRICUM, L. E. D. (U. S.) NITRIC ACID. History and Synonymes.—This acid was known in the seventh century to Geber, who termed it solutive water. {Of tlie Inventio?i of Verily, ch. xxi. and xxiii.) The nature of its constituents was shown by Cavendish in 1785, and their proportions were subsequently determined by Davy, Gay-Lussac, and Thomson. It has been known by various names, as Glauber's spirit of nitre, and aqua- fortis. Natural History.—It is found in both kingdoms of nature. a. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—Combined with potash, soda, lime, or magnesia, it is found on the surface of the earth in various parts of the world. The nitrates have been found in some few mineral waters. Thus there is a district of Hungary, between the Carpathians and the Drave, where all the springs, for the space of about 300 miles, contain a small quantity of the nitrate of potash. (Gairdner, On Mineral Springs, P* 20.) 0. In the Organized Kingdom.—Nitrate of lime has been found in Borago officinalis, Urtica dioica, Helianthus annuus, and Parietaria officinalis. Nitrate of potash has been detected in the roots of Cissampelos Pareira, and Geum urbanum; in the juice of Cheli- donium majus; in Apium graveolens; and sometimes in the root of Beta vulgaris when advanced in age. The same salt is also found in the flower of Verbascum, in the rhi- zome of Zingiber officinale, in the fruit of Areca catechu, in the tubercle of Cyperus esculentus, in Agaricus acris, and A. edulis. NITRIC ACID. 273 Preparation.—Nitric acid is prepared by submitting a mixture of Oil of Vitriol and Nitrate of either Soda or Potash to distillation. The apparatus used on the large scale is usually that employed in the manu- facture of hydrochloric .acid ; namely, an iron or stoneware pot, with a stoneware head, which is connected with a row of double-necked stoneware bottles contain- ing water. Another form of apparatus, employed by some "manufacturers, is an iron cylinder, set in brickwork over a fire-place. 168 lbs. of nitrate of potash are introduced at one end of the cylinder, which is afterwards closed by a circular disk of iron, peforated to allow of the introduction of a leaden funnel, through which are poured 93 lbs. of strong sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1-845). The funnel is then removed, the aperture closed, and heat applied. The vapours are conveyed into a row of five or six bottles of stoneware filled to about one-sixth of their capacity with water. The acid obtained by this process is brown and fuming, and has a sp. gr. of 1-45. It is called in commerce nitrous acid, ox fuming nitric acid {acidum nitrosum ; acidum nitroso-nitricum ; acidum nitricum fumans). To render it colourless it is heated in a glass retort, placed in a sand bath : the vapour which escapes is passed through two stoneware bottles to save any acid that may be expelled, and is subsequently conveyed into a chimney. The colourless acid remaining in the retort has a sp. gr. of from 1-38 to about 1-4, and constitutes the nitric acid of commerce {acidum nitricum venale). The re- sidue in the iron cylinder is a mixture of sulphate with a little bisulphate of potash, and is sold as sal enixum. It is employed as a flux, and in the manufac- ture of alum. The quantity of the ingredients employed in the above process is nearly the proportion of eight equivalents or 392 parts of strong sulphuric acid, and seven equivalents or 714 parts of nitrate of potash. Some manufacturers employ two parts by weight of nitrate of potash and one of strong sulphuric acid, or about an equivalent of each of the ingredients. As the water of the sulphuric acid is not sufficient in quantity to form liquid nitric acid with all the acid set free from the nitrate, a part of the nitric acid is decomposed into nitrous a«id and oxygen. It is the.presence of nitrous acid which communicates the red colour to the com- mercial or fuming nitric acid. I am informed by a manufacturer who employs nitrate of soda in the produc- tion of nitric acid, that he obtains about as much by weight of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-4, as of nitrate of soda consumed. All the British Pharmacopoeias give formula) for the preparation of nitric acid. The London and Edinburgh Colleges use equal weights of dried Nitrate of Potash and Sulphuric Acid. The Dublin College directs 100 parts of Nitrate of Potash and 97 parts of commercial Sulphuric Acid. The distillation is to be conducted in a glass retort, by a sand heat. The directions of the Edin- burgh College for obtaining pure nitric acid {acidum nitricum purum) are as follows :— " Purify Nitrate of Potash, if necessary, by two or more crystallizations, till Nitrate of Silver does not act on its solution in distilled water. Put into a glass retort equal weights of this puri- fied nitrute and of sulphuric acid, and distil into a cool receiver, with a moderate heat, from a sand-bath or naked gas-flame, so long as the fused material continues to give off vapour. The pale yellow acid thus obtained may be rendered colourless, should this be thought necessary, by heating it gently in a retort." Mr. Phillips states, that the acid obtained by the process of the London Phar- macopoeia has a specific gravity of 1-5033 to 1-504. The Edinburgh College fixes the density of the pure acid at 1*500 ; and that of the commercial acid at 1-380 at least. The explanation of the changes which take place is somewhat modified by the strength of the sulphuric acid employed. According to Mr. Phillips, the acid usually met with has a sp. gr. of 1-S433 ; I have found it generally somewhat 274 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. below this. The acid alluded to by Mr. Phillips is composed, according to the same authority, very nearly of four equivalents or 160 parts of dry sulphuric acid, and five equivalents or 45 parts of water. These quantities react on two equivalents or 204 parts of nitrate of potash, and produce.two equivalents or 135 parts of strong liquid nitric acid (sesquihydrate), and one equivalent or 274 parts of the hydraled bisulphate of potash. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. 2 eq. Nitrate Potash.....204 i I «?* ^tric Acid........ 108-------—^2 Sesquihydrate Nitric j ( 2 eq. Potash............. 96 ^^ Acid.................. IJ5 4eq. Liquid Sulph. Acid. 205 3eq. Water............. 27 f«!n 1 < H.. j N 1 eq. Chloride Ammonium 54^ „„ \ ( 1 eq. Chlorine .... 36^^^ \ ilea. Oxvsen....... 8---^^s*^..------'-.\ eQ. Water.........9 1 eq. Lime- I! eq. Oxygen.. eq. Calcium ':leq. Water.........9 .1 eq. Chlor. Calcium.. 56 82 82 But, according to Dr. Kane, ammonia is an amidide of hydrogen, and salaam- monia'c is a chloro-amidide of hydrogen ; and the changes are thus explained:— MATERIALS. 1 eq. Chloro-amidide ( !«?■ Hydrogen ......... 54 | ^ 1 eq. Lime........... 28 --- COMPOSITION. 1 eq. Amidide Hydrogen. • Chloride Hydr. 37 1 eq. Hydr. 1 eq. Chlor. 1 eq. Oxyg. 1 eq. Calc. 36. 1 eq. Amidide Hydrog. 17 1 eq. Water......... 9 1 eq. Chlor. Cat. 82 Properties. Before combustion. Afterwards. It is a colourless invisible gas, having a strong and well-known odour. It reddens turmeric paper, and changes the colour of violet juice to green ; but by exposure to the air, or by the application of heat, both the tur- meric paper and violet juice are restored to their original colour. The specific gravity of this gas is 0*59. By a pressure of 6*5 atmospheres, at a temperature of 50°, it is condensed into a colour- less, transparent liquid. Ammonical gas is not a supporter of combustion, but is slightly combusti- ble in the atmosphere, and when mixed with air or oxygen, it forms an explosive mixture. Every two volumes of ammoniacal gas require one and a half volumes of oxygen for their complete combustion. The results of the explosion are, a volume of nitrogen and some water. Characteristics—It is readily recognised by its peculiar odour, its action on turmeric paper, and by its forming white fumes with hydrochloric acid or chlorine. Dissolved in water it communicates a deep blue colour to the salts of copper, throws down a yellow precipitate {platina-bichloride of ammonia) with the bichloride of platinum, and a white one with bichloride of mercury. Conia agrees with ammonia in evolving a vapour which reddens turmeric paper, and forms white fumes (hydrochlorate of conia) with hydrochloric acid gas, WATER OF AMMONIA. 251 Composition—Ammonia is composed of hydrogen and nitrogen, in the follow- ing proportions : Atoms. Nitrogen......... 1 Hydrogen........ 3 .. Eq. Wt. ■ . 14 .. . . 3 .. Per Cent. A. Berthollet. Vol. 82 35 .......... 81-13 17-R5.......... 18-87 Ammonia.... 1 17 100 00 .......... 100-00 Nitrogen gas...... 1 Hydrogen gas......3 Sp. Or 0-9722-J 0-20833 Ammoniacal gas... 2......0*50027 According to Berzelius, its equivalent is 17-19 [17-15, Turner.] Constitution. Eq. Wt. 1 eq. Nitr. = 14 1 eq. Hydr. = 1 1 eq. Hydr. = 1 leq. Hydr. 1 eq. Amm. = 17 The annexed diagram illustrates the volumes of the constituents of the gas, and their degree of con- densation when in combination to form ammonia- cal gas. Hypothetically, Dr. Kane {Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol. xix. part 1.) has re- garded ammonia as a compound ofa supposititious substance called amidogen, (Na H,) and hydro- gen : in other words, as an amidide of hydrogen. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—Ammoniacal gas is destructive to plants, and changes their green colour to brown. (De Candolle, Physiol. Veg. p. 1344.) (3. On Animals___If an animal be immersed in this gas, spasm of the glottis is immediately brought on, and death results from asphyxia. Nysten {Recherehes, p. 140,) injected some of this gas into the veins of a dog: the animal cried out, respiration became difficult, and death soon took place. Neither gas nor visible lesion was observed in the heart, the two ventricles of which contained liquid blood. In another experiment he threw ammoniacal gas into the pleura of a dog : cries, evacuation of urine, and vomiting, immediately followed ; soon after- wards convulsions came on, and continued for several hours: ultimately they ceased, and recovery took place. In almost all cases of poisoning in animals, by ammonia, or its carbonate, con- vulsions are observed, apparently showing that these substances act on the spinal marrow. v. On Man.—Ammonia is a powerful local irritant. This is proved by its pungent odour, and its acrid and hot taste; by its irritating the eyes; and, when applied for a sufficient length of time to the skin, by causing vesication. If an attempt be made to inhale it in the pure form, spasm of the glottis comes on : when diluted with atmospheric air, it irritates the bronchial tubes and larynx, and, unless the quantiy be very small, brings on inflammation of the lining mem- brane. Its powerful action on the nervous system is best seen in cases of syncope. (See Aqua Ammonia.) Uses.—Ammoniacal gas is rarely employed in medicine. M. Bourguet de Be- ziers used it with success in the case of a child affected with croup, to provoke the expulsion of the false membrane. Antidote.—In case of the accidental inhalation of strong ammoniacal vapour, the patient should immediately inspire the vapour of acetic or hydrochloric acid. If bronchial inflammation supervene, of course it is to be treated in the usual way. 6. AQUA AMMO'NLE.—WATER OF AMMONIA. [Liquor Ammonia;, and Liquor Amnionic Fortior, L.—Aqua Ammoniie, and Aqua Ammonia Fortior, E.— Aqua Ammoniffi caustics, D.)—(Liquor Ammonia?, U. S.) History__This solution was formerly termed spiritus satis ammoniaci caus- ticus cum calce viva paratus. Preparation__It is prepared by the action of lime on either sulphate or hydro- chlorate of ammonia. On the large scale, the apparatus employed is an iron cylinder, connected with the ordinary worm refrigerator, and this with a row of 24* 232 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. double-necked stoneware bottles containing water, analogous to those describeu under the head of nitric acid. All the British Colleges give formulae for its preparation. The following are the directions of the London College:— "Take of Hydrochlorate of Ammonia ten ounces, Lime eight ounces, Water two pints; put tiie Lime, slaked with water, into a retort, then add the Hydrochlorate of Ammonia, broken into small pieces, and the rest of the water. Let fifteen fluid ounces of solution of ammonia distil." The Edinburgh College gives the following directions for preparing Ammonice Aqua, and Ammonice Aqua Fortior: "Take of Muriate of Ammonia,thirteen ounces; Quicklime, thirteen ounces; Water, seven fluid ounces and a half; Distilled Water, twelve fluid ounces. Slake the Lime with the Water, cover it up till it cool, triturate it well and quickly with the Muriate of Ammonia previously in fine powder, and put the mixture into a glass-retort, to which is attached a receiver with a safety tube. Connect with the receiver a bottle also provided with a safety tube, and con- taining four ounces of the distilled water, but capable of holding twice as much. Connect this bottle with another loosely corked, and containing the remaining eight ounces of distilled water. The communicating tubes must descend to the bottom of the bottles at the farther end from the retort; and the receiver and bottles must be kept cool by snow, ice, or a running stream of cold water. Apply to the retort a gradually-increasing heat till gas ceases to be evolved; remove the retort, cork up the aperture in the receiver where it was connected with the retort, and apply to the receiver a gentle and gradually increasing heat, to drive over as much of the gas in the liquid contained in it, but as little of the water, as possible. Should the liquid in the last bottle not have the density of *960, reduce it with some of the stronger Aqua Ammoniae in the first bottle, or raise it with distilled water, so as to form Aqua Ammoniae of the prescribed density." The Dublin College employs 3 parts of Muriate of Ammonia, two of fresh burned Quicklime, and ten of water. The lime is to be slaked with one part of hot water, and then introduced into the retort, and the salt disssolved in the remaining hot water, added, and five parts distilled by a medium [between 100° and 200°] heat into a refrigerated receiver. [For liquor ammoniae, the Z7. S. P. directs to take of Muriate of Ammonia in fine powder, Lime, each a pound ; distilled water, a pint; Water, nine fluid ounces. Break the lime in pieces and pour the water upon it in an earthen or iron vessel; then cover the vessel and set it aside till the lime falls into powder and becomes cold, mix this thoroughly with the Muriate of Ammonia in a mortar and immediately introduce the mixture into a glass retort. Place the retort upon a sand-bath and adapt to it a receiver, previously connected, by means of a glass tube, with a quart bottle containing the distilled water. Then apply heat, to be gradually increased till the bottom of the iron vessel becomes red hot; and continue the process so long as the Ammonia comes over. Remove the liquor contained in the quart bottle, and for every fluid ounce of it add three and a half fluid drachms of dis- tilled water, or so much as may be necessary to raise its specific gravity to 0-96. Keep the solution in small bottles well stopped.] The theory of the process is the same as that for ammoniacal gas. An excess of lime is used to facilitate the extrication of the ammonia. The water put into the receiver is to absorb the gas. Properties.—Solution of ammonia is a colourless liquid, having a very pun- gent odour, and a caustic alkaline taste. Its action on turmeric paper, and violet juice is like that of ammoniacal gas before described. It is lighter than water, but ils sp. gr. varies with its strength. In the shops, a very strong solution (called Liquor Ammonice Fortior) is kept, having a sp. gr. of about 0*880: it is employed for smelling-bottles. One fluid ounce of Aqua AmmoniEe Fortior (sp. gr. 0-880) with three of water makes Aqua Ammoniae of about sp. gr. 0-970.1 Prepared according to the London and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, the sp. gr. is 0-960; according to the Dublin, 0*950. A cubic inch of Liquor Ammoniae (sp. gr. 0*960) weighs 242-36 grs., and it contains 132 cubic inches of ammoniacal 1 In the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia it is stated that the density of the above mixture is 0-960, but this is an error. Two fluid ounces of water with one fluid ounce of aqua ammonia fortior yield a mixture whose sp. gr. is 0-960. WATER OF AMMONIA. 293 gas in condensed solution. A cubic inch of Liquor Ammonias Fortior (sp. gr. 0-882) weighs 222-66 grs., and it holds dissolved nearly 400 cubic inches of am- moniacal gas. (Mr. R. Phillip's Translation of the Pharmacopoeia, 4th edit.) The quantity of Ammoniacal gas, which water can dissolve, varies with the pressure of the atmosphere and the temperature of the water. Davy {Elements of Chemical Philosophy, p. 268.) ascertained that at the tem- perature of 50°, under a pressure equal to 29*8 inches, water absorbs about 670 times its volume of gas, and becomes of sp. gr. 0-875. He drew up the follow- ing table showing the quantity of ammonia in solutions of different specific gra- vities : 100 parts of Sp. Gr. Of Ammonia, i 100 parts of Sp. Gr. Of Ammonia. 0 8750.......................contain 3250 09435...... .....................contain 14-53 0-8875...............................29-25 09476..................................1346 0-9000................................26*00 0-9513................................... 1240 09054................................25-37 0-9545...................................11 56 0 9166................................2207 0 9573...................................10-82 0-9255................................19-54 09597...................................10-17 0-9326...............................17-52 09619................................... 960 0 9385................................15-88 | 09692................................... 9-50 It appears from the observations of Davy and Dalton that the specific gravity 0/ mixtures of liquid ammonia and water is exactly the mean of that of the two ingredients. Composition.—From the above observations, the composition of officinal solu- tions of ammonia is nearly as follows: Lond. and Edinb. Ph. Dub. Ph. Liq. Am. Fort. (sp. gr. 0-960) (sp. gr. 0-950) (sp. gr. 0-880) Ammoniacal gas.............. 10 ..................... 12-5 ................. 30-5 Water........................ 90 ..................... 875 ................ 69-5 Uquor Ammoniae............. 100 ..................... 100-0 ................. 100-0 Characters.—(See Ammoniacal Gas.) Impurities.—Liquor ammonias frequently contains traces of carbonate of am- monia, which may be detected by lime-water, or by a solution of the chloride of calcium, either of which occasions a white precipitate (carbonate of lime) if car- bonic acid be present. When a portion of the liquid has been neutralized by pure nitric acid, it ought not to cause a precipitate by the addition of nitrate of silver, of oxalic acid, or of sesquicarbonate of ammonia : for the first would indi- cate the presence of hydrochloric acid, or chlorine; the second, of lime; the third, of lime, or other earthy matter. If pure, it does not effervesce wiih dilute acids. Incompatibles.—It is hardly necessary to state that all acids are incompatible with ammonia. With the exception of the salts of potash, soda, lithia, baryta, and strontia, ammonia decomposes most of the metallic salts. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—The effects of ammonia on plants have been before noticed. /3. On Animals.—Orfila injected sixty grains of liquor ammoniae into the jugu- lar vein of a strong dog: tetanic stiffness immediately came on, the urine passed involuntarily, and the animal became agitated by convulsions: death took place in ten minutes. The body was immediately opened, when the contractile power of the muscles was found extinct. In another experiment, thirty-six grains of the concentrated solution of ammonia were introduced into the stomach, and the oeso- phagus : in five minutes the animal appeared insensible, but in a few moments after was able to walk when placed on his feet; the inspirations were deep, and his posterior extremities trembled. In twenty hours he was insensible, and in twenty-three hours he died. On dissection, the mucous membrane of the stomach was found red in some places. These experiments show the effects of large doses of this solution on the nervous system. The first experiment agrees in its results (that is, in causing tetanic convulsions) with that made by Nysten, and which has been before mentioned, of throwing ammoniacal gas into the cavity of 284 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. the pleura. From the convulsions it may be inferred, that in these instances the (gray matter of the) spinal marrow was specifically affected. y. On Man. aa. Local Effects.—In the concentrated form the local action of liquor ammoniae is exceedingly energetic. Applied to the skin, it causes pain, redness, vesication, and destruction of the part; thus acting, first as a rubefacient, then as a vesicant, and lastly as a caustic or corrosive. Its emanations are also irritant: when they come in contact with the conjunctival membrane, a flow of tears is the result; when inhaled, their powerful action on the air-passages is well known. Persons in syncope are observed to be almost immediately raised from a deathlike state, merely by inhaling the vapour of this solution. In cases of insensibility it must be employed with great caution; for, if used injudiciously, serious, or even fatal, consequences, may result. Nysten (Christison, Treatise on Poisons.) tells us that a physician, for some years subject to epilepsy, was found by his servant in a fit. In order to rouse his master, the latter applied a handkerchief, moistened with this solution, to his nose, so assiduously, that he brought on bronchitis, of which the patient died on the third day. In the Edin- burgh Medical and Surgical Journal, there is the report of the case of a lad whose death was produced, or at least hastened, by an attendant applying, " with such unwearied but destructive benevolence," ammonia to the nose, that suffoca- tion had almost resulted. Dyspnoea, with severe pain in the throat, immediately succeeded, and death took place forty-eight hours afterwards. A French physi- cian also suffered ulceration of the mouth, and violent pulmonary catarrh, in con- sequence of the excessive use of ammonia, given as an antidote for hydrocyanic acid. More recently, another case of poisoning by the vapour of ammonia has been published. {Journal de Chimie Medicale, t. vi. p. 499, 2nde Ser.) It arose from the accidental bursting ofa carboy of liquor ammonias. The mucous mem- brane of the nose and lips was destroyed. The tongue was deprived of its epi- thelium, and a large quantity of sanguineous froth escaped from the mouth. The respiration was so difficult that suffocation was feared. The pulse was feeble, • irregular, and frequent. There were no convulsions. Bronchitis supervened, but the patient recovered. When the solution of ammonia is swallowed in large doses, it acts as a power- fully corrosive poison; but modern well-marked cases of poisoning by it in the human subject are wanting. However, it is very evident that violent inflamma- tion of all that part of the alimentary canal with which the poison may be in oon- tact, would be the result, and that if much were taken, decomposition of the part might be expected. When swallowed in a very dilute form, and in small quantity, the local phenomena are not very marked, and the effect of the substance is then seen in the affection of the general system. The chemical action of ammonia on the tissues is analogous to that of potash, hereafter to be described. |8/3. Remote Effects.—The remote effects may be investigated under two heads, according as they are produced by small or large doses. In small or therapeutic doses, such as we are accustomed to employ in the treatment of diseases, am- monia acts as a stimulant, excitant, or calefacient. It produces a sensation of warmth in the mouth, throat, and epigastrium, frequently attended with eructa- tions. A temporary excitement of the vascular system succeeds, but this quickly subsides. The heat of the skin is sometimes increased, and there is a tendency to sweating, which, if promoted by the use of warm diluents and clothing, fre- quently terminates in copious perspiration. But the skin is not the only secreting organ stimulated to increased exertion; we observe the kidneys produce more urine, and frequently the quantity of bronchial mucus is increased. The nervous system is also affected, and the activity of its functions heightened. Wibmer (Die Wirkung, &c. Bd. i. S. 123.) made several experiments on himself, and from them it appears that ammonia affects the head, sometimes causing oppres- sion, or a sense of fulness, but no pain. The increased capability of muscular WATER OF AMMONIA. 285 exertion, and the greater facility with which all the functions are executed, are farther indications of the action of ammonia on the nervous system. There is, however, something remarkably different between the stimulant effects of ammonia and those of alcohol or opium. The first may be employed with great benefit in many inflam- matory and febrile cases, in which the latter proves highly prejudicial. Ammonia, observes Dr. Billing, (First Principles of Medicine, p. 158, 4th ed. Lond. 1841.) is not, like wine and tincture of opium, a diffusible stimulant. "In the first place, ammonia is used empirically by the most able of the profession, in cases where they know from experience that they must not employ wine or tincture of opium. This alone shows that it is not really a diffusible stimulant—it is a local one; and as such, through the medium of the solar plexus, excites the heart momentarily, though not injuriously. Again, so far from being a diffusible stimulus, it immediately unites with animal acids, and then circulates, or is diffused, not as a stimulant, but as a sedative saline; so as to perform the double operation of a temporary local stimulant to the stomach and heart, and a sedative to inflamed capillaries elsewhere, although the latter indication be not contemplated in its administration." The effects of large or poisonous doses on the human subject have not been described ; but that the nervous system is affected, seems probable from a case mentioned by Plenck, {Toxicologia, p. 226, Ed. 2nd\ Viennse, 1801.) which terminated fatally in four minutes; though the symptoms are not related. (See Ammonice Sesquicarbonas.) If we compare the effects of ammonia with those of other stimulants, as cam- phor, wine, and opium, we observe, in the first place, that the influence of am- monia is principally manifested in the ganglionic and true spinal systems,—while the other stimulants, above-mentioned, affect the cerebral system. Thus the effects of ammonia are usually exhibited on the circulation, respiration, secretion, and spasmodic actions: but camphor, wine, and opium, though they also affect these functions, yet they principally affect the intellectual functions. Secondly, the effects of ammonia are more transient than those of the other agents just re- ferred to. Thirdly, the vascular excitement caused by wine and opium is attended with diminished mucous secretion, and is allied more to an ordinary febrile attack. Uses.—Ammonia is adapted for speedily rousing the actions of the vascular and respiratory systems, and for the prompt alleviation of spasm. It is more especially fitted for fulfilling these indications when our object is at the same time to promote the action of the skin. It is calculated for states of debility with torpor or inactivity. It is also used as an antacid and local irritant. 1. In dyspeptic complaints, accompanied with preternatural acidity of stomach and flatulence, but without inflammation, a properly diluted solution of ammonia may be employed with a twofold object—that of neutralizing the free acid, and of stimulating the stomach. It must be remembered that the healthy secretions of the stomach are of an acid nature, and that the continued use of ammonia, or any other alkali, must ultimately be attended with injurious results, more espe- cially to the digestive functions. While, therefore, the occasional employment of alkalis may be serviceable, their constant or long-continued use must ultimately prove deleterious. Ammonia may, under some circumstances, be employed to neutralize acids introduced into the stomach from without, as in poisoning by the mineral acids, though chalk and magnesia would be more appropriate, being less irritant. It is a valuable antidote in poisoning by hydrocyanic acid. Its beneficial operation has been ascribed to the union of the alkali with the acid, whereby hydrocyanate of ammonia is formed; but since it has been found that this salt is highly poison- ous, it is evident that this explanation is not satisfactory. Some have ascribed the activity of the hydrocyanate to its decomposition by the free acids of the stomach, and the consequent evolution of free hydrocyanic acid ; but this explanation is not satisfactory. I believe the efficiency of ammonia as an antidote to poisoning by hydrocyanic acid, arises from its exerting an influence of an opposite nature to that of the poison. In poisoning by the oil of bitter almonds, or other agents 286 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. supposed to contain this acid, ammonia is equally serviceable. The antidote should be given by the stomach, if the patient can swallow, and the vapour should be cautiously inhaled. 2. To produce local irritation, rubefaction, vesication, or destruction of tlie part.—As a local agent, ammonia has been employed in a variety of diseases sometimes as a rubefacient or irritant, sometimes as a vesicant, and occasionally as a caustic. Thus it is employed as a rubefacient in rheumatic and neuralgic pains, and as a counter-irritant to relieve internal inflammations. As a local irritant, a weak solution has been injected into the vagina and uterus, to excite the catamenial discharge; but there are some objections to its use. Thus, it is a most unpleasant kind of remedy, especially to young females; moreover, the stoppage of this discharge is in many cases dependent on constitutional or remote causes, and, therefore, a topical remedy is not likely to be beneficial. Lavagna employed ten or fifteen drops of the solution, diluted with milk. The following is Nisato's formula :— it Ammon. liquid, gtt. xl.; Decoct. Hordei, une. viii.; Mucilag. Arab. une. dimid. Misce, et fiant quatuor intra diem injectiones. Sometimes ammonia is employed as a vesicatory; and it has two advantages over cantharides—a more speedy operation, and non-affection of the urinary organs. It may be employed in the form of ointment or solution. As a caustic, the strong solution of ammonia may be sometimes used with advantage in the bites of rabid animals. 3. The vapour of the solution of ammonia may be inhaled when we wish to make a powerful impression on the nervous system, as in syncope, or to prevent an attack of epilepsy. To guard against or relieve fainting, ammoniacal inhala- tions are very powerful and useful; their instantaneous operation is frequently astonishing. Pinel says, he once saw an attack of epilepsy prevented by this means. The patient (a watchmaker) had intimations of the approaching paroxysm from certain feelings; but he found, by inhaling the vapour of ammonia, it was frequently prevented. In the case of a confirmed epilepsy, which I was in the habit of watching for some years, I think 1 have also seen analogous beneficial effects. I speak doubtfully, because it is so difficult to determine, in most cases, the actual approach of the fit. It is deserving of especial notice, that ammonia is useful in three conditions of system, which, though produced by very different causes, present analogous symptoms; viz., idiopathic epilepsy—the insensibility and convulsions (? epilepsy) produced by loss of blood—and the insensibility and convulsions (? epilepsy) which poisonous doses of hydrocyanic acid give rise to. (See Ammonice Sesquicarbonas.) In asphyxia, ammoniacal inhalations have been strongly recommended by Sage, who says, that he produced the apparent death of rabbits by immersion in water, and recovered them subsequently by the use of ammonia. A case is told us ofa man who had been submerged in the Seine for twenty minutes, and who, when taken out of the water, appeared lifeless, yet by the use of ammonia recovered; and a M. Routier, a surgeon, of Amiens, is said to have restored a patient in the same way. That it may sometimes be of service, I can readily believe; but it must be employed with great caution. 4. Ammonia is given internally as a stimulant and sudorific with manifest advantage in several cases, of which the following are illustrations :— a. In continued fevers which have existed for some time, and where all violent action has subsided, and the brain does not appear much disordered, it is occa- sionally of great service. Its diaphoretic action should be promoted by diluents and warm clothing. It has an advantage over opium—that, if it do no good, it is less likely to do harm. 13. In intermittent fevers it is sometimes of advantage, given during the cold stage, to hasten its subsidence. WATER OF AMMONIA. 287 y. In the exanthemata, when the eruption has receded from the skin, and the extremities are cold, it is sometimes of great benefit, on account of its stimulant and diaphoretic properties. But in many of these cases the recession arises from, or is connected with, an inflammatory condition of the bronchial membrane, for which the usual treatment is to be adopted. 8. In some inflammatory diseases (especially pneumonia and rheumatism), where the violence of the vascular action has been reduced by proper evacuations, and where the habit of the patient is unfavourable to the loss of blood, ammonia has been serviceable. In combination with decoction of senega, I have found it valuable in old pulmonary affections. (See Senega.) 5. In certain affections of the nervous system, ammonia is frequently employed with the greatest benefit. Thus it has been used to relieve the cerebral disorder of intoxication. In poisoning by those cerebro-spinants commonly termed seda- tives—such as foxglove, tobacco, and hydrocyanic acid, ammonia is a most valu- able agent. This remedy has been supposed to possess a specific influence in relieving those disorders of the nervous system accompanied with spasmodic or convulsive symptoms; and hence it is classed among the remedies denominated antispasmodic. Velsen, of Cleves, has used it with advantage in delirium tremens. It was a remedy frequently tried in the malignant or Indian cholera, and occa- sionally procured relief, but it was not much relied on. 6. Against the bites of poisonous animals, as serpents and insects, ammonia is frequently employed with the best effects. There does not appear, however, any ground for the assertion of Sage, that it is a specific: in fact, Fontana declares that it is sometimes hurtful in viper bites. (For some other uses of ammonia, see Ammonia Sesquicarbonas.) Administration.—It is given in doses of from five to twenty or thirty drops, properly diluted. Antidotes.—The diluted acids, as vinegar, lemon or orange juice, &c, are antidotes for ammonia. To abate the inflammatory symptoms caused by the inha- lation of its vapour, blood-letting has been found serviceable. 1. LINIMENTUM AMMONIjE, L. E. D. (U. S.;) Liniment of Ammonia; Volatile Liniment; Oil and Hartshorn. (Solution of Ammonia, fgj. [f3ij. D.;~\ Olive Oil, f3ij. Mix and shake them well together.)—This is an ammoniacal soap, composed of the oleo-margarate of ammonia mixed with some glycerine. (See the articles Soap and Olive Oil.) It is employed as an external stimulant and rubefacient, to relieve rheumatic and neuralgic pains, lumbago, sore throat, sprains, bruises, &c. 2. LINIMENTUM AMMONIA COMPOSITUM, E.; Compound Liniment of Ammonia. (Stronger solution of Ammonia [sp. gr. 0-880,] fgv.; Tincture of Camphor, f3ij. Spirit of Rosemary, fgj. Mix them well together. This liniment may be also made weaker for some purposes, with three fluid ounces of Tincture of Camphor and two of Spirit of Rosemary.)—These are obvious imitations of Dr. Granville's counter-irritating or antinynous lotions.1 This liniment may be used so as to produce rubefaction, vesication, or cauterization. A piece of linen six or seven times folded, or a piece of thick and coarse flannel impregnated with this liniment, is to be applied to the part and covered with a thick towel, which is to be firmly pressed against the part. If rubefaction merely be desired, the application is continued for from one to six or eight minutes; but from ten to twelve minutes are necessary to excite vesication and cauterization. In painful and spasmodic affections, as neuralgia, cramp, &c.; in rheumatism, lumbago, and swollen and painful affections of the joints; in headache, sore throat, sprains, and many other 1 Lancet, October 27, 1838; and Brit, and Foreign Med. Review, vol. vii. p. 292.—Also Dr. Granville's work, entitled Counter-irritation, its Principles and Practice, illustrated by one hundred cases of the most painful and important Diseases effectually cured by external applications. Lond. 1838. ELEMENTS of materia medica. cases, benefit may be obtained from a powerful and speedy counter-irritant like this, as stated by Dr. Granville. 3. UNGUENTUM AMMONIA; Liparolt d'Ammoniaque; Pommade Ammoniacale de Gondret; GondreVs Ammoniacal Ointment.—The formula for this, as given by Soubeiran, {Nouveau Traite de Pharmacie, t. ii. p. 302, 2ndeed. Paris, 1840.) is as follows:—Suet one part, Hog's Lard one part, and Strong Solution of Am- monia two parts. In Gondret's1 work, however, the following formula is given:__ Hog's Lard 3vij., Oil of Sweet Almonds 3iss., and Strong Liquid Ammonia from 3v. to 3vj. Melt the lard, mix it with the oil, and pour them into a wide-mouthed bottle with a ground glass stopper; then add the ammonia, close the bottle, mix the contents together by shaking, and keep the mixture in a cool place.—This ointment, rubbed on the skin and covered by a compress, speedily produces vesi- cation. Without the compress, it 'causes rubefaction. It is a very useful rube- facient, vesicant, and counter-irritant. 4. TINCTURA AMMONU COMPOSITA, L. Spiritus Ammonice succinatus. (Mas- tic, 3ij.; Rectified Spirit, f3ix.; Oil of Lavender, TTlxiv.; Oil of Amber, fl|iv.; Stronger Solution of Ammonia, Oj. Macerate the Mastic in the Spirit, that it may be dissolved, and pour off the clear tincture; then add the other ingredients, and shake them all together).—This liquid is milky, owing to the separation of the mastic from its spirituous solution by ammonia. It is commonly called Eau de Luce {Aqua Lucire), after an apothecary at Lille. M. B. Jussieu {Histoire de PAcademic Royale des Sciences. Annee 1747, p. 54.) gave it to one of his pupils who had been bitten by a viper; and, as the patient recovered, the remedy ac- quired considerable celebrity as a counter-poison to the bites of venomous snakes. But Fontana {Treatise on the Venom of the Viper, vol. ii. Lond. 1787.) has shown that ammonia (its active principle) does not possess any powers of this kind. The compound tincture of ammonia is a powerful antispasmodic stimulant, and is now principally employed as an antihysteric, in doses of from ten to thirty or forty minims. It has also been used as a stimulating embrocation. 7. AMMONIA CARBONAS.—CARBONATE OF AMMONIA. History.—Both solid and liquid compounds of ammonia and carbonic acid have been known for several centuries. Raymond Lully, in the 13th century, was acquainted with the impure solution of carbonate of ammonia obtained from putrid urine; and it is probable that the Arabians had known it long before. Basil Valentine {Chymische Schriften, Ander-Theile, S. 392. Hamb. 1677.) speaks of the spiritus salis urince. Natural History (see Ammonia, p. 279).—Carbonate of Ammonia is formed during the putrefaction or destructive distillation of those organic substances which contain nitrogen. It is a constituent of rain-water (see p. 251). Preparation.—Anhydrous neutral carbonate of ammonia can only be obtained by bringing together dry carbonic acid and ammoniacal gases. It is not employed in medicine. Hydrated neutral carbonate of ammonia is the first, and, therefore, the most volatile, of the solid products which appear in the distillation of the commercial hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia. If hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia be digested in a small quantity of water, we obtain a solution of a neutral carbo- nate of ammonia, mixed, however, with a little of the bicarbonate. The same neutral carbonate is obtained when a mixture of sal ammoniac and carbonate of either soda or potash is submitted to distillation with water; and on this principle several liquid preparations (presently to be mentioned) of this neutral salt are directed to be prepared in the Pharmacopoeia. One equivalent or 54 parts of the hydrochlorate of ammonia react on one equivalent or 70 parts of 1 Traite Theorique et Pratique de la Derivation contre les Affections les plus communes en general, telle la Plethorc, I'Inflammation, VHtmorrhagie, &c. Paris, 1837. Reviewed in Brit, and For. Medical Review, vol. vii. p. 5b. CARBONATE OF AMMONIA. 289 carbonate of potash, and yield one equivalent or 76 parts of chloride of potassium, one equivalent or 9 parts of water, and one equivalent or 39 parts of carbonate of ammonia. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Hydrochlo. I 1 eq. Ammonia....................17----------------^_„i eq. Carb. of Amm.......39 Ammonia---54 < 1 eq. Hydrochlo- C 1 eq. Hydr..... 1__________-~^?rr^.^l eq. Water.............. 9 ( ric Acid 37---) l eq. Chlor.....36-^^^^^--"^.---' 1 eq. Carbonate \ 1 eq. Carbonic Acid................22,. Potash......70 I 1 eq. Potash 48 \ } c?- 0:W- : * * * .8-""--- -~-- 5 J e^ Chloride Po- ( 1 eq. Potassium40 ^^« J tassium..............*6 124 124 124 Bone spirit, obtained by the destructive distillation of bones, contains neutral carbonate of ammonia in solution with animal empyreumatic oil. Properties.—Hydrated neutral carbonate of ammonia is a crystalline salt, having an ammoniacal odour, but weaker than that of a solution of caustic am- monia. Characteristics.—Its solution yields, on the addition of chloride of barium, tt white precipitate {carbonate of baryta); and no farther precipitate is obtained by the farther addition of caustic ammonia to the mixture. This character dis- tinguishes the neutral carbonate from the sub- and super-carbonates of ammonia, (see Hydrated Sesquicarbonate and Bicarbonate of Ammonia.) Composition.—The hydrated neutral carbonate of ammonia has, according to Rose, the following composition :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Rose. Ammonia.............. 2......34......39 080......39-27 Carbonic Acid..........2......44 ......50 575......50 09 Water................. 1 ...... 9 ...... 10345......10-64 Hydrated Carbonate of Ammonia...... 1 ......87 ..... 100000..... 10000 Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Or Carbonate of Am- ) monia..........j Carb. of Oxide of/ Ammonium .... j 1 .... 39 .... 44-83 1 .... 48 .... 5517 1 .... 87 ... .10000 Physiological Effects and Uses.—The effects of carbonate of ammonia are similar to, but somewhat milder than, those of caustic ammonia. The neutral carbonate is more powerful than the hydrated sesquicarbonate, and still more so than the bicarbonate of ammonia. In the solid form it is not employed in medi- cine. Several officinal preparations, however, owe their medicinal activity to it. 1, SPIRITUS AMMONLE, L. E. D. (U. S.) Spirit of Ammonia.—Prepared ac- cording to the London and Dublin Pharmacopoeias, this is a solution of carbonate of ammonia in rectified spirit; but according to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia it is a solution of ammoniacal gas in spirit. The following are the formulae of the three colleges :— The London College orders Hydrochlorate of Ammonia, 3x.; Carbonate of Potash, 3xvj. Rectified Spirit; Water; of each Oiij. Mix, and let three pints distil.—In this process double decomposition takes place (as above explained,) and the carbonate of ammonia, which is pro- duced, distils over with the spirit, in whicli the greater part of it dissolves; the remainder being deposited in an imperfectly crystalline state. The Dublin College directs [Sesqui-] Carbonate of Ammonia, coarsely powdered, 3 iijss. to be dissolved, with a medium heat, in Rectified Spirit, Oiij. [wine measure.]—During the solu- tion in the healed spirit, the sesquicarbonate evolves carbonic acid gas, and is reduced to the state of carbonate of ammonia, of which about 30 grains are taken up by each ounce measure of the spirit. The Edinburgh College orders Rectified Spirit, Oij. and f3ij; Fresh-burnt Lime, 3xij.; ' Muriate of Ammonia, in very fine powder, 3viij.; Water, f 3viss. Let the lime be slaked with the water in an iron or earthenware vessel, and cover the vessel till the powder be cold ; mix the lime and muriate of ammonia quickly and thoroughly in a mortar, and transfer the mixture at once into a glass retort; adapt to the retort a tube which passes nearly to the bottom ofa bottle containing the rectified spirit; heat the retort in a sand-bath gradually, so long as any thing passes over, preserving the bottle cool. The bottle should be large enough to contain one-half more than the spirit used.—In this process we obtain, by the mutual reaction of the sal ammo- niac and lime, (Sec p. 279.) ammoniacal gas, which passes over, and is dissolved in the spirit contained in the receiver. vol. I. 25 290 elements of materia medica. (The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs Muriate of Ammonia in fine powder; Lime, each a pound; Alcohol, twenty fluid ounces; Water, nine fluid ounces. Slake the lime with the water; mix it with the Muriate of Ammonia, and proceed in the manner directed for solution of Ammonia the Alcohol being introduced into the quart bottle instead of distilled Water. When all the Ammonia has come over, remove the liquor contained in the quart bottle and keep it in small bottles well stopped.) The medicinal effects of this preparation are analogous to those of Liquor Am- monias. It may be employed in hysteria, flatulent colic, and nervous debility. It is, however, but little used except in the preparation of the following com- pounds. The dose of it is from f3ss. to f 3j. properly diluted, with water. Satu- rated with camphor it forms a highly stimulating liniment. 2. SPIRITUS AMMONIA FIET1DUS, L- E. D. Fetid Spirit of Ammonia.—In this, as in the preceding preparation, a difference exists in the formulas of the British Colleges. The London and Dublin Colleges use a solution of carbonate of am- monia, while the Edinburgh College employs a solution of caustic ammonia. The formula of the London College is the'same as that for Spiritus Ammoniae, L.; except that five ounces of Asafoetida are put into the retort with the other ingredients. The Dublin College orders Asafoetida 3iss. to be macerated for three days in Spirit of Am- monia, Oij. [wine measure,] shaking occasionally; then pour off the clear liquor, and distil a pint and a half. The Edinburgh College employs Spirit of Ammonia, f3xss.; Asafcetida, 3ss. Break the Asafoetida into small fragments; digest it in the spirit for twelve hours; and distil over ten fluid ounces and a half by means ofa vapour-bath heat. This preparation is a very unnecessary one. It is merely a solution of the volatile oil of the asafcetida in spirit of ammonia; for which a mixture of tincture of asafcetida and spirit of ammonia may be conveniently and more efficaciously substituted. It is a colourless, pungent, and fetid liquor, which becomes brown- ish by age. It is employed in hysteria, in doses of from half a drachm to a drachm in water. I SPIRITUS AMMONIA AROMATICUS, L. E. D. (U. S.) Spirit of Sal Volatile.- The preparation of the London and Dublin Pharmacopoeias is a solution of the carbonate of ammonia ; but that of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia contains caustic ammonia. The London College gives the following formula:—Hydrochlorate of Ammonia, 3v.; Car- bonate of Potash, 3viij.; Cinnamon, bruised; Cloves, bruised, of each 3ij.; Lemon Peel, 3iv.; Rectified Spirit; Water, of each, Oiv. Mix them, and let six pints distil.—In this process double decomposition takes place, as already noticed, and the carbonate of ammonia distils over with the spirit and part of the water flavoured by the essential oils of the aromatics used. (The same formula has been adopted by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia, which directs, the distilla- tion over of seven pints and a half.) The Dublin College orders spirit of Ammonia, Oij. [wine measure;] Essential Oil of Lemons, 3ij.; Nutmegs, bruised, 3ss.; Cinnamon Bark, bruised, 3iij. Macerate in a close vessel for three days, shaking occasionally; then distil a pint and a half. The Edinburgh College orders of Spirit of Ammonia, f 3viij.; Volatile Oil of Lemon-peel, f 3j.; Volatile Oil of Rosemary, f 3iss. Dissolve the oils in the spirit by agitation. This preparation, on account of its more agreeable taste and smell, is usually preferred to the Spiritus Ammoniae above noticed, than which it is somewhat weaker. It is frequently employed in languors, faintings, hysteria, flatulent colic, and nervous debility, in doses of from f 3ss. to f 3ij. properly diluted with water. 8. AMMO'NIiE SESQUICAR'BONAS, L— SESQUICARBONATE OF AMMONIA. (Ammonite Carbonas, E. D.) (fJ. S.) History.—This' salt was probably known to Raymond Lully; but until late years it has been confounded with the other carbonates of ammonia. It is fre- SE8QUICARB0NATE OP AMMONIA. 291 0 quently denominated subcarbonate of ammonia, volatile, or smelling salts, or bakers' salt. The last appellation has been given to it because of its use by bakers, as a substitute for yeast, in the manufacture of some of the finer kinds of bread. It is probable that the terms sal alkali volatile siccum seu urinosum, sal vola- tile satis ammoniaci, and sal volatile cornu cervi, applied lo this rather than any other carbonate of ammonia. Natural History.—See Ammonia (p. 279,) and Ammonice Carbonas (p. 288.) Preparation.—Manufacturers prepare it by submitting to sublimation a mixture of sal ammoniac or impure sulphate of ammonia and chalk. A few years since, it was extensively made at Messrs. Bush & Co.'s, Bow Common. The retorts in which the sublimation was effected, were of cast iron, and similar in shape and size to those employed in the manufacture of coal gas. Each retort com- municated posteriorly with a leaden receiver, with which was connected a se- cond receiver of the same size and shape.. The receivers had the form of square prisms placed endways, and were supported in a wooden framework. The im- pure sesquicarbonate thus obtained was contaminated with tar or oily matter, and deposited a dark carbonaceous matter when dissolved in acids. It was refined in iron pots, surmounted with leaden heads, and heated by the flue of the retort furnace. A little water is introduced into the pots to render the sesquicarbonate translucent. In another manufactory, which I have inspected, the pots are heated by a water-bath ; a temperature of 150° F. being, I am informed, sufficient for this process. All the British Colleges give formulas for the preparation of this salt. The London and Edinburgh Colleges order of Hydrochlorate of Ammonia, Ibj., and Chalk, ibiss. These are to be rubbed separately to powder, then mixed, and submitted to sublimation with a heat gradually increased. The Dublin College orders equal parts o*f Muriate of Ammonia and dried Carbonate of Soda. In this process, three equivalents or 162 parts of sal ammoniac react on three equivalents or 150 parts of carbonate of lime, and produce an equivalent or 118 parts of the hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia, three equivalents or 168 parts of chloride of calcium, one equivalent or 17 parts of ammonia, and one equiva- lent or 9 parts of water. The chloride of calcium is left in the retort, the hy- drated sesquicarbonate of ammonia is sublimed, while the ammonia and the water are dissipated. MATERIALS. „ „ j f 3 Hydrochlo- ( 3 eq. Hydr. 3 3 eq Hydro- Hf AtiA iU}zeq. Chlor. 108 C]}{f,ra{%rJ, leq. Ammonia .......... 17 fimm-K-{^i eq. Ammonia ........... 34 Seq. Carb. (.3 eq. Carb. Acid 66 Lime. l»}3*Ii~.84|!5:&.fJJ "312 312 312 It appears from some experiments, presently to be noticed, that the compound called hy- drated sesquicarbonate of ammonia is a double salt, consisting of one equivalent of anhydrous carbonate of ammonia (NH3, COa) and one equivalent of hydrated bicarbonate of ammonia (Nil', 2 COa, 2 HO.) Now, in general, when two neutral salts react on each other, the result- ing compounds are also neutral; and, therefore, by the mutual action of 3 equivalents of hy- drochlorate of ammonia and 3 equivalents of carbonate of lime, the calculated products should be 3 equivalents of hydrated neutral carbonate of ammonia (NH3, COa, HO,) called hypothe- tical^ carbonate of the oxide of ammonium, and 3 equivalent of chloride of calcium. But it nppcars from Rose's experiments (Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, vol. ii.) that such a hydrated neutral carbonate of ammonia docs not exist per se. Hence, at the commencement of the heat- incr process ammoniacal gas escapes with just so much water as is sufficient to form the hy- pothetical oxide of ammonium. Hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia cannot be re-sublimed unchanged. Hence in the process of refining, its constitution changes; every two equivalents COMPOSITION. 1 eq. Water 9 *2eq. Water 18 \ —.........-\*.....1 eq. Ammonia PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Water.......... 9"| -a n rl £*r:~.........-\1 eq. Hydd. Sesquicarb. Amm............... 118 3 eq. Chlor. Calc....... 168 292 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. lose an equivalent of carbonic acid, and the product is a hydrated £ carbonate of ammonia. MATERIAL. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. (I eq. Carbonic Acid 22--------------------1 eq. Carbonic Acid 22 2 eq. Hydrd. Sesquicar- ) 5 eq. Carbonic Acid 110 I , bonate Ammonia 236)4 eq. Ammonia--- 68V—---■------------1 eq. Hydrated 4 ( 4 eq. Water....... 36 ) Carb. of Ammonia 214 236 236 236 Properties.—Hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia is met with in the form of fibrous, white, translucent cakes, about two inches thick. When exposed lo the air it evolves carbonate of ammonia, and is converted- into bicarbonate of ammo- nia; so that its vapour has a pungent odor, and strongly reddens turmeric paper. The resulting hydrated bicarbonate is opaque, pulverulent, and much less pun- gent, from which it has been termed mild carbonate of ammonia. The sesqui- carbonate is soluble in four times its weight of cold water; but boiling water or alcohol decomposes it, with the evolution of carbonic acid. Characteristics.—As an ammoniacal salt, this substance is recognised by its odour, its fugacious action on turmeric paper, and by its action on the salts of copper, bichloride of platinum, and bichloride of mercury, (see tests for ammonia, p. 280.) As a carbonate it is known by its solution yielding a white precipitate {carbonate of baryta) with the chloride of barium : the clear liquor from which this precipitate has subsided, yields a farther precipitate on the addition of caustic ammonia. By this last character the sesquicarbonate is distinguished from the neutral carbonate. Composition.—This salt consists, according to Mr. Phillips, {Quarterly Jour- not of Science, vol. vii. p. 294,) Dr. Thomson, and Rose, of carbonic acid, am- monia, and water, in the following proportions :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Centage. R. Phillips. Carbonic Acid.......................... 3 ........ 66 ........ 55-D3 ........ 542 Ammonia ............................. 2 ........ 34 ........ 2ri-81 ........ 29-3 Water.................................. 2 ........ 18 ........ 15-26 ........ 165 Hydrated Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia.. 1 ........ 118 ........ 100.00 ........ 100.0 It appears, however, from the observations of Dalton, {Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, 2d Ser. vol. iii. p. 18,) and Scanlan, [Athenceum for 1838, p. 596,) that it is not a single salt or true sesquicarbonate, but a mixture or compound of the carbonate and bicarbonate; for, if treated with a small quantity of cold water, a solution of carbonate of ammonia is obtained, while a mass of bicarbonate, having the form and dimensions of the sesquicar- bonate employed, and of which it is a mere skeleton, is left. Two circumstances appear to me to prove that it is not a mere mixture, but a true chemical combina- tion of these salts, viz : first, the uniformity of its composition ; and secondly, its crystalline structure. Its constitution, then, is as follows : Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Anhydrous Carbonate of Ammonia..................... 1 ........ 39 ........ 3305 Hydrated Bicarbonate of Ammonia..................... 1 ........ 79 ........ 66-95 Hydrated Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia.................. 1 ........ 118 ........100.00 Impurity.—The hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia of commerce is some- times contaminated with empyreumatic oil, and in this state it yields a more or less deeply-coloured, or even blackish, solution when dissolved in dilute acid. The pure salt, on the other hand, yields a colourless solution, and leaves no resi- duum when heated on platinum or glass. It is translucent and crystalline; but when exposed to the air it evolves carbonate of ammonia, and becomes opaque, pulverulent, and less pungent : in this state it consists principally of bicarbonate of ammonia. Lastly, its aqueous solution, saturated with pure nitric acid, gives no precipitate with solution of chloride of barium or of nitrate of silver; for a 8ESQITCARB0NATE OF AMMONIA. 293 precipitate with the first of these substances would indicate the presence ofa sul- phate, with the second a chloride. Physiological Effects, a. On Animals.—The principal experimenters with this salt are Seybert, Orfila, and Gaspard, on dogs, and Wibmer on man. Sey- bert (Quoted by Wibmer, Die Wirkung, &c.) injected in one experiment fifteen grains, in a second twenty-five grains ; and in a third experiment forty-five grains of this salt dissolved in a little water, into the crural vein of a dog: the animal appeared to suffer great pain; the frequency of the heart's action was increased, the respiration became difficult, and violent convulsions came on; but in all these cases perfect recovery took place. The blood, drawn after the injection, had its natural colour, odour, and consistence. Orfila {Toxicol. Generate.) found that two drachms and a half of the salt, given to a dog, caused gastric inflammation, with tetanic convulsions; the body ultimately becoming curved with the head forcibly bent backwards. Gaspard, quoted by Wibmer, {Die Wirkung, &c.) killed a young pig, of three weeks old, by injecting twenty-four drops of (a solu- tion of) carbonate of ammonia in an ounce of water into the veins. Death oc- curred in nine hours. (3. On Man.—Wibmer found that a grain and a half of this salt produced on himself no remarkable effect; three grains increased the frequency of the pulse from 68 to 72 beats per minute, with throbbing headache. In other experiments, in which he took from six to twelve grains (in some repeating the dose at short intervals,) the effects* were usually, but not constantly, increased frequency of pulse, with disorder of brain, manifested by the pain, heaviness, throbbing, &c. In one instance, he says, disposition to cough, and increased secretion of bron- chial mucus, werejremarkable. To an epileptic patient (a female) in the London Hospital, I gave fifteen grains of this salt three times a day for two months, with- out any apparent injury. The fits, which previously had occurred at stated peri- ods, were suspended during the time the patient was under the influence of the medicine. Huxham {Essay on Fevers, pp. 48 and 308, 3d edit. 1757.) has men- tioned a remarkable case illustrative of the ill effects resulting from the long-con- tinued use of this salt. " I had lately under my care," he observes, "a gentleman of fortune and family, who so habituated himself to the use of vast quantities of the volatile salts, that at length he could eat them in a very astonishing manner, as other people eat sugar and caraway seeds. The conse- quence was that he brought on a hectic fever, vast haemorrhages from the intestines, nose, and gums; every one of his teeth dropped out, and he could eat nothing solid: he wasted vastly in his flesh, and his muscles became as soft and flabby as those of a new born infant; and he broke out all over his body in pustules. His urine was always excessively high-coloured, turbid, and very fetid. He was at last persuaded to leave off this pernicious custom ; but he had so effec- tually ruined his constitution, that though he rubbed on in a miserable manner for several months, he died, and in the highest degree, of marasmus. And I am persuaded he would have died much sooner, had he not constantly drank very freely of the most fine and generous wines, and daily used large quantities of asses' milk, and anti-scorbutic juices, acidulated with juice of lemon." The general action of this salt is similar to that of caustic ammonia, already noticed. Its topical operation, however, is less intense; for combination with carbonic acid diminishes the local action of ammonia in proportion to the quan- tity of acid present. In small doses it proves antacid, stimulant, and sudorific. By repeated use it operates as a liquefacient (see p. 202,) like the other alkalis, though much less intensely so. In doses of thirty grains or more it is apt to occasion vomiting. The effects of an over-dose are abdominal pains, and other symptoms of inflam- mation, convulsions, and other phenomena indicative of its action on the nervous system. Uses.—It is used in the same cases and under the same regulations as the solu- tion of ammonia, to which 1 must refer the reader (See p. 285). Recently this salt has been recommended, by Dr. Barlow, {Guy's Hospital 294 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Reports, vol. v.) in diabetes, several cases of which are said to have been relieved, if not cured, by it. I regret I cannot confirm Dr. Barlow's favourable notice of it. In one case (that of a man, an out-patient at the London Hospital) it has, in my hands, failed to give any relief, after a prolonged trial. It has been employed with excellent effect in some cases of scrofula.* It is best adapted for those cases attended with a languid circulation and a dry state of skin. It is frequently employed for the preparation of effervescing draughts. The following are the relative proportions of acid and base to be used :— . ( 6 fluid-drachms of Lemon Juice, or 20 grains of Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia >2i grains nf crystallized Citric Acid, or require................................( 251 grains of crystallized Tartaric Acid. The citrate and tartrate of ammonia thus obtained are useful remedies in febrile cases, where the object is to promote cutaneous circulation and exhalation. Full doses of this salt have been employed in paralysis, to occasion vomit- ing. Mixed with some aromatic oil (as the oil of bergamot or lavender,) it is used as a smelling salt, against syncope, hysteria, &c. As a topical agent it has been employed in aqueous solution, or mixed with oil to form an imperfect kind of soap, or made into ointment with lard. .Its operation in these cases is that of a topical stimulant and rubefacient. It proves useful in rheumatic pains, sprains, &c. Administration___As a stimulant and diaphoretic, it is used in doses of from five grains to a scruple, exhibited either in the form of pill or solution. As an emetic, the dose is 30 grains, properly diluted, and repeated if necessary. Antidotes.—(See Ammonia, p. 287.) 1. LIQUOR AMMONI SESQUICARBONATIS, L. Ammonice Carbonatis Aqua, E. D. (Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia, 3iv. [4 parts, D.;] Distilled Water, Oj. [15 parts, D.] Dissolve and filter.)—By exposure to the air, this solution loses its pungency by the formation of bicarbonate of ammonia. It may be given inter- nally in doses of from f3ss., to f3iss., or even l'3ij. properly diluted. It is em- ployed in the preparation of Ferri Potassio-tartras, Ph. L., and is a constituent of the following liniment:— 2. LINIMENTUM AMMONI SESQUICARBONATIS, L. Liniment of Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia. (Solution of Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia, fgj.; Olive Oil, fjiij. Shake them together until they are mixed.)—Oil and sesquicarbonate of ammonia form a soap, but owing to the presence of the carbonic acid, it is of an imperfect kind. Its effects and uses are analogous to the Linimentum Ammonice before mentioned (p. 287.) 9. AMMONITE BICAR'BONAS, D— BICARBONATE OF AMMONIA. History.—This salt was formed by Berthollet, and hence it is sometimes termed BertholleVs neutral carbonate of ammonia. Preparation.—The directions of the Dublin College for its preparation, are as follows:— "Take of Water of Carbonate of Ammonia any required quantity. In a suitable apparatus let the water be exposed, until the alkali is saturated, to the stream of Carbonic Acid Gas which escapes during the solution of white marble in diluted Muriatic Acid. Then let it rest, and let crystals form, which are to be dried without heat, and preserved in a close vessel." Bicarbonate of Ammonia is also formed by keeping the common sesquicar- bonate of ammonia in imperfectly closed vessels. Another mode of obtaining it 1 An Essay on Scrofula; in which an Account of the Effects of the Ammonia Carbonas, as a Remedy in thai Disease, is submitted to the Profession. By Charles Armstrong, M. D. Lond 1812. HYDROCHLORATE of ammonia. 295 is by digesting water on the sesquicarbonate; the more soluble carbonate is dis- solved, leaving the less soluble bicarbonate. (See p. 292.) Properties—The crystals of this salt belong to the right rhombic system. (See Rose's paper, in Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, vol. ii.) Their smell and taste are very faintly ammoniacal. This salt is less soluble in water than the preceding carbonates; for it requires eight parts of cold water to dissolve it. The solution, by exposure to the air, loses part of its carbonic acid, especially if it be heated. Characteristics.—It is distinguished from the before-mentioned carbonates by having scarcely any ammoniacal odour. Its solution at first occasions no preci- pitate wilh chloride of barium or chloride of calcium (unless caustic ammonia be added): after a short time, however, the mixture evolves carbonic acid, and a white earthy carbonate is precipitated. Composition.—The composition of this salt is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Phillips. Rose. Vols. Ammonia..................1........17........21-5........2110........2139 Carbonic Acid..............2........44........55 7........5550........56 09 Water......................2........18........22 8........2334........2252 Ammoniacal gas........2 Carbonic Acid gas......2 Aqueous Vapour........2 Crystallized Bicarbonate | j........;g.......100.0.......m.QQ.......10000 of Ammonia..........) Physiological Effects and Uses.—The operation and uses of this salt are analogous to those of the preceding compounds of ammonia. It is termed dia- phoretic, antispasmodic, and antacid. Being less caustic, it is more palatable than the other carbonates. It may be employed to form effervescing medicines. About 18 grs. of Citric, or 19 grs. of Tartaric Acid are required to saturate 9j. of this salt. Administration.—The dose of it is from six to twenty-four grains, dissolved in cold water. 10. AMMO'NIiE HYDROCHLO'RAS, L.—HYDROCHLORATE OF AMMONIA, E. (Ammonia Murias, E. D.) (U. S.) History.—The early history of this salt is involved in considerable obscurity ; for though the term sal ammoniacus {akg a^uvixos) is met with in several old writers, it is believed by the erudite Beckmann, {History of hiventions, vol. iv. p. 306. Lond. 1814.) as well as by others, to refer to rock-salt. The first dis- tinct notice of hydrochlorate of ammonia is to be met with in Geber, who was acquainted with the mode of purifying it by sublimation. But as my friend Dr. Royle observes, {Essay on tlue Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, p. 41. Lond. 1837.) this salt "must have been familiar to the Hindoos ever since they have burnt bricks, as they now do, with the manure of animals; as some may usually be found crystallized at the unburnt extremity of the kiln." The substance, whatever its nature may be, which the ancients termed sal ammoniac, derived its name from Ammonia, the name of a district of Libya where the oracle of Jupiter Ammon was situated. This district took its name from a/x/xof, sand, on account of the sandy nature of its soil. Herodotus (Lib. iv. [Melpomene,'] cap. 181 and 182.) mentions the salt found in this district. Synonymes.—Few substances have had so many synonymes as this salt. Besides those above given, the most familiar are, sal ammoniac ox muriate of ammonia. On the ammonium hypothesis, it is called chloride of ammonium, (NH,4 CI.,) while, according to Dr. Kane, it is chloro-amidide of hydrogen (NH,a H, H c\.y Natural History.—(See Ammonia, p. 279.) 1 For the alchymical names of this substance, see Dr. T. Thomson's History of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 125. Lond. 1830; anil Parr's Medical Dictionary, art. Annoniacus. 296 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Preparation.—In Egypt, Sal Ammoniac is obtained by sublimation from the soot afforded by the combustion of camel's dung.1 It is probable that the muriatic acid or chlorine of this salt is derived from the common salt on which these animals feed; for Chaptal (Elements of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 262. Lond. 1791.) says that he could only procure sal ammoniac from the soot of cow-dung and that of horses while these animals continued to live on marine plants. Some years ago this salt was manufactured in London from the soot of coals. At the latter end of the last century it was made in Paris by the union of ammo- niacal vapour (obtained by the decomposition of animal matters, in iron cylinders placed in a furnace) with muriatic acid gas. (See Journal de Physique for 1794. —Also Parkes, op. supra cit.) At the present time sal ammoniac is manufactured in this country from the impure ammoniacal liquors obtained as secondary products in the manufacture of coal gas and animal charcoal. 1. Manufacture of Sal Ammoniac from Coals.—In the manufacture of COal gas, coal is submitted to distillation in iron retorts, and the volatile matters obtained are conveyed to a condensing vessel or refrigeratory, in which are deposited tar and an ammoniacal liquor. This ammoniacal liquor (commonly termed gas liquor) contains several salts of ammonia—such as carbonate, hydrocyanate, sulphate, and hydrosulphate. It is usually sold to sal ammoniac manufacturers, who reside in the outskirts of the metropolis. The precise mode of proceeding, to convert it into sal ammoniac, varies according to circumstances. Sometimes sulphuric acid is added, and the liquor evaporated, by which brown crystals of sulphate of ammonia are obtained. This salt is then mixed with chloride of sodium, and submitted to distillation in iron pots lined with clay, to which is adapted a leaden dome or head, having an aperture or open cylindrical tube, which can be closed or opened, according to circumstances. A few years since I saw this process in operation at the Westminster Gas-works. On examin- ing the clay removed from the pots after the operation, I discovered small but perfect and beautiful crystals of the bisulphuret of iron, which had been formed during the process. Every equivalent or 66 parts of sulphate of ammonia react on one equivalent or 60 parts of chloride of sodium, and yield one equivalent or 54 parts of sal ammoniac, and one equivalent or 72 parts of sulphate of soda. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. ( 1 eq. Ammonia................17------------^^^-^l eq- Hydroclilor. 1 eq. Sulphate of ) x Sul huric Acid..........40-,^-.-----~^^ Ammonia.....54 Ammonia .....66) * r , , a„,j„„„ i-—■-*< ^-^ ( 1 eq. Water 9 ] **■ **ydrW- J "-^^ j 1 eg. Oxygen 8.... -^-'^•--... 1 eq. Chloride of t eq. Chlorine..................36 ~~-~--'.^---. Sodium.........60 \ eq. Sodium...................24---------------~:"i-*l eq. Sulphate of 126 126 Soda..........72 126 In some cases the gas liquor is saturated with hydrochloric acid, and the brown crystals of hydrochlorate of ammonia obtained by evaporation are purified by sublimation. As a cheap substitute for hydrochloric acid, manufacturers sometimes employ chloride of calcium.2 This proceeding I have seen adopted at the manufactory of Messrs. Bush and Co., Bow Common. The process has been described by my friend and former pupil, Dr. G. H. Jackson. {London Medical Gazette, Aug. 4, 1839.) 1 A very full and complete description of the process, with illustrative plates, will be found in the splendid Description de VEgypt*, Etat Moderne, tom. i. p. 413. Paris, 1809; Planches ii. and xxiv. Arts et Metiers. See also Parke's Chemical Essays, ed. 2d. vol. ii. p. 437. Lond. 1823. * The chloride of calcium used in the above process is a secondary product, obtained, I am informed, from salt-works. It contains the chlorides of sodium and magnesium. HYDROCHLORATE OF AMMONIA. 297 To the gas liquor, chloride of calcium is added, when a copious precipitation of carbonate of lime takes place, muriate of ammonia being left in solution. The whole of this is put into a tub, having holes in the bottom to allow the solution lo drain through, leaving the solid particles behind. This solution is evaporated at a gentle temperature in iron tanks, when it yields impure crystals of muriate of ammonia, ofa brownish colour. The salt is then dried, and the water of crys- tallization driven off in a long iron vessel, very similar lo a sand-bath. It is now placed in an iron subliming pot, (previously coated to the extent of from one to five inches in thickness, with a composition of common clay, sand, and char- coal,) capable of holding about 5 cwts. This is covered by a dome of lead, with an aperture at the top, in which a stopper is placed, by the removal and appear- ance of which the manufacturer judges of the progress of the sublimation. A gentle fire is kept up under the subliming pot for seven or eight days, when the dome having cooled down, and the sal ammoniac somewhat contracted, so as to loosen from the sides, the dome is thrown off from the iron pot, and about 2 or 3 cwts. of white, semi-transparent, muriate of ammonia are knocked off in cakes. I have seen cakes of sal ammoniac, made at Messrs. Bush & Co.'s by this pro- cess, weighing between 5 and 6 cwts. each; and 1 am informed that they some- times weigh 1000 lbs. each. They are discoloured on their convex surface, (in contact with the leaden dome,) and are, therefore, carefully scraped before being sent out. The gray salt scraped from the exterior of the cakes consists of, or at least yields, hydro- chloric acid, ammonia, and lead. A solution of the purified salt yields no iodide of lead on the addition of iodide of potassium, but affords a black precipitate (sulphuret of lead) when sulphuretted hydrogen gas is passed through it. It is probably, a double chloride of lead and ammonium. (Dr. Jackson, Ibid.) Yellow or brownish streaks or bands are frequently observed in the cakes of sal ammoniac. These are ascribed by the manufacturers to the neglect of the workmen who, falling asleep during the night, allow the fire to go down con- siderably, and then suddenly raise the heat, by which chloride of iron is sublimed in combinalion with sal ammoniac. For several years I have been accustomed to show, in the lecture-room, that a solution of these yellow bands in water give no traces of iron on the addition of ferrocyanide of potas. sium, until a few drops of nitric acid be added, when a copious blue precipitate is formed; and I, therefore, inferred that this yellow matter was a double chloride of iron and ammonium. My opinion has been fully confirmed by the experiments of Dr. G. H. Jackson. 2. Manufacture of Sal Ammoniac from Bones.— Animal charcoal is extensively manufactured from bones for the use of sugar-refiners ; and during the process an ammoniacal liquor (called bone spirit) is obtained as a secondary product. The operation is thus conducted. Bones are first boiled to remove the fatty matter, which is used in soap-making. The larger and finer pieces are then selected for the manufacture of buttons, handles of knives and tooth-brushes, &c.: while the smaller and refuse portions are sold as manure. The remainder is submitted to distillation. The stills or retorts are sometimes made of cast iron, and in shape and size resemble those used at gas-works. Formerly they were placed horizontally in the furnace,1 and the volatile matters were conveyed away by a pipe opening into the ends of the retorts. To facilitate the speedy removal of the charcoal, they are sometimes placed obliquely in the furnace: the bones are introduced at the upper end, and the charcoal is removed from the lower end;—while the vola- tile matters are conveyed away by a side pipe. But these retorts are considered inferior to the vertical ones, on account of the facility and speed with which the latter can be charged and discharged. The vertical stills or retorts are made of cast iron or of Welch bricks; the latter, I am informed, are preferable. In a large manufactory of animal charcoal in this metropolis, the shape of the retort 1 See Ure's Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures, p. 1081, figs. 954 and 955. Lond. 1839. 298 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. is that ofa right rectangular prism; its height being twenty feet, its length about three feet, and its breadth two feet. It is closed at the top by a movable iron plate, secured by a screw bolt. It is closed below by a double trap-door opening underground. Around the retort is a furnace of brickwork, whose shape is that ofa truncated pyramid. The bones are introduced at the upper end of the retort. The volatile products are conveyed away by an iron pipe. After passing through a cistern they are conveyed to a series of receivers, where the brown ammoniacal liquor (bone spirit) and the empyreumatic oil {animal oil) are deposited. The non-condensable portion is a fetid inflammable gas: this, after passing through water contained in the second receiver, is conveyed into a chimney, or is burned. The solid re- sidue in the retort is removed, while red-hot, through the lower and underground end of the retort, into wrought-iron canisters, which are instantly closed by iron covers, luted to make them air-tight, and then raised to the surface by .a crane. When cold it is ground, and sold as animal bone, or ivory black. The products of this operation are easily accounted for. When bones are heated, their cartilaginous or gelatinous portion undergoes decomposition, and its elements (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen) enter into new combinations. Some of the oxygen and hydrogen unite to form water. Carbon and oxygen, combining in different proportions, furnish carbonic oxide and acid. Carbon with hydrogen forms carbohydrogen; while nitrogen uniting with hydrogen produces ammonia, which, with some carbonic acid, forms carbonate of ammonia. The empyreumatic or animal oil consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with pro- bably some nitrogen. Manufacturers of animal charcoal usually sell their bone spirit to makers of sal ammoniac, who adopt different modes of proceeding, according to circum- stances. Sometimes sal ammoniac is made from bone spirit in the same way as from gas liquor. Some manufacturers digest the bone spirit with ground plaster of Paris (sulphate of lime,) by which carbonate of lime and sulphate of ammonia are formed; the former is precipitated, the latter remains in solution. The liquor being filtered and evaporated yields brown crystals of sulphate of ammonia, which, being mixed with common salt, is submitted to sublimation, by which sul- phate of soda and sal ammoniac are obtained. Properties.—Hydrochlorate of ammonia usually occurs in commerce in the form of large hemispheral cakes, which are translucent, and by exposure to the atmosphere become slightly moist. By solution or sublimation it may be obtained in regular octohedral, or cubic, or plumose crystals: the latter are formed of rows of minute octohedrons, attached by their extremities (Graham). Its sp. gr. is 1-450. Its taste is saline and acrid; it has no odour. When heated, it sub- limes without undergoing fusion or decomposition. It is soluble in about 3 parts of cold and 1 of boiling water: cold being produced during the solution. It dis- solves in alcohol. Characteristics.—It may be recognised by the following characters : it is white and volatile; and if heated on the point of a knife by the flame of a candle, it readily sublimes. Mixed with caustic potash, or quicklime, it evolves ammonia- cal gas, which is known by its odour, its action on turmeric paper, and its fuming with the vapour of hydrochloric acid. Dissolved in water the hydrochlorate of ammonia produces, with a solution of nitrate of silver, a white precipitate of chlo- ride of silver, recognised by the properties before described (see p. 2*34): and with bichloride of platinum a yellow precipitate {platino-bichloride of ammonia) which, when collected, dried, and ignited, yields spongy platinum. Composition.—The following is the composition of this salt:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct. Kirwan. Bucholz. Berzel. y0\% Sp. gr. Ammonia.............1---17 .... 3148---25 .... 31 .... 31-95 i Ammoniacal pas........2 .. 0-59027 Hydrochloric Acid.....1 ... 37---68-51---75---69---68-05 Hydrochloric Acid gas-. 2 .. 123472 Hydrochlorate Amm. 1 .... 54 ... 100 00 ... 100 ... 100 ... 100-00 HYDROCHLORATE OF AMMONIA. 299 If one equivalent or two volumes of hydrochloric acid gas be mixed with one equivalent or two volumes of ammoniacal gas, combination is effected ; the gases disappear, heat is evolved, and the white hydrochlorate is deposited. Analogy would lead us to regard this salt as a chloride of some metallic base. If such a base exist, it must con- sist of one equivalent nitrogen and four equivalents hydro- gen. Berzelius assumes the existence of this hypothetical metallic base, and calls it ammonium, while sal ammoniac is termed by him chloride of ammonium. The protoxide of this hypothetical metal will be equal to an equivalent, of ammonia and one of water. I have already referred to Dr. Kane's amidogen hypothesis of ammonia; and stated that, according to this view, sal ammoniac is a chloro-amidide of hy- drogen. The composition of sal ammoniac, according to these hypothetical no- tions, is as follows :— 1 eq. 1 eq. Ammonia Hydrochl. = 17 Acid. = 37 Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct. Chlorine..................1........36.......66-6 Ammonium..............1........18........533 Chloride of Ammonium ...1........54........99-9 Atoms- Eq. Wt. Per Ct. Chloride of Hydrogen..........1........37......31-48 Amidide of Hydrogen..........1........17......68-51 Chloro-amidide of Hydrogen,. ..1. .54.. .10000 Impurities.—The hydrochlorate of ammonia is sometimes rendered impure by the presence of iron, or of lead, (see p. 297.) Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—According to Sir H. Davy, {Agricultural Chemistry.) water holding in solution 1*300 of its weight of hydro- chlorate of ammonia promotes vegetation. Solutions which contained 1-30 of their weight of this salt he found injurious. f3. On Animals.—A solution of sal ammoniac mixed with the blood drawn from the body produces no change in the size or shape of the blood-disks. Courten, {Phil. Trans, for 1712.) Sprogel, Viborg, and Gaspard (quoted by Wibmer,) {Die Wirkung, &c.,) injected solutions of sal ammoniac into the veins of animals (dogs and horses) : large doses generally caused convulsions, sometimes paralysis, and death. From the observations of Orfila, Smith, Arnold, (Wibmer, Op. cit.) and Moiroud, {Pharmacol. Veterinaire.) this salt appears to be a local irritant, and when introduced into the stomach in large quantities causes vomiting, purging, and gastro-enteritis. It exercises a specific influence over distant organs, for the first three of the above-mentioned experimenters observed that inflammation of the stomach ensued, to whatever part of the body the salt might have been applied, and the convulsions and paralysis before referred to, attest its action on the ner- vous system. Arnold says it diminishes the plasticity of the blood. y. On Man.—Wibmer tried this salt on himself. He took from ten to twenty grains for a dose, which he repeated at the end of an hour. The effects were a sensation of warmth and oppression in the stomach, headache, and increased desire of passing the urine. Jn this country it is so rarely employed internally that we have very slight ex perience either of its physiological or of its therapeutical effects. In Germany where it is more frequently administered, it is in high repute as a powerful alte rative or resolvent. (See p. 203.) " Like most salts," says Sundelin, {Hand buch der speciellen Heilmittellehre, ler Be. S. 150, 3te Aufl.) " sal ammoniac ope rates on the alimentary canal as an excito-irritant. After its absorption it appears to reduce moderately the action of the heart and large arteries, and, in this re- spect, belongs to debilitating or temperant agents. But it acts as excitant and irritant lo ihe venous and arterial capillary systems, to the lymphatic vessels and glands, to the skin, to the kidneys, and especially to the mucous membranes; not only increasing secretion but also improving nutrition and assimilation, and coun- teracting organic abnormal conditions (as tumours, thickenings, and relaxations,) 300 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. so frequently met with in those structures. It promotes not only the mucous se- cretions but also cutaneous exhalation, and even menstruation. Its diuretic effects are less obvious. It extends its stimulating influence to the serous and fibrous tissues, whose nutrition it improves. " From these statements it follows that sal ammoniac operates like the more- profoundly-acting alterative agents, and even approaches, in many respects, mer- cury, but is especially distinguished from the latter in this, that it by no means acts to such a degree as a liquefacient, nay even melting, agent on solidified or- ganic substance and its crasis, and by its not so powerfully stimulating the lym- phatic system. Its long-continued use may, indeed, injure the digestive powers, but never gives rise to general cachexia. I have administered large doses of it against thickening of the mucous membrane, for months, without remarking any injurious effeets beyond those just mentioned. In large doses it purges like other salts, but in small ones rather constipates." Kraus {Heilmittellehre, S. 309. Gottingen, 1831.) says, that a slight miliary eruption and very painful aphthae have been produced by large doses of it. Uses.—In this country it is rarely employed internally. In Germany, where it is frequently used, it is administered in the following cases :— 1. In mild inflammatory fevers, especially these complicated with affections of the mucous or fibrous membranes, as in the diseases called bilious, gastric, catarrhal or rheumatic fevers, it is employed for promoting secretion and hasten- ing critical discharges. 2. In inflammation of the mucous or serous membranes, as catarrh, dysentery, urethritis, peritonitis, pleuritis, &c, when the first violence of the disease has been subdued, but when the secretions and exhalations are not yet established. In these cases it is used as a substitute for mercury. 3. In chronic diseases of various kinds, as chronic inflammation of the lungs, liver, and spleen—enlargement of the mesenteric glands—induration of the pro- state, uterus, and ovaries—catarrhus vesicae—chronic ulceration of the uterus— mucous discharges from the urethra and vagina, it is administered as an altera- tive, as a stimulant to the absorbent system, and as a promoter of healthy secre- tion. 4. In amenorrhea it is strongly recommended by Sundelin {Op. cit.) as an emmenagogue, in those cases in which the disease depends on, or is connected with, inactivity of the uterus." Externally it is sometimes employed, on account of the cold produced during its solution, in headache, inflammatory affections of the brain, mania, apoplexy, &c. When used for this purpose it must be applied as soon as the salt is dis- solved. Mr. Walker {Phil. Trans. 1801, p. 120.) found that five parts of this salt, with five parts of nitrate of potash and sixteen parts of water, lowered the thermometer from 50° to 10° F. A mixture of this kind placed in a bladder has been recommended by Sir A. Cooper as an application to hernial tumours, as I have already mentioned (see p. 76). It may be applied, instead of the ice-cap before noticed (p. 76), to the head. As a stimulant and resolvent, or discutient, sal ammoniac is used in the form of plaster or lotion (see below). In powder, it is sometimes employed as a denti- frice. A solution of 3ss. in fjxij. of water is sometimes used as a gargle. It is occasionally used to augment the solubility of bichloride of mercury, with which it combines to form a soluble double salt (see Liquor Hydrargyri Bichlo- ridi). Tobacconists use it in the manufacture of snuff. Administration.—For internal use the dose of it is from five to thirty grains every two or three hours, either in a pulverulent form, combined with sugar or gum, or in solution with some saccharine or mucilaginous solution, to which an aromatic should be added. Antidote.—In the event of poisoning by this salt, warm water and mucilagi- nous and demulcent liquids should be given, to promote vomiting. No chemical SOLUTION OF ACETATE OF AMMONIA. 301 antidote or counterpoison is known. Gastro-enteritis is, of course, to be com- bated by the usual means. 1. LOTIO A.1M0M.E HYDROCHLORATIS. Muriate of Ammonia Wash.—k solu- tion of sal ammoniac, in water or in vinegar, with or without the addition of rectified spirit, is used as a resolvent or discutient lotion or embrocation. The proportions of the ingredients vary according lo circumstances. When a strong lotion is required, from one to two ounces of the salt are dissolved in twelve fluid ounces of liquid. Four ounces of rectified spirit are sometimes added. A wash of this strength is used in contusions and ecchymosis, when there is no wound of the skin ;—in chronic tumours of the breast ;—in white swellings, and other chronic affections of the joints;—in hydrocele, and dropsical enlargement of Ihe thyroid gland ;—in chilblains;—in sphacelus, after the requisite scarifications, &c. Weaker solutions (as from 3j. to 3iv. of the salt in Oj. of water) are em- ployed as washes in scabies and ulcers; and as injections in gonorrhoea and Ieu- corrhcea. %. EMPLASTRUM AMMONIA HYDROCHLORATIS. Sal Am?noniac Plaster. Lead plaster 3ss., Soap 3ij.; melt them together, and when nearly cold, add Hydro- chlorate of Ammonia 3ss., in fine powder.—This plaster is stimulant and rube- facient. Its effic'fcy depends on the evolution of ammoniacal gas, in consequence of the action of the alkali of the soap on the hydrochloric acid of the sal ammo- niac : hence it requires renewal every twenty-four hours. It is employed as a discutient for chronic swellings and indurations, white swellings, &c. Dr. Paris {Pharmacologia.) recommends it in rheumatism of the muscles of the chest, and in pulmonary complaints. 11. Ll'QUOR AMMO'NLE ACETATIS, L. (U. S.)—SOLUTION OF ACETATE OF AMMONIA. (Ammoniae Acetatis Aqua, E. D.) History—This solution appears to have been first described in 1732, by Boerhaave, who introduced it into the Materia Medica. It was subsequently employed by Minderer or Mindererus; and hence obtained one of its names, Spiritus seu Liquor Mindereri. Natural History.—Acetate of ammonia is, I believe, always an artificial compound. Preparation.—The London College directs this solution to be prepared with Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia Jivss., or as much as may be sufficient, and Dis- tilled Vinegar Oiv.; add the Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia to the Vinegar to saturation. The Edinburgh College orders "Distilled Vinegar (from French Vinegar in preference) f3xxiv.; Carbonate [Sesqui] of Ammonia 3j-• mix them to dissolve the salt. If the solution has any bitterness, add, by degrees, a little distilled vinegar till that taste be removed. The density of the distilled vinegar should be 1*005, and that of Aqua Acetatis Ammonia? 1-011."—The Dublin College directs one part of [Sesqui] Carbonate of Ammonia to be added gradually, and with frequent agitation, to as much distilled vinegar as may be requisite to saturate the ammonia ; namely, about thirty parts. The saturation is to be determined by means of litmus. [Tlie United States Pharmacopoeia directs Diluted Acetic Acid two pints, (see Acetic Acid) Carbonate of Ammonia in powder a sufficient quantity. Add the Carbonate of Ammonia gra- dually until it is saturated.] # In practice, diluted acelic acid is frequently substituted for distilled vinegar; and as the per ccntage strength of this acid, as found in commerce, is subject to considerable variation so must be the strength of the solution of acetate of ammonia. To obviate this, it would have been better if the British Colleges had fixed absolutely the quantity of hydrated sesqui. vol. I. 26 302 ELEMENTS of materia medica. carbonate of ammonia which should be employed to yield a given number of fluid ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia. Apothecaries then would be at liberty to employ a stronger or a weaker acetic acid, without affecting the strength of the product.1 Every equivalent or 118 parts of hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia require two equivalents or 102 parts of anhydrous acetic acid to form a neutral com- pound, while three equivalents or 66 parts of carbonic acid gas are set free. As- suming distilled vinegar to contain 4*6 per cent, of real acid, it follows that 2217*39 parts of distilled vinegar would contain two equivalents or 102 parts of acetic acid. materials. composition. products. ! 3 eq. Carbonic Acid. • 66_____________ 3 eq. Carbonic Acid...... C6 2eq. Water......... 18______________2 eq. Water.............. ]8 2 eq. Ammonia...... 34 ._______ 2 eq. Acetic Acid.......... 102 ---------------------—----—------2 eq. Acetate Ammonia.. 13(3 220 220 Properties.—When pure this liquid is colourless. Any tint, therefore, which the solution of the shops may have, is referrible to impurities in either the vine- gar or the sesquicarbonate. Filtering it through powdered animal charcoal will usually remove any yellow or brown colour which it may have. If quite neutral, it will affect neither turmeric nor litmus paper. It is better, however, to have a slight excess of acid present than of sesquicarbonate ; for if the latter predominate, the solution is much more irritant; and if employed as a collyrium, might produce inconvenient results. Characteristics.—It is totally dissipated by heat. With nitrate of silver it gives crystals {acetate of silver) soluble in water. When concentrated it evolves vapours of acetic acid on the addition of strong sulphuric acid, and gives out am- monia if potash or lime be mixed with it. With sesquichloride of iron it yields a red liquor {peracetate of iron). Composition.—By evaporating a saturated solution of acetate of ammonia under the exhausted receiver of the air-pump, and over sulphuric acid, crystals of the acetate are obtained. They are transparent oblique rhomboidal prisms, and con- sist, according to Dr. Thomson, of Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Acetic Acid........................ 1 ........ 51 ........ 38931 Ammonia......................... 1 ........ 17 ........ 12977 Water.............................. 7 ........ 63 ........ 48 091 Crystallized Acetate Ammonia...... 1 ........ 131 ........ 99-999 The quantity of dry or anhydrous acetate of ammonia contained in the solu- tion kept in the shops, varies with the strength of the distilled vinegar. Now, according to Mr. Phillips, 100 grs. of distilled vinegar should saturate 13 grains of crystallized carbonate of soda. This would indicate the presence of 4*6 per cent, of acetic acid; and, consequently, 100 grains of liquor ammoniae acetatis, prepared from such vinegar, would be composed as follows :— Acetate of Ammonia (dry).............. 6-040 Water.................................. 93959 Liquor Ammonia Acetatis (Ph. L.) Crystallized Acetate of Ammonia...... 11635 Water................................ 88 364 Liquor Ammoniae Acetatis (Ph. L.)..... 99-999 Impurities.—This solution ought neither to be discoloured by the addition of hydrosulphuric acid, nor to throw down any precipitate by nitrate of silver or chloride of barium. These substances, therefore, may be employed to detect, respectively, metallic matter, hydrochloric acid or a chloride, and sulphuric acid. Pure acetate of ammonia occasions no precipitate with diacetate or acetate of lead ; 1 For some remarks on the different strengths of this preparation in the different European Pharmacopreias, see Mohr, in the Berlinisches Jahrbuch fur die Pharmacie, Bd. xliii. S. 253. Bert. 1840. OTHER SALTS OF AMMONIA. 303 but the liquor ammonia? acetatis of the shops usually does, owing to the presence of some free carbonic acid or sesquicarbonate of ammonia. Physiological Effects.—In small doses this solution is regarded as a refri- gerant : in large doses, diaphoretic, diuretic, and perhaps resolvent. These effects, however, are not very obvious. Wibmer {Die Wirkung, &c.) took it in moderate doses, yet did not observe any diaphoretic, diuretic, or purgative effects from it; but he experienced headache and disturbed digestion. Dr. Cullen {Materia Medica) says, " I have known four ounces of it taken at once, and soon after four ounces more, without any sensible effect." The local operation of this solution is that of a mild stimulant. Uses. a. Internal.—It is employed in febrile and inflammatory diseases, and forms a constituent of the ordinary saline draught. It is given jn conjunction with nitrate of potash, or tartar emetic, and sometimes with camphor and opium. When administered as a diaphoretic, its operation is to be promoted by the use of tepid diluents and external warmth. Its diuretic effect is assisted by keeping the skin cool, and conjoining the spirit of nitric ether. f3. External.—Diluted with water it is sometimes employed as a discutient wash to inflamed and bruised parts. Mixed with six or seven times its volume of rose- water, to which a drachm or two of tincture of opium may sometimes be added, it is employed as a collyrium in chronic ophthalmia. Administration.—It is given in doses of half a fluid ounce to two or three ounces every five or six hours. OTHER SALTS OF AMMONIA. 1- AMMONI/E SULFHAS ; Sulphate of Ammonia; Sulphate of Oxide of Ammonium; Oxysul- phion of Ammonium; Glaubers Secret Sal Ammoniac.—This salt is a constituent of soot from coals. It is usually obtained by dissolving hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia in diluted sulphuric acid to saturation, and evaporating so that crystals may form as the solution cools. In an impure state it is procured by saturating the ammoniacal liquor of gas works or bone spirit witli sulphuric acid; and the sulphate thus obtained is used in the preparation of sal ammoniac. Sulphate of ammonia when crystallized (NH3, SO3, 2 HO) contains two equiva- lents of water; of one of which it may be deprived by heat. Anhydrous sulphate of ammonia docs not appear to exist; for when anhydrous sulphuric acid and ammoniacal gas are com- bined, a compound is formed in which neither sulphuric acid nor ammonia are evident to the usual tesls. Its composition is supposed to be NHa, SOa -f- HO> an(l -l has been denominated sulfamidc. 2. AMMONI/E NITRAS; Nitrate of Ammonia; Nitrate of Ammonium; Nitrum semivolatile; Nitrum jlummans. This salt is obtained by saturating diluted nitric acid with sesquicarbonate of ammonia, and evaporating so that crystals may form when the solution cools. If the solution be evaporated at a temperature below 100° F., large and beautiful six-sided prism9 are obtained, terminated by six-sided pyramids (prismatic.nitrate of ammonia). These crystals belong to the right prismatic system, and are isomorphous with nitrate of potash. They consist of one equiva- lent nitric acid 51, one equivalent ammonia 17, and one equivalent water 9. If the solution be boiled down, fibrous crystals are obtained (fibrous nitrate of ammonia). When dried at 300° F. nitrate of ammonia assumes ihe form ofa compact white mass (compact nitrate of ammonia). In doses not exceeding a scruple, this salt acts as a diuretic; and, according to the experiments of Wibmer (Die Wirkung der Arzneimittel und Gifte, Bd. 1, S. 130. Munchen, 1831.) made on himself, it reduces the frequency of the pulse and the animal heat, without affecting the head, chest, or stomach. It has been given in fevers and acute catarrhs, in doses of from one to two scruples. But it is rarely employed. It is the source from whence protoxide of nitrogen is obtained (see p. 291). As it gene- rates considerable cold while dissolving in water, it is sometimes used to form a freezing mixture. Lastly, it is occasion-illy employed to promote the incineration of organic sub- stances. 3. AMMONI/E CITRAS ; Citrate of Ammonia.—A solution of this salt is obtained by saturating lemon or lime juice, or a solution of citric acid, with sesquicarbonate of ammonia. 70 grains of the commercial crystals of citric acid, or f3xvijss. of lemon juice, saturate 59 grains of hydrated posnuii-arbonate of ammonia. Liquid citrate of ammonia is employed cither in the still or effer- vescent form a9 a cooling saline diaphoretic in febrile disorders. 304 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Order VII.—CARBON, AND ITS COMPOUNDS WITfl OXYGEN, HYDROGEN, AND NITROGEN. SECT. I.—CARBO'NIUM.—CARBON. History.—The term carbon (from carbo, dnis, coal) was first employed by Morveau, Lavoisier, and Berthollet, to designate the pure matter of charcoal. To the second of these chemists, we are indebted for demonstrating, that by combus- tion in oxygen gas the diamond and charcoal yield the same product; namely, carbonic acid gas. Natural History.—Carbon is found in both kingdoms of nature: [ tt. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—When pure and crystallized it constitutes the diamond, which Sir D. Brewster (Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. iii. p. 98; and Philosophical Magazine, vol. i. p. 147. 1827.) suspects to be of vegetable origin; but a specimen, described bv Mr. Heuland, (Geological Transactions, 2d Series, i. 419.) was found in a primary rock. Plum- bago and anthracite consist principally of carbon. The bituminous substances (as coal, petro- leum, naphtha, &c.) also contain it. These are admitted by geologists to be of vegetable origin. Carbnretted hydrogen is evolved frrjm coal strata, marshy places, stagnant waters, &c. Carbonic acid is found either in the free state, as in the atmosphere, in mineral waters evolved from the earth in old volcanic countries, &c, or combined wilh metallic oxides, in the form of the carbonate of lime, iron, one equivalent or 171 parts of crystallized cane sugar unite with one equivalent or 9 parts of water, to form one equivalent or 180 parts of grape sugar, which, in the process of fermentation, are converted into four equivalents or 88 parts of carbonic acid, and four equivalents or 92 parts of alcohol. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. 4 eq. Carbon---24-----------------____»4 eq. Carb. Acd. 1 eq. Crystallized \ 8 eq. Carbon- Cane Sugar, ml 1 eq. Grape j Beq. Oxygen. leq.Water...... .} "^ ™ ! 4 £ <*&• • *• 12 eq. Hydrog. .. 12---------- ----^^ 4 eq. Alcohol.... 92 180 180 180 "isii Vinous fermentation, then, is the metamorphosis of sugar into alcohol and car- bonic acid. But as the elements of the yeast or other ferment take no part in the transformation, (that is, do not enter into combination with the elements of the sugar,) some difficulty has been experienced in accounting for its agency in exciting fermentation. Two opinions are entertained respecting it: by some it is regarded as a putrefying substance, whose atoms are in continual motion, which they communicate to the constituents of the sugar, and thereby destroy its ' Dr. Royle's Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, p. 46. London, 1837. 3 Thomson's History of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 41, Lond. 1830. Testamentum Jfovissimum, p. 2. Edit. Basil o. 2. K500. ' v ALCOHOL. 319 equilibrium;1 by others, yeast8 is considered to consist essentially of seeds or sporules, whose vegetation is the immediate cause of the metamorphosis of the sugar. The liquid obtained by the vinous fermentation has received different names, ac- cording to the substance from which it is obtained. When procured from the expressed juices of fruits, as grapes, currants, gooseberries, &c, it is denominated Wine (Vinum) ; from a decoction of malt and hops, Ale or Beer {Cerevisia) ; and from a mixture of honey and water, Mead {Hydromeli). Fermented infusions of barley, (raw grain and malt,) prepared by the distillers of this country for the production of ardent spirit, are technically denominated Washes. The liquid obtained by vinous fermentation consists of water, alcohol, colour- ing and extractive matters, cenanthic ether, volatile oil, (e. g. oil of potatoes, oil of grain, &c.,) various acids and salts. Stage 2. Production of Ardent Spirits,—By the distillation of a vinous liquid we obtain Ardent Spirit {Spiritus Ardens). When grape wine is employed, the spirit is called Brandy {Spiritus Vini Gallici, Ph. Lond.) ; when the vinous liquid is obtained by the fermentation of molasses or treacle, the spirit is termed Rum {Spiritus Sacchari) ; when the liquid is a fermented infusion of grain {Wash), the spirit is denominated Corn Spirit {Spiritus Frumenti) ; and when the vinous liquid is either a fermented infusion of rice or toddy {Palm Wine), the spirit is named Arrack, (if from the former, it is termed Spi/itus Oryzce.) The well-known liquors called Gin, Hollands ox Geyieva, and Ityuskey, are corn spirits flavoured. Ardent spirit, from whatever source obtained, consists of water, alcohol, vola- tile oil, and, frequently, colouring matter. The following are, according to Mr. Brande, {Phil. Trans, for 1811 and 1813,) the average quantities of alcohol, (sp. gr. 0*825 at 60° F.) in some kinds of ardent spirit:— Alcohol 100parts {by measure) of (by measure.) Brandy contain................ 5539 Kum........................... 53-68 Gin............................ 5160 Alcohol 100 parts (by measure) of (by measure.) Whiskey (Scotch) contain............... 54 32 Whiskey (Irish)........................ 53-90 Each variety of ardent spirit has an aroma peculiar lo itself, and which is cha- racteristic of the substance from which it is produced. This depends on vola- tile oil. When wash is distilled, the fluid lhat comes over is called Singlings, or Low Wines. It is concentrated or doubled by a second distillation, by which Raw Corn Spirit is obtained. Towards the end of the distillation, the distilled pro- duct acquires an unpleasant odour and taste from the presence of volatile oil, and is called Faints. Raw corn spirit is sold by the distiller to the rectifier at 11 or 25 percent, over proof, in the language of Sikes's hydrometer. Stage %, Rectification.—The object of the rectifier is to deprive ardent spirit of its volatile oil and water. This is effected by repeated distillations, and by the use of pearl ash (carbonate of potash), which, by its powerful affinity for water, checks the rise of this fluid in distillation. In this way is procured the liquid called Rectified Spirit {Spiritus rectificatus, L. E. D.), which is sold by the rec- tifier to the chemist or apothecary. > The view above referred to is that entertained by Liebig; for full details of it I must refer to his work, entitled Organic. Chemistry, in its Application to Agriculture and Physiology, edited by L. Playfair, Ph. D., Lond. 1840; and Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th ed. p. 944, 1840. Berzelius (Journ.de Chimie Medicale, I. iii. p 42.'), 2nd Serie, 1837) ascribes decompositions of this kind, which are effected by the mere contact of one body with another, to a new force which he supposes to be called into action, and which be denominates catalytic force, (from xaraXvo), I loosen or dissolve.) ■» The Yeast Plant will be described and figured in a subsequent part of this work, to which the reader is referred. For further details, consult the Memoirs of Schwann (Poggendorf's Annalen der Physik, Bd. xii. p. 184 ; Pharmaceutisches Central-BUM fur 1837, S. 547 ; and Meyen's Report on the Progress of Vegetable Phy- siology during the year 1837. Ixind. 1839,) Cagniard-Latour and Turpin, (Biblioth. Univ. de Geneve. Nov. 1838; and Jameson's Edinb. .Veio Phil. Journ. vol. xxv-,) Keitzing, {Repertoire de Chimie, t. iii., Paris, 1838,) Que- venne, (Journ. de Pharm. t. \.viv,,) and Turpin, (Memoires de VAcademic Royale des Sciences de I'Institut t. xvii., I'arii, 1840.) 320 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. 1. Corn Spirit Oil; Oil of Grain; Potato Spirit Oil; Fuselbl; Hydrate of Amule ; Amilie Alcohol; Bihydrate of Amiline.—All ardent spirits contain a volatile oil which the Germans (L. Gmelin, Handb.d. Chemie, Bd. ii. S. 367,) call Fuselol. In 1825, Pelletan (Ann. de Chim. et de Physiq. t. xxx. p. 221; and Journ. de Chim. Med. t. i. p. 76) described that obtained from Potato Spirit, and which has been subsequently examined, in 1834, by Dumas, (Ann. de Chim. et de Physiq. t. lvi. p. 314,) and in 1839, by Cahours. (Ibid. t. lxx. p. 81.) The oil from corn spirit was described several years ago by Buchner. (Repertorium, xxiv. 270.) It has been long known to Messrs. Bowerbank, rectifiers, of London, who obtain it in the rectification of corn spirit. From them I procured it several years ago, under the name of oil of grain ; and in 1836 noticed it in my lectures. (London Medical Gazette, vol. xviii. p. 963.) In 1839 I gave a short description of its properties in the first edition of this work. It has since been more completely examined by Dr. Apjohn. (Lond. Edinb. and Dubl. Phil. Mag. vol. xvii. p. 86. 1840.) Under the name of Oleum siticum, Mulder1 has described a peculiar oil, which he ob- tained from corn spirit. Oil of grain, as I received it from Messrs. Bowerbank, is a limpid, transparent liquid, of a pale yellow colour, and having a very nauseous odour and an acid taste. The inhalation of its vapour produces an unpleasant and persistent sensation in the throat. When washed with water, (to remove the alcohol,) and subsequently distilled from chloride of calcium, (to deprive it of water,) it is quite colourless, and had, according to my experiments, a sp. gr. of 0-833 at 56° F. [0-813 at 60°, Apjohn.] It boils at about 268° F. Dr. Apjohn failed to congeal it at—6° F.; but Cahours congealed the oil from potato spirit at —4° F. It burns in the atmo- sphere with a flame like that of light carburetted hydrogen gas [with a bluish white flame, Cahours], It dissolves iodine; and, according to Dr. Apjohn, is a good solvent for fats, resins, and camphor. It is not miscible with water, which, however, sparingly dissolves it. Neither is it miscible with liquor ammonia?, nor with liquor potassa?. It dissolves in nitric acid, but acquires a slightly yellowish red tinge; and, when the mixture is heated, violent reaction takes place: nitrous fum© mixed with nitric ether are so rapidly evolved that, if the experi- ment be performed in a tubulated retort, the stopper is sometimes driven out with considerable violence. When mixed with oil of vitriol, a violet or blood-red-coloured thick liquid, with the , evolution of a mint-like odour, is produced, and, according to Cahours, sulpho-amulic acid (hi- sulphate of oxide of amulc C10 H" -f O + 2 SO3 -f Aq.) is formed. When distilled with dry phosphoric acid, it yields, according to the same authority, a carbo-hydrogen, called amilene (C10 H10.) Potassium rapidly decomposes it with the evolution of hydrogen. If it be heated with fused potash, hydrogen is disengaged, and a compound of potash and valerianic acid (C10 H9 O3 -f Aq.) is formed. This oil is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Cahours regards it as the hydrated oxide of a hypothetical base, called amule or amyle (C10 H",) and Liebig has adopted hia views. Atoms. Carbon .... 10 . Hydrogen... 12 • Oxygen..... 2 . Eq. Wt. ... 00 .. .. 12 .. ... 16 .. Per Ct. . 68-18 . . 13-64 . . 18-18 Apjohn. . 6813 . 13-33 .. 18-54 Dumas. Cahours. .. 68.6---68-90 .. 13-6---13-58 .. 17 8---17-52 Corn Spirit \ , Oil......I l .100 00 ....10000 .100.0 ....100 00 Or, Amule.. Oxygen , Water.. Atom. 1 .. I .. . 1 .. Eq. Wt- . 71 Hydrate of Oxide of [ Amule........... ) I am informed by Messrs. Bowerbank, that they obtain from 500 gallons of corn spirit about one gallon of oil, which they employ as a substitute for lamp oil. 2. CEnanthic Acid and CEnanthic Ether.—The only liquid obtained in the distillation of wine is a mixture of CEnanthic acid and CEnanthic ether. (See Vinum.) Properties of Rectified Spirit.—The liquid sold by rectifiers as rectified spirit {Spiritus rectificatus, L. E. D.) varies from 54 to 60, or even 64 per cent. over proof, in the language of Sikes's hydrometer. Hatters employ that at 54 or 56; varnish-makers that at 58 per cent, over proof. The London College fixes the sp. gr. at 0*838 at 62° F.; the Edinburgh College at 0-838,3 or under, at 60° F.; the Dublin College at 0*844 at 51° F., or 0*840 at 60° F. Purity.—Rectified spirit, besides having the sp. gr. above mentioned, should be colourless, transparent, and not rendered turbid on the addition of water. " In taste and smell it resembles wine," {Ph. L.) Its freedom from other substances than alcohol and water is to be determined partly by the purity of its odour, by the absence of any acid or alkaline ^reaction, and by its easy and complete vola- tility. It is frequently contaminated with the oil of corn spirit; of the presence 1 Pharmaceutishes Central-Bliitt fur 1837, S. » The alcohol of U. S. P. has a sp. gr. 0835. }*.—Siticus, from oitikoc, of or pertaining to coin. ALCOHOL. 321 of which there are two tests, sulphuric acid and nitrate of silver. If colourless oil of vitriol be added to rectified spirit, it causes a red tinge (see p. 320) if the oil be present. According to Vogel, nitrate of silver is a more delicate test for the oil; if it be mixed with spirit, and exposed to solar light, it becomes red if any oil be present, but undergoes no change of colour if the spirit be pure. The following are the directions of the Edinburgh College for the application of this test:— "Four fluid ounces [of rectified spirit] treated with 25 minims of solution of nitrate of silver, [Ph. Ed.,] exposed lo bright light for twenty-four hours, and then passed through a filter purified by weak nitric acid, so as to separate the black powder which forms,—undergo no farther change when again exposed to light with more of the test." The peculiar odour which spirit obtained from brandy or whiskey possesses, depends on a volatile oil, which " is best removed, on the small scale, by rectifi- cation with a little caustic potash, (Gobel, Liebig,) or by digesting the spirits with freshly-ignited pine charcoal." (Turner's Elements of Chemistry, p. 829, 7th edit. Lond. 1840.) Preparation of Proof Spirit.—The sp. gr. of proof spirit {Spiritus tenuior, L. E. D.) is fixed by the lawsrof the kingdom at 0*920 at 60° F. The Dublin College fixes it at 0-923 at 51° F., or 0*919 at 60° F. Proof spirit is usually prepared, by chemists and apothecaries, by mixing refined spirit with water. The proportions are, Rectified Spirit [sp. gr. 0*838] Ov. [f3xx.j. E.; b\ parts, D.;~\ and Distilled Water, Oiij. [f 3xij. or a sufficiency, E.; 3 parts, D.] The tests of its goodness are the same as for rectified spirit. Preparation of Alcohol.—Alcohol (L. E. D.) is prepared by the chemist from the rectified spirit purchased of the rectifier. It is obtained by adding chlo- ride of calcium, carbonate of potash, or well-burnt lime, to the spirit, which is then submitted to distillation. The salts or lime retain the water, while the alcohol distils over. The following are the directions of the British colleges:— The London College orders Rectified Spirit, Cong. j.; Chloride of Calcium, Ibj. Put the chloride of calcium into the spirit, and when it is dissolved, let seven pints and five fluid ounces distil. The Edinburgh College directs "Rectified Spirit, Oj.; Lime well burnt, 3xviij. Break down the lime into small fragments: expose the spirit and lime together to a gentle heat in a glass matrass till the lime begins to slake: withdraw the heat till the slaking is finished, preserving the upper part of the matrass cool with damp cloths. Then attach a proper refrigeratory, and, with a gradually increasing heat, distil off seventeen fluid ounces. The density of this alcohol sliould not exceed 0-796: if higher, the distillation must have been begun before the slaking of the lime was finished." The Dublin College takes of Rectified Spirit, Cong. j. (wine ?neasure;) Pearl ashes, dried, und still hot, lbiijss.; Muriate of Lime, dried, lbj. Add the pearl-ashes in powder to the spirit, and let the mixture digest in a covered vessel for seven days, shaking it frequently. Draw off the supernatant spirit, and mix it wilh the muriate of lime; lastly, distil, with a moderate heat, until the mixture in the retort begins to thicken. The sp. gr. of this liquor should be 0,810. Properties of Alcohol.—Alcohol is a limpid, colourless, inflammable liquid, having a peculiar and penetrating odour, and a burning taste. Its sp. gr. at 60° F. is 0*7947; at 68° F. it is 0-792—0-791. It is obvious, therefore, that the alcohol of the British colleges is a mixture of alcohol, properly so called, and water. No means of solidifying it are at present known. It boils at 172° F.: every volume of the boiling liquid gives 488-3 volumes of vapour, calculated at 212° F. It is very combustible. In atmospheric air it burns with a pale blue flame, giving out a very intense heat, and generating carbonic acid and water, but de- positing no soot, unless ihe supply of oxygen be deficient. The colour of the flame may be variously tinted—as yellow by chloride of sodium, whitish violet by chloride of potassium, green by boracic acid or a cupreous salt, carmine red 322 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. by chloride of lithium, crimson by chloride of strontium, and greenish yellow by chloride of barium. Before Combustion. After Combustion. Alcohol Vapour 23 2 eq. Oxygen = 16 2 cq. Oxygen = 16 2 eq. Oxygen = 16 I eq. Aq. Vap. = 9 1 eq. Aq. Vap. = 9 1 eq. Aq. Vap. = 9 1 eq. Carbonic Acid = 22 1 eq. Carbonic Acid = 22 One volume of alcohol vapour requires, for its complete combus- tion, three volumes of oxygen gas, and yields two volumes of carbonic acid gas and three volumes of aque- ous vapour. Alcohol has a strong affinity for water: hence it abstracts this fluid from the atmosphere, and precipitates from their watery solution those salts {e. g. sulphate of potash) which are not soluble in spirit: while, on the other hand, water preci- pitates from their alcoholic solution those substances {e. g. resin and oil) not soluble in water. By the mixture of alcohol and water, heat is evolved, while air-bubbles are so copiously developed, that for a few moments the liquid appears turbid. When cold, the resulting compound is found to possess a greater density than the mean of its constituents: but as the condensation varies with the propor- tions of alcohol and water employed, the sp. gr. of the resulting compound can be ascertained by experiment only. The maximum condensation is obtained by mix- ing 54 vols, of alcohol with 49*77 vols, of water: the resulting compound measures 100 vols., so lhat the condensation is 3*77. If we regard this as a definite com- pound of alcohol and water, its composition may thus be stated:— Rudberg. Eq. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Wt. Vols. Weight. Alcohol................1.................23..................46.................54 00................4291 W.-iter................3.................27..................54.................4977................49 77 Terhydrateof Alcohol..1.................50.................100 ...............10000................9268 [condensation 377] Alcohol combines with certain salts (as the chlorides and nitrates) to form defi- nite compounds, which have been termed alcohates, in which the alcohol appears to act as a substitute for the water of crystallization. Alcohol'is a solvent of many organic substances, as volatile oil, fixed oil, resin, extractive, most varieties of sugar, many nitrogenous organic acids, the vegetable alkalis, urea, caseum, gliadine, leucine, picromel, and osmazome. It prevents the putrefaction of animal substances, and is, in consequence, extensively employed in the preservation of anatomical preparations. Its efficacy is imperfectly under- stood. It acts, in part, at least, by excluding air (oxygen) and water,—the two powerful promoters of putrefaction; for when animal substances are immersed in spirit, this fluid extracts water from the tissue which, in consequence, shrivels up, and thus prevents putrefaction, by removing one of the essential conditions to its production, namely, the presence of water. Its attraction for water, and its power of coagulating albuminous substances, are properties which probably assist powerfully in rendering it an antiseptic. Alcohol and rectified spirit of wine give greater firmness to, and whiten, the animal tissues. The latter property is objectionable in the preservation of some morbid specimens, as gelatiniform cancer {cancer gelatiniforme or areolaire of Cruveilhier,—the matiere colloid of Laennec). A mixture of one part rectified spirit and three water will, however, preserve specimens of the last-mentioned disease in a transparent condition. Characteristics.—Alcohol and ardent spirits are recognised by their inflamma- bility, odour, taste, and miscibility with water. They dissolve camphor, resin, &c. In order to detect alcohol in liquids supposed to contain it, let the suspected liquor be submitted to distillation with a gentle heat (as from a vapour or water- ALCOHOL. 323 bath,) and to the distilled liquid add dry carbonate of potash, to abstract the water. The alcohol floats on the surface of the alkaline solution, and may be recognised by the characters above mentioned. Composition.—The elementary constituents of alcohol are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. , Boullay. Atom's. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. and Dumas. Saussure. Carbon......... 2 ........ 12 ........ 52 18 ........ 5237 ........ 51-98 Hydrogen...... 3 ........ 3 ........ 1304 ........ 1331 ........ 1370 Oxyeen......... 1 ........ 8 ........ 34 78 ........ 3461 ........ 3432 Alcohol. 1 ........ 23 ........10000 ........10029 ........10000 Vol. Carbon vapour...... 1 Hydrogen gas....... 3 Oxygen gas.........0.5 Alcohol vapour... 77~1~ Chemists are not agreed as to the manner in which these constituents are grouped. By some, these elements are regarded as forming one equivalent of olefiant gas, and one equivalent of water; others consider alcohol to be a compound of one equivalent of a £ carbo-hydrogen {etherine; tetrato-carbo-hydrogen; quadri-hydro- carburet,) and two equivalents of water; while some view this liquid as a hy- drated oxide of a f carbo-hydrogen {ethule ;x ethereum,) or as the hydrate of the oxide of ethule. The latter opinions involve the necessity of assuming the equiva- lent of alcohol to be 46 ; that is, double the amount stated above. The following table illustrates these views :— Eq. Per Atoms. Wt. Cent. Olefiant gas 1. ..14.. 607 Water......1....9.. 393 Eq. Per Atoms. Wt. Cent. Etherine-... 1 ..28.. 60 7 Water......2. ..18-. 39-3 Eq. Per Atoms. Wt. Cent. Ethule.. 1...29. .6304) Oxygen. .1....8.. 17-395 Water.... 1...9..19-56 Alcohol---1... .23.. 1000 , Alcohol.....1... 46-. 10U0 i Alcohol... I... 46. .99.99 Eq. Per Atoms. Wt. Cent. Ether........1. ..37. .80-43 Water.......1---9.-19-56 Alcohol......1...46 .9999 Fig. 49. Alcoholometrv.—The value of ardent spirit is of course, proportionate to the quantity of alcohol contained therein ; and, therefore, a ready mode of estimating this is most desirable. The alcoho- lometrical method usually adopted consists in determining the sp. gr. of the liquid by an instrument called the hydrometer (from u(5wp, water; and (j,£«rpsw, 1 measure). That employed in this country, in the collection of the duties on spirits, is called Sikes's hydrometer (fig. 49). Spirit having the sp. gr. 0*920, at 60° F., is called proof spirit; that which is heavier is said to be under proof, while lhat which is lighter is called over proof. The origin of these terms is as follows:—For- merly a very rude mode of ascertaining the strength of spirits was practised, called the proof; the spirit was poured upon gunpowder, in a dish, and inflamed. If at the end of the com- bustion the gunpowder took fire, the spirit was said to be above or over proof; but if the spirit contained much water, the powder was rendered so moist that it did not take fire: in this case the spirit was declared to be below or under proof. As spirit of different strength will or will not inflame gun- powder, according to the quantity of spirit employed, it became necessary to fix the legal value of proof spirit: this has been done, and proof spirit {Spiritus tenuior, Ph. L.) is defined, by act of Parliament, to be such, that at the temperature of 51° F., thirteen volumes of it weigh exactly as much as twelve volumes of water. According to this definition the sp. gr. at 60° F. is 0*920, and spirit of this strength consists of Hydrometer, with one of its ballast weights (a). b, Another weight. By Weight. Sp. Gr. Alcohol..................... 49 .......................... 0-791 Water...................... 51 .......................... 1C00 Proof spirit................. 100 0-920 ' Ethyle, or ethule (from ether, and v\n, the material or stuff from which any thing is made), is the hypo- thetical radical of the etheri. 324 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Spirit, which is of the strength of 43 per cent, over proof at the least, is recognised by the legislature (6 Geo. 4. cap. 80, Sects. 101 and 114.) as spirits of wine. All spirit under this strength is known in trade as plain spirit. Distillers are not permitted (Ibid. Sect. 81.) to sVnd out spirits at any other strengths than 25 or 11 per cent, above or- 10 per cent, below proof. Raw corn spirit, therefore, is sold at 25 or 11 per cent, above proof. Compounded spirits (as Gin) are not allowed (Ibid. Sect. 124.) to be kept or sent out stronger than 17 per cent, under proof; but Gin, as sold by the rectifier, is usually 22 per cent, under proof. Foreign or Colonial spirits (not being compounded colonial spirits) must not be kept or sent out of less strength than 17 percent. under proof. (Ibid. Sect. 130.) Rum and Brandy, as commonly sold, are 10 per cent, under proof. A series of carefully drawn up tables, showing the relation which exists between the sp. gr. of spirit of different strengths, and the indications of Sikes's hydrome- ter, is a great desideratum. Mr. Gutteridge1 has published some tables; but seve- tal of his statements do not coincide with experiments which I have made on the subject. The following are extracts from his work :— SIKES'S HYDROMETER. Sp. Gr. at C0°F. f70 per centum......................... 08095 164.................................. 0-8221 63*1 ................................. 0.8238 I 62 ................................ 0-8259 (61*1 .................................. 08277 60 .................................. 0-8298 ■< 59*1 ................................. 0-8315 | 58 .................................. 0-8336 S.J57-1 ................................. 0-8354 *. ) 56 .................................. 08376 9 55-9 .................................. 0-8379 ° | 55-7 ..............'.................... 0-83->3 155-0 .................................. 0-8396 | 54-1 .................................. 0-8413 50-1 .................................. 0-8482 43-1 .................................. 0-8597 | 25 .................................. 0-8869 J. 1M.................................. 0-9060 SIKES'S HYDROMETER. Sp. Gr. at 1>U°F. Proof.................................... 0-9200 f 5 per centum........................ 0-9259 10 .................................... 09318 11 .................................... 0*9329 15*3 .................................... 0-9376 17*1 ................................... 0-9396 20 ................................... 0-9426 22-3 ................................... 0-9448 23*1 ................................... 0-945G -§<;25-l ................................... 0-9476 J 30-1 ................................... 0-9522 40-1 ................................... 0-9603 50-3 ................................... 0-9673 60*4................................... 0-9734 70-1 ................................... 0-9790 80-4 ................................... 0-9854 90-2 ................................... 0-9922 100 (water).............................. 1-0000 The sp. gr. of spirit may be readily ascertained by Loci's beads, or by the speci- fic gravity bottle. Table* of the specific Gravities of Mixtures of Spirit (0-825 at 60° F.) and Water at 60° F. Temperature 6C o p. Sp. gr. Temperature 60° F. Sp. gr. Spirit ' LOO + Water 0 . . . 0*82500 Waterloo + Spir it 95 . . 0*93247 55 LOO + 55 5 . . . 0-83599 55 loo + 55 90 . . . 0.93493 55 L00 + 55 10 . . . 0-84568 55 100 + 55 85 . . . 0*93749 55 L00 + 55 15 . . . 0*85430 55 100 + 55 80 . . 0*94018 55 L00 + 55 20 . . . 0-86208 55 100 + 55 75 . . 0*94296 55 LOO + 55 25 . . . 0*86918 55 100 + 55 70 . . 0*94579 55 LOO + 55 30 . . . 0*87568 55 100 + 55 65 . . 0*94876 55 LOO + 55 35 . . . 0*88169 55 100 + 55 60 . . 0*95181 55 LOO + 55 40 . . . 0*88720 55 100 + 55 55 . . 0*95493 55 LOO + 55 45 . . . 0*89322 55 100 + 55 50 . . 0*95804 55 L00 + 55 50 . . . 0*89707 55 100 + 55 45 . . 0*96122 55 LOO + 55 55 . . . 0*90144 55 100 + 55 40 . . 0*96437 55 00 + 55 60 . . . 0*90549 55 100 + 55 35 . . 0*96752 55 LOO + 55 65 . . . 0*90927 55 100 + 55 30 . . 0*97074 55 LOO + 55 70 . . . 0*91287 55 100 + 55 25 . . . 0*97409 55 LOO + 55 75 . . . 0*91622 55 100 + 55 20 . . . 0*97771 55 LOO + 55 80 . . . 0*91933 55 100 + 55 15 . 0*98176 55 L00 + 55 85 . . . 0*92225 55 100 + 55 10 . . . 0*98654 55 LOO + 55 90 . . . 0*92499 55 100 + 55 5 . . 0*99244 55 LOO + 55 95 . . . 0*92758 55 100 + 55 0 . . 1*00000 55 LOO + 55 100 . . . 0*93002 1 The Ne Plus Ultra of Assaying, Weighing, Measuring, and Valuing of Spirituous Liquors, vol. ii. By W. Gutteridge. London, 1823. , » Drawn up from Gilpin's Tables in the Philosophical Transactions for 1792.—The spirit, which Mr. Gilpin called alcohol, was composed of 89 alcohol (sp. gr. 0-796 at 60° F.) and 11 water. ALCOHOL. 325 Another mode of judging of the strength of spirits is the phial test, technically called the bead; the preuve d'Hollande of the French. It consists in shaking the spirit in a phial, and observing the size, number, and bursting of the bubbles (or beads as they are termed :) the larger and more numerous the beads, as well as the more quickly they break, the stronger the spirit. Hitherto chemical analysis has been of little avail in determining the strength of spirit, at least for commercial purposes. For, on the one hand, we are yet in want of an accurate method of determining the relative quantities of alcohol and water in mixtures of these fluids; while, on the other, the combustion of spirit by the black oxide of copper, and the estimation of the quantity of alcohol by the carbonic acid produced, is impracticable for ordinary purposes. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—Alcohol acts on plants as a rapid and fatal poison. Its effects are analogous to those of hydrocyanic acid. (3. On Animals.—Leeches immersed in spirit die in two or three minutes. Their bodies are shrivelled or contracted, and before death they make but few movements ; the head and tail of the animal are drawn together. Fontana {Trea- tise on the Venom of the Viper, translated by J. Skinner, vol. ii. p. 371, et seq.) found, that when half the body of a leech was plunged in spirit, this part lost all motion, whilst the other half continued in action. The same experimentalist ob- served, that spirit killed frogs, when administered by the stomach (in doses of 40 drops), injected beneath the skin, or when applied to the brain or spinal mar- row. Plunging the heart of this animal into spirit caused its motion to cease in twenty seconds. Applied to the right crural nerve of a frog, it destroyed the power of moving in the right foot, on the application of stimulus. Monro {Es- says and Observ. Physic, and Literary, vol. iii. p. 340.) observed, that alcohol applied to the hind legs of a frog, rendered the pulsations of the heart less fre- quent, and diminished sensibility and mobility. Fontana {Op. cit. p. 365, et seq.) states, that turtles were killed by spirit administered by the stomach or by the anus, or injected beneath the skin: before death, the animal became motionless: applied to the heart of these animals it destroyed the contractility of this viscus. t Some very interesting experiments were made with spirit on birds by Flourens.1 This distinguished physiologist administered six drops of alcohol to a sparrow, whose skull he had laid bare. In a few minutes the animal began to be unsteady both in walking and flying. After some time a dark-red spot appeared on the skull, in the region of the cerebellum, and became larger and deeper-coloured in proportion as the alcohol more powerfully affected the animal. 1 have given alcohol to birds, but have hitherto been unable to discover the physical changes here stated. In some other experiments, Flourens observe/I that alcohol pro- duced the same effects on the movements of birds as the removal of the cerebel- lum occasioned, but that when alcohol was administered the animal lost the use of his senses and intellectual faculties ; whereas, when the cerebellum was removed, no alcohol being given, he preserved them. From these and other observations Flourens is of opinion, that alcohol, in a certain dose, acts specifically on the cerebellum, and that in larger doses it affects other parts also. Farthermore, he thinks the physical action of alcohol on the cerebellum to be absolutely the same as a mechanical lesion. The effect of alcohol on fishes is analogous to that on other animals. If a little spirit be added to water, in which are contained some minnows {Cyprinus phoxi- nus, Linn.,) the little animals make a few (spasmodic?) leaps, and become inca- pable of retaining their proper position in the water, but float on their sides or back. If removed into pure water they soon recover. The mammals on which the effects of alcohol have been tried, are dogs, cats, horses, rabbits, and guinea-pigs. The principal experimentalists are, Courten, {Philosophical Transactions for 1712.) Fontana, {Op. supra cit.) Viborg, {Ab- 1 Recherehes sur les fonctions et les proprietcs du systeme nerveux dans les animaux vertebrts. Paris, 1824. vol. i. 28 326 elements of materia medica. handl.fiir Thierdrztc, Theil II. quoted by Wibmer, Die Wirkung, &c) Brodie, {Philosophical Transactions for 1811.) and Orfila. {Toxicologic Generate.) The results of their experiments may be thus briefly expressed:—Four drachms of alcohol, injected into the jugular vein of a dog, coagulated the blood, and caused instant death {Orfila). Introduced into the stomach of cats, dogs, or rab- bits, it produces an apoplectic condition {Brodie and Orfila): this state is preceded, according to Orfila, by a strong excitement of the brain. The same experimen- talist found that alcohol acts with less energy when injected into the cellular tex- ture than when introduced into the stomach ; from which he infers, that its first effects are the result of the action which it exerts on the extremities of the nerves; though he admits that ultimately it becomes absorbed. On examining the bodies of animals killed by introducing alcohol into the stomach, this viscus has been found in a state of inflammation. y. On Man.—The effects of alcoholic liquors on man vary with the strength of the liquid, the substances with which ihe alcohol is combined, the quantity taken, and the constitution of the patient. act. The local effects of alcohol or rectified spirit are those of a powerfully irri- tant and caustic poison. To whatever part of the body this agent is applied, it causes contraction and condensation of the tissue, and gives rise to pain, heat, redness, and other symptoms of inflammation. These effects depend partially or wholly on the chemical influence of alcohol over the constituents of the tissues: for the affinity of this liquid for water causes it to abstract the latter from soft living parts with which alcohol is placed in contact; and when these are of an albuminous or fibrinous nature, it coagulates the liquid albumen or fibrin, and increases the density and firmness of the solid albumen or fibrin. The irritation and inflammation set up in parts to which alcohol is applied, depends (in part) on the resistance which the living tissue makes to the chemical influence of the poison: in other words, it is the reaction of the vital powers brought about by .the chemical action of alcohol. But besides the local influence of this liquid dependent on its affinity, we can hardly refuse to admit a dynamical action {vide p. 129), in virtue of which it sets up local irritation and inflammation, independent of its chemical agency. The coagulation of the blood contained in the vessels of the part to which this liquid is applied (an effect which Orfila observed when he killed an animal by injecting alcohol into the cellular tissue of the thigh of a dog), depends on the chemical influence of the poison. /3/3. The remote effects of ardent spirits on man may be conveniently considered in the order of their intensity ; and for this purpose we may divide them into three degrees or stages.1 1. First or Mildkst degree. Excitement.—This is characterized by excitement of the vascular and nervous systems. The pulse is increased in frequency, the face flushed, the eyes animated and perhaps red, the intellectual functions are powerfully excited, the individual is more disposed to joy and pleasure; cares disappear; the ideas flow more easily and are more brilliant. At this period the most violent protestations of love and friendship are frequently made; there is a strong disposition to talk, and various indiscretions are oftentimes committed (In vino Veritas). This degree of effect I presume to be the condition to which all persons aspire in drinking: the unfortunate drinks to drown his cares; the coward to give him courage; the bon vivant for the sake of enjoying the society of his friends; the drunkard from mere sensuality. None, perhaps, would wish to go beyond this, yet many, when they have got thus far, exceed their intended limit. 2. Second degree. Intoxication or Drunkenness.—The essential character of this stage is a disordered condition of the intellectual functions and volition; manifested by delirium, varying in its characters in different individuals, and by an incapability of governing the 1 The newspaper reports of the proceedings at the Metropolitan Police Offices furnish examples of the em- ployment, by the lower classes, of certain terms to designate the different degrees of the effects of fermented and spirituous liquors. When an individual is merely excited, he is described as fresh; but neither tipsy nor drunk. When the disordered intellect is just commencing, he is said to be hay seas over. When he is be- ginning to be unsteady in his gait, he is described as being tipsy. When he reels, falls about, is incapable of standing, but is yet sensible, he is said to be drunk. And, lastly, when he is insensible or nearly so, he is described as dead drunk.—Sir Walter Scott (Waverley) distinguishes fuddled or half seas over (ebriolus) from drunken (cbrius.) ALCOHOL. 327 action of the voluntary muscles. This state is accompanied with excitement ofjhe vascular system, and frequently with nausea and vomiting: it is followed by an almost irresistible desire for sleep, which usually continues for several hours, and is attended wilh copious perspiration. When the patient awakes he complains of headache, loathing of food, great thirst, and lassitude: the tongue is furred and the mouth clammy. During a paroxysm of drunkenness, certain peculiarities are observed in the character of the delirium in different individuals. These appear to depend on what is commonly denominated temperament. (Sec p. 156) Mr. Macnish (The Anatomy of Drunkenness, p. 43, 2d cd. Glasgow, 1828.) has offered a classification of drunkard.*, founded on these peculiarities. He de- scribes the sanguineous drunkard, the melancholy drunkard, the surly drunkard, the phlegmatic drunkard, the nervous drunkard, and the choleric drunkard. 3. Third degree. Coma or True Apoplexy.—This condition is usually observed when ex- cessive quantities of spirit have been swallowed in a short time. Accordingly to Dr. Ogston, the patient is sometimes capable of being roused ; the pulse is generally slow, the pupils are occa- sionally contracted, but more commonly dilated, and the breathing is for the most part slow: but exceptions exist to all these statements. Convulsions are rare: when they occur, the patients are usually young. In some cases actual apoplexy (with or without sanguineous extra- vasation) is brought on. The immediate cause of death appears to be either paralysis of the muscles of respiration, or closure of the glottis.—(Vide pp. 188 and 189.) Consequences of Habitual Drunkenness.—The continued use of spiritu- ous liquors gives rise lo various morbid conditions of system, a few only of the most remarkable of which can be here referred to. One of these is the disease known by the various names of delirium tremens, d. potatorum, oinomania, &c, and which is characterized by delirium, tremor of the extremities, watchfulness, and great frequency of pulse. The delirium is of a peculiar kind. It usually consists in the imagined presence of objects which the patient is anxious to seize or avoid. Its pathology is not understood. It is sometimes, but not constantly, connected with, or dependent on, an inflammatory condition of the brain or its membranes. Sometimes it is more allied to nervous fever. Opium has been found an important agent in relieving it. Insanity is another disease produced by the immoderate and habitual use of spirituous liquors. In 110 cases of this disease, occurring in male patients ad- mitted into the Hanwell Asylum in 1840, no less than 31 are ascribed to intem- perance, while 34 are referred to combined causes, of which intemperance is stated as one. It is remarkable, however, that of 70 female patients, admitted during the same year, only four cases are ascribed to intemperance.1 Disease of the liver is frequently met with in drunkards, who use ardent spirits. It is generally of the kind termed, by Baillie, common tubercle of the liver ; by Dr. Elliotson, {London Medical Gazette, vol. xii. p. 484.) the gin liver; by others, granulated, lobulated, mamellated, or scirrhous liver. Laennec calls it cirrhosis, (from xippoj, yelloivish,) in reference to its usual tawny, yellow colour. A beautiful representation of it is given by Cruveilhier. {Anatom. Patholog. liv. 12% pi. 1.) Dr. Carswell {Pathological Anatomy, art. Atrophy) has described it as consisting in atrophy of the lobular structure of the liver, produced by the presence of a contractile fibrous tissue. It is not, therefore, a disease depending on the formation of a new tissue. The ascites, which so frequently accompanies it, arises from the compression to which the portal vessels are subjected by the fibrous tissue; and the jaundice, another frequent effect of it, doubtless depends on compression of the gall ducts. Some excellent remarks on this disease have been made by the late Dr. Hope. {Principles and Illustrations of Morbid Anatomy. Lond. 1834.) Stomach affections are common results of dram-drinking. Persons addicted to the use of ardent spirits suffer with loss of appetite, and are usually dyspeptic; and chronic inflammation of the stomach, or even a scirrhous state of the pylorus, has been said to be occasionally produced by hard drinking. Dram-drinkers are sometimes affected with granular disease of the kidneys, 1 Report of the Resident Physician [Dr. ConollyJ of the Hanwell Lunatic Asylum, presented to the Court of Quarter-Sessions at the Middlesex Sessions, 1840. 328 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. first described by Dr. Bright, and which is generally attended by albuminous urine. Dr*. Hope regards this state as corresponding to the granular liver just described.1 Peculiarities of Intoxication from Spirit.—Different kinds of ardent spirits present some peculiarities in their operation on the system, which will be noticed hereafter (see Brandy, Rum, Gin, Whiskey, and Arrack). The effects of spirit agree, in a considerable number of circumstances, with those of wine, but present some peculiarities. Spirit more speedily induces ex- citement, which, however, is of shorter duration, being more rapidly followed by collapse, relaxation, or debility. Death is by no means an infrequent conse- quence of deep intoxication from spirit. Dram-drinkers suffer usually with loss of appetite, especially in the morning, when they are troubled with vomiting. Moreover they are usually thin, wasted, tand emaciated. Wine-bibbers, on the other hand, often enjoy an unimpaired appetite, and are frequently plump or cor- pulent, plethoric individuals. Liver disease, from intemperance, is said to be peculiar to those who take ardent spirits. Organic disease of the stomach is also a consequence of spirit drinking. A somewhat similar distinction holds good between the effects of spirit and those of malt liquors. The latter possess nutritive properties in addition to narcotic powers : hence we frequently observe that the beer toper is a plethoric, corpulent individual.3 The effects of opium are readily distinguished from those of spirit when insen- sibility has not come on. The sleep which both these agents commonly induce is not usually preceded, in the case of opium, by delirium, thickness of voice, and peculiar difficulty of articulation. When delirium is produced by this drug (opium) it is rather of the ecstatic kind. " There is more poetry in its visions—more mental aggrandizement — more range of imagination." {The Anatomy of Drunkenness, by Robert Macnish ; p. 63, 2d ed. Glasgow, 1828.) But when insensibility is present the diagnosis is not always easy. The odour of the breath is in these cases an important diagnostic. Moreover, the pupil is usually (though not invariably) dilated by spirit, whereas it is contracted by opium. Modus Operandi.—That alcohol becomes absorbed is proved by the fact, that it has been found in the blood, in the urine, the breath, the bile, the fluid of the serous membranes, the brain, and the liver. Tiedemann and Gmelin (Tiber die Wege aufwelchen Substanzen aus den Magen ins Blut gelangen. Heidelberg, 1820.) recognised the odour of it in the blood of the splenic vein, though they were unable to detect it in the chyle. A similar observation is reported by Magendie. {Element. Compend. of Physiology, by Dr. Milligan, p. 248, 1823.) Dr. Percy3 also found it in the blood of the animals to whom he had administered it. He likewise detected it in the urine and the bile. Moreover, the recognition of the odour of alcoholic liquors in the breath of indi- viduals who have swallowed them, as well as their detection by their smell in the fluid contained in the ventricles of the brain, the pericardium, &c, prove indis- putably that alcohol becomes absorbed. Dr. Cooke {Treatise on Nervous Dis- eases, i. 222. Lond. 1820.) states, on the authority of Sir A. Carlisle, that in one case the fluid of the ventricles of the brain had the smell, taste, and inflam- mability of gin. Dr. Christison {Treatise on Poisons, p. 853. 3d ed.) has questioned the correctness of this observation, on the ground that gin of sufficient strength to take fire could not enter the blood-vessels without coagulating the blood. But the objection appears to me to be groundless; for 1 find that a small quantity of undiluted commercial gin may be added to white of egg without causing either 1 See also Dr. Christison On Granular Degenerations of the Kidneys, p. 110. Edinb. 1839. a Hogarth, in his Beer Alley and Gin Lane, has well represented the differences between drunkards devoted to malt liquors, and those given to the use of spirit. The first are plump, rubicund, and bloated; the latter are pale, tottering, emaciated, and miserable. 3 An Experimental Inquiry concerning the presence of Alcohol in the ventricles of the Brain, after Poisoning with that liquid, together with Experiments illustrative of the Physiological Action of Alcohol. Lond. 1839. ALCOHOL. 329 coagulation or the slightest opacity. Dr. Ogston {Edinburgh Medical and Sur- gical Journal, vol. xl.) has confirmed the testimony of Carlisle, and states, that in one case he found about four ounces of fluid in the ventricles, having all the physical qualities of alcohol. Dr. Percy {Op. supra cit.) has recently set the question at rest, and satisfactorily proved the accuracy of the above statements, by his experiments on animals. He appears to think that some peculiar affinity exists between the substance of the brain and the spirit; more especially as, after analyzing a much larger quantity of blood than can possibly exist in the cranium, he could generally obtain much more alcohol from the brain than from this quan- tity of blood. He was unable to determine whether or not the fluid of the ventri- cles contained any alcohol. Dr. Percy also detected alcohol in the liver, and has endeavoured to connect this fact with the frequent occurrence of hepatic disease in drunkards. Morbid Appearances.—On examining the bodies of individuals who have been poisoned by ardent spirits, redness and inflammation of the stomach are some- times, but not invariably, found. In old drunkards the mucous membrane of the stomach is often injected and thickened. Congestion of the cerebral vessels, with or without extravasation of blood or effusion of serum, is not unfrequently ob- served. Traces of spirit may or may not be found in the stomach, according to the rapidity with which death has been produced. The odour of spirit may per- haps be recognised in various parts of the body, especially the brain and the serous cavities. Uses.—Spirit of wine is employed both for medicinal and pharmaceutical pur- poses. I. Medicinal Uses-—Spirit is used both internally and externally :— a. internally.—Spirit of wine is rarely administered internally ; for when ardent spirit is indicated, Brandy, Gin, or Whiskey, is generally employed. The separate uses of each of these will be noticed presently: at present, therefore, I shall confine myself to some general remarks on the internal employment of spirit. I may observe, however, that Brandy is the ardent spirit usually administered for medicinal purposes ; and, unless otherwise stated, is the spirit referred to in the following observations. As a stomach stimulant, spirit is employed to relieve spasmodic pains and flatu- lency, to check vomiting (especially sea-sickness,) and to give temporary relief in some cases of indigestion, attended with pain after taking food. As a stimulant and restorative, it is given with considerable advantage in the latter stages of fever. As a powerful excitant, it is used to support the vital powers, to prevent fainting during a tedious operation, to relieve syncope and languor, and to assist the restoration of patients from a state of suspended animation. In delirium tremens it is not always advisable to leave off the employment of spirituous liquors at once, since the sudden withdrawal of the long-accustomed stimulus may be attended with fatal consequences. In such cases it is advisable to allow, tempo- rarily, the patient the moderate use of the particular kind of spirit which he has been in the habit of employing. In poisoning by foxglove and tobacco, spirit and ammonia are used to rouse the action of the heart. In mild cases of diarrhoza, attended with griping pain, but unaccompanied by any inflammatory symptoms, a small quantity of spirit and water, taken warm, with nutmeg, is often a most effi- cacious remedy. (3. Externally.—Spirit of wine is used externally for several purposes, of which the following are the principal:—As a styptic, to restrain hemorrhage from'weak and relaxed parts. It proves efficacious in two ways :—it coagulates the blood by its chemical influence on the liquid albumen and fibrin, and it causes the con- traction of the mouths of the bleeding vessels by its stimulant and astringent qualities. Sponge or soft linen, soaked in spirit and water, has been applied to ihe mouth of the uterus in uterine hemorrhage. (Richter, Ausfahrliche Arzneimit- o^# 330 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. tellehre, 3er Bd. S. 256. Berlin, 1828.) Spirit is used to harden the cuticle over the tender and delicate parts. Thus, brandy is sometimes applied to the nipples, several weeks before delivery, in order to prevent the production of sore nipple from suckling in individuals predisposed to it.. Spirit is also applied to the feet, when the skin is readily blistered by walking. The efficacy of spirit, in harden- ing the cuticle, depends, in part, on its chemical influence. Spirit gargles have been found serviceable in checking the tendency to inflammation and swelling of the tonsils. As a stimulant application, warm rectified spirit has been applied to burned or scalded parts, on the principles laid down for the treatment of these cases by Dr. Kentish. {An Essay on Burns. Lond. 1798.—A Second Essay on Burns. Newcastle, 1800.) Properly diluted, spirit has been employed as a wash in various skin diseases, and in ulcers of bed-ridden persons, and as a collyrium in chronic ophthalmia. Frictions with rectified spirits have been used in the abdominal region, to promote labour pains : on the chest, to excite the action of the heart, in fainting or suspended animation ; on the hypogastric region, to stimu- late the bladder, when retention of urine depends on inertia, or a paralytic con- dition of this viscus : on various parts of the body, to relieve the pain arising from bruises, or to stimulate paralysed parts. The inhalation of the vapour of rectified spirit has been recommended to re- lieve the irritation produced by the inspiration of chlorine ; but I have tried the practice on myself without benefit. The readiest mode of effecting it is to drop some spirit on a lump of sugar, and hold this in the mouth during inspira- tion. Diluted spirit has been used as an injection for the radical cure of hydrocele. A mixture of wine and water, however, is commonly employed in this country. Spirit has been used to form cold lotions (See p. 72). As the efficacy of it depends on its evaporation, it should be applied by means of a single layer of linen, and not by a compress. Evaporating lotions are applied,—to the head in cephalalgia, in phrenitis, in fever, in poisoning by opium, &c.; to fractures of the, extremities; to parts affected with erysipelatous inflammations, &c. Antidotes.—The first object in the treatment of poisoning by spirituous liquors is to evacuate the contents of the stomach. This is best effected by the stomach- pump ; emetics being frequently unsuccessful. Stimulants are then to be em- ployed : the most effectual are the injection of cold water into the ears, cold affu- sion to the head and neck, warmth to the extremities, when these are cold, and the internal use either of ammonia, or of the solution of the acetate of ammonia, both of which agents have been found useful in relieving stupor. The cerebral congestion often requires the cautious employment of local blood-letting, and the application of cold to the head. If the patient appear to be dying from paralysis of the respiratory muscles, artificial respiration should be effected : if from closure of the larynx, tracheotomy may be performed (See pp. 188 and 189). 1. SPIRITUS VINI GALLICI, L.-; Brandy ;* Eau-de-vie.—This is an ardent spirit obtained by the distillation of wine. Its properties are subject to some varia- tion, arising from different growths of the vine: "The brandies of Languedoc, Bordeaux, Armagnac, Cogniac, Aunis, Saintonge, Rochelle, Orleans, Barcelona, Naples, &c, being each recognisable by an experienced dealer." (Ure's Dic- tionary of Arts and Manufactures, p. 164. Lond. 1839.) The most celebrated of the French brandies are those of Cogniac and Armagnac. Genuine brandy has an agreeable, vinous, aromatic odour. Both its flavour and odour, however, are peculiar. Pale brandy has a very slight brownish yellow tint, derived from the cask in which it has been kept. The high-coloured brandy, usually found in the shops of this country, is artificially coloured (before its arrival in this country) by burnt sugar (caramel); which is said to render the spirit mellow and 1 Brandy is a contraction for Brandy-tcine (Brannhrein, Germ.,) which literally signifies Burnt wine (Vinum adustum). ALCOHOL. 331 more palatable. (M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce.) Saunders-wood is also stated, by the same authority, to be frequently used as a colouring ingre- dient. The constituents of brandy are alcohol, water, volatile oil, a minute portion of acetic acid, a little acetic ether, cenanthic ether, colouring matter, and tannin. The latter is said to be derived from the cask in which the spirit has been pre- served : but I find that the high-coloured brandies react more powerfully on the salts of iron than pale brandy : whence I conclude that some astringent matter has been added to them. Brandy when just imported is usually above proof. I found a sample of pale brandy, in bond, supplied me by my friend, Mr. Gassiot, to be 1*5 over proof; and a coloured brandy, 2*2 over proof, as indicated by Sikes's hydrometer. By keeping in the cask its alcoholic strength is diminished. I am informed that brandy, as usually sold, is 10 per cent, under proof. This would give, accord- ing to Guiteridge's table, a sp. gr. of«0*9318. But Soubeiran {Nouveau Traite de Pharmacie, t. i. p. 142, 2nde ed.) states, that the sp. gr. of eau-de-vie varies from about 0*902 to 0*941. Now according to Gilpin's tables a spirit having the sp. gr. of 0-93002 is composed of equal parts of alcohol (sp. gr. 0*825) and water. But Mr. Brande states that 100 parts by measure of brandy, contain 53*39 parts of alcohol, sp. gr. 0*825. The relative quantities of spirit contained in this and other ardent spirits, in wine, and in beer, have been already men- tioned. (See p. 103 and 319.) British Brandy is extensively manufactured, and sold as foreign brandy. Dr. Ure {Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures, p. 165.) gives the following formula for it:—" Dilute the pure alcohol to the proof pitch ; add to every hundred pounds weight of it from half a pound to a pound of argol (crude winestone) dissolved in water, a little acetic ether, and French-wine vinegar, some bruised French plums, and flavour-stuff from Cognac; then distil the mixture, with a gentle fire, in an alembic furnished with an agitator. The spirit which comes over may be coloured with nicely burned sugar (caramel) to the desired tint, and roughened in taste with a few drops of tincture of catechu or oak-bark." Acrid matters (as Grains of Paradise) are sometimes added to brandy to give it an artificial strength. They may be readily detected by evaporation. Sugar, also, may be discovered in the same way. The residue of the evaporation of genuine brandy yields a green colour with the salts of iron, indicating the pre- sence of tannin : and imitation brandy may be readily made to produce the same effect, by the addition of catechu, or some other astringent. The general effects and uses of brandy are those of alcohol already described. From the ardent spirits in ordinary use it is distinguished by its cordial and sto- machic properties; and it is, in consequence, the stimulant usually preferred for medicinal purposes. Burnt Brandy is a popular remedy for diarrhoea. 2. MISTURA SPIRITUS VINI GALLICI, L. (Brandy, Cinnamon Water, of each, f3iv.; the yelks of two Eggs; Purified Sugar, gss.; Oil of Cinnamon, tq. ij. Mix.)—This mixture is an imitation of a well-known compound, termed Egg- Flip.1 It is an exceedingly valuable stimulant and restorative; and is employed in the latter stages of low fever, and in extreme exhaustion from uterine and other hemorrhages. The dose of it is from f 3ss. to f 3iss. I SPIRITUS SACCIIARI; Rum.—This is an ardent spirit obtained both in the West and East Indies, by distillation from the fermented skimmings of the sugar boilers, the drainings (called molasses) of the pots and hogsheads of sugar, the washings of the boilers,2 and the lees or spent wash of former distillations, called 1 The terms Egg-flip, Egg-hot, or simply Flip, are applied to a preparation of ale with egg and ardent spirit (gee Dr. Kitchener's Cook's Oracle). a The Civil and Natural History of Jamaica, by P. Browne, M. D., p. 132. Lond. 1789. 332 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. dunder. (Dunder, from the Spanish redundar, to overflow.) It is imported into this country in puncheons. In some parts of the West India islands it is cus- tomary to put slices of pine-apples in the puncheons of rum : hence the designa- tion pine-apple rum. The term Tafia, or Taffia, is applied to a spirit obtained, by distillation, from the fermented juice of the sugar-cane. (Merat and De Lens, Diet, de Mat. Med. t. vi. p. 150.) It is, therefore, Cane Spirit (Spiritus Succi Sacchari). Good rum is transparent and of a brownish tint. Its depth of colour, how- ever, varies considerably. The peculiar flavour of rum depends on volatile oil. The quantity of alcohol (sp. gr. 0*825) in 100 vols, of rum is, according to Mr. Brande, about 53*68 vols. As sent out, its strength is 10 per cent, under proof, in the language of Sikes's hydrometer. Jamaica rum is more highly esteemed than the Leeward Islands rum. The general effects and uses of rum are similar to those of alcohol already de- scribed.1 It is considered more heating ifnd sudorific than the other kinds of ardent spirit, to which it has been popularly thought preferable in coughs, catarrhs, and rheumatism. 4. SPIRITUS FRUMENTI COMPOSITUS; Compound Corn Spirit.—The spirit ma- nufactured in the British Islands is usually obtained by distillation from fermented infusions of corn. The ardent spirits known as Gin, Whiskey, and the various Compounds,21 are corn spirit differently flavoured. Gin owes its peculiar flavour to the Juniper, whence it is frequently denomi- nated Spiritus Juniperi. It is not allowed to be sent out stronger than 17 per cent, under proof; but it is usually sold to the trade at 22 per cent, under proof. The retail dealer always reduces its strength, and flavours it with sugar. Fre- quently also other additions are made to it. Gin possesses the general properties of alcohol. On account of the oil of juniper which it holds in solution, it is more powerfully diuretic than brandy and rum; and hence it is a popular remedy in dropsical and other affections, where an augmentation of the renal secretions is considered desirable. Moreover, it is frequently used to promote menstruation. It is the ordinary intoxicating spirit of the lower classes in this metropolis. At the London Hospital, gin is frequently administered medicinally, as a substitute for brandy, to patients who have been accustomed to its use. WJiiskey agrees in most of its properties with gin; from which it differs in its peculiar smoky flavour and odour: these it acquires from the malt, which is dried by turf fires. It is the national spirit of Ireland and Scotland. 5. ARRACK, or RACK.—This is a spirit obtained in various parts of the East. In Batavia, it is procured by distillation from fermented infusions of rice, whence it has been termed Rice Spirit {Spiritus Oryzce). In Ceylon,3 it is obtained by distillation from fermented cocoa-nut toddy (by some called Palm wine). 1 "They talk ofa common experiment here, [Jamaica], that any Animal's Liver put into Rum grows soft, and not so in Brandy, whence they argue this last less wholesome than that, but their Experiment, if true, proves no such thing. I think it may be said to have all good and bad qualities of Brandy, or any fermented or vinous spirit."—(Sloane's Jamaica, vol. i. p. xxx. Lond. 1707.) 3 By spirit dealers, British compounded spirits are denominated Compounds, while Foreign compounded spirits are called Liqueurs: Both classes of liquors are sweetened spirits. The following list of Compounds, usually kept at the gin-shops of this metropolis, has been supplied me by the proprietor of one of these establishments:— Compounds. Under Proof. Gin................................. 17 Gin................................. 22 Mint (Peppermint).................. C4 Cloves............................... " Bitters.............................. Raspberry........................... " Noyeau............................. Cinnamon........................... Compounds. Under Proof. Tent................................ 64 Aniseed............................. " Caraway............................ " Lovage............................. " Usquebaugh (X)..................... » Rum Shrub......................... •< Orange Cordial (X).................. " Citron ditto (X).................. " 'The above are permitted to us at the strengths named; but, in point of fact, are much nearer approaching 80 U. P.—Those marked thus (X) are seldom asked for.'" ' The Cocoa-Nut Palm, its Uses and Cultivation. By J. W. Bennett, Esq. Lond. 1836. ALCOHOL. 333 " Pine-apples, steeped in it, impart a most exquisite flavour to the spirit; and, by age, it becomes a delicious liqueur, which is unrivalled in the world for making nectarial punch." In England, arrack is never employed for medicinal purposes. In its general properties it agrees with the other ardent spirits; but is said to be distinguished by its stimulating and narcotic properties. It is sometimes used in this country to impart an agreeable flavour lopunch. A mock arrack is made by dissolving twenty grains of benzoic acid in two pounds of rum. 2. Pharmaceutical Uses of Alcohol.—The alcohol of the Pharmacopoeia (sp. gr. 0*825) is not employed in the preparation of any officinal substances, but it is a valuable agent in chemical analysis, and is used in determining the purity of cer- tain medicinal substances; as iodine, iodide of potassium, the vegetable alkalis, castor oil, &c. Rectified and proof spirits are most extensively employed in officinal pharmacy; as in the formation of Tinctures, Spirits, Etliers, Ethereal Oil, and Resinous Extracts, and in the manufacture of the Vegetable Alkalis. Lastly, spirit is added to various preparations, to assist in preserving them. 1. TINCTURE, L. D.; (U. S.) Tinctures, E.; Alcooles.—These are solutions of vegetable, animal, or mineral substances, in proof or rectified spirit. They are preparations of substances whose active principles are imperfectly or not at all soluble in water, or whose aqueous solutions readily undergo decomposition. Some are prepared by solution merely; as the Tinctura Iodinii composita, Ph. L.; Tinctura Camphorce, Ph. Ed.; and Tinctura Ferri Sesquichloridi. Some of the vegetable tinctures are prepared by adding rectified spirit to the expressed juices of plants. These preparations are frequently denominated pre- served vegetable juices. They have been long in use on the continent. In 1835, Mr. Squire {Pharmaceutical Transactions, No. iii. p. 94. Sept. 1841.) commenced their manufacture. More recently, Mr. Bently {On the Best Method of obtaining the more powerful Vegetable Preparations for Medical Use.) has directed the attention of the profession to them. Mr. Squire states, that on an average the juice of the young plant just coming into flower, will yield only two-thirds of the amount of extract which is obtained from the same quantity of juice from the matured plant ("when more than half the flowers are fully blown"), and the strength of the product is also inferior. He also asserts (Op. supra cit.) that the leaves only should be used: and, in the case of biennial plants, those of the second year's growth should exclusively be employed.' The mode of obtaining these preparations is as follows:—The leaves being bruised in a marble mortar, are placed in a powerful press. The expressed juice is allowed to stand for twenty.four hours, by which a considerable quantity of feculent matter is deposited. Rectified spirit [56 over proof] is then added, in the proportion of four fluid ounces to every sixteen fluid ounces of the juice, which is quite sufficient to render the preservation complete, and throw down any mucilage which may be mechanically suspended. After standing for twenty.four hours, the liquor is to be filtered. (Bentley, op. supra cit.) Mr. Squire employs one measure of spirit to two measures of juice. These preserved expressed juices are superior preparations to the tinctures prepared by digestion from the same parts of either fresh or dried plants. In some cases {e. g. Aconite), tinctures prepared with rectified spirit from the dried roots, by digestion, are greatly superior in activity to the preserved juices of the leaves. The ordinary method of preparing tinctures is by maceration or digestion. " Tinctures are usually made by reducing the solid ingredients to small fragments, coarse powder, or fine powder, macerating them for seven days or upwards in proof spirit, or rectified spirit, straining the solution through linen or calico, and finally expressing the residuum strongly to obtain what fluid is still retained in the mass."—Ph. E. All tinctures should be prepared in stoppered glass vessels, and frequently shaken during ma- ceration.—Ph. Lond. 1 Seu the article Hyoscyamus, for an account of the relative quantities of juice and extract yielded by the leaves and stalks. 334 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA MEDICA. The tinctures which are made with resinous substances cannot in general be well prepared in any other way than by digestion. This remark applies to Tinctura Aloes, Tinctura Assafoetidce, Tinctura Benzoini composita, Tinctura Guaiaci, and Tinctura Balsami Tolutani. Another and more expeditious method of preparing tinctures is by percolation or lixiviation {procede ou methode de deptacement), and which is also applicable to the preparation of ethereal, as well as alcoholic, tinctures, and of infusions. The principle of this method has been adopted by the Scotch brewers, the process being called by them sparging. It has also been used in the preparation of coffee. It was first employed for pharmaceutical purposes by Boullay. {Journal de Pharmacie, t. xix. p. 393.) In the preparation of tinctures, its professed advan- tages are expedition, economy, and uniformity of strength. But it is more trouble- some, requires more skill and attention, and is not equally applicable to all sub- stances. It answers best for those tinctures made with woody and fibrous parts, as roots, barks, woods, leaves-, fruits, seeds, and insects. The Tinctures of Catechu and Myrrh may also be prepared in this way. The Edinburgh College offers the following remarks on this mode of preparation:— " A much superior method, however, has been lately introduced, which answers well for most tinctures, namely, the method of displacement by percolation. According to this process, the solid materials, usually in coarse or moderately fine powder, are moistened with a sufficiency of the solvent to form a thick pulp. In twelve hours, or frequently without any delay, the mass is put into a cylinder of glass, porcelain, or tinned iron, open at both ends, but obstructed at the lower end by a piece of calico or linen, tied tightly over it as a filter; and the pulp being packed by pressure, varying as to degree with various articles, the remainder of the solvent is poured into the upper part of the cylinder, and allowed gradually to percolate. In order to obtain the portion of the fluid which is kept in the residuum, an additional quantity of the solvent is poured into the cylinder, until the tincture, which has passed through, equals in amount the spirit originally prescribed: and the spirit employed for this purpose is then recovered for the most part by pouring over the residuum as much water aa there is of spirit retained in it, which may be easily known by an obvious calculation in each case. The method of percolation, where applicable, will be found much more convenient and expeditious than the mode hitherto commonly followed, and it exhausts the solid materials in general much more completely. As considerable practice, however, is required for managing the details in different cases, more especially in regard to the degree of firmness with which they are to be packed into the cylinder, we have thought it right to direct that the method of maceration may be followed as an alterna- tive. But the method of percolation is now preferred by all who have made sufficient trial of it to apply it correctly." The percolator is best made of tin plate or zinc. A simple tube, (of glass, porcelain, or tinned iron,) as stated by the Edinburgh College, answers for an extempo- raneous percolator. It is fitted into the mouth of a wide-mouthed bottle by means of a cork, in which is a small aperture to allow of the escape of air. One of the most convenient percolators is that proposed by Boullay. It is a simple cylinder of equal diameter, and terminating inferiorly in a cone or funnel. (Fig. 50.) Mr. Deane's percolator {Pharma- ceutical Transactions, part ii.) is a modifica- tion of this: its lower end has a smaller cir- cumference than its upper one, is flat, and communicates with a tube, to which a stop- cock is fitted. Soubeiran {Nouveau Traite de Pharmacie, t. i. p. 3, 2n|Je £d.) has adapt- ed to Boullay's percolator a tin receiver, to which is fitted, at the most depending part, a stopcock, by which the tincture may be drawn off. SULPHURIC ETHER. 335 The size of the percolator must, of course, vary according to circumstances. The smallest may be half an inch in diameter and four inches long. Large ones are six inches in diameter and eighteen inches long. They should be furnished with two diaphragms (perforated metallic disks), between which the ingredients are placed. When small percolators are used, a little cotton-wool, or even tow, may be substituted for the lower diaphragm,—or a piece of calico or linen may be tied over the end of the tube, as directed by the Edinburgh College. The lower extremity of the percolator should be furnished with a stopcock, for regu- lating the discharge of the fluid. Considerable skill and experience are required in packing the ingredients. Indeed, the principal art of percolating has reference to this part of the process. Substances, as Rhubarb and Gentian, which yield a large quantity of mucilage, and are to be acted on by water, must be employed in the form of a very coarse powder, and should be placed loosely in the percolator, in order to allow them to swell. With alcohol or ether, however, the tissues swell less, the mucilaginous mailer is not dissolved, and the percolation is readily effected even with a finer powder and closer packing. Boullay imagined that one liquid may be employed to displace another liquid, without the two liquids becoming mixed : hence he called the process the displace- ment method. The Edinburgh College, I presume, has adopted his opinion, since it directs the tincture to be displaced by spirit, and the spirit by water. But Guil- liermond {Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxi. p. 349.) has shown that this displace- ment cannot be effected without a certain degree of mixture.1 2. SPIRITUS, L. D. (U. S.) Spiritus, E. Alcoolats.—These are alcoholic solu- tions of volatile substances (usually ofa vegetable nature) obtained by distillation. Some of them are prepared" wiih rectified spirit (e. g. Spiritus Rosmarini), but most of them with proof spirit. Several of the spirits which owe their peculiar flavour and odour to volatile oil may be, and usually are, imitated by dissolving the oil in the spirit without the aid of distillation ; and, for all therapeutical pur- poses, they are equally effective. 2. .ETHER SULPHU'RICUS, L. E. D.—SULPHURIC ETHER. History and Synonymes.—This liquid is^said to have been known to Raymond Lully,3 who lived in the 13th century; and to Basil Valentine,3 in the 15th cen- tury. In 1540, Valerius Cordus4 described the method of making it. He termed it Oleum Vitrioli duke. The Germans call it Vitriolic Naphtha {Naphtha Vitrioli). Natural History.—It is always an artificial product. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of sulphuric ether. The London College orders of Rectified Spirit, Ibiij.; Sulphuric Acid, lbij.; Carbonate of Pot- ash, previously ignited, 3j.: pour two pounds of the spirit into a glass retort, add the acid to it, and mix. Afterwards place it on sand, and raise the heat so that the liquor may quickly boil, nnd the Ether pass into a receiving vessel cooled with ice or water. Let the liquor distil until some heavier portion begins to pass over. To the liquor which remains in the retort, after the heat has subsided, pour the remainder of the spirit, that ether may distil in the same manner. Mix the distilled liquors, then pour off the supernatant portion, and add to it the Carbonate of Potash, shaking them frequently during an hour. Lastly, let the Ether distil from a large retort, and be kept in a stoppered vessel. The directions of the Edinburgh College are as follows:—" Take of Rectified Spirit, i"&w, Sulphuric Acid, f 3x. Pour twelve fluid ounces of the spirit gently over the acid contained in an open vessel, and then stir them together briskly and thoroughly. Transfer the mixture 1 For further details respecting percolation, consult, besides the memoirs already quoted, Dausse, Memoi; la preparation de tous les extraita pharmtceutiques, par la methode de deptacement. Paris, 1836. a Dulk, Die Preussische Pharmakopiie ilbers und erliiutert, 2er Th. S. 201. 2te Aufl. Leipz. 1830. » Ibid. 4 Thomson, System of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 296. 7th ed. 1831. 336 ELEMENTS of MATERIA medica. immediately into a glass matrass connected with a refrigeratory, and raise the heat quickly to about 280°. As soon as the ethereal fluid begins to distil over, supply fresh spirit through a tube into the matrass in a continuous stream, and in such quantity as to equal that of the fluid which distils over. This is best accomplished by connecting one end of the tube with a graduated vessel containing the spirit, passing the other end through a cork fitted into the matrass,— and having a stop-cock on the tube to regulate the discharge. When forty-two ounces have distilled over, and the whole spirit has been added, the process may be stopped. Agitate the impure ether with sixteen fluid ounces of a saturated solution of muriate of lime, containing about half an ounce of lime recently slaked. When all odour of sulphurous acid has been thus removed, pour off the supernatant liquor, and distil it with a very gentle heat, so long as the liquid which passes over has a density not above 0*735. More ether of the same strength is then to be obtained from the solution of muriate of lime. From the residuum of both distilla- tions, a weaker ether may be obtained in small quantity, which must be rectified by distilling it gently again." The Dublin College directs Sulphuric Ether to be prepared from the Liquor JEthereus Sul phuricus, which is ordered to be made thus:—Take of Rectified Spirit, Sulphuric Acid, of each 3xxxij. by weight. Pour the spirit into a glass retort adapted to bearing a sudden heat, and then pour on the acid in an unbroken stream ; mix them gradually, and let twenty ounces by measure of the liquor be distilled with a sudden and sufficiently strong heat, into a receiver kept, cold. If sixteen ounces of rectified spirit be poured upon the acid remaining in the retort, sulphuric ethe- real liquor will again come over by distillation. Take of this Sulphuric Ethereal Liquor, f 3xx.; Carbonate of Potash, dried and powdered, 3ij. Mix them, and, from a very high retort, distil, by a very gentle heat, twelve ounces by measure into a receiver kept cold. The sp. gr. of the liquor should be to that of distilled water as 0*765 to 1-000. (The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs Alcohol, four pints; Sulphuric Acid, a pint; Potassa,rsix drachms; Distilled Water, three fluid ounces. To two pints of the Alcohol, in an open vessel, add gradually fourteen fluid ounces of the acid, stirring them frequently. Pour the mixture, while still hot, into a tubulated glass retort, placed upon a sand-bath and connected by a long adapter with a receiver kept cold by ice or water, then raise the heat quickly until the liquid begins to boil. When about half a pint of ethereal liquid shall have passed over, introduce gra- dually into the retort the remainder of the alcohol, previously mixed with two fluid ounces of the acid, taking care that the mixture shall enter in a continuous stream, and in such quantity as shall supply the place, as nearly as possible, of the liquid which distils over. This may hie accomplished by connecting a vessel containing the alcoholic liquid within the retort, by means of a tube, provided with a stopcock, to regulale the discharge, and passing nearly to the bottom of the retort through a cock accurately fitted into the tubulure. When all the alcohol has been thus added, continue the distillation until about three pints shall have passed over, or until white vapours shall appear in the retort. To the product thus obtained, add the potassa previously dissolved in the distilled water, and shake them frequently. At the end of twenty.four hours, pour off from the alkaline so- lution the supernatant ether, introduce it into a retort, and with a gentle heat, distil until two pints shall have passed over, or until the distilled liquor shall have the specific gravity of 0-750.) Theory of Etherification.—In order to convert two equivalents or 46 parts of alcohol into one equivalent or 37 parts of ether, we must abstract one equivalent or 9 parts of water. Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. 2 equivalents Alcohol are composed of........ 4 eq......... 6 eq......... 2 eq. Abstract 1 equivalent Water composed of..... 0 eq......... leq......... leq. 1 equivalent Ether........................... 4 eq......... 5 eq......... leq. But, though the change thus far appears very simple, there are some accessory reactions which make the theory of etherification exceedingly complicated, and about the precise nature of which chemists are not quite agreed. That the sole or efficient cause of the conversion of alcohol into ether is not the mere abstrac tion of the water, by the affinity of the sulphuric acid for that liquid, is proved by various cir- cumstances, of which the following are some:—(Brande, Manual of Chemistry, p. 1284, 5th ed., 1841.) a. Water may be abstracted from alcohol by alkalis and chloride of calcium, yet nothing like ether is the result. &. Water passes over, during the whole process, along with the ether, wilh which the acid ought to combine in preference to dehydrating the alcohol. SULPHURIC ETHER. 337 y. Ether is not produced by the action of anhydrous sulphuric acid on alcohol. <5. Ether is never produced except by the aid of heat. e. When the oil of vitriol is mixed with rectified spirit, the saturating power of the acid is diminished. When oil of vitriol is added to rectified spirit, a new compound is formed, which contains, besides the elements of sulphuric acid, carbon, hydroo-en, and oxygen. As this new compound reddens litmus, and forms salts with bases, it has been regarded as an acid {sulpho-vinic acid); (Hennell, Philosoph. Trans. 1626 and 1828.) {ethereo-sulphuric acid.1) But, as the sulphuric acid, by its union with the elements of the alcohol, has lost half its saturating power, the new compound is rather to be regarded as a supersalt {bisulphate of the oxide of ethule), (Liebig, in Turner's Elements of Chemistry, p. 837, et seq. 7th ed. 1840) combined with water ; or as a double salt, composed of sulphate of the oxide of ethule and sul- phate of water. Carbo-hydrogen is the basic constituent of this salt, which, by the action of heat, is resolved into ether, sulphuric acid, and water. On the ethule hypothesis, so ably advocated by Liebig, the following is an ex- planation of the changes attending the formation of ether. Alcohol is regarded as the hydrate of the oxide of ethule, and its equivalent is assumed to be 46. On the addition of oil of vitriol, two equivalents or 80 parts of anhydrous sulphuric acid combine with one equivalent or 37 parts of oxide of ethule {ether), contained in the alcohol, and form one equivalent or 117 parts of bisulphate of oxide of ethule {bisulphate of ether). The water of the alcohol and of the oil of vitriol unites with the bisulphate. By the heat, which is subse- quently applied to the mixture, the hydrated bisulphate is resolved into ether, water, and sulphuric acid. In the following diagram, the oil of vitriol (S O' -f- HO) is assumed to be the strongest procurable, and the alcohol to be uncombined with water :— MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. INTERMEDIATE COMPOUNDS. PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Water---9-----1 eq. Water...... 9----------------------1 cq. Water.... 9 1 eq. Ox. Ethule Zl • 1 eq. Alcohol 40 2eq.Oi" of Vitriol... -1 eq. Bisulphate of t 1 eq. Ox. Ethule .. 37---1 eq. Ether___37 2 eq.Sulph. Acid 80 ) 0xide Ell)u'e* • H7 j 2 e«. Sulph. Acid.. 80 A. 2 eq. Water. .. 18-----2 eq. Water......18 _---------------1 g eq 0j, Q{ Vjt. riol........ 98 "If we consider each particle of the [hydrated] bisulphate of oxide of ethule as composed of ether, [oxide of ethule,] anhydrous sulphuric acid, and water, it is clear that the anhydrous acid, at the moment of, its separation from the ether, must seize on all water, free or combined, in the vicinity of the ether. Thus, at the moment the ether becomes free, the anhydrous acid, also set free, prevents it from uniting with water to form alcohol. But, when the gaseous ether passes through the undecoinposcd hydrated bisulphate of oxide of ethule, a certain proportion of the water of that compound must evaporate in the dry gas; and in these circumstances the ether and water do not combine together. The surface of the effervescing liquid has the tem- perature at which [hydrated] bisulphate of oxide of ethule is decomposed; but at this tempera- ture, 284°, the water of that compound is gaseous. There are thus produced, simultaneously, water in the gaseous form by evaporation, and ether, also gaseous, by decomposition ; which, as both are in the nascent state, unite to form alcohol. Thus the alcohol, always observed to distil over with the ether, is derived from the surface; and the ether and water, which distil over, proceed from the decomposition in the interior of the liquid. This explains why no ether is obtained when the liquid is not in,brisk ebullition, no matter how high the temperature may be; it explains, farther, why more alcohol is obtained when a current of dry air passes through the liquid, since in that case the same decomposition goes on in the interior of the liquid as generally occurs at the surface." (Liebig, in Turner's Elements of Chemistry, p. 841, 7th edition.) 