■T^: NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE Bethesda, Maryland & -■'■■- h k< GYMNASTICS FOR lotitfj: OR A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO HEALTHFUL AND AMUSING EXERCISES: FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. *' AN ESSAY^ TOWARD THE NECESSARY IMPROVEMENT OP 4 EDUCATION, CHIEFLY AS IT RELATES TO THE BODY. FREELY TRANSLATED FROM THE GERM AX OF C.G. SALZMANN, MASTER OF THE ACADEMY OF SCHNEPFEXTHAL, AND AUTHOR OF THE ELEMENTS OF MORALITY. ILLUSTRATED WITH PLATES. pljila&elpfjta: PRINTED FOR P. BYRNE, No. 72, CHESNUT-STREET. 1803. ■**■>- taken from Mr. Ing. Pickel'S verschiedener Alterthuemer, &c. ' Description of various Antiquities, found in ancient German jjnvcs near Eiclistaedt --vith plates:' Nuremberg, 1719 *' OUR OWN FAULT. 43 I do not mean to infer, that no taller and bigger men were yet to be seen among our ancestors, than those to whom these remains once belonged: yet they are evidences suffi- cient to prove, in what way the Roman mea- sure above mentioned, and the expressions of ancient authors, are to be understood: they show clearly, that, as with us, all the Germans were not of that gigantic stature, at which the Roman soldiers trembled. War- like enterprizes conducted with success a- gainst a savage nation of giants heightened the honor of the Roman triumphs ; and de- feats from such people reflected less disgrace on their arms: these military maxims, united with the love of the marvellous, converted the Germans, in the pages of ancient authors, into the sons of Anak; and the nations of Germany were viewed through this political perspective glass, in the same manner as the Patagonians were for a long time behel d by us through that of the Spaniards. I am ready, however to admit the ancient Germans to have been far more stout and robust than the Ro- mans were, or than we are; but I cannot per- suade myself, that, in comparison with them we are but dAvarfs. When any thing is not small, but of considerable size, a little addi* j 44 WANT OF STRENGTH tion is sufficient, to convert it into the extra- ordinary: and to this men are always prone. With respect to bodily stature, I have still to notice another absurd proof, usually addu- ced in support of the bigness of our ancestors. This is the ponderous armour, on which men stare with astonishment, as completely de- monstrating the dwarfish debility of their con- temporaries, and the gigantic strength of the men of old times. Now, if we look for a demonstration in the size, of this armour, we shall find, as is evi- dent to the eyes, that there is nothing extra- ordinary in this: ninety-nine in the hundred of the men of the present day would fill it as well as the soldiers of the ancient fortresses. The aid of plausibility, therefore, is called in; and flaming two-edged swords of six feet long are contrasted with our short hangers. The former, to be sure, can fit only the thigh and the hand of a giant: but then their proportion to the other pieces of armour before our eyes is overlooked. A little inconsistency is easily veiled in admiration of the uncommon. Sus- pend them in a shoulder belt, and let the war- rior wield them with both hands, as was ac- tually the case, the inconsistency and the wonder will vanish together. Probably, then, OUR OWN FAULT. 45 the proof lies in the weight. But most of this armour is formed of plate iron, conse- quently cannot be very ponderous. It cover- ed the less valued limbs of common soldiers, as even now it does those of the watchmen of several universities. Other suits, distin- guished by their gilding and polish, are of considerable weight, being made of hammer- ed iron. Swords have been found Aveighing seventeen pounds; helmets of fifteen. Could the soldier of our days fight thus armed? Certainly not; any more than he could tight laced in whalebone stays. Not that he wants strength but practice. An invalid, who used to show to strangers an ancient armoury be- longing to the prince of Waldeck, could ex- ercise so equipped with great ease. What, indeed, with sufficient practice, could prevent an animal machine, capable, according to the experiments of Desaguliers, of supporting a weight of 2,000 pounds, from doing this? Were the wonderers at this armour to consi- der, that time has yet covered it with but a slight coat of rust, would not the degenera- cy and diminution of our race in so short a period appear the greater miracle ? I might here notice another grand argu- ment, namely, the fecundity of our species: 46 AVANT OF STRENGTH but to what purpose? Every body knows the annual increase of our births; and it is acknow- ledged, that if the more refined classes have fewer children, they have still more than the savage in the state of nature. The natives of North-America to whom want is a stran- ger, as the Iroquois and DelaAvares, have sel- dom six children from one marriage : the women of Greenland and Labrador have scarcely ever more than three, or four: the Pesherays have commonly but two, or three: and the most fruitful couples of New Zealand cannot boast above three, or four children*. Among us, families of ten or fifteen chil- dren are not very extraordinary in any class; and tAventy four, or twenty five, the offspring of a single marriage, have occurred. If par- ticular instances be adduced for the ancient world, as of the eighty eight children of Re- hoboam, and the 115 sons of Xerxes; we can retort with examples, which, in the present state of things, say much more. In 1772, there Avas alive, in London, a man of 100years old, who was the father of thirty seven sons and nine daughters by eight successive wives. * Loskiel's History of the Mission of the United Brethren among -ha Indians. OUR OWN FAULT. 47 In all cases the state of moderate civilization is most favourable to increase. Thus I shall terminate my remarks on the ancient man of nature, and the present man of society in the more active classes. If this be little or nothing inferior to his ancestors in the points above mentioned*, no class can impute its physical degeneracy to a gradual decline of the powers of nature, but must seek for the cause in an unnatural education and way of life; and all apprehensions of the im- possibility of a regeneration of mankind, with regard to the corporal faculties, must vanish. Hence we must contemplate our progenitors with more tranquility. We shall discern in them impetuous sons of Nature; exceeding us from practice in bodily strength, but in other respects men like ourselves. We shall exhi- bit their picture to our children: they will ad- *«In the labouring classes of mankind where there is no deficiency of nourishment, and extreme poverty does not too soon impose im- moderate toil on youth, scarcely any declension is to be observed.' Frank's Medicin. Policey, Vol. I, p. 89. If, indeed, these labouring classes do not fully equal our remotest progenitors in these points, it is entirely owing to the management of their children in their earliest years, want of sound nourishment, and immoderate, oppressive toil: we have in them the fellows of the Towtows of Otaheite, who pet- form all the laborious tasks, are fed with the poorest diet, and look on while the Earees feast on swine's flesh. Careless gaiety, sound youth, healthy food, and due exorcise, in a temperate climate, are requisite to the complete devclopement of the human frame. 48 WANT OF STRENGTH mire the courage, the strength, the hardiness of the ancient Germans: they will ask, why do not Ave resemble them ? We shall ansAver, nature produced us, as well as she did them: she does not form us of inferior mould : her laAvs are eternal. But if force can bend the straight-made man to a cripple, and render the healthy infirm; why should not native strength be enfeebled by effeminacy, and the nobly born by nature be degraded from his worth by perverse treatment ? Nature plants the germes of strength, longlevity, courage, and firmness, in us, no less than she did in our ancestors. Not to cultivate them, is, in effect, forcible suppression : to cultivate is to exercise them. In bestowing on us our fa- culties, nature has left the improvement of them by exercise to ourselves, as a preserva- tive against ennui. Exercise, therefore, is not nature's office, but ours. Our standard cannot be the rudeness of savages, and indeed ought not, but hardiness and strength of bo- dy, courage, and manliness, combined with the cultivation of the head and heart. That would require our ancient forests, with their wild oxen, rude ignorance, the barbarian law of force, and an uncivilized wandering life, with- out the graces or the muses: this, nothing OUR OWN FAULT. 49 but what is within our reach, and what will completely harmonize with the improvement of the mind; the developement and improve- ment of our corporal faculties, manly aversion to effeminate softness. Education can do much and nothing: it cannot create a single germe, but it can de- velope or stifle those that exist. Let us re- ceive with gratitude the talents nature yet be- stOAvs on our corporal machine: let us not again become savage Germans; but, while we confess our education and way of living has reduced us somewhat too far below them, let us be conscious, that we can still mount up nearer to them, whenever we please. i C 51 } CHAP. H. CONSEQUENCES OF THE ORDINARY MODE OF EDUCATION, PARTICULARLY THE NE- GLECT OF BODILY IMPROVEMENT. IN the beginning of the bible it is said; { in the sweat of thy face thou shalt eat bread.» This the multitude have ever looked upon as a curse; the philosopher alone per- ceives in it an universal medicine. I might easily mould it to my favourite notion, and quote it as the most ancient injunction of im- proving the body by gymnastic exercises. The expression,1 whole it must be confessed, that little regard has been paid to the maxim inculcated by a hundred authors, indisputably true as it is, that Ave cannot emancipate the world from the influence of the weather and of climate, so in- cessantly and dangerously operating on every person of infirm health, and that consequent- ly it behoves us, to inure ourselves to it. We know, indeed, that it is best to inure children to this: but we merely know it; and our usual mode of education continues to afford the most effectual means of rencjering men dissatisfied with the course of nature : for how can they be otherwise, when storm, and rain, and frost, expose them to every kind of bodily suffer- ance ? They murmur at the natural changes of the atmosphere, and load them with imprecati- ons, merely because we have neglected to accus- tom them to these changes. We know this : but the many are far from agreed on carrying it into practice; they retain the prejudices of of their grand-mothers with respect to edu- cation, as faithfully as they preserve her anti- quated rings and necklace in veneration of her memory. Their maxims of health consist in keeping warm, wrapping up, purging, sweat- ing, bleeding, avoiding bad weather, keeping Avithin doors, and the like : thence the mul- Avhile they spend, their leisure hours at the card-table, or in reading, thus continuing indolently at rest during the time when their limbs might be employed in salu- * Tissot. MODE OF EDUCATION. 69 tary motion. This disuse benefits no nation, that would retain the least pretension to man- hood ; and one chief object of gymnastic education is, to preserve youth from falling into it. Unquestionably it is one of the ehief causes of our physical degeneracy. The principal Source of our well being arises from the circulation of our fluids, especially the blood. A brisk circulation animates the whole man: even the phlegmatic is exhilarat- ed, when any thing sets his blood in commo- tion : and when this takes place in an immo- derate degree, the man is agitated even to de- lirium. These effects are Avell known. Con- tinued rest weakens the circulation; till at length the blood feebly creeps through its vessels, for the heart is not of itself sufficient to give it due motion. For this muscular movement is likewise requisite. But rest of body relaxes the muscles, diminishes the vi- tal heat, checks perspiration, injures diges- tion, sickens the whole frame, and thus num- berless diseases are introduced. There is not a single part of the human machine, which a sedentary mode of life does not debilitate, and the nerves more especially suffer by it. Generally speaking, says Ackermann,* a sc- * On the diseases of the learned. 70 CONSEQUENCES OF THE USUAL dentary life is the source of all those diseases, which physicians term cachectic, the number of which is considerable. Among them are green sickness, jaundice, atrophy, Avorms, tetter, obstruction of the natural excretions, dropsy, &c. For these exercise is the best remedy. It strengthens the vessels, says Tissot, preserves the fluids in a healthy state, quickens the appetite, facilitates the excreti- ons, invigorates the spirits, and excites pleas- ing sensations throughout the whole nervous system. I am far from being one of those, who wish with blind enthusaismto see civilized man con- verted into a Avild animal, seeking health upon all fours in nature's bosom: I knoAv that the savage has his diseases; and I believe, that civilized man must be more capable of avoid- ing them, as he possesses more knowledge to shun their causes. Why then has he more ? In fact it is not civilization, but its abuse, that sinks us in this respect below the savage. Would we wish our posterity to be robust, musculous, and manly, let us first introduce these desirable qualities into our education, nature will evidently prosper our endeavours, and our minds feel the benefit. MODE OF EDUCATION. 71 ' Corpus enim male si valcat, parere nequibit Prasceptis animi, magna & praeclara jubentis.'* Marcell. Paligen. Lib. 10. 3. Inactivity. Let us diminish sensual susceptibility, desirous only of pleasurable impressions, and endeavour to give more force to the body and to the mind. Indolence is the consequence of Aveakness and voluptuousness. A contented mind, in a strong body steeled by education, loves labour, and to be active. We have to contend with many passions, the grounds of Avhich lie Avholly in our corporal disability. That phlegmatic indolence, which cannot bear to stoop to pick up a handker- chief, or to undergo the intolerable exertion of a little walk to serve a fellow creature ; Avhich converts men into mere bablers Avithout the poAver of action ; flourishes best in the bo- som of effeminate enervating education, the plan of Avhich has been sketched by luxury and refinement. Its melancholy effects are pal- pable throughout Europe from Wardhuus to Gibralter. Essentially we are active as nature, from Avhose bosom we proceeded, and of Avhom we are a part. The inextinguishable flame within us Avas kindled from that, which is all * ' For if the body labour under ill health, it will be incapable of obeying the mind, ordering what is great and noble.' 72 CONSEQUENCES OF THE USUAL life and activity. It is innate in us. The young energies of the suckling strive to dis- play themselves, and our third word is to en- join the child rest. To scream, to cry, to crawl, to run, to leap, are the circumstances in which he finds satisfaction: and Ave should leave him to pursue his oAvn course, as far as decorum will admit, for time and nature will convert this infantile Avildness into manly, in- defatigable activity. What then becomes of this natural activity in multitudes, in their ri- per years ? We behold them sunk in indo- lence : has nature resumed from them the gift she once bestoAved ? No : not nature, but, our unnatural guidance. We forcibly impose on children the manners and steadiness of maturity, and thus the inactivity of old age appears in the season of manhood. Our se- verity and incessant chiding still the infantile propensity to cry; and thus we gradually sup* press all desire of displaying and exerting the corporal faculties, which we evidently ought to promote ; Ave confine all labour to the mind, and by this, by improper diet, and by treating him as if sick, Ave weaken the activity of the future man. If hismind be not imme- diately affected, it will infallibly suffer by this conduct. The phlegmatic body creeps at its MODE OF EDUCATION. 73 commands, and seldom obeys them, if they be not perfectly agreeable to it. ' The weaker the body, the more it com- mands : the stronger it is, the more it obeys. The body must possess vigour to be obedi- ent to the mind: a good servant should be robust.'* But without repeated exertion it will soon become weak, and vegetate in a state of in- subordination. Here Ave are at the fountain of the worst of diseases, idleness, and its companion, ennui. At this point I shall stop: otherwise I must play the spy over the gam- ing table, at which avarice, scandal and de- spair, so frequently seat themselves; domestic quarrels, from the cottage to the palace; com- plaints for want of bread; and the sighs of indolence, when compelled to labour: I nrust ask many impostors, Avhy they do not perform what they promise; many searchers after the philosopher's stone, why they do not rather follow the plough. Hoav often shall we find, that effeminacy, and the habit of bodily in- action, are at the bottom of all these! If this be so, a melancholy truth ensues from what has been said, namely, that our M Rousseau's Emilius, 74 CONSEQUENCES OF THE USUAL moral precepts, and our social laws, are of no avail in thousands of cases, because we educate multitudes in such a manner, that they are more or less incapacitated for obeying them. The charge is severe; yet let it be investigated: I have not advanced it, but on conviction. May it incite parents and teach- ers of youth, to lay the sad consequences of an effeminate education, so extremely repre- hensible Avith regard to the corporal faculties, to heart, and to attend more to the bodily im- provement of youth. May I be indulged here in a short digres- -sion, that I may not pass over certain lamen- table errors which evidently take their origin from an effeminate mode of education, and consequent inactivity. I speak of the errors of an instinct, to which unusual attention has been excited in modeyn days. Hence, if I mistake not, we trace them to their source. as we expect the juices of the well nourished and tenderly fostered hot house plant will be earlier converted into fruit; we have every reason to apprehend, the manifestation of this instinct in the subjects of our effeminate and luxurious education will be accelerated. The laAv to which this instinct is subjected, re- mains the same now as it did in the days of * MODE OF EDUCATION. 7$ Abraham, with regard to every one who is led by nature; but if we break loose from her hand, the bodily mental constitution of the individual, as moulded by our art, takes its place, and produces at an early period, as experience shows, what nature would have longer deferred. What cannot the perpetual enjoyment of food to satiety, artificially ex- cited appetite, and a total ignorance of the hunger that labour creates, effect in the families of the great? All this was not be- stowed on man: he must pay for it by actu- al disease, or super-abundance and corruption of the fluids. Miserable condition! We re- quire but a certain proportion, never a super- fluity of nourishment. If we cannot confine ourselves to this proportion, which is parti- cularly difficult in the houses of the great; there is no other method of compensating for our excess but bodily exertionr This con* cocts the luxuriant juices* and diffuses them throughout the limbs, to repair the exhaust- ed muscles. Hunger and lassitude are the pleasing consequences of sufficient bodily ex- ercise : scarcely is the hunger appeased, wrhen lassitude ensues, and with this instinct is stil- led, as nothing stimulates it. Hoav delight- ful is then the sleep of rosy eheeked inno- 76 CONSEQJJENCES OF THE USUAL cence! This is a grateful idea, for it em- braces the infinite beneficial consequences of this state both to the body and to the mind. If what I say be true, parents and masters, what ought you to have more at heart, than a a complete physical reform of a mode of edu- , cation, which has long shown itself to be de- fective ? If Ave cease not to bring up our youth in the hot houses of effeminacy and voluptuous- ness, to leave them Avearisome hours in abun- dance, to point their imagination to volup- ' tuous images, and thus to accelerate the cir- . * culation of the superfluous juices, instead of concocting them, all the means hitherto pro- posed to check the burst of the passions are insufficient. 4. An improper choice of amusements. If the object of amusements be to recreate the mind, or the body, or both, after labour per- formed, they must be useless in themselves, or in their application, when instead of ansAvering this object, they tend to exhaust the body or mind, as much, or more, than the labour already undergone. Do we act in consonance with reason, then, if after serious studies, or other sedentary employments, which by de- grees cramp the vicera, we recur to novels, MODE OF EDUCATION. 77 cards, and other similar amusements, invent- ed by folly, which exhaust and debilitate anew the tired nerves and relaxed muscles ? If Ave seek recreation in plays, balls, and concerts? if, with the digestive faculty enfeebled, we sit down to the long meal of the festive board ? I may leave the reader to pursue these ques- tions ; as I have neither time nor desire, to enumerate our usual games and pastimes, and show, that they are for the most part injuri- ous, in themselves, or in their application. If we take but a slight glance at them, it can- not fail to strike us how few are in use, that tend to promote judicious exercise of the body. What an effeminate feature is it in the charac- ter of a nation, to be continually lolling on cushions in drawing rooms or carriages, and to play almost wholly with the mind! Is it not more suitable to its destination, that AAre should appoint to this office its instrument the body, and thus render this body capable of serving it in its higher duties and occupations ? This is no longer the ton. ' Things are now come to such a pitch, that all (bodily) exercise is banished from genteel houses; and that, as Tissot says, those \arious bodily move- ments, which the ancients considered as du- ties, have been so neglected Avithin the last 78 CONSEQJJENCES OF THE USUAL two or three generations, that in a feAv years probably their names will occur only in dic- tionaries. In every tOAvn, cards, with Avhich Our fathers were but little acquainted, chain all societies, from an appointed hour of the afternoon, to their chairs, in which the great- er part of mankind sit fixed as statues till the night is far advanced. Even our taste for mu- sic serves but to restrain us the more from air and exercise ; and, fond as I am of the celes- tial enjoyment, I can scarcely blame the east- ern nations, for deeming it indecorous in a man of rank to learn music.'* Can we, then, talk of ton, when our gene- ral improvement and perfection are in ques- tion ?—And why is it no longer the ton ? Be- cause our education favours effeminate in ac- tion and sensibility, and even calls in the aid of science to play with the mind ; because all its aim is to soften our feelings, and so to un- string us, that we have no desire to seek re- creation except in repose and activity of body, and always prefer what flatters our delicate sensibility. ' Over this,' says Frank, ' police should have a watchful eye: this is not the way to render useful citizens of the state, after hav- * Frank's medical police, % MODE OF EDUCATION. 79 ing performed their labours, apt for fresh ex- ertions for the good of their fellow men.' Even our children, Avho are yet too youngs and too little departed from nature, to adopt the refinements of fashion, could teach us better. They frisk about the moment the book is closed ; and sit not still like us, preaching of decorum, till impelled by those commands of nature, Avhich Ave dare not disobey. . 