1 Liebij.', in the Handwbrterhuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie, von Dr. J. Liebig and Dr. T. C. Pog- cendorf, Bd. i. S. 114. Braunschweig, 1837. vol. i. 29 338 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. During the distillation of ether, the relative proportions of the ingredients are constantly varying; for the absolute quantity of hydrated bisulphate of ethule is continually diminishing, and thereby the relative quantity of oil of vitriol is in- creasing. In consequence of this, the boiling point of the liquid gradually rises. When it arrives at about 320°, new reactions take place between the oxide of ethule and the sulphuric acid. The principal products of these reactions are sul- phurous acid, olefiant gas, water, and carbon. The subjoined diagram will ex- plain how these are produced from the bisulphate of oxide of ethule :— RESULTS. -2 eq. Sulphu- rous Acid.. 64 -3 eq. Water 27 I eq. Olefiant gas....... 14 •2 eq. Carbon 12 117 117 117 These are not the only products of the reaction above referred to. In certain proportions of the ingredients, acetic acid [C4 H3 O3] is formed. " With a great excess of [sulphuric] acid, traces of formic acid [C2 H1 O3] and carbonic oxide are produced. As long as olefiant gas comes off, carbonic acid cannot be detected. During this decomposition, sulphurous acid and olefiant gas are given off in equal volume." « Carbon and water are the elements of acetic acid, the formation of which must diminish the quantity of carbon in the residue. By, the action of the sulphuric acid in excess on acetic acid, formic acid and sulphurous acid are formed ; and by the action of the sulphuric acid in excess of formic acid, carbonic oxide gas is produced." (Liebig, op. supra cit.) " It is probable that, in this decomposition, the elements of sulphuric acid and of ether first arrange themselves so as to form ethionic [4 SO3, C4 Hs O] or isethionic [S3 0s C* H3 O3 -f aq.] acids." A small quantity of Light Oil of Wine is also produced. In the directions for the preparation of ether, given by the London College, the pro- cess is directed to be stopped when some " heavier portion" begins to pass over. This heavier liquid is an aqueous solution of sulphurous acid. On the small scale, ether may be readily made in a tubulated glass retort, con- , nected by Liebig's condensing tube, with a cooled glass receiver. At Apotheca- ries' Hall, London, it is made in a leaden still, having a pewter head connected by about six feet of tin pipe with a very spacious condensing worm, duly cooled by a current of water; the receivers are of pewter with glass lids, and have a side tube to connect them with the delivering end of the worm-pipe. The still is heated by high-pressure steam carried through it in a contorted leaden pipe. A tube enters the upper part of the still for the purpose of suffering alcohol gra- dually to run into the acid. (Brande's Manual of Chemistry, p. 1275, 5th ed. 1841.) Mitscherlich {Lehrbuch der Chemie,!" Band, S. 98, 2te Aufl. Berlin, 1833.) has shown how a given quantity of oil of vitriol may be made to convert an un- limited quantity of alcohol into ether; the whole of the alcohol which enters the retort passing off as ether and water. As, however, ether is usually prepared from hydrated alcohol (rectified spirit) the superfluous water gradually dilutes the acid until ultimately it becomes too dilute to effect the conversion of alcohol into ether. The process of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is an imitation of Mitsch- erlich's principle. The rectification of ether is intended to free it from alcohol, water, sulphurous acid, and oil of wine. It is ordered to be effected by the addition of carbonate of potash and re-distillation. In order to separate alcohol from ether, the readiest method is to shake the ether with twice its bulk of water ; then pour it off, and COMPOSITION. < 2 eq. Sulphurous Acid 64 f 2 eq. Sulphuric Acid 80 \ 2 eq. Oxygen........ 16 leq. Bisulphate J eq. Oxygen................................ 8 o? Oxide Ethule 117] * «° ,3 eq. Hydrogen...... 3 {leq Ethule.......29)2 eq. Hydrogen...... 2| 2 eg. Carbon........ 12 | 2 eq. Carbon......... 12- SULPHURIC ETHER. 339 remove the water, which the washed ether has dissolved, by adding some fresh- burned lime, and distilling the ether a second time. Properties.—Al ordinary temperatures ether is a colourless, very limpid liquid, having a penetrating, peculiar, though somewhat fragrant odour; a hot, pungent taste, and a high refractive power. It is a bad conductor of electricity. Abso- lutely pure ether has not been solidified by any degree of cold hitherto produced. (Thenard and Bussy.) I have submitted it to the action of solid carbonic acid (whose temperature was probably 148° below the zero of Fahrenheit), without freezing it. But Fourcroy and Vauquelin, and more recently Liebig, state that it may be frozen at 46° below zero. The sp. gr. of pure ether at 68° F. is, according to Dumas and Boullay, 0-713. The ether of the shops contains a little alcohol, and its sp. gr. varies from 0*733 to 0*765: in the London Pharmacopoeia its sp. gr. at 62° F. is fixed at 0*750. Ether is extremely volatile : when of sp. gr. 0-720, its boiling point (the mercury in the barometer standing at 30 inches), is about 96° F. In a vacuum, it boils at 40° F. below zero. The evaporation of ether causes intense cold. The sp. gr. of ether-vapour was found, by Gay- Lussac, to be 2*586. Pure and recently prepared ether possesses neither acid nor alkaline properties; but, by exposure to air and light, it absorbs oxygen, by which acetic acid and water are produced. The acetic acid is not immediately observed, because it combines with some undecomposed ether to form acetic ether. Ether is very combustible: it burns in atmospheric air with a yellowish-white flame, and forms carbonic acid and water. Its vapour, mixed with oxygen or atmospheric air, forms a violently explosive mixture. The house of an apothe- cary at Bern was blown up, in consequence of a lighted candle being taken into a cellar in which a bottle of ether had been broken. One volume of ether Before Combustion. After Combustion. 1 eq. Carb. Acid = 22 1 eq. Carb. Acid = 22 1 eq. Aq. Vap. = 9 1 eq. Aq. Vap. = 9 1 eq. Aq.Vap. = 9 1 eq. Carb. Acid = 22 1 eq. Carb.Acid = 22 1 eq. Aq. Vap. = 9 1 eq. Aq. Vap. = 9 1 eq. Ether Vap. = 37 2eq. Oxygen = 16 2eq. Oxygen = 16 2eq. Oxygen = 16 2eq. Oxygen = 16 2eq. Oxygen = 16 2eq. Oxygen = 16 vapour consumes, in burning, six volumes of oxygen gas: the products are, four volumes of carbonic acid, and five volumes of aqueous vapour. By the slow combustion of elher vapour, by means of a coil of platinum wire, acetic, formic, and lampic [aldehydric] acids are produced. Ether is sparingly soluble in water: nine volumes of the latter dissolve one of the former. Ether, which has been washed with water, contains a small portion of the latter liquid. Alcohol dissolves ether in all proportions. Ether abstracts bichloride of mercury, terchloride of gold, and the sesquichlo- ride of iron, from their watery solutions. It readily dissolves bromine and iodine; but the solutions, by keeping, undergo decomposition. It sparingly dissolves sulphur and phosphorus: the ethereal solution of phosphorus is luminous in the dark, when poured on hot water. It dissolves the volatile oils, most of the fatty and resinous substances, some of the vegetable alkalis, urea, and ozmazome. Charddcristics.—Sulphuric elher may be recognised by its combustibility, its yellowish while flame, its volatility, its peculiar odour and taste, its complete solubility in alcohol, and its sparing solubility in water, in consequence of which, when mixed with water and agitated in a phial, the mixture speedily separates, on standing, into two layers. It dissolves most resins ; the solutions, evaporated on the surface of water, leave a resinous film. 340 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Composition.—The following is the elementary composition of ether:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Dumas & Boullay. Carbon .4......24.....64-87.......65-05 Hydrogen 5......5.....13-51.......]385 Oxygen .1......8.....21-62.......21-24 Ether . . 1......37.....100-00.......100-14 Chemists are not agreed as to the manner in which these elements are asso- ciated. Ether has been considered, at different times, as a dihydrale of olefiant gas,—a hydrate of etherine,—or as the oxide of ethule (ethereum). 2 eq. Olefiant gas...........23 leq. Water................. 9 1 eq. Dihydrate of Olefiant gas 37 1 eq. Etherine...............2^ 1 eq. Water................... . w . g ofOxideEthule < 1 eq. Oxygen.............. 8j le1Water a andWater---126 1 eq. Water............................ 9 [ 2 eq. Sulphuric Acid................... 80 252 PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Ol. iEthe- reuni........ 145 I eq. Water.... 9 ,2 eq. Water. 1 eq. Sulphuric Acid........ 89 252 The substance termed by Liebig, Etherole (C H4) is commonly denominated Light Oil of Wine. It was discovered by Hennell, who calls it Hydrocarbon from Oil of Wine, because >it is obtained by boiling the heavy oil of wine with water. It is a colourless, oily liquid, of sp. gr. 0-917 to 0-920. When kept for some time at a low temperature it deposits a crystalline matter called Etherine or Camphor of Oil of Wine (C* H4); which is isomeric with etherole. Properties.—Ethereal oil is an oily liquid, usually having a yellowish tint, though when quite pure it is said to be colourless. It has a peculiar aromatic odour, and a bitler taste. Its sp. gr., according to Mr. Hennell, is 1*05 ; but, ac- cording to Serullas, it is 1*13. It boils at 540° F. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves readily in alcohol and ether. It neither reddens litmus nor precipitates a solution of chloride of barium, so that ihe sulphuric acid contained in it seems to be completely neutralized. According to Mr. Hennell ethereal oil dissolves a variable quantity of a £ carbo-hydrogen, part of which separates in a crystalline form (etherine) when the oil is kept for some time, or when exposed to cold. When ethereal oil is slightly heated with water it yields a light yellow oil {etherole), which floats on water, and bisulphate of oxide of ethule, which is dis- solved by the water. Characteristics.—Ethereal oil is recognised by its oily appearance, its peculiar odour and taste, its slight solubility in, but greater specific gravity than, water, and its solubility in ether and alcohol. If it be heated in a test tube it yields an inflammable vapour which burns like olefiant gas, and a carbonaceous residue which contains sulphuric acid, as is proved by lixiviating with water, and testing by chloride of barium. Ethereal oil, added to a solution of chloride of barium, occasions no cloudiness ; but, if we evaporate the mixture to dryness, the residue is found to contain sulphate of baryta. Composition.—Three chemists have analyzed ethereal oil, namely, Hennell, Serullas, and Liebig. The results of two only of these agree, namely, those of Liebig and Serullas. LIEBIG AND SERULLAS. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Sulphuric Acid.............. 2 .. Carbon.....................8 Hydrogen...................9 .. Oxygen..................... 1 . Theory. 55-172 . 33-103 . 6-207 . 5-517 . Liebig. 55-614 . 33-180 . 5-788 . 5-418 . Serullas. . 5502 . 3305 . 611 . 5-49 Oleum ^Ethereum (Ph. L.) 1 99-999___100 000 99-67 HENNELL Eq. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. .. 1 .. 9 .. 9 ..0 ... 40 ... .... 54 .... ... 9 .... ... 0 .... 380 53-7 8-3 00 .. 1 ...103 .... 100.0 It would appear, from this table, that Hennell (Philosophical Transactions, 1826, p. 247 and 248.) must have analyzed ethereal oil holding iu solution carbohydrogen (etherine), and that he omitted to take into calculation the elements of water which this oil contains. According to Serullas {Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. t. xxxix. p. 153.) and Liebi" (Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th ed. pp. 844 and 861.) this oil is a double sulphate of oxide of ethule (ether) and etherole (carbohydrogen). 2 eq. Sulphuric Acid..................2 1 eq. Oxide of Ethule (Ether)........ 1 1 eq. Etherole (Carbohydrogen)....... 1 Eq. Wt. ■ 80 . 37 ■ 21 1 Sulphate of Oxide of Ethule ( , ... andEtherole...............j..... "" ,0 0r> Atoms. Eq. Wt. Sulphate of Oxide of Ethule (Ether).. 1 77 Sulphate of Etherole (Carbo- I hydrogen).................j...... 1 --- 68 1 115 SPIRIT OF NITRIC ETHER. 345 Dumas, {Traite de Chimie applique aux Arts, t. v. p. 545. Paris, 1835.) however, regards it as true sulphatic ether, (SO3, C* Ha O,) holding in solution variable quantities of carbohydrogen. Physiological Effects.—These have not been determined. I gave fifteen drops to a small rabbit: death took place within an hour. The symptoms were indisposition to move, apparent tendency to sleep, followed by incapability of sup- porting the erect position, occasional convulsive movements, grating of the teeth, and insensibility. The body was opened immediately after death: the heart was still beating, and its right cavities were gorged with purple blood. Ethereal oil, therefore, acts on the nervous system in a somewhat analogous way to ether. Usf.s.—Ethereal oil is used in the manufacture of the Spiritus JEtheris Sul- phurici Compositus of the Pharmacopoeia. (See p. 342.) " Dr. Hare," in his Chemical Compendium, " reports the opinions of Drs. Physick and Dewees in favour of the efficacy of the officinal oil of wine, dissolved in alcohol, in certain disturbed states of the system, as a tranquillizing and ano- dyne remedy." {United Slates Dispensatory.) 4. SPIRITUS iE'THERIS NI'TRICI, L. E. (U. S.)—SPIRIT OF NITRIC ETHER, OR SWEET SPIRIT OF NITRE. (Spiritus iEthereus Nitrosus, D.—Hyponitrous Ether, with four volumes of Rectified Spirit, E.) History.—The first traces of this preparation are to be found in the writings of Raymond Lully, in the 13th century.1 Basil Valentine, in the 15th century, taught a much improved method of preparing it.3 Nitric ether was first men- tioned by Kunkel, in 1681.3 Spirit of nitric ether has been known by various names, such as Dulcified Acid of Nitre {Acidum Nitri dulcificatum), Sweet Spirit of Nitre {Spiritus Nitri dulcis), Spirit of Nitrous Ether {Spiritus jEtheris Nitrosi), and Nitre Drops. Preparation.—It is usually prepared by the action of nitric acid on rectified spirit at one operation, as in the process of the London College, which is that employed at Apothecaries' Hall, London. Or it may be procured by first pre- paring nitric [hyponitrous] ether, and subsequently diluting this with rectified spirit, as in the process of the Edinburgh College. l. Preparation of Hyponitrous Ether.—Liebig (Turner's Elements of Chemis- try, 7th edit. p. 848.) has lately given the following method of obtaining this compound in a state of purity :—"One part of starch, and ten parts of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*3, are introduced into a capacious retort, which is connected by means of a wide tube, bent at right angles, with a two-necked bottle, so that the farther end of the tube reaches to ihe bottom of the bottle. Into this bottle is introduced a mixture of two parts of alcohol at 85 p. c. and one part of water, and it is sur- rounded by cold water. The second aperture of the bottle is connected, by means ofa long wide tube, with a good cooling apparatus or condenser. The starch and nitric acid are heated in the water bath ,* pure hyponitrous acid is disengaged, which, passing through the alcohol, instantly combines with the ether, forming hyponitrite of oxide of ethule, which distils in a continuous stream. This process is very productive. By means of water, the new ether is purified from alcohol; and by standing over chloride of calcium, it is freed from water. The tube which connects the retort with the two-necked bottle must have a length of two or three feet, and must be surrounded with moist paper during the operation. If the alco- hol be not carefully cooled, it becomes spontaneously hot, and boils violently. From this moment the hyponitrite of ethule is no longer pure." 1 Dulk, Die Preus.Uche Pharmakopiie ubers und crlautert, 2er Th. ?. 704, 2te Aufl. Leipzig, 1830. 3 Ibid. a Thomson, System of Chemistry of Inorganic Bodies, vol. ii. p. 317, 7th edit. 1831. 346 ELEMENTS of materia medica. The process of the Edinburgh College for the preparation of hyponitrous ether is as follows:— Take of Rectified Spirit, Oij. and f3vj.; pure Nitric Acid (density 1-500) f3vij. Put fifteen fluid ounces of the spirit, with a little clean sand, into a two-pint matrass, fitted with a cork, through which are passed a safety-tube, terminating an inch above the spirit, and another tube, leading to a refrigeratory. The safety-tube being filled with pure nitric acid, add through it gradually three fluid ounces and a half of the acid. When the ebullition which slowly arises is nearly over, add the rest of the acid gradually, half a fluid ounce at a time, waiting till tlie ebul- lition caused by each portion is nearly over before adding more, and cooling the refrigeratory with a stream of water, iced in the summer. The ether thus distilled over being received in a bottle, is to be agitated first wilh a little milk of lime, till it ceases to redden litmus paper, and then wilh half its volume of concentrated solution of muriate of lime. The pure hyponitrous ether thus obtained should have a density of 0*899. The process of the Dublin College is as follows:—Take of Nitrate of Potash, purified, dried, and coarsely powdered, lb. iss.; Sulphuric Acid, lb. j.; Rectified Spirit, f3xix. Put the nitrate of potash into a tubulated retort placed in a bath of cold water, and pour on it, by degrees and at intervals, the sulphuric acid and the spirit, previously mixed and cooled after their mixture. Without almost any external heat, or at most a very gentle one, (as of warm water added to the bath,) the ethereal liquor will begin to distil without the application of fire; in a short time the heat in the retort will increase spontaneously, and a considerable ebullition will take place, which must be moderated by reducing the temperature of the bath with cold water. The receiver must also be kept cold with water or snow, and furnished with a proper apparatus for transmitting the highly elastic vapour (bursting from the mixture with great violence if the heat be too much increased) through a pound of rectified spirit contained in a cool phial. The ethereal liquor thus spontaneously distilled, is to be received into a phial with a ground glass stopper, and there must be added by degrees (closing the phial after each addition) as much very dry and powdered car- bonate of potash as will suffice to saturate the excess of acid, using litmus as a test: this is effected by the addition of about a drachm of the salt. In a short time the nitrous ether will rise to the surface, and is to be separated by means of a funnel. If the ether be required very pure, distil it again to one half, from a water-bath at a tempera- ture of 140°. Its specific gravity is, to that of distilled water, as 0-900 to 1000. The theory of Liebig's process for making hyponitrous ether is simple. Starch deoxidizes nitric acid, and evolves hyponitrous acid [the nitrous acid of Graham and continental chemists]. This being conveyed into alcohol, combines with the oxide of ethule of the latter, and disengages the water. r MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Hyponitrous Acid......38-----------------------___-——"^^l e1* Hyponitrous Ether........75 n .,„i„, ./. \ 1 eq. Oxide Ethule 37--------- 2eq. Alcohol................™\ leq. Water........ 9-------------1 eq. Water....................9 84 84 Hyponitrous ether is, however, usually prepared by the action of nitric acid on alcohol, as in the Edinburgh and Dublin processes. The reactions are then more complicated, but vary with the strength of the acid and the temperature. They essentially depend on the deoxidation of the nitric acid by the hydrogen and car- bon of the ethule of part of the alcohol. As hydrogen has more affinity than carbon for oxygen, it follows that in the earlier stages, and when reaction is moderate, it is the hydrogen of the ethule which is oxidized by the oxygen of the nitric acid. Thus, when we employ a dilute acid, or moderate the reaction by cold, the products are aldehyd (hydrated oxide of acetule),1 water, and hypo- nitrous ether. 1 Acetule, and the oxide of acetule, are hypothetical substances. Aldehyd is regarded as the hydrate of the hypothetical oxide of acetule. SPIRIT of nitric ether. 347 MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. „ „„ ., . . .« ( 1 eq. Oxide Elhule.......... 37----------------—=,1 eq. Hvponitr. Ether........75 2 eq. Alcohol.... tt\lelWater............... 0 ___ ^-^^1 en. Water................. 9 ............... 2eq. Water................ 18 1 p„ \ itrir Arid U \ * e1- hyponitrous Acid..... 38- leq. Nitric Acid 54 j 2 e? 0xygen............... ]6 ; 2eq. Alcohol. When, however, the reaction is more energetic, as when strong nitric acid is em- ployed, and the temperature is not moderated, the carbon as well as the hydro- gen of the ethule is oxidized by the oxygen of the acid, and several products, besides those above-mentioned, are then obtained. Carbonic (C O2) and oxalic (C3 O3) acids are formed by the oxidation of the carbon. Acetic (C4 H3 O3) and formic (C2 H O2) acids are also generated; " besides acetate and formiate of ethule" (Liebig). By the deoxidation of nitric acid there are obtained, besides hyponitrous acid already mentioned, nitrous acid, binoxide of nitrogen, protoxide of nitrogen, and nitrogen (Thenard). 2. Preparation of Spiritus JEtheris Nitric!.—The processes of all the British Col- leges differ from each other. The London College orders of Rectified Spirit, lbiij.; Nitric Acid, 3iv. Add the Acid gradu- ally to the Spirit, and mix; then let 32 fluid ounces distil. * The Edinburgh College directs the pure hyponitrous elher (obtained by the process above de- tailed) to be mixed with the remainder (i. e. f'3xxxj.) of the rectified spirit, or exactly four times its volume. Spirit of nitric ether ought not to be kept long, as it always undergoes decomposi- tion, and becomes at length strongly acid. Its density, by this process, is 0847. The directions of the Dublin College are as follows :—Add to the matter which remains after the distillation of nitrous ether, the rectified spirit employed in that operation for condensing the elastic vapour, and distil till the residuum be dry, with the greater heat of a warm balh. Mix the distilled liquor with the alkaline liquor which remains after the separation of the nitrous ether, and add, moreover, as much well-dried carbonate of potash as shall be sufficient to saturate the pre- dominant acid. This is made evident by the test of litmus. Lastly, distil as long as any drops come over by the medium heat of a warm bath. The sp. gr. of this liquor is to that of distilled water as 0-850 to 1-000. Nitrous ethereal spirit may also be prepared by adding two ounces of nitric acid to a pound, by measure, of rectified spirit, and distilling twelve ounces with a proper apparatus and the application ofa gentle heat. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs to take Nitrate of Potassa in coarse powder two pounds; Sulphuric Acid a pound and a half, Alcohol nine pints and a half, Diluted Alcohol a pint: Car- bonate of Potassa an ounce. Mix the Nitraie of Potassa and the Alcohol in a large glass retort, and having gradually poured in the acid, digest with a gentle heat for two hours; then raise the heat and distil a gallon. To the Distilled Liquor add the Diluted Alcohol and Carbonate of Potassa, and again distil a gallon.] At Apothecaries' Hall, London, this preparation is made in an earthenware still, with a condensing worm of the same material. The still is heated by the slow application of steam to its outer surface. (Brande, Manual of Pharmacy, p. 461, 3d edit. Lond.) The theory1 of the process is essentially the same as that for preparing pure hyponitrous ether. The latter, when formed, distils over along with rectified spirit, and constitutes the spiritus aetheris nitrici, Ph. L. Properties, a. Of Hyponitrous F.tllfr.—Pure hyponitrous ether, prepared by Liebig's process, is pale yellow, has a most fragrant smell of apples and Hungary wines, boils at 62°, and has the sp. gr. of 0*947 at 60°. It may be mixed with an alcoholic solution of potash without becoming brown (showing the absence of « Dr.Oolding nird(Lond. and Edinb'. Phil. Mag. 1839, vol. xiv. p. 324,) says, that while the ether distils, mixed with alcohol only, oxnlhydric [saccharic] acid. (C11 H>° 0'«,) but no oxalic acid, is formed. He also states, that aldehyd is gem-rated, but does not appear in the distilled liquid until the formation of ether has nearly or en- tirely ceased ; the aldehyd and oxalic acid being nearly of simultaneous origin. 348 ELEMENTS of materia medica. aldehyd): hyponitrite of potash and alcohol are formed. Impure hyponitrous ether, prepared by the ordinary processes, boils at 70° F., and has the sp. gr. 0-886 at 40°. Its smell is like that of the former, but at the same time suffocating. Mixed with an alcoholic solution of potash it becomes dark brown, (showing the presence of aldehyd,) with the production of resin of aldehyd. It is highly in- flammable, burning with a bright flame. When kept it becomes acid, while nitric oxide gas is given off. This tendency to become acid is greater when air is ad- mitted, and depends on the presence of aldehyd, which is oxidized by the oxygen of the air, or of the hyponitrous acid. It is soluble in 48 parts of water, and miscible, in all proportions, with ether and alcohol (Liebig). * The following is the composition of the pure hyponitrous ether :— Dumas 8c Atoms. Eq. Wt. Theory. Boullay. Hydrogen.......5........ 5..... 6-67..... 6-85 Or, Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent Hyponitrous Ether 1........75---10000... .10000 Hyponitrate of Oxide j , _. nn ofEthule..........j •••1.......75....... I000° (3. Of SpiritllS JEtheris Nitrici.—Spirit of nitric ether is a colourless, limpid liquor, having a fragrant ethereal odour, somewhat analogous to that of ripe apples, and a pungent, aromatic, sweetish acidulous taste. Prepared according to the Lon- don Pharmacopoeia its sp. gr. should not exceed 0*834; but the preparation of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia has a sp. gr. of 0*847. It is very volatile, produc- ing much cold by its evaporation. It is very inflammable, and burns with a whitish flame. By keeping it usually becomes strongly acid, though I have had some kept for several years which possessed only slight acidity. It dissolves in alcohol and water in all proportions. " Hyponitrous ether may be separated from the alcohol, water, and uncombined acid, which the preparation of the pharma- copoeia contains, by digesting lime reduced to powder in it, and subjecting the mixture to distillation." (Mr. R. Phillips, Translation of the Pharmacopozia, 4th ed. Lond. 1841.) Characteristics.—It is principally distinguished by its peculiar odour, its inflam- mability, its lightness, and its miscibility with water. The spirit of nitric ether of the shops usually strikes a deep olive colour with the protosulphate of iron, thereby indicating the presence of binoxide or an acid of nitrogen; and produces, with tincture of guaiacum, a blue tint, which passes through various shades of green : this last effect depends on the presence of an acid of nitrogen. These effects are not invariably produced ,* for in some spirit of nitric ether which I have had for several years they do not take place. Composition.—Spirit of nitric ether is a mixture of [impure] hyponitrous ether and rectified spirit. Prepared* according to the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, its composition is as follows:— Vols- Sp. gr. Weight. Hyponitrous Ether....................1............0-886............209 Rectified Spirit....................... 4............0 838............791 Spiritus Athens Nitrici, Ph. Ed........5............0847............1000 Purity.—Few articles of the pharmacopoeia are more extensively adulterated than spirit of nitric ether. To prove how great a fraud must be practised with it, I may mention that, in July, 1840, Mr. Hennell informed me, that it was then selling in the trade at a price which was but just above that of the duty on the spirit used in manufacturing the genuine article. Wholesale dealers usually keep two, or even three, qualities of this preparation : the inferior ones being obtained by diluting the best with different quantities of water, or spirit of wine and water. Some years since large quantities of spirit of wine, flavoured with hyponitrous ether, were imported from Ireland into London, under the name of spirit of nitric SPIRIT OF NITRIC ETHER. 349 ether, in order to evade the duty payable on it as spirit of wine. Aldehvd and an acid of nitrogen are accidental impurities frequently present. The goodness of Spirit of Nitric Ether is to be estimated in part by an atten- tive examination of the flavour, and by taking the specific gravity of this liquid. Prepared according to the process of the London Pharmacopoeia, its density is 0*834. A free acid (an acid of nitrogen) may be recognised by litmus, and by the effervescence produced on the addition of the alkaline carbonates. The Edinburgh College gives the following characteristics of the purity of spirit of nitric ether:— " Density, 0-847 : it •ffervesces feebly, or not at all, with a solution of bicarbonate of potash. When agitated with twice its volume of muriate of lime, 12 per cenl. of ether slowly sepa- rates." Two samples of spirit of nitric ether, prepared by Messrs. Howard and Co., of Stratford, I found to be 47*8 over proof, according to Sikes's hydrometer; in- dicating the sp. gr. to be about 0-85. But I failed to separate the hyponitrous ether by the use of a solution of muriate of lime, as directed by the Edinburgh College. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—Its effects on plants have not been ascertained. (3. On Animals.—I am not acquainted with any experiments made to deter- mine its effects on animals generally. Veterinarians employ it as a diuretic on various occasions, and as a stimulant in the advanced stages of fever to rouse the exhausted powers of horses. (Youatt, The Horse, in the Library of Useful Knowledge.) y. On Man.—The inhalation of its vapour is dangerous when too long conti- nued, as is proved by the following case. A druggist's maid-servant was found one morning dead in her bed, and death had evidently arisen from the air of her apartment having been accidentally loaded with the vapour of this liquid from the breaking of a three-gallon jar of it. She was found lying on her side, with her arms folded across the chest, the countenance and posture composed, and the whole appearance like a person in a deep sleep. (Christison's Treatise on Poi- sons.) Taken internally in moderate doses it operates as a volatile stimulant and diuretic. According to the experiments of Alexander (See p- 205*) it acts mildly on the kidneys. It is believed to possess diaphoretic properties. By some phar- macologists it is described as being refrigerant,—a quality which it owes perhaps to the free acid which it usually contains. I am unacquainted with the effects of large doses, but they are probably analogous to, though less energetic than, those of other ethereal compounds. ' Kraus {Heilmittellehre, S. 484. Gottingen, 1831.) says, a boy twelve years of age took a drachm in the morning fasting, and that "it caused violent colic which lasted for sixj^ours, and was accompanied with vomiting. Probably these effects arose from the preparation containing a considerable quantity of free acid. TJsks.—It is employed as a diuretic in some disorders of children and in mild dropsical complaints, as in the anasarca which follows scarlatina. It is given in conjunction with squills, acetate or nitrate of potash, or foxglove. As a refrige- rant and diaphoretic, it is used in febrile complaints in combination with the ace- tate of ammonia and emetic tartar. As a carminative it is frequently useful in relieving flatulence and allaying nausea. On account of its volatility it may be applied to produce cold by its evaporation. Spirit dealers employ it as a .flavour- ing ingredient. Administration.—The usual dose of this liquid in febrile cases is f3ss. to f3ij. or f3iij- When we wish it to act as a diuretic, it should be given in large doses, as two or three tea-spoonsful. Antidotes.—In poisoning by the inhalation of the vapour of this compound, the treatment will be the same as that described for poisoning by carbonic acid gas. vol. i. 30 350 ELEMENTS of materia medica. 5. .ETHER IIYDROCHLO'RICUS.—HYDROCHLORIC ETHER. History and Synonymes.—In the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia for 1735, was a preparation called Spiritus Salis dulcis. It was a solution of Hydrochloric Ether in rectified spirit. Very little, however, was known of the properties of this ether till Gehlen published a dissertation on the subject, in 1804. (Thomson's System of C/wmistry of Inorganic Bodies, vol. ii. p. 310, 7th ed. Lond. 1831.) This ether has had various appellations, such as Chlorhydric Ether, Muriatic Ether, Marine Ether, and, hypothetically, Chloride of Ethule. Preparation.—It is best obtained by saturating alcohot with hydrochloric acid gas (see p. 264), and distilling, by means of a water-bath, into a carefully cooled receiver. By the reaction of one equivalent or 37 parts of hydrochloric acid (Chi. H.) on two equivalents or 46 parts of alcohol (C4 H6 O -f- HO,) we obtain one equi- valent or 65 parts of hydrochloric ether (C4 Hs Chi.) and two equivalents or 18 parts of water (2 HO.) Properties.—Hydrochloric ether is a colourless liquid, having a penetrating odour, and a taste somewhat sweetish. Its sp. gr. is 0*874 at 40° F. It boils at 51° F. This great volatility prevents its being kept in the shops. When pure it is quite neutral, dissolves in about 24 parts of water, does not precipitate nitrate of silver, and burns with a flame edged with green, producing vapours of hydrochloric acid. By the slow action of hydrate of potash on it, chloride of potassium and alcohol are formed. Its composition is as follows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Or, Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Carbon'............. 4 .... 24 .... 36-92 Ethule.............. 1 .... 29 .... 4461 Hydrogen............ 5 --- 5 ___ 769 Chlorine............ 1 --- 36 --- 5538 Chlorine............. 1 .... 36 .... 5538 Hydrochloric Ether... 1 --- 65 --- 9999 Chloride Ethule...... 1 --- 65 .... 9999 Physiological Effects and Uses.—It is a highly diffusible stimulant, like the other ethers, but is rarely, employed alone; though it has been used as an antispasmodic. SPIRITUS jETHERIS HYDROCHLORICI; JEther Muriaticus Alcoholicus; Spiritus Muriatico-JEthereus ; Spiritus Satis dulcis ; Spirit of Hydrochloric Etlier; Spirit of Muriatic Ether ; Dulcified Marine Acid.—In the Edinburgh Pharma- copoeia for 1735, this was ordered to be prepared by adding one part of muriatic acid to three parts of rectified spirit, digesting for some days, and then distilling by a sand heat. Or it may be prepared by dissolving hydrochloric eiher in an equal volume of rectified spirit. Liebig says, that the spiritus muriatico-ethe- reus, used on the continent "contains heavy muriatic ether, the composition of which is not known. The action of spirit of muriatic ether seems to be similar to that of spirit of nitric ether. A scruple of it thrown into the veins of a buck augmented the renal secretion. (Lanzoni, quoted by Wibmer, Die Wirkung, &c. Bd. i. S. 56.) An ounce and a half injected into the jugular vein of a dog, coagulated the blood, caused difficulty of breathing, and death. (Freind, quoted by Wibmer.) It has been used in dyspeptic affections, connected with hepatic obstructions. In hectic fever, Berends (Sundelin, Handbuch der speciellen Heil- mittellehre, Bd. ii. S. 71. 3tte Aufl. Berlin, 1833.) found its continued use bene- ficial. The dose of it is f 3t- to f3iij. 6. iE'THER ACE'TICUS.—ACETIC ETHER. History.—It was discovered by Count de Lauraguais, in 1759. (Thomson, op. supra cit.) Preparation.—It is prepared by submitting to distillation a mixture of 16 parts of dry acetate of lead, 4£ of alcohol, and 6 of oil of vitriol; or 10 parts of ACETIC ACID. 351 crystallized acetate of soda, 15 of oil of vitriol, and 6 of alcohol, at 80 or 85 per cent. The product is rectified with slaked lime and chloride of calcium, to remDveacid and water ; and a quantity of acetic ether, equal in weight to the al- cohol, is obtained. (Liebig.) Properties.—Acetic ether is colourless, and has an agreeable odour of acetic acid and ether. Its sp. gr. is 0*89 at 60°. It boils at 165°. It is soluble in 7 parts of water, and mixes with alcohol and ether in every proportion. Oil of vitriol resolves it into ether and acetic acid. Composition.—The composition of this ether is as follows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Carbon................ 8 ...... 48......04-54 Hydrogen.............. 8 ...... 8...... 9-1 Oxygen...............4......32......36-36 Acetic Ether.......... 1 .100-00 Or, Atoms. Ethule............... 1 • Oxygen.............. 1 . Acetic Acid.......... 1 • Eq. Wt. .. 29 ... Per Cent. ■ 32 95 . 91 . 57-95 Acetate of the Oxide of Ethule....... .100.00 Physiological Effects and Uses.—Acetic ether is not used in medicine in this country. On the continent, however, it is occasionally employed. It is some- what similar in its operation to the other ethers, but is milder, more agreeable, and more diaphoretic. It is used in nervous and putrid fevers, in cardialgia, spasmo- die vomiting, and asthenic affections of the stomach and alimentary canal. (Sun- delin, op. supra cit.) Dose, f3ss. to f3ij. 7. ACIDUM ACETICUM.—L. E. D. (U. S.) ACETIC ACID. History.—Vinegar must have been known from the most remote periods of antiquity. It is mentioned by Moses {Numbers, ch. vi. ver. 3) 1490 years before Christ. Hippocrates {De Natura Muliebri) employed it (oguj) medicin- ally. Hannibal, in his passage over the Alps, is said to have softened the rocks by fire and vinegar.1 Geber {Investigation of Perfection, ch. iii.) was acquainted with the purification of vinegar by distillation. Stahl, in 1723, obtained con- centrated acid from the acetates by the action of sulphuric acid. (Dulk, Die Preussische Phar)nakop6eubersund erldutert, 2terTh. S. 123, 2te Aufl. Leipzig, 1830.) Natural History.—Acetic acid is peculiar to the organized kingdom. Acetic acid, free, or combined with potash, lime, or ammonia, is met with in the juices of many plants. Thus Vauquelin found the acetates of potash and lime in the sap of the Elm ; and Morin detected acetate of ammonia in the fruit of Areci Catechu. Many vegetable sub- stances yield it by decomposition. Acetic acid is said to have been detected in the gastric juice, the perspiration, the urine, the milk, and the blood. It is probable, however, that in most, if not all, of these cases, lactic acid was mistaken for acetic acid. Gmelin {Handb. d. Chem. Bd. ii. S. 126.) says, acetic acid has been found in some mineral waters. If the observation be correct, the acid is probably to be referred to some decomposing organic matter accidentally present in the water. Geiger, {Handb. d. Pharm. Bd. i. S. 601, 3le Aufl.) states that acetate of potash is found in some mineral waters. Preparation__The acetic acid of commerce is obtained from two sources— vinegar and pyroligneous acid : the first is procured by exciting the acetous fer- mentation in certain liquors, the other by the distillation of wood. i. Ar 2 eq. Water .. 18 Oxygen = 32 | 2 eq. Oxygen.................... 16 ( 2 eq. Hydrogen................... 2 2 eq. Alcohol = 46 \\ ««* fydngen =4 i ........ ^ \ 4 eq. Carbon = 24 > 1 eq. Aldehyd 44----------------"* 1 eq. Hydrous ( 2 eq. Oxygen = 16) , Acetic Acid 60 78 78 ~Tr The student will observe that the theory of acetification above given does not account for the evolution of carbonic acid during the process, and which is gene- rally considered to be accidental, and not essential to the formation of acetic acid. 2. By the Destructive Distillation of Wood.—By the destructive distillation of the hard woods (oak, beech, hornbeam, ash, and birch), in iron cylinders, an impure acid, called Pyroligneous Acid, is obtained. The woods should be dried 1 For farther details consult Ure's Dictionary of Arts, pp. 4 and 617; Mitscherlich, Lehrbuch der Chemie, Bd. ler, S. 549, 2te Aufl. Bsrlin, 1831; and Liebig, in Turner's Elements of Chemistry, p. 870, 7th ed. ACETIC ACID. 355 during several months. The lighter woods, as fir, and old ship timber, do not pay to distil, as the acid product is too weak. Sometimes the still is a cast-iron cylinder, placed horizontally in a furnace, the fire of which plays around the cylinder, as in fig. 52. Another form of still is used at a large manufactory in the neighbourhood of London. It is a short cylinder of large diameter, Fig. 52. placed upright in the furnace. The wood, cut up into convenient lengths, is introduced into wrought* iron canisters, in each of which is a hole, to allow of the escape of volatile matters. By the aid of a crane, these canisters are raised, and deposited in the cylin- drical still, the top of which is then carefully closed and made air-tight by luting. The still communi- cates with a large iron pipe which passes successively through two tanks of cold water, in which it is variously convoluted, and terminates in an under- ground reservoir, where tar and an acid liquor are deposited. The incondensable products are carbonic acid and some inflammable gases, (carbonic oxide, light carburetted hydrogen, and olefiant gas,) which f^Pyroligr.ems Acid Still. escape. When no more volatile matter comes over, the still is opened, and the canisters being removed while stilffiot, the apertures in them are carefully closed by damp sand, to exclude air. The tar obtained by the above process yields, on distillation, oil of tar, and a residuum called English asphalt, ox pitch. The acid liquor, which rests on the tar in the reservoir, consists of acetic acid, vjater, tar, and pyroxilic spirit. A light tarry matter usually floats on the top of it. By means of a pump, the acid liquor is raised and introduced into a copper still, where it is subjected to distillation. The first runnings contain pyroxilic spirit. After this has come over, an impure dilute acetic acid, called pyroligne- ous acid, distils over. The residue in the retort is English asphalt, or pitch. The pyroligneous acid thus obtained is mixed with cream of lime, and the mixture evaporated to dryness in shallow wrought-iron pans, when it forms a grayish mass, called pyrolignite of lime. If this be submitted to distillation with sulphuric acid, it yields an impure acetic acid, which is used in the manufacture of acetate of lead, and for making carbonate of lead by the Dutch process. « If pyrolignite of lime be mixed with a solution of sulphate of soda, double de- composition is effected, and sulphate of lime and acetate of soda are the products. The latter is repeatedly crystallized until it is colourless, and is then in a fit state for the manufacture of pure concentrated acetic acid. 1. Pvroxilic Spirit; Pyroligneous Elher; Hydrate of Oxide of Methule; Bihydrate of Methylene. Sometimes, but improperly termed Naphtha. The first runnings of the distillation of the -acid liquor above referred to, are redistilled once or twice, and the product is sold under the name of pyroligneous ether. It is an impure liquor, containing, besides hydrate of the oxide of methule, acetone and other inflammable liquors. It is employed by chemists as a substitute for spirit of wine for burning in lamps, and by hatters and varnish-makers for dis- solving resinous substances. Drs. Babington and Rees (Cuj/'s Hospital Reports, Oct. 1839 ; and London Medical Gazette, N. S. vol. i. for 1839-40.) have suggested its use for preservation of subjects lor anatomical purposes. The spirit is to be injected into the aorta, the rectum and the peritoneum. It was tried at the London Hospital, but the smell arising from the spirit was so intolerable, that, even if there were no other objections to its use, this alone would be fulal to it. Pure pyroxilic spirit is obtained by introducing it into a retort with excess of chloride of calcium, and distilling the mixture by a water-bath, as long as volatile matter passes off. A quantity of vyater, equal to the spirit employed, is then added, and the distillation continued. The product is now pure pyroxilic spirit, carrying along with it a little water, which is removed by a second distillation wilh quicklime (Liebig). 356 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Pure pyroxilic spirit is a very mobile, colourless, inflammable liquid, which has a peculiar odour, somewhat resembling that of alcohol and acetic ether. It boils at 150° F. It dissolves many resins, mixes with most essential oils, and forms crystalline compounds wilh baryta, lime, and chloride of calcium. Its composition is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Or, Atoms. Eq Wt, Carbon............ 2 ................. 12 Oxide of Methule.......... 1 ......... 23 Hydrogen......... 4 ................. 4 Water.................... 1 ......... 9 Oxygen........... 2 ................. 16 Pyroxilic Spirit... 1.................. 32 I Hydrate of Oxide of Methule 1 ......... 32 Methule (Ca H3) is the hypothetical radical of pyroxilic spirit. Oxide of Methule, or Methylic Ether (C2 H3 O) is a colourless gas. The repeated use of small quantities of pyroxilic spirit caused colicky pains, and acted as an anthelmintic. (Dierbach, Neuesten Entdeck. in d. Mat. Med., Bd. i. S. 314, 2te Ausg. 1837.) 2. Eblanin ; Pyroxanthine; Pyroxilene.—This substance was obtained by Scanlan from raw pyroxilic spirit. It is a crystalline substance, of an orange red colour. Oil of vitriol dissolves it, and assumes a reddish blue colour. Concentrated hydrochloric acid also dissolves it, and acquires an intense purple colour. (For farther details, see Thomson's Chemistry of Organic Bodies, p. 751. Lond. 18.38.) Eblanin has the following composition:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Carbon................. 21 .................. 126 .................. 75-45 Hydrogen.............. 9 .................. !> .................. 539 Oxygen................ 4 .................. 32 .................. 1916 Eblanin............... 1.................. 167 ................. 10000 Preparation^ Acetic Acid.—All the British colleges give directions for the preparation of a concentrated solution of acetic acid, which they simply term acetic acid. The London College orders Acetate of Soda, lb. ij.; Sulphuric Acid, Six.; Distilled Water, f Six. Add the sulphuric acid, first mixed with the water, to the acetate of soda put into a glass retort, then let the acid distil in a sand-bath. Care is to be taken that the heat, towards the end, be not too much increased. The Edinburgh College gives the following directions:—"Take of Acetate of Lead any convenient quantity; heat it gradually in a porcelain basin, by means of a bath of oil, or fusible metal (8 tin, 4 lead, 3 bismuth) to 320° F.; and stir till the fused mass concretes again : pulverize this when cold, and heat the powder again to 320°, with frequent stirring, till the particles cease to accrete. Add six ounces of the powder to nine fluid-drachms and a half of pure sulphuric acid contained in a glass matrass: attach a proper tube and refrigeratory, and distil from a fusible metal-bath, with a heat of 320°, to complete dryness. Agitate the dis- tilled liquid with a grain or two of red oxide of lead to remove a little sulphurous acid; allow the vessel to rest a few minutes, pour off the clear liquor, and redistil it. The density should be not above 1-065." The directions of the Dublin College are as follows :—Take of Acetate of Potash, 100 parts, Sulphuric Acid, 52 parts. Put the acid into a tubulated retort, then gradually, and at different intervals of time, add the Acetate of Potash, waiting, after each addition, until the mixture be- comes cool. Lastly, with a moderate heat, distil the acid until the residuum is dry. The specific gravity of this acid is to that of distilled water as 1074 to 1-000. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs, Acetate of Soda in powder a pound ; Sulphuric Acid half a pound ; Red Oxide of Lead a drachm. Pour the Sulphuric Acid into a glass retort, and gradu- ally add the Acetate of Soda; then by means of a sand-bath distil at a moderate heat into a glass receiver till the residuum becomes dry. Mix the resulting liquid with the Red Oxide of Lead, and again distil at a moderate heat to dryness.] The proportions of acetate of soda, sulphuric acid, and water, used by the London College, are nearly equal to one equivalent or 137 parts of crystallized acetate of soda, one equivalent or 49 parts of the strongest oil of vitriol (proto- hydrate of sulphuric acid), and six equivalents or 54 parts of water. The results of the distillation, on this calculation, will be the formation of one equivalent or 72 parts of anhydrous sulphate of soda, and the disengagement of one equiva- lent or 51 parts of anhydrous acetic acid, and thirteen equivalents or 117 parts of water. ACETIC ACID. 357 PRODCCTS. 13 eq. Water........... 117 1 eq. Acetic Acid........ 51 1 eq. Sulphate Soda..... 72 materials. composition. Geq. Water..............54.......................... ( 6 eq. Water.........54 1 eq.Cryst'd Acet. Soda.. 137< 1 eq. Acetic Acid...... 51 f 1 eq. Soda............32 leq-oiivitrw.........^{U:SK:-i*iV.v.:« 240 240 The calculated results agree very closely with the actual products. The resulting acid consists of 51 real acetic acid and 114*58 water; so that 117—114*56=2*42 of water must remain in the retort with ihe sulphate of soda. The Edinburgh College substitutes acetate of lead for acetate of soda. The salt is first dried to expel the water of crystallization, and the anhydrous salt thus obtained is subjected lo distillation along with pure oil of vitriol, with the view, I presume, of obtaining glacial acetic acid. Hydrated acetic acid distils over, and sulphate of lead is left in the retort. To remove any sulphurous acid which may be formed, red oxide of lead is ordered to be added to the acetic acid, by which sulphate and sulphite of lead are formed, and the acetic acid is then to be redistilledj1 The Dublin College employs acetate of potash to yield acetic acid. The reac- tions are similar to those of the London process. The distillation of acetic acid is usually effected in glass or earthenware stills. On the large scale, silver condensers are sometimes used. Properties___Glacial Acetic Acid is the strongest acetic acid procurable. It crystallizes at 45° F. when we throw into it any particle of solid matter (a crys- tal of acetic acid answers best), and the thermometer plunged into it rises at the same time from 45° to 51°. These crystals are brilliant, broad, flat plates, of a pearly lustre. They melt at a temperature somewhat below 60° F. The sp. gr. of the liquid at 60° is 1*06296. When crystals of glacial acetic acid are dissolved in water we obtain a solution which, by way of distinction, we may denominate liquid acetic acid. The foltow- ing table, drawn up by Dr. Thomson, {First Principles of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 135.) shows the specific gravity of various atomic compounds of this acid and water:— Acid. 1 atom 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . Sp. gr. at 60G .....1*06296 2....... . 1*07060 3 ........ 1*07084 4........1.07132 Water. + 1 atom + + + + + + + + + 9 10 106820 1*06708 1*06349 1*05974 1*05794 1*05439 More recently Mohr {Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fur 1839, S. 840-41.) has published the following table, exhibiting the sp. gr. of acetic acid of different streng^is:— 1 The process of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia lias been critically examined by Mr. R. Phillips (London Medi- cal Gazette, N. S. vol. ii. for 1839-40, p. 271). It cannot be denied that several unnecessary refinements have linen introduced into it, which render the operation troublesome, wasteful, and expensive. Such are the use of n bath of oil or fusible metal,—the addition of red lead, and subsequent redistillation of the acid to get rid nf n quantity of sulphurous acid, whicli, judging from the quantity of red oxide to be used, cannot exceed the j Ijjjj part of the product. Moreover, the whole process is objectionable on the ground that acid of this strength is not required for medicinal or pharmaceutical purposes. 358 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Per Cent, of Per Cent, of Per Cent, of Glacial Acid Sp. Gr. Glacial Acid Sp. Gr. Glacial Acid Sp. Gr. (C« H» Oa -4- Aq.) (C« H.3 03 -j- Aq.) (C* Hs 03 + Aq.) 100 10655 66 1-069 32 10424 99 1-0655 65 1068 31 1*041 98 1-067 64 1-068 30 . 1040 97 1-0680 63 1068 29 103!) 96 1-069 62 1067 28 1038 95 1-070 61 1-067 27 1-036 94 1-0706 60 1067 26 1-035 93 1-0708 59 1066 25 1034 92 10716 58 1066 24 1033 91 10721 57 1065 23 1032 90 10730 56 1064 22 1031 89 10730 55 1064 21 1-0-29 88 10730 54 1063 20 1027 87 10730 53 1063 1U 1-026 86 10730 52 1062 18 1025 85 10730 51 1-061 17 1024 84 10730 50 1060 16 1-023 83 10730 49 1059 15 1022 82 10730 48 1058 14 1020 81 10732 47 1056 13 1-018 80 10735 46 1055 12 , 1017 79 10735 45 1055 11 1016 78 10732 44 1054 10 1015 77 10732 43 1-053 9 1013 76 1073 42 1 052 8 1012 75 1072 41 10515 7 1010 74 1072 40 10513 6 1-003 73 1072 39 1050 5 1-0067 72 1071 ' 38 1049 4 10055 71 1-071 37 1-048 3 1004 70 1070 36 1047 2 1002 69 1070 35 1-046 1 1.001 68 • 1-070 34 I 045 0 1000 67 1-069 33 1.044 From these tables it is obvious that density is no criterion of the strength of liquid acetic acid. The Acidum Aceticum of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is stated in one part of that work (p. 44) to have a sp. gr. of not above 1*065, in another (p. 2) to have a sp. gr. of not above 1*0685; moreover, in the same work, ihe density of the acid is said to be increased by [the addition of] 20 per cent, of water. There are, however, some obvious mistakes in these statements. (See Mr. R. Phillips, in the London Medical Gazette, N. S. for 1838-9, vol. ii. p. 588.) The Acidum Aceticum of the London Pharmacopoeia has a sp. gr. of 1*048. One hundred grains of it are saturated by eighty-seven grains of crystals of car- bonate of soda. Hence it contains 30*8 per cent, of real or anhydrous acetic acid. It is a limpid, colourless liquid, having a pungent but agreeable odour, and an acrid taste. It possesses the usual properties of an acid ;—such as reddening litmus, causing effervescence with the alkaline or earthy carbonates, and satu- rating bases. It is volatile, and by heat evolves an inflammable vapour. Characteristics.—Free acetic acid is known by its peculiar odour and by its volatility. Its vapour reddeus litmus, and fumes with ammonia. It does not occasion any precipitate with lime water, solutions of the barytic salts, or a solu- tion of nitrate of silver. It forms with potash a very deliquescent salt. Con- centrated acetic acid does not cause effervescence when marble is dropped into it, unless water be added. J The neutral acetates are all soluble, save those of molybdenum and tungsten. The acetates of silver and protoxide of mercury are slightly soluble. The acetates are known by the acetic odour which they emit on the addition of sulphuric acid, and by the white lamellar and pearly precipitates which many of them produce with the nitrate of silver and the protonitrate of mercury. They redden solutions of the sesquisalts of iron (forming sesquiacetate of iron). All the acetates are decomposed by heat, and give results which vary somewhat according to the nature of the base. Some of the acetates, as those of potash, lead, and copper, ACETIC ACID. 359 evolve, when heated, an inflammable fluid, called acetone or pyro-acetic spirit, whose composition is CB, H8, O9. Composition.—Anhydrous or real acetic acid consists of carbon, hydrogen, nnd oxygen, in the following proportions : Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Prout. Berzelius. Carbon.....4 . . 24 . . 47*06 . 47*05 . 46*83 Hydrogen . . . . 3 . . 3 . . 5-8S . 5*88 . 6*35 Oxygen .... 3 . . 24 . . 47*06 . 47-07 . 46*82 Anhydrous Acetic Acid 1 '. '. 51 '. . 100-00 . 100*00 . 10000 The Acidum Aceticum of the pharmacopoeias is a compound of Anhydrous or Real Acetic Acid and Water. Prepared according to the London Pharmacopoeia, 100 grs. of it contain 30*8 grs. of real acetic acid, or very nearly one equivalent of real acetic acid, and 13 equivalents of water. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Theory. Experiment. Anhydrous Acetic Acid.......... 1............51.............30-35............30-8 Water...........................13............117.............69-65............692 Acidum Aceticum, Ph.L......... 1............168............10000...........1000 Owing to the errors before alluded to in the statements of the Edinburgh College, it is impossible to estimate, correctly, the strength of the acid intended to be ob- tained by the process given in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia. If, however, the acid had a sp. gr. of 1*068, and 100 minims of it required 216 grs. of crystallized carbonate of soda to saturate it, as stated by the College, its per centage quantity of real acetic acid would be 78*65. Acetometry.—The strength of acetic acid is best determined by ascertaining the quantity of alkaline carbonate which is required to saturate a given quantity of acid. Crystallized carbonate of soda, or crystallized bicarbonate of potash, are salts of uniform constitution, and may be employed for this purpose. Every 144 grs. of the crystallized carbonate of soda, or 101 grs. of crystallized bicar- bonate of potash, are equal to 51 grs. of real acetic acid, or 60 grs. of glacial acetic acid. Marble or carbonate of lime is objectionable, since concentrated acetic acid will not decompose it without the addition of water. I have already shown that specific gravity is n6 criterion of the strength of the hydrated acid; since two acids of very unequal strength may have the same density. Moreover, the foreign matters {i.e. mucilage and alcohol) contained in vinegar, alter the density of this fluid, though they do not affect its acetometrical strength. The acetometrical method employed by the Excise is that recom/nend- cd by Messrs. J. and P. Taylor, {Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. vi. p. 255.) and consists in estimating the strength of the acid by the sp. gr. which it acquires when saturated by hydrate of lime. Acid, which contains 5 per cent, of real acetic acid, is equal in strength to the best malt vinegar, called by the makers No. 24, and is assumed as the standard of vinegar strength, under the denomination of proof vinegar. (58 Geo. 3, c. 65.) Acid, which contains 40 per cent, of real acetic acid, is, therefore, in the language of the revenue, 35 per cent, over proof: it is the strongest acid on which duty is charged by the Acetometer. Vinegars, which have not been distilled, contain mucilage, and require an allowance for the increase of weight from this cause. Hence, in the Acetometer sold by Bate, a weight marked M is provided, and is used in trying such vinegars.1 As the hydrate of lime employed causes the precipitation of part of the mucilaginous matter in the vinegar, it serves to get rid of part of the difficulty above referred to. Impurities.—The presence of sulphuric, hydrochloric, or nitric acid,—of metallic matter,—and of acrid substances 'in acetic acid, may be detected by the 1 See Description of the Acetometer for determining the Strengths of Acetic Acid made for the Revenue of the United Kingdom, by R. B. Bate, 21, Poultry, London. 360 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. same methods as have already been pointed out for vinegar. (See p. 353.) Sul- phurous acid is recognised by the white precipitate {sulphate of lead) produced on the addition of peroxide of lead. The presence of lead in acetic acid is known by the yellow precipitate {iodide of lead) occasioned by the addition of iodide of potassium. Physiological Effects.—Before proceeding to notice the operation of acetic acid on vegetables and animals, it may be useful to point out such of its effects on dead organic matters as have reference to its influence on living beings. In the first place, it is a well-known and powerful antiseptic, and is employed, partly on this account, in the ordinary operation of pickling, and in the preservation of animal food, and of anatomical preparations. The impure acetic acid obtained in the distillation of wood, acts more efficaciously in this respect than the pure acid, on account of the creasote which it contains. Secondly, the action of acetic acid on albumen, fibrin, and blood-disks, deserves especial notice. Liquid albumen (as serum of blood and white of egg) is not coagulated by the ordinary acetic acid of the shops. Coagulated albumen is readily dissolved by it with the evolution of nitrogen, especially with the assistance of heat. Fibrin, as muscle or the cras- samentum of the blood, also dissolve in it: the solution, by evaporation, yields a gelatiniform mass. Caseum is coagulated by it. It changes the form of the red particles of frogs' blood, and dissolves part of the red colouring matter. (Miiller's Physiology, p. 106.) It is an excellent solvent of gelatine. Diluted and mixed with mucus, it acts as a digestive fluid. (Miiller, op. cit. p. 545.) a. On Vegetables.—Distilled vinegar is ranked, by Achard, among vegetable poisons. (De Candolle, Phys. Veget.) (3. On Animals generally.—Concentrated acetic acid acts as a caustic poison to dogs. It causes blackening of the mucous lining of the stomach, analogous to that produced by sulphuric acid. (Orfila, Journ. de Chim. Med. t. vii. p. 449.) Four or five ounces of common vinegar proved fatal to dogs in ten or fifteen hours, when vomiting was prevented by tying the ossophagus. {Ibid.) Injected into the veins, vinegar does not appear to act energetically. Viborg threw two ounces and a half of wine vinegar into the jugular vein of a horse: the next day the animal was well. (Wibmer, Die Wirkung der Arzneimittel. und Gifte, Bd. i. S. 11.) Analogous results have been obtained by Courten and Hertwich (quoted by Wib- mer) and by Pommer. (Christison, Treatise on Poisons.) The impure acetic acid obtained by the distillation of wood, has been usually regarded as possessing much more activity than pure acetic acid of the same strength, in consequence of the presence of empyreumatic oil. An extensive series«of experiments have been made with it on amphibials, birds, and mammals, by Berres, Kerner, and Schubarth. From these it appears that pyroligneous acid is a caustic poison, and that it destroys some of the lower animals, viz., amphibials, merely by contact with the external skin. Large doses affect the cerebro-spinal system, and cause giddiness, insensibility, paralysis, and convul- sions. A very constant effect of it was an affection of the windpipe and lungs. The acid was detected by its odour, in the blood and secretions. (Wibmer, op. supra cit.) y. On Man.—In the concentrated state, acetic acid is an irritant and corrosive poison. (See p. 216.) Its chemical influence depends principally on its power of dissolving fibrin, albumen, and gelatine, as before mentioned, by which it is enabled to dissolve many of the animal tissues. Applied to the skin, it acts as a rubefacient and vesicant. (See p. 217.) Only one fatal case of poisoning by its internal use is known. The patient (a girl) appeared to be intoxicated, complained of acute pain, and was violently convulsed. (Orfila, Journ. Chim. Med. t. ii.) Swallowed in a very dilute form, and in moderate doses, it proves refreshing, allays thirst, diminishes preternatural heat, lowers the pulse, and augments the ACETIC ACID. 361 urine. In its general effects, therefore, it appears to lower the powers of life and to prove antiphlogistic. It agrees in its operation with the diluted mineral acids (see pp. 197, 200, 206, and 215). Its local operation is astringent. Used mo- derately it assists the digestive process, and is, therefore, taken as a condiment. It is in repute with young ladies for diminishing obesity. " Every one knows," says Giacomini, {Lond. Med. Gaz., N. S. vol. ii. for 1838-9, p. 175.) "that when habitually taken, it produces leanness, from a sort of languor of the diges- tive process." The following is a case, quoted by this author, from Portal:— " A few years ago, a young lady, in easy circumstances, enjoyed good health ; she was very plump, had a good appetite, and a complexion blooming with rose3 and lilies. She began to look upon her plumpness with suspicion ; for her mother was very fat, and she was afraid of becoming like her. Accordingly, she consulted a woman, who advised her to drink a small glass of vinegar daily : the young lady followed her advice, and her plumpness diminished. She was delighted with the success of the remedy, and continued it for more than a month. She began to have a cough; but it was dry at its commencement, and was considered as a slight cold, which would go off. Meantime, from dry it became moist; a slow fever came on, and a difficulty of breathing; her body became lean, and wasted away; night sweats, swelling of the feet and of the lege, succeeded, and a diarrhoea terminated her life. On exami- nation, all the lobes of the lungs were found filled with tubercles, and somewhat resembled a bunch of grapes." It is said that the long-continued use of it, in full doses, will induce chronic diseases of the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane; and Morgagni says, it has even given rise to scirrhus of the pylorus. Vinegar may be taken in considerable quantity at one time without inconveni- ence. Dr. Christison (Christison, Treatise on Poisons.) knew a case in which eight ounces were swallowed without injury. The vapour of strong acetic acid is very pungent and irritating. The long- continued inhalation of acetic vapours by the workmen employed at vinegar- works, is said by Sundelin {Handb. d. Heilmittellehre.) to be injurious to the lungs, and to bring on chronic inflammation of these organs. On inquiry among the workmen of a large vinegar-manufactory, I find the notion of the injurious influence of the vapour generally repudiated. Both at these works, and at a pyroligneous acid manufactory, the workmen appeared in excellent health. Uses.—The uses of acetic acid and vinegar, to the medical practitioner, are of Iwo kinds,—medicinal and pharmaceutical. 1. Medicinal.—Taken internally, common vinegar, or acetic acid properly diluted, is used for various purposes: the most important of these are, to allay febrile heat by its refrigerant qualities; to diminish inordinate vascular action; to relieve certain affections of the brain supposed to depend on, or be connected with, venous congestion; and to act by its chemical properties of an acid. Thus, in fevers, whether simple or eruptive, but especially in those varieties commonly denominated putrid and bilious, vinegar (more or less diluted with water) is a most refreshing drink, allaying thirst, and diminishing excessive heat. In hemorrhages, as from the nose, lungs, stomach, or uterus, it is particularly bene- ficial by its refrigerant, sedative, and astringent qualities. It diminishes exces- sive vascular action, and promotes contraction of the bleeding vessels. As a local astringent, it is injected into the nose in epistaxis, and is used as a wash in profuse hemorrhoidal discharges. The benefit obtained by the application of vinegar and water to the abdomen, vulva, and thighs, in uterine hemorrhages, arises principally from the cold produced. In phthisis pulmonalis, vinegar, diluted with water, is sometimes serviceable as a palliative, by its refrigerant qualities : it relieves the hectic symptoms, diminishes or puts a stop to the night sweats, checks bronchial hemorrhage, and prevents diarrhoea. In mania, it has been recommended as a means of allaying cerebral excitement. In poisoning by opium, it is used as a counter-poison; but as acetic acid forms very soluble, and, therefore, powerful compounds with morphia, it ought not to be exhibited until the contents of the stomach have been evacuated. In poisoning by the alkalis, vol. i. 31 362 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. and their carbonates, and by lime, vinegar is the safest and most efficacious acidu- lous substance that can be administered. In diseases attended with phosphatic deposits in the urine, it may be advantageously used either as a medicine or condiment. As an adjunct to the acetate of lead, acetic acid is recommended by Dr. A. T. Thomson, to prevent the formation of carbonate of lead, which is more apt to produce lead colic than the acetate. In scurvy, acetic acid has been found serviceable. Clysters containing vinegar have been employed for the purpose of provoking alvine evacuations in obstinate constipation and strangulated hernia ; of expelling the small round worm {Ascaris vermicularis); of checking uterine and intestinal hemorrhage; and of relieving inflammation or congestive conditions of the brain. As a stimulant, disinfectant, and antiseptic, diluted acetic acid is used in gan- grenous and other ill-conditioned ulcers. For these purposes crude pyroligneous acid is more efficacious than ordinary vinegar, on account of the creasote and other substances which it contains. In ulceration of the throat, in scarlatina, and in cynanche, gargles containing acetic acid or vinegar are sometimes used with good effect. Acetic collyria are useful, as mild astringents, in chronic ophthalmia, and for removing lime-dust adhering to any part of the globe or lid of the eye. Sponging the face, trunk, or extremities, with cold or tepid vinegar and water, usually proves refreshing and grateful in febrile disorders with a hot skin. It diminishes preternatural heat, promotes the cutaneous functions, and operates as a beneficial stimulant to the nervous system. Fomentations containing vinegar are used in bruises, sprains, &c. The concentrated acetic acid, known in the shops as Beaufoy's, is a valuable remedy for the cure of the different forms of porrigo, popularly called ring-worm or scalled head. Its application, which may be effected by means of a piece of lint wrapped around a wooden stick, causes acute but temporary pain, redness of the skin, and whitening of the abraded spots. One or two applications are usually sufficient to effect a cure. Strong acetic acid is also employed as a caustic to destroy corns and warts. It has been proposed as a speedy means of exciting rubefaction and vesication, and, for this purpose, blotting-paper or cambric, moist- ened with this acid, has been applied to ihe neck in cases of croup. Administration.—Vinegar is used as a condiment ad libitum. Medicinally it is given in doses of from f3j. or f 3ij. to f 3ss. As an enema f 3j. or fgij. have been used. A refrigerant drink in fevers is made by adding f3j. or f gij. of vine- gar to a quart of water. A vinegar wash is prepared by mixing fgiij. of vinegar and f3v. of water. Antidotes.—In poisoning by strong acetic acid, the treatment is the same as that for poisoning by other acids. (See p. 270. Also Acidum Sulphuricum.) 1. ACETUM DESTILLATUM, L. E. D. (U. S.) Distilled Vinegar.—All the British colleges give directions for the preparation of this liquid. The London College directs us to take of Vinegar a gallon. Let the Vinegar distil in a sand- bath, from a glass retort into a glass receiver. Keep tlie seven pints first distilled for use. [This process has been adopted by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia.] The Edinburgh College says, "Take of Vinegar (French, by preference) eight parts: distil over with a gentle heat six parts: dilute the product, if necessary, with distilled water till the density is 1-005." The Dublin College takes of Wine vinegar, by measure, ten parts. Distil with a slow fire eight parts by measure. In the distillation, glass vessels should be employed, and the first por- tion which comes over, in quantity amounting to one part, rejected. The first portions which distil over are alcohol, acetic ether, water, and a little acetic acid. Hence the Dublin College directs the first tenth part to be rejected. Prepared according to the pharmacopoeias, distilled vinegar has a yellowish tint, and contains, besides aoetic acid and water, a little alcohol, acetic ether, and an organic substance called mucilage. Hence, when it is saturated with alkalis, the acetic acid. 363 solution becomes brown by heat, and deposits a dark-coloured substance, pro- bably arising from the decomposition of the mucilage. One hundred grains of acetum destillatum, Ph. Lond. saturate thirteen grains of crystals of carbonate of soda. This indicates the per-centage quantity of real acetic acid in it to be 4*6. But the acetum destillatum, Ph. Ed. is not so strong, in consequence of the College directing only £ths of the vinegar to be distilled. Its density is stated to be 1-005 ; and one hundred minims of it neutralize eioht grains of crystallized carbonate of soda, indicating the per-centage quantity of real acid to be 3*07.1 In order to prevent the distilled vinegar from acquiring a metallic impregnation, the head of the still and the worm or condensing pipe should be of glass or earthenware. I was informed at one vinegar works that a silver worm was em- ployed. A mixture of acetic acid and water may be advantageously substituted for dis- tilled vinegar. If the acetic acid be of the strength directed in the London Phar- macopoeia, the proportions will be, of acetic acid 15 parts, of water 85 parts, to form a dilute acid equal in strength to that of distilled vinegar. The effects and uses of distilled vinegar have been noticed under the head of Acetic Acid. [I ACIDUM ACETICUM DILUTUM, U. S._Take of Acetic Acid half a pint; Dis- tilled Water five pints. Mix them. One fluid ounce is saturated by 36 grains of crystallized Bicarbonate of Potassa. This preparation is used as a substitute for distilled vinegar where nicety is requisite, as it is free from mucilage, and therefore does not change colour, from the action of an alkali that may be used to saturate the acid.] I ACIDUM ACETICUM AROMATICUM, E.—(Rosemary and Origanum, of each 3j-, dried; Lavender, dried, 3ss.; Cloves, bruised, 3ss.; Acetic Acid, Oiss. Mace- rate for seven days, strain and express strongly, and filter the liquor.) In the former Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia there was contained, under the same name, a somewhat similar but weaker preparation, made with diluted acetic acid, {i. e. distilled vinegar,) in imitation of the celebrated Marseilles Vinegar, or Vinegar of tlie Four Thieves2 {Vinaigre des Qiiatre-Voleurs ; Acetum quatuor Furum), one supposed to be a prophylactic against the plague and other contagious dis- eases. It was a very useless preparation. In the present Edinburgh Pharma- copoeia, concentrated acetic acid has been substituted for distilled vinegar, and Origanum for Sage. It is now a pungent perfume, and may be used as a substi- tute for Henry's Aromatic Vinegar. But it appears to me lo be a very unneces- sary preparation. The Acetum aromaticum, or Aromatic Vinegar of the shops, is made in imi- tation of Henry's Aromatic Vinegar. At Apothecaries' Hall it is prepared bv dissolving the Oils of Cloves, Lavender, Rosemary, and Acorus Calamus, in crystallizable Acetic Acid. It is a very volatile and corrosive preparation, and requires to be kept in carefully-stoppered bottles. Some manufacturers add cam- phor. The addition of water to it causes the precipitation of the greater part of the camphor. It is a much perfumed pungent perfume, whose vapour is snuffed up the nostrils, to produce a powerful excitant impression, in fainting, languor, headache, and nervous debility. For this purpose it is dropped on sponge, which ■ See Mr. U. Phillips, in London Medical Gazette, N. S. vol. ii. for 1838-39. p. 688; and vol. ii. for 1833-40 p. 271. a " The r<-pu to of this preparation as a prophylactic in contagious fevers is said to have arisen from the con- fession of four thieves, who, during the plague of Marseilles, plundered the dead bodies with perfect security, nnd, upon heing arrested, stated, upon condition of their lives being spared, that the use of aromatic vinegar had preserved lliein from the influence of contagion. It is on this account sometimes called ' Le Vinaigre des ■■mitre Yoleurs.' It was, however, long used before the plague of Marseilles, for it was the constant custom of I '.-irdinal Wolspy lo carry in Ins hand an orange, deprived of its contents, and filled with a sponge which had been sonked in vinegnr impregnated with various spices, in order to preserve himself from infection, when pnesing through the crowds which his splendour or office attracted. The first plague raged in 1649, whereas Wul-cy died in 1531." (Paris, Pharmacologia, vol. ii. p. 18, 6th ed. Lond. lr-Jj.) 364 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. is preserved in smelling-bottles or vinaigrettes. It is also used for the purpose of correcting unpleasant odours, which it does, not by destroying, but by disguising them (see p. 218). An extemporaneous aromatic vinegar may be prepared by putting into a stoppered bottle f2j. of acetate of potash, three drops of some es- sential oil, (as Lavender or Lemon,) and twenty drops of oil of vitriol. 4. ACIDUM ACETICUM CAMPIIORATUM, E. D.—(Camphor, 3ss.; Acetic Acid, fSviss. [f3vj. -D.] Pulverize the camphor with the aid of a little rectified spirit, and dissolve it in the acid.)—This preparation is an officinal substitute for Henry's Aromatic Vinegar. The spirit is used merely to assist in reducing the camphor to powder. Camphorated acetic acid is exceedingly pungent and cor- rosive. Its vapour is snuffed up the nostrils as a powerful stimulant in syncope. It is never used internally. §. OXYMEL, L. D. Syrupus Aceti, E.; Oxymel Simplex or Simple Oxymel. (The London College directs of Honey [clarified], lb. x.; Acetic Acid, Oiss. Mix the acid with the honey made hot.1—The Dublin College orders of Honey, by weight, lb. ij.; Distilled Vinegar, Oj. [wine measure.^ Boil them in a glass vessel, with a slow fire, to the thickness of syrup, removing the scum—The Edinburgh College substitutes sugar for honey :—Take of Vinegar, French in preference, f3xj.; Pure Sugar, 3xiv. Boil them together.)—It is employed as a detergent and pectoral. It is frequently added to gargles, but is more com- monly used as an expectorant in slight colds and coughs. Diffused through bar- ley-water, it forms an agreeable refrigerant drink in febrile and inflammatory complaints. It is sometimes used as a vehicle for other medicines. Dose from 3j. to 3ss. or 3j. 2. Pharmaceutical Uses.—Vinegar or acetic acid is employed for extracting the virtues of various medicinal substances, as Squills, Opium, Colchicum, and Can- tharides : the solutions are called Medicated Vinegars {Acetica), or, by the French pharmacologists, Oxeoles (from ogos, vinegar). A small quantity of spirit is usually added to them for the purpose of preventing the decomposition of the vinegar, and, in consequence of this, a small portion of acetic ether is generated. They are usually prepared by maceration. The preparations into the composi- tion of which acetic acid and honey enter are called Oxymels, {Oxymellites,) or the Acid Mellites. Acetic acid is employed also in the manufacture of the salts called Acetates. It is a powerful solvent of the gum-resins, and is used, on this account, in the preparation, of the Emplastrum Ammoniaci. Lastly, distilled vinegar is used in the preparation of Cataplasma Sinapis, Ceratum, Saponis, Lini- mentum iEruginis, and Unguentum Plumbi compositum. 8. ACIDUM CI'TRICUM, L. E. D. (U. S.)—CITRIC ACID. History.—This acid was first procured in the solid state by Scheele in 1781. It is sometimes termed the Concrete Acid of Lemons. Natural History.—Citric acid is peculiar to the vegetable kingdom. It is found in many acid juices of fruits usually free, but sometimes in combination with either potash or lime. Besides the fruits of the genus Citrus, it is found, with little or no malic acid, in the fruits of Dulcamara, Dog-rose, Cranberry, Bird-cherry, and Whortleberry. Mixed with an equal quantity of malic acid, it is found in the Gooseberry, Red Currant, Strawberry, Raspberry, Cherry, &c. In the Tamarind it exists with both malic and tartaric acids. Preparation.—All the British colleges give directions for the preparation of this acid. | There is n mistake in the formula of the London College ; the quantity of acetic acid directed to be used being much too large. Prepared according to the London Pharmacopeia, oxymel is an acrid preparation. The quantity of acetic acid employed should be sufficient to give the preparation an agreeable flavour. When the honey is very thick, a little water should be employed. A very fine oxymel, which 1 examined, was pre- pared wilh 132 lbs. 12 oz. of honey, and 8 lbs. 2 oz. (Avoirdupois) of acetic acid. CITRIC acid. 365 The London College orders of Lemon Juice, Oiv.; Prepared Chalk, 3ivss.; Diluted Sulphuric Acid, f 3xxviiss.; Distilled Water, Oij. Add ihe Chalk gradually to the Lemon Juice made hot, and mix. Set by, that the powder may subside: afterwards pour off the supernatant liquor. Wash the Citrate of Lime frequently with warm water. Then pour upon it the diluted Sulphuric Acid and the distilled Water, and boil for a quarter of an hour. Press the liquor strongly through linen, and strain it; evaporate the strained liquor with a gentle heat, and set it by, that crystals may be formed. Dissolve the crystals, that they may be pure, again and a third time in water, and as often strain the solution, boil down and set it aside. The Edinburgh College employs the same quantity of Lemon Juice and Chalk (or of the latter a sufficiency), and " Diluted Sulphuric Acid, fSxxvii., or in the same proportion to the chalk required."1 The lemon juice is to be boiled twice, and allowed to rest once before the chalk is added. After the sulphuric acid has been added, the filtered liquor is to be tested wilh a solution of nitrate of baryta, and if the precipitate thereby obtained be not "almost entirely soluble in nitric acid," more citrate of lime is to be added to saturate the great excess of sulphuric acid. •» The process of the Dublin College is essentially similar lo that of the London College. The juice of lemons and limes is imported for citric acid manufacturers, in pipes and hogsheads. It is saturated with chalk or whiting in a large vat. By this means a citrate of lime is formed. This is precipitated, while the carbonic acid of the chalk escapes, and the mucilage of the juice for the most part remains in solution. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. „. ,, ( Carbonic Acid........ -----------------------------Carbonic Acid Gas. Chalk............ ■■ . ___ I Lime.................----—__^_^^ To___,„•„„ ( Water, Mucilage, Src. —......^^~—„ii;c;;_.........Water. Mucilage, &c. Lemon Juice......j Citric Acid...7...7...------------- ----—- citrate of Lime. The supernatant liquor is then drawn off, and the citrate of lime is passed through a sieve and frequently washed with warm water, until the mucilnge and olher soluble impurities are for the most part got rid of. Sulphuric acid, diluted with water, is afterwards added: sulphate of lime separates, and citric acid is left in solution. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. ,,.. rT . ( Citric Acid..---------------—----Citric Acid. Citrate of Lime.... j Lime........____________________ Sulphuric Acid...-------------------- "-Sulphate of Lime. The clear solution is then evaporated in leaden boilers, and the concentrated solution set aside to crystallize. The crystals are afterwards purified by re-solu- tion and re-crystallization. (For farther details, consult Parkes's Chemical Es- says, vol. i. p. 539, 2d ed. 1623.) Properties.__Citric acid crystallizes in colourless, odourless, very sour, trans- parent, short, rhomboidal prisms, whose extremities are ter- Fig. 53. minated by four trapezoidal faces, and which belong to the right prismatic system. (Brooke, Annals of Philosophy, N. S. vol. vi. p. 119.) Crystallized citric acid becomes damp by exposure to a moist atmosphere, though Dumas, and other French chemists, stale it to be unalterable by the air. According to Vauquelin, it is soluble in 75 parts of cold and 50 of boiling water. The solution is strongly acid, and becomes mouldy by keeping. Crystallized citric acid is much less soluble in alcohol than in water. Its sp. or. is 1*617. Heated with potash, it is converted into oxalic and acetic acids and water. Treated with oil of vitriol it evolves sulphurous acid, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, acetic acid, and water. Heated with nitric acid, it be- comes oxalic acid. •The Edinburgh College employs half an ounce of diluted sulphuric acid less than the London College; whereas it «nKlii lo have been ...creased by eight ounces, in consequence of the diluted sulphunc ac.d of the iVtinbiirgli Pharmucopffiia being weaker than that of the London Pharmacopoeia (Mr. R. Phillips, London Medical Gazette, N. S. vol. ii. 1638-9, p.690). 01 366 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. According to Crasso, crystallized citric acid, when exposed to heat, exhibits four stages of decomposition. During the first, the water of crystallization alone is given off, and the residue contains unaltered citric acid. The second stage is characterized by white vapours, and the production of acetone, carbonic oxide, and carbonic acid, while the residue consists of hydrated aconitic acid (C* H O3 -f- Aq.,) which is the true pyrocitric acid. In the third stage, the aconitic acid, not being volatile, is itself decomposed, yielding carbonic acid and an oily liquid which soon crystallizes. This is the pyroaconitic acid, the citricic of Baup, for which Crasso proposes the name of itaconic acid (C6 Ha O3 + H O). This acid, when heated, yields citraconic acid (C6 Ha O3 -f H O,) the citricic acid of Baup. In the fourth period empyreumatic oil is produced, and a voluminous coal re- mains behind. (Crasso, quoted by Liebig, in Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th ed.) Characteristics.—When added in excess to lime water, no precipitate is pro- duced. " When a few drops ofa solution of citric acid are added to lime water, a clear liquid results, which, when heated, deposits a white powder, soluble in acids without effervescence," (Liebig.) It does not yield a crystalline precipitate when added in excess to a solution of carbonate of potash. It forms, with barytic water, a white precipitate {citrate of baryta). With a solution of acetate of lead it also furnishes a white precipitate {citrate of lead), soluble in ammonia, which forms with it a double salt {ammo7iiacal citrate of lead). Added to a solution of nitrate of silver it produces a white precipitate {citrate of silver), which, when heated, becomes brown, froths up, deflagrates, discharges white fumes, and leaves an abundant, ash-gray, coarsely fibrous, crumbly residue, which by heat becomes pure silver. Composition.—The following is the composition of crystallized citric acid :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Dumas. Prout. Ure. Carbon......................... 4 --- 24 ... 35 8 --- 36*28 ___ 34-28 --- 33-00 Hydrogen....................... 3 --- 3 --- 45 ... 4-45 --- 4-76 --- 463 Oxygen. ...f.................... 5 --- 40 .... 5E-7 --- 59-27 --- 60-96 --- 6237 Citric Acid crystallized by ) cooling a solution satu-V... 1 --- 67 ---1000 ....10000 ---10000 ___10000 rated at 212° . Crystallized citric acid of commerce contains, however, somewhat more oxygen and hydrogen (elements of water) than the above :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per. Cent. Dumas. Carbon................. 4 .......... 24 .......... 34-29 .......... 3475 Hydrogen.............. 3|.......... 3-33 .......... 4-76 ......... 4-72 Oxygen................ 5| .......... 42-66 .......... 60.95 .......... 6053 Commercial Citric Acid, ) 1 .......... 7000 .......... mM .......... or Acid formed at 61°. J According to Berzelius, hypothetical dry citric acid is composed of C4 Hs 0* (=58;) and, therefore, the acid, crystallized by cooling, consists of Ci + Aq. (58 + 9 = 67,) and the commercial acid of CT + 1-} Aq. (58 -f 12 = 70.) But Liebig (Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th edit.) regards the hypothe- tical dry citric acid as composed of Cia H6 O11 (= 165). On this supposition, the acid, crystallized by cooling, is composed of Ci + 3 HO -f Aq. (165 -f 36 = 201;) and the commercial crystals of Ci + 3 HO + 2 Aq. (165 + 45 = 210.) On this view of its constitution citric acid is a tribasic acid; that is, it combines with three equivalents of base: its equivalent weight being three times the amount assumed in the above tables. Purity.__Powdered citric acid is sometimes adulterated with powdered tartaric acid. The fraud may be readily detected by dissolving the suspected acid in a small quantity of water, and adding cautiously to it a solution of carbonate of pot- ash, taking care that the acid be in excess. If any tartaric acid be present, a TARTARIC ACID. 367 white crystalline precipitate {bitartrate of potash) is formed. The directions of the London and Edinburgh Colleges for ascertaining the purity of the acid are as follows:— This acid is soluble in water; what is precipitated from the solution by acetate of lead is dis- polved by nitric acid. No salt of potash, except the tartrate, is precipitated by solution of citric acid. It is totally dissipated in the fire (Ph. Lond.) The solubility of the plumbeous precipitate in nitric acid shows the absence of sulphuric acid or a sulphate. A solution, in four parts of water, is not precipitated by carbonate of potash: when incinerated wilh the aid of the red oxide of mercury, no ash is left, or a mere trace (PA. Ed.) The elements of citric acid (viz. oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon) are dissipated by a red heat. But this dissipation is promoted by agents {ex. red oxide of mer- cury) capable of supplying oxygen without leaving any fixed residuum. Physiological Effects.—Orfila {Toxicologic Generate.) ranks citric acid among the irritant poisons; but Drs. Christison (Christison On Poisons, p. 208, 3d edit.) and Coindet gave drachm doses of it to cats without observing that the animals suffered any inconvenience therefrom. The effects of large doses of this acid on man I am not acquainted with. Small quantities of it, dissolved in water, form an agreeable beverage, which allays thirst, diminishes preternatural heat, checks profuse sweating, and promotes the secretion of urine. (See pp. 200, 206, and 215.) Vogt {Pharmakodyn, Bd. ii. S. 72. 2te Aufl.) considers it to act more powerfully on the skin, and less so on the alimentary canal and urinary organs, than tartaric acid. In its action on the skin it agrees with acetic acid. The con- tinued employment ot it, as well as of other acids, disturbs the functions of the digestive organs.1 Uses.—Citric acid is employed in medicine, as a substitute for lemon juice, in the preparation of refrigerant drinks and effervescing draughts, and as an antiscor- butic, anti-narcotic, and anti-alkaline. (See Lemon Juice.) 1. ARTIFICIAL LEMON JUICE.—This is prepared by dissolving Citric Acid 3viijss., in Water f 3xvj., and flavouring with a few drops of Essence of Lemons. This is less apt to undergo decomposition than the genuine juice, for which the artificial juice may be employed in the preparation of cooling beverages. 2. EFFERVESCING CITRATES.—Citric acid, with the alkaline carbonates, is fre- quently employed in the preparation of effervescing draughts. The following are the relative proportions of acid and base required to form a neutral compound. 20 grs. of Commercial Crystals of Citric Acid are saturated by about— Crystallized Bicarbonate of Potash .... 29 grs. Carbonate of Potash of Commerce . . . . 24 " Hydrated Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia . . . 17 " Crystallized Carbonate of Soda .... 41 " Sesquicarbonate of Soda of Commerce . . . 24 " The most agreeable effervescing citrate is that prepared with bicarbonate of potash, flavoured with tincture of orange peel and syrup (see Potassce Citras). Sometimes an effervescing citrate is prepared with the hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia (see Ammonice Citras, p. 303). The carbonates of soda are rarely employed with citric acid. 9. ACIDUM TARTAR'ICUM, L. E. D. (U. S.)—TARTARIC ACID. History.—Tartaric acid was first procured in a separate state by Scheele, in 1770. It is sometimes termed the crystallized acid of tartar. Natural History.—It is peculiar to the vegetable kingdom. 1 For some farther observations on its effects, see the article Lemon Juice in a subsequent part of this work. 368 elements of materia medica. In the free state it exists in tamarinds, grapes, the pine-apple, and pepper. It is also found native in combination with bases : thus, bitartrate of potash exists in tamarinds, grapes, mulber- ries, &c, and tartrate of lime in the fruit of Rhus typhinum. Preparation.—All the British colleges give formulae for its preparation. The London College directs us to take of Bitartrate of Potash, lb. iv.: Boiling Distilled Water, Cong. iiss.; Prepared Chalk, gxxv. and 3vj. Diluted Sulphuric Acid, Ovij. and f ,5xvij.; Hydro- chloric Acid, f^xxviss., or as much as may bc^sufficient. Boil the Bitartrate of Potash with two gallons of Distilled Water, and add, gradually, half the prepared Chalk; then, the effervescence having ceased, add the remainder of the Chalk, previously dissolved in the Hydrochloric Acid with four pints of Distilled Water. Lastly, set aside, that the Tartrate of Lime may subside; pour off the liquor, and wash frequently Ihe Tartrate of Lime, with Distilled Water, until it be void of taste ; then pour on it the diluted Sulphuric Acid, and boil for a quarter of an hour. Evaporate the strained liquor by a gentle heat, that crystals may be formed. Dissolve the crystals, that they may be pure, again, and a third time, in water, and, as often, strain the liquor, boil down, and set it aside. The process of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is essentially the same.1 The Dublin College uses of Bitartrate of Potash, reduced to powder, ten parts; Prepared Chalk, tour parts; Sulphuric Acid, seven parts; Water, one hundred and twenty parts. The process is otherwise similar to that of the London Pharmacopoeia. The following is the theory of the process for making tartaric acid :—By the mutual action of bitartrate of potash and carbonate of lime (chalk), we obtain tarirate of potash in solution and tartrate of lime precipitated, while carbonic acid escapes.—The following diagram explains these changes :— MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. 1 „„ ph.iu rn ( I eq. Carbonic Acid........22-------------------------------1 eq. Carbonic Acid = 22 leq.ciiaiK— 5U < x eqLime................. leq. Bilartate \ 1 eq. Tartrate Potash......1)4_______ '------.______-----leq. Tartrate Potash = 114 Potash = 180 \ 1 eq. Tartrate Acid........ liii_______:------------ ~ —-~1 eq. Tartrate Lime = 94 230 230 '.230 If to the solution of tartrate of potash we add chloride of calcium (obtained by dissolving chalk in hydrochloric acid), double decomposition ensues; tartrate of lime is precipitated, and chloride of potassium remains in solution. materials. composition. products. 1 eq. Chlor. Calc. = 56 j j e1- Cnhl?rine..................™------------^^ l e* CWor* Potas- = 76 ^ ( 1 eq. Calcium..................20v. ^^_^—-"^ ( i „„ d„»-.„i ab \ ' eq. PotassiumiO—-*^,\. , r. „ „ 1 eq. Tart. Potash= 1U> ] e«' Fotash 48 J 1 «. Oxygen. - 8-----2^1eq.Lime28 1 J Tart Ljme = g4 ( 1 eq. Tartrate Acid............66--------------------- > 170 170 ~170 The tartrate of lime obtained in the above two operations is then decomposed by sulphuric acid, which forms the almost insoluble sulphate of lime, and sets tar- taric acid free. materials. composition. products. 66 1 eq. Tartrate Lime =94 j } J; IZTJ!^^-------------------* **' Tartaric Acid....... leq. Sulphuric Acid = 40 ........................' ~==»-l eq. Sulphate Lime =........08 134 134 1 The Edinburgh College employs the same quantity (Ovii. foxvii.) of diluted Sulphuric Acid as is used by the London College; but, as its strength is weaker, the quantity ought to have been greater. The " Edinburgh College should have directed more than ten pints of diluted Sulphuric Acid, instead of less than eight." (Mr. R. Phillips, London Medical Gazette, N* S. vol. ii. 1838-39, p. 689. TARTARIC acid. 369 Properties.—Tartaric Acid crystallizes in elongated, colourless, inodorous, very sour, imperfectly transparent prisms, which belong to the oblique prismatic system. (Brooke, Annals of Philosophy, N. S. vol. vi. p. 118.) Fio. 54. Fig. 55. Crystals of Tartaric Acid. Fig. 54. The crystals as usually modified. Fig. 55. The same modified form, with the planes irregularly disposed, as they appear in most of the crystals. (The corresponding planes in both figures are marked with the same letters.) They are permanent in the air. When heated, they fuse, and undergo chemi- cal changes varying with the degree and continuance of the heat. When they have lost by heat a fourth of their water, they become tartralic acid, which has, in its salts, the same composition as tartaric acid, but neutralizes one-fourth less base. It differs from tartaric acid, therefore, as pyrophosphoric acid differs from phosphoric acid. When tartralic acid is farther heated, it loses as much more water, and becomes tartrelic acid, which also has, in its salts, the composition of tartaric acid, but only half the neutralizing power. It corresponds, therefore, to metaphosphoric acid. By a higher degree of heat, all the water of this acid is driven off, and we have anhydrous tartaric acid, which, however, has lost its acid properties, and is quite insoluble in water. (See Fremy, Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. Aout, 1838.) " This is a powerful argument in favour of the view, according to which all acids are compounds of hydrogen." (Liebig.) When subjected to dis- tillation, tartaric acid yields carbonic acid, water, .and two pyrogenous acids,— one of which is crystalline, and is called pyrotartaric acid (O H3 03-f Aq.); the other is oily, and is termed pyruvic acid (C6 H3 Oe + Aq.) Strongly heated in the air, it evolves the odour of caramel, and furnishes a carbonaceous mass, which eventually disappears by combustion. Cold water dissolves crystallized tartaric acid : boiling water takes up twice its own weight of the acid. A soft, mucilagi- nous, flexible mass, forms in a solution of tartaric acid, as well as of emetic tartar, when long kept.1 Alcohol sparingly dissolves the acid. Heated with either nitric acid or potash, it yields oxalic acid. By the action of sulphuric acid on it, acetic acid is formed. Characteristics.—A solution of tartaric acid is very sour, and causes, with so- lutions'of caustic, lime, baryta, and strontia, white precipitates {earthy tartrates), soluble in excess of acid. Sal ammoniac dissolves the precipitate {tartrate of lime) produced by lime water. With acetate of lead, the solution of tartaric acid also forms a white precipitate {tartrate of lead), soluble in excess of acid. Dropped into a solution of sulphate of lime, it furnishes no precipitate. Heated with a solution of chloride of platinum, tartrate of potash occasions a black precipitate {metallicplatinum). If excess of acid be added to a concentrated solution of a potash salt, small granular crystals {bitartrate of potash) are deposited. With nitrate of silver, tartrate of potash furnishes a white precipitate {tartrate of silver), which, when heated, does not deflagrate, but becomes brown, froths up, evolves white fumes, and leaves pure silver. 1 This formation is probably owing to the developeiuent in the solution ofa vegetable organized being. Ki'iizing {Repertoire de Chimie, t. iii. p. 278. Paris, 1838.) has described and figured the plant which forms id a solution of unit-tic tartar. *•» 370 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Composite v.—The composition of tartaric acid is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. I Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Carbon.............4........24.......36-30........351)80 | Anhydrous Tar- ) , r„ QQ Hydrogen...........2........2.......303........ 3 807 I taric Acid.....j 1......•*-UD..........88 O.vygen.............5........40.......60 61........60 213 | Water..............1........9..........12 .100 A?aVicAcidTar-!-^........«......^00.......100000 | C|ffiKT"- } - -1........75.. Liebig regards the equivalent weight of the acid as double that above assumed; and the acid, therefore, is considered as a bibasic one, inasmuch as, on that hy- pothesis, it saturates two equivalents of base. Fremy's researches, above referred to, tend to support this view. Impurity.—The only adulteration practised on this acid is the mixture of its powder wilh bitartrate of potash. This fraud may be detected by the difficult solubility in water of the bitartrate, and its yielding, on incineration, carbonate of potash (known by the tests hereafter to be described). The tests of the purity of the acid, given by the London and Edinburgh Colleges, are as follows:— "Totally soluble in water. The solution throws down bitartrate of potash from any neutral salt of potash. Whatever is precipitated from this solution by acetate of lead, i9 dissolved in diluted nitric acid."—Ph. L. A precipitate insoluble in nitric acid would indicate the presence of sulphuric acid or a sulphate. "When incinerated with the acid of the red oxide of mercury, it leaves no residuum, or a mere trace only."—PA. Ed. This test is devised to detect any fixed substance, and might be used to recog- nise the potash, if bitartrate of this alkali had been present. Physiological Effects.—The effects of tartaric acid, in small doses properly diluted, are those ofa refrigerant. (See p. 200.) It reduces febrile heat, diminishes excessive vascular action, allays thirst, checks excessive perspiration, and perhaps also a too copious secretion of bile. It appears to promote the action of the ab- sorbents, to increase the secretion of urine (see p. 206), and to act gently on the bowels. It possesses the tonic properties of the mineral acids (see p. 215) in a very slight degree only, if at all. Its continued use very readily disturbs the digestive process. Some doubt exists as to the effects of large doses of the acid. According to Dr. Christison, {Treatise on Poisons, p. 208, 3d ed.) it may be taken in very considerable quantities, without injury. Six drachms have been taken in twenty-four hours, without inconvenience. Hommer, however, asserts that when it is injected into the veins, it is scarcely less poisonous than oxalic acid. {Ibid.) Uses.—Tartaric acid maybe used as a cheap substitute for citric acid or lemon juice, in the formation of acidulous refrigerant drinks, for febrile and inflammatory disorders. It is, however, rarely employed for this purpose. Its common medi- cinal use is in the preparation of effervescing compounds, with the alkaline carbo- nates, especially with bicarbonate of soda. EFFERVESCING TARTRATES.—The following are the relative proportions of tar- taric acid and alkaline carbonates for preparing effervescing draughts:— 20 grs. of the Crystals of Tartaric Acid are saturated by— Crystallized Bicarbonate of Potash.....27 grains. Carbonate of Potash of Commerce . . . . . 22 " Hydrated Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia .... 15£ " Crystallized Carbonate of Soda.....3S£ " Sesquicarbonate of Soda of Commerce .... 22 " The most commonly used effervescing tartrate is that made with sesquicarbonate of soda. (See Sodce Sesquicarbonas and Sodce Tartras.) benzoic acid. 371 10. ACIDUM BENZO'ICUM, L. E. D. (U. S.)—BENZOIC ACID. History.—This acid was described in 1608 by Blaise de Vigenere; but it seems to have been known to Alexander Pedemontanus in 1560. The acid ob- tained by sublimation is frequently denominated Flowers of Benjamin {Flores Benzoini). Natural History.—Benzoic acid is peculiar to the organized kingdom. It exists ready formed in certain vegetable substances (as the balsams), and is readily pro- duced in some others by the action of exterior agents (;ts heat, air, acids, and alkalis). "Ilia formed by the oxidation of hydruret of benzule. in the air, and by the decomposition of many compounds of benzule, and of' hippuric acid and amygdaline by oxidizing reagents" (Liebig). It is also produced by the action of potash on cinnamon and some other oils (Mulder). It is readily obtained from, and was formerly supposed to exist in, certain animal substances, (as the urine of herbivorous animals), whicli are now known not to contain it, but yield it only by the decomposition of some of their proximate principles. Tiie benzoic acid procured from the urine of horses is not originally contained in that liquid, but is produced by tlie decom- position of hippuric acid, which is readily converted into benzoic acid. Thus, if the urine of the horse or cow be left to itself for a long time, or evaporated at a boiling temperature, it yields not a trace of hippuric acid, but only benzoic acid. Preparation.—All the British colleges give directions for the preparation of this acid. The London College orders of Benzoin, Ib.j. Put the benzoin in a proper vessel placed on Band, and, the heat being gradually raised, sublime until nothing more rises; press that which is sublimed, wrapped in bibulous paper, and separate it from the oily part. Afterwards again Bublime it. The directions of ihe Edinburgh College agree with these, except that they order "any convenient quantity" of benzoin to be used, and " a glass-matrass" to be employed in the manu- facture. The process of the Dublin College is as follows:—Benzoin, five parts; Lime, fresh burnt; Muriatic Acid, of each, one part; Water, two hundred parts. Triturate the Benzoin with the Lime, then boil the mixture in one hundred parts of Water ; suffer the vessel to rest, and pour off the liquor when cold. Boil the remainder in seventy parts of water, and again pour off the cold liquor. Evaporate the mixed liquors lo one halfj filter them through paper, and to the liquors, when cold, gradually add the Muriatic Acid. Lastly, having decanted off the supernatant fluid, dry wilh a gentle heat the residual powder, previously washed with a small quantity of cold water; pass it into a proper vessel, and with a slow fire sublime the benzoic acid. [The U. S. Pharmacopneia directs the admixture wilh sand before sublimation, and the process is that of the L. and E. Ps.j The process of the London and Edinburgh Colleges is the simplest, and, I believe, the most economical. The following is the method practised at Apothe- caries' Hall, London :—" The better kind of benzoin is most economically em- ployed : it may be put into an iron pot, set in brickwork over a proper fire-place: the sublimate is most conveniently received into a large wooden box, lined with paper, communicating with a conical iron or tin-plate neck with the subliming pot. The first product may be sublimed a second time in the same apparatus : and, by conducting the process rather rapidly, the acid condenses in beautiful prismatic crystals, somewhat elastic. If slowly sublimed it is more scaly. By this process of sublimation good benzoin yields 10 to 12 per cent, of acid con- taminated by empyreumatic oil; and which, when pressed between folds of blot- ting-paper, and again sublimed, is reduced to the proportion of 8 or 9 per cent. of the purified acid." (Brande, Manual of Chemistry, p. 1153, 5th edit.) The simplest method of procuring it is by putting coarsely-powdered benzoin into an earthen pot, over which is placed a cone of thick brown paper or pasteboard, and applying a moderate heat: the acid sublimes into the cone, and there condenses. Some employ, as a substitute for the cone, a house, as it is termed, made of paste- board and laths, and lined with loose sheets of blotting-paper, which are renewed every time of use. The oil produced in sublimation is, for the most part, formed during the process. 372 elements of materia medica. Mohr1 gives the following directions for preparing it:—Benzoin, in the form ofa coarse powder, either alone or mixed with an equal weight of sand, is spread upon the bottom of a round vessel, of- cast plate iron, eight or nine inches in dia- meter, with the sides about two inches high. A sheet of dry bibulous paper is stretched tightly over the opening, and fastened to the sides of the vessel by a little paste. A hat made of thick paper, and of the common form of a man's hat, is made to cover the whole, and tightly tied to the sides of the vessel by a strong string. The vessel is now placed upon sand spread upon an iron plate, be- low which a fire is kept for three or four hours. The vapours of the sublimed ben- zoic acid pass readily through the pores of the bibulous paper, and are deposited in crystals upon the hat; the crystals are prevented from falling back into the iron vessel by the paper which closes its opening.2 Moreover, the paper absorbs the oil which sublimes with the acid. Scheele's process, adopted by the Dublin College, is, I believe, seldom fol- lowed. By boiling benzoin and lime with water, a soluble benzoate of linw is formed. Muriatic acid is then added to the concentrated solution, by which benzoic acid is precipitated, while chloride of calcium (in solution) and water are formed. The precipitated benzoic acid is then sublimed. The acid obtained by this process is said to be whiter and purer (being free of empyreumatic oil) than that procured by sublimation only. Carbonate of soda is sometimes sub- stituted for lime in the above process, by which a soluble benzoate of soda is obtained. Properties.—As met with in the shops, benzoic acid occurs in the form of soft, light, feathery white crystals, or scales, which are flexible, transparent, and of a mother-of-pearl lustre, having a sour, warm taste, but no odour when pure. It readily fuses and volatilizes, its vapour being exceedingly irritating to the air- passages. It is combustible, burning with a bright yellow flame. It is very so- luble in about two hundred parts of cold water, dissolves in about twenty-five parts of warm water, and is very soluble in alcohol. Characteristics.—Benzoic acid is readily distinguished from other acids by its light and feathery crystals, its fusibility, volatility, odour of its vapour, and by the characters of its soluble salts. Thus the benzoate of ammonia produces, with the sesquisalts of iron, a pale red precipitate {befizoate of iron), and with the nitraie of silver, acetate of lead, nitrate of mercury, and supernitrate of bismuth, white precipitates (benzoates) of the respective metals. Composition.—The following is the composition of this acid:— Ulti?nate constituents. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct. Carbon ................ 14 --- 84 --- 74 3 Hydrogen.............. 5 .... 5 .... 4-4 Oxygen................. 3 .... 24 --- 21-3 Anhydrous Benzoic Acid 1 ---113 ---1000 ---1000 I Anhydrous Benzoic Acid.. 1 --- 113 The crystallized acid contains one equivalent or 9 parts of water (Bz + aq.) == 122.' Benzule or Benzoyle is the hypothetical radical of benzoic acid. It consists of CM H5 O". Laurent discovered a crystallizable substance, which he termed benzule, but which Liebig calls benzile. It has the composition of the hypothetical radical benzule. Oil of bitter almonds is the hydruret of benzule. (C14 I1G O2.) Puritv.—Good benzoic acid has the following properties:—It is colourless, and is sublimed entirely by heat {Edinb. Pharm.) When cautiously heated, it totally evaporates with a peculiar odour. It is sparingly soluble in water, but plentifully in rectified spirit. It is entirely dissolved by solution of potash or 1 Ann. der Pharm. xix. p. 178; also, Pharmaceutisches CentralBlatt fur 1839, p. 233; and Liebig, in Turner's Elements of Chemistry, 7th edit. p. 781. 2 For some practical remarks on th3 preparation of this acid, see Euler and Herberger, in Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fur 18-10, p. 166. Hypothetical constitution. Dumas. Atoms. Eq. Wt. .... 74-7 Benzule................. 1 •••• 105 .... 4-3 Oxygen.................. 1 .... 8 .... 21-0 CREASOTE. 373 lime-water, and is precipitated from its solution by hydrochloric acid {Pharm. Lond.) Physiological Effects.—The local action of benzoic acid is that of an acrid. When swallowed it occasions a sensation of heat and acridity in the back part of the mouth and throat, and heat at the stomach. The inhalation of its vapour causes violent coughing. When taken into the stomach benzoic acid becomes absorbed, and operates on the general system as a stimulant, whose influence is, however, principally directed to the mucous surfaces, especially the aerian membrane. According to Dr. Alex- ander Ure,1 hippuric acid (CX8 NH8 O5 -j- Aq.) is found in the urine two hours after taking benzoic acid, while not a trace of uric acid is recognisable. This effect does not always take place. I h,av.e found it produced readily in a rheu- matic subject. Uses.—Benzoic acid is a constituent of the Tinctura Camphorce Composita ; otherwise it is but little employed in medicine. It is sometimes employed in chronic bronchial affections. I have repeatedly tried it, but have seldom seen benefit result from its use. 1 have more frequently seen it augment than relieve the cough. Dr. A. Ure has suggested the employment of benzoic acid, or a ben- zoate, in the gouty diathesis, to prevent the formation of the tophaceous concre- tions commonly called chalk stones, and which consist of urate of soda. Dose, grs. v. to 9j. 11. CREASO'TON, L.—CREASOTE. Creasotum, E. (U. S.) (An Oxy-hydro-carburet; prepared from pyroxilic oil, L.) History.—This substance was discovered a few years since by Reichenbach, who termed it Creosote (from xpsag, flesh, and tfw^w, I preserve,) or the flesh-pre- server, on account of its antiseptic property. Its name is sometimes written Creo- sote, or Kreosote. Natural History.—It is an artificial product; and is obtained by the destruc- tive distillation of organic substances. It is found in pyroligneous acid, in tar, in Dippel's oil, in wood smoke, and empyreumatic waters. Preparation.—The preparation ofcreasote is a very troublesome and tedious process. The following concise abstract of it is taken from Turner's Elements of Chemistry (5th ed. p. 872). Those portions of the oil (called in the Pharma- copoeia pyroxilic oil) distilled from wood-tar, which are heavier than water, are first freed from adhering acetic acid by carbonate of potash, and, after separation from the acetate, are distilled. A little phosphoric acid is mixed with the product to neutralize ammonia, and another distillation resorted to. It is next mixed with a strong solution of potash, which combines with creasote, allows any eupion which may be present to collect on its surface, and by digestion decomposes other organic matter: the alkaline solution is then neutralized by sulphuric acid, and the oil which separates is collected and distilled. For the complete purifica- tion of the creasote, this treatment with potash, followed by neutralization and distillation, requires to be frequently repeated.9 The oil from which creasote is prepared, is that obtained by the distillation of wood-tar, and is either imported from Stockholm, Archangel, and America, or is made in the manufacture of pyro- ligneous acid. Properties.—Pure creasote is colourless and transparent; and has a high refrac- tive power, and an oleaginous consistence. Its odour is that of smoked meat, its taste burning and caustic, its sp. gr. 1*037 at 68° F. It boils at 397° F.; and is fluid at —16*6° F. It is combustible, burning with a sooty flame. It absorbs chlorine, and is resinified by it. Nitric acid is decomposed by it, with the evo- 1 Proceedings of the Royal Medical and Surgical Society, in the London Medical Gazette, N. S. vol. 1840-41, p. 735; also, Pharmaceutical Transactions, No. I, p. 24. Lond. 1841. » For farther details I must refer to Dumas' Traiti de Chimie; the Ann. de Chim. et Physiq. t. 57, 1834; and Cozzi, in the Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxviii. p. 629. vol. I. 32 374 elements of materia medica. lution of nitrous fumes. Sulphuric acid in small quantity reddens, and in large quantity blackens it. Potassium decomposes it, with the evolution of gas (hydro- gen?) and the formation of potash, which combines with some inspissated crea- sote. It is soluble, in alcohol, ether, sulphuret of carbon, eupion, naphtha, acetic acid, and acetic ether. It dissolves resins, various colouring matters (as of cochi- neal, saffron, and madder), and some salts (as the acetate of potash). It has very little action on caoutchouc, and does not possess any acid or alkaline reaction on lest paper. Mixed with water, it forms two combinations: one is a solution of 1*25 parts of creasote in 100 of water; the other, on the contrary, is a solution of 10 parts of water in 100 of creasote. It coagulates the albumen of eggs and of the blood. Concentrated albuminous liquids are immediately coagulated by it; diluted ones, gradually. Fibrin is not altered by it. It is powerfully antiseptic with respect to meat and fish. Tar, smoke, and crude pyroligneous acid, owe part, if not the whole, of their antiseptic properties to it. According to Mr. J. R. Cormack, {Treatise on Creasote. Edin- burgh, 1836.) the only essential part of the mummifying process practised by the ancient Egyptians was the application of such a heat as would first dry up the body, and then decompose the tarry matters which had been previously intro- duced, and thus generate creasote. A patent has been taken out by Mr. Flockton, for the preservation of wood, &c, by creasote. The liquid actually used under this patent is the impure oily liquor obtained by distillation from tar, and in which old iron has been digested, so that it is a mixture of various volatile oils and acetate of iron. Characteristics.—The odour of creasote is its most characteristic property. To this must be added its combustibility, its oleaginous appearance, its complete solu- bility in acetic acid and caustic potash, and its action on albumen before men- tioned. Impurity.—Creasote, when pure, is perfectly colourless; but that met with in commerce has frequently a more or less brownish tinge. Rectified oil of tar, cap- nomor, and a substance like almond oil, are substances which have been mixed with it. (Cormack, op. cit.) These impurities are readily detected by mixing separate portions of the suspected liquid with acetic acid and caustic potash: pure creasote is completely soluble in these fluids ; not so the adulterated. Capnomor is similar to creasote in many of its physical and chemical properties, and is fre- quently associated with the creasote of the shops. Composition.—Ettling {Ann. de Chimie, liii. p. 333.) analyzed creasote which was supposed to contain three per cent, of water. Making allowance for this im- purity, its composition, as determined by this chemist,"is nearly as follows: Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. ] Carbon.............. 14 ................ 84 ................ 7742 Hydrogen............ 9 ................ 9 ................ 8-12 Oxygen.............. 2 ............... 16 ................ 1446 Creasote............ 1 ................ 103 ................ 10000 At present, however, the equivalent of creasote must be considered as uncertain, since no definite compound of this substance has been analyzed, by which the combining proportion could be ascertained. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—Plants moistened with creasote water fade and die. (Miguet, Recherehes sur la Creasote, 1834.) The injurious effects of smoke on vegetation are probably to be referred principally to the crea- sote which it contains. /S. On Animals generally.—Insects (as flies), spiders, and small fishes, die in two minutes after their immersion in water containing a few drops of creasote suspended in it. According to Mr. Cormack, the effects of creasote on dogs are remarkably similar to those of hydrocyanic acid, and are much less apparent when this sub- stance is injected into the carotid arteries than into the veins. When thrown into CREASOTE. 375 the latter it suddenly stops the heart's action and causes hurried respiration, one or two convulsive fits, shrill cries, and death. Injected into the carotid artery it produces coma. Introduced into the stomach it gives rise to dimness and fixation of the eyes, vertigo, and coma: when given in large quantities it also affects the heart. (Cormack, op. cit. p. 66, et seq.) Corneliani {Jour. Chem. Med. t. ii. ser. 10; and Brit, and For. Med. Rev. vol. i. p. 265.) and Miguet have observed in- flammation of the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane of dogs poisoned by creasote, but which survived some time after its administration. y. On Man.—Creasote operates locally as an irritant and caustic. Applied to the skin it causes heat, redness, and the destruction of the cuticle, which comes away in the form of furfuraceous scales. On the tongue it produces a painful sensation. Dropped into the eye it occasions acute pain. Placed in contact with a * suppurating surface it whitens the part, like nitrate of silver. Swallowed in large doses it causes vomiting and purging. The caustic effect of creasote depends on its union with albumen. Unless largely diluted, it occasions, when swallowed, heat in the pharynx, oeso- phagus, and stomach. Small doses, as one or two minims, produce in most indi- viduals no other unpleasant effect than that just mentioned. Larger doses give rise lo nausea, vomiting, vertigo, headache, and heat of head. Dr. Elliotson {Medico. Chirur. Trans, vol. xix.) knew a lady who increased the dose of creasote to forty drops before it disagreed: the addition of a single drop beyond this produced ex- treme giddiness, insensibility, and vomiting, followed by headache for several days. When given in moderate doses it does not affect the bowels; so that, as Dr. Elliot- son has observed, " aperients are as requisite as if it was not taken." When, however, the dose has been considerably augmented, diarrhoea or even dysentery, has been produced. (Cormack, op. cit. p. 93.) The influence of creasote on the urinary organs is sometimes very marked. Dr. Macleod {Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xvi. p. 599; and vol. xvii. p. 653.) was, I believe, the first who noticed that the urine acquired a blackish colour by the use of it. A similar effect is referred to by Dr. Elliotson. In some cases creasote is recognised, by its odour, in the urine, showing that it has been absorbed. Occasionally it increases the quantity of this secretion, but in diabetes it sometimes has an opposite effect. In some instances it has caused micturition and strangury, so that in its influence over the urinarv organs it bears some resemblance to turpentine. Some other effects which have been ascribed to it require farther evidence to establish them. In the dose of two drachms creasote proved fatal in thirty-six hours. It caused acute pain. (See The Times of June 17, 1839. I presume the mental faculties were unaffected.) Uses.—Various substances, some known to contain creasote, others supposed to do so, have long been used in medicine, in the same diseases in which crea- sote itself is now employed ; and, in consequence, it has been imagined that they owe part of whatever efficacy they really possess to this substance. These re- marks apply to Tar (Tar will be described hereafter). Soot,1 Crude Pyroligne- 1 Woon Soot (Fuligo Ligni) was formerly contained in the list of the materia medica of the British Phar- macopoeias. It is still in use on the continent, and statements of its efficacy are occasionally met with in the periodicals. It is a mixture of distilled products from the imperfectly burnt wood and of ashes, or other fixed matters, carried up the chimney by the current of air. It consists of a pyrogenous or empyreumatic resin called pyretin, combined with.acetic acid, which also saturutes the bases (potash, lime, and magnesia) of the ashes which ore carried up the chimney. Besides these, there are small quantities of sesquioxide of iron, si/it a, nnd carbon. Acetate of Ammonia, chloride of calcium, and sulphate of lime, are also contained in soot. Moreover, there is extractive matter, part of whicli is insoluble in alcohol. Lastly, to these constituents must be added creasote. Braconnot (Ann. Chim. et Phys. t. xjcxi. p. 37) mentions a bitter principle, which he calls asbolin, (from aa(io\r\, soot) in soot; but Berzelius (Traite de Chimie, t. vi. p 725) considers it to be a mixture of different mailers with the acid pyretine. The matters insoluble in water constitute about 0-44 of soot. Formerly soot was esteemed tonic, antispasmodic, and emmenagogue. It is now principally employed, ns an external remedy, chiefly in ringworm and other analogous eruptions, and obstinate ulcers. It is employed in the form of decoction (prepared by boiling two handfuls of sooi in a pint of water for halfan hour) and of ointment (composed ofa drnclim of soot to an ounce of lard). The decoction has been used as an injection in chronic rysiitis, {land. Med. Gaz. 183U-40, vol. i. p. 804.} The Tincture of Soot, formerly in the London Pilar niacopo'ia, consists of Wood Soot, 30-; Asafoetida, 3J-; and proof Spirit, f 3 x»xij. It is sometimes called Soot Drops or Hysteric Mature, and is prescribed in doses of one or two tea-spoonsful in hysteria. 376 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. ous Acid, Aqua Binelli,1 the Empyreumatic Water of Runge and Hanke, Pyro- thonide,5* and Animal or Dippel's Oil. To this list should be added, according to Mr. Cormack, {op. cit.,) Mummy. As an internal remedy, creasote has been principally celebrated, in this coun- try, as a remedy possessing extraordinary powers of arresting vomiting. It has, however, been greatly overrated. It is decidedly injurious in inflammatory con- ditions and structural disease of the stomach, and frequently fails in allaying the sickness dependent on organic diseases, as of the heart and kidneys. It is most successful in hysterical cases, and sometimes succeeds in pregnancy. Creasote was first employed to relieve vomiting by Dr. Elliotson, {Medico-Chirurg. Trans. vol. xix.) to whose paper, as well as to lhat of Mr. Taylor, apothecary of the North London Hospital, {Lancet, August 15, 1835.) I must refer for cases illus- trative of extraordinary success with it. It is regarded by Dr. Macleod {London Medical Gazette, vol. xvi. p. 598, and vol. xvii. p. 653.) as of doubtful efficacy; and has completely failed in the hands of Dr. Paris. {Appendix to the 8th edit. of the Pharmacologia, 1838.) Dr. Burne, {London Medical Gazette, August 18th, 1838.) however, found it efficacious in gastro-enteritic irritation. I have found it much more frequently fail than succeed in alleviating irritable stomach. It sometimes relieves the chronic vomiting connected with granular disease of the kidneys when other means fail. (See Christison, On Granular Degenera- tion of the Kidneys. Edinb. 1839.) In gastrodynia or flatulence it occasionally succeeds, but is admissible in those cases only in which local stimulants are usually found beneficial. Where both hydrocyanic acid and creasote have been separately tried without success, Dr. Elliotson advises their union. Creasote has been tried in a few cases of diabetes. In some it diminished both the quantity and saccharine quality of the urine. (Dr. Elliotson, Med-Chirurg. Trans., and Professor Berndt, Lancet, July 18, 1835.) I have tried it at the London Hospital, but without obtaining benefit from its use. In neuralgia, hysteria, and pulmonary diseases, it has also been used with occasional advantage: but a more extended experience is required to establish its efficacy in these cases. As an external agent creasote may frequently be employed with great advan- tage. It has been successfully applied to relieve toothache. After carefully cleaning out the cavity of the tooth, a drop of creasote, or an alcoholic solution of this principle, may be introduced by means of a camel's hair pencil, and the cavity filled with cotton soaked in this liquid. As a local application to chronic skin diseases (particularly the different forms of porrigo, impetigo, eczema) it is of considerable value. Where a caustic application is required, it may be applied undiluted ; but for other purposes it is used either in the form of ointment, or dis- solved in water as a wash. Creasote may be beneficially used as an application to foul and indolent ulcers. It serves the double purpose of stimulating the living surface, (and thereby of changing the quality of actions going on in the part,) and also of preventing the putrefaction of the secreted matters. It is sometimes applied pure, but more commonly diluted with water. Lupus is said to have healed under the employment of an ointment of creasote. (Mr. Browne, in the London Medical Gazette, for April 7, 1838.) In hemorrhages creasote acts as a most efficient styptic, partly in consequence of its power of coagulating albu- minous liquids, and thereby of causing the formation of a clot, and partly by -Aqua Binelu, or Aqua arterialis balsamica Doctoris Benelli, a once-celebrated styptic, discovered by a physician (Dr. Binelli) of Turin, in 1797 (Dierbach, Neuesten Entdeck. in d. Mat. Med. 2te Ausg. 1H37. See also Dr. J. Davy, Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. July, 1833.) 2 Pyrothonide, from (7rup, fire; and odovn, linen,) or liquor pyrooleosus e linteo paratus, is a very popular remedy for toothache and skin diseases. It is sometimes prepared by distilling rags, and is then called rag oil; but the common mode of procuring it is to burn a cone of paper on a plate or other cold body; it is then termed paper oil. It has been analyzed by Herberger (Buchner, Repertorium, Bd. 32, S. 347). For farther particulars concerning it, consult Merat and De Lens, Diet. Mat. Med.; Dierbach, op. cit.; Schwartz, Pharme. Tabell.Zie Aus.; L. Richter, Ausfiihrl. Arsneim. Supplem. Bd. CREASOTE. 377 causing contraction of the bleeding vessels. Creasote water (prepared by mixing one part of creasote with eighty parts of water) may be applied either to bleeding wounds and leech-bites, or introduced into the vagina in uterine hemorrhage, by means of pledgets of lint soaked in it. There are many other purposes for which creasote has been applied as a local agent, but which I think it sufficient merely to name, referring the reader to ihe various papers and works before quoted for farther information. It has been employed to check caries, to restrain excessive suppuration, and to repress fungous granulations in burns and scalds ; to act as a counter-irritant in chronic ophthalmia, in which disease it is sometimes dropped into the eye on the same principle that nitrate of silver and other local stimulants are used; and to remove condylomatous and other excrescences. The inhalation of creasote vapour is occasionally useful in relieving excessive bronchial secre- tion. Dr. Elliotson cured two cases of chronic glanders in ihe human subject, by injecting an aqueous solution of creasote up ihe affected nostril. (See also Lancet, vol. ii. for 1834-5, p. 398.) Administration.—Creasote may be given, at the commencement of its use, in doses of one or two drops diffused through an ounce of some aromatic water by the aid of mucilage: the dose should be gradually increased. As before men- tioned, in one case forty drops were given with impunity: in another instance, ninety drops were administered in less than half a day without any bad symp- tom. (Mr. Taylor, Lancet, August 15, 1835.) As a caustic, undiluted creasote is sometimes applied by means of a camel's hair pencil. Lotions, gargles, or injections of creasote, are prepared by dissolving from two to six drops (according to the circumstances of each case) in an ounce of water. A solution of this kind is sometimes mixed with poultices. The inhalation of creasote vapour may be effected by diffusing a few drops of creasote through water or a mucilaginous liquid, and breathing through this, by means of the ordinary inhaling bottle (see p. 167). Antidotes.—In a case of poisoning by creasote, the depression of the vital powers is to be counteracted by ammonia and other stimulants. Mr. Cormack suggests the use of chlorine, but the value of this agent has not been determined by actual experiment. Oleaginous and mucilaginous drinks are recommended by Corneliani, for the purpose of preventing the local action of creasote on the mucous lining of the stomach and intestines. Vinegar does not diminish, but according to Corneliani, increases its activity. Mr. Cormack says albumen aug- ments [?] its poisonous operation. Bleeding is suggested by this writer, in order to relieve the distention, and thereby to excite the contractions, of the heart. Artificial respiration should on no account be omitted. Any inflammatory symp- toms which may subsequently appear are of course to be treated by the usual antiphlogistic measures. 1. MISTURA CREASOTI, Mistura Creazotce, E. (" Take of Creazote and Acetic Acid, of each, TTlxvj.; Compound Spirit of Juniper, and Syrup, of each, f3j.; Water, f^xiv.; mix the creazote with the acid, then gradually [add] the waler, and lastly the syrup and spirit.") Dose f 3j. to f Jij. or more. 2. UNGUENTUM CREASOTI, L. (U. S.) Unguentum Creasoti, E. (Creasote, f3ss.; Lard, 3j- rub and mix them, L. (U. S.)—Axunge, 3 i' j - > Creazote, 3j. Melt the axunge, add the creazote, stir them briskly, and continue to do so as the mixture concretes on cooling, E.)—It is used principally in skin diseases, as ring- worm. The quantity of creasote may be augmented or lessened according to circumstances. 32* 373 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. 12. PETROLEUM, L. E. D.—PETROLEUM, OR ROCK OIL. Petroleum (Barbadense,) L. (Bitumen Petroleum. Petroleum Barbadense, D.) History.—Herodotus {Melpomene, cxcv.) mentions the petroleum springs of Zacynthus (now called Zante) more than 400 years before Christ. Plutarch, in his life of Alexander, speaks of a lake of naphtha at Ecbatana (now Hamedan), in Media. The substance known to mineralogists as petroleum is the black naphtha (vap#a /xsXaiva) of Dioscorides (lib. i.,) the bitumen liquidum of Pliny (lib. xxxv.) Natural History.—There are two varieties of liquid bitumen or mineral oil: one is transparent or nearly colourless, or only slightly yellow, and when burnt leaves no residuum ; the other is thick, ofa reddish brown colour or blackish, and leaves, after combustion, a black coal. The first is called naphtha (a Chaldeean word); the second petroleum (from petra, a rock ; and oleum, oil) or rock oil, be- cause it is frequently found exuding in the form of an oily liquid from rocks. Both kinds are supposed to be produced by the decomposition of organic (vege- table) matter, for they are always found in Neptunian rocks, and they appear sometimes to be one of the products of the decomposition of coal. (Berzelius, Traite de Chim. t. 6me.) From the investigation of Drs. Christison and Gregory, {Trans, of the Roy. Soc. Edinb. vol. xiii. p. i.) it appears probable that some varieties of petroleum, as that of Rangoon, are products of destructive distillation^ since they contain paraffine and eupion, substances obtained from organic bodies by heat. Petroleum is found in this country at Ormskirk, in Lancashire, at Colebrook Dale, and at St. Catharine's Well, near Edinburgh. In France it is produced at the village of Gabian in Languedoc, and hence it was termed Oleum Gabianum, It is also found in various other parts of Europe, especially in Italy. In ihe United States of America it is met with in various places : that from the shore of Seneka Lake in New York is called Seneka oil. Several of the West India Islands, especially Barbadoes and Trinidad, yield it. The Barbadoes petroleum {Petroleum Barbadense, L. D.; Pisselceum Indicum, Dale) is commonly termed Barbadoes Tar, or Barbadoes Naphtha. Mr. Hughes {Tlie Natural History of Barbadoes, p. 50. Lond. 1750.) speaks of two kinds of it; one of a dirty black, inclining to a green, issuing from some hills in St. Andrew's and St. Joseph's parishes ; and one of a blacker colour, in St. Joseph's parish. That imported by Mr. Clarke professes to be the produce of the springs on Mount Hall estate, in Barbadoes. In various localities of Asia, petroleum is met with in great abundance. Extraction.—Mr. Hughes says that the mode of procuring the green tar of Barbadoes is to dig a hole or trench in, or very near, the place where it oozes out of the earth. This by degrees becomes filled with water, having a thick film or cream of this liquid bitumen swimming upon the surface; from whence it is skimmed off, and preserved in earthen jars or other vessels. The most conve- nient season for gathering it is in the months of January, February, and March. Properties.—Barbadoes petroleum, at ordinary temperatures, has the consis- tence of treacle ; its colour is reddish brown or blackish ; its odour and taste are bituminous. It floats on water : is combustible, yielding a thick black smoke, and leaving a carbonaceous residuum. It is insoluble in water. Composition.—The ultimate constituents of Barbadoes petroleum are carbon and hydrogen, with small quantities of oxygen and nitrogen. The latter proba- bly are accidental. By distillation, five parts by measure yield rather more than four parts of a yellow oily fluid, somewhat similar in appearance to the liquid carbo-hydrogen obtained in the manufacture of oil-gas, but dissimilar to naphtha. The residuum AMBER. 379 in the retort is a substance analogous to asphaltum. It yields by destructive dis- tillation traces of ammonia. Some kinds of petroleum contain paraffine and eupion. Physiological Effects.—Petroleum possesses stimulating properties, which are principally observed in its effects on the organs of secretion (the skin, the kidneys, and the mucous membranes), the activity of which it promotes: hence it has been called sudorific, diuretic, expectorant, dec. It becomes absorbed, and in this way probably acts topically on the secreting organs ; for Mr. Hughes ob- serves, that when a horse " that has been dosed with it begins to be warm upon his journey, the rider will smell the tar strongly." It is said to be an excitant lo the lymphatic vessels and glands. Uses.—As an internal remedy it is employod in chronic pulmonary affections (as winter coughs, old asthmas, &c), in obstinate skin diseases (as lepra psoriasis, and impetigo), and against tape-worm. Mr. Hughes says it is used in paralytic and nervous disorders. As an external agent it is applied to obstinate ulcers, as lupus and cutaneous diseases, and is employed as a stimulating liniment in chronic rheumatism, para- lysis, and chilblains. Administration.—The dose of Barbadoes petroleum is a small tea-spoonful given in any convenient vehicle (as some aromatic water, tea, or spirit). The quantity should be gradually increased. An ounce has been taken in the day without any inconvenience. 13. SUCCINUM, L. D. (U. S.)—AMBER. History.—Amber was known to Thales of Miletus, 600 years before Christ. He was the first who noticed that, when rubbed, it acquired the power of attract- ing light bodies. Hence arose the term electricity, from rfhexrgov, amber. Theo- phrastus {De Lapidibus.) also mentions this property. Natural History.—Amber is found in different parts of the world. The principal portion of that met with in commerce comes from ihe southern coasts of the Baltic, in Prussia, and is cast on shore between Konigsberg and Memel. It is supposed to be disengaged, by the action of the sea, from beds of lignite. The vegetable origin of amber is shown by various facts. It is usually asso- ciated with substances (bituminous wood, coal, &c.) known to be derived from plants. Externally we observe on it various impressions of the branches and bark of trees; and enclosed in it are insects and parts of plants (as the wood, leaves, flowers, and fruit). According to Sir David Brewster, {Edinburgh Phi- losophical Journal, vol. ii.) its optical properties are those of an indurated vege- table juice. From these circumstances, as well as from its chemical composition, amber is supposed tojiave been a resinous exudation from some tree. Now, as the wood, leaves, blossoms, and fruit of some coniferous plant are found in amber, this plant has been supposed to be the amber tree : and a microscopic examina- tion of the wood leads to the conclusion lhat the amber tree is a species, though probably an extinct one, of the genus Pinus, closely allied to P. balsamea.1 On chemical grounds, however, Liebig (Turner's Elements of Cliemistry, 7th edit. p. 1050.) suggests that it is a product of wax, or some other substance allied to the fats or fixed oils ; since succinic acid is formed by the oxidation of stearic and margaric acids.3 Properties.—It occurs in irregular shaped pieces, usually flat and somewhat rounded at the sides. Its colour is yellowish white {succinum album), yellow {succinum citrinum) or reddish {succinum rubrum). It is usually translucent, sometimes opaque or transparent: it is tasteless and odourless. Its sp. gr. is 1 Hope, On Succinic Insects, in Trans. Entom. Soc, vols. i. and ii. See also Sendelius, Historia Succinorumt Lips. 1742. o For farther details respecting the Natural History of Amber, consult John's Naturgeschichte d. Suciens, Coin. L-<10; and Groftcnliaucr's Histoire Naturelle,chimique, et technique, du Succin. Paris, 1824. 380 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. about 1*07. It is brittle, yields readily to the knife, has a conchoidal vitreous or resinous fracture, and becomes negatively electrical by friction: it contains various insects which, apparently, must have become entangled in it while it was soft and viscid. (For an account of these, consult Mr. Hope's paper before quoted; also Burmeister's Manual of Entomology, p. 574.) Heated in the air, amber fuses at about 550° F., then inflames, and burns with a yellow flame, emitting a peculiar odour, and leaving behind a light shiny black coal. It cannot be fused without undergoing some chemical change. It evolves water, volatile oil, and succinic a'cid : the residual mass is termed colophonium succini. By destructive distillation in a retort or alembic, amber yields first an acid liquor (which contains succinic acid and acetic acids), then some succinic deposits in the neck of the retort, and an empyreumatic oil {oleum succini) comes over, at first thin and yellowish, afterwards brown and thick : towards the end of the operation .a yellow light sublimate is observed in ihe neck of the retort; this is called, by Berzelius, crystallized pyretine ; by Vogel, volatile resin of amber; by Gmelin, amber-camphor. An inflammable gas is evolved during the whole time of the operation. Composition.—The ultimate constituents of amber are Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. The proximate principles are, a Volatile Oil, two Resins, Succinic Acid, and a Bituminous substance. Ultimate Constituents. Drassier. Ure. Carbon......................... 80-59 .............. 70-68 Hydrogen...................... 731 .............. 11-6*2 Oxygen....................... 6*73 .............. 7-77 Ashes (silica, lime, and alumina) 3-27 .............. --- Amber......................... 9790 Proximate Constituents. (Berzelius.) Volatile Oil. Two Resins. Succinic Acid. Bitumen. Amber. According to Hiinefeldt, hydrochloric acid extracts from amber, besides suc- cinic acid, another acid, very similar to mellitic acid. The volatile oil has a strong but agreeable odour. The resins are soluble in both alcohol and ether : if an alcoholic solution of the two resins be prepared by heat, and then allowed to cool, one of the resins deposits. The bituminous matter constitutes the principal part of amber: it is insoluble in alcohol, ether, the oils both volatile and fixed, and alkaline solutions. Characteristics and Purity.—The resins copal and animi are sometimes sub-■ stituted for amber. They may be distinguished by the difference in their colour and fracture, and by their not emitting the peculiar odour of amber when thrown upon hot iron. {United States Dispensatory.) They do not yield succinic acid when submitted to distillation. Copal, during its combustion, is constantly falling in drops ; and by this character may be distinguished -from amber. (Kidd's Outlines of Mineralogy, vol. ii. p. 38. Oxford, 1809.) Physiological Effects.—Amber was formerly celebrated as a stimulant and antispasmodic. It probably possesses little or no medicinal power. Uses.—It is not employed as a medicine in this country. It was formerly used in chronic catarrhs, amenorrhoea, hysteria, &c, and was given either in the form of powder, in doses of from ten grains lo a drachm, or in that of tincture, a formula for which is contained both in the French Codex and Prussian Pharma- copoeia. 1. OLEUM SUCCINI, L. D, (U. S.) Oil of Amber.—The following are the direc- tions for the preparation of this oil:— The London College orders Amber to be put into an alembic, so that an acid liquor, an oil, and a salt, contaminated with the oil, may distil in a sand-bath, with a heat gradually increased. Afterwards let the oil distil again, and a third lime. The Dublin College directs, of Amber reduced to a coarse powder, Pure Sand, of each one part. On the application of heat, gradually increased, an acid liquor, oil and an acid in the crys- tallized form, will distil over. The latter should be received on bibulous paper, and exposed AMBER. 381 lo strong pressure to expel the oil, and again sublimed. By filtration through bibulous paper, the oil may be obtained separate from the acid liquor. [The U. S. P. directs to take of Amber in powder any quantity. Put the Amber, previously mixed with an equal weight of sand, into a glass retort, which is to be only half filled, then dis- til by means of a sand-bath, witli a gradually increasing heat, an acid liquor, an oil, and a concrete acid impregnated with oil. Separate the oil from the other matters, and keep it in well-stopped bottles. To obtain Oi.eum Succini Rectificatum, Rectified Oil of Amber, the same authority directs Oil of Amber, a pint; Water, six pints. Mix them in a glass retort, and distil until four pints of llie water shall have passed with the oil into the receiver; then separate the oil from the water, and keep it in well-stopped bottles.] The following mode of preparing this oil I have seen practised by an experienced manufacturer:—The amber is distilled in a large iron still or retort, set in brick- work over a proper fire, and connected with an earthen globe, which opens into an old oil jar for a receiver. Three distilled products are obtained; impure suc- cinic acid, called volatilesaU of amber; an aqueous liquor, termed volatile spirit of amber, consisting of water, acetic and succinic acid, and pyrogenous oil; and volatile oil of amber. The residue in the retort is a kind of pitch, and is called English asphalt. The oil is afterwards rectified by distillation in an iron pot, to which an earthen head is adapted. A very gentle heat suffices for re-distillation. Scrapings of Copal and the resin Dammar are frequently substituted for amber. They yield no succinic acid, but a volatile oil scarcely distinguishable from genuine oil of amber. Volatile oil of amber, when fresh drawn, has a pale yellowish colour, which deepens by age, and a strong and remarkable, but agreeable odour. It is a power- ful local irritant. When rubbed on the skin, it acts as a rubefacient, and is some- times employed in liniments in rheumatism and paralysis. Taken internally, it operates, like most other empyreumatic oils, on the nervous system, and is used as a stimulant, antispasmodic, and emmenagogue, in hysteria and amenorrhoea. The dose is from ten to fifteen drops. It is a constituent of the Tinctura Ammonice composita (see p. 288), which is made in imitation of Eau de Luce, the history of which has been fully detailed by Beckmann. {History of Inventions and Dis- coveries, vol. iv. p. 595, 2d edit. Lond. 1814.) Artificial Musk (Moschus arlificialis; Moschus factitius) is prepared by adding gradually f Siijss. of concentrated nitric acid to f 3j. of oil of amber, in a large glass tumbler. When the acid is not of sufficient strength, its action must be assisted by heat. The oil is gradually resinified at the expense of the oxygen of the acid, nitrous fumes being evolved. An orange yellow resin, having a peculiar musky odour, is obtained; which is lo be well washed with water, to remove all traces of acid. Artificial musk is reputed antispasmodic and nervine, and has been employed in whooping-cough and low nervous fevers. A tincture of it (Tinctura Moschi artijicialis) is prepared by dissolving 3j. of artificial musk in f 3x. of rectified spirit. Tlie dose is f oj. 2. ACIDUM SriTINICUM,D. Succinic Acid, ox the Acid of Amber; Sal Succini.— This acid is obtained in the distillation of amber. The mode of purifying it has been already stated. It may also be procured by the oxidation of stearic and mnrgaric acids. It crystallizes in colourless white scales or prisms, which are quite volatile. Anhydrous succinic acid is composed of C4 H3 O3 = 50. The sublimed acid is composed of 2 S + aq. = 109. It is soluble in water; scarcely so in cold, but more so in boiling alcohol. It is almost insoluble in oil of turpentine, by which it is distinguished from benzoic acid. Succinate of ammonia produces, with the salts of the sesquioxide of iron, a brownish red, flaky precipi- late (/>cr succinate of iron), and, with the salts of lead, a white precipitate {succinate of lead). Succinic acid is said to possess stimulant and antispasmodic properties, and to promote perspiration and urine. It was formerly employed in rheumatism, gout, suppressed or repressed eruptions, cramps, &c. It is now never used in medicine. The dose in which it was formerly given was grs. v. to grs. xv. 382 ELEMENTS of materia medica. IV. COMPOUNDS CONTAINING CARBON AND NITROGEN. 1. OLEUM ANIMA'LE EMPYREUMATICUM.—EMPYREUMATIC ANIMAL OIL. When animal substances (as bone or hartshorn) are subjected to destructive distillation, a fetid volatile oil is obtained, which is commonly called Animal ox DippeVs Oil. That which is found in commerce is obtained in the manufacture of bone black. (See p. 298.) It is identical in its nature with the Oleum Cornu Cervi, or Oil of Hartshorn, formerly used in medicine. As usually met with, it is a thick, brown, viscid oil, having a most repulsive odour. By distillation, how- ever, it may be rendered colourless and limpid, but is soon altered by the action of air and light. Its ultimate constituents are, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen. It contains ammonia, and therefore has an alkaline reaction. Unver- dorben alleges that it contains four oily salifiable bases, to which he has given the names of odorine, animine, alanine, and ammoline. Reichenbach has obtained creasote from it, and ascribes to this principle the supposed virtues of animal oil. Whatever may be its active principle, animal oil is undoubtedly a very powerful agent. In large doses, it acts as an energetic poison, operating in two ways, locally as an irritant, remotely as a narcotic. (Christison, Treatise on Poisons.) Swallowed in moderate doses, it stimulates the vascular and nervous systems, and is esteemed antispasmodic. It has been employed as a local agent in bruises, gangrene, porrigo, &c. Internally, it has been used to prevent an attack of epi- lepsy or ague, as a stimulant in low fevers, and as antispasmodic in hysteria and other affections of the nervous system accompanied with convulsive movements. Bremser {Traite sur les Vers Intestin. Paris, 1824.) used Chaberfs oil (prepared by mixing three parts oil of turpentine with one part Dippel's oil, and distilling three parts) as an anthelmintic in tape-worm. The dose of animal oil .is a few drops, cautiously increased. 2. ACTDUM HYDROCYANICUM DILUTUM, L.—DILUTED HYDROCYANIC OR PRUSSIC ACID. (Acidum Hydrocyanicum, E. (U. S.)—Acidum Prussicum, D) History.—The substance called Prussian or Berlin blue {Cceruleum Borus- sicum seu Berolinense) was accidentally discovered by Driesbach at the com- mencement of the eighteenth century, and various conjectures were soon offered regarding its nature. In 1746, Dr. Brown Langrish published some experiments made with laurel-water, in order to investigate its effects on animals. {Physical Experiments upon Brutes. Lond. 1746.) In 1752, Macquer announced that Prussian blue was a compound of oxide of iron, and some colouring principle which he could not isolate; and in 1772, Guyton Morveau concluded that this principle was of an acid nature. Scheele, in 1782, removed some of the mystery connected with Prussian blue, by obtaining hydrous prussic acid from it. In 1787, Berthollet ascertained this acid to be a compound of carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen. In 1800 and 1802, Bohn and Schrader discovered it in laurel-water. Borda, Brugnatelli, and Rasori, first employed the acid in medicine, from 1801 to 1806, In 1815, Gay-Lussac obtained the acid in its pure anhydrous state, and explained its composition.1 Synonymes and Etymology. — It has been denominated Prussic {Acidum Borussicum), Zootic {Acidum Zooticum), Hydrocyanic or Cyanohydric Acid: the first name indicates the substance (Prussian blue) from which it was obtained, the second refers to its animal origin, and the third indicates its constituents, "• The chemical history of hvdrocyanic acid is fully detailed in Thomson's System of Inorganic Chemistry, vol. ii. 7th edition. The medical history of it is contained in Dr. Granville's Historical and Practical Treatise on this acid, 2d ed. 1820. PRUSSIC acid. 383 hydrogen and cyanogen (so called from xuavos, blue; and yevvaw, to produce ; be- cause it is one of the constituents of Prussian blue). Natural History—Hydrocyanic acid is a product peculiar to the organized kingdom. It may be readily procured from many vegetables, more especially those belonging to the sub-orders Amygdalece and Pomece: as from Bitter Al- monds, Apple-pips, the Kernels of Peaches, Apricots, Cherries, Plums, and Damsons ; the Flowers of the Peach, Cherry-laurel, and Bird-cherry ; the Bark of the latter, and the root of the Mountain Ash. It is said to have been also ob- tained from plants of other families, as from Ramnus Frangula and Ergot of Rye. In some of the vegetables now referred to, hydrocyanic acid does not exist ready formed, but is a product of the process by which it is obtained. This has been fully proved in the case of ihe bitter almond, and is inferred in other instances. This acid is rarely, if ever, found in animals. One of its constituents (cyano- gen) has, however, been detected, in combination with iron, (forming Prussian blue) in the urine, the menstrual fluid, and the sweat; and with sulphur and potas- sium in the saliva. The greenish-blue discharge of some ulcers probably depends on the presence of Prussian blue. In one case I detected the presence of iron in this discharge.1 During the decomposition of animal matters, cyanogen is fre- quently generated: as when blood and carbonate of potash are calcined in an iron pot. It has also been stated, that when cheese is exposed to the action of water and the sun, it disengages ammonia, and if treated, in this state, by alcohol, yields traces of hydrocyanic acid. Preparation.—The processes for procuring this acid are very numerous. I shall only notice the most important of those which yield the dilute acid employed for medicinal purposes. a. By the action of diluted Sulphuric Addon Ferrocyanide of Potassium.—This is the process directed by the London and Edinburgh Colleges (and U. S. P.):— The London College orders of "Ferrocyanide of Potassium, 3ij-,* Sulphuric Acid, 3iss.; Dis- tilled Water, Oiss. Mix the acid with four fluid ounces of the water, and lo these, when cooled and put inlo a glass retort, add the ferrocyanide of potassium, first dissolved in half a pint of water. Pour eight fluid ounces of the water into a cooled receiver; then, having adapted the retort, let six fluid ounces of acid, distilled wilh a gentle heat in a sand-bath, pass into this water. Lastly, add six more fluid ounces of distilled water, or as much as may be sufficient, that 12-7 grains of nitrate of silver, dissolved in distilled water, may be accurately saturated by 100 grains of this acid." [This process is adopted by the U. S. P.] The Edinburgh College orders of "Ferrocyanide of Potassium 3iij.; Sulphuric Acid, f3vj.: Water, f 3xvj. Dissolve the salt in eleven fluid ounces of the water, and put the solution into a matrass: add the acid, previously diluted with five fluid ounces of the water, and allowed to cool: connect the matrass with a proper refrigeratory: distil with a gentle heat, by means of a sand- bath or naked gas flame, till fourteen fluid ounces pass over, or till the residuum begins to froth up. Dilute the product with distilled water till it measures sixteen fluid ounces." On the large scale, the distillation is conducted in a stoneware still, with a worm refrigerator of the same material. If it be performed in a [tubulated] retort, as directed in the London Pharma- copoeia, an adopter should be employed. When small quantities are to be ope- rated on, we may conveniently employ two Florence flasks (one as the receiver, the other as the distilling vessel,) connected by a glass tube curved twice at right nngles. The receiver should be kept very cool, ice or snow being used if it can be procured : and the heat employed in distilling should be very moderate. The distilled liquor frequently contains a little sulphuric acid, and, by standing, de- posits a small portion of Prussian blue. A second distillation, cautiously con- ducted, will often separate the sulphuric acid; but I have seen Prussian blue formed after the hydrocyanic acid has been carefully distilled three times. ' Is the formation of cyanogen dependent on the oxidation of gelatine? Persoy states, that when gelatine is submit led to an oxidizing agent it is susceptible of being transformed into hydrocyanic-acid, ammonia and carbonic acid, and a small quantity of one of the fat, volatile, and odoriferous acids, the existence of which was established by Chevreul {Brit, and For. Med. Ren. vol. xii. p. 532J. 384 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. The theory of the process, founded on the experiments of Mr. Everitt, (Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. Feb. 1835.) is as follows:—Six equivalents or 294 parts of oil of vitriol (SO3 -|- aq.) react on two equivalents or 426 parts of crystallized ferrocyanide of potassium (composed of four equivalents cyanide of potassium, two of cyanide of iron, and six of water), and produce three equivalents or 384 parts of the bisulphate of potash, three equivalents or 81 parts of hydrocyanic acid, one equivalent or 174 parts of a new salt (which I shall term the biferro- cyanide of potassium,) and nine equivalents or 81 parts of water. The bisul- phate and the new salt remain in the retort, while the hydrocyanic acid with some water distil over. In the London Pharmacopoeia an additional quantity of water is employed to assist the condensation of the acid. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. (3 eq. Water....................27-------------------------3 eq. Water..............27 I 1 en Wnttr Q7 5 3 e?- Hydrogen 3------------------- ___^-3 eq. Hydrocyanic Acid.. 81 2 eq. Cryst. | A eq' waur zi \ 3 eq. Oxygen 24.^ ^____-------" Ferrocyanide ■{ 3 eq. Cyanide ( 3 eq. Cyanogen 78—-1*^"=-^-— ' Potassium 426 j Potassium 198 < 3 eq. Patassm. 120.........".V.-.-..3 eq. Potash 144 j 1 eq. Cyanide Potassium..... 66)_____________________V ( 1 eq. Biferrocyanide 1.2 eq. Cyanide Iron...........108) \J Potassium........ 174 6 eq. Oil of I 6 eq. Water.............,--- 54-----------------------V-6 eq. Water........... 54 Vitriol 294 { 6eq. Sulphuric Acid..........240—;----------------------^3eq. Bisulphate Potash 3*4 720 720 720 The salt here called biferrocyanide of potassium is termed, by Mr. Everitt, the yellow salt. I have prepared it with the greatest care, but have always found it to be white. Gay-Lussac also says it is white. (Ann. Chim. et Phys. t. xlvi. p. 77.) By exposure to the air it becomes blue. /3. By the action of Hydrochloric Acid on Cyanide of Silver.—This process, proposed by Mr. Everitt, yields an acid of uniform strength, and may be followed when the acid is required for immediate use. In the London Pharmacopoeia it is stated that diluted Hydrocyanic Acid may be otherwise prepared, when it is to be more quickly used, from forty-eight grains and a half of Cyanide of Silver, added to a fluid ounce of distilled water, mixed with thirty-nine grains and a half of Hydrochloric Acid. Shake all these in a well-stoppered phial; and, after a short interval, pour off the clear liquor into another vessel. Keep this for use, the access of light being pre- vented. [This is also adopted by U. S. P., taking 51 grs. of Cyanide of Silver, and 41 grs. of Hydrochloric Acid.J The proportions directed by Mr. Everitt are 40 grs. of cyanide, 7 fluid drachms and 20 minims of water, and 40 minims of dilute hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1*129). This gentleman says, that practitioners could obtain an ounce of the acid, pre- pared by this process, for one shilling, while the manufacturer could obtain 50 per cent, profit by it. The theory of the process is as follows:—By the mutual reaction of one equiva- lent or 134 parts of cyanide silver and one equivalent or 37 parts of hydrochloric acid, there are obtained one equivalent or 144 parts of chloride of silver, and one equivalent or 27 parts of hydrocyanic acid. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. leq. Cyanide Silver 134 \ j J ,g£*??.'; jjg ..........—•»;;;:::;. 1 eq. Hydrocyanic Acid.......... 27 1 eq. Hydrochloric Acid 37 j \ J %£%£] ] 35-------^^^1 eq. Chloride Silver............ 144 171 171 171 y. By the action of Hydrochloric Acid on Bicyanide of Mercury.—At Apo- thecaries' Hall hydrocyanic acid was formerly prepared from one part of bicy- anide of mercury, one part hydrochloric acid, (sp. gr. 1-15,) and six parts of water. The rhixture was distilled until six parts had passed over. The acid thus obtained had a sp. gr.- 0*995, and its standard strength was such, that two PRUSSIC ACID. 385 fluid-drachms of it dissolved 14 grains of the red oxide of mercury, thereby indi- cating a strength of about 2*9 per cent of real acid. The Dublin College orders Prussic acid to be prepared from Cyanuret of Mercury, 3j.i Muriatic Acid, by measure, Svij.; Water, by measure, 3viij. Distil into a refrigerator re- ceiver, eight ounces, by measure, to be kept in a well-corked bottle, in a cool and dark place. The specific gravity of this acid is to the specific gravity of distilled water as 998 to 1000. The most convenient method of procuring concentrated ox anhydrous hydro- cyanic acid, is by ihe action of strong liquid hydrochloric acid on bicyanide of mercury. The vapour should be passed over carbonate of lime, to deprive it of hydrochloric acid ; and over chloride of calcium, to remove the water. The re- ceiver should be immersed in a freezing mixture, consisting of ice and chloride of sodium. The theory of the process is as follows :—Two equivalents or 74 parts of hy- drochloric acid react on one equivalent or 254 parts of the bicyanide of mercury, and form one equivalent or 274 parts of the bichloride of mercury, which remain in the retort, and two equivalents or 54 parts of hydrocyanic acid, which distil over. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODDCTS. 2 eq. Hydrochloric Acid.. 74 \ £ % "ffjZT. 72^——^==^ ^q. Hydrocyanic Acid......... 54 , „. ...» nP,(2«i. Cyanogen 52-"""""'......... 1 eq. Bicyan.de Mercury 2o4 \ 1 £ ^^ „02.........._.......-_--._ } ^ ^^ ^^........^ 328 328 328 S. By the action of Tartaric Acid on Cyanide of Potassium.—-This process was proposed by Dr. Clarke, and adopted by Mr. Laming. The formula of the latter is the following :—22 grains of the cyanide of potassium are to be dissolved in 6 fluid-drachms of distilled water, and to this solution are to be added 50 grains nf crystallized tartaric acid, dissolved in 3 fluid-drachms of rectified spirit. One fluid-drachm of the decanted liquor contains one grain of pure hydrocyanic acid. The objections to this process (which, however, has several advantages) are the trouble and expense of procuring pure cyanide of potassium, and the liability of the salt to undergo spontaneous decomposition. The theory of the process is the following:—Two equivalents or 150 parts of crystallized tartaric acid, one equivalent or 9 parts of water, and one equivalent or 66 parts of cyanide of potassium, react on each other, and produce one equi- valent or 189 parts of the crystallized bitartrate of potash, which precipitates, and one equivalent or 27 parts of hydrocyanic acid, which remains in solution. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODDCTS. c 1 cq. Hydrogen..... 1------------------—^,1 eq. Hydrocyanic Acid___ 27 leq. Water............ °\ leq. Oxygen....... ^'.^-—-~~~~~~^ 1 eq. Cyanogen..... 20 "•■._ 1 cq.Cyanide Potassium C6 j l eq% potassium___ 40........"■"•» 1 eq.Potash 48 - «»• Dr Properties, a. Of Anhydrous Hydrocyanic Acid.—Anhydrous hydrocyanic acid is a solid at 0° F., (some state at 5° F.,) having then the appearance of cryS- tallized nitrate of ammonia; it readily melts, forming a limpid, colourless liquid, with an intense and peculiar odour; its taste is at first cool, then hot; at 45° its sp. gr. is 0*70.-)8, and at 6 l£° is 0-6969. In this state it is exceedingly volatile ; a drop placed on paper freezes by its own evaporation. It unites wilh water and alcohol in every proportion. At 79° or 80° F. it boils, forming hydrocyanic acid vapour, which is combustible; and when mixed with oxygen explodes. Two vol. r. 33 386 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. volumes of the vapour require two and a half volumes of oxygen gas for their complete combustion. The products are two volumes of carbonic acid gas, one volume of nitrogen, and one volume of aqueous vapour. The following diagrams illustrate the composition as well as the products of the combustion of the gaseous acid when exploded with oxygen gas :— Constituents. Eq. Vol. Before Combustion. 1 eq. Hydro-cyanic Acid Vap. = 27 2 eq-Oxygen = 16 leq. 1 o.vyg.=8j 2e.q. Oxygen _16 After Combustion. 1 eq. Nitrog. = 14 Anhydrous hydrocyanic acid undergoes speedy decomposition. Yet Dr. Chris- tison says he has kept it unchanged for a fortnight in ice-cold water. /3. Of diluted Hydrocyanic Acid.—Diluted or medicinal hydrocyanic acid is a colourless, transparent liquid, having the taste and smell of the strong acid, but in a lesser degree. Heated in a tube it gives off a combustible vapour. Composition—The ultimate constituents of pure hydrocyanic acid are Carbon, Nitrogen, and Hydrogen. Atoms. Carbon................ 2 Nitrogen.............. J .. Hydrogen.............. 1 .. Eq. Wt. . 12 .. . 14 .. . 1 .. Theory. Gay-Lussac. . 44-4 ........ 44-45 . 519 ........ 51-85 . 3-7 ........ 3-70 Vols. Carbon Vapour...... lor 2 Nitrogen gas........... i Hydrogen gas........... l Hydrocyanic Vapour , Hydrocyanic Acid...... 1 ........ 27 ........ 100-0 ........ 10000 But it is more usual to regard this acid as a compound of hydrogen and cyanogen, the latter substance being a bicarburet of nitrogen. On this view the composition will be as follows: — Cyanogen . Hydrogen . Atoms. .. 1 .. .. 1 .. Eq. Wt. . 26 . . 1 . Per Cent. . 96-3 . 3-7 27 Cyanogen gas.......... 1 Hydrogen gas.......... 1 Hydrocyanic Vapour. Hydrocyanic Acid........... 1 ... Strength of the Diluted Acid.—In the London Pharmacopoeia, hydrocy- anic acid is directed to be prepared of such a strength that 100 grains of it will exactly precipitate 12*7 grains of nitrate of silver dissolved in water :—the pre- cipitate, which is cyanide of silver, should weigh 10 grains. Five parts of this precipitate correspond to one of real acid. Hence the diluted acid Ph. L. con- sists of— Real Hydrocyanic Acid.................................. 2-0 Water.................................................. 980 Diluted Hydrocyanic Acid (Ph. L.)....................... 1000 The Acidum Hydrocyanicum Ph. Ed. consists of "Hydrocyanic Acid diluted with about thirty parts of water." Hence its per-centage composition is as fol- lows :— Real Hydrocyanic Acid.................................. 3-226 Water................................................. 96774 Acidum Hydrocyanicum (Ph. Ed.)...................... 100-000 The Edinburgh College gives the following directions for ascertaining its strength:— " Fifty minims [of the acid] diluted with one fluid ounce of distilled water, agitated with 390 minims of solution of Nitrate of Silver [Ph. Ed.], and allowed to settle, will again give a precipitate with 40 minims more of the test; but a farther addition of the test, after agitation and rest, has no effect. The precipitate entirely disappears in boiling nitric acid." PRUSSIC ACID. 387 The Acidum Prussicum Ph. Dub. contains only 1*6 per cent, of real acid.1 This discrepancy in the strength of the acid ordered in the British pharmaco- poeias, is greatly to be regretted. Most of the acid met with in the shops of Lon- don chemists, is stated by the label to be of " Scheele's strength." But as Scheele's process3 gave an acid of variable strength, this statement is by no means definite. A manufacturer of large quantities of the acid informs me he sells, under the name of Scheele's acid, a diluted hydrocyanic acid, which contains 4 per cent. real acid. Purity. — Diluted hydrocyanic acid should be perfectly colourless. Decom- posed acid is frequently, but not invariably, coloured. It should be vaporizable by heat: this character shows the absence of fixed impurities. The presence of metallic matter is recognised by hydrosulphuric acid, which has no effect on the pure acid. If the acid strongly redden litmus, it must contain some other acid, most probably the sulphuric or hydrochloric. The presence of any foreign acid is easily determined by the hydrargyro-iodo-cyanide of potassium. This salt is easily formed by adding a concentrated solution of bicyanide of mercury to a so- lution of iodide of potassium ; a precipitate of white or pearly crystalline plates of this salt is immediately formed. If a small portion of this salt be placed in diluted hydrocyanic acid, no change is observed unless some foreign acid be pre- sent : in the latter event the red biniodide of mercury immediately makes its ap- pearance. For this test we are indebted to Dr. Geoghegan. {Dublin Journal, Nov. 1835.) Sulphuric acid may be detected by a solution of the salts of barium. " Solution of nitrate of baryta occasions no precipitate" in the pure acid {Ph. Ed.); but if sulphuric acid be present, it occasions a white precipitate {sulphate of baryta,) insoluble in nitric acid. Hydrochloric acid is recognised by nitrate of silver, which forms therewith white chloride of silver insoluble in boiling nitric acid, whereas the white cyanide of silver is soluble in nitric acid at a boiling tem- perature. I would observe, that the presence of either of these acids is no farther objectionable, than that it creates a difficulty in the determination of the strength of the hydrocyanic acid; while, on the other hand, it confers the advantage of rendering the hydrocyanic acid much less liable to decompose. The acid pre- pared from ferrocyanide of potassium will keep for years, (Dr.^Christison has had some unchanged for two years and a half, though it was exposed to daylight,) owing, it is supposed, to the presence of some sulphuric acid. Mr. Barry adds a little hydrochloric acid to all his medicinal hydrocyanic acid, in order to preserve it. As air and light hasten, though they are not essential to, the decomposition of the acid, they should be carefully excluded. Characteristics.—The following are the best tests for hydrocyanic acid :— 1. The odour.—The peculiar odour of hydrocyanic acid is well known. It must not be confounded with the odour of the volatile oil of bitter almonds. Orfila says, that this is the most delicate characteristic of the acid, since it is very marked when the liquid tests give very slight indications only. But I have not found this to be invariably the case : it depends much on the nature of the mixture containing the acid. 2. Formation of Prussian Blue {Ferrosesquicyanide of Iron).—Add suffi- cient caustic potash, to the suspected acid to saturate it; then a solution of some proto- and sesqui-salt of iron: the common sulphate of iron of the shops, or the tincture of the chloride, answers very well, since both these preparations usually contain the two [prot- and sesqui-) salts of iron. A precipitate is thus obtained, which is liable to considerable variation in its colour, depending on the quantity 1 Barker and Monteomery's Observations on the Dublin Pharmacopmia. Dub. 1630. -Scheele prepared this acid by boiling together Prussian blue. Peroxide of Mercury, anl Water. Bicyanide of Mercury was obtained in solution. Iron filings and Sulphuric Acid were then added, and the products of the reaction were Hydrocyanic Acid, Metallic Mercury, and Sulphate of Iron. The liquor was then submitted to distillation.—The strength of the acid product varied with the degree of purity (if the Prussian blue. 388 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. of potash and the quality of the ferruginous salt employed ; it may be yellowish brown, or greenish, or bluish. Then add dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, when Prussian blue (ferrosesquicyanide of iron) will immediately make its appear' ance, if hydrocyanic acid were present. The formation of Prussian blue is thus accounted for. When potash is added to hydrocyanic acid, water and cyanide of potassium are generated. By the re- action of this salt on a proto-salt of iron the proto-cyanide of iron is p'roduced, while with a sesqui-salt of iron it forms sesquicyanide of iron. The two fer- ruginous cyanides, by their union, constitute the ferrosesquicyanide or Prussian blue. The following diagram explains the reaction of nine equivalents of cyanide of potassium on three equivalents of the protosulphate, and four equivalents of the sesquisulphate of iron. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. INTERMEDIATE COMPOUNDS. PRODUCTS. 9 eq. Cvanide S I eq- £<>«ass**"<- • ■ -360------?9 eq. Potash.......432-----„ 9 eq. Sulph. of Potash... .792 Potas. 594) 3. eq. Cyanogen . ... ,3. .;. ........—--~;:'-"-''" ( 6 eq. Cyanogen---156 \-- / .......... ..-- 3 eq. Protosul- $ * c«" *"&*• ■** * * * ^HzX ---""""" „i,o. Trn„ oaai-i eq. Oxygen......24- X \.--- phate Iron 228 £ £ . . " ^T^X^ '^ Pr°l°Cya"- ^" -162 ) J «>• Ferms.squicyan- 4 eq. Sesquisul- 5 ° ef SnulPh- M' * * *3j°/ \ \ ide Iron (Prussian phatelron 400\\ J; £*.« ;;;;;;; <*________\4eq.Sesquicyan. Iron 268) "*")...............«0 1222 1222 , 122-J 3. Nitrate of Silver.—This is by far the most delicate test of the presence of hydrocyanic acid. It causes a white precipitate of cyanide of silver, which is soluble in boiling nitric acid. By this latter character cyanide is distinguished from chloride of silver. If carefully dried cyanide of silver be heated in a small glass tube, it evolves cyanogen gas, known by its combustibility, and the colour (violet or bluish red) of its flame. 4. Sulphate of Copper.—This test is applied as follows :—Super-saturate with potash, then add sulphate of copper. A greenish blue precipitate is obtained, which, by the cautious addition of a few drops of hydrochloric acid, becomes white, if hydrocyanic acid be present. The objections to the test are, that the results are not sufficiently striking, and lhat an inexperienced manipulator may fail in getting any evidence of hydrocyanic acid. When excess of potash is added to hydrocyanic acid, we obtain water, cyanide of potassium, and free pot- ash. On the addition of sulphate of copper, hydrated oxide of copper, sulphate of potash in solution, and white cyanide of copper, are formed. The hydrochloric acid is added to redissolve the oxide of copper, leaving the white cyanide of this metal. 5. Tincture of Guaiacum and Sulphate of Copper___If tincture of guaiacum be added to a very dilute aqueous solution of hydrocyanic acid, a whitish preci- pitate (resin of guaiacum) is thrown down. If now a few drops of a solution of sulphate of copper be added, a blue colour is produced, which is rendered more intense by the addition of rectified spirit. Pagenstecher, {Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. x. p. 182.) of Berne, first proposed tincture of guaiacum and hydro- cyanic acid as a test for copper. I find that tincture of guaiacum and sulphate of copper, applied as directed above, form a very sensible test of the presence of hydrocyanic acid: but unfortunately it is not characteristic, since other agents also develope a blue colour wilh it. Thus spirit of nitric ether produces a blue colour with tincture of guaiacum. Detection of this Acid in Cases of Poisoning.—As hydrocyanic acid is a substance which readily undergoes decomposition, it is not likely to be met with in bodies which have been interred for many days. It has, however, been recog- nised in one case, seven days after death, notwithstanding that the trunk had not been buried, but had been lying in a drain. (Chevallier, Ann. d'Hygiene Publiq. ix. 337.) In recent cases the acid is readily distinguished by its odour. PRUSSIC acid. 389 with which, in some instances, the whole body is impregnated. The tests for this acid, already mentioned, will sometimes detect the poison in the filtered contents of the stomach; but the foreign matters present may, occasionally, prevent their characteristic action. The best mode of proceeding in that case is, to introduce them into a tubulated retort, to add some sulphuric acid to neutralize any ammo- nia which might be generated by the process of putrefaction, and to distil by means ofa vapour or water bath ; then apply the tests already mentioned. It has been suggested, that hydrocyanic acid may be formed during the pro- cess of distillation by the decomposition of the animal matters. But, as Dr. Christison has justly observed, the objection appears only to rest on conjecture, or presumption at farthest. It is to be recollected, that unsound cheese has, under certain circumstances, been found to contain this acid, as already men- tioned. It is not improbable that it may be found in many animal substances during their spontaneous decomposition. It is said to have been detected in ergot of rye. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—Hydrocyanic acid is a poison to plants. The stamina of Berberis vulgaris and the leaves of Mimosa pudica lose their irritability when the stems bearing them are immersed in the diluted acid. (Macaire, Biblioth. Universelle, xxxi. 244.) Seeds lose the power of germination by immersion in this acid. In those parts of lactescent plants which are poisoned by it, the milky juice does not flow from the cells or vessels in which it is con- tained. By chemical means it has been shown that the acid becomes absorbed. (De Candolle, Physiol. Veget. p. 1357.) Ammonia has, in some cases, appeared to favour the recovery of plants which had been exposed to the vapour of the ncid. (Macaire, op. cit.) f3. On Animals generally.—Hydrocyanic acid is an energetic poison to ani- mals. Experiments have been made with it on the following :—Mammalia, Aves, Rcptilia, Amphibia, Pisces, Gasteropoda, Annelida, Crustacea, Insecta, and In- fusoria. (Coullon, quoted by Wibmer, Wirkung d. Arzneim. 3 Bd. p. 110.) The general effects are very similar on all classes, and consist essentially of loss of sensation and voluntary motion, with convulsive movements. Mr. Gray, how- ever, states that some of the larvae of the common Musca, having been put into hydrocyanic acid, remained uninjured after two or three days' exposure, {Athe- nceum for 1837, p. 671.) The cold-blooded animals are more slowly affected by hydrocyanic acid than the hot-blooded ones. Dr. Christison states lhat 25 grs. of the strong acid, applied to the mouth, killed a rabbit within ten seconds. I once caused the almost instantaneous death of a rabbit by applying its nose to a receiver filled with the vapour of the pure acid : the animal died without the least struggle. If a drop of the pure acid be placed on the throat of a dog, or applied to the eye, death takes place in a few seconds. Inhaling the vapour decidedly produces death more quickly than any other mode of using the acid.1 If the pure acid be applied to the eye of a dog, it causes opa- city and whiteness of the cornea, and a copious flow of tears. In a very short time it gives rise to constitutional symptoms. y. On Man. eta. In small or medicinal doses.—Small doses of hydrocyanic acid sometimes relieve certain morbid conditions (as of the stomach), without producing anv remarkable alteration in the condition of the general system. If the dose be cautiously increased, and its operation carefully watched, the follow- in" effects are usually observed:—a bitter but peculiar taste; increased secretion ofsalivn ; irritation in the throat; frequently nausea ; disordered and laborious re- spiration (sometimes quick, at others slow and deep): pain in the head, giddiness, obscured vision, and sleepiness. The vascular system is in some cases not ob- viously, but in others much, affected, though not uniformly ; its action being sometimes quickened, at others reduced in frequency. In some instances faint- > For some remarks on the period of time which intervenes between the application ofa poison and the first symptoms of its action, see p. 136. 390 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. ness is experienced. Drs. Macleod and Granville {Lond. Med. and. Phys. Journ. vol. xlvi. pp. 359 and 363.) have noticed salivation and ulceration of the mouth during its medicinal use. (3/3. In poisonous doses: convulsions and insensibility (Epilepsy'?): if death occur, it takes place slowly.—Immediately after swallowing the acid, a remarka- bly bitter taste is experienced; this is soon followed by a sensation of fainlness and giddiness, with salivation, and is succeeded by tetanic convulsions and insen- sibility; the respiration is difficult and spasmodic; the odour of hydrocyanic acid may be recognised in the breath; the pupils are usually dilated, though some- times contracted ; the pulse is small or imperceptible. When recovery takes place it is usually \,ery rapid, and the whole period of suffering seldom exceeds halfan hour. However, exceptions to this exist, in which the symptoms have been pro- longed for several hours. The following case, related by.Dr. Geoghegan (Dublin Med. Journ. Nov. 1835.), is an illustration of these effects:—A gentleman, aged 21, having been for some time subject to an uneasiness in the stomach, not actually amounting to gastrodynia, after having tried many remedies in vain, was induced to have recourse to hydrocyanic acid. He com- menced with one minim of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, sp. gr. 0998: this dose he re- peated twelve times the first day, without any perceptible effect. On the following day he took half a drachm, with the same result. The third day his dose was a drachm, which he repeated the fourth day. On the fifth day he took a drachm and a half; still no effect of any kind. On the sixth day he increased his dose to two drachms. In about two minutes after taking this quantity, he experienced a sensation of extreme bitterness in the mouth, and having walked a few paces, was affected with great confusion, head- ache, and loud ringing in his ears. He now with difficulty retraced his steps, and leaning forward on a table, became insensible and fell backwards. In this state he remained alto- gether between three and four minutes, during which time he was violently convulsed. Two drachms of the spiritus ammoniae aromaticus were diluted with a little water, and applied as quickly as possible to the mouth, but as the teeth were clenched jt could not be swallowed. The solid sesqui-carbonate of ammonia was then applied assiduously to the nostrils; its beneficial effects were soon apparent, and he was shortly able to swallow a little fluid. Sensibility now speedily returned, and vomiting supervened, from which he experienced great relief; and at the expiration of half an hour he was quite well, with the exception of pain and feeling of distention in the head, which continued for the re- mainder of the day. After he had become insensible, and while leaning on the table, his thighs became rigid, and were drawn up on the abdomen; and as he was about falling, he was caught and placed on the ground. The upper extremities were then observed to be also rigid, and on drawing them from the side, they forcibly reverted to their former posi- tion ; the eyes were shut, the teeth clenched, and the muscles of the face violently con- vulsed. It is deserving of notice that the old complaint was completely removed by this extraordinary dose. yy. In poisonous doses: death rapid with or without convulsions.—In these cases the death is so rapid that, in the human subject, the symptoms have scarcely been observed. They are probably similar to those noticed in animals,—viz. imperceptible pulse, breathing not obvious, or there may be two or three deep, hurried inspirations, insensibility, and death. Convulsions may or may not be present. The presence or absence of convulsions, as connected with the time within which death occurs in these cases, is sometimes a matter of great moment. Some years ao-o the life of a prisoner almost turned on this point. The Mowing is an outline of the case:1—An apothecary's maid-servant at Leicester, was found one morning dead in bed. The body lay in a composed posture—the arms crossed over the trunk, and the bed-clothes pulled smoothly up to the chin. At her right side lay a phial, from which about five drachms of the medicinal hydrocyanic acid had been taken, and which was corked and wrapped in paper. It was suspected that she took the acid to occasion miscarriage, and that the ap- prentice was accessory to its administration; in consequence of which he was put on his trial. Now, the important question for the consideration of the medical witnesses was, 1 More fully developed in Dr. Christison's Treatise on Poisons, and in the Medical Gazette vol. viii. no. 577 PRUSSIC ACID. 391 could the deceased, after having drunk the poison, have had time to cork the phial, wrap it up, and adjust the bed-clothes, before insensibility came on ] It was supposed that if the death were of that slow description to allow of these acts of volition, convulsions would have occurred, and the bed-clothes would have been found disordered. On the other hand, those cases in which no convulsions occur usually terminate too quickly to allow of the above acts. The medical witnesses in the above case were not agreed in opinion: the majority thought that it was impossible the deceased could have had the power of corking the bottle. The jury very properly found the prisoner not guilty. There are two points of inquiry connected with the action of this acid, whicli are interesting, more particularly in a medico-legal point of view—namely, the time at whicli the poison begins to operate, and ihe period in which it proves fatal. No absolute answer can be given to either of these questions, since the strength and quantity of the acid exhibited, and peculiarities (not known or understood) affect the result. Very strong acid, in large doses, begins to operate very speedily, especially if its vapour be inhaled. The diluted acid, on the other hand, some- times does not produce any obvious effect for several minutes, and death may not occur for nearly half an hour. Of seven epileptic patients killed in one of the Parisian hospitals by hydrocyanic acid, some did not die for forty-five minutes. {Annates d Hygiene Publ. et de Med. Leg. t. ii.) But I have not found the same quantity of the same acid kill different animals of the same species in the same period of time. Morhid Appearances.