5. Debilitation of the mind. This is a copious theme, on which I must check my pen, least I exhaust my readers patience. No one doubts the great influence of the body on the mind : the physical treatment of the bo- dy, therefore, particularly in childhood and in vouth, must tend to determine the charac- ter of the man; and indeed affects it more deeply, than is commonly supposed. This is so certain, that it may be brought to the test of experiment. Confine a young creature in a dark dungeon, treat him as a criminal, and deprive him of every youthful enjoyment: what a melancholy, gloomy, suspicious, un- social being A\rill he become ! keep him in re- ligious solitude ; let him fast, and pray, and mortify his flesh : he will probably become a pious enthusiast, a visionary, a fanatic. The man, Avho climbs the mast, unfurls the sail, 80 COXSEQJJENCES OF THE USUAL and guides the helm, is a very different being from him, Avho is destined to the thimble and the shears. Our ideas of ourselves and the things around us, our way of thinking and acting, too frequently depend on the modifi- cation of our fluids, on the tone of our nerves and our whole frame. To thousands the world appears to-day serene and bright, to- morrow dismal and gloomy : to-day they can displace mountains, to-morrow they cannot move a straAV. This complete change of scene and action is commonly produced by the state of their bodies alone. If truth and sin- cerity, firmness of character, unalterable con- stancy in love, cheerfulness, presence of mind, courage, and true manliness of sentiment, have decreased in modern days, the fault is not in the greater cultivation of the mind; Avhich, it is to be regretted, is but too often the improvement of the imagination, wit, and memory, to the neglect of practical under- standing ; but commonly in the disregard of physical education, in the Avant of hardening and exercising our youth. Whence shall the young citizen "of the world acquire that great, noble, manly character, which distinguishes itself by firmness in prosperity and in adver- sity, by courage in danger, by generosity in MODE OF EDUCATION. 31 succour, by patience and exertion in need, by reflection in the business of life; Avhen he is brought up with delicacy, and taught to rely on the support of others, is conscious of his own helplessness and debility? whence shall he derive presence of mind in danger, when he has spent his blooming years lolling on a sofa, or sitting on a form ? whence cheer- fulness, Avhen his nerves are relaxed, and his Avhole body unbraced by his way of liv- ing? Avhence temperance, Avhen we excite and strengthen his passions by luxury in eating and drinking, by sleep, and inactive repose ? AArhence constancy, sincerity, and truth; when his constitution is weak, and represents the things that surround him now of this hue, a- non of that ? in a Avord, what can we expect from the mind, when its instrument the body, is not only capable of executing little, but even oppresses the mind Avith its Aveight ? Destroy the roots of the healthiest plants, their heads will droop and die. Many excel- lent qualities of the mind have their roots, in fact, in the body; the summits Avhich adorn the spiritual being, the mind, will wither, if we neglect the soil of these valuable plants, and thus injure their roots. N 82 CONSEQUENCES OF THE USUAL Far be it from me, to deny the present ge- neration all noble qualities. Can I, who am a member of it, be its calumniator ? But Avhat- ever of noble Ave perceive commonly smacks of national spirit. Here it is blind slavish devotion to a despot, there the madness of liberty; in one place it is the lust of conquest, in another fanatic submission to the clergy; in a third the gentler qualities of compassion, pity, and the sensibility of society polished to the extreme of refinement. Thus the no- ble takes its bent from the prevailing opinion, which is usually received as its standard. For our own parts, do we judge of actions strictly according to the laws of impartial reason ? or do we not rather find them per- fect, in consequence of the imperfection of the standard Ave employ ? Many of our periodical papers, Avhich make an ostentatious display of noble actions, unquestionably with a laudable vieAv, seem notalittle to confirm the latter sup- position. But be this as it may, to me it ap- pears evident, that thousands of noble cha- racters Avould appear still more noble, and thousands that are equivocal and indifferent would evince themselves honest and Avorthy, had they not been crippled by our effeminate mode of education. MODE OF EDUCATION. 33 No heroic patriotism, no sacrifices for the common good and the succour of others, no manly courage, no inflexible love of truth, no lofty endeavours at noble actions, can ordinari- ly be expected from the Aveak and infirm; from persons habituated to luxury from their youth; who are ever thinking on the gratification of their sybaritic wishes, and what they call their wants; whose grand business is solely the ac- qusition of the means of gratifying them;, and whose bodies, sunk in ease and effeminacy, seek to shun every inconvenience by a thou- sand devious ways. The objects of their ex- ertions are enjoyment, pleasure, their own convenience,, ease, and freedom from care: their common lot is to be slaves to their pas* sions. * All the sensual passions take up their abode in effeminate bodies; and are the more irritable in proportion as they are less capable of being gratified. A feeble body enfeebles the mind.'* I cannot here omit particularly noticing a quality of the manly character, which our effeminate education is continually rendering more scarce. This is a certain wise confidence in our own powers; which prevents us from crying out for help, or falling into despair on * Rousseau's Eminus, 84 CONSEQUENCES OF THE USUAL every trifling occasion; which must be at the bottom of every great or little enterprize; and Which is indispensably necessary, to enable us, as men and citizens, to preserve a certain in- dependence. As long as our understanding . can rely upon this anchor, our voyage, what- ever storms may assail us, will still be suffici- ently, pleasant, to induce us to persevere; and every Opposition va ill serve only to ani- mate our exertions: but Avhen this is lost, it is time for us to quit the deck, and relinquish the helm of our vessel to the guidance of an- other. To enter more particularly into Avhat I hare exhibited as the consequences of our effemi- nate education and mode of life, appears to me superfluous. Besides, I must again notice them, when I came to discriminate the objects 6f gymnastic exercises. Yet it may not be unpleasing to many readers, to see the points on which we have touched reduced to one ge- neral principle. This is: The best education leads to the best capacity for supporting the joys and the sorrows of life.* To support requires force: and that this cannot be imbibed from the present spirit of ef- * ' He who is most capable, of supporting the good and the evil of this life, is the best educated.' Emilius. MODE OF EDUCATION 85 feminacy, which cockers and softens our feel- ings, is self-evident. If, therefore, Ave would approximate the best education, we must gra- dually abandon this spirit. Not that we must abjure learning and civilization, and with them genuine moral sentiments, to replunge our- selves into the depths of barbarism : but only follow those ancient principles, Avhich lead to form and sustain the manly character by exer- cise and well managed hardening, instead of curtailing our natural strength and greatness of mind, and melting them down with sensi- bility. I shall conclude this chapter Avith the words of Soemmering : * how many plants are de- prived of the greater part of their essential perfection by cultivation ! The forced super- ficial splendour and beauty destroys the tran- sitory flower, and frequently depraAres or dimin- ishes the most important end of the blossom, the poAver of propagation, together with the energies of the Avhole plant.' How frequently do we cultivate the under- standing to the detriment of all the active pow- ers of man! [ 87 ] CHAP. III. ALL THE MEANS, THAT HAVE HITHERTO BEEN EMPLOYED AGAINST THESE CONSE- QUENCES OF EFFEMINACY, ARE INSUFFI- CIENT. WHEN prejudices are consolidated by time, repeated efforts are required to destroy them. When privileged by fashion, and the consent of ages; when the taste of a nation approves and supports them; let them be pro- scribed by the Avisest of men, whether his name be Tissot or Frank, Locke or Rousseau, few Avill dare arm to attack them. Their country, and their townsmen point the finger at them, and zealously engage as partisans in the cause of their prejudices. Men advance, therefore, but feebly to the charge: they write, and leave those, Avho may think proper, to act. The consequences of our effeminate edu- cation briefly noticed in the preceding chap- ter have long been the rocks, on which the hap- piness of thousands has split. The more in- telligent part of the nation has become aAvare of them; and the wish to remove them has been expressed Avith an ardour, from Avhich much may be hoped, as the attempts to im- 88 MEANS HITHERTO ADOPTED prove education are groAvn far more common. Not the teachers of youth alone, but the most celebrated physicians, have for some time urg- ed the necessity of a complete reform in the physical department of education: but in the country, in towns, and in all ancient scholas- tic establishments, time has reduced the pre- judice in favour of an effeminate mode of edu- cation sacred; in die palaces of the great, and in the apartments of their little imitators, fa- shion has taken it under protection: at uni- versities, and in the studies of men of letters, learning has united Avith fashion to erect it an, asylum. Hence the exhortations of those great men have remained a dead letter, with- out being followed in practice; so that a com- plete reform in physicial education must take place, before we can alienate our youth from the spiritof the age, and fashion them to great- er manliness and health. Every thing purposely done hitherto, to at- tain this, therefore, or that has accidentally served to render the progress of luxury and effeminacy in our generation less easy, may he reckoned up without difficulty. Since the appearance of the modern mode of education, as it has been called, but Avhich the learned know may be found in Plato and INSUFFICIENT FOR THE EVIL. 89 other Greeks; since the promulgation of the principles of Locke, Rousseau, Basedow, and Salzmann; * the night of monastic education, as every one knows, has gradually dispersed. Even princes have taken an active part in it. Many daughters have been produced by the mother school at Dessau; many ancient insti- tutions have been reformed; and private edu- cation has assumed a very different aspect. These highly valuable steps deserve all ac- knoAvledgement. If they be thoroughly ex- amined, however, it will appear, that they are almost wholly turned to the cultivation of the mind; to better methods of instruction from the a, b, c, to trigonometry, to im- provement of the mental faculties, to better moral instruction; but the poor body is near- ly forgotten. This I must render somewhat more clear. Our private education is improved. Men wish to begin it even before the birth; the treatment of infants is more rational; children are more inured to the open air, and change o * It is to be observed, the name of Salzmann is not in the title page of the original of this work, though there is no doubt of its be- ing written by him: for his name was subjoined to the advertisements in which it was announced, and in the title he calls himself Gutmuth% Erxieher xu Schmepfenthal, • Meanwell, Schoolmaster at Schnepfen- thal,' the place where Salzmann keeps a school. T. 90 MEANS HITHERTO ADOPTED of weather; their clothing is much more simple; their diet is more wholesome; even the rendering the body hardy is spoken of as necessary. All this is very true; but, alasi the better principles of education are adopted only in very few enlightened families; and, upon the whole, the physical treatment of children is not a whit better, than it was twen* ty years ago and upwards. Here the sounder maxims have never once set the old womanish prejudices in fermenta- tion; and our barbarous tenderness still thinks nothing of the fearful fact, that half of all who are born die before the tenth year.* 1 Plenty of open air, exercise, and sleep; plain diet, no wine or strong drink, and very little or no physic; not too warm and strait clothing; especially the head and feet kept cold, and the feet often used to cold water and exposed to wet.'f Those are Locke's excellent rules for the treatment of children: but where is the house, * The reader will pardon me the repetition of this fact. It is a Very striking proof of the assertions, that our physical education, to- gether with our manner of living, is bad; and that our care for the bodily welfare of our fellow creatures consists mostly in words. I shall here add, from Dr. Black, that, in great cities, half die be- fore the third year. + Locke on Education, §• 3c INSUFFICIENT FOR THE EVIL 91 in which you will find them applied to their full extent, plenty of sleep alone excepted? Many of our private tutors are unacquaint- ed with what pertains to physical education : and all nearly without exception, are the mere executors of the parents' will. They have only to see, that their pupils do not sleep too long, or eat too much; that occasionally they take what is called exercise, and receive no in- jury. Adequate bodily exercises never en- ter into consideration. I have already ex- pressed my opinion of riding and dancing and ef the less common fencing and funambulation, in another place. Many parents allow their children to be instructed in mechanical occu- pations : and this is highly commendable, but is not alone sufficient, to accomplish all that should be expected with regard to form- ing the body. If it be true that the lower classes perpe- tually imitate the higher, people of fashion may do great good by their example. The courtier educates his children, as far as he ean, after the modtl of the prince; the noble- man, after that of the courtier; and so on. All follow those before them, as much as cir- cumstances allow. How great would be the benefit, were wisdom always displayed in the 92 MEANS HITHERTO ADOPTED higher classes! The man of understanding alone proceeds on his own way, when he ob- serves folly above him. But it is long since the loAver classes had much of good to imitate, and the results of their imitation have been, effeminacy and weakness of nerves. Not to be unjust, however, it must be confessed, that modern times afford a better prospect, as a sounder education begins here and there to display itself in the decending chain. The improvements of our great public schools deserve much praise: but they are con- fined to the methods of teaching neAv scien- ces, more regard to health in the construction of the appropriate edifices, and greater econo- my of expense.* As they are fundamental- ly seminaries of learning, we cannot with jus- tice require more from them. Others, which ought to be establishments for education in the most comprehensive sense, as the scho- lars are entirely left to them, do with regard to bodily improvement—nothing: a few of them only excepted, and these far from suffi- cient. They feed their pupils, comb their hair, let them sleep, and suffer them to grow effemi- nate, exactly in the way that has been pursued * The reader must remember, that the author speaks of the schools of Germatny. T. INSUFFICIENT FOR THE EVIL. 93 for ages. I refrain from entering into the parti- culars of this wretched routine, which has been sufficiently exposed in various publications. The same observations apply to our smaller schools, so that all the means adopted for the advantage of the body in these public institu- tions are reducible at most to the greater pu- rity of the air in them. Very feAv schools employ their pupils even in mechanical la- bours : though it is easy to see, as has been observed, that something more than a notion of mechanic dexterity is requisite to the per- fection of the body. What is of far more im* portance, many excellent schoolmasters in- struct their scholars in the mechanism of the human frame, and the means of its preser- vation: when this is done in boarding schools, if the practice be neglected, AArhile the theory is inculcated, the neglect is so much the more reprehensible. Of late days some institutions have arisen under the appellation of schools of industry, in which the pupils not only receive learning, but are taught some manual occupation. Here it is evident one very melancholy consequence of our effeminate education, indolence, of which I spoke in the preceding chapter, is acknow- ledged, and an attempt to remedy it made: an 94 MEANS HITHERTO ADOPTED attempt, that will not be destitute of success. But if there be other consequences beside in- dolence to avoid, these institutions will be far from sufficient: to accustom youth to earn a living, and to employ their time usefully, is indeed an excellent design; but it would be of still more excellence and importance, to guard them from all the evil consequences that arise from neglect of exercising and im- proving the body, while Ave habituate them to activity. This short view is sufficient, to discover the feAv steps, that have been made toAvard the physical improvement of education, in private families, and public institutions: al- most all the improvements, that have been suggested, lie dormant, properly speaking, in books; a few of them only have been carried into practice in private families, so that they are yet by no means to be considered as form- ing a part of general education. If we put into the balance with these the retrograde steps made; as the universal introduction of warm drinks; the general rejection of the bath, the use of which Avas once prevalent in all towns, but has been prohibited in modern schools though now at length it recommences to be employed as beneficial and necessary; the far INSUFFICIENT FOR THE EVIL. 95 greater refinement of fashion; and the much earlier imposition of theyoke of scientific know- ledge, and dexterity in the arts, on the necks of our tender youth : it may be questioned, whether this department of education has gain- ed, or not. Even the adoption of particular principles of a better and hardier education in- to a few families is perhaps of more detriment than advantage: as the maxims of effeminacy, that are suffered to subsist with them, very easily produce a conflict, at the expense of the poor youth, and produce mischiefs, which feAv experienced preceptors can remedy, and that with difficulty. When this is the case, prejudice always throAvs the blame of these mischiefs not on the inconsistency of the plan, but on the better principles; and thus the good cause receives more injury than benefit. I noAV come to the accidental causes, that have principally operated to retard the de- cline of the corporal strength and health of the present generation. At the summit of all stands the natural pro- pensity of children to play about in the open air, and thus compensate the mischief receiv- ed in the school. Neither the rod of Orbi- lius, nor the serious admonitions and stripes of parents, can so completely restrain the $6 MEANS HITHERTO ADOPTED brisker circulation of the youthful blood, with the innate activity and desire of exerting poAver, as to convert the temperament of child- hood into that solemn gravity, which the mon- astic mode of education required, as a pre- liminary to entering the courts of learning with due decorum. Naturam expellas furca tamen usque recurret is for the most part true; and here it has been of no small utility, as it has preserved numbers of youth more strong, robust, healthy, active, and virtuous, than could be expected from the plan of their edu«? cation. This has been particularly the case with those of the laboring classes, Avho, part- ly from carelessness, partly from being weary of the too constant presence of their children, and from their continual employment, give themselves little or no concern about them when they return from school. The children of the more polished and idle classes have less liberty, and are commonly confined in the house in the fetters of good breeding. Hence arises, in a great mea* sure, that remarkable difference, in respect to strength, health, and bodily address, observ- ed betAveen the youth of the different classes of people. Indeed, if Ave attend to collateral circumstances, Ave are nearly able to discern in INSUFFICIENT FOR THE EVIL. 97 a child's face, whether his parents have any court or garden to their house. The various occupations, that employ the labouring classes in the open air, constitute another poAverful cause. In these youth are generally engaged from the age of thirteen or fourteen; and in them they find the means of fortifying their health, exercising their bodi- ly poAvers, and acquiring more or less dex- terity in many respects. It is to be lament- ed, hoAvrever, that many are obliged, to per- form labours above their strength.—On the other hand, the sons of all of the superior classes are denied these means of improv- ing their health, and in consequence remaia more feeble. Such of the young nobility as are destined to a military life, indeed, form a small exception; particularly as many of them are educated someAvhat more hardily, either by their parents, or in military academies.— Lastly, leaving all considerations of revenue out of the question, we shall find in the vari- ous customs and excises, though consider- able industry is exerted .to evade them, a poAverful dam against the torrent of luxury and effeminacy, Avhich at least prevents the ha- bitations of the poor from being deluged by it. In many countries the consequences of these 98 MEANS HITHERTO ADOPTED may have been of no small importance: for it is obvious, that a labouring man, Avhile his wages remain the same, can less indulge in articles of luxury in proportion as their price is raised. It appears from what has been said, that the great steps taken in education in modern days, particularly in Germany, have been very partial. The enlargement of the field of v knowledge,-and the greater demands made on those, who dedicate themselves to the arts and sciences, have rendered it necessary to think of better methods of instruction, and to make considerable alterations in the plans pursued in schools. This was one principal ground of improvement in public and private education. But if this very increase of the objects of instruction augmented the dispro- portion alreadly existing betAveen scientific .and physical education, at the expense of both the mental and corporal faculties, it Avas so much the more incumbent on men to think of strengthening the body- In this hoAvever, we have been almost wholly led by the griping hand of prejudice: Ave have ever considered our feebleness and bodily infirmi- ty as the gifts of na'are, our diseases as innate evils, and our vices as che shoots of original INSUFFICIENT FOR THE EVIL. 99 sin: instead of deeming them, what they al- most ahvays are, the consequences of our cor- rupt mode of life and education. It is but too true, that we are much more fond of having recourse to the shop of the apothecary, the magnetising quack, or the panaceas of em- pirics, for preserving our lives, and dispel- ling disease, than dravving nearer to nature, or at least suffering our innocent children, whom a similar fate aAvaits, to draw more near to her, and imbibe health, strength, and lon- gevity, from her breast: it is but too true, that many slaves of luxury, effeminacy, and fashion, consider affected sentimentality as a mark of refined understanding; delicate health and bodily debility, as indications of a mind highly cultivated; womanish softness, as a token of noble descent, and superior educa- tion ; and in short, all these, as no less cer- tain proofs of high birth, than the long nails of the Chinese. It is but too true, that many men of letters cannot conceive of solid learning, unless built on the ruin of the body; that even enlighten- ed parents and tutors think they do enough for the physical department of education, and fol- Ioav completely the modern mode of educa- tion, as it is called, and the directions of the 100 MEANS HITHERTO ADOPTED, &C. wisest physicians, if the child be not suckled by a stranger, eat no pap, be neither sAvath- ed, rocked, put into leading-strings, injured by stays, nor crammed with food; if he breathe pure air, get the small pox by inoculation, drink water, wear short hair, be accustom- ed to moderation in eating, once now and then take a little walk, and be exempted from swallowing preservative medicines, and from the application of the rod. The erroneousness of these opinions is sufficiently obvious. The good included in the last I prize : but a child may be brought up very effeminately with cropped hair, under this philanthrophical education, as it is usu- ally styled; which assuredly is far from suffi- cient, to carry a youth up to that degree of bodily perfection, where health is combined with strength and activity, Avith endurance, courage, and presence of mind, in the true manly character. [ 101 ] CHAP. IV. GYMNASTICS PROPOSED. OBSTACLES. THE consequences of our education and mode of life displayed in the precede ing chapter may be expressed by a single word, softness. Let us harden what has be- come too soft, and firmness, energy, mus- cularity, health, strength, and activity, will again adorn us in their primitive excellence. Our physical education, as I have shoAvn, offers no adequate remedy for this disease of the body and mind. We should never think of employing religious and moral precepts and exhortations against bodily weakness; and can we suppose, that they are sufficient to remove that proneness to inactivity, with its long train of consequences, and that softness of the mind, which are usually founded in the state of the body ? Would it not be better, according to the utmost of our ability, so to edu- cate the young citizen of the world physically, that he may be capable of remaining morally good? If we harden the body more, it will ac- quire more stability, and firmness of nerve; if we exercise it, it will become strong and 102 GYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, active: in this state it will invigorate the mind, it will render it manly, energetic, indefatiga- ble, firm, and courageous ; serenity will be diffussed over it; it will be active as nature; it will never experience the poison of ennui. All this is to be accomplished by educating the body more hardly, and in particular by exercising it. < Mirum est, ut animus agita- tione, motuque corporis excitetur.''