—The post-mortem appearances in cases of poisoning by this acid are the following:—Glistening and staring expression of the eyes, but which, however, is not a constant phenomenon, since it was not observed in the seven Parisian epileptics: nor is it peculiar to this poison, for the same is ob- served after death by carbonic acid, and in other cases (Christison): the odour of the acid is oftentimes very obvious in the blood, brain, chest, or stomach; the venous system is usually gorged with blood, while the arteries are empty ; the blood is, in many cases, fluid, dark, or bluish black, and viscid or oily ; the vessels of the brain and spinal marrow are frequently gorged with blood ; and the cerebral ventricles sometimes contain a serous or sanguineous liquor; the lungs are, in some instances, natural—in others, turgid with blood; the internal lining of the stomach is sometimes red. It has been stated by Magendie, that, after death by (he strong acid, the muscles are not sensible to the galvanic influence. But this condition is very rarely pre- sent ; indeed I have never observed it in animals killed by this acid ; though Dr. Christison has occasionally found it. I have examined a considerable number of animals (principally rabbits) destroyed by hydrocyanic acid, and have always found the muscles to be powerfully affected by the galvanic influence; nor have I once met with a single case in which the heart had ceased to beat when the chest had been laid open immediately after death. Modus Operandi.—There are several interesting subjects of inquiry connected with the operation of hydrocyanic acid, which, as they are principally theoretical, I shall briefly notice under this head. a. Local action.—Dr. Christison says that Robiquet's fingers became affected with numbness, which lasted several days, in consequence of their exposure for some time to the vapour of this acid. {Treatise on Poisons, 3d ed. p. 698.) This effect would appear to depend on the local action of the poison on the nerves,—a mode of operation which we are constrained likewise to admit in the case of some other narcotics. (See p. 21 ; also Miiller's Physiology, by Baly, vol. i. p. 630.) The alleviation of gastrodynia by hydrocyanic acid depends probably on this benumbing effect. Some of the local effects produced by hydrocyanic acid are those of an irritant: such are, the acrid impression made by the vapour on the nose and mouth—the ptyalism—the vomiting and purging—and the redness of the mucous membrane of the slomach. 8. Absorption.—That hydrocyanic acid becomes absorbed, is proved by its 392 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. having been detected by Krimer (quoted by Dr. Christison, p. 15,) in the blood of animals poisoned with it, and by the odour of it exhaled by various parts of the body. The exhalation by the breath of the odour of the acid may sometimes serve to recognise the presence of the poison in the system. (Dr. Lonsdale, in the Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. for Jan. 1839.) y. Are the remote effects of this acid caused by its absorption ?—In many cases the operation of hydrocyanic acid on the system is so rapid, and death so speedily follows the application of the poison, that doubt has been entertained of its action being dependent on its absorption. (See pp. 134, 141, and 145.) The principal arguments which have been adduced in favour of the agency of absorption, are the following:—-first, that the acid produces no remote effects when applied either to the nerves or brain : secondly, that applied to the tongue or stomach, it operates as an energetic poison, although the nerves of these parts were previously divided: thirdly, that if the acid be applied to a part where circulation is arrested, the ope- ration of ihe poison is prevented : fourthly, the activity of the acid is in proportion to the absorbing powers of the part with which it is placed in contact: fifthly, a sufficient time always elapses between its application to the body and the first symptom of its action, to admit of its operation by absorption. (See p. 136.) S. Organs affected.—The parts specifically affected by this acid are the brain and true spinal system. The pain in the head, the insensibility, and the coma, are evidence of the cerebral affection; while the tetanic convulsions depend on the disorder of the true spinal system. Marx {Die Lehre von d. Giften, ler Bd. 2de Abt. S. 154.) mentions the following experiment performed by Wedemeyer [Virsuche uber das Nervensystem, S. 241, Vers. 7.) and which shows the inde- pendent action of the acid on the spinal marrow : the spinal cord of a dog was divided between the last dorsal and first lumbar vertebrae, so that the hind legs were completely paralysed and insensible to mechanical irritants: hydrocyanic acid was then introduced into one of the hind legs;—in one minute, symptoms of poisoning commenced ; the hind as well as the fore legs were violently con- vulsed,— and in twelve minutes the animal was dead. The affection of the respiratory and circulatory system produced by hydrocyanic acid is probably only secondary : that is, is the result of the influence of this agent over those parts of the nervous system from which the respiratory organs and heart derive their nervous power. The insensibility caused by hydrocyanic acid occurs too rapidly, in many cases, to be the result of asphyxia caused by paralysis of the muscles of respiration. s. Condition of the brain and spinal marrow induced by this acid.—The pre- cise pathological condition of the brain and spinal cord of an animal under the influence of hydrocyanic acid, cannot be positively determined, and is, therefore, a matter of conjecture. Whatever it may be, it is probably identical with that which occurs during an epileptic paroxysm, and with that produced by loss of blood : for the essential symptoms (insensibility and convulsions occurring sud- denly) are the same in all three states,—and ammonia has been found to relieve them. Now, Dr. Hall {Led. on the Nerv. Sijst. p. 139.) has shown that the convulsion from hemorrhage is spinal. Dr. Hoist, Professor of Materia Medica in the University of Christiana, Norway, told me of a case of epilepsy which had been under his care, and in which it was observed that the pulse in one arm was always imperceptible during the paroxysm. On a post-mortem examination, it was discovered that an anomalous distribution of the arteries existed,—so that this arm was supplied with blood by the vertebral arteries, which derived it, through the basilar artery, from the carotids. Now, the cessation of the pulse during the paroxysm proved that the circulation through these vessels was tem- porarily interrupted. Does any similar interruption occur in poisoning by hydro- cyanic acid ? S. Cause of death.—In most cases the immediate cause of death is obstruction PRUSSIC ACID. 393 of respiration. In some instances' it is stoppage of the heart's action. There are cases, however, in which the death is too immediate to be produced by ob- structed respiration, while, on opening the chest, the heart is found still beating: this I have observed in experiments on rabbits with strong hydrocyanic acid. t[. Cumulative effects.—Hydrocyanic acid is not usually regarded as a cumu- lative poison; but a case mentioned by Dr. Baumgartner (quoted by Dr. Christi- son), as well as some r^her circumstances, seem to favour the reverse opinion. (See Dr. Christison's Treatise.) Uses.—We are indebted to the Italians (Borda, Brugnatelli, and Rasori) for the introduction of hydrocyanic acid into the Materia Medica. It was first employed by them at the commencement of the present century; namely from 1801 to 1806. (Granville, Treatise on Hydrocyanic Acid, 2d edit. 1820.) a. Internal—By the founders of the theory of contra-stimulus this acid was regarded as a powerful asthenic or contra-stimulant, and, therefore, as peculiarly useful in all diseases dependent on, or connected with, excitement. Hence it was employed in inflammatory affections. But subsequent experience has fully shown that in these cases it possesses little or no remedial power. In this country the reputation of hydrocyanic acid, as a medicinal agent, is chiefly founded on its effects in alleviating certain painful (neuralgic) and spasmo- dic stomach complaints. It appears, from Dr. Granville's statements, {Op. cit.) that laurel-water (which contains this acid) was used in these affections by Hufe- land, Haller, Thuessen, Swediaur, and Sprengel, between'the years 1780 and 1796. But the first person who actually recommends hydrocyanic acid for them is Sprengel, {Pharmacologia.) in 1814. In 1819, Dr. A. T. Thomson detailed a case, which led him to infer that this acid would be an important agent in the treat- ment of dyspeptic affections. But the profession are principally indebted to Dr. Elliotson1 for a full investigation of its powers in these complaints. Every practitioner is familiar with a stomach complaint in which pain of a spasmodic character is the leading symptom, but which is not essentially accom- panied by pyrexia, as in gastritis—by tendency to faint, as in cardialgia—by in- digestion, as in dyspepsia, nor by loss of appetite; though one or more of these conditions may attend it. By some nosologists (as Sauvages and Sagar) it has been regarded as a distinct disease, and has been termed gastrodynia. It is not unfrequently accompanied by vomiting and prsecordial tenderness, which, how- ever, cannot be regarded as indicative of inflammation, for various reasons: one of which is the alleviation of it often obtained by the use of stimulants and anti- spasmodics. What may be the precise pathological condition of this malady 1 know not. Dr. Barlow {Cyclopaedia of Practical Medicine, art. Gastrodynia.) thinks the primary disease to be irritation or excitement of the mucous membrane of the stomach, whereby a redundant, dense, membranous, and opaque mucus is secreted, which accumulates and oppresses the stomach. The pain he supposes to arise from a contractile effort of the stomach to detach and expel the offending matter: but the immediate and permanent relief sometimes obtained by the use of hydrocyanic acid, is, I conceive, almost fatal to this hypolhesis. Some time since I prescribed the acid for a lady who had suffered for months with gastro- dynia, and who was persuaded from her sensations, she had some organic dis- ease. The remedy acted in the most surprising manner: in a few hours, to the astonishment of herself and friends, she was apparently quite well, and has since had no return of her complaint. It can hardly be imagined, that irritation of sto- mach can be rapidly removed by a substance which is itself an irritant. For my own part, I cnncoive Ihe affection to be, essentially, a disordered condition of the nerves supplying the stomach, or of the nervous centres from whence those nerves are derived ; in other words, it is a gastric neuralgia. It is frequently, but not in- 1 .Yumerous ca:cs illustrative of the Efficacy of the Hydrocyanic Acid in Afcctions of the Stomach. 1S20. 394 elements of materia medica. variably, accompanied by the irritation of stomach alluded to by Dr. Barlow. But be the proximate cause of the disease what it may, the beneficial effects of the hydrocyanic acid, in some instances of it, are most astonishing, while in others it totally fails. In all the cases in which 1 have tried it, I have obtained either perfect success or complete failure : I have met wiih no cases of partial relief. It not only allays pain, but relieves vomiting; and in the latter cases, fre- quently when all other remedies fail. Dr. Elliotson mentions the following as the stomach affections relieved by it: — 1st, those in which pain at the stomach was the leading symptom: 2dly, those in which the gastrodynia was accompa- nied by a discharge of fluid, constituting what is called pyrosis, or the water-brash: 3dly, when the excessive irritability of the stomach produces vomiting: and, 4thly, those disorders of the stomach which, in some of their symptoms, resemble affections of the heart. Dr. Prout has found it useful in gastrodynia connected with colica pictonum. I have also found it useful in a painful affection of the bowels, analogous to that of the stomach, and which, therefore, might with propriety be termed entero- dynia. The most remarkable case of this kind which 1 have met with, was that of a gentleman, a relative of one of my pupils. He had suffered, for several months, excruciating pain in the bowels, commencing daily about two o'clock, and only ceasing at night. It was, apparently, a consequence of an ague. He had been under the care of several country practitioners, and had tried a number of reme- dies (including opium and disulphate of quinia) without the least benefit. I ad- vised the employment of the hydrocyanic acid, and accordingly five minims were administered at the commencement of a paroxysm: the remedy acted like a charm : all the unpleasant symptoms immediately disappeared. Several doses of the acid were given before the period of the succeeding paroxysm, but the disease never returned ; and after employing the acid for a few days longer, he went back to the country completely cured. I have seen hydrocyanic acid used with great success to allay vomiting and purging in severe forms of the ordinary English cholera, when opium has com- pletely failed. In Asiatic or malignant cholera it has occasionally appeared to be serviceable. I have found it successful in checking the diarrhoea of phthisical subjects, when logwood, chalk, and opium had failed. As a remedy for affections of the pulmonary organs, hydrocyanic acid was at one time in great repute. It was said to be capable of curing slight inflammation of the lungs, without the necessity of blood-letting ; of suspending or curing in- cipient phthisis, while in confirmed cases it smoothed the approach of death; of curing hooping-cough, and of removing all the symptoms of spasmodic asthma.1 Experience has shown the fallacy of most of these statements. I have employed hydrocyanic acid in a considerable number of cases of phthisis, and have occa- sionally fancied that it relieved the cough and night-sweats ; but these effects were only temporary. Cases of genuine spasmodic asthma are rare; but in two in- stances in which I have seen the acid employed, no relief was obtained. In allaying cough (especially the kind called spasmodic) I have, on several occa- sions, found it useful; but it has so frequently disappointed my expectations, that 1 now rarely employ it in any pulmonary diseases. I have never observed any ill effects from its use in these cases, though others assert they have. Dr. Roe {A Treatise on tlie Nature and Treatment of the Hooping-Cough. Lond. 1838.) ascribes to this acid the power of curing simple hooping-cough, that is, convul- sive cough unaccompanied by inflammatory symptoms. He gives it in conjunc- tion with ipecacuanha and tartarized antimony. In two or three days after the use of these remedies, the violence of the paroxysms, he says, is perceptibly diminished, and their duration shortened. To a girl of ten years of age he gave 1 See Dr. Granville's Treatise before referred to; and also Magendie's Recherehes sur Vemploi de I'Acide Prussique, 1819. PRUSSIC ACID. 395 a minim and a half of the acid every quarter of an hour for twelve hours. I have not found this practice so successful as Dr. Roe's reports would lead us lo expect. It has been employed in affections of the nervous system. Cases of hysteria, epilepsy, chorea, and tetanus, have been published, in which this remedy has been found beneficial. I have seen it employed in the first three of these affec- tions, but without any evident relief. It has been repeatedly used in hydro- phobia, at the London Hospital, but without success. A most interesting case of its employment in this malady has been published in the Lancet (for May 10th, 1839). Under its use ihe hydrophobic symptoms subsided, and typhus fever supervened, of which the patient, after some days, died. Dx. Hall {Led. on the Nerv. Syst. p. 155.) proposes that in addition to the use of this acid, tracheotomy, as suggested by Mr. Mayo, should be tried. Hydrocyanic acid has been administered as an anodyne in several painful affections ; namely, cancer, tic-douloureux, rheumatism, &c, but with a few exceptions, it has not been found serviceable. As an anthelmintic it has been extolled by Brera; but the following fact, men- tioned by Dr. Elliotson, will, I imagine, show its true value:—"I have frequently employed it perseveringly without expelling one worm, when a dose of calomel has instantly brought away hundreds." B. External.—The local employment of the acid has not been attended with very great success. In chronic skin diseases, especially impetigo, prurigo, and psoriasis, the acid has been recommended by Dr. A. T. Thomson to allay pain and irritation. Schneider, of Dusseldorf, has employed one drachm and a half of hydrocyanic acid, six ounces. of spirit, and as much rose water, in scaly diseases attended with severe itching, especially in eruptions upon the genital organs. On several occasions I have tried hydrocyanic washes in prurigo, but without obtaining any relief. Dr. Elliotson says he has found it efficacious in sores behind the ears, and in scabs of the face; and adds, to an irritable face it is very soothing, if employed before and after shaving. In cancer of the uterus, lotions containing this acid have been employed to allay the pain, by Frisch, of Nyborg. Osiander has also employed, in the same disease, cherry-laurel water, the active principle of which is this acid. In gonor- rhoea, injections containing hydrocyanic acid have been employed with benefit. Schlegel has tried also the cherry-laurel water with the same result. Lastly, the dilute acid has been proposed as an effectual and agreeable mode of destroying vermin. Administration.—The best mode of exhibiting this acid internally is in the form of mixture. I generally give from three to five minims of the diluted acid, Ph. L., three or four times a day, in about an ounce of some mild vehicle (sim- ple water answers very well). Gum or syrup, and some flavouring ingredients (as orange-flower water, which is used on the continent) may be added. Some persons give it in almond emulsion. In some cases of irritable stomach this is objectionable. As a wash, two fluid-drachms of the dilute acid of the shops may be employed mixed with half a pint of distilled (or rose) water as a lotion in skin diseases. Frequently about half an ounce of rectified spirit is added, and Dr. A. T. Thom- son recommends, in addition to this, sixteen grains of acetate of lead. The ex- ternal use of this acid, in all cases (more especially if there be sores), requires great caution. Its effects on the nervous system and on the pulse must be care- fully watched. In some cases it causes giddiness and faintness, and Mr. Plumbe says, in two instances it produced intermission of the pulse. Antidotes.—The most important agents in the treatment of poisoninc bv hydrocyanic acid, as well as by the substances which contain it, (viz. the cherry- laurel, bitter almonds, the volatile oil of these substances, &c;) are chlorine, am- monia, cold affusion, and artificial respiration. 396 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. a. Chlorine is the most-powerful of these. It was first proposed by Riauz in 1822. It has been subsequently strongly recommended by Buchner, Simeon, and Orfila. It should be applied both internally and externally if possible. If chlorine water be at hand, this should be given in doses of one or two tea- spoonsful properly diluted with water. In the absence of this, weak solutions of the chloride [hypochlorite] of lime, or ihe chloride [hypochlorite] of soda, may be administered. Nitro-hydrochloric acid, largely diluted, might be given where none of the above agents could be procured. The patient should be allowed to inhale, very cautiously, air impregnated with chlorine gas (developed by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on chloride of lime). Enemata, con- taining chlorine water, or a solution of chloride of lime, should also be em- ployed. 8. Ammonia.—The spirit of sal ammoniac was proposed by Mead (Median. Account of Poisons, 5th edit. p. 275, 1756.) as an antidote for laurel-water. In 1822, ammonia was recommended by Mr. J. Murray as an antidote for hydro- cyanic acid; and its value has been admitted by Buchner, Orfila, Dupuy, and Herbst: but it is certainly inferior to chlorine; and, therefore, should be used only in the absence of this. If the patient be able to swallow, the liquor am- monia?, diluted with eight or ten parts of water, should be exhibited, and the vapour of ammonia or its carbonate inhaled : the latter practice is most important, and should not be omitted. Orfila says that ammonia is of no use when intro- duced into the stomach, but that the inhalation of the vapour will sometimes pre- serve life. Great caution is requisite in the employment of it (see p. 284). In the absence of ammonia the inhalation of the vapour of burnt feathers might be employed. Ammonia cannot be useful, as an antidote, by its chemical proper- ties merely, since hydrocyanate of ammonia is a powerful poison. y. Cold Affusion has been strongly recommended by Herbst, {Archiv.f. Anal. et Phys. 1828 ; quoted by Dr. Christison.) and is admitted by Orfila to be a valu- able remedy, though he thinks it is inferior to chlorine. Herbst says that its efficacy is almost certain when it is employed before the convulsive stage of poi- soning is over, and that it is often successful even in the stage of insensibility and paralysis. 6. Artificial respiration ought never to be omitted. Of its efficacy I am con- vinced from repeated experiments on animals. I once recovered a rabbit by this means only, after the convulsions had ceased, and the animal was apparently dead. It is an operation easily effected, and will be found a powerful assistant to chlorine or ammonia, by enabling it to get into the lungs when natural respiration is suspended. To produce respiration, make powerful pressure with both hands on the anterior surface of the chest, the diaphragm being at the same time pushed upward by an assistant. Inspiration is effected by the removal of the pressure and the consequent resiliency of the ribs. Other remedies (as turpentine) have been recommended, but they will not bear comparison (if, indeed, they possess any efficacy) with those now mentioned. Blood-letting has been advised, in vigorous subjects, when respiration has been established, and the skin is livid. (Devergie, Med. Leg. t. ii. p. 825 ; also Loos- dale, op. supra cit.) Order VIII.—COMPOUND OF BORON AND OXYGEN. ACIDUM BORA'CICUM.—BORACIC ACID. History.—Beecher (Thomson's History of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 248. Lond. 1830.) "was undoubtedly the first discoverer of boracic acid, though the credit of the discovery has usually been given to Homberg," who, in 1702, {Histoire de VAcademie Royale des Sciences, 1702 ; Memoires, p. 50.) obtained it in small shining plates, which have been called Sedative or Narcotic Salt {Sal sedativum Hombergi.) In the year 1776 it was discovered in the lagoons {Lagoni) of BORACIC ACID. 397 Tuscany by Hoefer1 and Mascagni9 and more recently by Mr. Smithson Ten- nant,3 Dr. Holland,* and Mr. Lucas,6 in the crater of Volcano, one of the Lipari Islands. Natural History.—Boracic acid is peculiar to the inorganized kingdom. It is found both free and combined. et. Free Boracic Acid.—The boracic acid lagoons of Tuscany are spread over a surface of about thirty miles. There are nine establishments for the manufacture of this acid; viz. at Monte Cerboli, Monte Rotondo, Sasso, Serazzano, Caslelnuovo, San Fredei igo, Lustignano, Lur- derello, and Lago. They are the property of one individual (M. Tardercl, now Count de Pome- rance), lo whom ihey are the source of great wealth. The earth (principally calcareous) of this part continually evolves aqueous and sulphurous vapours, which, when they burst with a fierce explosion, produce boracic acid.8 The phenomena are explicable on the supposition, that water gains access to immense masses of sulphuret of boron contained in the interior of the earth. By the mutual reaction of these substances, great heat, boracic acid, and sulphuretted hydrogen, would be evolved. The latter taking fire would produce water, sulphur, and sulphurous acid. (Dumas, Traite de Chimie, t. i. p. 380. Paris, 1828.) In consequence of being found at Sasso, native boracic acid has obtained the name of Sassoline. fi. Combined with bases.—Boracic acid is found native combined with soda (forming Tincal), (See Sodce Biboras.) and with magnesia (constituting Boracite). It is also found in the minerals called Datholile, Botryolite, Schorl, Apyrite, and Axynite. Process of Manufacture.—Boracic acid is obtained in Tuscany in the fol- lowing manner :—" Round the more considerable fissures a circular basin is dug, about four feet deep, and usually three or four yards across. These basins, which are called lagoni, being situated at different levels, the water of a rivulet is admitted into them, which, mixing with the black mud at the bottom, is made to boil up violently by the issues of vapour within its circuit. The water is gene- rally confined in each basin for twelve [twenty-four, Payen\ hours at a time, during which period it becomes saturated to a certain extent with acid from the steam which has passed through it. It is then drawn off from the higher basin to one beneath it, where it remains an equal length of time, till at length it reaches a building at the bottom of the hill, in which the process of evaporation is con- ducted." Here it enters a reservoir or cistern, where it is allowed to repose till it has deposited the mud which it held in suspension. Having cleared itself of impurities, the water is then drawn off from the cistern into flat leaden pans, under which some of the natural steam is conducted by brick drains about two feet under ground, and by this heat is evaporated. This process requires about sixty hours, the water passing successively from the pans at the upper extremity into others at the centre, and from thence into others at the lower extremity of the building, by means of leaden siphons. 1 Memoria sopra il sale scdativo di Toscana ed il Borace, &c. Firenze, 1778. Uebers von B. F. Hermann. Wien. 1782. » Memorie delta Societa Italiana, viii. 487. * Transactions of the Oeological Society, vol. i. p. 388. 1811. « Travels in the Ionian Islands, Albania, Thessaly, Macedonia, $c. during the years 1812 and 1813, p. 9. Lond. 1815. » Ann. Chim. et de Physiq. t. ii. p. 443. 1819. • For farther details consult Tancred, On the Collection of Boracic Acid from the Lagoni of Tuscany, in the Transactions of the Ashmolean Society, vol. i, Oxford, 1837 ; Dr. Bowring, On the Boracic Acid Lagoons of Tus- cany, in The Lond. and Edinb. Philosoph. Magazine, vol. xv. p. 21. Lond. 1839 ; and Payen, Ann. Chim. et Phys. 1841. vol. i. 34 ELEMENTS of materia medica. Fig. 56. Boracic Acid Lagoons of Tuscany. A, B, C, D. Lagoons.—The vapours enter at the bottom, and escape through the water into the air. When the water in the upper lagoon, A, is sufficiently charged with acid, it is allowed to run through the tube, o, into the lower lagoon, B. In this way it passes successively from B to C, from C to I), and from D into the reservoir, E. E, F. Reservoirs or Cisterns.—In these the solution is allowed to rest, and deposit mechanical impurities. By the removal of the upper plug, p, the solution escapes into the upper evaporating pan, G. G, G. Leaden Evaporating Pans.—They are supported by rafters, and are heated by the aqueous vapours, which enter at H and are confined in drains. The acid solution is conveyed from one pan to another by means of leaden siphons, i i. Having arrived at a proper state of concentration, it is then conducted into wooden tubs, in which it cools for about five days, during which the crystallization of boracic acid takes place on the sides of the tubs, and on the stick in the centre. The acid having been,removed from the tubs is placed in a basket to drain, and is then spread on the floor of a closed chamber, heated by vapour, to dry. The acid, thus prepared, is sent in casks to Leghorn. (Tancred, op. supra cit.; also Bowring, op. supra cit. ; and Payen, op. supra cit.) BORACIC ACID. 399 Fig. 57. Crystallization and Drying Chambers. A, A, A. Wooden tubs lined with lead, in which the acid crystallizes. B, B. Mother liquor. C. Basket in which the crystallized acid is placed to drain before it is conveyed to the drying chamber. D, 1). Drying chamber. E, E. Boracic acid drying on the floor (F). between which and the lower floor (H) the hot vapour circulates. Boracic Acid may also be obtained by dissolving borax in hot water, and add- ing half its weight of oil of vitriol. As the solution cools, crystals of boracic acid (retaining a little sulphuric acid) are deposited, which must be well washed. Or borax may be decomposed by hydrochloric acid, by which a purer boracic acid is procured. Properties—Crystallized boracic acid occurs in the form of white, transpa- rent, pearly, hexagonal scales, which are odourless, have a weak, scarcely acid, taste, and communicate a wine-red tint to litrrfus. At 60° the crystallized acid requires 25*66 times its weight of water to dissolve it, but only 2-97 times at 212°. It dissolves readily in spirit of wine. When sufficiently heated it evolves its water of crystallization, melts, forming a transparent liquid, which, by cooling, becomes a brittle glass {vitrified boracic acid). Characteristics.—An alcoholic solution of boracic acid burns with a beautiful green flame. A hot aqueous solution of the acid renders turmeric paper brown, like the alkalis. (Faraday, Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. ix. p. 403.) Be- fore the blowpipe, boracic acid fuses, and forms a glass which may be tinged blue by chloride of cobalt, and rose-red by the terchloride of gold. A mixture of one part of vitrified boracic acid, finely pulverized, two parts of fluor spar, and twelve parts of oil of vitriol, evolves by heat, the fluoride of boron, recognised by its forming dense white fumes in the air, and by its charring paper, wood, &c. Composition.—The following is the composition of boracic acid:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per. Ct. Berzelius. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct. Berzelius. Boron............. 1--- 10---2!)-41 ---3113 Dry Boracic Acid... 1---34---55 74___5l> Oxygen........... 3---24---7059---C8-H2 Water............. 3---27---44-26---44 Dry Boracic Acid .. 1---34 ... 100 00 ... 100-00 Crystallized ) , R1 mm ,.. BoracicAcidj'" J "" 61 "• 100'00 '" 10° Physiological Effects and Uses.—Though sedative properties were formerly ascribed to this acid, it is probably inert, or nearly so. Cullen (Materia Medica, p. .'Ml.) gave it in large doses without observing that it produced any effect on the human body. It is, therefore, not employed in medicine ; but it is extensively used in the manufacture of borax. (See Sodce Biboras.) Order IX. PHOSPHORUS AND PHOSPHORIC ACID. 1. PHOSPHORUS, Z,.—PHOSPHORUS. IIistorv.—This substance was discovered, in 1669, by Brandt, an alchymist at Hamburgh ,* and received its name from being luminous in the dark (from » «• Bisulph. Calc. 104 j J J g^ Jjl2^fl eq. SuIphJ6 "291 291 291 SULPHURIC ACID. 409 Precipitated sulphur agrees in most of its properties with sublimed sulphur, but is much whiter, and is in a finely pulverulent form. Berzelius says, that when melted, it gives out a little sulphuretted hydrogen ; and on cooling, resumes the yellow colour it had before it was boiled with the alkali. H. Rose (Poggendorf's Annalen, xlvii. ; also, Pharm. Central-Blatt. fur 1839, S. 441.) ascribes the whiteness of precipitated sulphur to its containing sulphuretted hydrogen in the state of persulphuret of hydrogen. It is composed of sulphur with a little water; and hence it is frequently termed hydrate of sulphur. According to Bucholz, however, when well dried, it con- tains hardly a trace of water, and, therefore, that which, under ordinary circum- stances, \s contained in it, must be regarded as hygroscopic; so that the term hydrate is not strictly applicable to it. On account of the extensive adulteration of this preparation, it has been omitted from all the British pharmacopoeias. In the preparation of nearly the whole of the precipitated sulphur of the shops, sulphuric acid is substituted for hydro- chloric acid, by which the product contains about two-thirds of its weight of sul- phate of lime. Mr. Schweitzer {British Annals of Medicine, vol. i. p. 618.) analyzed a sample, and found its composition to be as follows:— Sulphate of Lime.............................................. 50 Water of Crystallization of ditto................................ 13*1 Sulphur....................................................... 36-9 Lac Sulphuris of the shops...................................... 100-0 I was informed by an extensive manufacturer of this article, that he prepares- both kinds, the pure and the adulterated, and that the firm of Messrs. Barry and Co. is almost the only one which buys the pure kind. The adulteration is readily detected by subjecting the suspected preparation to heat in a crucible or on a fire shovel, when the sulphur and water of crystallization are volatilized, leaving behind the sulphate of lime. Or the sulphur may be dissolved out by oil of turpentine or liquor potassae. The effects, uses, and doses of this preparation, are the same as those of sub- limed sulphur. 4. OLEUM SULPHURATUM ,* Sulphurated Oil; Balsamum Sulphuris, or Balsam of Sulphur. In the London Pharmacopoeia for 1824, this compound was ordered to be prepared by dissolving one part of Sublimed Sulphur in eight parts of Olive Oil. The compound thus procured cannot be regarded as a mere solution of sulphur in oil, since the odour of hydrosulphuric acid, which it possesses, proves that the oil has undergone partial decomposition : in fact, the heat to which the oil is raised in order to boil it, causes a chemical change. It is a dark reddish-brown viscid substance, having an extremely unpleasant odour. Its local action is that of an acrid : its remote operation that of a stimu- lant, causing thirst and febrile heat. It has been supposed to possess expectorant and diaphoretic properties. It is applied to foul ulcers, and is employed inter- nally in chronic pulmonary affections. The dose of it is from 40 to 50 drops :; but its unpleasant taste and smell almost precludes its use. 2. ACIDUM SULPHURICUM, L. E. D. (U. S.)—SULPHURIC ACID, History.—This acid appears to have been known to Geber as early as the seventh century. (Thomson's Syst. of Inorg. Chem. vol. ii. p. 29.) In the state in which we usually meet with it in English commerce, it is usually deno- minated Oil of Vitriol. Natural History:.—It is found in both kingdoms of nature. vol. i. 35 410 elements of materia medica. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—It is found in the waters of some volcanic regions, and Fig. 59, is evidently produced by the combustion of sul- phur. The Rio Vinagre, (Vinegar River,) which descends from the volcano of Purace, in Colombia, to Popayan, has received its name from its acid pro- perties, whicli it derives from being impregnated with sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. (A. de Humboldt, Vucs des Cordilleres, p. 220.) Issuing from the crater of Mont Ida, in Java, is a river which also contains this acid. Dr. Thomas Thomson (Mineralogy, vol. i. p. 75.) states, that in Persia there is an earth so strongly impregnated with it, that it is used by the natives as an acidu- lous seasoner of food. This author also says, (Op. cit. p. 77.) that there are no less than twenty-seven sulphates (consisting of combinations of sulphuric acid with one or more bases) in the mineral king. dom. The most abundant of these is the sulphate of lime. The Sour Springs of Byron, Genessec county, ten miles south of the Erie canal, contain pure sulphuric acid. (Eaton, Quarterly Journal of Science, 1829, p. 200.) Cascade of Vinagre in Colombia. ^ jN THE Organized Kingdom.—The sulphates of lime, potash, and soda, have been found in plants. (De Candolle, Phys. Vigtt. p. 390.) The sulphates of potash and soda are mentioned by Berzelius (Traite de Chim. I. 7me, p. 393.) as constituents of human urine. Preparation.—The most improved method of manufacturing oil of vitriol adopted in this country, is the following:—Crude sulphur is burned on a stone hearth or iron plate in a furnace (or burner), and the gas (sulphurous acid) thereby produced, is conveyed by a pipe or chimney into a leaden chamber, the bottom of which is covered to the extent of four or five inches with water. The furnace door has two apertures to regulate the supply of atmospheric air. After combus- tion has continued for several hours, an iron pot or pan, containing a mixture of the nitrate of potash or soda and oil of vitriol, is introduced into the furnace, and steam is conveyed into the leaden chamber.1 So that sulphurous acid, nitric or nitrous acid (generated by the action of the oil of vitriol on the nitrate of potash, and volatilized by the heat produced by the combustion of the sulphur), and steam, are conveyed into the leaden chamber, and by their mutual reaction pro- duce sulphuric acid, which is absorbed by the water at the bottom of the chamber. To prevent loss in the process, the residual gases are conveyed through two or more leaden chambers of unequal size (also containing water) before they are allowed to escape into the air. In one manufactory which I inspected, the cham- bers communicated with each other through a double-necked stone bottle, at the bottom of which was water. The leaden chamber is sometimes divided into two or three compartments by leaden curtains placed across it, as shown in the following cut taken from Pro- fessor Graham's Elements of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 324. 1 Mr. Graham states, that sulphurous acid, nitric acid vapour, and steam, are simultaneously admitted into the leaden chamber. SULPHURIC ACID. 411 Fig. 60. Oil of Vitriol Chamber. a. Steam Boiler. b. Section of Furnace or Burner. d. and /. Leaden curtains suspended from the roof of the chamber to within (i inches of the floor. e. Leaden curtain rising from the floor to within 6 inches of the roof. g. Leaden conduit or vent tube for the discharge of uncondensable gases. It should communicate with a tall chimney to carry off these gases, and to occasion a slight draught in the chim- ney. These curtains " serve to detain the vapours, and cause them to advance in a gradual manner through the chamber, so that the sulphuric acid is deposited as completely as possible, before the vapours reach the discharge tube." To check the combustion of the sulphur, it is sometimes mixed with some earthy matter, and made into truncated pyramidal masses, which are burnt in the usual way. Since the high price of native sulphur, manufacturers have employed iron pyrites to yield sulphuric acid. I have seen pyrites from Wicklow, Cornwall, and St. Lucia, used for this pur- pose. The furnace for the combustion of it requires bars, to allow a greater supply of air. The sulphuric acid obtained from pyrites is usually contaminated with arsenious acid. At Mr. Farmer's oil of vitriol manufactory, Kennington Common, I witnessed the escape of brown vapour (nitrous acid) from the vent pipe of the leaden cham- ber; and I was informed this was usual. It is evident, therefore, that the nitric acid is not completely deoxidized. * A crystalline matter is sometimes deposited in the pipes connected with the leaden chambers. It indicates a deficiency of water in the process. When the liquid in the leaden chamber has acquired a sp. gr. of about 1*5 (1*6 or 1*7, according to Mr. Farmer's statement to me), it is conveyed by leaden pipes into rectangular leaden boilers, where it is evaporated and concentrated until its sp. gr. is 1*70 (1*75, Farmer); but in some manufactories this part of the process is omitted. The final concentration is effected by boiling it down in glass or platinum retorts: the latter, notwithstanding their great cost, are now usually adopted. Their price, of course, depends on their size. Mr. Parkes {Chem. Essays, vol. i. p. 535.) had one which held thirty gallons, and cost about £360; but sometimes they are made so large, that they are worth £1000 each. In this apparatus the acid is deprived of a part of its water and some sulphurous acid, and when it has attained a sufficient degree of concentration, it is drawn off by means of a platinum syphon into carboys. The theory of the process is the following:—When sulphurous acid gas, nitric acid vapour, and aqueous vapour, come into contact with each other, the sulphu- rous acid robs the nitric acid of part of its oxygen, and is thereby converted into sulphuric acid. By this partial deoxidation, nitric acid is converted into nitrous acid. MATERIALS. 1 cq. Nitric Acid.... t. ( 1 eq Nitrous Acid 46- j leq. Oxygen...... 8- PRODUCTS. -1 eq. Nitrous Acid.. 1 eq. Sulphurous Acid..- 32. 8fi -1 eq. Sulphuric Acid....... 40 86 The nitrous acid thus produced is farther deoxidized and converted into binox- ide of nitrogen, by another portion of sulphurous acid, which, thus gaining oxy- gen, is converted into sulphuric acid. If there be excess of nitrous acid and a 412 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. deficiency of water, a crystalline matter1 is sometimes deposited. Its formation depends on the sulphuric acid first formed, decomposing some nitrous acid into nitric acid and binoxide of nitrogen : with the latter the sulphuric acid combines to form the crystalline compound. Hence to prevent its production excess of sulphu- rous acid and water should be present. An interesting illustration of the above reactions is obtained by generating sulphurous acid in a flask, and conveying the gas, by means of a curved glass tube, into a tall jar, at the bottom of which is a small quantity of colourless but concentrated nitric acid. Brown vapours of nitrous acid are evolved, sulphuric acid is formed, and the jar becomes lined with-u crystalline matter, which dissolves with effervescence in water. The old method of manufacturing oil of vitriol, and, indeed, one still followed in some places, consists in burning a mixture of eight parts of sulphur and one part of nitrate of potash (or nitrate of soda) on iron or leaden plates, either within the leaden chamber or in a furnace on the outside of it. (Parkes's Chemical Essays, vol. i. p. 465.) In this process an equivalent of sulphur combines with two equivalents of atmo- spheric oxygen to form one equivalent of sulphurous acid. Another equivalent of sulphur abstracts three equivalents of oxygen from one equivalent of nitric acid of the nitrate, and thereby becomes sulphuric acid, which, with the potash of the nitre, forms an equivalent of sulphate of potash. One equivalent of binoxide of nitrogen is evolved by the decomposed nitric acid, and this, combining with two equivalents of atmospheric oxygen, becomes nitrous acid, which, aided by the presence of water, reacts on a farther portion of sulphurous acid. At Goslar, Nordhausen, and other parts of/Saxony, sulphuric acid is made thus:—Crystallized sulphate of iron is calcined, by which the greater portion of its water of crystallization is expelled. It is then distilled in earthen vessels, by which*fuming sulphuric acid is procured, while sesquioxide of iron is left in the retort. If this acid be heated in a glass retort, real or anhydrous sulphuric acid distils over. Properties, a. Of Anhydrous Sulphuric Acid.—It is a white crystalline solid, having very much the appearance of asbestos. Exposed to the air it attracts water, and flies off in the form of dense white fumes. It melts at 66° F., and boils at from 104° to 122° F. The sp. gr. of the liquid acid, at 78° F. is 1*97. It does not redden litmus unless moisture be present. Its composition is as fol.lows : Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct. Berzelius. Vol. Sulphur.................. 1 ....... 16 ....... 40 ....... 40 14 I Sulphurous acid gas...... 1 0\ygen................... 3 ....... 24 ....... 00 ....... 59-86 Ovygen gas............ 05 Anhydrous Sulphuric acid. 1 ....... 40 ....... 100 ....... 10000 J Sulphuric acid vapour.... 1? 8. Of Nordhausen, or Fuming Sulphuric Acid.—This is Usually a dark-brown, oily liquid, which gives out copious white fumes in the air. Its sp. gr. is about 1*9. It is imported in stone bottles, having a stoneware screw for a stopper. When subjected to heat, it gives out the vapour of anhydrous sulphuric acid : the residue in the retort resembles oil of vitriol. The composition of fumino- sulphuric acid is as follows : 1 Much difference of opinion has existed with respect to the nature of the crystalline matter which is occa- sionally formed in the leaden chamber of the sulphuric acid manufacturer. Davy {Elements of Chemical Phi- losophys p. 276, 1812) regarded it as a compound of water, nitrous acid, and sulphurous acid. Dr. VV. Henry (Annals of Philosophy, N. S. xi. p. 368), and afterwards Gaultier de Claubry (Ann. de Chim. et Phys. t. xiv. p. 284) submitted it to analysis. The latter found its constituents to be anhydrous sulphuric acid 0559, hyponi- trous acid 23-90, and water 10-10. In 1839 Ilenrich Rose {Pharm. Central-Blatt fiir 1839, S. 004) described a solid compound of anhydrous sulphuric acid and binoxide of nitrogen (2 SO» -(- NO»). Adolnhe Rnse (Ibid, fir 1840, S. 481; also, Journ. de Pharm. t. xxvii. p. 138) has shown that the crystals which form in the leaden cham- ber consist of sulphuric acid, binoxide of nitrogen, and water. M. Provostaye (Journ. de Pharm. t. xxvi. p. 6o7) has also examined this crystalline matter. SULPHURIC ACID. 413 Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct. Anhydrous Sulphuric Acid 2 .... 80 .... E9'88 ? •- \ Anhydrous Sulphuric Acid. . Water.................... I___ g___j0-]j ^ } Protohydrate Sulphuric Acid Fuming Sulphuric Acid... 1---89 ___9999 1 ___ 89 y. Of Oil of Vitriol, or English Sulphuric Acid* {Acidum Sulphuricum, L. E. (U. S.) Acidum Sulphuricum venale, D.)—This is a colourless, transparent, inodo- rous, highly acrid, and corrosive liquid. It possesses the usual properties of a powerful mineral acid in a very eminent degree, such as reddening the vegetable blues, saturating bases, and displacing other acids. Its affinity for water is most intense, and by virtue of this, it absorbs aqueous vapour from the atmosphere, and chars animal and vegetable substances. When mixed with water there is a mutual condensation with the evolution of heat. Various substances when heated in sulphuric acid decompose it; they abstract oxygen and evolve sulphurous acid. This is the case with charcoal, organic substances, phosphorus, sulphur, and several of the metals, as copper, tin, and mercury. The sp. gr. of this acid at 60° F. is about 1*84. Genuine commercial acid should never surpass 1*8455; when it is denser, we may infer sophistication or negligence in the manufacture. (Brande's Manual of Chemistry, 5th edit. 1841.) According to the London College, good oil of vitriol possesses the following characters :— It is free from colour. Its specific gravity is 1*845. What remains after the acid has been distilled to dryness, does not exceed the four-hundredth part of its weight. Diluted sulphuric acid is scarcely coloured by hydrosulphuric acid. The Edinburgh College gives the following characters of it:— "Density 1*840, or near it: colourless: when diluted with its own volume of water only a scanty muddiness arises, and no orange fumes escape." The " muddiness" here referred to depends on the precipitation of sulphate of lead, which commercial oil of vitriol usually holds in solution, but which is deposited when water is added. The " orange fumes" are nitrous acid vapour. The Dublin College states the sp. gr. of commercial sulphuric acid to be 1*850 * but this is erroneous. It ought not to exceed 1*845. In order to procure Pure Oil of Vitriol {Acidum Sulphuricum purum, E. D.) both the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges give directions for the purification of the commercial acid. The Edinburgh College states, that "if commercial sulphuric acid contain nitrous acid, heat eight fluid ounces of it with between ten and fifteen grains of sugar, at a temperature not quite sufficient to boil the ucid, till the dark colour at first produced shall have nearly or altoge- ther disappeared. This process removes nitrous acid. Other impurities may be removed by distillation ; which, on the small scale, is easily managed by boiling the acid with a few platinum chips in a glass retort by means of a sand-bath or gas-flame,—rejecting the first half ounce." The College gives the following characters of the pure acid:—"Density, 1845: colourless: dilution causes no muddiness : solution of sulphate of iron shows no reddening at the line of contact when poured over it." The Dublin College orders of Commercial Sulphuric Acid, Ibj. Pass the acid into a retort of flint glass, attach a receiver of the same kind, and with the junctures of. the vessels left open, let heat be applied lo the retort until one-twelfth part of the liquor shall have distilled over; this, as it contains water, should be rejected. The receiver being again applied, the residuum is to be redistilled to dryness. A few slips of platina passed into the acid in the retort will restrain the ebullition, which otherwise would be too violent. The specific gravity of this acid is to the specific gravity of distilled water us 1-845 to 1-000. Let this acid be kept in well- closed vessels. Composition.—The composition of oil of vitriol or English sulphuric acid is as follows:— 35* Atoms. Eq. Wt. .. 1 .... 40 .. 1 .... 49 414 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Atoms, Real sulphuric acid........ 1 . Water.................... 1 . Strongest (sp. gr. 1-845). Eq. Wt. Per Cent. ..... 40 ........ 81-6 ..... 9 ........ 18 4 Oil of Vitriol. 1 ........ 49 ........ 1000 Commercial (sp. gr. 1-8433). Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. 1 ........ 40 ........ 78 U ....... 1125 ........ 22 51-25 100 Characteristics.—Free sulphuric acid or the soluble sulphates are recognised by a solution of any of the barytic salts, which throws down a heavy white pre- cipitate {sulphate of baryta) insoluble in acid or alkalis. If this precipitate be ignited with charcoal, iti s decomposed and converted into sulphuret of barium, which, on the addition of hydrochloric acid, evolves hydrosulphuric acid, known by its odour and its blackening paper moistened with acetate of lead. If sulphuric acid be heated with organic matter, sulphurous acid is given out: this may be known by its odour, and by its occasioning the formation of the blue iodide of starch, when mixed with iodic acid and starch. Oil of vitriol is reddened by veratria, salicin, piperin, oil of bitter almonds, phloridzine, &c. To determine whether sulphuric acid be free or combined wilh a base, Dr. Christison (Treatise on Poisons, 3d ed. p. 142.) recommends the liquid to be boiled with pure carbonate of lead. If free sulphuric acid be present, sulphate of lead will be formed, which, being insoluble in dilute nitric acid, may be thereby distinguished from carbonate of lead; and it is assumed that no sulphate of lead will be formed if there is only a natural sulphate present, "because car- bonate of lead and the neutral sulphates do not decompose each other." But this test is liable to objection : alum, sal enixum, sesquisulphate of iron, and other supcrsulphates, react on carbonate of lead like free sulphuric acid ; and, farthermore, neutral sulphate of ammonia is decomposed at a boiling temperature by carbonate of lead. Impurities.—Pure oil of vitriol should be colourless: the presence of organic matter, as cork, communicates a brownish or black colour. The acid of com- merce usually contains traces of sulpttate of lead: this may be detected either by adding water, when the white sulphate is precipitated ; or by the addition of hy- drosulphuric acid to the dilute sulphuric acid, when a very slight change of colour is observed, owing to the formation of sulphuret of lead. " What remains [i.e. sulphate of lead] after the acid has been distilled lo dryness does not exceed the •jo-o" Part °fi *ts weight." Oil of vitriol frequently, or usually, contains an oxide of nitrogen. According to A. Rose it is generally the binoxide of nitrogen. A solution of the protosul- phate of iron detects the binoxide of nitrogen, nitrous acid, or nitric acid, by the reddish brown or brownish black colour which it gives rise to, " if a sufficient quantity of pure sulphuric acid be added to the liquid to be examined." (A. Rose.) Permanganate of potash is an excellent test of binoxide of nitrogen or nitrous acid in sulphuric acid, diluted with about six parts of water. If either of these substances be present, the permanganate is decolourized. The effect is not pro- duced by the presence of pure nitric acid in diluted sulphuric acid. Hence it distinguishes binoxide of nitrogen and nitrous acid from nitric acid. Latterly, in consequence of the high price of Sicilian sulphur, sulphuric acid has been extensively manufactured from iron pyrites, in which arsenic is usually contained; and in consequence the oil of vitriol of commerce has been found to be contaminated with arsenious acid. Dr. G. O. Rees {London Medical Gazette for Feb. 5, 1641.) found 22-58 grains of this acid in twenty fluid ounces of oil of vitriol; and Mr. Watson1 states that the smallest quantity which he has de- tected is 35£ grains in twenty fluid ounces. The tests for this dangerous conta- mination are Marsh's test and sulphuretted hydrogen.3 In the application of these the acid must be previously diluted with distilled water. Physiological Effects, ou On Vegetables.—In the concentrated state sulphu- 1 London Medical Gazette, for Feb. 1H41. Mr. Watson states that a man had nearly lost his life in conse- quence of the inhalation of arseniuretted hydrogen, produced in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid, by the diluted, unpurified, pyrites sulphuric acid acting upon th« iron retort employed. » See the article Arsenious Acid, in a subsequent port of this work, where full directions will be given for •the application of these tests. sulphuric acid. 415 ric acid char3 the parts of plants to which it is applied. In the dilute form it destroys vegetables in a few hours. (Marcet, in De Candolle's Phys. Veget. p. 1345.) 8. On Animals generally.—The action of sulphuric acid on animals generally is precisely the^same as that on man. Thrown into the veins of a dog, Orfila found that it coagulated the blood, and caused immediate death. {Toxicologic Generate.) y. On Man.—Properly diluted, and administered in small but repeated doses, sulphuric acid acts like the other mineral acids (see pp. 197, 200, 206, and 215). Thus it promotes the appetite, diminishes febrile heat, allays excessive thirst, checks profuse sweating, and, not unfrequently, reduces the frequency of the pulse. Sometimes it increases the secretion of urine, and likewise renders this fluid unusually acid. Under its use the milk frequently acquires,a griping quality. The continued use of it, however, generates a slow kind of gastro-enteritis: heat and pain are experienced in the throat, stomach, and intestines; the diges- tive functions become disordered; gripings are experienced; sometimes purging, and subsequently fever. Of all the mineral acids, save the phosphoric, this may be administered for the longest period without occasioning the above symp- toms. Concentrated sulphuric acid acts as an energetic caustic poison, promptly dis- organizing the different tissues with which it is brought into contact. Its che- mical action depends principally on its affinity for water, so that it chars or car- bonizes the parts wilh which it is placed in contact. But its power of coagulating albuminous liquids, of combining with albumen to form a sulphate of this organic substance, and of dissolving fibrin, as well as coagulated albumen, contributes to iis energetic escharotic action on the animal tissues. The parts to which the acid is applied become, in the first place, white by the formation of sulphate of albu- men. This effect is seen both in the skin and the cornea. By the more pro- longed action of the poison, they assume a brownish or blackish appearance, so that we can thereby frequently distinguish poisoning by this from poisoning by nitric acid ; since this last-mentioned agent produces a yellow colour when applied to the skin. Black spots are frequently observed in the stomachs of those who have swallowed the acid; and in the surrounding parts the blood is usually coa- gulated in the blood-vessels. Such are the topical chemical effects of this acid. But besides these there are other phenomena of a local nature which may be de- nominated vital, since they depend on the reaction of the living parts. I refer now to those indicating the production of inflammation in the tissues in the imme- diate neighbourhood of those destroyed. When strong sulphuric acid has been swallowed, the symptoms of poisonino- are the following:—Alteration, or even destruction, of the soft parts about the mouth; burning pain in the throat, stomach, and bowels; frequently alteration of the voice, from the swelling and disorganization of the parts about the larynx; breath fetid, from the decomposed tissues; constant and abundant vomitino- of matters, which may be bloody or otherwise, but which effervesce by falling on a marble hearth ; bowels variously affected, sometimes constipated, though usually purged, the stools being bloody. The constitutional symptoms are principally those arising from a disordered action of the vascular system; thus the pulse is frequent and irregular, feeble, often imperceptible; extremities cold ; great feeble- ness, or even fainting, with cold sweats. The same constitutional symptoms are observed when the stomach is wounded or ruptured. One remarkable characte- ristic is, that the mental faculties are unaffected, even up to a few minutes before death. Not unfrequently the acid fails to produce speedy, death from corrosion and inflammation, but gives rise to a peculiar organic disease of the stomach and intes- 416 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. tines, of which the patient slowly dies, sometimes after several months' suf- fering-1 Uses.—Sulphuric acid, properly diluted, may be administered in febrile dis- eases, as a refrigerant, to diminish thirst and preternatural heat; though in most of these cases, the vegetable acids are to be preferred. In the«latter stage of fever (especially the kinds called typhoid) considerable benefit is sometimes gained by the use of a vegetable bitter (as calumba or cinchona) in combination with the diluted sulphuric acid. To assist the appetite and promote digestion, il is administered to patients recovering from fever. To check profuse sweating in pulmonary and other affections, whether phthisical or not, it is sometimes a valuable agent, as I have found on many occasions. No other remedy is so effi. cacious in relieving colliquative sweatings as this. In hemorrhages, as those from the nose, lungs, stomach, and uterus, it is commonly administered as an astringent, but its efficacy is doubtful. So also in purpura haemorrhagica it is given with the same intention ; but though 1 have several limes employed it, I have not observed any evident benefit derived therefrom. In those forms of lithiasis attended with phosphatic sediments in the urine, the use of the mine- ral acids is at times beneficial. The sulphuric is preferred to the hydrochloric acid, since it can be continued for a longer period without occasioning gastric disorder. In skin diseases, especially lichen, prurigo, and chronic nettle-rash, il is sometimes serviceable. No remedy is so successful in relieving Ihe dis- tressing itching, formication, and tingling of the skin, as diluted sulphuric acid taken internally. In those forms of dyspepsia connected with an alkaline condi- tion of the stomach, as in pyrosis, the sulphuric has been found to succeed better than hydrochloric acid. (Dr. D. Thomson, British Annals of Med. March 31, 1837./ As a local agent, sulphuric acid is employed as a caustic, irritant, or astringent. As a caustic it has no advantage over many other agents, except that which arises from its liquid form, which, in most cases, renders it disadvantageous. For ex- ample, the difficulty of localizing it would be an objection to its employment in the production of an issue, but would be an advantage in applying it to wounds caused by rabid animals or poisonous serpents, since the liquidity of the acid enables it to penetrate into all parts of the bites. In entropium, or that disease in which the eyelid is inverted, or turned inwards upon the eye, this acid has been applied as a caustic. In this complaint the friction of the eyelashes on the globe is most distressing, giving rise not only to inflammation, but even ulcera- tion of the cornea. Now, when the disease is permanent, two modes of curing it have been proposed ; either to remove a fold of (he integument by the knife, so that, by the subsequent cicatrization, the lid may be drawn outwards—or to de- stroy a portion of the skin by a caustic, as sulphuric acid. The latter plan of treatment has been practised successfully by several eminent oculists, among whom 1 may name Mr. Guthrie and Mr. Lawrence. So also in eetropium, in which the lid is everted or turned outward, Mr. Guthrie has applied the concen- trated acid to the inner side of the everted lid with advantage. An ointment con- taining sulphuric acid has been employed as a rubefacient in paralysis, and in the second stage of inflammation of the joints, when the violence of the disease has subsided ; as a styptic to wounds, lo suppress hemorrhage from numerous small vessels; and as a cure for scabies. Lastly, this acid, properly diluted, is em- ployed as an astringent gargle in ulcerations of the mouth and throat: but after using it the mouth should be well rinsed, to prevent the action of the acid on the teeth. Administration.—For internal use we generally make use of the diluted sul- phuric acid, or the elixir of vitriol. 1 For farther information respecting the topical action of sulphuric acid, the reader may consult (besides Dr. Christison's Treatise on Poisons) Ihe observalions of Dr. R. 1). Thomson, in the Athenaum for 1840, pp. 779 and 798; also the Lancet for 1830-7, vol. i. p. 105; and Mr. Taylor, in Guy's Hospital Reports, vol. iv. SULPHURIC ACID. 417 Antidotes.— In cases of poisoning by sulphuric acid, the antidotes are chalk, whiting, or magnesia, suspended in water. In the absence of these, soap-suds, infusion of wood-ashes, weak solutions of the alkaline carbonates, white of eggs, gelatine, milk, oil, or in fact any mild diluent, should be immediately adminis- tered. The subsequent treatment is that for gastro-enteritis. External parts burnt with oil of vitriol should be washed with a solution of soap, or simple water. 1. ACIDUM SULPMJRICUM DILUTUM, L. E. D. (U. S.) Diluted Sulphuric Acid; Spirit of Vitriol, or Spiritus Vitrioli tenuis; Vitriol to clean Copper. (Sulphuric Acid, fjiss. [fgj. E.; (U. S.) one part, JD.,*] Distilled water, f3xivss. [f3xiij. E.; (U. S.) seven parts, D.~\ Add the acid to the water gradually, and mix. When the acid and water are mixed, condensation ensues, and heat is evolved.)—The white precipitate which forms is sulphate of lead. It is much to be regretted that the formula; of the British colleges, for the preparation of this acid, should not have been uniform. The error which the Edinburgh College has fallen into, in consequence of this discrepancy, has been already (see pp. 365 and 369, foot notes,) pointed out. Diluted sulphuric acid, prepared according to the directions of the London College, has a sp. gr. of about 1*11, and a fluid drachm of it, which weighs 60*7 grs. saturates *28 grains of crystallized carbonate of soda : hence it contains 9h grains of strong oil of vitriol, or 7*7 grs. of anhydrous sul- phuric acid, and its per-centage composition will be as follows:— By weight. By weight. Anhydrous Sulphuric Acid...................12 8 Strongest Oil of Vitriol..................15-7 Water.......................................872 Water...................................843 Acidum Sulphuricum Dilutum, Ph. L.........100 0 1000 The density of the Edinburgh diluted sulphuric acid is 1*090. The comparative strengths, by weight, of the Edinburgh and London preparations, are as 100 to 78 : by volume the difference is still greater. (Mr. R. Phillips, Lond. Med. Gaz. Aug. 3, 1839, p. 689.) The dose of diluted sulphuric acid is from flix. to ni^xxx. or TTlxl., diluted with two or three table-spoonfuls of some mild liquid. A most convenient preparation of it is the Compound Infusion of Roses. It may also be exhibited in Conserve of Roses. 2. ACIDUM SULPHURICUM AROMATICUM, E. D. (U. S.) Aromatic Sulphuric Acid; Elixir of Vitriol, or Acid Elixir of Vitriol.—(" The Edinburgh College orders of Sulphuric Acid (commercial) fjiiiss.; Rectified Spirit, Oiss.; Cinnamon, in moderately fine powder, 3iss.; Ginger, in moderately fine powder, 3j* Add the ncid gradually lo the spirit; let the mixture digest at a very gentle heat for three days in a closed vessel; mix the powders, moisten them with a little of the acid spirit, lot the mass rest for twelve hours, and then put it into a percolator, and transmit the rest of the acid spirit. This preparation may also be made by digesting the powders for six days in the acid spirit, and then straining the liquor.") [The only difference in the directions of the U. S. P. is the substitution of Oij. Alcohol for Oiss.] (The Dublin College orders of Rectified Spirit Oij. [wine measure], Sulphuric Acid, by weight, 3vj. Add the acid to the spirit gradually : digest ihe mixture in a closed vessel with an inferior heat, for three days; then add of Cinnamon bark, bruised, 3iss.; Ginger root, bruised, 3j* Digest ihe mix- ture again for six days; and, lastly, filler through paper placed in a glass funnel.) When oil of vitriol and rectified spirit are digested together, bisulphate of the nxide of ethule (formerly called sulphovinic acid) is formed. (See p. 337.) The late Dr. Duncan, junior, {Supplement to the Edinburgh Dispensatory, p. 175. Edinb. 1M29.) ascertained " that not a particle of gas is evolved by the mixture of alcohol and sulphuric acid in the proportions indicated." It is employed as an agreeable substitute for the diluted sulphuric acid, and is administered in the same doses. In a case of poisoning by len drachms of this preparation, the symptoms 418 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. were those of local irritation, with vomiting and purging of blood. The patient recovered. {Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xxv. p. 944.) I UNGUENTUM ACIDI SULPIIURICI, D. Sulphuric Acid Ointment.—(Sulphuric Acid, 3j.; Prepared Hog's Lard, 3j. Mix.) The ingredients should be mixed in a glass or earthenware mortar. The precise changes which sulphuric acid effects on lard have not been studied: they are most likely analogous to those effected by the acid on olive oil. The sulphuric acid probably unites on the one hand with the glycerine (oxide of glycerule) of the lard to form bisulphate of glycerine; and on the other with the fatty acids (oleic, margaric, ('l)and stearic acids) of the lard. This ointment is of a buff colour. It is a powerful stimulant, and has been em- ployed in paralysis, hemorrhages, and scabies, as before mentioned. (See p. 416.) 3. A'CIDUM STJLPHURO'SUM.—SULPHUROUS ACID. History.—Homer {Iliad, xvi.) mentions sulphur fumigations. Stahl, Scheele, and Priestley, were the first to submit this acid to an accurate examination. It has been termed Volatile Sulphurous Acid, and, from the old mode of procurin» it, Spirit of Sulphur by the Bell {Spiritus Sulphuris per Campanam). Natural History.—It escapes from the earth in a gaseous form, in the neigh- bourhood of volcanoes. Preparation.—For chemical purposes it is prepared by mixing two parts of mercury with three parts of strong sulphuric acid, applying heat, and collecting over mercury. The results are, the bipersulphate of mercury and sulphurous acid. For medicinal purposes, however, it is rarely, if ever, necessary to procure it in this way. By the combustion of sulphur in atmospheric air, this gas is readily obtained; and when we are about to employ it, either as a disinfectant or vapour bath, this method is always followed. Properties.—At ordinary temperatures and pressures, it is a colourless and transparent gas, and has a remarkable and well-known odour. It is neither com- bustible nor a supporter of combustion. It reddens litmus and bleaches some colouring matters, especially infusion of roses, but the colour is restored by sul- phuric acid. It is irrespirable, and has a sp. gr. of 2*2. It readily dissolves in water: recently boiled water takes up 33 times its volume of this gas. By cold and pressure, it is readily condensed into a liquid. Characteristics.—This acid is readily known by its peculiar odour (that of burning sulphur). If the puce-coloured or binoxide of lead be added to it, the white protosulphate of lead is formed. An aqueous solution of this acid mixed with iodic acid, deoxidizes the latter, and sets iodine free, which may be recog- nised by its producing a blue colour with starch. A solution of an alkaline sul- phate causes, with a soluble salt of barium, a white precipitate {sulphate of baryta). Resulting The sulphites evolve sulphurous acid by the action Constituents. Compound. - ' . . . . , ' J of strong sulphuric acid. Composition.—If 16 parts by weight of sulphur be burned in one volume or 16 parts (by weight) of oxy- gen gas, we obtain one volume or 32 parts (by weight) of sulphurous acid gas. The composition of this substance may, therefore, be thus expressed:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Sulphur..........................1.............16..............50............49 -968 Oxygen..........................2.............16..............50............50032 Sulphurous Acid..................1.............32.............100...........100000 Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—It is a most powerful poison to plants, even in very minute quantities. (Christison, On Poisons, 3d ed. p. 750.) 2 eq. Oxygen = 16 and 1 eq. Sulphur. = 16 1 eq. Sulphur- ous Acid = 32 IODIDE of sulphur. 419 8. Ort Animals generally.'—The effects on animals have not been examined ; but they are probably those of an irritant and asphyxiating agent. y. On Man.—Applied to the skin this acid gas causes heat, pain, and itching. If an attempt be made to inhale it in the pure state, it excites spasm of the glottis. Diluted with air it may be taken into the lungs, and there acts as a local irritant, causing cough, heat, and pain. Uses.—It has been used as a disinfectant, as a remedy for the cure of itch, and as a nasal stimulant in syncope. As a disinfectant it is mentioned by Homer. The mode of using it for this pur- pose is very simple. A pot containing burning sulphur is introduced into the room or place to be fumigated, and the doors and windows are carefully closed. As a remedy for itch, baths of sulphurous acid gas are mentioned by Glauber in 1659. They are commonly termed sulphur baths, and may be had at most of the bathing establishments of the principal towns of this country. At the Hopi- lal St. Louis, in Paris, a very complete apparatus for the application of this remedy in diseases of the skin has been erected by D'Arcet.1 It is a kind of box, enclosing the whole body with the exception of the head. The sulphur is placed on a heated plate in the lower part of the box. From ten to twenty baths, or even more, are requisite for ihe cure of itch. •'Sulphurous fumigations," says Rayer, {Treatise on Diseases of the Skin, by Dr. Willis, p. 347,) " which are employed in some hospitals, are not attended with expense, leave no unpleasant smell, and do not soil the linen ; but the long-continuance of the Ireatment neces- sary to relieve the disease, more than counter-balances these generally insignifi- cant recommendations." There are various other diseases of the skin in which baths of sulphurous acid have been found more or less successful, such as chronic eczema, lepra, psoriasis, impetigo, and pityriasis.3 As a stimulant in syncope or asphyxia, this gas has been recommended by Nysten. It is readily applied by holding a burning sulphur match under the nose. Antidotes.—When sulphurous acid gas has been inhaled, the patient should be made lo respire the vapour of ammonia. A few drops of the solution of this substance should be swallowed. 4. SUL'PHURIS IODIDUM, (U. S.)—IODIDE OF SULPHUR. History.—This compound was first described by Gay-Lussac. {Ann.de Chimie, xci. 22. 1814.) Preparation.—It is prepared by heating gently, in a clean oil flask, four parts of iodine with one part of sulphur until fusion is effected. Part of the iodine volatilizes, and the remainder unites with the sulphur. Properties.—It is a black crystallizable compound, having the colour and radiated appearance of sesquisulphuret of antimony. It has the odour of iodine and stains the cuticle, paper, &c, like this substance. Its elements are easily separated by heat. Characteristics.—Boiled in water, the iodine volatilizes with the steam, and the sulphur is deposited nearly in a state of purity. Composition.—Its composition has not been determined. It is probably, the following:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Iodine.................. 1 ............ 12(5 ............ 79-75 Sulphur................. 2 ............ 32 ............ 20-25 Iodide of Sulphur....... 1 ............ 158 ............ 10000 Physiological Effects, a. On Animals.—Dr. Cogswell {ExperimentalEssay 1 Description des Appareils a Fumigations etablis sur ses Dessins d VHopital Saint Louis en 1814 el successive ment dans plusieurt Hopitaux de Paris, pour le Traitement des Maladies de la Peau. Paris, 1818. ' i For farther information on this subject, consult Memoire et Rapports sur les Fumigations Sulfureuses J. ('. Gnles. 1H10; Observations on Sulphurous Fumigations, by W. Wallace; An Essay on Diseases of the Skin by Sir A. Clarke. ' 420 elements of materia medica. on Iodine and its Compounds), gave three drachms to a bitch ; the animal lost her appetite, was dull, and on the fourth day could not support herself properly upon her legs. On the twelfth day she was well. 8. On Man.—It has not been exhibited internally. It probably operates like iodine. Its local operation is that of a powerful stimulant and resolvent. Uses.—Iodide of sulphur has been principally employed in the form of oint- ment, in various skin diseases. In lupus it has been found most efficacious bv Biett, (Cazenove and Schedel, Abrege pratiq. sur les Malad. de la Peau.) as we[| as Rayer. {Treatise on Diseases of tlie Skin, translated by Dr. Willis.) The last-mentioned writer places it in the foremost rank of local remedies for this dis- ease. In acne indurata and rosacea it has proved highly useful in the hands of Biett, {Op. cit.) Rayer, {Op. cit. p. 476.) and Dr. Copland. {Did. ofPrac. Med. art. Acne, p. 31.) In lepra, Rayer has observed good effects from its use; but, in one case in which I tried it, it caused so much irritation that its use was obliged to be discontinued. In herpes pustulosus labialis it has been employed with great success by Dr. Volmar. (Dierbach, Die neueslen Entdeck in d. Mat. Med. 2" Ausg. ler B. S. 449.) In tinea capitis it has also been recommended. {Lond- Med. Gaz. vol. xx. p. 879.) Dr. Copland {Op. cit. art. Asthma, p. 149.) has employed the inhalation of the vapour of this substance in humoral asthma with temporary advantage. UNGUENTUM SULPHURIS IODIDI; Ointment of Iodide of Sulphur— This is com- posed of iodide of sulphur and lard. The proportions vary according to circum- stances ; usually from 10 to 30 grains of the iodide to an ounce of lard. Ma- gendie recommends 1 part of iodide to 18 or 19 of lard. 5. AMMONIA HYDROSUL'PHAS.—HYDROSULPHATE OF AMMONIA. (Ammonia? Hydrosulphuretum, D.) History and Synonymes.—This compound is said to have been first prepared in the seventeenth century by Boyle or Beguin; hence the term Boyle's fuming liquor and Beguin's sulphuretted spirit, applied to one variety of it. The ordi- nary designation of it is hydrosulphuret of ammonia, or hepatized ammonia. Berzelius calls it sulphwmt of ammonia. Natural History.—It is evolved from decomposing animal matter (as in pri- vies), along with hydrosulphuric acid and nitrogen. Preparation.—The following are the directions given by the Dublin College for the preparation of this compound:— Take of Sulphuret of Iron, reduced to a coarse powder, five parts; Sulphuric Acid, seven parts; Water, thirty-two parts; Water of Caustic Ammonia, four parts. Pass the sulphuret into a retorl, then gradually pour on it the acid, first diluted with water, and, in a suitable appa- ratus, cause the elastic fluid to pass through ihe Water of Ammonia. Toward the end of the process, apply a moderate heat to the retort. In this process, the iron of the sulphuret is oxidized by the oxygen of the water, and the oxide of iron thus formed combines with sulphuric acid to form sulphate of iron. The hydrogen of the water uniting with the sulphur of the sulphuret forms hydrosulphuric acid {sulphuretted hydrogen). MATERIALS. 1 eq. Sulphuret Iron 1 eq. Water------- 1 eq. Sulphuric Acid The sulphuretted hydrogen thus produced is conveyed into a solution of ammo- nia, with which it combines. COMPOSITION. .. C 1 eq. Sulphur 10 = **\ leq. Iron.... 28 » ( 1 eq. Hydrogen \ •"* ( I eq. Oxygen.. 8 .. 40--- 93 PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Sulphuretted Hydrog. ] eq. Oxide Iron 36 ^ 1 eq. Sulphate of Iron. 93 HYDROSULPHATE OF AMMONIA. 421 Properties—As thus prepared, the solution of hydrosuiphuret of ammonia is a liquid, having a greenish yellow colour, a very fetid odour, and an acrid, dis- agreeable taste. The mineral acids decompose it, evolve hydrosulphuric acid, and precipitate sulphur. It forms with a considerable number of metallic solu- tions, precipitates. With the salts of lead, bismuth, silver, and copper, the pre- cipitates are blackish ; with those of antimony, red ; with those of cadmium and Pin (persalts), and with the arsenites (on the addition of an acid), yellow; lastly, with the salts of zinc, white. In these cases the precipitates are either sulphurets or hydrated sulphurets of the respective metals. By exposure to the air part of ihe ammonia flies off, and some sulphur is de- posited. It is now a bi- or poly-sulphuret of ammonium, and yields a red preci- pitate with the salts of lead, a yellow one with tartar emetic, and a white one with arsenious acid. Characteristics.—Its odour will readily distinguish it. As a sulphuret or hy- drosuiphuret it is known by its actions on the metallic solutions already noticed. Caustic potash causes the evolution of ammonia. Composition.—Neutral hydrosu.lphate of ammonia has the following composi- tion :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. I • Vol. Hydrosulphuric Acid................ 1 ........ 17........ 50-00 Hydrosulphuric Acid Gas........1 Ammonia........................... 1 ........ 17........ 5000 Ammoniacal Gas................. sj Hydrosulphate of Ammonia......... 1........ 34........ 100-00 I Or it may be regarded as a Sulphuret of Ammonia (S -+- NH4). The fuming liquor (Liquor Fumans Boyli) obtained by distilling four parts of slaked lime, two of hydrochlorate of ammonia, and one of sulphur, contains, according to Gay-Lussac, (Cours de Chimie, Leeon 20e.) hydrosulphatc of ammonia, wilh excess of sulphur; but in what state of combination has not been determined. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—The vapour of this compound is injurious to vegetation. 8. On Animals.—I am unacquainted with any experiments made with it on animals; but analogy leads us to believe that its action is that of a powerful poi- son, analogous to other alkaline sulphurets, and to hydrosulphuric acid. y. On Man.—In small but repeated doses it acts powerfully on the secreting organs, the action of which it promotes, but at the same time modifies. Its prin- cipal influence is directed to the skin, (on which it acts as a sudorific,) and to the pulmonary raucous membrane. In someiohat larger doses it occasions nausea and giddiness. In stilt larger doses it causes nausea, vomiting, diminished fre- quency of pulse, giddiness, extreme languor, drowsiness, and sleep. Excessive doses would, of course, produce death, though I am unacquainted with any case of this kind. In the gaseous state it acts, when inhaled, as a powerfully asphyxiating agent. Instances of its deleterious operation, in conjunction with hydrosulphuric acid, have occurred in France, in workmen exposed lo the vapours from the pits (cess- pools) of the necessaries. The symptoms are, sudden weakness, insensibility, and death ; or where the vapours are less concentrated, there are sometimes de- lirium and convulsions. Uses—In this country it has been principally employed in diabetes mellitus, with the view of reducing the morbid appetite and increased action of the stomach, as well as of the system in general. (Rollo, on Diabetes Mellitus, p. 28, ed. 2d.) Combined with alcohol, F. Hoffmann administered it under the name of liquor anti-podagricus, as a powerful sudorific in gout. It has also been used in old pulmonary catarrhs; and by Brauw and Gruithuisen in vesical catarrh. (Vogt. Pharmacodinamik.) Administration.—It is given in doses of from four to six drops, in some pro- per vehicle (distilled water is the best). On account of its speedy decomposition, it should be dropped from the bottle at the time of using it. vol. i. 36 422 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Antidotes.—The antidotes for hydrosulphate of ammonia, as well as for hy- drosulphuric acid, are chlorine and the chlorides of lime and soda. In cases of asphyxia by the inhalation of these substances, the treatment consists in placinc the patient on his back in the open air, with his head somewhat elevated; apply] ing cold affusion to the face and breast; producing artificial respiration of air, through which chlorine is diffused, by pressing down the ribs and forcing up the diaphragm, and then suddenly removing the pressure; using strong friction in the course of the vertebral column, chest, soles of the feet, &c, and injecting into the stomach stimulants ,* as, a weak solution of chlorine (or of chloride of lime) or brandy, &c. In the event of hydrosulphuret of ammonia being by accident swal- lowed in poisonous doses, dilute solutions of chlorine, or of the chlorides of lime and soda, should be immediately given, and the contents of the stomach removed by the stomach-pump as soon as possible. (Elass 33. metallic Substances. Order XI. COMPOUNDS OF POTASSIUM. 1. POTAS'SiE HY'DRAS, L.—HYDRATE OF POTASH. . (Potassa, £. (U. S.)—Potassa caustica, D.) History.—Caustic alkaline solutions were probably known to the Greeks and Romans. We learn from Pliny {Hist. Nat. lib. xxviii. cap. 51.) that soap was made in his time from tallow and wood-ashes; and we may therefore conclude that some method was known of depriving the alkaline carbonate of its carbonic acid. Geber {Invention of Verity, ch. iv.) describes the method of making caus- tic alkali. Black, however, in the year 1756, first distinguished, chemically, the caustic alkalis from their carbonates. Potash was commonly called kali, or the vegetable alkali. It is the Protoxide of Potassium. Natural History.—Potash in combination with acids is found in both king- doms of nature. a.. Ix the Inorganized Kingdom.—Potash is found, in the mineral kingdom, in combination with sulphuric, nitric, silicic, and perhaps carbonic acids. As an ingredient of rocks, it is more abundant than soda. £. In the Organized Kingdom.—In organized beings potash is met with in combination with phosphoric, sulphuric, nitric, carbonic, and various organic acids. It occurs more abundantly in vegetables than in animals. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of hydrate of potash. The London College orders, of Solution of Potash, a gallon. Evaporate the water in a clean iron vessel over the fire until, the ebullition being finished, the Hydrate of Potash liquefies : pour this into proper moulds. [This is the direction of the U. S. P.] The Edinburgh College directs any convenient quantity of aqua PotasssB to be evaporated in a clean and covered iron vessel, increasing gradually the heat till an oily-looking fluid remains; a drop of which, when removed on a rod, becomes hard on cooling; then pour out the liquid upon a bright iron plate, and as soon as il solidifies break it quickly, and put it into glass bottles secured with glass stoppers. The process of the Dublin College is essentially the same as that of the Edinburgh College, except that the evaporation is to be effected in vessels of silver or iron, and the liquefied potash ia to be poured out on a plate of silver or iron. Properties.—The solid hydrate of potash of the shops, known as Potassafusa {Kalipurum ; Lapis Infernalis sive Septicus; Cauterium Potentiate) is usually more or less coloured (brownish, grayish, or bluish,) and not completely soluble in water and alcohol in consequence of the presence of foreign matters. Pure hydrate :f potash, however, is white, and dissolves in both water and alcohol. During its solution in water, heat is evolved. Its solubility in alcohol enables us to separate it from the carbonate and bicarbonate of potash, both of which are insoluble in this liquid. It has a strong affinity for both water and carbonic acid, which it rapidly attracts from the atmosphere, and in consequence becomes liquid. At a low red HYDRATE OF POTASH. 423 heat it fuses, and at a higher temperature is volatilized. It is odourless, but has a caustic urinous taste. It rapidly decomposes organic substances. It possesses the properties of an alkali in an eminent degree. Characteristics.—Potash, free or combined with an acid to form a neutral salt, is recognised by the following characters :—The hydrosulphurets, ferrocyanides, and carbonates, produce no precipitate with its solutions. Tartaric (in excess), perchloric, and carbazotic acids, occasion precipitates of the bitartrate, perchlo- rate, and carbazotate of potash respectively. Chloride of platinum throws down a yellow precipitate. Lastly, the potash salts communicate a violet tinge to the flame of alcohol. Free potash is distinguished from its salts by its communicating a green colour to the infusion of red cabbage or syrup of violets ; by its reddening turmeric, and restoring the blue colour of litmus reddened by an acid ; by its not whitening lime water, or effervescing on the addition of an acid ; by its soapy feel; by its solubility in alcohol; and by its dissolving alumina. Impurities.—Potassa fusa of the shops contains various impurities, such as sesquioxide of iron, carbonate of potash, and silica. These, however, do not materially affect its medicinal value. "Boiling water commonly leaves oxide of iron undissolved, which should not exceed 1-25 per cent.; the solution neutralized with nitric acid gives a faint precipitate with a solution of nitrate of baryta, and more with solution of nitrate of silver,—owing to the presence of impu- rities." Ph. Ed. The nitrate of baryta detects sulphates, while nitrate of silver is a test for chlorides. Composition.—Pure anhydrous potash has the following composition :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Potassium............ 1 ........40 ........ 83 34 . ...... 83 05 Oxygen.............. 1 ........ 8 ........ lli-lili ........ 10 Do Potash............... 1 ........48 ........ 100-00 ........ 10000 The hydrate of potash is thus composed :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Potash................ 1 ........ 48 ........ 84-2 ........ 84 Water................ 1 ........ 9 ........ 158 ........ 10 Hydrate of Potash--- 1 ........ 57 ........ 1000 ........ 100 Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—Caustic potash promptly destroys the parts of living plants with which it is placed in contact, and even in the dilute state kills haricots {Phaseolus vulgaris) in a few hours. (Marcet, in De Candolle, Phys. Veget.) 8. On animals generally.—Its acts on animals generally as an energetic caustic poison. It is, says Orfila, {Toxicol. Genir.) of all poisons, that which most fre- quently perforates the stomach. He found, that injected into the jugular vein of a dog, it coagulated the blood, and caused speedy death. It is, however, remark- able, that when mixed with the blood out of the body, it not only does not coagu- late it, but actually prevents its spontaneous coagulation. Magendie has observed, that by the exhibition of alkalis to dogs, the urine acquires alkaline properties. y. On Man.—The general operation of alkalis has been already noticed (see pp. 202 and 215). The local action of caustic potash, especially when in the solid form, is exceedingly energetic. It neutralizes any free acid in the part lo which il is applied, and decomposes whatever ammoniacal salts may be present, causing the evolution of ammoniacal gas. It combines with fibrin and albumen, forming soluble compounds {fibrate and albuminate of potash). Hence, rubbed between the fingers, it corrodes and dissolves the epidermis, and thereby gives rise to a soapy feel. Gelatine is also readily dissolved by it, and any phosphate of lime which may be present is deposited. These phenomena are to a certain extent comparable to those of saponification. As, then, potash and the other alkalis form soluble compounds with substances which enter largely into the composition of the 424 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. organized tissues, we can readily explain an observation of Orfila, that alkalis are, of all corrosive poisons, those which most frequently perforate the stomach • for the intestinal mucus readily dissolves in alkalis, whereas it is coagulated by acids ; so that the former are much more quickly brought in contact with the living tissues. These resist, for a certain time, the chemical influence of the caustics, but the affinities being powerful, the vital properties soon cease to offer opposition—the part dies, and the tissues are speedily dissolved. Hence, if a larce quantity of potash be swallowed, the most violent symptoms are observed, though they are of the same general kind as when the mineral acids have been taken (see p. 130). When liquor potassa? is taken in small doses, and properly diluted, it saturates the free acids contained in the stomach, and which the recent investigations of physiologists have shown to be essential to the digestive functions. Hence the continued use of this or of any other alkali must be always injurious, since it dis- orders the assimilative process by altering the chemical properties of the healthy ventricular secretion. If the quantity of potash swallowed be more than sufficient to neutralize the free hydrochloric acid, but insufficient to exert any important chemical action on the living tissues, it acts as a slight irritant, augments the secretions of the ali- mentary canal, becomes absorbed, and alters the qualities of the secreted fluids, more particularly those of the urine (see pp. 128 and 133). Moreover, the modi- fication thus produced in the quality of the renal secretion is accompanied by an increase in the quantity, so that the alkalis rank among our most powerful diure- tics—an effect which may be in part owing to the local stimulus which they com- municate to the secreting vessels in their passage through them. By continued use, the alkalis give rise to increased activity of the different secreting organs, and of the absorbing vessels and glands ; effects which are ana- logous to those caused by mercury. In other words, they act as liquefacients and resolvents (see p. 202). After some time the digestive function becomes disor- dered, the appetite fails, the blood becomes thinner and darker coloured, and loses its power of spontaneous coagulation when drawn from the body ; the whole system,'and more particularly the digestive organs, become enfeebled ; and a state precisely similar to that of scurvy is brought on. It is said if the alkalis be tem- porarily suspended the blood speedily re-acquires its coagulability, but loses it again when we resume their employment. These phenomena deserve especial notice, as being precisely analogous to those of scurvy—a disease which has been usually supposed to be brought on by the use of salt and salted provisions, and to be prevented or cured by vegetable acids (especially the citric) and fresh provisions. It appears, therefore, in the highest degree probable, that scurvy, and the effects caused by the long-continued employment of the alkalis, are analogous conditions of system (see the effects of ammonia, p. 293). Uses.—Caustic potash is employed for various purposes in medicine, ihe principal of which are the following:— a. As an escharotic.—Potassa fusa is sometimes used as a caustic, though its employment is not free from objection ; for its great deliquescence occasions some difficulty in localizing its action. It may be employed for the production of an issue, but we must proceed thus :—Apply to the part one or two layers of adhe- sive plaster, in the middle of which is an aperture of the exact size of the intended issue. Then moisten the potassa fusa, or the potassa cum calce, and rub on the part until discolouration is observed. Wash, and apply a linseed-meal poultice; and when the eschar is detached, insert the pea. Issues, however, are speedily and more conveniently made by the lancet than by caustic- In bites by poison- ous animals—as venomous serpents, mad dogs, &c, this escharotic may be used with advantage. Mr. Whateley {An Improved Method of Treating Strictures of ihe Urethra. Lond. 1804.) recommends the potassa fusa as the agent for arming caustic bougies to be applied in strictures of the urethra ; but the practice appears so dangerous (particularly on account of the deliquescence and violent action of HYDRATE OF POTASH. 425 the caustic), that I believe it is now rarely, if ever, resorted to. There are many other cases in which this substance is employed as a caustic : for example, to destroy warts and fungoid growths of various kinds, and to open abscesses, more especially those in the groin ; but for the latter purpose the lancet is to be pre- ferred. 8. As an antacid we resort to the liquor potassce in various affections of the digestive organs, which are attended with an inordinate secretion of acid, known by the acid eructations, cardialgia, and other dyspeptic symptoms. It must, how- ever, be evident, that the neutralization of the acid is merely palliative. But the continued employment of alkalis frequently diminishes, temporarily, the tendency to acid secretion. Commonly it is found that the cases calling for the employ- ment of alkalis are those benefited by tonics, and hence I believe the alkali is, in most cases, best given in some mild or tonic infusion ; such, for example, as the infusion of calumba, or of gentian, or of quassia ; the disulphate of quinia often- times disagreeing with the stomach in these cases : besides which, it would be decomposed by the alkali. The beneficial effects of alkalis are said to be par- ticularly observed in those forms of dyspepsia which result from the inordinate use of spirituous liquors. Of course the liquor potassae would equally neutralize acid which may have been accidentally or purposely swallowed ; but it is rarely given for this purpose, on account of its irritant qualities, and because many other agents (as chalk, whiting, magnesia, and soap) are equally efficacious as antacids, while they are free from fhe objections which exist in these cases to the use of the caustic alkalis. u . c r> . u I 17 firs- of commercial crystals of Citric Acid. 20 grs. of Carbonate ot rotash l10s c ., c t> . » -j 6 . . = . , , < lo grs. of crystals ot tartaric Acid. are saturated by about . . . j cr7- c T J T • J . £ f oiv. of Lemon Juice. Administration.—it may be given either in the solid or liquid state. In the solid state, it is given in doses of from gr. x. to 3ss. Antidotes.—When swallowed as a poison, the antidotes are oils or acids, as already mentioned for caustic polash. LIQUOR POTASS jE CARBONATIS, L.; (U. S.) Potassa Carbonatis Aqua, D.; Aqua Kali; Solution of Carbonate of Potash. (Carbonate of Potash, 3xx.; Distilled Water, Oj.; dissolve and strain, L. (U. S.)—Carbonate of Potash from Crystals of Tartar, one part; Distilled Water, two parts. Dissolve and filter. The sp. gr. of Ihis solution is 1*320.) A colourless, inodorous solution. Prepared according to the London Pharmacopoeia, its sp. gr. is 1*473. Dose, ttix. to f 3j. 10. POTASSAE BICAR'BONAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—BICARBONATE OF POTASH. History.—This salt, formerly called carbonate of potash or aerated kali, was first prepared by Cartljeuser, in 1752. 1 Memoria delta Societa Italiana delle Scienze, t. xi. Modena, 1804.—Negri, Loud. Med. Gaz. vol. xiv. p. 713. m BICARBONATE OF POTASH. 453 The London College orders it to be prepared with Carbonale of Potxsh, lbvj.; Distilled Water, Cong. j. Dissolve the Carbonate of Potash in the Water, afterwards pass Carbonic Acid through the solution to saturation. Apply a gentle heal, so that whatever crystals have been formed may be re-dissolved. Then set aside (the solution), that the crystals may be again produced; the liquor being poured off, dry them. Carbonic Acid is very easily obtained from chalk, rubbed to powder and mixed with water, to the consistence of a sirup, upon which Sulphuric Acid is then poured, diluted with an equal weight of water. The process of the Dublin College is similar, except that when the solution becomes turbid [from the precipitation of silicic acid], it is lo be filtered, and again exposed to the stream of car- bonic acid gas. The gas is ordered to be generated by the action of diluted muriatic acid on while marble. [The U.S. Pharmacopaia directs Carbonate of Potassa, four pounds; Distilled Water, ten pints. The process is tlie same, except to filter the saturated solution before evaporation, and a heat above 1(30° should not be used.] In this process each equivalent of carbonate of potash unites with an additional equivalent of carbonic acid, and thereby forms the bicarbonate. The silicic acid is separated partly while the carbonic acid is passing through the solution, and partly during the crystallization of the bicarbonate. At Apothecaries1 Hall, London, the process is conducted in two iron vessels ; in one of which carbonic acid is generated (by the action of sulphuric acid on whiting), in the other is contained the solution of carbonate of potash, through which the carbonic acid is passed. "The following proportions may be used for the preparation of bicarbonate of potassa upon the large scale:—100 lbs. of purified carbonate of potassa are dissolved in 17 gallons of water, which, when saturated with carbonic acid, yield from 35 to 40 lbs. of crystallized bicarbonate; 50 lbs. of carbonate of potassa are then added to the mother-liquor, with a suffi- cient quantity of water to make up 17 gallons, and the operation repeated {Hen- nell)^ (Brande, Manual of Chemistry, 5th ed. p. 642. Lond. 1841.) Sul- phuric is preferable to muriatic acid for generating carbonic acid, as being both cheaper and less volatile. The Edinburgh College directs it to be prepared from Carbonate of Potash, 3vj.; and Car- bonale [Hydrated Sesquicarbonate] of Ammonia, 3iijss. Triturate the Carbonate of Ammo- nia lo a very fine powder; mix with it the Carbonate of Potash; triturate them thoroughly together, adding by degrees a very little Water, till a smooth and uniform pulp be formed. Dry this gradually at a temperature not exceeding 140°, triturating occasionally lowards the close, and continue the desiccation till a fine powder be obtained, entirely free of ammoniacal odour. In this process, the volatility of the ammonia, and the affinity of the carbonate of potash for more carbonic acid, together cause the decomposition of the sesqui- carbonate of ammonia; the ammonia, with a small portion of carbonic acid, is disengaged, while the remaining acid converts the carbonate into the bicarbonate of potash. The process adopted by the Edinburgh College is that commonly known as Carthcusef1 sprocess. MM. Henry and Guibourt {Pharmacopee Raisonee, 3meed. p. 605. Paris, 1^41.) give the following directions for its performance — Dissolve 500 parts of (pure) carbonate of potash in 1000 parts of distilled water, and filter; place the solution in a porcelain capsule in a salt-water bath, and gradually add 300 parts of pulverized carbonate of ammonia ; slightly agitate the liquor until only a feeble disengagement of ammonia is perceived, then filter over a heated vessel, and put aside to cool. The proportions employed by Geiger {Handbuch der Pharmacie, 3lte Aufl.) are somewhat different: they are a pound of carbonate of potash, sixteen ounces of water, and six ounces of carbo- nate of ammonia. Properties-—It is a crystalline, colourless solid. The crystals belong to the oblique prismatic system. (Rose.) The primary form is, according to Mr. Brookri {Annals of Philosophy, N. S. vol. vi. p. 42.) a right oblique-angled prism. It is inodorous, has an alkaline taste, and reacts very feebly as an alkali on vege- 454 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. table colours. It is soluble in four times its weight of water at 60° F., but is in- soluble in alcohol. When exposed to the air it undergoes no change. When exposed to a red heat it gives out half its carbonic acid, and becomes the carbo- nate. Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Modified Prism of Carbonate of Potash. Prism derived by Cleavage. Characteristics.—The presence of carbonic acid and potash in this salt is known by the tests for these substances before mentioned. From the carbonate of potash it is best distinguished by a solution of bichloride of mercury, which causes a slight white precipitate or opalescence with it; whereas, with the carbo- nate it causes a copious brick-red precipitate. This test, however, will not, under all circumstances, detect the carbonate; as when the quantity is very small, or when chloride of sodium is present. Sulphate of magnesia will not prove the absence of all carbonate, as I have before stated (p. 451). Composition.—The composition of this salt is as follows :— Atoms. Potash........................ 1 .. Carbonic Acid................. 2 .. Water......................... 1 .. Eq. Wt. . 48 ... . 44 ... . 9 ... Per Cent. . 47-58 .. . 43-60 .. . 8-82 .' Berard. . 4R-92 . 4201 . 907 1 101 100-00........ 100.00 Crystallized Bicarbonate Potash Impurities.—The presence of chlorides and sulphates may be recognised in this salt as in carbonate of potash (see p. 451). Bichloride of mercury may be employed to detect carbonate of potash, with which it forms a brick-red coloured precipitate. Totally dissolved by water, the solution changes the colour of turmeric. Sulphate of mag. nesia throws down nothing from this solution, unless it be heated. From 100 parts, 30-7 are expelled by a red heat. After the addition of excess of nitric acid, chloride of barium throws down nothing, and nitrate of silver very little, if any thing. Ph. Lond. ■ "A solution in 40 parts of water does not give a brick-red precipitate with solution of corro- sive sublimate; and when supersaturated with nitric acid, is not affected by solution of nitraie of baryta or nitrate of silver." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—The effects of this salt are similar to those of the carbonate of potash, except that its local action is much less energetic, in conse- quence of the additional equivalent of carbonic acid. Hence it is an exceedingly eligible preparation in lithiasis and other cases where we want its constitulional, and not its local, action. Uses___It may be employed for the same purposes that we use caustic potash (vide Potash), except that of acting as an escharotic. Thus, it is used as an ant- acid, to modify the quality of urine, in plastic inflammation, in glandular dis- eases, affections of the urinary organs, &c. But its most frequent use is that for making effervescing draughts, with either citric or tartaric acid. The pro- portions are as follows : -,. „ ~ . „. , „. , . I 14 grs. of Commercial Crystals of Citric Acid, 20 gr^ of Crystallized Bicarbonate > J5 « of c lalIized TarJtaHc Acid of Potash arc saturated by about ^ g^ of Lcmon Juice acetate of potash. 455 Where there is great irritability of the stomach, I believe the effervescing draught, made with bicarbonate of potash and citric acid, to be more efficacious than that made with carbonate of soda and tartaric acid ; the resulting Citrate of Potash {Potassa Citras) being, in my opinion, a milder preparation than the tar- trate of soda. The citrate promotes slightly the secretions of the alimentary canal, the cutaneous transpiration, and the renal secretion; and, like other vege- table salts of potash, renders the urine alkaline. Administration.—This salt may be given in doses of from gr. x. Jo gr. xv., or to the extent of half a drachm, or even a drachm. 1. LIQUOR POTASSiE EFFERVESCED, L. Potassa Aqua Effervescens, E.; Effer- vescing Solution of Potash (Bicarbonate of-Potash, 3j.; Distilled Water, Oj. Dissolve the Bicarbonate of Potash in the Water, and pass into it of Carbonic Acid, compressed by force, more than sufficient for saturation. Keep the solu- tion in a well-stoppered vessel.) This is a solution of bicarbonate of potash, surcharged with carbonic acid. It is an agreeable mode of exhibiting bicarbonate of potash, without injuring its medicinal power. It may be extemporaneously imitated by pouring a bottle of soda water (i. e. carbonic acid water) into a tumbler containing grs. xx. of bicarbonate of potash. 2. LEMON AND KALI.—Under this name is kept in the shops a mixture of pow- dered white sugar, dried and powdered citric acid, and powdered bicarbonate of potash. It is employed as an extemporaneous effervescing draught. As it ab- stracts water from the atmosphere, it must be preserved in a well-stoppered bottle. (See Pulveres Effervescentes, Ph. Ed.) POTAS'SiE ACETAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—ACETATE OF POTASH. History.—It appears to have been first clearly described by Raymond Lully, in the thirteenth century, and has been known by several appellations; such as Terra Foliata Tartari, Diuretic Salt, <&c. Natural History.—Geiger {Handbuch der Pharmacie.) says this salt is found in some mineral springs. It probably exists in most of those plants which by incineration yield carbonate of potash. The sap of the elm, and of most trees, Winter's bark, linseed, senna leaves, the rhizome of ginger, &c, are said to contain it. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this salt. The London College orders of Carbonate of Potash, lbj., Acetic Acid, f 3xxvj.; Distilled Water, f 3xij. Add the carbonate of potash to the acid, first mixed with water, to saturation, then strain. Evaporate the liquor in a sand-bath, the heat being cautiously applied, until the salt is dried. The Edinburgh College orders of Pyroligneous Acid, Oiss.; Carbonate of Potash (dry,) 3vij., or a sufficiency. Add the carbonate gradually to the acid till complete neutralization is accom- plished. Evaporate the solution over the vapour bath till it is so concentrated as to form a con- crete mass when cold. Allow it to cool and crystallize in a solid cake; which must be broken up, and immediately put into well-closed bottles. The Dublin College gives the following directions for its preparation:—Take of Carbonate of Potash from Crystals of Tartar any required quantity. Pour on it, by repeated additions, Dis- tilled Vinegar of a medium heat, and in quantity about five times the weight of the salt. When the effervescence shall have completely ceased, and the liquor have given off vapours during some time, let the additions of distilled vinegar be repeated at intervals, until effervescence shall have completely ceased. By continued evaporation the salt will become dry, and by a moderate increase of the heat it is to be cautiously liquefied. When the salt has cooled, let it be dissolved in water : filter the liquor, and boil it down until, when removed from the fire, on cooling, it forms a mass of crystals. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs acetic acid a pint, Carbonate of Potassa a sufficient quantity. Add the Carbonate of Potassa gradually to the acetic acid till it is saturated; then filter and 456 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. evaporate cautiously, by means ofa sand-bath, until a dry salt remains; keep this in closely stopped bottles.] In this process the acid unites with the potash of the carbonate, and disengages carbonic acid. Properties.—It is usually met with as a colourless, white solid, with a foliated texture (which is given to it by fusion and cooling), odourless, but having a pun- gent saline taste, and a soapy feel. It is exceedingly deliquescent; and, therefore, ought to be preserved in a well-stoppered bottle. It is very soluble both in water and alcohol ; indeed, in water, it is one of the most soluble salts we are acquainted with. At 60°, 100 parts of the salt will dissolve in 102 parts of water. When heated, it fuses, and is decomposed into acetone or pyroacetic spirit (C3 H3 0) and carbonate of potash. One equivalent of this spirit contains the elements of one equivalent of acetic acid, minus those of one equivalent of carbonic acid. Characteristics.—See the tests for the acetates, p. 358, and for potash, 423. Its deliquescence is a characteristic. ^ Composition.—Its composition is as follows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Wenzel. Potash................ 1 ........ 48 ........ 48-5 ........ 50-15 Acetic Acid (dry)...... 1 ........ 51 ........ 515 ........ 49-85 Acetateof Potash .... 1 ........ 99 ........ 1000 .•....... 10000 Impuritv.—It should be white and perfectly neutral. Frequently, however, it reacts as an alkali, owing to a slight excess of potash. The presence of chlorides may be detected by nitrate of silver ; of sulphates, by chloride of barium; of metals, by hydrosulphuric acid, or ferrocyanide of potassium. Physiological Effects.—Two or three drachms cause purging, which is sometimes accompanied with griping. In smaller doses, more especially if largely diluted, this salt acts as a mild diaphoretic. In its passage to the kidneys it be- comes decomposed, and is converted into the carbonate of potash, which may be detected in the urine. Probably the1 pulmonary excretions of those who employ it also become impregnated with this salt, since it has been said that in persons wilh delicate lungs it acls as an irritant to these organs. tjses.__In this country it is rarely employed, except as a diuretic in dropsical complaints. It is a valuable adjunct to other renal excitants. On the continent, it is administered in various diseases, as an alterative or resolvent. Thus in scirrhus of the pylorus, chlorosis, and visceral and glandular enlargements. It may be employed in the lithic acid diathesis, to render the urine alkaline. It is of course improper when phosphatic deposits are observed in the urine. Administration.—It is given as a diuretic in doses of from a scruple to a drachrn and a half, dissolved in some mild diluent. In larger doses, as two or three drachms, it acts as a purgative. . 12. POTASS^ BITAR'TRAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)-B1TARTRATE OF POTASH. History.—In its impure form, as a deposit from wine, it must have been known at a very early period. " It is called tartar," says Paracelsus, » because it pro- duces oil, water, tincture, and salt, which burn the patient as hell does." Scheele, in 1769,'first explained its nature. Its synonymes are Cream of Tartar, Super- tartrate 'of Potash, and acidulous Tartrate of Potash. Natural History.—It is a constituent of many vegetables: thus it is lound in Grapes, Tamarinds, Cdraria Islandica, &c. Production —All the bitartrate of commerce is obtained during the vinous fermentation. It exists in solution in grape juice ; but being very slightly soluble in a mixture of alcohol and water, it deposits during fermentation (that is, when alcohol is produced), and forms a crust on the sides of the cask. In this state it is known in commerce under the name of Crude Tartar {Tartarus crudus), or BITARTRATE OF POTASH. 457 Argot, and which is termed Wliite or Red {Tartarus albus vel Tartarus ruber), according as it is obtained from white or red wine. Argot, or Crude Tartar, occurs in crystalline cakes of a reddish colour, and is composed of the bitartrate of polash, tartrate of lime (and sometimes biracemate of potash), colouring and extractive matter, &c. At Montpellier, bitartrate of potash is procured thus:—Argol is boiled in water, and the solution allowed to cool, by which a deposit of crystals is obtained: these are washed wilh cold water, and dissolved in boiling water, containing charcoal and alumina (clay); the latter substances being employed to remove the colouring matter with which they precipitate. The clear liquor is allowed to cool slowly, by which crystals of the bitartrate are formed. These constitute the Tartarus depuratus or Crystalli Tartari of the older chemists. If a hot saturated solution of tartar be cooled, the surface of the liquid becomes coated by a layer of very fine crystals of bitartrate: hence this crust was called Cream of Tartar {Cremor Tartari). Properties.—As met with in commerce, this salt forms a white crystalline mass, without odour, but having an acidulous and gritty taste. According to Mr. Fig. 69. Fig. 70. An ordinary perfect Crystal of Common Crystal of ditto. Bitartrate of Potash. Brooke {Ann. of Phil. N. S. vol. vii. p. 161.) its crystals are right rhombic prisms (figs. 69 and 70). Liebig, (Turner's Chemistry, 7th ed.) however, says they are oblique rhombic prisms. It is unaltered by exposure to the air; but when heated, it decomposes, swells up, evolves various volatile products, gives out an odour of caramel, and is converted into Black Flux {Fluor niger),—a compound of char- coal and carbonate of potash (see p. 450). If the bitartrate be deflagrated with nitraie of potash, the residue is Wliite Flux {Fluor albus), or carbonate of potash (see p. 450). Bitartrate of potash is very slightly soluble in water, and is insoluble in alcohol. Characteristics.—One character of this salt is derived from the phenomena at- tending its conversion into black flux, as above mentioned. If black flux be di- gested in water we obtain a solution of carbonate of potash, known by the proper- ties before mentioned (p. 451). Another character of the bitartrate is its slight solubility in water, and its solution reddening litmus. The addition of caustic potash increases its solubility, whereas alcohol diminishes it. Acetate of lead added to a solution of the bitartrate forms a copious white precipitate; lime water has the same effect. Mixed with alkaline carbonates it produces effervescence. Boracic acid, or borax, very much increases the solubility of this salt in water, forming what has been termed Soluble Cream of Tartar {Cremor Tartari solu- bilis), or Tartarus Boraxatus of some writers. Composition.—Crystallized bitartrate of potash has the following composition : Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct. Berzelius. Potash................i........ 1 ........ 48 ........ 25-3 ........ 24-80 Tartaric Arid................... 2 ........ 132 ........ 700 ........ 70-45 Water.......................... 1 ........ 9 ........ 47 ........ 475 Crystallized Bitartrate ofPotash 1 ........ 139 ........ 100 0 ........ 100 00 vol. I. . 39 458 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Impurity.—Bitartrate of potash usually contains from 2 to 5 per cent, of tar- trate of lime, and hence a little carbonate of lime may be detected in black flux. This is of no material consequence in a medicinal point of view. If the powdered bitartrate be adulterated with either alum or bisulphate of potash, the fraud may be detected by chloride of barium, which causes a white precipitate {sulphate of baryta) insoluble in nitric acid. It is sparingly dissolved by water. It renders the colour of litmus red. At a red heat it is converted into carbonate of potash. Ph. Lond. "Entirely soluble in 40 parts of boiling water; forty grains in solution are neutralized with 30 grains of crystallized carbonate of soda; and when then precipitated by 70 grains of nitrate of lead, the liquid remains precipitable by more of the test." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—When taken in small doses, diluted with water, it acts as a refrigerant and diuretic: in larger doses (as two or three drachms) it purges, and frequently creates flatulence and griping. By continued use it dis- orders the digestive functions, and causes emaciation, most probably from defec- tive nutrition. In excessive doses it produces inflammation of the stomach and intestines. A fatal case has been recorded by Mr. Tyson. {Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xxi. p. 177.) A man, to relieve the effects of drunkenness, swallowed four or five table-spoonsful of cream of tartar. It caused violent vomiting and purging, and other symptoms of gastro-enteritis, and pain in the loins. The thighs and legs appeared paralysed. He died on the third day. On a post-mortem exami- nation the stomach and intestines were found inflamed. Uses.—Bitartrate of potHh is frequently employed to form a refrigerant drink in febrile and inflammatory diseases. It allays thirst, diminishes preternatural heat, and reduces vascular action. As a diuretic in dropsical complaints it is used either in the same way, or taken in the form of an electuary. As a purga- tive it is not usually exhibited alone, but, in general, with jalap, sulphur, senna, or some other purgative. Thus, in dropsical complaints, a very valuable hydra- gogue cathartic is a mixture of jalap and bitartrate of potash. In skin diseases and affections of the rectum (as piles, stricture, and prolapsus,) a very useful purgative is an electuary composed of sulphur, bitartrate of potash, and confec- tion of senna. An effervescing aperient may be prepared by mixing three drachms of the bitartrate with two and a half drachms of carbonate of soda: the resulting salt is the potash-tartrate of soda. As a tooth-powder, bitartrate of potash is sometimes used on account of its gritty qualities: a very good dentifrice consists of equal parts of bitartrate, powdered rhatany root, and myrrh (see some observa- tions on dentifrices at p. 219). Administration.—As a hydragogue cathartic the dose is from four to eight drachms : as an aperient, one or two drachm3 : as a diuretic, in repeated doses of a scruple to a drachm. (See Pulvis Jalapa Compositus.) 1. IMPERIAL; Tisana Imperialis.—It is formed by dissolving one drachm or a drachm and a half of cream of tartar in a pint of boiling water, and flavouring with lemon peel and sugar. When cold the solution may be taken, ad libitum, as a refrigerant drink in febrile complaints, and as a diuretic. 2. SERUM LACTIS TARTARIZATIM; Cream of Tartar Whey.—This is prepared by adding about two drachms of the bitartrate to a pint of milk. It may be diluted with water, and taken in febrile and dropsical complaints. 13. POTAS'SiE TAR'TRAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—TARTRATE OF POTASH. History.—This salt was known to Lemery. It has been termed Tartarized Tartar, Tartarized Kali, Soluble Tartar, or Vegetable Salt. Preparation___All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this salt. The London College orders of Bitartrate of Potash, powdered, lbiij.; Carbonate of Potash, Sxvj., or as much as may be sufficient; Boiling Water, Ovj. Dissolve the carbonate of potash tartrate of potash. 459 in the boiling water, then add the bitartrate of potash, and boil. Strain the liquor, and after- wards boil it down until a pellicle floats, and set it aside that crystals may be formed. The liquor being poured off, dry these, and again evaporate the liquor that crystals may be pro- duced. The processes of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges are essentially the same. [And also that of the U.S. Pharmacopoeia.] In this process the excess of acid in the bitartrate is saturated by the potash of the carbonate ; the carbonic acid escapes. Properties.—It is usually met with in the shops in a granular state, but it ought to be crystallized. Its crystals are right rhombic Fig. 71. prisms. To the taste this salt is saline, and somewhat bitter. It deliquesces when exposed to the air, and is soluble in its own weight of water at 50°; the solution decomposes by keeping. Characteristics. — When heated to redness it is de- composed, leaving as a residue charcoal and carbonate of potash. A solution of the tartrate produces white precipitates with solutions of acetates of lead, nitrate of silver, and chloride of calcium; the precipitates being Crystal of Tartrate of soluble in nitric acid. Bichloride of platinum, assisted by heat, causes a black precipitate in a solution of this salt. When heated, the salt evolves the odour of cara- mel. If an excess of any strong acid (as the sulphuric) be added to a solution of this salt we obtain crystals of the bitartrate. Hence acids, and most acidulous salts, are incompatible with it: as also are tamarinds. The tartrate is readily distinguished from the bitartrate by its deliquescent property, its greater solubility, and its want of acidity. Composition.—The following is the composition of this salt:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Potash.................1..............48..............421..............41-31 Tartaric Acid..........1..............66..............57-9..............5869 Tartrate of Potash.....1.............114.............100-0............ .100-00 The large crystals contain, according to Dr. Thomson, {First Principles of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 264.) two equivalents of water. The same authority states, that he has had crystals of this salt in needles which seemed to contain no water of crystallization. Impurity.—It may contain excess of acid or of base, either of which is easily recognised ; the one by litmus, the other by turmeric. The sulphates may be detected by chloride of barium throwing down a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid. Physiological Effects.—This salt is a gentle purgative, analogous in its ac- tion to the sulphate of potash, from which it differs in being milder in its operation, and partially digestible; for, like the other vegetable salts of the alkalis, it is de- composed in the system, and converted into the carbonate, in which state it is found in (he urine. It is said to have the power of preventing the griping of other more active ca- thartics, as senna and scammony ; but, from my own personal observations, I doubt the correctness of this statement. Uses.—It is employed as a mild purgative in dyspepsia, at the commencement of diarrhoea, in some liver complaints, &c. Sometimes it is used as an adjunct to other more active purgatives; as the infusion of senna. Administration.—It may be given in doses of from two or three drachms to halfan ounce, or even an ounce. 460 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Order XII—COMPOUNDS OF SODIUM. 1. SO'DII CHLO'RIDUM, L. (U. S.)—CHLORIDE OF SODIUM. (Sods Murias, E. D.) History.—As this salt is a necessary and indispensable seasoning to our food it doubtless must have been known to, and employed by, the first individuals of our race. The earliest notice of it occurs in ihe writings of Moses, {Gen. xix. 26; Lev. ii. 13.) and Homer. (Iliad, lib. ix. 214.) It has received various names, such as Common Salt, Culinary Salt, and Muriate or Hydrochlorate of Soda. Natural History.—It occurs in both kingdoms of nature. a.. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—An enormous quantity of this salt is contained in the waters of the ocean. At an average calculation sea water contains 2-5 per cent, of chloride of sodium. (Vide p. 254.) It is found also in great abundance in mineral waters. (Gairdner, On Mineral Springs, p. 12.) It has not hitherto been found in the oldest stratified rock?, (De la Bache, Researches in Theoret. Geol. p. 31.) but is met with in all the later formations. Thus Mr. Fealherstonhaugh (Phil. Mag. N. S. vol. v. p. 139; vol. vi. p. 75; and vol. vii. p. 198.) states, that salt or brine springs occur in certain parts of the United Stales,1 in the old transition slate rocks. Salt springs occur in various parts of England, in the coal measures. (Bakewell, Introd. to Geology, 4th ed. p. 252.) The rock salt of Cheshire, and the brine springs of Worcestershire, occur in the old red sandstone group. (Trans. Geol. Society, vol. i. p. 38, and vol. ii. p. 94.) The salt of Ischel, in the Austrian Alps, belongs to the oolitic group, (Sedgwick and Murchison, Phil, Mag. N. S. vol. viii. p. 102.) as does also that found in the lias in Switzerland. (Bakewell, op, cit. p. 253.) The immense mass or bed of salt near Cardona, in Spain, and which has been de- scribed by Dr. Traill, (Trans. Geolog. Society, vol. iii. p. 404.) occurs in the cretaceous group. (De Ia Beche, op. cit. p. 293.) The salt deposit of Wieliczka, near Cracow, belongs to the supra- cretaceous group. (Ibid. p. 270.) Lastly, in the Crimea, salt is said to be daily accumulating in the inland lakes. ft. In the Organized Kingdom.—It is found in plants which grow by the sea side, in the blood and urine of man, &c. Preparation.—The salt consumed in this country is procured by the evapo- ration of the water of brine springs. The salt districts are, Northwich, Middle- wich, and Nantwich, in Cheshire; Shirleywich, in Staffordshire; and Droitwich, in Worcestershire. In Cheshire the rock salt (called also Fossil Salt, Sal Fossilis, or Sal Gemma) constitutes two beds, which vary in thickness from 4 to 130 feet, and are separated by a bed of clay, 10 or 12 feet thick ; the uppermost bed of salt being 30 or more feet from the surface of the earth. It is for the most part of a reddish colour, but is also met with in transparent colourless masses. It is called in commerce, Prussia rock, and is largely exported for purification. Brine springs are met with both above and below the level of the beds of rock salt. The brine is pumped up into cisterns or reservoirs, from which it is drawn when wanted into large oblong wrought-iron evaporating pans, which are usually worked with four or more fires. If the brine be not completely saturated with chloride of sodium, a little rock salt is added to it. By the evaporation of the water the salt deposits in crystals. The impurities separate in the form of a scum (which is removed by a skimming dish), and ofa sediment called pan-scale, pan- scratch, or pan-bake. The grains or crystals of salt vary in size, according to the degree of heat employed in their preparation. The small-grained salt is formed by the strongest heat, and constitutes the butter, staved, lump, or basket salt of commerce; while the larger crystals, forming the bay and fishery salts of com- merce, are formed at a lower temperature.3 In some parts of the world chloride of sodium is obtained from sea water: but 1 For an account of the American salt formation, consult J. Van Rensselaer's Essay on Salt, containing Notices of its Origin Formation, Geological Position, and principal Localities, embracing a particular Description of the American Salines. New York, 1823.-This author states that the American salt formation occurs in the old red sandstone. _ ,. ....... ^.. ■ * m__•„.-.. a For farther information on the manufacture of common salt, consult Aikin's Dictionary of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 118; Holland's Agricultural Survey of Cheshire; Dr. Henry Phil. Trans. 1810; Mr. P»»r"'™s Wharton and Marston Patent Salt Refiners, 1830 ; Dr. Brownrigg's Art of making Common Salt, 1,48 ; and IJr. Jackson, Phil. Trans. No. 53, p. KM). CHLORIDE OF SODIUM. 461 the mode of extracting it varies according to circumstances. In France and on the shores of the Mediterranean, it is procured by solar evaporation, and is then called Bay Salt. The French salt marslies are shallow basins or pans of clay, excavated along the sea shore. The water is admitted, by a sluice, into a reservoir, where evapo- ration goes on while mechanical impurities are deposited. It then passes by a subterraneous communication into a series of rectangular pans, and proceeds by a very circuitous route through them to another subterranean gutter, by which it is conveyed into a long, narrow, circuitous canal. From this it passes into a second, and subsequently into a third series of salt-pans. During the whole of this time it is undergoing evaporation, and when it arrives at the third series of pans, it is so far concentrated that crystallization is soon effected. The salt is known lo be on the point of crystallizing when the liquid assumes a reddish tint. It is then withdrawn from the pans, and collected upon the borders, in conical or pyramidal heaps, when it drains and dries. These operations begin in March, and finish in September.1 At Lymington,2 in Hampshire, salt is prepared from the sea water, which is admitted into a reservoir or pond, and from this successively into three series of brine-pits or salt-pans, where the water is partly evaporated by solar heat. When the liquid has acquired a sufficient density, it is conveyed into rectangular iron pans, where it is evaporated. Eight hours are required to boil each charge to dryness. The salt is then removed into wooden troughs or cisterns, perforated by holes in the bottom, where il is allowed to drain, and is afterwards removed to the warehouse, where it also drains. The drainings from the wooden troughs drop on upright stakes (old broom-handles, &c), and on these the salt concretes, in the course often or twelve days, forming large stalactitic masses called salt-cats, each weighing 60 or 80 lbs. The residual liquor {bittern or the bitter liquor) is received into underground pits, and during the winter season is used in the manufacture of Epsom salt. (See Sulphate of Magnesia.) In cold countries, congelation is resorted to as a means of concentrating sea water; for when a weak saline solution is exposed to great cold, it separates into two parts: one almost pure water, which freezes, and the other which remains liquid, and contains the larger proportion of salt. Another method of concentra- tion is by graduating houses: these are skeletons of houses, in which the water is pumped up, and allowed to fall on heaps of brush-wood, thorns, &c, by which it is divided and agitated with the air, and evaporation promoted. The farther concentration is effected by heat. Purification.—The Edinburgh College gives the following directions for the preparation of pure Chloride of Sodium {Soda Murias purum, E.):— "Take any convenient quantity of Muriate of Soda; dissolve it in boiling water; filter the solution, and boil it down over the fire, skimming off the crystals which form; wash the crystals quickly with cold water, and dry them." A solution of this pure salt "is not precipitated by solution of carbonate of ammonia followed by solution of phosphate of soda: a solution of 9 grains in distilled water, is not entirely preci- pitated by a solution of 26 grains of nitrate of silver." The carbonate of ammonia and phosphate of soda are employed to detect the presence of any magnesian salt. Properties.—It crystallizes in colourless cubes, or more rarely in regular octo- hedrons. In the salt-pans the little cubes are frequently so aggregated as to form hollow, four-sided pyramids, whose sides have some resemblance to a series of steps : these are technically called hoppers. The specific weight of salt is 2*17. 1 For farther details, sec Phil. Trans. Nn. 51, p. 10-.25 ; and Dumas, Traite de Chimie. t. ii. * Dr. Henry (Phil. Trans. 1810) has described ihe method of manufacture. In the summer of 1840, I visited the Salterns at Lymington, and can confirm the accuracy of Dr. Henry's statements. I found Salicornia herbacea growing abundantly in the suit-pans. The sp. pr. of the liquor in the pans is ascertained by glass bulbs (on the principle of Lovi's beads) placed in a wicker-basket, which is immersed in the water by along handle. 39* 462 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. The taste is pure saline. When free from all foreign matters, chloride of sodium is permanent in the air, but ordinary salt is slightly deliquescent, owing to the presence of small quantities of chloride of magnesium. When heated, it decrepi. tates (more especially the coarse-grained or bay sait), at a red heat fuses, and at a still higher temperature volatilizes. Rock salt is transcalent or diathermanous: that is, it transmits radiant heat much more readily than many other transparent bodies, as glass. (See p. 53.) It is soluble in water, and slightly so in alcohol. Hot and even boiling water dissolves very little more salt than cold water. At 60° it requires about twice and a half its weight of water to dissolve it. Characteristics.—Its characters as a soda salt are the following:— Its solution produces no precipitate with the hydrosulphurets, ferrocyanides phosphates, or carbonates. From the salts of potash it is distinguished by causing no precipitate with perchloric or tartaric acid, or with bichloride of platinum, and by the yellow tinge which it communicates to the flame of alcohol. As a chloride it is known by nitrate of silver throwing down a white precipitate {chloride of silver), soluble in ammonia, but insoluble in nitric acid. Lastly, chloride of sodium is odourless, and devoid of bleaching properties. Composition.—Pure chloride of sodium has the following composition:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Ure. Sodium.......................1.........24..........40.........39 98 Chlorine.......................1..........36..........60.........6002 Chloride of Sodium............1..........60.........100........10000 The crystals contain no water in chemical combination with them, but a little is -frequently mechanically lodged between their plates. Impurities.—The commercial salt of this country is sufficiently pure for all dietetical and therapeutical purposes; and its low price is a sufficient guarantee against adulteration. In France, however, serious accidents have happened in consequence of the use of sophisticated salt. (Christison, Treatise on Poisons, *3d ed. p. 604; and Devergie, Med. Leg. t. ii. p. 876.) COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF SALT (HENRY). 1000 Parts by Weight consist of KIND OF SALT. o c.2 £ & 5 S .2*5, Is* trace 3 do. 3^ do. 2 28 — 11A — 11 — 5 „ 3 "•T(T O'Tfi 0-i 0-* 0-i 0*J 0-i *^ub phuric Acid, 3iv. Dissolve the Carbonate of Soda in two pints of Water ; then put the Chloride of Sodium and Binoxide of Manganese, rubbed to powder, into a retort; and add to them the Sulphuric Acid previously mixed with three fluid-ounces of the Water, and cooled. Heat (the mixture), and pass the Chlorine first through five fluid-ounces of ihe Water, and afterwards into the solution of the Carbonate of Soda above directed. When chlorine gas comes in contact with a solution of carbonate of soda, three salts are formed : chloride of sodium, hypochlorite of soda, and bicarbonate of soda. 466 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. 2eq.Carb. Soda 108....................—----■---- _2 eg. Bicarbonate Soda.....152 t 2 eq. Carb. Acid 44--- 2 eq. Carbonate ) 1 eq. Soda......32 - Soda......... 108)1 4- Oxygen.'..' 8.......v>. 1 eq. Hypochlor's.Acid 44 j X eq' HyPochlorite Soda • ■ ' 1 eq. Sodium ... 24, 2 eq. Chlorine .. 72 jj «?* Chlorine.. \ 1 eq. Chlorine .. .1 eq. Chloride Sodium---- CO 288 The essential and characteristic properties of this solution depend on the hypo- chlorite of soda. The changes which take place in the manufacture of chlorine have been already explained (p. 225). In the French Codex this solution is directed to be prepared as follows:—Diffuse one part of dry chloride of lime (hypochlorite of lime) through 30 parts of water. Then add two parts of crystallized carbonate of soda, previously dissolved in 15 parts of water. Filter the mix- ture. [The formula of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is as follows:—Take of Chlorinated Lime, a pound ; Carbonate of Soda, two pounds; Water, a gallon and a half. Dissolve the Carbonate of Soda in three pints of Water wilh the aid of heat. To the remainder of the Water add, by small portions at a time, the Chlorinated Lime previously well triturated, stirring the mixture after each addition. Set the mixture by for several hours, that the dregs may subside, then de- cant the clear liquid, and mix with the solution of Carbonate of Soda. Lastly, decant the clear liquor from the precipitated Carbonate of Lime, pass it through a linen cloth, and keep it in bot- ties secluded from the light] In this process a double decomposition is effected : hypochlorite of soda is formed in solution, while carbonate of lime precipitates. This process is more easy of execution than the previous one. By using the proportions here directed the solution is weaker than that prepared by the process of the London Pharma- copoeia. Properties.—The solution of hypochlorite of soda {Liquor Soda Chlorinata, L.) has a yellowish colour, an astringent taste, and an odour of hypochlorous acid. It destroys the colour of vegetable substances, as litmus, turmeric, and sulphate of indigo. Previous to bleaching them, it reacts as an alkali on turmeric paper and infusion of red cabbage. By evaporation crystals are obtained, which by resolution in water reproduce the disinfecting liquid. By exposure to the air the solution undergoes decomposition, and crystals of carbonate of soda are formed. Characteristics.—The following are ihe essential characters of this solution :— It decolourizes sulphate of indigo. On the addition of hydrochloric acid it evolves chlorine and carbonic acid. A solution of nitrate of silver throws down a while precipitate {chloride of silver), soluble in ammonia, but insoluble in nitric acid. Lime water causes a white precipitate {carbonate of lime). Oxalate of ammonia occasions no precipitate, showing the absence of lime. Bichloride of platinum produces no yellow precipitate, proving the absence of potash and ammonia. That the base of the solution is soda may be shown in two ways: evaporated to dry- ness, we obtain a residuum which renders the outer cone of the flame of a candle, or the flame of a spirit lamp, yellow ; saturated with hydrochloric acid and evapo- rated to dryness, common salt is procured : this may be recognised by the charac- ters before mentioned (p. 464). Composition.—Some chemists regard this compound as a mixture of chloride of soda and bicarbonate of soda. But the view usually taken of it is, that it con- sists of the hypochlorite of soda, chloride of sodium, and bicarbonate of soda. Physiological Effects, a. On Animals.—A solution of the chloride of soda acts more or less powerfully as a local irritant, according to the degree of its con- centration. From the experiments of Segalas {Journ. de Chim. Med. t- ler, p- 271.) it appears that, besides the irritant operation, and its direct and sympathetic action on the organic solids, it exercises an evident influence over the blood, and, in consequence, over the whole economy, by means of absorption. In an experi- HYPOCHLORITE OF SODA. 467 ment referred to by Dr. Christison, {Treatise on Poisons, 3d edit. p. 221.) two ounces of Labarraque's solution introduced into the peritoneum of a dog excited palpitation, oppressed breathing, constant restlessness, and death in ten minutes. 18. On Man.—I am unacquainted with any experiments made to determine the physiological effects of chloride of soda on man. That it would, in large doses, act as a powerful local irritant, and if swallowed give rise to symptoms of gastro- enteritis, cannot, 1 think, be doubted. Merat and De Lens {Did. Mat. Med. t. ii. p. 257.) state that the immediate consequence of, and predominating symptom pro- duced by, a glassful of Eau de Javelle (a solution of chloride of potash) was gene- ral rigidity, which gave way to demulcent drinks. This observation agrees with one made by Segalas (Christison, op. cit. p. 221.) in his experiment on dogs, namely, that chloride of soda caused tetanic spasms. It is probable, therefore, that the chlorides (hypochlorites) of the alkalis exercise a specific influence over the nervous system. Chloride of soda, in moderate or small doses, has been denominated stimulant, tonic, astringent, antiseptic, and febrifuge. But these terms give no real explana- tion of the nature of those organic changes produced by it, whereby we obtain such benefit from its employment in various diseases. In fever, I have seen damp- ness of the skin follow its use. Increased secretion of urine is a common effect of it. In fevers it improves the qualities of the evacuations. Under the continued employment of it, glandular enlargements and chronic mucous discharges have disappeared, from which circumstance chloride of soda has been denominated al- terative and resolvent. All these effects depend probably on the alteration which ihe chloride gives rise to in the condition of the blood, and the change ihereby produced in the action of the different organs. We must not overlook the impor- tant fact that the solution of chloride of soda used in medicine contains bicarbo- nate of soda, to which perhaps in many cases its beneficial effects are, in part at least, to be referred. Uses.—The solution of chloride of soda is employed as a disinfectant, antisep- tic, and antidote (in cases of poisoning by the hydrosulphurets, and hydrosulphu- ric and hydrocyanic acids). But for most of these purposes the chloride of lime is employed instead of chloride of soda, since its properties are analogous, and being manufactured on a very extensive scale for the use of bleachers, it can be obtained more conveniently and cheaply. On this account, therefore, and to avoid repetition, I must refer to the article Hypochlorite of Lime for information respect- ing the above uses of chloride (hypochlorite) of soda. I would remark, however, that in several cases where I have carefully tried and compared the two chlorides (hypochlorites), I give the decided preference to the chloride of soda. As an anti- septic, Labarraque also preferred the latter preparation, on the ground that by the process of disinfection it becomes chloride of sodium, which is not a deliquescent salt; whereas the chloride of calcium generated by chloride (hypochlorite) of lime, attracts water from the atmosphere, and thereby furnishes one of the con- ditions (viz. moisture) necessary to the putrefactive process. Hence, in his opi- nion, while chloride of lime will serve equally well for mere disinfection, chloride of soda is preferable where we wish at the same time to prevent a renewal of pu- trefaction. Chloride of soda is employed internally in all diseases commonly termed putrid or malignant, as typhus fever, scarlatina maligna, &c. It is indicated where there are great prostration of strength, fetid evacuations, and a dry and furred tongue. In such cases I have seen it of essential service, improving the quality of the se- cretions, producing a moist state of the skin, preventing collapse, and altogether acting most beneficially. It may be administered both by the mouth and the rectum. There are many other diseases in which it has been administered internally with apparent success, but in which a more extended experience of its effects is required to enable us to place confidence in the results. I refer now to its employment as a 468 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. substitute for the disulphate of quinia, in intermittents, recommended by Lalesque and Gouzee {Brit, and For. Med. Rev. April, 1838.) ; to its use in the treatment of secondary syphilis, as practised by Dr. Scott, {Lond, Med. Rep. N. S. vol. ii. 1836, p. 139.) and by Cazenove {Journ. de Chim. Med. t. iv. p. 140.); to its ad- ministration in chronic skin diseases, and as a substitute for chlorine in bilious disorders, by Dr. Darling {Lond. Med. Rep. N. S. vol. ii.); in scrofula, by Go- dier {Journ. Gen. de Med. 1829.) and in plague, by Neljoubin ; (Richter, Ausf. Arzneim. Suppl. Bd. p. 539.) In some of these cases (as in syphilis and scro- fula) the benefit obtained may have resulted from ihe bicarbonate of soda present in the chloride of the shops. As a local remedy, we employ chloride of soda in all cases attended with fetid discharges, not merely as a disinfectant and antiseptic—that is, as a chemical agent destroying fetor, and preventing the putrefaction of dead matters (as gangrenous parts, the discharges from wounds and ulcers, &c), though in these respects it is most valuable—but as a means of stopping or relieving morbid action by an im- pression produced on the living tissues. It frequently puts a stop to the farther progress of gangrene; promotes the separation of the dead from the living parts; improves the quality of the secretions; and, at the same time, diminishes their quantity, when this is excessive. We apply it to ulcers of all kinds (whether com- mon, phagedenic, cancerous, syphilitic, or scrofulous) when attended with foul discharges or a disposition to slough. We employ it with the greatest benefit in affections of the mucous surfaces. Thus it is used as a gargle to check ptyalism and ulceration of the mouth, whether arising from mercury or other causes. In scarlatina maligna we apply it to check ulceration and sloughing of the throat. In coryza and ozcena it has been injected into the nostrils with considerable benefit. In fetid and excessive discharge from the vagina, and neck of the uterus or blad- der, it is employed as an injection with, at least, temporary relief. It has also been applied in some skin diseases, as tinea capitis, eczema, scabies, prurigo pu- dendi muliebris, &c. The above are only a few of the cases in which chloride of soda has been used with most marked benefit. In conclusion, 1 may add, that there are few, if any, remedies the uses of which, as local agents, are so valuable and extensive as the chlorides of soda and lime. Administration___The liquor soda chlorinata, Ph. L. may be administered internally in doses of twenty drops or more, diluted with three or four ounces of some mild aqueous liquid. When used as a gargle, it should be diluted with eight or ten parts of water ; as an injection into the vagina, it is to be mixed with from fifteen to thirty parts of water; as a lotion, its strength must vary according to circumstances. In some sloughing ulcers I have used it mixed with its own volume of water, but in most cases it should, at the commencement of its use, be largely diluted, as with five or six parts of water. A cataplasm of chlorinated soda is prepared wiih linseed meal and equal parts of the liquor sodce chlorinates and water. Antidote.—(See Calcis Hypochloris.) 3. SO'D^ SULPHAS, L. E.D. (U. S.)—SULPHATE OF SODA. History.__Sulphate of soda (also called Natron Vitriolatum, Glauber's Salt, Sal Catharticus Glauberi, or Sal Mirabile Glauberi), was discovered in 1658 by Glauber. Natural History.—It occurs in both kingdoms of nature. a. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—As an efflorescence, the hydrous sulphate of soda is met with in vaiious parts of the world. In the anhydrous state, mixed with a minute portion of car- bonate of soda, it constitutes the mineral called Thenardite. Sulphate of soda is a constituent of many mineral waters; as those of Cheltenham, Leamington, and Spital (see p. 260.) y3. In the Organized Kingdom.—It is found in the ashes of some plants which grow by the sea-shore ; as the Tamarix gallica. Lastly, it is found in some of the animal fluids; as the blood and urine. SULPHATE OF SODA. 469 Preparation.—Sulphate of sqda is a product of several processes, especially of the manufacture of hydrochloric acid. The London College order of the salt which remains after the distillation of Hydrochloric Acid, lbij.; Boiling Water, Oij.; Carbonate of Soda as much as is necessary. Dissolve the salt in the water, add the carbonate of soda 60 long as effervescence takes place, boil the liquid, and when neutral filter it; wash the insoluble matter with boiling water, adding the water to the original liquid ; concentrate till a pellicle begins to form, and then let the liquid cool and crystallize. The Edinburgh College order of the salt which remains, after preparing Pure Muriatic Acid, lbij.; Boiling Water, Oiij.; White Marble, in powder, a sufficiency. Dissolve the Salt in the Water, then gradually add as much Carbonate of Soda as is sufficient to saturate the Acid. Boil down until a pellicle appears, and the solution being strained, set it aside lhat the crystals may be formed. The liquor being poured off, dry them. The directions of the Dublin College are as follows:—Let the salt which remains after the distillation of Muriatic Acid be dissolved in a sufficient quantity of hot water. Put aside the filtered liquor, that, after due evaporation, crystals may be formed by slow cooling. The salt which remains after the distillation of hydrochloric acid is sulphate of soda usually contaminated with some free sulphuric acid, to neutralize which the London College uses Carbonate of Soda, the Edinburgh College, Marble (carbo- nate of lime). In consequence of the enormous consumption of sulphate of soda in the manu- facture of carbonate of soda, makers of the latter article are obliged to procure sulphate purposely, by the addition of sulphuric acid to chloride of sodium. Properties.—It crystallizes in oblique rhombic prisms, which belong to the oblique prismatic system. To the taste this salt is cooling, Fig. 72. and bitterish saline. By exposure to the air it effloresces. When heated it undergoes the watery fusion, gives out its water of crystallization, and thereby becomes a white solid, and at a red heat it again becomes liquid. One part of it dissolves in three parts of water at 60°, or one part of water at 212°. It is insoluble in alcohol. Characteristics.—Its constituents, sulphuric acid and soda, may be detected by the tests of these substances before men- tioned (pp. 414 and 464). From the bisulphate of soda it is Prisms of Sulphate distinguished by its not reddening litmus, and by its less of Soda. solubility. Crystals of anhydrous sulphate of soda are dis- tinguished by their form being the rhombic octohedron, and by their not losing weight when heated. Composition.—The ordinary crystals of sulphate of soda have the following composition:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Wenzel. Soda................................ 1 ........ 32 ........ 19-75 .. ..... 1924 ........ 19-5 Sulphuric Acid....................... 1 ........ 40 ........ 24-69 ........ 24-76 ........ 24-3 Water...............................40 ........ 90 ........ 55-56 ........ 5600 ........ 55-2 Ordinary Crystals of Sulphate of Soda 1 ........ 162 ........ 100O0 ........ 10000 ........ 990 Purity.—The crystallized sulphate of soda of ihe shops is usually sufficiently pure for medical purposes. The presence of chlorides in it may be detected by nitrate of silver. Exposed to the air it falls to powder. Totally dissolved by water ; very slightly by alcohol. It does not alter the colour of litmus or turmeric. Nitrate of silver throws down scarcely any thing from a dilute solution ; nitrate of barytes more, which is not dissolved by nitric acid. 100 parts of this salt lose 55-5 parts by a strong heat. Ph. L. Physiological Effects.—It is a mild but efficient cooling laxative or purga- tive salt, promoting secretion and exhalation from the mucous membrane of the stomach and bowels, without causing inflammation or fever. lisns.—It is employed as a common purgative, either alone* or added lo other vol. i. 40 470 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. purgatives. It is applicable in fevers and inflammatory affections, where we want to evacuate the bowels without increasing or causing febrile disorder. Administration.—The usual dose of it is from six to eight drachms. When dried so as to expel the water of crystallization, three and a half drachms act as an efficient purgative. 4. SO'DiE BIBO'RAS, L.—BIBORATE OF SODA OR BORAX. (Sodse Boras, E. D.) (U. S.) History.—Pliny {Hist. Nat. lib. xxxiii.) describes a substance under the name of Chrysocotla, which has been supposed by some to be biborate of soda. The term Bauracon or Baurach (from which our word Borax is derived) first occurs in the writings of the Arabians. By some of these authors (as Mesue and Avi- cenna) it was applied to nitre (Beckmann, Hist, of Invent, and Discov. vol. iv. p. 539.): it is not improbable, however, that Geber {Search of Perfection, ch. iii.) used it to indicate our borax. By modern chemists the salt has been termed Bi- borate, Borate, or Sub-borate of Soda. Natural History.—Borax is a substance peculiar to the mineral kingdom. It has been found in some mineral waters ; as those of San Restituta, in Ischia. (Gairdner, On Mineral Springs, p. 414.) It occurs also in the waters of certain lakes, especially those of Thibet and Persia. Preparation—Borax is obtained in two ways :—1st, by refining native borax; 2dly, by saturating native boracic acid with soda. a. By refining Tincal.—About fifteen days' journey north from Teeshoo Lomboo [Tissoolumboo], in Thibet, is a lake, said to be about twenty miles in circumference, and supplied by brackish springs rising from the bottom of the lake itself. In consequence of its high situation, during a part of the year this lake is frozen over. The water of it contains, in solution, both common salt and borax. The latter crystallizes on the edges and shallows of the lake, and is taken up in large masses, which are broken and dried.1 It is stated that the natives mix it with an earth thinly covered with butter, to prevent the borax eva- porating !a It ia imported, usually from Calcutta, under the name of Tincal3 or Crude Borax {Borax cruda seu nativa), in the form of flattened six-sided prisms, co- loured with a greasy unctuous substance, said, by Vauquelin, to be a fatty matter, saponified by soda; the colour is yellowish, bluish, or greenish. Mojon states that the greenish gray matter which surrounds some kinds of rough borax, con- tains native boron. Various methods have been contrived for refining borax: some calcine it, to destroy the fatty matter, others wash it with an alkaline solu- tion (soda or lime), and then dissolve and crystallize. The product is called Refined Borax {Borax depurata seu purificata). /•?. By saturating Native Boracic Acid with Soda.—The mode of preparing boracic acid in Tuscany has been already described (see p. 399). The rough acid usually contains from 17 to 20 per cent, of impurities (water, sulphates of ammonia, magnesia, lime, and alumina, chloride of iron, sal ammoniac, traces of sulphuretted hydrogen, clay, sand, sulphur, a yellow colouring matter, and an azotized matter soluble in alcohol). It is converted into borax in the following way :—Dissolve carbonate of soda in water contained in tubs, lined with lead, and heated by steam. Add greatly pulverulent boracic acid. The evolved gas is passed through sulphuric acid to detain any carbonate of ammonia which may be contained in it. Boil the liquor, and let it stand for 10 or 12 hours. Then draw it off into wooden crystallizing vessels lined with lead. Here Rough or Crude Borax is deposited. This is refined by dissolving it in water, contained 1 Turner's Account of an Embassy to the Court of Tcshoo Lama, in Thibet, p. 400. Lond. 1800. > Anderson's periodical called The Bee, vol. xvii. p. 22. Edinb. 1793. 8 Prom Tincana, the Sanscrit name for borax; Royle's Essay on Medicine, p. 97. BIBORATE OF SODA. 471 in a tub lined with lead, and heated by steam ; add carbonate of soda, and crys- tallize. The crystals are allowed to drain, and, when dry, are packed in chests. Odohedral borax is obtained by employing more concentrated solutions : it de- posits at from 174 to 133 deg. F.1 Properties.—It usually occurs in large, colourless, transparent prisms, belong- ing to the oblique prismatic system {Prismatic Borax). It also occurs in octo- hedrons {Odohedral Borax). In commerce we frequently meet with it in irregular shaped masses. Its taste is saline, cooling, and somewhat alkaline. It reacts on turmeric paper- like an alkali. By exposure to the air it effloresces slowly and slightly. When heated it melts in its water of crystallization, swells up, and forms a light, white, porous substance, called Calcined Borax {Borax usta seu calcinata). At a higher temperature it fuses into a transparent glass {Glass of Borax,) which is anhydrous borax. It is soluble in twelve parts of cold, or in two parts of hot water. Characteristics.—Borax may be recognised by the following characters : it red- dens turmeric paper ; it fuses before the blow-pipe into a glass, which may be readily tinged by various metallic solutions—thus, rose red by terchloride of gold, and blue by solutions of cobalt: if a few drops of sulphuric acid be added to pow- dered borax, and then spirit of wine, the latter will, when fired, burn with a green- coloured flame; lastly, if, to a strong hot solution of borax, sulphuric acid be added, boracic acid will be deposited in crystals as the liquid cools. The tests now mentioned for the most part only prove the salt to be a borate: the nature of the case is determinable by the tests for soda before described (p. 464). Composition.—The following is ihe composition of borax:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. L. Gmelin. Kirwan. Berzelius. Soda....................... 1............32............16-84............17-8............17............16-31 Boracic Acid...............2............68............35-79............356............34............36-59 Water.....................10............90............47-37............46-6.............19............47-10 Crystal. Prismatic Borax.... 1...........190...........10000...........1000...........100..........10000 Odohedral borax contains only five equivalents of water. It offers several ad- vantages in the arts over the prismatic variety. (Guibourt, Hist, des Drog. t. i. p. 191, ed. 3me.) Physiological Effects.—The effects of borax have been imperfectly ascer- tained. Its local action is that ofa mild irritant: applied to sores it excites smart- ing, and, taken into the stomach in large doses, causes vomiting. The constitutional effects are probably those of a mild refrigerant and diuretic. Wohler and Stehberger detected it in the urine, so that it passes out of the system unchanged. By some writers it is regarded as an agent exercising a specific influence over the uterus; promoting menstruation, alleviating the pain which sometimes attends this process, facilitating parturition, diminishing the pain of accouchement, and favouring the expulsion of the placenta and lochia. (Vogt's Pharmacodinamik.) Farther evidence, however, is wanting to enable us either to admit or deny the supposed uterine influence of borax. Some recent English writers seem to enter- tain no doubt as to its promoting uterine contractions.3 Borax has also been regarded as producing the effects of alkalis on the system ; principally, I believe, from an erroneous notion that it was a sub-salt. (Vogt, op. cit.; and Sundelin, Heilmittellehre.) When Homberg asserted that boracic acid was a sedative, borax was supposed to possess similar properties. Uses.—As a local agent, borax is employed, as a detergent, in aphtha? and ulceration of the mouth. In some skin diseases it has been used wiih benefit: as ' Payen, Ann. de Chim. et de Physique, 3me Si':r. tome ii. p. 322. Juillet, 1841. i Dr'. Copland, Did. of Pract. Med. art. Abortion ; and an anonymous reviewer in the Brit, and For. Med. Ren. for July, ltflif, p. fU. 472 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. pityriasis versicolor (called also liver spots or chloasma). A solution of it in rose-water is employed as a cosmetic. In gonorrhoea and leucorrhcea an aqueous solution has been occasionally used, as an injection, with success. Lastly, in the form of ointment, (composed of 3j. of borax to 3j. of lard,) it has been applied to inflamed and painful hemorrhoidal tumours. Internally, it has been used to diminish the secretion of uric acid ; to act as a diuretic in dropsical affections; and to influence the uterus in the cases before mentioned. Dr. Copland recommends it, in conjunction with ergot of rye, to pro- mote uterine contractions. ADMiNisTRATioN.-vThe doses of it is from half a drachm to a drachm. As a detergent in aphthae it may be used in powder, mixed with sugar or with honey. MEL BORACIS, L- E. D. Honey of Borax; Mellite of Borax. (Borax, pow- dered, 3j«; Honey, [clarified, L. D.~\ gj.; Mix.) A convenient form for the em- ployment of borax in the aphthse of children. Dissolved in water it may be em- ployed as a gargle in ulceration of the mouth and throat. 5. SO'D^E NITRAS—NITRATE OF SODA. HrsTORY.—Duhamel, {Memoires de VAcademie Royale des Sciences, 1736, p. 215.) probably, was ihe discoverer of this salt, in 1736. It was first analyzed by Margraff {Opusc. ii. 331.) in 1761. It has been termed Cubic, Quadrangular or Rhomboidal Nitre {Nitrum cubicum, quadrangutare vel rliomboidale). Natural History.—It is peculiar to the mineral kingdom. Native nitrate of soda is found in South Peru. It exists in large beds, a few feet below the saline soil, or forming that soil in various places, from Arica on the north and west, to the course of the river Loa on the south. It is found in distinct strata, a thin layer of brown loam sepa- rating the parts.1 Native nitrate of soda, in fractured masses, has a granular structure, arising from the ag- gregation of irregular rhombic crystals, varying from fine grained to coarse grained. Colour, from snow white to reddish brown or gray. Odour peculiar; and, when warmed, resembling chloride of iodine dissolved in water. Its average composition is nitrate of soda, 64-98; sul- phate of soda, 3-00; chloride of sodium, 2869 ; iodic salts, 0-63; shells and marl, 2-68 = 98-90. (Ibid.) Extraction.—" The richest masses of the native salt are blasted or broken, and divided into small portions; with these copper kettles are in part filled, and water, or the mother water of former operations, is added, and heat applied, until a boiling and saturated solution is obtained. The solution is transferred to wooden coolers, where the nitrate of soda crystallizes. The undissolved salt remaining in the kettles is thrown aside, fresh salt being used each time, although not one half of the nitrate of soda is dissolved. The coolers are emptied after the crystals of nitrate have ceased to form : it is dried, packed in bags, and sent to the coast on mules." Commerce.—In 1839, duty (6d. per cwt.) was paid on 107,922 cwts. In 1840, on 130,211 cwts. {Trade List, Jan. 5, 1841.) Purification.—Rough nitrate of soda is purified, after its arrival in this country, by solution and re-crystallization. Properties.—It usually crystallizes in obtuse rhombohedral crystals, which belong to the rhombohedral system. Its taste is somewhat bitter. In moist air it is slightly deliquescent. It i3 soluble in about two parts of cold water, and in less than its own weight at 212°. It fuses by heat. Characteristics.—As a nitrate it is known by the characters of this class of salts already stated (p. 275). The nature of its base is recognised by thetesls for soda already described (p. 464). The yellow colour which it communicates to flame, as well as the shape of its crystals, readily distinguish it from nitrate of potash. Composition.—Crystallized nitrate of soda is anhydrous. 1 Haves, in Silliman's Journal; also in The Chemist, for February, 1841, No. xiv. p. 43. Rivero, in the Edinb'.Phil. Journal, vol. vii. p. 184. Edinb. 1822. PHOSPHATE OF SODA. 473 Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Wenzel. Longchamp. Soda................................ 1 ........ 32 ........ 37-2 ........ 375 ........ 37 65 NitricAcid......................... 1 ........ 54 ........ t*8 ........ 625 ........ 6325 Crystallized Nitrate of Soda.-........ 1 ........ 86 ........ 100 0 ........ 100-0 ........ 100-00 Physiological Effects.—Its effects are similar to those of nitrate of potash. According to Wolfers, (Richter, Ausfuhr. Arzneim. Bd. iv. S. 251.) from two to four drachms of it may be taken daily without any hurtful effect. Velsen states, that it does not so readily disturb digestion as nitrate of potash. Uses.—It is not employed in medicine in this country. As a substitute for nitrate of potash, it is used in the manufacture of nitric and sulphuric acids. It is employed by fire.work makers; and also as a manure, especially for wheat. {Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, for 1840 and 1841.) 6. SO'DE PHOSTHAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—PHOSPHATE OF SODA. History.—This salt was long known before its true nature was understood. In 1737, Hellot found it in the urine. It has been known by various names, such as Alcali Minerale and Sal Mirabile Perlatum. In the shops it is sold as Taste- less Purging Salts. Dr. Turner calls it Triphosphate of Soda and Basic Water. It is sometimes termed the Rhombic Phosphate of Soda, and not unfrequently Neutral Phosphate of Soda. Natural History.—Phosphate of soda occurs in both kingdoms of nature. tt. In the Inoik;anized Kingdom.—It is a constituent of some mineral waters, viz. those, of Steinbad at Toplitz, of Geilneu, Fachingen, Selters, and Neundorf. (Gairdner, On Mineral Springs, p. 19.) 0. In the Organized Kingdom.—It is a constituent of some animal fluids, as human urine. Preparation.—The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges give each a formula for its preparation. The London College admits it as an article of the Materia Medica ; that is, to be bought ready prepared. The Edinburgh College orders of Bones burnt to whiteness, Ibx.; Sulphuric Acid, Oij. and f3iv.; Carbonate of Soda, a sufficiency ; Pulverize the bones and mix them with the acid; add gradually six pints of water; digest for three days, replacing the water which evaporates; add six pints of boiling water, and strain through strong linen ; pass more boiling water through the mass on the filter till it comes away nearly tasteless. Let the impurities subside in the united liquors, pour off the clear fluid, and concentrate to six pints. Let the impurities again settle; and to the clear liquor, which is to be poured off and heated to ebullilion, add carbonate of soda, previously dissolved in boiling water, until the acid is completely neutralized. Set the solution aside to cool and crystallize. More crystals will be obtained by successively evapo- rating, adding a little carbonate of soda till the liquid exerts a feeble alkaline reaction on [reddened] litmus paper, and then allowing it to cool. Preserve the crystals in well-closed vessels. The Dublin College orders of Bone Ashes, reduced to powder, ten parts; Sulphuric Acid of commerce seven parts; and carbonate of soda, dissolved in hot water, eight parts. The directions for conducting the process are essentially the same as those of the Edinburgh College. [The directions of the U. S. P. are similar to those of the Edinburgh College.] The products obtained by the mutual reaction of sulphuric acid and bone-ash are sulphate of lime and superphosphate of lime; the latter remains in solution, while the former is, for the most part precipitated. On the addition of carbonate of soda to the liquor, phosphate of soda is formed in solution, subphosphate of lime is precipitated, and carbonic acid gas escapes. A slight excess of carbonate of soda promotes the formation of crystals of phosphate. Properties.—This salt crystallizes in oblique rhombic prisms, which are transparent, but by exposure to the air effloresce and become opaque. Their taste is cooling saline. They react feebly on vegetable colours like alkalis. When heated, they undergo the watery fusion, give out water, and form a white mass called pyrophosphate of soda : at a red heat this melts into a transparent glass. 474 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. called metaphosphaie of soda. The crystals of phosphate of soda require, for their solution, four times their weight of cold or twice their weight of hot water: they are nearly insoluble in alcohol. Characteristics.—The presence of soda in this salt is known by the tests for this base before mentioned (p. 464). The phosphoric acid in it is recognised as fol- lows: a solution of the phosphate throws down a white precipitate with acetate of lead, as well as with chloride of barium: the precipitate in both cases is a phosphate, and dissolves in nitric acid without effervescence: with nitrate of silver, the phosphate of soda occasions a yellow precipitate {subsesquiphosphate of silver, called by Graham tribasic phosphate of silver) soluble both in nitric acid and ammonia : pyrophosphate of soda, obtained by healing the phosphate, produces, wilh nitrate of silver, a white precipitate {neutral phosphate of silver; pyrophosphate of silver ; dipyrophosphate of oxide of silver): hydrosulphuric acid, as well as the hydrosulphates, occasion no change in a solution of phosphate of soda. Phosphate of soda fuses upon charcoal, in the outer flame of the blowpipe, and becomes distinctly crystalline upon cooling. Composition.—The following is the composition of this salt:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Soda....................... 1 ........ 32 ....... 37-73 ........ 1767 Phosphoric Acid............ 1 ........ 36 ....... 19-94 ........ 20-33 Water.................... 12J........ 1125....... 62-33 ........ 6200 Crystallized Phosphate Soda 1 ........ 1805 ....... 10000 ........ 100 00 By Graham, (the equivalent of phosphorus is, according to Graham, 31*44.) Turner, and some other chemists, the equivalent weight of phosphoric acid is assumed to be about double (viz. 71*44) that which I have adopted. On this hypothesis, the above salt contains 2 equivalents of soda, and 25 equivalents of water. Of this quantity of water, 1 equivalent is assumed to be basic, and the remaining 24 equivalents to be water of crystallization : so that the following is the constitution of the salt: HO, 2 NaO, Pa 06 -f 24 HO. Impurity.—As met with in commerce, this salt is usually tolerably pure. Exposed to the air it slightly effloresces. It is totally dissolved by water, but not by alcohol. What is thrown down from the solution by chloride of barium is white: the precipitate by nitrate of silver is yellow, unless the phosphate has been previously made red hot. Both precipitates are soluble in nitric acid. Ph. Lond. If the precipitate caused by the chloride of barium be not totally soluble in nitric acid, a sulphate is present. If that caused by nitrate of silver do not entirely dissolve in nitric acid, a chloride is present. "An efflorescent salt: 45 grains dissolved in two fluid ounces of boiling distilled water, and precipitated by a solution of 50 grains of carbonate of lead in a fluid ounce of pyroligneous acid, will remain precipitable by solution of acetate of lead." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects—.In doses of an ounce, or an ounce and a half, it acts as a mild antiphlogistic purgative, like sulphate of soda. In small and con- tinued doses it has been used with the view of altering the composition of the blood, and of promoting the deposition of phosphate of lime in the bones. Uses.—As a purgative it is employed in the diseases of children and delicate persons, in preference to other saline substances, on account of.its slight taste and mild action on the stomach. It is well adapted for febrile and inflammatory disorders. It is one of the substances which have been employed in cholera, to restore to the blood its deficient saline matters. (Dr. O'Shaughnessy, Report on the Chemi- cal Pathology of the Malignant C/wlera, p. 54.) On account of the phosphoric acid which it contains it has been supposed to be particularly applicable in those diseases in which there is a deficiency of phosphate of lime in the bones. It has also been administered in diabetes. Administration.—As a purgative it is given in doses of from six to twelve CARBONATE OF SODA. 475 drachms. It is best taken in broth or soup. As an alterative the dose is one or two scruples three or four times a day. SOUTH) SOM PH0SPHAT1S, E. Solution of Phosphate of Soda. (Phosphate of Soda, [free of efflorescence,] grs. clxxv.; distilled Water, fjviij. Dissolve the salt in the water, and keep the solution in well-closed bottles.)—Used only as a test (see Lithargyrum, Plumbi Acetas, Plumbi Carbonas, and Magnesia Sulphas). 1. SO'DiE CAR 'BON AS, (U. S.)—CARBONATE OF SODA. History.—This salt, as well as the sesquicarbonate of soda, was probably known to the ancients under the term of virgov or nitrum. (Vide Potassa Nitras, p. 442; also Soda Sesquicarbonas.) The Salt Alkali, or Sagimen Vitri of Geber {Invent, of Verity, ch. iv.; and Search of Perfection, ch. iii.) was a car- bonate of soda: the word Sagimen is a corruption of the Hindoo term Sajjiloon. (Dr. Royle, Essay on Hindoo Medicine, p. 41.) In modern times this salt has had various appellations, such as Mild Mineral ox Fossil Alkali, Aerated Mineral Alkali, Subcarbonate of Soda, and Nitrum Carbonicum. Natural History.—This salt is peculiar to the inorganized kingdom. It is found in crystals, or in the form of an efflorescent powder, in several parts of the world. According to Klaproth (Dr. Thomson, Outlines of Mineralogy, vol. i. p. 96.) it occurs at Debre- zin, in Hungary, and Montenuovo, near Naples. Beudant (Necker, in his Regne Mineral, t. 2nde, p. 667), has analyzed three native carbonates of soda; one from Lac Blanc, in Hungary; a second from Egypt; and a third from Vesuvius. Carbonate of soda is a constituent of some mineral waters, which are in consequence, termed alkaline, or when they also contain a large excess of carbonic acid, acidulo alkaline. (See pp. 258 and 261.) Preparation.—It may be procured from Barilla, from Kelp, or from Sulphate of Soda. l. Preparation of Barilla.—The substance called Barilla, {Soda Carbonas ve- nalc, Barilla, D.) is an ash usually obtained by the combustion of plants belonging to the order Chenopodiacea; as the Salsolas, Salicornias, and Chenopodiums. These are cultivated on the coasts, and when ripe are cut, dried, and burned in heaps : the resulting ash is barilla. It is a hard grayish or bluish mass, not deli- quescent, having an alkaline acrid taste, and a peculiar odour. Ii consists of Carbonate and Sulphate of Soda, Sulphuret and Chloride of Sodium, Carbonate of Lime, Alumina, Silica, Oxide of Iron, and Carbonaceous matter which has escaped combustion. The carbonate of soda is produced by the decomposition of the oxalate and other organic salts of soda contained in the plants before combus- tion. Several varieties of barilla are known in the market: they are distinguished by the names of the places from whence they are imported; namely, the Grand Canary and Teneriffe Islands, Alicant, Sicily, Carthagena, and the East Indies. Canary Barilla is procured from Salsola Kali; (Loudon, Encyclopadia of Agriculture.) Alicant Barilla {Soda Hispanica ; Soda Alicantina) is obtained from Salsola saliva, Chenopodium setigerum, and other species. (Lagasca, quoted in De Candolle's Phys. Veg. p. 388.) It yields from 25 to 40 per cent, of carbonate of soda. Sicily Barilla is procured principally from Salsola sativa: it furnishes, according to Fee, {Cours dHist. Nat. t. 2nd, p. 488.) 55 per cent, of carbonate of soda. Of the French Barillas two only deserve notice; namely, that of Narbonne, obtained from Salicornia herbacea, and which yields 14 or 15 per cent, of carbonate; and that of Aiguemortes, called Blanquette, and which contains from 3 to 8 per cent, of alkaline carbonate. The importation of barilla has very much fallen off of late years, in conse- quence of the extraction of carbonate of soda from the sulphate of soda. In 1827 the quantity imported was 326,239 cwts. ;* whereas, in 1840, it was only 284 tons. ( Trade List, Jan. 5, 1841.) A General Statement of the Imports and Exports, printed by order of the Home of Commons, 24th Feb. 1829. 476 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. a. Preparation of Kelp.—Kelp, (called by the French Varec or Normandy Soda) is procured by the combustion of cryptogamic plants of the order Algacea. According to Dr. Greville {Alga Britannica, p. xxi.), the species most valued for this purpose are Fucus vesiculosus nodosus and serratus, Laminaria digi- tata (see fig. 47, p. 231) and bulbosa, Himanthalia lorea, and Chorda Filum. These are burned in coffers of stone or in kilns. About 24 tons of sea-weed are required to produce one ton of kelp. (Macculloch's Western Islands, vol. i. p. 123.) The resulting ash is kelp. As met with in commerce, it consists of hard, dark gray or bluish masses, which have an acrid caustic taste, and are composed of Chloride of Sodium, about five per cent, of Carbonate of Soda, (formed by the decomposition of the oxalate and other organic salts of soda,) Sulphates of Soda and Potash, Chloride of Potassium, Iodide of Potassium or Sodium, and Inso- luble and Colouring Matters. By digesting kelp in a small quantity of water, and filtering and evaporating the solution, crystals of carbonate of soda may be procured. But as this salt can be procured at a lower price and of finer quality from artificial soda, kelp is now of little value as a source of soda. In the Orkney islands, about 20,000 persons were, a few years since, occupied in the manufac- ture of kelp. (Greville, op. cit.) 3. Preparation of Soda-Ash from Sulphate of Soda.—The principal manufacto- ries are situated in the northern parts of the kingdom, and are conducted on a most extensive scale. The process adopted varies in some of its details in diffe- rent places. The sulphate of soda employed is, in part, obtained from manufacturers of chloride of lime, who procure a considerable quantity in the process for genera- ting chlorine. But the greater paruof it is made expressly, by adding sulphuric acid to common salt (chloride of sodium). The hydrochloric acid gas evolved in this process is highly injurious to vegetable and animal life,1 and various contri. vances have been resorted to, to prevent its escape into the atmosphere, as by absorbing it by water or lime. The sulphate of soda, reduced to powder, is usually decomposed by mixing it with an equal weight of ground chalk and half its weight of small coal ground and sifted, and heating the mixture in a very hot reverberatory furnace. During the operation it is frequently stirred. The product has a dark gray or blackish appearance, and is called British Barilla or Ball Alkali. It consists of carbonate of soda and oxisulphuret of calcium. During the operation carbonic oxide gas escapes. The following diagram explains the re- actions :— MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. 9 eq. Carbon ... 54-----------------------------—------------—^^10 eq. Carbonic ^-^ZZZZ?/ Oxide ...... 140 ' 1 eq. Carbonic t 1 eq. Carbon 6- Acid.......22 j 2 eq. Oxygen 16- _ _,. ,, „n j 2 eq. Carbonic Acid............44--. 3 e(l- Chalk.....150i . .. «.*««?. Oxygen 16/* \Zeq.Lime... 56 \ g ^. CalJcfum 40 • 1.1 eq. Lime....................28 /'"■■ ■■■..,.-------leq. Lime--- 23) | s 2 eq. Sulphate ( 2 eq. Sulphuric ( 6 eq. Oxygen 48^____________^—'■^2 eq. Sulphuret Soda.........144 < Acid......80 j 2 eq. Sulphur 32 '*•.. Calcium..... 72 f 2 eq. Soda.....................64------------------2 eq. Carbonate f Soda........ 103 o By theory, the ball alkali should contain about 30 per cent, of carbonate of soda; but the quantity is in general only 22 per cent. Ball alkali is lixiviated with water, and the carbonate of soda thereby separated from the more difficultly soluble^ oxisulphuret of calcium. The solution, by evaporation, yields a dark crystalline mass, composed of carbonate of soda, * See p. 265 et seq.—A very humorous account of the unpleasant effects of this gag is contained in the report ofa trial at Lancaster, March 21, 1838, the Queen v. Airey. in the Times newspaper. CARBONATE OF SODA. 477 caustic soda, and some sulphuret of sodium. This is roasted in a reverberatory furnace, to get rid of the sulphur. Or it is calcined with saw-dust. The pro- duct is called soda-ash or soda-salt, and contains about 50 per cent, of alkali.1 Purification.—The London and Dublin Colleges give directions for the puri- fication of the impure carbonate of soda of commerce. The London College orders of impure Carbonate of Soda, Jb. ij.; Distilled Water, Oiv. Boil the impure carbonate of soda in the water, and strain it while hot. Lastly, set it by, that crys- tals may be formed. The Dublin College directs Carbonate of Soda to be prepared from Barilla, in the same way. The operations ajc to be repeated until the crystals are sufficiently pure. On the large scale, crystallized carbonate of soda is obtained from soda-ash by lixiviating the latter with water, straining the solution, and evaporating. The salt is usually crystallized in iron pans. Properties.—Carbonate of soda usually forms large crystals, which are oblique rhombic prisms. They are transparent, and have a cooling alkaline taste. By Fig. 73. Fig. 74. Crystal reduced in height. Ordinary Crystal. exposure to the air they effloresce. When heated they undergo the watery fusion, and give out their water of crystallization ; at a red heat Ihe whole of the water is expelled. Carbonate of soda is insoluble in alcohol. It dissolves in twice its weight of water at 60°, and in less than its own weight at 212° F. The solu- tion reacts as an alkali on vegetable colours. Characteristics.—As a carbonate it is known by the tests for this class of salts already stated (vide p. 310). From the bicarbonate it is distinguished by the brick-red precipitate which it throws down with bichloride of mercury. Sulphate of magnesia causes a white precipitate with it. As a soda-salt it is recognised by the tests for this class of salts already stated (p. 464). Composition.—The perfect crystals of the ordinary carbonate of soda of com- merce have the following composition :— Atoms. Soda............................ 1 Carbonic Acid................... 1 Water.......................... 10 Eq. Wt. Per Cent. .. 3-2 ........ 2225 . .. 22 ........ 15-25 . .. 90 ........ 62-5 . Klaproth. .. 22 .. 16 .. 62 Crystallized Carbonate of Soda 144 100-00 ........ 100 Impurity.—The ordinary impurities of this salt are sulphates and chlorides. These are detected as follows :—Supersaturate wilh nitric acid, and then add, to separate portions of the diluted solution, chloride of barium and nitrate of silver : if the first occasion a white precipitate it indicates the presence of a sulphate ; if the 1 For farther details consult Dumas, Traite de Chimie, t. ii.; Graham, Elements of Chemistry ; Brande, Manual of Chemistry ; Duncan, Edinburgh Dispensatory; and Ure's Dictionary of Arts. 478 elements of materia medica. second also produce a white precipitate, soluble in ammonia, but insoluble in nitric acid, it shows the presence of a chloride. When freshly prepared it [Crystallized Carbonate of SodaTis translucent, but in an open ves. sel it in a short time falls to powder. It is totally soluble in water, but not at all in alcohol. It alters the colour of turmeric like an alkali. Ph. L. "A solution of 21 grains in a fluid-ounce of distilled water, precipitated by 19 grains of ni- trate of baryta, remains precipitable by more of the test; and the precipitate is entirely soluble in nitric acid. Little subject to adulteration." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—Carbonate of soda is less acrid, and has a milder and less unpleasant taste, than carbonate of potash ; but in other respects the effects of these two salts on both vegetables and animals are the same. Uses.-—Carbonate of soda is used in the same cases as carbonate of potash, over which it has the advantage ofa less disagreeable taste. Fourcroy imagined that, as soda is contained in animals in larger proportion than potash, it was a better agent for medicinal use. Experience, however, has not confirmed this opi- nion, but has proved the reverse; for both Sir G. Blane1 and Mr. Brande3 state that they obtained beneficial effects, in calculous complaints, from the use of pot- ash, where soda failed to give any relief. Sir G. Blane accounted for this by assuming that soda becomes applied to the purposes of ihe economy before it reaches the kidneys, whereas potash is carried to these organs in order to be thrown out of the system. Administration.—Crystallized carbonate of soda is exhibited in doses of from ten grains to half a drachm or a drachm. It is sometimes employed in the manu- facture of the effervescing draught. 20 grains of Crystallized C 9f grs. of Commercial Crystals of Citric Acid, Carbonate of Soda are < 10J grs. of Crystals of Tartaric Acid, saturated by about . . ( f3ijss. of Lemon Juice. Antidotes.—See Potassa, p. 422. SOM CARBONAS EXSICCATA, L. Soda Carbonas siccatum, E. D. [Soda Car- bonas Exsiccatus, U. S.] Dried Carbonate of Soda. Carbonate of Soda, lbj. Apply heat to the Carbonate-of Soda in a proper vessel until it is dried, and after- wards heat it to redness. Lastly, rub it to powder, L.—The processes of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges are essentially the same. Fifty-four grains of this preparation are equal to one hundred and forty-four grains of the crystallized carbonate. It may be exhibited'either in powder or pills. Dose from grs. v. to 3j. 8. SO'BM SESQTJICAR'BONAS, L.—SESQUICARBONATE OF SODA. In the province of Sukena, near Tripoli, is found a substance which the Afri- cans call Trona—a word from which are probably derived the terms virpov, nitrum, and nitron. (Vide Potassa Nitras and Soda Carbonas.) But the analyses of Klaproth, {Beitrage, iii. 83.) Phillips, {Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. vii. 297.) and Beudant, (Quoted by Necker, Regne Mineral, ii. 668.) show that the proportion of carbonic acid which it contains is that ofa sesquicarbonate. From the analysis of MM. Mariano de Rivero and Boussingault {Ann. de Chim. et Phys. xxix. 110.) it appears that the substance termed Urao, and which occurs at the bottom of a lake at Lagunillas, near Marida, in South America, has a simi- lar composition. (For an account of this lake, see Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. i. p. .188.) The white powder sold in the shops of this country for making Soda Poiv- ders, and which is denominated Carbonate, Bicarbonate, or Sesquicarbonate of Soda {Soda Sesquicarbonas, Ph. L.) consists either of bicarbonate of soda or of 1 Transactions ofa Society for the Improvement of Med. and Chirur. Knowledge, iii. 347. a Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. vi. p. 205. bicarbonate of soda. 479 a mixture of carbonate and bicarbonate of soda, in varying proportions. The lat- ter two substances may be detected as follows:—Wash the so-called sesquicar- bonate with a small quantity of distilled water, and filter: the solution usually contains carbonate of soda (known by its throwing down a brick-red precipitate on the addition of a solution of bichloride of mercury)—while there remains on the filler bicarbonate of soda (recognised by its causing a white precipitate, or a slight milkiness or opalescence with a solution of bichloride of mercury). Some- limes the substance sold as sesquicarbonate of soda (For farther details, see Soda Bicarbonas.) consists wholly of bicarbonate. The composition of native crystallized sesquicarbonate of soda is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct. Boussingault. Klaproth. Urao. Trona. Soda........................ 1 ........ 32 ........ 38-55 ........ 3862 ........ 370- CarbonicAcid............... H........ 33 ........ 39-76 ........ 40 13 ........ 380 Water...................... 2 ........ 18 ........ 2P69 ........ 21*24 ........ 225 Sulphate Soda............... —........ — ........ — ........ — ........ 2 5 Native Sesquicarbonate Soda 1 ........ 83 ........ 10000 .......- 99-99 ........ 1000 Like the so-called hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia (pp. 292 and 293) it is probably a double salt, composed of one equivalent of the carbonate and one equivalent of the bicarbonate of soda. 9. SO'DiE BICAR'BONAS, E. D. (U. S.)—BICARBONATE OF SODA. History.—This salt was discovered by Valentine Rose. In some works it is termed Natron Carbonicum perfede saturatum seu acidulum. Alone or mixed with carbonate of soda it constitutes the Soda Sesquicarbonas of the London Pharmacopoeia,—the Carbonate or Bicarbonate of Soda of the shops. Natural History__It is a constituent of the mineral waters called acidulo- alkaline, as those of Carlsbad and Seltzer (see pp. 276 and 279). Preparation.