* Thus at the end of the polished eighteenth century, I venture to recommend to my con- temporaries, what high antiquity, and un- merited neglect, have rendered novel, careless of the reception it may meet from the plodders in the beaten tract. The voices of many nations, of many tutors, of many great phy- sicians, and, what is still more, of sound reason, are in its favour; and before these folly and fashion must ultimately bow the head. It is inconceivable, how in the long series of ages, during Avhich an acquaintance Avith ancient Greece and Rome has been cultivated, the excellent principles of physical education pursued in those countries, and of course the accounts of their gymnastic exercises, have * * It is wonderful, how much the mind is enlivened by the mo- tion and exercise of the body.' Plin. Secund. Epist. I. 6. AND OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 103 i been read and re-read in every school, and every study, Avithout any thing being intro- duced from them into the education of the day. But men too frequently read words only, not ideas. The experience of many years has convinced me of the great benefit, that accrues to both mind and body from dai- ly exercise: but Ave do not Avant this convic- tion; it is well known, that our youth are educated too tenderly and inactively, that they sit too much, that they cannot uninter- ruptedly pursue mental labour, and that in consequence their bodies likewise must be set in action; that, among a thousand families, scarcely fifty can find occupations for their children, Avhen the school hours are ended; and that of course, this leisure time is for the most part spent idly, or to no useful end. Even in this respect alone bodily exercises are highly useful, nay indispensable. If these be not prepared for children, they will com- monly choose such as are dangerous, or inade- quate to any valuable purpose, if listless idle- ness be not their unfortunate lot. But few parents or masters are acquainted Avith pro- per exercises: assuredly, therefore, & practi- cal guide to such will be a less superfluous work, than the most excellent romance. 104 GYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, Thus then I recommend them, with the most profound conviction of their utility, to all parents, Avho4 earnestly Avish to bring up their children with sound minds in sound bodies. To all private tutors particularly who have the Avelfare.of their pupils at heart. To all schoolmasters, Avho would form the body, as well as the mind, Avhich is so com- pletely inseparable from it. To the whole nation, Avho well deserve to continue worthy of their robust ancestors, and to support and animate the noble and old fashioned honesty of their original character by bodily firmness. To all worthy princes, who deem it their supreme duty, to promote the Aveal of their subjects. The spirit of pious benevolence in found- ing ecclesiastical establishments has vanished in great measure with superstition. Wor- thy men! if you can no longer endure monas- teries, bestoAv your gifts on the youth of your country, found for yourselves a monument like Anaxagoras at Lampsacum, but think not of perpetuating your memory by discour- ses, which the Avinds dissipate, while they lull the hearers to sleep. Do as he did. AND OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 105 When he lay at the point of death, the ma- gistrates of the city came, and asked the cele- brated philosopher, if he had any thing to request: ' yes,' said he; « that every year all your youths may be allowed to keep holiday during the month in which I die.' He did not mean negroes holidays, in which there is less play than work. Every wit or witling possesses the little art of turning things to ridicule. Let him. Tavo great nations, after whose example we have hitherto been so prone to form our- selves, give to gymnastic exercises an im- portance, sufficient to overbalance all the raillery and scorn of the blockhead and the buffoon. These two nations were the Romans and more particularly the Greeks. Excellent people! you have long reposed in the Elysian shades; but the relation be- tween body and mind still subsists; it is eter- nal. Our minds are formed by you; why have we disregarded the precepts you have given us for the preservation and embellish- ment of the body! with you gymnastic exer- cises constituted the principal part of youth- ful education: their objects were hardiness, strength, and dexterity of body, elegance of form, courage, presence of mind in danger, 106 GYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, and patriotism founded thereon. The ap- pointment of public teachers for this purpose paid by the state; the public edifices erected for it in every city of Greece, some of them of Aast extent, and singular magnificence; sufficiently prove the high estimation, in which gymnastics Avere held. In these edi- fices appeared orators and philosophers for the interchange of ideas; youths and men, to gain instruction from them, and to exercise their bodies; athletas, to exhibit their proAvess ; the AAxak and infirm, to strengthen themselves by exercise; young and old, rich and poor, of all ranks and conditions, to see the exerci- ses of the place, to join in them, and to amuse themselves. The public solemnization of these exercises, united Avith those of the mind at the Olympian, Isthmian, Pythian, and Ne- mean games, which Avere far from mere sport sanctified the lofty sentiments of these people, and even their religion. The confluence of people to these festivities exceeds our concep- tion ; nothing like it exists in any modern na- tion; no such joyful assemblage of the mem- bers of a state any longer takes place. Im- portant national events, public festivals, and even the interment of deserving patriots, Avere honored likeAvise with gymnastic games. AND OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 107 The remotest parts of Greece, poured forth their multitudes, repairing by land and sea to the finest provinces of the Pelopon- nesus, the fertile fields of Elis. From Sicily, Italy, Asia Minor, and particularly from the great Peninsula, they flowed to Olympia, to be present at the games, formerly instituted by Hercules, and revived, after a long interval, by Lycurgus and Iphitus. Here kings fre- quently contended Avith citizens for crowns, with Avhich Avere interwoven the profound ve- neration of their compatriots, and immortal fame as Avell as the liberties of their country and of their children, the useful employment of national festivals, the welfare of individu- al families, and every thing good and lovely that Greece could request from her divinities. A man need be no enthusiast, to have his heart SAvell with emotion, when he perceives a crown of pine or olive rouse the youth of a Avhole nation from the soft indolence, Avhich their climate Avas adapted to encourage, emu- lously to contend for the acquisition of strength of body and manliness of mind, instead of sinking into effeminate relaxation. If the ques- tion, whether a government ought to inter- fere in education, deserve an affirmative an- sAver in no other respect, it certainly does at 108 CYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, least in regard to the promotion of public games. The very'preparations of the Eleans for these games announced something great: all the animosities of war were laid by, and no armed band dared to set foot on the sacred ter- ritory. Ten months before the festival, eight judges were chosen from the eight tribes of the province, so that time was given them to study their duty, and even exercise themselves in contests of every species. Small and great burned Avith desire for the daAvn of the* eleventh day of the month hekatombeon, on which the penthemeral festival commenced; and the expression of anticipated delight was more conspicuous in every countenance from month to month, as the day approached, and the competitors flocked together from every region. The spot Avas delightful: religion and na- tional taste had combined to heighten its effect. A spacious sacred grove, surrounded by walls displayed the noblest work s of art. Here was the magnificent temple of Jupiter, construct- ed of white marble, near seventy feet high: and in it sat the exquisite statue of the god, composed of gold and ivory, the crown of its head almost touching the roof. Here too a\ as A.ND OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 109 the temple of Juno, in which the girls of the province, ran races on the festival of the god- dess ; and here were the most beautiful edifi- ces, superb altars, and an immense number of statues of victors in the Olympian games, and columns of alliance, Avith the treaties formed between the Grecian nations engraven on them. The festival commenced in the evening: the numerous altars, adorned with garlands and wreaths of flowers, were besprinkled with the blood of the sacrifices. Thus the gods were worshipped till midnight. This sumi moned all to the course. What an immense multitude gradually overspread the plain! What acclamations and tears of joy saluted the rising sun! The champions assembled; the steeds neighed; the triumphal cars rattled along. The competitors noAV repaired to the sacred grove, and solemnly affirmed the re- gularity of their preparations, in the presence of the eight judges, at the feet of a statue of Jove. They returned: they publicly strip- ped : their bodies were rubbed and anointed. The spectators in the stadium made way on each side. A herald summoned the runners. They appeared: he announced their names, their country: if they were already knoAvn 110 GYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, by former victories, every voice united in repeating the loud acclamations they had before received. The decisive moment ap. proached. Hope and fear displayed them- selves more and more forcibly on the counte- nances of the spectators, here for this favoured countryman, there for that, Avho came for* ward to rejoice and honour his native land by his victory. The trumpets gave the signal: the runners fleAv like lightning to the goal: the eight judges decided the a ictory: the he- rald proclaimed the victor's name, and thour sands of voices repeated the sound. The remainder of the day, as Avell as of the following, was spent in the farther exer. cise of the race. The children imitated the example of those of riper years, as in all the other exercises ; and the youths here imbibed a manly spirit, very different from the sighing sentimentality of our young novel readers. On the following days were exhibited the chariot races; wrestling, with its spurious and savage offspring, boxing; throAving the discus; leap- ing, &c. At length the day of crowning the victors arrived: it Avas the fifth of the grand national festival; a day of triumph for the conquerors, of supreme joy for their fa- milies, of patriotic rapture for their town and AND OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. Ill country, of Avhich Ave have no conception, as few of us have any tie to our paternal soil beyond a house and home, which may easily be found in any other land. Chilo died of joy, Avhen embracing his son as victor on this day; and Diagoras of Rhodes expired his last breath in the crowd, when two of his children, out of filial affection, took from their broAvs the crown they had gained, placed them on their father's head, and thus bore him tri- umphantly on their shoulders through the ap- plauding multitude.—Now say, do rough ex- ercises, and hardiness of body, stifle those tender sentiments, Avhich as civilized men, Ave should never renounce? The festivity began with sacrifices in the consecrated grove. The eight judges then advanced, folloAA^ed by the victors, who, adorn- ed A\ith splendid robes, and bearing palm branches in their hands, moved to the sound of flutes. Their joy bordered on extacy. Attended by the innumerable multitude, they then proceeded to the theatre, where triumphal hymns alternated Avith music, till thfi herald proclaimed the names of the victo- rious candidates for the meed of glory. These then appeared before the chief judge, and re- ceived from his hands the olive crown, pluck- T 112 GYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, ed from a tree behind the temple of Jove, which Avas an object of public veneration, on account of the use to which it Avas appropri- ated. Instantly the voices of all the specta- tors united in the most lively participation of delight, in the applause and admiration of the victors. Thank-offerings, a public feast in the Prytaneum, and dancing, concluded the ceremony: poets and statuaries immortalized- the fame of the conquerors, which fieAV from mouth to mouth, was carried by the specta-.; tors to the remotest provinces, was told by fathers to children, and the uninheritabU^; title of victor was thenceforAvard added to their names. These public games were what chiefly supported the national spirit, preserved the young citizens from effeminacy, inspired them Avith manly sentiments, and formed them in- to heroes. Similar exercises Avere the gene- neral passion of youth; and most families had places appropriated to bodily exercises in their habitations, and at their country seats. Thus should it be in all nations, that would not Avholly sink under the despotic septre of re- finement. Mercurjalis, who Avrote his celebrated work on Gymnastics not for the antiquarian alone, AND OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 113 but, as a physician, to incite his contempo- raries to revive the beneficial exercises of the ancients, as the means of improving the bo- dily strength and health of mankind, expres- ses himself thus: * the ancients had so high an opinion of gymnastics, that Plato and Aris- totle, not to mention others, considered a commonAvealth as defective, in which they were neglected: and, indeed, justly: for if the improvement of the mind ought to be our con- stant aim, and the mind cannot accomplish any thing of Avorth and importance without the aid of the body, assuredly it is incumbent on us, to promote the health and dexterity of the body, that it may be capable of serving the mind, and assisting, instead of impeding its operations. For this reason Plato, in Pro- tagoras, calls him a cripple, who, cultivating his mind alone, suffers his body to languish through sloth and inactivity.'* In this pas- gage is included much important truth : may parents, tutors, and magistrates, at length lay it to heart! Instead of the poetic dreams of the Greeks and Romans, which are less suitable to our religion even than they are to our minds, Avhat prevents us from imitating the arts they R * Hieronymus Mercurialis de Ant Gjimrmstica. Amst. 1672, p. 14. 114 GYMNASTIC3 RECOMMENDED,. really possessed, toSnfuse strength and man- liness both into the minds and bodies of our youth ? This question leads me to an investigation of the obstacles and objections, that may be urg- ed against the practice of gymnastics. Of these the folloAving are the most important; 1. We have noplaces suited to the purpose: where among us are to be found the magnifi- cent edifices of the ancient Gymnasia, Palsestra^ and amphitheatres ? We do not want them ; for the object of gymnastics may be attained, without erecting edifices appropriated to the purpose. Almost all our public schools and academies have spa- cious courts, as Avell as gardens, where bodi- ly exercises may be practised, at least for the present, without any parade, till the people at large are gradually accustomed to the sight: and Avhere no other place offers, there are the open fields. Our villages have the finest pla- ces for the practice of such exercises by the country youth. The requisite implements for the purpose cost very little : they are far from being out of the reach of the ordinary alloAV- ance of pocket money to children at schools. Hoav readily would sensible parents disburse the necessary expences, which are scarcely AND OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 115 Worth mentioning, if the heads of schools, and the government, which ought by all means to encourage gymnastic sports,* would pro- mote the scheme by their recommendation; if sovereigns would favour these salutary exer- cises, and exalt them into national festivals, of which we are in great want! They have some- thing in them so grand and affecting; so much power of operating on the national spirit, guiding the people, inspiring them Avith pa- triosim, exalting their sense of virtue and ho- nour, and diffusing a certain nobleness of mind even among the lowest classes; that they ap- pear to me the grand means of educating a whole nation. Greece and Rome, and very lately France, affords us instances of this. How often have discontents and the spirit of insurrection been quieted by public festivals, in which the people forgot the burdens that op- pressed them ! In modern days, the well-be- loved prince of Dessau has exhibited a proof, that national festivities may be made a valua- ble though neglected instrument of popular education. Near Worlitz is a plain of great extent. On one side the view is terminated by a beau- tiful wood : on the other by the town, where * Frank's medical police. 116 GYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, friendly poplars equally shade the humble cot- tage and the pavilion of the prince. It is an affecting sight, on the twenty-fourth of Sep- tember, to behold the conflux of the people, and the Olympic games as it were again reviv- ed. The ground is nearly level. No hill ob- structs the view: but an artificial mount rises on the one side, and supports a kind of tem- ple surmounted by a dome, the upper part of which forms a circular hall, while the base constitutes the cemetery of the prince's fa- mily ! How elegantly has the worthy prince here combined the serious thoughts of death with the delights of life; leaving to the contem- plative mind the tranquil pleasure of uniting. both in one sentiment of felicity ! Cypresses and lofty poplars surround the peaceful mausoleum; and a winding stair-case leads to the entrance of the hail. The morning appears: the people gradual- ly flock to the plain : from every side music announces the approach of the joyous villa- ges : the inhabitants of the metropolis hasten to join them: strangers mix with the crowd: while the good prince and his consort unmis- trusting join in the company of their beloved subjects. AND OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 117 Ten maidens, from ten villages annually nominated, who are adjudged by the fathers of families in each to be the most deserving for their industry, probity, and virtue, and seated at a festive table, on this the birth day of their noble princess, by Avhose hands they are crowned, and by whom they are clothed. Each receives as a doAATy 150 rix dollars, [£.25,] with a wedding garment. To day they more especially enjoy the favour of the good and beloved mother of their country : but the other young people of the villages are not forgotten. A course is opened round the hill. Thousands of spectators form its boun- dary. Boys and girls, youths and maidens, in turn strive to gain the victory in the race ; and the conquerors are rewarded for their ju- venile exertions by hats, and little ornaments of dress, which the prince distributes with his own hands. Soon the more robust males of the villages mount their horses, and con- tend for similar prizes. The multitude, va- riously grouped in tents and arbours, is noAV refreshed by a rural meal, to the pleasures of which the good prince contributes all in his power. Music and acclamations resound from every quarter, into which the place is divided for the races of the different villagers. When 118 GYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, this is ended, the dance begins, and continues till the close of day. An illumination of the building and the trees frequently concludes the festival; and an appointed signal reminds the delighted people, that it is time to retire. How blissful is such a day ! The youth expect it with eagerness ; they exercise their corporal faculties in preparation for it; it ani- mates their love to their country, Avhich re- quires not labour and submission alone, but gratifies them Avith pleasures : and to their prince, who gives a proof on this day, that his good subjects are dear to him, and that he is not unmindful of them in his palace. Sovereigns, what a pleasing method of leading and gaining the love of a Avhole peo- ple ! how important, and Iioav much to be re- commended, in an age of revolutions! 2. Want of teachers. It must be confes- sed, that Ave are not without books, which treat of the gymnastics of the ancients: but these give only general historical accounts of them, without any practical instructions for their performance; great part of them has been little considered even by men of learn- ing ; and at bottom, I am persuaded by my own experience, a practical trial of the ac- counts given Aviil always prove the best com- AND OBJECTIONS ANSAVERED. 119 mentary on them. Without becoming the pa- negyrist of what I have done myself, I may venture to affirm, that the descriptions of gymnastic exercises given in the second part of this work are more full and practical, than are elseAvhere to be found either in any an- cient or modern Avriter. I trust they will be found sufficient to supply the beginner with every necessary instruction for carrying them into practice. But Avho will voluntarily undertake the business ? The private tutor is urgecl to it by the most pressing necessity—the Avant of oc- cupation for his pupils, a A\earisome grievance both to them, and to himself. Hoav can this be more effectually and salutarily removed, than by bodily exercises ? Surely not by read- ing, or playing at cards both of which are too frequently injurious, as every man of under- standing knoAvs. If he reside in the country, what excellent opportunities do the plain and the Avood afford him for various exercises of the body ! in these he enjoys unobjectionable means of attaching his pupils to him, A\hile he recalls the years of his own youth, and mixes in their innocent sports. In cities, and public schools, the business is not so easy. Of this I shall say more in another place. That a certain pride lies in , 120 GYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, our AA-ay, is true; though there are many men, on whose hearts are deeply engraven the words : let us do good without ceasing. Yet who can undertake the business ? Of the .ability there is no doubt. All private tu- tors are of an age, in which the capability for such exercises still remains, and the incli- nation to them exists, or can easily be excited. In almost all schools there are young men of the like stamp. Let me add, that this would completely remedy the destructive effect, which their sedentary way of life has on their oavti health. On this head I shall subjoin the following passage from Frank's Medical Po- lice, Vol. II. p. 629. * In all cities, which are the native seats of inactive life, either the masters of the lower schools should accom- pany all their scholars, without exception, in- to the open field, regulate their sports, and superintend their exercises; or, which I would rather advise, a particular master of gymnas- tics should be appointed, who should have the sole charge of the exercises of youth. With regard to the health of children at school, the the office of such a master would assuredly be of inferior importance to none, that the good of the state demands, in places where the children of a very numerous class of citi- zens are brought-up at great expense, to be, AND OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 121 m - for the most part, infirm beings, and useful but for a short period of life.' 3. Want of time. For what is useful, and necessary we must find time; it is our duty. These four words are a sufficient answer to the whole objection. But I know not what pretence there can be for urging this want of time. In the first place, it is scarcely neces- sary to say, that children cannot do Avithout recreation. If it be admitted, then, that the cultivation of their minds ought to be the prin- cipal object, against A\diich however much may be urged, it would still be true, that 'the exercise of the body, and that of the mind, always serve as relaxations to each other,'* even if Rousseau had not considered this as the grand secret of education. Is it not more judicious, therefore, to ad- mit these bodily exercises and recreations in- to the system of education, than to leave them to the caprice of children ? If we set proper bounds to late sleeping in a morning, read- ing of novels, playing of cards, visiting the threatre, which is a place little calculated for youth, long meals, and a thousand other me- thods of idling aAvay the hours, in which our youth consume a large portion of their most s * Emilius. 152 GYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, valuable years, we shall have ample time for improving the corporal faculties. I say this chiefly with a view to the elder part of our youth; but with children under the age of eight, if we wrould not counteract nature's ex- ertions for the perfectioning of their bodies, we must not make the cultivation of the mind, the principal object. ' There is not, perhaps, a greater and more reprehensible mistake in education, than the raging propensity of com- pelling children to extraordinary (mental) edu- cation, and exacting from them a rapid pro- . gress : this is a grave both of their health and • '* their talents: and, notwithstanding all that has been said against it by men of great abilities, who have attacked it with more force than suc- cess, it is still by far too common.'* This age, I shall repeat with Tissot, is designed for bodily exercise, which strengthens the frame, and not for study, Avhich enfeebles it, and checks the growth. O ye parents, lay to heart this discourse in favour of innocent creatures, whom nature, relying on your affection, has delivered into your hands; who are your own flesh and blood; and who, Avith amiable simplicity, in great measure depend on you for their desti^ Y * T]ssot on the health of men of letters. €* *' AND OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 123 ny! ' Love childhood: encourage its sports, its pleasures, its amiable instinct. Which of you have not sometimes regretted that age, when the mouth is ever decked with smiles, and the mind continually at peace?'* Even the innocent sports of children will promote the developement of the mind, by excrcisi n and strengthening the organs with- out Avhich the act of thinking is impractica- ble : and they lay the foundation of that har- mony between the corporal and mental facul- ties, from which probably arises what we term a sound understanding. Children will remain more apt for instruction, if we do not break the spring of their capacity for it by too early over straining: nay they may enjoy it perpetually, if we have but the art of inter- mixing it with their bodily exercises. 4. Ridicule. It is true, that the singularity of gymnastic exercises would in some places attract the notice, and might excite laughter; but if this may be deemed a sufficient reason for neglecting Avhat our reason approves, as proper to be done, we must relinquish every improvement in the least striking for its novelty. * Whatever people may say or do,' says Stuve on this very subject, * no man of * Emilius. 124 GYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, probity should suffer himself to be deterred from the direct road to a great and important end. An intelligent schoolmaster will un- doubtedly encourage his scholars, both by precept and example, in every thing that respects the care of the body, from a sense of duty.'* In fact, the manner in which Ave set about it may be so ordered, as to take off much of the glare of novelty. This is very easy, if Ave begin with exercises, that are already well knoAvn, and gradually proceed to the more uncommon, at the same time familiarising men's minds with the object of bodily ex- ercises. When gymnasiasts, Avhose beards were already growrn, began to amuse them- selves in a public part of my native toAvn with playing at fives, or Avithout the gates at foot- ball, no one saAV any thing ridiculous in it: the passers by stood still, and expressed the pleasure they took in beholding the recreati- ons of youth. Hoav easily may we proceed from these to the proper gymnastic exercises, in almost every town and village! This I believe to be the best mode of in- troducing what is certainly much to be wish* '* Stuve Zier das Schnltx-K*n, ' on the man^em; nt of Schools,' ANB OBJICflONS ANSWERED. 125 ed among youth. Those who are already grown up we may excuse: waiting for the rise of another generation, and the adoption of an improved care for the general health, which shall accomplish the wish of the Avorthy * Frank, Avho observes, that * gymnastic sports deserve to be promoted in every possible way by a good police;' and acceding to the follow- ing sentiments of this friend of human kind: * the welfare of a great town is but half con- sulted, Avhen theatres and concerts are open to the inhabitants, if no opportunity for bodily exercises be afforded them. The gymnastic sports just mentioned, indeed,' he had been speaking of some practised in Per- sia, ' Avould not be perfectly suited to our * country: but to me it appears very irrational, to require Spanish gravity in a place, where we ought merely to consult Avhat is agreeable to the body, and Avhere no sport is too puerile, or too mean, Avhich is capable of rendering useful members of the state fit for new exer- tions for the welfare of their felloAv citi- zens.'* 5. Danger. This seems to be inseparable from gymnastic exercises: but long experi- ence has convinced me, that it merely seems * System of Medical Police. 126 GYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, so. For seven years I have been in the habit of seeing a considerable number of children and youths, weak and strong, little and big, awkward and expert, almost daily engaged in gymnastic exercises, from the lowest degree to the highest and apparently perilous, and to this day not one of them has received any in- jury. This is a stronger argument than any reasoning upon the subject. In the course of the following work I shall occasionally in- troduce every necessary precaution. With womanish fears I shall not endeavour to con- tend; for why should I labour in vain? these may prohibit running or riding, and even eating or drinking, as they may be attended with danger. But let the timorous parent and tutor reflect, that we cannot always live in our chambers; and that a young man incurs a thousand times more danger, if we send him into the world with a delicate frame, and unpractised limbs, than if Ave gradually form him, as far as we can, to overcome dif- ficulties. A boy ten years old climbed to the sum. mit of a lofty pine, Avhich grew between some blocks of porphyry. The point, being too young, and tender, snapped off. He fell: but hot down. While falling he quickly AND OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 127 caught hold of a branch in his way, and smil- ed as if nothing had happened. What un- daunted presence of mind! would it have been possessed by an unpractised youth? No: but he would not have sought the danger.— True: yet danger would have sought him, and found him the more easily, in proportion as he was tenderly educated. ' You render them delicate and tender, you take them out of their condition of man, into Avhich they Avill one day return in spite of you. To avoid exposing them to a few natural evils, you cre- ate for them evils Avhich nature never intend- ed.'* 6. Alienation from sedentary employments. 1 If much time be spent in bodily exercises, the youth so educated, Avith their robust bo- dies, will not afterwards accommodate them- selves to sedentary occupations, to which, hoAvever, they are frequently destined! they will neglect their business, or incur disease from confinement.' The much, in this objection, should be to@ much; and then, it is evident, it wTould not be altogether without reason. But what avail such misrepresentations? Do Ave wish abso- lutely to debar youth from all mental, or even * En ilius. *$. 128 GYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, sedentary occupations, and employ them wholly in corporal exercises, like the savages of Canada? What rational man Avould desire this ? The true proposition is: make a judi- cious distribution of time, and then there will be enough for the improvement both of body and mind: mental labour will then sufficiently habituate the youth to abstract and sedentary i employment, so that he will be capable of submitting to his future condition as a man: , nay the full health and strength of his body Avill render the exertions of his mind more easy and effective. f On the other hand, it is unquestionably dangerous in a high degree, to habituate youth, through too much sitting, to a certain activity, which begins physically, but ends mo- rally and mentally. It is no easy matter, to exculpate our common mode of education from the charge of this sin, Avhich inclines men more.to enjoy than to act, both mentally ,; and corporally. ' If Ave accustom our youth to genuine ac- tivity, both of body and mind, their minds will hereafter be active in sedentary occupa- tions : and in those hours of recreation, which are indispensable to every condition, they Avill know hoAv to preserve their health, and un- AND OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 129 bend their minds, by bodily exercises and em- ployments; instead of seeking to refresh them- selves after sitting arid mental labour by in- dolent lolling, cards and similar games, or listless sauntering. 7. Rudeness of Mind. It has often been urged, that the cultivation of the strength and faculties of the body, by gymnastic exercises has a pernicious influence on the qualities of the mind, which are thereby rendered in some sort rude and unpolished. This is a very unlucky objection, though it has a philoso- phical appearance, On examining the matter, we find at bot- tom the same kind of reasoning, that has been employed by philosophers, as they style them- selves, with a considerable effect, in defence of the justice of the slave-trade. According to these, anatomical and physiological inves- tigation has shoAvn, that the bodies of negroes have more perfections than ours: noAV, say they, let us subtract these from the sum of their mental qualities, and the remainder will be a mere animal mind, consequently destitute of all capacity for moral sentiment, all free- dom of action, and all perfectibility. Let us however, think more benevolently. We will admit, that the cultivation of the T 130 GYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, mind alone is destructive to the body; and, conversely, that the cultivation of the body alone makes the mind rude. This is iucon- trovertibly true: but does it follow, that Ave should neglect the body, and cultivate the mind alone, at the expense of our health and strength, thus producing in the end Aveak and diseased minds, through the reaction of bodily infirmity? Surely no one will maintain this. 'That man is too learned, who is so at the cost of his health.'* On the other hand, Avill any tutor of sound understanding seek the im- provement of the body alone ? Certainly not. It is astonishing, that such objections should be made. We aim at a perfection, in Avhich there is ■something enchanting: a harmony of mind and body, in which both, equally, sound, equally cnergetic, derive pleasure, not pain, from their connexion. To attain this, a part of the public games, that contributed so much to maintain and promote corporal strength and beauty, to steel the courage, and to produce immortal deeds of heroism, in the most po- lished and enlightened nations of antiquity, must be introduced among us: games to which they were indebted for their powers of mind, * Ttssot. AND OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 131 their poetic genius, the truth and simplicity of their sentiments, the grace which gave ir- resistible attraction to their works. He Avho does not comprehend this truth, and see its connexion, I will boldly affirm, has never rightly observed and studied mankind.'* This is not the place to say more, and therefore I shall conclude with the apt words of Rousseau. 'It is a sad mistake, to sup* pose, that the exercise of the body is injuri- ous to the operations of the mind; as if the tAvo actions ought not to proceed in concert, and one always to be a guide to the other, 'f 8. Strength and address of body, unitedwith courage and fortitude, produce a certain self con- fidence, a propensity to be our own redressors when injured. These qualities in the charac~ ter of a peaceful citizen are useless, and frequent^ ly injurious. This is the last objection I have here to. answer. To me self confidence seems very desirable: it belongs to the manly character: it is one of the most necessary qualities in every em terprize. Take it away, and the mind is crip- pled. It is true, it may degenerate: it may become presumption, it may become foolhar- * Stuve, t Emilius, Book II. 132 GYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, diness: but under Avhat circumstances ?-*- When the understanding is not sound. And is it necessary, that the understanding must be defective, Avhen the body is strong and adroit? All the Avorld will say no. Well then, this certain, that is injudicious selfconfidence is not the consequence of bodily strength, but of defective cultiA'ation of the heart and mind^ The man Avhose limbs are strong and active, and whose mind at the same time is not feeble and degenerate, will employ both to rescue himself and others from danger, and to defend himself when attacked; this is not only just and manful, but it is meritorious : he saves a man to society, and he repels a villain. It is as truly manful to extricate himself from difficulties. Would to God, that every one of my countrymen possessed this self-confi- dence ; it Avould do our nation more honour, than all the exclamations of our sentimental- ists. It is true, this self-succour in cases of injury and trouble is considered in the objec- tion as at variance Avith the laws : but I have already shown, that it depends on a man's un- derstanding, not on his strength and address, whether it shall be employed illegally or not. Admitting however, that strength and ad- dress would lead the expert to knock doAvn AND OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 133 his adversary, instead of appealing to a court of justice: the proceeding would not be com-. mendable; yet, if we examined into the cause, should Ave not find it in the disproportional weakness of his opponent ? I believe wholly so: for where no one is weak, no one is strong; no one will depend more on the force of his muscles than another. At any rate, can it be possible, that a greater disproportion of per- sonal strength should exist either between inr dividuals, or whole classes of men, than in society as a* present constituted, where almost all those, who work in the open air, or at la- borious occupations, are capable of knocking down with ease their opponents of the seden- tary classes, man for man ? This considera- tion renders it obvious, that the gradual im- provement of the body by gymnastic exercises, the advantages of which would be particularly felt by the Aveaker classes, Avould tend to a continual diminution of the inequality, that noAV exists. Let us place the matter in another serious point of view. The object of civil society is the security of property and person. I say nothing for the augmentation of happiness. For this we justly pay taxes, as is, or ought to be universally * known. We unite in so- * Too frequently, however, not in schools. 134 GYMNASTICS RECOMMENDED, cial order, and sacrifice our Avild state of na- tive liberty, and many conveniences, for the sake of justice: but if the government would attack the basis of all our Avell-being, our bo- dily strength, and that fullness of health Avhich is inseparably connected with it, zlsofor the sake of justice, Ave must beg to be excused. For instance, if the government should main- tain, that the Aveal of the state and of the in- dividual Avould not allow any of its members to enjoy his physical powers in full perfection, and to cultivate them, lest a certain self-con- fidence might enable him to assist himself, where he ought to require the aid of the laAV ;. if the state, consequently, would have only feeble and timid subjects, that it might guide them with more ease : this would be more horrible than any restriction of the liberty of the press, which is but an impotent attempt to annihilate the exercise of thinking; it would be an attack on the foundation of all our wel- fare, and the state would deserve ?—But why should I say this ? happily no state can at- tempt it: for if it did, to act consistently, it must prohibit the use of knives, hatchets, and even pokers, for any of these, in a case of emergency, might impart a fearful poAver to the arm of the feeble. [ 135 ] CHAP. V. ON THE USE AND END OF GYMNASTICS. THERE Avas a time Avhen diseases were little knoAvn, when age Avas almost the only infirmity, and death the sole physician. This period Avas not governed by the sceptre of saturn, as the ancients say, but by that of nature : Avhen her sovereignty Avas no longer acknowledged, the golden age fled aAvay, and men began to study physic. Still, hoAvever, it lingers here and there, where the son of na- ture, in a happy climate, reposes after mode- rate labor, in the shade of the bread-fruit-tree; Avhere, blackened by the fervid heat of the solar ray, he cultivates his cassava and rice ; where he pursues for miles the stag and the wild ox, or tends his peaceful herds; on the banks of the Niger and the Mississippi, or on Alpine heights. One revolution only deserves the name of great; the transformation of the active son of nature into a feeble and refined animal: eve- ry other is but child's play to this. Now, af- ter a review of two thousand years, in which the fate of mankind every where, and at all times, exhibits the same consequences of 136 OBJECT AND UTILITY rudeness and refinement, the observer's heart sinks Avithin him, when he compares the two states together, and balances the happiness they produce. In the one scale is the natural man, and the fulness of bodily health, strength, and activity, with few wants, and these easi- ly satisfied : his eye beams with the pleasure of existence : he enjoys the sense of his strength and liberty; and, if any thing press upon him, he has sufficient energy to resist it. Life, Avhile it continues, is to him a source of delight: he never fancifully mounts into the region of Chimeras; he has no conflict with the phantoms of a diseased imagination; and when death at length requires him to re- sign all the gifts of nature, no one takes his departure more cheerfully. In the other scale is the man of refinement, of delicate health and feeble body, with an endless series of Avants, His eye too frequently expresses the bitterness of sorrow, that arises from his si- tuation ; whether real, or imaginary, it mat- ters little. With him nothing goes well; the sense of his weakness torments him; he Avills more than he can perform : he suffers from every pressure, and sinks under it, instead of resisting; and when death comes, he finds his wishes increased. OF GYMNASTIC EXERCISES. 137 In these sketches there is much truth. I am no friend to Arcadian reveries: I know, that the man of nature has to contend with disease, with want, and with the debility of age: but far less, and with much greater suc- cess, than his refined brother, whose actual sufferings are increased by a number of ima- ginary evils, and who, of feebler nerves, is much less able to repel or support them. The former almost uninterruptedly enjoys to old age that charm of life, which we taste only when we are fortunate in our childhood : the latter frequently loses all enjoyment of life with his boyish years, and sinks into the arms of care and trouble. In short, that possesses bodily well being, with mental rudeness; this, infirmity and refinement, with a cultivated mind. I shall not here decide, which of the two enjoys the greater happiness in life : but this is incontrovertible, that, if we unite in our imagination the corporal perfections of the man of nature with the cultivated intellect of the more refined inhabitant of the Avorld, we shall have the most perfect model of the human species; a model, at the contemplation of which the heart beats high. u 138 OBJECT AND UTILITY The union of these is a problem, that has long engaged the attention of men, and has been deemed at one time an impossibility, while at another it has been held very practi- cable. It is unquestionably one of the most important problems in wTiich all the polished part of the human species is interested. Pro- bably this union is not attainable to the height of perfection, as I myself am much inclined to doubt: but will this justify us, in abandon- ing it altogether, and leaving every thing to its OAvn course, Avhich is certainly far from good ? Besides, does not the history of the most admirable nation of antiquity inform us that it has been carried to a very high de- gree ? I Avill deliver in a feAv words my opinion of the manner, in which it is possible : Let man be cultivated as much as may be, and let his natural rudeness be polished aw ay; but never subject him to enervating refinement. It is particularly necessary, to discriminate our Avords with precision, as the things them- selves are so different. Cultivation is not re- finement : this is a tasteful heightening of our sensuality by indulgence ; that, the genuine improvement of the corporal and intellectual man : this, a modish colouring, laid on by the spirit of the age ; that, a real perfectioning of OF GYMNASTIC EXERCISES. 139 our whole being: this weakens our powers; that actually augments them. Is not the idea of weakness included in that of refinement ? ' Certainly,' says Ackermann,* * we should see fewer emaciated persons, fewer unfortu- nates, whom the dissipation of their strength has rendered victims to death, if our manners Avere less refined.' Cultivation gives us women, who dread not a little ram, who superintend their do- mestic economy with spirit, Avho bring up a number of children suckled by themselves, who are no slaves to their toilette, but dress themselves in the good German fashion; wo- men of genuine feelings, of clear and improv- ed understanding, who admire the moon, not as a Avitness to the effusions of their sorrows and commiserations, but because it illumines the night; who have a taste for books com- monly dreaded, but can find entertainment in scarcely any novel, because the |rit is too trite, and the fiction spun out too long: it likewise gives us men, to whom such wives are suitable. Refinement affords us senti- mental, moon-eyed creatures; girls that will kneel doAvn before a withered tree, and be- * On the diseases of the learned. 