—All the British Colleges give formulae for the preparation of bi- carbonate or sesquicarbonate of soda. The London College orders the sesquicarbonate (o be prepared with Carbonate of Soda, lbvij.; Distilled Water, Cong. j. Dissolve the Carbonate of Soda in the water, and strain ; then pass Carbonic Acid into the solution to saturation, that the salt may subside. Wrapped and pressed in cloth, dry this with a gentle heat. The Edinburgh College orders the bicarbonate to be prepared as follows:—Fill with fragments of marble a glass jar, open at the bottom and tubulated at the top; close the bottom in such a way as to keep in the marble without preventing the free passage ofa fluid ; connect the tubula- ture closely by a bent tube and corks with an empty bottle, and this in like manner with another bottle filled wilh one part of Carbonate of Soda, and two parts of Dried Carbonate of Soda, well triturated together; and let the tube be long enough lo reach Ihe bottom of the bottle. Before closing the last cork closely, immerse the jar to the top in diluted muriatic acid contained in any convenient vessel; when the whole apparatus is thus filled with carbonic acid gas, secure the last cork tightly, and let the action go on till next morniug, or till gas is no longer absorbed by the salt. Remove the damp salt which is formed, and dry it, either in the air without heat, or at a temperature not above 120°. The Dublin College orders of Carbonate of Soda, two parts; Water, Jive parts. Dissolve. Let the liquor be exposed in a suitable apparatus to the stream of Carbonic Acid Gas, which escapes during the solution of white marble in diluted Muriatic Acid, until it shall have ceased to absorb gas, and let it rest until crystals form : then, with a heat not exceeding 120°, let the liquor evapo- rate and crystals be formed by cooling; these are to be mixed with the former, dried and pre- served in a close vessel. [The mode of preparing this salt, according to the U. S. P., is the following : Take of Carbo- nate of Soda, in crystals, a convenient quantity. Break the crystals in pieces, and put them into a wooden box, having a transverse partition near the bottom pierced with numerous small holes, and a cover which can be tightly fitted on. To a botlle having two tubulatures, and half filled with water, adapt two lubes, one connected with an apparatus for generating Carbonic Acid and ter- minating under the water in the bottle, the other commencing at the tubulature in which it is in- serted, and entering the box by an opening near the bottom, beneath the partition. Then lute all the joints, and cause a stream of Carbonic Acid to pass through the water into the box, until the 480 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Carbonate of Soda is fully saturated. Carbonic Acid is obtained from marble by the addition of dilute Sulphuric Acid. This process is the one adopted in Philadelphia and is " economical, efficient, and to be relied on."—Report of Committee of Philadelphia College of Pharmacy.] " In the manufacture of this bicarbonate for the purpose of commerce, 160 lbs. of carbonate may be dissolved in 13 gallons of water, and carbonic acid thrown into the solution in a proper apparatus. The bicarbonate falls, as it forms, to the amount of about 50 lbs., and being separated from the solution, may be conve- niently dried by pressure in an hydraulic press. A fresh portion of carbonate is dissolved in the mother liquor, and the operation repeated as before." (Brande, Manual of Chemistry, 5th edit. 1841.) The carbonic acid used in this process is usually procured artificially, by the action of diluted sulphuric acid on carbonate of lime. In some countries, how- ever, it is obtained from natural sources; as at Vichy, where it is collected from the mineral waters.1 Smith's process (the one stated to be that of U. S. P.) for the preparation of bicarbonate of soda consists in placing the ordinary carbonate of soda in a box, and surrounding it by an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas under pressure. As the bicarbonate combines with much less water of crystallization than is contained in the carbonate, a considerable portion of water is liberated, which, saturated with part of the salt, is allowed to drain off: when the gas ceases to be absorbed, the salt is taken out and dried. On examination it is found to have retained the ori- ginal form of the pieces; but they have become of a porous and loose texture, pre- senting the appearance of numerous crystalline grains, aggregated together, and having a snow-white colour." At Glasgow, sesquicarbonate [bicarbonate?] of soda is prepared by exposing the carbonate, dry, and in powder, to an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas : it ab- sorbs the requisite quantity to be converted into a sesquicarbonate. (Dr. T. Thomson, Athenaum for 1840, p. 771.) In the London Pharmacopoeia for 1809, it was ordered to be prepared by adding the hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammo- nia to a solution of carbonate of soda, and applying a heat of about 100° F., to drive off the ammonia : the solution is then to be set aside to crystallize. The proportions of the ingredients employed Avere a pound of carbonate of soda, three ounces of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, and a pint of distilled water. Winckler {Lehrb. d. Pharm. Chemie, lerTh. S. 292.) directs 4 parts of crystallized carbo- nate of soda, l£ parts of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, and 10 parts of water. The proportions ordered by MM. Henry and Guibourt {Pharm. Raisonnee, t. 2nde,p. 409, ed. 2ade.) axe 6 parts of the crystallized carbonate of soda, 2 parts of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, and 4 parts of water. Properties___Perfect crystals of bicarbonate of soda are, according to Dr. Thomson, {Chem. of Inorg. Bodies, vol. ii. p. 54.) oblique rectangular prisms. As usually met with, this salt constitutes a white crystalline mass, or a whitish powder. In the latter state it is usually contaminated with a small portion of the carbonate. The taste of this salt, and its reaction on vegetable colours, are slightly alkaline. By exposure to the air it effloresces superficially. When heated it evolves carbonic acid and water, and becomes the anhydrous carbonate. It dis- solves in 13 parts, according to Rose, or 8 parts, according to Berthollet, of cold water. By heat the solution loses first one quarter, and subsequently one-half of its carbonic acid. Characteristics.—To recognise the carbonic acid and soda of this salt, the tests are the same as before described (vide p. 464) for the carbonate of soda. From the latter salt the bicarbonate of soda is distinguished by its more difficult solu- 1 For a description and sketch of the apparatus used in the collection of the gas by D'Arcet, see Diet, de FIndust. 3me, t. p. 61. a Journ. of the Philadelphia College of Pharm. vol. i., quoted by Dr. Bache, in the United States Dispensatory. For a sketch of the apparatus employed by Soubeiran, in performing Smith's process, see his Nouv. Traite de Pharm. t. 2me, pp. 289 and 284, 2nde ed. Paris, 1840. BICARBONATE OF SODA. 4S1 bility in water, by its causing neither a brick-red precipitate with the bichloride of mercury, nor a white precipitate with the sulphate of magnesia of the shops. Composition.—Crystallized bicarbonate of soda has the following composi- tion :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Rose. Berthollet. Berard. Soda........................................1.........32.........3404........37........31-75........2!»-85 Carbonic Acid...............................2.........44.........46SO........49........4440........4i)95 Water......................................2.........18.........1914........14........23-85........20 20 Crystallized Bicarbonate of Soda.............1.........94 ........99-98.......100.......10000.......10000 According to Dr. Thomson {First Principles of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 268.) this salt contains only one equivalent of water of crystallization. Purity.—When quite pure, this salt occasions no precipitate with bichloride of platinum, perchloric acid, or tartaric acid, by which its freedom from potash is demonstrated. When supersaturated with pure nitric acid, it gives no precipitate with either chloride of barium or nitrate of silver, by which the absence of sulphates and chlorides is shown. Lastly, it occasions a white precipitate or opalescence, with bichloride of mercury, by which the freedom from a simple or mono-carbonate is shown. It is totally dissolved by water. Neither chloride of platina nor sulphate of magnesia, unless heated, throws down any thing from this solution. By a strong fire it is converted into anhydrous carbonate of soda. Ph. Lond. " A solution in 40 parts of water does not give an orange precipitate with solution of corrosive sublimate." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—The effects of this salt are analogous to those of bicarbonate of potash, than which it is regarded as having a somewhat less dis- agreeable taste and a slighter local action. It is less caustic and irritant than the carbonate of soda. Its remote or constitutional effects are analogous to those of the caustic alkalis. (Vide Potassa, p. 424.) Uses.—It is employed as an antacid, in those forms of dyspepsia which are attended with an inordinate quantity of acid in the stomach; as a lithontriptic, in those kinds of lithiasis which are accompanied with an excessive secretion of uric acid and the urates; as a resolvent or alterative, in certain forms of inflammation, in glandular affections, in syphilis, and scrofula; and as a diuretic, in some drop- sical complaints. (See Potash, p. 424, and Carbonate of Soda, p. 475.) The principal consumption of bicarbonate of soda {Soda*Sesquicarbonas, Ph. L.) is in the preparation of the effervescing draught, soda-powders, and Seidlitz powders: in these the bicarbonate is mixed with a vegetable acid (either citric or tartaric, usually the latter). Taken in a state of effervescence, a solution of this kind is an agreeable and refreshing drink for allaying thirst, checking sickness, and diminishing febrile heat, as I have before mentioned. (See pp. 312, 367, and 370.) The resulting soda-salt (tartrate or citrate) undergoes a partial digestion in its passage through the system, and is converted into carbonate, which is found in the urine. Hence, therefore, these effervescing preparations may be employed as diuretics and lithontriptics, instead of the simple carbonate or bicarbonate of soda, than which they are more agreeable. On the other hand, they are highly objectionable, and are to be carefully avoided, in the treatment of phosphatic de- posits in the urine. Alluding to these cases, Dr. Prout1 observes, " were 1 required to name the remedy calculated to do the most mischief, I should name the common saline draught, formed of potash or soda, and some vegetable acid." Administration.—The dose of this salt is from ten grains to a drachm. In the preparation of effervescing draughts, a scruple of the powder sold in the shops as bicarbonate of soda {Soda Sesquicarbonas, Ph. L.) usually requires about 18 • Inquiry into the Nature and Treatment of Affections of the Urinary Organs, 2d ed. p. 145. VOL. I. 41 482 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. grains of crystallized tartaric acid, or about 17 grains of the ordinary crystals of citric acid, or four fluid drachms of lemon juice, to saturate it. 1. PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES, E. Effervescing Powders. (Tartaric Acid, 3j.; Bicarbonate of Soda, 3j* and grs. liv.; or Bicarbonate of Potash, 3j. and grs. clx. Reduce the acid and either bicarbonate separately to fine powder, and divide each into sixteen powders; preserve the acid and alkaline powders in separate papers of different colours.)—The soda powders of the shops consist of 30 grains of bicarbonate of soda, contained in a blue paper, and 25 grains of tartaric acid, in a white paper. When taken, they should be dissolved in half a pint of water. The flavour of the solution is improved by adding to the water, before dissolving the acid, one or two drachms of simple syrup, and either half a drachm of the tincture of orange-peel, or two or three drops of the essence of lemon. Ginger- beer powders are made in the same way as soda powders, except that five grains of powdered ginger and a drachm of white sugar are mixed with the bicarbonate of soda. % SEIDLITZ POWDERS.—These consist of two drachms of Tartarized Soda and two scruples of Bicarbonate of Soda contained in a blue paper, and half a drachm of powdered Tartaric Acid in a white paper. These are to be taken dissolved in half a pint of water, while the liquid is in a state of effervescence. These form an agreeable and mild aperient. Why they are called Seidlitz powders I cannot divine, as they have no analogy to Seidlitz water. I. LIQUOR SODjE EFFERVESCENS, L. Soda Aqua Effervescens, E.; Aqua Car- bonatis Soda Acidula, D.; Effervescing Solution of Supercarbonate of Soda; » Soda Water, properly so called. (Sesquicarbonate [Bicarbonate, E.~\ of Soda, 3j.; Distilled Water, Oj. Dissolve the carbonate in the water, and pass into it, compressed by force, more carbonic acid than is sufficient for saturation. Keep the solution in a well-stoppered vessel, L. E.-—The process of the Dublin Phar- macopoeia is essentially similar, except that carbonate of soda is substituted for the bicarbonate.)—This solution is employed in the same cases as bicarbonate of soda. The additional quantity of carbonic acid contained in it renders it more agreeable, and not less effectual, as an alkaline agent, in its operation on the system generally. It is employed to counteract or prevent the inordinate secretion of uric acid and the urates; but both this and soda-water powders are highly injurious in phosphatic deposits. (See p. 481.) The bottled soda water of the shops is in general only carbonic acid water. (See p. 314.) If, after it has ceased to effervesce, tartaric acid be added, the effervescence is not renewed unless an alkaline carbonate be present. Liquor soda effervescens may be extemporaneously made, by pouring carbonic acid water into a tumbler containing half a drachm of bicarbonate of soda. A fraudulent imitation of soda water is said to have been practised, by adding a few drops of sulphuric acid to a solution of carbonate of soda in water, and instantly corking the bottle. The fraud may be detected by chloride of barium, which throws down a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid. 4. SODjE CARBONATIS AQUA, D. Solution of Carbonate of Soda. (Take of Car- bonale of Soda any required quantity; dissolve in water, and let the specific gravity of the liquor be to that of distilled water as 1024 to 1000. A liquor of the same specific gravity is prepared by dissolving an ounce of crystallized carbonate of soda in a [wine] pint of distilled water.) Dose from f 3iij. to f 3ij. 5, TROCHISCI SODJ BICARBONATIS, E. Soda Lozenges. (Bicarbonate of Soda, 3j.; Pure Sugar, 3iij.; Gum Arabic, 3ss. Pulverize them, and, with mucilage, beat them into a proper mass for making lozenges.) Employed to relieve too great acidity of stomach. TARTRATE OF POTASH AND SODA. 483 POTAS'S.E ET SO OE TARTRAS, E. D— TARTRATE OF POTASH AND SODA. (Sods Potasgio-Tartrai, L.) (Sodae et Potassse Tartras, U. S.) History.—This salt was discovered by Seignette, an apothecary at Rochelle, in 1672, and hence it is frequently termed Seignetle's Salt, or Sel de Seignette. (Beckmann's Hist, of Invent, vol. iv. p. 616). He called it Alkaline Salt, Sal Polychrest, and Rochelle Salt, {Sal Rupellensis). To distinguish it from the sal polychrest (sulphate of potash) of other writers, it is sometimes denominated Sal Polychrestum Seignetti. It is often called Tartarized Soda {Soda Tartarizata seu Natron Tartarizatum). Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for its preparation. The London College orders of Bitartrate of Potash, powdered, 3xvj.; Carbonate of Soda, 3xij.; Boiling Water, Oiv. Dissolve the carbonate of soda in the boiling water, and add gradually the bitartrate of potash. Strain the liquor ; then apply a gentle heat until a pellicle floats, and set it aside that crystals may be formed. The liquor being poured off, dry them. Evaporate the liquor again that it may yield crystals. [The Formula of the U. S. Pharma- copoeia is the same.] The Edinburgh College orders the same quantities. The Dublin College employs Carbonate of Soda, five parts; Bitartrate of Potash, reduced to the finest powder, seven parts ; Hot Water, fifty parts. In this process the excess of acid in the bitartrate of potash is saturated by the soda of the carbonate, while the carbonic acid of the latter is disengaged. Properties___This salt is met with in large, transparent, and regularly-shaped right rhombic prisms ; but curiously enough, the crystals are frequently produced in halves (as in fig. 76). Their taste is mildly saline and bitter. Exposed to the Fio. 76. P Natural Half of ditlo. air they slightly effloresce. When heated they undergo the watery fusion, evolve their water of crystallization, and are decomposed : the residue consists of char- coal and the carbonates of potash and soda. They are readily soluble in cold, and still more so in hot water. Characteristics.—This salt may be recognised by the shape and size of the crystals. Sulphuric acid added to the aqueous solution throws down small crys- tals of bitartrate of potash ; perchloric acid throws down perchlorate of potash : Ihe chlorides o'f barium and calcium occasion white precipitates, soluble in excess of water, and composed of soda, tartaric acid, and, in the one case, baryta, in the other, lime : bichloride of platinum produces a yellow precipitate of the platinum- chloride of potassium. Heated with the bichloride of platinum it yields a black precipitate. Nitrate of silver occasions a white precipitate, {tartrate of silver,) soluble in excess of water. When heated, Rochelle salt is decomposed, various volatile substances are evolved, and the odour of caramel is given out (see p. 369). If the residuum be digested in hydrochloric acid, we obtain a solution of the chlo- rides of sodium and potassium : the chloride of potassium may be precipitated by bichloride of platinum, leaving chloride of sodium in solution, which may be detected by the tests already mentioned for this salt (p. 464). Composition.—The composition of this salt is as follows :— Fig. 75. Prism of Rochelle Salt. 484 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Schultz. Atoms. Eq. Wt ' i """ It '"" it! '"■' i2-^ (Tartrate of Potash 1 .... 114 .: « v::.m '.'.:: «•? :::: ii*^0'}^"™"8^*- * •••• 9« .10 .... 90 .... 29-8 .... 31-1 > fWat«=r............ 10 .... 90 Crystl. Tart, of Potash &. Soda 1 ___302 .... 99-7 ---100-0........................ 1 .... 302 Dr. Thomson {First Principles, ii. 440.) says, that when the crystals are free from all adhering moisture, they contain only eight equivalents of water of crys- tallization, and their atomic weight is then 284. Physiological Effects.—It is a mild, laxative, cooling salt, very analogous in its effects to the tartrate of potash. Sundelin {Hand. d. Heilmittellehre.) says it is uncertain as a purgative, sometimes failing, at others acting very slowly, but strongly, and with violent abdominal pain. He thinks it may be completely replaced in practice by a mixture of magnesia and sulphate of magnesia. Like the other vegetable alkaline salts, it undergoes partial decomposition in the sys- tem, and is converted into the carbonate, in which state it is found in the urine. Hence its use should be carefully avoided in persons suffering with phosphatic deposits in the urine. Uses.—It is commonly employed as a mild aperient for females and other deli- cate persons. It may be used with advantage by those who are subject to ex- cessive secretion of uric acid or the urates. Administration.—It is given in doses of from 3ij. to 3vj. or 3j- ll should be exhibited largely diluted with water. A very convenient mode of exhibition is in combination with bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid in an effervescing con- dition (vide Seidlitz Powders, p. 482). 11. SO'DJE ACETAS, L. D.—ACETATE OF SODA. History.—This salt was first described by Baron, in 1747 (Thomson's Che- mist, of Inorg. Bod. vol. ii. p. 464.); but according to Dulk {Die Preuss. Pharm. iibers. u. erldut.) its real discoverer was F. Meyer, in 1677. It was formerly called Terra Foliata Tartari Crystallisata, or Terra Foliata Mineralis. Preparation.—The preparation of acetate of soda by manufacturers of pyro- ligneous acid has been before described (see p. 355). The Dublin College orders it to be prepared by saturating Carbonate of Soda with Distilled Vinegar. The filtered liquor is to be evaporated until it has attained the sp. gr. of 1-276. By cooling, crystals are formed, which are to be cautiously dried and kept in a close vessel. Properties.—This salt crystallizes in oblique rhombic prisms. Geiger {Handb. d. Pharm. 1 Bd. 150, 3 Aufl.) says that a saturated solution of this salt does not readily crystallize when cooled in a tall glass vessel, unless some pointed or angular body be introduced. Its taste is cooling, saline, and bitterish. Exposed to the air, at ordinary temperatures, the crystals undergo little change; but in dry and warm air they effloresce and become anhydrous. When heated they first undergo the watery fusion, then give out their water of crystallization, and afterwards undergo the igneous fusion. At a red heat they are decomposed, and yield as a residue, a mixture of charcoal and carbonate of soda. They are solu- ble in about three parts of cold water ; and are slightly soluble in alcohol. Characteristics.—As an acetate it is recognised by the tests before mentioned (p. 355) for this class of salts. That the base is soda is shown by the characters already described (p. 541) for the soda salts. Composition.—The following is the composition of this salt:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Soda.................................... 1 ........ 32 ........ 23-36 ........ 22-94 AceticAcid............................. 1 ........ 51 ........ 37'22 ........ 3695 Water.................................. 6 ........ 54 ........ 39-41 ........ 4011 Soda......... Potash....... Tartaric Acid Water....... Crystallized Acetate of Soda............. 1 ........ 137 ........ 9999 .......10000 SOAP. 485 Purity.—It should be white and perfectly neutral to test-papers (litmus and turmeric). The presence of sulphuric acid may be recognised by chloride of barium, which occasions, with this acid, a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid. If nitrate of silver cause a white precipitate insoluble in both water and nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia, the presence of a chloride is to be inferred. Potash may be recognised by the before-mentioned tests for this base (p. 423), as well as by the deliquescence of the suspected acetate. Physiological Effects.—Acetate of soda operates on the body like acetate of potash, but is probably somewhat milder in its action. Uses.—It is rarely employed for medicinal purposes. It may, however, be used as a substitute for acetate of potash, over which it has the advantage of not being deliquescent. In pharmacy and the arts it is largely employed in Ihe manufacture of acetic acid (vide p. 356), and on this account has been introduced into the Pharmaco- poeia, as the officinal source of this acid. Administration.—The dose of it, as a diuretic, is from a scruple to two drachms. 12. SATO.—SOAP. " I. Sapo. Sapo ex olivte olec et soda confectus, L.—Sapo durus. Spanish or Castile Soap made with olive oil and soda, E.—Sapo durug, D.—[Sapo, U. S.] 2. Sapo mollis. Sapo ex olivae oleo et potassa confectus, L.—Sapo mollis. Soft Soap made with olive oil and potash, E.—Sapo mollis. D.—[Sapo vulgaris, U. S.J History.—The Hebrew word Borith, translated in our version of the Bible {Jer. ii. 22, and Mal. iii. 2.) Soap, is, by most commentators, supposed to refer to a plant, or to the alkaline ashes of some plant. Pliny,1 who mentions soap, says it is made of tallow and ashes, ascribes its invention to the Gauls, and adds, that the Germans employed both thick and liquid soap (hard and soft soap?) In the excavations made at Pompeii, a complete soap-boiler's shop was discovered, with the soap still perfect, though it must have been manufactured for more than 1700 years? (Parkes, Chem. Essays, ii. 5, 2d ed.) The term Soap is usually applied to the product of the action of alkalis on fixed oils and fats; while the term Plaster is commonly applied to the product of the aclion of oxide of lead on fixed oils and fats. The former is frequently termed a soluble soap, while a plaster is denominated an insoluble soap. The lerm soap is also applied to alkaline resinates. Natural History.—Soap is always an artificial product, unless ihe sponta- neous formation of adipocire, from dead animal matter, be considered an excep- tion to this statement. This substance appears, from the analysis of Chevreul, to consist of a small quantity of ammonia of potash, and lime, united to much margaric acid, and a very little oleic acid. Preparation.—The follo.wing is a concise account of the principles of soap- making:—"In order to form soap, the oil or fat is boiled with a solution of caustic potash or soda, till the whole forms a thick viscid emulsion, which can be drawn out into long clear threads. If not clear, either water or alkali must be added, according as the turbidity depends on undecomposed oil or on a defi- ciency of water. When the saponification is complete, the next step is to sepa- rate the soap from the excess of alkali, the glycerine, and the superfluous water. This may be effected by boiling down till the alkaline ley becomes very concen- trated, when the soap becomes insoluble, and rises to the surface. The same end is attained by adding very strong ley, or common salt, both of which render the soap insoluble when added in sufficient quantity ; soap being absolutely inso- luble in alkaline ley of a certain strength, as well as in a saturated solution of common salt. The separation is known to be complete when the liquid ceases ' Historia Naturalis, lib. xxviii. cap. 51, ed. Valp. " Fit ex sevo et cinere." "Duobus modi?, spissus ac li. nuidus." 41* 486 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. to froth in boiling; and the soap is ladled off into moulds, where it is well stirred, to favour the separation of the liquid, which should run off from its surface like water from fat. The soap brought to this state in the first operation is called grain soap, from its separating in grainy particles at first. It may be farther purified by repeating the process of dissolving in alkaline ley, and separating it by the addition of salt. In this process the impurities subside, and the soap ge- nerally takes up more water; so that although whiter it is less strong. White soap, for example, commonly contains 45 to 60 per cent, of water, while grain soap contains 25 to 30 per cent. No doubt it may be again procured with as little water as at first; but it is the fluidity caused by the additional water that allows the impurities to subside, and the soap to become white. What is called marbled soap is grain soap which has not been subjected to purification ; and the gray, blue, and green colours in it arise principally from the presence of insolu- ble soaps of oxide of iron or of copper." (Liebig, in Turner's Elements of Che- mistry, 7th edit. p. 1076.) Theory of Saponification.—The fixed oils and fats, as they occur in nature, are for the most part mixtures or compounds of two or more fatty salts. Stea- rine, Margarine, and Oleine, are the fatty salts of most frequent occurrence. They are each composed of a sweet basic substance, called Glycerine (C6 Ii7 0s + Aq.), and a fatty acid. Stearine contains Stearic Acid (C68 H68 O8); while Margarine contains Margaric Acid (C68 H66 O6); and Oleine, Oleic Acid {C** H3" O). Tallow consists chiefly of Stearine with a little Oleine. Olive Oil is composed of Margarine and Oleine. Almond Oil contains less Margarine than Olive Oil. Palm Oil contains Oleine, Margarine (?), and about two-thirds of its weight of a white solid fat, which is Palmatine, and which contains Palmitic Acid. When the oils and fats are acted on by a solution of the caustic alkali, the lat- ter unites with the fatty acid, forming a soap, and disengages the glycerine, which ^combines with water. The fol,iosving diagram illustrates the action of soda on stearine :— MAiTEHJALB. PRODUCTS. .4 eq.rSoda......... 128-------------------------■■__—- 2 eq. Stearute Soda..... 1156 l 2 eq. Stearic Acid 1028-----' J eq. Stea.rine...... 1129< 2 eq. Water..... ]8--------------2 eq. Water............ 18 (leq. Glycerine.. 83--------------1 eq. Glycerine......... 83 J357 1257 In the conversion of resin into soap the phenomena are different. Resins usually eonsist of one or more acids, which combine with alkalis to form resinous salts or soaps. Thus, ordinary Yellow Resin (or Rosin) consists of two acids, called respectively Pinic and Silvic acids ; and a soda soap made of this substance would, therefore, be a mixture of pinate and silvate of soda. Properties.—The consistence, eolour, odour, and sp. gr. of soap vary in the different varieties of this substance. The taste of all is slightly alkaline. All the alkaline soaps are soluble both in water and alcohol. The substance called transparent soap is prepared by evaporating an alcoholic solution of pure soap. When heated, soap fujees, swells up, and is decomposed, leaving a residuum of charcoal and alkaline carbonate. Most of the acids decompose soap; they unite with the alkaline base, and separate the fatty acids. The earthy salts (as sulphate of lime, sulphate of magnesia, alum, &c.) also decompose soap; the fatty acids unite with the earth to form an insoluble earthy soap, while the alkali of the soap combines with the acid of the salt. The hardness of sea, spring, and well water, depends on the earthy salts (principally sulphate of lime), which de- compose soap (see p. 252): hence tincture of soap may be used as a test of the hardness or softness of common waters. The metallic salts decompose soap, and give rise to metalline insoluble soaps. SOAP. 487 Charaderislics. — Soap may be partly recognised by its physical properties, especially by its feel, which is so well known that it is usually called soapy. The solubility of soap in water and alcohol is an important character, as well as its detergent quality, which depends on its power of rendering fatty and other matters soluble in water. The effect of heat on it also deserves notice: if the carbonaceous residuum be digested in weak hydrochloric acid, and the solution filtered and concentrated by evaporation, the nature of the alkaline base may be ascertained by applying the tests for potash and soda before mentioned (pp. 423 and 464). Lastly, the action of acids and earthy and metallic salts on a solution of soap, as already noticed, serves to recognise soap. Varieties.—A considerable number of soaps are met with in commerce. Of these, however, two1 only are employed in medicine, viz., Castile Soap and Soft Soap. The soaps of commerce are either hard or soft; the former are prepared with soda, the latter with potash. This circumstance, therefore, forms the ground of their division into two classes. class l. Hard or Soda Soaps; Sapo Sodiacus: Sapo natrinus; Sapo durus; Sapo spissus, Pliny?—The qualities of the hard or soda soaps vary according to the nature of the fatty or resinous matters wilh which these substances are prepared. 1. Castile or Spanish Soap; Sapo, L.; Sapo durus, E. D.; Sapo Hispanicus; Marseilles Soap; Olive Oil Soda Soap.—This is prepared wilh olive oil and a solution of caustic soda. When pure, it has very little odour. It is hard, but in the fresh state may be easily worked or kneaded between the fingers : by keeping in warm air, it becomes dry and pulvcrizable. It should not feel greasy, have a rancid odour, communicate an oily stain to paper, nor be covered with a saline efflorescence; but sliould dissolve completely and readily in both water and alcohol. Two varieties of it are known in commerce—the while, and the marbled. a.. White Castile Soap.—This is purer than the following variety, but it is a weaker soap (i. e. it contains more water). /g. Marbled Castile Soap.—This variety is harder than the white kind. The marbled appear- ance is produced by adding to the soap, as soon as it is completely made and separated from the spent ley, a fresh quantity of ley, and immediately after a solution of sulphate of iron. The black oxide of iron is precipitated, and gives the dark-coloured streaks to the soap. By exposure to the air, these streaks become red, in consequence of the conversion of the black oxide into the red or sesquioxide of iron. 2. Almond Soap.—Almond-oil Soda-soap; Sapo amygdalinus, French Codex.—This is the medicinal soap of the French. It is prepared with ten parts of soap-boilers' ley (a solution of caustic soda) and twenty-one parts of almond oil. (Soubeiran, Nouveau Traite de Pharmacie, t. ii. p. 582, 2nde edit.) In this country it is used as a toilet soap. 3. Common Soap ; Sapo vulgaris, United States Pharmacopoeia; Sapo sebaceus, Geiger; Animal. oil Soda.soap.—This is prepared with tallow and Soda. Two kinds of it are in common use— curd soap and mottled soap. a.. White Curd Soap.—This is made with pure or white tallow or curd soap. Windsor Soap is made with one part of olive oil and nine parts of tallow, and scented. /S. Mottled Soap.—This is the common or domestic soap. Refuse kitchen grease, called kitchen stuff, is used in its preparation." 4. Yellow Soap; Rosin Soap; Resin Soda-soap.—This is prepared with tallow, rosin, and caustic soda. Palm oil is frequently employed in its manufacture. In addition to the above, there are many varieties of soap, termed Fancy or Toilet Soaps, which are sold by the perfumers. The patent Silica Soap is hard soap mixed with silicate of soda. i. of Soft or Potasii Soaps j Sapo potassicus ; Sapo kalinus ; Sapo mollis J Sapo liquidus, Pliny ?—This kind of soap is made with caustic potash and acid oil or fat. 1. Common Soft SoAr.—Sapo mollis, D.; Animal-oil Potash Soap.—This is prepared with fish oil, (whiile, seal, or cod,) tallow, and potash. Its colour is brownish or yellowish; transparent; interspersed with white specks or grains of stearic soap formed by the tallow, and which give to the soap u granulur texture, like that of the fig. 1 Linimentum Ammonia (p. 294) ia an ammoniacal saponaceous liquid. Linimentum Calcis, hereafter to he described, i* nimetiines termed a calcareous soap (.see Calx). Emplastrum Plumbi lias also been called a soap. 488 ELEMENTS OP MATERIA medica. 2. Olive-Oil Potash Soap. Sapo mollis, L. E.—Though ordered in the London and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeias, I have not been able to meet with it; and Messrs. Rowe, soap nmnufacturers, of Brentford, inform me they are unacquainted with it.1 Composition.—The following is the composition of several varieties of soap :— (See Gmelin's Handbuch der Chemie.) olive oil soda soap. ANIMAL OIL POTASH SOAP. Marseilles White. Marseilles Marbled. Foreign Castile, very dry. London-made Castile, very dry. Glasgow Soft Soap. c 6 64 30 90 7C«5 145 10-5 75-2 14-3 Margaric Acid.. 9-20 Oleic Acid......59-20 j 60 34 Olive oil soda ? 100 00 (Braconnot.) 100 (D'Arcet.) 100 (Thenard.) 1000 (Ure.) 1000 (Ure.) Animal oil potash i .„„. (Ure.) Purity.—The adulterations of soap are excess of water, lime, gypsum, or pipe- clay. The first may be known by the consistence of the soap, and the great loss of weight which this substance undergoes in dry air. The other impurities may be detected by alcohol, which leaves them undissolved. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—Soap, used as a manure, appears to promote vegetation. (De Candolle, Physiol. Vegit. p. 1343.) |8. On Animals.—It does not appear to be poisonous to animals. Veterinarians employ it as a diuretic, and, in large doses, as a purgative. y. On Man.—Soap acts very much like the alkalis {vide pp. 202, 215, and 424). Its local operation, however, is much less energetic than either the caustic or even the carbonated alkalis. Hence, it may be administered in considerable doses without causing irritation or inflammation. When swallowed, it very readily palls the appetite and disturbs the digestjve functions, and in these qualities it is more powerful than the alkalis. Perhaps these effects depend on the fatty acids which must be disengaged in the stomach, in consequence of the union of the alkali of the soap with the free acids'of the gastric juice. Probably the fatty acids be- come more or less completely digested, for soap acts on the general system like the alkalis; it promotes the secretion of urine, and communicates alkaline proper- ties to this fluid. In large doses it acts as a purgative. I knew an idiot who had frequently eaten large lumps of soap without any ill effects ; and I have heard of a pound of it being swallowed for a wager! Uses.—As an antacid, soap is employed in poisoning by the mineral acids: it should be administered in the form of a strong solution, which effectually neutral- izes the acid without acting as an irritant. So also in those forms of dyspepsia which are attended with an excessive formation of acid, soap may be usefully employed to neutralize it. External parts burnt with the strong mineral acids, or with phosphorus, should be washed with a solution of soap. As a lithontriptic, soap has been used in those forms of lithiasis in which uric acid or the urates pre- vail. A mixture of soap and lime-water was once considered a most powerful solvent for urinary calculi. The Hon. Horace Walpole {Philosophical Transac- tions, xlvii. 43 and 472.) gained great relief from it. By the action of lime-water on it, an insoluble calcareous soap and a solution of caustic soda are formed. As a purgative, soap is rarely exhibited alone: in combination with rhubarb it may be 1 Oruggists generally substitute common soft soap for olive-oil potash soap. At Apothecaries' Hall, London, a white soft soap is employed in the preparation of thfe Unguentum Sulphuris Compositum, L. This soap is prepared by Mr. Taylor, 13, Newington Causeway, who tells me there is very little demand for it, the principal consumption being at Apothecaries' Hall. He also informed me thai it was made from three fatty substances, (olive oil, tallow, and some other oil,) and two alkalis (potash and soda). Its consistence is that of butter, but by keeping it becomes harder. I have been informed that olive-oil potash soap is prepared at Liverpool. SOAP. 489 employed with considerable benefit in habitual constipation and disordered condi- tions of the biliary functions. In the form of enema, a strong solution of it is sometimes used with great relief to dissolve hardened faeces, and to relieve obsti- nate constipation. As a resolvent or alterative, it was once much esteemed in enlargements and various chronic disorders of the viscera and glands; and as the alkalis have been found useful in the same diseases, any good effects which may have been obtained by it are probably referrible to its alkaline base. Externally, soap is frequently employed on account of its detergent, lubricating, and discutient qualities. Thus, in tinea capitis, scabies, and various other skin diseases, ablution night and morning with soap-water greatly contributes to the cure. On account of its lubricating qualities it is a most convenient adjunct to liniments. The uses of the liniment, cerate, and plaster of soap, are noticed below. Lastly, soap is useful in pharmacy to render other medicines more soluble, or to give a proper consistence to various substances for the making of pills. Thus it is a constituent of various pills (e. g. Pilula Rhei composita; Pilula Saponis composita, and Pilula Scilla composita). In some cases it acts as the adjuvans, assisting and promoting the operation of other medicines; as a corrigens, correct- ing their operation; and as a constituens, imparting an agreeable or convenient form. The addition of soap to aloes or extract of jalap is cited by Dr. Paris, {Pharmacologia,) as an instance in which soap fulfils all three of these objects. Administration.—The usual dose of soap taken in a pilular form, is from grs. v. to 3ss. In cases of poisoning by the mineral acids, half a pint of strong solu- tion of soap should be instantly administered. 1. LINIMENTUM SAPONIS, L. E. D., Soap Liniment; Opodeldoc. (Soap [Cas- tile,] 3iij.; Camphor, 3j-; Spirit of Rosemary, f^xvj. L. D.—Castile Soap, Jiv.; Camphor, 3ij.; Volatile Oil of Rosemary, f 3v.; Rectified Spirit, Oj. and f 3xij. E.—The London College orders the camphor to be dissolved in the spirit, and the soap to be added afterwards : but the Edinburgh and Dublin College direct the soap to be first dissolved, and the camphor [and oil, E.] subsequently. The Edin- burgh College orders the mixture to be agitated briskly.)—If made with hard soap, as directed by the Pharmacopoeias, this preparation is apt to solidify in cold weather. On this account druggists usually substitute common soft soap. The only objection to this is its unpleasant smell.—Soap liniment is used as a stimulant discutient, as well on account of its lubricating qualities, in local pains, sprains, bruises, rheumatism, &c. It is a constituent of Linimentum Opii: [The Lini- mentum Saponis Camphoratum of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia is a preparation founded on the same basis as the preceding, it differs slightly from it. Take of Common Soap, three ounces, Camphor an ounce; Oil of Rosemary, Oil of Ori- ganum, each a fluid drachm; alcohol a pint. Digest the soap with the alcohol, by means of a sand bath, till it is dissolved; then add the camphor and oils, and when ihey are dissolved, pour the liquid into broad-mouthed bottles.] [An analogous preparation is the Tinctura Saponis Camphorata, U. S. It is made as follows :—Soap in shavings, four ounces ; Camphor, two ounces; Oil of Rosemary, half a fluid-ounce; Alcohol, two pints. Digest the Soap with the Alcohol by means ofa water bath till it is dissolved, ihen filter and add the Cam- phor and Oil. This preparation retains its fluidity, not becoming consistent upon cooling ; this is owing to its formation from a soap fabricated with vegetable oil and not with an animal soap, as in the case of the liniment.] 2. CEttATIM SAPONIS, L. (U. S.) Soap Cerate (Soap, 3x.; Wax, 3xijss.; Oxide of Lead, powdered, 3*v.; Olive Oil, Oj.; Vinegar, Cong. j. Boil the Vinegar with the Oxide of Lead, over a slow fire, constantly stirring them until they in- corporate ; then add the soap, and boil again in like manner, until all the moisture is evaporated; lastly, with these mix the Wax first dissolved in the Oil.)—The sub-acetate of lead formed by boiling the oxide of lead with vinegar, is decom< 490 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. posed by the soap, the soda of which combines with the acetic acid, and the fatty acids with the oxide of lead. The wax and oil serve to give consistence to the preparation. It is used as a mild cooling dressing for scrofulous swellings, and other local inflammations, as well as for fractured limbs: in the latter case its principal use is as a mechanical support. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs to take of solution of sub-acetate of Lead, two pints; Soap six ounces; white Wax, ten ounces ; Olive Oil, a pint. Boil the solution of sub-acetate of Lead with the Soap, over a slow fire, to the consistence of honey: then transfer to a water balh and evaporate until all the moisture is dissipated; lastly, add the Wax previously melted with the Oil, and mix.] I EMPLASTRUM SAPONIS, L. E. D. (U. S.;) Soap Plaster. (Soap, sliced, lbss.; Litharge-Plaster, Ibiij. L. D. (U. S.)—(Litharge Plaster, 3'iv.; Gum Plaster, 3ij.; Castile Soap, in shavings, 3j- Mix the soap with the liquefied plaster, and boil down to a proper consistence,) E.) The quantity of soap here ordered is said by Mr. Scanlan1 to be too much by one-half; as when prepared by the formula of the London and Dublin pharmacopoeias it is quite pulverizable and falls into crumbs. The Gum Plaster ordered by the Edinburgh College will tend to ob- viate this defect. Boiling is unnecessary. This plaster, spread on leather, is used as a discutient and mechanical support. 4. EMPLASTRUM SAPONIS COMPOSITUM VEL ADHERENS, D. Adhesive Plaster. (Soap Plaster, 3'j*; Litharge Plaster with resin, 3iij. Make a plaster, which should be melted and spread on linen.)—This plaster is less apt to irritate than the litharge plaster with resin, " owing to the much smaller proportion of resin. It is a very useful application to those abrasions of the skin which take place in consequence of long confinement to bed."3 Order XIII.—COMPOUNDS OF BARIUM. 1. BARYTA SULPHAS, E. D.—SULPHATE OF BARYTA. History.—Native sulphate of baryta, called Ponderous or Heavy Spar {Spa- thum ponderosum), was formerly confounded with sulphate of lime. In 1774 Scheele discovered baryta, and in the year following, Gahn analyzed heavy spar, and found that it was composed of sulphuric acid and baryta. Natural History.—It is peculiar to the mineral kingdom. It frequently occurs crystallized in forms belonging to the right prismatic system. The crystals are commonly tabular. The Straight-lamellar Heavy Spar forms splendid groups of crystals. It occurs in Cumberland, Durham, Westmoreland, &c. The Curved-lamellar Heavy Spar is generally known as Cock's Comb Barytes. It is common in Scotland, Derbyshire, &c. Compact or Earthy Sulphate of Baryta occurs in Staffordshire and Derbyshire, and is called Cawk. The Bolognese Spar, from Monte Paterno, near Bologna, is Radiated Sulphate of Baryta. Properties.—Sulphate of baryta has a density of from 4*41 to 4*67. It is in- odorous and tasteless. When pure it is, in the pulverulent form, quite white. The form of its crystals has been above noticed. "White or flesh red; heavy; lamellar; brittle." Ph. Ed. Characteristics.—Before the blowpipe it decrepitates, but is not easily fused. "This difficult fusibility constitutes a good mark of distinction between this mi- neral and sulphate of lime or of strontian."3 Ultimately it melts into a hard white enamel. It is insoluble in nitric acid. Reduced to powder, mixed with charcoal, and ignited, it is converted into sulphuret of barium, which, on the ad- dition of hydrochloric acid, evolves sulphuretted hydrogen (see p. 414), and yields a solution of chloride of barium (see the .ests for this salt at p. 493). • Dr. Montgomery, Observations on the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, p. 596. a Ibid, p. 597. a Dr. Thomson, Outlines of Mineralogy, Geology, and Mineral Analysis, vol. i. p. 104. Lond. 1836. CARBONATE OF BARYTA. 491 Composition.—Sulphate of baryta has the following composition :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Barvta............... 1 ........ 77 ........ 65 8 ....... 65-643 Sulphuric Acid........ 1 ........ 40 ........ 312 ........ 34 357 Sulphate of Baryta--- 1 ........ 117 ........ 1000 ........ 100000 Physiological Effects.—According to the experiments of Orfila {Toxicologic Generate.) it is inert. Uses.—Sulphate of baryta, on account of its cheapness, is the usual source from whence the other salts of baryta are obtained; and on this account it has been introduced into the Edinburgh and Dublin Pharmacopoeias. In its pure state it is sometimes employed as a pigment. 2. BARY'T.E CARBONAS, L. E. (U-S.)—CARBONATE OF BARYTA. History.—In 1783, Dr. Withering recognised the native carbonate, which has, in consequence, been called, after its discoverer, Witherile. Natural History.—It is peculiar to the mineral kingdom. Witherite occurs in the lead mines of the North of England; as of Angleslark, in Lancashire. Baryto-Calcite, a compound of carbonate of lime and carbonate of baryta, is met with at Alston Moor, Cumberland.1 Preparation.—The native carbonate of baryta is sufficiently pure for the pre- paration of the other barytic salts, and is the kind meant in the London Pharma- copoeia. Absolutely pure carbonate may be prepared by the addition of pure alkaline carbonate to a solution of chloride of barium. It may also be obtained by igniting (or boiling in water) finely powdered sul- phate of baryta with three parts of carbonate of potash, or carbonate of soda, and washing away the resulting alkaline sulphate. Properties.—Native carbonate of baryta occurs massive, stalactitic, and crys- tallized. Its crystals belong to the right prismatic system. The sp. gr. of this •* mineral is 4-3. Heated before the blow-pipe it melts into a white enamel, with the evolution of much light and the loss of carbonic acid. Artificially prepared carbonate is a fine, tasteless, odourless powder. It is almost insoluble in both hot and cold water; 4,304 parts of cold, or 2,304 parts of hot water, being required to dissolve one part of carbonate. It is more soluble in carbonic acid water. Characteristics.—It dissolves with effervescence in hydrochloric acid : the evolved gas is carbonic acid (see p. 310); the solution contains chloride of barium (see p. 493 for its characteristics). Composition.—The following is the composition of this salt:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Berard. Baryta................ 1 ........ 77 ........ 77-7 ........ 77 9 ........ 78 Carbonic Acid........ 1 ........ 2-2 ........ 22-2 ........ 221 ........ 22 Carbonate Baryta..... 1 ........ 99 ........ 99-9 ........ 1000 ........ 1Q0 Purity.—It should be white, odourless, tasteless, and entirely soluble in hydro- chloric or nitric acid, by which its freedom from sulphate of baryta is demon- strated. Neither caustic ammonia nor hydrosulphuric acid should produce any precipitate or change of colour in the hydrochloric solution, by which the ab- sence of alumina and metallic matter (lead or iron, or copper) may be inferred. If excess of sulphuric acid be added to this solution, the whole of the baryta is thrown down in combination with the acid, and no precipitate should be occa- sioned by the subsequent addition of carbonate of soda, by which the absence of lime is shown. 1 For some curious anecdotes respecting its discovery at this place, see Parkes's Chemical Essays, vol. i. p. 324, 2'ta...... ™)\eq.Barytan\]e*-°?y?- *..................-.-I eq. Water................. 9 t ' J \leq. Barium 69 ~-~^_^...-..... 1 eq. Hydrochlc. ( 1 eq. Hydrogen.............. 1 -~^^ Acid......... 37 \ 1 eq. Chlorine............... 30------------•—*"=» 1 eq. Chloride Barium..... 105 136 136 13G When a mixture of sulphate of baryta and charcoal is submitted to an intense heat, the carbon combines with the oxygen of the sulphuric acid and of the ba- ryta, and forms carbonic oxide, which escapes. The residue digested in water forms a solution of sulphuret of barium. On the addition of hydrochloric acid,. hydrosulphuric acid gas is evolved, and the solution by evaporation yields crys- tals of chloride of barium. Properties.—Chloride of barium crystallizes in right rhombic plates or tables, sometimes in double eight-sided pyramids, which belong to the right prismatic system. To the taste this salt is disagreeable and bitter. Its sp. gr. is 2*825. In dry warm air the crystals effloresce, but in the ordinary states of the air they undergo no change. When heated they decrepitate, lose their water of crystal- lization, and at a red heat fuse. At a white heat, according to Planiava, this salt volatilizes. It is soluble in both cold and hot water: 100 parts of water at 60° dissolve 43*5 of the crystallized salt,—at 222°, 78 parts. It is slightly soluble in ordinary rectified spirit, but is said to be insoluble in pure alcohol. Characteristics.—Nitrate of silver added to a solution of chloride of barium causes a white precipitate {chloride of silver) soluble in ammonia, but insoluble in nitric acid (see p. 226). As a barytic salt it is known by the following tests:— No precipitate is produced in a dilute solution of chloride of barium by ammonia, hydrosulphuric acid, or ferrocyanide of potassium. But the soluble sulphates, phosphates, and carbonates, occasion with chloride of barium white precipitates (which are respectively sulphate, phosphate, and carbonaleof baryta). The sul- phate of baryta is insoluble in nitric acid. Chloride of barium communicates a greenisti-yellow tint to flame. Composition.—Crystallized chloride of barium has the following composi- tion :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Phillips. *™"m............................. \ .......... I" .......... $£ j 85-201 .......... 85-5 Chlorine.......................... 1 .......... * .......... -■'M ) Water............................-. 2 .......... 18 .......... 1463 14799 .......... 145 Crystallized Chloride Barium........ 1 .......... 123 .......... 99-98 100000 .......... ]000 Puritv.—The crystals should be colourless, neutral to test paper, permanent in the ordinary states of the air, (if they become moist or are deliquescent, the presence of chloride of calcium, or chloride of strontium, may be suspected,) and their dilute aqueous solution should undergo no alteration of colour by the addi- tion of ferrocyanide of potassium, hydrosulphuric acid, tincture of nutgalls, or caustic ammoniii, by which the absence of metallic matter (as iron, lead, or cop- per) may be inferred. If excess of sulphuric acid be added, the filtered solution vol. i. 42 494 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. should be completely volatile when heated, and should occasion no precipitate on the addition of carbonate of soda, by which the absence of lime or magnesia is proved. " Ninety grains in solution, acidulated with nitric acid, are not entirely precipitated by forty- nine [forty-four] grains of [anhydrous] sulphate of magnesia," [or ninety grains of crystallized sulphate]. Ph. Ed. It is unnecessary to acidulate with nitric acid, as the pure chloride is perfectly soluble in simple water. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—This salt is poisonous to plants. (Marcet, quoted by De Candolle, Phys. Veget.) 6. On Animals.—The aclion of chloride of barium on animals is, according to Sir B. Brodie, {Phil. Trans. 1812, p. 205.) analogous to that of arsenic. Lo- cally, it operates as an irritant. After absorption it affects the nervous system, the organs of circulation, and the stomach. Its action on the nervous system is manifested by staggering, convulsions, paralysis, and insensibility; on the circu- lating system, by palpitations, with feeble and intermittent pulse; on the stomach, by vomiting, from its application to a wound. According to Sir. B. Brodie, the affection of the stomach is slighter than that caused by arsenic.1 y. On Man.—Administered in small doses, it at first produces no very obvious effects. In some cases the appetite appears to be improved. Soon we observe an increased secretion of urine, tendency to sweating, and not unfrequently loose stools ; so that it appears to operate as a liquefacient (see p. 202). With no other obvious symptoms than these, glandular swellings or enlargements sometimes becomes softer and smaller : hence it is resolvent. If we persevere in the use of gradually augmented doses, the appetite becomes disordered, nausea and vomit- ing, with not unfrequently griping and purging, come on : a febrile state, with dry tongue, is produced, the nervous system becomes affected, and the patient complains of giddiness and muscular weakness. Sometimes, according to Schwil- gue, {Traite de Mat. Med. vol. i. p. 441, 3me ed.) under the continued use of it, catarrhal discharges from the eye, nose, ear, &c. lake place; inflamed or suppu- rating lymphatic glands evince signs of an augmented excitation, wounds assume a more healthy appearance, and, in some cases, cicatrize. In large medicinal doses very unpleasant effects have been occasionally ob- served from its use: such as vomiting, purging, sometimes griping, contracted pulse, giddiness, and great muscular debility, almost amounting to paralysis, with trembling. (See an illustrative case in Medical Commentaries, xix. 267.) In excessive or poisonous doses (as an ounce) the affection of the nervous sys- tem is more obvious. In one recorded case the symptoms were convulsions, pain in the head, deafness, and, within an hour, death. {Journ. of Science, vol. ix. p. 382.) In conclusion it may be observed, that considered medicinally, chloride of ba- rium is most analogous to, though more powerful than chloride of calcium, and is applicable in the same cases*, regarded toxicologically, it may be compared to ar- senic, but it acts less energetically on the stomach, and more rapidly on the ner- vous system, and causes death in a shorter time. Uses.—The principal medicinal use of chloride of barium is in the treatment of scrofula, for which it was introduced into medicine by Dr. Crawford in 1790,8 and was subsequently used by Hufeland3 with great benefit. The latter writer has employed it in all the forms of this disease, but especially in excited or inflamed conditions, (particularly of delicate and sensible parts, as of the lungs and eyes,) in painful ulcers, indurations which are disposed to inflame, and cutaneous affec- tions. It has also been administered as a resolvent, deobstruent, or alterative, in 1 See also the experiments of Orfila in the Toxicol. Giner., and of C. G. Grnelin in his Versuche iiber die Wir- kungen, &.C. . . . 2 Medical Commentaries, Dec. 2d, vol. iv. p. 433 ; and Medical Communications, vol. ii. » Erfahr. iib. d. Gebr. u. d. Krilfte d. salzs. Schicererde, Berl. 1794; and Vollst. Darsiell. d. med. Krufte v. d, Gebr.d. salzs. Schwererde, Berl. 1794. LIME. 495 some other diseases; for example, scirrhus and cancer, cutaneous diseases, bron- chocele, &c. As a local application, a solution of it has been used as a wash in herpetic eruptions, and as a collyrium in scrofulous ophthalmia. In pharmacy and chemistry it is extensively employed as a test for sulphuric acid and the sulphates. Administration.—It is used in the form of aqueous solution. Antidotes.—The antidotes for the barytic salts are the sulphates, which form therewith an insoluble sulphate of baryta. Hence, sulphate of soda, sulphate of magnesia, alum, or well or spring water (which contains sulphate of lime) should be copiously administered. Of course the poison should be removed from the stomach as speedily as possible. To appease any unpleasant symptoms caused by the continued use of large medicinal doses, opiates may be employed. LIQUOR BARII CHLORIDI, L. (U. S.); Solutio Baryta Muriatis, E.; Baryta Muriatis Aqua, D.; Solution of Chloride of Barium.—(Chloride of Barium, 3j.; Distilled Water, f3j.; L. E.—Muriate of Baryta one part [3j. U. S.]; Distilled Water, three parts [3iij- U. S.] D. Dissolve.) Dose of the solution of the London Pharmacopoeia, ten drops, gradually and cautiously increased until nausea or giddiness is experienced. It is employed also as a test for sulphuric acid or the sulphates. Common v/ater, and all liquids containing sulphates, carbonales, or phosphates in solution, are incompatible with it. 4. BARY'TiE NI'TRAS, E.~NITRATE OF BARYTA. History.—This salt was formed soon after the discovery of baryta. Preparation.—It " is to be prepared like the muriate of baryta [chloride of barium, see p. 492,] substituting pure nitric acid for the muriatic acid."—Ph. Ed. Properties.—It crystallizes in octohedrons. It is soluble in water, but insolu- ble in alcohol. It is decomposed, with decrepitation, by a bright red heat, and furnishes pure baryta. Characteristics.—As a nitrate, it is known by the tests for this class of salts already mentioned (see p. 275). The characters of the barytic salts have been before stated (see p. 493). Composition.—The crystallized salt is anhydrous. Its composition is as fol- lows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Baryta..............1............77............58.7............588 Nitric Acid..........1............54............41-3............412 Nitrate of Baryta .... 1...........131...........100.0..........1000 Physiological Effects.—Similar to those of the chloride of barium. Uses.—It is employed as a test. Fire-work makers use it to communicate a green tinge to flame. SOLUTIO BARYTjE NITRATIS, E. Solution of Nitrate of Baryta. (Nitrate of Baryta, 40 grs.; Distilled Water, 800 grs. Dissolve the salt in the water; and keep the solution in well-closed botlles.) Employed as a test for sulphuric acid. Order XIV.—COMPOUNDS OF CALCIUM. 1. CALX, L. E. (U. S.)—LIME. (Calx recens usta, D.) History.—Lime, and the mode of obtaining it by burning the carbonate, were known in the most remote periods of antiquity. Hippocrates {Popularium, ii. sect. 5.) employed this earth in medicine. Dr. Black, in 1755, first explained the nature of the process for making it. In 1808 Davy showed that this substance was a metallic oxide, and hence it has been termed the Oxide of Calcium. To distinguish it from the hydrate of lime, it is called Caustic Lime, or Quicklime {Calx viva), or Burned Lime {Calx usta). 496 elements of materia medica. Natural History.—It occurs in both kingdoms of nature. st. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—In the mineral kingdom lime is found in the form of car- bonate, sulphate, phosphate, silicate, arseniatc, tungstate, borate, and titanate. Its base, calcium, occurs in combination with fluorine. "Lime is also disseminated through sea water, though in small quantities; so that calcium is widely distributed in land and water, being principally abun. dant in the central and higher parts of the fossiliferous rocks, and widely dispersed, in small quantities, throughout the more ancient rocks, and in the waters of the ocean." (De la Beche, Research, in Theor. Geol. p. 21.) /?. In the Organized Kingdom.—In vegetables, lime (or calcium) is an invariable ingredient, except, it is said, in the case of Salsola Kali. (De Candolle, Phys. Veget. p. 382.) It is found combined with carbonic, sulphuric, phosphoric, nitric, and various organic acids (as oxalic, malic, citric, tartaric, and kinic): calcium occurs in combination with chlorine. In animals, lime is found principally as carbonate and phosphate. Preparation.—For use in the arts lime is usually obtained by burning the carbonate with coals, coke, and other fuel, in a kind of wind furnace called a kiln.1 All the British Colleges admit, as officinal, the lime of commerce ; but the London and Edinburgh Colleges also give directions for the preparation of pure lime. The London College orders of Chalk, lbj. Break it into small pieces, and burn it in a very strong fire for an hour. The Edinburgh College orders White Marble, broken into small fragments, to be heated "in a covered crucible at a fall red heat for three hours, or till the residuum when slacked and sus- pended in water no longer effervesces on the addition of muriatic acid." By the heat employed the carbonic acid of the carbonate is expelled. It is well known that water or a current of air facilitates ihe escape of the carbonic acid : their effect is probably mechanical, and is due to the diffusion of one gas or vapour in another. (See Gay-Lussac, in Jameson's Journal, vol. xxii. 1837.) Iceland Spar or White Carrara Marble yields the purest lime. Properties.—Lime (commonly termed Quicklime) when pure is a white or grayish solid, having a sp. gr. of 2*3. A variety of commercial lime has a gray colour, and is called gray lime. Lime has an acrid, alkaline taste, and reacts powerfully on vegetable colours as an alkali. It is difficult of fusion : but by the oxy-hydrogen flame it may be both fused and volatilized. Exposed to the air it attracts water and carbonic acid. If a small portion of water be thrown on lime, part of it combines with the lime, and thereby causes the evolution of a conside- rable degree of heat, by which another portion of the water is vapourized. The lime swells up, cracks, and subsequently falls to powder; in this state it is called Slaked Lime {Calxextinda), or the Hydrate of Lime {Calcis Hydras, L.) By heat the water may be again expelled. Lime is slightly soluble in water. Its sotubility in this liquid is very remarkable, cold water dissolving more than hot. According to Mr. Phillips, A pint of Water at 32° dissolves 13-25 grains of lime. Ditto.......... 60°.........11-6 ditto. Ditto..........212°......... 6-7 ditto. So that water at 32° dissolves nearly twice as much lime as water at 212°. Characteristics.— An aqueous solution of lime is recognised by its reddening yellow turmeric paper, and rendering the infusion of red cabbage green ; by the milkiness produced in it on the addition of carbonic acid or a soluble carbonate, and by the white precipitate {oxalate of lime) on the addition of a solution of ox- alic acid or an oxalate. Sulphuric acid affords no precipitate with lime water. Solutions of the calcareous salts are known by the following characters:—The hydrosulphurets, and, if the solution be dilute, the sulphates, occasion neither a precipitate nor a change of colour : the soluble carbonates, phosphates, and oxa- lates, produce white precipitates. The calcareous salts (especially chloride of calcium) give an orange tinge to the flame of alcohol. 1 Vide Loudon's Encyclof Agricult. 3d ed. p. 625; Gray's Operative Chemist; and Ure's Diet, of Arts. LIME. 497 Composition.—The following is the composilion of lime and its hydrate :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct. Berzelius. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Calcium... 1 .... 20 .... 7142 .... 71-91 [ Lime................. 1 ...... 28 ...... 75-67 Ovyc.;n.... 1 •••• e .... 2*-57 .... 2d09 | Water............... 1 ...... 9 ...... 24-32 Li,)ie..... l .... 26 .... 29 99 ....10000 j Hydrate of Lime .... 1 ...... 37 ...... 99-99 Purity___The lime used in the arts is never absolutely pure, but usually con- tains variable quantities of carbonate of lime, silica, alumina, and oxide of iron, and sometimes magnesia. Water being added, it [lime] cracks and falls to powder. Its other properties arc as hydrate of lime. Ph. Ed. It is slaked by water : muriatic acid then dissolves it entirely, without any effervescence; and the solution docs not precipitate with ammonia. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—Quicklime is poisonous to plants. Notwithstanding this, however, it is used as a manure, its efficacy depending on .ts decomposing and rendering soluble the vegetable matter of the soil, during which the lime attracts carbonic acid and becomes innocuous. (Davy, Agricult. Chemistry.) 13. On Animals.—On dogs, Orfila {Toxicol. Generate.) found that quicklime acted as a caustic poison, but not very energetically ; and that it occasions death by producing inflammation of the texture with which it comes in contact. y. On Man.—Quicklime, like the fixed alkalis, is a powerful escharotic. Its use in promoting the decomposition of the bodies of persons who have died of contagious diseases, or on the"field of battle, and its employment by the tanner to separate the cuticle and hair from skins, sufficiently establish its causticity. Its escharotic and irritant action is well seen in the ophthalmia produced by the lodg- ment of small particles of lime in the eye. When applied to suppurating or mucous surfaces, lime water checks or stops secretion, and produces dryness of the part: hence it is termed a desiccant. In this it differs from the fixed alkalis. _ , , When administered internally, it neutralizes the free acid of the gastric juice, diminishes the secretions of the gastro-intestinal membrane, and thereby occa- sions thirst and constipation. It frequently gives rise to uneasiness of stomach, disordered digestion, and not unfrequently to vomiting. After its absorption it increases the secretion of urine, and diminishes the excessive formation or deposi- tion of uric acid and the urates. With this exception, it does not, as ihe alkalis, promote the action of the different secreting organs, but, on the other hand, dimi- nishes it, and has in consequence been termed an astringent. But it does not possess the corrugating action of the astringent vegetables, or of many of the me- tallic salts ; it is rather a drying remedy, or desiccant. In this respect lime differs from the alkalis, but is analogous to the oxide of zinc (see p. 218). Vogt {Phar- makodynamik.) considers it to be intermediate between the two. Weickard and others have ascribed to lime an antispasmodic property: and if this be true, its relation to zinc is still farther proved. A power of exciting and changing the mode of action of the absorbing vessels and glands has been ascribed to lime water, and probably with foundation. At any rate, under the use of it, glandular enlargements have become softer and smaller. In other words, it operates as a resolvent. Sundelin {Heilmittellehre.) says that the excessive use of lime does not, as in the case of the alkalis, bring about a scorbutic diathesis, but a general drying and constriction, analogous to that caused by zinc. Lime in large doses acts as a poison : the symptoms in one case were thirst, burning in the mouth, burning pain in the belly, obstinate constipation, and death in nine davs. (Christison, Treatise on Poisons.) Uses.—Quicklime has been employed as a caustic, but alone is now rarely resorted to. It is sometimes applied in the form of Potassa cum Calce (see p. 42* 498 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. 428), and is a constituent.of the ordinary depilatories (see p. 219). As an anti- dote, limewater, in conjunction with milk, was recommended by Navier {Contre- poison de VArsenic, &c, 1777, quoted by Richter, Ausf. Arzneimittellehre), in poisoning by arsenious acid. In ihe absence of more appropriate antidotes, lime water may be administered in poisoning by the common mineral and oxalic acids. As a lithontriptic it possessed at one time considerable celebrity, partly from its being one of the active ingredients of Miss Joanna Stephens's Receipt for the Stone and Gravel, as well as from experiments and reports of professional men. As this lady had acquired no slight fame by her mode of treatment, a great desire was manifested to know the nature of her remedies, and she therefore offered to discover them on the payment ofa suitable reward. A committee of professional men was appointed to examine' the efficacy of her treatment, and her medicines were given to patients known to have calculi. The report made by the commit- tee, {Gentleman's Magazine for 1740, vol. x. p. 185.) as to the effects, was so favourable, that Parliament was induced to grant a reward of £5000, a notice of which appeared in the London Gazette of March 18, 1739! (D'Escherny, A Treatise of the Causes and Symptoms of the Stone, 1755.) The essential parts of her remedies were lime (prepared by calcining egg-shells and snails), soap, and some aromatic bitters; viz. camomile flowers, sweet fennel, parsley, and burdock leaves, &c. {Gentleman's Magazine for 1739, vol. ix. p. 298.) That the patients submitted to treatment obtained relief -by the remedies employed cannot, I think, be doubted, but no cure was effected ,* that is, no calculus was dissolved, for in the bladder of each of the four persons whose cure was certified by the trustees, the stone was found after their death. (Alston's Lectures on the Materia Medica, vol. i. p. 268. London, 1770.) Notwithstanding the favourable reports to the ■contrary, (Chevallier, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xx. p. 460.) it appears to me that no rational ground of hope can now be entertained that lime water is capable of dissolving urinary calculi in the kidneys or bladder; but there is abundant evi- dence to prove that patients afflicted with the uric acid diathesis have sometimes experienced extraordinary benefit from its use. (Van Swieten's Commentaries .upon Boerhaave's Aphorisms, vol. xvi. p. 299.) Chevallier {Lond. Med. Gaz. ■vol. xx*. p. 584.) accounts for its efficacy in the treatment of gravel and stone by the circumstance of the combination of the lime with uric acid forming a very soluble salt, viz. urate of lime; and he even thinks that lime water may be useful in phosphatic calculi, either by depriving them of a portion of the uric acid which they contain, and thus rendering them less dense; by decomposing the ammonia- cal salt which enters into the composition of some; or by acting on the animal matter which holds the molecules of these calculi together. As an antacid in dyspepsia, accompanied by acidity of stomach, it is sometimes useful. " Mixed with an equal measured" milk, which completely covers its offensive taste, it is one of the best remedies in our possession for nausea and vomiting dependent on irritability of stomach. We have found a diet exclusively of lime water and milk, to be more effectual than any other plan of treatment in dyspepsia accompanied with vomiting of food. In this case, one part of the solution to two or three of milk, is usually sufficient." {United States Dispensatory.) In the dyspepsia of gouty and rheumatic subjects, and which is usually accompanied with a copious secretion of uric acid by the kidneys, I have seen lime water serviceable. As a .desiccant or astringent, it is useful as a wash for ulcers attended with excessive secretion. In some scrofulous ulcers in which I have employed it, its power of checking secretion has been most marked. In diarrhoea, when the mucous dis- charge is great, and the inflammatory symptoms have subsided, lime water is use- ful as an astringent.' As an injection in leucorrhea and gleet, it sometimes suc- ceeds where other remedies have failed. The internal use of lime water has also been serviceable in checking secretion from various other parts, as from the bron- chial membranes, the bladder, &c. CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM. 499 Besides the above, lime water has been employed for various other purposes. Thus, as an antispasmodic, in hypochondriasis and hysteria, with habitual ex- cessive sensibility of the nervous system, it has been found useful by Weickard. (Richter's Ausf. Arzneim. iii. 585.) It has also been given as an alterative in glandular enlargements and venereal affections, and to promote the deposit of bone earth in diseases accompanied with a deficiency of this substance. In skin diseases (tinea capitis, scabies, prurigo, &c.) it has been applied as a wash. Administration.—From half an ounce to three or four ounces may be taken three times a day. As already mentioned, it may be conveniently administered in combination with milk. 1. LIQUOR CALCIS, L. ([J. S.); Aqua Calcis, E. D.; Lime Water (Lime, lbss.; Distilled Water, Oxij. Upon the lime, first slaked with a little water, pour the remaining water, and shake them together; then immediately cover the vessel, and set it by for three hours : afterwards, keep the solution, with the remaining lime, in stoppered glass vessels ; and, when it is to be used, take from the clear solution.—The Edinburgh College uses Lime one part, and Water twenty parts.— The Dublin College employs of fresh burnt Lime one part, and Water thirty-one parts ; one of which is to be hot, and added just to slake the lime, the other is to be cold, and is added afterwards). [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia orders Lime, four ounces; Distilled Water, a gallon.] Lime water is colourless and transpa- rent; but, by exposure to the air, becomes covered with a film of carbonate of lime, which is deposited on the sides and bottom of the vessel, and is succeeded by another. Hence lime water should be preserved in well-stoppered vessels with some undissolved lime, and, when used, the clear liquor poured off. Its taste is unpleasant and alkaline, and it has an alkaline reaction on vegetable colours. The dose of lime water is from fjss. to fj'ij- °r f 3'v- three times a day. It may be conveniently administered in milk. Its uses have been above stated. 2. LINIMENTUM CALCIS, E. D.; (U. S.) Liniment of Lime ; Carron Oil.—{Un- seed Oil, (E. U. S.) [Olive Oil, D.,] Lime Water, of each equal measures ; Mix and agitate them together). Linseed and olive oils are each composed of oleic and margaric acids and glycerine. When mixed with lime water an oleo-marga- rate of lime {calcareous soap) is formed. It has long been celebrated as an appli- cation to burns and scalds, and is employed for this purpose at the Carron Iron- works—hence one of its names. Though the Dublin College orders olive oil, it is almost invariably prepared with linseed oil. Turpentine is sometimes advan- tageously added to it. 2. CALCII CHLO'RIDUM, L. (U. S.)—CHLORTDE OF CALCIUM. (Calcis Murias, E. D.) History—This salt, obtained in the decompositon of sal ammoniac by lime, was known, according to Dulk, {Die Preuss. Pharm. nbersetst. &c. ii. 293, 2te Aufl. Leipsig, 1830.) in the fifteenth century, to the two Hollands, who called it Ft.red Sal Ammoniac {Sal Ammoniacum fixum). Its composition was not understood until the eighteenth century, when it was ascertained by Bergman, Kirwnn, and Wenzel. It is commonly termed Muriate of Lime. Natural History.—It occurs in both kingdoms of nature. . In the Organized Kingdom.—It has been detected, in a few instances, in vegetables. Thus Pallas recognised it in the root of Aconitum Lycoctonum. Preparation.—The following are the methods of preparing it: 500 ELEMENTS of materia medica. The London College orders it to be obtained as follows:—Take of Chalk, 5v.; Hydro- chloric Acid, Distilled Water, of each,Oss. Mix the acid with the water,-and to these gra- dually add the chalk to saturation. Then, the effervescence being finished, strain; evaporate the liquor unlil the salt is dried. Put this into a crucible, and, having melted it in the fire, pour it out upon a flat clean stone. Lastly, when it is cold, break it into small pieces, and keep it in a well-closed vessel. The Edinburgh College orders of White Marble, in fragments, 3x.; Muriatic Acid (com- rnercial) and Water, of each, Oj. Mix the acid and water; add the marble by degrees; and, when the effervescence is over, add a little marble in fine powder till the liquid no longer reddens litmus. Filter, and concentrate to one half. Put the remaining fluid in a cold place to crystal. lizc. Preserve the crystals in a well-closed bottle. More crystals will be obtained by concen- trating the mother liquor. Chloride of calcium is a secondary product in the manufacture of the hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia, (see p. 291) as well as of solution of ammonia; (see p. 282) and from this source it is usually procured. The Dublin College orders of the liquor which remains after the distillation of the water of caustic ammonia any requisite quantity. Filter the liquor, and expose it in an open vessel to heat until the muriate of lime becomes perfectly dry. Let it be preserved in a vessel com- pletely closed. In this process one equivalent or 37 parts of hydrochloric acid react on one equivalent or 50 parts of carbonate of lime, and produce one equivalent or 22 parts of carbonic acid, which escape in a gaseous form, one equivalent or 9 parts of water, and one equivalent or 56 parts of chloride of calcium. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. 1 pn Carbonate of ^ * e?- Carb- Acid- 23----------------- 1 eq" Carbonic Aci- 1 eq. Chloride Calcium---56 87 87 87 By heat the crystals of this salt lose their water, and the anhydrous chloride of calcium is obtained. Properties.—Anhydrous chloride of calcium is a white translucent solid, of a crystalline texture. Its taste is bitter and acrid saline. It is fusible, but not vola- tile. It deliquesces in the air, and becomes what has been called Oil of Lime {Oleum Calcis). When put into water it evolves heat, and readily dissolves in a quarter of its weight of this fluid at 60° F., or in a much less quantity of hot water. By evaporation the solution yields striated crystals {Hydrated Chloride of Cal- cium), having the form of regular six-sided prisms, and which, therefore, belong to the rhombohedric system. These crystals undergo the watery fusion, when heated, are deliquescent, readily dissolve in water with the production of great cold, and, when mixed with ice or snow, form a powerful frigorific mixture. Both anhydrous and hydrous chloride of calcium are readily soluble in alcohol. Characteristics.—This salt is known to be a chloride by the tests for this class of salts before mentioned (p. 226). The nature of its base is ascertained by the tests for lime (p. 496). Composition.—The composition of this salt is as follows :— Atoms Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Ure. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Calcium.............. 1 ...... 20 ...... 35-71 ...... 36 7 Chlorini!............. 1 .....• 36 ...... 64-28 ...... 63-3 Chloride of Calcium.. 1 ...... 56 ...... 99-99 .....100 0 Chloride Calcium--- 1 ...... 56 Water.............. 6 ...... 54 Crystall. Chlo. Calc... 1 ......110 Purity.—Chloride of calcium, when pure, is colourless, evolves no ammonia when mixed with lime, and undergoes no change of colour nor gives any precipi- tate with caustic ammonia, chloride of barium, or hydrosulphuric acid. CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM. 501 The fused chloride is free from colour; slightly translucent; hard and friable: totally soluble in water: the solution gives no precipitate on the addition of ammonia or chloride of barium, nor, when diluted with much water, with ferrocyanide of potassium. Ph. Lond. The crystallized salt is "extremely deliquescent. A solution of 76 grains in one fluid ounce of distilled water, precipitated by 49 grains of oxalate of ammonia, remains precipitable by more of the test." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects. «. On Animals.—Three drachms and a half given to a dog caused quick breathing and snorting, with convulsive but vain efforts lo vomit, a profuse secretion of saliva, and death in six hours. The mucous mem- brane of the stomach and small intestines was very bloodshot and in many places almost black, and converted into a gelatinous mass. (Beddoes, Duncarfs Annals of Medicine, vol. i. Lustr. ii. 208.) (3. On Man.—In small doses it promotes the secretions of mucus, urine, and perspiration. It operates, therefore, as a liquefacient (see p. 201). By continued use it appears fo exercise a specific influence over the lymphatic vessels and glands, the activity of which it increases ; for under its use glandular and other swellings and indurations have become smaller and softer, and ultimately disap- peared altogether. In larger doses it excites nausea, vomiting, and sometimes purging ; causes tenderness of the praecordium, quickens the pulse, and occasions faintness, weakness, anxiety, trembling, and giddiness. In excessive doses the disorder of the nervous system is manifested by failure and trembling of the limbs, giddiness, small contracted pulse, cold sweats, convulsions, paralysis, insen- sibility, and death. (Vogt, Pharmakodynamik.) Considered in reference to other medicines, it has the closest resemblance in its operation to chloride of barium. Hufeland (Quoted by Wibmer, Die Wirkung, &c.) says its operation is more irritant than the last-mentioned substance, and that its use requires greater cau- tion,—a statement which is directly opposed to the experience of Dr. Wood, {Edtnb. Med. and Surg. Journ. i. 147,) and of most other practitioners. Uses.—It has been principally employed in scrofulous affections, especially those attended with glandular enlargements. Beddoes {Op. cit.) gave it to nearly a hundred patients, and he tells us there are few of the common forms of scrofula in which he has not had successful experience of it. Dr. Wood {Op. cit.) tried it on an extensive scale, and wilh decided benefit. Tt has been found most effi- cacious in the treatment of tabes mesenterica, checking purging, diminishing the hectic fever, allaying the inordinate appetite, and in many cases, ultimately re- storing the patient to perfect health. It has also been recommended in chronic arthritic complaints, in bronchocele, in some chronic affections of the brain (as paralysis), and in other cases where the object was to excite the action of the ab- sorbents. Occasionally, though rarely, it has been employed externally. Thus a bath containing two or three ounces of it, either alone or with chloride of sodium, has been used in scrofula. (Vogt, op. supra, cit.) In pharmacy fused chloride of calcium is used in the rectification of spirit (p. 321), on account of its strong affinity for water; and in chemistry it is employed in the drying of gases. In the crystallized slate, mixed wilh half or two-thirds of its weight of ice or snow, it is used for producing an intense degree of cold. Its solution is used as a salt water bath for chemical purposes. Administration.—Chloride of calcium is always used medicinally in the form of aqueous solution. MOTOR CALCII CHLORIDI, L. (U. S.;) Calcis Muriatis Solutio, E.; Calcis Mu- riatis Aqua, D. (Chloride of Calcium [fused,] Jiv.; Distilled Water, fjxij. L.— Muriate of Lime [crystals,] 3viij.; Water, fjxij. E.—Muriate of Lime [dry], two parts ; Distilled Water, seven parts, D.—Dissolve and [if necessary] strain.) Dose from iTVxI. or trvl. to f3ij., or gradually increased until nausea is produced. 502 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. The uses of it have been above noticed. [The U. S. Pharmacopceia orders Marble in fragments, nine ounces : Muriatic Acid, a pint; Distilled Water, a suffi- cient quantity. Mix the Acid with half a pint of the Distilled Water and gra- dually add the Marble. Towards the close of the effervescence apply a gentle heat, and when the action has ceased pour off the clear' liquor and evaporate to dryness. Dissolve the residuum in its weight and a half of Distilled Water, and filter the solution.] 3. CAL'CISHYPOCHLO'RIS — HYPOCHLORITE OF LIME. (Calx Chlorinata,) L. E. (U. S.j History.—In 1798, Mr. Tennant of Glasgow, took out a patent for the ma- nufacture of this substance as a bleaching powder, which in consequence was long known as Tennant,s Bleaching Powder. According to the views entertained of its composition it has been successively termed Oxymuriate of Lime, Chloride of Lime or Chloruret of the Oxide of Calcium, Chlorite of Lime (Berzelius), and Chlorinated Lime. Preparation.—Chloride of lime is prepared on a very large scale for the use of bleachers. The London College, however, has thought fit to give the following directions for its preparation :— Take of Hydrate of Lime, lbj.; Chlorine as much as may be sufficient; pass Chlorine to the Lime, spread in a proper vessel, until it is saturated. Chlorine is very readily evolved from Hy- drochloric Acid added to binoxide of Manganese, with a gentle heat (sec p. 225). On the large scale the gas is generated in large, nearly spherical, leaden vessels, heated by steam. The ingredients employed are binoxide of manganese, chloride of sodium, and dilute sulphuric acid. The gas is washed by passing it through water, and is then conveyed by a leaden tube into the combination room, where the slaked lime is placed in shelves or trays, piled over one another to the height of five or six feet, cruss-bars below each, keeping them about an inch asunder, that the gas may have free room to circulate. The combination room is built of ' siliceous sandstone, and is furnished with windows to allow the operator to judge how the impregnation is going on. Four days are usually required, at the ordi- nary rate of working, for making good marketable chloride of lime. (Ure, Quart. Journ. of Science, xiii. 1.) At Mr. Tennant's manufactory at Glasgow, the lime is placed in shallow boxes on the floor of the combination chambers, and is agitated once during the process by iron rakes; the handles of which pass through boxes filled with lime, which serves as a valve.1 The supply of chlorine is then shut off, and a man enters the chambers and rakes the lime over. The chambers are then closed, and more chlorine introduced, until the lime is saturated. Theory of the Process.—Chemists are by no means agreed as to the consti- tution of the substance called chloride of lime, and, therefore, as to the nature of the changes which occur during its preparation. a. Some regard it as a compound of chlorine, water, and lime. On this view, when chlorine gas comes into contact with slaked lime, the two substances are supposed to enter into combination. An objection to this view is, that the odour of chloride of lime is that of hypochlorous acid, and not that of mere chlorine. f3. Another view, supported by the discoveries of Balard, {Researches in Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, vol. i. p. 269.) is, that chloride of lime is a mixture or com- pound of hypochlorite of lime and chloride of calcium. Its formation may, then, be explained as follows :—When chlorine comes into contact with slaked lime, a portion of the latter is decomposed : its base (calcium) combines with chlorine to form chloride of calcium, while its oxygen unites with another portion of chlorine and forms hypochlorous acid, which combines with some undecomposed lime, to form hypochlorite of lime. 1 American Journ. of Science, vol. x. No. % Feb. 1826, and Dumas, Traiti de Chimie, ii. 806. hypochlorite of lime. 503 MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. I 1 eq. Chlorine 36-----------------------------^___- 1 eq. Chloride Calcium. • -561 « ne 72< ( leq. M cq. Chlor Chlorine 36 ( \ Va O^en * .....-"-- leq. Hypochl. Acid 44 { 4 eq. Water 30__________________________________4 ««!• Water...........3(i 220. The odour of hypochlorous acid which chloride of lime possesses, strongly supports this view. On the other hand, it may be objected, that if chloride of lime contained so large a quantity of chloride of calcium, it would be deliques- cent. But to this it may be replied that the chloride of calcium may be in chemi- cal combination with the hypochlorite of lime. y. More recently, Millon {Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxv. p. 595. 1839.) has discovered some new fads which he asserts are inexplicable on the view just ex- plained ; and he suggests that chloride of lime is a substance analogous to peroxide of calcium, but in which one equivalent of the oxygen of the peroxide is replaced by an equivalent of chlorine. His view, which Professor Graham {Elements of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 501.) regards as "simpler" than the preceding, is supported by the fact that many of the precipitates formed in metallic solutions by a solution of chloride of lime, are composed of one equivalent of the metallic oxide and one equivalent of chlorine. Properties.—Chloride of lime, as met with in commerce, is a white or brownish white powder, having a feeble odour of hypochlorous acid, and a strong bitter and acrid taste. Exposed to the air, it attracts carbonic acid, evolves chlorine, and is thereby converted into a mixture of carbonate of lime and chloride of cal- cium, the latter of which deliquesces. Digested in water, the chloride or hypo- chlorite of lime dissolves, as well as any chloride of calcium present, and a small portion of caustic lime: any carbonate and the excess of caustic lime remain un- dissolved. The solution which has a slight yellow colour, first reacts on vegetable colours as an alkali, and afterwards bleaches them, especially if an acid be added. Its bleaching and disinfecting properties depend either on the oxidizement or on the dehydrogenizalion of the colouring or infectious matter : if an acid be employed in the process, chlorine is evolved, which produces oxygen at the expense of the elements of water: if, on the contrary, no acid be used, Balard {Researches, in Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, vol. i. p. 269.) supposes that both the hypochlorous acid and lime give out their oxygen, and thereby become chloride of calcium. When chloride of lime is heated, it evolves first chlorine and subsequently oxygen. Characteristics.—Its smell and bleaching properties are most characteristic of it. The acids (as sulphuric or hydrochloric) separate chlorine from it. An aqueous solution of it throws down white precipitates with nitrate of silver, the alkaline carbonates, and with oxalic acid or the oxalates. The supernatant liquor from which chloride of silver has been thrown down by nitrate of silver, possesses a decolourizing property. Composition.__The quantity of chlorine absorbed by slaked lime varies with the pressure, the degree of exposure, and the quantity of water present. Hence, the substance sold as chloride of lime is not a uniform product. Moreover, it would appear, from Dr. Ure's experiments, not to have any definite atomic constitution. The following table contains the most important results of his experiments :— 504 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. I Prepared with Protohydrate of Lime, without pneumatic pressure. The process was carried on until the Lime ceased lo absorb Chlorine. Commercial Specimens. Synthesis. 1st Analysis. Chlorine.......30-311 40-00 2d Analysis. Mean. 40-62 40-31 46-07 45-40 13 31 14-28 1. 2. | 3. 23 46 31 22 | 28 ( 78 | 71 Water ........14-60 15-26 l ■ Chlor'd ofMime 10000 100-00 10000 1 100 00 100 1 100 100 Mr. Brande1 and Mr. Philips {Translation of the Pharmacopoeia, 4th ed. p. 234.) give the following as the atomic proportions of chlorine, lime, and water, in chlo- ride of lime of the best quality :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Chlorine................1........36..........32-73 Lime...................2........56..........50-91 Water..................2........18..........16*36 Chloride of Lime........1.......110. .100 00 Constitution according to Mr. Philips. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Bihvdrated Chloride of Lime........1.........82 Linie..............................1.........28 " When water is added to this, the chloride of lime dissolves, leaving nearly all the lime insoluble." (Philips.) If, with Berzelius and Balard, we regard bleaching powder as constituted of hypochlorite of lime, chloride of calcium, and water, its composition, correspond- ing with the proportions assumed by Mr. Brande and Mr. Philips, will be as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Trishvpocblorite of Lime........1............128............58-18 Chlori4e of Calcium.............1............56............25-45 Water..........................4............ 36............1636 Chloride of Lime................1............220. .99-99 Fig. 77. When bleaching powder is digested in water, a bleaching liquor is obtained, while a portion of lime remains undissolved. The trishypochlorite is supposed to be decomposed by the action of water; and to deposit two equivalents of lime, while one equivalent of chloride of calcium, and one equivalent of neutral hypo- chlorite of lime, are dissolved. Chlorometry.—In order to estimate the bleaching power of the chloride of lime of commerce, various chlorometrical methods have been devised. One method is to determine the quantity of chlorine gas which is given out by a certain weight of chloride on the addition of liquid hydrochloric acid. (Ure, Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. xiii.) The liquid may be brought into contact with the chloride placed over mercury, contained in a graduated syphon-tube, closed at one end, (Fig. 77, a.) When the gas is evolved, the mercury flows out, by the orifice b, into a basin ready to receive it. The resulting film of chloride of calcium protects the surface of the metal from the action of the chlorine. If carbonic acid be suspected, the mercury by agitation absorbs the chlorine, leaving the carbonic acid. Ten grains of bleach- ing powder yield from three to four cubic inches of chlorine, equivalent to twenty or thirty per cent, by weight. Another chlorometrical method is lo ascertain the bleaching power of the chloride on a standard solution of indigo; (Gay-Lussac, Ann. of \S^J Phil. xxiv. 218 ; also in Alcock's Essay, before quoted, p. 135.) but it s, km tube is not susceptible of accuracy. foretioro- A chlorometrical method, which Professor Graham {Elements of Che- ZTlscs mislry, p. 502.) considers to be " entitled to preference," is founded on 1 Manual of Chemistry, 5th ed. p. 676. "Upon the whole," says Mr.^Brandc, "it is not improbable that bleaching powder consists of a chloride of lime, containing one proportion of chlorine and one of lime, mixed with a varying proportion of hydrate of lime." hypochlorite of lime. 505 the fact, that chloride of lime converts sulphate of the protoxide of iron into sul- phate of the peroxide. Red ferroprussiate of potash {ferrosesquicyanide of potas- sium) is employed to ascertain the change in the degree of the oxidation of the iron, since it gives a blue precipilate with the protosaits, but not with the persalts, of this metal. A quantity of solution of chloride of lime capable of peroxidising 78 grains of sulphate of iron, contains 10 grains of chlorine. The Edinburgh College gives the following characteristics of good chloride of lime:— " Pale grayish white : dry : 50 grains are nearly all soluble in two fluid ounces of water, form- ing a solution of the density 1027, and "of which 100 measures, treated with an excess of oxalic acid, give off much chlorine, and if then boiled and allowed to rest twenty-four hours, yield a pre- cipitate which occupies nineteen measures of the liquid." The precipitate produced in the solution by oxalic acid is oxalate of lime, and, therefore, this process is one for the detection of lime (or calcium). The London College merely observes that chlorinated lime— "Dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid, emitting chlorine." Neither College, therefore, gives directions for estimating the real value of chlo- ride of lime. Physiological Effects.—The local aclion of chloride of lime is that of an irritant and caustic. A solution of it applied to suppurating and mucous surfaces is a powerful desiccant, probably in part at least from the uncombined lime in solu- tion. When the secretions are excessive and extremely fetid, it not only dimi- nishes their quantity, but much improves their qua'ity ; so that, considered in reference to suppurating and mucous surfaces, it is not only a desiccant, but, in morbid conditions of these parts, a promoter of healthy action. Applied in the form of ointment (composed of a drachm of chloride to an ounce of fatty matter) to scrofulous swellings, Cima1 found that it provoked suppuration, caused strong redness, promoted the suppurating process, and dispersed the surrounding hard- ness. Taken internally, in small doses (as from 3 to 6 grains, dissolved in one or two ounces of water), it sometimes causes pain and heat in the stomach, and occa- sionally, according to Cima, purging. Under the continued use of it, hard and enlarged absorbent glands have become softer and smaller, from which circum- stance it has been supposed to exercise a specific influence over, and to promote the healthy action of, the lymphatic system. During its employment, Cima says he did not find it necessary to give purgatives. Dr. Reid^ gave it in the epi- demic fever, which raged in Ireland in 1826, and he tells" us that it rendered the tongue cleaner, abated the delirium, and promoted the cutaneous functions. In dysentery it soon put a stop to the bloody evacuations, the umbilical pain, and the tenesmus. 1 am not acquainted wilh any facts respecting the effects of chloride of lime in large or poisonous doses. Analogy would lead us to expect that it would produce the combined effects ofa caustic and of an agent specifically affecting the nervous system. Uses.—The chlorides (hypochlorites) of lime and soda are extensively em- ployed as disinfectants and antiseptics. I have already stated (p. 229) that chlo- rine gas stands unrivalled for its power of destroying putrid odours and checking putrefaction, and where uninhabited chambers or buildings are to be purified, fumi- gations with this gas should be adopted. But its powerful action on the organs of respiration precludes its use in inhabited places; and, in such cases, the alkaline chlorides (chloride of lime, on account of its cheapness) are to be substituted. When these substances are in contact with organic matter, it is supposed the hypochlo- i Conliyliachi nnd Brugnatelli's Giornale di Fisica, 1825 ; quoted by Dierbach, d. neust. Entd. in d. Mat. Mid. 1828, 2te Abt 597. a Trans, of the Associat. of Fcllotcs and Licentiates of the College of Physicians in Ireland, vol. v. 1828. vol. I. 43 506 elements of materia medica. rite gives out oxygen, and is converted into a metallic chloride; the oxygen being the effective disinfecting and antiseptic agent; or it may act by abstracting hydro- gen. When, however, the solution of the chloride (hypochlorite) is exposed to the air, carbonic acid is attracted by the lime, and hypochlorous acid set free, which immediately reacts on any organic matter present. Hence, these chlo- rides (hypochlorites,) when exposed to the air, evolve chlorine so slowly and in such moderate quantities, as not to produce any noxious effects, though their action on organic matters is very powerful. Their most obvious effect is that of destroying the unpleasant odour of putrid matter. Their action on hydrosul- phuric acid, ammonia, and hydrosulphate of ammonia (substances evolved by de- composing animal matters) can be readily and easily demonstrated. Other odor- ous principles given out by putrid matters are, by the experience of most persons, admitted to be destroyed by the alkaline chlorides, though Piorry {Journ. Chim. Med. ii. 601.) has asserted, they are only overpowered by the stronger smell of the chlorine. The alkaline chlorides (hypochlorites) possess another valuable property,— that of stopping or checking the putrefactive process; and hence they are called antiseptics.1 These two properties, viz: that of destroying offensive odours and that of pre- venting putrefaction, render the alkaline chlorides most valuable agents to the medicinal practitioner. We apply them to gangrenous parts, lo ulcers of all kinds attended with foul secretions, to compound fractures accompanied with offensive discharges, to ihe uterus in various diseases of this viscus attended.with fetid evacuations: in a word, we apply them in all cases accompanied with offensive and fetid odours. As 1 have before remarked, with respect to chloride of soda (p. 469.), their efficacy is not confined to an action on dead parts, or on the dis- charges from wounds and ulcers ; they are of the greatest benefit to living parts, in which they induce more healthy action, and the consequent secretion of less offensive matters. Farthermore, in the sick chamber, many other occasions pre- sent themselves on which the power of ihe chlorides to destroy offensive odours will be found of the highest value : as, to counteract the unpleasant smell of dress- ings or bandages, of the urine in various diseases of the bladder, of the alvine evacuations, &c. In typhus fever a handkerchief, or piece of calico, dipped in a weak solution of an alkaline chloride, and suspended in ihe sick chamber, will be often of considerable service both to the patient and the attendants. The power of the chlorides (hypochlorites) to destroy infections or contagion, and to prevent the propagation of epidemic diseases, is less obviously and satis- factorily ascertained than their capability of destroying odour. Various state- ments have been made by Labarraque, and others, (Vide Alcock's Essay, p. 155, d. seq.) in order to prove the disinfecting power of the chlorides with respect to typhus and other infectious fevers. But, without denying the utility of these agents in destroying bad smells in the sick chamber, and in promoting the reco- very of the patient by their influence over the general system, I may observe that I have met with no facts which are satisfactory to my mind as to the chemi- cal powers of the chlorides to destroy the infectious matter of fever. Nor am I convinced by the experiments made by Pariset and his colleagues, {Bullet, des Sciences Med. xix. 233.) that these medicines are preservatives against the plague. Six individuals clothed themselves with impunity in the garments of men who had died of plague, but which garments had been plunged for six hours in a solution of chloride of soda. But, as Bouillaud {Did. de Med. Prat., art. Contagion.) has truly observed, the experiments, to be decisive, should have been made with clothing which had already communicated the plague to the wearers of it. In Moscow, chlorine was extensively tried and found unavailing, 1 For various facts in proof of this, I must refer to the late Mr. Alcock's Essay on the Use of the ChlorureU, Lond. 1827. hypochlorite of lime. 507 nay, apparently injurious, in cholera. " At the time," says Dr. Albers, {Lond. Med. Gaz. viii. 410.) " that the cholera hospital was filled with clouds of chlorine, then it was that the greatest number of the attendants were attacked." (See also Dierbach, Die neust. Enid, in d. Mat. Med. i. 411, 2te Ausg. 1837.) Some years ago chlorine was tried at the Small-Pox Hospital, with a view of arresting the progress of erysipelas : all offensive smell, as usual, was overcome, but the power of communicating the disease remained behind. {Lond. Med. Gaz. viii. 472.) Bousquet {Rev. Med. Fev. 1830, p. 264.) mixed equal parts ofa solution of chloride of soda and the vaccine lymph, and found that the latter still pos- sesssed the power of producing the usual cow-pock vesicle. These are a few of the facts which are adverse to the opinion that chlorine or the alkaline chlorides possess the power of preventing the propagation of infectious, contagious, or epidermic diseases. In opposition to them there are but few positive facts to be adduced. Coster (Richter, Ausf. Arzneimittell. Suppl. Band. 539.) found that a solution of chloride of soda destroyed the infectious properties of the syphilitic poison, and of the poison of rabid animals. The statements of Labarraque (Al- cock's Essay, pp. 56, 59, &c.) and others as to the preservative powers of the chlorides in typhus, measles, &c, are too loose and general to enable us to attach much value to them. Considered in reference to medical police, the power of the alkaline chlorides (hypochlorites) to destroy putrid odours and prevent putrefaction is of vast im- portance. Thus chloride of lime may be employed lo prevent the putrefaction of corpses previously to interment, to destroy the odour of exhumed bodies during medico-legal investigations, to destroy bad smells, and prevent putrefaction in dis- secting-rooms and workshops in which animal substances are employed (as cat- gut manufactories), to destroy the unpleasant odour from privies, sewers, drains, wells, docks, &c, to disinfect ships, hospitals, prisons, stables, &c. The various modes of applying it will readily suggest themselves. For disinfecting corpses, a sheet should be soaked in a pailful of water containing a pound of chloride, and then wrapped around the body. For destroying the smell of dissecting-rooms, &c, a solution of the chloride may be applied by means of a garden watering- pot. When it is considered desirable to cause the rapid evolution of chlorine gas, hydrochloric acid may added to chloride of lime. Chloride of lime (or chloride of soda) is the best antidote in poisoning by hy- drosulphuric acid, hydrosulphuret of ammonia, sulphuret of potassium, and hy- drocyanic acid. It decomposes and renders them inert. A solution should be administered by the stomach, and a sponge or handkerchief soaked in the solu- tion, held near the nose, so that the vapour may be inspired. It was by breathing nir impregnated with the vapour arising from chloride of lime, that the late Mr. Roberts (the inventor of the miner's improved safety lamp), was enabled to enter and traverse with safety the sewer of the Bastile, which had not been cleansed for 37 years, and which was impregnated with hydrosulphuric acid. (Alcock's Essay.) If a person be required to enter a place suspected of containing hydro- sulphuric acid, a handkerchief moistened with a solution of chloride of lime should be applied to the mouth and nostrils, so that the inspired air may be purified before it passes into the lungs. A solution of chloride of lime has been used as a wash in some skin diseases. Derheims (Journ. de Chim. Med. iii. 575.) used a strong solution with great success in scabies. This mode of curing itch is much cleaner and more agreea- ble thnn the ordinary method by sulphur frictions. It has likewise been found successful by Fantonetti (Ibid. ix. 305.) in tinea capitis : where the discharge is copious, washes of the chloride may be used with advantage. In burns and scalds, Lisfranc employed lotions of chloride of lime either immediately after the acci- dent, or subsequent to the application of emollient poultices. Solutions of chloride of lime have been employed with great benefit in oph- thalmia. Dr. Varlez, surgeon to ihe military hospital at Brussels, {Med. and , 508 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Phys. Journ. Nov. 1827.) states that in 400 cases it never disappointed him once. Mr. Guthrie has also reported favourably of it in three cases ; as have likewise MM. Colson, Delatte, and Raynaud. The solution used by Dr. Varlez was composed of from a scruple to three or four drachms of chloride, and an ounce of water. It was dropped into the eye or injected by a syringe, or applied by means of a camel's hair pencil. Of course other means (bleeding, purging, cold, and, in chronic cases, blisters) should be conjoined. 1 have found a weak solution of the chloride very successful in the purulent ophthalmia of infants. Gubian {Journ. de Chim. Med. vi. 315) proposed to apply a solution of chloride of lime to prevent the pitting from small-pox. The fully maturated pustules are to be opened and washed with a weak solution of this salt: desiccation lakes place very promptly, and no marks or pits are said to be left behind. Chloride of lime may be employed internally in the same cases that chloride of soda is administered (p. 468). It has been used with great success by Dr. Reid (Trans, of the King and Queen's College of Physicians in Ireland, v. 266.) in the epidemic fever of Ireland. In some of the very worst cases it acted most beneficially, causing warm perspiration, rendering the tongue cleaner and. moister, checking diarrhoea, and inducing quiet sleep. I also can bear testimony to the good effects of it in bad cases of fever. In disease of the pulmonary organs resulting from febrile excitement, Dr. Reid also found it advantageous. In dysen- tery likewise it was most valuable. He used it by the mouth, and also in the form of clyster. It corrected the intolerable stench of the evacuations, and improved their appearance. Cima (Richter, Ausf. Arzneimitt. iv. 305.) used it both inter- nally and externally in scrofula. Administration.—Internally, chloride of lime may be given in doses of from one grain to five or six grains, dissolved in one or two ounces of water, sweetened with syrup. As the dry chloride of the shops deposits hydrate of lime when put into water, the solution (of the hypochlorite of lime and chloride of calcium) should be filtered, to get rid of this. To destroy the unpleasant smell of the breath, and to restore the white colour of the teeth when stained by tobacco, &c, tooth-powders (see p. 220.) and lozenges {Journ. de Chim. Med. t. iii. p. 496.) con- taining chloride of lime, have been used. An ointment (composed of 3j. of chlo- ride to 3j. of lard or butter) has been employed, by way of friction, to reduce scrofulous enlargements of the lymphatic glands, when the use of mercurial oint- ment has failed. Antidotes.—Administer albuminous liquids (as eggs beat up with water), or milk, or flour and water, or oil, or mucilaginous drinks, and excite vomiting; combat the gastro-enteritis by the usual means. Carefully avoid the use of acids, which would cause the evolution of chlorine gas in the stomach. LIQUOR CALCIS CHLORINATE; Solution of Chlorinated Lime; Solution of Chlo- ride of Lime. A solution of chloride of lime is used for lotions and gargles. Its strength must vary according to the quality of the chloride and the nature and seat of the disease for which it is employed. The average proportions are from 3j. to 3iv. of chloride, and Oj. of water. In the cure of itch, Derheims employed a wash composed of 3'ij- of chloride, and Oj. of water. The changes produced in the chloride by the action of water have been already explained (see p. 504). The solution should be filtered to get rid of the hydrate of lime. A solution containing from ten to fifteen grains of the chloride is useful as an enema when the alvine evacuations are very offensive. A formula for a disinfecting mouth- vjash has been already given (see p. 220). 4. CAL'CIS CAR'BON AS.—CARBONATE OF LIME. (1. Creta, L. E. D.—2. Marmor, L. E. D. (U. S.)—3. Testae pruBparatae, L.) History.—Some varieties of carbonate of lime were distinguished and em- ployed in the most remote periods of antiquity. Marble was probably used for carbonate of lime. 509 building 1050 years before Christ. (1 Chron. xxix. 2.) Pliny {Hist. Nat. xxxvi.) tells us that Dipcenus and Scyllis were renowned as statuaries of marble in the 50!h Olympiad (i. e. 557 years before Christ). The Creta, mentioned by Horace {Sat. iii. lib. 2.) and Pliny was probably identical with our chalk. (On ihe chalk of ihe ancients, consult Beckmann's History of Invent, i. 212.) Natural History.—Carbonate of lime occurs in both kingdoms of nature. a. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—It forms a considerable portion of the known crust of the earth, and occurs in rocks of various ages. It is found in the inferior stratified rocks, but more abundantly in the different groups of the fossiliferous rocks, particularly towards the central and higher parts of the scries. (De la Beche, Researches in Theoretical Geology, 21.) In the crystallized form it constitutes Calcareous Spar and Arragonite. The first of Ihese is most e.xtensively distributed, and presents itself under many hundred varieties of shapes. (See Bournon's Traite Completde la Chaux Carbonalee. Londres, 1808.) Granular Carbonate of lime (the Granular Limestone of mineralogists) more commonly oc- curs in beds, but sometimes constitutes entire mountains. The whitest and most esteemed pri- mitive limestone is that called Statuary Marble, or, from its resemblance to white sugar, Saccha- raid Carbonate of Lime. That from Carrara, on the eastern coast of the Gulf of Genoa, is the kind usually employed by the statuary, and being very pure, should be employed for pharmaceuti- cal purposes; it is the Marmor of the British pharmacopoeias. Chalk constitutes the newest of the secondary rocks, and occurs abundantly in the southern parls of England. It lies in beds, and contains abundance of marine as well as terrestrial orga- nic remains. The upper part of a considerable portion of the chalk of England contains nume- rous flints, which are supposed to have belonged lo poriferous animals. (Dr. Grant, Lect. on Comp. Anal, in the Lancet, Nov. 2, 1833.) There are various other native forms of carbonate of lime constituting the substances called by the mineralogists Schiefer Spar, Rock Milk, Earth Foam, Stalaclitic Carbonate of Lime, An- thraconile, Oolite, Pisolite, Mart, Tufa, &c. Carbonate of lime is an ordinary ingredient in mineral and common waters, being held in solution by carbonic acid, and, therefore, deposited when this is expelled by boiling or other- wise. ji. In the Organized Kingdom.—Carbonate of lime is found in some plants, and is obtained from llie ashes of most. It is an abundant constituent of animals, especially of the lower classes. Thus in the Radiate animals we find it in the hard parts of Corals, Madrepores, &c; in the Mol- luscs (as the Oyster), it is in the shells. In the articulated animals it forms, with phosphate of lime, the crusts which envelope these animals (as the Crab and Lobster); in the higher classes it is found in bone, but the quantity of it is very small. Preparation—Several forms of carbonate of lime are employed in medicine; viz. Marble, Chalk, Precipitated Carbonate of Lime, and Carbonate of Lime from Animals. Most of these require to be submitted to some preparation before they are fitted for use. i. Marble? Marmor. Carbonas Calcis {dura), L.—Massive Crystalline Car- bonate of Lime ; White Marble, E. Marmor album, D.—This is employed for the preparation of» carbonic acid (p. 3U9) and for other purposes. White or sta- tuary marble from Carrara should be selected, on account of its freedom from Iron. It requires no preparation. a. chalk; Creta. Calcis Carbonas (friabilis), L___Creta. Friable Carbonate of Lime: Chalk, E. (and U. S.)—Creta alba, D. This is found in great abundance in the southern parts of England. It is ground in a mill, and the finer particles sepa- ted by washing them over in water, letting the water settle, and making up the sediment into flat cakes, which are dried in the air. In this state it is called Wlulu/g. All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of chalk by elutriation. By this means it is separated from siliceous and ferruginous par- ticles. The product is called Prepared Chalk {Creta praparata, L. E. D. and U. S.) It is usually made up into little conical loaves. The London College .orders of Chalk, lbj.; Hater as much as may be sufficient; add a little Water to the Chalk, and rub it that it may become fine powder. Put ihis in a large vessel with the rest of the Water; then stir it, and after u short interval pour off the supernatant water, still turbid, into another vessel, and set it by that the powder may subside; lastly, the Water being 510 elements of materia medica. poured off, dry this powder and keep it for use. In the same way shells, first freed from impuri- ties and washed with boiling water, are prepared. The directions of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges are essentially the same, except that no mention is made of the preparation of chalk from shells. 3. Precipitated Carbonate of Lime. {Calcis Carbonas pradpitatum, D.)— Carbonate of lime prepared by precipitation is employed by some druggists in the preparation of Aromatic Confection. It is also preferred to the ordinary prepared chalk for making Camphorated Cretaceous Tooth-Powder. The Dublin College directs it to be employed in the preparation of the Hydrargyrum cum Cretd, D. The following is the mode of preparing it:— Take of Solution of Muriate of Lime^ue parts; add of Carbonate of Soda dissolved in four times its weight of distilled water, three parts. Let the precipitate be mixed with water, and suffered to subside, and let this operation be three times repeated with a sufficiently large quan- tity of water: lastly, when collected, let the powder be dried on a chalk stone or on paper Ph. Dub. It should be prepared with cold solutions, otherwise the deposit is finely gra- nular. 4. Carbonate of Lime from Animals.—Carbonate of lime is obtained from va- rious animal substances ; as from Oyster shells, Crab's claws, Crab's stones, and Red Coral. These substances yield carbonate of lime intimately blended with animal matter. ■' 's capable of dissolving more than four times the above quantity of chalk. 512 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. be conjoined with great advantage; and in severe cases, accompanied with griping pains, opium. Administration.—Prepared chalk is given in the form of powder or mixture, in doses of from ten grains lo one or two drachms. It enters into a considerable number of officinal preparations. 1. MISTURA CRETCE, L. E. D.; (U. S.) Chalk Mixture ; Cretaceous Mixture. (Prepared Chalk, gss.; Sugar, 3iij.; Mixture of Acacia, fjiss.; Cinnamon Water, l'3xviij. Mix. L.—Prepared Chalk, 3x.; Pure Sugar, 3v.; Mucilage, fjiij.; Spirit of Cinnamon, gij.; Water, Oij. Triturate the chalk, sugar, and mucilage together; and then add gradually the water and spirit of cinnamon, E.—Prepared Chalk, gss.; Refined Sugar, 3iij-; Mucilage of Gum Arabic, 3j*; Water, Oj. [wine measure.] Mix. D.)—[Prepared Chalk, halfan ounce; Sugar, Gum Arabic, in powder, aa two drachms ; Cinnamon Water, Water, aa four fluid ounces.—U. S. P.]—A convenient and agreeable form for the exhibition of chalk. It is in very common use for diarrhoea. Aromatics (as aromatic confection), as- tringents (as kino or catechu), and narcotics {opium), axe frequently combined with it. Dose, fgss. to fgij. 2. PULVIS CRETE COMPOSITUS, L. E. D. Compound Powder of Chalk. (Pre- pared Chalk, lbss.; Cinnamon, Qv.; Tormentil Root; Acacia Gum, of each, giij. ,* Long Pepper, 3ss. L. D.—Prepared Chalk, giv.; Cinnamon, in fine pow- der, 3iss.; Nutmeg, in fine powder, 3j. Triturate them well together.)—Aro- matic and astringent. Used in diarrhoea. Dose, grs. x. to 9j. %, TROCHISCI CRETH, E. Chalk Lozenges. (Prepared Chalk, 3iv.; Gum Arabic, 3j.; Nutmeg, 3j.; Pure Sugar, gvj. Reduce them to powder, and beat them with a little water into a proper mass for making lozenges.)—Mildly antacid and astringent. Used in acidity of stomach and diarrhoea. 4. CAMPHORATED CRETACEOUS TOOTH-POWDER, (Precipitated Carbonate of Lime, three parts ; Camphor, finely pulverized, one part. Mix.)—Extensively used as a dentifrice (see p. 219). 5. CALCIS SUBPHOSTHAS.—SUBPHOSPHATE OF LIME. History.—In 1769 Scheele discovered that bones contained an earthy salt composed of phosphoric acid and lime. As these two substances combine to- gether in several proportions to form phosphates, chemists distinguish the combi- nation found in bones by the name of the Bone Phosphate, or the Subphosphale of Lime. Natural History.—Subphosphale of lime constitutes the principal part of the earthy matter of the bones of the Vertebrata and of the crustaceous envelopes of the Articulata. According to Dr. Wollaston {Phil. Trans, for 1797.) the same subphosphate is found in the ossification of the arteries, veins, valves of the heart, bronchia?, and tendinous portion of the diaphragm. Moreover, the tartar of the teeth is composed of it. The calcareous phosphate found in urine, and which is sometimes deposited from this fluid in a pulverulent form, is the neutral phosphate of lime (Ca O -f- POa.J). The phosphate of lime calculus, prostatic calculi, and pineal concretion, also contain, according to Dr. VVollaston, the neutral phosphate. The same salt is held in solution by carbonic acid in some mineral waters. (Berzelius, Traite de Chimie, t. iv.) The calcareous phosphate found crystallized in some plants is probably the neutral phosphate. The mineral called Apatite is the subsesquiphosphate of lime (!CaOT aP Oa^). Preparation.—When bones are ignited in close vessels, they yield as a fixed residue Bone Black (see pp. 298 and 307). If, however, ihey be calcined in open vessels, the whole of the carbonaceous matter is burnt off, and the white product 8UBPH0SPHATE OF LIME. 513 is called Bone Ash {Ossa usta alba ; Ossa de usta ; Ossa ad albedinem usta ; Ossa calcinata ; Spodium album,) or the Bone Earth {Terra Ossium). A similar product is obtained by calcining the antlers {Cornua) of the Deer {Cervus). In this case the product, when reduced to a fine powder, is called Burnt Hartshorn. {Cornu ustum, L.; Pulvis Cornu Cervini usti, D.) Finely powdered Bone Ash is, however, usually substituted in the shops for Burnt Hartshorn. The Dublin College gives the following directions for the preparation of Pre- cipitated Phosphate of Lime {Calcis Phosphas pracipitatum, D.) Take of Bones, burnt and reduced to powder, one part; Diluted Muriatic Acid; Water, of each two parts. Digest them together during twelve hours, and filter the liquor: add to this, of water of Caustic Ammonia as much as may be sufficient to throw down the Phosphate of Lime. Let this be washed with a sufficiently large quantity of water, and then dried. Bone ash is composed principally of subphosphate with a little carbonate of lime. By digestion with hydrochloric acid, the subphosphate is dissolved, and the carbonate is decomposed with the evolution of carbonic acid and the formation of water and chloride of calcium. On the addition of ammonia, the subphosphate is precipitated. It is washed to deprive it of all traces of chloride of calcium and muriate of ammonia. Properties.—Subphosphate of lime is white, tasteless, odourless, insoluble in water, but soluble in nitric, hydrochloric, and acetic acids, from which solutions it is thrown down, unchanged in composition, by ammonia, potash, and their car- bonates. When exposed to a very intense heat, it fuses, and undergoes no other change. Characteristics.—It is known to be a phosphate by its solubility in hydrochloric acid, and its being again thrown down as a white precipitate when the acid solu- tion is supersaturated with caustic ammonia. If it be digested in a mixture of sulphuric acid and alcohol, sulphate of lime is precipitated, and an alcoholic solu- tion of phosphoric acid obtained. The acid may then be recognised by the tests for it already mentioned (p. 402). If the precipitated sulphate of lime be dis- solved in water, the solution may be known to contain lime by the tests before described for the calcareous salts (p. 496). The subphosphate of lime of bones is distinguished from the neutral phosphate by its fusing with greater difficulty, and dissolving more readily in hydrochloric acid. A very delicate test of the neutral phosphate is its crystallizing from hydrochloric acid by evaporation. (Wollaston, Phil. Trans, for 1797, p. 396 and 397.) Composition.—The composition of subphosphate of lime is as follows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Lime........................... 8 ........ 224 ........ 51-0 ........ 51-55 Phosphoric Acid................ 6 ........ 216 ........ 49-0 ........ 48-45 Done Subphosphate of Lime...... 1 ........ 410 ........ 100 0 ........ 100-00 Physiological Effects.—Its effects are not very obvious. " As phosphate of lime is very difficultly soluble," observes Wibmer, {Die Wirkung, &c. ii. 9.) " it is absorbed in small quantity only, and then acts more or less like lime, as a slight astringent, on the tissues and secretions, and increases, incontestably, the presence of calcareous salts in the bones, the blood, and the urine. Large doses disorder the stomach and digestion by their difficult solubility." Uses.—It has been administered in rickets, wilh the view of promoting the de- position of bone-earth in the bones. The sesquioxide of iron may be advantage- ously conjoined with it. Its principal use is in the preparation of phosphorus (p. 400) and phosphate of soda (p. 473). In the arts it is employed for polishing, for the preparation of cupels, &c. Administration.—Dose from grs. x. to 3ss. For internal use the preparation of the Dublin College is to be preferred. 514 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Order XV.—COMPOUNDS OF MAGNESIUM. 1. MAGNESIA, L. E. D. (U. S.)—MAGNESIA. History.—It was first chemically distinguished from lime in 1755, by Dr. Black, who also showed the difference between magnesia and its carbonatp. From the mode of procuring it, it is frequently termed Calcined or Burnt Magnesia (Magnesia calcinata seu usta). It is sometimes called Talc Earth {Talkerde), or Bitter Earth {Bittersalzerde). Natural History.—It occurs in both kingdoms of nature. st. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—Magnesia is found native, in the solid state or in solution, in sea or some mineral waters, in combination with water and various acids (carbonic, sulphuric, boracic, silicic, and nitric). Chloride of magnesium exists in sea water, as also in some springs. /S. In the Organized Kingdom.—Combined with acids it is found in some vegetables, (as Salsola Kali and Fucus vesiculosus,) and animals (as in the urine and some urinary calculi of man). Preparation.—It is prepared by submitting the common carbonate of mag- nesia to heat, whereby the carbonic acid is driven off. The Edinburgh College gives the following directions for it:—"Take any convenient quantity of Carbonate of Magnesia, expose it in a crucible to a full red heat for two hours, or till the pow- der, when suspended in water, presents no effervescence on the addition of muriatic acid. Pre- serve the product in well-closed bottles." The directions of the London and Dublin Colleges are essentially similar. [And so are those of the U. S. Pharmacopoeia.] The operation is usually conducted in large, porous, covered crucibles, placed in a furnace expressly devoted to this operation, and heated by coke. Properties.—It is a light, fine, white, colourless, odourless, and tasteless powder, having a sp. gr. 2*3. When moistened with water it reacts as an alkali on test papers. It is very slightly soluble in water, and like lime is more soluble in cold than in hot water. Dr. Fyffe states that it requires 5142 parts of cold, and 36000 parts of hot water to dissolve it. Unlike lime it evolves scarcely any heat when mixed with water. By the combined voltaic and oxy-hydrogen flames it has been fused by Mr. Brande. {Manual of Chemistry.) It absorbs carbonic acid slowly from the atmosphere. Characteristics.—It is soluble in the dilute mineral acids without effervescence. The dilute solution does not occasion any precipitate with the ferrocyanides, hydrosulphurets, oxalates, or bicarbonates. The neutral alkaline carbonates, when unmixed with any bicarbonate, throw down a white precipitate (carbonate of magnesia). Ammonia with phosphate of soda causes a white precipitate {am- moniacal-phosphate of magnesia). Magnesia is insoluble in alkaline solutions, and is thereby distinguished from alumina. Its solution in sulphuric acid is re- markable for its great bitterness. Composition.—Magnesia has the following composition :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Wullaston. Gay-Lussac. Berzelius. . 1 ...... 12 ...... 60 ...... 59-3 ...... 59-5 ...... til 29 . 1 ...... 8 ...... 40 ...... 40-7 ...... 40-5 ..... 38-T1 . 1 ...... 20 ......100 ......1000 ...... 1000 ...... 100.00 Purity.—Its freedom from any carbonate, is shown by its dissolving in dilute mineral acids without effervescence. Its hydrochloric solution should occasion no precipitate with the oxalates, bicarbonates, and barytic salts, by which the absence of lime and sulphates may be inferred. Dissolves in hydrochloric acid without effervescence. Neither bicarbonate of potash nor chloride of barium throws down any thing from the solution. It turns turmeric slightly brown. Ph. Lond. Magnesium Oxygen.... Magnesia. • MAGNESIA. 515 " Fi!ty grains arc entirely soluble, without effervescence, in a fluid ounce of [pure] muriatic acid: an excess of ammonia occasions in the solution only a scanty precipitate ot alumina : the fdtered fluid is not precipitated by solution of oxalate of ammonia." The quantity of hydrochloric acid directed to be used by the Edinburgh Col- lege is unnecessarily large. \ Physiological Effects.—When taken into the stomach, magnesia neutralizes the free acids contained in the stomach and intestines, and forms therewith solu- ble mngnesian salts. In full doses it acts as a laxative; but as it occasions very little serous discharge, Dr. Paris {Pharmacologia, vol. i. art. Cathartics.) ranks il among purgatives " which urge the bowels to evacuate their contents by an imperceptible action upon the muscular fibres." Part of its laxative effect pro- bably depends on the action of the soluble magnesian salts which it forms by union with the acids of the alimentary canal. Magnesia exercises an influence over the urine analogous to that of the alkalis : that is, it diminishes the quantity of uric acid in the urine, and when continued for too long a period occasions the deposit of ihe earthy phosphates in the form of white sand. (W. T. Brande, Phil. Trans. 1810, p. 136; and 1813, p. 213.) On account of its grealer insolu- bility, it requires a longer lime to produce these effects than the alkalis. When taken in too large quantities and for a long period it has sometimes accumulated in the bowels to an enormous extent, and being concreted by the mucus of the bowels, has created unpleasant effects. A lady took every night during two years and a half, from one to two tea-spoonsful of Henry's calcined magnesia (in all between 9 and 10 lbs. troy) for a nephritic attack, accompanied wilh the passage of gravel; subsequently she became sensible of a tenderness in the left side just above the groin, connected with a deep-seated tumour, obscurely to be felt on pressure, and subject to attacks of constipation, wilh painful spasmodic action of the bowels, tenesmus, and a highly irritable state of stomach. During one of these attacks she evacuated two pints of " sand ;" and on another occasion voided soft light brown lumps, which were found to consist entirely of carbonate of magnesia concreted by the mucus of the bowels, in the proportion of 40 per cent. In another case a mass ofa similar description, weighing from 4 to 6 lbs., was found embedded in the head of the colon, six months after the patient had ceased to employ any magnesia. (E. Brande, Quart. Journ. of Science, i. 297.) Uses.—As an antacid it is as efficacious as the alkalis, while it has an advan- tage over them in being less irritant, and thereby is not so apt to occasion dis- order of the digestive organs. It may be employed to neutralize acids introduced into the stomach from without (as in cases of poisoning by the mineral acids), or to prevent the excessive formation of, or to neutralize when formed, acid in the animal economy. Thus it is administered to relieve heartburn arising from, or connected with, the secretion of an abnormal quantity of acid by the stomach; its efficacy is best seen in persons of a gouty or rheumatic diathesis, in which the urine contains excess of uric acid. It often relieves the headache to which such individuals are not unfrequently subject. It is most efficacious in diminish- ing the quantity of uric acid in the urine, in calculous complaints, and according to Mr. W. T. Brande {Phil. Trans. 1813, p. 213.) it is sometimes effectual where the alkalis have failed. It will be found of great value in those urinary affections in which alkaline remedies are indicated, but in which potash and soda have created dyspeptic symptoms. It is a most valuable anli-emetic in cases of sympathetic vomiting, especially that which occurs during pregnancy.1 It should be given in doses of from a scruple lo a drachm in simple water or chicken broth. As a laxative, magnesia is much employed in the treatment of the diseases of children. It is tasteless, mild in its operation, and antacid,—qualities which render it most valuable as an infant's purgative. Independently of these, Hufe- 1 Dr. Watson, in the Medical Observ. and Inquiries, vol. iii. p. 335. Lond. 1769, 2d ed. 516 ELEMENTS of materia medica. land ascribes to it a specific property of diminishing gastro-intestinal irritation by a directly sedative influence. In flatulency it is combined with some carminative water (dill or anise); in diarrhoea, wilh rhubarb. It is employed as a purgative by adults in dyspeptic cases—in affections of the rectum, as piles and stricture— and in diarrhoea. It is associated with the carminative waters—with some neu- tral salts, as sulphate of magnesia, to increase its cathartic operation—or, in diar- rhoea, with rhubarb. 7 Administration.—As a purgative, the dose, for adults, is from a scruple to a drachm ; for infants, from two to ten grains. As an antacid, the dose is from ten to thirty grains twice a day. It may be conveniently given in milk. It is some- times administered in combination with lemon juice : the citrate of magnesia thus formed acts as a pleasant and mild aperient. 2. MAGNE'SI^E CAR'BONAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA. History.—Carbonate of magnesia, also called Magnesia Alba and Subcarbo- nate of. Magnesia, was exposed for sale at Rome at the commencement of the 18th century, by Count di Palma, in consequence of which it was termed Comi- tissa Palma pulvis. In 1707, Valentini informed the public how it might be prepared. Natural History.—Native, anhydrous, neutral carbonate of magnesia is found in various parts of Europe, Asia, and America. Carbonate of magnesia is found in some mineral waters. The native neutral carbonate of magnesia constitutes a range of low hills in Hindostan. Some years ago a cargo of it was brought over by Mr. Bubington. Dr. Henry (Annals of Philo- sophy, N. S. vol. i. p. 252,) analyzed a sample of it, and found its constituents to be magnesia, 46; carbonic acid, 51 ; insoluble matter, 1*5; water, 0-5; and loss, 1* = 100. Native carbonate of magnesia, from India, has been imported in considerable quantities inlo this country; but has been found, as I am informed, unsaleable here. The samples offered for sale in the year 1837 consisted of reniform, opaque, dull masses, adherent lo the tongue, having a conchoidal fracture, and considerable hardness. Internally, they were whitish; externally, they were grayish, or yellowish white. The same substance (I presume) was brought over in 1838 in the calcined state, and was offered (or sale as Indian Calcined Magnesia, It was nearly white. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of carbonate of magnesia. The London College orders of Sulphate of Magnesia, lbiv.; Carbonate of Soda, Ibiv. and 3viij.; Distilled Water, Cong. iv. Dissolve separately the carbonate of soda and sulphate of magnesia in two gallons of the water, and strain; then mix and boil the liquors, stirring con- stantly with a spatula for a quarter of an hour; lastly, the liquor being poured off', wash the precipitated powder with boiling distilled water, and dry it. The Edinburgh College employs the same proportions of ingredients, and gives similar directions for the preparation of this compound. The Dublin College uses of Sulphate of Magnesia, twenty-five parts; Carbonate of Potash, twenty-four parts; Boiling Water, four hundred parts. Two kinds of carbonate of magnesia are known and kept in the shops;—the light and the Iwavy. a. Light Carbonate of Magnesia ; Common Magnesia.—This is manufactured in the northern parts of this island, and is commonly known as Scotch Magnesia. It is said to be prepared from the residuary liquor {bittern) of sea water, after the extraction of common salt (see p. 460). (3. Heavy Carbonate of Magnesia ; Magnesia Ponderosa.—The following is the method which I have seen followed in a large and esteemed manufactory :— Add one volume of a cold saturated solution of carbonate of soda to a boiling mixture of one volume of a saturated solution of sulphate magnesia, and three volumes of water. Boil until effervescence has ceased, constantly stirring with a spatula. Then dilute with boiling water, set aside, pour off the supernatant carbonate of magnesia. 517 liquor, and wash the precipitate with hot water on a linen cloth : afterwards dry it by heat in an iron pot. A lieavy and gritty Carbonate of Magnesia is prepared by separately dissolving twelve parts of sulphate of magnesia and thirteen parts of crystallized carbonate of soda in as small a quantity of water as possible, mixing the hot solutions, and washing the precipitate. When cold solutions of sulphate of magnesia and carbonate of soda are mixed, and no heat is employed, the product is apt to be gritty. According to Professor Graham, {Elements of Chemistry, p. 505.) carbonate of soda is not so suitable as carbonate of potash for precipitating magnesia, " as a portion of it is apt to go down in combination with the magnesian carbonate; but it maybe used, provided the quantity applied be less than is required to decompose the whole magnesian salt in solution." By the mutual reaction of solutions of sulphate of magnesia and carbonate of soda, we obtain, by double decomposition, sulphate of soda and carbonate of magnesia. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. „,,.„, . ... CI eq. Sulphvric Acid. .40------------- —" 1 eq. Sulphate Soda.....72 1 eq. Sulphate Magnesia. -60 ^ x ^ M/gAesia.......20-«^_^---*''^ C 1 eq Soda............32 «^^ 1 eq. Carbonate Soda.....541^ * Carbonic Acid.. .22-_____________-i=»-l eq. Carb. Magnesia---42 7l4 114 114 During the ebullition, however, part of the carbonic acid escapes, and the product, therefore, is not a neutral carbonate, as will be shown presently. Berzelius {Traite de Chimie, t. iv.) states, that the neutral carbonate is decom- posed by cold water into bicarbonate, which is dissolved in the liquid, and a sub- salt which is precipitated. Boiling water, he adds, causes the disengagement of carbonic acid, without dissolving any thing. " The crystallized carbonate of magnesia loses a third of its carbonic acid and two thirds of its water, when it is decomposed by boiling water." {Berzelius.) The compound obtained by ebulli- tion is fixed and unalterable. Properties___Carbonate of magnesia, as usually met with, is in the form ofa white, inodorous, and almost tasteless powder. The common or light variety occurs in commerce as a very fine light powder, of which 48 grains lightly fill an ounce measure. (West, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. ix. p. 356.) It is also met with in large rectangular masses with bevelled edges, or in smaller cubical cakes. The light powder mixes imperfectly with water. Its taste, in a copious draught, is somewhat disagreeable, owing probably to its having been imperfectly washed. The lieavy carbonate is, as its name indicates, of greater specific gravity than the light: 160 grains of it lightly fill an ounce measure. It is tasteless, or nearly so. Both kinds mixed with water have a feebly alkaline reaction on test paper. Carbonate of magnesia is nearly insoluble in water: it readily dissolves in carbo- nic acid water. CJuxracteristics.—It is distinguished from caustic or calcined magnesia by the effervescence which takes place on the addition ofa dilute mineral acid. Its other characteristics are the same as for the latter substance. (Vide p. 514.) Composition___The following is the composition of Carbonate of Magnesia of the shops:— Kirwan. Bergman. Klaproth. Bucholz. Berzelius. Phillips. Carbonic Acid. Light. Heavy. M.cnrsia.......45............45............40............33 42............4475............40-8 rXnicAcid...34............25............33............32 35............3577............360 Walcr..........»i............30............27............35 23............19-48............23 2 Magnesia Alba 100 VOL. I. .100...........100...........100 100...........100-00...........1000 44 518 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Several reasons have led chemists to reject the idea of this compound being an ordinary subsak. (Vide Berzelius, Traite de Chim. vi. 101.) Mr. Phillips {Translation of the Pharmacopoeia, 4th ed.) considers it to be pro- bably a compound of Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Bihydrated Magnesia............■........ 3g , , Carbonic Acid........................... 3t>-3 Hydrated Carbonate of Magiitsja 4........204 > or < Magnesia ............................... 413 ) ( Water..................................224 Carbonate of Magnesia, Ph. L... .1........242...................................................100-0 Mr. Brande, {Manual of Chemistry, 5th edit. p. 714.) on the other hand, says that it probably consists " of 1 atom quadrihydrate and 1 atom of carbonate," or perhaps of 1 atom terhydrate and 1 atom of hydrated carbonate. Purity.—Carbonate of magnesia, should be perfectly white and tasteless. The water in which it has been boiled should have no alkaline reaction on turmeric paper, nor throw down any thing on the addition of chloride of barium or nitrate of silver; by which the absence of alka\ine carbonates, sulphates, and chlorides, is proved. Dissolved in dilute acetic acid, the soluble oxalates and carbonates should occasion no precipitate, by which the non-existence of any calcareous salt is shown. The water in which it is boiled does not alter the colom of turmeric: chloride of barium or nitrate of silver, added to the water, does not precipitate any thing. One hundred parts dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, lose 366 parts in weight. When the effervescence has ceased, bicarbo- nate of potash does not precipitate any thing from this solution.—Ph. Lond. " When dissolved in an excess of muriatic acid, an excess of ammonia occasions only a scanty preeipitate of alumina: and the filtered fluid is not precipitated by oxalate of ammonia." —Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—The effects of carbonate of magnesia are nearly the same as those of pure magnesia. We can readily conceive fhat the local opera- lion of the first is somewhat milder than that of the latter, (as in the case of the alkalis and their carbonates;) but the difference is hardly perceptible in practice. As the carbonate effervesces with acids, it is more apt to create flatulence when .swallowed. Uses.—The uses of the carbonate are the same as those of calcined magnesia: except where the object is to neutralize acid in the alimentary canal (as m cardi- al o-ia and in poisoning by the mineral acids), when the latter preparation is to be preferred on account of its not effervescing with acids, and thereby not causing flatulency. It is employed in the preparation of medicated waters. (See p. 250.) Administration.—The dose of carbonate of magnesia, as a purgative, is from ten grains to a drachm ; as an antacid, from five grains to a scruple. It is some- times given with citric acid in an effervescing form. I find that 9j. of crystallized citric acid saturates about 14 grains of either light or heavy magnesia. The product of their reaction is citrate of magnesia. 1. TROCHISCI MAGNESIiE, E. Magnesia Lozenges. (Carbonate of Magnesia, 3vj.'; Pure Sugar, 3iij.; Nutmeg, 9j. Pulverize them, and, with mucilage of Tragacanth, beat them into a proper mass for making lozenges.)—Employed to /counteract acidity of stomach. I. AQUA MAGNESIA BICARBONATIS? Carbonated Magnesia Water; Aerated Magnesia Water: Condensed Solution of Magnesia ; Fluid Magnesia.—This is absolution of carbonate of magnesia in carbonic acid water. Mr. Dinneford prepares it as follows :—Howard's heavy carbonate of magnesia and distilled water (in the proportion of \1\ grs. of the former to f 3j- of the latter) are introduced into a cvlindrical tinned copper vessel, and carbonic acid (generated by the action of sulphuric acid on whiting) is forced into it, by means of steam power, for five hours and a half, during the whole of which time the cylinder is kept revolving. The SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA. 519 liquid, which is then perfectly clear and transparent, is drawn off, and preserved in cylindrical zinc canisters, each closed by a cork covered by a lid. When this solution is exposed for some time to the air, carbonic acid escapes, and minute prismatic crystals are deposited, which Dr. Davy {Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. vol. xvii. p. 346. 1840.) analyzed, and found to consist of— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Dr. Davy. Magnesia........................ Ii .......... 30 .......... 20-61 Carbonic Acid................... H.......... 33 .......... 32 22 Water expelled at 212°........... 1 .......... 9 .......... 10 27 Ditto do. by ignition....... 3 .......... 27 .......... 27-90 Hydrattd Carbonate of Magnesia. 1 .......... 99 .......... 10000 An extemporaneous solution of carbonate of magnesia may be prepared by pouring the ordinary soda water (carbonic acid water) over the common carbonate of magnesia contained in a tumbler. Or a mixture of crystallized sulphate of magnesia and crystallized carbonate of soda, in powder, and in atomic propor- tions (viz. 123 parts of the former to 144 parts of the latter salt), may be substi- tuted for the carbonate of magnesia. Carbonated magnesia water is a very agreeable and effective form for the ad- ministration of magnesia. 3. MAGNESIiE SULPHAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA. History.—This salt was originally procured from the Epsom waters by Dr. Grew. {A Treatise of the Nature and Use of the Bitter Purging Salt. Lond. 1697.) It has had a variety of names, such as Epsom or the Bitter Purging Salt, SalAnglicum, Sal Seidlitzensc, Sal Calharticum, and Vitriolated Magnesia. Natural History.—It is a constituent of sea and many mineral Waters : it uucma aa an •rfTluit-scuuc'.- un uilier mineral-;, forming the Hair Salt of mineralo- gists; and with sulphate of soda and a little chloride of magnesium, constitutes Reussite. Preparation.—The two great sources of the sulphate of magnesia of English commerce are Dolomite and Bittern. a. From Dolomite.—Dolomite or Magnesian Limestone is a mixture or combi- nation of the carbonates of magnesia and lime. It crystallizes in rhombohe- drons. It occurs in enormous quantities in various counties of England (as those of Somerset, York, and Nottingham), and is employed for building: York Min- ster and Westminster Hall are built of it. Various methods of manufacturing sulphate of magnesia from dolomite have been proposed and practised. One method is to heat this mineral with dilute sul- phuric acid : carbonic acid escapes, and a residue, composed of sulphate of mag- nesia and sulphate of lime, is obtained. These two salts are separated from each other by crystallization. In 1816, Dr. William Henry, of Manchester {Repert. of Arts, vol. xxx. p. 142, 2d Ser.) took out a patent for the following process:—Calcine magnesian limestone, so as to expel the carbonic acid ; then convert the caustic lime and magnesia into hydrates by moistening them with water. Afterwards add a suffi- cient quantity of hydrochloric (or nitric or acetic) acid (or chlorine), to dissolve the lime, but not the magnesia, which, after being washed, is converted into sul- phate by sulphuric acid (or, where the cost of this is objectionable, by sulphate of iron, which is easily decomposed by magnesia). Or the mixed hydrates of lime and magnesia are to be added to bittern : chloride of calcium is formed in solution, while two portions of magnesia (one from the bittern, the other from the magnesian lime) are left unacted on. Or hydrochlorate of ammonia may be used instead of bittern : by the reaction of this on the hydrated magnesian lime, chloride of calcium and caustic ammonia remain in solution, while magnesia 520 elements of materia medica. is left undissolved: the ammonia is separated from the decanted liquor by distil- lation. Carbonate of ammonia has also been employed to separate lime from magnesia: carbonate of lime is precipitated, and the magnesia remains in solution, from which it may be easily separated by ebullition. {Journ of Science, iii. 217 : vi. 313; ix. 177.) (3. From Bittern.—Bittern ox the Bitter Liquor is the residual liquor of sea- water, from which common salt (chloride of sodium) has been separated (see p. 460). At Lymington, in Hampshire, sulphate of magnesia (called physical salt) is manufactured from bittern during the winter season. The liquor is boiled for some hours in the pans used during the summer for the preparation of common salt. During the ebullition some common salt is deposited. The lighter impuri- ties are removed by skimming, and the concentrated solution is removed into wooden coolers, where in 24 hours one-eighth part of crystals of sulphate (called Single Epsom Salts, or simply Singles) are deposited. These are drained, dis- solved, and recrystallized : they are then denominated Double Epsom Salts, or simply Doubles. Four or five tons of sulphate are obtained from brine which has yielded 100 tons of common salt and 1 ton of cat salt. (Henry, Phil. Trans, for 1810.) No sulphuric acid is employed in the process at Lymington ; but, if this acid be added to the residual liquor, a farther quantity of sulphate may be ob- tained by the decomposition of the chloride of magnesium. At Monte deila Guardia, near Genoa, sulphate of magnesia i3 manufactured from schistose minerals, containing sulphur, magnesia, copper, and iron. After being roasted, and moistened to convert them into sulphates, they are lixiviated, and the solution is deprived, first, of copper by refuse of iron, and afterwards of iron by lime. (Dr. Holland, Phil. Trans. 1816, p. 234.) In Bohemia, sulphate of magnesia is procured, by evaporation, from the waters of Seidlitz and Saidschutz. Hermann (PoggendorfTs Annalen, xi. 249.) extracts it from liquids containing chloride of magnesium, by means of sulphute of suda. At Baltimore, sulphate of magnesia is procured from the siliceous hydrate of magnesia or marmalite, by reducing iIk» minor.! to pow- der, saturating wilh sulphuric acid, and calcining the dried mass to peroxidize the iron. It is then redissolved in water (from which solution the remaining iron is separated by sulphuret of lime), and crystallized. By a second orystallization it is obtained nearly pure. (D. B. Smith, in the Dispensatory of the U. S. of America.) Properties.—The sulphate usually met with in the shops is in small acicular crystals. By solution and recrystallization we readily obtain tolerably large four-sided rhombic prisms, with reversed diedral summits, or four-sided pyra- mids .* the crystals belong to the right prismatic system. Both large and small Fig. 78. Fig. 79. Common Crystal. Crystal with diedral reversed summits. crvstals are colourless, transparent, and odourless, btit have an extremely bitter taste. When heated they undergo the watery fusion, then give out their water of crystallization, become anhydrous, and at a high temperature undergo the igneous fusion, and run into a white enamel, but without suffering decomposition. Ex- SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA. 521 posed to the air they very slowly and slightly effloresce. They dissolve in their own weight of water'at 60°, and in three-fourths of their weight of boiling water. They are insoluble in alcohol. Characteristics.—Sulphate of magnesia is known to contain sulphuric acid by the tests for the sulphates already mentioned (p. 414). The nature of its base is shown by the tests for magnesia before described (p. 514). Composition.—The following is the composition of crystallized sulphate of magnesia:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Gay-Lussac. Wenzel. Magnesia................... 1 ........ 20 ........ 1626 ........ 1604 ........ 16S0 Sulphuric Acid............... 1 ........ 40 ........ 3252 ........ 32-53 ........ 30-64 Water....................... 7 ........ 63 ........ 5122 ........ 5143 ........ 525U Cry-t. Sulphate of Magnesia.. 1 ........ 123 ........ 100-00 ........ 10000 ....... 100-00 Purity.—The sulphate of magnesia met with in the shops is usually sufficiently pure for all medicinal and pharmaceutical purposes. It should be colourless, and its dilute solution should undergo no change when mixed with ferrocyanides or Jiydrosulphurets. When obtained from bittern it is sometimes contaminated with chloride of magnesium, which, by its affinity for water, keeps the sulphate in a damp state. By digestion in alcohol the chloride is dissolved; and, by evapora- tion, the spirituous solution may be obtained in the solid state. It is said, that occasionally small crystals of sulphate of soda are intermixed with those of sul- phate of magnesia—a fraud I have never met with in English commerce, nor is it likely to occur at the present low price of the magnesian salt. Should such an adulteration be suspected, there are several methods of detecting it: the sophisti- cated salt would eflloresce more rapidly than the pure salt, and would communi- cate a yellow tinge to the flame of alcohol. Boiled with caustic lime and water, all the magnesian sulphate would be decomposed, and the liquor being filtered (to separate the precipitated mngnesia and sulphate of lime) would yield, on evapora- tion, sulphate of soda. If shaken in the cold with carbonate of baryta, a solution, of carbonate of soda would be obtained, easily recognised by its alkaline pi-Q* perties. Very readily dissolved by water. Sulphuric acid dropped into the solution does n'jt expel any hydrochloric acid. 100 grs. dissolved in water, and mixed with a boiling solution, of earbooale of soda, yield 34 grains of carbonate of magnesia w^en dried. Ph. Lond. The evolution of hydrochloric acid gas would be a proof of the presence of a chloride. If less than 34 grs. of carbonate of magnesia be obtained, the presence of sulphate of soda may be suspected. "Ten grains dissolved in a fluid ounce of water, and treated wilh a solution of carbonate of ammonia, are not entirely precipitated by 280 minims of solution of phosphate of soda " PA. Ed. Physiological Effects.—Sulphate of magnesia is a mild and perfectly safe antiphlogistic purgative, which promotes the secretion as well as the peristaltic motion of the alimentary canal. It is very similar in its operation to sulphate of soda, than which it is less likely to nauseate, or otherwise disorder the dio-estive funclions, while it acts somewhat more speedily on the bowels. It does not oc- casion nausea and griping, like some of the vegetable purgatives, nor has it any tendency to create febrile disorder or inflammatory symptoms; but, on the other hand, has a refrigerant influence : hence it is commonly termed a cooling puro-a- live. In small doses, largely diluted with aqueous fluids, it slightly promotes ihe action of other emunctories: thus, if the skin be kept cool, and moderate ex- ercise be conjoined, it acts as a diuretic; whereas, if the skin be warm, it operates as a diaphoretic. Dr. Christison {Treatise on Poisons, 3d edit. p. 603), men- tions a case of supposed poisoning, in a boy of ten years old, by two ounces of Epsom salts. The symptoms were staggering, imperceptible pulse, slow and difficult breathing, extreme debility, and death within ten minutes, without vo- 522 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. miting. It may, however, be fairly doubted whether the Epsom salts were chargeable with these effects. Uses.—On account of the mildness and safety of its operation, its ready solu- bility, and its cheapness, sulphate of magnesia is by far the most commonly em- ployed purgative, both by the public and the profession.1 The only objection to its use is its bitter and unpleasant taste. To state all the cases in which it is ad- ministered, would be to enumerate nearly the whole catalogue of known diseases. It must, therefore, be sufficient to mention, that it is excellently well adapted as a purgative for febrile and inflammatory diseases, obstinate constipation, ileus, lead colic, even incarcerated hernia, narcotic poisoning, &c. It may be used as an antidote in poisoning by the salts of lead and baryta. Administration.—As a purgative it is usually administered in doses of from half an ounce to an ounce and a half; bui if dissolved in a large quantity of water, a smaller dose will suffice. Thus, two drachms in half a pint or more of water, taken in the morning fasting, will act speedily sufficiently, and mildly, in ordi- nary cases; and in delicate females, a drachm, or even less, in the above quan- tity of water, will usually produce the desired effect. Some carminative or aro- matic (as peppermint water or tincture of ginger) is frequently conjoined, to' obviate flatulency. In febrile and inflammatory diseases the solution may be acidulated with dilute sulphuric acid with great advantage; or the sulphate may be dissolved in the compound infusion of roses. It is frequently used as an adjunct to the compound infusion of senna, whose purgative effect it promotes, but whose griping tendency it is said to check. In dyspeptic cases, accompanied with constipation, it is conjoined with bitter infusions (as of quassia, gentian, calumba, &c.) As a purgative enema, an ounce or more of it may be added to the ordinary clyster. The bitter purging saline waters (see p. 260) contain sul- phate of magnesia, i PULTIS SALINUS COMPOSITUS, E.; Compound Saline Powder. (Take of Pure Muriate of Soda, and Sulphate of Magnesia [of each], 3iv. ; Sulphate of Potash, 3iij. Dry the salts separately with a gentle heat, and pulverize each, then tritu- rate them well together, and preserve the mixture in well-closed vessels.)—A mild, cooling, saline aperient. May be employed in habitual constipation. Dose, 3ij. or 3iij. It may be taken dissolved in half a pint of plain water, or in bottled soda water (carbonic acid water). Order XVI.—COMPOUNDS OF ALUMINUM. ALUMEN, L. E. D. (U. S.)—ALUM. (Sulphas Alumina; et Potassse, L. E. D.) History.—Although the term alum {Alumen of the Romans—tfroir-T-ricia of the Greeks) occurs in the writings of Herodotus {Euterpe, clxxx.), Hippocrates {De Fistulis De Ulceribus, &c), Pliny {Hist. Nat. xxxv.), Dioscorides'(Lib. v. cap. 123), and other ancient writers, yet it is not satisfactorily proved that our alum was the substance referred to. On the contrary the learned Beckmann {Hist, of Invent, i. 288), has asserted that the alum of the Greeks and Romans was sul- phate of iron, and that the invention of our alum was certainly later than the 12th century. But Geber, {Search of Perfection, ch. iii.; and Invention of Verity, ch. iv.) who is supposed to have lived in the 8th century, was acquainted with three kinds of our alum, and describes the method of preparing burnt alum ; and it is not, I think, improbable, that even Pliny was acquainted with our alum, but did not dis- 1 SulDhate of magnesia is extensively used in the diseases of cattle. In a letter which I have received from Mr Youatt Veterinary Surgeon to the Zoological GardenB, he says—" For cattle we use the sulphate of rnaenesia or'soda. The former is preferable, on account of its easier solution. I purge the larger elephant, whenever I please, by giving him a drachm of calomel at night, and a pound and a half of Epsom salts in the morning." ALCM. 523 linguish it from the sulphate of iron, for he tells us that one kind of alum was white, and was used for dyeing wool of bright colours.1 Natural History.—It is found native in the neighbourhood of vocanoes, and constilutes the mineral called Native Alum. Preparation.—The method of preparing alum varies somewhat in different places. The mineral from which (in this country) it is procured is called Alumi- nous Slate, Aluminous Shale, or Aluminous Schist {Schistus Aluminaris). This substance varies somewhat in its composition in different localities, but always contains sulphuret of iron, alumina, carbon, and sometimes a salt of potash. In the neighbourhood of Glasgow there are two alum manufactories, one at Hurlet, the other at Campsie. The most extensive alum manufactories in Great Britain is at Hurlet, near Paisley. Here the aluminous schist lies between the stratum of coal and limestone. (Williams, Nat. Hist, of the Mineral Kingdom, 2d edit. ii. 315.) By the action of the air it undergoes decomposition, and falls down on the floor of the mine. The sulphur attracts oxygen, and is converted into sul- phuric acid, which combines partly with the iron (oxidized by the air), and partly with the alumina. The solution obtained by lixiviating the decomposed schist is evaporated, and the sulphate of iron allowed to crystallize : to the mother liquor, which contains sulphate of alumina, sulphate of potash, or chloride of potassium, obtained from soap-boilers, is added, by which crystals of alum are procured, which are purified by a second crystallization. Of late years, sulphate of am- monia, obtained from gas liquor, has been employed as a substitute for the sul- phate of potash or chloride of potassium. In general the alum made at Hurlet contains both potash and ammonia. (Dr. T. Thomson, in Athenaum for 1840, At Whitby, in Yorkshire, the method of making alum is somewhat different. The schist is piled in heaps, and burnt by means of a slow smothered fire. The calcined ore is lixiviated, and a salt of potash added to the solution after it has deposited sulphates of lime and iron, and earthy matters. (Winter, in Nichol- sons Journal, vol. xxv.) Properties.—Alum crystallizes usually in regular octohedrons, frequently with truncated edges and angles, and sometimes in cubes. The ordinary alum of the shops consists of large crystalline masses, which do not pre- sent any regular geometrical form ; but, by immersion in water Fig. 80. during a few days, octohedral and rectangular forms are deve- loped on its surfaces. (Daniell, Quart. Journ. i. 24.) Alum has an astringent and sweetish acid taste: its reaction on vege- table colours is that of an acid. Its sp. gr. is 1*7. By exposure to the air it slowly and slightly effloresces. Its transcalent or diathermanous power is very slight. When heated, alum under- goes the watery fusion, swells up, gives out its water of crystal- <-, . , ^ r >■ • j i u-. ,, , t, . , ;, Octohedron of lization, and becomes a white spongy mass, called Dried Alum. Alum. When submitted to a very strong heat, a portion of the acid is expelled, and escapes, parly as sulphuric acid, partly in the form of oxygen and sulphurous acid, and tlie residue consists of alumina and sulphate of potash: the acid liquor obtained by heating alum was formerly termed Spirit of Alum. When alum is calcined with charcoal or some carbonaceous substance, as sugar, we obtain a spontaneously inflammable substance called Hombergs Pyrophorus, composed of sulphur, potassium, aluminum or alumina, and charcoal. Alum dissolves in 18 times its weight of cold and less than its own weight of boiling water. The alum procured at Tolfa and other parts of Italy, and called Roman Alum {Alumen Romanian), is covered with a pale, rose-coloured efflorescence com- posed of oxide of iron and an aluminous sulphate of potash. Under the name of Roche or Rock Alum {Alumen Rupeum, seu Alumen de Rochi, so called from 1 For farther information, consult Parkes' Chemical Essays, i. 625; and Thomson's History of Chemistry i. 125. 524 elements of materia medica. Roccha, in Syria, whence a red-coloured alum was formerly brought), we find in English commerce crystalline fragments of alum not larger than almonds, coloured externally with bole or rose-pink. Characteristics.—That alum is a sulphate, is shown by the tests for the soluble sulphates already mentioned (p. 414). It reddens litmus, and forms sulphate of lead when mixed with pure carbonate of lead : in these properties it agrees wilh the supersulphates. The nature of its basic constituents is shown by the following tests :—The ferrocyanides, the oxalates, and hydrosulphuric acid, occa- sion no precipitate in a solution of alum. Hydrosulphuret of ammonia, the caustic alkalis and their carbonates, and phosphate of soda, throw down white precipitates : that produced by the alkalis is soluble in an excess of alkali, but is insoluble in solutions of the carbonated alkalis : these characters show the pre- sence of alumina. Potash is recognised by perchloric acid and bichloride of pla- tinum (vide p. 423). Lastly, the crystalline form of the salt assists in recognising it. Composition.—The composition of alum is as follows :— Eq. Atoms. Wt. Per Cent. Thomson. Berzel. Eq. Per Alumina............ 3.. 54.. 11088.. 1109.. 1076 "1 f Atoms. Wt. Cent. Potash.............. 1.. 48.. 9 856.. 9-86.. 9-95 I Sulphate of Alumina 3 .. 174 .. 35-728 Sulphuric Acid...... 4 .. 160 •. 32 854 .. 32-85 .. 33-74 I nr J Sulphate of Potash.. 1 .. 38 .. 18069 Water...............25 .. 225 .. 46 201 .. 46-20 .. 4555 f or 1 Water..............25 .. 225 .. 46.201 ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.______________________________________________________________ I i_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Crystd. Potash Alum. 1 .. 487 .. 99 999 .. 100 00 .. 100-00 J ( Crystd. Potash Alum I .. 487 .. 99.998 In the above table I have assumed, with Thomson and Phillips, that alumina is a protoxide of aluminum, (1 eq. Aluminum = 10, and 1 eq. Oxygen = 8,) and that its equivalent is 18. But, according lo Berzelius, it is a sesquioxide (com- posed of 2 eq. Aluminum — 26-44, and 3 eq. Oxygen = 24). Moreover, he found only 24 eq. of water in crystals of alum. Hence alum is composed, according to him, of KO, SO3 + Ala 0s 3S03 + 24 HO. Purity.—Alum should be colourless, completely soluble in water (by which the.absence of uncombined earthy matter is shown): with a solution of caustic potash or ammonia should form a colourless precipitate of hydrate of alumina soluble in excess of potash ; and should not suffer any change of colour by the addition of tincture of nutgalls or hydrosulphuric acid. The ferro-sulphate of potash, sometimes mixed with alum, cannot be distinguished from the latter by its form, colour, or taste; but is readily detected by potash, which throws down oxide of iron, and by tincture of nutgalls, which communicates a bluish black colour to it. It is entirely soluble in water. From the solution, ammonia or potash, when added, throws down alumina free from colour, which again dissolves when the potash is added in excess. Ph. L. Physiological Effects.—a. On Vegetables.—Alum is probably injurious to plants. (De Candolle, Physiol. Veget. 1341.) (3. On Animals.—Dogs support large doses of alum with impunity. Orfila {Ann. dHyg. Publiq. et de Med. Leg. i. 235.) gave seven drachms of crystal- lized alum in powder to dogs: the animals retained it for from ten to thirty mi- nutes, then vomited, and in an hour or two were apparently well. Two ounces of burnt alum in four ounces of cold water occasioned vomiting only. When the oesophagus was tied to prevent vomiting, death took place in five hours with symptoms of great exhaustion and diminished sensibility. On a post-mortem examination the mucous membrane of the stomach was found inflamed in the whole of its extent. One ounce of finely-powdered burnt alum applied to the subcutaneous cellular tissue of the thigh, caused excessive suppuration, and death in fifteen hours. Devergie {Med. Legale, ii. 653.) found burnt alum somewhat more active : he says Q\ drachms killed a dog when the oesophagus was tied, and two ounces when it was not tied. Moreover, he found burnt alum suspended in cold water more active than when dissolved in warm water. Ve- ALUM. 525 terinarians employ it in doses of from 1 to 6 drachms for large animals. Bour- gelat has seen a phthisical condition induced in horses by the use of alum in too great quantities. (Moiroud, Pharm. Vder. 225.) y. On Man.—The immediate topical effect of a solution of alum is that of an n.-itringent, namely corrugation of fibres and contraction of small vessels, by vir- tue of which it checks or temporarily stops exhalation and secretion, and produces paleness of parts by dimininishing the diameters of the small blood-vessels. It is by these local effects that alum, when taken internally, causes dryness of the mouth and throat, somewhat increases thirst, checks the secretions of the alimen- tary canal, and thereby diminishes the frequency and increases the consistency of the stools, aa observed by Wibmer {Die Wirkung, &c. i. 114.) in his experi- ments made on himself with alum, in doses of 3 grains dissolved in 5 drachms of water, and taken several times during the day. But when alum is applied to a part in larger quantities, and for a longer period, the astriction is soon followed by irritation, and the paleness by preternatural redness. And thus taken internally in large doses, alum excites nausea, vomit- ing, griping, purging, and even an inflammatory condition of the intestinal canal,—effects which may be perhaps induced by small quantities in persons endowed with unusual or morbid sensibility of the stomach and bowels, as in the case of the lady in whom dangerous gastro-enteritis was apparently induced by a single dose of a solution containing between ten and twenty grains of burnt alum. {Ann. d'Hyg. Publique et de Med. Leg. i.) Ordinarily, however, tole- rably large doses of alum may be given without any unpleasant effects. Thus, Professor Dumeril has given a drachm, properly diluted, in chronic diarrhoeas, within twenty-four hours: Professor Marc, two drachms, in passive hemorrhages, within the same period of time: and MM. Kapeler and Gendrin have adminis- tered three drachms at one dose, in colica pictonum. (Devergie, Med. Leg. ii. Ooti.) After its absorption, alum appears to act as an astringent, or astringent-tonic, on the system generatly, and to produce more or lees general astriction of the tis- sues and fibres, and a diminution of secretion. Such at least appears to be its effects in some passive hemorrhages and mucous discharges. Barbier {Traite Element, de Mat. Med. 2d ed. i. 440.) says, alum " irritates the lungs, and often produces cough," but I am not aware of any other practitioner having confirmed ihis statement. Kraus {Heilmittellehre, 255.) observes, that the urine becomes remarkably acid from the use of alum. Uses.—Alum is employed both as an external or topical, and as an internal remedy. a. As a topical remedy.—Solutions of alum are sometimes employed to pro- duce contraction or corrugation of the tissues, and thereby to prevent displace- ments of parts, especially when accompanied with excessive secretion. Thus, it is used as a gargle in relaxation of the uvula with evident advantage. In the early stage of prolapsus of the rectum, a solution of alum, applied as a wash, is sometimes of service, especially when the disease occurs in infants. Washes or injections containing alum are of occasional benefit in prolapsus of the uterus. In hemorrhages, whether proceeding from an exhalation or exudation from the extremities or pores of the minute vessels, or from the rupture of a blood-vessel, a solution, or, in some cases, the powder of alum, may be used with advantage nsa styptic, to constringe the capillary vessels, and close their bleeding orifices. Thus in epistaxis, when it is considered advisable to arrest the hemorrhage, as- sistance may be gained by the injection of a solution of alum into ihe nostrils, or by the introduction of lint moistened with the solution. Where this fails to give relief, finely-powdered alum may be employed in the manner of snuff. In he- morrhage from the mouth or throat, gargles containing alum are useful. In hoe- matemesis, as well as in intestinal hemorrhage, alum whey may be administered; though, of course, no reliance can be placed on it, as the hemorrhage usually 526 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. depends on circumstances which astringents merely cannot be expected to obviate. In uterine hemorrhage, a sponge soaked in a solution of alum may be introduced into the vagina with good effect. To check the hemorrhoidal flux when immode- rate, washes or enemata containing alum may be employed. To stop the bleeding after leech-bites in children, a saturated solution, or the powder of alum, may be applied to the punctures. In certain inflammations, alum has been used as a repellent; that is, it has been applied to the inflamed part in order to produce contraction of the distended ves- sels, and thereby to diminish the quantity of blood in the seat of the disease in a manner almost mechanical. Thus, in the first stage of ophthalmia, it is some- times considered expedient to cut short the disease by the application of a strong astringent solution (as a saturated solution of alum or of acetate of lead). "It is not to be denied," observes Dr. Jacob, {Cyclopadia of Pract. Med. art. Ophthal. mia.) " lhat such applications may have the effect of arresting the progress of the disease at once ; but, if they have not that effect, they are liable to produce an increase of irritation." But, as the details necessary for making the student ac- quainted with all the circumstances respecting the use of stimulating or astrin- gent applications, in the first stage of ophthalmia, are too lengthened and nume- rous to admit of their proper discussion in this work, I must refer, for farther par- ticulars, to the essay of Dr. Jacob before quoted, as well as to the treatises of wri- ters on ophthalmic surgery. I may, however, add, that whatever difference of opinion exists as to the propriety of these applications in the first stage of ophthal- mia, all are agreed as to their value after the violence of vascular action has been subdued. In the treatment of the purulent ophthalmia of infants, no remedy is perhaps equal to an alum wash. In angina membranacea, called by Bretonneau {Rech. sur VInflam. spec, du Tissu Muqueux, 1826.) diphtheritis, great importance has been attached to the omplaymont of looul applications. Of thcac, hy Jl licllloric aciJ, Calomel, and alum, have, in succession, been highly praised by this writer. In order to pro- mote the expulsion of the falao membrane, he recommends Ihu insufflation of finely-powdered alum. This is effected by placing a drachm of it in a tube, and blowing it into the throat. (See also Trousseau and Pidoux, Traite de Therap. ii. 291.) Velpeau has subsequently confirmed the statements of Bretonneau, and extended the use of alum to other inflammatory affections of the throat, as those arising in scarlatina, small-pox, &c. In these cases powdered alum may be ap- plied to the affected parts by means of the index finger. Gargles containing this salt will be found useful in most kinds of sore throat, ulcerations of the mouth and gums, aphtha, &c. In inflammation of the uvula, accompanied with mem- braniform exudation, alum washes are serviceable both in children and adults. (Trousseau and Pidoux, op. cit.) Alum has been employed as an astringent, to diminish or stop excessive secre- tion from the mucous surfaces. Thus, a weak solution of this salt is used to re- press the discharge in the latter stages of conjunctival inflammation ; to check profuse ptyalism, whether from the use of mercury or other causes; and to re- move gleet or leucorrhcea. In old standing diarrhoeas it has been administered, in combination with the vegetable astringents (kino for example), with occasional advantage. It is also applied to check profuse secretion from ulcers. (3. As an internal remedy.—Alum has been employed, in conjunction with nutmeg, as a remedy for intermittents. Given just before the expected paroxysm, it has in some cases prevented it. (Cullen, Materia Medica.) In the treatment of lead colic, alum has been found more successful than any other agent or class of remedies. It was first used in this disease by a Dutch physician, named Grashius, {De Colica Pidonum, Amst. 1752, et Append. 1755.) and was afterwards administered in fifteen cases by Dr. Percival (Essays, Med. andExper. ii. 194.) with great success. Its efficacy has been fully established by Kapeler, physician to the tlopital St. Antoine, in Paris, and Gendrin, (Quoted ALCM. 527 by Trousseau and Pidoux, {op. cit.) and by Dr. Copland, {Did. of Med. i. 374.) as well as by several other distinguished authorities. It allays vomiting, abates flatulence, mitigates pain, and opens the bowels more certainly than any other medicine, and frequently when other powerful remedies have failed. It should be given in full doses (as from a scruple to two drachms), dissolved in some de- mulcent liquid (as gum-water) every three or four hours. Opium and (accord- ing to Dr. Copland) camphor may be advantageously conjoined. Kapeler also employs oleaginous enemata. The modus operandi of alum in lead colic is not very clear. The benefit has been ascribed by some to the chemical action of the sulphuric acid on the lead supposed to be contained in the intestines; and in sup- port of this view must be mentioned the fact, that other sulphates (as those of magnesia, soda, zinc, and copper), as well as free sulphuric acid, have been suc- cessfully employed in lead colic. But, on the other hand, ihe presence of lead in the prima; via? or evacuations, and, consequently, the formation of sulphate of lead in saturnine colic, have not been demonstrated; though the experiments of Dr. C. G. Mitscherlich {Miiller's Archiv. No. V. 353, 1836, quoted in Brit. Ann. of Med. vol. i. 204, 1837.) have shown, that when the acetate of lead is swallowed, the greater part of it forms an insoluble combination with the gastro- intestinal mucus, and in this state may remain some time in the alimentary canal. Moreover, alum has been found successful by Kopp {Denkwurdigkeit, i. 342, quoted by G. A. Richter, Ausfilhr. Arzneim. Suppl. Bd. 515.) in other varieties of colic not caused by lead, and unaccompanied by constipation. Dr. Copland is disposed to ascribe the benefit of alum, and other sulphates, in lead colic, to their "exciting the action of the partially paralysed muscular coat of the bowels, and thereby enabling them to expel retained matters of a morbid or noxious de- scription,"—an explanation which is inconsistent with the observation of Kopp just quoted. Alurn is administered internally in several other diseases, of which a brief no- tice only can be given. In passive or asthenic hemorrhages from distant organs ; as haemoptysis, monorrhagia and other uterine hemorrhages, hematuria, &c. In colliquative sweating, diabetes, gleet, gonorrhoea, and leucorrhoea. In the three latter diseases it may be combined with cubebs. Kreysig {Die Krankh. d. Herzcns, Bd. ii. Abt. 2, S. 714, in Richter, op. cit.) has advised its use in dilata- tion of the heart and aortic aneurism. More recently Dzondi {Aeskulap. Bd. 1, St. 1, 1821, in Richter.) has also recommended it in these diseases ; and Sundelin {Heilmittcllehre, ii. 278.) has mentioned a case of supposed dilatation of the heart, in which relief was gained by the use of alum. In chronic diarrhoea, alum is occasionally serviceable. [As an emetic in cases of croup, alum has been ad- ministered, and is highly spoken of by those who have tried it. Dr. Meigs of Philadelphia has for some time been in the habit of giving it with this indication, and we believe its introduction in this city is due to his suggestion.] Administration.—The dose of alum is from ten grains to one or two scruples. It may be taken in the form of powder, or made into pills with some tonic ex- tract, or in solution. To prevent nausea, an aromatic (as nutmeg) should be con- joined. A pleasant mode of exhibition is in the form of Alum Whey {Serum Aluminosum, seu Serum Lactis Aluminatum), prepared by boiling two drachms of powdered alum with a pint of milk, then straining: the dose is a wine-glassful. The Saccliarum Aluminatum of the Prussian Pharmacopceia is composed of equal parts of white sugar and alum: it may be given to children as well as adults. In prescribing alum, it is to be recollected that the vegetable astrin- gents decompose it; by which the astringent property of the mixture is probably diminished. For topical uses, alum is used in the form of powder, solution, and poultice. Powder of crystallized alum is applied to the mouth and throat as before men- tioned. Solutions of alum are made, for topical purposes, of various strengths, according to the object in view. 528 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Antidote.—In a case of poisoning by alum, let the contents of the stomach be immediately evacuated. Promote vomiting by the use of tepid diluents. The inflammatory symptoms are to be combated by the usual antiphlogistic means. Magnesia has been employed, but is said by Devergie to be altogether useless. 1. ALUMEN EXSICCATUM, L. E. (U. S.) Alumen siccatum, D.; Dried Alum ,* Alumen ustum ; Burnt Alum. (Let Alum liquefy in an earthen vessel over the fire: then let the fire be increased, until ihe ebullition has ceased, L.—The direc- tions of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges are essentially the same; except that they order the dried alum to be reduced to powder.)—In the preparation of this substance care must be taken not to apply too great a heat, lest a portion of the acid be driven off as well as the water. On this account a shallow earthen vessel is preferable to a crucible. Dried alum has a more astringent taste and does not dissolve so readily in water as the crystallized salt. It is employed as a mild escharotic to destroy exuberant spongy granulations ; as those commonly known under the name of proud flesh. 2, LIQUOR ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS, L.; Compound Solution of Alum ; Aqua Alu- minosa Bateana, or Bates's Alum Water. (Alum, Sulphate of Zinc, each 3j.; Boiling Water, Oiij. Dissolve the Alum and Sulphate of Zinc together in the Water; afterwards strain.)—This solution is used as a detergent and astringent wash in old ulcers; when diluted, as a collyrium in mild conjunctival inflamma- tion, as an injection in gleet and leucorrhcea, and as an application to chilblains and slight excoriations. J. PULVIS ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS, E.: Compound Powder of Alum. (Alum, 3iv.; Kino, 3j- Mix them, and reduce them to fine powder.)—Astringent. Employed in hemorrhages from the stomach, bowels, and uterus ; in old diarrhoeas ; and as an application to flabby indolent ulcers. 4. CATAPLASMA ALUMINIS, D.; Cataplasm of Alum ; Alum Poultice ,* Albumen Aluminosum. (Whiles of two Eggs; Alum, 3j. Shake them together to make a coagulum.) " In cases of chronic and purulent ophthalmia, it is applied to the eye between two folds of old linen. It has been praised as a good application to chilblains which are not broken," (Montgomery's Observations on the Dublin Pharmacopceia.) " Another kind of alum poultice in use is made by coagulating milk with alum, and using ihe curd as a poultice." OTHER COMPOUNDS OP ALUMINUM. RED ARMENIAN BOLE ; Bolus Armena rubra.—This is found in Armenia (whence its name), as well as in various parts of Europe. Bergmann found it to consist of silica, 47, alumina 19, magnesia 62, lime 5*4, iron 5*4, loater, 7*5. The substance sold by druggists as Red Armenian Bole is prepared by grinding together, in a mill, Pipe Clay and Red Oxide of Iron, and afterwards levigating. It is principally used in the preparation of tooth-powder. (See p. 220.) The Lemnian Earth (Terra Lemnia) is very similar to Armenian Bole. It is not, however, always red. It is dug up at Lemnos, formed into flat cylindrical pieces, which are stamped and sold under the name of Terra Sigillata. Order XVII.—COMPOUNDS OF ARSENICUM. ACIDUM ARSENIO'SUM, L. (U. S.)—ARSENIOUS ACID. (Arsenicum album, E.—Arsenici Oxydum album, D.) History.—Arsenious acid, commonly termed White Arsenic {Arsenicum album) or Oxide of Arsenic, is first distinctly mentioned by Geber, {Invent, of Verity, ch. vii.) who seems to have been also acquainted with Metallic Arsenic. (Sum of ARSENIOUS ACIO. 529 Perfection, book i. part iv. chap, ii.) Hippocrates {De Ulceribus.) employed 'A^vixov (Orpiment) and 2av8apaxr\ {Realgar) as lopical remedies. Dioscorides (Lib. v. chap, xxi.) is the first author who uses the word 'Aptfsvix.v (Orpiment). Natural History.—Arsenious acid is found at Andreasberg in the Hartz, at Joachimsthal in Bohemia, and at some few other places. It is a rare mineral. Metallic arsenic (Arsenicum) is found native either alone or associated with other metals, or their sulphurets. It forms two native sulpiiurets, viz., Orpiment and (Realgar). There arc two native compounds of it with oxygen, namely, Arsenious und Arsenic Acids: the lutter is found in combination with bases forming native Arseniates. Orfila1 asserts that arsenic exists in the bones of man and of several other animals. But the experiments of Dr. G. O. Rees (Guy's Hospital Reports, No. xii.), of MM. Danger and Flandin, and of the commissioners appointed by the French Academy of Sciences (Journal de Pharmacie, I. xxvii. p. 428. Juillet, 1841.) to report on Marsh's apparatus, have failed to corroborate his statements. Preparation.—Arsenious acid is prepared in Silesia, Bohemia, Saxony, and Cromwell. At Altenberg, in Silesia, it is obtained from arsenical iron (Mispickel), composed of sulphur 20*65, iron 35*62, and arsenicum 43*73. (Dumas, Traite de Chimie, t. iv. p. 120.) After being reduced to powder, the ore is roasted in a muffle fur- nace, by which the arsenicum is converted into arsenious acid, which is conveyed, in the state of vapour called Flowers of Arsenic or Smelting-house Smoke (Hut- tenrauch), into a condensing chamber, where it is deposited in a pulverulent form, and in this state is called Rough Arsenious Acid or Poison-flour (Giftmehl). The rough acid is refined by sublimation. This is effected in cast-iron pots, to which cylindrical iron heads are attached, which at the tops are contracted into cones, each terminating in a pipe made of sheet-iron, and communicating with the condensing chamber. Heat is applied for twelve hours, by which the acid is sublimed and condensed on the sides of the iron head in the form of a glassy mass, called Glacial White Arsenic (Wcissen Arsenikglas), \vh\ch is sometimes purified by a second, or even a third sublimation. If it contain any sulphuret of arsenicum, a little potash is'mixed with it, to prevent the sublimation of the sulphur. At Reichenstein, arsenious acid is procured from an arseniuret of iron, com- posed of iron 32*35, arsenic 65*88, and sulphur, 1*77. Arsenious acid is procured in some parts of Saxony as a secondary product in the roasting of cobalt ores (the arseniurets of cobalt). It is deposited in long horizontal flues, {Poison-flues, ox Giftfdngen,) and is purified by sublimation.2 Arsenious acid is manufactured in Cornwall, from the While Mundic or Mis- pickel found with the tin ore. In the impure state it is deposited in the long hori- zontal flues of the burning houses (Mr. J. Taylor, Ann. Phil., N. S. iii. 452.) from which it is taken for the use of refiners, its value being about ten shillings per ton.3 In this condition it has a gray colour, and is either pulverulent or in soft crystal- line masses. There are two arsenic works in the neighbourhood of Truro; one in the parish of Perran Arworthall, the other belonging to Mr. Conn, near Bissow Bridge, in the parish of Kea ,* the former about half a mile, the latter more than a mile, from the Devoran and Carnon steam-works. More recently, a third manu- factory has been set at work in the parish of Illogan, near Redruth. The rough arsenious acid is brought lo these works from the burning-houses in all parts of Cornwall. It is first separated from sulphur in a common reverbera- tory furnace, having a flue several hundred yards in length. The heat is low at first, and is gradually increased. By this means the sulphur is dissipated before the arsenic is volatilized. The process is carried on for several weeks, or even months. The fire is then extinguished, and the arsenic removed from the flue. The waste rubbish is used for destroying weeds, &c, in garden-walks. 1 Journal de Chimie Medicale, 1. v. lie Scirie, p. (532. Dec. 1839.—Also, the Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. for April. 1840. » For farther particulars consult the paper of J. II. Vivian, Trans. Royal Geol. Society of Cornwall, i. 60. ' Quart. Mm. Rev. vol. ii. p. 86; and Mr Davies Gilbert, Paroch. Hist, of Cornwall, iii. 305. vol. i. 45 530 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. t The arsenious acid thus obtained is then sublimed in conical cast-iron kettles, about 2_? feet high, and from 15 to 18 inches in diameter at the base. These kettles are hollow truncated cones, closed at the top by an iron plate perforated for an iron stopper, but open at the bottom. Ten or twelve of these kettles are placed in a circular form on an iron plate, to which they are clamped by a flanch. This plate forms the bottom to all the kettles, and is heated by a fire beneath. The rough arsenic is then introduced through the top aperture, and, heat being applied, is sublimed. Several charges are in this way introduced, until a suffi- ciently thick crust has been deposited within : the clamps are then taken off, and the kettle conveyed into the open air, where the crust is removed.1 The fumes from these works are most injurious to neighbouring vegetables and animals. In the human subject eruptions, principally about the lips and nose, are produced by them.3 In 1826, eighty-three tons of manufactured arsenic were shipped at Penryn.3 At present, says Mr. Henwood, I believe not less than from 600 to 800 tons are prepared annually. Properties—When recently prepared, arsenious acid is in the form of large, glassy, transparent cakes, sometimes colourless, at others having a yellowish tinge. Frequently the cakes consist of concentric lamina?, formed by successive sublimations. These masses soon become opaque and white externally, like enamel, the opacity gradually extending towards the centre; and, in some cases, the acid becomes friable pulverulent. Kriiger (Kastn. Arch. ii. 473, quoted in Gmelin's Handb. d. Chem.) ascribes the change to the absorption of water from the atmo- sphere, for he says it only takes place in moist air, and is attended with an increase of weight, but only to the extent of y^ of the whole mass. Mr. Phillips (Transl. of the Pharm. 4th ed.) has taken the same view of the subject. I have some arse- nious acid whieh has remained transparent for more than two years, in a glass tube hermetically sealed. This fact is confirmatory of the opinion just stated.4 Professor Guibourt (Journal de Chimie Med. t. ii. p. 57. Paris, 1826.), Mr. Phillips, and Mr. Taylor, have each found the density of the opaque variety to be less than that of the transparent. Transparent arsenious acid has a sp. gr. of 3*7391, according to Guibourt (3*715, Phillips ; 3*208 to 3*333, Mitchell and Du- rand ; 3*798, Taylor). It dissolves, according to the same authority, in 103 parts of water at 59°, or in 9*33 parts of boiling water, and the solution feebly reddens litmus. Opaque arsenious acid, on the other hand, according to Guibourt, has a sp. gr. of 3*695, (3*529, Taylor; 3*620, Phillips,) is soluble in 80 parts of water at 59°, or in 7*72 parts of boiling water, and the solution restores the blue colour of reddened litmus : but I find both kinds redden litmus, and Dr. Christison has observed the same. Mr. Taylor (Guy's Hospital Reports, vol. ii. p. 83.) did not find any difference in the solubility of the two varieties. He found that water boiled for an hour on this substance, dissolved ^ °f *ts weight; that this water, on perfect cooling, did not retain more than -£$ of its weight; and that water at ordinary temperatures will dissolve from about j-J^ to T^7 of its weight. It ap- pears, then, that water perfectly cooled from a boiling saturated solution will retain from ten to twenty or more times the quantity of acid in solution than it will take up at common temperatures without heat,—a fact which is as curious as it is in- explicable. (Op. cit. p. 96.) Arsenious acid is soluble in alcohol and oils. It is of importance to know that the presence of organic matters very much impairs the solvent power of water for this acid—a circumstance by which he readily explains why arsenious acid has not, in some cases, been found in the liquid contents of • Henwood, in the Seventh Annual Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society. Falmouth, 1839. Part of the above information was obligingly communicated to me, viva voce, by Mr. Henwood. "» For this and some other information, as well as for samples of the rough arsenious acid from Wheal Vor tin mine, I am indebted to Mr. Ferris, surgeon, #f Truro. * Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, iii. 360. 4 In thu first edition of this work, I stated that arsenious acid became opaque in an air-tight vessel. I have since had reason to believe that the bottle referred to was not completely air-tight, though covered by a var- nished bladder. ARSENIOUS ACID. 531 the stomach of persons poisoned by it. Arsenious acid has little or no taste, as Plenck, (Toxicologia, ed. 2nda, 26.) Addison, and Christison, have remarked : and neither in the solid nor vaporous form has it odour. The acid may be readily obtained in a crystalline condition by sublimation, or by cooling a boiling satu- rated solution ; the crystals are transparent, usually regular octohedra, sometimes tetrahedra or acicular. At a temperature of 380° F. it volatilizes : when heated under pressure it liquefies, and is converted inlo a transparent glass. Characteristics.—These may be conveniently and usefully discussed under three heads:—a. The characteristics of solid arsenious acid ;—f3. The character- istics of a pure solution of arsenious acid;—y. The characteristics of arsenious acid in organic mixtures. a. or Solid Arsenious Acid.-—The characteristics of solid arsenious acid are, (besides its physical properties before mentioned,) principally three,—its vola- tility, the garlic odour evolved by throwing it on ignited charcoal or cinder, and the qualities of the metallic crust obtained by reducing the acid. 1. Its volatility.—Heated on the point of a penknife in the flame of a spirit- lamp, arsenious acid produces a white smoke, and speedily disappears. If the acid be heated in a test tube, a crystalline sublimate is obtained : ihe crystals are sparkling, and, when examined by a magnifying glass, are found to be regular octohedra. The impediments to the operation of this test are alkaline or earthy bases, which retain a por- tion of the arsenious acid, and prevent its rising in vapour; boracic acid may be used to coun- teract their influence. The fallacy of this test is, that other white solids (as hydrochlorate of ammonia, oxalic acid, &c.) are volatile, and produce a white smoke when heated. 2. Ga.rlir. ndmir---Tf arsnniniia acid, or an arsenite, be put on a piece of red- hot cinder or charcoal, (placed for convenience in a saucer,) it evolves a scarcely visible vapour, (metallic arsenicum,) having a garlic odour, and which, at the distance of an inch or two from the cinder, is converted into a dense, white, odourless smoke (arsenious acid). The deoxidation of the acid is essential to the production of the garlic odour : hence no odour is perceived when arsenious acid is placed on a heated metallic or glass plate. The impediment to the action of Ihis test is the presence of organic matter (as flour): this, by burning, developes a strong odour, which masks the smell of the vapour of arsenicum. The fallacy attending it is, that some other bodies (as phosphorus, with certain of its com- pounds and some organic matter*) evolve when heated a garlic odour. Vauquelin, Barruel, and Orfila, have shown that a compound of albumen and fat, which exhaled this odour when heated, did not contain a particle of arsenious acid. "It is true," say these experimenters, "that arse- nicum does evolve a garlic odour when volatilized ; but even when this is well characterized, it is insufficient to establish the existence of the oxide of arsenic, since it belongs to some other sub- Rtanccs; and it is not impossible that there may be developed in the stomach, during digestion, substances which exhale an analogous odour, when heated." 3. Formation of a metallic crust. Reduction test.—If arsenious acid be inti- mately mixed with freshly-ignited but cold charcoal, and heated in a glass-tube, the acid is deoxidized, ^IG* and yields arsenicum, which is sublimed into a coolej: portion of the tube, where it condenses, and forms a metallic crust. A common cylindrical test tube an- swers very well, but the reduction tube of Berzelius (fig. ^1) is to be preferred. The characters of the arsenical crust are—the brilliancy of its outer sur- face, which is frequently equal to polished steel or looking-glass; the crystalline appearance and grayish- white colour of its inner surface; its volatility ; its conversion, by sublimation, up and down the tube, into odohedral crystals of arsenious acid, which may be dissolved in distilled water, and tested by the 532 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. liquid re-agents presently to be mentioned; and its yielding arsenic acid by dis- solving it in nitro-hydrochloric acid, and carefully evaporating the solution to dryness. The arsenic acid is known by the red precipitate (arseniale of silver) produced on the addition of nitrate of silver: but if the evaporation has not been carried on sufficiently far, some hydrochloric acid .or chlorine will be left, which will form a white precipitate (chloride of silver) with nitrate of silver. The arse- niate of silver may be reduced, if necessary, by mixing it with charcoal and boracic acid, and healing it in a glass tube. In some cases the metallic crust is imperfectly formed, or is masked by some decomposed or- ganic matter. Whenever any doubt respecting its nature is entertained, proceed as follows:—Cut off with a file the portion of the tube which contains the suspected crust, roughly powder it, in- troduce it into another glass tube, and apply heat. The metallic character of the crust is some- times rendered more evident by applying to it, for a few seconds, the flame of the spirit-lamp, which drives off" a black powder (black oxide of arsenic) and leaves the,brilliant metal. If the heat be continued too long the metal itself sublimes. The fallacies to which this test is liable are principally two—a charcoal crust may, by an in- experienced experimenter, be mistaken for the arsenical crust; and I have seen students con- found a stratum of globules of mercury (obtained by reducing calomel) with the arsenical crust. Careful examination, especially by a magnifying glass, will, however, easily enable the experi- menter to distinguish them : the inner surface of the charcoal crust is brown, powdery, and dull, whereas that of the arsenical crust has a crystalline texture, iron-gray colour, and shiny appear- ance; the sublimate obtained by reducing calomel or mercurial compounds has all the brilliancy of arsenicum, but by a glass is found to consist of minute globules which may be made to coa- lesce by the point ofa knife. Lastly, the arsenical may be distinguished from all other crusts by oxidating it, as before directed, and converting it into arsenious or arsenic acid, which can be readily recognised by the tests already mentioned: — a proceeding which ought never to be omitted. As a deoxidizing agent I have directed freshly ignited charcoal to be employed to convert arse- nious acid into arsenicum. If carbonate of soda or of potash be mixed with the charcoal, a part only of the arsenicum is disengaged, an arseniuret of sodium trr of potassium feeing formed: hence, when the quantity of acid to be reduced is small, charcoal only should be employed. " Where the quantity of material, however, is considerable, it is preferable to employ the black flux, or still better, as not being deliquescent, a mixture of charcoal and carbonate of soda, de- prived of water of crystallization by heat." (Christison's Treatise on Poisons, 3d ed. 237.) If the substance to be reduced be an arsenite, (as of silver, copper, or lime,) or an arseniale, (as of silver,) a mixture of charcoal and boracic acid should be used. For the reduction of the arsenical sulphurets (as the precipitate obtained by passing hydrosulphuric acid gas through a solution of arsenious acid) a mixture of two parts of ignited carbonate of soda-and one of charcoal should be employed. The alkali is here essential, in order to combine with the sulphur. Black flux (see p. 450 and 457) is objectionable on account of its deliquescent property. Various other de- oxidizing agents have been recommended; as formate of soda by Goebel, (Griffin's Chem. Recreat. 8th ed. 140.) oxalate of lime by Du Menil, (Hand. d. Reag. u. Zerlegungslehre, ii. 268. Lemgo, 1836.) and oxalate of soda by Dr. M'Gregor. (Lond.^Med. Gaz. xxii. 613.) I find that quadroxalate of potash (see p. 317) answers very well. None of these, however, present any advantage over charcoal save that of not soiling the tube, (an occurrence easily avoided by using a glass funnel, as recommended by Dr. Christison, or which may he obviated by wiping the tube, after the introduction of the mixture, with a wisp of paper or feather,) while their compa- rative scarcity and greater cost are objections to their employment. (For farther details con- cerning the reduction process, consult Dr. Christison's Treatise, so frequently referred to.) (3. Characters of a pure Aqueous Solution of Arsenious Acid.— A clear watery solution of white arsenic may be recognised by certain liquid re-agents which give rise to peculiar precipitates, as well as by nascent hydrogen, which causes the formation of a gas (arseniuretted hydrogen) possessed of remarkable and pe- culiar properties. The liquid re-agents, which deserve notice, are four only— namely, lime water, ammoniaco-sulphate of copper, ammoniaco-nitrate of silver, and hydrosulphuric acid. Their relative delicacy, as stated by Devergie, {Med. Leg. ii. 718.) and the delicacy of the nascent hydrogen test, as ascertained by Mohr, (Journ. de Pharm. xxiii. 566.) and by ihe commissioners (MM. Thenard, Dumas, Boussingault, and Regnalt.) of the French Academy of Sciences, are as follows :— ARSENIOUS ACID. 533 Dilution of arsenious solution. Lime writer ceases to act at........................ 2 000 Aminoniiico-sulphate of copper, ditto at............ 5-200 Hydrosulphuric acid, ditto at....................... 200 000 Ammoniaco-nitrate of filver, ditto at.............. 400-000 Marsh's nut-cent hydrogen test, ditto at............. 500 000 according to Mohr. Ditto ditlo ditto at.................. 1000 000 according to the Commissioners. 1. Lime Water.—Lime water occasions a white precipitate (arsenite of Lime), with a solution of arsenious acid. The precipitate is soluble in most acids. The impediments to the operation of this test are, a large quantity of water and free acids, which hold it in solution, and gelatinous and oleaginous liquids, which keep it suspended. The fallacies of this test are, carbonates, oxalates, tartrates, &c, which also throw down white precipitates with lime water. On the whole, it is a test of very little value. 2. Ammoniaco-sulphate of Copper.—If a dilute solution of ammoniaco-sulphate of copper be added to a solution of arsenious acid, a pale green precipitate (arsenite of copper, or Scheele's green) is obtained, and sulphate of ammonia re- mains in solution. This test is prepared as follows :—Add (cautiously) liquor ammonia to a solution of the sulphate of copper, so as to re-dissolve the oxide of copper, which it at first throws down. Care must be taken not to employ too much alkali, otherwise the test will not act. Moreover, the solution must not be concentrated, or no precipitate will be obtained. The impediments to the action of this lest are astringents, as tea, infusion of galls, &c, which prevent its acting characteristically. The fallacies to be guarded against are, yellow-coloured and other organic fluids, which give a green colour, and slight precipitate, even though no arsenic be present. . 3. Ammoniaco-nitrate of silver: Hume's lest.—If a solution of ammoniaco- nitrate of silver be added to a solution of arsenious acid, a yellow precipitate (arsenite of silver) takes place, and nitrate of ammonia remains in solution. The precipitate is soluble in liquid nitric acid, solution of ammonia, and a solution of nitrate of ammonia. The mode of preparing this test is as follows :—Add a few drops of liquor ammonias to a solution of nitrate of silver, so that the oxide of silver which the alkali at first throws down may be nearly, but not entirely, re- dissolved (see Solutio Argenti Ammoniati, E.) Great care is requisite to add neither too much nor too little; for if too much be employed, the solution will not occasion any precipitate with arsenious acid; and if too little, it will produce a precipitate wilh phosphate of soda similar in colour to that produced with arsenious acid. The only certain way of knowing when the proper quantity has been em- ployed is to test it. Arsenious acid, but not phosphate of soda, ought to occasion a precipitate with it. The impediments to the operation of this test, are, free acids (as hydrochloric, nitric, acetic, citric, or tartaric,) chlorides, and organic matters. The acids may be readily neutralized by an alkali. If common salt, or other metallic chloride, be present, ammoniaco-nitrate of silver throws down a white precipitate (chloride of silver,) even though a considerable quantity of arsenic be present. To obviate this, add a few drops of nitric acid, then an excess of a solu- tion of nitrate of silver. Filter to get rid of the precipitated chloride of silver, and apply the ammoniaco-nitrate of silver. The presence of much organic mailer impedes the action of this test. Ammoniaco-nitrate of silver, when properly prepared, does not occasion a yellow precipitate with any substance save arsenious acid; and hence is not subject to any fallacy of that kind. If, however, it be not properly prepared, it may occasion a yellow precipitate (subsesguiphosphate of silver) wilh phosphate of soda. There is an optical fallacy, against which the student should be put on his guard: if ammoniaco-nitrate of silver be added to certain yellow liquids containing common salt, a white precipitate (chloride of silver) is produced, which, seen through a yellow medium, might, by a careless observer, be mistaken for a yellow precipitate. 4. Hydrosulphuric Acid (Sulphuretted Hydrogen).—If this gas be passed through a solution of arsenious acid, a yellow precipitate (sesquisulphuret of arsenicum or orpiment) is produced, while the oxygen of the arsenious acid, and 45* 534 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. the hydrogen of the hydrosulphuric acid, unite to form water. In order, how- ever, for this effect to be produced, it is necessary that the liquid be slightly acidified by some acid (as the hydrochloric). If the liquid be already acid, we must neutralize it by cautiously adding an alkali, and then acidify by hydrochloric acid. In applying this test we may place the suspected liquid in a test-tube, or coni. cal wine or ale-glass; the gas being developed in a common Florence flask (or two-necked bottle, as recommended by Dr. Christison): the mouth of the flask is closed by a cork, perforated by a tube curved twice at right angles. The gas should, if possible, be passed through water contained in a double-necked bottle, before it is conveyed into the arsenical liquor, as a portion of iron is apt to be carried over. The ingredients for developing the gas are a metallic sulphuret (as of iron or antimony) and sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. I prefer the sulphuret of iron with sulphuric acid diluted with water. These Fig. 82. are to be introduced into the flask previous to the adapta- tion of the cork. After the gas has passed through the arsenical liquid for a few minutes, portions of the yellow sesquisulphuret of arsenicum (orpiment) begin to fall down. The separation of the precipitate is promoted by ebullition, and the exposure of the solution for a few hours to the air. The essential characters of the precipitate are, its yellow colour, its rapid solution in liquor ammonias, forming a colourless and very limpid liquid, and its yield- ing metallic arsenicum when dried and heated with black flux, or a mixture of ignited carbonate of soda and char- coal. When the quantity of sesquisulphuret is small, Mode of passing hy- some difficulty may be experienced in removing it from thZl^hlna alni the filter for reduction* The readiest way is that re- ca^oluticrn"™6*11' commended by Devergie:—Collect it on the filter in as small a space as possible, then wash it with liquor ammo- niae, which dissolves it. The filtered liquid may then be evaporated in a capsule or watch-glass : the ammonia flies off, and leaves the sesquisulphuret. The fallacies of the hydrosulphuric acid test are, the salts of cadmium, the per salts of tin, the antimonial compounds, and selenic acid, which occasion precipitates with hydrosulphuric acid, more or less analogous in colour to that produced by arsenious acid. The precipitate with cad- mium closely resembles that with arsenic, but it is not soluble in alkaline solutions. This metal (cadmium) has been detected in some of the preparations of zinc. (Vide Thomson's History of Chemistry, ii. 220.) The perchloride of tin, sold for the use of dyers under the name of spirit of tin, occasions a yellow precipitate (bisulphuret of tin) somewhat resembling sesquisulphuret of arsenicum. Very weak solutions of emetic tartar form a reddish-yellow liquid, or throw down a reddish precipitate (hydrated sesquisulphuret of antimony) somewhat analogous in appearance to that formed by an arsenical liquid. If hydrosulphuric acid be transmitted through a liquid in which pulvis antimonialis has been boiled, the solution acquires a yellowish-red colour, from the formation of some sesqui- or bisulphuret of antimony. From all the above precipitates sesqui- sulphuret of arsenicum is readily distinguished by the reduction test already mentioned, Hydrosulphate of ammonia (described at p. 421) is sometimes employed as a substitute for hydrosulphuric acid, an acid being added at the time of applying it, to neutralize the ammonia; but it is liable to several serious objections. When fresh prepared it causes a yellowish precipi- tate wilh arsenious acid, red with emetic tartar, and black with solutions of lead; but by expo- sure to the air for a day or two, it forms a white precipitate with arsenious acid, yellow with emetic tartar, and red with lead. 5. Nascent Hydrogen: Marsh's test.—If arsenious acid be submitted to the action of nascent hydrogen, it is deoxidized, and the metallic arsenicum thereby obtained, combining with hydrogen, forms arseniuretted hydrogen gas. This test, which is the discovery of Mr. Marsh of Woolwich, (Trans, of the Soc. of Arts, li. 66; also Lond. Med. Gaz. xviii. 650,) may thus be applied :— Mix a small portion of the suspected liquid with some diluted sulphuric acid (1 oil of ARSENIOUS ACID. 535 vitriol and 7 water), and pour the mixture over some pieces of the zinc previously introduced into a proper apparatus: bubbles of gas immediately make their ap- pearance. If no arsenious acid be present, the evolved gas is hydrogen; but if the liquor hold arsenic in solution, arseniuretted hydrogen gas is formed. This gas is recognised by the following characters:— a. It has an alliaceous odour. /3. It burns with a bluish white flame and the evolution ofa whitish smoke. If a plate of mica (commonly termed talc), or of common window glass, or of por- celain (as a white saucer or dinner plate), be held a short distance above the flame, arsenious acid in a finely pulverulent state is deposited on it, forming a white crust: if the plate be depressed so as to cut the flame, and thereby slightly to impede ihe combustion of the gas, a blackish deposit (metallic arsenicum) is obtained. Or both these deposits may be readily and simultaneously procured by holding vertically over the flame a tube of glass, nine or ten inches long, and a quarter or half an inch in diameter: the tube becomes lined for the space of several inches with metallic arsenicum and arsenious acid, and the garlic odour can be detected at either end of the tube. To obtain solutions of the acid, let the flame successively play beneath three or four drops of water placed on the under side of • a plate of mica; then apply the liquid tests for arsenic before mentioned. (Hera- path, Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xviii. p. 889.) Or apply separate drops of the liquid tests themselves to the plate, and then let the flame play on them successively for a few minutes, the characteristic effects of arsenious acid will be obtained. Care must be taken not to apply a lighted taper to the jet of gas before the air is ex- pelled, or an explosion may be the result. Various forms of apparatus may be used for this experiment. That employed by Mr. Marsh is a simple glass tube, bent like a syphon (fig. 83). A bit of glass rod is dropped into the shorter leg, then a piece of clean sheet zinc: the stop-cock and jet are afterwards to be inserted. The suspected liquid, mixed with the dilute acid before mentioned, is to be then poured into the long leg. Effervescence is then produced, and after allowing the air to be expelled, the stop- cock is to be closed, and when a sufficient accumulation of gas has taken place, it is again to be opened, and the gas ignited. Where the matter to be examined is very small in quantity, Mr. Marsh puts the suspected liquid, the acid, and the zinc, in a little glass bucket (fig. 84), attached to the stop-cock by a platinum wire, and then introduces it into the short leg of Ihe syphon, pre- viously filled with common water. When the quantity of arsenical liquor to be tested is large, an inverted bell-glass with a stop- cock attached may be used. The zinc is suspended within. The bell-glass is immersed in the diluted acid to which the suspected liquor is added. This apparatus is similar to that used for obtaining fire by the aid of a stream of hydrogen gas thrown on spongy platinum. 536 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Fig. 84. Fig. 83. Fig. 85. Mpdif cation of Marsh's Apparatus. Marsh's Apparatus. Fig. 83. a. A syphon tube. b. Stopcock. c. Wooden block. d. The pillar. e, e. Caoutchouc slips, to fasten the tube to the pillar. /. Plate of mica or glass. Fig. 84. g. Small glass bucket. Simple Mode of applying Marsh's Test. A modification (fig. 85) of Mr. Marsh's apparatus is supplied with two bulbs, one in each leg of the instrument, and presents some advantages over the simple syphon tube : thus it ena- bles us to collect a larger quantity of gas, while the bulb assists in checking the frothing by breaking the bubbles. But the simplest, cheapest, and often the most useful form of apparatus, is a two-ounce wide-mouthed phial, with a cork perforated with a glass tube or tobacco-pipe (as in fig. 86). It presents this great advantage, that we can employ a fresh apparatus for every experiment, and thus avoid all possibility of contaminalion from arsenical liquids used in pre- vious experiments. y. If arseniuretted hydrogen be subjected to a red heat, it is decomposed into arsenicum, which is deposited, and hydrogen gas, which escapes. The gas may be generated in a double-necked bottle, or in a wide-mouthed bottle, closed by a cork bored with two holes; and may be allowed to escape by a horizontal tube (made of difficultly fusible glass), which may be heated by a large-wicked spirit lamp. The gas is decomposed by the heat; and the arsenicum is deposited in the form of a metallic ring, beyond the flame and nearer the aperture. ARSEM01 S ACID. 537 Fig. ST. 1H& Apparatus for subjecting Arseniuretted Hydrogen to the action of Heat or Nitraie of Silver. a. Bottle for generating the arseniuretted hydro- gen. b. Funnel, or tube, by which the sulphuric acid and arsenical liquor are introduced into the bottle. c. Escape tube, supplied with a bulb to con- dense any liquid which may arise from the bottle. d. Wider tube loosely filled with asbestos, to im- pede the passage of any water. This is not essential. e. Narrow tube of difficultly fusible glass, drawn out to a fine point at the extremity. /. Spirit lamp. g. Curved and perforated metallic plate (copper, zinc, or tinned iron,) to support the glass tube in the event of its softening by the heat. h. Curved glass tube, which may be substituted for the tube e, when the gas is to be passed through a solution of nitrate of silver. i. Test-glass, containing a solution of nitrate of silver. The detection of arseniuretted hydrogen hy heat was suggested by Liobig' {Journal <2c Pharmacie, t. xxiii. p. 568.) Berzelius (Ibid. t. xxiv. p. 180.). and Chevallier (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. v. IIe Ser. p. 383.) Some useful and practical improvements in the mode of applying this test were suggested by MM. Kreppelin and Kampmann. (Journ. de Pharmacie, t. xxvii. p. 480; Lond. Med. Gaz. Aug. 20, 1841.) The Commissioners appointed by the French Academy introduced some additional modifications of the experiment. (Ibid. t. xxvii. p. 425.) The latter recommended that the tube e should be coated with gold or silver leaf, and subjected to the heat of a coal fire, which is preferred to the spirit-lamp flame, as it more effectually decomposes the gas. But it complicates the operation, and renders it much more difficult of performance. The arsenicum deposited in the tube may be recognised by its physical and chemical properties before described. (See p. 531.) If the arseniuretted hydrogen be completely decomposed, hydrogen only will be evolved by the extremity of the tube e. But as a portion of the gas may escape decomposition, the jet should be set fire to, and attempts made to obtain arsenical spots on a plate of porcelain. 8. If the arseniuretted hydrogen be passed through a solution of nitrate of silver, a mutual reaction between these substances is effected, black metallic flocculi are deposited, and a solution of arsenious acid is obtained, mixed with free nitric acid. Hydrochloric acid is then to be cautiously added to the decanted liquor, to convert the excess of nitrate of silver into the insoluble white chloride of silver. The filtered liquor may then be tested for arsenious acid. Or it may be evaporated to dryness, during which operation the nitric acid oxidizes the arsenious acid, and converts it into arsenic acid, which constitutes the dry residuum. This yields a brick-red precipitate, with a solution of nitrate of silver. Or the concentrated solution may be transferred to a very small Marsh's apparatus. This test was suggested by Lassaigne. (Journal de Chimie Med. t. vii. IIe Ser. p. 638.) It has been adopted by the Commissioners appointed by the French Academy. (Journal de Phar- macie, t. xxvii. p. 425.—Also, Lond. Med. Gaz. Aug. 20, 1841.) It is a very valuable mode of using Marsh's test, and prevents the loss of the first portions of gas. Tlie apparatus fitted for performing Lassaignc's test has been already described and figured. The black flocculi produced in a solution of nitrate of silver by arseniuretted hydrogen are regarded by Lassaigne as metallic silver, by Graham (Elements of Chemistry, p. 635.) as arseniuret 538 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. of silver. It appears to me to be metallic silver, contaminated by some intimately adherent arsenious acid, which can be removed by repeated washing and boiling in water, and especially by washing with an alkaline solution. In the performance of Marsh's test there are several impediments and fallacies, with which the student should be acquainted. a. The impediments to the operation of Marsh's test are, organic liquids (as porter, soup, contents of the stomach, &c), which occasion great frothing, and choke up tlie jet. To obviate these, various methods have been advised; such as greasing or oiling the interior of the short leg of the apparatus; putting a layer of alcohol or oil on ihe surface of the liquid in the short limb, and placing the apparatus aside for an hour or two, to allow the bubbles to burst. These methods are all more or less objectionable. They either imperfectly fulfil the object intended, or they mask somewhat tlie qualities of the arseniuretted hydrogen. The best mode of proceeding is to evaporate the arsenical liquor to dryness, and char it either by heat very cautiously applied, or by means of oil of vitriol. Danger and Flandin (Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxvii. p. 411-412.) give the following directions for its execution:—Add to the organic matter contained in a porcelain capsule, one-sixth of its weight of sulphuric acid, and heat until vapours of sulphuric acid appear. The matter is first dissolved, but during the con. centration it is charred. The liquor is to be constantly stirred with a glass rod. The carbo- nization is effected without any swelling or frothing, and is to be continued until the charcoal is friable and almost dry. A small quantity of concentrated nitric acid or nitromuriatic acid is to be added, by means of a pipette, when the capsule is cold. This converts the arsenious acid into the more soluble arsenic acid. The mixture is then to be evaporated to dryness, treated with boiling water, and the limpid liquor introduced into Marsh's apparatus, in which it never froths. Nitric acid or nitrate of potash is sometimes used to char organic mailer; but it is less ma- nageable than sulphuric acid; for, towards the end of the experiment, it is difficult to prevent deflagration, by which part of the arsenic is lost. /S. The fallacies of this test arise from the presence of either antimony or imperfectly charred organic matter in the suspected liquid, or from the employment of either zinc or sulphuric nriH Pontaminntfld with areonio. A oolution of Emotiv> T.rtm, jjlaccU hi McioIj'jj apparatus, (with ziiic and tlihite sulphuric acid,) evolves uniimoniuretted hydrogen gas, which agrees in several of its characters with arseniuretted hydrogen.1 Thus it has a marked odour (dependent probably on the hydrogen), and which might be confounded with that of arseniuretted hydrogen. It burns in the air with a yellowish flame, and the deposition of a black crust of metallic antimony surrounded by a white one of oxide (on mica or glass held over it), resembling arseni- cum and arsenious acid deposited by arseniuretted hydrogen: moreover, the action of hydro- sulphuric acid and of amrnoniaco-sulphate of copper on the oxide of antimony, produces colours similar to those generated by the action of these tests on arsenious acid. Farthermore, when heated during its passage through a glass tube, antimoniurettcd hydrogen is decomposed, and forms a dark metallic crust. It also occasions a black deposit in a solution of nitrate of silver. The antimonial may be distinguished from the arsenical crust, by adding a drop of the nitric acid, and evaporating to dryness: a white powder is left in each instance. A few drops of a dilute solution of the nitrate of silver being now added, and the whole exposed to the fumes arising from a stopper moistened with ammonia, the arsenical crust will give the well-known canary-yellow flocculi. (Mr. L. Thompson, op. cit.) Moreover, the greater volatility of arsenicum, and its conversion into octohedron crystals of arsenious acid, (Dr. E. Turner's Chemistry, by VV. Turner,) may serve in some cases to distinguish it from antimony. Farthermore, the solu- bility of the arsenious acid, and the reaction of the before-mentioned liquid tests on the solution, will distinguish it from oxide of antimony, which is insoluble. If antimoniurelted hydrogen be conveyed into a solution of nitrate of silver, no arsenious nor arsenic acid can be detected by the tests before directed to be used for arseniuretted hydrogen. Lastly, the metallic crust ob- tained by submitting a current of the gas to heat, presents some distinguishing characters: the arsenical crust is always deposited in the more distant or anterior part of the tube, whereas the antimonial one is first deposited on the heated part of the tube, and by continuing the heat we obtain two rings, one in the anterior or more distant, the other in* the posterior or less distant, part of the tube. In performing Marsh's test, great care must be taken that the apparatus be perfectly clean, and that fresh zinc and acid liquor be used for every experiment. It has been already stated, (p. 414,) that sulphuric acid frequently contains arsenious acid. The experimenter should also be fully alive to the possibility of the zinc, or even the brasswork of the apparatus, con- taining minute traces of arsenic ; hence the necessity of examining the qualities of the hydro- gen flame before adding the suspected arsenical liquid. It has been shown by Mohr (Journ. 1 Mr. L. Thompson, Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag. May, 183".—Also, Pfaff, Pharmaceutisches Central Blatt fiir 1838, S. 05. ARSENIOUS ACID. 539 de Pharm. xxiii. p. 563.) that zinc which had been once used, but afterwards carefully washed both in water and acid, retained sufficient arsenic to produce the usual effects on the hydrogen flamr. Messrs. Danger and Flandin (Journal de Pharmacie, t. xxvii. p. 410.) have asserted, and their statements are confirmed by the report of the commissioners of the French Academy, (Ibid. p. 428.) that imperfectly carbonized organic matter introduced into Marsh's apparatus may deposit on glass or porcelain crusts which strongly simulate those obtained from arseni- cal substances. These non-arsenical spots are composed of sulphite and phosphite of ammonia mixed with a small quantity of organic matter. They dissolve with difficulty in nitric acid, and the residue, obtained by evaporating the nitric solution to dryness, yields, on the addi- tion of nitrate of silver, a yellow precipitate of phosphate of silver. The true arsenical spots, on the other hand, dissolve readily in nitric acid, and the residue obtained by evaporating the nitric solution to dryness formp, with nitrate of silver, a brick-red precipitate of arseniate of silver. /3. Detection of Arsenious Acid in Organic Mixtures.—1 shall Confine myself to a brief notice of detecting arsenious acid when mixed with the contents and tissues of the stomach, and must refer the reader to the works of Dr. Christison (Treatise on Poisons; also Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. xxii. 60.) and De- vergie (Medecine Legale, ii. 718.) for farther details, especially in reference to other organic mixtures. When the stomach is laid open we sometimes observe in it a white powder or white particles: these are, of course, to be carefully removed; and if they be arsenious acid, no difficulty will be experienced in recognising them by the tests already mentioned (p. 53J). If no solid arsenious acid be observed, cut the stomach into small pieces, and boil it with the contents of this viscus for half an hour in distilled water, to which a small quantity of liquor potassre has been added : then filter, first through muslin, and afterwards through paper. Fibrin is insoluble in water, and, by boiling, albu- men is coagulated, so that (with the exception of small portions of these principles held in solution by the alkali) the filtered liquor is free from both fibrin and albu- men. A little acetic acid is now to be added, and the liquid boiled, by which any caseum present will be coagulated, and got rid of by filtering a second time. Sometimes the liquor is now found sufficiently free from organic matters to enable us to detect the arsenious acid very readily by the ammoniaco-nitrate of tilver. Dr. Christison says, that if this test act characteristically, that is, gives a copious yellow precipitate, the liquid is sufficiently free from foreign matter. If, however, it give no indication, or at least only imperfect ones, of arsenious acid, evaporate to dryness by a gentle heat (as a water-bath), and boil the residue in repeated portions of distilled water. We thus obtain a solution of arsenious acid, which, after being acidulated with acetic or hydrochloric acid, is to be decomposed by passing a current of hydrosulphuric acid through it. The precipitated orpiment {sesquisulphuret of arsenicum) is to be collected, and reduced in the way already described (pp. 531 and 534). Arsenious acid in organic liquids may sometimes be readily detected by the de- velopement of arseniuretted hydrogen when zinc and sulphuric acid are added to the suspected liquor (vide p. 534), but the frothing produced by the organic mat- ter creates considerable difficulty. I have already pointed out the best method of obviating this (see p. 538). Composition.—The following is the composition of arsenious acid :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Ct. Berzelius. Mitscherlich. Arsenicum...... 1 ........ 38 ........ 76 ........ 75782 ........ 75-73 Oxygen.......... 1J........ 12 ........ 24 ........ 24218 ........ 2427 Arsenious Acid.. 1 ........ 50 ........ 100 ........ 100-000 ........ 100-00 I'miTV.—Powdered arsenious acid is sometimes adulterated with chalk or sul- phate of lime. The fraud is readily detected by heat, which volatilizes the acid but leaves the impurities. 540 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. It is entirely sublimed when heated. Mixed with charcoal and exposed to heat, il emits an alliaceous smell. It is dissolved by boiling water; and hydrosulphuric, when added, throws down a yellow precipitate, and lime-water yields a white one. Ph. L. The Edinburgh College merely observes, that arsenious acid "is entirely sublimed by heat." Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—The effects of arsenious acid on plants have been studied by Jager, (Diss. Inaug. Tubingae, 1808; quoted by Marx, in his Die Lehre von den Giften, ii. 98.) Marcet, Macaire (Mem. de la Soc. de Phys. et d'Hist. Nat. de Geneve, t. iii.), and by others, and from their ob- servations we learn that it is poisonous to all the higher, and most of the lower, families of plants. It appears that seeds which have been soaked in a solution of arsenious acid are incapable of germinating, and that buds which have been plunged in it are no longer capable of expanding. If roots or stems be immersed in this solution the plants perish : death being preceded by drooping of the leaves and petals, and the appearance of brownish patches on the leaves, the veins and midribs of which are discoloured. If the stem of the Common Barberry (Bar- beris vulgaris) be placed in a solution of arsenious acid, the plant dies, but the stamens, according to Macaire, become stiff', hard, and retracted, and on any at- tempts being made to alter their position, they readily break. On repeating the experiment, however, I did not observe this condition of the stamens. 1 found them not at all brittle, but quite flexible, and difficult to break by the point of a knife. The leaves when burnt evolved a garlic odour. Jager has seen a small plant, supposed by De Candolle {Phys. Veg. p. 1329.) to be Mucor imperceptibilis, growing in water which contained ^ of its weight of arsenic. And, more recent- ly, Gilgenkrantz (Journ. de Pharm. xxiii. 38.) says he has seen an algaceous plant, of the genus either Leptomitus or Hygrocrocis, develope itself in a solution of arsenic. These are most remarkable exceptions to the general effects of this poison on vegetables, and deserve farther examination. Jager has shown that arsenic is absorbed by plants: for he found that, on burning vegetables destroyed by this poison, he obtained a garlic odour, as I have also done. (3. On Animals generally.—Arsenious acid is poisonous to all classes of ani- mals# No exceptions, I believe, are known to exist to this statement. The most extensive series of experiments on this subject are those performed by Jager. {Op. cit.) From them we learn, that in all animals, from the infusoria up to man, death from arsenic is invariably preceded by inordinate actions and increased evacuations, especially from the mucous membranes. In most animals the stools were frequent and fluid; and in those in which mucus is secreted on the surface, it was remarkably increased. The power of voluntary motion and susceptibility of external stimuli were decreased ; and after death the muscles soon ceased to be influenced by the galvanic agency. In animals which breathe by lungs, re- spiration became difficult and laborious ; and in warm-blooded animals great thirst was experienced. In birds and mammals convulsions came on, preceded by vo- miting, except in those animals (as the rabbit) which cannot vomit (see p. 126). Enormous quantities of arsenious acid have been sometimes administered to horses with impunity. Bert he (Recueil de Med. Vd. Oct. 1825.) gave two, and after- wards three, drachms to a mare, for the cure of an obstinate skin disease, with- out any injurious effects. Beissenhirz (quoted by Wibmer, Die Wirkung, &c. i. 317,) gave successively, on different days, one, four, three, two, and eight drachms of arsenious acid to a horse : the animal did not die until the ninth day, taking the last-mentioned dose. Yet, notwilhstanding these and some other ana- logous facts, which seem to prove that arsenic has comparatively little effect on horses, the best-informed veterinarians agree in considering it an energetic poison to these animals. (See the evidence of Mr. Bowles, in the Ed. Med. and Surg. Journ. viii. 351.) y. On Man. aa. Of very small or therapeutical doses.—In very small quan- tities (as one-sixteenth or one-twelfth of a grain) no obvious effects are usually ARSENIOUS ACID. 541 produced by the use of arsenic, unless it be continued for a long period. Indeed, some writers (Vogt, Pharmakodynamik.) go so far as to assert that it is a strengthening remedy, and that it improves the appetite, invigorates digestion, pro- motes assimilation and secretion, excites the muscular and nervous functions,— in a word, acts as a tonic. I cannot, however, subscribe to this doctrine. It is, indeed, true that patients sometimes experience a temporary increase of appetite from the use of small doses of arsenic: and it is also certain that this remedy is frequently beneficial in agues and other diseases in which tonics have been found efficacious. But the analogy between the action of arsenious acid and that of the vegetable tonics, as cinchona (to which Vogt compares it), stops here. I have sought in vain for other evidences of a tonic operation. I have seen very minute doses of arsenic given to patients affected wilh lepra, and continued for many days, without being able to detect the least indication of its action on the system, except the amelioration of the disease. When the dose was slightly increased, the appetite in some cases appeared to be increased; but the effect was neither universal nor continued. Very shortly afterwards, a sensation of heat in the throat, oesophagus, and stomach, came on, occasionally with nausea, but seldom with vomiting; in a few cases with gastrodynia ; a febrile condition of the body was set up ; there were dryness of the skin, increased secretion of urine, relaxed bowels, sometimes with griping; the patients usually complained of great languor, inaptitude for employment, and want of sleep; and sometimes these symptoms were accompanied with, or followed by, redness of the eyes, and certajn swell- ings, especially of the face (txdema arsenicalis)—effects which are so different from those produced by the remedies called strengthening, that I cannot regard arsenic as a tonic. In proof of the beneficial effects of this substance, we are gravely told that the country-people of Upper Styria, in Austria, use arsenic as a stomachic and condiment for many kinds of food—for example, cheese; and a healthy peasant himself tells us, that he was accustomed to take two grains of arsenic daily, without which, he assures us, he could not live ! (Med. Jahrb. d. bsterr. Slaates, 1822, i. 96, quoted from Wibmer.) In farther proof of this strengthening action of arsenic, Vogt says that it promotes the appetite, the acti- vity, and the power of old enfeebled horses, and mentions that Jager noticed the same effects on a pigeon. To the first of these statements, namely, the benefi- cial effects from the use of arsenic as a condiment, I confess I do not give cre- dence ; and, with respect to the action of arsenic on horses, every well-informed veterinarian knows that it operates on these animals as a poison. Dr. Fowler (Med. Reports of the Effects of Arsenic, p. 98. Lond. 1786.) gives the following summary of the effects of the arsenical solution in more than 320 cases:—In about one-third no operation; "somewhat more than one-third were attended with nausea ; and nearly one-third with an open body ; and about one- third with griping. Vomiting, purgings, swellings, and anorexia, were but rare in comparison with the preceding effects, and their less frequent occurrence was generally found in the order in which they are here enumerated, swellings and anorexia being the seldoniest. About one-fifth of the cases attended with nausea, and one-quarter of those attended with an open body, were unconnected with any other effects. Griping did not often occur alone ; purging and anorexia seldom or never ; and vomiting was always accompanied with more or less nausea." In some cases salivation has been produced by the medicinal use of arsenic, as will be noticed presently. /8. Of long-continued small doses, or of large medicinal doses (Slow or Chro- nic Poisoning).—Small doses of arsenious acid continued for a long period act as a slow poison ; and if persevered in, will ultimately occasion death. The same effects take place, in a shorter period, from the administration of large me- dicinal doses. Sometimes the digestive apparatus, at other times the nervous sys- tem, first shows symptoms of the poisonous operation of this agent. Hahnemann (quoted by Dr. Christison) has graphically described the condi- vol. i. 46 542 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. tion of slow poisoning by arsenic as " a gradual sinking of the powers of life, without any violent symptom ; a nameless feeling of illness, failure of the strength, an aversion to food and drink, and all the other enjoyments of life." On some occasions, the first symptoms which I have observed of its poisonous operation have been thirst, redness of the conjunctiva and eyelids, followed by a cutaneous eruption. At other times irritation of the stomach is the leading symp- tom. In some cases ptyalism is brought on. Marcus (Ephemeriden, 1809.) noticed this effect; as also Dr. Ferriar. (Med. Hist, and Reji. iii. 306.) Mr. Furley (Lond. Med. Gaz. xvi.) has published five illustrative cases of it. Trous- seau and Pidoux (Traite. de Therap. ii. 143.) also mention this symptom as pro- duced by the iong-continued use of feeble doses of arsenic. Another instance of this effect has been published by Mr. Jones. (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xxvi. p. 266.) This effect acquired some importance in the celebrated Bristol case of poi- soning. (Lond. Med. Gaz. xv. 519 ; and Trans. Prov. Assoc, iii. 432.) The following is an abstract of the symptoms produced by the long-continued employment of small doses of arsenious acid, but which are more or less modi- fied in different cases:—Disorder of the digestive functions, characterized by flatulence, sensation of warmth, or actual pain in the stomach and bowels ; loss of appetite; thirst, nausea, and vomiting ; purging, or at least a relaxed condition of the bowels, and griping; furred tongue, with dryness and tightness of the mouth and throat, or with salivation. Quick, small, and sometimes irregular, pulse; oppressed respiration, with a dry cough. The body wastes; the stomach being frequently so irritable that no food can be retained in it. Headache, giddi- ness, and want of sleep, are frequently observed. The limbs become painful, feeble, trembling, subject to convulsions ; occasionally benumbed, and ultimately paralysed. The cutaneous system is, in some cases, affected, an eruption makes its appearance, and now and then the hair and nails fall off. Swelling of the feet and of the face is not unfrequently, observed; and under these symptoms the patient gradually sinks, in some cases retaining his consciousness to the last, but at other times delirium or stupor supervening. y. Of excessive or poisonous doses (Acute Poisoning).—The symptoms pro- duced by the ingestion of a large dose of arsenious acid are not invariably alike, but put on three forms. In some cases, the principal or leading ones are those indicating gastro-enteritis; the nervous system being not obviously, or at least only slightly, affected. In others, the gastro-enteritic symptoms are absent, and the principal operation of the poison is on the vascular and nervous systems. Lastly, there are other cases in which we have gastro-enteritic symptoms, with an affection of the nervous and vascular systems. Form 1st: Acute poisoning with symptoms of gastro-enteritis.—In this form of arsenical poisoning, nausea and vomiting come on soon after the poison has been swallowed, and are attended with burning pain in the throat and stomach, which soon extends over the whole abdomen. Pain and vomiting, however, are not invariably present. The matters vomited vary in their nature and appearance; sometimes being bilious, at other times tinged with blood. Frequently there is a sense of heat, dryness, tightness, and constriction of the throat, accompa- nied with incessant thirst, and occasionally with an almost hydrophobic difficulty of swallow- ing. The lower part of the alimentary canal soon becomes affected, indicated by the burning pain, which is increased on pressure; by the hard and tense condition of the abdomen ; by the diarrhoea (the stools occasionally being bloody); by the tenesmus; and by the occasional heat and excoriation of the anus. When the lower part of the alimentary canal is powerfully irri- tated, the urino-genital apparatus becomes affected; and thus there may be difficulty in passing the water, with burning pain in the genital organs. The constitutional symptoms are, in part, such as might be expected from this violent local disorder: thus the pulse is quick, but at the same time small, feeble, and irregular; there are cold clammy sweats ; the action of the heart irregular, giving rise to palpitation; the breathing is short, laborious, and often painful; the tongue is dry and furred; and the membrane lining the air-passages feels hot, and oftentimes painful. Although, in this form of acute arsenical poisoning, the gastro-enteritis is the principal, and, in some cases, almost the only affection, yet there are generally observed some symptoms indicative of disorder of the cerebro-spinal system: sometimes in the form of tremblings ARSENIOUS ACID. 543 or cramps of the limbs, or delirium, and even, in the last stage, insensibility. Occasionally, also, eruptions lake place. In this form of poisoning, death usually occurs in from twenty-four hours to three days after the administration of arsenic; but Dr. Christison says that Pyl has recorded a case where death occurred in three hours after swallowing the poison. Form 2d: Acute poisoning with narcotism, without any remarkable symptoms of gastro- enteritis.—In some cases of poisoning, in both man and animals, the symptoms are those indicating disorder of the cerebro-spinal and vascular systems : abdominal pain, vomiting, and purging, being either altogether absent or very slight. The symptoms are usually faintness, or perhaps actual syncope, convulsions, or paralysis; and, sometimes, insensibility ; at other times, delirium. These symptoms constitute the state called narcotism. Of this form of arsenical poisoning (which is somewhat rare) Dr. Christison has given an abstract of twelve recorded cases. In most of them the quantity of arsenious acid taken was very large; for example, half an ounce, or even an ounce. Form 'id : Acute poisoning with symptoms of gastro-enteritis, followed by an affection of the cerebrospinal system.—In this form of poisoning we have at first the usual gastro-enteritic symptoms, and which I have already described under the first form of poisoning. When, from the smallness of the dose, or from other circumstances, the patient recovers from the gastro- enteritis, symptoms of a cerebro-spinal affection sometimes make their appearance. The kind of disorder, however, varies considerably in different individuals. "The most formi- dable," says Dr. Christison, "is coma; the slightest, a peculiar imperfect palsy of the arms or legs, resembling what is occasioned by the poison of lead; and between these extremes have been observed epileptic fits, or tetanus, or an affection resembling hysteria, or mad- ness." In a medico-legal point of view it is important to determine what is the smallest fatal dose of arsenious acid.1 It is not easy, however, to give a positive answer to this question. Dr. Christison says, " the smallest actually fatal dose I have hitherto found recorded is 4_t grains. The subject was a child four years old, and death occurred in six hours. In this instance, however, the poison was taken in solution." The powerful effects sometimes produced by \, {, or | a grain, lead us to suspect that 1 grain might produce death ; but we have no recorded case of this. Hahnemann says 1 or 2 grains may prove fatal in a few days; and Dr. Christison remarks, that this statement cannot be very wide of the truth. Of course a repetition of much smaller quantities might cause death. However, under certain circumstances, enormous quantities have been swallowed with very trivial effects. Some years ago I opened the body of a man who destroyed him- self by taking arsenic, and I was informed by the friends that about a fortnight previous to his death, he made an attempt to destroy himself by swallowing a quantity of powdered arsenic, which they found, on inquiry at the druggist's of whom it was purchased, to have weighed half an ounce. It was taken imme- • diately after dinner, and the only effect produced was violent vomiting. Here it is evident that the distention of the stomach with food saved the patient's life. This unfortunate individual repeated the attempt, and death was the result. Another remarkable case of recovery, after the ingestion of half an ounce, has been recorded by Dr. Skillman.3 Moriud Appearances produced by Arsenious Acid.—When arsenious acid kills by its narcotic operation, (constituting the second form of arsenical poison- ing,) no morbid condition is observable after dealh. In other cases, however, various alterations are observed, which may be most conveniently arranged under the following heads :— a. Morbid appearances of the alimentary canal.—The alterations observed in the condition of the intestinal canal vary with the quantify of the poison taken, and probably with other circumstances, but they are all indicative of inflamma- tion : thus we have redness as one symptom, sometimes accompanied with extra- vasations of blood into the tissue of the canal; ulceration is also frequently ob- served, sometimes softening of the mucous coat, effusion, (of lymph or blood,) and occasionally even gangrenous spots. 1 Hcc some remarks on this subject by Mr. A. S. Taylor, in the Guy'.- Hospital Reports, Xo. xii. » Lond. Med. Ua:. xix. 238, from Amir. Journ. qf Med. ^iences, Any. 1*30 544 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. |8. Morbid appearances of the vascular system.—The blood is sometimes, though not invariably, fluid after death, and dark-coloured. The heart is mostly flabby, and it is asserted that on its inner surface (especially the carnece columnae and valves, particularly of the left side,) is observed redness, sometimes diffused, sometimes in the form of spots,1 which penetrate a line in depth into the substance of the heart. The pericardium usually contains serum. y. Morbid appearances of the respiratory system.—These are neither very re- markable nor constant, and principally consist in redness of the pleura, effusion of lymph or serum into the cavity of the pleura, red spots, and occasional conges- tion of the lungs, and redness of the membrane lining the air tubes. rj. The morbid appearances of other parts deserve little attention. In some cases inflammation, and even gangrene, of the genital organs have been observed; the conjunctiva is sometimes very vascular, and alterations are occasionally ob- served in the condition of the skin. Redness, extravasation of blood, and effusion of serum, are said to have been seen in the brain. In connexion with the morbid appearances produced by arsenic, the following remarks, made by Orfila, (Diet. de. Mid. ed. 2, art. Arsenic.) deserve notice. "Under certain circumstances the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines is lined with a multitude of brilliant points, composed of fat and albumen : placed on burning coals these grains decrepitate on dry. ing, and produce a noise which has been improperly denominated detonation: they inflame as a fatty body when they contain a notable quantity of fat, and exhale an odour of burned animal matter. These fatty and albuminous globules may be met with in the bodies of individuals who have not been poisoned, and require attentive examination in order to distinguish them from arsenious acid. The best method of avoiding this error is to digest these granular purls* with water, and to apply the tests proper for demonstrating the existence of arsenious acid." Influence of Arsenious Acid on the Putrefactive Process.—Until the commencement of the present century it was supposed that the bodies of animals poisoned by arsenious acid were unusually prone to putrefaction. This, however, has been satisfactorily disproved by the experiments and observations of Klank, Kelch, Hiinefield, and others;2 and it appears that, when placed in contact with animal textures, it acts as an antiseptic. "I have kept a bit of ox's stomach four years in a solution of arsenic," says Dr. Christison, "and, except slight shrivelling and whitening, I could not observe any change produced in it." This antiseptic property of arsenious acid, which has been, in my opinion, fully and satisfactorily proved, sufficiently accounts for the good state of preservation in which the ali- mentary canal has been frequently found some months after death in those poisoned by this acid, where it was not evacuated by vomiting or purging.3 But there is another effect said to be produced on the bodies of animals, which is not so easily accounted for: 1 mean their conversion into a kind of mummy-like or adipocirous matter. The following is an abstract of the phenomena, as deduced from numerous experiments and observations, several of which are recorded in Dr. Christison's invaluable Treatise on Poisons. After death putrefaction com- mences, and is attended with the usual odour; but, instead of increasing in the customary manner, it seems for a time to be at a stand-still, and then a series of changes commences of a peculiar character: the soft parts become firmer and drier, at the same time retaining their structure; the putrid odour is frequently succeeded by one resembling garlic; the skin becomes brown and parchment-like; the muscular fibres and cellular tissue (especially of the abdominal parietes) are changed into a tallowy cheesy-like mass ; the liver, spleen, and heart, become dry, while the bowels, lungs, and brain, form a greasy mass. During these processes the quantity of arsenic in the body diminishes, probably by exhalation,—acircum- 1 White spots are frequently met with on the surface of the heart when no arsenic has been taken (Guy's Hospital Reports, vol iii.) a Quoted by Wibmer, in his Wirkung d. Arzneim. u. Gifte; and by Dr. Christison, in his Treatise on Poisons. 3 In the dissecting-room of the London Hospital I have often witnessed the powerful and valuable anti- septic properties of arsenious acid. Subjects injected with ihis substance are but little changed at the expi- ration of one or two months, even during the summer season. ARSENIOUS ACID. 545 stance very probable, when we bear in mind the garlic odour emitted by the body, and whirh has been observed by several writers. The diminution, however, must be exceedingly small. After some time the cheesy smell disappears, and the body becomes dry and hard. In some cases the alimentary tube has been found little changed or decomposed, although other parts of the body had been completely mummified. I ought, however, to remark, that some writers do not ascribe these phenomena to the influence of arsenious acid, but to other causes. Jager (Quoted by Wibmer, op. cit. i. 305.) tells us that in his experiments ihe putrefaction of the bodies of animals poisoned by arsenic seemed neither to be retarded nor hastened, whether they were buried or not; but he admits that parts in contact with an arsenical solution seem preserved from putrefaction. Seemann (Quoted by Dr. Christison, op. cit. p. 322 ,* also Wibmer, op. cit. i. 322.) likewise states, that ihe bodies of three dogs underwent the usual kind of putrefaction after death. However, that in many cases arsenic modifies the putrefactive process, can hardly, I think, be doubted by those who carefully examine the evidence adduced in favour of this opinion. Does this mummifying process depend on the chemical influence of the arsenic, or ought we to refer it to a change effected by arsenic on the body, during life, causing " a different disposition and affinity among the ultimate elements of orga- nized matter, and so altering the operation of physical laws in it?" The latter hypothesis, though advocated by Dr. Christison, appears to me untenable; for, in the first place, there is no evidence of any peculiar change of this kind during life; secondly, that this does nol take place appears probable, from the putrefactive pro- cess commencing after death as usual; and it would appear that the peculiar influ- ence of the arsenic does not commence, or at least is not evident, until this process has existed for some time, and when a garlic odour is evolved by the body. It is, indeed, true that the quantity of arsenic which has been detected in the body after death, is, as Dr. Christison remarks, " almost inappreciably small ;" but it is proba- ble that the quantity is much larger than chemists have yet been able to recognise : and it is not at all unlikely that the arsenious acid may enter into new combina- tions while within the dead body, and in this way become diffused, probably in a gaseous state : the garlic odour which is evolved favours this notion, as well as the statement made by some, that the quantity of arsenic in the body diminishes durino- the progress of the mummifying process. Modus Operandi.—When we consider that arsenious acid operates as a poison to whatever part of the body it be applied, the nerves and muscular fibres ex- cepted ; that the quickness with which it acts is in proportion to the absorbing powers of the part, and that the most soluble are the most energetic preparations, we can have little difficulty in admitting that absorption into the blood-vessels is necessary to the action of this potent agent. Lassaigne {Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. vol. xlvi. p. 259, Aug. 1821.) slates, that he detected it in the infiltrated pleura of a horse: and Fodere (Quoted by Dr. Christison.) twice got indications of its presence in the urine: but Hardegg and Schubarth, on the other hand, failed to recognise it. An acquaintance of Beissenhirz (Quoted by Wibmer, op. cit. i. 318.) obtained nearly three grains of metallic arsenic from the stomach, cu'cum, lungs, liver, heart, and brain of a horse poisoned by six drachms of ar- senious acid, taken at divided doses : but the extraction of this substance from the stomnch and ccecum is no evidence of its absorption. More recently, and by the aid of Marsh's apparatus, it has been detected in the liver and urine of dogs poi- soned by it. (Report of the French Commissioners, in the Journ. de Pliarm. t. xxvii. p. 415.) • Arsenious acid appears to exercise a specific influence over several parts of the body, especially the alimentary canal, the heart, and the nervous system. That the alimentary canal is specifically affected is shown by the inflammation of the stomach, induced by the application of arsenic to wounds, and which, according 46* 546 ELEMENTS of materia medica. to Sir B. Brodie, (Phil. Trans, for 1812, p. 205.) is more violent and more imme- diate than when this poison is taken into the stomach itself. That the heart is also specifically acted on by arsenious acid is proved by the symptoms (the anxiety at the pisecordia, the quick irregular pulse, &c), and by the post-mortem appearances (red spots in the substance of this viscus), and by the diminished susceptibility of the galvanic influence. The specific affection of the nervous system is inferred from the symptoms : thus, the headache, giddiness, wandering pains, impaired sensibility of the extremities, and delirium or coma, are indica- tions of the cerebral affection; while the feebleness, lassitude, trembling of the limbs, and paralysis or tetanic symptoms, are evidences of the disordered condi- tion of the true spinal or excito-motory system of Dr. Hall. The alimentary canal, heart, and nervous system, are not the only parts on which this acid appears to exercise a specific influence: the lungs, the skin, the salivary glands, &c, are also specifically affected. The disorder of the lungs is inferred from the local pain, cough, and occasional inflammatory appearances after death. The eruptions and other altered appearances of the skin, and the falling off of the hair and nails (sometimes noticed), have led to the idea of the specific influence of arsenious acid on the cutaneous system,—an opinion which seems farther supported by the fact of the remarkable influence it exercises in some cutaneous diseases, especially lepra. The salivation noticed by Marcus, Ferrier, Mr. Furley,.Cazenave, and others, shows that the salivary glands are specifically influenced. The swelling of the face, and the irritation and redness of the eyelids, also deserve notice in connexion with the specific effects of this poison. Uses.—So powerful a poison as arsenic necessarily requires to be employed with great caution, and to have its effects carefully and attentively watched; for it has on more than one occasion proved fatal when used as a medicinal agent. In intermittent feveis and other periodical diseases, arsenic has been employed with great success. For its introduction into practice in these cases in ihis coun- try, we are indebted to the late Dr. Fowler, of Stafford (Med. Rep. of the Effects of Arsenic, 1786.); but Lemery and Wepfer appear to have first mentioned its febrifuge property. Dr. Fowler was led to its use from the beneficial effects ob- tained by the use of the " Tasteless Ague Drop," and from the information of Mr. Hughes, that this patent medicine was a preparation of arsenic. The re- ports published by Dr. Fowler, of the good effects of arsenic in periodical dis- eases, as observed by himself, by Dr. Arnold, and by Dr. Withering, have been amply confirmed by the subsequent experience of the profession generally. No remedy has been more successful in the treatment of ague. It will not unfre- quently put a stop to the disease, even when cinchona or the sulphate of quinia has failed. Dr. Brown, (Cyclopcedia of Practical Medicine, ii. 228.) who has used it in many hundreds of cases, never saw any permanently ill effect arise from it: he considers it superior to crude bark, but inferior to quinia: over both it has the advantages of cheapness and tastelessness. It should be given three times a day. It is not necessary to intermit its use during the febrile paroxysm, for I have repeatedly seen it given wiih the best effects during the attack. In agues, accompanied with inflammatory conditions, in which cinchona and sul- phate of quinia are apt to disagree, arsenic may, according to Dr. Brown, be sometimes administered with the best effects. It is also very successful in re- lapses after the use of the above remedies. Dr. Macculloch (An Essay on the Rernitt. and Intermitt. Diseases, 1828.) states that T\ ofa grain of white arsenic given three or four times a day, will sometimes cure ague when the liquor po- tassce arsenitis fails. A combination of arsenic and cinchona, or arsenic and sulphate of quinia, sometimes succeeds, where these agents used separately fail. When the stomach is very irritable, opium is occasionally advantageously con- joined with arsenic. If the bowels be confined during the use of the remedy, gentle laxatives should be employed. Arsenic has been beneficially employed ARSENIOUS ACID. 547 in various other periodical diseases ; as periodical headaches, intermittent neural- gias, &c. In various chronic affections of the skin ; particularly the scaly diseases (lepra and psoriasis), eczema, and impetigo, arsenic is one of our most valuable agents. I can confidently recommend it in lepra, having seen a large number of cases treated by it without a single failure. Frequently the disease is relieved without any obvious constitutional effect: sometimes a febrile condition of the body is brought on, with a slight feeling of heat in the throat, and thirst; occasionally with an augmentation of appetite: the urine and cutaneous secretion are often promoted; the bowels may be constipated or relaxed, and occasionally, as 1 have already noticed, salivation takes place. If the patient complain of swelling and stiffness about the face, or itching of the eyelids, the use of the medicine ought to be immediately suspended. Ichthyosis and elephantiasis are said to have been benefited by the use of it.1 Various chronic affections of the nervous system have been treated by the arsenious acid, and with occasional benefit: for example, neuralgia, epilepsy, chorea, (Dr. Gregory, Med. Chirurg. Trans, of London, xi. 299,) and even tetanus. I have seen arsenic used in a considerable number of epileptic cases, and in none was the disease cured. In some the fits occurred less frequently, but I am not sure that this was the effect of the medicine. In chorea, 1 have seen great advantage attend its use. It has also relieved angina pectoris. It is said to possess the power of controlling determinations of blood to the head. (Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. April, 1839.) In bites of venomous snakes and of rabid animals, arsenious acid has been recommended. In India, the Tanjore pill (the basis of which is arsenious acid) has long been celebrated for the cure of the bite of the Cobra di Capello, and other venomous serpents. There is, however, no valid reason for supposing that it possesses any remedial power in these cases. Arsenic has been employed as an internal agent in various other diseases—as chronic rheumatism, especially when attended with pains in the bones; in diseases of the bones, particularly venereal nodes (Colhoun and Baer, Amer. Med. Record, iii. and iv.); in syphilis; in passive dropsies ; in the last stage of typhus, &c. (Ferriar, Med. Hist. i. 84.) Arsenious acid has long been employed as an external application. It has been applied and recommended by Sir A. Cooper, Dupuytren, and other high authorities, but its use is always attended with some danger. M. Roux, a celebrated surgeon at Paris, states, (Nouv. Elem. de Med.) that he amputated Ihe breast of a girl 18 years of age, on account of a scirrhus of considerable magnitude. After the cica- trix had been several days completed, ulceration commenced, accompanied with darling pains. To avoid frightening the girl by the use of the actual cautery, he applied an arsenical paste over a surface of about an inch in diameter. Colic, vomit- ing, and alteration of countenance, came on the next day; and in two days after- wards she died in violent convulsions. " I am convinced," says M. Roux, " that this girl died poisoned by arsenic." I could quote several other cases illustrative of the same fact, but shall content myself with referring to Wibmer's work (Die Wirkung, &c.) for an account of them. The following case, related by Des- granges, (Orfila's Toxicol. Generate,) shows the danger of applying arsenic ex- ternally, even when the skin is sound:—A chambermaid rubbed her head with an arsenical ointment to destroy vermin. Though the skin was perfectly sound, the head began to swell in six or seven days after; the ears became twice their natural size, and covered with scabs, as were also several parts of the head; the glands of the jaw and face enlarged; the face was tumefied, and almost erysipelatous. Her pulse was hard, tense, and febrile; the tongue parched and the skin dry. To 1 For farther information on the use of arsenic in skin diseases, consult Rayer, Treatise on Diseases cfthe Skin, by Dr. Willis, p. to. 548 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. these were added excruciating pain, and a sensation of great heat. Vertigo, faint- ing, cardialgia, occasional vomiting, ardor urinse, constipation, trembling of the limbs, and delirium were also present. In a day or two after, the body, and especially the hands and feet, were covered with a considerable eruption of small pimples, with white heads. She finally recovered, but during her convalescence the hair fell off. Though employed as a caustic, yet the nature of its chemical influence on the animal tissues is unknown. Hence it is termed by some a dynamical caustic, in opposition to those caustics acting by known chemical agencies. Mr. Blackadder (Observations on Phagedena Gangrenosa. Edinb. 1818.) asserts that the danger of employing arsenic consists in not applying a sufficient quantity. A small quantity, he says, becomes absorbed, whereas a large quantity quickly destroys the organization of the part, and stops absorption. Arsenic has been extolled as a remedy for cancer. Justamond1 esteemed it a specific. Various empirical compounds, which gained temporary notoriety in the treatment of this affection, owe their activity to either arsenious acid or the ses- quisulphuret of arsenicum. But by the best surgeons of the present day it is never employed, because experience has fully shown that it is incapable of curing genuine cancer, while it endangers the lives of the unfortunate patients. It can- not, however, be denied that diseases resembling cancer, have been much relieved, if not cured, by it, and that the progress of cancer itself has occasionally been somewhat checked by its use. In some forms of severe and unmanageable ulceration, especially lupus or noli me tangere, arsenical applications are employed with occasional benefit, where all other local remedies fail. In such cases arsenic is not to be regarded as a mere caustic; for other, and far more powerful agents of this kind, are generally useless. It must act by substitution : that is, it sets up a new action in the part incompatible with that of the disease. The late Baron Dupuytren employed an arsenical dusting powder (composed of 99 parts of calomel and 1 part ar- senious acid) in lupus, not as an escharotic, but rather_as a specific. Mixed with gum-water or with fatty matters, it has been sometimes used as a paste or oint- ment. These applications are to be allowed to fall off spontaneously, and to be repeated five or six times. Sir A. Cooper (Lancet, i. 264.) recommends an arsenical ointment (arsenious acid ; sublimed sulphur, aa. 3j.: spermaceti cerate, 3j.) to be applied, on lint, for twenty-four hours, and then to be removed. When the slough comes away, the ulcer is to be dressed with simple ointment, and will generally heal in a short time. Cazenave says he has seen arsenical applications used by Biett, and has himself employed them many times, without having met with one instance of injurious consequences. The arsenical paste (arsenious acid, cinnabar and burnt leather, made into a paste with saliva or gum-water) is used where a powerful action is required; but, besides the danger of causing con- stitutional symptoms, to which all arsenical compounds are liable, it is apt to oc- casion erysipelas. In onychia maligna, my friend, Mr. Luke, regards an arsenical ointment (composed of arsenious acid, gr. ij., and spermaceti ointment, 3j.) as almost a specific. Arsenious acid is a constituent of some of the preparations sold as depila- tories. " Administration.—Arsenious acid may be administered, in substance, in doses of from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of a grain, made into pills, with crumb of bread. In making a mass of pills, great care should be taken that the arsenic be equally divided ; for this purpose it should be well rubbed in a mortar with some fine powder (as sugar) before adding the bread crumb. A much safer mode of 1 An Account of the Methods pursued in the Treatment of Cancerous and Scirrhous Disorders, and other Indura- tions. Lond. 1780. ARSENIOUS acid. 549 exhibition is to give this potent remedy, in the form of solution, with potash (as the liquor potassce arsenitis). But 1 have already mentioned, that Dr. Maccul- loch found solid arsenic more efficacious than this solution; and Dr. Physick, of the United States, thinks " that they act differently, and cannot be substituted for one another." (United States Dispensatory.) Whether given in the solid or liquid form, it is best to exhibit it immediately after a meal, when the stomach is filled wilh food : for when given on an empty stomach (as in the morning, fasting,) it is much more apt to occasion gastric disorder. It is sometimes advi- sable to conjoin opium, either to enable the stomach to retain it, or to check purging. In debilitated constitutions, tonics may be usefully combined with it. An emetic (as ipecacuanha), or a laxative (as rhubarb), may be employed where the stomach is overloaded, or the bowels confined. Its effects are to be carefully watched, and whenever any unpleasant symptoms (as vomiting, griping, purging, swelling or redness of the eyelids, dryness of throat, ptyalism, headache, or tremors) make their appearance, it will of course be advisable lo diminish the dose, or suspend for a few days the use of the remedy. Indeed, when none of these symptoms occur, it is not proper to continue its use more than two weeks without intermitting its employment for a day or two, in order to guard against the occasional ill consequences resulting from the accumulation of the poison in the system. Antidotes.—In cases of poisoning by arsenic, ihe first object is to expel the poison from the stomach. For this purpose the stomach-pump should be imme- diately applied. If this be not in readiness, and vomiting have not commenced, tickle the throat with a feather or the finger, and administer an emetic of sulphate of copper or sulphate of zinc. Promote vomiting by diluent and demulcent liquids; as milk, white of egg and water, flour and water, gruel, sugared water, and broths. Administer as speedily as possible moist hydrated sesquioxide of iron (the preparation of which will be hereafter described).1 The quantity ne- cessary to be given to render the arsenic inert, is large. Dr. Maclagan (Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. No. 144.) observes that "as far as chemical evidence goes, at least twelve parts of oxide, prepared by ammonia, and moist, are required for each part of arsenic." As, however, we cannot ascertain, in many instances, how much arsenic has been taken, we should administer to an adult a table-spoon- ful, at least, and to children, a dessert spoonful, every five or ten minutes, until relief from the urgent symptoms is obtained. (Dr. T. R. Beck, Lond. Med. Gaz. Oct. 15, 1841.) The hydraled sesquioxide forms, with the arsenious acid, an arsenite of iron. This becomes a protarseniate of iron. (Graham's Elements of Cli£mistry.) " The arsenious acid derives oxygen from the peroxide [sesqui- oxide] of iron, and becomes arsenic acid, while the peroxide of iron becomes protoxide; a protarseniate of iron being the result, which is insoluble and inert." Charcoal, magnesia, and any inert powder, when swallowed in large quanti- tilics, may be occasionally of service, by enveloping the particles of arsenic, and preventing their contact with the gastric surface. Olive oil, on which, according lo Dr. Paris, (Pharmacologia.) the Cornish miners rely with confidence, can only act mechanically in the way just mentioned. The subsequent part of the treatment of poisoning by arsenic consists in neu- tralizing or counteracting its effects, and which is to be effected on general prin- ciples, as we have no counter-poison. When the gastro-enteritis is marked, our principal reliance must be< on the usual antiphlogistic measures, particularly blood-letting, both general and local, and blisters to the abdomen. One draw- back to the success of this treatment is the great depression of the vascular sys- tem, so that the patient cannot support large evacuations of blood. Opium is a very valuable agent. Indeed, Jager seems to regard it in the light of a counter- poison. However, on this point he has probably taken a too exaggerated view '[For sonic remarks upon the necessity of the recent preparation of the antidote, by William Procter, Jr.! see Hydruted t?iM|uioxideof Iron. ] 550 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. of its efficacy ; but it is undeniable that on most occasions it is of great service. If the stomach reject it, we may employ it in ihe form of clysters. If constipa- tion and tenesmus be troublesome, mild laxatives, especially castor oil, should be exhibited. 1. LIQUOR P0TASS1 ARSENITIS, L. (U. S.) Liquor Arsenicalis, E. D. Fowler's Solution ; Mineral Solution.—(Arsenious Acid [Ijroken in small pieces, L.; in powder, E.~\; Carbonate of Potash, each grs. lxxx.; Compound Tincture of Lavender, f'3v.; Distilled Water, Oj. Boil the Arsenious Acid and Carbonate of Potash with half a pint of the Water in a glass vessel until they are dissolved. Add the Compound Tincture of Lavender to the cooled liquor. Lastly, add besides, of distilled water, as much as may be sufficient, that it may accurately fill a pint measure, L. E.—The preparation of the Dublin College is one-ninth weaker: the proportions of materials used are of Arsenious Acid, in powder; Carbonate of Potash, from Tartar, of each sixty grains; Compound Spirit of Lavender, f3iv.; Distilled Water, Oss. [wine measure])—[The U. S. Pharma- copoeia directs, Arsenious Acid in small fragments; Pure Carbonate of Potassa, each sixty-four grains; Distilled Water a sufficient quantity; Compound Spirit of Lavender half a fluid ounce. Boil the Arsenious Acid and Carbonate of Po- tassa with twelve fluid ounces of Distilled Water in a glass vessel till the acid is entirely dissolved. To the solution, when cold, add the Spirit of Lavender, and afterwards sufficient Distilled Water to make it fill exactly the measure ofa pint.] In this preparation the arsenious acid combines with the potash of the carbonate, and disengages the carbonic acid. A slight excess of carbonate is used. The compound tincture of lavender is used as a colouring and flavouring ingredient. The dose of this solution is four or five minims, gradually and cautiously in- creased. I have known 15 minims taken three times a day for a week, without any ill effects. Dr. Mitchell, of Ohio, has given from 15 to 20 drops three times a day, in intermittents. (United States Dispensatory.) But as some persons are peculiarly susceptible of the influence of arsenic, we ought always to commence with small doses. It has been given to children, and even pregnant women. Dr. Dewees (Philadelphia Journ. of Med. and Phys. Sc. No. xiv. 187.) administered it successfully to a child only six weeks old, affected with a severe tertian ague. Dr. Fowler drew up the following table of doses for patients of different ages :— Ages. Doses. From 2 to 4 years......................from 2 or 3 to 5 drops. 5- 7 " ...................... " 5 - 7 " 8—12 " ...................... " 7 — 10 " 13—18 " .................... . " 10 — 12 " 18, and upwards.................................12 " But it may be remarked that the quantities here indicated are larger than it will be safe, in most cases, to commence with. t PILULjE ASIATIC!: Asiatic Pills.1 — (Arsenious Acid, gr. Iv.; Powdered Black Pepper, 3ix.; Gum Arabic, a sufficient quantity to make 800 pills; each of which contain about jL of a grain of arsenious acid.)—These pills are em- ployed in the East for the cure of syphilis and elephantiasis. t UNGUENTUM ARSENICI; Arsenical Ointment.—An ointment containing arse- nious acid is used of different strengths by surgeons. For onychia maligna I have already mentioned one containing two grains of arsenic to an ounce of lard or spermaceti ointment. The Ceratum Arsenici of the United States Pharma- copoeia consists of arsenious acid, in very fine powder, 9j.; Simple Cerate, 3j- This is used as a dressing for cancerous sores, but must be applied wiih great circumspection (see another formula at p. 548). 1 Asiatic Researches, vol. ii. p. 153. The formula for these pills, given in the text, is that usually followed {Raver, Treatise on Skin Diseases, by Willis, p. 1215). The original recipe is very indefinite ; one tola [105 grs.j of arsenic and six times as much black pepper are to be made into pills " as large as tares or small pulse.'' ARSENIOUS ACID. 551 4. PASTA ARSENICALIS; Arsenical Paste.—Various formulae for this are given. The Pidvis Escharotica Arsenicalis (Poudrc caustique du frere Cosme ou de Roussetot) of the French Codex, is composed of finely levigated Cinnabar, 16 parts; powdered Dragon's Blood, 16 parts; fine levigated Arsenious Acid, 8 parts. Mix intimately. At the time of employing it, it is made into a paste, by means of a little saliva, or mucilage. This preparation is employed to cauterize cancerous wounds. It must be used very cautiously, and applied to limited por- tions only of the ulcerated surface. I have already referred to its occasional dangerous or fatal effects. (See p. 548.) It deserves especial notice, that this officinal preparation of the French Codex is very considerably stronger than was used either by Rousselot or Cosme, notwithstanding that it is named after them.1 OTHER COMPOUNDS OF ARSENICUM. 1. ARSENICI IODIDUM : Iodide of Arsenic.—This compound is prepared by gently heating-, in a tubulated retort placed in a sand-bath, a mixture of one part finely pulverized metallic arsenicum and five parts of iodine: the iodide is afterwards to be sublimed, to separate the excess of arsenicum. The compound thus obtained is an orange-red, 9oIid, volatile, and soluble in water. If the solution be rapidly evaporated to dryness, we reprocure the iodide; but if we concentrate, and then place the solution aside, white pearly plates are obtained, which by Plisson are regarded us periodide of arsenicum, but by Serullas as a compound of oxide and iodide of arsenicum.3 Iodide of arsenicum is probably composed of l_j eq. iodine = 187-5, and 1 eq. arsenicum = 38. It has been employed by Biett in the form of ointment (composed of iodide of arsenicum, gr. iij.; lard, 3j.) as an application to corroding tubercular skin diseases. (Ma- gendie, Formulaire.) Dr. A. T. Thomson (Lancet for 1838-39, vol. i. p. 176.) has administered it internally in doses of from one-eighth to one-third of a grain, in lepra, impetigo, and diseases resembling carcinoma. Its general effects appear to be similar to those of arsenious acid. 2. REALGAR: Red Sulphuret of Arsenic; Red Arsenic; Protosulphuret of Arsenic; Bisul- phuret of Arsenic, Graham; Sandarach3 (a-nvSapoLxn). Though this substance occurs native, the commerpiul article is prepared artificially. It is met with in the form of red vitreous masses, or as red powder. It consists of 1 eq. Arsenicum 38-f-l eq. Sulphur 16= 54. It is an energetic poison. It was the agent employed by Mrs. Burdock to destroy Mrs. Smith.4 The body of tlie victim was exhumed after having been buried for fourteen months. It was then discovered that the realgar had been transformed into orpiment, which was found in the stomach. Mr. Herapath [Ibid. vol. xviii. p. 888.) has shown that ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen (gases evolved during putrid decomposition) are each capable of converting realgar into orpiment. Realgar is not used in medicine, but is employed by pyrotechnists, and as a pigment. Heated with black flux, it yields arsenicum. (See p. 532.) 3. ORPIMENT: Yellow Sulphuret of Arsenic; Yellow Arsenic; Sesquisulphuret of Arsenic; Sulphoarsenious Acid; King's Yellow.—This is both found native and prepared artificially. Native orpiment is the Aurijiigmentum of the ancients. Orpiment consists of 1 eq. Arsenicum 38, _|_ l_j cq. Sulphur 21 = G2. It is soluble in alkalis (by which it is readily distinguished from sulphuret of cadmium, which is insoluble in alkalis), and is precipitated from its alkaline solutions by acids. Heated with black flux, it yields metallic arsenicum. (See p. 532.) As met with in the shops, it is a powerful poison. It is a constituent of some depilatories. (See p. 219.) According to Dr. Paris, Delcroix's depilatory, called Poudre Subtile, consists of quicklime, orpiment, and some vegetable powder. Orpiment is used by pyrotechnists, and as a pigment. 1 For farther information respecting Arsenical Paste, see Patrix, L'Art. d'appliquer la Pate Arsenicale, 8vo. Paris, lHlti. a Hnulicir-in, JVo«». Traite de Pharm. ii. 2nde ed. 580; also Serullas, Journ. de Chim. Mid. iii. 601. » Tlie ttjrin Sandarach is also applied to the lesiuous substance commonly called Gum Juniper. • tv'<: the account of the celebrated Bristol case of poisoning, in the Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xv. p. 519; and xvi. p. \iO. 552 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. ORDER XVIII.—COMPOUNDS OF ANTIMONY. 1. ANTIMONII SESQUISULPHURE'TUM, L.-SESQUISULPHURET OF ANTIMONY. (Antimonii Sulphuretum, E. D.) (U. S.) History.—Black sulphuret of antimony was known in the most ancient times, being used by the Asiatic and Greek ladies as a pigment for the eyebrows. (*<. Kings, ix. 30; Ezekiel, xxiii. 40 ; Pliny, Nat. Hist, xxxiii.) It was formerly called Stimmi (oVi-a/ju vel drijxiJ4g), Stibium (tfsulphuret of Potas- • jsium. Sesquioxide of Antimony Potash \ Hypo-antimonite of Potash. The solution contains free potash, the antimonio-sesquisulphuret of potassium, and part of the hypo-antimonite of potash. There is a dark-red, undissolved resi- duum (similar to Crocus Antimonii) composed of hypo-antimonite of potash and oxysulphuret of antimony : this is got rid of by filterinc*. On the addition of sulphuric acid, sulphate of potash is produced by the combi- nation of the acid with free potash—with some potash formed by the union of the potassium of the sulphuret with the oxygen of some decomposed water,—and with the potash of the hypo-antimonite. By these changes sesquisulphuret and sesqui- oxide of antimony are set free; the whole of the first, and part of the second, precipitate. The hydrogen of the decomposed water, with the sulphur of the sul- phuret of potassium, form hydrosulphuric acid, a portion of which escapes in a gaseous form, while the remainder, reacting on some sesquioxide of antimony, produces water and sesquisulphuret, which are precipitated along with some water of the solution. These changes will be better comprehended by reference to the following diagram :— MATERIALS. 'Sulphuric Acid Free Potash___ COMPOSITION. ( Oxygen t Hydrogen Water...................... { Antimon. Sesqui-( Potass'm sulphuret Potas-< Sulphur. sium...........( Sesquisulphuret of Antimony PRODUCTS. Sulphate Potash. Potash ( Hydros'c. Acid Hydrosulphuric Acid Gas. I Hydros'c. Acid \**Pb.~ ^y-Water. ! Potash...................... Sesquioxide Antim.^V^ Sesquioxide Antimony......... / "Sesquisulph't Antim..-1 C II! Sesquisulph't Antim... I ?!■ ■ Sesquioxide Antim.... J For farther details respecting the theory of this'process, I must refer the student to the writings of Berzelius (Traite de Chimie, ii. 501.) and Liebig. (Handwor- terb. d. Chemie, i. 439.) Properties.—Oxysulphuret of antimony is a red, odourless, almost tasteless, powder. It is insoluble in cold water, and only slightly soluble in liquor ammo- nice. Boiled in nitro-hydrochloric acid, chloride of antimony is formed in solu- tion, and some sulphur remains undissolved. Heated in the air it burns, evolves sulphurous acid, and leaves a grayish residuum. Characteristics.—When heated with concentrated hydrochloric acid, it evolves hydrosulphuric acid, showing it to be a sulphuret. From the other sulphurets or oxysulphurets of antimony it is to be distinguished partly by its colour. Its hy- drochloric solution is shown to contain antimony by the tests before mentioned for the sesquichloride of this metal (vide p. 554). When boiled in a solution of bitar- trate of potash, a solution of emetic tartar is obtained, which may be recognised by the characters hereafter to be mentioned for this salt. It may be reduced by hydrogen and heat (vide p. 564). Composition.—By boiling in a solution of bitartrate of potash, it loses, accord- ing to Mr. Phillips, 12 per cent.; the amount of sesquioxide that it contains. Its composition, according to the same authority, is as follows :— OXYSULPHURET of antimony. 557 Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per. Cent. Phillips. Sesquioxide Antimony.............. 1 ........ 77 ........ 13 ........ 12 Sennuisulphuret Antimony........... 5 ........ 445 ........ 75 ........ 76-5 Water.............................. 8 ........ 72 ........ 12 ........ 11*5 Oxysulphuret Antimony, PA. L....... 1 ........ 594 ........ 100 ........ 1000 The Antimonii Sulphuretum aureum, Ph. Ed., has a similar composition. The Edinburgh College, however, states that it is a mixture or compound of sesquisul- phuret of antimony, sesquioxide of antimony, and sulphur. The sesquisulphuret and sesquioxide are perhaps only mechanically mixed. The commercial oxysulphuret is ofa brighter colour than that obtained accord- ing to the process of the Pharmacopceia. A manufacturer of it informs me that it is prepared by boiling sulphur along with the sesquisulphuret of antimony and potash, and precipitating by an acid in the usual way. Kermes Mineral consists of two equivalents of sesquisulphuret of antimony and one equi- valent of sesquioxide of antimony (consequently it has the same composition as Red Antimony Ore), and commonly contains also from 1 to 1<_ per cent, of alkali combined wilh sesquioxide of antimony. By continued washing with water the hypo-antimonite of potash and sesqui- oxide of antimony may be extracted, leaving the sesquisulphuret only. (Liebig, Handworterb. d. Chimie, i. 427.) The term Golden Sulphuret of Antimony is usually applied to the persulphuret of antimony, which consists of I eq. of antimony and 2J eqs. of sulphur. (Liebig, op. cit. i. 430.) Purity___Recently precipitated oxysulphuret of antimony is readily and com- pletely soluble in liquor potassae: but the oxysulphuret of the shops leaves a white residuum. Boiled in hydrochloric acid, it is dissolved with the evolution of hydro- sulphuric acid gas: the solution is opalescent or slightly milky, but becomes quite transparent on the addition ofa small quantity of nitric acid. It should not effer- vesce with dilute sulphuric acid. The London College states that it is Totally soluble in nitro-hydrochloric acid, emitting hydrosulphuric acid. But I find that it is not completely soluble in nitro-hydrochloric acid ;—a portion of sulphur remaining behind. The Edinburgh College states that it is "Tasteless: twelve limes its weight of muriatic acid, aided by heat, will dissolve most of it, forming a colourless solution, and leaving a little sulphur." Physiological Effects___The medicinal activity of this preparation is princi- pally or wholly owirtg to sesquioxide of antimony; and, as the quantity of this is probably inconstant, the preparation is uncertain in its operation. The obvious effects are precisely analogous to those of emetic tartar; namely, vomiting, pur- ging, and sweating. In small doses it is employed as an alterative, expectorant, and° diaphoretic : in somewhat larger doses it causes nausea and sweating, and sometimes vomiting: in still larger quantities it excites both vomiting and purging.1 [is,.:g.__It is principally employed as an alterative in chronic diseases, particu- larly cutaneous affections, glandular enlargements, secondary syphilis, rheumatism, and diseases of the liver. In these complaints it is usually associated with mer- curials (especially calomel), and sometimes with guaiacum or narcotics. Kermes mineral has been employed as an antiphlogistic in inflammatory affections of the respiratory organs, and sometimes as an emetic. Administration.—As an alterative the dose is from one to three or four trains: ns an emetic from five grains to a scruple. It is a constituent of the IHlulce Hydrargi/ri Chloridi Composite, commonly termed Plummet's pill. Antidotes.—Vide Potassce Antimonio-tartras. ' |'or «onv experiments nml observations on the action of Kermes Mineral and the Golden Sulphuret, consult Krm-r in Dirt, de Med. el Chir. Prat. iii. 57, et seq. 558 elements of materia medica. 4. ANTIMONII SESQUIOXYDUM.—SESQUIOXIDE OF ANTIMONY. (Antimonii O.vydum, E.—Antimonii Oxydum Nitromuriaticum, D.) History.—Basil Valentine (Triumphant Chariot of Antimony, by Kirkringius, p. 91. Lond. 1678.) was acquainted with sesquioxide of antimony prepared by the combustion of the metal, and which he termed Flowers of Antimony (Fibres Antimonii). He also knew that the same compound might be procured by the action of water on the sesquichloride of antimony. Natural History.—This oxide is found native, and is known to mineralogists as White Antimony. It is found in Bohemia, Saxony, Hungary, &c. Preparation.—There are various methods of preparing this oxide. The Edinburgh College directs it to be prepared as follows:—" Take of Sulphuret of Anti- mony, in fine powder, 3iv.; Muriatic Acid (commercial), Oj.; Water, Ov. Dissolve the sul- phuret in the acid, with the aid of a gentle heat; boil for half an hour; filter. Four the fluid into the water; collect the precipitate on a calico filler; wash it well with cold water, then with a weak solution of carbonate of soda, and again with cold water, till the water ceases to affect reddened litmus paper. Dry the powder over the vapour-bath." The Dublin College orders of prepared Sulphuret of Antimony, twenty parts ; Muriatic Acid, one hundred parts; Nitric Acid, one part. Gradually add the sulphuret to the acids, pre- viously mixed in a glass vessel, avoiding the vapours; then with a heat gradually increased, digest, until the mixture ceases to effervesce; then boil during an hour. Receive the cooled and filtered liquor in a gallon of water. Lei the oxide of antimony, when it has subsided, be washed with a sufficiently abundant quantity of water, until the decanted fluid shall have become free from acid, which may be ascertained by means of litmus : finally, let the oxide be dried on bibulous paper. By the mutual reaction of sesquisulphuret of antimony and hydrochloric acid, a soluble sesquichloride of antimony is formed (see p. 464). The Dublin College uses a small quantity of nitric acid to decompose the hydrosulphuric acid remain- ing in the liquor, and which would impair the colour of the precipitate. When water is added to the solution of the sesquichloride, mutual reaction occurs, the products of which are free hydrochloric acid and sesquioxide of antimony ; the latter combines with some undecomposed sesquichloride of antimony, and forms the oxychloride of antimony, commonly termed the Pulvis Algarothi, Algaroth's Powder (from Algarotti, an Italian physician, who recommended its use in medi- cine). It is sometimes called the Mercury of Life (Mercurius Vitce). By con- tinued washing with hot water, the sesquichloride which it contains is decom- posed, and the product is sesquioxide of antimony. When Algaroth's powder is washed with a solution of carbonate of soda, its sesquichloride is converted into sesquioxide of antimony by the action of the soda. Chloride of sodium is also formed, and carbonic acid evolved. Properties.—Sesquioxide of antimony occurs native in tabular and acicular crystals, which belong to the right prismatic system. When prepared in the moist way it is a white powder, which becomes yellow by heat, and fuses at a full red heat into a yellow fluid, which concretes by cooling into a crystalline mass. If subjected to heat in the open air it absorbs oxygen, and becomes antimonious acid. Characteristics.—Heated in liquid hydrochloric acid it completely dissolves : the solution contains sesquichloride of antimony, which, when mixed with water, yields a white precipitate (oxychloride of antimony). Hydrosulphurets form a red pre- cipitate in the solution of .the sesquichloride. Boiled with a solution of bitartrate of potash it is dissolved: the solution yields on cooling crystals of emetic tartar, the characteristics of which will be hereafter given. Sesquioxide of antimony melts before the blowpipe, and is volatilized in the form ofa white vapour. Composition.—Sesquioxide of antimony (Antimonii Oxydum, Ph. Ed.) has the following composition :— COMPOUND POWDER OF ANTIMONY. 559 Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. John Dary. Antimony.......................... 1 ........ 65 ........ 844 ........ 84 319 ........ 85 Oxygen............................ H ........ 12 ........ ]56 ........ 15-Ofcl ........ la Sesquioxide of Antimony............ 1 ........ 77 ........ 1000 ........ 100-000 ........ 100 Oxychloride of antimony (Antimonii Oxydum Nitro-muriaticum, Ph. Dub.) is a compound of sesquioxide and sesquichloride of antimony. The proportion of ihe latter ingredient is diminished by washing. The composition of the oxychlo- ride is thus stated by Phillips, Johnson, and Malaguti i1— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Seerpiifixide Antimony............ 0 ............ 693 ............ 7444 Seftquichloride Antimony.......... 2 ............ 2'.i8 ............ *25-5li Oxychloride Antimony............ 1 ............ S3] ........... 100 00 Antimony Ash (Cinis Antimonii) is composed of antimonious acid, sesquioxide of antimony, and sesquisulphuret of antimony. (See p. 557.)- Glass of Antimony (Vitruin Antimonii) is prepared by roasting the sesquisulphuret, and sub- sequently fusing it in an earthen crucible. It is transparent and of a red colour. It consists principally of sesquioxide of antimony, some sesquisulphuret of antimony, and about five per cent, of silica." Purity.—The Edinburgh College gives the following characteristics of its purity :— " Entirely soluble in muriatic acid, and also in a boiling mixture of water and bitartrate of potash: snow-white: fusible at a full-red heat." Physiological Effects and Uses.—Sesquioxide of antimony possesses similar medicinal properties to Emetic Tartar, in the preparation of which it is used. It is rarely employed as a medicine. Algaroth's powder is uncertain in its operation. Administration.—Algaroth's powder is sometimes given in doses of from one to ten grains. 5. PULVIS ANTIMONII COMPOSITUS, L.—COMPOUND POWDER OF ANTIMONY. (Pulvis Antimonialis, E. D.) History.—Dr. James, who died in 1776, prepared a celebrated patent medi- cine, long known as the Fever Powder of Dr. James (Pulvis Febrifugus Jacobi), or Dr. James's Powder (Pulvis Jacobi). The discovery of it was subsequently claimed for a German of the name of Schwanberg. (Affidavits and Proceedings of W. Baker, Lond. 1754.) The specification which Dr. James lodged in the Court of Chancery is so ambiguously worded, that we cannot prepare his powder by it. Hence the present preparation has been introduced in the Pharmacopceia as a succedaneum for it. In preceding editions of the London Pharmacopoeia it was termed Pulvis Antimonialis (Antimonial Powder) ; but in the edition for 1836, this name was unnecessarily (as I conceive) altered to Pulvis Antimonii Compositus. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for its preparation. The London College orders, of Sesquisulphuret of Antimony, powdered, lbj.; Horn Shavings, lbij. Mix, and throw them into a crucible red-hot in the fire, and stir constantly until vapour no longer arises. Rub that which remains to powder, and put it into a proper crucible,. Then apply fire, and increase it gradually, that it may be red-hot for two hours. Rub the residue to a very fine powder. The Edinburgh College directs equal weights of Sulphuret of Antimony, in coarse powder, and Hnrtshorn in shavings, to be used. " Mix them, put them into a red-hot iron pot, and stir constantly till they acquire an ash-gray colour, and vapours no longer arise. Pulverize the pro- duct, and put it into a crucible wilh a perforated cover, and expose ihis lo a gradually-increasing heat till a white heat be produced, which is to be maintained for two hours. Reduce the pro- duct, when cold, to fine powder." The process of the Dublin College is essentially similar to that of the London College. 1 Brnnde, Manual qf Chemistry. 5th ed. p. S54. » Phillips, Translation of the Pharmacopoeia of the Royal College if Physicians, for 1824. Lond. 1824, p. 81. 560 elements of materia medica. Manufacturers usually substitute bone sawings for hartshorn shavings. The following is the theory of the process: the gelatinous matter of the horn (or bones) is decomposed and burned off, leaving behind the earthy matter (sub- phosphate of lime, with a little calcareous carbonate). The sulphur of the ses- quisulphuret is expelled in the form of sulphurous acid, while the antimony attracts oxygen from the air, forming antimonious acid, and a valuable quantity of sesquioxide of antimony. By the subsequent heating the sesquioxide is, for the most part, converted into antimonious acid ; but one portion is usually left unchanged, while another is volatilized. The carbonate of lime of the horn is decomposed by the united agencies of heat and antimonious acid : carbonic acid is expelled, and a small quantity of antimonite of lime formed. The sides of the crucible in which the second stage of the process has been conducted, are found, at the end of the operation, to be lined with a yellow glaze, and frequently with yellow crystals of sesquioxide. Properties.—Antimonial powder is white, gritty, tasteless, and odourless. Boiling water extracts the antimonite (and, according to Dr. Maclagan, super- phosphate of lime) : the liquid becomes cloudy on cooling. Hydrochloric acid, digested in the residue, dissolves the subphosphate of lime, all the sesquioxide of antimony, and that portion of the antimonious acid which was in combination with lime. Characteristics.—The solution obtained by boiling antimonial powder in dis- tilled water occasions white precipitates, soluble in nitric acid, with oxalate of ammonia, nitrate of silver, and acetate of lead. The precipitate with the first of these tests is oxalate of lime, with the second phosphate of silver, and with the third phosphate of lead. Hydrosulphuric acid gas transmitted through the solu- tion, produces an orange red precipitate. If the portions of antimonial powder not dissolved by distilled water be digested in boiling liquid hydrochloric acid, a solution is obtained, which, on the addition of distilled water, becomes turbid, and deposits a white powder {oxychloride of antimony): at least I have found this to take place wilh several samples of antimonial powder which I have examined, and the same is noticed by Dr. Barker (Observalions on the Dublin Pharma- copceia, 204.); but neither Mr. Phillips (Ann. Phil. iv. N. S. 266.) nor Dr. Ma- clagan (Edinburgh Med. and Surg. Journ. No. 135.) have observed it. Hydro- sulphuric acid gas, transmitted through the hydrochloric solution, causes an orange- red precipitate: if this be separated by filtering, and ihe solution boiled to expel any traces of hydrosulphuric acid, a white precipitate (subphosphate of lime) is thrown down on the addition of caustic ammonia. That portion of antimonial powder which is not dissolved by hydrochloric acid is antimonious acid : if it be mixed with charcoal, and heated to redness, it is converted into sesquioxide, or metallic antimony. " Distilled water, boiled with it and filtered, gives, wilh sulphuretted hydrogen, an orange pre- cipitate: muriatic, digested with the residue, becomes yellow, does not [sometimes does, accord- ing to my experiments] become turbid by dilution, but gives a copious orange precipilate with sulphuretted hydrogen." Ph. Ed. 2d ed. 1841. Composition.—-Dr. James's Powder has been analyzed by Dr. Pearson, (Phil. Trans, lxxxi. for 1791, p. 317.) by Mr. Phillips, (Ann. Phil. N. S. vi. 187.) by Berzelius, (Traite de Chimie, iv. 481.) by M. Pully, (Ann. de Chim. 1805, Iv. 74 ) by Dr D. Maclagan, (Op. supra cit.) and was imperfectly examined by Mr. Ch'enevix ' {Phil. Trans, for 1801, p. 57.) Antimonial Powder has been analyzed by Mr. Phillips, (Ann. Phil. N. S. iv. 266.) and by Dr. D. Maclngan. (Op cit.) Their results are, for the most part, shown in the following table:— compound powder of antimony. 561 james's powder. ANTIMONIAL POWDER. Antimonite of Lime [with ) some sitp'-rphosphate, > Sesquioxide of antimony... ■ Pearson. Phillips- Berzel. Maclagan. Phil lips Maclagan. 57 43 Newbury's. 560 422 1-8 1 66 33 Newbury's. 3*40 2-89 43-47 50 24 Butler's 2-25 9-80 3421 53-21 0-53 1st. samp. 35 65 2d do. 38 62 08 3-98 5003 45*13 Loss [Sesquioxide of An- ) timony and impurity, > ion 1000 100 10000 1 10000 100 100 10000 According to the Edinburgh Pharmacopceia, (2d ed. 1841,) antimonial powder is " A mixture chiefly of antimonious acid and phosphate of lime, with some ses- quioxide of antimony and a little antimonite of lime'' Pully found sulphate of potash and hypo-antimonite of potash in James's powder. Mr. Brande has found as much as 5 per cent, of sesquioxide of antimony in the antimonial powder of the shops. The antimonite of lime is obtained in solution by boiling antimonial powder in distilled water: the greater part of it deposits as the solution cools. The existence of superphosphate was inferred by Dr. Maclagan, from the precipitates produced with the salts of lead and nitrate of silver. Mr. Phillips states that it contains but little, if any, sesquioxide of antimony, because the hydrochloric solution did not let fall any precipitate on the addition of water. But a small quantity of sesqui- oxide may be dissolved by this acid without our being able to obtain any evidence of it by the action of water. Dr. Maclugan (Op. cit.) has shown, that if hydrosulphuric acid gas be trans- mitted through the solution, an orange-red precipitate is obtained, which he supposes to be an indication of the presence of sesquioxide. But unless the antimonial powder be boiled repeatedly in water, to remove completely the antimonite of lime, this test cannot be relied on : for if the least trace of this salt be present, on the addition of hydrochloric acid bichloride of antimony is obtained, which, it is well known, not only produces an orange-red precipitate with hydrosul- phuric acid, hut even causes a white precipitate on the addition of water. (Gmelin, Handb. der Chemie, ii. 986.) Physiological Effects.—Antimonial powder is most unequal in its operation, —at one time possessing considerable activity, at another being inert, or nearly so. This depends on the presence or absence of sesquioxide of antimony, which may be regarded as constituting its active principle, and which, when present, is found in uncertain and inconstant quantity. Moreover, this variation in the com- position of antimonial powder cannot be regarded as the fault of the manufacturer, since it depends, as Mr. Brande (Manual of Pharmacy, 3d ed. p. 292), has justly observed, " upon slight modifications in the process, which can scarcely be con- trolled." Mr. Hawkins gave 3j. morning and evening without any obvious effect; and the late Dr. Duncan, jun., administered 9j. and 3ss. doses, several times a day, without inducing vomiting or purging. (Edinb. New Dispensat. 11th ed.) Dr. Elliotson (Cases illustrative of the Efficacy of the Hydrocyanic Acid, p. 77), found even 120 grains nearly inert, nausea alone being in some of the cases produced. In these instances I presume it contained little or no sesquioxide. But, on the other hand, a considerable number of practitioners have found it to possess activity. Dr. Paris (Pharmacologia) observes, that " it will be difficult for the chemist to persuade the physician that he can never have derived any benefit from the exhibition of antimonial powder." I have above stated that the experi- ments on which Mr. Phillips founds his assertion that this preparation contains but little if any sesquioxide, are inconclusive, as Dr. Maclagan (Op. cit.) has shown. I am acquainted with one case in which it acted with great activity. A workman employed in the manufacture of this powder in the laboratory of an operative chemist in London, took a dose of it (which, from his account, I estimated at half a teaspoonful), and to use his own words, " it nearly killed him." It occasioned violent vomiting, purging, and sweating. 562 elements of materia medica. Dr. James's powder, which some practitioners consider as more active and cer- tain than our antimonial powder, appears to be equally inconstant in its operation. Dr. D. Munro (Treatise on Med. and Pharm. Chem. i. 367), who frequently used this powder, and saw Dr. James himself, as well as other practitioners, ad- minister it, observes—" like other active preparations of antimony, it sometimes acts with great violence, even when given in small doses ; at other times a'large dose produces very little visible effects. I have seen three grains operate briskly, both upwards and downwards; and I was once called to a patient, to whom Dr. James had himself given five grains of it, and it purged and vomited the lady for twenty-four hours, and in that time gave her between twenty and thirty stools ; at other times I have seen a scruple produce little or no visible effect." Dr. Cheyne (Dubl. Hosp. Rep. i. 315), thought highly of it in the apoplectic diathesis: but he used it in conjunction with bleeding, purgatives, and a strict antiphlogistic regimen. The preceding facts seem to me to show the propriety of omitting the use of both antimonial and James's powder, and substituting for them some antimonial of known and uniform activity; as emetic tartar (see p. 573). Uses.—Antimonial powder is employed as a sudorific in fevers and rheumatic affections. In ihe former it is given either alone or in combination with mercu- rials: in the latter it is frequently conjoined with opium as well as with calomel. In chronic skin diseases it is sometimes exhibited with alteratives. Administration.—The usual dose of it is from 3 or 4 to 8 or 10 grains, in the form of powder or bolus. 6. POTAS'SjE ANTIMO'NIO-TAR'TRAS.—ANTIMONY-TARTRATE OF POTASH. (Antimonii Potassio-Tartras, /..—Antimonium Tartarizatum, E.—Antimonii et Potassae Tartras sive Tar- tarum Emeticnm, D.) [Antimonii et Potassae Tartras, U. S.] History.—This salt was first publicly noticed in 1631, by Adrian de Mynsicht. Thesaurus Medico-Chymicus.) Besides the names above-mentioned it has been known by various others, as Tartarized Antimony, Emetic Tartar, and Stibiated Tartar {Tartarus Stibiatus). Preparation.—Antimony-tartrate of potash is prepared by boiling water and bitartrate of potash with sesquioxide of antimony, or with some antimonial prepa- ration which contains it, as the oxychloride or oxysulphuret of antimony. Antimony-Ash (Cinis Antimonii), procured by roasting the sesquisulphuret, is employed to yield the sesquioxide in an extensive manufactory in London. As already stated (p. 552), this compound is a mixture of sesquioxide, antimo- nious acid, and some undecomposed sesquisulphuret. The proportions of ash and bitartrate used vary according to the quality of the former: the average being equal parts. This, I am informed, is the cheapest method of obtaining emetic tartar. The London College directs this salt to be prepared as follows ••-Jake of Sesquisulphuret of Antimony, rubbed to powder; Nitrate of Potash, powdered each, lbij ; B.tartrate of Potash, powdered, 3xiv.; Hydrochloric Acid, f3iv.; Dialled Water^ Cong). Accurately mix the Ses- nuisulphuret of Antimony with the Nitrate of Potash; the Hydrochloric Add being then added, 2nd the powder spread upon an iron plate, ignite it. Rub what remains to very fine powder, when it is cold and wash it frequently with boiling water unt, it is free from taste. Mix the powder bus prepared with the Bitartrate of Potash, and boi for halfan hour ma gallon of d.st.lled water " Strain tlie liquor while hot, and set aside that crystals may be formed. These being removed and dried, let the liquor again evaporate, that it may yield crystals. The theory of the process is this: part of the sulphur and of the antimony are oxidized at the expense of the oxygen of the acid of the nitrate, by which sul- phuric acid and sesquioxide of antimony are formed, while nitrogen and binox.de antimonv-tartrate of potash. 563 of nitrogen escape. The sulphuric acid unites with part of the potash of the nitrate. The hydrochloric acid reacts on another portion of potash, and produces water and chloride of potassium. If no hydrochloric acid had been employed, the potash would react on some undecomposed sesquisulphuret, and generate antimonio-sesquisulphuret of potassium and sesquioxide of antimony. The re- siduum of this operation is, then, sulphate of potash, chloride of potassium, sesquioxide of antimony, and some undecomposed sesquisulphuret of antimony. By washing, the sulphate and chloride are got rid of. The following diagram, though imperfect, may perhaps assist the student in comprehending the foregoing changes: MATERIALS. ' Nitric Acid. Nitrate of I Potash. ] Potash Potash.........S Oxygen [_ ( Potassii Hydrochloric Acid...........\%%£ZM Sesquisulphuret Antimony.. j *$££- Sesquisulphuret of Antimony........... PRODUCTS. Nitrogeu. Binox. Nitrogen. :Sulphate of Potash. =Water. Chloride of Potassium. Sesquiox. Antimony. Sesquisulphuret Anti- mony. Six equivalents of nitrate, 7 equivalents of sesquisulphuret, and l£ equivalents of hydrochloric acid, contain the elements of 6 eqs. of binoxide of nitrogen, 4£ eqs. of sulphate of potash, 1^ eqs. of water, l£ eqs. of chloride of potassium, 3 eqs. sesquioxide of antimony, and 4 eqs. sesquisulphuret. MATERIALS. IS eqs. Nitrate of Potash.....................612 7 eqs. Sesquisulphuret of Antimony .........C23 11 eqs. Hydrochloric Acid.................... 55-5 1290-5 PRODUCTS. 6 eqs. Binoxide of Nitrogen..................180 44 eqs Sulphate of Potash...................396 !_■ eqs. Water............................... 13-5 \i eqs. Chloride of Potassium................114 3 eqs. Sesquioxide of Antimony..............231 4 eqs. Sesquisulphuret of Antimony..........356 1290-5 The changes in the second stage of the process are readily comprehended : two equivalents or 154 parts of sesquioxide of antimony combine with one equivalent or 180 parts of dry bitartrate of potash, to form one equivalent or 334 parts of dry emetic tartar, which, in crystallizing, unite with three equivalents, or 27 parts of water. The sesquisulphuret is unacted on by the bitartrate of potash. MATERIALS. 3 eq. Water..........27 ..................- , . __■... r ( 1 eq. Tart. Acid 66- 1 eq. drj-Bitartrate of S l £ TaH AU m Potash.............m( leq. Potash.... 48- PRODUCTS. -3 eq. Water....... 271 -1 eq. Tart. Potash 114 11 eq. Crystallized f Emet. Tart. 361 2 eq. Sesquiox. Ant. 154. 361 -1 eq. Ditart. Ant. 220 J 361 The Edinburgh College gives the following directions for the preparation of this salt:—Take of Sulphuret of Antimony, in fine powder, 3iv.; Muriatic Acid (commercial), Oj.; Water, Ov. Dissolve the sulphuret in the acid wilh the aid of a gentle heat; boil for half an hour; filter; pour the liquid into the water; collect the precipitate on a calico filter, wash it with cold water, (ill the water ceases to redden litmus paper; dry the precipitate over the vapour bath. Take of this precipitate, 3iij.; Bitartrate of Potash, 3iv. and 3ij.; Water, fSxxvij. Mix the powders, add the water, boil for an hour, filler, and set the liquid aside to crystallize. The mother liquor, when concentrated, yields more crystals, but not so free of colour, and, therefore, requiring a second crystallization. By the mutual reaction of sesquisulphuret of antimony and hydrochloric acid wc obtain a sesquichloride of antimony. (See p. 554.) When this is mixed with 564 elements of materia medica. water an oxichloride of antimony is precipitated. (See p. 558.) The sesquioxide contained in this unites wilh the bitartrate of potash, and forms emetic tartar. The Dublin College orders Emetic Tartar to,be prepared with Nitro-Muriatic Oxide of Anti- rnony (Oxichloride, see p. 558,) four parts; Bitartrate of Potash, triturated to a most subtile powder, five parts; Distilled Water, thirty-four parts. [The process of the U. S. Pharmacopceia is similar to that of the Dublin College. The direc tions are as follows:—Take of Sulphuret of Antimony in fine powder, four ounces; Muriatic Acid, twenty-five ounces; Nitric Acid, two drachms; Water, a gallon. Having mixed the acids together in a glass vessel, add by degrees the Sulphuret of Antimony, and digest the mixture with a gradually increasing heat, till the effervescence ceases, then boil an hour. Filter the liquor when it has become cold, and pour it into the water; wash the precipitated powder frequently with water, till it is entirely freed from acid, and then dry it. Take of this powder two ounces; Bitartrate of Potassa in very fine powder, two ounces and a half; Distilled Water, eighteen fluid ounces. Boil the water in a glass vessel; then add the powders previously mixed together, and boil for an hour; lastly, filter the liquor while hot, and set it aside to crystallize. By farther evaporation, the liquor may be made to yield an additional quantity of crystals, which should be purified by a second crystallization.] Properties.—Emetic Tartar crystallizes in white, transparent, inodorous, rhombic octohedrons, whose lateral planes are striated. By Fig. 88. exposure to the air, the crystals become opaque, probably by giving out an equivalent of water. Their taste is feebly sweet- ish, then styptic and metallic. They dissolve in 14 or 15 parts of water at 60° F. (12-^ at 70°, Brandes,)—and in two parts (2T7D8^ parts, Brandes) al 212°. The aqueous solution slightly reddens litmus and undergoes decomposition by keeping, like solutions of tartaric acid and most tartrates.1 Emetic tartar is not soluble in alcohol. When calcined in close vessels, it yields a pyrophoric alloy of antimony and potassium. The crystals decrepitate in the fire. Characteristics.—Heated in a porcelain or glass capsule, this salt is charred, showing that it contains an organic substance Octohedron of (tartaric acid). If the charred salt be heated in a glass tube by Emetic Tartar. a blow-pipe, globules of antimony are obtained. If a stream of hydrosulphuric acid gas be transmitted through a watery solution of emetic tartar, ihe latter becomes Fig. 89. orange-red (fig. 89): if a small quanti- ty of hydrochloric acid be then added, aflocculentorange-red precipitately- drated sesquisulphuret of antimony) takes place. This precipitate is to be collected and dried, and introduced into a green glass tube, and a current of hydrogen gas transmitted over it. When the process has gone on for a few minutes, the heat of a spirit- lamp should be applied to the ses- quisulphuret :—hydrosulphuric acid and metallic antimony are produced. A portion of the latter is [spuriously?] sublimed. The metal is known to be antimony by dissolving it in nitro- hydrochloric acid : the solution forms a white precipitate (Powder of Alga- roth) on the addition of water, and an orange-red one with hydrosulphuric Apparatus for reducing Sulphuret of Antimony. a. Vessel for generating Hydrogen. 6. Reduction Tube. . c. Vessel containing solution of Acetate of Lead to detect the Hydrosulphuric Acid which is formed. , „ .... „i,;„h fnrma in a solution of Emetic Tartar, is said by Keitzing (Repertoire it dSS. t"$.MSa P^9. WoW^uS'SS.I-d being, which he has described and figured as before stated.' (See p. 369.) ANTIMONY-TARTRATE OF POTASH. 565 Tartrate Potash.....t ... 114... .31-57 Water..............3--- 27. .. 7 47 acid gas, or hydrosulphate of ammonia. (See fig. 89.) This process was pro- posed by the late Dr. E. Turner. A solution of emetic tartar forms white precipitates with oxalic and the strong mineral acids, the alkalis and their carbonates, and lime water: grayish ox yel- lowish-white {tannate of antimony) with infusion of nutgalls : and reddish with the soluble hydrosulphates. Their relative delicacy, as well as Ihe delicacy of hydrosulphuric acid, has been thus determined by Devergie :—(Med. Leg. ii. 770.) Dilution of the Solution. Hydrochloric acid does not form a precipitate at...................... 2,500 Sulphuric(or oxalic) acid.......ditto................................ 1,000 Tincture of nutgalls............ditto................................ 1,000 Lime Water.................stops at............................... 1,200 Potash (soda, ammonia, or carbonate of ammonia) stops at........... 2,000 Hydrosulphuric acid (or hydrosulphate of ammonia) ditto.......,.....100,000 The sesquioxide of antimony, thrown down by the alkalis, is soluble in an excess of the precipitant. The precipitate formed by sulphuric or nitric acid, is the ses- quioxide combined with a small quantity of the acid. Acetic acid does not occa- sion any precipitate. Composition.—The following is the composition of this salt:— Eq. Eq. Per- Atoms. Wt. Per Cent. Wallquist. R Phill. Thomson. Atoms. Wt. Cent.. P7;irodney°f]2--154-4265---- 42"- «■»»■• "^ f^imon0/....} 1 • - • «. - .6M4- Potash.........1.. 48.. 13-29.... 13-20 > .„.„.. Tartaric Acid.. 2.. 132.. 3B56.... 3861 ( *d'w ..57*38 S or t Water.......-..3.. 27.. 747.... 514.... 740 ) Emetic Tartar.. 1.. 361. 99-07.... 100 00. ..100-00.. 10000 J I 1.... 361... .99-98 Purity.—In the crystalline state the purity of this salt is easily determined. The crystals should be well formed, perfectly colourless, transparent, or opaque, and, when dropped into a solution of hydrosulphuric acid, have an orange-coloured deposit formed on them. When pure the powder of this salt is perfectly white. Some ignorant druggists prefer a yellowish white powder, and I am informed by a manufacturer of this salt that he is obliged to keep two varieties (one white, the other yellowish white,) to meet the demands of his customers! The yellow tint is owing to the presence of iron, which is readily detected in the salt by the blue colour immediately produced in its solution by adding first a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid, and then ferro- cyanide of potassium. Emetic tartar is sometimes adulterated with bitartrate of potash. According to Mr. Hennell, (Phillips's Transl. of tlie Pharm. 4th ed.) the antimonial salt may contain 10 per cent, of bitartrate, and yet the whole will dissolve in the proper quantity (14 or 15 parts) of water. In order to detect any uncombined bitartrate he adds a few drops ofa solution of carbonate of soda to a boiling solution of the antimonial salt, and if the precipitate formed be not dissolved, he concludes that there is no bilartrate of potash present. A dilute solution of emetic tartar occasions no precipitate with chloride of barium : it produces a white precipitate (unless the solutions be very dilute) with nitrate of silver, soluble in excess of water. Totally soluble in water, no bitartrate of potash remaining in the vessel; and hydrosulphuric acid being added, a reddish-coloured precipitate is obtained. Neither chloride of barium nor nitrate of silver being added to [a dilute] solution, precipitates any thing. Nitric acid throws down a precipitate, which is dissolved by an excess of it. Ph. L. " Enlircly soluble in twenty parts of water ; solution colourless, and not affected by solution of ferrocynnide of potassium : a solution in forty parts of water is not affected by its own volume ofa solution of eight parts of acetate of lead in thirty-two parts of water and fifteen parts of acetic acid." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—Emetic tartar acts as a poison to plants. (Schubler and Zeller, in Schweigger's Journ f. d. Chem. 1827, B. 50 S. 54-66.) vol. I. 48 566 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. (3. On Animals.—An extended examination of the effects of emetic tartar on the different classes of animals is still a desideratum. Hitherto experiments with it have been principally confined to dogs, rabbits, horses, oxen, sheep, and cats. Moiroud (Pharm. Veter. 287.) has given two drachms to horses, and gradually increased ihe dose to six ounces, without perceiving any remarkable and perma- nent derangement in the exercise of the principal functions. Gilbert (quoted by Moiroud) has exhibited ten drachms to a cow, and four to a sheep, without any remarkable effect: but six drachms killed an animal of the latter species. Ma- gendie (Orfila, Toxicol. Gen.) examined its effects on dogs. He found that from six to ten grains introducedMnto the stomach killed the animals in from two to three hours, when the gullet was tied : those who were able to get rid of it by vomiting took as much as a drachm without experiencing any*oad effects, and in some cases half an ounce caused no ill effects. From his experiments it appears to operate locally and by absorption, its principal action being on the intestinal canal and lungs: for nausea, vomiting, alvine evacuations, difficulty of respiration, and accelerated respiration, were produced by injecting a solution of the salt into the veins, by introducing it into the stomach, as well as by applying it in the solid state to the cellular tissue. Traces of pneumonia, gastritis, and enteritis, were found after death. These experiments have been repeated by Rayer and Bonnet (Did. de Med. et de Chir. Prat. iii. 69.) on rabbits; but without obtaining the lesion of the lungs mentioned by Magendie: in some cases no appreciable lesion was observed in any organ. Dr. Campbell (quoted by Dr. Christison) found no pulmonary inflammation in a cat killed by this salt. According to Flourens,1 emetic tartar injected into the veins of ruminants causes efforts to vomit, but not actual vomiting ; of the four stomachs possessed by these animals, the reedor true stomach is the only one affected by it. Orfila8 has detected antimony in the viscera of animals to whom emetic tartar had been administered by the stomach. y. On Man. aa. Local effects.—Emetic tartar is a powerful local irritant. Its irritant properties may be regarded as of a peculiar or specific kind ; at least if we are to judge from its well-known effects when applied to the epidermis (as in the form of solution or ointment, or sprinkled over a plaster). It causes an eruption of painful pustules, resembling those of variola or ecthyma. The smaller ones are s'emi-globular; the larger ones, when at their height, are flattened, are surrounded with an inflammatory border, contain a pseudo-membranous deposit and some purulent serum, and have a central dark point. When they have attained their greatest magnitude, the central brown spots become larger and darker, and, in a few days, desiccation takes place, and the crusts are thrown off. The largest are produced by using the powder sprinkled over a plaster ; the smallest are developed by applying the solution. They are usually very painful. I am acquainted with no agent which produces an eruption precisely similar. The facility with which this eruption is produced varies considerably in different individuals, and in the same individual at different times. A similar pustular eruption has been met with in the mouth, oesophagus, and small intestines, from the internal use of emetic tartar, and white aphthous spots have been observed on the velum and tonsils. (Lepelletier, De VEmploi du Tart. Stibie, p. 171. Paris, 1835.) But these effects are rare. Severe inflam- mation of the throat (angina antimonialis ?) has sometimes followed the employ- ment of antimony. (Lond. Med. Gaz. March 20, 1840, p. 960.) We have farther evidence of the local irritation produced by emetic tartar, in its action on the stomach and intestines. When swallowed in full doses it gives rise lo vomiting and purging, and pain in the epigastric region. After death, redness of the gastro-intestinal membrane has been found. However, it would appear from the experiments of Magendie, before referred to, that part of this * Mtmoires de I'Academie Royale des Sciences, t. xvi. 1838; also Journal de Chimie Med. ix. 81. -» Journ. de Chim. Mid. I. vi. lie Siirie, p. 2H0. See also the report of the Commissioners of the French Aca- demy of Sciences, in the Journ. de Pharm. xxvii. p. 415. ANTIMONY-TARTRATE OF POTASH. 567 effect should be referred to the specific influence which emetic tartar exerts over the stomach, independent of its direct local irritation, since the same symptoms have been induced by the application of this substance to wounds, or by its injec- tion into the veins. Occasionally, constitutional effects (nausea, vomiting, and griping pains) have appeared to result from the application of emetic tartar to the skin. (Journ. de Chimie Med. iv. 478.) In one instance death resulted from its employment: the patient was an infant two years of age, and death occurred in forty-eight hours. (Med. Repos. xvi. 357.) These effects, if really produced by this salt, occur very rarely. 1 have applied to the skin emetic tartar (in ihe form of solu- tion, ointment, and plaster), in a very large number of cases, without having ob- served any constitulional effect; though I have occasionally fancied that it ame- liorated pulmonary affections, even when no eruption or redness was produced, and which might arise from absorption.1 (3(3. Remote or constitutional effects.—Taken internally, in small doses, emetic tartar increases the secretion and exhalation of the gastro-enteritic membrane, and of ihe liver and pancreas. Subsequently it acts powerfully on other emunc- tories: thus it causes sweating, without any very marked vascular excitement; it renders the mucous membranes (especially the aerian membrane) moister; and, when the skin is kept cool, promotes the secretion of urine. These effects are produced more certainly and speedily by this salt than by any other antimonial preparation. In somewhat larger doses it excites nausea, frequently with vomiting, disorders the digestive functions, gives rise to an uneasy sensation in the abdominal region, depresses the nervous functions, relaxes the tissues (especially the muscular fibres), and occasions a feeling of great feebleness and exhaustion. These symp- toms are accompanied or followed by increased secretion and exhalation from the different emunctories, but especially from the skin, as above mentioned. Of all emetic substances this creates the most nausea and depression. In excessive doses emetic tartar has, in a few instances, acted as an irritant poison, and even occasioned death. In one case a scruple, in another 27 grains, nearly proved fatal. (Orfila, Toxicol. Gen.) In a third .40 grains caused death. [Ibid.) The symptoms in the latter case were vomiting, hypercatharsis, convul- sions, epigastric pain and tumefaction, and delirium. Death occurred four days after the ingestion of the poison. Were the above cases not well authenticated, we should be disposed to ascribe the dangerous symptoms and death to some other circumstance than the use of the above-mentioned quantities of emetic tartar ; for of lale years this salt has been extensively employed in enormous and repeated doses with perfect safety. Rasori (Bayle's Bibliolheq. de Therap. i. 198.) has given many drachms in twenty-four hours, and many ounces during the course of a disease, without occasioning either vomiting or abundant alvine evacuations. Laennec (Treatise on Diseases of the Chest, by Dr. Forbes, p. "249.) has confirmed, to a certain extent, the statements of Rasori. He gave a scruple, two scruples, and even a drachm and a half, within twenty-four hours (usually in doses of one, two, or three grains), without ever having seen any injurious consequences. The usual effects which I have observed from the continued use of one or two grain doses, are, nausea, vomiting, and purging, which in most cases are much diminished, or entirely cease, after the use of the medicine for a day or two. Perspiration I have found to be a frequent effect. In all the instances above referred to, in which these large doses were administered, the patients were affected with inflammatory dis- eases. Now, it is to this morbid state, or diathesis, that, according lo Rasori, (Op. cit.) we ought to ascribe the tolerance of, or capability, or aptitude of bear- ing, these immense quantities of so powerful a medicine (vide p. 157 for some > Sec also some experiments on this subject ia Mem. of the Med. Soc. Lond. vols. ii. iv. and v. 568 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. remarks on the Italian theory of contra-stimulus). Consequently, if the opinion be worth any thing, the susceptibility to the influence of the medicine should increase as the disease subsides; a circumstance which Rasori asserts really takes place. But in this the theoretical views of this distinguished Italian have probably led him to overlook the fact. " It is certainly true," observes Laen- nee (Op. cit.) "that after the acute period of the disease [peripneumonia], the tolerance diminishes, or sometimes entirely ceases ; but it is more common to find the patient become habituated to the medicine, insomuch that during con- valescence, and when he has begun to use food as in health, he will take daily, without knowing it, six, nine, twelve, or even eighteen grains of the emetic tar- tar." Though I have seen this salt extensively employed in both public and private practice, I have never met any satisfactory cases supporting Rasori's assertion of the diminished tolerance when the patient becomes convalescent. Moreover, large doses have been taken by healthy individuals without any re- markable effects. Alibert (Nouv. Elem. d. Therap. 5me ed. i. 259.) saw at the Hopital St. Louis, a man who took a drachm of this salt, in order to poison himself, but suffered no remarkable inconvenience from it. Lebreton (Orfila, Toxicol. Gen.) reports the case of a girl who swallowed six drachms at once as a poison: oil was immediately given; vomiting took place, and she soon recovered. Other published cases might be brought forward in proof of the slight effects of large doses of this salt, but I must content myself with referring to the Memoir of Magendie (De I'Influence de I'Emetique.) for notices of them. I may add, however, that this distinguished physiologist concludes, that the comparative slightness of the effects arose from the evacuation of the salt a few moments after its ingestion ; but in several, at least, of the cases, this was not proved ; and in one it certainly did not happen ; it was that of a man who swallowed 27 grains of this salt, and did not vomit. The action of large doses of emetic tartar on the circulation and respiration is usually that ofa sedative. This has been very frequently, though not constantly, observed. In one case of peripneumonia, the daily use of from six to eight grains of this salt reduced the pulse, in nine days, from 120 to 34 beats per minute, and diminished the number of inspirations from 50 to 18.1 In another, the pulse descended, in three days, from 72 to 44 beats per minute. (Trousseau, quoted by Lepelletier.) Modus Operandi.—Emetic tartar (or the antimony of this salt) has been de- tected in the viscera of animals, as 1 have already stated. M. Barre, (Quoted by Rayer, Did. de Med. et de Chir. Prac. iii. 69.) however, endeavoured to prove that emetic tartar could not be absorbed by the healthy mucous membrane of the alimentary canal. Minaret (Lond. Med. Gaz. xiii. 496.) states that a young woman labouring under pleuritis took emetic tartar, which operated on the child at her breast as well as on herself. Several parts of the body are influenced by this salt. The specific affection of the alimentary canal (especially of the stomach) is shown by the vomiting3 and purging produced, not only when the medicine is swallowed, but when il is injected into the veins or into the wind-pipe, or when applied to the serous coats of the intestines, or to the cellular tissue. If it purge or occasion sweating, it usually causes thirst, but not commonly otherwise. The appetite and digestion are frequently unimpaired. After the use of it for some days, patients sometimes complain of irritation in the mouth and throat, with a metallic laste : this has been considered a sign that the system is saturated with antimony, and that the use of it should be suspended. A pustular eruption has occasionally appeared in the mouth, as I have already mentioned (p. 566). Magendie ascribes to emetic tartar a specific power of causing engorgement or inflammation of the lungs; for he found, on opening the bodies of animals killed rRr,7Iau ei Cor^antTquoted hv Lepelletier, De I'Emploi du Tart. Stib. 84. » For some observations on the mode by which this salt induces vom.tn.ff, see p. 210. ANTIMONY-TARTRATE of potash. 569 by it, that the lungs were of an orange-red or violet colour, incapable of crepitating, gorged with blood, and here and there hepatized. Moreover, it has been assumed that the same effects are produced in the human pulmonary organs ; and in sup- port of this opinion a case noticed by Jules Cloquet (Orfila, Toxicol. Gen.) has been referred to: it is that of a man who died of apoplexy, but who, within five days of his death, had taken 40 grains of tartar emetic. " In the lungs were observed very irregular blackish spots, which extended more or less deeply into the parenchyma of this organ." Farthermore, it is argued, that unless we admit a specific influence of antimony over the lungs, we cannot well explain the bene- ficial effects of this remedy in peripneumonia. In opposition lo this view, I would remark, that in cases of poisoning by this substance in the human subject, no mention is made of difficulty of breathing, cough, pain, or other symptom, which could lead to the suspicion that the lungs were suffering ; and in the case of poisoning related by Recamier, (Orfila, op. cit.) we are distinctly told that the thorax was sound. Besides, we should expect that if emetic tartar had a tendency to inflame the lungs, or at least to occasion pulmonary engorgement, that large doses of it would not be very beneficial in acute peripneumonia. It would even seem thai this substance must have an influence over the human lungs of an op- posite kind to that supposed by Magendie ; for, as already related, it reduces the frequency of respiration in a considerable number of instances. The sedative influence of emetic tartar over the circulatory system has been already noticed: it is, however, not always evident. The great depression of the muscular power, the diminution of the frequency of ihe pulse and fainting, the epigastric pain sometimes experienced under cir- cumstances that almost preclude the supposition of gastric inflammation, the cramps and convulsions, ihe delirium and insensibility, caused by emetic tartar in poisonous doses, are referrible to the influence of this substance over the ner- vous system. The absorbent system is supposed to bo stimulated to greater activity by erne- tic tartar, in consequence of ihe disappearance of serous and synovial effusions under its use. Moreover, Laennec (op. cit. p. 203.) ascribed the efficacy of it in peripneumonia to the increased activity of the interstitial absorption.1 The influence of it over Ihe secreting organs has been before referred to. (See Liquefacienlia, p. 202.) Every one is familiar with its diaphoretic properties. Its diuretic effect is hest seen when the skin is kept cool, and when neither vomit- ing nor purging supervene. Magendie says, it augmented the secretion of saliva in dogs; and the same effect has been observed in man by Drs. Griffith and Jackson. The menstrual discharge is not checked by it; but occasionally has come under its use. Uses.—As an emetic, this salt is usually administered by the stomach, but it is sometimes used as an enema, and occasionally is injected into the veins. When administered by the stomach, it is generally given in doses of one or two grains, frequently in combination with ten or fifteen grains of ipecacuanha. When our object is merely to evacuate the contents of the stomach, and with as little con- stitutional disorder as possible (as in cases of narcotic poisoning), other emetics (as ihe sulphates of zinc and copper) are to be preferred, since they occasion less nausea and depression of system, while they excite speedy vomiting. On the other hand, when we use vomiting as a means of making an impression on the system, and I hereby of putting a sudden stop to the progress of a disease, emetic tartar is by far our best vomit. It is with this view that it is sometimes em- ployed in the early stages of fever, especially when accompanied by gastric or bilious disorder. It is most efficacious when given at the very commencement of the symptoms, and before the disease is fully formed. In such cases it occa- sionally puts an entire stop to the progress of fever. But, unfortunately, the 1 I have already made some observations on the mode by which resolvents operate. See p. 202. 48* 570 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. practitioner is not usually called in to see the patient until the proper period for the exhibition of an emetic has passed by,—that is, until the disease is fully established. Emetic tartar is used as a vomit, with considerable success, in the early stage of inflammatory diseases; especially in croup, tonsillitis, swelled tes- tide, bubo, and ophthalmia. Here, also, the success of the remedy is in propor- tion to its early application. In croup it should be given to excite in the first instance vomiting, and afterwards prolonged nausea. Under this plan of treat- ment I have seen two or three slight cases completely recover without the use of any other remedial agent. Dr. Copland (Did. of Pract. Med. i. 467.) also bears testimony to the success of the practice. In most cases it will be found adv.. sable to precede the use of this medicine by blood-letting. Dr. Cheyne (Essay on Cynanche Trachealis, 1801.) advises the employment of emetic tartar in the second stage of croup, for the purpose of moderating vascular action, and of promoting the separation of the adventitious membrane. But I am disposed to rely chiefly on calomel (given so as speedily to occasion ptyalism) and blood- letting. Dr. Cheyne recommends half a grain of emetic tartar to be dissolved in a table-spoonful of water, and given to a child two or three years of age, every half hour till sickness and vomiting are produced; and, in two hours after the last act of vomiting, the same process is to be recommenced, and so repeated while the strength will admit. Another disease which is relieved by the occa- sional use of emetics is hooping-cough. They should be administered at the com- mencement of the disease, every, or every other day. They diminish the violence and length of the fits of spasmodic coughing, and promote expectoration. Emetic tartar is particularly valuable in this disease in consequence of being tasteless, .and, therefore, peculiarly adapted for exhibition to children. In derangements of fthe hepatic functions, indicating the employment of emetics, this salt is usually ipreferred to other vomiting agents, on account of its supposed influence in pro- rmoting the secretion of bile. Clysters containing emetic tartar have been employed to occasion vomiting, but they are very uncertain in their operation. Rayer has frequently employed from six to twelve grains without producing either nausea or vomiting. It has been repeatedly injected into the veins to excite vomiting. The usual dose is two or three grains dissolved in two ounces of water; but in some cases six grains have been employed. The effects are unequal : when vomiting does occur it is not always immediate; frequently it does not take place at all. (Dief- fenbach, Transf. d. Blut. u. d. Infus. d. Arzn.) In several cases of choking, from the lodgment of pieces of meat in the oesophagus, this remedy has been ap- plied with great success; vomiting was produced, and with it the expulsion of the meat. It has also been tried in epilepsy and trismus : but frequently with dan- gerous consequences. (Ibid. p. 49.) Meckel employed it to restore animation in asphyxia by drowning. (Ibid.) It has also been used in tetanus. (Lancet for 1836-7, vol. i. p. 35.) As a nauseant, to reduce the force of the circulation and the muscular power, emelic tartar is frequently of considerable service. Thus, in dislocations of the larger joints (the hip and shoulder, for example,) blood-letting, and nauseating doses of emetic tartar, are employed to diminish the resistance of the muscles opposing the reduction. Even in strangulated hernia it has been given. (Ibid. p. 876.) Emetic tarlar, in large doses, is a most powerful and valuable remedy in the treatment of inflammation, especially peripneumonia. As an emetic, nauseant, or diaphoretic, it has long beenjn use in this disease; having been employed by Riverius in the 17th century, and subsequently by Stoll, Brendel, Schroeder, and Richter, in Germany; by Pringle, Cullen, and Marryat, in England. But as a remedy for inflammation, independent of its evacuant effects, we are in- debted for it to Rasori (See the French translation of his Memoir, in Bayle's Biblioth. de Therap. i. 198.) who first used it in the years 1799 and 1800, in an ANTIMONY-TARTRATE OF POTASH. 571 epidemic fever which raged at Genoa. Subsequently he exhibited it much more extensively, and in larger doses, in peripneumonia. This mode of treatrnent was tried and adopted in France, first by Laennec (Treatise on Diseases of the Chest, translated by Dr. Forbes.); and in this country by Dr. Balfour. (Illustrations oj the Power of Emetic Tartar, 2d edit. 1819.) Its value as an antiphlogistic is now .almost universally admitted. Practitioners, however, are not quite agreed as to the best method of using it. Rasori (Op. cit.), Laennec (Op. cit.), Recamier (Gazette Medicale, 1832, p. 503.), Broussais (Cours de Palhologie et de Thera- peutique Generate, ii. 521.), Bouillaud (Dictionnaire fa Medecine et deChirurgie Pratique, xiii. 495.), Dr. Mackintosh (Practice of Physic, i. 426.), Drs. Graves and Stokes (Dublin Hospital Reports, v. p. 48.), Dr. Davis (Lectures on Diseases of the Lungs and Heart, 188.), and most practitioners of this country, employ blood-letting in peripneumonia, in conjunction with the use of emetic tartar. But by several continental physicians ihe abstraction of blood is considered both un- necessary and hurtful. Thus Peschier (Bayle, Bibliotheque Therapeutique, i. 246.) advises on no account to draw blood : and Trousseau (Dictionnaire de Me- decine, 2de ed. iii. 220.) observes that blood-letting, far from aiding the action of emetic tartar, as Rasori, Laennec, and most practitioners imagine, is, on the con- trary singularly injurious to the antiphlogistic influence of this medicine. Louis (Recherehes de la Saignie. Paris, 1835.) has published some numerical results of the treatment of inflammation of the lungs by blood-leiting, and by emetic tartar; from which it appears that this substance, given in large doses, where blood-lettin** appeared to have no effect, had a favourable action, and appeared to diminish the mortality. (Op. cit. p. 62.) But he particularly states that blood- letting must not be omitted (p. 32). Laennec's mode of using this salt, and which, with some slight modification, I believe to be the best, is the following:—Immediately after bleeding give one grain of emetic tartar, dissolved in two ounces and a half of some mild fluid [cold weak infusion of orange flowers], sweetened with half an ounce of syrup of marshmallows: ihis is to be repeated every two hours for six times, and then suspended for seven or eight hours, if the symptoms are not urgent, or if there be any inclination to sleep. But if the disease has already made progress, or if the oppression be great, or the head affected, continue the medicine until amend- ment takes place; and in severe cases increase the dose to two, or two and a half grains. The only modification in this plan which I would venture to propose is, to beo-in with a somewhat smaller dose (say one-third or one-half of a grain), and gradually increase it ; for in consequence of the violent vomiting which one grain has sometimes produced, I have found patients positively refuse to continue the use of the medicine. From my own experience I should say, that emetic tartar is nearly as servicea- ble when it causes moderate sickness and slight purging, as when it occasions no evacuation : but many practitioners deny this. Laennec observes, that " in gene- ral the effect of emetic tartar is never more rapid, or more efficient, than when it gives rise to no evacuation ,* sometimes, however, its salutary operation is accom- panied by a general perspiration. Although copious vomiting and purging are by no means desirable, on account of the debility and hurtful irritation of the intes- tinal canal which they may occasion, I have obtained remarkable cures in cases in which such evacuations had been very copious." (Op. supra cit. p. 251.) A few drops of tincture of opium may be sometimes conjoined with the antimony, to check its action on ihe alimentary canal. The attempts which have been made to explain the modus medendi of emetic tartar in pneu- monia and other inflammatory diseases, are most unsatisfactory. Whilst almost every writer, even Broussais, admits its efficacy in inflammation, scarcely two agree in the view taken of the mode by which its good effects are produced; as the following statement proves. Rasori ex- plains its operation according to the principles of the theory of conlra-stimulus, (vide p. 151.) of which he may be regarded as the founder. He considers emetic larlar endowed with Ihe pm\er of directly diminishing the inflammatory stimulus; of destroying the dialhcsis, and of being, 572 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. therefore, a real contra-stimulus. Broussais, Bouillisud, and Barbier, ascribe its curative powers to its revulsive or derivative action on tlie gastro-intestinal membrane. Laennec thinks that it acts by increasing the activity of interstitial absorption. Fontaneilles supposes that the ami- phlogistic effect depends on alterations in the composition of the blood. Eberlc (Materia Me- dica, i. 6U.) reiers it to ihe sedative effects, first, on the nervous system, and consecutively on the heart and arteries. Teallier thinks that, like many other therapeutic agents, it influences the organism by concealed curative properties. Dr. Macartney (A Treatise on Inflammation. 1838.) regards it as a medicine diminishing the force of the circulation, by the nausea which it occasions. These examples are sufficient to show the unsatisfactory condition of our present knowledge as to the mode by which ernelic tartar produces its curative effects. (See p. 202 for some observations on the curative agency of resolvents.) But this is no argument against ihe existence of remedial powers. Shall we deny the efficacy of blood-letting in inflammation, of mercury in syphilis, of cinchona in inlerniittcnis, of arsenic in lepra, of sulphur in scabies, of hydrocyanic acid in gastrodynia, and of a host of other remedies, simply because we cannot account for their beneficial effects ? The fact is, that in the present state of our knowledge we cannot explain the modus medendi of a large number of.our best and most certain remedial means. (I have already offered some remarks on the modus medendi of liquefacients and resol- vents, at p. 202.) In pleurisy emetic tartar does not succeed so well as in inflammation of the sub- stance of the lungs. " It, indeed, reduces speedily the inflammatory action," says Laennec, (Op. cit.. p. 259.) " but when the fever and pain have ceased, the effu. sion does not always disappear more rapidly under the use of tartar emetic than without it." I have sometimes conjoined opium (always after copious blood-let. ting) with advantage. In bronchitis (both acute and chronic) it may be most use- fully employed, in conjunction with the usual antiphlogistic agents. (Vide also Dr. Kemp, Lond. Med. Gaz. xix. 300 ; and Mr. Ellis, op. cit. p. 369.) In rheu- matism (especially the kind called articular), next lo peripneumonia, emetic tar- tar has been found by some practitioners (especially by Laennec), (Op. cit.) more efficacious than in any other inflammatory affection : the usual duration of the complaint, when treated by this remedy, was found by Laennec to be seven or eight days. (See nlso.Bayle's Bibl. Therap. i. 311 ; and Lepelletier, Del'Emploi du Tart. Slib. p. 220.) In muscular rheumatism it succeeds less perfectly, tiy- novial effusions (whether rheumatic or otherwise) have, in some cases, given way rapidly to the use of emetic tartar. (Laennec, op. cit. p. ^63 ; and Gimelle, Brit. and For. Med. Rev. for July, 1?*33, p. 224.) In arachnitis, Laennec has seen all the symptoms disappear, under the use of emetic tartar, in forty-eight hours. In three instances of acute hydrocephalus, all the symptoms disappeared in the same space of time. In phlebitis (Laennec, op. cit.); in inflammation of the nxammce, occurring after delivery (Dr. E. Kennedy, Mr. Lever, and Dr. Ashwell, Lond. Med. Gaz. xx. 761.); in ophthalmia, and various other inflammaiory affec- tions, emetic tartar has been successfully employed as an antiphlogistic. In continued fever, it is of considerable service. Mild cases are benefited by the use of small doses (as from one-sixteenth to one-fourth of a grain), as a dia- phoretic. In the more severe form of this disease, accompanied with much vas- cular excitement, emetic tartar, in the dose of half a grain or a grain, may be usefully administered as an antiphlogistic ; but its use should, in general, be pre- ceded by blood-letting. In the advanced stages of typhus fever, accompanied with intense cerebral excitement, manifested by loss of sleep, delirium, &c, Dr. Graves (Lond. Med. Gaz. xx. 538.) has obiained most beneficial results from the use of emetic tartar and opium. The same combination has been employed with great success in delirium tremens, as well as in delirium of erysipelas, scarlatina, and measles, by Dr. Law. {Ibid, xviii. 538 and 694.) Emetic lartar is one of our most valuable sudorifics, being oftentimes available when other agents of this class are inadmissible : for example, when we are desi- rous of producing diaphoresis, in fevers and other diseases which are accompanied wilh preternatural vascular action about the head, the use of opiate sudorifics (as the compound ipecacuanha powder) is objectionable; whereas emetic tartar may be employed with safety, since it has no tendency to increase disorder of the nervous ANTIMONV-TARTKATE OF POTASH. ^ 573 system, but to reduce cerebral excitement. On the other hand, when much gastric or enterilic irritation is present, the narcotic sudorifics are generally to be preferred to antimony. As an expectorant, in various pulmonary affections, small doses of this salt are frequently employed wilh advantage. In some spasmodic complaints, the use of it has been followed, in the few in- stances in which it has been tried, with good effects.1 In apoplexy, it has been employed to depress cerebral vascular action; but its tendency to occasion vomit- ing renders it objectionable. As a local irritant, applied to the skin, it may be employed in the form of aque- ous solution, ointment, or plaster. It is used in the same cases as vesicatories, over which it has the advantage of not affecting the urino-genilal organs. When it is desirable to keep up long-continued irritation, blisters are in some cases pre- ferable. In chronic diseases of the chest, it is used with the greatest advantage. I have found it much more serviceable than blisters, or any other kind of counter- irritant. I frequently direct one part of the chest to be rubbed until the eruption is produced; and then, after the interval ofa day or two, another part; thus keeping up irritation by a succession of applications to different parts of the chest for several months. In this way it is most serviceable in chronic catarrhs, peri- pneumonies, and pleurisies. Even in lingering phthisis, I have seen the cough and pain alleviated by the occasional use of antimonial frictions. In whooping- cough, it is also serviceable. Autenrieth recommended it as a means of diminish- ing the frequency of the paroxysms and the violence of the cough. In laryngitis, it is occasionally of great service ; as also in various affections of the joints, espe- cially chronic inflammation of the capsular ligament, or of the synovial membrane, hydrops articuli, particularly when connected with inflammation, and tumours of various kinds about the joints. In tic douloureux (Hausbrandt, British andForeign Medical Review, Jan. 1837, 230.), it has also been employed with benefit. In he paralysis of children, the region of the spine should be rubbed with the ointment. Its effects are most beneficial, especially when one leg only is affected. It is some- times necessary to keep an eruption out for many weeks. In hysteria (Tate, A Treatise on Hysteria. Lond. 1830.), the same application to the spine has been found serviceable. A stimulating wash, composed of one scruple of tartar emetic to an ounce of water, was proposed by the late Sir William Blizard, in the year 1787, to cleanse foul ulcers, repress fungous growths and venereal warts, and as an application to tinea capitis. A weak solution (as half a grain to the ounce of water) has been employed as a stimulant in chronic ophthalmia, and in spots on the cornea. Administration.—The dose of emetic tartar, in substance, is, as a diaphoretic and expectorant, Tx2- to i of a grain; as a nauseant, from | to \ a grain; as an emetic, from 1 to 2 grains ; as an antiphlogistic, from \ a grain to 3 or 4 grains. This salt is, however, rarely employed in substance. Sometimes a grain of it, mixed with ten or fifteen grains of powdered ipecacuanha, is employed as an emetic. A mixture of one grain with sixteen grains of sulphate of potash, may be employed, in doses of from two to four grains, as a substitute for antimonial powder, to promote diaphoresis. In solution, it is commonly employed, as an expectorant, diaphoretic, nauseant, or emetic, in the form of antimonial wine. When used as an antiphlogistic, an aqueous solution of greater strength may be administered : it should be made with boiling distilled water, in a glass vessel (as a Florence flask). For external use, emetic tartar is employed in the form of liniment, ointment, ox plaster. A saturated solution is a very useful liniment: it is prepared by pour- ing an ounce and a half of boiling water over a drachm of emetic tartar, and allowing the solution to stand till cold. In many cases it will be found preferable 1 Vide Laennec, op. cit. p. 2C0; Jacobi, Lond. Med. Gaz. iii. 784; and Mr. Ackerly, Lond. Med. Gai. xxi. 56. 574 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. to the ointment, being the mildest, least painful, and cleanest. Another mode of employing emetic tartar externally, is by sprinkling from ten grains to a drachm of the salt in fine powder over a Burgundy pitch piaster. Antidotes.—Promote vomiting by tepid bland liquids. The antidote is said to be tannic acid, and vegetable substances which contain it, (as yellow bark, tea, nutgalls, &c.) Faure (Lond. Med. Gaz. xvi. 703.) recommends* the decoction in preference to other preparations of yellow bark. But though cinchona decom- poses emetic tartar, it does not destroy its activity. Some years since, at the General Dispensary, I saw from 1 lo 2 grains of this salt, mixed with either powder or decoction of yellow bark, given by Dr. Clutterbuck to nearly 100 pa- tients; and in almost every instance nausea and vomiting occurred. The expe- rience of Laennec (Diseases of the Chest, Forbes's Translation, 257.), as well as of Rayer (Did. de Med. et Chir. Prat. iii. 57.), is to the same effect. Opium is a most valuable agent for checking excessive evacuations. Venesection and the warm bath are also important means of relieving the gastro-enteritis. 1. VMM ANTIMONII POTASSIO-TARTRATIS, L.; Vinum Antimonmle, E.; Liquor Tartari Emetici, D.; Antimonial Wine. [Vinum Antimonii, U. S.] (Emetic Tartar, Bij.; Sherry, Oj., L. E.—Emetic Tartar, 9j.; Hot Distilled Water, fgviij.; Rectified Spirit of Wine, f3ij.) [Tartrate of Antimony and Potassa, 9j.; Wine, f^x., U. S.l—Each fluid ounce contains two grains of emetic tartar. It is important that Sherry, and not an inferior kind of wine, be employed; for the latter frequently contains matters which precipitate the sesquioxide of antimony. If the wine be good, and the salt pure, no precipitate is formed in the solution, unless it be kept for a long period, when decomposition of the salt ensues. The Dublin formula is objectionable on account of its want of colour. Antimonial wine is used, as a diaphoretic or expectorant, in doses of from ten to thirty drops, frequently repeated ; as a nauseant, from one to two fluid drachms; as an emetic, about half a fluid ounce, or two fluid drachms given at intervals of about ten minutes for four or five times, or until the desired effect is produced; as an emetic for children, from thirty drops to a fluid drachm ; and as an antiphlo- gistic in peripneumonia, from two or three fluid drachms to an ounce; but for this latter purpose, an extemporaneous but carefully made aqueous solution is to be preferred. 1 UNGUENTUM ANTIMONII POTASSIO-TARTRATIS, L.; Unguentum Antimoniale, E.; Unguentum Tartari Emetici, D.; Tartar Emetic Ointment. [ Unguentum Antimonii, Antimonial Ointment, U. S.]—(Emetic Tartar, rubbed to very fine powder, 3j.; Lard, 3iv., L. E. The Dublin College orders 3j. of the Emetic Tartar to 3j. of Lard.) [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs 3ij. of Tartar Emetic to 3j. Lard.]—In the preparation of this ointment, it is important that the emetic tartar be in the state of a very fine powder, in order to avoid the irritation pro- duced by rubbing gritty particles on the skin. A portion of ointment about the size of a small nut is to be rubbed on the skin night and morning. After the use of it for two or three times, the painful condition of the part, thereby induced, commonly prevents farther employment of friction. It is sometimes applied, spread on linen, without rubbing. By either of these methods, a crop of painful pustules is produced; but the facility and rapidity with which they are developed varies considerably in different individuals. Occasionally, adventitious eruptions have appeared in other parts of the body, which have been ascribed to absorption of antimony into the system. (Gaz. Med. 1832, p. 842.) But I believe with Rayer (Treat, on Diseases of the Skin, by Dr. Willis, p. 540.), that they arise from the inadvertent applicatiotvof the ointment to these parts. This ointment is used as a counter-irritant in various chronic maladies : thus it is applied to the chest in pulmonary affections, and to the joints in chronic diseases, (whether rheumatic or otherwise). It should only be applied to sound portions of skin, and, therefore, leech-bites, the scarifications from cupping, wounds, &c, are to GOLD. - 575 e carefully avoided ; for severe inflammation, and even gangrenous ulceration, may be produced by not attending to this cauiion. I have before mentioned (p. r>67) that in a very few cases severe and even fatal constitulional disorder has appealed to have resulted from the use of antimonial ointment. Order XIX.—GOLD AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 1. AU'RUM.—GOLD. History.—Gold has been known from the most remote periods of antiquity. It was in corifhion use 3,300 years since, (Exodus, xi. 2,) and was probably the first metal with which mankind was acquainted. The alchemists termed it Sol ox Rex metallorum. Natural History.—It is found only in the metallic state; commonly alloyed with other metals, especially wilh silver, tellurium, copper, and iron. It occurs in veins in primitive rocks; and is also found in alluvial deposits in srr;all lumps or particles called gold dust. It is found in several parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, but principally in America, especially the southern part. Preparation.—The mode of extracting gold varies in different places, prin- cipally according to the nature of the gangue. The ore is freed as much as possible from foreign matters, by mechanical processes (stamping, washing, &c.) ; and sometimes by roasting; it is then smelted with some flux, as borax, to sepa- rate the stony matters. Or it is fused with lead, and afterwards submitted to cupellation; or amalgamated with mercury, and, after straining, distilled. The separation of gold from silver (parting) may be effected in the dry way by fusion, either with sulphur, by which metallic gold and sulphuret of silver are procured; or with sesquisulphuret of antimony, by which sulphuret of silver and an alloy of gold and antimony are procured: the last-mentioned metal may be separated by heating the alloy in the air, as well as by oiher methods. Gold may also be freed from silver in the wet way by the process of quartation: that is, by treating an alloy of three parts of silver and one of gold with nitric acid, which dissolves the silver; or by action of sulphuric acid (see Cupri Sulphas). Properties.—The crystalline forms of native gold are the cube, the regular octohedron, and their modifications. Pure gold has a rich yellow colour, a sp. gr. of 19-2 to 19*4, is soft, very ductile, and malleable, fuses at a bright red heat (2016° F. according to Daniell), and in the liquid state has a brilliant greenish colour. Its equivalent is somewhat uncertain : Gmelin fixes on 66,—Thomson, 100,—Berzelius and Graham, 99*6,—Turner, 199-2,—and Brande, 200 : .1 shall adopt the last. Characteristics.—Gold is readily distinguished by its colour and softness, by its being unacted on by nitric acid, and by its ready solubility in nitro-hydrochloric acid. The solution is yellow, stains organic matters (as the skin) purple, throws down, by ihe addition of protosulphate of iron, metallic gold in the finely.divided state, by protochloride of tin a dark or black precipitate, and by proionitrate of mercury a black precipitate: heated with borax by the blowpipe it forms a pink or rose-coloured glass, but is subsequently reduced. Physiological Effects.—Gold, like other metals, has been frequently sup- posed to be inert while it retains its metallic condition, but in this, as well as in some other instances, the accuracy of the assumption has been denied. Both Chrestien (Sur une Nouvelle Remtde dans le Traitement des Mal. Ven. Paris, 1 HI l), and Niel, (Recherehes et Observations sur les Effets des Preparations d'Or. Paris, 1821), as well as other writers, assert that finely-divided metallic gold (pulvis auri) produces the same constitutional effects as those caused by the various preparations of this metal, but in a milder degree, while it excites little or no local irritation. It is said to promote the secretions of the skin, kidneys, and salivary glands. Uses.—Il has been employed as an antivenereal and antiscrofulous remedy by 576 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Chrestien, Niel, and others, with considerable success. It is said to be preferable to the other preparations of this metal in delicate and nervous subjects, females, and infants. Gold leaf (aurum foliatum seu lamellatum) is used by dentists for filling decayed teeth, and was formerly employed by apothecaries for covering pills (ad inaurandas seu obducendas pilulas). Administration.—It has been administered internally in doses of from a quar- ter of a grain to a grain three or four times a day*- Chrestien used it by way of friction on the tongue and gums. Niel employed it endermically (that is, applied it to the skin deprived of the epidermis) in the form of ointment, composed of one grain of gold and thirty grains of lard. PULVIS AURI (Fr. Cod.) is prepared by rubbing leaf gold (aurum in laminas exilissimas complanatum) with sulphate of potash, sifiing and washing with boiling water to remove the sulphate : or by adding the protosulphate of iron to terchloride of gold, and washing the precipitate, first with water, then with dilute nitric acid. 2. AURI TERCHLO'RIDUM.—TERCHLORIDE OF GOLD. Preparation.—In the French Codex this is ordered to be prepared by dis- solving, with the aid of heat, one part of gold in three parts of nitro-hydrochloric acid. The solution is to be evaporated until vapours of chlorine begin to be dis- engaged, and then allowed to crystallize. Properties and Composition.—Chloride of gold is in the form of small crys- talline needles, of an orange-red colour, inodorous, and having a strong, styptic, disagreeable taste. It is deliquescent, on which account it should be preserved in a. well-stoppered bottle: it is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. When heated it evolves chlorine, and is converted, first into protochloride, and then into metallic gold, which is left in the spongy state. It reddens litmus, stains the cuticle purple, is reduced by many metals (as iron, copper, tin, zinc, &c), by several of the non-metallic elementary substances, (as phosphorus,) by some metallic salts, (as protosulphate of iron,) and by many organic bodies, (as charcoal, sugar, gum, gallic acid, extractive, &c) all of which, therefore, are incompatible with it. Nitrate of silver occasions a precipitate of chloride of silver and oxide of gold: hydrochloric acid removes the latter. (For other characteristics, vide p. 676.) Terchloride of gold consists of 1 eq. gold = 200 + 3 eqs. chlorine, 108. The before-mentioned crystals also contain hydrochloric acid : hence they are regarded by some as constituting a double chloride of hydrogen and gold. Physiological Effects.—a. On Animals.—Orfila (Toxicol. Gen.) examined the effects of chloride of gold on animals, and infers from his experiments that when introduced into the stomach it acts as a corrosive, (but with less energy than the bichloride of mercury,) and destroys animals by the inflammation of the coats of the alimentary canal which it sets up. (3. On Man.—On man its effects are analogous to those of bichloride of mer- cury. In small doses it acts, according to Dr. Chrestien, more energetically as a stimulant, though less powerfully as a sialogogue, than corrosive sublimate. It promotes the secretions of the skin, the salivary glands, and the kidneys. Taken to the extent of one-tenth of a grain daily, it has occasioned violent fever. " This excitation," says Chrestien, « I regard as indispensably necessary for the cure of the diseases against which I administer gold: restrained within proper limits it is never accompanied with any remarkable or even sensible lesion of the functions The mouth is sood, the tongue moist, the appetite continues, the bowels are not disordered, and there is ordinarily only augmentation of urine and transpiration: but if carried too far, we incur the risk of producing general ere- thism, inflammation of this or that organ, according to the predisposition of the patient, which will not only check the treatment, but may even mduce a new disease often more troublesome than the original one. The suspension or modi- TEROXIDE OF GOLD. 577 fication of the remedy should be governed by the unusual and sustained heat of ihe skin." Cullerier, (Magendie, Formulaire, 8me ed. p. 305.) the nephew, has seen one-fifteenth of a grain excite, at the second dose, gastric irritation, dryness of the tongue, redness of ihe throat, colic, and diarrhoea. When it promotes the secretion of saliva, it does not, as mercury, affect the teelh and gums. (Grotz- ner, Rust's Magazine, B. 21, quoted by Wibmer.) Magendie (Op. cit.) has seen violent gastritis, accompanied by nervous symptoms (cramps and pains in the limbs, agitation, and loss of sleep), and afterwards great heat of skin, obsti- nate sleeplessness, and fatiguing erections. In large doses, it would probably occasion symptoms analogous to those produced by the u.se of poisonous doses of bichloride of mercury. Uses.—It has been employed, with variable success, as a substitute for mer- cury in ihe treatment of the secondary symptoms of syphilis. A more extended experience of it is, however, necessary to enable us to speak of its remedial powers with confidence. In the hands of Chrestien (Op. cit.), Niel (Op. cit.), Cullerier (Did. des Sciences Med. xxxvii. art. Or.), Legrand (De l'Or,deson Ernploi dans le Traitement de la Syphilis. Paris, 1832.), and others, it has proved most successful. It has also been used in scrofulous affections, bronchocele, chronic skin dis- eases, scirrhous lumours, &c. Duportal (Ann. de Chimie, lxxviii. 55.) cured with it a case of obstinate ulceration of the face, regarded by him as cancerous, and which had resisted all the ordinary methods of cure. Legrand (Lond. Med. Gaz. xx. 414.) has used chloride of gold, acidified with nitric acid, as a caustic, in syphilitic, scrofulous, and scorbutic ulcers, cancerous growths, and ulcerations of the neck of the uterus. Administration.—Internally, it has been given in doses of one-twenlieth ofa grain, made into pills with starch. But, as organic matters decompose it, it is better to use it in distilled water, or apply it by friction to the mouth, in quantities of from one-sixteenth to one-sixth of a grain. Antidote.—The same as for poisoning by bichloride of mercury. 3. SOD'II AU'RO.TERCHLO'RIDUM.—AURO-TERCHLORIDE OF SODIUM. In the French Codex this is ordered to be prepared by dissolving 85 parts, by weight, of terchloride of gold, and 16 parts of chloride of sodium, in a small quantity of distilled water: the solution is to be evaporated by a gentle heat until a pellicle forms, and then put aside to crystallize. The auro-terchloride of sodium crystallizes in orange-coloured, quadrangular,. elongated prisms, which are permanent in the air; but when they contain any unconibined terchloride of gold, they are slightly deliquescent. They are soluble in water ; when heated chlorine is evolved, and a mixture of gold and chloride of sodium is left behind. They consist of 1 eq. terchloride of gold = 308 ; 1 eq. of chloride of sodium = 60, and 4 eqs. of water = 36. Its effects and uses are analogous to the terchloride of gold, over which it has the advantages of being more constant and less costly. It is exhibited internally in doses of one-twentieth to one-tenth of a grain, made into pills by starch or lycopodium. Mixed with twice its weight of orris powder or lycopodium, it may be used in frictions on the tongue and gums. An ointment (composed of one grain to thirty-six grains of lard) may be applied, endermically, lo the skin, de- prived of its epidermis by a blister. 4. AURI TEROX'YDUM.-TEROXIDE OF GOLD. This substance, sometimes called peroxide of gold or auric acid, is ordered' in the French Codex to be prepared by boiling 4 parts calcined magnesia with 1 part terchloride of gold and 40 parts of water. Then wash, first with water, to vol. i. 49 578 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. remove the chloride of magnesium, afterwards with dilute nitric acid, to dissolve the excess of magnesia. Teroxide of gold is brown ; in the state of hydrate, reddish yellow. It is re- duced by heat and solar light. It is insoluble in water, but is soluble in hydro- chloric acid (forming terchloride of gold), and in alkalis (forming aurates). It consists of 3 equivalents oxygen, 24 + 1 eq. gold = 200. It is used internally, in venereal and scrofulous diseases, in doses of from one- tenth of a grain to a grain, made into the form of pills with extract of mezereon. 1. AURATE OF AMMONIA. Ammoniuret of Teroxide of Gold; Fulminating Gold.—This is prepared by adding ammonia to a solution of chloride of gold. It is a yellowish-brown powder, which explodes when heated to 400°. It has been employed in the same cases as the preceding compounds, as well as in fevers, nervous affections, &c. In some cases it has produced very serious, and even fatal, results. (Plenck, Toxicologia, ed. 2nda, 230.) 2. PURPURA MINERALIS CASSII. Purple of Cassius ; Aurum Stanno paratum, Fr. Cod.—The nature of this compound is so imperfectly known, that it is impos- sible at present to assign to it its proper chemical name. Its active principle is probably oxide of gold. There are several methods of preparing it: the simplest is to add a solution of the mixed protochloride and perchloride of lin to a solution of terchloride of gold, until a precipitate is no longer produced. Filter and dry the precipitate. The purple of Cassius is soluble in ammonia, and does not form an amalgam with mercury : hence it does not appear to contain any metallic gold. Its com- position varies according to the mode of procuring it. Gold, oxygen, and tin, are its essential constituents. This preparation is used in the same cases as the other preparations of gold. 5. AU'RI IO'DIDUM.—IODIDE OF GOLD. This is ordered to be prepared, in the French Codex, by adding a solution of iodide of potassium to a solution of chloride of gold. Double decomposition takes place, and iodide of gold falls down. This is to be collected on a filter, and washed with alcohol, to remove the excess of iodine which precipitates with it. Iodide of gold is ofa greenish-yellow colour, insoluble in cold water, but slightly soluble in boiling water. Heated in a crucible it evolves iodine vapour, and is converted into metallic gold. It is probably composed of 1 eq. iodine = 126, and 1 eq. gold =200. It has been employed internally, in venereal affections, in doses of from one- fifteenth to one-tenth of a grain. Externally, it has been applied in the form of ointment to venereal ulcers. (Pierquin, Journ. de Progres.) 6. AURI TERCYAN'IDUM.—TERCYANIDE OF GOLD. The directions for preparing this salt in the French Codex are somewhat diffuse. The process consists essentially in very carefully adding a solution of pure cya- nide of potassium to a solution of chloride of gold, until a precipitate (cyanide of gold) ceases to be formed. The chloride of gold, prior to solution, should be de- prived of all excess of acid by heating it in a salt-water bath. Cyanide of gold is a yellow powder, which is insoluble in water. It consists, probably, of 3 eqs, cyanogen = 78, and 1 eq. gold 200. It has been used in venereal and scrofulous affections, both externally and internally. The dose is from one-fifteenth to one-tenth of a grain, made into a pill, with some inert powder. SILVER. 579 Order XX.—SILVER AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 1. ARGENTUM, L. E. D. (U. S.)—SILVER. History.—Silver, like gold, has been known from the most remote periods of antiquity, being mentioned in the earliest books of the old Testament. (Genesis xliv. 2 ; Job xxii. 25.) It was termed by the alchemists and astrologers Diana or Luna. Natural History.—It is found in the mineral kingdom in various states : sometimes nearly pure; or alloyed with other metals (especially gold, antimony, tellurium, arsenicum, and copper), or combined with sulphur, selenium, iodine, or chlorine. Of these, native silver and the sulphuret are by far the most abundant. A native carbonate of silver is described, but is exceedingly rare. Preparation.