140 OBJECT AND UTILITY weep the poor thing's fate. * Enough of this: an example shall render the difference more obvious. A second Rousseau goes to America, in order to carry into execution the great pro- blem of education, of which I have been speaking. He takes for its subject a young Huron, or whom you please. He polishes the rude child of nature, exercises his men- tal faculties, forms his heart, employs every means to extend his knowledge, and initiates him into all the science of Europe; at the same time he leaves the completion of his physical education to his situation among the active sons of nature, and his own stomach, that he may become in this respect a genuine, strong, healthy Huron. His education is thus' at length completed, and we have a cultivat- ed man of nature. But if this Rousseau should bring up the young Huron, in an European apartment, protect him against every rude impression of the weather, and every inconvenience of life, feed him with viands artificially prepared, suf- fer him to be tenderly nursed, accustom him • If any one doubt this, I refer him to Frank's Medical Police, III, 792. OF GYMNASTIC EXERCISES. 141 to luxury, enfeeble him by bodily inactivity and the assistance of male and female ser- vants,* and nurture his feelings to the ex- treme of susceptibility ; every one of these proceedings would make a deep impression, would penetrate to the marroAV, the man of nature would vanish, and nothing but a cul- tivated and refined being Avould remain. Let us refine no longer : a thread too finely spun is liable to be torn by a breath of air. But let cultivation in the Avhole extent of the the word, I mean both with regard to body and mind, be the aim of our education. He, who attains this, educates to perfection; he realizes the beautiful image, of Avhich I spoke above, in a higher or lower degree, in pro- portion as he knoAvs how to unite the two branches of education in more or less perfect harmony. Our physical education compared with our intellectual, is too impotent, if I may use the expression. This if we understand by it merely the pure, genuine cultivation of the * I knew an instance of a German boy, twelve years of ago, who could not put on a garment, with which few care to invest them- selves before every eye; who could not go alone, because he waj afraid ; and, who, which I think is saying sufficient, was once order- ed to take rhubarb, because his pale cheek, bjing a little reddened by a kiss from a bearded uncle, gave reason to apprehend, tlut there w_s some acrimony in hit blood. 142 OBJECT AND UTILITY mind, has a preponderance over that; but when Ave consider it as united with refine- ment, as is the case, what must be the event? Iioav shall man approach that ideal perfection, which consists in the harmony of his powers? Let us then give more force and energy to physical education, and labour effectively against what I call refinement: thus harmony between the mind and body will be the sole and true end of gymnastics. This was acknowledged twenty-two cen- turies ago by one of the Avisest of men, by Plato.* May I be permitted to embellish my pages with his sentiments. They are nearly as follows: 'many suppose, that music\ is in- tended to form the mind; gymnastics, the bo- dy alone. To me it appears, that the mind is the sole object of both. He, who pursues gymnastics only, will become hard hearted and untractable: he, who applies himself singly to music, Avill become soft and effeminate. But the softness of the one is the basis of a philo- sophical character; Avhich, if too much encou- raged, degenerates into effeminacy; if cultivat- * De Republica, III, p. 625. f For many readers it may not be superfluous to remark, that the Greeks comprised under the term musk tin whole circle of knowledge and mental acquirements. 0F CYMNASTIC EXERCISES. 143 ed only in a due degree, becomes politeness of manners: the rudeness of the other springs from an ardent and fiery temperament; Avhich if properly managed, Avould produce courage and magnanimity; if too much heated, dege- nerates into harshness and barbarity. Both, therefore, should be cherished in due propor- tion; and then Ave obtain the energetic mind of a Avise and manly character; otherwise Ave have only effeminate voluptuaries, or brutal savages. Let the man of ardent constitution give himself up entirely to music, to the de- lightful soothing of its gentle harmony, and dedicate his life to the voluptous titillation of song; his natural impetuosity will be advan- tageously diminished at first: but if he conti- nue the same course, his mind will grow tor- pid, his strength will languish, and he Avill enervate his Avhole soul. Let the same man addict himself altogether to gymnas- tics, eat and exercise himself, neglect mu- sic and philosophy; his body will groAV stronger, he will become bold and interpid; but will not his mind, thus despising all inter- course Avith the muses, and improved by no science, no meditation, no branch of music, remain feeble and dull ? Behold the foe of sci- ence and the muses! itmornnt and gross, he O O 144 OBJECT AND UTILITY lives Avidiout cultivation, and without man- ners, like a brute beast. Music and gymnas- tics Avere bestoAved on man by sOme deity, not for the improArement of his mind and body, for the advantage the body derives from them is merely incidental, but for the improvement of his mind alone, for the perfectioning of his fortitude and philosophy, for the duly harmo- nizing of these qualities, for the strengthening or softening of them in a just degree. The art- ist, therefore Avho combines music with gym- nastics in the most eligible proportion, and ap- plies them to the mind, is to me the most per- fect and harmonious musician; far beyond him wrho knoAvs Iioav to tune the strings of the lyre.' Thus far the philosophic Plato. And Rousseau must have thought much in the same manner, Avhen he Avrote: ' the grand secret of education is, to contrive, that the exercise of the body and that of the mind may always serve as relaxations to each other.'* Let us now analyse the grand aim of gym- nastics, which no one, either before or since Plato, could possibly reprove, into its sepa- rate parts, and we shall thus have the follow- ing highly desirable qualities, that Ave endea- * Emilius. OF GYMNASTIC EXERCISES. 145 vour by means of gymnastics to attain. 1* Health of body, and unclouded serenity of mind. Nothing, said a philosopher, absolutely nothing can indemnify us for the loss of youthful health and vigour: not wealth, not honours, not learning, not Avisdom,—nay, not the most exalted virtue, not the most di- vine desert. It seems altogether unnecessary to attempt to prove, that bodily motion is necessary to preserve and fortify the health. Our most celebrated physicians agree, that the sourses of health are to be found in pure air, cold water, wholesome and temperate diet, and due bodily exertion. Even infirm adults become healthy and strong, when they apply to these with resolution, perseverance, and cheerful- ness. But Ave may seek in vain throughout the three kingdoms of nature, in all the five quarters of the globe,* for the means of health, if we so completely quit nature's guiding hand, and sink spiritless in the arms of luxury and ease. To this they inevitably x * The German geographers consider New Holland, with all the countries that have lately been discovered in the southern hemis- phere, as a fifth quarter of the globe, apparently with good reason, and give it the name of Australia, T, 146 OBJECT AND UTILITY destine our youth, and render them incapable of a voluntary recourse to these fountains of health, when we accustom them to fear the weather, and restrain them from corporal ex- ertion, which promotes all the functions of the animal machine, gives them firmness and stability, imparts strength to the muscles and ligaments, braces the nerves, renders the cir- culation brisk, and diffuses health and vigour over the whole frame. Every one knoAvs this: but every one does not regard it. I will in- introduce my reader to one of the first phy- sicians of Europe, to the great practitioner Frederic Hoffmann: * ' The support of the body requires not nourishment alone, but the separation of what cannot be converted into blood, and what is daily thrown off from the blood is of this kind. This, according to Sanctorius, amounts to more than is discharg- ed by all the other emunctories. Perspirati- on, then, is the principal way in which this can be effected. Consequently all the means, that are capable of promoting this should be employed; and of these the most natural, and therefore the best, are bodily motion and ex- ercise. Perspiration depends on the circula- - * De Motu Corp. opt. Medidn. * Bodily Exercise the best of Me- dicines.' Or GYMNASTIC EXERCISES. 147 tion of the blood. The skin is the seat of a number of small glands, which secern from the blood the particles that are to be discharged. These particles are conveyed from the glands to the pores of the skin, through which they are expelled from the system. Care must be taken, therefore, that abundance of blood be conveyed to these glands; in order to which its circulation must be promoted. This is accomplished by means of motion, one chief use of which this is. Another is the assist- ing of digestion, the promotion of the appe- tite, the exhilaration and refreshment of body and mind. A third consists in the ex- pulsion of pernicious humours: whence peo- ple, who are accustomed to much exercise, are little troubled with severe diseases, with stone, gout, ague, cachexy, dropsy, orhypo- chondriacism. For, to say the truth, an idle way of life, particularly where but a small portion of fluid is taken into the stomach, is the true parent of all diseases, that arise from an impurity and thickness of the blood, and Iiave obstruction of the internal parts for their basis. On the other hand, nothing in the world is a more certain and efficacious preservative, than a sufficiency of bodily mo- tion. It excels every medicine, that can be 148 OBJECT AND UTILITY recommended for the preservation of health, and prevention of disease; and in this view may justly be called a panacea, as it not only removes the causes of disorders, but is an effectual mean of strengthening the body, and keeping it in a proper tone.' What I just quoted is the substance of the seven paragraphs of Hoffmann's work, and pretty fully exhibits the important and bene- ficial consequences of bodily exercise. If we attain to a sufficient degree a brisk circu- lation of the blood, free perspiration and eli- mination of cacochymical fluids, good diges- tion and appetite, cheerfulness of mind, and refreshment of body, we may hold ourselves completely secure against three fourths of the catalogue of diseases. Beside these effects on health, I shall here touch on another operation in our machine, which it promoted by exercise. This is the secretion of animal fluids, which, derived from the blood, are modified anew by the in* ternal vessels, and then again mingled with the blood. If the internal vessels be in part so fine, that they determine the figure of the particles of the fluids, and consequently so constructed that no fluid can pass them with- out undergoing an improvement, the fluids OF GYMNASTIC EXERCISES. 149 cannot too frequently percolate these passa- ges. Supposing the blood to pervade the whole body when at rest twelve times in an hour, but fifteen or sixteen times when in motion; it necessarily follows, that the quan- tity of secretion in the liver, spleen, brain, and other parts, Avhere such fluids are gene- rated, must be increased in proportion. How beneficial this must be to the human frame may easily be presumed before hand, and is clearly proved from examination of the fatal effects of obstructions in these vessels. Francis Fuller, a celebrated English phy- sician, who had experienced the effects of ex- ercise on himself, particularly notices one of these operations*. He considers it as indu- bitable, that the more a man stirs himself, the more animal spirits are secreted in his brain. And though in consequence of the perspira- tion induced by motion, more in proportion may be lost, than the overplus that is produ- ced in the brain; yet he is of opinion, that 'the blood undergoes a beneficial change from the increased admixture; for the true animal spi- rits,' he adds, * have their office to perform in » Medicinia Gymnastica: or a treatise concerning the power of ex- ercise with respect to the animal ceconomy, and the great necessity ef it in the cure of several distempers. Loudon, 1707, p. 24-284- 150 OBJECT AND UTILITY the blood, before they pass off at the skin, and they are not of that fugitive make as is com- monly supposed. They seem to be intended to contemperate the acrimony of the blood, embrue it with a plastic quality, and may serve to execute other functions beside that of mo- tion. ' Whoever has attended to the effects of cor- poral exercise, and observed the great refresh- ment of mind and body from it, which is not easily to be accounted for by a quickened cir- culation alone, Avill see no reason to doubt the operation just mentioned, or some one simi- lar; whether it consist in a more copious ge- neration, effusion, or movement of the ani- mal spirits, as they are called; or in the acti- vity, excited by motion, of that animal elec- tricity, to which Galvani, Valli, Carminati, and Volta, have called our attention. So much for the effect of exercise on the fluids of the human body. On the solids, its influence is no less important. By means of the invigorated circulation of the fluids, these acquire more vitality and nutrition; for, let the animal spirits be what they may, they are in consequence distributed to the nerves in greater abundance; and the blood, which eve- ry where applies itself to the solids, and thus OF GYMNASTIC EXERCISES. 151 promotes their groAVth, will be capable of effect- ing this important office in a more perfect de- gree, when it is impelled more copiously to every part. The same accelerated circulation will disburden them of all impure juices; and thus, as Lucian observes, gymnastics produce people who are as far from exhibiting an in- dolent pallid lump of fat, as meagerness; who sAveat aAvay all useless flesh, and retain only what imparts force and strength. ' These ex- ercises,' he adds, 'perform the same office to the human frame, as winnowing does to corn; the chaff and impurities are blown away, the pure grain only is left behind*.' It is easy to conceive, that, in consequence of greater in- crease the expulsion of all unsound and slug- gish juices, and more especially the fre- quent tension occurring during exercise, the solids will acquire more strength and elastici- ty. Whoever lies a few days in bed feels him- self weak and giddy: sitting and standing de- stroy the equilibrium of the solid parts ; more violent exercise is necessary to preserve it. What has just been said of the effects of gymnastics is of general importance, being perfectly applicable to adults, though in a far greater degree to groAving youth. To these * Lucian. Anach. sect. 25. 15£» OBJECT AND UTILITY the brisk circulation of all the fluids, the mode- rate and duly proportioned* exercise of all the limbs and muscles, are far more necessary, partly to promote the growth of all parts of the body; more especially to prevent the mus- cles and limbs from growing into disuse, AATicnce arises a stiffness of the machine, ob- servable in many persons who enjoyed not proper exercise in their youth; and lastly, that the groAVth of each limb may continue proportionate to the rest. This proportion- ate growth is in many respects highly con- ducive to health, as well as to symmetry of person. For example, to me it appears in- contestible, that many people have the chest too strait for the lungs, in consequence of their not having been enabled, while growing, to expand this part daily by the forcible respi- ration, which exercise induces; while the lungs in the mean time continuing their pro- per growth, began to form cohesions, or to be compressed in a cavity too narrow for them. Proportionate exercise of all the corporal faculties cannot be so perfectly obtained from any common mechanical employment, as from gymnastics. This one argument, and there are many others, is of itself sufficient to 'top the mouths of those who might say: ' away with gymnastics ! it is enough, if you employ your children m various mechanical labours.' OF GYMNASTIC EXERCISES. 153 Hitherto we have considered gymnastics only as preserving and fortifying the health; but they are certainly capable of restoring it when lost, and strengthening an enfeebled body to an astonishing degree. To this they were more especially applied by the ancient Greeks: their gymnastics, aliptes, iatraliptes, and paedotribae, were at the same time phy- sicians; and Ikkus of Tarentum, and Hero- dicus, are mentioned by Plato* as the in- ventors of gymnastic medicine. Their phar- macy and aetiology were very imperfect; in the whole art of physic they Avere far inferior to us: and yet they treated diseases with great success; for they applied themselves with ex- traordinary diligence to diagnostics, or the knoAvledge of the symptoms of diseases, and called in the aid of corporal exercises, parti- cularly bathing and equitation, by means of which they supplied Avhat was wanting to them in other remedies. Not at that period alone, but even now it may justly be asserted, that the treatment of diseases is imperfect without the exercises; for there are cases, in Avhich it will be abso- lutely necessary, to recur to bodily exercise, as long as nature shall hold on her course. Y * De Republica, Lib. Ill, p. 6zj. 154 OBJECT AND UTILITV Diseases that depend on the solids cannot be removed, unless Ave set the solids in action conformably to nature. Are you rendered weak and miserable by your passions; are your nerves relaxed, and your muscles enfee- bled, by continued indolence, and inactivity of body, by warm drinks, study, and the like? and would you restore yourself by means of internal remedies ? Ridiculous! they Avill be of as much service, as Rubach's prayer for shaking legs. The proceeding differs little from that which has rendered you infirm: it cannot restore vigour to the solids; choose for this a method more consonate to the na- ture of the case: exercise the body; have re- course to the bath. Hear Avhat Fuller says: 'Exercise is to physic, as bandage is to surgery, an assistance, or medium, without which many other administrations, though ever so noble, will not succeed. It is a kind of reserve; but yet of that efficacy, that the thing you most depend upon, though in itself very powerful, may yet receive its derniere puissance from this reserve. And to this it is, that Ave must undoubtedly attribute the Avonderful success, AArhich the ancients had in their curing with such indifferent materials, as their pharmacy afforded them.'* * Medici na gymnastica, p. 67-2S4. OF GYMNASTIC EXERCISES. 155 In fact, this great physician recommends bodily exercise against consumption a spe- cies of dropsy, and hypochondriacism. During a period of eight years, I have seen sixty or seventy boys living here at Sch- nepfenthal, on whose countenances full health Avas almost uninterruptedly visible. Many fresh comers joined the healthy body far from robust; several weak and infirm: and they be- came, frequently in a short time, healthy and strong. Diseases seemed to have taken their flight, except that occasionally a slight transi- ent illness appeared. Go to innumerable fa- milies, Avhere there are five or six children, you will commonly see one or other languish- ing under sickness; and of physic there is no end. The contrast is too great, not to catch the reader's attention. Why were such a con- siderable number of children almost constant- ly in health ? They enjoyed regular and whole- some meals. This was something; but not all. Neither Avas their diet so simple as ma- ny might suppose; nor must the cause be sought in the restriction of quantity; for these young persons usually ate more than is cus- tomary in private houses, because they had better appetites. The situation is healthy, and the Avater Avholesome; but not more so 156 OBJECT AND UTILITY than in many other places. Something, too, might be attributed to their clothing. They were equally as much strangers to caps, hats, furs, waistcoats, worsted stockings, lined shirts, neckcloths and garters; as to feather beds, the place of which was supplied by mat- trasses of straAV or horse hair. All these things unquestionably, had a beneficial effect on them; as well as the attention paid to their health by their foster-fathers: but the ground of it is chiefly to be sought in the daly exer- cising and hardening the body. This it is that pre-eminently strengthens the skin, the muscles, and the nerves; keeps up the circu- lation of the fluids in its due course; fortifies against the Aveather; excites ajmetite; pro- motes digestion; and renders even compound viands innoxious; verifying the proverb, no- thing is poison to the healthy stomach, Serenity of mind is the immediate conse- quence of health of body. Deprive a man of this, and he is at once impoverished, his mind is palsied: to him nature appears a Avilder- ness; the world, a vale of tears: benevolence toward his fellow creatures gradually vanish- es from his heart; the indulgence of affection and the welcome of chearfulness, are strangers to him; his mind is engaged in a perpetual OF GYMNASTIC EXERCISES. 157 conflict Avith melancholy presentiments, and gloomy cares. With it falls the grand pil- lar of his health. But Avhat is to be thought of children, of boys, of youths, in the garb of melancholy, with the forced smile betoken- ing Avoe ? of young men without cheerfulness at an age when all around them should be paradise ? The formation of their minds, their progress in knoAvledge, the moulding of their heart, and the welfare of their body, depend on gaiety and peace.----Enough ! If gym- nastics produced nothing but health, and cheerfulness, assuredly the practice ought to be universally adopted. 2. Hardiness, an improved direction of the passions, and more manly sentiments. The day of our birth introduces us into the midst of dangers, the multifarious opera- tions of the elements, of living beings, of e- vents: we feel them incessantly, as long as Ave exist, and it is not in our power to escape them: it behoves us, therefore, to learn to re- sist them. For this strength and firmness of body and mind are necessary. As not our Avelfare merely, but our very existence here depends on these qualities, they are undoubt- edly the most important, that man can pos- sess. Man was created in his present situa- 158 OBJECT AND UTILITY tion by the deity himself; and can it be sup- posed, that he should not possess from na- ture the capacity for a stability necessary to maintain him in it? Every thing that destroys this capacity is called enervation. What is it that enervates us ? It is softening sensuality, usually called by the gentler name of refined manners, Avhich over-runs the soil of Europe with oriental luxuriance. Every creature strives after what is plea- sing to it. The despot instinct impels the brute to seek as pleasant what it prescribes. Here Ave find rigorous necessity, founded on the structure of the animal machine, as well as on its destination: yet man tames the ele- phant and the beast of prey, and teaches them tricks for amusement; yet he feeds the eagle, the seamew, and the stork with bread alone; the cow, with dried fish: he binds instinct in the chains of habit. Habit, therefore, is pa- ramount to instinct. In man instinct has lit- tle force; every thing that is pleasing to him is rendered so by habit. A young esquimaux, remote from Labra- dor, ate roast beef at an English table: but with what raptures did he behold a seal cut up! Obedient to the impulse of appetite, he ran to it, caught the Avarm oil as it floAved from OF GYMNASTIC EXERCISES. 