—The processes followed for the extraction of silver vary in different places, according to the nature of the ore: they are principally amalga- mation and cupellation. At Freyburg the ore is mixed with common salt, and roasted, by which the sulphuret of silver is converted into the chloride of this metal : water and iron are then added, to remove the chlorine, and the disengaged silver is finally dissolved in mercury (amalgamation), and the solution submitted to distillation, by which the mercury is volatilized, and the silver left behind. (J. H. Vivian in Taylor's Records of Mining, p. 21.) The process of amalga- mation followed in America is somewhat different. (Boussingault, Annates de Chimie, li. 337 ; also, Ward, Mexico in 1827, vol. ii. 437.) Silver is obtained from argentiferous galena, as follows :—The ore is first roasted to expel the sulphur, and afterwards smelted with charcoal. The argen- tiferous lead is then submitted to cupellation, by which the lead becoming oxidized, is partly volatilized, and partly sinks into the cupel (cineritium), leaving the silver. (On the smelting processes of Hungary, Saxony, &c, consult Taylor's Records of Mining, p. 51.) Pure silver is obtained by immersing a copper rod in a solution of the nitrate. The precipitate is to be digested in caustic ammonia, to remove all traces of copper, and afterwards washed with water. Properties.—In the native state, silver occurs crystallized in the cube and re- gular octohedron. When pure this metal is white, with a slight shade of yellow; inodorous and tasteless. It is moderately hard and elastic; very ductile and malleable: a single grain may be drawn out into 400 feet of wire, and leaf silver (argentum in laminas externum ; argentum foliatum) may be procured, whose thickness is only To?juffu of an inch. Its sp. gr. is 10*474. It melts at a bright red heat (1873° F. according to Daniell). When exposed to the air it does not oxidate, but readily tarnishes by sulphurous vapours. Its equivalent is 108. Characteristics.—It is soluble in nitric acid.—(For the characteristics of the nitric solution, see p. 581.) Purity.—The silver of the shops usually contains traces of gold and copper. It is totally dissolved by diluted nitric acid. This solution, on the addition of chloride of sodium, throws down a precipitate, which an excess of ammonia dissolves, and it should be free from colour. The chloride of silver being removed, and hydrosulphuric acid added to the solu- tion, it is not coloured by it, and nothing is thrown down. The specific gravity of silver is 10-4. Ph. L. Soluble entirely in diluted nitric acid: this solution, treated with an excess of muriate of soda, gives a white precipitate entirely soluble in aqua ammoniae, and a fluid which is not afTected by sulphuretted hydrogen. Ph. Ed. Piivsiological Effects.—Silver in the metallic state is totally inert. It may remain for many months in the alimentary canal without exciting any ill effects. (Lond. Med. Gaz. May 20, 1837.) Colic, however, has been ascribed to the handling of silver. (Journal de Chimie Medicale, t. vi. 2nde Series, 1840.) 580 elements of materia medica. Uses.—In pharmacy it is used for the preparation of the nitrate which is em- ployed as a medicine and as a test. Silver leaf is used for filling the hollows of decayed teeth, and was formerly employed to cover pills. An amalgam of silver is also used by some dentists for stopping teeth. It is objectionable on account of its becoming black by the sul- phuretted or phosphuretted hydrogen evolved by the breath. 2. ARGENTI NITRAS, L E. (U. S.)—NITRATE OF SILVER. (Argenti Nitratis Crystalli; and Argenti Nitras fusum, D.) History—Geber (Invention of Verity, ch. xxi.) describes the method of pre- paring crystallized nitrate of silver. When ihis salt is fused, it is termed Lunar Caustic (Causticum Lunare). The term Infernal Stone (Lapis Infernalis) is sometimes applied to this salt as well as the hydrate of potash (see p. 422). Nitrate of silver is sometimes called Argentum Nitratum. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this salt. The London College orders of Silver, 3iss.; Nitric Acid, f 3j.; Distilled Water, f 3ij. Mix the nitric acid with the waler, and dissolve the silver in them in a sand-bath. Afterwards, in. crease the heat gradually, that the nitrate of silver may be dried. Melt this in a crucible, with a slow fire, until, the water being expelled, ebullition has ceased ; then immediately pour it into proper moulds. The directions of the Edinburgh College are essentially similar, except that the salt is or- dered to be fused in an earthenware or porcelain crucible, and the fused matter poured into iron moulds previously heated and greased slightly with tallow. Preserve the product in glass vessels. The Dublin College directs two forms of nitrate of silver to be prepared ; the one in crystals, the other fused. The crystallized nitrate is prepared of silver laminated and cut into small fragments, thirty-seven parts; Diluted Nitric Acid, sixty parts. Let the silver be passed into a glass vessel, and let the acid, previously diluted with wutcr, be poured on it. Dissolve the metal with a heat gradually increased; then, by evaporation and refrigeration, let crystals be formed, lo be dried without heat, and to be preserved in a glass vessel placed in darkness. The following are directions for preparing the fused nitrate:—Let Silver be dissolved in Diluted Nitric Acid as above described : then let the liquor be evaporated to dryness. Let the remaining mass, passed into a crucible, be liquefied by a slow heat. Let it then be poured into proper moulds, and preserved in a gl-iss vessel. [The U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs Silver in small pieces, an ounce: Nitric Acid, five fluid- drachms; Distilled Water, two fluid-ounces. The process is the same as that of the London College.] The fusion may be more readily and safely effected in a Berlin porcelain capsule over a spirit or gas lamp, by means of Griffin's lamp furnace, than in a crucible over a slow fire, as directed in the London Pharmacopceia. It is unnecessary and objectionable to grease the moulds, as directed by the Edinburgh College. The theory of the process is readily comprehended. Three equivalents or 324 parts of silver abstract three equivalents or 24 parts of oxygen from one equiva- lent or 54 parts of nitric acid, thereby disengaging one equivalent or 30 parts of binoxide of nitrogen, and forming three equivalents or 348 parts of oxide of silver, which unite with three equivalents or 162 parts of nitric acid to form three equivalents or 510 parts of nitrate of silver. MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Binnr. xr. ■ am r. I 1 eq. Binor. JVitrogen........ 30-----------------------------------1 en. Binny. leq. Nitnc Acid.. .,4j 3 4»_ Qzygen................ 24----__________.3 eq.Ox.Silver 348v Nun*. 30 leq. Nitrate Silver 510 3 eq. Silver.......324. 3 cq. Nitric Acid- • 162.................................--------------------------------—-^3<_!1;Nltr? „ 540 —' 540 Properties.__Nitrate of silver forms transparent, colourless, right rhombic prismatic crystals. lis taste is strongly metallic and bitter. When heated it fuses: if the temperature be increased, decomposition ensues ; and metallic silver is oblained. The fused nitrate forms on cooling a whitish, striated mass, having NITRATE OF SILVER. 581 a crystalline texture. The salt is soluble in both water and spirit. It does not deliquesce: when exposed to the atmosphere and solar light it blackens, probably from the aclion of organic matter, or hydrosulphuric acid, contained in tlie atmosphere. Mr. Scanlan Fig. 90. (Athenceum, August 25, 1838.) finds that nitrate of silver in a clean dry glass tube, hermetically sealed, undergoes no change of colour by exposure to solar light: the contact of organic matler, however, readily occasions it to become black. A solution of nitrate in pure distilled water is unchanged by exposure to solar light; but the presence of organic matter causes Crystal of Nitrate of Silver. the liquid to become black or reddish. (See pp. 250, and 251.) Characteristics.—It is known to be a nitrate by its deflagration when heated on charcoal, and the evolution of nitrous fumes, as well as by the other characters before mentioned for this class of salts (see p. 275). Its characters as a salt of silver axe as follows:—It yields with hydrochloric acid a white precipitate (chloride of silver), whose properties have been before stated (see p. 226). It forms also, with solutions of the alkaline carbonates, oxalates, and ferrocyanides, white precipitates (carbonate, oxalate, and ferrocyanide of silver). With solu- tions of the alkaline arsenites and phosphates it yields yellow precipitates (arsenite and subsesquiphosphate ofsilver); red with the arseniates (arseniale of silver)', and with lime water or the fixed alkalis olive-brown (oxide of silver). Phos- phorus and metallic copper each precipitate crystals of metallic silver from the aqueous solution of this salt. Hydrosulphuric acid occasions a black precipitate (sulphuret of silver). Composition.—Nitrate of silver is thus composed :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Proust. Oxide of Silver..... 1 ............ 196 ............ 6823 ........... 695 Nitric Acid........ 1 ............ 54 ............ 3176 ............ 30*5 Nitrate of Silver... 1 ............ 170 ............ 99-99 ............ 1000 Purity.—Nilrate of silver should be white, and completely soluble in distilled water. By the action of organic matters and light il blackens from a partial reduction. The presence of copper may be detected in its solution by the blue colour produced with caustic ammonia. The watery solution from which the silver has been thrown down by hydrochloric acid, should be unchanged by the addition of hydrosulphuric acid, showing the absence of lead and copper: and be completely volatilized by heat: if any saline residuum be obtained, the nitrate was adulterated. A chemical manufacturer informs me, that he has detected 10 per cent, of nitrate of potash in the nitrate of silver of commerce. It was recognised by precipitating the silver by means of hydrochloric acid, and subsequently crys- tallizing the nftrate of potash. The white precipitate produced with either hydro- chloric acid or chloride of sodium should be readily dissolved by caustic ammonia : if chloride of lead be present the effect will be otherwise. It is originally wliite, but blackens by exposure to light. It is entirely soluble in water. Copper put into the solution precipitates silver ; its other properties are as above detailed respecting silver. Ph. Lond. Soluble in distilled water, with the exception of a very scanty black powder: twenly-nine grains dissolved in one fluid ounce ofdistilled water, acidulated with nitric acid, precipitated with a solution of nine grains of muriate of ammonia, briskly agitated for a few seconds, and then allowed to rest a little, will yield a clear supernatant liquid, which still precipitates with more of the test. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects, a. On Animals—Orfila (Toxicol. Gen.) found that it acted on animals as a powerfully corrosive poison. When dogs were made to swallow it, gastro-enteritis was induced. No symptoms indicating its absorp- 49* 582 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. tion were observed. Dissolved in water, and thrown into the jugular vein, it produced difficult respiration, convulsive movements, and speedy death. /3. On Man.—The local action of nitrate of silver is that of a caustic or cor- rosive. This might be expected, from observing its action on albumen and fibrin —substances which form the principal part of the animal textures. If a solution of nilrate of silver be added to an albuminous liquid, a white curdy precipitate is formed, composed (Lassaigne, Journ. de Chim. Med. t. vi. IIe Serie, p. 306.) ofalbumen 84*5, and nitrate of silver 15*5. This precipitate is soluble in caustic ammonia, and in solutions of nitrate of silver, albumen, and chloride of sodium. Afler some time it becomes coloured and ultimately blackish, from the partial or complete reduction of the silver. The action of nitrate of silver on milk (Dr. C. G. Mitscherlich, Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt far 1839, S. 447.), as well as on fibrin, is analogous to that on albumen; that is, a white compound of nitrate of silver and of these organic substances is at first formed, but gradually the melal is reduced. These facts assist us in comprehending the nature of the changes pro- ' duced by the application of nitrate of silver to the different tissues.1 Applied to the skin it produces first a white mark, owing to its union with the coagulated albumen of the cuticle: gradually this becomes bluish-gray, purple, and ultimately black, owing to the partial reduction of ihe silver. If the integu- ment be moistened, and the nitrate applied three or four times, it causes at the end of some hours vesication, which is usually attended with less pain than that produced by cantharides. In some cases it excites acute pain. In one instance in which I applied it freely to the scalp for a cutaneous affection, fever with delirium was produced, which endangered the life of the patient (a girl of six years). This is deserving of notice, because in Mr. Higginbottom's work (Essay on the Use of the Nitraie of Silver, 2d ed. p. 198.) we are told, lhat nitrate of silver applied as a vesicant " causes scarcely any constitutional irritation, even in children." In a few days the black and destroyed cuticle cracks and falls off, without any destruction of the subjacent cutis vera. Applied to the hair or nails the nitrate stains ihem black, as in the case of the •cuticle ; and, in consequence, it is one of the substances employed as a hair dye (see p. 220). When recently applied, the black tint of the hair, and even of the cuticle, may be removed by washing with a solution of chloride of sodium, and then with ammonia-water, to dissolve the chloride of silver which is produced. (Journ. de Chim. Med. vii. 542.) To detect silver in stained hair, the latter is to be treated wilh chlorine, by which chloride of silver is produced, which is soluble in ammonia, and precipitable from its solution by nitric acid. (Devergie, Med. Le™£~2\™Zta> een; then add that which is left of the Lard, l-lllo of ^Munrttf**^™^*^ equal parts of Purified Mercury and Prcpared Hcl'TLird -The Edinburgh College observes lhat » This ointment is not well prepared so long as metahic globules may be seen in it with a magnifier of four powers." ointment of mercury. 609 To promote the extinction of the mercury, the metal should be previously tri- turated with some old mercurial ointment. Rancid lard also assists the extinction of the globules. The mercury is in a finely-divided metallic state. Guibourt (Pharm. Rai- sonnee, ii. 140.) states, that by digesting ether on mercurial ointment, the fatty matter may be dissolved, and liquid mercury obtained in equal weight to that used in making^lhe ointment. Mr. Donovan, however, thinks that part of the mercury nttracts oxygen, and that the oxide thus formed unites with the fatty matter. I have seen no satisfactory explanation of the efficacy of old mercurial ointment in extinguishing the mercury; Guibourt offers the following:—By trituration, both lard and mercury assume oppositely electrical states, the lard becoming negative, the mercury positive; these states, he supposes, determine a more intimate mix- ture of the particles, and a greater division of the mercury. Now rancid lard and old mercurial ointment, having attracted oxygen from the air, more readily take on the negative condition, and hence their efficacy in promoting the extinc- tion of the mercurial globules. Guibourt also asserts, that mortars of marble or wood are better adapted for making this ointment than those of metal, on account of their power of conducting electricity being less. Properties.—It is an unctuous fatty body of a bluish gray colour, and if pro- perly prepared, gives no traces of globules when rubbed on paper, and examined by a magnifier of four powers ; but when rubbed on gold, it quickens it. More- over, if examined by a powerful microscope, innumerable globules are observed. I found the sp. gr. of a sample, obtained from Apothecaries' Hall, to be 1-7813 at 60° F. Two other samples, procured from two respectable houses, had respec- tively a sp. gr. of 1*6602 and 1*7603. Mr. Hennell informs me that mercurial ointment should be kept in a moderately warm situation during the winter season, for that when exposed to great cold the mercury separates in a liquid form, by the crystallization, I presume of the fatty matter. Composition___This compound contains half its weight of mercury. Strength and Pohity.—Mercurial ointment is frequently prepared with a smaller portion of mercury than that directed to be used in the pharmacopoeias; and in order to communicate to it the requisite shade of colour, sesquisulphuret of antimony, indigo, or Prussian blue, is sometimes intermixed. In order to ascertain the strength and purity of a given sample, it is desirable to obtain a standard by way of comparison. I have always used, for this pur- pose, the ointment prepared at Apothecaries Hall, London. The qualities which should be attended to, in order to judge of a suspected sample, are its colour, and its appearance under a magnifier of four powers, as well as under a powerful microscope. By the latter we judge of the size of the globules, their number, and the presence of foreign particles. Its sp. gr. should then be observed.1 The fatty matter should afterwards be separated from the mercury, and the latter carefully weighed. This is to be effected by means of ether or turpentine. To separate completely the fatty matter, Mr. C. Watt (The Chemist, No. xiv., Feb. 1840.) gives the following directions:—Having first melted the fatty matter with boiling water, and allowed it to stand till the greater part of it floated on the surface, pour off the fluid fat, and then boil this mercury in a dilute solution of soap [or caustic alkali] until the metal collects in one globule. Physiological Effects.—Mercurial ointment possesses very little power of ir- ritating the parts to which it is applied; but when either swallowed or rubbed into the integuments, readily produces the constitutional effects of mercury. Thus Cul- 1 The specific gravity of mercurial ointment may be ascertained by weighing a lump of it rolled in a globu- lar form, and ensnended by a horse hair from the bottom of a scale-pan. first in air and then in water. Divide its we mill in nir by the loss experienced by weighing it in water, and the product will be its sp. gr. Thus sup- pose? the weight in nir to be 120 grs.. and the weight in water, 11325 grs.; the loss is 120—113 25^675 grs. Then divide 120 by 673, and the product is 1*77, the sp. gr. 610 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. lerier says, that three or four pills, containing each two grains of this ointment, and taken successively, have often sufficed to excite violent salivation. He also tells us, that if the object be lo produce ptyalism in a very short space of time, we may effect it by giving half a drachm of the ointment in the space of twenty-four hours.' When rubbed on the skin it is capable of producing the before-mentioned con- stitutional effects of mercurials: and if the lard which it contains be not rancid, no obvious local effect is usually produced. Applied to ulcerated surfaces, mercu. rial ointment is a stimulant, and in syphilitic sores is oftentimes a very useful and beneficial application. Uses.—It is rarely or never administered internally in this country, but has been much used on the continent, and with great success. It certainly well de- serves a trial where the syslem appears insusceptible to the influence of mercury; for Cullerier says, the difficulty with him has been rather to check than to excite salivation by it. Applied externally, it is employed either as a local or constitutional remedy. Thus, as a local agent it is used as a dressing lo syphilitic sores, and is rubbed into tumours of various kinds (not those of a malignant nature, as cancer and fungus hsematodes), with the view of causing their resolution. Sometimes, also, it is em- ployed to destroy parasitic animals on the skin. As a means of affecting the con- stitution we use mercurial inunctions in syphilis, in inflammatory diseases, and, in faci, in all the cases (already noticed) in which our object is to set up the mercu- rial action in the system, more especially when the irritable condition of the di- gestive organs offers an objection to the internal employment of mercurials. It may be laid down as a general rule, that mercury may be used with more safety by the skin than by the stomach ; but reasons of convenience, which I have al- ready alluded to, frequently lead us to prefer its internal use. Administration.—Internally, it is given in doses of from two to five grains, made into pills, with either soap or some mild powder, as liquorice. Externally when the object is to excite very speedy salivation, half a drachm may be rubbed into the skin every hour, washing the part each time, and varying the seat of ap- plication. If, however, it be not desirable or necessary to produce such a speedy effect, half a drachm or a drachm, rubbed in night and morning, will be sufficient. During the whole course of inunction the patient should wear the same drawers night and day. When the friction is performed by a second person, the hand should be enve- loped with soft oiled pig's bladder turned inside out. (Colles, op. cit. p. 42.) Mer- curial frictions ought not to be violent, but long continued, and had better be car- ried on near a fire, in order to promote the liquefaction and absorption of the oint- ment. In syphilis, and other diseases in which our sole object is ihe constitutional affection, it matters little to what part of the body the ointment is applied, provided the cuticle be thin (for this inorganized layer offers an impediment to absorption in proportion to its thickness). The internal parts of the thighs are usually, there- fore, selected. However, in liver complaints, ihe inunctions are made in the re- gion of the organ affected. The occasional use of the warm bath promotes ab- sorption when the ointment is applied to ihe skin. 1 UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI MITIUS, L. D. Milder Mercurial Ointment. (Stronger Mercurial Ointment, lb..; Lard, lbij. Mix. L.—The Dublin College orders it to be made with double the weight of Lard.—The Edinburgh College merely observes, that " the mercurial ointment, with the proportions here directed [seep. 608], may be diluted at pleasure with twice or thrice its weight of axunge.")—This prepara- tion is applied as a dressing to ulcers and cutaneous diseases. I CERATUM HYDRARGYRI COMPOSITUM, L. Compound Cerate of Mercury. (Strono-er Ointment of Mercury ; Soap Cerate, each 3"v.; Camphor, 3j. Rub them too-ether until they are incorporated.)—Employed as a resolvent application lo en- OXIDE OF MERCURY. 611 larged joints and indolent tumours. This preparation was introduced into the pharmacopceia on the recommendation of Mr. Scott.1 I LINIMENTUM HYDRARGYRI COMPOSITUM, L. Compound Liniment of Mercury. (Stronger Ointment of Mercury, Lard, each 3iv.; Camphor, 3j- ; Rectified Spirit, f3j.; Solution of Ammonia, fjiv. Rub the Camphor first with the Spirit, then with the Lard and Ointment of Mercury ; lastly, the Solution of Ammonia being gradually poured in, mix them all.)—It is used (by way of friction) in chronic tumours, chronic affections of the joints, &c, where the object is to excite the action of the lymphatic vessels. It is said to cause salivation more readily than the common mercurial ointment, owing to the camphor and ammonia. 5. EMPLASTRUM HYDRARGYRI, L. E. (U. S.)—PLASTER OF MERCURY. Both the London and Edinburgh Colleges give formulae for the preparation of this plaster. The London College orders of Mercury, 3iij.; Plaster of Lead, lbj.; Olive Oil, f3j.; Sulphur, grs. viij. To the heated Oil add the Sulphur gradually, stirring constantly with a spatula until they incorporate; afterwards rub the Mercury with them until globules are no longer visible; then gradually add the Plaster of Lead, melted with a slow fire, and mix them all. In this process the sulphur of the sulphurated oil (see p. 409) unites with part of ihe mercury. The remainder of the metal becomes mechanically divided. The Edinburgh College orders of Mercury, 3iij.; Olive Oil, f3ix.; Resin, 3j.; Litharge Plaster, 3vj. Liquefy together the oil and resin, let them cool, add the mercury, and triturate till its globules disappear; then add to the mixture the plaster previously liquefied; and mix the whole thoroughly. [The U. S. Pharmacopceia directs Mercury, six ounces; Olive Oil, Resin, each two ounces; Lead Plaster, a pound. Melt the oil and resin together, and when they become cool, rub the mer- cury with them till the globules disappear; then gradually add the lead plaster previously melted, and mix the whole together.] It is supposed lo stimulate the lymphatic vessels of the parts to which it is ap- plied, and is used as a discutient in glandular enlargements and other swellings, whether venereal or otherwise, and also lo the region of the liver in hepatic com- plaints. Dr. Wilson Philip (Op. cit.) has seen it induce salivation. EMPLASTRUM AMMONIACI CUM HYDRARGYRO, L. D. Emplastrum Ammoniaci et Hydrargyri, E. Plaster of Ammoniacum with Mercury. (Ammoniacum, lbj.; Mercury, 3iij. ; Olive Oil, f3j.; Sulphur, grs. viij. To the heated Oil gradually* add ihe Sulphur, stirring constantly with a spatula until they incorporate; then rub the Mercury with them until globules are no longer visible ,* lastly, gradually add the Ammoniacum, melted, and mix them all. L. E.—The Dublin College orders purified mercury ; and, instead of the olive oil and sulphur, directs two drachms of common turpentine to be used.)—It is a more powerful compound than the preceding, and is employed in the same cases, especially to disperse venereal buboes. 6. HYDRARGYRI OX'YDUM, L.—OXIDE OF MERCURY. (Hydrargyri Oxydum nigrum, D.)—(U. S.) History.—The mode of preparing this compound was taught by Moscat, in 1797. This oxide is sometimes termed the Protoxide, Suboxide, Ash, Gray or Black Oxide (Hydrargyri Oxydum cinereum, Hydrargyri Oxidum nigrum). Preparation.—The following are the directions of the London and Dublin Colleges for its preparation :— The London College orders of Chloride of Mercury, 3j.; Lime Water, Cong-, j. Mix and fre- quently shake them. Set by, and when the oxide has subsided, pour off the liquor. Lastly, wash it in distilled water until nothing alkaline can be perceived, and dry it, wrapped in bibulous paper, in the air. 1 Surgical Observations on the Treatment of Chronic Inflammation in various Structures,particularly as exem- plified in Diseases of the Joints. Lond, 1828. 612 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. In this process double decomposition takes place : chloride of calcium is formed in solution, while oxide of mercury precipitates. MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Chlor. Merc = 238 i * e'* Chlorine.. 36-----------------____,1 eq. Chloride Calcium......... 36 / 1 eq. Mercury..202______________----- leq. Lime.......= 28 i * e1 Calcium .. 20-----' ———___ ( 1 eq. Oxygen ■ ■ 8-------------------^""M eq. Oxide of Mercury.........210 266 266 268 The following is the process of the Dublin College .— Take of Sublimed Calomel, one part; Water of Caustic Potash, made warm, four par!.. Let them be triturated together until an oxide of a black colour is obtained, and let this be frequently washed with water; lastly, let the oxide be dried with a medium heat on bibulous paper. [The U. S. Pharmacopceia directs mild Chloride of Mercury, Potassa, each, four ounces; Water, a pint. Dissolve the Potassa in the Water, and when the dregs shall have subsided, pour off the clear solution. To this add the Chloride of Mercury, and stir them constantly together till the Black Oxide is formed. Having poured off the supernatant liquor, wash the black oxide with distilled water, and dry it with a gentle heat.] In this process the reactions are similar to those of the preceding one ; but, as potash is used instead of lime, the products are chloride of potassium in solution, and oxide of mercury precipitated. Properties.—Pure oxide of mercury is black, or nearly so. The present pre- paration, however, is frequently grayish, owing to the presence of some unde- composed calomel. It is readily decomposed by light (especially by the solar rays), becomes olive-coloured, and is resolved into metallic mercury and the binoxide. It is odourless, tasteless, insoluble in water and the alkalis, but is solu- ble in nitric and acetic acids. By the action of hydrochloric acid it forms water and calomel. When heated it is first decomposed, and then completely dissi- pated. Characteristics.—Heated in a glass tube it evolves oxygen, while metallic glo- bules are sublimed. Dissolved in diluted nitric acid it forms a protomercurial salt, known by the before-mentioned characters for these substances. Composition.—The composition of this oxide is as follows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Sefstrdm. Mercury....................... 1 ........ 202 ........ 9619 ........ 96-2 Oxygen........................ 1 ........ 8 ........ 381 ........ 38 Oxide of Mercury.............. 1 ........ 210........10000 ........ 100*0 Purity.—Digested for a short time in dilute hydrochloric acid, the solution, when filtered, should form no precipitate with either potash or oxalate of ammonia. If any binoxide had been dissolved, the potash would throw it down as a reddish or yellowish hydrate. If any carbonate of lime had been precipitated, the oxalate would recognise it. Digested for a short time with diluted hydrochloric acid and strained, neither solution of pot- ash nor oxalate of ammonia throws down any thing. It is totally solubleJn nitric acid. By heat it is entirely dissipated. Ph. Lond. Physiological Effects.—Pure oxide of mercury is one of the least irritating of the mercurial preparations, and, therefore, when swallowed, does not produce much disorder of the alimentary canal. In small doses it acts as an alterative and purgative. When taken in repeated doses, its constitutional effects are simi- lar to those of other mercurials. . . Uses —Mr. Abernethy employed it as a fumigating agent. The following are his directions for using it--Place the patient in a vapour bath, in a complete suit of under garments, with a cloth around his chin. Two drachms of the ox.de are then to be put on a heated iron within the machine in which the patient is sitting. After continuing in the bath for about fifteen or twenty minutes, the body is found binoxide of mercury. 613 to be covered with a whitish powder. The patient should be placed in bed, and lie in the same clothes till morning, and then go into a tepid bath. By this mode of proceeding, Mr. Abernethy says, he has known salivation induced in forty- eight hours. Oxide of mercury is rarely employed as an internal remedy ; indeed, its varying composition is a strong objection to its use. As an external application it has been used in the form of Ointment, (composed of one part of oxide and three parts of lard,) and also suspended in a weak solution of chloride of calcium, under the name of Black Wash. Administration.—For internal use the dose is from half a grain to two or three grains. LOTIO NIGRA (Black Wash ; Aqua Mercurialis nigra; Aqua Phagedcenica mitis).—This is prepared by adding calomel to lime waler. The proportions of the ingredients may be varied but in general one drachm of calomel is used to a pint of lime water. Oxide of mercury precipitates, and chloride of calcium re- mains in solution. As the efficacy of the wash depends on the oxide, the bottle must be well shaken every time of using it. This compound is a favourite appli- cation lo venereal sores of almost all kinds,—in most being serviceable, in a few or none being hurtful. 7. HYDRARGYRI BINOX'YDUM, L.—BINOXIDE OF MERCURY. (Hydrargyri Ovydum rubrum, D.) History.—This is the Peroxide or Red Oxide of Mercury of some writers. Geber (Sum. of Perfection, book i. part iv. ch. 16.) describes the method of making lhat variety of it which is prepared by calcination, and which was formerly called Red Precipitate per se (Mercurius Prcecipitatus ruber per se) or Calcined Mercury (Hydrargyrum calcinatum). He calls it Coagulated Mer- cury. Preparation.—This compound may be prepared either by precipitation or by calcination. Tlie London College directs it to be prepared by precipitation; and orders of Bichloride of Mercury 3iv.; Solution of Potash f 3xxviij.; Distilled Waler Ovj. Dissolve the Bichloride of Mercury in the Waler, strain, and add the Solution of Potash. The liquor being poured off, wash, in distilled water, the powder thrown down until nothing alkaline can be perceived, and dry it with a gentle heat. In this process one equivalent or 274 parts of bichloride of mercury are de- composed by two equivalents or 96 parts of potash, and yield one equivalent or 218 parts of binoxide of mercury, and two equivalents or 152 parts of chloride of potassium. MATERIALS. t PRODUCTS. ... . , , „, _,». I 2 cq. Chlorine. ■ 72..........—..—~-,-2 eq. Chloride Potassium.......... 152 leq. Bichlde.Mcrcury...2,4|1^Jv;ercury .,m ......----- _ . nr ) - e1- Potaisium. ¥0" —^^^ 1 eq. rotasn.............."} 2 eq. Oxygen ■■ ■ 16----------—"=-»l eq. Binoxide of Mercury......... 218 370 370 370 The Dublin College orders it to be prepared by calcination as follows :—Take of purified mercury any required quantity, pass it into a glass vessel with a narrow mouth and broad bottom; let it be exposed to a heat of about 600° F. until it is converted into red scales. The heat vapourizes the mercury, which in this state attracts oxygen from the air, and forms this red or binoxide. The long neck of the vessel prevents the escapes of the vapours or newly-formed oxide. Tlie process is a very tedious one, occupying several weeks; so that Geber's remark was correct, that " it is a most difficult and laborious work, even with the profoundness of clear-sighted industry." The apparatus which Mr. Boyle con- vol. I. 52 614 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. trived for the manufacture of it, was long termed " Boyle's Hell;'1 from a notion that the mercury was tortured in it. Properties.—When prepared by precipitation it is in the form of an orange. red powder : but when made by calcination, occurs in small brilliant scales of a ruby red colour. Both varieties agree in the following properties :—They are odourless, have an acrid metallic taste, are very slightly soluble in water {Journ. de Pharm. t. xxiv. p. 252.), but readily soluble iif both nitric and hydrochloric acids. They are decomposed and reduced by heat and solar light: the precipi- tated variety is more readily acted on by solar li«ht than ihe variety made by calcination. Characteristics.—When heated in a glass tube by a spirit lamp, it is decom- posed into oxygen and mercury : the first may be recognised by a glowing match, the second condenses in small globules. It dissolves completely in hydrochloric acid: ihe solution contains bichloride ot mercury, which may be known by the tests hereafter to be mentioned for this substance (vide Hydrargyri Bichlo- ridum). Composition.—The composition of this substance is as follows :— . Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Srfstrom. Donovan. Mercury............ 1 ........202 ........ 9266 ........ .12 68 ........ 92 75 Oxygen............. 2 ........ 16 ........ 7 34 ........ 732 ........ 725 Binoxide of Mercury 1 ........218 ........ 10000 ........ 10000 ....... 100-00 Binoxide of mercury prepared by precipitation usually contains some waler. Purity.—Binoxide of mercury should be completely dissipated by heat, and be insoluble in water. Its solution in nitric acid should be unaffected by nitrate of silver, by which the absence of any chloride is shown. If an insufficient quantity of potash be employed in the preparation of the precipitated variety, the product is brownish or brick-dust coloured, and contains oxychloride of mercury (com- posed, according to Soubeiran, of 1 eq. bichloride of mercury, and 3 eqs. of binoxide). (Dumas, Traite de Chimie, iii. 615.) On the application of heat it yields oxygen, and the mercury either runs into globules, or is totally dissipated. It is entirely soluble in hydrochloric acid. Ph. Lond. Physiological Effects—Binoxide of mercury is a powerful irritant, and, when taken internally, even in small doses, readily excites vomiting and purging: large doses excite gastro-enteritis. Orfila (Toxicol. Gen.) found that binoxide, obtained by precipitation from four grains of bichloride, killed a dog in eighteen minutes. The constitutional effects of this preparation are the same as ihose of mercurials generally. tjses<—Binoxide of mercury is rarely employed as a medicine. It has been applied as an e.scharotic, either in the form of powder or ointment. Internally it was formerly exhibited to excite salivation in the venereal diseases, but it is objec- tionable, especially where the bowels are morbidly irritable. It is rarely or never used now. In pharmacy it is employed in the preparation of bicyanide of mercury (vide Hydrargyri Bicyanidum). Administration.—The dose of it is from a quarter of a grain to a grain, given in the form of pill, in combination wiih opium. LOTIO PLAVO; Lotio (seu Aqua) Phagedcenica ; Yellow ox Phagedenic Wash. __This compound, which was formerly in frequent use, is prepared by adding bichloride of mercury to lime water. The proportions vary in dirlerent formulae. The quantity of bichloride should not, I think, exceed two grains to an ounce of lime water: the usual proportions are thirty gmins of bichloride to sixteen ounces of lime water. The preparation, then, consists of the yellow hydrated binoxide of mercury, (which precipitates,) chloride of calcium, and caustic lime; the two NITRIC OXIDE OF MERCURY. 615 latter being in solution. But if the quantity of bichloride exceed 3T7^ grains to an ounce of lime water, ihe precipitate is brown or brick-dust coloured, and con- tains oxychloride of mercury, while the clear liquor holds in solution some hydrargyro-chloride of calcium : that is, a saline combination, in which chloride of calcium is the base, and bichloride of mercury the acid.1 Yellow or phage- denic wash is applied, by means of lint, to venereal and scrofulous ulcers. Dr. Hintze (Brit, and For. Med. Rev. April, 1836.) used it with advantage in chronic ulcers which succeed to burns. It should be well shaken, and used in the turbid state. 8. HYDRARGYRI NI'TRICO OX'YDUM, L.—NITRIC OXIDE OF MERCURY. (Hydrargyri Oxidum rubrum, JE. (U. S.)—Hydrargyri Oxydum nitricum, D.) History.—This preparation was known to Raymond Lully in the latter part of the thirteenth century. It is commonly termed Red Precipitated Mercury, (Mercurius Prcecipitatus ruber), or, for brevity, Red Precipitate. Preparation.—All the FJritish Colleges give directions for the preparation of this oxide. The London College orders of Mercury, Ibiij.; Nitric Acid, lbiss.; Distilled Water, Oij. Mix them in a proper vessel, and apply a gentle heat until the mercury is dissolved. Boil down the liquor, and rub what remains to powder. Put this into another very shallow vessel; then apply a slow fire, and gradually increase it until red vapour ceases to arise. The Edinburgh College directs of Mercury, 3viij.; Diluted Nitric Acid (D. 1820) f.fv. Dis- solve half of the mercury in the acid, with the aid of a moderate heat; and continue the heat till a dry salt is formed. Triturate the rest of the mercury with the salt till a fine uniform powder be obtained ; heat the powder in a porcelain vessel, and constantly stir it till acid fumes cease to be discharged. The Dahlia College orders of purified Mercury, two parts; Diluted Nitric Acid, three parts. Let the mercury be dissolved, and let heat be applied until the dried mass passes into red scales. [The U. S. Pharmacopceia orders Mercury, thirty-six ounces; Nitric Acid, fourteen fluid ounces; Water, two pints. Dissolve the Mercury, with a gentle heat, in the Acid and Water previously mixed together, and evaporate lo dryness. Rub the dry mass into powder and heat it in a very shallow vessel till red vapours cease to rise.] This compound is best prepared on the large scale, for it cannot be so well pro- cured of the bright orange-red colour, and crystalline or scaly appearance, usually considered desirable, when only small quantities of materials are employed. Some advise a larger quantity of nitric acid to be employed than is directed in the London Pharmacopceia. The reduction of the nitrate to powder is objectionable, as it diminishes the crystalline appearance of the oxide. Mr. Brande (Manual of Chemistry.) says, " the nitrate requires to be constantly stirred during the process, which is usually performed in a cast-iron pot.". But in general a shallow earthen dish is employed, with a second one inverted over it, and care is taken not to dis- turb the nitrate during the operation. The heat of the sand-bath is employed. Indeed, some have asserted, that the finest product is obtained when the calcina- tion is performed in the same vessel in which the nitrate was formed, and without stirring, as directed in the Dublin Pharmacopceia. (Dr. Barker, Observ. on tlui Dublin Pharmacopoeia.) When quicksilver and the diluted nitric acid are digested together, the metal is oxidized at the expense of part of the acid, while binoxide of nitrogen escapes, and, combining with oxygen of the air, becomes nitrous acid. The oxidized metal unites to some undecomposed nitric acid to form a nitrate. The following diagram ex- plains the formation of the protonitrate :— 1 Guibourt, Journ. Chim. Med. iii. 377; also, Pharm. Raisonnee, i. 563; and Soubeiran, Nouv. Traite de Pharm. ii. 52!). 616 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Nitric Acid 54 \ I *»* Binoz- of Nitr. 30------------------------1 eq. Binoxide Nitrog. 30 „ „_. „•„„' 3 «?■ Oxygen.......24 \ 3 eq. Oxide Merc. 630 3 eq. Mercury... 606........■........... . \ 3 eq. Nitric Acid 162............ --------------------^>3 eq. Protonitr. Merc. 702 822 822 When nitrate of mercury is heated, decomposition'takes place:—the nitric acid yields oxygen to the protoxide of mercury, which thereby becomes binoxide of mercury, while nitrous acid (or its elements) escapes. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODDCTS. 1 eq. Protonitrate i.\ eq. Nitric (I eq. Nitrous Acid 46---------------1 eq. Nitrous Acid ... 46 Mercurv = 264) -And.... 54) 1 eq. Oxygen..... 8------ •* { 1 eq. Protoxide of Mercury........210----------1 eq. Binox. Mercury. 213 264 264 ~^j Some pernitrate of mercury usually remains undecomposed, but the quantity is small. Mr. Brande states, that 100 pounds of mercury and 48 pounds of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1*48), yielded 112 pounds of nitric oxide of mercury. Hence three pounds of nitric acid must have remained in combination with the oxide. Properties.—It occurs in bright tile-red, or scarlet, crystalline grains or scales. Dr. Barker (op. cit.) found that 1000 parts of water took up 0*62 of this oxide. The other properties and characteristics of this compound are the same as those . of the last-mentioned preparation (vide Hydrargyri Binoxydum). Purity.—The presence of some undecomposed nitrate may be recognised by heating the suspected nitric oxide of mercury, when nitrous vapours are evolved, and by boiling in water, when a solution is obtained, from which lime water and hydrosulphuric acid throw down precipitates. The nitric oxide of mercury is completely dissipated by heat: hence the presence of non-volatile matters (as red lead) might be readily detected. Heated before the blow-pipe on charcoal, the mercurial oxide is reduced and dissipated, but if red lead be present globules of metallic lead will be le'ft behind. On the application of heat no nitric vapour is emitted. Neither lime water nor hydrosulphuric acid throws down any thing from the water in which it has been boiled. In other respects it resembles the preceding preparation. Ph. Lond. Entirely soluble in muriatic acid: heat decomposes and sublimes it entirely in metallic glo- bules, without any discharge of nitrous fumes. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—Its local action is that of a powerful irritant (vide Hydrargyri Binoxydum). But the presence of nitrate of mercury in the nitric oxide renders its topical action more energetic. lis constitutional effects are the same as those of other mercurials. Fabricius Hildanus, Bartholinus, Langius, and Jacobs (Quoted by Wibmer, Wirkung d. Arzneim. iii. 69.), have reported cases in which the external use of this agent gave rise to salivation and other constitutional effects of mercury. In the case mentioned by Jacob, death resulted from the application of it to a wart on the face. Frederic Hoffman, Ploucquet, Girtanner (Wibmer, op. cit.), and more recently Mr. Bret,1 have related instances of poisoning by its internal employment. Uses.__Internally it has been administered in the form of pill in venereal dis- eases, but the practice is highly objectionable. As an external agent it is used in the form of powder (obtained by levigation) or ointment; the latter is officinal. As a caustic, it is sprinkled over spongy ex- crescences, venereal warts, chancres, indolent fungous ulcers, &c. Mixed with eight parts'of finely-powdered white sugar, it is blown into the eye with a quill in opacity of ihe cornea. (Mackenzie, On Diseases of the Eye, 2d edit. p. 584.) 1 Lond. Med. Gaz. xiii. 117. A case of poisoning with il is also recorded in the Lancet for 1836-37, vol. i. p. 401. CHLORIDE OF MERCURY. 617 UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI K1TRIC0-0XYDI, L. ,* Unguentum Qxidi Hydrargyri, E.; Unguentum Hydrargyri Oxydi Nitrici, D. [Unguentum Hydrargyri Oxidi Rubri, U. S.] (Finely powdered Nitric Oxide of Mercury, 3j.; White wax, 3ij.; Lard, 3vj. Mix. L. D.—The Edinburgh College employs Nitric Oxide of Mer- cury, 3j.; Lard, 3viij.) [This is the formula of the U. S. P.]—This ointment undergoes decomposition by keeping; its colour changing from red to gray, in consequence of the partial deoxidation of (he nitric oxide of mercury. Dr. Dun- can {Edinb. Dispensatory.) says the presence of resin quickly causes it to be- come black. It is a valuable stimulant, and is frequently applied to indolent sores and ulcers, when we require to increase the quantity, and improve the quality, of the discharge: to inflamed eyelids (ophthalmia tarsi); chronic con- junctivitis, &c. 9. HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDUM, L.—CHLORIDE OF MERCURY OR CALOMEL. (Calomclas, E.—Calomelas sublimatum; and Calometas praeci pita turn, D.) [Hydrargyri Chloridum Mile, U.S.] History.—Beguin m 1608, and Oswald Croll in 1609, are the first Europeans who mention this compound. Mr. Hatchett (Brande's Manual of Pharmacy, 2d edit. 328.) says it had been long known to the natives of Thibet. Its disco- verer is unknown. It has had a great variety of names. The term Calomel (Calo- melas, xaXoj, good, and psXag, black) was first used by Sir Theodore Tourquet de Mayenne (who died in 165">), in consequence, as some say, of his having had a favourite black servant who prepared it; or according to others, because it was a good remedy for the black bile. Drago mitigatus, Aquilla alba, Manna Me- tailorum, and Panchymagogum minerale, are some of the appellations for it. Mercurius dulcis, Hydrargyrum muriaticum mite, Submuriate of Mercury and Subchloride, Protochloride, or Dichloride of Mercury, are some of the more modern synonymes of it.1 Natural History.—Native Calomel or Corneous Mercury occurs in crusts, and also crystallized in four-sided prisms terminated by pyramids. It is found at Deux-Ponts, Carniola, and in Spain. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this salt. The London College orders of Mercury, lbiv.; Sulphuric Acid, lbiij.; Chloride of So- dium, lbiss.; Distilled Water, as much as may be sufficient. Boil two pounds of the Mer- cury with the Sulphuric Acid in a proper vessel, until the Bipersulphate of Mercury re- mains dry ; rub this when it is cold with (the remaining) two pounds of Mercury in an earthen mortar, that they may be perfectly mixed. Afterwards add the Chloride of So- dium, and rub them together, until globules are no longer visible; then sublime. Rub the sublimate to very fine powder, and wash it carefully with boiling distilled water, and dry it. [This is the formula of the U. S. P.] The Edinburgh College directs of Mercury, 3viij.; Sulphuric Acid (commercial), f 3ij. and foiij ; Pure Nitric Acid, f 3ss. ; Muriate of Soda, 3iij.; Mix the acids, add four ounces ot the mercury, and dissolve it with the aid of a moderate heat. Raise the heat so as to attain a dry salt. Triturate this with the Muriate of Soda and the rest of the Mercury till the globules entirely disappear. Heat the mixture by means of a sand-bath in a proper subliminn* apparatus. Reduce the sublimate to fine powder; wash the powder with boiling distilled water until the water ceases to precipitate with solution of iodide of potassium ; and then dry it. 1 Annals of Philosophy, vol. ii. N. S. p. 407—See also the old series of this journal, vol. xvi. pp. 300, 394, 618 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. The Dublin College gives the following formula for the preparation of the biper- sulphate of mercury (Hydrargyri Persulpfms, D.) :— Take of Purified Mercury ; Sulphuric Acid, of each, six parts ; Nitric Acid, one part. Let them be exposed to heat in a glass vessel, and let the fire be increased until the tho- roughly dried residue shall have become white. From this, bipersulphate of mercury, Sublimed Calomel (Calomel sublimatum, D.) is thus directed to be prepared :— Take of Persulphate of Meicury, twenty-five parts; Purified Mercury, seventeen parts; Dried Muriate of Soda, ten parts. Let ihe Persulphate of Mercury and Purified Mer- cury be triturated together in an earthenware mortar, until the metallic globules shall have completely disappeared ; then let the dried Muriate of Soda be added : let them be well mixed, and in a suitable vessel, with a heat gradually raised, let them be sublimed into a receiver; let the sublimed mass be reduced to powder and washed with water, so long as the decanted liquor, on addition of water of Caustic Potash, shall exhibit any de- position ; lastly, let the sublimed calomel be dried. In the first stage of this process one equivalent or 202 parts of mercury decom- pose two equivalents or 80 parts of dry sulphuric acid; and, abstracting two equi- valents or 16 parts of oxygen, to form one equivalent or 218 parts of binoxide of mercury, disengage two equivalents or 64 parts of sulphurous acid. The binoxide combines with two equivalents or 80 parts of undecomposed sulphuric acid, and forms one equivalent or 298 parts of bipersulphate of mercury. MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. "^"icid^-SO j'S-K?* *»l---------------------------2 eq. Sulphurous Acid....... 64 * 2 eq. Oxygen 16 ) 1 eq. Mercury 202...................) 1 eq. Biuox. Mercury =218,. 2 eQ' dAcfd = 80 __________________________=_______________^s.2 eq. Bipersulph. Mercury = 598 "362 3GS If one equivalent or 298 parts of bipersulphate, one equivalent or 202 parts of reguline mercury, and two equivalents or 120 parts of chloride of sodium, be inti- mately mixed and sublimed, reaction takes place, and we obtain two^equivalents or 476 parts of chloride of mercury, and two equivalents or 144 parts of sulphate of soda. MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. „ ™., -,0a .anS^eq. Chlorine......... 72-----------------_—-,r 2 eq. Chloride of 2 eq. Chloride Sod. 1201 2 e* Sodium.......... 48________^-^r.::- Mercury = 476 1 eq. Mercury...... 202............................ j.___ leq. Bipersulphate of S»£ *£■£;;";;.;; ** ...... 2eq.Soda64 _ Mercury = 296} 2 £ Su£huric Acid... 80--------- -------r 2 eq. Sulph. Soda = 144 620 620 At Apothecaries' Hall, 50 lbs. of mercury are boiled with 70 lbs. of sulphuric acid to dryness in a cast-iron vessel; 62 lbs. of the dry salt are triturated with 40£ lbs. of mercury, until the globules disappear, and 34 lbs. of common salt are then added The mixture is submitted to heat, and from 95 to 100 lbs. of sublimed calomel are obtained. It is washed in large quantities of distilled water, after having been ground to a fine and impalpable powder. The subliming apparatus varies in different manufactories. In some it consists ofa laro-e earthen retort, with .a short but wide neck, opening into an earthen ellip- tical receiver, in the bottom of which is water. The retort is placed in sand, con- tained in an iron pot set in a furnace. « The form in which calomel sublimes," observes Mr. Brande, « depends much upon the dimensions and temperature of the subliming vessels. In small vessels I CHLORIDE OF MERCURV. 619 it generally condenses in a crystalline cake, the interior surface of which is often covered wilh beautiful quadrangular prismatic crystals, (Brooke, Annals of Philo- sophy,) transparent and of a texture somewhat elastic or horny : in this state it acquires, by the necessary rubbing into powder, a decidedly yellow or buff colour, more or less deep, according to the degree of trituration which it has undergone. If, on the contrary, the calomel be sublimed into a very capacious and cold re- ceiver, it falls in a most impalpable and perfectly white powder, which requires only one elutrialion to fit it for use ; it then remains perfectly colourless. By a modification of the process, it may be suffered, as it sublimes, to fall into water, according to Mr. Jewell's patent. '• The above circumstances, too, account for the various appearances under which calomel occasionally presents itself in commerce ; it may be added, that the buff aspect of this substance indi- cates the absence of corrosive sublimate; though it by no means follows as a conse- quence that when snow-white it contains it. When the sur- face ofmassive sublimed calo- mel is scratched, it always exhibits a buff colour: it also becomes yellow when heated, but loses its lint as it again cools." (Manual of Chemis- try, 4th ed. p. 788.) Mr. Jewell's process (Re- pert, of Arts, xiii. 79, 2d Se- ries.) for preparing calomel consists in keeping the receiv- ing vessel filled with steam, so that the vaporous calomel is condensed in it, and takes the form of a fine powder, which is much finer than can be obtained by levigation and elutriation. This process has been improved by M. O. Henry (fig. 91). The Dublin College directs Precipitated Calomel (Calomelasprcecipitatum, D.) to be thus prepared :— Take of purified Mercury, seventeen parts ; diluted Nitric acid, fifteen parts. On the mercury passed into a glass vessel, pour the acid, and when the mixture shall have ceased to effervesce, digest with u medium heat [between 100° and 200° F.] during six hours, occasionally stirring it; then let the heat be increased, that the liquor may boil for a short time, and let this be poured off from the residual mercury, and quickly mixed with four hundred parts of boiling water containing seven parts of muriate of soda in solution. Let the powder which falls down he washed with warm water, so long as the decanted liquor, on addition of some drops of water of caustic potash, shall form any deposit; lastly, let it be dried. , By the mutual reaction of mercury and diluted nitric acid, a sulphate of the protoxide of mercury is formed ; binoxide of nitrogen gas being evolved. Four equivalents of nitric acid and 3 eq. of mercury yield 3 equivalents of protonitrate of mercury and 1 equivalent of binoxide of nitrogen. When solutions of proto- nitrate of mercury and chloride of sodium are mixed, double decomposition takes place; nitrate of soda is formed in solution, while chloride of mercury is precipi- tated. One eq. of the protonitrate of mercury, and 1 eq. of chloride of sodium, yield 1 eq. of nitrate of soda and 1 eq. of chloride of mercury (see p. 632). Fig. 91. Henry'1 s modification of JeivelVs apparatus for preparing calomel by steam (Hydrosublimate of mercury). a. Furnace containing an earthen retort (having a wideand short neck, in which the ingredients for making calomel are placed. b. An earthen receiver, having three tubulures: one communi- cating with Ihe retort; a second dipping into water in an earthen jar, and a third connected to a steam-pipe. c. Steam^oiler. ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Properties.—The crystals of calomel are square prisms. The appearance of the crystalline cake of sublimed calomel has been already noticed. As met wilh in the shops, it is in the form ofa fine odourless and tasteless powder, whose sp. gr. is 7*176 (7*2, Brande). When prepared by Jewell's process it is perfectly white, but when obtained in the ordinary way has a light buff or ivory tint. It volatilizes by heat, and, under pressure, fuses. It is insoluble in cold water and alcohol. Ac- cording to Donovan (Ann. Phil. xiv. 323.) and others (Gmelin, Handb. d. Chemie, i. 1299; Geiger's Handb. d. Pharm. by Liebig, i. 561.), calomel suffers partial decomposition by long boiling in water, and a solution is obtained which contains mer- Crystal of Calomel, cury and chlorine (bichloride of mercury 1) By exposure to light, calomel becomes dark-coloured, in con. sequence, according to Dumas, (Traite de Chimie, iii. 605.) of the transformation ofa small portion into mercury and bichloride. Others have ascribed this change to the evolution of chlorine and combination of the metal with oxygen. Both hypotheses are inconsistent with the statement of Vogel (Landgrebe, Ueber das Licht, 87.), that this blackened calomel is insoluble in nitric acid. Is it not pro- bable lhat the change depends on the formation of a subchloride, as Wetzlar has shown to be the case with chloride of silver? By digestion in hot and con- centrated hydrochloric acid, we obtain bichloride of mercury and reguline mercury. Boiling sulphuric acid forms bipersulphate and bichloride of mercury, with the evolution of sulphurous acid. Characteristics.—Iodide of potassium produces at first a grayish, afterwards a greenish-yellow precipitate (iodide of mercury). When heated in nitric acid, calomel is converted into bichloride and bipernitrate of mercury ; and on the appli- cation of the tests already mentioned (p. 591) for mercurial preparations gene- rallv, we readily obtain evidence of the presence of mercury. Having thus shown it to be a mercurial compound, we may easily prove it to be calomel by observing that it is insoluble in water, and that on the addition of lime water a blackish gray precipitate (protoxide of mercury) is obtained, while the supernatant liquor yields, with nitrate of silver, a white precipitate (chloride of silver), insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia. Protochloride of tin, added to calomel, abstracts the chlorim-, and becomes bichloride of tin, while globules of metallic mercury are obtained. Composition.—The following is the composition of calomel:— Turner. Davy. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Zaboada. 1 ........ 202 ........ 8487 .......'. 85 1 ........ 36 ........ 15-12 ........ 15 Chloride of Mercury......... 1 ........ 238 ------- 9999 ........ 100 Purity.—When pure, calomel is completely vaporized by heat. Water or alcohol which has been digested on it, should occasion no precipitate or change of colour on the addition of lime water, caustic potash, ammonia, nitrate of silver, or hydrosulphuric acid, by which the absence of bichloride of mercury maybe inferred I have met with calomel which, in consequence of being imperfectly washed ' contained bichloride. It had been given to several patients before its purity was suspected, and had operated on them most violently. When mixed with potash it became black, like pure calomel : the quantity of bichloride being insufficient to produce any perceptible alteration in the colour of the precipitate. But water which had been digested on it, gave, with the above-mentioned tests, the characteristic indications of bichloride of mercury. Mercury. Chlorine CHLORIDE OF MERCURY. 621 A whitish powder, which, on the addition of Potash, becomes black, and then, when heated, runs into globules of mercury. It is also totally vaporized by heat. The distilled water with which it has been washed, or in whicli it has been boiled, gives no precipitate with nitrate ot silver, lime water, nor hydrosulphuric acid. Ph. Lond. Heat sublimes it without any residuum: sulphuric ether agitated wilh it, filtered and then evaporated to dryness, leaves no crystalline residuum, and what residuum may be left is not turned yellow with aqua potassae. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—a. On Animals.—Wepfer (Hist. Cicutce Aquat.), Viborg, Flormann (Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arznf), Gaspard (Magendie, Journ. de Physiol), and Annesley (Diseases of India.), have examined the effects of calo- mel on dogs, horses, arid pigs, hut without any remarkable results. Viborg gave half an ounce, with six pounds of water, to a horse: ihe effects were cough, heaving of the flanks, quick pulse, enfeebled appetite, and in twenty-four hours loose stools. Annesley asserts, from his experiments on dogs, that large doses of calomel diminish the vascularity of the gastro-intestinal membrane. (3. On Man.—Calomel may be ranked among the mild preparations of mer- cury; for although, in its local action, it is somewhat more powerful than the oxide, or than those preparations which contain mercury in a finely divided state (as blue pill), yet it is much milder than any of the oilier salts of mercury. In small doses, as a few grains, it occasionally excites no obvious effects, though more commonly it acts as a purgative; and in very susceptible persons, espe- cially females, it sometimes produces nausea, griping, and great faintness. It appears from the experience of most practitioners that adults are more susceptible of the influence of calomel than children.1 The green stools (called calomel stools by Kraus) which sometimes follow the administration of calomel to children, are usually supposed to arise from the action of this medicine on the liver; though Zeller (quoted by Kraus) thinks it depends on alterations produced in the condition of the blood ; and Kraus {Heilmitlellehre, 161.) is disposed to refer it to the opera- tion of calomel on the milk contained in the alimentary canal.2 But the same coloured stools are frequently observed when no nftercury has been used. Like other mercurials, it increases the action of the secreting organs, and thus pro- motes the secretion of bile and of intestinal mucus; and we also presume it has a similar influence over the secretion of the pancreatic fluid. Neumann3 states, that a man took two, then three, and subsequently four grains of calomel, daily, for the space of two months, without inducing salivation ; but that three months after- wards he became affected with chronic vomiting, the consequence of a scirrhous pancreas, of which he died in four months. From the manner in which the case is related, it is clear the narrator attributed the disease of the pancreas to the use of mercury ; whether justly or not, however, is impossible to determine. The repeated and continued use of calomel, in small doses, is attended with the constitutional effects of mercurial preparations generally, before described. In large doses, it has been regarded as an irritant poison ; and, judging from the fatal effects ascribed to it by several writers, not without reason. Thus Ilellweg (Wibmer, op. cit. iii. 71.) has reported a case in which a few grains of calomel, taken as a laxative, caused death ; Va<_nitius (Wibmer, op. cit. iii. 71.) saw fifteen grains prove fatal; and Ledelius (Wibmer, op. cit. iii. 71.) half an 1 To this statement exceptions are frequently observed. The following is an instance of the occasional vio- lence of I he aclion of calomel on children. The late Dr Thomas Davies attended, with a merlical friend of mine, ti boy of four years of age, labouring under peritonitis. One grain of calomel was directed to be admi- nistered three times a day; nnd an aperient dose of calomel and jalap was given. On the fourth day its em- ployment wns stopped in consequence of its violent action. The cheeks were enormously swollen, the gums slouched, necrosis of the alveolar process of the lower jaw on each side occurred, and portions of bone, with the teeth came awnv. The child ultimately recovered in about twelve months; but the jaws cannot be separated, and the patient is now obliged to suck his food through the aperture left by the loss of bone. •i ?ee nlfo n paper On the effects of Calomel in producing Slimy Stools, in the Lond. Med. and Surg. Journ., April. 1*29. p 3-I4. • Griife and Walthei's Journal, Bd. ii. H. 3. S. 432, quoted by G. A. Richter, Ausfu.hr. Arzneim. v. 4fi2. 622 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. ounce. Fr. Hoffmann has also related two fatal cases. (Wibmer, op. cit iii. 71.) "Whytt, Odier, Quin, Wilmer, Leib, and others," says Golis, (Treatise on the Hydrocephalus Acutus, by Dr. Gooch,) " gave calomel internally in far larger doses ; as two, three, and more grains at a time ; and continued its use many days in the same dose, without considering the many evacuations from the alimentary canal, or the violent colic pains ; and they affirm that they have never remarked, from the effect of this agent given in these large doses, any bad consequences in the abdomen. Melancholy experience compels me to contradict them. Many times I saw, under those large and long-continued doses of calomel, the hydro- cephalic symptoms suddenly vanish, and inflammation of the intestines arise, which terminated in death. Still oftener I observed this unfavourable accident from an incautious use of calomel in croup: viz. where all the frightful symn- toms of this tracheal inflammation, which threatened suffocation, suddenly vanish, and enteritis develope itself, which passed rapidly into gangrene, and destroyed the patients." In the Times newspaper of the 26th April, 1836, there is the report of a coro- ner's inquest on the body ofa Mrs. Corby n, who was destroyed by swallowing 20 grains of calomel, she having previously taken a moderate dose without its exciting what she considered a sufficient effect; and in the India Journal of Medical Science {Lond. Med. Gaz. xviii. 484.) is the case of a lad, aged 14, a native of Nepal, in whom six grains of calomel apparently produced inflammation and ulceration of the mouth, enormous swelling of the face, mercurial fetor of the breath, mortification, and death. There was no ptyalism. In Pierrer's Annalen for April, 1827, (Quoted by Wibmer, op. cit. 73,) is the case of a lady, who by mistake swallowed fourteen drachms of calomel at once. Acute pains in the abdomen came on, accompanied by frequent vomiting and purging. These symptoms were allayed by oleaginous demulcents; but on the second day salivation and ulceration of the mouth took place. In three weeks, however, she was perfectly recovered. Other violent effects are noticed by Wib- mer, Gmelin, and others; but the instances adduced are sufficient to show that dangerous and even fatal effects may result from large doses, and therefore that Teichmeyer, Buchner, and others, are justified in ranking it among poisons. Of late years, however, immense quantities of calomel have been adminislered medicinally, without giving rise to any symptoms of irritant poisoning,—nay, apparently with the opposite effect; for we have the concurrent testimony of many practitioners, that in yellow fever, cholera, and other dangerous diseases, calomel, in doses ofa scruple and upwards, allays vomiting and purging; and on this account has been denominated a sedative. So that while in small doses (as from two to five grains) calomel is almost universally admitted to be an irritant to the bowels, it is asserted that larger ones are actually sedative. These state- ments appear to me to be almost inconsistent; and yet they are fair deductions from the experience of numerous intelligent practitioners. We must, therefore, endeavour to accumulate more facts, in order to illustrate the effects of calomel, and for the present confess, we have very imperfect information respecting the nature of its action. In a case published by Mr. Roberts, (Lond. Med. Gaz. xxii. 611,) an ounce of calomel was swallowed by mistake, and retained on the stomach for two hours before the error was discovered. The only effects were slight nausea and faint- ness. Subsequently, emetics, lime water, and purgatives, were administered; calomel was vomited up, and the day but one afterwards the patient was quite well. Neither salivation nor the slightest affection of the gums occurred. The largest quantity of calomel given as a medicinal agent, at one dose, is, I believe, three drachms; "and it was followed," says Dr. Christison, (Treatise on Poisons,) from whom I quote the case, which occurred in America, " by only CHLORIDE OF MERCURY. 623 one copious evacuation, and that not till after the use of an injection." I have now before me reports of eighteen cases of spasmodic cholera, admitted in the year 1M2 into the Cholera Hospital at Bethnal Green, in this metropolis, in which enormous quantities of calomel were employed by the house-surgeon, Mr. Charles Dennett, (formerly one of my pupils), with very slight physiological effects. When a patient was brought into the hospital, two drachms of calomel were immediately given, and afterwards one drachm every one or two hours, until some effect was produced. In 17 out of 18 cases in which this plan was tried, the vomiting and purging diminished, and the patients recovered. Several of them took from 20 lo 30 drachms without the subsequent ptyalism being at all excessive. In one case, (a female, aged 36 years), 30A drachms were administered within forty-eight hours ; moderate ptyalism took place, arid recovery. In the unsuccessful case which 1 have alluded to, 53 drachms of calomel were administered within forty- two hours, without the least sensible effect. Dr. Griffin (Lond. Med. Gaz. xviii. 880.) also tells us, that in several cases of cholera he gave calomel hourly, " in scruple doses, to the amount of two or three drachms or upwards, without eventual salivation; and I recollect," he adds, "one inslance in particular, in which I gave two drachms within an hour and a half with perfect success, and without affecting the system." I do not pretend to reconcile these cases with those recorded by Hellweg, Vag- nitius, Ledelius, Hoffmann, and Golis; in fact they appear to me irreconcilable. Dr. Christison, however, suggests that in those cases in which violent effects oc- curred, the calomel might contain corrosive sublimate. Mr. Annesley (Diseases of India.) accounts for the increased quantity of bile found in the stools after the use of calomel, by supposing that the gall-bladder sometimes becomes distended in consequence of the tenacity of the mucous secre- tion, by which the mouth of the ductus communis choledochus is closed ; and that calomel acts chemically on the mucus, and detaches it. But the hypothesis is, I think, devoid of foundation. Uses.—Calomel is very frequently used as an alterative, in glandular affections, chronic skin diseases, and disordered conditions of the digestive organs, more par- ticularly in those cases connected with hepatic derangement. For this purpose it is usually taken in combination with other alteratives, as in the well-known Plummer's pill, which I shall presently notice. It is very frequently employed as a purgative, though, on account of the un- certainty of its cathartic effects, it is seldom given alone; generally in combina- tion with other drastic purgatives—such as jalap, scammony, compound extract of colocynth, &c, whose activity it very much promotes. We employ it for this purpose when we are desirous of making a powerful impression on the alimentary canal, and thereby of relieving affections of other organs, on the principle of counter-irritation. Thus in threatened apoplexy, in mental disorders, (Lond. Mal. Gaz. iii. 692), in dropsical affections, and in chronic diseases of the skin. In torpid conditions of the bowels, where it is necessary to use powerful calhar- lics to produce alvine evacuations, as in paralytic affections, it is advantageously combined wilh other purgatives. Sometimes we use it to promote the biliary se- cretion—as in jaundice and other affections of the liver, in chronic skin diseases and in various disordered conditions of the alimentary canal not accompanied by inflammation. Moreover, in the various diseases of children requiring the use of purgatives, it is generally considered to be very useful; and its being devoid of tasle is of course an advantage. Asa sedative it has been administered in yellow fever, spasmodic or malio-nant cholera, dysentery, and liver affections (vide p. 605). Dr. Griffin (Ibid. xxi. 8*0.) asserts that calomel proved a most successful medicine in cholera, control. ling or arresting its progress, in 84 cases out of 100, when administered while the pulse was perceptible at the wrist ; bul that, on the contrary, it proved delrimen- 624 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. tal when given in collapse. The practice was tested in 1448 cases. The dose was from one to two scruples every hour or half-hour. As a sialogogue, it may be used in the cases in which I have already slated (p. 601) that mercurials generally .are employed : with the view of preventing irri- tation of the alimentary canal, it is usually given in combination with opium, un. less the existence of some affection of the nervous system contra-indicates the use of narcotics. This combination is employed in peripneumonia, pleuritis, croup, laryngitis, hepatitis, enteritis, and other inflammatory diseases: in fever, syphilis, chronic visceral diseases, &c. Calomel is frequently combined wilh other medicines, to increase their effects, as with squills, to produce diuresis, in dropsy ; or with antimonials, to promote diaphoresis. As an anthelmintic it is in frequent use, and forms one of the active ingredients of many of the nostrums sold for worms ; though it does not appear to have any specific influence over parasitic animals. The local uses of calomel are numerous. In diseases of the Schneiderian mem- brane, it is applied as a snuff. It is sometimes blown into the eye, to remove spots on the cornea. Dr. Fricke (Lond. Med. Gaz. xxii. 397.) has used it with great success in chronic cases of rheumatic, catarrhal, and scrofulous ophthalmia; but in two instances bad consequences resulted from its use. It is sometimes sus- pended in thick mucilage, and used as a gargle in venereal sore-throat, or injected into the urethra in blennorrhoea. Now and then it is used as a substitute for cin- nabar in fumigation. As a local application, in the form of ointment, calomel is one of the most useful remedies we possess for the cure of several forms of chro- nic skin diseases. Administration___When used as an alterative, it is given in doses of from half a grain to a grain, frequently combined with oxysulphuret of antimony (as in Plummets Pill) or antimonial powder, and repeated every, or every other night; a mild saline laxative being given the following morning. As -a purgative, from two to five grains are given usually in combination with, or followed by, the use of other purgatives, especially jalap, senna, scammony, or colocynth. As a sialo- gogue, it is exhibited in doses of one to three or four grains, generally combined with opium or Dover's powder, twice or thrice a day. As a sedative, the dose is from a scruple to half a drachm or more. Biett (Ibid. viii. 540.) has sometimes employed it as an errhine, in syphilitic eruptions. It is mixed with some inert powder, and given to the extent of from 8 lo 20 grains daily. The use of acids wilh calomel frequently occasions griping. Calomel -is most extensively employed in the diseases of children, and may be given to them in as large or proportionally laroer doses than to adults. Salivation is a rare occurrence in them: indeed, Mr, CoOes (Pract. Observ. p. 281.) asserts, that mercury never produces ptyalism, or swelling or ulceration of the gums, in infants; but this is an error. 1. PILULJE HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDI COMPOSITE, L.; Pilulce Calomelanos composita, E. D. Compound Calomel Pills. (Calomel; Oxysulphuret of Antimony, each 3ij.; Guaiacum, powdered 3ss.; Treacle 3ij. Rub the Calomel with the Oxysul- phuret of Antimony, afterwards with the Guaiacum and the Treacle, until incor- porated, L___The Edinburgh College uses of Calomel, and Golden Sulphuret of Antimony, of each, one part; Guaiac, in fine powder, and Treacle, of each two parts; the'pill-mass is ordered to be divided into six-grain pills—The Dublin Col, lege employs of Calomel, Brown Anlimoniated Sulphur, of each, 3j.; Guaiac, in powder 5ij-; Treacle, as much as may be sufficient.)_This compound is com- monlv known as Plummets Pills (Pilulce Plummen), having been admnted into the Edinburgh Pharmacopceia at his recommendation. These pills are frequently employed as"alteratives in chronic skin diseases, in the papular and pustular forms of the venereal disease, in chronic liver affections, and in various disordered con- ditions of the digestive organs. The dose is from five to ten grains. EICHLORIDE OF MERCURV. 625 2. PILULE CALOMELAXOS ET OPH, E.; Calomel and Opium Pills. (Calomel, three parts ; Opium, one part; Conserve of Red Roses, a sufficiency. Beat them into a proper mass, which is to be divided into pills, each containing two grains of calomel.) Each pill contains two-thirds ofa grain of opium. It is a valuable compound in rheumatism and various other inflammatory diseases. Dose one or two pills. If ptyalism be required, one pill may be repeated three times daily. .1. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDI; Calomel Ointment. (Calomel, 3j.; Lard, 3j.)—This is a most valuable application in porrigo favosa, impetigo, herpes, and the scaly diseases (psoriasis and lepra). Indeed, if I were required to name a local agent pre-eminently useful in skin diseases generally, I should fix on this. It is well deserving a place in the Pharmacopceia. 4. PILULE CATHARTICS COMPOSITE, Ph. of the United States ; Compound Ca- thartic Pills. (Compound Extract of Colocynth, 3«s.; Extract of Jalap, in pow- der ; Calomel, of each, 3"j.; Gamboge, in powder, Bij. M. Divide into 180 pills.) This pill is intended to combine smallness of bulk with efficiency and comparative mildness of purgative action, and a peculiar tendency to the biliary organs. (United Slates Dispensatory.) Each pill contains one grain of calomel. Three pills are a full dose. 10. HYDRAR'GYRI BICHLO'RIDUM, 2..-BICHLORIDE OF MERCURY. (Sublimatus corrosivus, E.—Hydrargyri Murias corrosivus, D.)—[Hydrargyri Chloridum corrosivum, U. S.] History.—We have no account of the discovery of this preparation. Geber {Inv. of Ver. viii. 252.) described the method of preparing it; but it is supposed to have been known long anterior to him. Like calomel, it has had various syno- nymes, of which the principal are the following i—Chloride, Hydrochlorate, Mu- riate or Oxymuriate of Mercury (Hydrargyri Chloridum, Hydrochloras, Murias vel Oxymurias), Corrosive Sublimate, Corrosive Muriate of Mercury (Hydrar- gyri Murias corrosivus, and Acidum Chloro-hydrargyricum). Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this salt. The London College orders of Mercury, lbij.; Sulphuric Acid, lbij.; Chloride of So- dium, lbjss. Boil down the Mercury with the Sulphuric Acid in a proper vessel, until the Bipersulphate of Mercury remains dry; rub this when it is cold with the Chloride of Sodium in an earthen mortar; then sublime with a heat gradually raised. [Also the for- mula of U. S. P.] n . . The Edinburgh College directs of Mercury, giv.; Sulphuric Acid (commercial) fjij.; and foiij.; Pure Nitric Acid, f3ss.; Muriate of Soda, 3iij. Mix the acids; add the mer- cury * dissolve it with the aid of a moderate heat; and then raise the heat so as to obtain a dry'salt. Triturate this thoroughly with the muriate of soda; and sublime in a proper apparatus. The Dublin College gives a separate formula for the preparation of the bipersulphate of mercury (Hydrargyri Persulphas, D.) It is as follows:— Take of purified Mercury, Sulphuric Acid, of each, six parts. Nitric Acid, one part. Let them be exposed to heat in a glass vessel, and let the fire be increased until the thoroughly-dried residue shall have become white. From this salt corrosive sublimate is directed to be thus procured. Take of Persulphate of Mercury, five parts; Dried Muriate of Soda, two parts. Let them be well rubbed together in an earthenware mortar, that a most subtile powder may be formed; then, with a heat gradually raised, let the Corrosive Muriate of Mercury be sublimed into a proper receiver. Bipersulphate of mercury is usually prepared by submitting the sulphuric acid and mercury to heat in an iron pot, set in brick-work, over a proper fire, and un- der a hood or chimney to carry off the vapour of sulphurous acid. The mixture of bipersulphate and common salt is subjected to sublimation in an earthen,alem- bic placed in sand contained in an iron pot; or in an iron pot lined with clay, and VOL. I. 53 626 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. covered by an inverted earthen pan. The same pot, with a different head, may be used in the preparation of calomel. The nature of the changes which occur in the manufacture of bipersulphate of mercury have been already explained (p. 618). When this salt is sublimed with chloride of sodium, double decomposition takes place, and we obtain bichloride of mercury and sulphate of soda. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. 2 eq. Chloride Sod'ra 120 i _. "I- Chlorine .... 72----------------------------_ eq. Bichloride Merc. 27. I 2 eq. Sodium..... 48 i I 2 eq. Oxygen..... ]6 2 eq. Soda 64 I eq. Bipersulphate -J 1 eq. Mercury___202------------- Mercury 298 ( 2 eq. Sulphuric AcidSO-------------................Jl:v^.2 eq. Sulphate Soda .. 144 418 418 M Bichloride of mercury may also be procured by the direct union of its consti- tuents, chlorine and mercury. It may likewise be prepared by dissolving the red or binoxide of mercury in hydrochloric acid. Properties—As usually met with in commerce, bichloride of mercury is a semi- transparent crystalline mass, in which perfect crystals are rarely Fig. 93. found. Occasionally, however, they are obtained either by slow sublimation, or from a solution of the salt. Their form is the right rhombic prism. Their sp. gr. is about 5*2 (5*14 to 5*42, Liebig). The taste of this salt is acrid, coppery, and persistent. When heated it fuses, boils, and volatilizes: the vapour is very acrid. It is soluble in about three times its weight of boiling, and in about eighteen or twenty times its weight of cold water: the acids (especially hydrochloric) and the alkaline chlorides increase its solubility. It is soluble in seven parts of cold or three and a half Crj/sraZo/ parts of boiling alcohol. Ether dissolves it more readily than Mercury. alcoho!' and wil1 even separate it from its watery solution ; and hence is sometimes employed to remove it from organic mixtures. An aqueous solution of bichloride of mercury readily undergoes decomposition, especially when exposed to solar light: calomel is precipitated, and hydrochloric acid set free. This change is facilitated by the presence of organic substances,— as gum, extractive, or oil; whereas it is checked by the presence of alkaline chlo- rides. Albumen forms a white precipitate with an aqueous solution of bichloride of mercury. This precipitate is slightly soluble in water, and consists, according to Lassaigne (Journ. de Chim. Mid. iii. 2de Serie, 161.), of albumen, 93-45, and°bi- chloride of mercury, 6*55 ; so that it is a hydrargyro-chloride of albumen. Fibrin forms a similar white compound wth corrosive sublimate. When albuminous and fibrinous textures are immersed in a solution of this salt, combination takes place, the tissue contracts, increases in density, becomes whiter, and does not putrefy. Hence it is employed by the anatomist for hardening and preserving certain parts of the body—as the brain. A solution of bichloride of mercury possesses some of ihe characters of an acid. Thus its solution reddens litmus, and it unites with the chlor-bases (as chloride of sodium), forming the double salts called Hydrar gyro-chlorides. Litmus, which has been reddened by a solution of bichloride of mercury, has its blue colour restored by chloride of sodium. Characteristics.—Bichloride of mercury is known to be nmercurial compound by the following characters :— a.. Heated in a tube by a spirit-lamp, with caustic potash, an alkaline chloride is formed, oxygen gas is evolved, and metallic mercury is sublimed and condensed in the form of alobules on the sides of the tube. ° 2. Lime water causes a lemon-yellow precipitate (hydrated binoxide of mercury). If BICHLORIDE OF MERCURY. 627 the bichloride be in excess, the precipitate is brick-red (oxychloride of mercury), and the hydrargyro-chloride of calcium is found in solution. y. Caustic ammonia, added to a solution of bichloride, causes hydrochlorate of ammonia to be formed in solution, while a white powder (hydrargyri ammonio-chloridum) is thrown down. S. The alkaline carbonates throw down a brick-red precipitate; the bicarbonates either none or a white one. t. Iodide of potassium occasions a scarlet precipitate (biniodide of mercury); but the precipitate frequently appears at first of a yellow colour, though it quickly becomes scarlet. Dumas (Traite de Chimie, iii. 619.) thinks these yellow and red states of the biniodide depend on some isomeric phenomena requiring farther examination. If an excess of iodide of potassium be employed, the red precipitate disappears, owing to the formation of a soluble double salt, in which the biniodide of mercury acts the part of an acid, and the iodide of potassium that of a base. This double salt is the hydrargyro-iodide of potassium. Bichloride of mercury and the biniodide of mercury also form a double salt: hence, if a great excess of the former salt be employed, the red precipitate disappears, owing to the formation of a soluble double salt. £. Protochloride of tin occasions, with bichloride of mercury, a white precipitate (calomel), while perchloricre of tin remains in solution. Very shortly this protochloride of mercury is converted into reguline mercury, which falls down in a finely divided state aa a grayish powder. ». Hydrosulphuric acid in excess, passed through a solution of bichloride of mercury, occasions a black precipitate (bisulphuret of mercury), while a solution of hydrochloric acid is formed. If the hydrosulphuric acid be not in excess, a white precipitate (chloro- sulphuret of mercury) is obtained, composed of two atoms bisulphuret of mercury and one of the bichloride. ■9-. Ferrocyanide of potassium causes a white precipitate (ferrocyanide of mercury). i. Albumen is another test for corrosive sublimate, though not one of much value, since it will produce the same white precipitates with many other substances. *. Galvanism.—Drop the suspected solution on a piece of gold, as a sovereign, and apply a key, so that it may touch, simultaneously, the gold and the solution ; an electric current is immediately produced, the bichloride is decomposed, the mercury attaches itself to the negative electrode (or pole), namely, the gold, while the chlorine unites with the iron of the positive electrode (or pole) to form chloride of iron. The silver stain left on the gold is readily removed by heat. In Dr. Christison's work will be found other methods of applying galvanism; but the one just mentioned is perhaps the most useful, since it can always be readily made use of; whereas a more complicated apparatus is found in the hands of a few persons only. Thus it might be applied at a moment's notice to detect corrosive sublimate in the matters vomited by a patient. The relative delicacy of some of these tests is thus stated by Devergie:—(Med. Leg. ii. 676.) Degree of Dilution. Ferrocyanide of potassium..................................stops at 1,500 Lime water........................................'........ " 4,000 Potash or its carbonate.................................... " 7,000 Iodide of potassium......................................... " 8,000 Ammonia.................................................. " 36,000 Hydrosulphuric acid, or hydrosulphate of ammonia........... " 60,000 Protochloride of tin, or galvanic pile........................ " 80,000 The preceding tests have not determined the nature of corrosive sublimate, farther than that it is a permercurial salt. To prove that it is a chloride, the simplest method of proceeding is to add to the suspected solution lime water or carbonate of soda; then filter, acidify with diluted nitric acid, and test the clear liquid with nitrate of silver, which causes a white precipitate (chloride of silver), insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia. If nitrate of silver be added to a solution of bichloride of mercury, we obtain a white precipitate of chloride of silver, but which may be mixed wiih calomel; and it is to avoid the production of the latter substance, that I prefer the method of testing just mentioned. Composition.—The composition of this salt is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Turner. Mercury....................1........202........73-72........73 53 Chlorine....................2........72........2627........26-47 Bichloride of Mercury.......1........244........99*99........10000 628 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Purity.—Pure bichloride should be white, dry, totally vapourized by heat, and completely soluble in water, alcohol, or ether. It liquefies by heat and sublimes. It is totally soluble in water and sulphuric ether. What- ever is thrown down from water, either by solution of potash or lime-water, is of a reddish colour: or, if a sufficient quantity be added, it is yellow. This yellow substance by heat emits oxygen, and runs into globules of mercury. Ph. Lond. It sublimes entirely by heat; and its powder is entirely and easily soluble in sulphuric ether. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—The effects of solutions of bi- chloride of mercury on plants have been examined by Seguin, and subsequently by Marcet and Macaire (De Candolle, Phys. Veg. 1332.), and from their experi- ments it appears, that when growing plants are immersed in a solution of this salt, part of the poison is absorbed, a change of colour takes place in the leaves and stems, and death is produced. Bichloride of mercury is equally poisonous to cryptogamic plants. Hence vegetable tissues soaked in a solution of it are no .longer adapted for the developement of the Merulius lachrymans, and of other fungi known under the name of the Dry-Rot. This, .in fact, is the principle adopted by Mr. Kyan (Lond. Med. Gaz. xvi. 630.—Vide also Dr. Dickson's Lecture on Dry-Rot. Lond. 1837.) for the preservation of timber, and which is now practised by the Anti Dry-Rot Company.1 /3. On Animals generally.—The effeets of corrosive sublimate on animals have been examined by Ettmuller, Wepfer, Sprcegel, Sir Benjamin Brodie (Phil. Trans. fox 1812.), Campbell, Lavort, Smith, Gaspard, Orfila (Toxicol. Gen.), Schubarth, and Bostock. An abstract of these will be found in the works of Wibmer (Wirk. d. Arzn. u. Gifte.) and Christison (Treatise on Poisons). Dogs, cats, horses, rabbits, and frogs, are the animals on which the experiments have been tried, and on which sublimate has been found to exercise a poisonous operation; and the same kind of effect is presumed, from analogy, to be produced on all other animals. The results of these experiments have been so briefly yet clearly stated by Dr. Christison, that I cannot do better than quote his words:—" Corrosive sublimate causes, when swallowed, corrosion of the stomach ; and in whatever way it obtains entrance into the body, irritation of that organ and of the rectum, inflammation of the lungs, depressed action, and perhaps also inflammation of the heart, oppres- sion of the functions of the brain, and inflammation of the salivary glands." I may add, that mercurial foetor and salivation have been observed in horses, dogs, and rabbits. y. On Man.—a. a. In small or therapeutic doses, as from one-eighth to one- fourth of a grain, it frequently exerts a beneficial effect on diseases, (syphilitic eruptions, for example,) without producing any obyious alterations in the actions of the different organs. Occasionally, especially when the stomach and bowels are in an irritable condition, it gives rise to a sensation of warmth in the epigastrium, and causes nausea, griping, and purging. In such cases, it is best to diminish the dose, and conjoin opium. By repetition, we frequently observe that the pulse ^ becomes somewhat excited, and if the skin be kept warm, perspiration is often- times brought on; at other times the quantity of urine is increased. Continued use of it causes salivation; but it is said, that corrosive sublimate has less ten- dency to occasion this effect than other preparations of mercury. Maximilian Locher (Van Swieten's Commentaries upon Boerhaave's Aphorisms, xvii. 294.), who, from the year 1754 to 1762, cured 4,8S0 patients affected with the venereal disease, at St. Mark's Hospital, Vienna, by the exhibition of this remedy, says, that no person died, or experienced the least painful or dangerous symptoms, in consequence of its use. He was, however, exceedingly cautious and careful in 1 See Keraudren, Des Proprietes du Sublime Corrosif pour la conservation du bois, et des effets de cette prepara- tion sur la sante des marins, in the Mem. Royale Acad, de Med. t. v. p. 41. Paris, 1836. I have seen wood which had been prepared by Kyan's process, and which became black on the application of hydrosulphuret of ammonia (showing the presence of mercury), covered with cottony fungi which grew from it. Sir John Barrow, in his Life of Lord Anson, says, wood thus prepared is attacked by the Teredo. BICHLORIDE OF MERCURY. 629 its employment, and always stopped its administration on the first appearance of salivation. Van Swieten says, " I am convinced, from repeated experience, that the menstrual evacuation is not disturbed by the use of this remedy." /3/3. Chronic poisoning. In someivhat larger doses, or by the long-continued use of the before mentioned small doses, gastro-enteritis, and all the usual consti- tutional effects of mercury are brought on. Thus heat and griping pain in the alimentary canal, (particularly in the stomach and rectum,) loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, purging, and disordered digestion, are the gastro-enteritic symptoms. The pulmonary organs also not unfrequently become affected ; the patient complains of dry cough, pain in the chest, disordered respiration, and bloody expectoration. Coupling these symptoms with the effects said to be pro- duced on the lungs of animals by the use of corrosive sublimate, we have an important caution not to administer it to patients affected with pulmonary disorders, —a caution, indeed, which Van Swieten gives ; " for those," says he, " who have a husky dry breast, are troubled with a cough, whose nervous system is exces- sively irritable, and are subject to a hemorrhage, bear not this remedy without detriment." yy. Acute poisoning.—In very large doses corrosive sublimate acts as a caustic poison, in virtue of its affinity for albumen, fibrin, and other constituents of the tissues. I shall follow Dr. Christison, and admit two varieties of poisoning by it; in one of which " the sole or leading symptoms are those of violent irritation of the alimentary canal. In another variety the symptoms are at first the same as in the former, but subsequently become conjoined with salivation and inflam- mation of the mouth, or some of the other disorders incident to mercurial erethism, as it is called." First variety: Gastro-enteritis.—In this variety the symptoms are analogous to those of other corrosive poisons : namely, violent burning pain in the mouth, throat, oesophagus, and stomach ; difficulty of deglutition; sense of suffocation; nausea; violent vomiting (increased by every thing taken into the stomach) of mucous, bilious, or sanguineous matters. The pain soon ex- tends from the stomach over the whole abdomen, which becomes acutely sensible to the slightest impression; violent purging, often of blood; inexpressible anxiety; flushed countenance; rest- lessness; pulse quick, small, and contracted ; cold sweats; burning thirst; short and laborious respiralion ; urine frequently suppressed ; and, lastly, various indications of a disordered condi- lion of the nervous system; such as a tendency to stupor, or even actual coma; convulsive movements of the muscles of the face and extremities : sometimes diminished sensibility of one of the limbs, or of the whole body; or even paraplegia. Occasionally death appears to result from the powerful effects produced on the nervous system, or from exhaustion, or from mortifica- tion of the bowels. Dr. Christison points out the following characters as serving lo distinguish poisoning by bichloride of mercury from that by arsenious acid :— 1. The symptoms begin much sooner. 2. The taste is much more unequivocal and strong. 3. The acridity and irritation in the gullet is much greater. 4. The countenance is flushed, and even swollen ; whereas, in poisoning by arsenic, it is usually contracted and ghastly. 5. Blood is more frequently discharged by vomiting and purging. 6. Irritation of the urinary passages is more frequent. 7. Nervous affections are more apt to come on during the first inflammatory stage. 8. The effects are more curable than those of arsenic. 9. Deviations in the symptoms are more rare. Second variety: Gastro-enteritis, accompanied with or followed by mercurial erethism.—I here use the term erethism in the sense in which it is employed by Dr. Christison,—namely, to indicate all the secondary effects of mercury. In this variety, the symptoms first observed are those mentioned for the last variety, but they are followed, sooner or later, by those of inflamma. tion of the salivary glands, and of the mouth and its neighbouring parts; profuse salivation, ulceration of the mouth, great fcetor of the breath, and other symptoms of this kind, already described. Uses.—Internally it has been employed as a sialogogue, alterative, and dia- phoretic. The celebrated Baron Van Swieten (Op. cit.) may be regarded as the principal introducer of corrosive sublimate into practice as a remedy for venereal diseases.1 1 See also several papers on the use of bichloride in syphilis, in the Medical Observations and Inquiries, vols. i. and ii. 630 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. He seems to have been led to its employment from a suspicion that salivation was not requisite for curing this class of diseases ; and hence he was desirous of ob- taining some mercurial " that could be diluted at will, and so tried in a very small dose." Now corrosive sublimate possessed these properties, and hence he commenced his experiments with it, and, meeting with great success, recom- mended it to Maximilian Locher, whose results I have already stated.1 The balance of evidence is decidedly favourable to the employment of this medicine as an internal remedy for venereal diseases. By its partisans it has been asserted to be a safe and efficacious mercurial, to remove venereal symptoms in a very short space of time, and without causing salivation, merely by exciting diapho- resis. Its opponents (Vide Pearson, op. cit.) state, on the olher hand, that other mercurials are quite as effectual and speedy; that the cure by corrosive sublimate is not permanent; and, lastly, that its corrosive and irritant properties renders its employment objectionable. One of the latest advocates for its use is Dzondi,3 of Halle," who states, that the best mode of using bichloride of mercury is in the form of pills made with crumb of bread : and he gives the following formula for their preparation:—R Hydr. Sublim. Corros. gr. xij., solve in Aq. Distill, q. s., adde Micae Panis Albi, Sacchari Albi, aa. q. s. ut fit. piluloe numero ccxl. Of these pills, (each of which contains one-twentieth of a grain of corrosive sub- limate,) four are to be administered daily, and increased until thirty (contain- ing one grain and a half) are taken at a dose. The best time of exhibiting them is after dinner. In irritable subjects, and painful affections, a few drops of the tincture of opium may be taken with each dose. During the time the patient is under their influence he should adopt a sudorific regimen, (as is also recommended by Van Swieten,) and take decoction of sarsaparilla. In acute diseases few have ventured to employ bichloride of mercury: how- ever, Schwartz gave it in hepatitis after the fever and pain had subsided ; Sauter employed it in an epidemic scarlet fever; and Berends (Richter, Ausfahr. Arzneim. v. 581.) administered it in asthenic malignant fevers. I have already noticed (p. 603) Mr. Lempriere's proposal to use it in fever as a sialogogue. In various chronic diseases it lias been given as an alterative and diaphoretic, with occasional success. Thus in rheumatism, diseases of the bones, periodical pains, skin diseases, scrofulous affections, disorders of the nervous system, &c. In such it should be associated with diaphoretics (as antimony, sarsaparilla, &c), warm clothing, &c. Not unfrequently opiates should be combined with it. As an external remedy it has been employed as a caustic in substance (either alone or combined with arsenic) to cancerous ulcers, to parts bitten by rabid animals, to chancres, &c.: used in this way, however, it is mostly objectionable. In onychia maligna it is used with great advantage, mixed with an equal weight of sulphate of zinc, and sprinkled thickly upon the surface of the ulcer, which is then to be covered with a pledget of lint saturated with tincture of myrrh. (United States Dispensatory.) A solution has been employed for various purposes : thus by Baume, as already mentioned (p. 601), for pediluvia, to produce salivation : as a lotion in chronic skin disease (as lepra, psoriasis, scabies, rosacea, &c.); as a wash to ulcers, particularly those of a venereal nature; as an injection in dis- charges from the urinary organs; as a collyrium in chronic diseases of the eye, especially those of a venereal nature; and as a gargle in ulcers of the tonsils. A solution is sometimes used as a preventive for the venereal disease. Administration.—It may be used internally, in substance or solution. The dose of it in substance is from one-sixteenth to one-eighth ofa grain. Some advise it to be given to the extent of one-fourth of a grain ; but in this dose it is very apt 1 For farther historical details respecting its use, vide Pearson's Observations on the Effects of various Arti- cles of the Mat. Med. p. 99. et. seq. a Neue zuverldss, 7/ei.art. d. Lusts, in alien ihren Formen, &C, 1825, in Richter, Ausf. Ann. Bd. v. S. 59G. AMM0NI0-CUL0HIDE OF MERCURY. 631 to gripe and purge. Dzondi's formula, already given, may be employed when we wish to administer it in substance. In solution it may be exhibited dissolved in water (vide liquor hydrargyri bichloridi), alcohol, or ether. For external use a watery solution may be employed, containing from half a grain to two or three grains, dissolved in one ounce of water. Antidotes.—Several substances which decompose corrosive sublimate have been employed as antidotes. These are Albumen, Gluten of Wheat (as contained in wheaten flour), Milk, Iron Filings, and Meconic Acid. I have already alluded to the decomposition of corrosive sublimate by Albumen. The compound which results from their mutual aclion appears to be inert, or nearly so. In Dr. Christison's Treatise on Poisons will be found several cases noticed, in which albumen has been most effectual: one of the most interesting of which is that of Baron Thenard, the celebrated chemist, who inadvertently swallowed a concentrated solution of corrosive sublimate, but by the immediate use of whites of eggs suffered no material harm. Peschier states, that one egg is required for every four grains of the poison. Gluten of wheat has been recom- mended by Taddei, and may be employed when albumen is not procurable. Wheaten flour (which contains gluten) will probably answer as well as the pure gluten. Milk, in the absence of albumen or flour, may be used. Iron Filings are stated to be useful, by reducing the corrosive sublimate to the metallic state. Meconic acid is also said to be an antidote, by forming an insoluble nieconate of mercury. But a knowledge of the fact is of little practical value, since the acid is not generally procurable; and tincture of opium, which contains it, cannot bo safely used in sufficient quantity; for Dr. Christison finds that five grains of cor- rosive sublimate require an infusion of 33 grains of opium to precipitate the whole of the mercury.1 t The other parts of the treatment for acute poisoning by corrosive sublimate are the same as for other irritant poisons, and consist of the usual antiphlogistic sys- tem—the use of warm baths, opiates, &c. LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDI, L. Solution of Bichloride of Mercury. (Take of Bichloride of Mercury ; Hydrochlorate of Ammonia, each, grs. x.; Distilled Water, Oj. Dissolve the bichloride of mercury and hydrochlorate of ammonia together in water.) Eiydrochlorate of ammonia is used to increase the solvent power of the water. Each fluid ounce contains half a grain of corrosive sublimate. The dose of this solution is from half a fluid drachm to two or three fluid drachms, taken in some bland liquid, as linseed tea. 11. HYDRARGYRI AMMO'NIO-CHLO'RIDUM, L.—AMMONIO-CHLORIDE OF MERCURY. (Hydrargyrum prascipitatum album, E— Hydrargyri snbmurias ammoniatum,D.) [Hydrargyrum Ammoniarum, U.S.J History.—This compound was discovered by Raymond Lully, in the thirteenth century. Lemery pointed out two modes of procuring it, and hence it is some- times termed Lemerfs White Precipitate, to distinguish it from precipitated calomel, also called on the Continent white precipitate. It has had various other appellations, as Cosmetic Mercury (Mercurius Cosmeticus), White Precipitated Mercury ; and, according to the view taken of its composition, it has been called Muriate of Ammonia and Mercury, Ammoniated Submuriate of Mercury, Am- monialed Mercury, Ammoniacal Oxychloruret of Mercury, and Chlor amide or Chloro-amidide of Mercury. Its most familiar name is White Precipitate. i The protosulphuret of iron has been proposed as an antidote by M. Miahle. It is prepared by adding a solution of sulphuret of potassium to a solution of sulphate of iron ; the precipitate is lo be washed with water. When this is added to a solution of corrosive sublimate, the reaction is such, that two equivalents of proto- sulphuret of iron, and one equivalent of bichloride of mercury, yield two equivalents of proto-chloride of iron, and one equivalent of the bisulphuret of mercury. This antidote requires the test of experience ; theoretically it is all that is required.—J. C. 632 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give formulas for the preparation of this salt. The London College orders of Bichloride of Mercury, 3vj.; Distilled Water, Ovj.; Solution of Ammonia, f 3 viij. Dissolve the Bichloride of Mercury, with the application of heat, in the Water. To this when it is cold add the Solution of Ammonia, frequently stirring. Wash the povyder thrown down until it is free from taste; lastly, dry it. [The formula of the U. S. P. is essentially the same.] The Edinburgh College directs of Corrosive Sublimate, 3vj.; Distilled Water, Ovj.; Aqua Ammoniae, f 3 viij. Dissolve the Corrosive Sublimate with the aid of heat in the Distilled Water; and when the solution is cold add the Aqua Ammonia; stir the whole well; collect the powder on a calico filter, and wash it thoroughly wilh cold water. The explanation of the changes which occur in the above processes will vary according to the view taken of the constitution of white precipitate. If, with Mr. Phillips, we regard it as a compound of bichloride and binoxide of mercury with ammonia, its formation may be thus accounted for: 4 eqs. of ammonia, 2 eqs. of water, and 2 eqs. of bichloride of mercury, react on each other and yield 2 eqs. of sal ammoniac (hydrochlorate of ammonia), and 1 eq. of white preci- pitate. MATERIALS. 2 eq. Water.... 18_l?£j!**"- 1---72 eq-Hydroc. Ad. 74 „ » • ItOxyg.... 1<\/, 2 eq. Ammonia. 34 4 eq. Ammonia C8 ..............-X" 8 eq. Ammonia . 34 1 eq. Bichloride < 2 eq. Chlor. 72/ \ Mercury..... 274 .1 eq. Merc. 202.____\_1 eq. Binox. Merc. 218 1 eq. Bichloride I .___________________________________ Mercury--- 274 j 634 634 Dr. Kane, (Trans, of tlie Royal Irish Academy, vii. 423.) however, states that white precipitate contains neither ammonia nor oxygen, but, instead of these, the elements of amidogen (N H2). He, therefore, regards it as a compound of bichloride and binamidide of mercury (Hg Chi2 -f- Hg Ad3) or as a chloro-ami- dide of mercury. It is formed by the mutual reaction of two equivalents of bichloride of mercury (2 Hg Chi2) and four equivalents of ammonia (4 eqs. ami- dide of hydrogen = 4 HAd): the products being one equivalent of white precipi- tate (Hg Chla + Hg Ad3) and two equivalents of sal ammoniac (2 eqs. of chloro- amidide of hydrogen = 2 (H Chi -f H Ad) ). The Dublin College gives the following directions for its preparation:—Add to the liquor poured oft' from precipitated Calomel as much water of Caustic Ammonia as may be sufficient completely to throw down the metallic salt; which is to be washed with cold water and dried on bibulous paper. Owing to the presence of some pernitrate of mercury in the protonitrate from which calomel is precipitated on the addition of chloride of sodium (see p. 619), there is some bichloride of mercury formed in the liquor. This is, therefore, directed to be used by the Dublin College in the preparation of white precipitate. Properties.—It occurs in commerce in masses or in powder. It is white, inodorous, has a taste at first earthy, afterwards metallic. It is decomposed and dissipated by heat, giving out ammonia, nitrogen, calomel, and water. It is inso- luble in alcohol. By boiling in water we obtain a solution of hydrochlorate of ammonia, and a yellow powder (white precipitated mercury and binoxide of mercury, Kane). It is soluble in sulphuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids. Characteristics.—When heated with caustic potash, it gives out ammonia, and forms a yellow powder (white precipitated mercury and binoxide of mer- cury, Kane). The solution contains chloride of potassium, and with nitrate of silver yields a white precipitate (chloride of silver), insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia. Caustic ammonia does not alter white precipitate. By PRODDCTS. 2eq. Hydrochl. Ammonia... 108 1 eq. Amm.Chlo. ride Mercury. 52G AMM0NI0-CHL0RIDE OF MERCURY. 633 this it may, therefore, be distinguished from calomel, which yields a gray pow- der (protoxide of mercury) on the addition of ammonia. Protochloride' of tin decomposes white precipitated mercury, and separates metallic mercury. To these characters must be added the effect of heat, water, and acids, as above men- tioned. Composition.—The analysis of Mr. Hennel (Quarterly Journal of Science, xviii. 297.) and Mitscherlich (Ann. Chim. xxxv. 428.), agree in showing the ele- ments of white precipitate to be those of binoxide of mercury and hydrochlorate of ammonia, in the following proportions:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per. Cent. Hennel. Mitscherlich. Binoxide of Mercury............ I ........218 ........ 80-14 ........ 80 ........ 822 Hydrochloric Acid.............. 1 ........ 37 ........ 1360) on (10-7 Ammonia...................... 1 ........ 17 ........ 6255........ ........r 71 "I 20 White Precipitate.............. 1 ........272 ........ 99.99 ........ 100 ........ 100-0 This composition is adopted by Berzelius. But in explaining the theory of the formation of the white precipitate, I have assumed, with Mr. Phillips (Transla- tion of the London Pharmacopeia.), a somewhat different view of the subject. Two equivalents of the white precipitate of Mr. Hennel, minus two equivalents of water, are equal to one equivalent of the same compound, according to Mr. Phillips. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Bichloride of Mercury................. 1 ...... 274 ...... 5209 Binoxide of Mercury................. 1 ...... 218 ...... 4144 Ammonia............................ 2 ...... 34 ...... 6-46 White Precipitate (Phillips)........... 1 ...... 526 ...... 9999 If two more equivalents of water be abstracted, we have the composition of white precipitate, according to Dr. Kane. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Bichloride of Mercury................. 1 ...... 274 ...... 5393 Binamide of Mercury................. 1 ...... 234 ...... 46'06 Chloro-arnidide of Mercury............ 1 ...... 508 ...... 99-99 Purity.—This compound is largely adulterated with sulphate of lime. I have one sample containing one-third of its weight of this substance. Carbonate of lime and of lead are sometimes employed to adulterate white precipitate. Pure white precipitate, thrown on a red-hot shovel, is dissipated without any residuum: whereas the above impurities remain. The carbonates are recognised by the effervescence on the addition of hydrochloric acid. Sulphate of lime may be detected by boiling the suspected substance in distilled water, and applying the tests for sulphates and calcareous salts, as before directed (pp. 414 and 496). Totally evaporated by heat. When digested with acetic acid, iodide of potassium throws down nothing either yellow or blue. The powder rubbed with lime water does not become black. It is totally dissolved by hydrochloric acid without effervescence. When heated with solution of potash it becomes yellow, and emits ammonia. Ph. Lond. The iodide of potassium is employed to detect lead or starch in the acetic solu- tion. If lime water occasion a black precipitate, it indicates the presence of a protosalt of mercury. Physiological Effects.—Its action on the body is very imperfectly known, no modern experiments having been made with it. It is usually considered to be highly poisonous, and somewhat similar in its operation to bichloride of mercury. Palmarius and Nabolh (Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzn. iii. 64.) have reported fatal cases of its use. (Vide also Gmelin, App. Medicam. ii. 166.) Uses.—It is employed as an external agent only ; commonly in the form of an ointment. It is an efficacious application in various skin diseases—as porrigo, im- 634 elements of materia medica. petigo, herpes, and even scabies; also in ophthalmia tarsi. Among the lower classes it is commonly used to destroy pediculi. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI AMONIO-CHLORiDI, L.; Unguentum Prcecipitatialbi, E.; Unguentum Hydrargyri Submuriatis Ammoniati, D.; Ointment of White Precipitate. [Unguentum Hydrargyri Ammoniati, U. S.] (White Precipitate, 3j.; Lard, 3iss. Mix.) Stimulant, alterative, and detergent. Used in various skin diseases, as above mentioned. 12. HYDRARGYRI IODIDUM, L. (U. S.)-IODIDE OF MERCURY. History.—This compound is commonly called Protiodide of Mercury, to dis- tinguish it from other iodides of this metal. Preparation.—There are several methods of preparing this compound. The London College orders of Mercury, 3j.; Iodine, 3v.; Alcohol, as much as may be suffi- cient. Rub the Mercury and Iodine together, adding the alcohol gradually, until globules are no longer visible. Dry the powder immediately, with a gentle heat, without the access of light, and keep in a well-stoppered vessel. [Also U. S.] In this process the mercury and iodine enter into combination. The alcohol facilitates the union by dissolving a portion of iodine and forming with the re- mainder a pasty mass. Some biniodide is usually first formed, and is afterwards transformed into the protiodide by uniting with mercury. This process succeeds well when small quantities of iodide are to be prepared ; but it is scarcely applicable to the preparation of large quantities, owing to the great heat which is evolved, by which iodine is volatilized and some biniodide formed. Soubeiran (Nouveau Traite de Pharmacie, t. ii. p. 513, 2nde ed.) says that the mass sometimes inflames, and escapes from the mortar with a kind of explosion. To avoid these inconveniences small quantities only (7 or 8 ounces, for example) should be prepared at one time, and the quantity of alcohol should be augmented. Another mode of preparing protiodide of mercury is by the addition of solution of iodide of potassium to a solution of protonitrate of mercury, acidified with a very small quantity of nitric acid, as long as a greenish precipitate is produced. There are, however, some difficulties in this mode of proceeding. A subnitrate of mercury is apt to be precipitated with the protiodide, and if, to avoid this, we use excess of nitric acid, this decomposes the iodide of potassium and sets iodine free, which combines with the protiodide to form the biniodide. If the solution of protonitrate be added to that of the iodide of potassium, metallic mercury and biniodide are apt to be formed: the latter is at first dissolved, but is afterwards deposited with the protiodide. Properties.—It is a greenish yellow powder, whose sp. gr. is 7*75. It is in- soluble in water, alcohol, or an aqueous solution of chloride of sodium; but is soluble in ether, and slightly so in an aqueous solution of iodide of potassium. When heated quickly, it fuses and sublimes in red crystals, which become yellow by cooling. Solar light decomposes it, and changes its colour. Heated with potash, it yields iodide of potassium and reguline mercury. When recently prepared it is yellowish, and when heat is cautiously applied it sublimes in red crystals, which afterwards become yellow, and then by access of light they blacken. It is not soluble in chloride of sodium. Ph. Lond. Composition.—It consists of— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Mercury----............... 1 ............ 202 ............ 6158 Iodine...................... 1 ............ 126............ 3841 Iodide of Mercury........... 1 ............ 328 ............ 99-99 biniodide of mercury. 635 Physiological Effects.—It is a powerfully irritant poison. A scruple killed a rabbit within twenty-four hours, and a drachm destroyed a pointer dog in five days. (Cogswell, Essay on Iodine and its Compounds, p. 160.) In small but repeated doses, it appears to exercise a specific influence over the lymphatic and glandular system. Two grains taken daily caused salivation in two instances. (Biett, Lancelte Francaise, Juin, 1831.) Uses.—It has been used in syphilis and scrofula, especially when they occur in the same individual. Lugol (Essays on the Effects of Iodine in Scrofulous Dis- orders, by Dr. O'Shaughnessy, p. 170.) employed an ointment of it in those forms of external scrofulous disease which resemble syphilis. Ricord (Lancette Fran- caise, 1835, No. 65.) gave it internally with good effect in syphilis infantum. Biett (O'Shaughnessy's Trans, of LugoVs Essays, p. 201.) has successfully em- ployed it in syphilitic ulceration and venereal eruptions. Administration.—The dose of it for adults is from one grain gradually in- creased to three or four. Ricord gave from one-sixth to one-half of a grain to children of six months old. Biett employed it internally, and also externally, in the form of ointment, to the extent of twelve or fourteen grains daily, by way of friction. 1. PILULE HYDRARGYRI IODIDI, L. (Iodide of Mercury, 3j.; Confection of Dog- rose, 3iij.; Ginger, powdered, 3j. M.)—Five grains of these pills contain one grain of iodide. The dose, therefore, will be from five grains to a scruple. 2. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI IODIDI, L. (Iodide of Mercury, 3j.; White Wax 3ij.; Lard, 3vj. M.)—This is used as a dressing for scrofulous ulcers, or for sy- philitic ulcers in scrofulous subjects- It is also employed in tubercular skin dis- eases, as lupus, rosacea, and sycosis. (Rayer, Treat, on Skin Diseases.) 13. HYDRAR'GYRI BINIO'DIDUM, L. E.—BINIODIDE OF MERCURY. [Hydrargyri Iodidum Rubrum, U. S.] History.—This compound is frequently called the Deutiodide of Mercury, or the Red or Per-Iodide of Mercury. Preparation.—-Both the London and Edinburgh Colleges give directions for the preparation of this compound. The London College orders of Mercury, 3j.; Iodine, 3x.; Alcohol as much as may be suffi- cient; rub the mercury and iodine together, adding the alcohol gradually, until the globules are no longer visible. Dry the powder immediately, wilh a gentle heat, without the access of light, and keep in a well-stoppered vessel. [AlsoU. S.] The Edinburgh College directs of Mercury, 3ij.; Iodine, Sijss.; Concentrated Solution of Muriate of Soda, a Gallon. Triturate the Mercury and Iodine together, adding occasionally a little rectified spirit, till a uniform red powder be obtained. Reduce the product to fine powder, and dissolve it in the solution of muriate of soda with the aid of brisk ebullition. Filter, if ne- cessary, through calico, keeping the funnel hot; wash and dry the crystals which form on cool- ing. In these processes the iodine and mercury combine, to form the biniodide. The alcohol facilitates the combination by dissolving part of the iodine, and forming a pasty mass with the remainder. The solution of common salt employed by the Edinburgh College serves to se- parate the biniodide from any protiodide (which is insoluble in that liquid), as well as to obtain the biniodide in a crystalline form. Considerable inconvenience is experienced in obtaining large quantities of the biniodide by the above process, on account of the great heat evolved when mer- cury and iodine are rubbed together (see p. 650). Biniodide of mercury may be readily obtained by mixing solutions of bichloride of mercury and iodide of potassium. 1 eq. or 274 parts of bichloride are required 636 elements of materia medica. to decompose 2 eqs. or 332 parts of iodide of potassium. These proportions are about eight of the first, to ten of the second salt. In this process double decom- position takes place : 1 eq. or 454 parts of biniodide of mercury precipitate, and 2 eqs. or 152 parts of chloride of potassium remain in solution. In order to obtain a fine-coloured biniodide, and to insure the absence of bi- chloride of mercury in the product, a slight excess of iodide of potassium should be employed. This, indeed, holds a little biniodide of mercury in solution, but the quantity is inconsiderable. A large excess of iodide of potassium combines with the biniodide, and forms therewith a soluble double salt (hydrargyro-iodide of potassium), composed of iodide of potassium and biniodide of mercury. If the bichloride of mercury be slightly in excess, a pale-red precipitate (composed of biniodide of mercury with a little bichloride) is obtained. A great excess of bichlo- ride of mercury keeps biniodide in solution. Properties.—It is a scarlet-red powder, whose sp. gr. is 6*32. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, some acids, alkalis, and solutions of iodide of po- tassium, chloride of sodium, and of many of the mercurial salts. From its solu- tion in boiling rectified spirit it is deposited, on cooling, in rhombic prisms. When heated it fuses, forming a ruby-red liquid, sublimes in crystals, which are at first yellow but afterwards become red, and furnish a scarlet-red powder. It combines with other alkaline iodides (as iodide of potassium) forming a class of double salts, called the hydrar gyro-iodides. Characteristics.—Heated with potash in a tube it yields metallic mercury, which is volatilized: the residue is iodide of potassium, recognisable by the tests before described (p. 430). From the protiodide of mercuryit is distinguished by its co- lour and its solubility in a solution of chloride of sodium. The effects of heat on it, and its solubility in iodide of potassium, are other characters which serve to recognise it. Composition.—Its composition is as follows: Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Mercury................. 1 .............. 202 .............. 445 Iodine................... 2 .............. 252 .............. 555 Biniodide of Mercury ... 1 .............. 454 .............. 100 0 Purity.—The presence of bisulphuret of mercury in it may be recognised by fusion with caustic potash in a glass tube, by which a mixture of sulphuret and iodide of potassium is obtained: the existence of sulphur may be proved by the evolution of hydrosulphuric acid on the addition of a mineral acid. By heat, cautiously applied, it is sublimed in scales, which soon become yellow, and afterwards, when they are cold, red. It is partially soluble in boiling rectified spirit, which affords crystals as it cools. It is alternately dissolved and precipitated by iodide of potassium and bichloride of mercury. It is totally soluble in chloride of sodium. Ph. Lond. "Entirely vaporizable : soluble entirely in 40 parts of a concentrated solution of muriate of soda at 212°, and again deposited in fine red crystals on cooling." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects, a. On Animals.—A scruple killed a rabbit in twen- ty-four hours : the stomach was found prelernaturally reddened. Ten grains, dis- solved in a solution of iodide of potassium, and given to a dog, caused vomiting, pain, tenesmus, and depression : in four or five days the animal was well. (Coo-s- well, Essay on Iodine, p. 164.) Maillet (Journ. de Chim. Med. iii. 543, 2de Serie.) has also made some experiments with it. /3. On Man.—It is a powerful irritant and caustic. It is nearly as powerful as the bichloride of mercury ; indeed, Rayer (Treatise on Skin Diseases, by Dr. Willis, p. 79.) considers it more active than the latter. Applied to ulcers, in the form of ointment, I have known it cause excruciating pain. Left in contact with the skin for a while, it induces, says Rayer, a most intense erysipelatous inflam- BISULPHURET OF MERCURY. 637 mation. When administered internally, it must be done with great caution. Like other mercurial compounds, its repeated use causes salivation. Uses.—It has been employed in the same cases (i. e. syphilis and scrofula) as the protiodide of mercury, than which it is much more energetic. Breschet (O'Shaughnessy's Transl. of LugoVs Essays, p. 204.) applied it, in the form of ointment, with great success in a case of obstinate ulceration (thought to have been carcinomatous) of the angle of the eye. In the form of a dilute and thin ointment (composed of biniodide of mercury, gr. ii. ,* cerate, Bii.; and almond oil, Bj.), it has been used in opacity of the cornea. (Graefe and Walther's Journ. f. Chir. Bd. 13.) In obstinate ophthalmia tarsi, with thickening of the meibomian glands, it has also been successfully employed. Administration.—It should be given in doses of one-sixteenth ofa grain, gra- dually increased to one-fourth of a grain. It may be exhibited in the form of pills, or dissolved in alcohol or ether. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI BINIODIDI, L. (Biniodide of Mercury, 3j.; White Wax, 3ij.; Lard, 3yj. Al.) Used in the before-mentioned cases. For ordinary purposes, it will require to be considerably diluted. 14. HYDRAR'GYRI BISULPHURE'TUM, £.—BISULPHURET OF MERCURY. (Cinnabaris, E— Hydrargyri Sulphuretum rubrum, D.)~[U. S.] History.—It is mentioned in the Old Testament. (Jerem. xxii. 14.) Theo- phrastus (De Lapidibus.) says that Cinnabar (xiwa/3ap/) was accidentally disco- vered, by Callius, about ninety years before the magistracy of Praxibulus, of Athens—that is, 494 years before Christ. Geiger (Handb. d. Pharm. by Liebig.) found it in Ihe colouring matter of the old Egyptian tombs. It was formerly called Minium. (Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. xxxiii. cap. 38, ed. Valp.) It is com- monly termed Red Sulphuret of Mercury ; and, when in powder, Vermilion. Natural History.—The principal repositories of Native Cinnabar (Cinna- baris nativa) are Idria, in Carniola, and Almaden, in Spain. It occurs both massive and crystallized; the primary form of its crystals being the acute rhom- bohedron. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this compound. The London College orders of Mercury, feij.; Sulphur, 3 v. Melt the Sulphur, add the mer- cury and continue the heat till the mixture begins to swell up. Then remove the vessel, and cover it closely to prevent tbe mixture taking fire. When the material is cold, reduce it [the mass] to powder, and sublime if. . . The process of the Edinburgh College is similar. The Dublin College -orders of Purified Mercury, nineteen parts; Sublimed Sulphur/rAree parts Mix the mercury with the melted sulphur, and, if the mixture takes fire, extinguish the flame by covering the vessel. Reduce the product of this operation to powder, and sub- IThe U. S. P. directs Mercury, forty ounces; Sulphur, eight ounces. Mix the mercury with the melted sulphur over a fire; and as soon as the mass begins to swell, remove the vessel from the fire and cover it with considerable force, to prevent combustion; then rub the mass into powder, and sublime.] In this process the heat enables the mercury and sulphur to combine and form a black sulphuret of mercury. When large quantities of sulphur and mercury are heated together, a slight explosion and flame are produced. By sublimation, the black sulphuret is converted into cinnabar or the red sulphuret.1 Properties.—Artificial cinnabar has, in the mass, a dark reddish brown crys- talline appearance; but when reduced to a fine powder, is ofa beautiful scarlet- i Full details respecting the Dutch method of manufacturing cinnabar are given in the Ann. de Chim. iv. 25 and in Aikin's Diet, of Chemistry, vol. ii. p. 87. VOL. I. 54 633 elements of materia medica. red colour, and is then termed Vermilion. It is tasteless, odourless, insoluble in water or alcohol, and unalterable in the air. It is fusible and volatile. It burns in the air with a blue flame, the sulphur uniting with oxygen to form sulphurous acid, while the mercury is dissipated in a vaporous form. Characteristics.— Heated in a glass tube, wilh potash, it evolves mercurial vapour, which condenses into liquid globules of this metal. The residue, which is sulphuret of potassium, gives out hydrosulphuric acid on the addition of hydro- chloric acid. The colour of cinnabar deepens under the influence of heat. Composition.—Its composition is as follows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Guibourt. Sefstrbm. Mercury...............1..........202..........86-32..........86-21..........86-29 Sulphur................2.......... 32..........13 67.......... 1379..........13-71 "Bisulphuret of Mercury 1..........234..........99-99..........100-00..........100-00 Purity.—Pure cinnabar is totally evaporated by heat, and is insoluble in nitric or hydrochloric acid. If minium or red lead be intermixed, we may recognise it by boiling in acetic acid, by which acetate of lead is procured in solution : this forms a black precipitate with hydrosulphuric acid,—white with the sulphates,— and yellow with iodide of potassium. Realgar, or sulphuret of arsenicum, may be detected by boiling the suspected cinnabar in solution of caustic potash, super- saturated with nitric acid, and passing a current of hydrosulphuric acid through it, by which a yellow precipitate (orpiment or sesquisulphuret of arsenicum) is obtained. Earthy impurities are not volatile. Totally evaporated by beat; and on potash being added to it, it runs into globules of mercury. It is not dissolved either by nitric or hydrochloric acid, but is so by a mixture of them. Rectified spirit, with which it has been boiled or washed, acquires no red colour. Digested wilh acetic acid, it yields no yellow precipitate by iodide of potassium. Ph. Lond. " It is sublimed entirely by heat, and -without any metallic globules being formed." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—According to Orfila (Archiv. Gen. de Med. xix. 330.), pure cinnabar is inert; for he found no effects were produced on dogs, by half an ounce, when either applied to wounds or taken into the stomach. These results being opposite to those obtained by Smith (Christison, Treat, on Poisons, 3d ed. 395.), it has been presumed that the latter must have employed an impure sulphuret. The vapour obtained by heating cinnabar in the air is poisonous; but this is not in opposition to Orfila's experiments, since this vapour is not bisulphuret of mercury, but a mixture of the vapour of mercury (either in the metallic or oxi- dized state) and of sulphurous acid gas. Schenkius (Observ. L. vii.) has related the case of a young man who died from the use of this vapour; and Hill (Edin. Med. Essays, iv.) saw cough, violent salivation, diarrhoea, &c, produced by its inhalation. Uses.—Cinnabar is used merely as a fumigating agent, in venereal ulcerations of the nose and throat. The method of using it is this :—About half a drachm is placed on a heated iron, and the fumes inhaled as they arise. In the shops a copper apparatus, with iron heater, is sold for the purpose. In the absence of this the bisulphuret is to be placed on a hot iron shovel, and the vapour inhaled by the patient through a funnel. The irritating nature of the sulphurous vapour usually excites coughing, and is injurious in persons disposed to phthisis. Hence the oxide of mercury is to be preferred for fumigating. Administration.—When employed internally, cinnabar has been given in doses of from ten grains to half a drachm. For the purpose of fumigation half a drachm may be employed. BICYANIDE of mercury. 639 15. HYDRAR'GYRI SULPHURETUM CUM SUL'PHURE, L. — BISULPHURET OF MERCURY WITH SULPHUR. (Hydrargyri Sulphuretum nigrum, £>.)—[U. S.] History.—It is stated that the Chinese used this remedy long before it was known to Europeans. Harris, in 1689, first taught the method of preparing it by trituration. Its most common name is JEthiops mineral. Preparation.—The London and Dublin Colleges give directions for the prepa- ration of this compound. The London College orders of Mercury ; Sulphur, each, lbj. Rub them together,until globules are no longer visible. [Also U. S. P.] The directions of the Dublin College arc similar, with the addition that a stoneware mortar should be used. Properties.—It is a heavy, black, tasteless, odourless powder, insoluble in water. When heated it fuses, and is completely dissipated. Characteristics.—By boiling in caustic potash liquor we obtain a solution of sulphuret of potassium. The residue is black, but possesses all the before-men- tioned chemical characteristics of cinnabar (vide p. 638). Composition.—If this compound be, as Mr. Brande (Manualqf Pharmacy, 3d ed. 329.) supposes, a mixture of bisulphuret of mercury and sulphur, the pro- portions must be— Per Cent. Bisulphuret of Mercurv................................ 58 Sulphur.............'................................42 Hydrargyri Sulphuretum cum Sulphure, Ph. Lond......100 Purity.—Free mercury may be detected by its communicaling a white stain to gold. Charcoal may be detected by its not volatilizing by heat. Animal char- coal, by this character, as well as by the presence of phosphate of lime in the residue (vide pp. 308 and 513). Sesquisulphuret of antimony may be recognised by boiling in hydrochloric acid, and applying the before-mentioned (p. 552) tests for sesquichloride of antimony. Totally evaporated by heat, no charcoal nor phosphate of lime being left. Ph. Lond. Physiological Effects.—According to the experiments of Orfila, this prepa- ration, like the last, possesses little or no activity. The late Dr. Duncan (Edin- burgh Dispensatory.) also tells us that he has given it in doses of several drachms, for a considerable length of time, with scarcely any effect. It is commonly re- garded as alterative. Uses.—It has been used in glandular diseases, especially of children ; and also in cutaneous diseases. Administration.—The dose for adults is from 5 to 30 grs. 16. HYDRAR'GYRI BICYAN'IDUM, L.—BICYANIDE OF MERCURY. (Hydrargyri Cyanuretum, D.)—[U. S.] History.—This salt was discovered by Scheele. Its real nature was first pointed out by Gay-Lussac in 1815. It has been known by various appellations, as Prussian Mercury (Hydrargyrum Borussicum), Prussiate, Hydrocyanate, Cyanuret, Cyanide or Cyanodide of Mercury (Hydrargyri Prussias, Hydro- cyanas, Cyanuretum, Cyanidum seu Cyanodidum). Preparation.—There are two methods of preparing this salt: one recom- mended by Proust, the other by Winckler. The London and Dublin Colleges adopt Proust's process. The London College orders, of Percyanide of Iron [Prussian blue], 3viij.; Binoxide of Mer- cury, 3x.; Distilled Water, Oiv. Boil them together lor halfan hour and strain. Evaporate the liquo'r that crystals may be formed. Wash what remains frequently with boiling distilled Water, and again evaporate the mixed liquor that crystals may be formed. 640 elements of materia medica. The Dublin College employs of Prussian Blue, six parts; Nitric Oxide of Mercury, five parts; Distilled Water, forty parts. [The U. S. Pharmacopceia directs Ferrocyanuret of Iron, four ounces; Red Oxide ot Mer- cury, three ounces, or a sufficient quantity; Distilled Water, three pints. Put the Ferrocy- anuret of Iron and three ounces of the Oxide of Mercury, previously powdered and thoroughly mixed together, into a glass vessel; and pour upon them two pints of the Distilled Water. Then boil the mixture, stirring constantly; and, if at the end of half an hour the blue colour remain, add small portions of the Oxide of Mercury, continuing the ebullition until the mixture becomes of a yellowish colour;—after which filter it through paper. Wash the residue in a pint of the Distilled Water and filter as before. Mix the solutions and evaporate till a pellicle appears; then set the liquor aside that crystals may form. To purify the crystals, dissolve them in Distilled Water, filter and evaporate the solution and set it aside to crystallize.] In this process the cyanogen of the Prussian blue combines with the mercury of the nitric oxide, while the iron unites with the oxygen of the oxide. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. „ i 3 eq. Protocyan. Iron 162 r 3 eq. Cyan. 2eq.Ferrosesqu.-S * U eq. Iron cyanide of Iron 4.10 { 4 ^ Sesquicy. jron 268 \ 6 eq. Cyan. 4| eq. Binoxide of Mercury......981..................... 1411 ( 4 eq. Iron '■ eq. Merc. Oxyg. I eq. Oxyg- ■ I 4i eq. VAeq. (6eq. Bicyan. Merc......1143 3 eq. Oxide Iron...... 108 ? 8 4eq. Sesquiox. Iron.. 160 > §■ 1411 The awkwardness of the use of half an equivalent may be easily obviated by doubling all the above numbers : but several reasons have induced me to retain it in the above diagram. Pure bicyanide of mercury may be more economically prepared by Winckler's process. This consists in saturating hydrocyanic acid with binoxide of mer- cury. The London College observes that bicyanide of mercury may be otherwise prepared by adding as much Binoxide of Mercury as will accurately saturate it, to Hydrocyanic Acid, distilled from Ferrocyanide of Potassium with diluted Sulphuric Acid. The solution is to be filtered and allowed to crystallize. In tnis process double decomposition takes place, the resulting products being water and bicyanide of mercury. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. 2 eq. Hydrocyanic ( 2 eq. Hydrogen 2 acid............ 54 ( 2 eq. Cyanogen 52 1 eq. Binoxide of ( 2 eq. Oxygen.. 16' Mercury.......218 j 1 eq.Mercury. 202, 272 i PRODUCTS. eq. Water........................ 18 1 eq. Bicyanide of Mercury.........254 272 Properties.—The crystals of this salt are square prisms. The crystals are Fig. 94. Fig. 95. Crystals with modified Planes. General form of Crystals of Bicyanide of Mercury. BICYANIDE OF MERCURY. 641 heavy, while, colourless, transparent or opaque, inodorous, and have a strong metallic taste. They are soluble in waler, both hot and cold, and very little, if at all so, in alcohol. Characteristics.—Perfectly dry bicyanide of mercury when heated yields me- tallic mercury and cyanogen gas. The latter is known by the violet or bluish red colour of its flame. Heated with hydrochloric acid it evolves hydrocyanic acid. It is not decomposed by nitric acid or the alkalis. Its solution throws down a black precipitate with hydrosulphuric acid, and white pearly crystalline plates (hydrargyro-iodo cyanide of potassium) with a concentrated solution of iodide of potassium (vide p. 387). Composition.—Its composition is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Gay Lussac. Mercury............. 1 ............ 20-2 ............ 79-52 ........... 76-91 Cyanogen........... 2 ............ 52 ............ 20-47 ............ 20 09 Bicyanide of Mercury 1 ............ 254 ............ 99-99 ............ 100-00 Purity.—When prepared from ferrosesquicyanide of iron (Prussian blue) the crystals are usually yellowish from the presence of some oxide of iron. Transparent and totally soluble in water. The solution, when hydrochloric acid is added, emits hydrocyanic acid, which is known by its peculiar smell; and a glass moistened with the solution of nitrate of silver and placed over if, gives a deposit, which is dissolved by boiling nitric acid. By heat it emits cyanogen, and runs into globules of mercury. Ph. Lond. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—It acts on plants like bichloride of mercury. (Gceppert, in De Candolle, Phys. Veg. 1834.) /3. On Animals.—Coulon (Traite sur VAcide Prussique, quoted by Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. iii. 30.) found that it acted on dogs, cats, sparrows, frogs, snails, &c, like hydrocyanic acid. After death, inflammation of the stomach was observed. Ollivier d'Angers [Journ. de Chim. Med. i. 260.) tried its effects on dogs. Seven grains, dissolved in water, killed a small dog in ten minutes, under attempts to vomit, general convulsions, and exhaustion, manifested alternately ; respiration and circulation at first accelerated, afterwards diminished. Similar effects were produced by applying the salt to the cellular tissue, or injecting it into the veins. Tiedemann and Gmelin1 detected mercury in the blood of the splenic vein of a horse to whom the bicyanide had been administered. y. On Man.—Taken in small doses, it very readily excites nausea and vomit- ing. Parent (Journ. de Chim. Med. viii. 473.) says it does not produce the epigastric pain which the bichloride of mercury readily occasions. Continued use causes salivation. In one case one-eighth of a grain twice a-day caused ptyalism in three days.2 Mendaga3 says it acts directly on the skin and bones, and hence it sometimes very speedily allays the pain of and disperses nodes. In large doses, especially in very susceptible persons, it affects the nervous system, and causes fainting, anxiety, and cramps. Twenty-three and a half grains in one instance (Journ. de Chim. Med. i. 210.) caused death in nine days. The most remarkable symptoms were, obstinate vomiting; mercurial ulceration of the mouth and abundant ptyalism ; contractions of the heart, which at first were very strong, but became successively slower and more feeble; the abdomen was yielding, and not tender, notwithstanding the constant tenesmus ; suppression of urine; semi-erection of the penis, and ecchymosis of this organ, as well as of the scrotum; and, ultimately, convulsive movements. rjSES.—It has been employed as an antivcnereal medicine, and was first used as such by Brera. (Richter, op. cit.) Parent (Journ. de Chim. Med. viii. 473.) 1 Vcrsuche ii. d. Wege auf welch. Subst. aus d. Magen u. Darmk. ins Blut gelang. » Neumann, in Dierbach's? Neueste Entd. in d. Mat. Med. ii. 483, 1828. s Decades Medico chirurgicas y Farmaceuticas, vi. 319, in Richter's Ausfiihr Arzneim. v. 477. 54* 642 elements of materia medica. administered it as a substitute for the bichloride of mercury, over which it has several advantages. Thus, being more soluble, it ought to be more readily ab- sorbed : it does not give rise to epigastric pain ; and, lastly, it is not so readily decomposed ; for alkalis, several salts, and many solutions of organic matters, which decompose corrosive sublimate, have no effect on it. It may be applied in the form of aqueous solution or ointment to venereal sores. It has been employed in induration of the liver, in some chronic skin diseases, in obstinate headache, and in other maladies, as an antiphlogistic. Its principal use in this country is as a source of hydrocyanic acid (vide p. 384) and of cyanogen gas. Administration.—Internally it may be employed in doses of one-sixteenth of a grain Gradually increased to one-half of a grain. It may be administered in the form of pills (made with crumb of bread) or alcoholic solution. It will be fre- quently advisable to conjoin opium, to prevent nausea or vomiting. When used as a gargle or wash, we may employ ten grains to a pint of water. An ointment may be prepared of ten or twelve grains to an ounce of lard. Antidote.—I am unacquainted with any antidote for it. Albumen does not decompose it. Perhaps ammonia might be found serviceable, to diminish the effect on the nervous system. Opium relieves the vomiting. Our principal ob- ject must be to remove the poison from the stomach, which is to be effected by the stomach-pump, emetics, tickling the throat, &c. 17. UNGUEN'TUM HYDRAR'GYRI NITRA'TIS, L. (U. S.)—OINTMENT OF NITRATE OF MERCURY. (Unguentum Citrinum, E.—Unguentum Hydrargyri Nitratis vel Unguentum Citrinum, D.) History.—This ointment is commonly known as \Citrine or Yellow Ointment. It has also been termed Mercurial Balsam. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for its preparation. The London College orders of Mercury, 3j.; Nitric Acid, f3xi.; Lard, 3v'j.; Olive Oil, f3iv- First dissolve the Mercury in the Acid; then mix the solution while hot with the Lard and Oil melted together. The Edinburgh College directs of Pure Nitric Acid, f3viij. and f3vi.; Mercury, 3iv.j Axunge, 3xv.; Olive Oil, fSxxxij. Dissolve the mercury in the acid with the aid of a gentle heat. Melt the axunge in the oil with the aid of a moderate heat in a vessel capable of holding six times the quantity; and while the mixture is hot, add the solution of mercury, also hot, and mix them thoroughly. If the mixture do not froth up, increase the heat a little till this takes place. Keep this ointment in earthenware vessels, or in glass-vessels, secluded from the light. The Dublin College orders of Purified Mercury, by weight §j.; Nitric Acid, 3xiss.; Olive Oil, Oj. [wine measure]; Prepared Hog's Lard, 3iv. Dissolve the mercury in the acid; then, having melted the oil and lard together, mix them and make an ointment in the same manner as the ointment of nitric acid. [For the formula of the U. S. P. see p. 643.] The theory of the process is as follows :—By the mutual action of mercury and strong nitric acid, a nitrate of the binoxide, as well as of the protoxide of mercury, is formed, while binoxide of nitrogen is generated.1 Part of the latter escapes, and, combining with atmospheric oxygen, forms nitrous acid ; the re- mainder reacts on the free nitric acid, and forms with it hyponitrous or nitrous acid. The liquor then is a mixture of nitric acid in excess, probably of nitrous acid, of the nitrate and hyponitrite of the binoxide of mercury, and nitrate of the protoxide of mercury. 1 For the theory of the formation of Protonitrate cf Mercury, see pp. CIS, 019, and 632. ointment of nitrate of mercury. 643 When this solution is added to the fatty matter (lard and olive oil), the olein (oleate of glycerine) of the olive oil and of the lard is transformed into elai'dine (so called by Boudet, Journ. de Chim. Med. viii. 641, from e\aig, sXaidog, an olive tree.) (elaldate of glycerine) by the nitrous or the hyponitrous acid of the solution. A red viscid oil is also simultaneously developed. Binoxide of nitrogen, and, ac- ' cording to Soubeiran (Nouv. Traite de Pharmacie, t. ii. p. 526 2ndeed.), carbonic acid gases are evolved. By the aclion of the fatty bodies on nitrate of mercury, the latter is transformed info a yellow subnitrate of the protoxide of mejcury. A small portion of elai'date of mercury is also formed. The continued deoxidizing influence of the fats on the mercurial salt ultimately effects the reduction of the mercury. The gray colour which the ointment acquires by keeping is due to the dissemination of minute globules of metallic mercury through the mass. If old citrine ointment be digested in ether, the fatty matters are dissolved, and metallic mercury left behind. By keeping, this ointment is apt to change its colour, and become hard, pulve- rizable, and thereby unfit for use. To prevent these alterations various modifica- tions of the officinal formulae above given have been suggested. Dr. A. T. Thomson (London Dispensatory.) declares that the proportion of lard used is too large. This statement, however, is pronounced by Dr. Wood (United States Dispensatory.) to be a mistake; and the hardening is ascribed to the olive oil. In the United Slates Pharmacopceia neat's-foot oil is substituted for olive oil, and it is said with decided advantage. One writer recommends rape oil. (Pharmaceutical Transactions, No. iv. p. 175.) Mr. Lessey, of Manchester, informs me, that when made with lard only, the ointment remained soft for six months. MM. Henry and Guibourt {Pharma- copee Raisonnee, p. 448, 3me ed.), and Mr. Duncan, of Edinburgh (Supplement of the Edinburgh Dispensatory, p. 196.), employ a considerable excess of acid. The following are several formulae for its preparation : United States Dispensatory. Paris Codex. Henry and Guibourt. DuncaD. Bell and Co.1 Lessey. Nitric Acid .... f ^xi. (sp. gr. 1-5) pud......... 3'ij. Olive Oil...... 0 NeaiLs foot Oil,. fgix. 32 parts. 48 parts. (sp. gr. 1-286) 250 parts. 250 parts. 0 30 parts. 60 parts. (sp. gr. 1-321) 240 parts. 240 parts. 0 giv. gxn. (Nitrous acid.) gxv. gxxxviss. 0 giv. fgxiv. (sp. gr. 1-43.) lb. iij. lb. ij. 0 giv. g*>j-(Nitrous acid.) gxliss. 0 0 Fine citrine ointment may be procured by any of the above processes; but, on the other hand, failure may attend all of them. This may arise either from defec- tive manipulation or from the employment of acid of different strength to that ordered. The following are some practical points to be attended to in conducting the process:__(see Mr. AIsop's paper in the Pharmaceutical Transactions, No. iii. p. 100.) 1. The due regulation of the heat employed.—" If the mixture be made at a low temperature, no effervescence takes place, and the ointment so produced will be- come hard in a few days, of a greenish white colour, and eventually of a con- sistence that may almost be powdered; but if the oil or fat is heated to a sufficient temperature, or the quantity operated upon is large enough to generate the heat required, strong effervescence takes place, much gas is evolved, and a perfect article is produced, of a fine golden colour, and of the consistence of butter." The greater success which attends the manufacture of large than of small quantities of * Pharmaceutical Transactions, No. iii. p. 102. 644 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. this ointment, may be referred to the higher temperature generated by the reaction of larger quantities of the materials. 2. The employment ofa proper quantity of acid.—In the process of the London College, by which, when it is strictly followed, a very fine product is obtained, acid of a sp. gr. of 1 -5 is directed to be used. But the sp. gr. of commercial nitric acid rarely exceeds 1*38 or 1*4. Hence, therefore, a larger quantity of commer- cial acid is required to be equivalent to the quantity of strong acid ordered by the Pharmacopoeia. 3. Stirring assists the evolution of gas, and is usually believed to favour the formation of a fine product.—Mr. AIsop, however, asserts that a long continued stirring is not required. Properties.—When fresh prepared, this ointment has a fine golden yellow colour, a butyraceous consistence, and a remarkable nitrous odour. It is very apt to become gray when mixed with other ointments, in consequence of their deoxidizing powers. It should be spread with wooden or ivory spatulas. Composition.—When fresh prepared this compound contains the following substances:— Elaidine. Red Oil. Ela'idate of mercury (mercurial soap). Nitrate of Mercury. Elaidine is a white saponinable fat, fusible at 97° F. [89-6° F. according to Meyer,] (Pharma- ceutisches Central-Blatt fur 1840, S. 790.), very soluble in ether, but requiring 200 times its weight of boiling alcohol to dissolve it. It consists of elaldic acid and glycerin. Physiological Effects.—It is an irritant and slight caustic. When it has undergone decomposition by keeping, it irritates ulcers exceedingly, and even ex- cites slight erysipelatous inflammation. Uses.—We employ it as a stimulant and alterative in chronic diseases of the skin, more particularly those affecting the hairy scalp, as the different forms of porrigo, in which it is exceedingly efficacious. It is also used as a dressing to ulcers—to stimulate and cleanse them—as in foul syphilitic sores and phagedenic ulcers. Lastly, it is employed in ophthalmic diseases—more particularly ophthalmia tarsi, or psorophthalmia, in which it is applied (mixed with its own weight of almond oil) by means of a camel's hair-pencil to ihe lids, frequently with such advantage that some have regarded it as a specific in this complaint. 18. HYDRAR'GYRI ACETAS, D— ACETATE OF MERCURY. History.—This compound was known to Lefebure in the 17th century. Preparation.—In the Dublin Pharmacopoeia the directions for procuring it are the following:— Take of Purified Mercury, Acetate of Potash, of each nine parts; Diluted Nitric Acid eleven parts; Boiling Distilled Water, one hundred parts; Distilled Vinegar, as much as may be suffi- cient. Let the Nitric Acid be added to the Mercury, and when the effervescence has ceased let th« mixture be digested that the metal may be dissolved : let the Acetate of Potash be dissolved in water, and let the distilled vinegar be added until the acid shall predominate in the liquor* to this, whilst boiling, let the solution of the Mercury in the Nitric Acid be added, and let Ihe mix- ture be filtered as quickly as possible through a double linen cloth; let it cool that crystals may form; having washed these with cold distilled water, dry them on paper with a very gentle heat. In every step of this process let glass vessels be employed. By the mutual action of diluted nitric acid and mercury we obtain a protonitrate of mercury (vide p. 615). When this is mixed with acetate of potash double de- composition takes place: nitrate of potash and protoacetate of mercury being formed. To prevent precipitation of the yellow subnitrate of mercury, excess of yellow subsulphate of mercury. 645 acetic acid should be employed: and by filtering, whilst hot, any which may be formed would be separated before the acetate has deposited. Properties—This salt occurs in white micaceous, flexible scales, which are inodorous, but have an acrid taste. It blackens by light. When heated it is re- solved into carbonic acid, acetic acid, and mercury. It is very slightly soluble in water, requiring 300 times its weight of this liquid to dissolve it, according to Dumas. It is insoluble in cold alcohol: boiling alcohol abstracts part of its acid. Characteristics.—Its appearance, its slight solubility in water, and the action of heat on it, are some of its characteristics. Heated with sulphuric acid the vapour of acetic acid is evolved. The fixed alkalis precipitate the black oxide of mercury. Chloride of sodium forms calomel with it. Composition.—It has the following composition:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Dumas. Protoxide of Mercury...... 1 ........210 ........ 80-46 ........ 80-66 Acetic Acid............... 1 ........ 51 ........ 1954 ........ 1934 Acetate of Mercury....... i ........261 ........ 100-00 ........ 10000 Physiological Effects.—It is one of the mild mercurial preparations. From the reports of Guarin, Colombier, and Vogler (Wibmer, Wirkung d. Arzneim. iii. 647.), it appears to have acted in some cases with great violence, and to have occasioned violent vomiting, purging, abdominal pain, bloody evacuations, &c. These effects probably arose from the presence of some acetate of the binoxide of mercury. Uses.—It was introduced into practice in consequence of being supposed to be the active ingredient of Keyser's antivenereal pills. But Robiquet has subse- quently ascertained that Keyser employed the acetate of the binoxide. (Dumas, Traite de Chimie, v. 178.) It is occasionally used in syphilitic affections. Administration.—The dose of it is from one to five grains. A solution com- posed of one grain of the acetate dissolved in an ounce of water, may be used as a wash. An ointment is prepared by dissolving two or three scruples in an ounce of olive oil. 19. HYDRAR'GYRI SUBSUL'PHAS FLAVUS.—YELLOW SUBSULPHATE OF MERCURY. (Hydrargyri Oxydum Sulphuricum, D.)— [Hydrargyri Sulphas Flavus, U. S.] History.—This compound was known to Croll in the sixteenth century. It has been termed Turpeth (or Turbith) mineral {Turpethum minerale), from its resemblance in colour to the root of the Ipomoza Turpethum. Preparation.—The Dublin College directs it to be thus prepared:— Take of the Persulphate of Mercury one part, Warm Water twenty parts. Triturate them together in an earthenware mortar, and pour off the supernatant liquor; let the yellow powder be washed with distilled water, so long as the decanted fluid exhibits any deposit on the addi- tion of some drops of the water of caustic polash ; lastly, let the sulphuric oxide of mercury be dried. [The U. S. P. directs the Persulphate to be made with Mercury four ounces, Sulphuric Acid six ounces. Then proceed as above.] By the action of water there are obtained a soluble supersulphate and a diffi- cultly soluble subsulphate of mercury. Properties.—It is a heavy, lemon-yellow, inodorous powder, having an acrid taste. It requires 2000 parts of water at 60°, or 600 parts at 212°, to dis- solve it. Characteristics.—When heated in a tube, sulphurous acid is evolved, and glo- bules of mercury sublimed. Boiled with caustic potash or soda, the red binoxide 646 elements of materia medica. precipitates, and a solution of sulphate of potash is obtained, known to be a sul- phate by chloride of barium (vide p. 414). Composition.—Its composition is as follows :— Braamcamp. and Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Siqueira-Oliva. Binoxide of Mercury....... ] ........ 218 ........ 84 5 ........ 847 Sulphuric Acid............ 1 ........ 40 ........ 15'5 ........ 15' Subsulphate of Mercury.... 1 ........ 258 ........ 1000 ........ 99-7 Physiological Effects___In small quantities it occasions nausea, vomiting, and ptyalism. Taken into the nostrils it excites sneezing, and sometimes saliva- tion. Stenzel (Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. iii. 66.) mentions a fatal case from its internal use. Uses.—It is sometimes used as an emetic in cases of swelled testicle, to pro- mote absorption by its nauseating and emetic action. (Observ. on the Dublin Pharmacopoeia.) It was formerly given at the commencement of a mercurial course. As an errhine it has been administered in chronic ophthalmia and affec- tions of the brain, as incipient hydrocephalus. As an alterative it has been given in the scaly diseases (lepra and psoriasis). Administration.—As an alterative, the dose should not exceed half a grain, or at most a grain. As an emetic, it is given to the extent of five grains ; in which dose it caflses violent vomiting. As an errhine, a grain should be mixed with four or five of some mild powder, as starch or liquorice powder. It is rarely given for any other purposes. [LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI ET ARSENICI IODIDI; Solution of Iodide of Mercury and Arsenic. Liquor Hydriodatis Arsenici et Hydrargyri. Donovan's Solution. The process for preparing this solution is as follows:—Triturate 6-09 grains of finely levigated metallic arsenic, 14*82 grains of mercury, and 49 grains of iodine, with one drachm measure of alcohol, until the mass has become dry, and from being deep-brown has become pale red. Pour on eight ounces of distilled water; and after trituration for a few moments, transfer the whole to a flask; add half a drachm of hydriodic acid, prepared by the acidification of two grains of iodine, and boil for a few moments. When the solution is cold, if there be any deficiency of the original eight ounces, make it up exactly to that measure with distilled water ; finally filter. The theory of the process is this:—By long-continued trituration with alcohol, the iodine and metals are converted into iodides, which combine. The mass, when dissolved in water, is converted into hydriodales of arsenic and mercury. Before solution the iodides existed as sesquiodide of arsenic and biniodide of mercury ; consequently, by the decomposition of the water, hydriodic acid, sesquioxide of arsenic (arsenious acid), and binoxide of mercury are formed, which, uniting, constitute sesquihydriodate of arsenic and bihydriodate of mercury. Mr. Donovan states that the liquor thus prepared contains in each drachm, gr. ^ sesquioxide of arsenic, gr. i binoxide of mercury, and gr. | of iodine converted into hydriodic acid. The colour of the solution is yellow, with a pale tinge of green ; its taste is slightly styptic. The test of its perfection is, that the whole of the iodine, ar- senic, and mercury shall be dissolved and disappear during the process of prepar- ing it. This cannot happen unless the three elements employed are chemically pure, and unless the trituration be continued sufficiently long. The sp. gr. is 1*02. For the preparation white arsenic (arsenious acid) will not answer. The incompatible substances are solutions of opium, or of the salts of morphia, as well as alkalis and acids. This preparation has been employed in cases where advantage is ordinarily ex- COPPER. 647 pected from the separate ingredients of which it is composed, but in which addi- tional activity and medicinal efficiency were to be looked for from their union. Thus, in chronic diseases of the skin, in venereal eruptions, and secondary vene- real diseases generally, it has been administered with advantage. Mr. Carmichael employed it in five or six cases of lupus and one of psoriasis with advantage. Drs. Graves and Irvine used it in cases of psoriasis with benefit. Through the journals has been communicated much information confirmative of the good ef- fects it is capable of producing. If given in too large doses, or too long con- tinued, it will disorder the stomach and produce derangement of the head. To produce its beneficial effect a long continuance of its use rnay be required. The dose varies from 6 drops to half a drachm, three or four times daily. It is better always to begin with small doses and increase them ; a tolerance is thus produced to its impression. The vehicle in which it is administered is sweetened water.] Order XXII.—COPPER AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 1. CU'PRUM.—COPPER. History.—Cuprum, or Copper, received its name from Ki^po.;, from the island of Cyprus, where it was first discovered, or at least worked to any extent. It seems to have been known in the most remote ages of antiquity, for Moses (Job, ch. xxviii.) speaks of brass (an alloy of copper and zinc). The alchymists called it Venus. Natural History.—It is found in both kingdoms of nature. a. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—Copper is found in the metallic or rcguline state, combined with oxygen, with sulphur, with selenium, with chlorine, or with oxygen and an oxyacid (car- bonic, arsenic, phosphoric, sulphuric, or silicic). /3. In the Organized Kingdom.—It has been discovered in the ashes of most plants, as of Stavesacre, Rhatany, Flax, Nux-vomica, Hemlock, &c. Sarzeau has detected it in the blood of animals. (Ann. de Chim. xliv. 334) Preparation.—The copper of commerce is usually prepared from copper pyrites (the double sulphuret of copper and iron). The greater part of the ore raised in Cornwall is of this kind. It is roasted and then smelted, by which coarse metal is produced. This is calcined and again smelted, by which we obtain fine metal, or, when cast in sand, blue metal. By re-roasting and smelt- ing, coarse copper is produced. These processes, of roasting and smelting, effect the expulsion of the sulphur and the oxidizement of the iron. The copper thus produced is melted and exposed to the air, to drive off any volatile matters by which blistered copper is obtained. It is refined or toughened by melting it and stirring with a birch-pole. (J. H. Vivian, Ann. of Philosophy, N. S. vol. v. p. 113.) Properties—It is a brilliant, red metal, crystallizable in regular octohedra and cubes, having a specific gravity of 8*86 to 8*89 ; malleable and ductile ; it has a nauseous, styptic taste, and a peculiar and disagreeable smell. It fuses at 1996° F. (Daniell); at a higher temperature it may be volatilized. Its equiva- lent is 32. It is combustible, and is readily oxidated. Acid, alkaline, saline, and fatty bodies, when placed in contact with it in the air, promote its union with oxygen; and, by dissolving a portion of the newly-formed oxide, acquire poi- sonous properties. Characteristics.—Copper is easily recognised by its colour, and by its com- municating a green tinge to flame. It dissolves in diluted nitric acid : the solution possesses the following properties :—It is blue, or greenish-blue ; with potash or soda it yields a blue precipitate (hydrated oxide of copper)-, a small quantity of 648 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA 3IEDICA. ammonia produces with it a similar bluish-white precipitate, but an excess redis- solves it, forming a deep blue liquid (cuprate of ammonia): ferrocyanide of po- tassium occasions in it a reddish-brown precipitate (ferrocyanide of copper): the hydrosulphurets throw down a precipitate (sulphuret of copper): and, lastly, a polished iron plate, plunged into the liquid, becomes coated with metallic copper. Physiological Effects, a. Of Metallic copper.—Metallic copper appears to produce no pernicious effects when taken internally, so long as it retains its me- tallic state; as many cases are recorded where coins of this metal have been swallowed, and retained for a considerable time, without any ill effects arising ; and Drouard (Exper. et Observ. sur VEmpoisonnem. par VOxide de Cuivre. Paris, 1802.) gave as much as an ounce of finely-powdered copper to dogs of different ages and sizes, but none of them experienced any inconvenience there- from. Notwithstanding these facts, however, various effects have been attributed to if. Thus, Cothenius (Voigtel, Arzniemittellehre.) says, copper filings operate by stool, urine, and saliva; and the late Professor Barton (Chapman, Elem. of Therap. ii. 457.) was accustomed to relate an instance of a child, who, having swallowed a cent, continued for some time to discharge several pints of saliva. Lastly, Portal (Orfila, Toxicol. Gen.) mentions a case in which copper filings, incorporated with crumb of bread, acted powerfully on the system. I have no doubt but that the effects here mentioned arose from the oxidation of the metal by the acids of the alimentary canal. (3. of the Cupreous Compounds.—Most, if not all, the preparations of copper are poisonous in large doses. The sulphuret and ferrocyanide are doubtful ex- ceptions to this statement. If the cupreous preparations be used in very small doses, they sometimes give relief in certain diseases (principally of the nervous system), without obviously disordering the functions; in other words, in these instances the only apparent effect is the modification observed in the morbid con- ditions. There are cases in which these preparations have been termed tonic, antispasmodic, or alterative, according to the nature of the disease ,* thus, in ague they have been termed tonic, in epilepsy antispasmodic, in dropsy alterative. The beneficial operation is presumed to be owing to some influence exerted by the remedy over the nervous system. The effects produced by the long-continued use of small doses of the preparations of copper have not been satisfactorily determined; they are said to be various affections of the nervous system (such as cramps or paralysis), alteration of the colour of the skin, chronic inflammation of the respiratory and digestive apparatus, slow fever, and wasting of the body. These symptoms constitute what has been termed slow, or chronic poisoning by copper. The smelters and workers in copper do not suffer from the vapour or emanation of this metal, as the workmen employed in the preparation of mercury, of arsenic, or of lead do, from the vapours of these metals : this, indeed, might be expected, when we consider how much more volatile the latter and their prepa- rations are, than copper and its compounds. In larger, or full medicinal doses, these remedies act as emetics, exciting speedy vomiting, with less nausea than tartar emetic produces. In still larger quantities, these bodies act as poisons, giving rise to gastro-intestinal inflammation, and disordering the functions of the nervous system (especially the cerebro-spinal portion), constituting acute poisoning by copper. The usual symptoms are, a coppery taste, eructations, violent vomit- ing and purging, griping pains, cramps in the legs and thighs, headache, giddiness, convulsions, and insensibility : jaundice is occasionally observed. In some cases the cerebro-spinal symptoms precede those which indicate inflammation of the alimentary canal. In experiments made on animals, it has been observed that death was sometimes produced without any marks of local irritation; the symp- toms being those indicative of a disordered condition of the nervous system. By some toxicologists these preparations are ranked among the irritant poisons, SULPHATE OF COPPER. 649 th'ugh Buchner (Toxicologic) judging from Reiter's experiments, terms them as'ringent. Drouard, and others, were of opinion that the preparations of copper did not become absorbed ; but Lebkuchner (Christison, Treatise on Poisons, 3d ed. 433.) has detected copper in the blood of the carotid artery of a cat, into whose bron- chial tubes he had injected four grains of the ammoniacal sulphate; and Wibmer (Wirk. d. Arzn. ii. 244.) has found it in the liver of animals to whom he had given the acetate for several weeks. Post-mortem appearances.—In animals killed rapidly hf these poisons, no morbid appearances are found, in consequence of dealh being produced by their action on the nervous system: but when the death was slow, marks of gastro- intestinal inflammation, and occasionally indications of inflammation of the brain, have been observed. Uses. a. of Metallic Copper.—Copper filings, in doses of three or four grains, were formerly used in rheumatism, and also as an antidote against the effects of the bite ofa mad dog. 8. Of the Cupreous Compounds:—These preparations are used both as external and as internal remedies'; exter ally, as stimulants, astringents, styptics, and caustics; internally, as emetics, tonics or antispasmodics, and astringents. The particular cases will be noticed when treating of the individual preparations. Antidotes.—The chemical antidote for the cupreous preparations is albumen; hence, the whites of eggs, and, in the absence of these, milk, or even wheaten flour, should be employed. Iron filings have been proposed by Navier, by Payen and Chevallier, and subsequently by Dumas and Milne Edwards. The iron de- composes the cupreous salt, and precipitates the copper in the metallic (and, there- fore, in an inert) state. The ferrocyanide of potassium is also said to be a good antidote: a drachm or two of it may be taken with safety, for it is not $o poison- ous as was at one time imagined. Sugar was proposed by Marcelin Duval as an antidote ; its efficacy, though denied by Orfila and Vogel, has been lately reasserted by Postel. The alkaline sulphurets formerly used are worse than useless, since they are active poisons. The inflammatory symptoms are of course to be sub- dued by the usual means. (For farther details on this subject, consult Christison's Treatise on Pouons.) 2. CU'PRI SUL'PHAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)-SULPHATE OF COPPER. History.—This substance was probably employed by Hippocrates, (De Ulce- ribus.) under the name of -^ctknTis xuavsi] (Chalcilis ccerulea), to promote the heal- ing of ulcers. Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 32.) also was doubtless acquainted with it, though he seems to have confounded it with sulphate of iron. His Chalcanthum Cyprium was, perhaps, sulphate of copper. This salt has had various other names, such as Blue Vitriol(Vitriolum Cceruleum), Roman Vitriol, Blue Copperas, Blue Stone, Bisulphate of Copper. Natural History.—It occurs in copper mines (as those of Cornwall, &c.) and is formed from sulphuret of copper, by the joint agency of air and water. The cupreous solutions of copper mines are termed waters of cementation. Preparation.—It may be prepared by evaporating the water found in, or issuing from, copper mines. It is also produced by roasting copper pyrites, lixi- viating the residuum to dissolve the sulphate, and evaporating so as to obtain crys- tals. In this process both the sulphur and the copper of the pyrites abstract oxygen from the air, and become, the one sulphuric acid, the other oxide of copper: these by their union constitute the sulphate of copper. Sulphate of copper is "occasionally prepared by dissolving in sulphuric acid an oxichloride of copper made for the purpose, by exposing sheet copper to the joint action of air and hydrochloric acid." (Brande's Manual of Chemistry, 5th edit.) It is also obtained in large quantities in certain processes for refining gold and silver. vol. I. 55 650 elements of materia medica. For the following information respecting its production at the Mint I am indebted to the kindness of Professor Brande: "A large quantity of sulphate of copper is occasionally obtained here, as follows :—When ingots of >ilver are found to contain a certain quantity of gold, they are melted, granulated, and boiled in sulphuric acid, by which sulphate of silver is formed, and the gold remains in a pulverulent form: the sulphate of silver is then decomposed by the immersion of copper plates; the silver is precipitated in a fine crystalline powder, washed pressed into masses and melted, and so affords pure silver, which is afterwards made standard by alloying it with eopper, and used for the coinage: the resulting sulphate of copper is then crystallized and sold. . ., e "When gold ingots contain a certain quantity of silver, they undergo a similar process. Sup- pose a certain number of ingots of gold to contain 2 or 3 per cent, of silver.-ins'ead of leaving it, as former!v, to constitute a part of the standard alloy, it pays to extract it, and substitute cop- per in its place. To get the silver out of the said ingots they are melted with about 6 parts ot silver—Ihe resulting alloy is granulated and boiled in sulphuric acid—the gold remains un- touched,—and all the silver is dissolved and converted into sulphate, which is decomposed by copper as before: so that here again sulphate of copper is obtained." Properties__This salt occurs in fine blue crystals, whose form is the doubly oblique prism. Its sp. gr. is 2-2. It has a styptic metallic taste, and reacts on litmus as an acid. By exposure to the air it effloresces slightly, and becomes covered with a greenish-white powder. When heated it loses its water of crys- tallization, and becomes a white powder (pulvis sympatMicus). By a very in- tense heat it is decomposed,—sulphurous acid and oxygen are evolved, and oxide of copper left. It dissolves in about 4 parts of water at 60°, and two parts of boiling water. It is insoluble in alcohol. Characteristics__Its characteristics are those of the sulphates (vide p. 414), and of the cupreous compounds (vide 648). Composition.—Its composition is as follows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Thomson. Berzelius. Oxide of Copper................. 1 ........ 40 ........ 32 ........ 32 ........ 3213 Sulphuric Acid.................. 1 ........ 40 ........ 32 ........ 32 ........ 3.57 Water.......................... 5 ........ 45 ------- 36 ........ 36 ........ 3630 Crystallized Sulphate of Copper.. 1 ........ 125 ........ 100 ........ 100 ........ 100 00 Impurity.—The commercial sulphate of copper sometimes contains traces of sulphate of iron. It may be detected by excess of ammonia, which throws down the oxide of iron, but dissolves the oxide of copper. In the air it becomes slightly pulverulent, and of a greenish colour. It is totally soluble in water. Whatever ammonia throws down from this solution an excess of ammonia dissolves. Ph. Lond. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—It is poisonous to plants (De Candolle, Phys. Veg. 1335.): hence its use in preventing dry rot (Merulius la- chrymans), by soaking timber in it, according to Mr. Margary's patent; and in destroying or preventing the Smut {Uredo segetum), or Bunt (V. caries), in corn, by immersing the grain in a weak solution of it: the solution is not made suffi- ciently strong to injure the seed. /3. On Animals—This salt operates as a poison to animals. Six grains killed a dog in half an hour, without producing any appearance of inflammation (Drou- ard). Applied to a wound it destroyed the animal in twenty-two hours, and ihe body was every where in a healthy state. (Duncan, in Christison on Poisons, 432.) Orfila (Toxicol. Gen.) also found that it proved fatal in a few hours when applied to wounds. The only symptoms mentioned are dulnesst loss of appetite, and sometimes purging. Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the stomach and rectum was found after death. j. On Man.—In very small doses it has no sensible operation on the body, though it occasionally ameliorates certain diseases, such as epilepsy and ague: in these cases it has been denominated an antispasmodic and tonic. The local SULPHATE of copper. 651 action on the alimentary tube is that of an astringent. Dr. Elliotson (Lond. Med. Gaz. xii. 557.) has known a patient to take it for three years, for a parti- cular kind of diarrhoea, without any constitutional effect. I have administered six grains thrice a day for several weeks, in an old dysentery, without any other obvious effect than slight nausea and amelioration of the disease for which it was given. In larger doses it is a safe and useful emetic, acting very speedily, and without exciting any great disorder of the general system. In excessive doses it becomes a poison, producing inflammation of the alimentary canal, and disorder- ing the functions of the nervous system, as noticed when describing the action of the cupreous preparations generally. In a case mentioned by Dr. Percival, {Transactions of the London College of Physicians, iii. 88.) two drachms proved fatal; the patient was violently convulsed. In a more recent case (Lond. Med. Gaz. xviii. 624 and 742.) there were vomiting and insensibility, but no convul- sions or purging : the child died in four hours. Its topical action is stimulant, astringent, styptic, and caustic. Its causticity depends on its union, either as a neutral or basic salt, with one or more of the constituents of the tissues. Thus it combines with albumen to form a pale bluish- green compound, which produces with caustic potash a violet-coloured solution. (Dr. C. G. Mitscherlich, Brit. Ann. of Med. i. 751 and 817, and ii. 51.) Ac- cording to Lassaigne (Journal de Chim. Med. t. vi. lle Series.) the bluish white precipitate which sulphate of copper occasions in a solution of albumen, is com- posed of albumen 90*1, and sulpliate of copper 9-9. Uses.—Where speedy vomiting without much nausea is required, as in cases of narcotic poisoning, sulphate of copper is a tolerably sure and valuable emetic. It has also been used wilh success, to provoke vomiting in croup, and thereby to promote the expulsion of the false membrane. (Brit, and For. Med. Rev. i. 568.) As an astringent it has been used with great benefit in chronic diarrhoea and dysentery. (Elliotson, Lond. Med. Gaz. viii. 378, and xii. 577; also Med. Chir. Trans, xiii. 451.) It often succeeds where the ordinary vegetable astrin- gents fail. It should be given in doses of from half a grain to two or more grains twice or thrice a day, in "combination with opium. I have employed it with most excellent effects in the old diarrhoeas of infants, in doses of ^\ of a grain. The largest dose I have given to an adult is six grains, as above mentioned. It is also used as an astringent to check excessive secretion from the bronchial and urine-- genital mucous membranes. Dr. Wright (Lond. Med. Journ. i. and x.) found it serviceable in dropsy. As a tonic or antispasmodic it has been given in intermittent diseases, as the ague; and in some maladies of the nervous system (epilepsy and chorea). In epilepsy it has recently been strongly recommended by Dr. F. Hawkins. (Lond. Med. Gaz. viii. 183.) As a topical agent, it is often employed in substance as an application to ulcers, either for the purpose of repressing excessive soft and spongy granulations, com- monly denominated "proud flesh," or of hastening the process of cicatrization: and for either of these purposes it is one of the best agents we can employ. So- lutions of it are frequently applied to mucous membranes, to diminish excessive secretion: thus to the conjunctiva, in chronic ophthalmia, and to the mucous lining of the vagina or urethra, in discharges from these parts. In superficial ulcerations of the mucous membranes (especially of the mouth) one or two ap- plications of the sulphate of copper, in substance, are generally sufficient to heal them. As a styptic a solution of this salt is sometimes used to repress hemorrhages from a number of small vessels. Rademacher applied with good effect brandy impregnated with sulphate of copper in a case of alopecia, or baldness, which occurred in a young man ; but it failed in the hands of Dr.T. J. Todd. (Cyclov. of Pract. Med. i. 52.) 652 ELEMENT3 OF MATERIA MEDICA. Administration.—The dose of it, as an emetic, is from three or four grains to fifteen; as an astringent, or tonic, from a quarter ofa grain to one, two, or more grains, given so as not to occasion vomiting. Solutions used for external pur- poses vary considerably in their strength in different cases, but usually from one or two grains to eight or twelve, dissolved in an ounce of water, are employed. Antidotes.—Vide Cuprum. 3. AMMO'NLE CU'PROSUL'PHAS.—CUPRO-SULPHATE OF AMMONIA. (Cupri Ammonio Sulphas, £.—Cuprum Ammoniatum, E. D.)—[U. S.] History.—Boerhaave was acquainted with an ammoniacal solution of copper. In 1757 Weissman gave imperfect direciions for its preparation. In 1799 Aco- luth published a better process. Dr. Cullen introduced this substance into prac- tice in thi.s country. It is usually called Ammoniated Copper, or Ammoniuret of Copper (Cupri Ammoniaretum). Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for its preparation. The London College orders of Sulphate of Copper, ^j.; Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia, 3iss. Rub them together until Carbonic Acid ceases to evolve; then dry the Ammonia-sulphate of Copper, wrapped in bibulous paper, in the air, [The same proportions are directed by the U. S. Pharmacopoeia.] Tlie directions of the Edinburgh College are essentially similar; with the addition that the product is to be preserved " in closely.stoppered bottles." The Dublin College employs of Sulphate of Copper, two parts ; Carbonate of Ammonia three parts. The theory of the process is imperfectly understood. The proportions of in- gredients employed are about two equivalents of sulphate and three and one-fifth equivalents of sesquicarbonate. When rubbed together, these salts give out part of their water of crystallization, by which the mass becomes moist; and, at the same time, a portion of carbonic acid of the sesquicarbonate escapes, producing the effervescence alluded to ; and the compound becomes of a deep azure-blue colour. This colour is probably owing to cuprate of ammonia; for oxide of copper with caustic ammonia forms a similarly-coloured liquid. If this notion be correct, the decomposition may be thus explained:—Two equivalents or 118 parts of hydrated sesquicarbonate of ammonia react on one equivalent or 125 parts of crystallized sulphate of copper, and produce one equivalent or 57 parts of sulphate of ammonia, seven equivalents or 63 parts of water, and three equi- valents or 66 parts of carbonic acid. The cuprate and sulphate of ammonia with one equivalent of water represent the crystallized cupro-sulphate of ammonia (Cuprum ammoniacale of some authors). materials. composition. products. f 3 c?. Carb. Acid.. 66......................................3 eq. Carh. Acid... 66 2 eq. Hydrd. Sesqui- | » „,. ]8________( 6 eq. Waler 54.............6 eq. Water....... 54 carb. Ammonia 118 <{ ^eq- m ,uer...... i8----7 } 1 eq. Water 9........... leq. Ammonia... 17—-/-—-? 1 eq. Sulphate of Am- "| 1 eq. Ammonia... 17^/ >S monia............ 57 ' £ 5eq. ( 1 eq. 5 eq. Water...... 45\XT f ] e(!- Crystallized 1 eq. Crystd. Sulp. •? 1 eq. Sulph. Acid. 4(r \. Cupro Sulph. Copper........ 125 f 1 eq. Oxide Copper 40---------^1 eq. Cuprate of Ainm. 57 J of Aminu:iia 123 243 243 ~243 Properties.—It has a deep azure-blue colour, a styptic metallic tasle, and an ammoniacal odour. It reacts on vegetable colours as an alkali : thus it reddens turmeric, and restores the blue colour of litmus, which has been reddened by an acid. By exposure lo the air, ammonia is evolved, and a green powder is left, composed of sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of copper. To prevent this, therefore, it should be preserved in a well-stoppered bottle. It is soluble in water; but unless excess of sesquicarbonate of ammonia be present, the solution, when much diluted, lets fall a subsulphate of copper. Cupro-sulphate of ammonia cupro-sulphate of ammonia. 653 crystallizes in large, right rhombic prisms, which Dr. Kane (Elements of CJiemistry, p. 833. Dublin, 1841.) considers to be macles. Characteristics.—Dissolved in water it forms a green precipitate (arsenite of copper) with a solution of arsenious acid. When heated, all its constituents are dissipated, save the oxide of copper. Boiled with caustic potash a solution of sulphate of potash is obtained, the hydrated oxide of copper is thrown down,«and ammonia is disengaged. Sulphuric acid rnay be recognised in the solution by the barytic salts. By heat it is converted into oxide of copper, evolving ammonia. Dissolved in waler, it changes the colour of turmeric, and solution of arsenious acid renders it of a green colour. Ph. Lond. Composition.—The essential part of this compound is the cupro-sulphate of ammonia. Thi«, in the crystalline state, has the following composition :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Brandes. Oxide of Copper ................. 1 ........ 40 ........ 32-52 ........ 3400 ........ 33017 Ammonia....................... 2 ........ 34 ........ 2764 ........ 2640 ........ 21410 Sulphuric Acid.................. I ........ 40 ........ 32-52 ........ 32 25 ........ 31753 Water.......................... 1 ........ 9 ........ 7*32 ........ 735 ....... 13358 Cryst. Cupro-sulphate of Ammonia 1 ........ 123 ........ 10000 ........ 100-00 ........ 99-538 Ammonialed Copper of the pharmacopoeias usually contains some undecomposed sesquicarbo- nate (bicarbonate?) of ammonia, and probably some sulphate (subsulphate ?) of copper. Physiological Effects.—Its action is, for the most part, similar to sulphate of copper. Wibmer (Wirk. d. Arzneim. ii. 256.) examined its effects on horses and dogs. Four grains dissolved in water, and injected into the veins, killed a dog. The respiration and circulation were quickened by it. In some cases vomiting and purging were produced ; weakness, tremblings, and paralysis, indi- cated its action on the nervous system. Its general effects on man are like those of sulphate of copper, but it is thought to be less disposed to occasion nausea and vomiting. An over-dose, however, readily acts as an emetic. Its action is pro- bably somewhat more stimulant to the general system than the sulphate. It is employed in medicine as a tonic and antispasmodic. Uses.—Internally it has been principally employed in chronic spasmodic affec- tions ; such as epilepsy, chorea, hysteria, spasmodic asthma, and cramp of the stomach. In epilepsy it has been much esteemed, and was found useful by Dr. Cullen (Treat, on Mat. Med.), and other accurate observers; but, like all other remedies for this disease, it frequently fails. It has also been us'ed in ague and dropsy. As a topical remedy, a solution of it has been employed as an injection in gonorrhoea and leucorrhcea ; and as a collyrium to remove opacity of the cornea. Administration.—It may be administered internally in doses of from half a grain gradually increased to five or more grains. It is usually exhibited in the form of pill; rarely in that of solution. 1, PILULE CUPRI AMMONIATI, E. Pills of Ammoniated Copper. (Ammoniated copper in fine powder, one part; Bread crumb, six parts ,* Solution of Carbonate of Ammonia, a sufficiency. Beat them into a proper mass; and divide it into pills, containing each half a grain of ammoniated copper.) Dose from one to five or six pills in the before-mentioned cases. 9. LIQUOR CUPRI AM10NI0 SULPHATIS, L.; Cupri Ammoniati Solutio, E.; Cupri, Ammoniati Aqua, D. ; Solution of Ammoniated Copper ; Aqua Sapphirina. (Ammonio-sulphate of Copper 3j-; Distilled Water, Oj. Dissolve the Ammonio- sulphate of Copper in the water, and strain, L. E.—The Dublin College uses of Ammoniated Copper, one part; Distilled Water, one hundred parts.) This 55* 654 elements of materia medica. solution is applied to indolent ulcers as a stimulant and detergent; and, when diluted, to the eye, to remove slight specks of the cornea. 4. CUTRI SUBACE'TAS, D. (U. S.)—SUBACETATE OF COPPER. (^Erugo; Diacetas Cupri impura, L.—JEmgo; Commercial Diacetate of Copper, E.) History.—Hippocrates employed Verdigris, which he terms ^aX^ou i%, or Rust of Copper, in diseases of the eyes, and as an astringent in haemorrhoids. (Opera, Ed. Foes. 635, 636, and 894.) Theophrastus (De Lapidibus), Diosco- rides (Lib. v. cap. xci.), and Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxiv.), describe the method of procuring it. The Romans called it JErugo. It is frequently termed Diacetate of Copper ; but this name is objectionable, since verdigris frequently occurs as a Subsesquiacetate mixed with the Trisacetate. I prefer the less precise, though more accurate term, Subacetale of Copper. Preparation.—At Montpellier it is thus made:—The refuse of grapes is al- lowed to ferment with sour wine, and is then laid in alternate strata with plates of copper: acetous fermentation takes place, and the metal becomes oxidized by the combined influence of the air and acid. In about fifteen days the plates are covered with the acetate of copper : they are then wetted, and exposed for a month to the air: the acetate absorbs the water, and uniting with more oxide of copper, forms a subacetate, which is scraped off, and packed in leathern sacks for expor- tation. At Grenoble verdigris is obtained by sprinkling plates of copper with ready-made vinegar. (Dumas, Traite de Chim. v. 169.) In this country it is prepared by exposing thin plates of copper to the action of acetic acid : the method now practised consists in alternating plates of copper with pieces of woollen steeped in acetic acid; they gradually become corroded, and superficially covered with verdigris, which is from time to time removed, and the operation repeated, as long as the plate lasts. (Brande's Manual of Chemistry.) French verdigris is imported in sacks, weighing from 25 to 30 pounds. Properties.—It occurs in masses or in powder. One variety is of a pale bluish-green colour; another is blue. Its taste is astringent and metallic; its odour is somewhat similar to, though more disagreeable, lhan acetic acid. It is insoluble in alcohol. Water resolves it into a soluble acetate and an insoluble trisacetate. Characteristics.—When digested with strong sulphuric acid, it evolves acetic acid, which is readily distinguished by its odour. Heated in a glass tube it gives out acetic acid: the residue contains metallic copper. If verdigris^ be boiled in distilled wafer a solution is obtained, which is known to contain copper by its colour, and by the before-mentioned tests for its cupreous compounds (vide p. 648). Composition.—The blue verdigris is a hydrated diacetate of copper. Verdi- gris with a greenish tint consists of the subsesquiacetate and the trisacetate. (Berzelius, Traite de Chimie, iv. 347 and 349.) The composition of these salts is as follows :— DIACETATE. SOBSESQDIACETATE. TRISACETATE. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. 2 .... 80 .... 43*24 1 .... 51 .... 27*57 6 .... 54 .... 291!) Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. H .... 60 .... 43-48 1 .... 51 .... 36 96 3 .... 27 .... J9-5G Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. 3 .... 1-20 .... (>3 5 1 .... 51 .... 27 0 2 .... 18 .... 95 1 .... 185 .... 10000 1 .... 138 .... 10000 1--- 189 ___100 0 acetate of copper. 655 Purity.—The following are the characters of its purity given by the London and Edinburgh Colleges :— May be partly dissolved in water, and is almost entirely soluble either in ammonia, or, with the assistance of heat, in diluted sulphuric acid. Ph. Lond. It is dissolved in a great measure by muriatic acid, not above five per cent, of impurity being left. Ph. Edinb. Chalk and sulphate of copper are employed to adulterate verdigris. The first effervesces with the mineral acids. The characteristics of the second have been before pointed out (p. 649). Physiological Effects.—The action of verdigris on the system is very similar to that of the other preparations of copper: thus, taken in small and repealed doses, it acts on the nervous system, and is called tonic and antispasmodic ; in larger doses it acts as an emetic; and, in excessive doses, is a powerful poison, producing both gastro-enteritis, (indicated by vomiting, purging, and pain,) and an affection of the nervous system (marked by insensibility, convulsions, and even tetanus). Uses.—Verdigris, when taken into the stomach, being variable and dangerous in its operation, is never administered internally. It was formerly employed in obstinate syphilis, when mercurials failed. The powder is sometimes employed as an escharotic. It is sprinkled over foul and indolent ulcers, or, when mixed with savin, is applied to destroy venereal warts. When used for the latter purpose it rarely fails. 1. CUPRI SUBACETAS PRiEPARATUM, D.; Prepared Verdigris. (Let the Sub- acetate of Copper be triturated into powder, and let the finest parts be separated by the mode directed for the preparation of chalk.) The object of this process it to obtain a very fine powder. The water, however, effects a chemical change on the verdigris, and converts it into a soluble acetate and an insoluble trisacetate. 8. LINIMENTUM JIRUGINIS, L. Oxymel Cupri Subacetalis, D. Mel JEgyptia- cum; Unguentum jEgyptiacum,* Oxymel JEruginis. (Verdigris, powdered, 3j.; Vinegar [distilled, Dubf] f3vij.; Clarified Honey, 3xiv. Dissolve the ver- digris in the vinegar, and strain the solution through linen ; afterwards, the honey being added, boil down to a proper consistence.)—Stimulant, detergent, and slightly escharotic. It is applied by means of a camel's-hair pencil to venereal ulcers of the throat, as well as to other indolent ulcers. Diluted with water it is employed as a gargle. 3. UNGUENTUM CUPRI SUBACETATIS, D. (U. S.) Unguentum Mruginis, E. (Prepared Verdigris, 3ss.; Olive Oil, 3j.; Ointment of White Resin, lbj.; M. Resinous ointment, 3xv.; Verdigris, in fine powder, 3j. M. Ph. Ed.) [Sub- acetate of Copper, in fine powder, 3j.; Simple ointment, 3xv., U. S.] Stimulant and mildly escharotic. It is used as an application to foul ulcers, in ophthalmia tarsi, as a cure for the obstinate forms of ring-worm, and as an Application to corns. Antidotes.—Vide Cuprum. 5. CU'PRI ACE'TAS, D.—ACETATE OF COPPER. This salt is commonly, though very improperly termed Distilled or Crystal- lized Verdigris, and is met with in the shops crystallized on sticks. It is usu- ally prepared by dissolving common verdigris in acetic acid, and crystallizing. The crystals are oblique rhombic prisms. They consist of one equivalent of oxide of copper, one equivalent of acetic acid, and one equivalent of water. This salt is completely soluble in water, by which it is distinguished from common verdigris. In most other properties it agrees with the latter. It is included in 656 elements of materia medica. the list of the materia medica of the Dublin Pharmacopceia, but for what reason I cannot understand, since it is never used in medicine. The bluish white preci- pitate obtained by adding a solution of the neutral acetate of copper to a solution of albumen, consists of albumen 90*81, and deuto-acetate of copper 9*19. It is soluble in excess of solution of either acetate of copper or of albumen. (Las- saigne, Journ. de Chim. Med. t. vi. lle Ser. p. 305.) Order XXIII.—BISMUTH AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 1. BISMU'THUM, L. E. D. (U. S).—BISMUTH. History.—This metal is first mentioned by Agricola, in 1529. It has been termed Marcasita, Tectum Argenti, or, by the Germans, Wismuth. "The old miners called it Wismuth," says Matthesius, " because it blooms as a beautiful meadow (Wiesematte), on which variegated flowers of all kinds are glittering." (Schwartze, Pharm. Tabellen). Natural History.—Bismuth occurs only in the mineral kingdom. Il is found in Cornwall, Saxony, Bohemia, &c. It is met with in the metallic state nearly pure (Native Bismuth), and in combination with sulphur and with oxygen. Preparation.—It is chiefly obtained from native bismuth by melting the metal out of its gangue. Properties.—It is a reddish white metal, without taste or smell, composed of brilliant broad plates, and readily crystallizable in cubes or regular octohedrons. Its sp. gr. is 9*83 to 9*88. It is moderately hard, brittle, pulverizable, fusible at 476° F. When strongly heated in the air it takes fire, and burns with a faint blue flame, emitting a yellow smoke (the oxide). In close vessels it may be vola- tilized. Its equivalent is 72. Characteristics.—It is distinguished by its brittleness (see p. 657), its ready fusibility, its solubility in nitric acid, and by the characters of the nitric solution, which throws down a white precipitate on the addition of water, and a black one when hydrosulphuric acid or the hydrosulphates are added to it. Purity.—Copper may be detected by precipitating the nitric solution with am- monia ; the supernatant liquor is blue if copper be present. It is dissolved by diluted nitric acid ; when subnitrale of bismuth is precipitated from this solu- tion by ammonia, the liquor is free from colour. Its specific gravity is 9*8. Ph. Lond. Its powder is entirely soluble in nitric acid with the aid of heat; and the solution is colourless or nearly so, and deposits a white powder when much diluted with cold water. Ph Ed. Physiological Effects and Uses.—In ihe metallic state, bismuth is inert. Its only use is in the preparation of the trisnitrate. 2. BISMU'THI TRISNITRAS, L.—TRISNITRATE OF BISMUTH. (Bismuthum album, E.—Bismuth) Subuitras, D)—[U. S.] History.—This compound was first prepared by Lemery. It has had various appellations, such as Pearl White, Magistery of Bismuth (also a name for sub- muriate of bismuth), Spanish White, Sub-nitrate or Tetarto-nitrate of Bismuth. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this salt. The London College orders of Bismuth, 3j.; Nitric Acid, f 3iss.; Distilled Water, Oiij. Mix a fluid ounce of the water with the Nitric Acid, and dissolve the Bismuth in them; then pour off the solution. To this add the rest of the water, and set by that the powder may subside. Afterwards, the supernatant liquor being poured off, wash the Trisnitrate of Bismuth with distilled water, and dry it with a gentle heat. [This is essentially the directions of the U. S. Phar.] The process of the Edinburgh College is essentially similar. The precipitate [the Trisni- trisnitrate of bismuth. 657 trate] is directed to be collected en a calico filter, washed quickly with distilled water, and dried in a dark place. The Dublin College directs it to be prepared with Bismuth reduced to powder, seven parts ; Diluted Nitric Acid, twenty parts; Distilled Water, one hundred parts. In the first part of this process we obtain a nitrate of bismuth by the reaction of three equivalents or 216 parts of bismuth, on four equivalents or 216 parts of nitric acid. One equivalent or 30 parts of binoxide of nitrogen are evolved, and three equivalents or 402 parts of nilrate of bismuth formed. MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Nitric Acid... 5i\\^-Binor.Nitrog. 30------------------------------1 eq. Binox. Nitrog.....30 3 eq. Bi.mu.h.....21« . .3.7.'.?T.^.'.'.V.V.. t==»3e'1 °X *™™* 3 eq. Nitric Acid ..162 .......................—_----------------------____ 3 eq. Nitrat. Bism......402 432 432 When nitrate of bismuth is mixed with water, two bismuthic salts are produced : a soluble supersalt (ternitrate), and an insoluble subsalt (trisnitrate). MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. 1 eq. Nitrate Bismuth = 134 ... ^^*\ eq. Ternitrate Bismuth = 242 \ 2 eq. Nitric Acid .... 1C8 OxideCBfs^uth=Ao\ ~ x e1- Trisnitrate Bismuth = 294 (2 eq. _■...,,,. „...«.---,v_~ 3 eq. Nitrate Bismuth = 402 < 1 eq Nitric Acid--- _4 ( 'ieq. 536 536 Properties.—It is a dull white, inodorous, tasteless pulverulent substance, which, when examined by a magnifier, is found to consist of very fine silky acicular crystals. It is nearly insoluble in water, but is readily dissolved by nitric acid. By exposure to light it becomes grayish. Characteristics.—Hydrosulphuric acid, or the hydrosulphates, blacken it, by forming the sulphuret of bismuth. It dissolves in nitric acid without effervescence. Heated on charcoal by the blowpipe flame it gives out nitrous acid (or its ele- ments), and yields the yellow oxide of bismuth; and by a continuance of the heat, the oxide is reduced, globules of metallic bismuth being obtained, which may be readily distinguished from globules of lead by their briltleness ; for, when struck sharply by a hammer on an anvil, they fly to pieces; from antimony they are distinguished by their solubility in nitric acid. Composition.—Its composition, according to Mr. Phillips (Phil. Mag. Dec. 1930, p. 409.), is as follows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. R. Phillips. Oxide of Bismuth------ 3 ............ 240 ............ 81-64 ............ Pl-92 Nitric Acid............ 1............ 51 .......,.... 1836 ............ 1836 Trisnitrate of Bismuth. 1 ............ 294 ...........100 00 ............ 10028 Purity.—Its freedom from any carbonate (as of lead) is distinguished by its solution in nitric acid without effervescence. Diluted sulphuric acid added to the solution throws down a white precipitate, if lead be present. It is soluble in nitric acid without effervescence. Diluted sulphuric acid being added to the solution, nothing is thrown down. PA. Lond. It forms a colourless solution with nitric acid and without effervescence: not subject to adulte- ration. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects, a. On Animals—It acts as a local irritant and caustic poison. Moreover it appears to exercise a specific influence over the lungs and nervous system. (Orfila, Toxicol. Gen.) /3. On Man.— In small doses it acts locally as an astringent, diminishing secre- tion. On account of the frequent relief given by it in painful affections of the stomach, it is supposed to act on the nerves of this viscus as a sedative. It has also been denominated tonic and antispasmodic. Vogt (Pharmakodynamik, i. 288, 2te Aufl.) says, that when used as a cosmetic, it has produced a spasmodic trembling of the muscles of the face, ending in paralysis. Large medicinal doses disorder the digestive organs, occasioning pain, vomiting, 658 elements of materia medica. purging, &c. ; and sometimes affecting the nervous system, and producing giddi- ness, insensibility, cramps of the extremities, &c. The following is the only reported case of poisoning with it. A man took two drachms by mistake, and died therefrom on the ninth day. In addition to the usual symptoms of gastro-enteritis, there was a disordered condition of the nervous system, indicated by cramps of the hands and feet, disordered vision, and delirium. It is deserving also of remark, that there were difficulty of breath- ing, and salivation. Post-mortem examination showed inflammation throughout the alimentary canal; the spinal vessels were gorged with blood, particularly towards the cauda equina; there was fluid in the cerebral ventricles; and the inner surface of both ventricles of the heart was very red. (Christison's Trea- tise on Poisons.) Uses.—It has been principally employed in those chronic affections of the sto- mach which are unaccompanied by any organic disease, but which apparently depend on some disordered condition of the nerves of this viscus ; and hence the efficacy of the remedy is referred to its supposed action on these parts. It has been particularly used and recommended to relieve gastrodynia and cramp of the stomach, to allay sickness and vomiting, and as a remedy for the waterbrash. It has also been administered in intermittent fever, in spasmodic asthnm, &c. Hahnemann has recommended a portion to be introduced into a hollow tooth, to allay toothache. I have used it, with advantage, in the form of ointment, applied to the septum nasi, in ulceration of this part, and as a local remedy in chronic skin diseases. Administration.—The usual dose of this remedy is from five grains to a scruple. 1 seldom commence with less than a scruple of it for a dose, and have repeatedly exhibited half a drachm without the least inconvenience. It may be administered in the form of linctus or pill. The ointment which I have above referred to was composed of one drachm of the trisnitrate, and half an ounce of spermaceli ointment. Antidotes.—No chemical antidote is known. Emollient drinks should be ad- ministered, and the poison evacuated from the stomach as speedily as possible. The antiphlogistic plan is to be adopted, to obviate inflammation. Order XXIV.—TIN. STAN'NUM, L. E. D. (U. S.)—TIN. History.—Tin has been known from the most remote periods of antiquity. It is mentioned by Moses (Numbers, xxxi. 22.), and by Homer (Iliad, xi. 25). The alchymists called it Jove, or Jupiter. Natural History.—It is peculiar to the mineral kingdom. It occurs in two states; as an oxide (the Tin Stone and Wood Tin of mineralogists), and as a sul- phuret (Tin Pyrites). It is found in both states in Cornwall, which has long been qelebrated for its tin works. The Phoenicians, who were perhaps the first people who carried on commerce by sea, traded with England and Spain for tin at least 1000 years before Christ. Preparation.—In Cornwall, Stream Tin (a variety of Tin Stone) is smelted with charcoal or with culm, in a reverberatory furnace. The metal thus pro- cured is subsequently made hot, and then let fall from a height, or is struck with a hammer, by which it splits into a number of irregular prisms, somewhat like a basalt pillar. This is called Grain Tin ; of this there are two kinds, the best which is used for dyers,—and a second employed in the manufacture of tin-plate, and which is called tin-plate grain. Mine Tin (another variety of Tin Stone) is stamped, washed, roasted, afterwards smelted with Welsh culm and limestone, by which Block Tin is procured ; the finest kind of which is called Refined Tin. (Mr. John Taylor, Ann. Phil. iii. 419.) Besides the two varieties of tin just described, other kinds are met with in TIN. 659 commerce. Malacca Tin occurs in quadrangular pyramids, wilh flattened bases. Banco Tin is met with in wedge-shaped pieces. Properties.—In its massive f6rm it is a yellowish-white metal, having a pecu- liar odour when rubbed or handled. Its sp. gr. is 7*29. It melts at 442° F., and at a white heat is volatilized. It is malleable, and forms Sheet Tin and Tin Foil (Stannumfoliatum), but is sparingly ductile. lis equivalent is 58. Characteristics.—Boiled in strong hydrochloric acid, we obtain a solution of protochloride of tin, which has the following characters :—Potash added to it causes a white precipitate, soluble in excess of the precipitant; hydrosulphuric acid produces a brown precipitate; and chloride of gold, a dark or black precipi- tate. If protochloride of tin be heated with nitric acid, we obtain a perchloride, which causes a yellowish precipitate with hydrosulphuric acid. The London and Edinburgh Colleges give the following characteristics of its purity :— Boiled with hydrochloric acid it is almost entirely dissolved. The solution is free from colour, but becomes purple on the addilion of chloride of gold. What is precipitated by pot- ash is white, and when added in excess it is redissolved. The specific gravity of tin is 7*29. Ph. Lond. When finely granulated, 100 grains are entirely converted into a while powder by three fluid drachms of nitric acid (D. 1380); and distilled water, boiled wilh this powder and filtered, is colourless, and precipitates but faintly, or not at all, with solution of sulphate of magnesia. Ph. Edinb. Physiological Effects.—In the mass, tin has no influence on the body, ex- cept that arising from its form and weight. Powdered tin is not known to produce any disorder in the functions of the body. It appears, however, that acid, fatty, saline, and even albuminous substances, may occasion colic and vomiling by having remained for some time in tin vessels. Oxide of tin is poisonous, ac- cording to Orfila (Toxicol. Gen.); but Schubarth (Quoted by Dr. Christison, Treat, on Poisons.) found it inactive. Uses___Powdered tin has been employed with great success by various practi- tioners, as a vermifuge, particularly in tape-worm. Dr. Alston,(Med. Essays, v. 89, 92 ; also Led. on Mat. Med. i. 150.) explains its operation on mechanical prin- ciples : he supposes that the powder of tin gets betwixt the worms and the inner coat of the alimentary canal, and causes them to quit their hold, so that purgatives easily carry them away with the faeces. It has, however, been asserted that water in which tin has been boiled is anthelmintic, at least so says Pitcairn and Pietsch (Quoted by Richter, Ausf. Arzneim. iv. 553.); wine which has been digested in a tin vessel is also said to be noxious to worms. If these statements be true, ihe before-mentioned mechanical explanation is inadmissible. Some have, therefore, supposed that the efficacy must depend on the tin becoming oxidized in the ali- mentary canal; others have fancied that arsenic, which is frequently found in tin, is the active agent; while, lastly, some have imagined that the metal, by its action on the fluids of the canal, generated hydrogen, or hydrosulphuric acid, which de- stroyed these parasites. Dr. D. Monro, {Treat, on Med. and Pharm. Chem. i. 289.) Fothergill, and Richter, have used powdered tin in epilepsy produced by worms, and, as it is stated, wilh advantage. Administration.—It is usually exhibited mixed with treacle: the dose com- monly employed is one or two drachms, but Alston gave much larger quantities. His mode of employing it as a vermifuge was the following:—The patient was well purged with senna, and on the following morning one ounce of tin powder was given in four ounces of treacle: on each of the two following days half this quantity was taken, and then the patient again purged. Tin powder is much in- ferior to oil of turpentine as a remedy for tape-worm. STANNI PULVIS, E. D.—Pulvis Stanni (U. S.) Powder of Tin; Granulated Tin. (The Edinburgh College gives the following directions for its preparation :—Melt 660 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. tin in an iron vessel; pour it into an earthenware mortar heated a little above the melting point of the metal; triturate briskly as the metal cools, ceasing as soon as a considerable portion is pulverized ; sift the product, and repeat the process with what remains in the sieve___The Dublin College orders of the purest Tin, any required quantity. Liquefied by heat, let it be strongly agitated until it passes into a powder, which, when cold, is to be shaken through a sieve.)—Tin may be reduced to powder, by shaking it, when melted, in a wooden box, the inside of which has been rubbed with chalk. The doses and uses have been above de- scribed. Tin Filings (Stanni Limatura seu Rasura Stanni) have also been used in medicine. Order XXV.—LEAD AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 1. PLUMBUM.—LEAD. History.—This metal was known in the most remote ages of antiquity. It is mentioned by Moses. (Job, xix. 23, 24.) The Greeks called it /xoXi/3r5o_r; the alchy mists, Saturn. Natural History.—It is found both in the metallic state (Native Lead) and mineralized. It is met with combined with sulphur (Galena), with selenium, with chlorine (Horn Lead), with oxygen (Native Minium), and with oxygen and an acid, forming an oxy-salt (Carbonate, Phosphate, Sulphate, Tungstate, Molyb- date, Chromate, Arseniale, and Aluminate). Preparation.—It is usually extracted from galena, which is roasted in rever- beratory furnaces, by which it is converted into a mixture of sulphate and oxide of lead, and afterwards smelted with coal and lime; the first to abstract oxygen, the second to remove the sulphur. Properties.—It has a bluish-gray colour and considerable brilliancy. It may be crystallized by cooling in four-sided pyramids. It is malleable, but not ductile. Its sp. gr. 11*35. It has a peculiar odour when handled. It fuses at 612° F., and at a red heat boils and evaporates. Its equivalent is 104. By exposure to the air, it attracts, first oxygen, and then carbonic acid, so as to form carbonate of lead. Pure distilled water has no action on lead,1 if the gases (as air and carbonic acid) be excluded; but if these be admitted, a thin crust of carbonate is soon formed. It is remarkable that the presence of most neutral salts—sulphate of soda and chloride of sodium, for example—impairs the corrosive action of air and water. (Christison, Treatise on Poisons.) Hence, therefore, we can easily comprehend the reason why leaden cisterns and pipes do not more frequently give a metallic impregnation to water, and why rain-water is more apt than spring-water to be- come impregnated with lead. The latter, however, by long keeping in leaden vessels, may also become contaminated with lead. Characteristics.—If the lead be dissolved in nitric acid, we may easily recog- nise its presence in the solytion by the following tests:—Alkalis, their carbonates, sulphuric acid and the sulphates, and ferrocyanide of potassium, produce white precipitates (which are respectively hydrated oxide, carbonate, sulphate, and fer- rocyanide of lead); chromate of potash and iodide of potassium occasion yellow precipitates (chromate and iodide of lead); hydrosulphuric acid and the hydro- sulphates form black precipitates (sulphuret of lead); lastly, a piece of zinc throws down metallic lead in an arborescent form. 1 For some observations on this subject, see Mr. Taylor's memoir in the Guy's Hospital Reports, vol. iii. lead. 661 The delicacy of these tests is, according to Devergie (Med. Leg. ii. 779.), as follows :— Degree of Dilution. Sul phate of Soda............................................stops at 5,000 Iodide of Potassium................................................ 10,000 Ferrocyanide of Potassium.......................................... 18,000 Potash............................................................. 20,000 Carbonate of Soda or of Potash..................................... 60,000 Chromate of Potash................................................100,000 Hydrosulphuric Acid................................................500,000 Physiological Effects, i. of Metallic teati.—I believe that so long as lead retains its metallic form, it is inert. In a French journal (Journ. de Med. de Leroux, xxiii. 318.) it is stated that three ounces and six drachms of this metal have been given to a dog without any obvious effects. As, however, it is a metal which is readily oxidated, it occasionally proves active when swallowed. An instance of this kind is mentioned by Paulini [Miscell. Nat. Cur. Dec. ii. Ann. vi. App. p. 7, quoted by Voigtels, Arzneimittellehre.), in which colic was produced by swallowing a leaden bullet. Proust (Ann. de Chim. 1 vii. 84.) says that the alloy of lead and tin may be swallowed wilh impunity, in consequence of its being much less easily oxidated than the pure metal. a. Of the Preparations of Lead. a. On Vegetables.—Marcet found the solution of acetate of lead injurious to plants; but Wiegmann declares it to be inert, and ascribes its inertness to the formation of an insoluble salt (carbonate) of lead by the carbonic acid of the roots of the plants. (3. On Animals.—The preparations of lead are, for the most part, energetic poisons. The Sulphuret, however, appears to be inactive, or nearly so; for Orfila (Toxicol. Gen.) gave an ounce of it to dogs without observing any ill effects; four ounces have even been given to horses without any unpleasant results. The Sulphate, also, according to Orfila, is inactive. Our knowledge of the effects of the salts of lead on animals is derived from experiments made with the acetate, nitrate, and carbonate. The first two act as corrosives : all affect the nervous system, and occasion convulsions, palsy, and colica pictonum. (Christison, Treat. on Poisons, 506 et seq. 3d ed.) y. On Man.—Mr. Braid (Christison, op. cit. 518.) states that workmen who dig and pulverize the ore (sulphuret of lead), at the Lead Hills in Lanarkshire, never have the lead colic until they work at the smelting furnaces. Most, if not all, the other preparations are more or less active; the effects and symptoms, however, vary with the dose. In small doses, these preparations act on the alimentary canal as astringents, checking secretion and causing constipation. These may be regarded as the local effects. When absorbed, the constitutional effects of lead are observed : the arte- ries become reduced in size and activity, for the pulse becomes slower and smaller; the temperature of the body is diminished; and sanguineous discharges, whether natural or artificial, are frequently checked, or even completely stopped. This constringing and sedative effect seems extended to the secreting and exhaling ves- sels ; the discharges from the mucous membranes, the exhalation from the skin, and the urine, being diminished in quantity. Thus we observe dryness of the mouth and throat, thirst, greater solidity of the alvine evacuations, diminution of the bronchial secretion, and of cutaneous exhalation. From these circumstances it appears that the preparations of lead give rise to a contracted state of the coats of the blood-vessels (at least of the arteries). It is not at all improbable that the absorbent vessels are similarly affected. The wasting of the body produced by lead (Tabes saturnina, or Tabes sicca) may perhaps be referred to this constringing influence on the vessels. A remarkable effect on the human gums, produced by the absorption of lead, has been pointed out by Dr. Burton. (Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, 2d Series, vol. v. p. 63. Lond. 1840.) It consists in the formation of a narrow vol. i. 56 662 ELEMENTS of materia medica. leaden-blue line, about the one-twentieth of an inch thick, which borders the edges of the gums attached to the necks of two or more teeth of either jaw. In every case of lead colic that has fallen under my care I have observed this line. More- over, in several cases where sugar of lead, in full doses, has been given for many days continuously, I have noticed it; and in most of the cases it was accompanied by'abdominal pain. On two patients not known to have been subjected to the in- fluence of lead I have observed some faint indication of a similar line, without, however, any constitutional symptoms of lead poisoning. I have not observed this \line in patients under the influence of mercury. In one instance mentioned by Dr. Burton, fifteen grains of acetate of lead, taken in four days, caused the blue line: in another this effect was not produced until the patient had taken one hundred and sixty grains in twenty-one days. Salivation (Dr^ Warren, Medical Transactions, vol. ii. p. 87.), turgidity of the crums,1 and a bluish colour of the saliva (Dr. Christison, Treatise on Poisons, p. 514, 3d ed.), are other effects ascribed to the influence of lead. "I do not wish to assert," observes Dr. Burton, " that salivation and turgidity of the gums are never produced by the infernal operation of lead ; but I venture to affirm they are rare occurrences, arid not characteristic of its influence." The bluish colour of the saliva, and the blue line on the gums, probably depend on the presence of sulphuret of lead, formed by the action of sulphuretted hy- drogen, evolved by the lungs, on the lead contained in the salivary and buccal se- cretion ; for J have observed lhat an alloy of mercury and silver, introduced into the hollow of a tooth, becomes coated in a few days with a black film of metallic sulphuret. The long-continued use of the preparations of lead rarely fails to give evidence of its effect on the muscular and nervous systems : and which is manifested by a curious train of symptoms, commencing with colic, and terminating in palsy or apoplexy. Lead or painter's colic (colica pidonum), is variable in its mode of attack ; at one time commencing suddenly, and without any very marked premo- nitory symptoms, at another being preceded by dyspeptic symptoms—such as di- minished appetite, with a painful and constipated state of ihe bowels, the fasces being very hard. During an attack, there is usually obstinate constipation, with acute pain, much increased at intervals; but sometimes a relaxed condition of the bowels has been met with. Merat (Traite de la Colique Metallique.) refers the continued pain to the small intestines, while the more violent and intermitting kind resides principally in the transverse portion of the colon. Pressure rarely in- creases, and very commonly relieves, the pain. Cases, however, do occur (and I have seen several) in which there is great tenderness of the bowels. The abdo- men is strongly retracted, sinks in about the navel, and feels very hard. To these symptoms may be added vomiting, cramps of the lower extremities, hard and generally slow pulse, though sometimes it has been found frequent. De Haen and Merat, on examining the bodies of patients who have died affected with lead colic, found a contracted condition of the colon, and this was considered by the last-mentioned writer to indicate the seat of the disease. But Sir G. Baker, Andral (Path. Anat. by Tovvnsend and West, ii. 140.), Louis, and Copland (Did. Pract. Med. i. 366.), have not, in some cases, found any alteration. Moreover, it would appear probable, from Dr. Abercrombie's obser- vations on ileus (On Diseases of the Abdom. Viscera.) that the empty and col- lapsed portion of the intestine was not the seat of the colic, but another part found in a state of distention,—for the collapsed or contracted state is the natural condition of healthy intestine when empty; while the distended portion is, in ordinary cases of ileus, the primary seat of the disease, the distention arisino from a paralytic condition of the muscular fibres, whereby it is unable to contract 1 Dr. A. Thomson, Elements of Materia Medica, voj. ii. p. 66; and Laidlaw, in the Lond. Med. Rep. N. S. vi. LEAD. 663 and propel its contents onward. Now this view of the case is the more probable, since the action of lead on the muscular fibres of the intestine is doubtless of the same kind as that on the fibres of the voluntary muscles. Some have found intus- susception, others have noticed marks of inflammation. Lead colic is accompanied by the blue line on the gums above referred to; which, therefore, is an important aid in distinguishing this variety of colic from that which arises from other causes. Another effect of poisoning by lead is an affection of the cerebro-spinal system, generally manifested by paralysis, but occasionally by giddiness, convulsions, and coma, and now and then by apoplexy. The palsy may occur without colic, or it may come on while the patient is suffering with it, but in general it succeeds colic. It is accompanied with the blue line on the gums above described. It may happen in both upper and lower extremities, though more frequently in the for- mer ; and it affects the extensor more than the flexor muscles, so that the hands are generally bent on the armsfwhich hang dangling by the side. Frequently pain is experienced in the paralysed part, and sometimes in the region of the spine also. On examining the bodies of persons who have died with this disease, no lesion has hitherto been discovered in the spinal marrow. The muscles of the affected limb are observed to be wasted and very pale, and have sometimes the appearance of a white fibrous tissue. In very large doses, some of the plumbeous preparations (the acetate, for ex- ample) act as irritant and caustic poisons ; giving rise to the usual symptoms indi- cative of gastro-enteritis. However, none of them equal, in the intensity of the local action, the mercurial or even the cupreous compounds. Modus Operandi.—Tiedemann and Gmelin (Vers, ilber d. Wege, auf icelchen Subst. aus d. Mag. ins Blut. gelang.) found lead in the blood of the splenic, me- senteric, and hepatic veins of dogs killed by the acetate; they also found it in the contents of the stomach and intestines, but neither in the chyle nor the urine. Wibmer (Christison's Treatise on Poisons, 3d edit. p. 509.) detected it in the liver, muscles, and spinal cord. The local or corrosive action of the soluble salts of lead depends on the affinity of these bodies for the organic constituents of the tissues (vide Plumbi Acetas). The nervous system is specifically affected by lead. The paralysis of the voluntary muscles, the pain in the course of the spine, the occasional giddiness, coma, or apoplexy, seem to establish this. The colic as well as the astringent influence of lead over the coats of vessels are probably secondary effects of the action of lead over the nervous system. The constitulional effects of lead may be produced in various ways : as, when taken with articles of food and drink into the stomach; when inhaled in the form of dust or vapour with the air; when applied to mucous membranes, ulcers, &c. Hence the persons most liable to these effects are those whose occupations bring them in contact with this metal ; for example, painters, plumbers, roasters and smelters of lead, the manufacturers of the plumbeous preparations, glass-blowers, potters, lapidaries, &c. Dr. Anthony Todd Thomson (Lond. Med. Gaz. v. 538, and x. 689.) is of opinion that carbonate of lead is the only preparation of this metal that can pro- duce colic: and though he has, I think, clearly shown that lead colic more fre- quently arises from the carbonate than from any other salt of lead, he has, in my opinion, failed in proving that no other preparation of lead can produce it. In- deed, if his opinion were true, it would constitute an exception to the general effects of the metallic preparations ; for we do not find that the specific effects of arsenic orof mercury, or of copper, or of antimony, are produced by one prepa- ration only: so that, d priori, analogy is against the opinion. Farthermore, it is well known that the vapour of the oxide of lead taken into the kings may pro- duce colic, and that the ingestion of the acetate, citrate, or tartrate of lead, is capable of exciting the same effect. Now Dr. Thomson explains these facts by 664 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. assuming that the oxide of lead unites with carbonic acid in the lungs, and is thus converted into carbonate: and that the acetate, citrate, and tartrate, are decom- posed in the alimentary canal, and converted into carbonates. But it appears to me to be much more simple and consistent with analogy, to admit that these pre- parations are of themselves capable of producing colic, than to assume that they undergo the changes here supposed. Moreover, in some instances in which colic was produced, it is unlikely that these changes would have occurred, owing to the excess of acid taken wilh the salt of lead. Uses.—The uses of the preparations of lead may be in part inferred from the foregoing account of their effects. These agents are employed when we wish to constringe the capillary vessels and to diminish their vital activity. Thus we administer them internally to check excessive secretion and exhalation, as in catarrhal affections of the mucous membranes of a chronic nature; in profuse secretion of pus; in sanguineous exhalations from the mucous membranes; and colliquative sweating. They have also been applied, in some instances with suc- cess, in certain chronic affections of the nervous system, as epilepsy; but the practice is altogether empirical, as we have no rational principles to guide us in using them. As topical remedies,1 we employ the preparations of lead to diminish vascular excitement, to allay preternatural heat, and to check excessive secretion. Thus we apply them to inflamed parts to promote resolution, and to ulcers and other secreting surfaces as astringents or desiccants. During the internal em- ployment of lead, attention must be paid to the condition of the gums, stomach, and bowels, as we find traces of their injurious effects in these organs. The blue line on the gums has been noticed. Constipation is a very frequent result of the medicinal employment of lead. Loss of appetite, indigestion, and griping pains, are also often noticed. The tendency to colic is diminished, according to Dr. A. T. Thomson, by conjoining acetic acid. Antidotes.—Poisoning by lead usually puts on one of three forms—irritant poisoning, lead colic, and paralysis ; and the treatment varies with each. In irritant poisoning administer diluents holding in solution some sulphate (as sulphate of soda, of magnesia, or of potash or alum), so that a sulphate of lead may be formed. If vomiting have not already come on, tickle the throat, and administer emetics of the sulphate of zinc or of copper, or the stomach-pump may be employed. In lead colic the best remedy is alum (vide pp. 526 and 527). But in this country lead colic is frequently treated by the combined use of purgatives and ano- dynes, the purgatives being either castor oil or salts and senna, and the anodyne being opium. When the vomiting is very troublesome, and liquid medicines do not remain on the stomach, we may give the compound extract of colocynth, with opium in the form of pill. In several cases in which the pulse was full and strong, the face flushed, and the tongue furred and dry, I have used blood-letting with evident advantage. The sulphate^ have been recommended, as also mercury. In lead paralysis, nux vomica, and its active principles, strychnia and brucia, are perhaps of all internal remedies most deserving of trial, because oftheir specific effect on the spinal marrow; and the chance of their success is, of course, much increased by the circumstance of there being no discoverable lesion of this portion of the nervous system. Mercury has been recommended by Dr. Clutterbuck. Various local measures have been tried, but without much benefit; for example, electricity and irritants (such as ammonia and cantharides). 2. PLUMBI OXYDUM.—OXIDE OF LEAD. (Lithargyrum, E.—Plumbi Oxydum semivitreum, D.)—(U. S.») History.—The ancients were acquainted with oxide (Protoxide) of lead. Hippo- 1 See Dr. Aikin's Observations on the External Use of Preparations of Lead. Lond. 177. a In all cases the U. S. P. uses the i instead ofy in spelling the Latin word for oxide, thus Oxidum. oxide of lead. 665 crates (De Morb. Mid. ii.) employed the semi-vitrified oxide (Litharge) X&ugyvpov. Dioscorides (Lib. v. cap. cii.), and Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 53), both mention litharge: the latter calls it Molybdcena. Preparation—If melted lead be exposed to a current of air, it is rapidly oxi- dated and converted into the protoxide of this metal. The oxidated skimmings are denominated Massicot. This, when fused at a bright red heat, is separated from some metallic lead with which-it was intermixed; the fused oxide forms, on solidifying, a brick-red mass, which readily separates into crystalline scales : these constitute Litharge. Litharge is obtained as a secondary product in the cupellation of argentiferous lead. The alloy is melted in a porous vessel, called a test or cupel, and exposed to the blast of a bellows, by which the lead is oxidized, half vitrified, and driven off into hard masses of a scaly texture, and in that state is called Litharge or Silver Stone. (Watson's Chem. Essays, iii. 325, 6th ed.) Properties.—Oxide of lead presents itself in several forms. One of these is yellow, and is termed Massicot (Cerussa citrina). When semivitrified (Plumbi Oxydum semivitreum), it is called Litharge (Lithorgyrum), which occurs in the form of small yellow or reddish scales or flakes, and according to its colour, is called Gold or Silver Litharge (Lithorgyrum aureum [Chrysitis] seu Argenteum [Argyritis]). Gold Litharge owes its red tint to the presence of a portion of minium. Oxide of lead is fusible, and at a very high temperature volatile. It is almost insoluble in water. Characteristics.—Heated on charcoal by the blow-pipe, it is readily reduced to the metallic state. It is blackened by hydrosulphuric acid and completely dis- solves in nitric acid. The characteristics of this solution have been already de- scribed (vide p. 660). The varieties of the oxide are distinguished by their physi- cal peculiarities. Composition.—Oxide of lead is thus composed:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Berthier. « Lead.................. 1....... 104 ...... 9285 ...... 92-85 ...... 933 Oxygen................ 1 ...... 8 ...... 7 14 ...... 715 ..... 67 OxideofLead.......... 1 ...... 112 ...... 99-99 ...... 10000 ...... 1000 Purity.—It is not subject to adulteration. Almost entirely soluble in dilute nitric acid. Its other properties are the same as those of car- bonate of lead. Ph. Lond. Fifty grains dissolve entirely, without effervescence, in a fluid ounce and a half of pyroligneous acid; and the solution, precipitated by 53 grains of phosphate of soda, remains precipitable bv more of the test. Ph. Ed. The presence ofa carbonate would be indicated by effervescence on the addition of acetic acid. Physiological Effects.—Tnhaled in the form of vapour, or fine dust, it pro- duces the before-mentioned constitutional effects of lead (vide p. 662). The effects of this substance, when swallowed, are but little known. It possesses very slightly irrkant properties. " The experimentalists of Lyons found litharge to be irritant in large doses of half an ounce." Christison, op. cit. p. 509). From its external use ill consequences^have sometimes resulted. Uses.—Oxide of lead is never employed internally. Litharge is sometimes sprinkled over ulcers, as an astringent and desiccating substance. In pharmacy, it is used in the preparation of Emplastrum Plumbi (see p. 678), Ceratum Sapo- nis (see p. 489), Acetas Plumbi (see p. 672), and Liquor Plumbi Diacetatis (see p. 676). 1. PLUMBI OXYDUM HYDRATUM, L. Hydrated Oxide of Lead. (Solution of Diacetate of Lead, Ovj.; Distilled Water, Cong. iij.; Solution of Potash, Ovj., or 56* 666 elements of materia medica. as much as may be sufficient to precipitate the oxide. Mix. Wash with water what is precipitated, until nothing alkaline remains.) In this process the potash combines with acetic acid, and forms acetate of potash, which remains in solution, while the white hydrated oxide of lead is precipitated. According to Mitscherlich, this compound consists of two equivalents or 224 parts of oxide of lead, and one equivalent or 9 parts of water: it is, therefore, a dihydrated oxide. It is soluble in a considerable excess of a solution of caustic potash. What is used in preparing disulphate of quinia should be totally dissolved by dilute nitric acid. Its remaining properties resemble those of the preceding. Ph. Lond. h is directed by the London College to be employed in the preparation of Quince, Disulphas. I, CALCIS PLUMBIS; Plumbite of Lime.—This compound is employed as a Hair Dye. (See p. 219.) 3. PLUM'BI OX'YDUM RUBRUM.—RED OXIDE OF LEAD. (Plumbr Oxidum rubrum, E.)—[U. S.] History.—It is doubtful whether the ancients were acquainted with this com- . pound, as the substance which Pliny (Hist. Naturalis, lib. xxxiii. cap. 40, ed. Valp.) called Minium was Cinnabar. (See p. 637.) He describes, however, an inferior kind, which he terms Minium secundarium (Idem.), and which may be perhaps the red oxide of lead. Dioscorides (Lib. v. cap. 109.) distinguished Mi- nium from Cinnabar. Besides Minium, there are several other names for red oxide of lead. In com- merce it is usually known as Red Lead. It is sometimes termed Deuloxide of Lead. Natural History.—Native Minium is found in Yorkshire, Suabia, Siberia, and some other places. Preparation.—Red Lead is prepared by subjecting protoxide of lead (massicot or litharge) to the combined influence of heat and air. It absorbs oxygen, and is converted inlo red lead. A heat of about 600° is necessary. The finest minium is procured by calcining the oxide of lead obtained from the carbonate. (Graham, Elements of Chemistry, p. 589.) Properties.—Red oxide of lead has a brilliant red colour. By heat it gives out oxygen gas, and is converted into the protoxide of lead. Characteristics.—Before the blowpipe on charcoal it is converted into the yellow protoxide, and then into metallic lead. When digested in nitric acid, the nitrate of the protoxide is obtained in solution, while the insoluble brown or peroxide of lead remains. By the action of sulphurous acid on red lead, the white sulphate of the protoxide is obtained. " Entirely soluble in highly-fuming nitrous acid; partially soluble in diluted nitric acid, a brown powder being left." Ph. Ed. Composition.—The composition of real or pure red lead is as follows: Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Or, Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Duma 1........344........10000........1000 Dumas (Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xlix. 398.) has shown that red lead of com- merce is not uniform in composition, but consists of variable mixtures of real red lead with protoxide. His results have been confirmed by those of Mr. Phillips. (Phil. Mag. N. S. iii. 125.) That real red lead is not a mere mixture of protoxide and peroxide, is apparently shown by its colour, as well as by the fact that it is not altered by heating it in a solution of acetate of lead, which is capable of dis- solving free protoxide. chloride and iodide of lead. 667 Physiological Effects and Uses.—Its effects are similar to the protoxide of lead. It i3 but little employed in pharmacy. The Edinburgh College directs it to be employed in the preparation of Aqua Chlorinii. (See. p. 229.) 4. PLUMBI CHLO'RIDUM, L.—CHLORIDE OF LEAD. Natural History.—Chloride of lead is found native at Churchill, in the Men- dip Hills of Somersetshire. Preparation—In the London Pharmacopceia this compound is directed to be prepared as follows :— Take of Acetate of Lead, 3xix.; Distilled Waler, boiling, Oiij.; Chloride of Sodium, 3vj. Dissolve the Acetate of Lead and Chloride of Sodium separately, the former in three pints of Distilled Water, and the latter in one pint of Distilled Water. Then the liquors being mixed together, wash what is precipitated with distilled waler when it is cold, and dry it. In this process one equivalent or 163 parts of dry acetate of lead are decom- posed by one equivalent or 60 parts of chloride of sodium, by which one equiva- lent or 140 parts of chloride of lead are precipitated, and one equivalent or 83 parts of acetate of lead remain in solution. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. 1 pn ArPtiiP ) leq. Acetic Acid................51---------------------■___.,-1 eq. Acetate ofLead. ..163 \ I eq. Ox. Lead 112 j Iffi^g— 1 eq. Chloride j 1 eq. Sodium.....................24' ot Sodium..60 j 1 eq. Chlorine...................36----------------- '-----1 eq. Chloride Lead......140 223 223 223 Hydrochloric acid occasions the precipitation of more chloride of lead after the action of chloride of sodium is over, so that there must be some compound of lead in solution. (Phillips, Transl. of Pharm. 4th ed.) Properties.—It is a white crystalline powder (Magisterium Saturni Crollii), soluble in thirty parts of cold or twenty-two parts of boiling water. When heated, it fuses; and, by cooling, forms a semi-transparent horny-like mass, called Horn Lead (Plumbum corneum). Characteristics.—Its aqueous solution causes a white precipitate with nitrate of silver, soluble in ammonia, but insoluble in nitric acid; hence it is shown to be a chloride. The solution is known to contain lead by the before-mentioned tests for this metal. (Vide p. 660.) Totally dissolved by boiling water, the chloride concreting almost entirely into crystals as it cools. On the addition of hydrosulphuric acid, it becomes black, and by heat yellow. PA. Lond. Composition.—The following is its composition :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. J. Davy. Lead..........■.............. 1 ........ 104 ........ 74-3 ........7422 Chlorine..................... 1 ........ 36 ........ 257........25 78 Chloride of Lead............ 1 ........ 140 .......1000........10000 rjSE,—ft is employed in the preparation of hydrochlorate of morphia. 5. PLUM'BI IODIDUM, L. E.—IODIDE OF LEAD. History. — This compound was introduced into medicine by Cottereau and Verde-Delisle. Preparation.—The London and Edinburgh Colleges give directions for the preparation of it. The London College orders of Acetate of Lead, Six.; Iodide of Potassium, 3vij.; Distilled Water, cong. j. Dissolve the Acetate ofLead in six pints of the Water, and strain; and to these add Ihe Iodide of Potassium first dissolved in two pints of the water. Wash what is pre- cipitated, and dry it. 668 ELEMENTS of materia medica. The reacting proportions of iodide of potassium and crystallized acetate of lead are 166 parts of the former and 190 parts of the latter. Hence the London Col- lege uses a larger proportion of iodide than is requisite, supposing the acetate to be neutral. This excess is disadvantageous, since it retains a portion of the iodide of lead in solution. To prevent the formation of the pale yellow oxyiodide of lead, a little acetic acid should be added to the acetate of lead, before adding the iodide of potassium. The precipitate should be washed and dried. By the mutual action of one equivalent or 163 parts of dry acetate of lead, and one equivalent or 166 parts of iodide of potassium, we obtain one equivalent or 230 pans of iodide of lead, and one equivalent or 99 parts of dry acetate of potash. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. leq.Acetate t 1 eq. Acetic Acid.......... 51 ---- -------——^ 1 eq. Acet. Potash. .. 99 Lead..... 163 < 1 eq. Ox. Lead ) 1 eq. Oxyg. 8 - _ eq. Pot'h. 43---"""" ( 112 ( leq.Lead. 104 _^1_ 1 eq. Iodide ( 1 eq. Potassium........... 40 ' ------_____ Potasm... 166 f 1 eq. Iodine...:............ 126-----------------------=^- 1 eq. Iodide Lead.... 230 329 329 329 The Edinburgh College orders of Iodide of Potassium, and Nitrate of Lead, of each 3j.; Water, Oiss.; dissolve the salts separately, each in one-half of the water; add the solutions; collect the precipitate on a filter of linen or calico, and wash it with water. Boil the powder in three gallons of water acidulated with three fluid ounces of pyroligneous acid. Let any undis- solved matter subside, maintaining the temperature near the boiling point; and pour off the clear liquor, from which the iodide of lead will crystallize on cooling. The reacting proportions are one atom or 166 parts of nitrate of lead, and one atom or 166 parts of iodide of potassium ; or equal weights of the materials. The products are one equivalent or 230 parts of iodide of lead, and one equivalent or 102 parts of nitrate of potash. For pharmaceutical purposes, especially for the preparation of ointments, the pulverulent iodide is preferable to the crystalline or scaly kind. Properties.—It is a fine yellow powder, very sparingly soluble in cold water, but readily soluble in boiling water; from which it for the most part separates, as the solution cools, in the form of golden yellow, brilliant, small scales. It is fusible. It combines with the alkaline iodides, forming a class of double salts, called the plumbo-iodides (iodo-plumbates, Thomson). Caustic potash dissolves it, and forms a plumbo-iodide of potassium and plumbate of potash. (Dumas, Traite de Chim. iii. 379.) It is soluble in acetic acid and in alcohol. Characteristics.—When heated, it first forms a yellow vapour (iodide of lead), and afterwards a violet vapour (iodine), leaving a residue (lead), which, when dissolved in nitric acid, gives all the characters of solution of lead (vide 660). Boiled with carbonate of potash, it forms carbonate of lead and iodide of potassium. Composition.—Its composition is as follows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Henry. Lead.......................... 1 ........ 104 ........ 45-21 ........ 451 Iodine......................... 1 ........ 126 ........ 5478 ........ 549 Iodide of Lead................. 1 ........ 230 ........ 99-99 ........ 100-0 Purity.—It should be completely soluble in boiling water. Totally dissolved by boiling water, and as it cools separates in shining yellow scales. It melts by heat and the greater part is dissipated first in yellow, and afterwards in violet vapours. Ph. Lond. Bright yellow: five grains are entirely soluble, with the aid of ebullition, in one fluid drachm of pyroligneous acid, diluted wilh a fluid ounce and a half of distilled water; and golden crystals are abundantly deposited on cooling. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects, a. On Animals.—Twenty-four grains of iodide of lead were given to a cat at two doses with an interval of four hours : the animal CARBONATE OF LEAD. 669 suffered violent colic, and died in three days ; but no signs of irritation were ob- served after death. (Paton, Journ. de Chim. iii. 41, 2nde Ser.) Iodide of lead was given in doses of from gr. v. to 3ss. to a bull-dog : no effect was observed until the fifteenth day, when the animal refused food, and kept in the recumbent posture. He died on the eighteenth day, having swallowed altogether ten drachms and fifty grains of iodide. During the whole period, he had only three or four intestinal evacuations. (Cogswell, Essay on Iodine, 143.) (3. On Man.—Its effects on man have been imperfectly determined. It does not appear to act as an irritant when applied to the skin or ulcerated surfaces. Under the continued external and internal use of it, enlargements of the lymphatic glands have disappeared, from which we infer a specific influence over the glan- dular and lymphatic system. In some cases it appeared to occasion irritation of the stomach. I have seen constipation induced by it. After its medicinal use for several weeks 1 have not observed any blue line on the gums. Uses.—It has been principally employed to reduce the volume of indolent tumours, especially enlargements of the cervical, axillary, and mesenteric glands. In these cases it should be simultaneously administered internally and externally. I have also employed it in suspected incipient phthisis. I have used it in two cases of enlarged cervical glands, but without benefit. Velpeau (Lugol's Essays, by Dr. O'Shaughnessy, p. 206.) and others, however, have been more suc- cessful. Administration.—The dose is three or four or more grains. Dr. O'SBaugh- nessy (Lugol's Essays, p. 207.) says, ten-grain doses are easily borne, without th^ slightest annoyance. It is given in the form of pill. UNGUENTUM PLUMBI IODIDI, L. (Iodide of Lead, 3j.; Lard, 3viij. M.)—This is applied, by way of friction, to scrofulous and other indolent swellings. 6. PLUMBI CAR'BONAS, L. E. D. (U. S.) CARBONATE OF LEAD. History.—This substance was employed by Hippocrates (De Morbis, lib. ii.), under the name of •^ifjofjii&iov. Theophrastus (De Lapidibus.) described the method of making it. Dioscorides (Lib. v. cap. ciii.) and Pliny (Hist. Nat. lib. xxxiv.) also mention it. It has been known by several names, as Psimmythium, Ceruse (Cerussa.), Magistery of Lead (Magisterium Plumbi), White Lead, Flake White, and Sub- carbonate of Lead. Natural History.—This salt is found native, crystallized or massive, in Scotland, England, &c. It is called White Lead Ore. Preparation.—Neutral carbonate of lead is obtained by adding an alkaline carbonate to a solution of acetate or nitrate of lead. Procured in this way it is deficient in body, owing to the transparency of the crystalline grains ; and it is not, therefore, fitted for the use of the painter, who requires a carbonate having a dense and opaque body. Within the last few years several patents have been taken out for new modes of preparation.1 Some of the processes so patented have been subsequently abandoned, either because a profitable remuneration could not be obtained by them ; or because the quality of the product was inferior. I am informed that the white lead obtained by the old or Dutch process is superior, as an oil pigment, to that procured by most other methods. " In the Dutch process, introduced into England about 1780, lead is cast into plates or bars, or into the form of stars, or circular gratings of six or eight inches in diameter, and from a quarter to halfan inch in thickness : five or six of these are placed one above another in the upper part of a conical earthen vessel something like a garden-pot, in the bottom of which there is a little strong acelic acid. These pots are then arranged side by side, on the floor of an oblong brick chamber, and are embedded in a mixture of new and spent tan (ground oak bark as used 1 See Repertory of Patent Inventions ; also Brande's Manual of Chemistry, 5th ed.; Journal de Pharmacie, t. svi. p. 772; and Ure's Diet, of Arts, art. White Lead. 670 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA medica. iii the tan-yard). The first layer of pots is then covered wilh loose planks, and a second range of pots embedded in tan is placed upon the former; and thus a stack is built up so as entirely to fill the chamber with alternate ranges of the pots containing the lead and acetic acid, surrounded by and embedded in the tan. Several ranges of these stacks occupy each side of a covered building, each stack containing about 12,000 of the pots, and from 50 to 60 tons of lead. Soon after the stack is built up the tan gradually heats or ferments, and begins to exhale vapour, the temperature of the inner parts of Ihe stack rising to 140° or 150°, or even higher. The acetic acid is slowly volatilized, and its vapour passing readily through the gratings or folds of lead, gradually corrodes the surface of the metal, upon which a crust of subacetate is successively formed and converted into carbonate, there being an abundant supply of carbonic acid furnished by the slow fermentative decomposition of the tanners' bark. In the course of from 4 to 6 weeks the process is completed, and now, on unpacking the stacks, the lead is found to have undergone a remarkable change : the form of the castings is retained, but they are converted, with considerable increase of bull;, into dense masses of carbonate of lead ; this conversion is sometimes entire, at others it penetrates only to a certain deplh, leavitig a central skeleton as it were of metallic lead, the conversion being unequal in different parts of the stack, and varying in its perfection at different seasons, temperatures, and states of the atmosphere. The stacks are so managed that they are successively being built up and unpacked. The corroded and con- verted gratings, or cakes, are then passed through rollers, by which the carbonate of lead (white lead) is crushed and broken up, and the central core of metallic lead (blue lead), if any remain, is easily separated : the white lead is then transferred lo the mills, where it is ground up into a thin paste with water, and is ultimately reduced, by the process of elutrialion or successive washings and subsidences, to the state of an impalpable powder; it is then dried in wooden bowls, placed upon shelves m a highly heated stove, and thus brought to the state of masses easily rubbed between the fingers into a fine powder, in which the microscope does not enable us to discern the slightest traces of crystalline character. If intended for the use of the painter, it is next"submitted to grinding with linseed oil; and it is found that a hundred weight of this while lead is formed into a proper consistence with 8 pounds of oil, whereas precipitated white lead requires 16 pounds of oil for the same purpose; the one covering the surface so much more perfectly, and having so much more body than the other. It is sometimes-supposed in this pro- cess that the oxygen and carbonic acid required to form the carbonate of oxide of lead are derived from the decomposition of the acetic acid ; but this is evidently not the case, for not more than 100 pounds of real acetic acid exist in the whole quantity of the diluted acid contained in the several pots of each stack ; and in 100 pounds of acetic acid there are not more than 47 to 48 pounds of carbon, whereas 6740 pounds would be required to furnish the carbonic acid which should convert 50 tons of lead (the average weight of that metal in each stack) into carbonate of lead. There can be no doubt then that the carbon or carbonic acid must come from the tan, and that the oxygen is partly derived from the same source, and partly from the atmosphere : the principal action of the acetic acid therefore is to form successive portions of subacetate ot lead, which are successively decomposed by the carbonic acid : the aclion is, however, of a very re- markable description, for even masses of lead, such as blocks of an inch or more in thickness, are thus gradually converted through and through into carbonate, so that if due time is allowed there is no central remnant of metallic lead. The original texture of the lead is much concerned in the extent and rapidity of the conversion. Rolled or sheet lead will not answer, and the gratings, coils, and stars which are employed, are all of cast lead. The purest metal is also re- quired; for if it contain iron, the resulting white lead acquires a tawny hue, and if a trace of silver, it acquires a perceptible dinginess when it is subjected to the action of light." (Brande.) Properties.—The form of the crystals of the native carbonate of lead is a rioht rhombic prism. Artificial carbonate is a heavy, snow-white, tasteless powder, or it occurs in white chalk-like masses. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in caustic potash. When heated it gives out carbonic acid, and forms the yellow oxide. Characteristics.—Heated before the blowpipe, on charcoal, it yields metallic lead. It is blackened by hydrosulphuric acid. It dissolves in nitric acid with effervescence. The solution possesses the general characters of the plumbeous solutions as already described (vide p. 660). Composition.—Its composition is as follows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. OxideofLead........ 1 ........ 112 ........ 8358 ........ 835 CarbonicAcid........ 1 ........ 22 ........ 16-42 ........ 16-5 Carbonate of Lead ... 1 ........ 134 ........ 100.00 ........ 1000 Commercial white lead is not a neutral salt, but a mixture or combination of carbonate and hydrated oxide of lead in varying proportions.1 'Mulder, Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt far 1840, S. 100; and Richardson, in Graham's Elements of Che- mistry, p. 591. NITRATE of lead. 671 Purity.—Carbonate of lead of commerce is rarely pure. It is usually adulte- rated with earthy or metallic sulphates (as of lime, baryta, or lead). These are detected by their insolubility in diluted nitric acid. Chalk (which is by some used to adulterate it) may be detected as follows:—Dissolve the suspected substance in nitric acid, and precipitate the lead by hydrosulphuric acid. Boil and filter the solution, in which will be contained nitrate of lime (if chalk had been present), recognisable by oxalic acid or oxalate of ammonia (vide p. 496). Dissolved with effervescence in dilute nitric acid. What is precipitated from the solution by potash is white, and is redissolved by excess of it: it becomes black on the addition of hydro- sulphuric acid. It becomes yellow by heat, and, with the addition of charcoal, it is reduced to metallic lead. Ph. Lond. It does not lose weight at a temperature of 212° : 68 grs. are entirely dissolved in 150 minims of acetic acid diluted with a fluid ounce ofdistilled water: and the solution is not entirely preci- pitated by a solution of 60 grs. of phosphate of soda. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—Its local effects are not very powerful: applied to ulcerated surfaces it acts as a dessicating and astringent substance: swallowed in large quantities it does not act as a local irritant, like the acetate. Its constitu- tional effects are similar to those of the other preparations of lead alreadyde- scribed. It appears (see p. 663) that carbonate of lead more frequently produces colic than the acetate of lead—a circumstance which Dr. Christison thinks may be owing to the great obstinacy wilh which its impalpable powder adheres to moist membranous surfaces, and the consequent greater certainty of its ultimate ab- sorption. Uses.—It is never administered internally. Externally it is employed as a dusting powder in excoriations of children and lusty persons ; but the practice is objectionable, on account of the danger of ab- sorption. In one case, related by Kopp (Richter, Ausf. Arzneim. iv. 613.), a child was destroyed by it. An ointment or plaster of carbonate of lead has been known to give relief in some cases of neuralgia. (Journ. de Pharm. xx. 603.) UNGUENTUM PLUMBI CARBONATIS, E. D. (U. S.) Ointment of Carbonate of Lead. (Simple Ointment, 3v.; Carbonate of Lead, 3j. E.—Carbonate of Lead, reduced to very fine powder, 3ij.; Ointment of White Wax, lbj. D. (U. S.) Mix.)—This ointment is valuable as a cooling and desiccating application to ex- coriated surfaces or burns. [A plaster from carbonate of lead was directed by the last edition of the U. S. Pharmacopceia, under the name of Emplastrum Plumbi Carbonatis. It was in- tended as a substitute for Mahy's Plaster, much used in the United States. It is prepared as follows: "Take of Carbonate of Lead, a pound; Olive Oil, two pints; Yellow Wax, four ounces; Lead Plaster, a pound and a half; Florentine Orris, in powder, nine ounces. Boil together the oil and the carbonate of lead, adding a little water, and constantly stirring till they are thoroughly incorporated ; then add the wax and the plaster, and when these are melted sprinkle in the orris, and mix the whole together." This plaster is used to abraded surfaces and to prevent excoriation from long confinement in one position, as to the back when the dorsal position is main- tained.] 7. PLUM'BI NITRAS, E.—NITRATE OF LEAD. Preparation.—The Edinburgh College gives the following directions for its preparation :— Take of Lilharge, 3ivss.; Diluted Nitric Acid, Oj. Dissolve the litharge to saturation with the aid ofa gentle heat. Filter, and set the liquor aside to crystallize. Concentrate the residual liquid to obtain more crystals. The nitric acid combines with the protoxide of lead to form the nitrate of this metal. Properties.—This salt crystallizes in regular octohedrons or modifications of 672 elements of materia medica. these. It is soluble in water and alcohol. Its solution is sweet and austere. The crystals loudly decrepitate by heat. Characteristics.—When subjected to heat in a glass tube this salt evolves the reddish-brown vapour of nitrous acid. It possesses also the other characters of a nitrate which have been before stated (p. 282). It is known to be one of the plumbeous salts by the before-mentioned tests for these substances (p. 660). Composition.—This salt is anhydrous. Its composition is as follows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Dbbereiner. Berzelius. OsideofLead............ 1 ........ 112 ........ 6747 ........ 67-6 ........ 672225 Nitric Acid.............. 1 ........ 54 ........ 3253 ........ 324 ........ 32 7775 Crystallized Nitrate ofLead 1 ........ 166 ........ 10000 ........ 100-0 ------- 1000000 Physiological Effects.—Its general effects are similar to those of the other soluble salts of lead. Its local action on the animal tissues depends on its affinity for albumen and fibrin. In a solution of albumen it forms a white precipitate, com- posed, according to Lassaigne, (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. vi. 2nde Serie.) of albu- men, 89*45, and nitrate of lead, 10*55. This precipitate is soluble in a great excess of albumen, as well as in solutions of ammonia and some neutral salts, as acetate of potash. Uses.—The Edinburgh College employs it in the preparation of Iodide ofLead. 8. PLUM'BI ACE'TAS, L. D. E. (U. S.)—ACETATE OF LEAD. History.—Raymond Lully and Isaac Hollandus were acquainted with this salt in the 13th century. It has been known by several appellations, as Sugar of Lead (Saccharum Saturni), Acetated Ceruse (Cerussa acetata), and Superace- tate of Lead (Plumbi Super acetas). Preparation.—Though directions are given in British Pharmacopoeias for its preparation, it is never made by the apothecary, but is procured from persons who manufacture it on a large scale. The London College orders of Oxide ofLead, rubbed to powder lbiv. and 3ij.; Acetic Acid; Distilled Water, each Oiv. Mix the acid with the water, and add the oxide of lead to them, and, a gentle heat being applied, dissolve it; then strain. Lastly, evaporate the liquor, that crystals may be formed. The Edinburgh College uses, of Pyroligneous Acid (D. 1034) Oij.; Distilled Water, Oj.; Litharge, 3xiv. The Dublin College employs of Carbonate of Lead, named Ceruse, any required quantity; Distilled Vinegar, ten times the weight of the Carbonate of Lead. In the above processes the protoxide of lead combines with acetic acid, and forms a definite compound. In the Dublin process carbonic aciti is set free. Acetate of lead is sometimes procured by partially immersing lead in crude acetic acid. The metal attracts oxygen from the air, and the oxide thus formed unites with the acid. Properties.—The crystals of this salt belong to the oblique prismatic system. Their taste is sweetish and astringent. In a dry and warm atmosphere they slightly effloresce, and are apt to be decom- Fig. 96. posed by the carbonic acid of the air, and thus to become par- tially insoluble. When heated they fuse, give out their water of crystallization, and, at a higher temperature, are decom- posed ; yielding acetic acid, Pyroacetic Spirit (Acetone, C3 H3 O), carbonic acid, inflammable gas, and water : the resi- duum is a pyrophoric mixture of lead and charcoal. Acetate of lead is soluble in both water and alcohol. The aqueous solution feebly reddens litmus, though it communicates a green colour to the juice of violets. " A solution of the neutral ace- tate is partially decomposed by carbonic acid : a small quantity Crystal of Acetate of carbonate of lead is precipitated, and a portion of acetic acid °f Lead. is set free, which protects the remaining solution from farther change." (Dumas, Traite de Chim. t. v. p. 173.) ACETATE OF LEAD. 673 Characteristics.—When heated with sulphuric acid, the vapour of acetic acid is disengaged. Its solution is known to contain lead by the tests for this metal already mentioned (vide p. 660). If a small quantity of acetic acid be added to the solution, a current of carbonic acid occasions no precipitate. The ordinary acetate of the shops throws down a scanty white precipitate (carbonate of lead) with carbonic acid. When charred, it readily yields globules of metallic lead on the application of the blowpipe flame. Composition.—The neutral acetate has, the following composition :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. OxideofLead................. 1 ........ 112 ........ 589 ........ 58-71 Acetic Acid................... 1 ........ 51 ........ 268 ........ 26-97 Water........................ 3 ........ 27 ........ 14-3 ........ 1432 Crystallized Acetate ofLead.... 1 ........ 190 ........ 100-0 ........ 100-00 Purity.—It should be readily and completely soluble in water. Sulphuric acid, or sulphuretted hydrogen in excess, being added to the solution, to throw down the lead, the supernatant liquor should be completely volatilized by heat; any fixed residue is impurity. Dissolved by distilled water. By carbonate of soda a white precipitate is thrown down from the solution, and by iodide of potassium a yellow one; by hydrosulphuric acid it is blackened. Sulphuric acid evolves acetic vapours. By heat it first fuses, and is afterwards reduced to metallic lead. Ph. Lond. Entirely soluble in distilled water acidulated with acetic acid: forty-eight grains thus dissolved are not entirely precipitated by a solution of thirty grains of phosphate of soda. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—(Vide p. 661.) (3. On Animals.—Orfila {Toxicol. Gen.) found that in large doses the acetate of lead acted on dogs as an irritant, and caused vomiting, pain, and death. When the action was slower an absorption took place, an affection of the nervous system was observed, marked by difficult progression, and in some cases convulsive movements. The mucous membrane lining the alimentary canal was found whitened (owing to the chemical influence of the poison), and, where the action was more prolonged, reddened. Injected into the veins, or applied to wounds, it affects the nervous system. Schloepfer (quoted by Dr. Christison, p. 507.) produced colica pictonum, paralysis, and convulsions, in dogs, by the repeated use of small doses. Dr. A. T. Thomson (Lond. Med. Gaz. x. 691.) gave successively, one, two, three, and six drachms to a dog without any ill effect. y. On Man.—Applied to ulcers, mucous membranes, or other secreting sur- faces, it acts as a desiccative and astringent. It reacts chemically on the albumen of the secretions and of the living tissues, and forms therewith compounds which are for the most part insoluble in water and acids.1 Hence the difficulty with which this salt becomes absorbed. Some of its compounds with organic substances are, however, rendered soluble in water by acids (as the acetic, hydrochloric, and lactic). In large quantities, acetate of lead taken into the stomach acts as an irritant, and causes symptoms of inflammation of the stomach, viz. : vomiting, burning in the gullet and stomach, and tenderness at the pit of the stomach ; but these are usually accompanied with colica pictonum, and are not unfrequently followed by convulsions, coma, or local palsy.3 Ten grains taken daily for ten days caused tightness of the breast, metallic taste, constriction of the throat, debility, sallow countenance, slow respiration and circulation, turgid and tender gums, ptyalism, tightness and numb- ness in the fingers and toes, no nausea, pains of the stomach and abdomen, bowels 1 Dr. C G. Mitscherlich, Brit. Ann. of Med. i. 204. » Christison, Treat, on Poisons, 3d edit. p. 512.—In a recent case an ounce of acetate of lead in solution, caused, in a y'oung girl, collapse anil syncope followed by vomiting and convulsions. Orfila detected lead in the urine (Pharm. Trans. No. vi. p. 119). VOL. I. 5? 674 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. confined.1 The observations of Dr. A. T. Thomson and others (Van Swieten,2 Reynolds, Latham, Laidlaw, Daniell, Christison, &c.) have, however, shown that injurious effects from the use of large doses are very rare. I have repeatedly given five grains three times a day for ten days, without inconvenience. This dose was taken for a fortnight.3 The blue line on the gums (see p. 662) was then very distinct, and the patient complained of griping pains in the bowels. Dr. Christison has given eighteen grains daily for eight or ten days without any un- pleasant symptoms whatever, except once or twice slight colic. During its em- ployment the gums should be frequently examined, in order that the earliest ap- pearance of the blue line, before referred to, may be detected. Whenever this salt gives rise to any obvious effects, they are those of the plumbeous preparations in general, and which have been already described (p. 661). Its medicinal ac- tion, therefore, is sedative and astringent. Uses.—Acetate of lead is administered internally to diminish the diameter of the capillary vessels, and lessen circulation, secretion, and exhalation. Thus, we employ it in profuse discharges from the mucous membranes ; as from the lungs, alimentary canal, and even the urino-genital membrane. In the mild cholera, so common in this country towards the end of summer, I have found acetate of lead in combination with opium most efficacious where the chalk mixture failed. I have used this combination in a few cases of malignant cholera, and in one or two with apparent benefit. In colliquative diarrhoea and chronic dysentery it oc- casionally proves serviceable.4 In phthisis it has been found beneficial, but only as a palliative; namely, to lessen the expectoration, check the night-sweats, or stop the harassing diarrhoea. Dr. Latham3 speaks most favourable of the us'e of sugar of lead and opium in checking purulent or semi-purulent expectoration. I have repeatedly seen it diminish expectoration, but I have generally found it fail in relieving the night-sweats, though Fouquier supposed it to possess a specific power of checking them: they are more frequently benefited by diluted sulphuric acid. In sanguineous exhalations from the mucous membranes, as epistaxis, hae- moptysis, and hoematemesis, and in uterine hemorrhage, it is employed with the view of diminishing the calibre of the bleeding vessels, and thereby of stopping the discharge : and experience has fully established its utility.6 It may be em- ployed in both the active and passive states of hemorrhage. It is usually given in combination with opium. In bronchitis, with profuse secretion, it proves ex- ceedingly valuable. (Henderson, Lond. Med. Gaz. May 8, 1840.) It has been employed also as a remedy for mercurial salivation. (Daniell, Lond. Med. Repos, N. S. vi. 308.) It has been applied for this affection in the form of gargle by Somme. (Archiv. Gen. de Med. i. 483.) Unless care be taken to wash the mouth carefully after its use, it is apt to blacken the teeth. On the same princi- ples that we administer it to check excessive mucous discharges, it has been employ- ed to lessen the secretion of pus in extensive abscesses attended with hectic fever. There are some other cases in which experience has shown acetate of lead is occasionally serviceable, but in which we see no necessary connexion between its obvious effects on the body and its remedial powers; as in epilepsy, chorea, inter- mittents, &c. As a topical remedy, we use acetate of lead as a sedative, astringent, and de- 1 Laidlaw, Lond. Med. Repos. N. S. vi. 292. a Commentaries, vol. x. p. 236, Eng. ed. Van Swieten says colic was induced by the use of a dracfim of lead in an emulsion every day for ten days. ralysis and death. —...........' ........"" *"""""=" by Pa' * See Dr. Burke, On the good Effects of a mixture of Acetate of Lead and Tincture of Opium in the Dusenterv which occurred in Dublin in 1825, in the Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol xxvi d 56 dysentery s Med. Trans. Coll. Phys. v. 341. " " i JdRp76n90-tndLathamCo"* fit" Lmd''"" ^'' B&vieB' Md' and Ph9s- Journ-Jan-1808. P- 8; also, Mitchell, ACETATE OF LEAD. 675 siccant. An aqueous solution of it is applied to inflamed parts, or to secreting surfaces, to diminish profuse discharges. Thus, we use it in phlegmonous in- flammation, in ophhtalmia, in ulcers with profuse discharges, in gonorrhoea, and gleet. In the sloughing and ulceration of the cornea which attend purulent and pustular ophthalmia, its use should be prohibited, as it forms a white compound which is deposited on the ulcer; to which it adheres tenaciously, and in the heal- ing becomes permanently and indelibly embedded in the structure of the cornea. The appearance produced by this cause cannot be mistaken : its chalky imper- vious opacity distinguishes it from the pearly semi-transparent structure of even the densest opacity produced by common ulceration. (Dr. Jacob, Dublin Hbsp. Rep. v. 369 : also, Velpeau, Lond. Med. Gaz. Oct. 5, 1839.) The white com- pound consists of oxide [acetate ?] of lead, animal matter, much carbonate of lead, traces of phosphate and chloride of the same metal. (Dr. Apjohn, op. cit. p. 402.) Administration.—Acetate of lead may be administered internally in doses of one or two grains to eight or ten grains, repeated twice or thrice daily. Dr. A. T. Thomson advises its exhibition in diluted distilled vinegar, to prevent its change into carbonate, which renders it more apt to occasion colic. It is usually exhi- bited in the form of pill, frequently in combination with opium. Acetate of lead and opium react chemically on each other, and produce acetate of morphia and meconate, with a little sulphate of lead. Experience, however, has fully esta- blished the therapeutic value of the combination. Sulphuric acid (as in infusion of roses), sulphates (as of magnesia, and soda, and alum), phosphates, and car- bonates, should be prohibited. Sulphuric acid, the sulphates, and phosphates, render it inert: the carbonates facilitate the production of colica pictonum. Com- mon (especially spring) water, which contains sulphates, carbonates, and chlorides, is incompatible with this salt. The liquor ammonice acetatis is incompatible with it, on account of the carbonic acid usually diffused through ihis solution. 1. CERATUM PLUMBI ACETATIS, L.; Unguentum Plumbi Acetatis, E. D.; Un- guentum Saturninum; Cerate of Sugar of Lead. (Acetate of Lead, powdered 3ij.; White Wax, gij.; Olive Oil, fgviij. i.—Simple Ointment, gxx.; Acetate of Lead, in fine powder, 3j. E.—Ointment of White Wax, Ibiss.; Acetate of Lead, gj. D. Mix.)—An excellent soothing application to irritable ulcers, painful exco- riations, and blistered surfaces. 2. PILULjE PLUMBI OPIATiE, E. Acetate of Lead and Opium Pills. (Acetate of Lead, six parts ; Opium, one part; Conserve of Red Roses, about one part. Beat thern into a proper mass, which is to be divided into four-grain pills.—This pill may be made also with twice the quantity of opium.)—Each pill contains three grains of acetate of lead, and half a grain of opium. I have before stated that, notwithstanding a mutual decomposition is effected between acetate of lead and opium, the resulting compound is a most efficacious one. The Edinburgh College, therefore, has done wisely in countenancing the combination, but the permission to vary the strength of the pill is highly objectionable. In ha?mopty- sis, profuse secretion of bronchial mucus, obstinate diarrhoea, and dysentery, its effects are most valuable. Dose, one to three grains. 9. Ll'QUOR PLUM'BI DIACETATIS, L.—SOLUTION OF DIACETATE OF LEAD. (Plumbi Diacetatis Solutio, E.—Plumbi Subacetatis Liquor, C)—[Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis, U. S.] History___This compound was known to Basil Valentine in the fifteenth cen- tury. It owes its reputation, as a medicine, principally to the praises bestowed 676 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. on it by M. Goulard,1 in the latter end of the last century. He called it Extract of Saturn (Extradum Saturni). It is frequently termed Goulards Extract. Preparation.—The following are the directions of the British Colleges for its preparation:— The London College orders, of Acetate ofLead, lbij. and 3 iij.; Oxide of Lead, rubbed to pow- der, lbj. and 3iv.; Water. Ovj. Boil them for half an hour, frequently stirring, and when the liquor is cold, add of distilled water as much as may be sufficient to measure with it six pints; lastly, strain [the solution]. The Edinburgh College employs, of Acetate ofLead, 3vj. and 3vj.; Litharge, in fine powder, 3iv.; Water, Oiss. [The U. S. P. directs Acetate of Lead, sixteen ounces; Semi-vitrified Oxide of Lead, in fine powder, nine ounces and a half; Distilled Water, four pints. The mode of proceeding is essen- tially the same as that of the London College.] The acetate of lead combines with an additional equivalent of oxide of lead to form the diacetate. This process yields a uniform product. The Dublin College employs, of Litharge, one part; Distilled Vinegar twelve parts. Boil to- gether in a glass vessel until eleven parts of the fluid remain; then let the liquor rest, and when the impurities have subsided, let it be filtered. In this process the acetic acid unites with the oxide of lead to form a subsalt. This method of preparation is objectionable, since the strength of the solution de- pends on the strength of the vinegar, which is subject to variation. Properties—It is a transparent and colourless liquid. Prepared according to the London Pharmacopceia, its specific gravity is 1*260: according to the Dublin Pharmacopceia, it is 1*118. Its taste is sweet and astringent. By evaporation it yields crystals of the diacetate of lead, which, according to Dr. Barker, are flat rhomboidal prisms, with dihedral summits. Characteristics.—The presence of lead and acetic acid in this solution may be known by the tests before-mentioned (p. 660) for acetate of lead. From the neutral acetate it is distinguished by the copious precipitate which it produces with carbonic acid, as well as with mucilage. Solution of the diacetate of lead forms a precipitate with most vegetable colouring matters. Composition.—This liquid is an aqueous solution of the diacetate of lead. The solid hydrated diacetate has, according to Dr. Thomson, the following com- position :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. OxideofLead............ .......... 2 ........224 ........ 61-37 AceticAcid......................... 1 ........ 51 ........ 1397 Water.............................. 10 ........ 90 ....... 24*66 Solid Hydrated Diacetate of Lead..... 1 ........365........10000 Purity.—When this compound has been prepared with common vinegar, it has a brown colour. Its sp. gr. is 1*260. Its other properties are similar to those of the last preparation. Ph. Lond. A copious precipitate is gradually formed when the breath is propelled through it by means of a tube. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—Its effects are analogous to the acetate. Its chemi- cal action on the living tissues depends on its affinity for albumen and fibrine. In a solution of albumen it occasions a white precipitate, composed of albumen and diacetate of lead. According to Lassaigne (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. vi. 2e Serie, p. 299), the precipitate caused in an albuminous liquor by the trisacetate of lead consists of albumen 71*67, and trisacetate of lead 28*33. This precipitate is soluble in an excess of the solution of the trisacetate, as well as in concentrated solutions of several salts (as acetate and nitrate of potash), and of caustic ammonia. 1 A Treatise on the Effects and Various Preparations ofLead, particularly of the Extract of Saturn for different Chirurgical Disorders, 2d ed. Lond. 1770. PLASTES OF LEAD. 677 Dr. A. T. Thomson (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. v. p. 538; vol. x. p. 693.) asserts, from his experiments on animals, that the diacetate has more tendency to cause colic than the neutral acetate, because it is more readily converted into carbonate of lead. It is employed in medicine as a local astringent and sedative. Paralysis is said to have resulted from its external use. Uses.—It is employed, when diluted, to promote the resolution of external in- flammation, to check profuse discharges from suppurating, ulcerated, and mucous surfaces, and to alleviate local pains. Thus it is applied to parts affected with either phlegmonous or erysipelatous inflammation, to whitlows, to inflamed ten- dons, aponeuroses, or absorbent glands; in ophthalmia, to contusions, sprains, burns, wounds (whether incised or lacerated), to blistered surfaces, ulcers, ab- scesses, &c. It is said to have proved successful, when administered internally, in hydro- phobia. Administration.—It is employed diluted with water, added to poultices, or mixed with fatty matters, and applied as an ointment. 1. LIQUOR PLUMBI DIACETATIS DILUTUS, L. Plumbi Subacetatis Liquor com- positus, D. (Solution of Diacetate of Lead, f 3iss.; Distilled Water, Oj.; Proof Spirit, gij.—M.) [Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutus, U. S. Diluted Solution of Subacetate of Lead. Take of Solution of Subacetate of Lead, 3ij.; Distilled Water, a pint. Mix them.]—This preparation is in imitation of the Water of Saturn, or Vegeto-Mineral Water of Goulard. It is commonly termed in the shops Goulard Water. It should be transparent and colourless ; but when pre- pared with common water it is more or less milky, owing to the formation of car- bonate, sulphate, and chloride of lead. The small quantity of spirit employed can be of no service. The quantity of the solution of diacetate of lead employed in making Goulard water is much too small; it should be, at least, three times, and in some cases, I have used six times as much. I have never seen any ill effects from its use, though it is said to have become absorbed in some cases. The same objection applies to the use of this compound as to that of the neutral acetate, in ulceration of the cornea (vide p. 675). Goulard water is used as a cooling, sedative, and astringent wash in the cases already enumerated for the Goulard's extract. A poultice, composed of crumb of bread, boiled in Goulard water, is sometimes a very useful application to phleg- mons, painful wounds, irritable ulcers, &c. &c %. CERATUM PLUMBI COMPOSITUM, L. [Ceratum Plumbi Subacetatis, U. S., Cerate of Subacetate of Lead.] (Solution of Diacetate of Lead, fguj., [ffuss., U. S.;] Wax, giv. ; Olive Oil, Oss., [fgix., U. S.;] Camphor, 3ss. Mix the melted Wax with eight fluid-ounces of the Oil; then remove them from the fire, and, when first they begin to thicken, gradually add the solution of Diacetate of Lead, and stir them constantly with a spatula until they cool; lastly, with these mix the Camphor dissolved in the rest of the oil.) This is the Cerate of Saturn of M. Goulard, and is commonly called Goulards Cerate. It is employed as a dressing to wounds and ulcers ; for the purpose of allaying irritation and appeasing pain. With the same views it is also applied to excoriated surfaces, burns, scalds, blistered surfaces, and irritable cutaneous affections. Opium is sometimes advan- tageously combined with it. %, CERATUM SAPONIS, L.—This contains a subacetate of lead. It has been be- fore described (p. 422). 10. EMPLASTRUM PLUMBI, L. (U. S.)—PLASTER OF LEAD. (Emplastrum Lithargyri, E. D.) History.—This compound was known to the ancients : both Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 53.), and Celsus (De Medicina, lib. v. cap. xix.), gave a formula for a plas- 57* 678 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. ter used by the Roman surgeons, which is almost identical with that for the offi- cinal plaster of lead. It is commonly sold in the shops as Diachylon or Dia- chylum. Preparation.—The following are the directions of the British Colleges for its preparation:— The London College orders of Oxide of Lead, rubbed to very fine powder, lbvj. [Ibv. U. S.]; Olive Oil, Cong, j.; Water, Oij. Boil them together with a slow fire, constantly stirring, until the Oil and Oxide of Lead unite into the consistence of a plaster; but it will be proper to add a little boiling water, if nearly the whole of that which was used in the beginning should be eva- porated before the end of the boiling. The Edinburgh College orders of Litharge, in fine powder, 3v.; Olive Oil, f3xij.; Water, f3iij. Mix them ; boil and stir constantly till the oil and litharge unite, replacing the water if it evaporates too far. The process of the Dublin College is similar to that of the London College. Olive Oil is a compound of Oleine (Oleate of Glycerine) and Margarine (Mar- garate of Glycerine). When subjected to heat with litharge and some water, the oxide of lead combines with the oleic and margaric acids, and sets free the glycerine, which remains dissolved in the water. The mixture of oleate and margarate of lead constitutes emplastrum plumbi. (See p. 486 for an account of Saponification.) The water employed in this process serves two purposes; it moderates the heat and facilitates the union of the acids with the oxide of lead. MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. Water.................................... ——=jSnlntinn of Glycerine. ! Oleine.... \ GlVcer"ie-- "I"*"— \ Oleic Acid.. Margarine j Margaric Aeid. Oxide of Lead j °xide of Lead.....................™ ::^=--^____^"-=01eate of Lead. t........|J (Oxide of Lead............-_______________^^~—~ Margarate of Lead. J «lft, Properties.—It is met with in the shops in cylindrical rolls, of a grayish or yellowish-white colour, brittle when cold, but softening and ultimately fusing by heat. It is insoluble in water, and nearly so in alcohol. It has no taste, but a slight though peculiar odour. Characteristics.—When heated it fuses, then decomposes, gives out inflam- mable gas, and leaves a carbonaceous residue, which, when heated in a close vessel, yields globules of lead. Ether dissolves oleate but not margarate of lead. Composition.—Lead plaster consists of Oxide of Lead, Oleic Acid, and Mar- garic Acid. The proportions have not been precisely ascertained. The two compounds which oleic and margaric acids form with oxide of lead are probably basic salts. Effects and Uses.—This plaster is employed in surgery, on account of its adhesiveness and the mildness of its local action ; for it rarely excites irritation. It is used to keep the edges of wounds together in persons with delicate skins. Spread on calico it forms a good strapping for giving support and causing pres- sure in ulcers of the leg; a most successful way of treating them, and for which we are indebted to Mr. Baynton. In pharmacy it serves as a basis for various other plasters. 1. EMPLASTRUM RESINM, L. (U. S.); Emplastrum Resinosum, E.; Emplastrum Lithargyri cum Resind, D.; Resin Plaster. (Resin, lbss. [3j. E.]; Lead Plas- ter, lbiij. [3v. E.; lbiijss. D.] To the plaster of lead, melted wilh a slow fire, add the Resin, powdered, and mix.)—This is the common Adhesive Plastei- (Emplastrum Adluesivum), and is kept in the shops ready spread. It is em- ployed to retain the lips of wounds in contact, as in cuts, surgical operations, &c. It is more adhesive than lead plaster, but at the same time somewhat more irri- ZINC. 679 tating, and occasionally causes excoriation. It is employed as a strapping for dressing ulcers on Baynton's principles. I EMPLASTRUM SAPONIS, L. E. D. (U. S.) This contains lead plaster (see p. 482). 8. UNGUENTUM PLUMBI COMPOSITUM, L. (Prepared Chalk, gviij.; Distilled Vinegar, ftvj.; Plaster of Lead, Ibiij.; Olive Oil, Oj. Mix the chalk with the vinegar; and, when the effervescence has ceased, add gradually the solution to the plaster and oil melted with a slow fire, and stir constantly until they are cooled.)—By the action of the acetic acid on the chalk, an acetate of lime is pro- cured, and carbonic acid evolved, and the acetate of lime is then mixed with lead plaster and oil. This compound is an imitation of Kirklands Neutral Cerate, used as a dressing to indolent ulcers. It is employed by Mr. Higginbottom, (Essay on the Use of Nitrate of Silver, 2d ed. p. 119.) under the name of Neu- tral Ointment, as a defence for ulcers after the application of nitrate of silver. Order XXVI.—ZINC AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 1. ZIN'CUM, L. E. D. [U. S.]—ZINC. History.—Although the ancients were acquainted with the method of con- verting copper into brass by means of an ore of zinc, yet we have no positive evidence that they were acquainted with metallic zinc, one of the constituents of this alloy.1 Albertus Magnus, who died in 1280, is the first writer who expressly mentions this metal.3 It has had various appellations, such as Contrefeyn, Golden Marcasite, Indian Tin (Stannum lndicum), Spiaulter, Speltre or Spelter (Speltrum). Natural History.—It occurs only in the mineral kingdom. It is found in the form of Oxide (Red Zinc), of Sulphuret (Blende or Black Jack), of Carbonate (Calamine), of Sulphate (White Vitriol), of Silicate (Electric Calamine), and Aluminate (Automalite or Gahnite). Preparation.—Zinc is usually procured from the native sulphuret or carbo- nate of that metal. It may also be obtained from the silicate. Both the sulphuret and carbonate are roasted: by this process the sulphur of the sulphuret is transformed into sulphurous acid, which escapes, and the zinc is oxidized, while the carbonate loses carbonic acid and water. The oxide is then mixed with some carbonaceous substance and submitted to heat, by which the metal is reduced and vaporized. Sometimes the reduction is effected in a covered earthen crucible, the bottom of which is perforated by an iron tube, which termi- nates over a vessel of water situated in an apartment below the furnace. The gaseous products and zinc escape by this tube; and the latter is condensed in the water. This is called distillatio per descensum. In Silesia, however, distillatio per ascensum is employed. (Dumas, Traite de Chimie, t. iv. p. 82.) The zinc used in this country is principally imported in ingots and plates from Silesia, by way of Hamburgh, Antwerp, Dantzic, &c. Properties.—It is a bluish-white metal, of considerable lustre. It crystallizes in four-sided prisms and needles ; its texture is lamellated and crystalline. Its sp. gr. is from 6*8 to 7*2. At a common temperature it is tough ; from 202° to 300° it is ductile and malleable, and may be readily rolled into thin leaves (Sheet Zinc); at 400° it is so brittle that it may be reduced to powder. It readily fuses, and, at a white heat, may be volatilized. Characteristics.—It is soluble in dilute sulphuric acid, with the evolution of hy- drogen gas. Ferrocyanide of potassium forms, in this solution, a gelatinous white 1 Beckmann, in his History of Inventions and Discoveries, vol. iii. p. 71, has given a good account of the history of zinc. .... a An anonymous reviewer (British and Foreign Medical Review.vol. viii. p. 361), in commenting on the above paragraph, observes, that a passage in Strabo authorizes the belief that the ancients did know this metal in its separate state, and that it is the false silver (tpeviapyvpov) of that ancient geographer. 680 elements of materia medica. precipitate (ferrocyanide of zinc) : if iron be present, the precipitate is bluish-white. If the liquid be neutral, hydrosulphuric acid and the soluble hydrosulphates also occasion a white or yellowish-white precipitate (hydrated sulphuret of zinc). Alkalis and their carbonates likewise throw down white precipitates: that occasioned by the alkalis is soluble in excess of alkali. The delicacy of these tests is, according to Devergie (Med. Leg. ii. 787.), as follows :— Degree of Dilution. Ferrocyanide of Potassium.........................stops at...... 4,000 Ammonia.......................................... " 6,000 Potash, or Carbonate of Ammonia.................. " 8,000 Carbonate of Potash, or Hydrosulphate of Ammonia " 10,000 Hydrosulphuric Acid............................... " 15,000 Purity.—The zinc of commerce is nev,er pure. It always contains iron and carbon, and not unfrequently traces of arsenicum. By the action of diluted sul- phuric acid the zinc and the iron are dissolved, while the arsenicum, when present, escapes in the form of arseniuretted hydrogen gas. A black matter remains un- dissolved, which has a carbonaceous appearance, but contains iron. Almost entirely dissolved by diluted sulphuric acid. The solution is free from colour. Its other properties as above. [See Zinci sulphas.] The specific gravity is 6*86. Ph. Lond. It dissolves in a great measure in diluted sulphuric acid, leaving only a scanty grayish- black residuum: this solution presents the characters just given [see Zinci sulphas] for the solution of sulphate of zinc. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—In the metallic state it is inert. The compounds of zinc are somewhat analogous in their action on the system to those of copper, silver, and bismuth, but are much less energetic. They act topically, according to their degree of concentration, as desiccants, astringents, irritants, and caustics. Taken internally, they excite, more or less readily, nausea and vomiting, and, in large doses, operate as irritant and caustic poisons. They exercise a specific influence over the nervous system, though this is much less obvious than in the preparations of the other metals just referred to. The stupor and inactivity, men- tioned by Orfila (Toxicol. Gen.), as being produced by the sulphate, are evidence of the affection of the nervous system. The antispasmodic power evinced by zinc, in certain diseases, can only be explained by referring it to the action of this metal on the nervous centres. Uses.—As topical agents, we employ the compounds of zinc as caustics, astrin- gents, and desiccants. Thus the chloride is used as a caustic; the sulphate and acetate as astringents; and the oxide and carbonate as desiccants. Internally, the compounds of zinc are administered in large doses, to excite vomiting; in smaller doses, as tonics and antispasmodics, in intermittent diseases and chronic affections of the nervous system. 2. ZIN'CI OX'YDUM, L. D.—OXIDE OF ZINC. (Zinci Oxidum, E.)—[U. S.] History.—The oxide was first prepared by Hellot, in 1735. It has received various names, some of them ofa fantastic nature; as Nihil album, Lana philo- sophica, Pompholyx, Flowers or Calx of Zinc (Flores seu Calx Zinci). Natural History.—Oxide of Zinc is found in America, mixed or combined with the sesquioxide of manganese, and constituting the Red Oxide of Zinc of the mineralogist. It is also found in various localities, in combination with carbonic, sulphuric, or silicic acid. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for the preparation of this compound. OXIDE OF ZINC. 681 The London College orders of Sulphate of Zinc, ftj.; Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia, 3viss.; Distilled Water, Cong. iij. Dissolve the Sulphate of Zinc and Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia, separately, in twelve pints of the distilled water, and strain; then mix. Wash what is precipi- tated frequently with water; and, lastly, burn it for two hours in a strong fire. [This is the formula of the U. S. P.] The Edinburgh College employs of Sulphate of Zinc, 3xij.; Carbonate of Ammonia, 3vj. The process is otherwise the same as that of the London College. In these processes double decomposition takes place; sulphate of ammonia is formed in solution, and carbonate of zinc precipitates. A portion of the carbonic acid of the sesquicarbonate of ammonia escapes. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. 2 eq. Sesquicarb. 5 \ e?" Carbonic Acid 22- Ammonia.....100) % eq' Cfrb°™ ■*'** «" f 2 eq. Ammonia.....34 2 eq. Sulphate of (2 eq. Sulph. Acid... 80 Zinc...........I60$2etf. Oxide of Zinc 80. 260 260 260 The carbonate of zinc is decomposed by the subsequent ignition, and the carbonic acid expelled, leaving the oxide. The Dublin College directs Oxide of Zinc to be prepared as follows:—Take of Zinc, broken into small fragments, any required quantity. Let portions of the metal be thrown at separate intervals of time into a crucible heated to whiteness and of sufficient depth, its mouth inclining somewhat toward the door of the furnace; and after the injection of each piece of zinc, let another crucible be inverted over that which receives the metal, but loosely, that the air may not be ex- cluded : let the sublimed light powder and the whitest part of it be preserved for use. In this process the metal attracts oxygen from the air, and is thereby converted into oxide of zinc. A manufacturing chemist who prepares oxide of zinc (so called), informs me that he obtains it from a solution of chloride of zinc, which he procures from the workers of palladium. This liquid is boiled with small pieces of zinc and some caustic soda, to get rid of the iron ; and to the clear liquor is then added a solution of carbonate of soda (soda ash), by which the white carbonate of zinc is precipi- tated. This is washed, dried, and sold as oxide of zinc. Properties.—The form of the crystallized native oxide of zinc (containing the oxides of iron and manganese) is a right rhombic prism. The artificial oxide of the Pharmacopceia is a white, or, when ignited, yellowish- white, tasteless, odourless powder. It is fusible, forming a yellow glass, and at a white heat is volatilized. When heated with charcoal it is readily reduced. It is insoluble in water, but readily dissolves in most acids and in alkalis. It forms two classes of salts: one (the zincic salts), in which it is the base; a second (zincates), in which it acts the part of an acid. Characteristics.—It dissolves in dilute sulphuric acid. The characteristics of the Solution have been already detailed (p. 679). Composition.—Oxide of zinc has the following composition :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Proust. Berzelius. Zinc.......... 1 ..........32.......... 80.........80.......... 801 Oxygen....... 1 .......... 8 ..........20..........20..........199 Oxide of Zinc. 1 ..........40..........100..........100 .........1000 Purity.—Pure oxide of zinc is completely and readily soluble in diluted sul- phuric, nitric, or hydrochloric acid, without effervescence. The substance met with in the shops, under the name of oxide of zinc, is in reality a carbonate of this metal, and, therefore, effervesces on the addition of an acid. The solution obtained by dissolving the oxide in any of the above acids yields a precipitate. PRODUCTS. -1 eq. Carbonic Acid.... 22 _2 eq. Sulph. Ammonia. .114 _,2 eq. Carb. Zinc........124 682 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. on the addition of caustic ammonia or potash, which should be completely' soluble in an excess of the precipitant. If the substance sold as oxide of zinc have been prepared by adding a caustic alkali to a solution of sulphate of zinc, it will be found to be in reality a subsul- phate instead of an oxide; and its solution in nitric acid yields traces of contain- ing sulphuric acid when tested with a salt of baryta. Oxide of cadmium has been sometimes found in it, and was once mistaken for arsenious acid. (Thomson's Hist, of Chem. ii. 219.) Iron and manganese (Liebig.) are sometimes present in oxide of zinc, and communicate a yellow tinge to it. The oxide is— White, tasteless, entirely soluble in diluted nitric acid without effervescence : this solution is not affected by nitrate of baryta, but gives with ammonia a white precipitate entirely soluble in an excess of the test. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects, a. On Animals.—Orfila (Toxicol. Gen.) gave from three to six drachms of it to small and weak dogs : they were attacked with vomit- ings, without suffering much. f3. On Man.—Applied to ulcerated or other secreting surfaces, it acts as a de- siccant and astringent substance. On account of its insolubility, the absorption of it must be very slow. Taken into the stomach in large doses, it acts as a slight irritant, and provokes vomiting, and sometimes purging. It is said to have also caused occasional giddiness and temporary inebriation. In small doses it may be taken for a considerable period without causing any obvious effects. Sometimes, under its employment, certain affections of the nervous system (as epilepsy, chorea, &c.) subside ; from which we infer that it exercises some specific influence over this system ; and it is, therefore, termed tonic, antispasmodic, and sedative. But the nature of its influence is not very obvious, and is inferred rather from analogy than observation. By long-continued use it acts as a slow poison, and produces tabes sicca. A gentleman, for the cure of epilepsy, took daily, at an average, twenty grains of oxide, till he had consumed 3246 grains, which must have taken him about five months. At the end of this time he was found of a pale, earthy hue, wasted away, and almost idiotical : his tongue was thickly coated, the bowels were constipated, the inferior extremities cold and cede- matous, the abdomen tumid, the superior extremities cold and shrivelled, and the skin dry, like parchment; the pulse was about sixty, thready, and scarcely per- ceptible. Under the use of purgatives, a light nutritive diet, with tonic and diuretic medicines, he rapidly recovered, but he remained subject to epileptic attacks. (Brit, and For. Med. Rev. July, 1838, p. 221.) Uses.—Internally it has been commended in some spasmodic diseases, viz., epilepsy, chorea, hysteria, catalepsy, and hooping-cough ; and in some painful affections, as neuralgia and gastrodynia. Though occasionally serviceable in fcome of these maladies, it has so frequently failed, that practitioners have ceased to place much confidence in it. Externally, it is employed in the form of powder, or lotion, or ointment. As a dusting powder it is useful, by its mild, absorbent, and desiccant properties, and is applied to impetiginous and other chronic diseases of the skin, attended with profuse secretion. It is also used to allay or prevent excoriation in children and bedridden persons, and to remove chaps and cracks of the nipples. In painful ulcers, with copious discharge, it is not unfrequently beneficial by its desiccant and sedative properties. Diffused through water or a mucilaginous solution (in the proportion of two drachms of the oxide to six or eight ounces of liquid), it is occasionally useful in chronic ophthalmia, especially ophthalmia tarsi. Somme (Archiv. Gen. de Med. i. 486.) employed an injection, composed of half an ounce of oxide and two pints of water, in gonorrhoea and leucorrhcea. CHLORIDE OF ZINC. 683 Administration.—Internally, it is administered in the form of pill or powder, in doses of from two or three grains gradually increased to eight, ten, or more. 1. UNGUENTUM ZINCI, L. E. (U. S.); Unguentum Zinci Oxydi, D. (Oxide of Zinc, 3j.; Lard Jvj. M. L. (U. S.)—The Edinburgh College substitutes Simple Liniment for Lard.—The Dublin College uses of Ointment of White Wax, lbj.; Oxide of Zinc, prepared in the same manner as chalk 3ij. M.)—This compound is employed as a mild drying ointment in porrigo, impetigo, and other skin diseases attended with profuse discharges; after extensive burns, blisters, sinapisms, &c.; to painful ulcers with excessive secretion, to the eye when affected with chronic inflammation, &c. I. ZINCI OXYDUM IMPURUM—This substance is known in the shops under the name of Tutty (Tutia seu Tuthia,) or Furnace Cadmia (Cadmia Fornacurn seu factitia). It is found in the chimney of the furnace in which zinc ores are roasted, or in which zinciferous lead ores are smelted. When prepared by levi- gation and elutriation it is called Prepared Tutty (Oxydum Zinci impurumprce- paratum; Tutia Prceparata.) It is applied as a dusting powder, or as a cooling ointment (Unguentum Oxydi Zinci impuri; composed of Simple Liniment or Lard, 5 parts ; Tutty, 1 part; ,M.) to excoriated surfaces. 3. ZIN'CI CHLORIDUM, (U. S.)—CHLORIDE OF ZINC. History.—This compound, which has been long known to chemists, was first introduced into medicine by Papenguth (Russ. Samml. f. Naturw. u. Heilk. H. i. S. 79, quoted by Richter, Ausf. Arzneim. iv. 526.), and subsequently has been recommended by Professor Hancke, of Breslau (Rust's Magazin, 1826, Bd. 22, S. 373.), and by Dr. Canquoin, of Paris. (Dr. Alex. Ure, Lond. Med. Gaz. xvii. 391.) It is termed Muriate, Hydrochlorate, or Butter of Zinc. Preparation.—The easiest and cheapest method of obtaining it is by dissolv- ing zinc, or its oxide, in hydrochloric acid, evaporating to dryness, and fusing in a glass vessel with a narrow mouth, as a Florence flask. In solution it is obtained as a secondary product in the preparation of some other metals, as of palladium (see p. 681). [The following is the method of obtaining it directed by the U. S. P. Take of zinc in small pieces, two ounces and a half; Nitric Acid, Prepared Chalk, each a drachm; Muriatic Acid a sufficient quantity. To the Zinc in a glass or porcelain vessel, add gradually sufficient Muriatic Acid to dissolve it; then strain, add the Nitric Acid and evaporate to dryness. Dissolve the dry mass in water and add the Chalk, and having allowed the mixture to stand for twenty-four hours, filter and again evaporate to dryness.] Properties.—It is a whitish-gray semi-transparent mass, having the softness of wax. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. It is fusible; and, at a strong heat, may be sublimed and crystallized in needles. It is very deliquescent. It unites with both albumen and gelatine to form difficultly soluble compounds, and hence it occasions precipitates with liquids containing these principles in solution. A patent has been obtained by Sir William Burnett for the preservation of wood by a solution of the chloride of zinc. Characteristics.—Dissolved in water it may be recognised to be a chloride by nitrate of silver (see p. 226). That zinc is the base of the salt may be shown by the tests already mentioned for the salts of this metal (p. 679). Composition.— Its composition is as follows :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. J. Davy. Zinc......................... 1 ............ 32 ............ 47 ............ 50 'Chlorine..................... 1 ............ 36 ............ 53 ............ 50 Chloride of Zinc............. 1 ............ 68 ............ 100 ........... 100 Physiological Effects.—Its local action on living tissues is that of a caustic or escharotic, depending partly on its affinity for albumen and gelatine; so that 684 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. when placed in contact with living parts into whose composition these organic compounds enter, the chloride, exercising its affinity, destroys the life of the part, and unites with the albuminous and gelatinous matters present, and forms thus an eschar. Other chemical changes of a comparatively unimportant nature are also effected: thus various salts found in the solids or liquids of the part may be decomposed. For example, when the chloride is applied to a cancerous sore, it decomposes the carbonate and hydrosulphuret of ammonia found in the secretion of the sore. The effects produced by the application of chloride of zinc are the following:—Soon after it has been applied a sensation of warmth is felt in the part, quickly followed by violent burning pain, which continues for seven or eight hours; that is, until the parts in contact with the chloride are dead. A white eschar is now observed, which usually separates in from eight to twelve days. Unless used in the neighbourhood of loose cellular tissue, there is rarely much swelling. As a caustic, chloride of zinc is not inferior in power to chloride of antimony; nay, Vogt (Pharmakodynamik, i. 363. 2te Aufl.) says it appears to him to be more powerful and to penetrate deeper. It decomposes the organic tissues as quickly as the nitrate of silver, but excites more burning, and for a longer time, owing to its action extending to parts placed more deeply; for it is well known that the operation of the nitrate is confined to superficial parts. Both Vogt and Canquoin agree that chloride of zinc, besides corroding the parts with which it is in contact, exercises an influence over the vital actions of neighbouring parts. To this circumstance is owing, in great part, the efficacy of the chloride in va. rious diseases in which it has been applied, and the healthy appearance of the sore after the separation of the eschar. There is no danger of any constitutional disorder arising from the absorption of the poison, as is the case with the arseni- cal and mercurial caustics. Taken internally, in large doses, it acts as an irritant or caustic poison, and affects the nervous system. Thus it produces a burning sensation in the stomach, nausea, vomiting, anxiety, short breathing, small quick pulse, cold sweats, faint- ing, and convulsions. Taken in very small doses, no obvious effects are produced, except sometimes the amelioration of certain diseases. It is supposed, in these cases, to influence the nervous system. Uses.—Internally, chloride of zinc has been given in small, but gradually- increased doses, in scrofula, epilepsy, chorea, and (in combination with hydrocy- anic acid) in neuralgia of the face. Commonly, however, it is employed externally: thus Papenguth used a dilute solution of it as a lotion in fistulous ulcers of a scrofulous nature. As a caustic it has been applied, by Professor Hancke and Dr. Canquoin, to produce an issue, to destroy naevi materni, and, as an application to parts affected with malignant diseases, such as fungus hsematodes and cancer, or to other intractable forms of disease, such as old syphilitic or scrofulous ulcers. The benefit is supposed not to depend merely on the escharotic effect, but on the chloride inducing a new ac- tion in the surrounding parts. Administration.—Internally it may be given in doses of one or two grains. Hufeland recommends it to be taken dissolved in ether; his formula for the JEther Zinci, as it is called, is the following:—R. Zinci Chlor. 3ss.; Alcoholis, gj.; ./Etheris Sulph. gij. Post aliquot dies decanta. The dose of this solution is from four to eight drops, taken twice daily. Externally it has been used as a L.otion, composed of two grains of the chlo- ride and an ounce of water; or in the form of Paste: this may be composed of one part of chloride of zinc, and from two to four parts of wheaten flour." 4. ZINCI SUL'PHAS, L. E. D. (U. S.)—SULPHATE OF ZINC. History.—This salt is said by Schwartze (Pharm. Tabell. 2t0 Ausg. 779.) to have been known towards the end of the 13th, or at the commencement of the SULPHATE OF ZINC. 685 14th century ; but Beckmann affirms it was not known before the middle of the 16th century. (Hist, of Invent iii. ^5.) It has had various names, as Sal Vitrioli, White Vitriol, and Gilla Theophrasti. Natural History.—It occurs native at Rammelsberg, near Goslar, in the Hartz; at Holywell, in Flintshire ; and other places. Preparation.—It is readily prepared by dissolving zinc in diluted sulphuric acid. The London College orders of Zinc, in small pieces, 3v.; Diluted Sulphuric Acid, Oij. Pour gradually the diluted Sulphuric Acid upon the pieces of Zinc, and, the effervescence being finish- ed, strain the liquor; then boil it down until a pellicle begins to form. Lastly, set it aside that crystals may be formed. The Edinburgh College observes that this salt may be prepared either by dissolving fragments of zinc in diluted sulphuric acid till a neutral liquid be obtained, tillering the solution, and con- centrating sufficiently for it to crystallize on cooling,—or by repeatedly dissolving and crystalliz- ing the impure sulphate of zinc of commerce, until the product, when dissolved in water, does not yield a black precipitate with tincture of gulls, and corresponds with the characters laid down for sulphate of zinc in the List of the Materia Medica (see p. 676). The Dublin College orders of Zinc, in small fragments, thirteen parts; Sulphuric Acid, twenty parts ; Water, one hundred and twenty parts. [The U. S. Pharmacopceia direcls, Zinc, in small pieces, four ounces; Sulphuric Acid, six ounces ; Distilled Water, four pints.] In this process 1 equivalent or 9 parts of water are decomposed ; an equivalent or 1 part of hydrogen escapes, while an equivalent or 8 parts of oxygen unite with 1 equivalent or 32 parts of zinc, to form 1 equivalent or 40 parts of the oxide, which, wilh 1 equivalent or 40 parts of sulphuric acid, form 1 equivalent or 80 parts of the sulphate. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. 1 ea Water . 9 i . eq HydroS™ 1------------- 1 eq' ^Bter......... 11 J <*■ ^"' • 8 . 1 eq. Ox. Zinc 1 eq. Zinc...........32 ............... J PRODUCTS. -1 eq. Hydrogen... 1 eq. Sulphuric Acid.. 40 81 .1 eq. Sulpliate of Zinc . The impurities in commercial zinc have been already staled (see p. 680). If a piece of zinc be added to the impure solution of sulphate, and the liquid heated in conlact with air, the iron is peroxidized and is deposited. By roasting blende (sulphuret of zinc) in reverberatory furnaces, an impure sulphate is obtained, which is lixiviated, and the solution concentrated by evapo- ration, so that on cooling it forms a crystalline mass resembling lump sugar. This is distinguished among druggists by the name of White Vitriol, a term which they confine to this commoner kind of sulphate. This impure salt contains iron, and usually copper and lead. Properties___Crystals of sulphate of zinc are right rhombic prisms: they are transparent and colourless, and have a metallic astringent taste. They are soluble in 2-?^ times their weight of cold water, and less than their own weight of boiling water. They are insoluble in alcohol. In dry and warm air they effloresce. When heated they undergo the watery fusion ; and if the liquid be rapidly cooled, it congeals into a granular, crystalline, white mass : if the heat be continued the salt becomes anhy- drous, and, at an intense heat, is decomposed, leaving a residue of zinc. Characteristics.—That this salt is a sulphate, is proved by the action of chloride of barium on it; a white precipitate is V of Zinc produced, insoluble in nitric acid (see p. 414). Acetate of lead also occasions a white precipitate. The presence of oxide of zinc in the solution is recognised by the tests already mentioned for this substance (see p. 679). VOL. I. 58 686 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Composition.—This salt has the following composition :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per. Cent. Berzelius. Mitscherlich. Oxide of Zinc.................... 1 ...... 40 ...... 28 ...... 32-585 ..) „.„. Sulphuric Acid................... 1 ...... 40 ...... 28 ...... 30965 ..(" °° *% Water .......................... 7 ...... 63 ...... 44 ...... 36450 .. .. 447G Crystallized Sulphate of Zinc..... 1 ......143 ......100 .....100000 ...... 10000 Purity.—Ammonia added to a solution of sulphate of zinc throws down a white precipitate soluble in excess of ammonia. If any oxide of iron or magne- sia be present it remains undissolved; while any oxide of copper would form an azure blue solution (cuprate of ammonia). Arsenic or cadmium may be detected by adding excess of sulphuric acid to the solution of the sulphate, and then passing a stream of hydrosulphuric acid through it: the arsenicum and cadmium are thrown down in the form of sulphurets. The impure sulphate called White Vitriol occurs in irregular masses; here and there stained yellow with the iron. Totally dissolved by water. What is thrown down by ammonia is white, and when the am- monia is added in excess it is again dissolved. On the addition of chloride of barium or acetate of lead they are decomposed. Ph. Lond. When a solution in six waters is boiled with a little nitric acid, and solution of ammonia is then added till the oxide of zinc first thrown down is all redissolved, no yellow precipitate remains, or a truce only, and the solution is colourless. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—In small and repeated doses it acts as an astringent on the alimentary canal, checks secretion, and promotes a constipated condition of the bowels. It exercises a specific influence over the nervous system, mani- fested by its power of removing certain spasmodic affections: hence it is reputed antispasmodic. To the same influence is to be referred its power of preventing the recurrence of intermittent maladies, from which it has principally derived its denomination of a tonic. Its astringent effect is not confined to the bowels, but is manifested in the pulmonary and urethral mucous membranes, the secretions from which it diminishes: hence the advantage of its use in catarrhal affections of these parts. It does not appear to possess any power of checking cutaneous ex- halation. In full medicinal doses it is a powerful but safe emetic; it excites speedy vo- miting without giving rise to that distressing nausea occasioned by emetic tartar, though this statement is not in accordance with the experience of Dr. Cullen (Treat, of the Mat. Med.), who observes that " in order to render its effects cer- tain the dose must generally be large; and if this is not thrown out again imme- diately it is apt to continue a disagreeable nausea, or even a vomiting, longer than is necessary." But this observation does not agree with the experience of other practitioners. In excessive doses it acts as an irritant poison, causing vomiting, purging, cold- ness of the extremities, and fluttering pulse. 'The local action of it is that of an astringent and desiccant, and in a concen- trated form it is a powerful irritant and caustic. Its external use is said to have been found fatal in one case, by causing vomiting, purging, and convulsions. (Christison, op. cvt. p. 468.) Its causticity depends on its affinity for albumen and fibrin. Uses.—As an emdic it is almost exclusively employed in poisoning, especially "by narcotics. In these cases it is the best evacuant we can administer on account of its prompt action. As an internal astringent it is administered in chronic dysentery (Impey, Lond. Med. and Phys. Journ. ix. 55, 1803.) and diarrhoea, in chronic bronchial affections attended wiih profuse secretion and in gleet and leucorrhcea. In the latter cases it is usually associated with terebin- thinate medicines, and is sometimes decidedly beneficial. (See a paper on this subject, by Mr. Graham, in the Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. xxvi.) As an antispasmodic it has been employed with occasional success in epilepsy ACETATE OF ZINC. 687 chorea, hysteria, spasmodic asthma, and hooping-cough. I have little faith in its efficacy in any of these cases. As a tonic it has been sometimes serviceable in' agues, but it is far inferior to sulphate of quinia or arsenious acid. As a topical astringent sulphate of zinc is most extensively employed. We use its aqueous solution as a collyrium in chronic ophthalmia, as a wash for ulcers attended with profuse discharge, or with loose flabby granulations; as a gargle in ulcerations of the mouth, though I have found it for this purpose much inferior to a solution of sulphate of copper; as a lotion for chronic skin diseases ; and as an injection in gleet and leucorrhcea. Administration.—As an emetic the dose should be from ten to twenty grains ; as a tonic, antispasmodic, or expectorant, from one to five grains. For external use, solutions are made of various strengths. Haifa grain of the sulphate to an ounce of water is the weakest. The strongest I ever knew em- ployed consisted of a drachm of sulphate dissolved in an ounce of water: it was used with success as an injection in gleet. But solutions of this strength must be applied with great caution, as they are dangerous. Antidotes.—-Promote the evacuation of the poison by demulcents. Afterwards allay hyperemesis by opium, blood-letting, and the usual antiphlogistic regimen. Vegetable astringents have been advised. 5. ZINCI ACETAS, (U. S.)—ACETATE OF ZINC. History.—This salt was discovered by Glauber. Preparation.—It may be procured by dissolving oxide of zinc in acetic acid, and crystallizing the saturated solution; or it may be readily obtained by double decomposition : 143 grains of crystallized sulphate of zinc, dissolved in water, and mixed with 190 grains of crystallized acetate of lead in solution, will produce 152 grains of sulphate of lead, which, being insoluble, precipitates, while 91 grains of the anhydrous acetate of zinc (equal to 154 grains of the crystallized acetate) are left in solution; or it may be procured by immersing a piece of zinc fn a solu- tion of acelate of lead, until the liquid forms a white precipitate with hydrosul- phuric acid. In this process the lead is reduced to the metallic state, (forming the Arbor Saturni or Lead Tree,) while the zinc replaces it in solution. [The U. S. Pharmacopceia directs, Acetate of Lead, a pound; Zinc, granulated, nine ounces; Distilled Water, three pints. Dissolve the Acetate of Lead in the Water and filter. Add the Zinc to the solution, and agitate them occasionally together, in a stoppered bottle for five or six hours, or until the liquid yields no precipitate with u solution of iodide of potassium. Filter the liquor, evaporate it with a moderate heat to one-fifth and set it aside to crystallize. Pour off the liquid and dry the crystals on bibulous paper. Should the crystals be coloured, dissolve them in Distilled Water; and having heated the solution, drop into it while hot a filtered solution of Chlorinated Lime, nntil it ceases to let fall sesquioxide of iron; then filter the liquor, acidulate it with a few drops of Acetic Acid, evaporate and crystallize] Properties.—It usually crystallizes in rhomboidal plates, having a pearly or silky lustre, closely resembling talc. The form of the crystals is the oblique rhombic prism. The salt is odourless, but has a bitter metallic taste. It dis- solves readily in water, and is slightly efflorescent. Characteristics.—When heated it fuses, and gives out an inflammable vapour, having the odour of acetic acid. When sulphuric acid is added to the salt, the vapour of acetic acid is evolved: this is easily recognised by its odour. These characters show it to be an acetate. Thnt it is a zincic salt is proved by the tests before mentioned for a solution of this salt (p. 679). Composition.—Its composition is, accprding to Dr. Thomson, as follows: Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. OnideofZinc................... 1 ........ 40 ........ 2600 Acetic Acid..................... 1 .........51 ........ 3310 Waler......................... 7 ....... 63 ........ 40-90 Crystallized Acetate of Zinc..... 1 ........ 154 ........ 10000 688 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Physiological Effects.—Its effects are analogous to those of the sulphate of • zinc. Its local action is astringent. Taken internally, in small doses, it acts as a tonic and antispasmodic; large doses occasion vomiting and purging. Deveaux and Dejaer (Orfila, Toxicol. Gen.) deny that il is a poison, even in large doses. Uses.—It is rarely administered internally; but is applicable as an emetic, tonic, and antispasmodic, in the same cases in which the oxide or sulphate of zinc is employed. As a topical remedy, it is used on account of its astringent qualities in chronic ophthalmia, gleet, and leucorrhea. In the latter stages of gonorrhoea I have found it far more successful than the sulphate. Its beneficial effects were first described by the late Dr. Wm. Henry, of Manchester. fLond. Med. and Phys. Journ. ix. 53. 180:3.) Sir A.Cooper (L'incet, iii. 199.) recommends, as the best injection which can be used in the third week of gonorrhoea, a mixture of six grains of sulphate of zinc and four ounces of liquor plumbi subacetatus dilutus. Of course double decomposition lakes place, and the active ingredient is the ace- tate of zinc. Administration.—When exhibited internally, as a Ionic or antispasmodic, the dose is one or two grains gradually increased. As an emetic it is rarely admi- nistered; the dose is from ten grains to a scruple; its operation is very safe. As a lotion or injection, it is employed in the form of aqueous solution, containing two or more grains of the salt to an ounce of water. ZINCI ACETATIS TINCTURA, D. (Sulphate of Zinc; Acetate of Potash, aa one part. Triturate them together, and add sixteen parts of Rectified Spirit ; mace- rate for a week with occasional agitation, and filter through paper.)—Here we have double decomposition : sulphate of potash and acetate of zinc are formed. The first is precipitated, being insoluble in spirit, the second remains in solution. One drachm contains a quantity of acetate of zinc equal to about four grains of the crystallized acetate. When diluted wilh water it is ut>ed as a collyrium and injection. 6. ZINCI CARBON AS.—CARBONATE OF ZINC. (Calamina ; Carbonas Zinci impura, L.—Calamina praeparata ; Levigated impure Carbonate of Zinc, 15.—Carbonas Zinci inipuruin; Calainina, D ) History.—The native carbonate of zinc was perhaps known to^he ancients, though they were unacquainted with its nature. The term Calamine is applied both lo the native carbonate and native silicate of zinc : the latter is termed by way of distinction Electric Calamine. Natural History.—Native carbonate of zinc (Calamine) is found in great abundance in several parts of England (in the counties of Somerset, Derby, Durham, &c.), as well as in various parts of the continent of Europe (in Carin- thia, Hungary, Silesia, &c.) It occurs crystallized or in compact or earthy masses. lis colour varies, being more or less gray, yellow, or brown. Its sp. gr. is 4*2 to 4*5. Preparation.—Calamine (Calamina) or the impure carbonate of zinc (Car- bonas Zinciimpura), is directed to be calcined, in order to make it pulverizable. But-in this process water and more or less of the carbonic acid is expelled. It is then reduced to a very fine powder (usually in mills), and is afterwards submitted to the process of elutriation. By this means we obtain Prepared Calamine (Cala- mina Prceparata, L. E.; Zinci Carbonas impurum prceparatum, D.) Properties—Prepared calamine is met with in the shops in the form of a heavy pinkish or flesh-coloured powder, or made up into little masses. When pure, it dissolves in nitric, hydrochloric, or sulphuric acid, with effervescence. Various impurities mixed with calamine are insoluble in these acids. Characteristics.—The effervescence with the mineral acids shows calamine to be a carbonate. The presence of zinc in the solution is determined by the tests CARBONATE OF ZINC 689 before mentioned for this metal (p. 679). The action of these tests, however, is more or less impeded by the presence of foreign matters in calamine. Composition.—Carbonate of zinc has the following composition :— Smilhson. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. (Mendip Ore.) (Derbyshire Ore) Oxide of Zinc........... 1 ........ 40 ........ 64-5 ........ 048 .....to..... 652 Carbonic Acid.......... 1 ........ 22 ........ 355 ........ 352 .....to..... 34-8 Carbonate of Zinc...... 1 ........ 62 ........ 1000 ........ 1000 .....to..... 1000 Impurities.—The substance sold in the shops as prepared calamine frequently contains only traces of zinc. If hydrochloric acid be poured on it, effervescence (owing to the escape of carbonic and hydrosulphuric acids) takes place, and a por- tion is dissolved: but the greater part remains undissolved. Mr. Brett (Lond. Med. Gaz. xx. 72.) found from 78 to 87*5 per cent, of sulphate of baryta. The remainder of the powder consisted of oxide of iron, carbonate of lime, lead, [sul- phuret of?] and mere traces of zinc. Physiological Effects.—Pure carbonate of zinc is probably similar in its action to the oxide. Uses___Calamine is employed as a dusting powder for children, and as a mild desiccant and astringent in excoriations, superficial ulceration, &c. 1. CALAMINA PRiEPARATA, L.; Zinci Carbonas impurum prczparatum, D. [Zinci Carbonas preeparatus, U. S.] Lapis Calaminoris prceparatus. (Burn the Calamine, then bruise it. Afterwards let it be made into a very fine powder, in the same manner as we have directed chalk to be prepared, L—The directions of the Dublin College axe essentially similar.) Some remarks on the preparation have been previously offered. The Edinburgh College gives no direction for the preparation of calamine. %. CERATUM CALAMINE, L. E.; Unguentum Calamine?, D.; [Ceratum Zinci Carbonatis, U. S.;] Turner's Cerate ; Ceratum Epuloticum. (Calamine ; Wax, aa lbss.; Olive Oil, f3xvj. Add the Calamine to the melted wax and oil when they begin to thicken, L.—[The U. S. Pharm. directs Lard, lbij. instead of the olive oil,-]—The Edinburgh College uses of prepared Calamine, one part; and Simple Cexate, five parts.—The Dublin College employs of prepared Calamine, lbj.; and Ointment of Yellow Wax, lbv. M.) It is an excellent desiccant and astringent application (when prepared with good calamine) to burns, scalds, excoriations, su- perficial ulcerations, &c. NOlV-OFFICINAIi PREPARATION OF ZIXC. ZINCI CYANIDUM ; Hydrocyanate, Cyanide, or Cyanuret of Zinc. This salt was introduced bv the German physicians, as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid. It is prepared by adding recentlv-made oxide of zinc to hydrocyanic acid; or by adding a solution of sulphate of zinc to a solution of cyanide of potassium. It is a white powder, insoluble in water or alcohol. If a strong mineral acid be added to it, hydrocyanic acid is developed, and a soluble salt of zinc obtained The latter is recognised by the tests before mentioned for a solution of zinc [p. 679). It consists of one equivalent or 32 parts of Zinc, and one equivalent or 26 parts of CjTtr£cts have not been carefully ascertained, but they are supposed to be similar to those nf hvdrocvanic acid. It has been used principally in affections of the nervous system as epi- leosv hvsterin, and chorea. It has also been employed in card.algia and cramps of the sto- macb and as an anthelmintic in children. The dose is a quarter of a gram to a grain and a half three times a day. It may be taken in the form of powder mixed with calcined mag- nesia. 58* 690 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Order XXVII.—IRON AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 1. FER'RUM, L. E. D. [U. S.]—IRON. (Ramenta, £.-Fi!um; Limatura, E.—Fila; Scobs, Oxydi Squama, D.) [Ferri Filum ; Iron Wire, Ferri Ramenta, Iron Filings, U. S.] History.—This metal (called by the alchymists Mars) was known in the most ancient times. It was employed medicinally at a very early period, namely, above 3200 years ago. Indeed, it appears to have been the first mineral used internally; and a curious anecdote is given of its introduction into medicine. Melampus (a shepherd supposed to possess supernatural powers) being applied to by Iphicles, son of Philacus, for a remedy against impotence, slaughtered two bulls, the intestines of which he cut to pieces, in order to attract birds to an augury. Among the animals which came to the feast was a vulture, from* whom Melampus pretended to learn that his patient, when a boy, had stuck a knife, wet with the blood of some rams, into a consecrated chesl nut-tree, and the bark had subsequently enveloped it. The vulture also indicated the remedy, namely, to procure the knife, scrape off the rust, and drink it in wine, for the space often days, by which time Iphicles would be lusty, and capable of begetting children. The advice thus given by Melampus is said to have been followed by the young prince with the most perfect success! (Le Clerc, Hist, de la Medecine.) Natural History.—Iron is met with in both kingdoms of nature. *. In the Inorganized Kingdom.—Few minerals are free from iron. It is found in the me- tallic state (native iron), in combination with oxygen (hcemalite, micaceous iron, brown iron stone, and magnetic iron ore), with sulphur (iron pyrites, and magnetic pyrites), with chlorine (pyr-os- malile), and with oxygen and an acid (carbonate, phosphate, sulphate, arseniale, tungstate, tanta- lale, titaniate, chromate, oxalate, and silicate). • 0. In the Organized Kingdom.—It occurs in the ashes of most plants, and in the blood and some other parts of animals. Extraction.—In Sweden, iron is extracted from magnetic iron ore and mica- ceous iron : in England, principally from clay iron ore (carbonate of iron). Clay iron ore (technically called Mine) is burned with coal in large heaps, by which it loses carbonic acid, water, and sulphur. It is then smelted with a flux (in South Wales this is limestone; in the forest of Dean, clay ;) and coke. The smelted iron is run into moulds, and is then called Cast Iron {Ferrum fusum) ox Pig Iron. This contains carbon, oxygen, silicon, and often sulphur and phos- phorus. To separate these, it is submitted to several processes (called refining, puddling, and welding), by which it is converted into Wrought Iron (Ferrum cusum).1 Properties.—The primary form of the crystals of native iron is the regular octohedron. Pure iron has a whitish gray colour, or, according to Berzelius, is almost silver white. When polished it has much brilliancy: its taste is peculiar and styptic: when rubbed it becomes odorous. Its ductility and tenacity are great; its malleability comparatively small. Its sp. gr. is 7*788, but diminishes by rolling or drawing. It is attracted by the magnet, and several of its com- pounds are capable of becoming permanent magnets; but pure iron retains its magnetic property for a short time only. It requires a very intense heat to fuse it; and it is not volatile at any known temperature; while in the softened state previous to melting, it is capable of being welded. Its equivalent or atomic weight is 28. Characteristics. — Iron readily dissolves in diluted sulphuric acid with the 1 Manufacture of Iron, in the Library of Useful Knowledge; also, Treatise on Iron and Steel in Lardner's jlr.lnnrprfin IRON. 691 evolution of hydrogen gas. The solution-contains the protosulphate of iron, and produces, on ihe addition of causlic potash or soda, a greenish-white precipitate (the hydrated protoxide): this precipitate, by exposure" to the air, attracts oxy- gen, and is converted into the red or sesquioxide. Auro-chloride of sodium forms a purple precipitate with the protosalts of iron. By boiling the solution of the protosulphate with a liltle nitric acid, we obtain a persulphate of iron, recog- nised by ferrocyanide of potassium, causing a blue precipitate ; sulphocyanic or meconic acid, a red colour; gallic or tannic acid, or infusion of galls, a purple or bluish black ; and succinate, or benzoate of ammonia, a yellowish preci- pitate. Physiological Effects, a. Of the Metallic iron.—Iron is probably inert so long as it retains its metallic form, but it readily oxidizes in the alimentary canal, and thereby acquires medicinal power. As acids promote this chemical change, acid wines and fruits assist in rendering the metal active, while alkalis and their carbonates have an opposite effect. The oxidizement of the iron is attended with the evolution of hydrogen gas, which gives rise to unpleasant eructations. If sul- phur be taken along with iron, hydrosulphuric acid is developed. Like the ferru- ginous preparations generally, the internal employment of iron causes blackening of the stools. The nature of the effects produced by oxide of iron formed in the alimentary canal will be best examined hereafter, under the head of ferruginous preparations. I may, however, remark here, that it is one of the few metals which by oxidizement is not rendered more or less poisonous. jS. Of the Ferruginous Compounds, aa. On Vegetables.—Most of the com- pounds of iron do not appear to be hurtful to plants: at least this is the case with the oxides. (De Candolle, Phys. Veg. 1837.) The sulphate, however, is in- jurious. (3/3. On Animals.—The effects of the ferruginous compounds on animals gene- rally are similar to those on man. It is stated that in animals to whom iron has been given for a considerable time, the spleen has been found smaller, harder, and denser—an effect which is supposed to be owing to the increased contractile power experienced by the veins of the abdomen. The liver is also said to have been affected in a similar manner, though in a somewhat slighter degree. yy. On Man.—The local effects of the sulphate and chloride of iron are those of irritants, and these preparations accordingly rank among poisons : but they are not equal in power to the mercurial or cupreous salts. Most of the ferruginous preparations are astringent; that is, they constringe the parts with which they are in contact, and thereby diminish secretions and check sanguineous discharges. Thus, when swallowed, they repress the secretions and exhalation of the gastro- intestinal membrane, and thereby render the alvine evacuations more solid, and even occasion costiveness. The sulphate and chloride of iron are the most pow- erful of the ferruginous astringents. Administered in large quantities, or when the alimentary canal is in an irritable condition, all the compounds of iron are capable of exciting heat, weight, and uneasiness at the praecordia, nausea, and even vomiting, and sometimes purging. The constitutional or remote effects1 of the chalybeates are principally observed in the alteration induced in the actions of the vascular and muscular systems, and are best seen in that state of the system denominated ancemia, or more properly hypcemia, (see p. 52), in which both the quantity and quality of the blood appear defective. We have a good illustralion of this state in chlorotic patients. The skin appears pale and almost exsanguincous, the cellular tissue is oedematous, nnd, after death, the larger vessels as well as the capillaries are found to be imperfectly supplied with blood. Patients wilh this con- dition of system arc affected wilh great feebleness, loss of appetite, and palpitation ; and in 1 The best account of the physiological effects of iron is thai published by Menghini (De Ferrearum parti- cularvm progressu ad sanguinem) in ihe Comment. Acad. Bonon. t. ii. pt. iii. p. 475. A notice of these is given by Bayle in the Bibliotheque de Therapeutique, t. iv. Paris, 1837. 692 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. females the catamenial secretion is frequently, but not invariably, defective. That the want of uterine action is not the cause, but in some cases is, perhaps, the effect of this condition of system, seems tolerably clear from the circumstance of the same constitutional symptoms of anasmia sometimes occurring with a perfect regularity of the uterine functions; moreover, we occasionally meet with anaemia in men. It is sometimes the consequence of hemorrhages—at other times it occurs spontaneously, and without any known cause. (Andral, Pathol. Anat. by Townsend and West, i. 97.) If in this condition of system we administer iron, the appetite increases, diges- tion is promoted, the pulse becomes fuller and stronger, the skin assumes its natural tint, the lips and cheeks become more florid, the temperature of the body is in- creased, the oedema disappears, and the muscular strength is greatly augmented. The alvine evacuations assume a black colour, as they always do under the use of the ferruginous preparations. After continuing the use of iron for a few weeks, we frequently find excitement of the vascular system (particularly of the brain) ; thus we have throbbing of the cerebral vessels, and sometimes pain in the head, a febrile condition of system, with a tendency to hemorrhage. Mr. Carmichael (Essay on the Effects of Carbonate of Iron on Cancer, Dubl. 1806, p. 396.) con- siders the sanguine temperament (marked by a high complexion, celerity of thought, remarkable irritability of fibre, and a quick pulse) as depending on an excess of iron in the system ; whereas the leucophlegmatic or relaxed temperament (characterized by a pale bloated countenance, dull eyes, mind heavy and slow in receiving and forming ideas, little irritability of fibre, and pulse small and feeble) as depending on a deficiency of iron. When by the use of iron the. state of the general system improves, the secre- tions resume their natural condition; and thus at one time we observe this metal promoting the uterine discharge, at another checking it, according as chlorosis or menorrhagia had been previously present: we cannot, therefore, regard the pre- parations of this metal as having any direct emmenagogue effect, as some have supposed. Some refer all the other symptoms of anaemia to the abnormal state of the blood, and ascribe the beneficial influence of iron to the improvement in the quality of this liquid. It is certain that, under the use of the preparations of this metal, the blood frequently acquires a more scarlet colour, owing probably to an increase in the number of its colouring particles; and the crassamentum becomes firmer and more solid, and even increased in quantity. This alteration of the physical and chemical properties of the blood must render it more stimulating, and thus the different organs, receiving a fluid ofa more healthy character, resume their normal condition, and perform their functions in a proper manner. Tiedemann and Gmelin1 have detected it in the serum of the blood of the portal and mesenteric veins of'horses and dogs, to whom they administered either the sulphate or chlo- ride. Occasionally, too, iron has been found in the urine. Moreover, Menghini3 asserts, that the quantity of iron in the blood of dogs maybe increased by feeding them on substances mixed with this metal. Farthermore, it is not to be forgotten that iron exists in no inconsiderable quantity in healthy blood, and is supposed to contribute to its colour, and probably to its stimulant properties; so that it is not unlikely any variation in the quantity of this metal would be attended with an alteration in the action of every organ. Iron is a substance not readily absorbed,"for it remains in the stomach and intes- tines many days after it is swallowed : in order, therefore, that the ferruginous preparations should have much effect on the general system, it is necessary that they be employed for some considerable time. It does not, like most other metals, act as a poison when it gets into the blood. Another circumstance connected with the operation of iron is likewise de- serving of notice; namely, that it has no primary or specific effect on the nervous 1 Vers. u. d. Wege auf welch. Subst. aus d. Magen u. Darmk. a De Ferrearum particul. progressu ad sanguinem. In Com. Acad. Bonon. t. ii. pt. iii. p. 475. IRON. 693 system, as arsenic, mercury, copper, zinc, bismuth, silver, and many other metals. It must not, however, be imagined from these remarks, that the preparations of iron never operate injuriously. On the contrary, we see them sometimes acting as local irritants on the alimentary canal, as already noticed; and by the use of them in too large quantities, or for too long a period of time, they bring on a hypersthenic or phlogistic diathesis. Uses. a. Of Metallic iron.—Iron filings have been used in those cases where the chalybeate preparations generally have been administered, and which will be hereafter noticed. In some instances, however, the efficacy of iron depends on its being employed in the uncombined state. Thus, when used as an antidote to poisoning by the salts of copper, it is necessary that the iron be administered in the metallic state, in order to reduce the cupreous salts. Iron filings have been regarded as anthelmintic, especially in the small thread-worm (Ascaris Vermicu- laris); they have been used also as an astringent application, to repress fetid secretion of the feet. /3. of the Ferruginous Compounds.— By a careful attention to the known phy- siological effects of the ferruginous compounds, the indications and contra-indica- tions for their employment may be in great part learned. Thus, the impropriety of administering them where there is irritation or inflammation of the alimentary canal, in plethoric habits, and in persons disposed to inflammatory diseases, or to apoplexy, will be obvious from the foregoing remarks. On the other hand, in all cases characterized by feebleness and inertia of the different organs of the body, by a soft lax condition of the solids, and by a leucophlegmatic state of the system—where the patient appears to be suffering from a state of general anaemia, already described—the preparations of iron are indicated. It is hardly within the scope of my present object to instance particular diseases where this metal may be used, but rather to point out those conditions of system which affect the employment of iron in diseases generally. I may notice a few cases by way of illustration. As external or local agents, we rarely employ the preparations of iron, since we have other more efficacious and powerful remedies. Occasionally, however, they have been used as astringents, styptics, and caustics. Thus, solutions of the sul- phate and chloride have been used in the form of injection, in discharges from the urethra and vagina; and the tincture of the chloride is now and then applied as a styptic, or to repress the growth of spongy granulations. The ferruginous preparations are usually resorted to with the view of affecting the general system. They are frequently given lo promote the uterine functions, as in chlorosis, amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, and menorrhagia, and often with success. When chlorosis depends on, or at least is accompanied by, that condi- tion of the system before described under the name of anaemia, the ferruginous preparations are frequently useful; but if it occur in patients of a full habit, or if it arise from inflammation of some organ (as the lungs, stomach, or bowels), cha- lybeates will do harm. In cases of impotence, connected with or arising from general feebleness, it may be now and then useful; but in nine out of ten cases which we are called on to treat, this condition arises from indulgence in bad habits, which no medicine can affect. Sometimes iron is resorted to in sterility (though Dioscorides says the rust of iron hinders women from conceiving), but the condi- tions under which ii is likely to be useful are precisely those before mentioned for other diseases. In discharges from the genital organs, as gleet and leucorrhcea, the internal employment of the tincture of the chloride of iron, sometimes con- joined with the tincture of cantharides, has been found useful. In some periodical diseases—namely, ague, asthma, and tic douloureux—the ferruginous preparations have gained considerable repute. In the first of these diseases (that is, ague), the sulphate has been used by Marc1 and others, the subcar- 1 Recherehes sur lEmploi du Sulf. de Fer dans le Traitemcnt des Fiivres Intcrm. Paris, 1810. 694 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. bonate by Buchwald, the ammoniacal chloride by Hartmann ; but it has been almost wholly superseded, of late years, by the sulphate of quinine and by arsenic. In asthma, Dr. Bree,1 who was himself a sufferer from the disease, regards iron as preferable to all other remedies. However, the experience of others has not con- firmed his favourable opinion of it. The sesquioxide of iron has latterly been extensively employed, at the recommendation of Mr. B. Hutchinson (Cases of Tic Douloureux successfully treated. 1820.), in tic douloureux, and with variable success; in some cases acting in a most extraordinarily beneficial manner, in others being of no avail. In diseases of the spleen and liver, the ferruginous compounds are occasionally found useful. I have already alluded to the influence which they are supposed to possess over these organs; a supposition the more probable from the occasional remarkable effects produced by them in diseases of these organs. " I regard iron as a specific,''1 says Cruveilhier (Did. de Med. et de Chir. Prat. t. viii. p. 62.), " in hypertrophy of the spleen, or chronic splenitis ; whether primitive or conse- cutive to intermittent fevers." After noticing the symptoms attending this condition (such as paleness of the lips, &c, great lassitude, abdominal and cephalic pulsa- tions, brought on by the slightest exertion, pain at the left side, disordered state of the digestive organs, accelerated pulse, and heart easily excited), he goes on to remark, " By the aid of iron I have obtained the complete resolution of enlarge- ments of the spleen, which have occupied half, or even two-thirds, of the abdomen." In hypertrophy of the liver, iron has not been equally serviceable. Some years ago the preparations of iron were strongly recommended in cancer by Mr. Carmichael. (Op. supra cit.) The grounds on which he was led to the use of them were the probability that cancer had an independent life—in other words, that it was a kind of parasite, as some preceding writers, more particularly Dr. Adams, had presumed ; and secondly, the efficacy of iron in destroying intes- tinal worms, which led him to hope that it would be equally destructive to other parasites. With these views he employed (externally and internally) various ferruginous compounds—namely, the ferrotartrate of potash, the subcarbonate (sesquioxide) of iron, and the phosphates. Whatever hopes may have at one time been entertained of these remedies as curative agents, in this most intractable dis- ease, they are now completely destroyed. That these medicines are occasionally useful as palliatives may perhaps be admitted ; but they have no curative powers. Indeed this might have been suspected, from the hypothetical grounds on which they were introduced into use. The proofs of the parasitical nature of cancer must be much stronger than any yet offered, ere we can admit this hypothesis. Moreover, the preparations of iron; though useful, are not so " very effectual" in worms as Mr. Carmichael's remarks would lead us to imagine. In certain affedioyis of the digestive organs, the preparations of iron are occa- sionally used with benefit; as in some forms of dyspepsia, but only in the condi- tions of system already noticed. • In some affections of the nervous system which occur in weak debilitated sub- jects, it is also useful; for example, in epilepsy, chorea, hysteria, and the shaking palsy produced by the vapour of mercury. These are the most important diseases for which we employ the ferruginous compounds. There are many other diseases for which chalybeates are occasion- ally beneficial; but the general principles regulating their use will be readily com- prehended from the foregoing remarks, and I have only to add, that in all diseases attended by debility and marked by atony and inertia of organs, more especially in those indicating a disordered state of the hsematose functions, the preparations of iron will be found in most instances more or less serviceable. Furthermore, I may enumerate scrofula, rickets, dropsy, and gout, as diseases in which iron has been at times used with advantage. 1 A Practical Inquiry on Disordered Respiration, distinguishing Convulsive Asthma, its Specific Causes, &.C Birmingham, 1797. BLACK OXIDE OF IRON. 695 Administration—Iron in substance is administered in the form of filings. These are procured from the workshop of the smith, and are usually impure, being mixed with the filings of other metals, &c. The magnet is generally em- ployed to separate the ferruginous from other particles, but it does this imperfectly, as various impurities cling to the iron particles. The only way to procure them pure is by filing a piece of pure iron with a clean file. The dose of iron filings is from ten to thirty grains, given in the form of an electuary made with treacle, honey, or some other thick substance. 2. FERRI OX'YDUM NIGRUM, D.—BLACK OXIDE OF IRON. (Ferri Oxidum Nigrum, E.) History.—It was first employed as a medicine by Lemery in 1735. It is the Martial Ethiops (jEthiops Martialis) of some writers, and the Oxydum ferroso- ferricum of Berzelius. It is-sometimes termed the Magnetic Oxide. Natural History.—It occurs in the mineral kingdom under the name of Magnetic Iron Ore, the massive form of which is called Native Loadstone. It is found in Cornwall, Devonshire, Sweden, &c. Preparation.—Directions for its preparation are given by both the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges. The Edinburgh College orders of Sulphate of Iron, 3vj.; Sulphuric Acid (commercial) f3ij. and f 9ij.; Pure Nitric Acid, f 3iv.; Stronger Aqua Ammoniae, fSivss.; Boiling Water, Oiij. Dissolve half the sulphate in half the boiling water, and add the sulphuric acid ; boil; add the nitric acid by degrees, boiling the liquid after each addition briskly for a few minutes. Dissolve the rest of the sulphate in the rest of the boiling water; mix thoroughly the two solutions; and immediately add the ammonia in a full stream, stirring the mixture at the same time briskly. Collect the black powder on a calico-filter; wash it with water till the water is scarcely precipitated by solution of nitrate of baryta; and dry it at a temperature not exceeding 180°. The object of the first part of this process is to convert the sulphate of the pro- toxide of iron into the sulphate of the sesquioxide. This is effected by adding nitric^acid to the boiling solution. The acid gives oxygen to the protoxide, while binoxide of nitrogen gas escapes. The additional quantity of sulphuric acid is required to enable the salt to preserve its neutrality, and prevent the deposition ofa basic sulphate of the sesquioxide. If, however, the sulphate of iron directed to be used be a pure protosulphate, the additional quantity of sulphuric acid ordered by the Edinburgh College is not sufficient for the purpose. On the addition of ammonia to the mixed solution of the protosulphate and sesquisulphate of iron, a compound of the hydrated protoxide and sesquioxide of iron is precipitated. This is to be washed with water until all traces of sulphuric acid are got rid of. When dried at 180° it constitutes the Ferri-Oxidum nigrum of the Edinburgh Pharma- copoeia. The Dublin College orders it to be prepared as follows:—Let the scales of Oxide of Iron [Ferri Oxydi Squamas], which are to be found at the smiths' anvils, be washed with water ; and when dried, let them be detached from impurities by application ofa magnet. Then let them be reduced to powder, of which let the most subtile parts be detached, according to the mode directed for the preparation of chalk. Scales of iron are composed ofa mixture or combination of protoxide and ses- quioxide ; but they are not uniform in constitution. The process of the Dublin Pharmacopceia has the advantage of cheapness. There are several other methods of procuring this compound. In the Paris Codex it is directed to be prepared by covering iron with water and exposing the mixture to the air: then, by elutriation, separating the black powder. Properties.—The crystalline form of the magnetic iron ore is the regular octo- • 696 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. hedron. The black oxide of iron of the Pharmacopoeia is a grayish-black pow- der, with a velvety appearance, and is strongly magnetic. It dissolves in hydro- chloric acid without effervescence. Prepared according to the Edinburgh Phar- macopoeia its properties are as follows :— " Dirk grayish-black : strongly attracted by the magnet: heat expels water from it; muri- atic acid dissolves it entirely; and ammonia precipitates a black powder from this solution." Ph. Ed. Composition.—The following is the composition of this oxide :— Atoms. Eq Wt. Per Cent. Oay-Lussae. Or, Atoms. Eq. Wt. Iron................ 3 ...... 84 ...... 72-414 ....... 72 5 Protoxide---I.... 36 Oxygen............. 4 ...... 32 ...... 27.586 ---__.. 2T-5 Sesquioxide .. 2--- 80 Black Oxide of Iron. 1 .....116 ...... 100000 ....... 100-0 1---116 It has been above stated that the constitution of scales of oxide of iron is va- riable. The following is their composition according to Mosander:— Outer Layer. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Inner Layer. Atoms. Eq. Wt. 3........ 108 1 ........ 40 1 ........ 148 Purity.—Black oxide of iron should be readily soluble in hydrochloric acid without effervescence ; by which the absence of metallic iron is shown. Physiological Effects and Uses.—These are similar to those of the chaly- beates in general, and which have been already described. It does not produce local irritation. It is a more valuable preparation than the sesquioxide, in conse- quence of being more readily soluble in the fluids of the stomach. Administration.—Dose from grs. v. to 9j. or more, twice or thrice daily. 3. FER'RI SESQUIOX'YDUM, L.—SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON. a (Ferri Oxidum rubrum, E.—Ferri Oxydum rubrum; Ferri Rubigo; and Ferri Carbonas, D.) [Ferri Sub-Carbonas, Precipitated Carbonate of Iron, U. S.J History.—Geber (Invention of Verity, p. 280.) was acquainted with this sub- stance, which he calls Crocus Mortis. It was probably known long before his time. It is ihe Red or Peroxide of Iron of some chemists. Natural History.—It is found native in the crystallized state (Specular Iron or Iron Glance) and in globular and stalactitic masses (Red Hcematite); the finest specimens of the first occur in the Isle of Elba; the second is found near Ulver- stone, in Lancashire, and in Saxony. The hydrated sesquioxide of iron (Brown Iron Stone) is met with in Scotland, and at Shotover Hill, Oxfordshire. Preparation.—There are several modes of preparing this compound :__ 1. By precipitation from Sulphate of Iron. The London College orders of Sulphate of Iron, lbiv.; Carbonate of Soda, Ibiv. and Sij.; Wa- ter boiling, Cong. vj. Dissolve the Sulphate of Iron and Carbonate of Soda, separately, in three gallons of Water; then mix the liquors together, and set them by, that the powder may subside. Lastly, the supernatant liquor being poured off, wash what is precipitated with waler, and dry it. The Edinburgh College employs of Sulphate of Iron, 3iv.; Carbonate of Soda, 3v. • Boil- ing Water, Oss.; Cold Water, Oiijss. Dissolve the sulphate in the boiling water, add ihe cold water, and then the Carbonate of Sod.i, previously dissolved in about Ihrice its wei<-ht of water. Collect the precipitate on a calico filter; wash it with water till the water Ts but SESQUIOXIDE of iron. 697 little affected with solution of nitrate of baryta, and dry it in the hot-air press, or over the vapour bath. Ion. The mode of proceeding is essentially that of the London College.] In this process one equivalent or 76 parts of sulphate of iron are decomposed by one equivalent or 54 parts of carbonate of soda : and the products of their mutual reaction are one equivalent or 58 parts of carbonate of the protoxide of iron which are precipitated, and one equivalent or 72 parts of sulphate of soda which remain in solution. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. leq. Carbon. Soda.. 5i\] eq. Soda . ...... 32-----------—_=-1 eq. Sulphate of Soda..... 72 ( 1 eq. Carbonic Acid 22.. ^— leq. Sulphate of Iron 76S] eg. Sulphuric Acid 40 ""-•..... , . „ u _ 1 eq. Oxide of Iron 36-........................•.•..__.] eq. Carbonate of Iron___ 58 130 130 1^) By exposure to the air during the washing and drying, the carbonate of the protoxide of iron is decomposed, the oxygen of the air combines with the pro- toxide, and thereby converts it into sesquioxide, while carbonic acid is disen- gaged. When prepared according to the above directions its colour is reddish chocolate brown, and it usually contains a small portion of undecomposed carbonate of the protoxide of iron. Manufacturers, however, usually calcine it in an iron pot, by which it acquires a brownish red colour and is more saleable. Sesquioxide of iron, as thus procured, is frequently termed Carbonate or Sub- carbonate of Iron (Ferri Carbonas, D.), or Precipitated Carbonate of Iron (Ferri Carbonas Prcecipitatus). 2. By calcining Sulphate of Iron. The Dublin College orders it [Ferri Oxydum Rubrum, D.] to be prepared as follows:—Let sul- phate of iron be exposed to heat until the water of crystallization shall be expelled; then with a strong fire let it be roasted so long as acid vapour rises. Let the red oxide be washed until the washings, when examined by litmus, shall appear free from acid. Lastly, let it be dried on bibu- lous paper. In this process the water and sulphuric acid of the crystallized sulphate of iron are evolved. The iron is peroxidized at the expense of a portion of the sulphuric acid, while some sulphurous acid is developed. Sesquioxide of iron, prepared by this process, is known in commerce as Colco- thar, Caput Mortuum, Vitrioli, Trip, Brown-red, Rouge, Crocus.1 3. From Rust of Iron* The Dublin College orders Rust of Iron (Rubigo Ferri, D.) to be thus prepared:—Take of iron wire any required quantity. Moisten it with water, and expose it to the air until it is cor- roded into rust. Then let it be rubbed in an iron mortar; and, by the affusion of water, let the most subtile powder be washed off and dried. It is directed to be prepared from iron-wire on account of its purity. Rust of iron is usually reduced to an impalpable powder by levigation and elutriation; and is then made up into small conical loaves like prepared chalk. Properties.—The primary form of the crystals of native sesquioxide of iron is the rhombohedron. 1 " The scarlet parts are called rouge; the red, purple, or bluish parts, being those which have been exposed to the strongest heat, are called crocus." (Gray's Operative Chemist, p. 696. Lond. 1828.) VOL. I. 59 698 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. The artificial sesquioxide of the shops is a brownish red powder : when it has been exposed to an intense heat it has a purplish tint. It is odourless, insoluble in water, and not magnetic. Prepared according to the London Pharmacopceia it has a styptic taste ; when calcined it is tasteless. When quite free from carbonate of iron, it dissolves in hydrochloric acid without effervescence. Characteristics.—Its hydrochloric solution affords a deep blue precipitate with the ferrocyanide of potassium ; a purplish black precipitate with tincture of nut- galls ; a brownish-red precipitate with the alkalis; and a red colour with sulpho- cyanic or meconic acid. Composition.—Sesquioxide of iron has the following composition :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per. Cent. OayLussae. Berzelius. Iron......................... 1 ........ 28 ........ 70 ........ 7027 ........ 69 22 Oxygen...................... IJ........ l'<- ........ 30 ........ 29-73 ........ 3078 Sesquioxide of Iron........... 1 ........ 40 ........ 100 ........ 100-00 ........ 10000 Purity.—Adulteration is hardly to be apprehended. If it should contain copper,, its hydrochloric solution will deposit this metal on a bright rod of iron. After the sesquioxide has been thrown down by ammonia from the hydrochloric solution, the supernatant liquor should give no indications of containing any other metal in solution ; and chloride of barium ought not to occasion any precipitate. Orfila (Journal de Chimie Med. t. vi. 2de Serie, p. 646.) obtained traces of arsenic in the sesquioxide of commerce, by boiling this substance for five hours with pure sulphuric acid, and placing the solution in Marsh's apparatus. Dissolved totally by dilute hydrochloric acid with very slight effervescence, and it is precipi- tated by ammonia. Ph. Lond. " Entirely soluble in muriatic acid, aided by gentle heat." Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—It is termed alterative, tonic, and emmenagogue. Its obvious effects on the body are very slight. It produces blackness of the stools ; and in large doses occasions nausea, a sensation of weight at the pit of the stomach, and sometimes dyspeptic symptoms. It possesses very little astringency. The constitutional effects, arising from the continued use of it, are those produced by the ferruginous compounds generally, and which have been before described. Uses.—It may be employed in any of the before-mentioned cases in which the ferruginous tonics are indicated. It has been strongly recommended by Mr. Benjamin Hutchinson (Cases of Tic Douloureux successfully treated, 1820.) as a remedy for neuralgia, and in some cases it gives complete, in others partial, relief. But in many instances no benefit whatever is obtained from its use, and in one case in which I prescribed it, the patient fancied it increased her sufferings. Mr. Carmichael, as already stated (p. 694), has recommended it as a remedy for cancerous diseases. Administration.—The usual dose, as a tonic and emmenagogue, is from grs. x. to 3ss. In tic douloureux it is given in much larger quantities, as from 3ss. to 3iij. or 3iv. It may be administered in the form of an electuary. To enable it to sit easily on the stomach, it may be combined with aromatics. EMPLASTRUM FERRI, E ;—(U. S.) Emplastrum Thuris, D.; Emplastrum Ro. borons ; Iron, Frankincense or Strengthening Plaster. (Litharge Plaster, 3iij.; Resin, ,3vj.'; Olive Oil, f3iijss.; Bees-wax, 3 i ij -; Red Oxide of Iron, 3j. Triturate the oxide of iron with the oil, and add the mixture to the other articles previously liquefied by gentle heat. Mix the whole thoroughly, Ed.—Litharge Plaster, lbij.; Frankincense (Thus) lbss.; Red Oxide of Iron, 3iij. M. D.) [The same articles in the same proportions are directed by the U. S. P.] Spread on leather, it is em- ployed as a mechanical support and slight stimulant, in muscular relaxation, lum- bago, weakness of the joints, &c. hydrated sesquioxide of iron. 699 4. FERRI SESQUIOX'YDUM HYDRATUM. —HYDRATED SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON. (Ferrugo, J".)—[Ferri Oxidum Hydratum, U. S.] History.—In the year 1834 this preparation was proposed by Drs. Bunsenand Berthold as an antidote for poisoning by arsenious acid.1 Preparation.—The Edinburgh Pharmacopceia gives the following directions for its preparation :— Take of Sulphate of Iron, 3iv.; Sulphuric Acid (commercial), f 3iijss.; Nitric Acid (D. 1380) f 3ix.; stronger Aqua Ammoniae, f 3iijss.; Water, Oij. Dissolve the sulphate in the water, add the Sulphuric Acid, and boil the solution; add then the Nitric Acid in small portions, boiling the liquid for a minute or two after each addition, until it acquires a yellowish-brown colour, iind yields a precipitate of the same colour with ammonia. Filter ; allow the liquid to cool; and add in a full stream the Aqua Ammoniae, stirring the mixture briskly. Collect the precipitate on a calico filter; wash it with water till the washings cease to precipitate with nitrate of baryta; squeeze out the water as much as possible; and dry the precipitate at a temperature not ex- ceeding 1803. When this preparation is kept as an antidote for poisoning with arsenic, it is preferable to preserve it in the moist state, after being simply squeezed. [The U. S. P., directs Sulphate of Iron, 3iv.; Sulphuric Acid, f3iijss.; Nitric Acid, f^vj., or q. s.; Solution of Ammonia, q. s.; Water two pints. Proceed in the same way.] The sulphate of the protoxide of iron is converted, by the nitric and sulphuric acids, into the sulphate of the sesquioxide (seep. 695). On the addition of caustic ammonia, the hydrated sesquioxide of iron is precipitated, while sulphate of am- monia remains in solution. The oxide retains in combination with it some am- monia, but this does not prove injurious to its therapeutical use. If potash or soda be substituted for ammonia, we obtain, unless the alkali be in excess, a sub- sulphate, instead of the hydrated oxide of iron ; and if we use excess of alkali, a portion of it combines with the oxide. Oxide which has been precipitated by potash has been found not to be equally efficacious as an antidote for arsenic, to that obtained by ammonia.2 Properties.—Hydrated sesquioxide of iron has a deep reddish-brown colour. Prepared for use, as an antidote to arsenious acid, it should be in the form of a gelatinous moist magma. Though it may be dried at ordinary temperatures with- out undergoing decomposition, yet in this moist state it more readily renders ar- senious acid insoluble : and, therefore, to preserve it in this condition, it should be kept under water in a stoppered bottle. If this hydrated sesquioxide (prepared by ammonia) be added in considerable excess to a solution of arsenious acid, and well agitated, the filtered liquor gives no traces of the presence of arsenic. Dr. Maclagan states that " at least twelve parts of oxide, prepared by ammonia, are required for each part of arsenic ;3 and that when the oxide has either been pre- cipitated by potash, or been dried even at a low temperature, that about three or four times larger quantities are requisite." That the arsenious acid has been rendered insoluble is shown by the fact that by washing it cannot be removed from the magma. In the first instance the arsenious acid combines with the sesquiox- ide of iron to form a subarsenite of the sesquioxide; the composition of which Guibourt (Journal de Chimie Med. t. v. 2^ Serie, p. 312.) approximatively repre- sents as being, sesquioxide of iron (calcined to redness) 65*0 ; arsenious acid, 14*50 ; water, 20*50. According to Graham (Elements of C/iemistry, p. 636.) ; the mutual reaction of the hydrated sesquioxide and the arsenious acid gives rise to the formation of the arseniate of the protoxide of iron, 2 Fe3 O* and As2 03=__:4 Fe 0+As2 O3. The same authority observes, that the constitution of this arse- niate is probably 2 Fe O. HO, As2 0»+2 Fe O. «■ Po""findorf, Annalen de Physik, Bd. xxxii. S. 124. 1834; also, Journal de Pharmacie, xx. 567. » Sie^Bunsen's Memoir before quoted ; also Dr. Maclagan On the Action of Hydrated Sesquioxide of Iron in Arsevir in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, No. 144. a " Tlii* proportion of twelve parts of the moist ammoniacal oxide to each part of arsenic, is that which has been indicated bv several of the French experimentalists as being required to insure its antidotal effects.*' 700 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Composition.—It consists of sesquioxide of iron, watert and a small portion of ammonia. One hundred parts of the magma, deprived of water by the decanta- tton, yielded Guibourt from 3-2 to 3*5 of calcined sesquioxide. According to the same authority, 1 litre of the magma, equal to about If imperial pints (1*7608 imperial pints), contains 32*35 grammes or 499T6^ troy grains (499-6134 troy grains) of the calcined sesquioxide. So that one imperial pint contains about 286 grains of the calcined sesquioxide. Physiological Effects.—These are similar to those of the anhydrous sesqui- oxide before mentioned. Uses.—The power of hydrated sesquioxide of iron to act as an antidote to arsenious acid is proved by three facts:— *. It renders this poison insoluble. fi. Experiments on animals have shown its efficacy as an antidote. y. In poisoning in the human subject it has proved successful. I have already explained the nature of the reaction between arsenious acid and hydrated sesquioxide of iron, in virtue of which the former is rendered in- soluble. Drs. Bunsen and Berthold (Op. cit.) were the first to show that arsenious acid proves innocuous to animals when the hydrated sesquioxide was speedily admi- nistered. Their statements have been confirmed by the experiments of Soubeiran and Miquel (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. i. 2Qe Ser. p. 3.), of Orfila and Lesueur (Ibid. p. 45.), of Bouley, jun. (Ibid. p. 46.), of Borelli and Demaria (Ibid. p. 393.), of Dr. Mackenzie (quoted by Dr. Maclagan.), of the Committee (composed of Drs. Deville, Nonat, and Sandras) appointed by the Socicte de Medecine of Paris (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. v. 2de Serie, p. 317.), and of other experimental- ists. (Quoted by Dr. T. R. Beck, in Lond. Med. Gaz. Oct. 15.1841.) Opposed to this mass of evidence, we have only the unfavourable results of Mr. Brett (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. xv. p. 220.) and Mr. Orton. (Lancet, Nov. 8, 1834.) But of these experimentalists 1 may remark, in the words of my friend Dr. Mac- lagan, that " with respect to the former, it may be observed, that he appears uniformly to have used too small quantities of the oxide; and the experiments of the latter hardly seem to have been made with sufficient care, as appears, in one instance at least, from his having injected both poison and antidote into the lungs instead of the stomach of the rabbit." A very respectable testimony of the antidotal efficacy of the hydrated sesqui- oxide of iron in poisoning by arsenic, can now be adduced from its effects on man. In thirty-one cases (Dr. T. R. Beck, op. cit.) in which it was given, it proved suc- cessful in twenty-nine. In one of these nearly two drachms of arsenic had been taken. (London Medical Gazette, vol. xix. p. 177.) In the two unsuccessful cases the antidote could not be retained on the stomach. It appears to me, therefore, that the threefold evidence of the antidotal power of this preparation is complete. Administration.—The mode of administering this substance as an antidote in poisoning by arsenic has been already pointed out. (See p. 549.) It must be especially remembered that very large doses of it are required to prove efficacious. It should, therefore, be given in the quantity of a table-spoonful every five or ten minutes, or as often as the patient can swallow it. If hydrated sesquioxide be not at hand, let the common red oxide of iron (see p. 695) be given with water as a substitute; for though not equally efficacious with the hydrated oxide, it appears to possess some antidotal power. (See Journ. de Chim. Mid. t. v. 2de Serie p. 305, et seq.) [The antidote should be as recently prepared as it is possible to obtain it as in proportion to the time that it is kept does it lose the neutralizing power. This fact was proved by a series of carefully instituted experiments, by Mr. Proctor From these he has deduced the following conclusions. That hydrated sesquioxide TINCTURE OF SESQUICHLORIDE OF IRON. 701 of iron, even when kept under water, gradually decreases in its power of neutral- izing arsenious acid. That if kept' in the form of a thick magma, it will retain its properties longer than when mixed with much water. For other interesting particulars, see Am£r. Journ. of Pharmacy, vol. xiv. No. 1.—J. C] 5. TINCTURA FERRI SESQUICHLO'RIDI, L.—TINCTURE OF SESQUICHLORIDE OF IRON. (Ferri Muriatis Tinctura, E.—Muriatis Ferri Liquor, D.)—[Tinctura Ferri Chloridi, U. S.] History—This compound has been long in use, and is commonly termed the Tincture of the Muriate of Iron. Preparation.—All the British Colleges give directions for its preparation:— The London and Edinburgh Colleges order of Sesquioxide of Iron, 3vj.; Hydrochloric Acid Oj.; Rectified Spirit, Oiij. Pour the Acid upon the Sesquioxide of Iron in a glass vessel, and digest for three days, frequently shaking. Lastly, add the Spirit, and strain. The Dublin College orders of Rust of Iron, one part; Muriatic Acid, Rectified Spirit, of each, six parts. Pour the acid on the rust passed into a glass vessel, and occasionally stir ihe mixture during three days; then set it apart, that the dregs may subside, and pour off the clear liquor; by slow evaporation, reduce this to one-third part, and, when cold, add to it the spirit. [The U. S. Pharmacopceia directs, Subcarbonate of Iron, half a pound ; Muriatic Acid, a pint; Alcohol, three pints. Pour the Acid upon the Subcarbonate of Iron, and shake the mixture occa- sionally for three days; then set it by, that the dregs, if there be any, may subside; lastly, pour off the liquor, and add to this the alcohol.] • By digestion in hydrochlorte acid, the sesquioxide becomes the sesquichloride of iron, while water is formed. MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. PRODUCTS. ■y tt j 1-1 • * -a ii, ( 3 eq. Hydrogen 3-------------------—=,3 eq. Water.................27 3 eq. Hydrochloric Acid. .111 j 3 £ c|fori* e.108_ 2 eq. Sesquioxide of Ircn 80 j ' J; °f0yng°n[ [ li' o^ Sesquichloride Iron.....104 191 191 191 As the sesquioxide of iron employed frequently contains a small portion of pro- tocarbonate of iron, a little protochloride of iron is formed,'and slight efferves- cence, owing to the escape of carbonic acid, takes place. Both the chlorides of iron are soluble in water, as well as in spirit. Properties.—This tincture is ofa reddish-brown colour, and stains white paper yellow. It has a sour styptic taste, and an odour of hydrochloric ether, from which it would appear that a mutual reaction takes place between the hydro- chloric acid and the alcohol. It reacts Jon vegetable colours as an acid. "Its sp. gr. is about 0*992, and a fluid ounce yields, when decomposed by potash, nearly 30 grains of sesquioxide of iron." (Mr. R. Phillips, Transl. of tlie Lond. Pharm.) Characteristics.—Its reaction on vegetable colours, its inflammability, its re- markable odour, its affording chloride of silver when treated by nitrate of silver, and its reaction, like the other ferruginous compounds (p. 698), are properties sufficient to characterize it. It forms a brown semi-transparent jelly with muci- lage of gum arabic. Composition.—This tincture consists of Rectified Spirit, a small portion of Hydrochloric Ether, Hydrochloric Acid, Sesquichloride of Iron, and a little Proto- chloride of Iron. Unless excess of hydrochloric acid be present, sesquioxide of iron is thrown down when the tincture is exposed to the air, owing to the iron of the chloride attracting oxygen, and becoming sesquioxide. 59* 702 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Sesquichloride of iron has the following composition :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. J. Davy. Iron...................... 1 ........ 