159 it in both hands, and gulped it down with the exclamation: ' O carry me back to my dear native land, Avhere I may have my bel- lyful of this!' Never perhaps was Avish more ardent: yet assuredly the palate of an Euro- pean Avould have found nothing pleasing in a draught of Avarm seal oil. I knew a boy who used to slide barefoot on the ice. A person having compassion upon him gave him a pair of shoes; but when he Avanted to slide, he pulled them off. Think of a man in boots lined with fur: Hence Ave may deduce the fol- lowing consequences : What is pleasing depends merely on ha- bit, and the modification of our senses is en- tirely its Avork. Accordingly, it is neither barbarous, nor severe, to accustom the young citizen of the Avorld, who has yet no habits, to any thing Ave please; hoAvever repugnant it may be to our feelings, Avhich have acquired an opposite bias. This is confirmed by repeated expe- rience: the train oil of the eskimaux, and the coffee of the European; the tobacco which the sailor cheAvs on either side of his mouth, and the sweatmeats Avhich the little voluptua- ry dissolves on his tongue; the cold ice, and the warm furred boots; the hard bed of the 160 OBJECT AND UTILITY poor, and the eider-doAvn of the rich; the effluvia of the stable, and the perfumes of a lady's chamber; the restless actiArity of the industrious, and the darling repose of the in- dolent: all these are perfectly equal to the senses of man, when he has to accustom him- self to them, if he have not previously imbib- ed an opposite habit. Parents it is your duty to take upon you the guidance of your children's senses, and to conduct them uniformly in that direction, Avhich leads to manliness and strength of mind and body. Gymnastics unquestionably afford no slight means of approaching this end, more nearly than has hitherto been done. They lead the pupil into the open air, Avhere, in the ardour of exercise, he is regardless of rain and Avind, heat and cold;* Avhere he steels * ' I f you would instruct m; farther respecting the object of gymnastics,' says Anacharsis the Scythian to Solon, in Lucian, Met us go yonder into the shade. I confess to you, I cannot support the heat of the sunshine on my bare head; and I left my hat at home, that I might not walk about among you Greeks in a foreign dress. I am astonished, that you, a man in years, do not sweat with the heat like me, that you do not regard it, that you never seek the shade.' ' My dear Anacharsis,' answered Salon in the following words, 4 for this I am indebted to gymnastics, which you hold in such contempt, 0/ f/.ctretiti yctf ktoi wove;, a Avot^ap «•»*« xvCiSHctis, k*i «/ v-retiS-fioi tv Ty>-^a/utfjtef> ta.\at7ru.ftti, tssto vpn -tu ttfAWTitpioi vrafi^a-i Trpot t, saltation : and 2. *•*>», contest. Saltation, again, he further divides into the imitation of the decorous, 0-™/*,*, and of die indecorous, ^m. The first comprehends the warlike, or pyrrhic, the peaceful, and a middle speciesr namely the bacchanalian dance: ^h*'** or ■n-Cpfi^M, tifmmn, and *.«*/p»5»P'o», and Avhich had its particular teachers, ^a^j?/*<>/. 3. Orchestics, «px»w, properly so called; or theatrical saltation. Of palestrics, or the proper gymnastic ex- ercises, five species only Avere reckoned at first, whence they bore the name of the five games, ^vlaS^tv. These were leaping, running, throAV- ing the discus, darting the javelin, and wrest- ling- 'A"a««, 7roef«it«(i)» J'Krxiv, etioula, ir*\»\: Boxing, and probably other exercises were afterwards added, though the name of Pen- tathlon Avas retained. It is very likely too, that this appellation Avas not always under- stood as applying to these five exercises ex- clusively, but to others in their stead; for many of great utility, Avhich Avere pursued in the gymnasium as well as out of it, and several of which I shall notice hereafter, were certainly excluded from the system of gym- nastics only at the beginning. * See Mercurialis de Arte Gymnastica, p 118. 192 qUALITIES, PLACE AND DIVISION These contests of the Pentathlon Avere di- vided into serious and inoffensive, into C*fut and *x«w. Wrestling alone was referred at first to the serious; afterAvards boxing, of later introduction, Avas added; and then the **yKpa'u tv, or wrestling and boxing combined ; the term of inoffensive Avas applied to running, throAving the discus, leaping and jaculation, All these exercises, including those of sal- tation as Avell as the proper gymnastics, Avere modified according to three different purposes. Thus Galen divides the Avhole of gymnastics into the warlike, injurious atbh-tic, and truly medicinal. The last might with equal pro- priety have been termed the pedagogical, as it constituted such an important part of educa- tion among the Greeks. When very severe censures of gymnastics occur in ancient Avri- ters, they relate to athletics alone, which are as little to be defended as modern boxing, or the baiting of animals practised in various parts of Europe. In a fragment of Euripi- des it is said : ' among the thousand evils of Greece the Avorst is the race of athletes.' Galen * applies to their art the epithet of op- * Ad Thrasibulum, c, 36, 37, 46. OF GYMNASTIC EXERCISES,' 193 probrious, and speaks against it in many places with great asperity.f These strictures include at bottom the ob- vious proposition: pursue gymnastic exercises to lengthen life, but do not live solely to pursue gymnastic exercises. The latter was done by the athletes, who, according to Seneca, spent the whole of their days between oil and wine, in anointing their bodies preparatory to the contest, and drinking after it was over. I now proceed to describe the exercises themselves: and first of those that are pro- perly gymnastic. d d + « Undoubtedly every well ordered republic hates and detests this sort of art, which depresses all vital strength and energy, in- ducing no healthy state of the body, &c, L. c. cap. 46. if • ♦''/J '///'' 'yyy/y '/' /yy^yy/////■'//// \ //////fitf/,/ "*^ £EAPI&'G» 105 CHAP. II. LEAPING- LEAPING ranks among the most excellent of the gymnastic exercises: it strengthens and gives elasticity to the feet, legs, knees, thighs, and indeed the whole frame; it braces every muscle, invigorates the courage, incredibly improves the faculty of measuring distances by the eye, and gradu- ally imparts such a command over the bal- ance of the body, as tends greatly to secure us from all hazard of any dangerous fall. In common life, too, where brooks, ditches, and a thousand obstacles, may be passed by a a leap, the art is of no small utility. Our boys Avill not cry, when they come to a rivulet, but jump over it: resolution will make a part of their character, when they are grown up to men. Practice of the ancients. Leaping. &?*; was a gymnastic exercise of the Greeks, and commonly reckoned among the pentathla. It was employed too, probably, as prepara- tory to war. They leaped either without loading the body in any manner: or they held in each hand a leaden weight, fastened to * 196 LEAPING. leathern thong, i\i»P; or sometimes a small, at others a large plate of lead. Occasionally, too, they loaded in this manner the shoulders, the head or the feet. It has been supposed by some, that these weights Avere employed instead of a rope-dancer's pole, to preserve the balance of the body more easily, or ra- ther to give more force to the leap. Argu- ments in support of this opinion are to be found in some ancient Avriters; for they assert, that the athletes could leap better with these weights in their hands, than Avithout them: but surely this was not ahvays their intenti- on; for when they fastened these lumps of lead on their heads, on their shoulders, or to their feet, it must have been unquestionably to render the exercise more difficult, and he was declared victor, Avho could leap best with the greatest load. Probably, too, there was somewhat of a medical purpose in it: the exercise Avas rendered more laborius, to increase the bodily exertion. For the rest, leaping Avas either in height, depth, or length. In the last case, the point from Avhich the leap commenced was called • f***?'- Several leaps Avere taken one after another, and the contest probably Avas, Avho should soonest arrive at the goal, i™*^?*, LEAPING. 197 or beyond it: possibly, too, the leaps were counted, and he won, who advanced farthest in a given number of leaps: [or rather, per- haps, as in the latter case no goal would be necessary, the point was, who should reach the goal in the smallest number of consecutive leaps]. There Avere other kinds of leaping practised, too; as, for instance, the jerking out the feet backAvards; trotting, or hopping Avith changing legs; and leaping on a skin filled Avith wine, and besmeared on the out- side w-ith oil. But to the modern pi actice of leaping, Avhich may be thus divided. I, Without any assistance, but merely by the exertions of the body and limbs: or, II, By means of a long staff, a leaping pole. Each of these may be performed a. in height, b. in depth, c. in length, d. in height and length at the same time, e. in depth and length at the same time. Consequently there are five species of leap- ing. I. a. The leap in height, without a pole. 1. Preparatory exercises. In this leap, the whole weight of the body is to be moved to a height from the ground, which requires 103 LEAFING- energy in the feet, calves of the legs, knees, and thighs To strengthen these, the follow- ing exercises are to be employed. «• Hopping. Let the pupils stand in a line, about a step distance from each other, with the breast advanced, and the palm of each hand placed flat against the hip joint of each thigh. The gymnast gives the Avord of command : prepare ! begin ! and immediately they commence the exercise, which consists in lifting each foot alternately, without stir- ring from the place, and clasping the thighs^ with the hands at the same instance, ail exact- ly keeping time. He who does not accu- rately perform each motion is not master of his exercise. He who quits his ground, does not preserve his posture, or fails in keep- ing time, performs it faultily. The gymnast must attend to all these points. To animate the performance, a prize may be proposed, to be gained by him who holds out longest in performing the exercise exactly. This exer- cise was not knoAvn to the Greeks: they call- ed it w*v. It was frequently practised by the Spartan women. Similar to this is 0. The ballotade. Every thing said of hopping is equally applicable to this : but here, instead of lifting the feet alternately,. LEAPING- w$ tktej are "both raised at once with a quick jerk, so as to -strike against the posteriours. This exercise is far more violent than the preced- ing1- The Greeks gave it the same .appellation Ctf im/**. 9- Hopping an one leg* This very simple exercise ranks among the most violent. To continue it for any time requires great exer- *I5- 212 LEAPING. hands, the right hand at the top, the left some distance below it, as in pi. 1, fig. 2. In leaping, the kit arm supports the weight of the body, the right serves to draAV it up. The leaper t~kc-; a smart run of ten or fifteen steps, in proportion to the height, places the lower pointed end of the pole straight before his feet, neither to the right nor to the left, one or two feet on this side of the bar, gives a good spring from x x with his feet, which he assists by raising himself with his hands, and swings himself to z z, in the curved line y, or, if the pole be of longer dimensions, in the curve o, or p. The leap is represented in fig. 3 by simple lines. The bar is represented by a b, the pole by c d. The hands placed at A A from the fixed point, round Avhich the body of the leaper turns; and this conse- quently comes into all the positions marked with the lines A B, till at length it reaches A C, Avhen the feet again incline dowmvards from C, and come to the ground on the other side of the bar. The face of the leaper is noAV turned towards the place from Avhich he rose; if it be not, the leap is faulty, of which more will be said below. But Avhat becomes of the pole ? Either the leaper, when he begins to sink from the posi- LEAPING. 213 tion A C, lifts it over the bar; or he pushes it back with the right hand, so that it may not fall on the bar; or he does neither of these, but leaves it in its perpendicular po- sition, and, catching hold of it beneath the bar the moment his feet touch the ground, draws it under it. This requires by far the most dexterity. An indifferent leaper cannot pass a bar higher than himself: he may be said to leap Avell, Avho is capable of clearing a bar as high as he can reach with the points of his fingers: but many learn to exceed this. Hence we have a standard for classing the leapers. I have seen many boys and youths leap OArer a bar from two feet and an half to three feet two inches higher than their oavu heads, and one of five feet two inches high clear of a bar eight feet four inches from the ground. Rules for learning and precautions. 1. Beginners must commence Avith leaps of no great height. It is not necessary to make them leap over a given height: it is enough, if the learner raise himself with the pole, and describe a semicircle round it Avith his body. In these trials the teacher must take care, that the leaper always places his pole straight before his feet. 214 LEAPING. 2. In this exercise, in Avhich the body is swung half round the pole, the leaper must not pitch in the direction in which he rose; but he must turn himself round in leaping, so that, Avhen his feet come to the ground, his face must look toAvard the place from Avhich he too'c his rise. This turning a\ ill appear very natura', if you folloAV the movement of the body in idea from x x to z z, in fig. 2. It is likewise of great advantage : for Avhen the body, which will be someAvhat bent, comes to the position A C, fig. 3, the belly will be- downward, and thus the leap is more easy, and th re is less danger of touching the bar, than Aviien ;hat part of the body which bends cat ward is next to the bar, as if the leaper intended to sit down upon it. In consequence c" this ■ irninp;, too, the feet strike the ground Avith much less violence. Practice will render this rule perfjc Jy clear. 3. Almost every thing depends on the lengdi of the pole from the lower point to the left hand being duly proportioned to the height of the leap to be performed. If this part, a b fig. 2, be taken too short, it will be difficult for the leaper to clear the height: if too long, more power must be exerted, than the leap required. I have found, that LEAPING. 215 this part of the pole should be taken from six to twelve inches shorter than the hight of the bar. Thus a height of six feet may be cleared Avhen this part of the pole equals five feet six inches, or only five feet: indeed it may be done if the Avhole length of the pole be scarcely six feet. 4. The run should be ten or twelve steps, beginning gently, and increasing its veloci- ty. The pole should be placed on the ground one or two feet before the bar, according as it is higher or lower. In rising the knees and hips should be bent: when the leaper is at his highest elevation, the whole body should be nearly straight: and he must pitch, as in all kinds of leaping, upon his toes. 5. The pole must not be cut out of a plank, as it would be liable to break; but it must be a single stick, slender and light, but strong. Consequently a young fir is the best for the purpose. The lower end must be sufficiently pointed, and the ground soft enough, to admit of its entering a little Avay into the earth. I and II. b. The leap from a height, with and without a pole. Little is necessary to be said, I apprehend, on the utility of this exercise; which is suffi- ciently evident, when the many occurrences 216 LEAPING. in life, that may acquire it, are recollected. fire may drive us out of a windoAV; an unexpected shock, compel us to leap from a height; horses taking fright may oblige us to seek our safety by jumping out of a carriage. Unaccustomed to such exertions, an arm or leg is frequently broken. I have often seen boys leap down a height of nine feet without injury ; and I have known an unpractised youth fall from a height of three, and break his collar bone. And certainly the most im- portant end of gymnastics is promoted by this- exercise, for it eminently requires courage and presence of mind. The object is, to accomplish the highest leap possible, with the least violence to the body. This depends on the quality of the ground, Avhich ought to be sufficiently soft or springy, and on the management of the body itself. For this purpose a place should be chosen covered to some depth Avith sand, or a soft, moist sod. For the height, a ladder, or a portable set of steps, is sufficient for the expert; but a sandy hillock, on the exercise ground, cut through, and its perpendicular side used to leap from, is preferable. With this the exercise may be begun near the foot of the hillock, and the leaping place gradually LEAPING. 217 advanced nearer and nearer to the summit. Thus the leap may soon be carried to the depth of nine feet or more, and due equili- brium of the body preserved. But Ave do not rest here: if the place be so contriA'ed, that we can lay hold Avith our hands, as in leaping from the lowermost branch of a tree, out of a window, or the like, Ave do this, let the body hang doAvn, and thus gain four or five feet. In leaping doAvn, the body must be bent together a little, in order that the shock may not be communicated in a right line throup-h (| the whole back-bone. For the same reason, the leaper must not pitch upon his heels, but on the balls of the toes. This nearly supplies the want of elasticity in the ground. This kind of leap is much easier with a pole. To slide the hands doA\n the pole during the leap, and thus diminish the height, is an art easily acquired: at the same time the effect of gravitation on the body is very much diminished. One of the most general precautions in gymnastics is: not after meals. Of this I shall speak hereafter: but I must here more particularly urge the caution, never to leap do^n from a height on a full stomach. Parti - g g 218 LEAPING. cular care must be taken of the tongue, too, in this exercise. I and II. c. The leap in length, with and without a pole. This exercise, also, is well adapted to young persons. It stimulates their courage, Avhile it strengthens their muscles, particular- ly those of the legs andthighs, and gives agility to the Avhole frame. For our place of exer- I cise Ave choose soft ground, someAvhat moist, and Avell covered Avith grass, or a sandy soil. We mark the place of the rise {terminus a quo) by a white rod, or some other conspicuous object; and the distance to be attained (ter-*L minus ad quern), by another. The maste^ settles hoAv far they shall be apart, Avhich at .-, first may be five feet. He places the leapers at first a feAv steps from the nearest rod, gra- ' dually increasing the length of the preparatory A run as far as fifteen steps. The pupils leap one after another, till they have all cleared the rods. The master then places the farther rod a foot or tAvo more distant, the leap is repeated, and thus they go on. When the pupils have carried this leap as far as they can, which is commonly to three times the length of the leaper, within half a foot, or a foot,* * An expert youth, five feet high, usually leaped fourteen feet and half, ©r fifteen Let \ ^©r *' :■* • S//f ^^/<-/'/// <*/ //'/, *£_ .V. •XV,- 2317 %\ • * *4< LEAPING. 219 the same exercise may be repeated with a leap- ing pole. The proceeding here is exactly the same as in the higii leap with a pole, only the arc described is made as long as possible. To render this leap more serious, we sometimes repair to the brook, that winds through our play-ground, and leap over it in different parts, from the higher bank to the lower, and from the lower to the higher. As boys are not fond of being Avet through, every one here takes care not to make a false leap. The most expert always begins: the rest emulate him, exert all their power in the pre- paratory run and subsequent leap, and acquire confidence when once they have succeeded. Thus more is accomplished here in general than on dry ground; and I have seen many- boys leap farther than three times their own height.* Lastly Ave have recourse again to the pole. Its length must be someAvhat more than in the high leap, depending on the distance to be cleared, the depth of the water, and height of the banks. TAvelve feet may be a sufficient length. The pole is to be held in the usual manner : the leaper takes a brisk run, set$ * The boy mentiened above, who measured Eve feet, leaped sixteen. £2d LEAPING. his pole a little beyond the middle of the brook, and swings himself in an arc of a large circle to the opposite bank. By pressing the hands upon the pole, you may raise the body so high, as to SAving nearly over the end of the pole. The more this is done, the greater the elegance of the performance. In coming doAvn, it is easy to throw yourself a foot or two forwards, by moderate pressure against the pole with the hands, and thus increase the length of your leap. In this exercise, it is necessary, to measure the distance accurately with the eye, and be pretty well master of the balance of the body, which swings supported on a single point. FeAv learn to draw them- selves up sufficiently with the pole ; but it is practicable, to climb higher on the pole, by means of the hands, during the leap, and thus obtain a greater length of radius. I have had the satisfaction, hoAvever, to see several boys leap a distance, in this manner, nearly equal to four times their height.* Both these leaps, with the pole and Avith- out, may be performed Avithout any run. Without a pole, the feet are placed close toge- * The boy mentioned before has many times cleared one and twenty feet* LEAPING. 221 ther, the body is inclined forward, and the leaper springs aAvay. With the pole the pro- ceeding is the same. Precautions. 1. The ground, on Avhich the preparatory run is taken, must not be slippery: the place from which the leap is made must in particular be firm, and that where the leaps ends must be soft. 2. The leaper pitches chiefly on his heels; as, if he were to pitch on his toes, after a powerful leap, he Avould be in danger of fall- ing on his nose ; but as the body is bent in this leap, the shock is not communicated through it in a straight line. The leaper must accustom himself, likeAvise, not to stop the velocity his body has acquired at once, on the spot where he pitches, by standing still; but rather allow himself to take a feAv gentle springs forward, till the acquired velocity is expended. This can be done, hoAvever, only where the ground will admit. In leaping over a brook it is often impracticable, and in this case the leaper should pitch more on his toes. 3. In this leap, as in all exercises of this kind, it is absolutely necessary, to rise with both feet together, and not to make a ste^ ping jump, in Avhich one foot gees before the 222 LEAPING. other. This is dangerous, and must not by any means be allowed. 4. When this leap is made with the pole, it is not necessary, to SAving the body round, as in the high leap. a. Variety. The leap continued. If Ave Avould imitate the ancients, Ave choose a tolerably long, even course, and mark out the place from which to start. Here the young competitors assemble, and one of them begins. Having placed his feet, close to each other, on the appointed spot, he SAvings his arms backAvards and forwards, his body a little bending, and at the most conve- nient moment springs forward as far as he can. From the place to Avhich he comes he reneAvs his leap, Avithout stopping, and thus he proceeds. All the rest follow him. The goal may be fixed, and in this case he who reaches it Avith the fewest leaps is victor: or it is not fixed, and the prize is obtained by him, Avho advances farthest in a given num- ber of leaps, or by him who takes the greatest number of leaps in succession. In the last case attention must be paid, that a proper ojjree of exertion is made in every leap. This exercise is fatiguing to the muscles of the thighs: fifteen or twenty leaps breathe a LEAPING. 223 person. To bring other muscles into action, this continued leap may be performed back- wards likeAvise. I and II. d and e. The leap in height and length, and in depth and length, at the same time. "»"v All these kinds are only slight variations from the former, but naturally require more exertion, as the difficulty is double. The preparatory run must be executed Avith more force, if you would leap far and high at the same time. For this purpose Ave use the leaping posts mentioned above, with the string, or bar; and perform the leap, either with the pole, or without it. The point of rise is determined of itself, from the nature of the exercise; but that Avhich the leaper is to attain must be marked by a line drawn on the ground, Avhich will determine the length of the leap.