28 ........ 3415 ........ 351 Chlorine.................. IJ........ 54 ........ 6585 ........ 04-9 Sesquichloride of Iron..... 1 ........ 82 ........ 100 00 ........ 100 0 Purity and Strength.—The commercial tincture of sesquichloride of iron varies in its strength, owing to the varying density of the hydrochloric acid em- ployed. Moreover, a diluted spirit is frequently substituted for rectified spirit. These differences can only be discovered by examining the colour and specific gravity of the tincture, as well as the quantity of oxide which it yields. Physiological Effects.—Tincture of sesquichloride of iron is, in its local action, one of the most powerful of the preparations of iron. It acts as an ener- getic astringent and styptic, and in large doses as an irritant. The large quantity of free hydrochloric acid which the tincture of the shops frequently contains, con- tributes to increase its irritant properties; and in Dr. Christison's Treatise on Poisons is a brief notice of a case in which an ounce and a half of this tincture was swallowed, and death occurred in about six weeks—the symptoms during life, and the appearances after death, being those indicative of inflammation of the alimentary canal. When swallowed in large medicinal doses it readily disorders the stomach. The general or constilutional effects of this preparation agree wilh those of other ferruginous compounds. It appears to possess, in addition, power- fully diuretic properties. Indeed, it would seem to exercise some specific influ- ence over the whole of the urinary apparatus ; for on no other supposition can we explain the remarkable effects which it sometimes produces in affections of the kidneys, bladder, urethra, and even of the prostate gland. It colours the faxes black, and usually constipates the bowels. Uses.—It is sometimes, though not frequently, used as a topical agent. Thus it is applied as a caustic to venereal warts, and to spongy granulations. As an astringent it is sometimes employed as a local application to ulcers attended with a copious discharge; or as a styptic to stop hemorrhage from numerous small vessels. Internally it may be employed as a tonic in any of the cases in which the other ferruginous compounds are administered, and which I have already mentioned. It has been especially commended in scrofula. In various affections of the urino-genital organs it is frequently used with great success. Thus, in retention of urine, arising from spasmodic stricture, its effects are sometimes beneficial. It should be given in doses of ten minims every ten minutes until benefit is obtained, which frequently does not take place until nausea is excited. It has been used with success in this malady by Mr. Cline (Med. Records and Researches, Lond. 1798.); by Mr. Collins (Med. and Phys. Journ. xvi. 250.); by Drs. Thomas, Eberle, and Francis (Eberle's Treat, on Mat. Med. ii. 270, 2d ed.) and by Dr. Davy (Paris's Pharmacologia, ii. 478, 6th ed.) However, Mr. Lawrence (Lond. Med. Gaz. vi. 845.), alludino- to Mr. Cline's recommendation of it, observes, " I believe general experience has not led others to place any very great confidence in the use of this remedy." In gleet and leucorrhea it is sometimes serviceable. I have found it occasionally successful, when given in conjunction with the tincture of cantharides, in the lat- ter stage of gonorrhoea, after a variety of other remedies had failed. In passive hemorrhage from the kidneys, uterus, and bladder, it is likewise employed with benefit. Administration.—The dose of it is from ten to thirty minims, gradually in- creased to one or two drachms, and taken in some mild diluent. Aktidotes.—In a case of poisoning by it, the treatment should be the same as for the mineral acids (see pp. 270 and 417). AMM0NI0-CHL0RIDE of iron. 703 6. FERRI AMMO'NIO-CHLORIDUM, L.—AMMONIO-CHLORIDE OF IRON. [Ferrum Ammoniatum, U. S.] History.—This compound, which was known to Basil Valentine, has had va- rious appellations, such as Flores Salis Ammoniaci martiales, Ferrum ammonia- cale, or Ferrum ammoniatum. Preparation.—In the London Pharmacopoeia it is directed to be thus pre- pared :— Take Sesquioxide of Iron, 3iij.; Hydrochloric Acid, Oss.; Hydrochlorate of Ammonia, Ibijss.; Distilled Water, Oiij. Mix the sesquioxide of iron with the hydrochloric acid in a pro- per vessel, and digest them in a sand-bath for two hours; afterwards add the hydrochlorate of ammonia, first dissolved in the distilled water ; strain and evaporate the liquor. Lastly, rub what remains to powder. [TheU. S. Pharm. directs Subcarbonate of Iron, 3iij-; Muriatic Acid,f3x.; Muriate of Am- monia, Ibijss.; Distilled Water, Oiv. The steps are the same as above.] By the mutual reaction of sesquioxide of iron and hydrochloric acid we. obtain sesquichloride of iron and water, as explained at p. 701. A small portion of pro- tochloride of iron will be produced if any carbonate of the protoxide of iron be mixed with the sesquioxide. By evaporating the solution thus procured with a solution of hydrochlorate of ammonia, we obtain a mixture of these bodies. There is no reason to believe that any chemical combination takes place. Properties.—It is met with in the shops in the form of reddish orange-coloured crystalline grains, having a feeble odour and a styptic saline taste. It is deliques- cent, and is soluble in both water and alcohol. Characteristics.—Rubbed with quicklime or caustic potash, ammonia is evolved. lis solution affords chloride of silver when mixed wilh the nitrate of silver. It reacts as a persalt of iron (see p. 690). Composition.—It is a mechanical mixture of hydrochlorate of ammonia and sesquichloride of iron, in the following-proportions :— Per Cent. Sesquichloride of Iron....................■■........... 15 Hydrochlorate of Ammonia.......................... 85 Ferri Ammonio-Chloridum, Ph.__....».................. 100 It yields about 7 per cent, of sesquioxide of iron when decomposed by an alkali (Mr. R. Phillips). The yellow bands sometimes found in cakes of hydrochlorate of ammonia are probably a true chemical compound of sesquichloride of iron and hydrochlorate of ammonia (vide p. 297). Totally soluble in proof spirit and in water. Potash added to the solution throws down ses- quioxide of iron; afterwards, when added in excess, it evolves ammonia. Ph. Lond. Physiological Effects.—It produces the general effects of the ferruginous pre- parations ; but, on account of the small and variable quantity of iron present, it is a compound which is of little value. The hydrochlorate of ammonia, which it contains, renders it alterative, and in large doses aperient. Uses.—It has been employed as a deobstruent in glandular swellings, in ame- norrhoea, and other cases where the preparations of iron are usually employed. Administration.—It may be given in substance in doses of from four to twelve or more grains. TINCTURA FERRI AMMONIO-CHLORIDI, L. (Ammonio-Chloride of Iron, 3iv.; Proof Spirit, Oj. M.)—" A fluid ounce yields by decomposition 5*8 grains of ses- quioxide of iron." (Phillips, op. cit.) It should be expunged from the Pharma- copoeia. 704 elements of materia medica. 7. FER'RI IO'DIDUM, L. E. D. (U. S.)—IODIDE OF IRON. History.—We are indebted to Dr. A. T. Thomson for the introduction of this substance into medicine.1 To distinguish it from other compounds of iodine and iron it is sometimes termed Protoiodide of Iron. Other names for it are Ioduret, Hydriodate or Iodohydrate of Iron. Preparation.—Directions for the preparation of this compound are given both by the London and Edinburgh Colleges. The London College orders of Iodine, 3vj.; Iron Filings, 3ij.; Distilled Water, Oivss. Mix the Iodine with four pints of the water, and to these add the Iron. Heat them in a sand-bath and when it has acquired a greenish colour, pour off the liquor. Wash what remains with the half-pint of water, boiling. Let the mixed and strained liquors evaporate at a heat not exceeding 212° in an iron vessel, that the salt may be dried. Keep it in a well-stoppered vessel, access of light being prevented. [The U. S. Pharm. directs Iodine, 3ij.; Iron Filings, oj.; Water, Oiss. The same steps are to be taken.J The Edinburgh College orders any convenient quantity of Iodine, Iron wire, and Distilled Water in the proportions for making solution of Iodide of Iron [see Ferri Iodidi Syrupus], Proceed as directed for that process ; but before filtering the solution concentrate it to one-sixth of its volume, without removing the excess of iron wire. Put the filtered liquor quickly in an evaporating basin, along with twelve times its weight of quicklime around the basin, in some convenient apparatus in which it may be shut accurately in a small space not communicating with the general atmosphere. Heat the whole apparatus in a hot air-press, or otherwise, until the water be entirely evaporated; and preserve the dry iodide in small well-closed bottles. Fine soft iron wire employed by the Edinburgh College is to be preferred to the iron filings used by the London College. It should be recently cleaned to free it from all rust. In this process one equivalent or 126 parts of iodine combine with one equiva- lent or 28 parts of iron, and thereby form one equivalent or 154 parts of proto- iodide of iron. The Edinburgh College directs a considerable excess of iron to be used. The object of this is to prevent the deposition of sesquioxide of iron (formed by the union of part of ihe iron of the iodide with the oxygen of the air) during the eva- poration of the solution of the iodide. For the same reason also, the general at- mosphere is directed to be excluded during the evaporation, which is ordered to be carried on over quicklime, in order that the latter may absorb the aqueous vapour. Properties.—By evaporation with as little contact of air as possible, solution of iodide of iron yields green tabular crystals. (Mr. R. Phillips, Translation of the Pharmacopceia.) If the solution be evaporated to dryness and the residue be moderately heated, this salt is fused, and on cooling becomes an opaque, iron-gray, crystalline mass, with a metallic lustre. Iodide of iron has a styptic taste. It is fusible, volatile, very deliquescent, and very soluble in both water and alcohol. It readily attracts oxygen from the air, and is thereby converted into a mixture of sesquioxide and sesquiodide of iron. " A solution of protoiodide of iron dissolves iodine abundantly, becoming brown, and possibly containing the sesquiodide Fe3 I3, but it is more likely that the iodine is not combined, as it is sensible to the test of starch." (Kane, Elements of Che- mistry, p. 732.) Characteristics.-^When heated in the air it evolves violet vapours of iodine, while the iron attracts oxygen from the air and is converted into sesquioxide. If this be dissolved in an acid (hydrochloric, nitric, or sulphuric), the liquid reacts as a solution of a persalt of iron (see p. 690). Alkalis throw down from it the reddish brown sesquioxide of iron. Solution of protoiodide of iron, like that of other protosalts of iron, is green. 1 Observat. on the Preparation and Medicinal Employment of the Ioduret and Hydriodate cf Iron, 1834. IODIDE OF IRON. 705 Composition.—The composition of crystallized iodide of iron is, according to Mr. R.Phillips, as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. iro,n............................ 1 .............. 28 .............. 14 J°Tdlne.......................... 1 .............. 126 .............. 63-3 Water........................ 5 .............. 45 .............. 22.7 Hydrated Iodide of Iron......... 1 .............. 199 .............100-rj Purity.—It should be perfectly soluble in water. By exposure to the air it forms sesquioxide and sesquiodide of iron (Cogswell, Essay on Iodine and its Compounds, p. 128, et seq.): the latter is soluble, the former is insoluble in watar. To preserve a solution of this salt, a coil of soft iron wire is to be kept immersed in it: this prevents the formation of sesquioxide of iron. Emits violet vapours by heat, and sesquioxide of iron remains. When fresh prepared it is totally soluble in water. From this solution, when kept in a badly-stoppered vessel, sesquioxide of iron is very soon precipitated ; but with iron wire immersed in it, it may be kept clear in a well-stoppered vessel. Ph. Lond. Entirely soluble in water, or nearly so; forming a greenish solution. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects, a. On Animals.—Three drachms of iodide of iron were administered to a dog : vomiting and purging were produced, but in three days the animal was well. One drachm dissolved in a drachm of water killed a rabbit in three hours and a half, with the appearance of gradually-increasing debility : the stomach was found congested, and its lining membrane decomposed. Forty grains injected into the jugular vein ofa dog killed the animal within twelve hours : the symptoms were dilatation of the pupils, staggering, vomiting, und bloody stools.1 p. Ore 3Tu,/i.---In oiibUiEi vnuZ'Icpvutctl iZudKa ita ©flicv,t3 aic not tcij olrriouo, oavo that of blackening the stools. It sometimes sharpens the appetite and promotes digestion. It passes out of the system in the urine, and both of its constituents may be detected in this fluid. When it does not purge, it frequently acts as a diuretic. In full doses, as ten grains, it on one occasion caused uneasy sensation at the epigas'trium, nausea, slight headache, copious black stool, and, in two hours, a larger quantity of urine, containing both iron and iodine. (Dr. A. T. Thomson, op. cit.) Its medicinal influence on the body seems to be stimulant, tonic, and alterative or deobstruent. It possesses the combined properties of iron and iodine. Uses.—Iodide of iron is indicated as a tonic and resolvent in cases of debility accompanied with a soft and relaxed condition of the solids, and paleness of the skin. It is especially applicable in scrofulous and strumous affections of the glandular system, in which the use both of iodine and iron is indicated. In tabes mesenterica, and swellings of the cervical and lymphatic glands, it often proves highly advantageous. In chlorosis, and in atonic amenorrhoea, Dr. Thom- son found it serviceable; and his testimony of its good effects has been supported by that of others. It's operation must be promoted by exercise and an invigorating diet. In a case of anaemia, without any disturbance of the uterine function, I found it useless ; while the compound iron mixture was of essential service. In secondary syphilis, occurring in debilitated and scrofulous subjects, it is in some cases, according to the testimony of both Dr. Thomson and Ricord (Journ. de Pharm. xxiii. 303.), a valuable remedy. The last-mentioned writer employed it in the form of injection (composed of from half a drachm to a drachm of iodide dissolved in eight ounces of water) in blennorrheas, and in that of lotion in vene- real and carious ulcers. Dr. Pierquin (quoted by Dierbach, Neueste Entd. in d. 1 Sesquiodide of iron is said to produce the same effects, but to be more active than the iodide (Lond. Med. Gaz, June li?, 1841). 706 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Mat. Med. 2te Ausg.) employed it internally and externally in leucorrhcea and amenorrhoea. It has also been used in incipient cancer and in atonic dyspepsia (Thomson). Administration—The dose of it is three grains gradually increased to eight or ten or more. Ricord has given forty grains per day. It may be exhibited in the form of tincture or of aqueous solution, flavoured with a little tincture of orange- peel. It must be remembered that acids, alkalis, and their carbonates, most me- tallic salts, all vegetable astringents, and many organic solutions, decompose it. Pierquin gave it in chocolate, Bourdeaux wine, distilled water, diluted spirit, or made into lozenges with saffron and sugar. In leucorrhcea and amenorrhoea he employed an ointment (composed of a drachm of iodide to an ounce of lard), by way of friction in the upper part of the thighs. FERRI IODIDI SYRUPUS, E—Syrup of Iodide of Iron. (Iodine, dry, 200 grs.; Fine Iron wire, recently cleaned, 100 grs.; White Sugar, ir^ powder, 3ivss. ; Distilled Water, fgvj. Boil the iodine, iron, and water together in a glass ma- trass, at first gently to avoid the expulsion of iodine vapour, afterwards briskly, until about two fluid ounces of liquid remain. Filter this quickly, while hot, into a matrass containing the sugar. Dissolve the sugar with a gentle heat ; and add distilled water, if necessary, to make up six fluid ounces—Twelve minims contain one grain of iodide of iron.) This preparation is a very convenient form for the exhibition of iodide of iron, as it is not so readily decomposed as an aqueous solution of this salt.1 In the Edinburgh Pharmacopceia it is described as being " colourless, or pale green ; transparent: without sediment, even when exposed to the air." [An analogous preparation is the TAquor Ferri Iodidi, U. S., prepared as fol- lows : Iodine, two ounces ; Iron Filings, an ounce; Prepared Honey, five fluid ounces; Distilled Water.,a sufficient quantity. Mix the Inrlinp with tpn fluid ounces of the Distilled Water in a porcelain or glass vessel, and gradually add the Iron Filings, stirring constantly. Heat the mixture gently until the liquor ac- quires a light greenish colour; then having added the Honey, continue the heat a short time and filter, Lastly, pour Distilled Water upon the filter and allow it to pass until the whole of the filtered liquor measures twenty fluid ounces. To be kept in closely stopped bottles. The dose is 10 to 30 min. This formula is in ac- cordance with the suggestion of Mr. Wm. Procter, jr.] 8. FER'RI SULPHURETUM, E. D.—SULPHURET OF IRON. Natural History.—In the mineral kingdom sulphur and iron are frequently met with in combination. Common Iron Pyrites, commonly termed Mundic, is a bisulphuret of iron. White Iron Pyrites, or Cockscomb Pyrites, differs from mundic in its specific gravity, ihe shape of its crystal, and its tendency to decom- pose on exposure to the air, and thereby to furnish sulphate of iron. Magnetic Iron Pyrites contains a less proportion of sulphur. Preparation.—Directions for the preparation of sulphuret of iron are given in both the Edinburgh and Dublin Pharmacopoeias. The Edinburgh College states that " the best sulphuret of iron is made by heating the iron rod to a full white heat in a forge, and rubbing it with a roll of sulphur over a deep vessel filled with water, to receive the fused globules of sulphuret which form. An inferior sort, good enough, however, for pharmaceutic purposes, is obtained by heating one part of sublimed sulphur and three of iron filings in a crucible in common fire till the mixture begins to glow, and then re- moving the crucible and covering it, until the action, which at first increases considerably, shall come to an end." 1 For some observations on the chemical properties of Syrup of Iodide of Iron, see Wackenroder in the Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt far 1839, S. 628. See also some remarks on Ioduretum Ferri Saccharatum, by Kerner, in Berlinisches Jahrbuch fiir die Pharmacie, Bd. xiii. S. 212, 1839. SULPHURET OF IRON. 707 The Dublin College directs, that a rod of iron should be exposed to the strongest heat of a forge, until it becomes white hot, and, when taken from the fire, let it instantly be applied to a solid mass of sulphur. Let the sulphuret of iron be received in water; and, when separated from the sulphur and dried, let it be preserved in closed vessels. The sulphur and iron enter into combination, and form sulphuret of iron. Properties.—The appearance of sulphuret of iron varies somewhat according to the mode of procuring it. If properly prepared it gives out abundance of sul- phuretted hydrogen gas, when mixed with either diluted sulphuric or muriatic acid, while a ferruginous solution is obtained. Composition___Its composition is liable to some variation. The best is a pro- tosulphuret of iron, and consists of 1 equivalent or 10 parts of sulphur, combined with 1 equivalent or 28 parts of iron. Sometimes, however, a compound con- taining a larger proportion of sulphur is found. Uses___It is employed as the source of sulphuretted hydrogen (see p. 420). 9. FERRI FER'RO-SESQUICYAN'IDUM.—FERRO-SESQUICYANIDE OF IRON. (Ferri Percyanidum, Z.—Ferri Cyanuretum, D.)—[Ferri Ferrocyanuretum, U. S.] History.—This compound was accidentally discovered at the commencement of the last century by Diesbach and Dippel. It was termed Prussian or Berlin Blue (Cceruleum Borussicuni seu Berolinense). It is sometimes termed Ferro- prussiate of Iron. , Preparation.—It is sometimes prepared by-mixing a solution of persulphate or perchloride of iron with a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium. [To obtain Pure Ferrocyanuret of Iron, the U. S. Pharmacopoeia directs, to take Sulphate of Iron, four ounces ; Sulphuric Acid, three fluid drachms and a half; Nitric Acid, six fluid drachms, or a sufficient quantity ; Ferrocyanuret of Potassium, four ounces and a half; Water, two pints. Dissolve the Sulphate of Iron in a pint of the Water, and having added the Sulphuric Acid, boil the solu- tion. Pour into it the Nitric Acid, in small portions, boiling the liquid for a minute or two after each addition, until it no longer produces a dark colour; then allow the liquor to cool. Dissolve the Ferrocyanuret of Potassium in the remain- der of the Water, and add this solution gradually to the first liquid, agitating the mixture after each addition, then pour it upon a filter, wash the precipitate with boiling water until the washings pass tasteless. Lastly, dry it and rub it into powder.] . t In commerce it is procured by adding a mixture of two parts of alum and one of sulphate of iron to an impure solution of ferrocyanide of potassium (called blood-lye or lixivium sanguinis). A dingy-green precipitate falls, which, by repeated washing with very dilute hydrochloric acid, and exposure to the air, be- comes gradually of a deep blue. It is then collected and drained on a cloth, and afterwards dried. By the reaction of ferrocyanide of potassium on sulphate of the protoxide of iron, sulphate of potash is formed in solution, and a white precipitate subsides, which, by exposure to the air, becomes blue (see p. 710). Ferrocyanide of po- tassium, with sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron, forms sulphate of potash and ferro-sesquicyanide of iron. Commercial Prussian blue contains alumina, (de- rived from the alum,) and usually some sesquioxide of iron. The following diagram illustrates the reaction of ferrocyanide of potassium on sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron:— MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. ( G eq. Sulphuric Acid.... ..... Sesquisulph. > 4 e Sesqui0xide S G l_. Iron....... 400) of Iron......100.4e?. Iron.. 1I2V ( G eq. Sulphuric Acid............. 240-----------------------—_*-6 eq. Sulphate of 4 eq. Sesquisulph. _» 4 eq .sesquioxide S G eq. Oxyg. 48—76 eq. Potash .. 288-^ Potash.........528 ""° I of : 1 en Ferrocy- C 6 eq. Cyanide of \ 6 eq. Pot'm. 240^ „_,__.„„ anide of Po- \ Potassium = 306 j 0 eq. Cyan. 156-A6 eq. Sesq. Iron 268 , tassium .... 553 ( 3 eq. Cyanide of Iron............. 162---------------------- 1158 958 -1 eq. Ferroses- quicy'de Iron. 430 958 708 elements of materia medica. Properties.—-Prussian blue occurs in masses of a rich dark blue colour. It is tasteless and inodorous. When broken it has a copper or bronze tint, somewhat like that of indigo, but which is distinguished from that of the latter by its being removed by rubbing with the nail. It is insoluble in water, alcohol, and the di- luted mineral acids. Strong sulphuric acid forms with it a white pasty mass, from which water again separates Prussian blue. Both nitric acid and chlorine decom- pose it. Hydrochloric acid abstracts part of its iron. Characteristics.—Its colour and copper tint above described form part of its characteristics. Boiled with water and binoxide of mercury it yields bicyanide of mercury (see p. 639). Boiled with solution of potash it forms ferrocyanide of potassium. Heated in a retort it yields water, hydrocyanate of ammonia, then carbonate of ammonia, and leaves a black, carbonaceous, and ferruginous mass. The blue precipitate which falls when red prussiate of potash is added to a protosalt of iron, is called Turnbull's Blue. It consists of 5 eq. Iron and 6 eq. Cyanogen; or 3 eq. Protocyanide of Iron and 2 eq. Sesquicyanide of Iron. Liebig calls it Ferridcyanide of Iron. _ It is distin- guished from Prussian blue by the circumstance, that when boiled in a solution of yellow prus- siate of potash, it affords red prussiate of potash, which dissolves, and a gray insoluble residue of ferrocyanide of iron and ferrocyanide of potassium. Basic Prussian Blue, or the Basic Sesquiferrocyanide of Iron, is a compound of 1 eq. Prus- sian Blue and two equivalents of Sesquioxide of Iron. It is soluble in water. It is formed by exposing ferrocyanide of potassium and iron (the bluish white precipitate formed when yellow prussiate of potash is added to a protosalt of iron) to the air. Oxygen is absorbed, and two products are obtained, viz. Basic Prussian Blue aftd Yellow Prussiate of Potash. 2 eqs. of Fer- rocyanide of Potassium and Iron (Fe10 Cy13 K2), with 3 eqs. Oxygen (O3), yield 1 eq. Yellow Prussiate of Potash (Fe Cy3 K"), 1 eq. Prussian Blue (Fe7 Cy8), and 2 eqs. Sesquioxide of Iron (Fea03). ii Composition.—The following is the composition of pure and anhydrous Prus- sian blue :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Iron....................... 7 --- 196 --- 45-5 j (Protocyanide of Iron 3 ___ 1G2 ___ 378 Cyanogen.................. 9 .... 234 .... 54-5 j or j Sesquicyanide of Iron 4 .... 268 ___ 62-2 Ferrosesquicyanide of Iron.. 1 --- 430 ___100 0 1 T!7! 430 100o" Prussian blue appears to contain also the elements of water, of which it cannot be deprived without the destruction of the compound. Purity.—Prussian blue of commerce usually contains alumina and sesquioxide of iron. These may be detected by boiling the suspected compound with diluted hydrochloric acid, which dissolves both the impurities. Caustic ammonia added to the filtered solution throws down the impurities; excess of the alkali will redis- solve the alumina. It is pure if, after being boiled with dilute hydrochloric acid, ammonia throws down nothing from the filtered solution. Ph. Lond. Physiological Effects, a. On Animals.—Coullon gave it to dogs and spar- rows without killing them ; and Schubarth states that the only effect produced on a dog by two drachms was dejection. (Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim. ii. 356.) f3. On Man.—Its effects on man are not very obvious. It is reputed alterative tonic, and febrifuge. Sachs (Handwbrt. d. prakt. Arzneim. ii. 557.) calls it a resolvent tonic. Uses.—It has been recommended by Dr. ZolIickofFer1 as a more certain prompt, and efficacious remedy for intermitting and remitting fevers than cin- chona; and particularly, adapted for children, on account of its insipidity and smallness of dose. It may be administered during the paroxysm as well as in the intermission, and does not disagree with the most irritable stomach. Ho- sack,» Eberle (Mat. Med. i. 233.), and others, have borne testimony to its good 1 Treatise on the Use of Prussian Blue in Intermitting and Remitting Fevers Maryland 182" » New York Medical and Physiological Journal, 1823, quoted by Richter, Ausf. Arzneim.' ferrocyanide of potassium. 709 effects. Subsequently, Zollickoffer found it useful in dysentery. Kirkhoff (Froriep's Notizen, Bd. xvij. 340.) used it for many years in epilepsy, with the best results, having cured some cases of several years' standing. It has also been employed by Dr. Bridges, of Philadelphia (United States Dispensatory.), in a case of severe and protracted facial neuralgia, with very considerable relief. Lastly, it has been used in the form of ointment, as an application to foul ulcers. In pharmacy it is employed in the manufacture of bicyanide of mercury. Administration.—The dose of commercial Prussian blue is from four to six or more grains every four hours. The ointment above referred to may be pre- pared with a drachm of Prussian blue and an ounce of lard. 10. POTASSII FERROCYAN'IDUM, L. K-FERROCYANIDE OF POTASSIUM. [Potassii Ferrocyanuretum, U. S.] History.—This salt was accidentally discovered at the commencement of the last century. It has had a variety of appellations, such as Prussiate of Potash, Ferroprussiate of Potash, and Ferrocyanate of Potash. Preparation.—The usual method of obtaining it is the following:—« Into an egg-shaped iron pot, brought to moderate ignition, project a mixture of good pearl ash and dry animal matters, of which hoofs and horns are the best, in the proportion of two parts of the former to five of the latter. Stir thern well with a flat iron paddle. The mixture, as it calcines, will gradually assume a pasty form, during which transition it must be tossed about with much manual labour and dexterity. When the conversion into a chemical compound is seen to be completed by the cessation of the foetid animal vapours, remove the pasty mass with an iron ladle. If this be thrown, while hot, into water, some of the Prussic acid will be converted into ammonia, and of course the usual product diminished. Allow it to cool, dissolve it in water, clarify the solution by filtration or subsi- dence, evaporate, and, on cooling, yellow crystals of the ferroprussiate of potash will form. Separate these, redissolve them in hot water, and by allowing the so- lution to cOol very slowly, larger and very regular crystals may be had." (Ure's Dictionary of Chemistry.) "Mr. Charles Mackintosh, of Glasgow, who is one of the largest manufac- turers of this salt, informs me that the animal matters employed as the source of cyanogen are chiefly chips of horns, animal hoofs, woollen rags, and the sub- stance called greaves, which is the refuse of tallow.melters, and consists chiefly of cellular membrane from which the fat has been expressed : these are burned, and in fact fused at a very high heat with potash, to form what is called prussiate cake ; this, when cold, is lixiviated with water, and the evaporated solution yields a first crop of very impure ferroprussiate; it is redissolved, and the second crys- tallization is allowed to go on very slowly, it being at least a fortnight before the contents of the coolers are disturbed. The iron requisite to the constitution of this salt is derived from the iron pots and stirrers used in the operation, or, if re- quisite, iron filings are added" (Brande). The following explanation of the theory of this process is from Liebig.1 When animal sub- stances containing carbon and nitrogen are fused with potash at a red heat, the potassium is reduced by the carbon, and forms by its reaction on the other ingredients cyanuret of potas- sium. The fused mass at a red heat contains no ferrocyanogen, but iron and carburet of iron in the form of a suspended powder. When it is lixiviated with cold water and immediately evaporated, it furnishes no ferrocyanuret; but when the solution is gently heated fir several hours in the contact of air, oxygen is absorbed, it acquires a yellow colour, and now contains much ferrocyanuret of potassium. This explains why a solution of cyanuret of potassium in pure water and in the presence of finely-divided metallic iron, absorbs the oxygen of the air in passing into the state of oxide of potassium and dissolving the metal; the potassium of the cyanuret, in yielding to the iron the cyanogen with which it was combined, and so forming ' See Phil. Mag. for June, 1841; also, Proceedings of the Chemical Society, p. 2. VOL. I. 60 710 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. cyanuret of iron, enables it to combine with the remaining undecomposed cyanuret of potassium, to form the ferrocyanuret of potassium. In close vessels, the solution of iron by cyanuret of potassium evolves hydrogen. The fused mass also contains free potassa, which, by being boiled with the cyanuret of potassium, decomposes it into formiate of potassa and ammonia. When animal substances are fused in open vessels with potassa, cyanale of potassa is formed, which is decomposed by boiling into ammonia and bicarbonate of potassa; the quantity of ammonia formed being in proportion to the loss of cyanuret of potassium. The best way of converting the whole of ihe cyanuret into ferrocyanuret of potassium, is to treat one-third ofa cold solution of the raw mass with protosulphate of iron, as long as a preci- pitate falls, and then to add the remaining two-thirds of the solution, and heat the whole to the boiling point: the solution may then be evaporated without decomposition, and the sulphate of potassa is easily separated by crystallization from the ferrocyanuret. The original solution of the fused mass generally contains sulphuret and sulphocyanuret of potassium, and formiate and carbonate of potassa, which remain in the mother liquor (Brande). Mr. L. Thompson has observed that cyanuret of potassium is abundantly formed when an ignited mixture of coke or charcoal, carbonate of potassa, and iron filings, is exposed to the action of the air. In that process he says the potassa is decom- posed by the iron, and that the evolved potassium combines with the carbon, and also with the nitrogen of the atmosphere; and that the cyanuret of potassium results from this action. He proposes to apply the process to the manufacture of Prussian blue. (Brande, Trans. Soc. Arts, iii. 24.) Properties.—This salt crystallizes in large, beautiful, lemon-yellow, transpa- rent, permanent, inodorous, tabular crystals, whose form is the octohedron with a square base, usually more or less truncated. Fig. 98. Fig. 99. ct- n ■ ■(A \.f'p rA-rP-' «' /Ci \<"H" a Truncated octohedron of ferrocyanide Octohedron (primary form) of ferrocyanide of potassium. of potassium. They have a peculiar toughness or flexibility, somewhat analogous to selenite. Their sp. gr. is 1*832. They have a sweetish, yet somewhat bitter, saline taste. They are insoluble in alcohol, but dissolve readily in both hot and cold water. When moderately heated, ihey evolve about 13 per cent, of water of crystalliza- tion, and are converted into a white friable powder (anhydrous ferrocyanide of potassium). When heated to redness in contact with air, the cyanide of iron of the salt is decomposed, and the residuum consists of cyanide of potassium, oxide of iron, and carbon ; by a more continued heat, hydrocyanic acid and ammonia are evolved, while the residue consists of sesquioxide of iron and carbonate of potash. Characteristics.—A solution of this salt throws down, with the protosalts of • iron, a white precipitate (ferrocyanide of potassium and iron), which, by exposure to the air, becomes blue (Basic Prussian Blue). With the persalts of iron, it forms a deep blue (Prussian Blue); with the salts of copper a deep brown (Ferro- cyanide of Copper); and with those of lead a white precipitate (Ferrocyanide of Lead). Heated with dilute sulphuric acid, hydrocyanic acid is evolved, and a white precipitate formed, which, by exposure to the air, becomes blue. Hydro- sulphuric acid, the sulphurets, alkalis, or tincture of galls, give no precipitate with FERROCYANIDE OF POTASSIUM. 711 a solution of this salt; showing that the iron which it contains is in some remark- able state of combination. If a solution of the ferrocyanide of potassium be boiled with binoxide of mercury, bicyanide of mercury is formed in solution, and a mix- ture of sesquioxide and cyanide of iron is precipitated. The presence of potassium is best shown by calcining the salt, and detecting potash by the usual tests in the residuum. If crrlorine be passed through a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, it abstracts one equivalent of potassium from every two equivalents of the ferro- cyanide, by which one equivalent of the ferrosesquicyanide of potassium (Red Prussiate of Potash) is formed in solution, and by evaporation this salt may be obtained in the form of red crystals, which throw down a blue precipitate (Turn- bull's Blue, see p. 708) with the protosalts of iron, but occasion no change with the persalts of iron. Composition.—Crystallized ferrocyanide of potassium has the following com- position :— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Or, Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Cyanogen................3........ 78....... 36620 Cyanide of Iron........1........ 54.........2535 Iron....................1........28....... 13-145 Cvanide of Potassium. .2........132.........61-97 Potassium................2........ 80....... 37-500 Water.................3........27.........1267 Water...................3........27....... 12675 Crystal'd Ferrocyanide I Potassium.......... 1........213.......100-000 | ......................1........213.........99-99 Totally dissolved by water. A gentle heat evaporates 12*6 parts from 100 parts. It slightly [if at all] alters the colour of turmeric. What it throws down from the preparation of sesqui- oxide of iron is blue, and that from the preparations of zinc is white. When burnt, the residue dissolved by hydrochloric acid is again thrown down by ammonia; 18-7 parts of sesquioxide of iron are yielded by 100 parts. Ph. Lond. Physiological Effects, a. On Animals.—Schubarth (Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzneim.) gave two drachms to one dog, and half an ounce to another, without observing any injurious consequences. Callies (Wibmer, op. cit., also Christison's Treat, on Poisons.) found the commercial ferrocyanide of potassium slightly poi- sonous, but when prepared with care, he remarked that several ounces might be given with impunity. These and other experiments show that this salt possesses very little activity. The rapidity with which it is absorbed and gets into the secretions, as the urine, is most remarkable. Westr.umb (Miiller's Physiology, by Baly, i. 247.) recognised it in the urine, in from two to ten minutes after it was taken into the stomach. Hering (Lond. Med. Gaz. iv. 250.) has shown the amazing rapidity with which it traverses the body when it once gets into the blood. Thus, when it was placed in one jugular vein of a horse, he recognised it in the opposite one in from twenty to thirty seconds. /3. On Man.—It has no great influence on man. D'Arcet swallowed half a pound ofa solution of this salt, prepared as a test, without any ill effects. (Merat and De Lens, Did. Mat. Med. ii. 532.) » Similar results," observes Dr. Chris- tison (Treatise, p. 699.), " were obtained previously, with smaller doses, by Wol- laston, Marcet, Emmert, as well as afterwards by Dr. Macneven and Schubarth, who found that a drachm or even two drachms might be taken with impunity by man and the lower animals." Dr. Smart (Amer. Journ. of Med. Sciences, xv. 362.), however, regards it as possessed of some activity. He asserts that its primary action is that of a sedative, softening and diminishing the fulness and frequency of the pulse, and allaying pain and irritation. In a healthy person, he says, a full dose will often reduce the number of pulsations ten beats in a minute, in a few minutes after being taken ; and in a diseased state of the system, accompanied with increased arterial action, the sedative effects are much more striking. Occasionally also it acts as a diaphoretic (in cases accompanied with excessive vascular action and increased heat of skin) and astringent, as seen in its power of diminishing excessive discharges. In some cases, he says, it caused ptyalism, with redness, swelling, and tenderness of the 712 ELEMENTS OF itfATERIA MEDICA. gums, but unaccompanied with swelling of the salivary glands or foetor. An over- dose, he tells us, occasions vertigo, coldness, and numbness, with a sense of gas- tric sinking; sometimes universal tremors, as in an ague fit. Farther evidence, however, is required to confirm these statements, which do not accord with the observations before reported. Uses.—Hitherto it has rarely been employed in medicine. Dr. Smart employed it as a sedative in diseases of increased action of the vascular system and morbid sensibility of the nerves, as in erysipelas, to allay pain, in cephalalgia, inflamma- tion of the brain, in chronic bronchitis, &c. In the last-mentioned disease it lessened the frequency of pulse, the sweating, the cough, and the dyspnoea. As an anodyne, he gave it in neuralgia. In hooping-cough he speaks highly of it. As an astringent, he administered it to check colliquative sweating in chronic bronchitis and phthisis, to diminish leucorrhoeal discharges, and to allay diarrhoea. Rau (Dierbach, Neueste Entd. in d. Mat. Med. i. 371. 1837.) employed it in calculous complaints. Administration.—The dose, according to Dr. Smart, is from ten to fifteen grains, given in the form of solution every four or six hours. Rau gave as much as forty grains at a dose, and I have no doubt that very much larger doses may be given with safety. 11. FERRI SULPHAS, L. E.D. [TJ. S.]—SULPHATE OF IRON. History.—Sulphate of iron is one of the substances which Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 32.) termed Chalcanlhum. This is evident from the circumstance of his statement that the Romans called it Atramentum Sutorium or Shoemaker's Black. It is frequently termed Copperas, and in consequence has been sometimes con- founded with the salts of copper (Dr. Cummin, Lond. Med. Gaz.x'ix. 40.) : Green Vitriol (Vitriohtm Viride), Vitriol of Mars (Vitriolum Martis), Salt of Mars {Sal Martis), Vitriolaled Iron (Ferrum Vitriolatum), are other names by which it is known. Natural History.—It is found dissolved in some mineral waters, (sulphated chalybeates, vide p. 257), as those of the Hartfell Spa, Scotland. In the aluminous chalybeate waters it is associated with sulphate of alumina; as in the water of Sand Rock, Isle of Wight. The strong Moffat chalybeate, and Vicar's Brig chaly- beate, contain the sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron. Sulphate of iron is also found in the waters of several copper mines. Sulphate of the protoxide of iron is rarely met native in the crystallized state. It occurs, however, in Rammelsberg mine, near Goslar; at Schwartzenburg, in Saxony ; at Hurlet, near Paisley ; and in New England. (Phillip's Mineralogy, by Allan.) Dr. Thomson (Outlines of Mineralogy, vol. i.) has described two native sul- phates of the sesquioxide of iron, and an aluminous protosulphate. Preparation.—Sulphate of the protoxide of iron is prepared by dissolving clean unoxidized iron in diluted sulphuric acid. The London College orders, of Iron Filings, 3 viij.; Sulphuric Acid, 3xiv.; Water, Oiv. Mix the Sulphuric Acid with the Water, and add the Iron to thern ; then apply heat, and when bubbles have ceased to escape, strain the liquor, and set it aside that crystals may he formed. Evanorate the liquor poured off, that it may again yield crystals. Dry them all. The Edinburgh College observes, that if the Sulphate of Iron of commerce be not in transparent green crystals, without efflorescence, dissolve it in its own weight of boiling water, acidulated with a little sulphuric acid ; filter, and set the solution aside to crystallize. Preserve the crystals in well-closed bottles. The Dublin College orders, of Iron Wire, four parts; Sulphuric Acid, seven parts; Water, sixty parts. sulphate or iron. 713 [The U. S. Pharm. directs Iron Wire cut into pieces, twelve ounces; Sulphuric Acid, eighteen ounces; Water, a gallon. The subsequent steps arc essentially Ihe same as above.] In this process an equivalent or 28 parts of iron decomposes one equivalent or 9 parts of water, combining with an equivalent or 8 parts of oxygen, and setting free an equivalent or 1 part of hydrogen, which escapes in the gaseous form. The equivalent or 36 parts of protoxide iron, thus formed, combines wilh an equi- valent or 40 parts of sulphuric acid, to form an equivalent or 76 parts of sulphate of iron. MATERIALS. PRODDCT3. leq. Water........ 9\\% *%£%? Ij.-----------------------1 eq. Hydrogen.............. I leq. Iron.......... 28-'- -^ ™ ^ " S ' * Pr0t0Xide Ir°" 36-^ 1 eq. Sulphuric Acid 40----------------------------■----------------------—^l eq. Sulphate of Iron........ 71; 77 " The Common Green Vitriol, or Copperas of the shops, is prepared by exposing heaps of moistened iron pyrites (bisulphuret of iron) to the air for several months. In some places the ore is previously roasted. The moistening is effected by rain or by manual labour. The pyrites attracts oxygen, and is converted into a super- sulphate of iron, which is dissolved out by lixiviation ; and to the solution thus obtained old iron is added to saturate the free acid. It is then concentrated in leaden boilers, and run off into large vessels (lined with lead) to crystallize. Properties___Sulphate of the protoxide of iron crystallizes in transparent pale bluish green crystals, the form of which is the oblique rhombic Fig. 100. prism. Their sp. gr. is 1*82. They have an acid, styptic taste, and redden litmus. By exposure to the air oxygen is absorbed, and they acquire, first, a yellowish and darker green tint, then slightly effloresce, and become covered with a yel- low crust, which subsequently changes to brownish (sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron). When heated the crystals under- go the watery fusion, give out water, and become white and pulverulent: at an intense heat they are deprived of their acid. They are soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. They re- quire two parts of cold, and three-fourths of their weight of Crystal of Sulphate boiling water, to dissolve them. The solution has a bluish of Iron. green co|ourj but bv exposure to the air it attracts oxygen, be- comes reddish yellow, and deposits a tetrasulphate of the sesquioxide of iron. Characteristics.—it is known to be a sulphate by chloride of barium (see p. 414). Binoxide of nitrogen communicates a deep olive colour to a solution of this salt (vide p. 274). Ferrocyanide of potassium causes a white precipitate (ferro- cyanide of potassium and iron, see p. 710), which, by exposure to the air, be- comes blue (Basic Prussian Blue). If any sesquioxide be present, a bluish pre- cipitate (Prussian Blue) is obtained. Alkalis throw down the greenish white hydrated protoxide of iron. Composition.—The composition of this salt is as follows:— Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Berzelius. Tliomson Protoxide of Iron.............. 1 ".'.'..'.'. 40 '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 28-8 .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' 28-9 [l'.'.'.'.'.'. 28-3 Sulphuric Acid.............••• i. ........ 63 ....... 45.3 ........ 45.4 ........ 45.0 Water Crystallized Sulphate of the > j ........ J39 ........ jono Protoxide of Iron.......3 Protoxide 1 Purity.—This salt is frequently mixed with sulphate of the sesquioxide : this may be known by the yellowish green colour of the crystals, and by the blue colour produced on the addition of ferrocyanide of potassium. Colour bluish green ; dissolved by water. Iron put into the solution does not precipitate cop- ner. Ph. Lond. „_.. , Pule bluish green crystals, with little or no efflorescence. Ph Edinb. 60* 714 elements of materia medica. The Common Green Vitriol, or Copperas of the shops, is a mixture of the sulphates of the protoxide and sesquioxide of iron. It sometimes contains copper, which may be recognised by immersing a clean iron spatula in a solution of it; the iron becomes encrusted with copper : or it may be detected by adding excess of caustic ammonia, and filtering the liquor. If copper be present, the liquor will have an azure blue tint. The ammoniacal liquor should yield, by evaporation, no fixed residuum." Physiological Effects, a. On Vegetables.—Sir H. Davy (Agricult. Chem. 4th edit. 186.) ascribes the sterility of a soil to the presence of sulphate of iron. (3. On Animals.—C. G. Gmelin (Vers. u. d. Wirk. &c. 84.) found that two drachms of sulphate of iron given to a dog caused vomiting only ; that forty grains had no effect on a rabbit; and that twenty grains, thrown into the jugular vein ofa dog, produced no effect. Dr. Smith (quoted by Wibmer and by Chris- tison.), however, found that two drachms proved fatal to a dog when taken into the stomach or applied to a wound. Orfila (Toxicol. Gen.) obtained similar re- sults. The effects were local inflammation and a specific affection of the stomach and rectum. According to Weinhold (quoted by Richter, Ausf. Arzneim. v. 55.), the spleen of animals fed with it becomes remarkably small and compact. j. On Man.—This salt acts locally as a powerful astringent, and, when em- ployed in a concentrated form, as an irritant. The latter effect depends on its chemical action on the organic constituents (albumen, &c.) of the tissues. The remote effects of sulphate of iron are analogous to those of other ferruginous compounds, and which have been already described. Swallowed in small doses it has an astringent operation on the gastro-intestinal mucous membrane, and thereby diminishes the quantity of fluids secreted or ex- haled : hence its continued use causes constipation. It blackens ihe stools like other compounds of iron. It becomes absorbed, and operates on the system as a tonic, stimulant, emmenagogue, and astringent. In large medicinal doses it readily excites pain, heat, or other uneasiness at the pit of the stomach, and not unfrequently causes nausea and vomiting : this is especially the case in irritable conditions of this viscus. In" excessive doses it operates as an irritant poison. A girl took, as as emmenagogue, an ounce of it in beer, and was seized, in conse- quence, with colic pains, constant vomiting and purging for seven hours. Muci- laginous and oily drinks soon cured her. (Christison, from Rust's Magazin, xxi. 247.) Uses.—Sulphate of iron is to be preferred to other ferruginous compounds where there is great relaxation of the solid parts with immoderate discharges. Where the long-continued use of ferruginous compounds is required,it is less adapted for administration than some other preparations of iron, on account of its local action on the alimentary canal. It is employed in lump, powder, or solution, as a styptic, to check hemorrhage from numerous small vessels. A solution of it is applied to ulcerated surfaces, and to mucous membranes, to diminish profuse discharges; as in chronic ophthalmia, leucorrhcea, and gleet. Internally it is administered in passive hemorrhages, on account of its supposed astringent influence over the system generally: also in immoderate secretion and exhalation ; as in humid asthma, chronic mucous catarrh, old dysenteric affec- tions, colliquative sweating, diabetes, leucorrhcea, gleet, &c. In intermittents it has been employed as a tonic. It has also been found serviceable against tape-worm. Its other uses are the same as the ferruginous compounds before mentioned. Administration.—The dose of it is from one to five grains, in the form of a pill. If given in solution the water should be recently boiled, to expel the atmo- spheric air dissolved in it; the oxygen of which converts this salt into a persul- phate. For local purposes, solutions of it are employed of various strenoths ac- cording to circumstances. In chronic ophthalmia we may use one or two grains to an ounce of water: as an injection in gleet, from four to ten grains. CARBONATE OF IRON. 715 1. FERRI SULPHAS EXS1CCATUM, E.; Dried Sulpliate of Iron.—(Expose any convenient quantity of Sulphate of Iron to a moderate heat %in a porcelain or earthenware vessel, not glazed with lead, till it is converted into a dry grayish white mass, which is to be reduced to powder.)—By exposure to a moderate heat the crystals lose fths of their water of crystallization ; so that 85 grains of dried sulphate are equivalent to 139 grs. of the crystallized sulphate; or 3 grains are equal to 4^ grs. of the crystals. The dried sulphate is used in the following preparation. 2. PILULE FERRI SULPHATIS, E.; Pills of Sulphate of Iro?i.—(Dried sulphate of Iron, two parts ; Extract of Taraxacum, five parts ; Conserve of Red Roses, two parts ; Liquorice-root powder, three parts. Beat them together into a proper mass, which is to be divided into five-grain pills.)—Each pill should contain f- of a grain of dried sulphate of iron.—Dose, one to three pills. 12. FERRI CARBONAS.—CARBONATE OF IRON. History___This compound must not be confounded with the sesquioxide of iron, which is frequently but improperly termed carbonate of iron (see p. 696). Natural History.—It occurs native in the crystallized slate, constituting the mineral called Spathose Iron. It is also found in the carbonated chalybeate waters (see p. 256). Preparation.—It is prepared by adding a solution of an alkaline carbonate to a solution of a protosalt (as the sulphate) of iron, the atmospheric air being care- fully excluded. The carbonate of the protoxide of iron is precipitated. When we attempt to collect and dry it, decomposition takes place ; oxygen of the air is absorbed, carbonic acid escapes, and sesquioxide of iron remains (see Ferri Ses- quioxydum, p. 696). Hence when employed in medicine it must be prepared extemporaneously. Properties.—Native protocarbonate of iron is yellow: the primary form ot its crystals is the obtuse rhombohedron. Carbonate of iron prepared as above directed is a white precipitate, which by exposure to the air becomes at first greenish, then brown (sesquioxide). It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in sul- phuric or hydrochloric acid with effervescence. It also readily dissolves in car- bonic acid water : the acidulo-chalybeate waters axe natural solutions of this kind (see pp. 256 and 258). ..,.,«, m. Characteristics.—It dissolves in diluted sulphuric acid with effervescence. Ihe solution possesses the before-mentioned properties of the ferruginous solutions (see p. 691). .,..■■_. j Composition.—Carbonate of the protoxide of iron is thus composed :— Protoxide of Iron.- Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. ....... 02 ...... Stromcyer. ..... 59-6270 ..... 380352 Carbonate of Iron. Physiological Effects and Uses.—It is one of the most valuable of the ferru- ginous compounds, on account of the facility with which it dissolves in the fluids of the stomach, and becomes absorbed. Its local effects are very mild Its uses are those of chalybeates in general, and which have been before men- '"TfERRI CARBONAS SACCHARATUM, E. Saccharine Carbonate of Iron. (Sulphate of Iron 3iv.; Carbonate of Soda, 3v.; Pure Sugar, 3.j.; Water Oiv. Dissolve the sulphate and carbonate each in two pints of the water ; add the solutions •uTd mix them ; collect the precipitate on a cloth filter, and immediately wash it with'cold water, squeeze out as much of the water as possible, and with- out delay triturate the pulp which remains with the sugar previously in fine 716 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. powder. Dry the mixture at a temperature not much above 120°.)—Dr. Becker, of Miihlhausen, suggested this compound. His idea was carried out by Klauer ;l and hence this preparation is known on the continent as Klauer's Ferrum Car- bonicum Saccharatum. The sugar checks, though it does not completely pre- vent, the farther oxidation of the iron. This preparation is a greenish powder,2 composed of sesquioxide of iron, sugar, and carbonic acid, wilh some sesqui- oxide of iron. Its characters are, according to the Edinburgh College, as fol- lows :— Colour grayish-green; easily soluble in muriatic acid, with brisk effervescence. It may be given in doses of from five to ten grains. [This preparation is similar to the Pilulce Ferri Carbonatis of the U. S. Phar- macopoeia. Valla's ferruginous pills. To make them, take Sulphate of Iron, 3iv.; Carbonate of Soda, 3v.; Clarified Honey, 3ijss. ; Syrup, Boiling Water, each a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the Sulphate of Iron and Carbonate of Soda each in a pint of the Water, and to each solution add a fluid ounce of syrup; then mix the two solutions in a bottle just large enough to contain them, close it accu- rately with a stopper, and set it by that the Carbonate of Iron may subside. Pour off the supernatant liquid, and having washed the precipitate with warm water, sweetened with syrup in the proportion of a fluid ounce of the latter to a pint of the former, until the washings no longer have a saline taste, place it upon a flan- nel cloth and express as much of the water as possible; then immedialely mix it with the Honey. Lastly, heat the mixture, by means of a water-bath, until it at- tains a pilular consistence. Dose the same.] 2. MISTURA FERRI COMPOSITA, L. E. D. (U. S.); Compound Mixture of Iron; Griffith's Mixture. (Myrrh, powdered, 3ij.; Carbonate of Potash, 3j.; Rose Water, f3xviij.; Sulphate of Iron, powdered, 9ijss.; Spirit of Nutmeg, f 3j.; Sugar, 3ij. Rub together the Myrrh with the Spirit of Nutmeg and the Carbonate of Potash ; and to these, while rubbing, add first the Rose Water with the Sugar, then the Sulphate of Iron. Put the mixture immediately into a proper glass ves- sel, and stop it. L. The processes of the Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges are essentially the same.)—This is a professed imitation of Dr. Griffith's celebrated antihectic or tonic mixture.3 [The U. S. Pharmacopceia directs, Myrrh, a drachm; Carbonate of Potassa, twenty-five grains; Rose Water, seven fluid ounces and a half; Sulphate of Iron, in powder, a scruple ; Spirit of Lavender, half a fluid ounce; Sugar, a drachm. Rub the Myrrh with the Rose Water gradually added, then mix with these the Spirit of Lavender, Sugar, and Carbonate of Potassa, and lastly, the Sulphate of Iron. Pour the mixture immediately into *a glass bottle, which is to be well stopped.] In the preparation of it, double decomposition takes place: by the mutual re- action of carbonate of potash and sulphate of iron we obtain sulphate of potash, which remains in solution, and carbonate of protoxide of iron, which precipitates. To prevent the latter attracting more oxygen, it is to be preserved in a well- stoppered bottle. The quantity of carbonate of potash directed to be used is almost twice as much as is required to decompose the quantity of sulphate of iron ordered to be employed. The excess combines with the myrrh, and forms a kind of saponaceous compound, which assists in suspending the carbonate of iron in the liquid. When first made, this mixture has a greenish colour, owing to the hydrated ferruginous carbonate; but by exposure to the air it becomes reddish, -owing to the absorption of oxygen, by which sesquioxide of iron is formed, and carbonic acid evolves : hence it should only be prepared when required for use. ' Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt fur 1830, S. 827 ; also, Journ. de Pharmacie, t. xxiii. p. 80. a For some observations on its chemical properties see a paper by A. Buchner in the Pharmaceutisches Cen- tral-Blatt fiir 1837, S. 755. » Pract. Observations on the Cure of Hectic and Slow Fevers, and the Pulmonary Consumption. 1776. CARBONATE OF IRON. 717 It is one of the most useful and efficacious ferruginous preparations, and which is owing to its ready solubility, by which it is easily digested and absorbed. Its constitutional effects are analogous to those of the ferruginous compounds in gene- ral, and which have been already described. Its tonic and stimulant operation is promoted by the myrrh : the excess of alkaline carbonate must not be forgotten in estimating the sources of activity of this medicine. It is admissible in most of the cases in which ferruginous remedies are indi- cated ; but it is especially serviceable in ansemia, chlorosis, atonic amenorrhcea, and hysterical affections. It is also employed with benefit in the hectic fever of phthisis and chronic mucous catarrhs. It is contra-indicated in inflammatory conditions of the gastro-intestinal membrane. The dose of it is one or two fluid ounces three or four times a day. Of course acids and acidulous salts, as well as all vegetable astringents which contain gallic or tannic acid, are incompatible with it. %. PILULiE FERRI COMPOSITE, L. D. (U. S.) Pilulce Ferri Carbonatis, E.; Pilulce Ferri cum Myrrhd ; Compound Pills of Iron ; Pills of Carbonate of Iron. (Myrrh, powdered, 3ij.; Carbonate of Soda; Sulphate of Iron; Treacle, of each, 3j. Rub the myrrh with the carbonate of soda ; then having added the sulphate of iron, rub them again: afterwards beat the whole in a vessel previously warmed, until incorporated, L. (U. S.)—The Dublin College orders a drachm of Brown * Sugar instead of Treacle.—The Edinburgh College orders, of Saccharine Carbo- nate of Iron, four parts ; Conserve of Red Roses, one part. Beat them into a proper mass, fo be divided into five-grain pills.)—Prepared according to the Lon- don and Dublin Colleges these pills are analogous in composition, effects, and uses, to the preceding preparation. Double decomposition takes place between the two salts employed, and the products are sulphate of soda and carbonate of iron. The carbonate of soda is preferred to the carbonate of potash, on account of the deliquescence of the latter. These pills, like the mixture, should only be made when required for use. The effects and uses of these pills are similar to those of the Mistura Ferri Composita.—Dose, from grs. x. to grs. xx. 4. SDPERCARBONATED CHALYBEATES.—Carbonate of ihe protoxide of iron dis- solves in water by the aid of carbonic acid. The Carbonated Chalybeate Mineral Waters (see p. 256) are solutions of this kind. Artificial solutions of the carbonated chalybeates are prepared in various ways. A convenient extemporaneous solution is obtained by mixing intimately sulphate of iron and bicarbonate of soda {sodce sesquicarbonas, L.), and dissolving them in a tumblerful of carbonic acid water (bottled soda water). One hundred and thirty- nine grains of crystallized sulphate of iron require eighty-three grains of sodce sesquicarbonas, L., to yield fifty-eight grains of carbonate of iron. It is advisa- ble, however, to employ an excess of the sesquicarbonate of soda. If 10 grs. of sulphate of iron, and 10 grs. of the sesquicarbonate of soda, L., be used, we shall obtain a solution of about 4 grs. of carbonate of iron, 2^ grs. of sulphate of soda, and 5 "Ts. of sesquicarbonate of soda. The solution should be taken in a state of effervescence. Another mode of preparing a solution of carbonate of iron is to add bicarbonate of soda to a solution of sulphate of iron acidulated by some acid, as sulphuric, tartaric, or citric acid. 718 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. 13. POTASS^ FER'RO-TAR'TRAS.—FERRO-TARTRATE OF POTASH. (Ferri Potassio-Tartras, Z,.—Ferrum Tartarizatum, E— Ferri Tartaram, D.) [Ferri et Potassse Tartras, U. S ] History.—This preparation was first described by Angelus Sala at the com- mencement of the seventeenth century. Mr. R. Phillips1 improved its mode of preparation. The late Dr. Birkbeck has described its medical properties. (Lond. Med. Review, No. xix. July, 1812.) Besides the above, it has had various other names, such as Chalybeated Tartar (Tartarus chalybeatus seu ferratus), and Tartrate of Potash and Iron (Potassce et Ferri Tartras). Preparation.—Soubeiran (Nouveau Traite de Pharmacie, t. ii. p. 447, 2nde ed.) directs this compound to be thus prepared :—Take of Powdered Bitartrate of Potash, one part; Distilled Water, six parts; Moist Hydrated Sesquioxide of Iron, as much as may be sufficient: digest them, at the temperature of from 120° to 140° F., until the liquor ceases to dissolve a fresh quantity of hydrate; then filter, and evaporate to dryness by a gentle heat. The process of the London College, according to Mr. Phillips (Translation of the Pharmacopeia), is a modification of that of Soubeiran. It is, however, much more complex. The London College orders of Sesquioxide of Iron, 5iij-; Hydrochloric Acid, Oss.; Solution of Potash, Oivss., or as much as maybe sufficient; Bitartrate of Potash, 3xiss.; Solution of Sesquicarbonate of Ammonia, Oj., or as much as may be sufficient; Distilled Water, Cong. iij. Mix the sesquioxide of iron with the acid, and digest for two hours in a sand-bath. Add to these two gallons of the water, and set aside for an hour ; then pour oif the supernatant liquor. The solution of potash being added, wash what is precipitated frequently with water, and while moist boil it with the bitartrate of potash, previously mixed with a gallon of the water. If the liquor should be acid when tried by litmus, pour into it solution of sesquicarbonate of ammonia until it is saturated. Lastly, strain the liquor, and with a gentle heat let it evaporate, so that the salt may remain dry. [The U. S. P. directs—Subcarbonate of Iron, three ounces; Muriatic Acid, ten fluid ounces; Solution of Potassa, five pints and a half; Bitartrate of Potassa, seven ounces and a half; Dis- tilled Water, a gallon and a half. The process is essentially the same as above.] The theory of this process is as follows:—By the reaction of sesquioxide of iron and hydrochloric acid we obtain water and sesquichloride of iron (see p. 701). On the addition of caustic potash the sesquichloride is decomposed, hy- drated sesquioxide of iron is precipitated, and chloride of potassium is left in so- lution. These changes are illustrated by the following diagram : MATERIALS. COMPOSITION. T Pti Potash 144 S 3 ea- Potassium 120 ___*3 eq. Chloride j eq. roiasn .... in j 3 gq 0xygen ._ 24 - _—--'^ Potassium.. 228 2 eq. Sesquichlo- ( 3 eq. Chlorine. ride Iron..... 164 j 2 eq. Iron...... 56__________I_____=>.2 eq. Sesquiox- _ » • *^, ide Iron--- 80) a'a ' g U_p2 2 Water........................................................................f £>o_ §*- 308 303 308 When the hydrated sesquioxide of iron is boiled with bitartrate of potash, one equivalent or 40 parts of the sesquioxide combine with one equivalent or 66 parts of tartaric acid of the bitartrate of potash, and form an equivalent or 106 parts of tartrate of sesquioxide of iron, which combine with an equivalent or 114 'An Experimental Examination of the last edition of the Pharmacopeia Londinensis. 1811. FERRO-TARTRATE OF TOTASH. 719 parts of tartrate of potash, to form one equivalent or 220 parts of ferrotartrate of potash. MATERIALS 1 eq. Sesquioxide eq. oesquiOXlde . I . n. . _. - "i , of lr°»....... 401........................U **£?£" of Ses- 10fi (1 eq. Ferro-tartrate 1 eq. Bitartrate / 1 eq. Tartaric Acid.. 66$ QUiox. iron........ 106 V 0| Potash.......220 Potash........ 180 j 1 eq. Tartrate Potash 114------------------------) The Edinburgh College orders of Sulphate of Iron, 3v.; Bitartrate of Potash, 3v. and 3j.; Carbonate of Ammonia, in fine powder, a sufficiency. Prepare the rust of iron from the sul- phate, as directed under Ferrugo, and without drying. Mix the pulpy mass with four pints of water ; add the Bitartrate ; boil till the rust of iron is dissolved ; let the solution cool; pour off the clear liquid, and add to this the carbonate of ammonia so long as it occasions effer- vescence. Concentrate the liquid over the vapour bath to the consistence of a thick extract, or till the residuum becomes on cooling a firm solid; which must be preserved in well-closed vessels. The explanation of the formation of hydrated sesquioxide of iron (here called Rust) has been already explained (see p. 699). The theory of the other part of the process is the same as that of the process of the London Pharmacopceia. The Dublin College orders of Iron, drawn into thin wire, one part; Bitartrate of Potash, in very subtile powder, four parts; Distilled Water, eight parts, or as much as may be sufficient. Let them be mixed, and exposed to the air during fifteen days in a wide vessel. Let the mixture, which is to be occasionally stirred, be kept constantly moist by the daily addition of water, taking care that the iron shall not be entirely covered by the water. Lastly, boil the product in a sufficient quantity of water, and let the filtered liquor evaporate to dryness over a water-bath. Let the Tartar of Iron be kejit in a well-stoppered vessel. By the united agencies of air and water, the iron is converted into the sesqui- oxide, which combines with the bitartrate of potash to form tartarized iron. Properties.—It is an olive-brown inodorous powder, with a styptic inky taste. It reacts on vegetable colours, mildly alkaline. It is slightly deliquescent, proba- bly from the tartrate of potash which it contains. It dissolves in about four times its weight of water, and slightly in alcohol. Characteristics.—Ferrocyanide of potassium does not occasion any blue colour with it, unless a few drops of acid be added. Potash, soda, and their carbonates, do not decompose it at ordinary temperatures, nor does ammonia or its carbonate, even by the aid of heat. Tincture of nutgalls causes a dark-coloured precipitate. Sulphuric, nitric, or hydrochloric acid, throws down the sesquioxide of iron from a solution of this salt; an excess of acid redissolves it: the solution has then a very astringent taste. Tartaric acid causes the formation of crystals of tartar. Heated in a covered crucible, ferrotartrate of potash yields charcoal, carbonate of potash, and protoxide of iron. Composition.—The following table exhibits the composition of this salt, ac- cording to Soubeiran and Phillips :— Phillips. Soubeiran. Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Per Cent. Tartrate of Sesquioxide of Iron 1 .... 106 .... 4818 .... Sesquiurtrate of Sesquioxide......... 45 Tartrale pfPotash........... 1 ■••• M .... 51-82 .... Tartrate of Potash................... 55 Ferro-tartrate of Potash....... 1 .... 220 ....10000 .... .................... 100 Soubeiran says it contains 13 per cent, of sesquioxide of iron; whereas, ac- cording to Mr. Phillips, the quantity is 18*18 per cent. The ferrotartrate of potash is to be regarded as a double salt, in which tartrate of iron is the acid or electro-negative ingredient, and tartrate of potash the basic or electro-positive constituent. On this view, we comprehend why ferrocyanide 720 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. of potassium and the alkalis refuse to act on it in the way they do on the ordinary ferruginous salts, until an acid be added. Geiger (Handb. d. Pharm.) regards it as a combination of tartrate of iron and ferrate of potash. Purity.—In commerce we frequently meet with an imperfectly-prepared com- pound, in which none or only part of the sesquioxide of iron is in chemical com- bination with bitartrate of potash. In this state it is only partially soluble in water, and the solution strikes a blue colour with the ferrocyanide of potassium, and throws down a reddish-brown precipitate with solution of potash. The fol- lowing are the characters of the properly-prepared salt:— P Totally soluble in water : the solution does not change either litmus or turmeric ; nor is it ren- dered blue by ferrocyanide of potassium; nor is any thing precipitated from it by any acid or alkali. The magnet does not act upon it. Ph. Lond. Entirely soluble in cold water: taste feebly chalybeate: the solution is not altered by aqua potassae, and not precipitated by solution of ferrocyanide of potassium. Ph. Edinb. Physiological ^Effects.—In its effects on the system it agrees, for the most part, with other ferruginous compounds. Its taste, however, is comparatively slight; its astringency is much less than the sulphate or sesquichloride, and con- sequently its constipating effects are not so obvious ; and its stimulating influence over the vascular system is said to be somewhat milder. These peculiarities in its operation are supposed to depend on the tartaric acid and potash with which it is in combination. Uses—It is not frequently employed, yet it is a very eligible preparation of iron, and may be employed wherever the ferruginous tonics are indicated. Administration.—The dose of it is from ten grains to half a drachm, in the form of solution or bolus, combined with some aromatic. 14. FER'RI ACE'TAS, D.—ACETATE OF IRON. History.—A solution of ii*on in acetic acid has long been known and used in the arts. It constitutes the Iron Liquor of the dyer. Preparation.—The Dublin College orders it to be prepared as follows:— Take of Carbonate [Sesquioxide] of Iron, one part; Acetic Acid, six parts. Digest during three days, and filter. Properties.—It is a deep-red liquid, having an acid chalybeate taste. It red- dens litmus. Characteristics.—When heated it yields acetic acid. Ferrocyanide of potas- sium strikes a blue colour with it; infusion of galls a purplish black. Composition.—it consists of the Acetate of the Protoxide and Acetate of the Sesquioxide of Iron. The Physiological Effects and Uses are the same as other ferruginous com- pounds.—The dose is from ten to twenty-five drops, in water. 1. FERRI ACETATIS TINCTURA, D. (Acetate of Potash, two parts; Sulphate of Iron, one part; Rectified Spirit, twenty-six parts. Rub together the acetate and sulphate, then dry, and add the spirit. Digest for seven days in a well-stoppered bottle ; then pour off the clear liquor, and preserve in a vessel perfectly closed.)— In this process sulphate of potash and acetate of iron are formed: the latter, as well as the excess of the acetate of potash, dissolves in the spirit. It is a claret- coloured tincture. It possesses the usual properties of a ferruginous compound. It is said to be an agreeable chalybeate, and was introduced into the Dublin Phar- macopoeia by Dr. Perceval. The dose is from half a drachm to a drachm. 2. TINCTURA ACETATIS FERRI CUM ALCOHOLE, D. (Sulphate of Iron, Acetate of Potash, aa 3j.; Alcohol, Oij. [wine measure.'] Triturate together the sulphate and acetate, then dry them, and when cold add the alcohol. Digest in a well- stoppered bottle for twenty-four hours.)—The dose is from twenty drops to a drachm. OTHER ferruginous compounds. 721 OTHER FERRUGINOUS COMPOUNDS. • 1- FERRI PERSULPHAS; Persulphate of Iron.—The mode of converting sulphate of the pro- toxide into sulphate of the sesquioxide of iron, has been already pointed out. (See p. 699.) Per- sulphate of iron combines with albumen to form a pale yellowish compound ; (Journ. de Chim. Med. t. vi. 2de Serie, p. 308.); on this property depends its chemical action on the tissues. Dr. Osborne (Lond. Med. Gaz. March 6, 1840, p. 892.) says, Widow Welch's pills are composed of " sulphate of peroxide of iron, with a small quantity of insipid vegetable matter, probably gum, as much as is requisite for adhesion." It is more probable, however, that they are prepared with the common sulphate of the shops, which is a mixture of protosulphate and persulphate of iron. 2. FERRI PERNITRAS ; Pernitrate of Iron.—A solution of this salt has been employed as an astringent in diarrhoea.1 [3. SOLUTION OF SESQUINITRATE OF IRON, (Pernitrate).—Preparation.—This preparation, as recommended by Mr. Kerr, of Dublin, is made by acting on iron in excess, in small pieces, with dilute nitric acid, until saturated, filtering the solution, and subsequently adding a small quan- tity of hydrochloric acid to prevent decomposition. As thus made, this solution will not keep—a deposit of sesquibxide of iron taking place, and the iron, according to Mr. Duhamel (Am. Journ. of Pharm. vol. xvii. p. 92.), is changed from the state of magnetic oxide lo that of sesquioxide. Mr. Duhamel states, that this decomposition may be prevented by making the solution into a syrup with sugar; and suggests the following formula, which is that of Mr. Kerr, modified by the addition of sugar, the strength of the syrup being the same as the solution of Mr. Kerr, viz.:— Take of Iron Wire, free from rust, and cut in pieces, 6 drachms; Nitric Acid, l_j fluid ounces; Water, 8 fluid ounces; Sugar, 14 ounces. Dissolve the iron to saturation in the dilute acid, by allowing thern to stand for 12 hours, with occasional agitation; filter; and add the sugar, which is dissolved by a gentle heat, and the solution filtered, if necessary. Dr. Hays has employed this solution prepared with sugar for several years.] 4. AMMONI/E FERRO-TARTRAS; Ferro-Tartrate of Ammonia; Tartrate of Iron and Ammo- nia ; Aikin's Ammonia-Tartrate of Iron.—This salt was first employed in medicine by Mr. Aikin. (Lond. Med. Gaz. vol. viii. p. 438.) It may be prepared by adding caustic ammonia to a solution of tartrate of iron (prepared by digesting together, for two or three days, one part of tartaric acid, dissolved in hot water, with two or three parts of iron filings). The green solution thus obtained is to be evaporated to dry. ness by a gentle heat. (Aikin, op. cit.) [The following formula for preparing this salt is communicated by Mr. Procter. (Am. Journ. nf Pharmacy, vol. xii. p. 276.) Take of Tartaric Acid, 3xij. and 3iv.; Carbonate of Ammonia, 3iv., 3vij., and 9j.; Sesquioxide of Iron, 3vj., 3v., and 9j.; Hydrochloric Acid, f 3xxij., and f3iv.; Solution of Ammonia and water, of each a sufficient quantity. Dissolve the tartaric acid in a gallon of the water, and add the carbonate of ammonia gradually. A considerable quantity ofa white crystalline powder subsides, which is bitartrate of ammonia, and with which the superna- tant liquid is saturated. Dissolve the sesquioxide of iron in the hydrochloric acid, by means ofa trentle heat* dilute the solution with six pints of water, and add a sufficient quantity of solu- tion of ammonia to precipitate the sesquioxide. Separate this on a flannel filter, wash it with water until the washings pass tasteless, and add it to the solution containing the bitartrate of ammonia • then apply a gentle heat, by means ofa water-bath, until the whole of the sesquioxide of iron is dissolved, and a deep reddish-brown solution results. The solution thus obtained should be evaporated to dryness by means of a water-bath.] It is in the form of shining brittle fragments, of a deep red colour, not very unlike pieces of deep-coloured shell-lac. It is very soluble in water. Its taste is strongly saccharine. Its general effects are analogous to those of ihe other ferruginous compounds, except that it has very little if any astringency. Its advantages over other chalybeates are its ready solubility in water, its palatable taste, and the facility with which it maybe mixed with various saline substances, without undergoing decomposition. It contains more oxide of iron than the same Quantity of sulphate. The dose for an adult is five or six grains, in powder, pill, or solution. It may be exhibited in porter without being detected by the taste. It may be added to the compound decoction of aloes without suffering decomposition. ... • ... i. A Ferro-citrate of Ammonia (called Citrate of Iron) is met with in the shops. Its properties are similar to those of the preceding preparation. 5 FERRI LACTAS : Lactate of Iron.—This salt occurs in beautiful, small, green, acicular crystals It has been used in medicine (British and Foreign Medical Review, vol. x. p. 565), though it docs not appear to present any advantages over the other preparations of iron. 1 See Dr S W. Williams, in the Boston (U. S.) Medical and Surgical Journal, April 7. 1341 VOL. I. 61 722 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. [Lactate of Iron.—History.—Lactate of Iron was introduced as a remedial agent by MM. Gelis and Conte. The admitted presence of lactic acid in the gastric juice, and the consequent fbrrrption of this salt when oxide of iron was introduced into the stomach, has suggested the propriety of using the salt ready formed as a therapeutic agent. Preparation.—Several processes have been suggested fcr making this salt, the general features of which are, to induce the lactic fermentation in milk, by exposing it to the air at a temperature of 70° to 80° F., and subsequently adding, from time to time, some sugar of milk, cane sugar, or other substance capable of undergoing the lactic fermentation. It is usual to add, simultane- ously with the saccharine substance, either chalk, carbonate of soda, or iron filings, which satu- rate the acid as it is developed by the fermentative process, and form respectively the lactates of lime, soda, or iron. The following process, the main points of which are due to Pagenstecher, yields a pure product, and is easily conducted, viz.:—Place two quarts of skimmed milk in a glass or porcelain vessel, and keep it at a temperature between 77° and 88° F., until fermentation has fully commenced; then add, from time to time, milk sugar, and chalk, pulverized together, and continue the opera- tion for ten or twelve days, until as much lactic acid is formed as is desired, which is known by the amount of chalk used. The liquid should then be boiled for fifteen minutes, during which it should be constantly stirred, to prevent the coagulated caseum from adhering to the bottom of the vessel, and then filtered through flannel. The coagulurn should be washed with water, the wash- ings added to the first liquid„and then as much common carbonate of ammonia should be added as is sufficient to precipitate all the lime as carbonate, which is separated by filtration, and the clear solution evaporated carefully to a syrupy consistence. This concentrated solution of lactate of ammonia is mixed with six times its weight of alcohol, sp. gr. 0*879, and filtered, and a con- centrated aqueous solution of protochloride of iron added, the quantity of which is known by the amount of lactate of lime first obtained. After standing a short time, the lactate of iron begins to separate, and in twenty.four hours has entirely deposited. The mixture is thrown on a cloth, the liquid separated by gradual pressure, and the resulting crystalline powder, washed with alcohol spread in thin layers, and dried at a gentle heat. Properties.—Lactate of iron is but sparingly soluble in water, is insoluble in alcohol and ether, has an acid reaction, and, when carefully prepared, is in white crystalline scales. It is more generally found, however, in the form ofa light greenish-brown crystalline powder, the colour of which is due to the partial peroxidation of its ferruginous base. When in solution, it rapidly absorbs oxygen, and, becomes yellow from the same cause. Its taste is less unpleasant than most of the ferruginous preparations.—C] [6. FERRI CITRAS ; Citrate of Iron.—History.—Citrate of iron was introduced to the notice of medical practitioners, as a therapeutic agent, by M. Bcral, of Paris, in 1831. Three different salts of citric acid and iron have been noticed, in which the ferruginous base is in different states of oxidation; but the citrate of the peroxide is the most employed, and is the most perma- nent preparation. Preparation.—The process for making citrate of iron is easily conducted. The first step consists in obtaining the hydrated sesquioxide of iron, of the proper consistence, which for this purpose should be pressed until il has the consistence of thick jelly. The quantity of sesquioxide of iron being known, for every three parts of the latter take four parts of citric acid, with twice its weight of water; heat the acid and water in a porcelain or glass vessel on a water-bath avoid- ing a temperature greater than 160° F. By using but a small portion of water with the citric acid, the solution is sufficiently dense to allow the hydrated oxide to float, which very much faci- litates its solution. When the oxide is quite or nearly dissolved, filter the solution through flannel or coarse paper, diluting it, if necessary, and then evaporate it to a syrupy consistence stirring till cool, to prevent the formation of a pelliele. It should then be spread on plates of glass by means of a flat brush, about the thickness of coarse paper, and suffered to dry. The salt sepa- rates in the form of transparent ruby-coloured scales, of a brilliant aspect. Properties.—Citrate of iron occurs in the form of brilliant ruby-coloured laminae which are very slowly dissolved by water; but when sufficient time is allowed, that fluid dissolves a large quantity. It is insoluble in alcohol and ether, has a ferruginous, not unpleasant taste and when fully saturated, contains about forty per cent, of sesquioxide of iron.] 7. VINUM FERRI, Ph. L. 1809; Wine of Iron. (Iron Filings, 3ij.; Wine [Sherry] Oij. [icine measure.} Mix and set the mixture by for a month, occasionally shaking it; then filter it through paper.)—The iron is oxidized by the air and water, and the sesquioxide combines with the tartaric acid of the wine. It is properly discarded from the pharmacopoeias.—Dose, 3j. to 3iv. BINOXIDE OF MANGANESE. 723 Order XXVIII.—BINOXIDE OF MANGAxNESE. MANGANE'SII BINOXYDUM.—BINOXIDE OF MANGANESE. (Manganesii Oxidum, E.) History.—Native binoxide of Manganese has been long known and used in the manufacture of glass (Magnesia Vitriariorum) ; but until Kaim, in 1770, suc- ceeded in extracting a peculiar metal from it, it was usually regarded as an ore of iron. It is commonly termed Native Black or Peroxide of Manganese, or for brevity Manganese. Natural History.—The oxide of manganese used in chemistry and pharmacy- is the native anhydrous binoxide, called by mineralogists Pyrolusite. It is found in great abundance in Cornwall, Devonshire, Somersetshire, and Aberdeenshire, from whence most of what is met with in commerce in this country is obtained. The principal mines of it are in the neighbourhood of Launceston, Lifton, and Exeter. The Upton Pyne mine, once celebrated for its oxide of manganese, has yielded scarcely any for several years past, if, indeed, it be not completely worked out. Pyrolusite is also found in Saxony, Hungary, France, and other countries of Europe. Preparation.—Native binoxide of manganese after being raised from the mine is broken into small pieces, about the size of peas, and then washed to separate the earthy impurities. It is afterwards ground in mills to an impalpable powder. Properties.—This mineral occurs massive, columnar, crystallized, and pulve- rulent: the form of the crystals is the right rhombic prism. The massive variety has sometimes a metallic lustre, but is generally dull and earthy : its colour is iron black or brownish: it soils the fingers in handling it: its sp. gr. varies from 4*6 to 4*9 : it is tasteless, odourless, and insoluble in water : it yields a black powder. Characteristics.—When heated it yields oxygen gas. Mixed with common salt and sulphuric acid it gives out chlorine. Heated with sulphuric acid it evolves oxygen, and forms a sulphate of the protoxide of manganese. It is infu- sible before the blowpipe ,* dissolves in fused borax with effervescence, and colours the globule of an amethystine colour. If it be digested in hydrochloric acid until chlorine cease to be evolved, and the solution be slightly supersaturated with am- monia, we get rid of the sesquioxide of iron: the filtered liquid throws down a white precipitate wilh ferrocyanide of potassium. Composition.—Pure binoxide of manganese has the following composition :— Berzelius. and Atoms. Eq. Wt. Per Cent. Forchammer. Arfvedson. Mancanese ....................... 1 ........ 28 ........ 63 5 ........ 6375 ........ 6402 Oxygen............................ 2 ........ 16 ........ 365 ........ 36-25 ........ 3593 Binoxide of Manganese............ 1 ........ 44 ........ 1000 ........ 10000 ........ 10000 Purity.—The native binoxide is, however, never pure: it usually contains oxide of iron, carbonate of lime, sulphate of baryta, and argillaceous matter. Its purity is judged by the quantity of oxygen which it is capable of yielding; or of the quantity of chlorine set free when this oxide and hydrochloric acid are allowed to act on each other. The quantity of chlorine set free can be estimated by the quantity of protosulphate of iron which it peroxidizes. (Graham, Elements of Cliemistry, p. 536.) The brown varieties are inferior to the black, ones. Muriatic acid aided by heat dissolves it almost entirely, disengaging chlorine: heat dissen- gages oxygen. Ph. Ed. Physiological Effects.—The effects of this substance are imperfectly known. 724 ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. Kapp (Hufeland's Journ. Bd. xix. St. 1, S. 176.) first employed it internally. He regards it as a permanent stimulant, and says it promotes the appetite and diges- tion. Vogt (Pharmakodynamik.) places it'among the tonics, and considers it to be intermediate between iron and lead, but his views are altogether theoretical, as he does not seem to have employed it. Dr. Coupar (Brit. Ann. of Med. Jan. 1.3, 1837, p. 41.) has described several cases of disease which took place among the men engaged in grinding it at the chemical works of Messrs. Tennant and Co., in Glasgow : from these it appears that, when slowly introduced into the system, it produces paralysis of the motor nerves. The disease commences with symptoms of paraplegia. It differs from the paralysis of lead in not causing colica pictonum or constipation, and from mercury in first affecting the lower extremities, and in not exciting tremors of the affected part. C. G. Gmelin (Versuche, ild. Wirkungen, &c.) tried the effect of the sulphate of the protoxide of manganese on animals, and found that it caused vomiting, paralysis, without convulsions, and inflamma- tion of the stomach, small intestines, liver, spleen, and heart. Gmelin observes, as remarkable, "the extraordinary secretion of the bile produced by it, and which was so considerable that nearly all the inl_estines were coloured yellow by it, and the large intestines had a wax-yellow colour communicated to them." (Op. cit. 90.) It deserves notice, in connexion with this effect, that ihe sel desopilant of Rouviere, used as a quack remedy to evacuate bile, contains chloride of manganese. (Journ. de Chim. Med. v. 534.) Dr. Thomson has seen an ounce of the sulphate swallowed without any effect, except the free action of the bowels. (Coupar, op. cit.) Hiinefeld (Horn's Archiv. f. Med. Erf. 1830, quoted by Wibmer, Wirk. d. Arzn.) gave to a rabbit nearly two drachms of manganesic acid, in three days, in doses of ten or fifteen grains. The only obvious effect was increased secretion of urine. The animal being killed, the peritoneum and external coat of the colon was found of a greenish colour [protoxide of manganese is green], the muscles were readily lacerated and pale, the liver was inflamed, the bile increased. Wibmer (Op. cit.) gave six grains daily of the carbonate of the protoxide of manganese to a rabbit during many weeks. No disturbance of function was observed. The animal was killed, but neither in the blood nor the muscles could the least trace of manganese be detected. Uses.—It is rarely employed in medicine. Kapp (Op. cit.) administered it, as well as the salts of manganese, internally as well as externally in the various forms of syphilis. In herpes, scabies, and the scorbutic diathesis, he used it with benefit. Brera (Harless, Neues Journ. d. Ausl. Med. Lit. Bd. viii. St. 2, S. 57.) used it in chlorosis, scorbutus, hypochondriasis, hysteria, &c. Otto (Froriep's Notizen, Bd. xii. No. 22, S. 347.) administered it in cachectic complaints with favourable results. Odier (Handb. d. pr. Arzneiwiss, quoted by Richter.) em- ployed it in cardialgia. It has been applied as an absorbent in the treatment of old ulcers, as a depilatory, and as a remedy for skin diseases, especially itch and porrigo. (Rayer, Treat, on Skin Diseases, by Willis, p. 58.) Administration.—Internally it has been given in the form of pills, in doses varying from three grains to a scruple, three or four times in the day. As a local agent it has been used in the form of gargle, composed of two or three drachms of the oxide diffused through five or six ounces of barley water. An ointment, Consisting of one or two drachms of oxide to an ounce of lard, has also been used. In chemistry and pharmacy it is employed in the manufacture of oxygen, chlo- * rine, and iodine. In the arts it is used by the bleacher for the production of chlo- rine ; by the glass-maker to destroy the brown colour communicated to glass by iron; and to give an amethystine tint to plate-glass; and by the potter for colour- ing earthenware. END OF VOL. I. 3 JEFFERSON MEDICAL COLLEGE. SESSION OF 1846—7. The regular Course of Lectures will commence on Monday the 2d day of November, and end on ihe last day of February. Koblkt Dunglisoit, M. D., Professor of Institutes of Medicine. RoBEnr M. Huston, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica and General Therapeutics. Joseph Pancoast, M. D , Professor of General, Descriptive and Surgical Anatomy. John K. Mitchell, M.D., Professor of Practice of Medicine. Thomas D. Mutteii, M. D., Professor of Institutes and Practice of Surgery. Charles D. Meigs, M. D., Professor of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children. Franklin Bache, M. D., Professor of Chemistry. 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A MANUAL, OR ELEMENTS OF PHYSIOLOGY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY. FOR THE USE OF THE MEDICAL STUDENT. BY WILLIAM B. CARPENTER, M. D., F. R. S., Fullerian Professor of Physiology in the Royal Institution of Great Britain, &c. With One Hundred and Eighty Illustrations, IN ONE OCTAVO VOLUME OF 566 PAGES. Elegantly printed to match his " Principles of Human Physiology." The sheets of this volume, in their passage through the press have been carefully examined by Dr. Meredith Clymer, the editor of Dr. Carpenter's Principles of Physiology. The manner in which the work is brought up to the day, and its perfect adaptation to its purposes as an elementary text- book for students have rendered unnecessary any alterations or additions. The efforts of the pub- lishers have therefore been directed to obtaining a correct reprint of the London edition. "The autnor has shown singular skill in preserving so marked a line of distinction between the present Manual and the ' Principles of Physiology' previously published by him. They are both on precisely the same subject; but the one is neither a copy, nor an abstract, nor an abridgment of the other. In one thing, how- ever, they are exactly alike—in their general excellence, and in their perfect adaptation to their respective purposes. The reputation of Dr. Carpenter as a physiologist is too well established throughout the whole medi- cal world to admit of increase from any commendation of ours j but we should be doing injustice to our own feelings if we did not here express our admiration of his great intellectual powers, of his extensive learning, of the comprehensiveness of his views, of the quickness with which he seizes the important points and bearings of each subject, of the logical order in which he arranges his facts, and of the clearness and precision with which he explains, and exposes his doctrines. Dr. Carpenter's various treatises are in fact models in their respective departments. It is their great and varied excellence which accounts for their unrivalled popularity. We can pay no higher compliment to ihe work before us, than lo say, that it is equal in merit to the former productions of the author. Phis is equivalent to saying that it is, without question, the best manual or short treatise on physiology extant. Although designed for the student, and framed expressly to meet his wants ; it is a work, we will venture to say, that may be consulted with advantage by most physicians and surgeons, how- ever learned."—The British and Foreign Medical Review. CARPENTER'S HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY, WITH THEIR CHIEF APPLICATIONS TO PATHOLOGY, HYGIENE, AND FORENSIC MEDICINE. BY WILLIAM B. CARPENTER, M.D., F. R. 8., &c. Second American, from a New and Revised London Edition. WITH NOTES AND ADDITIONS, BY MEREDITH CLYMER, M. D., &c. With Two Hundred and Sixteen Wood-cut and other Illustration*. In one octavo volume, of about 650 closely and beautifully printed pages. The very rapid sale ofa large impression of the first edition is an evidence of the merits of this valuable work and that it has been duly appreciated by the profession of this country. The publishers hope that the present edition will be found still more worthy of approbation, not only from the additions of the author and editor, but also from its superior execution, and the abundance of its illustrations. No less than eighty-five wood-cuts and another lithographic plate will be found to have been added, affording the most material assistance to the student. " We have much satisfaction in declaring our opinion that this work is the best systematic treatise on physi- ology in our own language, and Ihe best adapted for the student existing in any language. '—Medico- Chirurgi- cal Review. " The woik as it now stands is the only Treatise on Physiology in the English language which exhibits a clear and connected, and comprehensive view of ihe present condition of that science "—London and Edinburgh Monthly Journal. CARPENTER'S POPULAR TREATISE ON VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. In one neat duodecimo volume, extra cloth, with numerous illustrations. This woik forms a part of Carpenter's Popular Cyclopaedia of Natural Science, the remainder of which will be published with all the beautiful illustrations. CARPENTER'S PRINCIPLES OF GENERAL AND COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY, AND HIS WORK ON ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY, WITH ALL THE BEAUTIFUL ILLUSTKATIONS, ARK NOW PREPARING. LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 7 LISTON AN]Ti]^^ A BEAUTIFUL VOLUME, PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED. LECTURES ON THE OPERATIONS OF SURGERY, AND ON DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS REQUIRING OPERATIONS DELIVERED AT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON, BY ROBERT LISTON, ES(}., F.R.S., &c. EDITED, WITH NUMEROUS ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS, BY T. D. MUTTER, M.D., PROFESSOR OF SURGERY IN THE JEFFERSON MEDICAL COLLEGE, PHILADELPHIA. IN ONE LARGE AND BEAUTIFULLY PRINTED OCTAVO VOLUME. WITH TWO HUNDRED AND SIXTEEN ILLUSTRATIONS ON WOOD. . This work contains much original matter of Professor Mutter's, amounting to about two hundred and fifty pages, embodying the results of his great experience, and adapting the whole to the wants of the American Profession. The Lectures are those which have attracted so much attention as published in the Lancet They are here reproduced entire, omitting none of the original wood engravings, and introducing many new and valuable ones, rendering this altogether one of the most completely illustrated works of the kind that has for some time been presented to the medical public. Among the additions of Professor Mutter will be found full and elaborate Treatises on Staphyloraphy, the different Plastic Ope- rations, Club-Foot, Affections of the Eye, Deformities from Burns, and many other important subjects, not to be met with in so enlarged a form in, perhaps, any other work on Surgery. The chapters containing them are fully illustrated with numerous original and highly curious engravings. "This is a very attractive book, both in respect to mechanical execution and contents. Printed on fine white paper, with a fair new type, and embellished with more than 2U0 well executed wood cuts, it presents altogether as beautiful an appearance as a work of art as its muter is interesting and important to the prac- tical surgeon. The lecture on operations on ihe eye is a very lucid and instructive one, but we can only refer to it in the most cursory manner. The editor has fully supplied everything that was wanting to render the chapter complete, and we would gladly quote his remarks on the operations of Strabismus and Staphyloma, did our limits permit. The chapter on Cataract, by Dr. Miitler, extending over thirty pages, we look upon as one of the most valuable essays on the subject in the language. )t is clear and methodical, sufficiently full, yet precise, and abounding in practical precepts of the highest interest. The remarks on deformities of the nose are evidently Ihe result of much experience and observation. The operations for hare-lip and cleft pnlate are treated at considerable length, and made exceedingly clear by means of the accompanying illustrations: we can recommend these sections alone as worth far more to the surgeon than many times the price of Ihe whole work. The same remark will apply to the next lecture, on the Diseases of ihe Anirum, Carious Teeth, Erected Tumours of the Face, and Solid and Encystea Tumors. We know of no systematic work on surgery in which the anaplastic operations for removal or remedying deformities of the face are so fully and satisfactorily de scribed as in this. But we have already exceeded our limits, and can only say in conclusion that Lisiou's Lec- tures, with Mutter's additions, should be in every surgeon's library, and in every student's hands, who wishes to post up his surgical knowledge to the present moment."—The New York Journal of Medicine. " These lectures will be found eminently practical, a point of no small moment in a work qn Surgery. Indeed, we have no hesitation in affirming, that it is a compendium of the modern practice of Surgery as complete and accurate as any treatise of similar dimensions in the English language.— The Western Lancet. Lately Published, a New and Much Improved Edition of DRUITT'S SURGERY. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF MODERN SURGERY, By ROBERT DRUITT, Surgeon. FROM THE THIRD LONDON EDITION. ILLUSTRATED BV ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY-THREE WOOD ENGRAVINGS. WITH NOTES AND COMMENTS, Br JOSHUA B. FLINT, M. M., S. S. In One Volume, Octavo. "An unsurpassable compendium not only of surgical but of medica? "jractice."—London Medical Gazette. 8 LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. BRODIE'S SURGICAL WORKS. NOW READY, CLINICAL LECTURES ON SURGERY, DELIVERED AT ST. GEORGE'S HOSPITAL By SIR BENJAMIN BRODIE, Bart., V. P. R. S., SERJEANT SURGEON TO THE QUEEN, ETC. ETC. IN ONE NEAT OCTAVO VOLUME. These Lectures, in passing through the columns of "The Medical News," during the last year, have received the unanimous approbation of the profession in this country, and will no doubt be eagerly sought for in their complete state. " Sir Benjamin Brodie has long been distinguished as a surgeon, even among those in the front rank, and may now be regarded as occupying the first place in Great Britain, if not in the world. It is not as a mere operator that he is distinguished—that, it must be conceded by all right thinking minds, is but a very humble part of the qualifications of a surgeon—but as a profound pathologist and therapeutist. We may be prejudiced or mistaken, but in these higher and really intellectual qualifications, we know of no living surgeon that approaches him. His well considered opinions and practical instructions are conveyed, too, in language so appropriate, so simple, clear and chaste, that one scarcely knows whether most to admire the excellence of the matter or the beauty of the style in which it is clothed. Theory and practice go hand in hand throughout. Rarely is a pre- cept given without being illustrated by some apposite case, selected from his vast experience, and always in the fewest and most expressive words. Nothing more than is necessary to enforce the point is said, and nothing that is necessary is left untold."—The Medical Examiner. " It would not be easy to find in the same compass more useful matter than is embraced in each of these discourses, or indeed in this volume. We the less regret the limited extracts we have it in our power to make from it, because we feel sure that it will in a short time find its way into all the medical libraries in the country.'—The Western Journal of Medicine and Surgei'y. " Sir B. Brodie has rendered his clinical lectures—what all clinical lectures should be—clear, impressive and practical expositions of curative measures, in which all the most important features of the subject are plainly set forth, without being unnecessarily encumbered with details. We attach a very high value to these Lectures: their style is clear, demonstrative and unaffected, de- cided and energetic; but altogether free from dogmatism or over-confidence. They are strictly practical* and much of the information which they contain will assuredly do the reader and hia patients good service in time of need."—Medical Gazette. BRODIE ON URINARY ORGANS, LECTURES ON THE DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS, FROM THE THIRD LONDON EDITION. WITH ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS. In One Small Octavo Volume, Cloth. This work has been entirely revised throughout, some of the author's views have been modified, and a considerable proportion of new matter has been added, among which is a lecture on the Operation of Lithotomy. BRODIE ON THE JOINTS. PATHOLOGICAL AND SURGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE DISEASES OF THE JOINTS. FROM THE FOURTH LONDON EDITION. OTCtli the Author's .aiteratfotw atiU SflWtfona. In One Small Octavo Volume, Cloth. ' " To both the practical physician and the student, then, this little volume will be one of much service, inasmuch as we have here a condensed view of these complicated subjects thoroughly investigated by the aid of the light afforded by modern Pathological Surgery."—N. Y, Journal of Medicine. LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 9 „vo w nElTif\m. THE SIXTH EDITION OF DUNGLISON'S MEDICAL DICTIONARY. To 1846. medicaiTlexicon, A DICTIONARY MEDICAL "SCIENCE. CONTAINING A CONCISE ACCOUNT OF THE VARIOUS SUBJECTS AND TERMS ; WITH THE FRENCH AND OTHER SYNONYMES; NOTICES OF CLIMATES AND OF CELEBRATED MINERAL WATERS; FORMULAE FOR VARIOUS OFFICINAL AND EMPIRICAL PREPA- RATIONS, &c. BY ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M. D., Professor of the iHstitutes of Medicine, &c. in Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia. SIXTH EDITION, REVISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED. In one Royal Octavo Volume of over 800 very large pages, double columns. Strongly bound in the best leather, raised bands. It is not necessary for the author to say more, as a preface to this sixth edition of his dictionary, than that he has bestowed the same care on its revision and improvement, which he did on the others. In proof of this, he may remark, that the present edition comprises nearly two thousandfive hundred subjects and terms not con- tained in the last. Many of these have, been introduced into medical terminology in consequence of the pro- gress of the science ; and others had escaped him in previous revisions. It is the author's anxious wish to render the work a satisfactory and desirable—if not indispensable—Lexicon, in which the student maywearch without disapoointmentfor every term that has been legitimated in the nomen- clature of the science. This desideratum he is enabled to attempt in successive editions, by reason of the work not being stereotyped; and the present edition certainly offers stronger claims to the attention of the practi- tioner and student than any of its predecessors.— Preface to Sixth Edition, May 1846. A NEW EDITION OF THE MEDICAL STUDENT, OR AIDS TO THE STUDY OF MEDICINE. A REVISED AND MODIFIED EDITION. BY ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M. D., In One neat 12mo. volume. HUMAN HEALTH; OR, THE INFLUENCE OF ATMOSPHERE AND LOCALITY, CHANGE OF AIR AND CLIMATE, SEASONS, FOOD, CLOTHING, BATHING AND MINE- RAL SPRINGS, EXERCISE, SLEEP, CORPOREAL AND INTEL- LECTUAL PURSUITS, &c. &c., ON HEALTHY MAN: CONSTITUTING ELEMENTS OF HYGIENE. BY ROBLEY DU NGLIS 0 N, M. D. A New Edition with many Modifications and Additions. In One Volume, 8vo. DUNGLISON ON NEWi REMEDIES. NEW REMEDIES, PHARMACEUTICALLY AND THERAPEUTICALLY CONSIDERED. FOURTH EDITION. WITH EXTENSIVE MODIFICATIONS AND ADDITIONS, BY ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M.D., &c. The numerous valuable therapeutical agents which have of late years been introduced into the Materia Medica. render it a difficult matter for the practitioner to keep up with the advancement of the science, espe- cial'v »s the descriptions of them are difficult of accr^s, being scattered so widely through transactions of learned societies, journals, monographs, &c. &c. To obviate this difficulty, and to place within reach of the nrole^sion this important information in a compendious form, is the object of the present volume, and tlie num- ber ot editions through which it has passed show that its utility has not been underrated. JO-- Apothecaries aud Physicians may rely upon having a late edition of this useful work. 10 LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. PROFESSOR DUNGLISON'S WORKS. NOW READY.—A NEW EDITION OF DUNGLISON'S PHYSIOLOGY, Brought up to 1846. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY, WITH THREE HUNDRED AND SEVENTY ILLUSTRATIONS. BY ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M. D., PROFESSOR OF THE INSTITUTES OF MEDICINE IN THE JEFFERSON MEDICAL COLLEGE, PHILADELPHIA, &.C. &C. SIXTH EDITION. GREATLY IMPROVED. In two large octavo volumes, containing nearly 1350 'pages. " It is but necesary for the Author to say that all the cares that were bestowed on the preparation of the fifth edition have been extended to the sixth, and even to a greater amount. Nothing of importance that has been recorded since its publication, has, he believes, escaped his attention. Upwards of seventy illustra- tions have been added; and many of the former cuts have been replaced by others. The work, he trusts will be found entirely on a level with the existing advanced state of physiological science." * In mechanical and artistical execution, this edition is far in advance of any former one. The illustrations have been subjected to a thorough revision, many have been rejected and their places supplied with superior ones, and numerous new wood-cuts have been added wherever perspicuity or novelty seemed to require them. THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE, OR A TREATISE ON SPECIAL PATHOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS. BT ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M.D. CONTAINING THE DISEASES OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL, THE DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY APPARATUS, DISEASES OF THE GLANDULAR OR- GANS, DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF THE SENSES, DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS, DISEASES OF THE GLAN- DIFORM GANGLIONS, DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYS- TEM, DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF REPRODUC- TION, DISEASES INVOLVING VARIOUS ORGANS, &c. &c. In Two Volumes, Octavo. This work has been introduced as a text-book in many of the Medical Colleges, and the general favor with which it has been received, is a guarantee of its value to the practitioner and student. " In the volumes before us, Dr. Dunglison has proved that his acquaintance with the present facts and doctrines, wheresoever originating, is most extensive and intimate, and the judgment, skill, and impartiality with which the materials of the work have been collected, weighed, arranged, and exposed, are strikingly manifested in every chapter. Great care is everywhere taken to indicate the source of information, and under the head of treatment, formulae of the most appropriate reme- dies are everywhere introduced. In conclusion, we congratulate the students and junior practi- tioners of America on possessing in the present volumes a work of standard merit, to which they may confidently "refer in their doubts and difficulties."—Brit, and For. Med. Rev. for July, 1842. " Since the foregoing observations were written, we have received a second edition of Dungli- son's work, a sufficient indication of the high character it has already attained in America, and justly attained."—lbid.for October, 1844. ' LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 11 NOW READY, DUNGLISON'S THERAPEUTICS A NEW EDITION, MUCH IMPROVED, TO 1846. GENERAL THERAPEUTICS AND MATERIA MEDICA, WITH ONE HUNDRED AND TWEJNTY ILLUSTRATIONS. ADAPTED FOR A MEDICAL TEXT-BOOK. BY ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M.D., Professor of Institutes of Medicine, etc. in Jefferson Medical College; Late Professor of Materia Medica, etc. in the Universities of Virginia and Maryland, and in Jefferson Medical College. Third Edition, Revised and Improved, in Two Octavo Volumes, well bound. In this edition much improvement will be found over the former ones. The author has subjected it to a thorough revision, and has endeavored to so modify the work as to make it a more complete and exact exponent of the present state of knowledge on the important subjects of which it treats. The favor with which the former editions were received, demanded that the present should be ren- dered still more worthy of the patronage of the profession, and this alteration will be found not only in the matter of the volumes, but also in the numerous illustrations introduced, and tlie gene- ral improvement in the appearance of the work. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.—Vol. I. 1. Cephaglis Ipecacuanha. 17. Legume and leaflet of C. 37. Cetraria Islandica. 57. Lycopus Virginirus. 2. Brown Ipecacuan. root. obovata. 3K Fucus vesiculosus. 58. Slrychnos Nux Vomica. 3. Striated Ipecacuan. root 19. Tinnevelly Senna. 39 Inhaler. 59. Ruta graveolens. — Undulated Ipecacu-19. Cassia Marilandica. 40. Cantharides. 60. Secale cornutum. anha root. 20. Podophyllum. 41. Leonlodon Tariixacum.61. Cinnamomum Zeylani- 4. Tonidium Ipecac, root. 21. Hebradendroncambogi-42. Erigeron Philadelphi- cum. 5. Gilletiia stipulacea. oi'des. cum. 62. Cardamom. 6. Lobelia inflata. 22. Momordica Elateriim. 43 Arbutus Uva ursi. 63. Cariophyllusaromaticus 7. Sanguinaria Canadensis 23. Apocynum cannabinum44.Eupatoriumperfoliatum.64. Fceniculum vulgare. 8. Apocynum Audrosaemi- 24. Convolvuluspanduralus45. Asclepias tuberosa. 65. Monarda coccinea. folium. 25. Chenopodium Anthel- 46. Arum triphyllum. 66. Hedeoma pulegioides. 9. Erythronium America- minticum. 47. Cartharnus tinctorius. 67. JVJyristica moschata. num. '• 26. Spigelia Marilandica. 48. Warm-bath. 68. Nutmeg in ihe shell sur- 10. Euphorbia corollata. 27. Nephrodium Filix max. 49. Hip-bath. rounded by ihe mace. 11. Ficus Carica. 28. Punica granatum. 50 Foot-bath. 69. Gaultheriaprocumhens. 12 Ricinis communis. 29, 30. Inhaling Bottles. 51. Hyoscyamus Niger. 70. Juniperus communis. 13. Rheum palmalum. 31. Balsamadend'n Myrrha 52. Datura Stramonium. 71. Citrus Aurantium. 14. Rheum compaclum. 32. Acacia Arabica. 53. Conium maculatum. 72. Laurus camphora. 15. Aloe Socotorina. 33. Olea Europaea. 54. Humulus Lupulus 73 Drymis Winieri. 16. Legume and leaflet of 34. Saccharum officinarum. 55. Dried lupulinic grain 74 Acorus Calamus. Acute leaved Alexan- 35. Linum usitatissimum. with its hilummagnifi'd 75. Piper nigrum. drian Senna. 36. Astragalus verus. 56. Cannabis sativa. 76. Eleclrical Apparatus for Medical purposes. VOL. II. 1. Cocculus palmatus. 13. Hepat'ca Americana. 26. Abies excelsa. 35. Partic's of Potato starch (Male plant.) 14. Indigo. 27. Ranunculus acris. seen by the microscope. 2. Gentiana Catesbaei. 15. Cornus Florida. 28. Aralia nudicaulis. 36. Janipha Munihot. 3. Frasera Walteri. 16. Liriodendron tulipifera 29. Solanum dulcamara. 37. Particles of Tapioca as 4 Sabbatia angularis. 17. Dyospyros Virginiana. 30. Tacca pinnatifida. seen by the microscope. 5. Coptis trifolia. 18. Heuchera acerifolia. 31. Particles of Tahiti Ar-3S. Sagus Rumphii. 6. Alelris farinosa. 19. Spiraea tomentosa. row-root 39 Particles or Sago-meal. 7. Aristolochiaserpentaria20. Statice Caroliniana. 32. Particles of white East 40. Particles of Potato sago. P. Asarum Canadense. 21. Colchicum autumnale. India Arrow-root. 41. Cycas revoluta or the 9,'Anthemis Cotula. 22. Veralrum Album. Var 33. Particles of West India Japan Sugotree. 10. Magnolia glauca. Albiflorum. Arrow-root. 42 Avena Sativa. 11. Magnolia macrophylla. 23. Cimcifuga racemosa. 34. Particles of Tous-les- 43. Parti's of Wheat Starch 12. Geum Virginianum. 24,25. Shower-bath. mois. "Our junior brethren in America will find in these volumes of Professor Dunglison, a 'Thesaurus Medica- MiNTJM,' more valuable than a large purse of gold."—Medico- Chirurgical Review for Jan. 1845. ELLIS'S MEDICAL FORMULARY, NEW AND IMPROVED EDITION, TO JULY, 1846. THE MED ICAL FOR MULARY: BEING A COLLECTION OF PRESCRIPTIONS, DERIVED FROM THE WRITINGS AND PRACTICE OF MANY OF THE MOST EMINENT PHYSICIANS OF AMERICA AND EUROPE. TO WHICH IS ADDED AN APPENDIX, CONTAINING THE USUAL DIETETIC PREPARATIONS AND ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS. THE WHOLE ACCOMPANIED WITH A FEW BRIEF PHARMACEUTIC AND MEJJICAL OBSERVATIONS. BY BENJAMIN ELLIS, M.D., Late Professor of Materia Medica and Pharmacy in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. EIGHTH EDITION, WITH EXTF.XSIVE ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS. BY SAMUEL GEORGE MORTON, M. D. In One neat Octavo Volume. This nonular work has been too extensively and favorably known to the profession in the United States to rpnuire anv remarks in introducing a new edition, except to state that ihe improvements in it will be found to hi. numerous and important. Great care has been taker, in its passage through tlie press to insure the utmost accuracy and it is confidently presented as worthy the increased confidence of physicians and apotkecaries. LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. hasse^TatISol^icalTT^^ AN ANATOMICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION AND RESPIRATION, BY CHARLES EWALD HASSE, Professor of Pathology and Clinical Medicine in the University of Zurich, &c TRANSLATED AND EDITED BY W. E. SWAINE, M.D., &c. In one octavo volume. A New Work, Just Ready.—July 1846. HOPE ON THE HEART,—New Edition. A TREATISE ON THE DISEASES OF THE HEART AND GREAT VESSELS, AND ON THE AFFECTIONS WHICH MAY BE MISTAKEN FOR THEM. COMPRISING THE AUTHOR'S VIEW OF THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART'S ACTION AND SOUNDS AS DEMONSTRATED BY HIS EXPERIMENTS ON THE MOTIONS AND SOUNDS IN 1830, AND ON THE SOUNDS IN 1S34-5. BY J. HOPE, M.D., F.R.S., &c. &c, Second American from the Third London Edition. WITH NOTES AND A DETAIL OF RECENT EXPERIMENTS. BY C. W. PENNOCK, M.D., &c. In one octavo volume of nearly 600 pages, with lithographic plates. HUGHES ON THE LUNGS AND HEART. CLINICAL INTROBUCTION TO THE PRACTICE OF AUSCULTATION,- AND OTHER MODES OF PHYSICAL DIAGNOSIS. INTENDED TO SIMPLIFY THE STUDY OF THE DISEASES OF THE HEART AND LUNGS. BY H. M. HUGHES, M.D., &c. In One Duodecimo Volume, with a plate. A NEW WORK.—PHILLIPS ON SCROFULA. JUST H.E.lD\\—JTuly 1846. SCR Ol? U L A, ITS NATURE, ITS PREVALENCE, ITS CAUSES, AND THE PRINCIPLES OF ITS TREATMENT. BY BENJAMIN PHILLIPS, M. D., F. R. S., &c. In one neat octavo volume, with a plate. ki There can be no doubt that there was ample room for a fresh review of scrofula, and that a work on the subject, from a writer of learning, industry, and talent, must be acceptable; and such, after a careful perusal, the work before us appears to be. Very uncommon pains seem to have been taken in collecting information from men as well as books. Our impression of this work is, that it is a very imponant accession to our profes- sional literature, and does the greatest credit to the industry, research and talent of the author. Its utility is, we think, likely to extend far beyond the limits of professional society."—The London Medical Gazette. This work is just published. The author has been for years engaged in the collection of materials and sta- tisticsjrom all parts of the world. SMALL BOOKS ON GREAT SUBJECTS. "The Connection between Physiology and Intellectual Science." Forming No. 2 of a series of small works now issuing at Twenty-five Cents each. To be followed shortly by " Philosophical Theories and Philosophical Experience,"—On Man's Power over Himself to Prevent or Control Insanity,"—" An Introduction to Practical Organic Che- mistry,"—"An Introduction to Vegetable Physiology, with References to the Works of De Can- dolle^ Lindley, &c," and several other new and valuable works. Each one to form a very neat and portable volume. g-__r" These works have acquired great popularity in England, and the publishers take pleasure in introducing the series neatly printed, and at so low a price. LEA &. BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 13 COMPENDIUM^^ A COMPENDIUM OF LECTURES ON THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE. DELIVERED BY PROFESSOR CHAPMAN IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENN- SYLVANIA. • PREPARED, WITH PERMISSION, FROM DR. CHAPMAN'S MANUSCRIPTS. AND PUBLISHED WITH HIS APPROBATION, BY N. D. BENEDICT, M. D. IN ONE VERY NEAT OCTAVO VOLUME. CONTENTS. Remarks on the Classification of Diseases—Fever in General—Intermittent Fever—Remittent Fever —Continued Fever, (Mild, Intermediate, and Extreme Forms)—Yellow Fever—Endemic Pneu- monic, or Spotted Fever—Diseases of the Heart and Blood-vessels, (Inflammatory, Organic, and Nervous)—Acute Carditis, Pericarditis, and Endocarditis—Chronic Carditis, Pericarditis, and En- docarditis—Hypertrophy of the Heart—Dilatation of the Heart—Atrophy of the Heart—Rupture of the Heart—Affections of the Valves of the Heart—Palpitations—Acute Arteritis—Degrenera- rations of Arteries—Aneurism of Arteries—Phlebitis—Acute Inflammation of the Throat—Chronic Inflammation of the Throat—Dysphagia—Parotitis—Dysentery, (Inflammatory)—Dysentery, (Con- gestive)—Diarrhoea—Cholera Morbus—Cholera Infantum—Flatulent Colic—Bilious Colic—Colica Pictonum—Acute Peritonitis—Chronic Peritonitis—Acute Catarrh—Catarrhus jEstivus—Chronic Catarrh—Acute Bronchitis—Chronic Bronchitis—Catarrhus Senilis—Acute Infantile Bronchitis— Chronic Infantile Bronchitis—Croup—Acute Infantile Asthma—Whooping-Cough—Acute Laryn- gitis—Chronic Laryngitis—Pleuropneumonia—Congestive Pneumonia—Chronic Pleurisy and Pneumonia—Apoplexy—Palsy—Epilepsy—Hysteria—Chorea—Neuralgia—Diabetes. The subjects treated of in this volume are entirely distinct from those considered in Dr. Chapman's two works on "Thoracic and Abdominal Viscera," and on "Eruptive Fevers," &c. These works are all printed, and bound to match, and form three very neat octavo volumes. LECTURES ON THE MORE IMPORTANT DISEASES OF THE THORACIC AND ABDOMINAL VISCERA. DELIVERED IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. BY N. CHAPMAN, M. D. FROFESSOR OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE, ETC. In One Volume, Octavo. CHAPMAN ON FEVERS, &c. LECTURES ON THE MORE IMPORTANT ERUPTIVE FEVERS, HEMORRHAGES AND DROPSIES, AND ON GOUT AND RHEUMATISM, DELIVERED IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. By N. CHAPMAN, M.D., PROFESSOR OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE, ETC. ETC. In One Neat Octavo Volume. "The name of Chapman stands deservedly high in the annals of American medical science. A teacher and a lecturer for nearly forty years, in the oldest and, we believe, the first medical school on this side of the At- lantic the intimate friend and companion of Rush, Kuhn, Physick, Wistar, Woodhouse, Dewees, and a host of others scarcely lees renowned, Professor Chapman reflects upon the profession of tliis generation something of the genius and wisdom of that which has passed ; he stands out the able and eloquent champion of the doc- trines and principles of other times, when Cullen's " first lines" formed the rule of faiih for all the Doctors in Medicine throughout Christendom. In him is embodied the experience of three-score and ten, strengthened by reading, and enlightened by a familiar intercourse with many of the ablest medical men in the New and Old World. In conclusion, we must declare our belief that the name of Chapman will survive when that of many of his c.olemporaries shall have, been forgotten ; when other generations shall tread the great theatre of human affairs, and when other discoveries yet undisclosed, shall shed a brighter light upon the path of meiii- cal science. The various lectures which he has been publishing, containing, as they do, the doctrines that he has so long and go eloquently taught to large and admiring classes, we doubt not will be welcomed wilh delight by his numerous pupils throughout the Union."—Xew Orleans Medical Journal. 14 LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. HORNER'S ANATOMY, NEW EDITION—To be Ready by October, SPECIAL ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY. BY WILLIAM E. HORNER, M. D., PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, &c. &c. SEVENTH EDITION, WITH MANY IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS. In two Octavo Volumes, with Illustrations on Wood. This standard work has been so long before the profession, and has been so extensively used, that, in announcing the new edition, it is only neces- sary to state that it will undergo a most careful revision ; the author will introduce many illustrations relating to Microscopical Anatomy, and will add a large amount of text on these various points of investigation that are rapidly advancing and attracting so much attention. This new edi- tion will be arranged to refer conveniently to the illustrations in Smith and Horner's Anatomical Atlas, and will be ready for the Fall Lectures. HORNER'S JDISSECTOR. THE UNITED STATES DISSECTOR, BEING A NEW EDITION, WITH EXTENSIVE MODIFICATIONS, AND ALMOST REWRITTEN, OF "HORNER'S PRACTICAL ANATOMY." IN ONE VERY NEAT VOLUME, ROYAL 12mo. With many Illustrations on Wood. The numerous alterations and additions which this work has under- gone, the improvements which have been made in it, and the numerous wood-cuts which have been introduced, render it almost a new work. It is the standard work for the Students in the University of Pennsyl- vania. BUDD ON THE LIVER. ON DISEASES OF THE LIVER. BY GEORGE BUDD, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Medicine in King's College, London, &c. &c. With colored plates, and numerous wood-cuts. In one neat octavo volume. " Wh cannot too strongly recommend the diligent study of this volume. The work cannot fail to rank the name of its author among the most enlightened pathologists and soundest practitioners of the day."— Medico- Chirurgical Review. A IVIAGNTFICETCT AND CHEAP WORIE. SMITH & -HORNER'S ANATOMICAL ATLAS. Just Published, Price Five Dollars in Parts. AN ANATOMICAL ATLAS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN BODY. BY HENRY H. SMITH, M. D., Fellow of the College of Physicians, <5*c UNDER THE SUPERVISION t)F WILLIAM E. HORNER, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania. In One large Volume, Imperial Octavo. This work is but just completed, having been delayed over the time intended by the great difficulty in giving to the illustrations the desired finish and perfection. It consists of five parts, whose contents are as follow*: Pabt I. The Bones and Ligaments, with one hundred and thirty engravings. Part II. The Muscular and Dermoid Systems, wth ninety-one engravings. Part III. The Organs of Digestion and Generation, with one hundred and ninety-one engravings. Part IV. The Organs of Respiration and Circulation, with ninety-eight engravings. Part V. The Nervous System and the Senses, with one hundred and twenty-six engravings. Forming altogether a complete System of Anatomical Plates, of nearly SIX HUNDRED AND FIFTY FIGURES, executed in the best style of art, and making one large imperial octavo volume. Those who do not want it in parts can have the work bound in extra cloth or sheep at an extra cost. This work possesses novelty both in the design and the execution. It is the first attempt to apply engraving em wood, on a large scale, to the illustration of human anatomy, and the beauty of the parts issued induces the publishers to flatter themselves with the hope of the perfect success of their undertaking. The plan of the work is at once novel and convenient. Each page is perfect in itself, the references being immediately under the figures, so that the eye takes in the whole at a glance, and obviates the necessity of continual reference backwards and forwards. The cuts are selected from the best and most accurate sources; and, where neces- sary, original drawings have been made from the admirable Anatomical Collection of the University of Penn- sylvania. It embraces all the late beautiful discoveries arising from the use of the microscope in the investi- gation of the minute structure of the tissue's. In the getting up of this very complete work, the publishers have spared neither pains nor expense, and they now* present it to the profession, with the full confidence that it will be deemed all that is wanted in a scientific and artistic al point of view, while, at the same time, its very low price places it within the reach of all. It is particularly adapted to supply the place of skeletons or subjects, as the profession will see by examining the list of plates " These figures are well selected, and present a complete and accurate representation of that wonderful fabric, the human body. The plan of this Atlas, which renders it so peculiarly convenient for the student, and us superb artistical execution, have been already pointed out. We must congratulate the student upon the completion of this atlas, as it is the most convenient work of the kind that has yet appeared; and, we must add, the very beautiful manner in which it is ' got up' is so creditable to the country as to be flattering to our national pride."—American Medical Journal. "This is an exquisite volume, and a beautiful specimen of art. We have numerous Anatomical Atlases, but we will venture to say that none equal it in cheapness, and none surpass it in faithfulness and spirit. We strongly recommend to our friends, both urban and suburban, the purchase of this excellent work, for which both editor and publisher deserve the thanks of the profession."—Medical Examiner. "We would strongly recommend it, not only to the student, but also to the working practitioner, who, although grown rusty in the toils of his harness, still has the desire, and often the necessity, of refreshing his knowledge in this fundamental part of the science of medicine."—New York Journal of Medicine and Surg. " The plan of this Atlas is admirable, and its execution superior to any thing of the kind before published in this country, it is a real labour-saving affair, and we regard its publication as the greatest boon that could be conferred on the student of anatomy. It will be equally valuable to the practitioner, by affording him an easy means of recalling the details learned in the dissecting room, and which are soon forgotten."—American Medv- " It is a beautiful as well as particularly useful design, which should be extensively patronized by physicians, Burgeons and medical students."—Boston Med. and Stirg. Journal. "It has been the aim of the author of the Atlas to comprise in it the valuable points of all previous works, to embrace the latest microscopical observations on the anatomy of the tissues, and by placing it at a moderate price to enable all to acquire it who may need its assistance in the dissecting or operating room, or other field of practice."— Western Journal of Med. and Surgery...... ''These numbers complete the series of this beautiful work, which fully merits the praise bestowed upon the earlier numbers. We regard all the engravings as possessing an accuracy only equalled by their beauty, and cordially recommend tlie work to all engaged in the study of anatomy."—New York Journal of Medicine *"' A more elegant work than the one before us could not easily be placed by a physician upon the table of his student "—Western Journal of Medicine and Surgery. "We were much pleased with Part I, but the Second Part gratifies us still more, both as regards the attract- ive nature of the subject, (The Dermoid and Muscular Systems.) and the beautiful artistical execution of ihe llustrations. We have here delineated tlie most accurate microscopic views of some of the tissues, as, for instance the cellular and adipose tissues, the epidermis, rete mucosum and cutis vera, the sebaceous and perspiratory organs of the skin, the perspiratory glands and hairs of the skin, and the hair and nails. Then follows the general anatomy of the muscles, and, lastly, their separate delineations. We would recommend ihis Anatomical Atlas to our readers in tlie very strongest terms."— JViru* York Journal of Medicine and Sur- gery. 16 LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. THERAPEUTICAL LIBRARY. PEREIRA'S MATERIA MEDICA. WITH NEARLY THREE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. A NEW EDITION, LATELY PUBLISHED. THE ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS, COMPREHENDING THE NATURAL HISTORY, PREPARATION, PROPERTIES, COMPO- SITION, EFFECTS AND USES OF MEDICINES. BY JONATHAN PEREIRA, M. D., F. R. S. and L. S., Member of the Society of Pharmacy of Paris; Examiner in Materia Medica and Pharmacy of the University of London; Lecturer on Materia Medica at the London Hospital, &c. &c. Second American, from the last London Edition, enlarged and improved. WITH NOTES AND ADDITIONS BY JOSEPH CARSON, M.D. In Two Volumes, Octavo, containing Fifteen Hundred very large Pages, illustrated by Two Hundred and Seventy-five Wood-cuts. Part I. contains the General Action and Classification of Medicines and the Mineral Materia Medica. Part II., the Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms, including diagrams explanatory of the Processes of the Pharmacopoeias, a tabular view of the History of the Materia Medica, from the earliest times to the present day, with the Introduction of the Processes of the New Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, and a very copious index. It also contains additional articles on Mental Remedies, Light, Heat, Cold, Electricity, Magnetism, Exercise, Dietetics and Climate, and many additional Wood-cuts, illustrative of Pharmaceutical Operations, Crystallography, Shape and Organization of the Feculas of Commerce, and the Natural History of the Materia Medica. In passing through the press the second edition of this standard work, the opportunity has been taken by the editor to correct any mistakes or inadvertencies that may have escaped him or the author, in the first edition. It may now be considered as entirely worthy of the confidence of the physician and pharmaceutist, as an accurate edition of the most complete work extant on the subject. "An Encycloposdia of knowledge in that department of medical science—by the common consent of the pro- fession the most elaborate and scientific Treatise on Materia Medica in our language."—Western Journal of Medicine and Surgery. THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF MATERIA MEBICA. ITOW AT PRESS, A MANUAL OF MATERIA MEDICA AND THERAPEUTICS. By J. FORBES ROYLE, M. D., PROFESSOR IN KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON. EDITED BY J. CARSON, M.D., Professor of Materia Medica and Pharmacy in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, etc. etc. In One Octavo Volume, with Numerous Splendid Illustrations. This work will contain all the most recent information and investigations in the various branches connected with the Materia Medica, and under the supervision of its able editor, will, receive whatever alterations and additions may be necessary to adapt it to the United States Pharmacoposia, and to the practice of this country. The high character of the author will attract attention to the work as a text-book for the next session of the various colleges,- if ready. The numerous and beautiful illustrations will far surpass anything that has as' yet been attempted in this way. This volume will be brought out in a style to match Fer- guson's Surgery, Wilson's Anatomy, &c, and will be sold at a low price. LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 17 THE GREAT MEDICAL LIBRARY. THE CYCLOP/EDIA OF PRACTICAL MEDICINE; COMPRISING TREATISES ON THE NATURE AND TREATMENT OF DISEASES, MATERIA MEDICA & THERAPEUTICS, DISEASES OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN, MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, &c. &c. EDITED BY JOHN FORBES, M. D., F. R. S., ALEXANDER TWEEDIE, M.D., F. R. S., AND JOHN CONOLLY, M.D. REVISED, WITH ADDITIONS, By ROBLEY DUNGLISON, M.D. THIS WORK IS NOW COMPLETE, AND FORMS FOUR LARGE SUPER-ROYAL, OCTAVO VOLUMES, CONTAINING THIRTY-TWO HUNDRED AND FIFTY-FOUR UNUSUALLY LARGE PAGES IN DOUBLE COLUMNS, PRINTED ON GOOD PAPER, WITH A NEW AND CLEAR TYPE. THE WHOLE WELL, AND STRONGLY BOUND, WITH RAISED BANDS AND DOUBLE TITLES. Or, to be had in twenty-four parts, at Fifty Cents each. For a list of Articles and Authors, together with opinions of the press, see Supplement to the No- vember number of the Medical News and Library. This work having been completed and placed before the profession, has been steadily advancing in favor with all classes of physicians. The nu- merous advantages which it combines, beyond those of any other work ; the weight which each article carries with it, as being the production of some physician of acknowledged reputation who has devoted himself especially to the subject confided to him, the great diversity of topics treated of; the compendiousness with which everything of importance is digested into a comparatively small space; the manner in which it has been brought up to the day, everything necessary to the American prac- titioner having been added by Dr. Dunglison ; the neatness of its mecha- nical execution, and the extremely low price at which it is afforded, combine to render it one of the most attractive works now before the pro- fession. As a book for constant and reliable reference, it presents advan- tages which are, shared by no other work of the kind. To country prac- titioners, especially, it is absolutely invaluable, comprising in a mode- rate space, and trifling cost, the matter for which they would have to accumulate libraries, when removed from public collections. The steady and increasing demand with which it has been favored since its completion, shows that its merits have been appreciated, and that it is now universally considered as the LIBRARY FOR GONSULTATION AND REFERENCE. 18 LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. WORKS BY PROFESSORS CHURCHILL, MEIGS, &c. CHURCH 11, L'S MIDW IPER7. A New Edition, Just Published, ON THE THEORY AND "PRACTICE OF MIDWIFERY, BY FLEETWOOD CHURCHILL, M.D.. M.R. I. A., Licentiate of the College of Physicians in Ireland; Physician to the Western Lying-in Hospital; Lecturer on Midwifery, &c, in the Richmond Hospital Medical SchooL &c. &c. WITH NOTES AND ADDITIONS BY ROBERT M. HUSTON, M. D-, Professor of Materia Medica and General Therapeutics, and formerly of Obstetrics and the Diseases of Wo- men and Children in the Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia; President of the Philadelphia Medical Society. &c. &c. SECOND AMERICAN EDITION. WITH ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS, ENGRAVED BY GILBERT FROM DRAWINGS BY BAGG AND OTHERS. In One beautiful Octavo Volume. The call for a second edition of Dr. Churchill's Midwifery, within so short a time after the ap- pearance of the first, is satisfactory evidence that the profession in this country appreciate the high value of the work. Both as a text-book for the student and as a manual for the practitioner, it has a deservedly great reputation, especially for the fulness and clearness with which the physiological details are wrought out and brought to illustrate the practical part. To render the present edition worthy ofa continuance of the favor and confidence so signally manifested towards its predecessor, the editor has carefully added all the new facts and observations which have transpired since the publication of the last edition, or such at least as appeared to him deserving of being recorded. These relate to some of the most important points in physiology and obstetrical practice. Various new illustrations have been introduced, and the whole brought up, as far as possible, to the day of publication. A NEW EDITION OF CHURCHILL ON FEMALES. THE DISEASES OF FEMALES, INCLUDING THOSE OF PREGNANCY AND CHILDBED. BY FLEETWOOD CHURCHILL, M.D., Author of " Theory and Practice of Midwifery," &c. &c. THIRD AMERICAN, FROM THE SECOND LONDON EDITION, WITH ILLUSTRATIONS- EDITED, WITH NOTES, BY ROBERT M. HUSTON, M. D., &c. &c. In One Volume, 8vo. " In complying with the demand of the profession in this country for a third edition, the Editor has much pleasure in the opportunity thus afforded of presenting the work in its more perfect form. All the additional references and illustrations contained in the English copy are retained in this." A TREATISE ON THE DISEASES OF FEMALES, AND ON THE SPECIAL HYGIENE OF THEIR SEX. WITH NUMEROUS WOOD-CUTS. BY COLO MB AT DE L'ISERE, M. D., Chevalier of the Legion of Honor; late Surgeon to the Hospital of the Rue de Valois, devoted to the Diseases of Females, &c. &c. TRANSLATED, WITH MANY NOTES AND ADDITIONS, By C. D. MEIGS, M.D., Professor of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children in the Jefferson Medical College &c. &c. In One Large Volume, 8vo. " We are satisfied it is destined to take the front rank in this department of medical science* it is beyond all comparison, the most learned Treatise on the Diseases of Females that has ever been written, there being more than one thousand distinct authorities quoted and collected by the inde- fatigable author. It is in fact a complete exposition of the opinions and practical methods of all the celebrated practitioners of ancient and modern times. The Editor and Translator has per- formed his part in a manner hardly to be surpassed. The translation is faithful to the original and yet elegant. More than one hundred pages of original matter have been incorporated in the text constituting a seventh part of the whole volume."—New York Journal of Medicine. LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 19 WORKS BT^ROF^S^^wrpTDEWEES. NEW EDITIONS. DEWEES'SlSlDWIFERY, A COMPREHENSIVE SYSTEM OF MIDWIFERY. CHIEFLY DESIGNED TO FACILITATE THE INQUIRIES OF THOSE WHO MAY BE PUR- SUING THIS BRANCH OF STUDY. ILLUSTRATED BY OCCASIONAL CASES AND MANY ENGRAVINGS. Tenth Edition, with the Author's last Improvements and Corrections. BY WILLIAM P. DEWEES, M. D., LATE PROFESSOR OF MIDWIFERY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, ETC. In one volume, octavo. That this work, notwithstanding the length of time it has been before the profession, and the numerous treatises that have appeared since it was written, should have still maintained its ground, and passed to edition after edition, is sufficient proof that in it the great practical talents of the author were fully placed before the profession. Of the book itself it would be superfluous to speak, having been so long and so favorably known throughout the country as to have become identified with American Obstetrical Science. DEWEES ON FEMALES. A TREATISE ON THE DISEASES OE FEMALES, BY WILLIAM P. DEWEES, M. D., &c. LATE PROFESSOR OF MIDWIFERY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, ETC. EIGHTH EDITION, With the Author's last Improvements and Corrections. In one octavo volume, with plates. DEWEES ON CHILDREN. A TREATISE ON THE PHYSICAL AND MEDICAL TREATMENT OF CHILDREN, BY WILLIAM P. DEWEES, M.D., LATE PROFESSOR OF MIDWIFERY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, ETC. ETC. EIGHTH EDITION. In one volume, octavo. This edition embodies the notes and additions prepared by Dr. Dewees before his death, and will be found much improved. The objects of this work are, 1st, to teach those who have the charge of children, either as parent or guardian, the most approved methods of securing and improving their physical powers. This is attempted by pointing out the duties which the parent or the guardian owes for this purpose, to this interesting but helpless class of beings, and the manner by which their duties shall be fulfilled. And 2d, to render available a long experi- ence lo those objects of our affection when they become diseased. In attempting this, the author has avoided as much as possible, " technicality," and has given, if he does not flatter himself too much, to each disease of which he treats, its appropriate and designating characters, with a fidelity that will prevent any two being con- founded together, with the best mode of treating them, that either his own experience or that of others has suggested. Physicians cannot too strongly recommend the use of this book in all families. ASHWELL ON THE DISEASES OF FEMALES. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE DISEASES PECULIAR TO WOMEN. ILLUSTRATED BY CASES DERIVED FROM HOSPITAL AND PRIVATE PRACTICE. By SAMUEL ASHWELL, M. D., Member of the Royal College of Physicians; Obstetric Physician and Lecturer to Guy's Hospital, _kc. Edited by PAUL BECK GODDARD, M. D. The whole complete in one large octavo volume. " The most able, and certainly the most standard and practical work on female diseases that we have yet seen."—Medico-Chirurgical Review. 20 LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. LATELY PUBLISHED, A NEW EDITION OF WILSON'S HUMAN ANATOMY, MUCH IMPROVED. A SYSTEM OF HUMAN ANATOMY, GENERAL AND SPECIAL. BY ERASMUS WILSON, M.D., LECTURER ON ANATOMY, LONDON. SECOND AMERICAN EDITION, EDITED BY PAUL B. GODDARD, A.M.,M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Histology in the Franklin Medical College, Philadelphia. WITH OVER TWO HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS. Beautifully Printed from, the Second London Edition, in One very neat Octavo Volume. "Mr. Wilson,.before the publication of this work, was very favorably known to the profession by his trea- tise on Practical and Surgical Anatomy; and, as this is the Second American Edition, from the second London Edition, since 1840, any special commendation of the high value of the present work, on our part, would be supererogatory. Besides, the work has been translated at Berlin, and overtures were repeatedly made to the London publisher for its reproduction in France. The work is, undoubtedly, a complete system of human anatomy, brought up to the present day. The illustrations are certainly very beautiful, the originals having been expressly designed and executed for this work by the celebrated Bagg of London; and, in the American edition they have been copied in a masterly and spirited manner. As a text-book in the various colleges we would commend it in the highest terms."—New York Journal of Medicine. WILSON'S DISSECTOR. THE DISSECTOR; OB, PRACTICAL AND SURGICAL ANATOMY. BY ERASMUS WILSON, Author of "A System of Human Anatomy, &c. WITH ONE HUNDRED AND SIX ILLUSTRATIONS. MODIFIED AND RE-ARRANGED BY PAUL B. GODDARD, M. D., Professor of Anatomy and Histology in the Franklin Medical College, Philadelphia. In One Large Royal Duodecimo Volume, Sheep. " It strikes us as being all that a "Dissector" should be. The wood-cuts are numerous and will afford the student the most essential aid in the dissecting room."—West. Journ. of Med. and Surg. WILSON ON THE SKIN. A PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL TREATISE ON THE DIAGNOSIS, PATHOLOGY AND TREATMENT OF DISEASES OF THE SKIN; ARRANGED ACCORDING TO A NATURAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION, AND PRECEDED BY AN OUTLINE OF THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE SKIN. BY ERASMUS WILSON, Lecturer on Anatomy and Physiology in the Middlesex Hospital Medical School &c. &c. In One Neat Octavo Volume, Oloth. "It is a sound book of practice. As a practical guide to the classification, diagnosis and treatment of the d;s eases of the skin, the book is complete. We know nothing, considered in this aspect, better in our laiwi'a"? ■ it is a safe authority in all the matters which, in this range of diseases, engage the practitioner's aiiei.t.oii and possesses the high quality, unknown, we believe, to every older manual, of being on a level with Sc lenn^e'*■■ au water mark.—Medical Times. °n LEA &. BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 21 A NEW AND COMPLETE WORK ON FEVERS. FEVERS; THEIR DIAGNOSIS, PATHOLOGY & TREATMENT. PREPARED AND EDITED WITH LARGE ADDITIONS, FROM THE ESSAYS ON FEVER IN TWEEDIE'S LIBRARY OF PRACTICAL MEDICINE, BY MEREDITH CLYMER, M.D., Professor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine in Franklin Medical College, Philadelphia _■ Consulting Physician to the Philadelphia Hospital; Fellow of the Col- lege of Physicians, fyc. SfC. In one octavo volume of 600 pages. The want of a distinct treatise on Fevers, embodying the received doctrines of their pathology and treatment has long been felt and generally acknowledged. To supply this deficiency in medica] literature is the object of the present volume. It has been prepared from the Essays on Fever contributed by Drs. Christison, Shapter, Burrows, Gregory and Locock, to Dr. Tweedie's " Library of Practical Medicine," and will be found to embrace the whole class of Idiopathic Fevers,—Continued, Periodical, Eruptive, and Puerperal, The additions of the Editor, amounting to about one-half of the volume, have been chiefly made with reference to the Fevers of this country. It has been his aim to render the work as complete as possible, and to adapt it particularly to the necessities of the American Practitioner. WILLIAMS' PATHOLOGY. PRINCIPLES OF MEDICINE, COMPRISING GENERAL PATHOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS, AND A GENERAL VIEW OE ETIOLOGY, NOSOLOGY, SEMEIOLOGY, DIAGNOSIS AND PROGNOSIS. BY CHARLES J. B. WILLIAMS, M.D., F.R.S., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, &c. WITH NOTF.S AND ADDITIONS, BY MEREDITH CLYMER, M. D., &c. In one volume, 8vo. WILLIAMS AND CLYMER ON THE CHEST, &c A TREATISE ON THE DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS, INCLUDING THE TRACHEA, LARYNX, LUNGS, AND PLEURA. BY CHARLES J. B. WILLIAMS, M.D., Consulting Physician to the Hospital for Consumption and Diseases of the Chest j Author of "Principles of Medicine," &c. &c. WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS AND NOTES, BY MEREDITH CLYMER, M.D., &c. In one neat octavo volume, with cuts. This work recommends itself to the notice of the profession aa containing a more particular and detailed account of the affections of which it treats than perhaps any other volume before the public. "The wood-culs illustrating ihe physical exmination of the chest, are admirably executed, and the whole mechanical execution of the work does much credit to the publishers. This work is undoubtedly destined to lake precedence of all others yet published on the * Respiratory Organs,' and as a text-book for teachers aad students no better in the present slate of the science is to be expeoted.''— New York Journal of Meduint. 22 LEA & BLA CHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. KIRBY & SPENCE'S ENTOMOLOGY, FOR POPULAR USE, AN INTRODUCTION TO ENTOMOLOGY; OR, ELEMENTS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF INSECTS : COMPRISING AN ACCOUNT OF NOXIOUS AND USEFUL INSECTS," OF THEIR METAMORPHOSES, FOOD, STRATAGEMS, HABITATIONS, SOCIETIES, MOTIONS, NOISES, HYBERNATION, INSTINCT, &c, &c. With Plates. Plain or Colored. By WILLIAM KIRBY, M. A., F. R. S. And WILLIAM SPENCE, Esq., F. R. S. FROM THE SIXTH LONDON EDITION. Which was Corrected and Considerably Enlarged, In One Large Octavo Volume, extra cloth. This work, as il at present stands, is acknowledged to be the best extant as a popular introduction to the science, containing an immense amount of singular and interesting information, conveyed in a simple and agreeable manner. In preparing the last edition, from which this is printed, the authors have omitted the two last volumes, as being too scientific for popular use, and arranged it as it now is. forming a complete exposi tion of the principles of the study, unincumbered with Anatomical or scientific details. "We are well aware that the physician engaged in an engrossing practice, whether in town or country, has not much leisure for the perusal of books unconnected with his profession; but we know just as well, that while the few are thus irnmersed in business, the many have the command of more time than they are disposed to give to professional reading. How many are the hours wasted by nearly every young physician, waiting for practice—anxious, dreary hours, because unoccupied ! Why not spend these hours in the study of such works as that of Kirby & Spence, wherein the physiologist, farmer, horticulturist, philosopher, and moralist, may find matter to instruct him.—The Western Journal of Medicine and Surgery. "The republication of this work, which has for many years enjoyed a very high and constantly increasing popularity in Great Britain,confers a decided benefit upon natural science in this country. It is a free, careful and authentic exposition of the very extensive department of study, of which it treats, and has done much abroad to attract attention to a branch which, until its publication, has found comparatively little favor with the scientific students of Great Britain. The treatise of Messrs. Kirby & Spence is well adapted, not only by its intrinsic merit, but by its attractive style, to introduce the subject to popular favor. It is thrown into the form of letters, and although abounding to some extent in scientific terms, it is divested of technicality so far as pos- sible, and by a very agreeable intermixture of anecdotes. &c, is made a pleasant and entertaining, as well as very instructive and important work. It is now reprinted from the sixth London edition, which has been revised and corrected, and forms a very handsome octavo volume of about 600 pages. Those who have never given any attention to the subject of whicli it treats, will find embodied in it an immense amount of very inte- resting and useful information, set forth in an agreeable and attractive style."— N. Y. Courier and Enquirer. THE CHEMISTRY OF THE FOUR SEASONS, BY THOMAS GRIFFITH, Lecturer on Chemistry at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, &c. &c. IN ONE VERY NEAT DUODECIMO VOLUME. With Numerous Wood-cuts. A New Work. The object of this little book is to show in a popular and agreeable manner the chemical agency exerted in the various phenomena of nature. It forms a neat volume for the Centre Table. A TEXT BOOK OF PRACTICAL GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. WITH INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF MINERALS, BY JOSHUA TRIMMER, F. G. S. WITH TWO HUNDRED AND TWELVE WOOD-CUTS. A handsome octavo volume, bound in embossed cloth. This is a systematic introduction to Mineralogy, and Geology, admirably calculated to instruct the student in those sciences. The organic remains of the various formations are well illustrated by numerous figures, which are drawn with great accuracy. LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 23 GRAHAM'S CHEMISTRY, THE ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY. INCLUDING THE APPLICATION OF THE SCIENCE TO THE ARTS. With Numerous Illustrations. BY THOMAS GRAHAM, F. R. S. L. and E. D. Professor of Chemistry in University College, London, &c. &c. WITH NOTES AND ADDITIONS, BY ROBERT BRIDGES, M.D., &c. &c, In One Volume Octavo. The great advancement recently made in all branches of chemical investigation, renders neces- sary an enlarged work which shall clearly elucidate the numerous discoveries, especially in the department connected with organic Chemistry and Physiology, in which such'gigantic strides have been made during the last few years. The present treatise is considered by eminent judges to fulfil these indications, and to be peculiarly adapted to the necessities of the advanced medical student and practitioner. In adapting it to the wants of the American profession, the editor has endeavored to render his portion of the work worthy the exalted reputation of the first chemist ot England. It is already introduced in many of the Colleges, and has universal approbation. FOWNES'S CHEMISTRY FOR STUDENTS. ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. By GEORGE FOWNES, Ph. D., Chemical Lecturer in the Middlesex Hospital Medical School, &c. &c. With Numerous Illustrations. Edited, with Additions, By ROBERT BRIDGES, M. D., Professor of General and Pharmaceutical Chemistry in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, &c.&c. In one large duodecimo volume, sheep or extra cloth. The character of this work is such as to recommend it to all colleges in want of an elementary text-book, and to all practitioners who wish to place a compendious manual in the hands of their students. It is fully brought up to the day, containing all the late views and discoveries that have so entirely changed the face of the science, and it is completely illustrated with very numerous wood engravings explanatory of all the different processes and forms of apparatus. Though strictly scientific, it is written with great clearness and simplicity of style, rendering it easy to be mastered by those commencing the study. The low price at which it is sold, places it within the reach of all. Though this work has been so recently published, it has already been adopted as a text-book by many of the Medical Institutions throughout the country. As a work for the first class.student, and as an introduction to the larger systems of Chemistry, such as Graham's, there has been but one opinion expressed concerning it, and it may now be considered as THE TEXT-BOOK FOR THE CHEMICAL STUDENT. SIMON'S CHEMJSTRY OF MAN. ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. WITH REFERENCE TO THE PHYSIOLOGY & PATHOLOGY OF MAN. BY DR. J. FRANZ SIMON. TRANSLATED AND EDITED BY GEORGE E. DAY, M. A. & L. M. Cantab., &c. With plates. In one octavo volume, of over seven hundred pages, sheep, or in two parts, boards. This important work is now complete and may be had in one large octavo volume. Those who „v.tiinpd the first part can procure the second separate. «Tm„ .remise on physiological chemistry approaches, in fulness and accuracy of detail, the work which i= , xu? head of this article. It is the production ofa man of true German assiduity, who has added to his stands ai in - resu|ls 0f the labors of nearly every other inquirer in this interesting branch of science.— iC'deSth of such a laborer, which is mentioned in the preface to the work as having occurred prematurely in , > • indeed a calamity to science. He had hardly reached the middle term of life, and yet had made himself I ~J» «llI over Europe, and in our country, where his name has been familiar for several years as among the r.,„ ,'Usful of the cultivators of the Chemistry of Man.....It is a vast repository of facts, to which the teacher and student may refer with equal satisfaction."- The Western Journal of Mediant and Surgery. 24 LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. WATSON'S PRACTICE OF PHYSIC, New Edition by Condie. LECTURES ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF PHYSIC. DELIVERED AT KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON. BY THOMAS WATSON, M. D., &c. &c. Second American, from the Second London Edition. REVISED, WITH ADDITIONS, BY D. FRANCIS CONDIE, M. D., Author ofa work on the " Diseases of Children," &c. In one Octavo Yolume, Of nearly ELEVEN HUNDRED Large Pages, strongly bound with raised bands. cc We know of no work better calculated for being placed in the hands of the student, and for a text-book, and as such we are sure it will be very extensively adopted. On every important point the author seems to have posted up his knowledge to the day."—American Medical Journal. The rapid sale of the first edition of this work is an evidence of its merits, and of its general favor with the American practitioner. To commend it still more strongly to the profession, the publishers have gone to a great expense in preparing this edition with larger type, finer paper, and stronger binding, with raised bands. It is edited with reference particularly to American practice, by Dr. Condie ; and with these numerous improvements, the price is still kept so low as to be within the reach of all, and to render it among the cheapest works offered to the profession. It has been received with the utmost favor by the medical press, both of this country and of England, a few of the notices of which, together with a letter from Professor Chapman, will be found in the Supple- ment to The Medical News and Library, for November, 1845. A NEW AND IMPROVED EDITION OF RAMSBOTHAM'S STANDARD WORK ON PARTURITION. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF OBSTETRIC MEDICINE AND SURGERY, IN REFERENCE TO THE PROCESS OF PARTURITION. ILLUSTRATED BY One hundred and forty-eight Large Figures on 55 Lithographic Plates, BY FRANCIS H. RAMSBOTHAM, M. D., &c. A NEW EDITION, FROM THE ENLARGED AND REVISED LONDON EDITION. In one large imperial octavo volume, well bound. The present edition of this standard work will be found to contain numerous and important improvements over the last. Besides much additional matter, there are several more plates and wood-cuts, and those which were before used have been re-drawn. This book has long been known to the profession, by whom it has been most flatteringly received. A more extended advertisement, with a recommendatory letter from Professor Hodge of the University of Pennsylvania, may be seen in the November Supplement to The Medical News. CONDIE ON CHILDREN. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE'DISEASES OF CHILDREN, BY D. FRANCIS CONDIE, M. D., Fellow of the College of Physicians; Member of the American Philosophical Society, &c. &c IN ONE VOLUME, OCTAVO. |]__r* The Publishers would particularly call the attention of the Profession to an examination of this work. "Dr. Condie, from the very great labor which he has evidently bestowed upon this book, is entitled to ou* respect as an indefatigable and conscientious student; but if we consider the results of his labor we cannot but admit his claim to a place in the very first rank of eminent writers on the practice of medicine. Regard- ing his treatise as a whole, it is more complete and accurate in its descriptions, while it is more copious=and more judicious in its therapeutical precepts than any of its predecessors, and we feel persuaded that the Ame- rican medical profession will very soon regard it, not only as a very good, but as the very best ' Practica Treatise on the Diseases of Children.' "—Am. M*d. Journal. LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 25 THE SURGICAL WORKS OF SIR ASTLEY COOPER, LEA & BLANCHAED have how completed the last volume of the illustrated works of Sir Astley Cooper. They form an elegant series; the works on Hernia, the Testis, the Thymus Gland and the Breast, being printed, illustrated and bound to match, in imperial octavo with numerous LITHOGRAPHIC PLATES, while the Treatise on Dislocations is in a neat medium octavo form, with NUMEROUS WOODCUTS similar to the last London edition. SIR ASTLEY COOPER ON HERNIA, With One Hundred and Thirty Figures in Lithography. THE ANATOMY AND SURGICAL TREATMENT OF ABDOMINAL HERNIA. By Sir ASTLEY COOPER, Bart. Edited by C. Aston Key, Surgeon to Guy's Hospital, &c. This important work of Sir Astley is printed from the authorized second edition, published in London, in large super-royal folio, and edited by his nephew, Professor Key. It contains all the Plates and all the Letterpress— there are no omissions, interpolations, or modifications—it is the complete work in One Large Imperial Octavo Volume. With over 130 Figures on 26 Plates, and over 400 Large Pages of Letterpress. The correctness of the Plates is guaranteed by a revision and close examination under the eye of a distin- guished Surgeon of this city. ANOTHER VOLUME OF THE SERIES CONTAINS HIS TREATISE ON THE STRUGTUiE AND DISEASES OF THE TESTIS. Illustrated by 120 Figures. From the Second London Edition. BY BRANSBY B. COOPER, ESQ. AND ALSO ON THE ANATOMY OF THE THYMUS GLAND. Illustrated by 57 Figures. The two works together in one beautiful imperial octavo volume, illustrated with twenty-nine plates in the best style of lithography, and printed and bound to match. The Series is concluded by COOPER ON THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE BREAST, &o,, This large and beautiful volume contains THE ANATOMY OF THE BREAST; THE COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE MAMMARY GLANDS; ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE DISEASES OF THE BREAST; And Twenty-five Miscellaneous Surgical Papers, now first published in a collected form. By Sir ASTLEY COOPER, Bart., F. R. S., &c. The whole in one large imperial octavo volume, illustrated with two hundred and fifty-two figures on thirty six Lithographic Plates ; well and strongly bound. COOPER ON FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS, WITH NUMEROUS WOOD-CUTS. A TREATISE ON DISLOCATIONS AND FRACTURES OF THE JOINTS. By Sir ASTLEY COOPER, Bart., F. R. S., Sergeant Surgeon to the King, &c. A NEW EDITION MUCH ENLARGED ; Edited by BRANSBY COOPER, F. R. S., Surgeon to Guy's Hospital. WITH ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS FROM Professor JOHN C. WARREN, of Boston. With numerous engravings on wood, after designs by Bagg, a memoir and a splendid portrait of Sir Astley. In one octavo volume. The peculiar value of this, as of all of Sir Astley Cooper's works, consists in its eminently practical charac- His nephew, BranBby B. Cooper, from his own experience, has added a number of cases. Besides this, •Vr As-lev left behind him very considerable additions in MS. for the express purpose of being introduced into this edition. The volume is embellished with ONE HUNDRED AND TH1RTY-THREE WOODCUTS, and contains the history of no less thanthree hundred and sixty-one cases, thus embodying the records of a life of practice of the Author and his various editors. There are also additional Observalions from notes fur- nished by John C. Warren, M. D., the Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in Harvard University. " After the fiat of the profession, it would be absurd in us to eulogize Sir Astley Cooper's Work on Fracture* and Dislocations. It is a national one, and will probably subsist as long as English Surgery,"—Medico-Chi- rurgical Review. 26 LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. A NEW MEDICAL DICTIONARY, In one Volume, large 12mo., now ready, at a low price. A DICTIONARY OF THE TERMS USED IN MEDICINE AND THE COLLATERAL SCIENCES; By RICHARD D. HOBLYN, A.M., Oxon. FIRST AMERICAN, FROM THE SECOND LONDON EDITION. REVISED, WITH NUMEROUS ADDITIONS, By ISAAC HAYS, M.D., Editor of the American Journal of the Medical Sciences. Believing that a work of this kind would be useful to the profession in this country, the publishers have issued an edition in a neat form for the office table, at a low price. Its object is to serve as an introduction to the larger and more elaborate Dictionaries, and to assist the student commencing the study of Medicine, by presenting in a concise form an explanation of the terms most used in Medicine and the Collateral Sciences, by giving the etymology and definition in a manner as simple and clear as possible, without going into details ; and bringing up the work to the present time by including the numerous terms lately introduced. This design the author has so ably executed as to elicit the highest encomiums of the medical press. It has been edited with especial reference to the wants of the American practitioner, the native medicinal plants being introduced, with the formulas for the various officinal preparations : and the whole being made to conform to the Pharmacopceia of the United States. It is now ready in one neat royal duodecimo volume of four hundred pages in double columns. TAYLOR'S MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. By ALFRED S. TAYLOR, Lecturer on Medical Jurisprudence and Chemistry at Guy's Hospital, &c. With Numerous Notes and Additions, and references to American Practice and Law. Br R. E. GRIFFITH, M.D. In one volume, 8vo. " We recommend Mr. Taylor's work as the ablest, most comprehensive, and, above all, the most practically useful book which exists on the subject of legal medicine. Any man of sound judgment, who has mastered the contents of Taylor's 'Medical Jurisprudence,' may go into a court of law wilh the most perfect confidence of being able to acquit himself creditably."—Medico-Chirurgical Review. " As we expected, it has become truly the manual of both the medical and legal professions, and is regarded by all as the standard authority on the subject; the author, also, as we find from the public prints, is the person consulted, almost as a matter of course, in the more difficult medico- legal cases.—The British and Foreign Medical Review. LAWRENCE ON THE EYE. New Edition—Now Ready. A TREATISE ON THE DISEASES OF THE EYE. BY W. LAWRENCE, FR. S., Surgeon Extraordinary to the Queen, Surgeon to St. Bartholomew's Hospital Sec. &c. SECOND AMERICAN, FROM THE LAST LONDON EDITION, ' With many Modifications and Additions, and the Introduction of over one hundred Illustrations BY ISAAC HAYS, M.D., Surgeon to Will's Hospital, Physician to the Philadelphia Orphan Asylum &c. Sec. IN ONE LARGE OCTAVO VOLUME. The character of this work is too well known to require a word of commendation. It is justly considered th« best we possess on the subject. In this edition will be found many important alterations and improvements bringing the work up to the level of the present state of knowledge on the subjects of Ophthalmic Sureerv ami Practice. The chapters on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Organ have received especial augmentations^ and many new cuts have been introduced, rendering the whole clear and comprehensible. LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 27 MILLER'S SURGICAL WORKS. THE PRINCIPLES OF SURGERY. BY JAMES MILLER, F.R. S.E., F.R.C.S.E., Professor of Surgery in the University of Edinburgh, &c. In one neat octavo volume, to match the Author's volume on " Practice.'" u No one can peruse this work without the conviction that he has been addressed by an accom- plished surgeon, endowed with no mean literary skill or doubtful good sense, and who knows how to grace or illumine his subjects with the later lights of our rapidly advancing physiology. The book deserves a strong recommendation, and must secure itself a general perusal."—Medical Times. " We feel no hesitation in expressing our opinion that it presents the philosophy of the science more fully and clearly than any other work in the language with which we are acquainted."—Phi- ladelphia Medical Examiner. " To the student who wishes to acquire a useful practical knowledge of the pathology of sur- gical diseases, it is impossible to recommend a better guide than the present treatise by Mr. Mil- ler."—Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal. " An admirable epitome of the surgical science of the day. Being written by a sound practical surgeon accustomed to the public teaching of his science, it has the clearness of diction and ar- rangement which renders it an excellent manual for the students as well as that amount of scien- tific and practical information which makes it a safe and valuable guide to the practitioner."—The Lancet. JUST PUBLISHED. THE PRACTICE OP SURGERY. BY JAMES MILLER. Professor of Surgery in the University of Edinburgh. In one -neat octavo volume. This work is printed and bound to match the " Principles of Surgery," by Professor Miller, lately issued by L. & B. Either volume may be had separately. " This work, with the preceding one, forms a complete text-book of surgery, and has been under- taken by the author at the request of his pupils. Although, as we are modestly informed in the preface, it is not put forth in rivalry of the excellent works on practical surgery which already exist, we think we may take upon ourselves to say, that it will form a very successful and formidable rival to most of them. While it does not offer the same attractive illustrations, with which some of our recent text-books have been embellished, and while it will not, as indeed is not its design, set aside the more complete and elaborate works of reference which the profession is in possession of, we have no hesitation in stating that the two volumes fdrm, together, a more complete text-book of surgery than any one that has been heretofore offered to the student."—The Northern Journal of Medicine. " Mr. Miller is already known in his profession as an able writer and a well informed surgeon, and the book before us is calculated to maintain his reputation. We recommend it to those who want a sound guide, or wish to refresh their recollections. The characteristics which especially distinguish the work are, its plain good sense, or the selection of the important from the unimport- ant announcements in surgery ; the sound indications of the judgment to be exercised in the treat- ment of surgical diseases."—The Lancet. A NEW AND IMPROVED EDITION OF FERGUSSON'S OPERATIVE SURGERY. A SYSTEM OF PRACTICAL SURGERY, BY WILLIAM FERGUSSON, F. R. S. E. SECOND AMERICAN EDITION, REVISED AND IMPROVED. With Two Hundred and Fifty-two Illustrations from Drawings by Bagg, Engraved by Gilbert, With Notes and Additional Illustrations, BY GEORGE W. NORRIS, M. D., &c. In one beautiful octavo volume of six hundred and forty large pages. «Tf ™«> were to say that this volume by Mr. Fergusson, is one excellently adapted to the student, and the yet ■ LnZi\I nraetilioner of surgery, we should restrict unduly its range. It isot the kind which every medi- m^XP!!,lno-ht to have by him for ready reference, as a guide to the prompt treatment of many accidents and cal man °"S''1 l ... he'hesjtale8, mtty be followed by incurable defects, and deformities of structure, if not by 1,"J^ UsTlf In drawing to a close our notice of Mr. Fergusson's Practical Surgery, we cannot refrain from ., n^rtine to the numerous and beautiful illustrations by wood-cuts, which contribute so admirably to Bf in,»Te descriptions in the text. Dr. Norris has, as usual, acquitted himself judiciously in his office of annoiator. His triditC!> areVt?ictly practical and to the po\nt.»-Bulletin of Medical Science. 28 LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. LIBRARY OF SURGERY. CHELIUS'S SYSTEM OF SURGERY, A SYSTEM OF SUBGEEY. By J. M. CHELIUS, Doctor in Medicine and Surgery, Public Professor of General and Ophthalmic Surgery, etc. etc. in the University of Heidelberg. TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN, AND ACCOMPANIED WITH ADDITIONAL NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS, By JOHN F. SOUTH, SURGEON TO ST. THOMAS'S HOSPITAL. EDITED, WITH REFERENCE TO AMERICAN AUTHORITIES, By GEORGE W. NORMS, M.D. Publishing in Niimhers, at Fifty Cents each. Nine Numbers are now ready: and the whole is expected to be complete by September next, forming Three Large Octavo Volumes. That this work should have passed to six editions in Germany, and have been translated into no less than seven languages, is sufficient proof of its value. It contains what is, perhaps, embraced to an equal extent by no other work on the subject now before the public—a complete System of Surgery, both in its principles and practice. The additions of the translator, Mr. South, are very numerous, bringing the work up to the very day of publication, and embodying whatever may have been omitted by the author respecting English Sur- gery; while Dr. Norris will take equal care in representing the state of the Science in America. "Judging from a single numbeT only of this work, we have no hesitation in saying that, if the remaining por- tions correspond at all with the first, it will be by far the most complete and scientific System of Surgery in the English language. We have, indeed, seen no work which so nearly comes up to our idea of what such a pro- duction should be, both as a practical guide and as a work of reference, as this; and the fact that it has passed through six editions in Germany, and been translated into seven languages, is sufficiently convincing proof of its value. It is methodical and concise, clear and accurate; omitting all minor details and fruitless speculations, it gives us all the information we want in the shortest and simplest form"—The New York Journal of Medicine. "The scope of Professor Chelius's Manual is indicated by its title: it professes to treat, systematically, of the science and art of Surgery, but within such compass as to render the work an appropriate introduction and companion to his lectures. The care, however, which has been bestowed upon its construction, and the labor Which its research evinces, would be ill repaid were it confined to this sphere; and we may conscientiously say, that we know of no Manual of Surgery, on the whole, more deserving of public confidence, or more vah> able as a guide and refresher to the young practitioner. It is not our intention at present critically to analyze Mr. South's labors; but we should be guilty of an injustice to him and to our readers if we did not cordially recommend his work as having fair promise of forming, what it is the translator's ambition it should be, a sound and comprehensive system of Practical Surgery. The notes and text are so intermingled as to render it con- tinuously readable, without presenting those abrupt transitions which are so disagreeable in many works simi- larly arranged. The faults of omission, _fcc, at which we have hinted in our comments on the first chapter of our author's Work, (viz. that on 'Inflammation-,') have been amply compensated by the copious and excellent digest of his translator and annotator. who is justly proud of availing himself of the labors of our own coun- trymen in this department of pathology, while he gives their due meed of notice and respect to the contributions of our continental brethren. The references which are given to original works have evidently been carefully collated, and will be found of great value to the student and practitioner who may wish for more copious in- formation on any particular branch of Surgery; and the practical remarks and illustrations with which tha work abounds, are a good guarantee of the translator's ability to do justice to his task, at the same time that they prove that Mr. South has not failed to avail himself industriously of the large opportunities which his Hos- pital appointment has afforded him."—The British and Foreign Medical Review. " We will, therefore, content ourselves for the present with directing the attention of the profession to it, as being the most complete"system of Surgery in any language, and one that is of equal utility as a practical guida and as a work of reference. The fact of its having reached six editions in Germany, and its having been trans- lated into seven languages,,are more convincing proofs of its value than anything that we can say. Mr. South has performed his task with much judgment, and has certainly .made a most useful addition to the medical lite- rature of this country by rendering Chelius's work into English "—The Lancet. " This work has long been the chief text-book on Surgery in the principal schools of Germany, and the pub- lication of five editions of it in the original and of translations into no less than eight foreign languages, show the high estimation in which it is held. As a systematic work on Surgery it has merits of a high order, It is methodicatand concise—and on the whole clear and -accurate. The most necessary information is conveyed in the shortest and simplest form. Minor details and fruitless speculations are avoided. It is, in fact, essen- tially a practical book. This work was first published nearly twenty years ago. and its solid and permanent reputation has no doubt led Mr. South to undertake the present translation of the latest edition of it, which, ws are informed, is still passing through the press in Germany. iVe should have felt at a loss to select any ona better qualified for the task than the translator of Otto's Compendium of Human and Comparative Pathological Anatomy—a surgeon to a large hospital, whose industry and opportunities have enabled him to keep pace with the improvements of his time."—The Medico-Chirurgical Review. "Although Great Britain can boast of some of the most skilful surgeons, both among her past and her present professors of that branch of medical science, no work professing to be a complete system of Surgery has been published in the British dominions since that of Benjamin Bell, now more than half a century old. "This omission in English medical literature is fully and saiisfactorily supplied by the translation of Professor Chelius's System of Surgery by a gentleman excllently fitted for the task, both by his extensive reading, and the opportunities of practical experience which he has enjoyed for years as surgeon to one of our largest me- tropolitan hospitals. The fact of Professor Chelius's work having been translated into seven languages is suf- ficient proof of the estimation in which it is held by our continental brethren, and the English edition now in eourse of publication, loses none of the value of the original from the treatment received at the hands of its translator. The notes and additions of Professor South are numerous, and contain the opinions resulting from his vast experience, and from that of his colleague. " We are free to confess, prejudiced though perhaps we are, in favor of the English practice of surgery, that this work is one of great value, and one which every practitioner and advanced student should possess."—The Medical Times. WORKS IN VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY, PUBLISHED BY LEA & BLANCHAKD. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF THE MEDICAL SCIENCES. Edited by Isaac Hays, M. D. Published quarterly at $5 00 per annum. ANDRAL ON THE BLOOD. Pathological Hematology ; an Essay on the Blood in Dis- ease. Translated by J. F. Meigs and Alfred Stille. In one octavo volume, cloth. ARNOTT'S PHYSICS. The Elements of Physics in plain or non-technical language. A New Edition. Edited by Isaac Hays, M. D. In 1 vol. 8vo., sheep, wiih 176 wood-cuts* ABERCROMBIE ON THE STOMACH. Pathological and Practical Researches on Dis- eases of the Stomach, Intestinal Canal, &c. Fourth Edition. In 1 vol. 8vo., sheep. ABERCROMBIE ON THE BRAIN. Pathological and Practical Researches on the Dis- eases of the Brain and Spinal Cord. A New Edition. In one octavo volume, sheep. ALISON'S PATHOLOGY. Outlines of Pathology and Practice of Medicine. In three parts, containing Preliminary Observations, Inflammatory and Febrile Diseases, and Chronic or Non-Febrile Diseases. In one neat octavo volume, sheep. BIRD ON URINARY DEPOSITS. Urinary Deposits, their Diagnosis, Pathology and The- rapeutical Indications. In one neat octavo volume, cloth, with numerous wood-cuts. BERZELIUS ON THE KIDNEYS AND URINE, in 1 vol. 8vo., cloth. BUCKLAND'S GEOLOGY. Geology and Mineralogy, with reference to Natural Theology. A Bridgewater Treatise. In two octavo volumes, with numerous maps, plates, &c. BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The whole complete in 7 vols. 8vo., containing Roget's Animal and Vegetable Physiology, in 2 vols., with many cuts; Kirby on the History, Habits and Instinct of Animals, 1 vol. with plates; Prout on Chemistry; Chalmers on the Moral Condition of Man ; Whewell on Astronomy ; Bell on the Hand; Kidd on the Phy- sical Condition of Man; and Buckland's Geology, 2 vols., with many plates and maps. BARTLETT ON FEVERS OF U. S. The History, Diagnosis and Treatment of Typhus and Typhoid Fevers, and on Bilious Remittent and Yellow Fever. In 1 vol. 8vo., ex. cloth. BARTLETT'S PHILOSOPHY OF MEDICINE. Essay on the Philosophy of Medical Science. In two Parts. One neat octavo volume, extra cloth. BRIGHAM ON MIND, &c. The Influence of Mental Excitement and Mental Cultivation on Health. In one neat 12mo. volume, extra cloth. BILLING'S PRINCIPLES OF MEDICINE. The First Principles of Medicine. From the Fourth London Edition. In one octavo volume, cloth. CHITTY'S MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. 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JtIEIHC.lL WORKS, at Press and Preparing: A MANUAL OF MATERIA MEDICA AND Therapeutics. By J. Forbes Royle, M. D., &c. Edited by J. Carson, M. D., &c. In 1 vol. 8vo., numerous wood-cuts, {nearly ready). TODD & BOWMAN'S PHYSIOLOGICAL ANA- tomy and Physiology of Man. Many wood-cuts, {publishing in the Medical News and Library). A TREATISE ON OPHTHALMIC MEDICINE and Surgery. By T.Wharton Jones. In 1 vol. beautifully illustrated. PRINCIPLES OF GENERAL AND COMPA- rative Physiology. By Wm. B. Carpenter, M. D.,&c. From a new London edition, with numerous improvements and additions. In 1 vol. large 8vo., many steel plates. A TREATISE ON ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY, with very numerous illustrations. By Wm. B. Carpenter.—To be followed by his other works on Natural Science. A NEW AMERICAN FORMULARY. By J. Carson, M. D., &c. In one volume, {preparing). A SYSTEM OF SURGERY. By J. M.Chelius. Translated by South, and Edited by Norris.— Publishing in numbers at 50 cents each. 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"' c' BURROWS ON CEREBRAL CIRCULATION- with plates. w> Together with other JYew Works, LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. 31 (gee Page 33.) THE MEDICO-CHIRURGICAL REVIEW, EDINBURGH MEDICAL AND SURGICAL JOURNAL, AND NUMEROUS OTHERS. WHILE TROM FRANCE THE GAZETTE MEDICALE DE PARIS—L'EXPERIENCE—REVUE MEDICALE —JOURNAL DE MEDECINE—JOURNAL DES CONNAISSANCES MEDICO-CHIRURGICALES, AND VARIOUS OTHERS, WITH THE ZEITSCHRIFT FUR DIE GESAMMTE MEDICIN, WITH SEVERAL OTHERS FROM GERMANY, AND THE BIBLIOTHEK FOR LOGGER, OF DENMARK, TOGETHER WITH ALL THE ABfiCERXCAH JOURNALS, ARE PUT IN REQUISITION. It will thus be seen that the material for a full Summary of all NEW MATTERS AND IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES is full and ample, while the exertions of the Editor and the time of publication insure a fulness and newness to this department. ALL THE LATE AND IMPORTANT AMERICAN INTELLIGENCE, is fully recorded—while THE MONTHLY MEWS furnishes the lighter and floating information, and embraces important Books for THE LIBRARY DEPARTMENT. Among those works already published in the Monthly Library and News, may be mentioned WATSON'S LECTURES ON THE PRACTICE OF PHYSIC, AS ALSO BRODIE'S LECTURES ON SURGERY, CONCLUDED IN MARCH OF THIS YEAR, (1846). The work for the year 1846 is a new one, TODD & BOWMAN'S PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN, NOW PUBLISHING IN ENGLAND. This work has already earned for its authors a high reputation in Europe and this country. It will be reproduced entire, with all the numerous and beautiful wood-cuts. Each Work in the Library is regularly paged so as to be bound separately. THE TERMS ARE For the Medical Journal and the Medical News, if paid for by the first of February of each Year, and the amount remitted free of cost to the Publishers, - - - - - Five Dollars. 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Under the new law the postage on the Journal is reduced to about 131 cents per number, while the News and Library is sent through the mail as a Newspaper. Persons wishing to subscribe, to commence with the January number for 1847, should advise the publishers at once, as the whoje quantity for the present and two past years was taken up early in the year. The publishers do not deem it necessary to refer to the past course of the Journal. It is suffi- cient that for the last TWENTY-SEVEN YEARS it has received the approbation of the profession at home and abroad; but they would call attention to the extended and liberal arrangement exist- ing and to be pursued that shall embody the latest intelligence from all quarters. ITS PAGES WILL BE DEVOTED FIRST TO ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS FROM ALL SECTIONS OF THE UNION, WITH REVIEWS OF ALL NEW WORKS OF INTEREST, AND ^0 @ILDO© RAPH 0© AL INIOTBOISSj While its QUARTERLY SUMMARY will embrace a full and extended RETROSPECT AND ABSTRACT FROM THE VARIOUS FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC JOURNALS. With reference to this department, the arrangements of the publishers are very extensive and em- brace for the gleanings of the editor the various Journals from GREAT BRITAIN, FRANCE, GERMANY, DENMARK, ITALY, AJVD OTHER SECTIONS OF THE WORLD. INCLUDING AS PROMINENT AMONG THE ENGLISH, BRAITHWAITE'S RETROSPECT, RANKING'S HALF-YEARLY ABSTRACT, THE LONDON MEDICAL TIMES, THE LONDON MEDICAL GAZETTE, FORBES' BRITISH AND FOREIGN QUARTERLY. (Continued on Page 31.) &_T This paper may be delivered to any physician if declined by the person to whom it is ad- dressed, or if they have removed—and Postmasters and others will particularly oblige the pub'ish- ers by furnishing a list of the Physicians and Lawyers of their county or neighborhood. In ad.li_.on" to the business it may bring to the office, a copy of" The Complete Florist," or such other vo_u___e will be sent by mail gratis for any ten or more names furnished free of cost. ' Philadelphia, July, 1846. m}^d'i-r> :W} ,- ;■• ^i^ v^«_J«fciX-.