* * It appears to me that this rule should be reversed. To pass over a bar of a given height, and reach a given distance beyond it, the leaper must rise a certain distance from the bar, it is true ; but it is equally true, that, if he rise at a given distance from a bar of a given height, and leap over it, he must pitch at a distance beyond it. M.rely as an exercise the different may not be much : but as the principal case, in which such a leap can be of practical utility, im^t he, where a person wants to attain a given height from a givenflB tance, I think that the point of rise should be fixed, and this ancTrTia height of th- bar be the objects ot" the lcaper's attention. Still it would be best, perhaps, to employ both modes occasionally; some- times fixing the point of rise, at others the point to be attained. T. 224 LEAPINC. The leap in depth and length likewise re- quires a brisk run. This belongs to the most violent exercises, and cannot be undertaken Avith safety, unless the ground that receives the leaper be made perfectly soft with hay, straw, or some other material. This leap also may be performed with or Avithout a pole. He who is expert at the preceding exer- cises will know how to perform these advan- tageously. ''''H'/y^/rty/f-y RUNNING. 225 Ch-ap. III. RUNNING. AMONG the means, which nature has bestOAved on animals in general, for the preservation of life, running, says Mercuri- alis", is the most important. Since then it is pointed out to us by nature, it must be in a high degree natural and innocent. It is very singular, therefore, that Ave should apparently do all Ave can, to make our children unlearn the- art of running. Our earliest physical treat- ment of them seems calculated to destroy their aptitude for it; in a little time, it is too often the case, that the boy scarcely dares look as if he Avished to run, we prohibit it so strongly as vulgar: and when he is more grown up, mannerliness steps in, and pro- hibits it altogether. Medical prejudices and our OAvn conArenience contribute likewise their share, and never alloAv our children to ac- quire a faculty, innocent in itself, and neces- sary to every one. It is possible, that a per- son may get a consumption by running; but the fault is not in the exercise, it is in the person himself, who runs without having practised. Negroes and other men in a state 22fJ R U N NI N'G. of nature run daily in pursuit of animals for food, with a degree or facility, at which we are astonished: but they are not more liable to consumption, I believe, on this account, than the beasts that are famed for swiftness. The body of no animal seems better form- ed for running, than that of man. The no- bler parts, which might suffer from an immo- derate influx of blood, are uppermost; and the laws of gravitation itself assist in propelling the runner forward. He has nothing to do, but to strengthen his feet and thighs by prac- tice, and accustom himself to speedy motion, and there is nothing very laborious in the ex- ercise, as I am convinced by unquestionable experience. Indeed, I believe, I may ven- ture to assert from experience, that it is very beneficial to the lungs; and that perhaps there is nothing better, to strengthen the lungs of those who are short-Avinded, than gradually habituating themselves to the exercise of run- ning. ' As soon as young children are expert at Avalking, turning and the like,' says the sagacious Frank, c running races, with proper precautions, is an excellent exercise for them.T In short, the principal objects of this ex- ercise are, to strengthen the low er limbs, and more particularly the lungs. RUNNING. z^- Practice of the ancients. Running, /,»/"«» the most ancient exercise, as Avell as the most natural, was so highly esteemed by theGreeks, that Homer observes, no man could acquire greater fame, than that of being strong in his hands and feet; Plato recommends running not only to men and youths, but to. great boys and girls: Seneca, who expresses his disapprobation of athletics in pretty strong terms in his .fifteenth epistle, notwithstanding recommends running to Lucilius as an exer- cise ; and the olympiads were distinguished by the names of those only, who were vic- tors in the race. The course of the ancients Avas called the stadium, because a stadium, that is 125 paces, about 200 yards, was the measure of its length. The starting point was called «*.™ >»>.frc, &c; the goal, «x.,, r..«c, &c. The ground was covered with sand; and the competitors Avere naked, as was customary in all the gymnastic exercises. They, Avho entered to run from one end of the stadium to the other, were called stadium runners, **Wp«ft<»: others ran from one end '.o the other and back again and consequently the distance of two stadia, whence they were called double stadium runners, «h«^i£s/v, cr.m in plcthro, i. e. in sexta parte stadii, quis prorsum retrorsumque viciifim, idque sa?pr, in utram- RUNNING. 229 Present practice. In the first place w© mark out the course. Two trejs, the dis- tance betAveen which Ave know, are sufficient for our purpose. The length of the ancient stadium Avas 200 yards, and our course may be \he same. The exercise itself may be per- formed in two ways, with a view to speed, or to continuance. I. The contest of speed. When the race is to depend on speed, the master places his pupils, if he wish to exer- cise them all at once, in a line, by the first tree. If they be not all equally expert, he arranges them according to their abilities, and places the weaker a few steps forward, that the stronger may not Avin too easily. All stand still in their places, while he pro- ceeds to the end of the course, a., hence he gives the appointed signal for starting. All strive with incredible eagerness to win the prize, which consists of a slender twig from the last tree. Or, the master arranges the whole line in classes, according to each boy's swiftness in the race, with which he is well acquain- que partem sine flexu cursitans, unoquoque cursu breve quiddam de spatio demit, quoad denique in unico gressu constiterit.' Galun.de Tucnd. San. lib. II. cap. ic. 230 RUNNING. ted. All stand in a row, but only those of one class run at a time, on the signal's be- ing given. Thus equals contend Avith each other. Or, if he be desirous of distinguishing the good runners, and stimulating the bad by a sense of shame, he arranges them according to their tallness, and places all those, that are of the same height, in one class. The signal is given to one class after another, and the aictor rewarded at the end of the race. Hitherto they are only stadiodromes, or runners of a single stadium: by degrees they accustom themselves to the double stadium, running round the second tree, and returning to the first. la time they learn to run over the ground forward and backward more than once. Young people love change: they must be excited to exercise therefore in various Avays; for no one should experience compulsion, every tiling should be done with pleasure. To prevent these exercises from becoming too familiar, the master sometimes exercises his pupils separ-teiy, noting by hio watch the time each takes to run a given distance, and he is declared victor, who runs over the ap- pointed ground in the shortest time. RUNNINC. 231 II. The contest of continuance. This is one of the most violent corporal exercises. Even the Greeks considered their long course, ^<>x»roc» as an arduous task, not to be attempted lightly. All, however, de- pends on advancing by degrees, so as to give the young aspirants that strength in their legs and thighs, which they could never acquire by ing still. Nothing in general can effect this in a manner more conducive to bodily health than long Avalks in winter, w hen the air is pure and bracing, and the cold excites quickness of motion. Let us not deprive our youths of a benefit, which nature gratuitously offers them. I am pursuaded, no season has a more bene- ficial influence on the health than winter. We destroy this by continually indulging in the heated air of our parlours, collect mate- rials for vernal diseases, and then ascribe these to the weather. By walks of this kind Ave have brought boys of eight years old to be able to make a journey of nine miles Avithout resting. We accustom them gradually to Avalk quickly but . for a short time: thus Ave have seen them keep up with us for a quarter of an hour very easily, without being fatigued, orfindmgany 232 RUNNINC. inconvenience: for running is as natural a motion as walking, but we can learn neither, without practising it; so that there are persons, Avho are as much tired by a Avalk of an hour, as Philippides was probably, Avhen he ran from Athens to Sparta, a distance of 120 miles in two days. The master unites these auxiliary exercises Avith those of the course. He permits his pupils, to run round, the two boundary trees, Avith a moderate degree of speed, and thus gradua^y inure themselves to long continued running; but he forces them to nothing, he tempts them with nothing, he rather checks their ardour. On the 19th of September, 1792, I saAV Avith great satisfaction three boys run round our course fourteen times in tAventy minutes. ^Each run round, being accurately measured, was found to extend to 878 feet: the whole run, therefore, was 12,292 feet, or more than tAvo miles and a quarter. In autumn, 1791, 22 boys and youths tried their abilities in the race. -One ran round the course only twice; five, three times; two, four times ; two, five times; two, six . times*; one, seven times; one, ten times; two, eleven times; three, twelve times, that is RUNNING, 2S3 5512 yards, or within a few feet of tAvo miles; in eighteen minutes. The three best per- formed, according to the most accurate rec- koning, as folloAvs: times feet miles minutes. A ran round the course 14, that is 1229a, or more than 2£, in 21 " 15, 13170, or very near 2$, - 22j C - 17, 14926, or more than 2*, - 24$ Let this be compared with the Jox/^o? of the ancient Greeks, a course of 14520 feet at most, if we take it, not for tAAelve stadia, which many suppose it to have been, but, with Suidas, for twenty-four,* and their long races Avill have nothing in them at all incre- dible. It is probable, that they ran Avith far more speed; but on this head Ave have no- thing to afford us any information ; and then they ran naked, which greatly diminished the toil. To ease the minds of all those, Avho may feel any apprehensions on the subject, I shall add, that of all these tAA7enty-two boys, not one ever felt the least unpleasant consequence aris- ing from this exercise ; and that A, B, and C, in particular, wished to run farther, de- * According to Barthelemi, in his travels of Anacharsis, vol. IV, p. 78, the competitors in the race at the celebrated Olympic games ran at most twelve times the length of the course, which was about 605 feet, so that the whole distance they ran was about 7260 feet. « z i 534 RUNNING. clariflg, that they Avere neither tired, nor felt any inconvenience. In this exercise the following rules are all that are necessary to be observed. 1. It should be practised only in cool weather; chiefly in the fall of the year, and in winter. 2. In running races the competitors should strip off all their upper garments immediately before starting, and run Avith bare heads, open breasts, and nothing round the neck. Indeed these parts of the body should ahvays remain uncovered. 3. The runners should put on their clothes again, as soon as the race is ended, and keep themselves in motion by Avalking for some time. Frank advises, to let the runners Avralk back from the goal to the starting post, that they may not cool themselves too quickly. If they have run over the course but once; this is sufficient; but if they have been contending in the race of continuance, they must be kept longer in motion. The determinate course is not ahvays ne- cessary for the race. The master chooses the open plain, uneven sod, hill, vale, and Avo'od: he confines himself to no road, but traverses the wood in a straight line : but he knows the RUNNING. 235 ground well, that he may adhere to his ge- neral purpose, and expose his pupils to no danger. Here the boy exercises his body in a thousand Avays: he acquires strength, agi- lity, health, and the capacity of continued exertion: his mind learns to surmount diffi- culties, with Avhich he could never be famili- arized Avithin doors, and to which, notwith- standing, he may be exposed in his passage through life. I must still repeat, that the best time for this exercise is winter, for which most other exercises in the open air are not ■Adapted. '•Hi: J0- {• . ift.' [ 237 ] CHAP. IV'. JACULATION. THE particular object of jaculation is, to strengthen the hand, arm, shoulder and pectoral muscles; and Avhen it is combined with aiming at a mark, it exercises the eye in forming a judgment of distances in a very goocfand amusing manner. That cases are daily liable to occur, in w hich it may be ne- cessary for self-defence, Is too obvious, to be urged here. History affords us memorable instances of the utility of this exercise, and the degree of perfection, to which it may be carried. Who is unacquainted with the sling of David, and the dexterity of the ancient inhabitants of the Balearic islands? Among the nations of the present day the Patagonians are to be noticed as very expert slingjprs. According to Bougainville and others, their principal wreapon consists of two flint stones, about the size of a two pound cannon ball, bound round Avith leather, and fastened one at each end of a thong six or seven feet in length. These they use on horseback in hunting, and hit their mark Avith them at a distance of three hundred paces Avith great precision. +<*•* M' 258 JACULATION. Among the moderns Frank recommends this exercise in the following Avords. * Throw- ing at a mark, in places Avhere no danger can accrue to passengers or windoAvs, particularly strengthens. the breast and eye: the smallest children are capable of this exercise: &.C.' Jaculation is performed Avith the hand, either immediately, or -mediately, by means of some instrument. Shoctirg belongs to the second class. a. The simplest mode of jaculation is uni- versally known. We throw a stone with the hand through the air, either high, or far, or at a determinate mark. The movement of the arm for this purpose is not easily describ- ed, but every one is sufficiently acquainted with it: it must be remembered, however, that, in order to exercise the muscles of the arm and shoulder, the arm must not be kept stiff, and moved with the hand, in throAving from above fonvards; a manner very common- ly practised by Women and awkward throAvers. To throw far and hi^h, the stone must de- scribe a large. arc of a circle: but in throw- ing at a mark, the master should see, that his pupils only throw point blank, exerting the whole strength of the arm; unless Avhen stones of three or four pounds weight are to JACULATION. 239 bethroAvn in the manner of bombs at a mark. In the latter case the movement of the arm, too, is different, being exactly the same as throAving the discus, of Avhich we shall speak hereafter. This exercise may be rendered interesting in two ways; by varying the mark, and by contending for a prize. Sometimes Ave throAV a point blank at a perpendicular target; sometimes Avith heavy stones, in the manner of bombs, at a horizontal one; some- times at a pot, placed on high; sometimes at a wooden bird, for a prize. At one time we fix the mark*on a height; another time at the bottom of a steep declivity. b. Slinging requires extraordinary caution. I cannot recommend its practice to young per- sons in companies; but it must be so contriv- ed, that one slinger practises by himself, while all the rest are perfectly secure from his throw. This exercise is sufficiently known : every body is acquainted with the mode of making a sling : but in regard to using it, I must observe, that it is ahvays to be swung round the head circularly in an oblique direc- tion, preparatory to the throw. Every other previous movement is erroneous. c. Throwing the dart. This was another of the ancient Grecian exercises. It seems, *40 YACULALION. like shooting a\ ith the bow and arrow, to have been practised in the earliest ages, and to be known wherever men exist. Since the inven- tion of gunpowder, it is true, we have ceased to make use of the dart; but that force of arm, by means of Avhich Ulysses could throAv a dart, as far as a boAv could impel an arrow, is suf- ficiently desirable, to induce us to recom- mend this exercise to youth. A perfectly straight shaft, five or six feet long, or upwards, is to be furnished Avith a thick iron ferrule at one end, and feathered like an arroAV at the other. The weight and thickness must be adapted to the strength of the thrower: the length, to his height. This simple instrument is grasped by the fingers near the middle, so as to be in equilibrium : swayed a feAv times, by moving the arm up and down; and throAvn through the air Avith all the force of the arm and shoulder, seizing the most favourable moment for the purpose, at the appointed mark, Avhich may be a target. No one, except a person that has tried this exercise, can conceive how much it contri- butes to strengthen the limbs. The ancients are said to have fastened a thong, apparently a short one, to the. middle of the dart, in or- der to through it with more force, than by JACULATION, 241 \ising the fingers alone. This thong, how- ever, was fastened, probably, not to the dart, but round the hand, by one end; the other being passed once round the shaft of the dart, so as to hold it fast, and let go at the moment of throAving, as the slinger lets loose one end of his sling. d. The bow has ahvays been too closely allied to the dart, to be forgotton here. The use of it is as much an elegant manly exercise now, as it Avas in the days of Ulysses. I know scarcely any amusement, that has more attrac- tion for a boy. He runs and searches, till he finds an elastic maple bough, bends it, fashions it into a bow, exercises his patience by suffer- ing it to dry properly in the air, stretches a strong cord from one end to the other, and with eagerness tries its elasticity. This an- swers to his wishes. He next cuts an arrow from a piece of deal, about the size of a large quill, and arms it at one end with a leaden ferrule, at the other with two feathers* glued * The old E nglish archers were so expert in the use of the long bow, that perhaps no nation ever exceeded them. Their arrow was fea- thered with three strips from the quill feathers of a goose; two white, the other gray, which served the archer as a mark for rightly placing his arrow A slight groove should be cut in the arrow suffi- cient to let in that part of the stalk of the quill to which the plume adheres. The arrow should be half the length of the bow; the bow, equal in Ungth to the height of the shooter, and tf such a stiffness, k k 242 JACULATION. to it. The little apparatus is noAV ready. Heat or cold, wind or frost, is no longer felt bv him: every thing is forgotten but the high and far flying arrow: he fancies himself a little Tell, and strives Avith his comrades to hit like him an apple, or to cleave the pin of the basket like a Robin flood. Some gra\'e reader, perhaps, will call this trifling. Be it so: yet I must confess, that every sport, which occupies a lad, exercises his faculties and fortifies his health by employing him in the open air, appears to me of impor- tance. If the force of an Ulysses be desira- ble, let us not dispise the means, by which he acquired and exercised it. e. The discus. Practice of the ancients. We find the discus in use so early, as to be frequently mentioned by Homer. Achilles exercised his myrmidons in throwing the discus and the dart. At the sacred srames o performed in public, the discus was reckoned that a strong and expert shooter can barely draw the arrow home to its head. Yew was preferred by the English archers for the bow; and, we are told for t'-.e arrow likewise. The bow string was waxed in the middle, where the notch of the arrow was to be placed, that the arrow might not slip. The shooter wore on his right hand a glove, to sa^e his finders from being cut; and, to defend his left arm from the stroke of the string, he wore on the inside of it, between the wrist and the elbow, a p.ece of smooth leather, called a bracer, fastened by straps, which buckled on the outside. The English Archer drew the arrow to his ear, not to his breast. T. JACULATION. 245 among thepantathla; and other persons, as well as the athletes, exercised Avith it in the gymnasia. 'On the arena,' says Solon to Ana- charsis, in Lucian, * you observed a round piece of brass, in shape resembling a small shield, without strap or handle. On attempt- ing to lift it, you found, that, from its weight and smoothness, it was not easy to hold. They engage in throwing this, some times high in the air, at other times straight before them, striving Avho shall throw it farthest. This exercise gives strength to the shoulder, and muscularity to the arm.' Similar verbal descriptions, which occur in many ancient authors, compared with Avorks of art, Avhich have been preserved to us from antiquity, afford us a pretty clear idea of this gymnastic exercise. The discus, or quoit, Avas made of metal, or stone, and had the form of a lens, that is a glass convex on both sides. Its diameter, as Ave may conclude from the delineations extant, was about a foot; and its thickness, in the centre, three or four inches. Hence the great weight of these masses may be in- ferred : but neither size nor Aveight Avas always the same. This may be concluded from some ancient figures of discobuli, copies of 244 JACULATION. which are to be found in Mercurialis and Potter: and it is obvious, that the tyro in gymnastic exercises would require a much smaller and lighter discus, than the practised athlete. In the centre Ave find a hole; through which, according to Potter, a thong was drawn, by means of which they gave it the proper swing. I do not knoAV on what pas- sages in the ancients he grounds this opinion; but Mercurialis mentions no such thing; and if the discobuli rubbed their hands with earth, to be able to hold the discus the better on account of its smoothness, and if a rotatory motion Avere given to it in hurling, both these circumstances are inconsistent with the use of a thong. The discus was thrown high, or far, or bowled along the ground, or pitched at a cer- tain object on which the AAdiirling discus was to fail. He Avasthe victor, whose discus Avas thrown the highest, or the farthest, or nearest to the mark. The remains of antiquity, that have come doAvn to us, show us the mode in which this exercise was performed. The arm hung doAvn by the side ; the discus rested on the four fingers, Avhich were closed, with their ends pointed upward on the inside of it: the thumb was extended horizontally along JACULATION. 245 the outside: the thrower swung his arm back- wards and forAvards, till he had attained the proper moment for giving it the greatest im- pulse, Avhen he hurled it into the air Avith a rotatory motion. Present practice. Galen admits the discus into medicinal gymnastics, we into scholastic, as a pleasing variety of the exercises of jacu- lation for youth. Quoits of strong, heavy wood, which are easily procured, may suffice for our purpose; and indeed these ponderous masses of metal appear to be adapted only to the well exercised shoulder of a man. In using it Ave imitate the ancients exactly, but without employing any thong; as it is more safe, to throAv simply Avith the hand. If we be desirous of a mark, a stake fixed in the ground, with a small horizontal target on the top of it, is very convenient for the purpose.* * The game of quoits is not uncommon in many parts of England. Our quoit is a circular piece of iron, a little concave on one side, and convex on the other, with a large hole in the centre. Two stakes are driven into the ground, at a distance agreed upon, which is usu- ally such as to require some exertion on the part of the players to throw the quoit so far; and the antagonists, standing by one of the stakes, end.avour to pitch the quoit in such a manner, that, when it falls to the ground, the hole in the centre shall receive the other stake through ir. Another exercise of this kind, much practised by our ancestors, was that of pitching the bar ,■ which consisted in striv- ing who should pitch a heavy bar of iron to the greatest dis- tance. T. 246 JACULATION. It is particularly necessary in this exercise, that the master call the attention of his pupils to the following lines of Martial. ' Splendida cum volitant spartani pondera disci, Este procul pueri, sit semel ilk noccns.' v 4 '■&? , * <,;v,? , ///^y/v'''/ ' '/ '/'"jf////,/ [ 247 ] CHAP. V. WRESTLING. AN aversion to this excellent gym- nastic exercise, a\ hich Tertulian calls a Avork of the Devil, is of very ancient date; as at an early period it began to degenerate into a brutal contest, for the amusement of the spec- tators. According'!}-, the opinions of the ancients respecting it are much divided. Galen reprobates it altogether, and would have it banished from every Avell ordered state.* He was inspector of the gymnastic exercises at Rome, practised them himself, and dislocated his shoulder in the thirty-fifth year of his age. Here he became intimately acquainted with the body of athletes, for Avhom his mind was filled Avith abhorrence; and no one of the ancients has depicted them in such black colours as he has, though un- questionably they had & beneficial influence on the spirit of the people. In general, it is true, they deserved the picture he drew of them; and I perfectly.agree with him, in what he says respecting their mode of wrestling. Yet I think, he ought to have distinguished * Ad Thjasjbulum. Cap. 41. 218 WRESTLING. betAveen the natural exercise itself and its abuse; and have recommended that, Avhile he reprobated this as an object of abhorrence. Clement of Alexandria * held the practice of wrestling in disesteem; yet he recommended its use, when employed only to strengthen the body, and promote health. His vieAv of the subject was more impartial, and therefore more just. It does not follow from the abuse of a thing, that the thing is itself injurious, or to be despised : and if wrestling can be prac- tised in such a manner, as to fortify the health, render the body robust and alert, and inspire courage; if, at the same time, there be no necessity of running into the abuse of it, or giving an improper turn to the charac- ter of youth; it remains a valuable exercise to us also. This my experience confirms; therefore I recommend it Avithout hesitation: I beg only to be understood, as recommend- ing it on the express condition of avoiding its abuse. The utility of Avrestling Avith moderation, and in a proper manner, extends to the whole body. All the limbs are exercised in it, all * Paeclagog. Ill, Cap. i». t WRESTLING. 249 the muscles called into action; the lungs are greatly strengthened, and the circulation powerfully promoted: and if it be true, that Ave should form the minds of youth to pa- tience, firmness, and courage, no exercise is better adapted for the purpose than Avrestling. Practice of the ancients. Wrestling, *«xi w7as a very ancient exercise, and constituted the most important part of the Grecian system of gymnastics. In this, as in several of the gymnastic exercises, men had three different objects in view; they practised it to qualify themselves for the public games, to fit them- selves for the hostile encounters of Avar, or merely to strengthen their bodies, render them alert and hardy, and fortify their health. Thus * the Avarrior and the -athlete Avrestled in a dif- ferent manner from the peaceable citizen, the youth, or the boy. The former carried the exercise to excess: fractured or dislocated limbs, broken necks, and lifeless bodies, Avere not'unfrequently seen in the palaestra, the consequence of this athletic abuse. The latter in general confined themselves within those limits, which common sense prescribes; though it must be confessed, that they too frequently overstepped ,them in the eagerness of imitation. The wrestling of the athletes, $ Ll *% 250 WRESTLING. who commonly adopted the most fattening regimen, that a thick covering of flesh might the better enable them to bear Woavs and falls, was upon the Avhole far from being prac- tised by every one; though the victorious athlete received the applause of the whole nation, and a breach Avas made in the Avails of his natiAre toAvn, to introduce him in tri- umph. These circumstances Avere perfectly in character to a nation, Avhere manhood Avas reckoned every thing, and no value set upon feminine delicacy. If, therefore, the wiser men held up these athletic contests on the one hand as deserving contempt, they recom- mended wrestling with moderation on the other, as a mean of strengthening the limbs and muscles, and augmenting the vital warmth. The ancients made preparations for wrest- ling, Avhich they did not for the other exer- cises. The Avhole body Avas anointed with oil by the aliptes, and rubbed till it was in a glow. This operation had different ob- jects. According to Lucian, it was perform- ed partly to render the body more tough and supple. We inure our bodies, says he, to heat and cold, and then rub them with »il, to give them suppleness; for it would be absurd to suppose, that dead hides may be WRESTLING. 251 made more tough and durable by inunction, and not the living skin. It was intended partly, at the same time, to render the body more slippery. When this was the object, the wrestling took place on slippery ground, co- vered Avith mud. It gave an advantage to him, that endeavoured to shun the grasp of his adversary, Avho had the greater difficulty to keep his hold. At other times, on the contrary, after the body AAas anointed, it Avas rubbed over Avith dust, and the wrestling took place on sandy ground, that there might be less danger of slipping. It may be asked, why, in the latter case, was the body first rendered slippery, and then rubbed over with sand, to counteract this effect? For my part, I am of opinion, that in both cases the oil was employed for a different purpose, namely, to prevent profuse and debilitating perspi* ration.* * The anoitning with oil, and strewing with dusty sand, I find noticed as contradiclory in more places than one; in Hochheimer's Systeme der griechischen Padagogik, 'Grecian System of Education,' for instance. When it is considered, however, that the Greeks had these different purposes in view, the contradiction vanishes, if to escape from the antagonist were the principal object, no sand was employed, and the engagement took place on slippery ground : if to stand firm were the point contested, the combatants were be- strewed with dust, and encountered on the sand. The two kinds are accurately distinguished in Lueian, from whom the opinion here given is deduced. 252 WRELTLlNG. After this preparation the exercise itself commenced. The combatants began Avith handling each other slightly, each pressing or pulling his antagonist backAvards and for- Avards, till they greAV Avarm, then butting him Avith his head, thursting him from his ground, assailing him Avith all his force, wrenching his limbs, shaking him, twisting his neck so as to choak him, lifting him up in his arms, he. This kind of wrestling Avas called *f$i* ***», because it Avas performed standing: and he was declared victor, who threAV his antagonist thrice. Another kind Avas performed on the ground. This Avas called «r*iexivo5r*x». EArery thing Avas practised in this, that Avas in Avrestling erect, as far as the posture would alloAV. The combatants voluntarily lay down, and he Avhose strength Avas first exhausted, lost the victory, which he acknoAvIedged by Avords or by holding up one of his fingers. With wrestling the athletes afterwards united the savage practice of boxing, vvypi*,* which was known before the Trojan Avar. Hence arose the twofold contest, called t^x,.™*, Avhich was pursued to excess by the athletes, but could scarcely be considered as a part of medicinal gymnastics in the schools. No WRESTLING. 253 ancient physician recommends boxing in a medical vieAv. The boxers likeAvise laid great stress on rendering their bodies corpulent, that they might be the better able to bear the bloAvs of their antagonists. At first the clenched fist was unarmed. In time the noble discovery was made, that a man could strike a harder blow, if he held in his fist a ball of stone or metal. This gave rise to the r^/popw'f or battle with balls. But it did not stop here: a thong was tAvisted round the hand, and to this thong was affixed a piece of iron or lead, which enabled the combatants to give each other more violent bloAvs. The art of the contest consisted in the bpxer's beating his antagonist wich skill, till he sunk under his blows, or was obliged to yield. The boxers fought erect, never hugging their antagonist, and throwing him down, but merely striking him : the wrestlers were not allowed to strike : the pancratiast united the two, both wrestling and striking. On this subject I shall descant no farther, as we can derive from it no benefit. Present practice. The weather is fair, the air diffuses the bracing freshness of spring, the youthful spirits move with unwonted viva- city through every nerve and muscle, and here 254 WRESTLING. and there Ave see champions engaging in the mock battle in sport. Boy spontaneously tries his strength with boy, youth Avith youth, totally devoid of animosity, while universal gaiety reigns. What can be more natural than this sort of Avrestling! None but the severest Orbilius would exclaim against it as inde- corous strife. Let such a man be far from youth! with such a man I am not formed to have any intercourse. Could the master haAre his eyes every where, to prevent every trifling dispute, that might arise from this or that accidental cir- cumstance in Avrestling, and could he pair equal Avith equal, nothing more Avould be necessary. But this is not possible in a tolerably nume- rous company of young, lively persons. It is necessary, therefore, to institute a regular contest. He puts the question: Avho Avill Avrestle? Every eye sparkles. *I! I!' If any one refrain from coming forward, he does not urge him, for it should be an affair of pleasure, to exer- cise the body, without embittering the mind. The first pair step forward. The master knoAvs their strength, and considers in silence Avhether they be well matched: if they be not, he will match them better. The appointed WRESTLING. 255 signal is given, and the contest begins. This remains now to be described. I have already said more than once, that our children are to be formed neither into an- cient athletes, nor into modern bullies, but into vigorous youths and men : nothing, therefore, must be admitted into our juvenile contests, but A-vhat tends to strengthen the body, and render the mind courageous, Avith- out being any way detrimental. What I shall describe, therefore, will be no battle in earnest, but a youthful exercise, to which I haAe paid accurate attention for these tAvo years, and found not only free from danger, but highly beneficial. Two persons grasp each other Avith the hands and arms, and each endeavors to throAV his antagonist. The proceeding here is too obvious, for us to spend any time in inquir- ing into the methods of the ancients : our youth are not intended to acquire any emi- nence in the art; theirs will be merely a trial of strength, and natural dexterity, or adroit- ness gradually acquired. The folloAving are the cases, that usually occur in such encounters. 1, One of the parties pushes the other from his ground: 2, lifts him up in his arms : 3, throws him down. 256 WRESTLING. Hence I establish the following three kinds of wrestling. a. The light wrestle. This consists in pushing your opponent before you, Avithout throAving him doAAn. The regular mode of attack is, for each to grasp the other by the arms near the shoulder, and thus to begin push- ing him. In such a position neither has any advantage over the other, provided the ground be level, and of the same nature. This po- sition, hoAvever, is not long maintained : A pushes sidelong against B, and exerts all his strength, to move him from his place, &c. All this comes readily of itself. But he obtains a great advantage over B, if he be able to get behind his back, and then seize him by the arms. In such a case he pushes him before him with ease, and the victory is gained. There are tAvo methods of acquir- ing this advantage : A springs round B with extreme quickness, and seizes him behind ; or he endeavours to give B a sudden swing round, that he may lay hold of him in the same manner. If the parties be nearly equal in point of strength, neither of these is easy; the former requires great agility, the latter great force. The most likely mode of pro- ceeding is to combine the tAvo, and employ them unexpectedly. WRESTLING. ~ 257 b. The half wrestle. «. First species. The chief point here in view is, to take your antagonist in your arms, and lift him as high as possible from the ground. If both parties be vigilant, it is a long time before either is able to do this, as each does all he can, to pre- vent his opponent from grasping him with his arms. The contest usually commences, therefore, Avith the light wrestle before de- scribed; each pushing or pulling the other by the arms, till he finds an opportunity of clos- ing with him, and lifting him from the ground. The most advantageous mode is to seize him behind, and thus hold him fast: seizing him before is much more precarious, as he may then fix his hands against you, bend his body, and so extricate himself, before he is raised up. It is apparently very advantageous to include his arms as well as his body in your grasp, as thus he seems to be menacled; but in this case too he can loose himself with more facility. c. Second species. This is an easy deduc- tion from the former. A voluntarily allows B to grasp him round the middle. B throws both his arms round him, and locks them fast by interlacing his fingers. He is to endeavour to hold A fast, Avhile A strives to escape from v m 258 WRESTLING. his arms. A will effect this most readily, by insinuating his hands and the loAver part of his arms betAveen B's arms and his OAvn body, and forcing B's hands asunder. If A get loose, he is the victor; if he do not, B. This exercise is Avell adapted to strengthen all the muscles, particularly the back.* I cannot sufficiently recommend these too high- ly innocent kinds of Avrestling, a and b: they eminently fulfil the conditions of Avhat we understand by gymnastics, and can be prac- tised Avhere soft ground is wanting. c and d. The complete wrestle, and the re- peated wrestle. Both these have one common object, that of throwing doAvn the antagonist. This may be accomplished in various Avays, which young persons easily find of themselves, so that it is unnecessary to point out any par- ticular proceedings here. Each of these kinds begins much in the same manner as the former two. One en- deavours to grasp the other in his arms, in order to throw him down, while the other is on his guard, to prevent him. Thus they * Galen, de Sanitate tuenda, Lib. II, cap. 9, speaks of this exer- cise as follows. ' Robur partium turn exercct, turn firmat, siquii altcrum, complexus medium, aut etiam ipse medio comprehensus, peainatlm jundtis, manibus, digitisque aut quem complectitur absolvere se jubcat, aut ipse se a complectante sclvau' WRESTLING. 259 continue the struggle, each assailing his anta- gonist, or defending himself, as he sees occa- sion, till one overpowers the other, and throws him doAvn. So far the two kinds here no- ticed together agree; but, from the moment of one being throAvn, they differ in the fol- loAving respects. In the complete wrestle the object is, not to suffer your opponent to rise after he is throAATi, but to keep him doAvn, till it appears, that he cannot gain the upper hand, or till he him- self cries, enough! This is effected in the folloAving Avay. A, the throAver, must en- deavour to confine B Avith his back on the ground : for Avhich purpose he kneels doAvn in such a posture, that B is between his legs and knees, and at the same time he grasps the upper part of B's arms firmly with his hands, pressing them to the ground. B can do very little in such a position: but it is still better for A to kneel doAvn so that B's head shall be betAveen his knees, Avith the croAvn of it toAvard A's feet, confining his arms as above. B, Avho is throAvn doAvn, can do nothing better, then turn upon his belly, raise himself on his hands and knees, and then throAv off his opponent. 260 AVRESTLING. In the repeated wrestle the point to be gained is, to throAv your antagonist tAvice; and it is not necessary to keep him on the ground. e. The compound wrestle is of all the most difficult; as in each of the other kinds Avhat is to be done is fixed, so that either party is aAvare of his opponent's object; but it is not so here, in Avhich all the kind are united. Each of the wrestlers incessantly exerts him- self, to press upon his antagonist, to lift him from the ground, to throw him down, to keep him from rising; while the antagonist is not foreAArarned of his particular object; and consequently must employ double vigilance, presence of mind, adroitness, and force, to defend himself. He Avho first gives out loses the victory. Rules and precautions. 1. The ground should be a soft moist sod; or, which is far better, deep sand. 2. The Avrestlers previously strip off all their superfluous garments; takes every thing hard out of their pockets; and remove all stones, and the like, from the place of con- test. 3. The master takes care beforehand, to excite in his pupils such a temper of mind, as precludes all animosity. Nothing is easier WRESTLING. 261 than this, if he have to do with reasonable boys, enjoys their esteem, and compels no one to this exercise, but admits solely volun- teers. 4. The Avrestlers stand a few steps from each other. Their first encounter, which takes place on an appointed signal, is not hastly, but rather a mere play Avith the hands, endeavouring to obtain the most advantage- ous hold. This rule must be insisted upon strictly, otherwise the Avrestlers will rush on each other with too much violence. 5. No one must be allowed, to lay hold of the clothes merely, still less of the hair of his antagonist; he must seize him fairly round the body, or by the limbs. The head and neck are to be spared as much as possible. Blows of every kind are contrary to the laAvs of this exercise. 6. On the decision of victory the folloAv- ing observations are to be made. In the light wrestle the pushing must be carried so far, that the antagonist is unable to keep his ground. In the half wrestle sl momentary lift- ing from the ground is not sufficient, but the antagonist must be held so fast, that he cannot free himself. To Avhat has been said of the com ■ plete wrestle I have nothing to add. In the re- 262 V R-E S T L I N G . peatecl wrestle the thrower quits his antagonist the moment he is down. After resting for a couple of minutes, the contest is renewed; if he, AATho Avas thrown before, be thrown again, this is decisive; if the odicr, they are equal, and it is left to their own choice, whether they will share the victory, or not. If they will, the contest is terminated; if not, it is renewed. The master, hoAvever, a\ ho knoAvs their strength, their ardour for the sport, and the degree of exertion they have employ- ed, decides Avhether it shall be renewed im- mediately, or deferred to another time. The third trial must determine the point, the vic- tory being his, who has thrown his antagonist twice. 7. lie who throAvs his antagonist, Avithout falling himself, or touching the ground with his hand or knee, is victor at once. 8. It is unnecessary for me to obsenre, that the whole attention of the master must be unremittingly employed. The company standing round in a circle constitutes the the spectators, and also the tribunal of appeal. They give their plaudit; they animate, or reprove the combatants. In contested cases the victory is decided by a plurality of voices. WRESTLING. 263 f. The wrestle for an apple, or a stick. To impart strength to the hand and fingers in particular, for grasping any thing firmly, an apple, or something similar, is held in it by one, A\*hile another endeavours to get it out. This exercise of the fist is very ancient. Milo was eminent for it : he defied any any one, to open his simply clenched fist, or to take out an apple held in it.* If it be desired to exercise the arm at the same time, a smooth, round stick, three, four, or five feet long, is taken instead of an apple. ;■» ' The decison of victory here is obvious. Thus Ave are arrived at the end of the an- cient pentathlon. The exercises, that folioAv, were not all familiar to the ancients, though several of them Avere used in the gymnasia. < These I shall notice, as they occur. * Galen, de tuenda Sanitate, Lib. II. cap. 9. 'Malum punicum, aut tale quippiam, manibus cemplexus, auferendum earns prebebat.' 1 I ■ 'A "■ -JUT CLIMBING- 265 CHAP. VL. CLIMBING. OUR pupil is to acquire muscular vigour, to have strong hands, arms, and legs; standing on a height to feel no giddiness; in perilous situations, on the appearance of danger to retain his presence of mind. A sedentary mode of life, and too intense ex- ertion of our mental faculties, rob us at an early period of these manly qualities. As men, as youths, we are terrified at precipitous .a paths, our heads turn, and we are lost, where in our tender years, ere spoiled by the hand of art, Ave frolicked without thought of dan- ger. If Ave exercise the boy and the youth systematically as far as possible, firmness of nerves, and courageous presence of mind, will become fixed in him; they will accom- pany him to manhood, and, even after a long interruption, they will be unquestionably dis- played by him in a far higher degree, than by the man, Avho was rendered effeminate in his boyish days. To strengthen the body/ortify the cou- rage, and increase the truly useful capacity for escaping from various dangers, in case of fir« n n 266 CLIMBING. particularly, climbing is one of themost advan- tagous exercises: and when it is taught sys- tematically, and by due gradations, it is less dangerous than riding on horseback, or in a carriage. One of the first physicians in Europe, Frank, who is an honor to the German na- tion, recommends this exercise, * The climb- ing of trees and walls tends greatly to pro- mote bodily agility in boys, and through means of this their health. Nature seems origi- nally to have formed man, who has to procure his food from lofty trees, for this exercise in particular: consequently it must be of a certain k degree of utility to our bodies. But were it only, that youth are thus familiarized, under good guidance,with variousdangers,notalways to be avoided in common life, and learn the great art of preserving the balance of the body in all cases, much would be gained by this. For men of the lower class, and the peasantry, the art of climbing is of more extensive utility: by means of it children become habi- tuated at an early age to dangerous situations, and are thus secure from that dizziness, which is often fatal to many on the occurrence of danger. Without this art, the soldier is in many cases incapable of acting; and every CLIMBINC. 267 autumn hundreds break their necks or limbs by falling from trees, whom more exercise in this art would have saved.'* In our place of exercise we look out for a clump of trees. Oaks, beech, and other trees, of different ages, grow here close toge- ther, and overshadow a pleasant little spot. This place we appropriate to the exercise of climbing. 1. Preparatory exercises. Nature has be- stOAved on us very safe and sufficient imple- ments for climbing, in our hands, arms, legs, and thighs. We must begin with strengthen- ing these, before we venture upon the practice of climbing itself. This is effected indeed by various gymnastic exertions ; but the follow- ing exercises have a particular tendency to it, and are highly beneficial, not as preparatory to climbing merely, but as trials of firmness and patience, and exciting contempt of pain. These qualities in a man are highly estima- ble ; and if every exercise described in this book be closely examined, it Avill appear, that most of them have this tendency. But, to notice this particularly in each, Avould carry me too far: neither is it judicious in a writer, to forestal the ideas of his readers too much, * System of medical Police, Vol. II. p. 644. 268 CLIMBINC. * as it affords pleasure to the reflecting mind, to discern more than is expressed. «• Exercise of the hands and arms by suss- pension. Two perpendicular posts are fixed in the ground, twelve or fifteen feet distant from each other. One stands nine feet high; the other only six or seven. See PI. I, fig. 4. A cross-beam, at least ten inches thick, is mortised into the heads of the posts, x x. Its lower edge, b b b, is about four inches broad; its upper, a a a, not more than two inches and half, and rounded, that it may not incom- mode the hands. Under the cross-beam a form is placed, on which the boys, who are to exercise them- selves, stand, the shortest at the loAver end, the tallest at the higher, so^ that all are able to grasp the upper edge of the beam with their hands. Each stands Avith his face toward the lower end of the beam : at an appointed signal all lift up their feet, and the form is removed. Thus they all remain suspended ; supporting their Avhole weight by their arms. This is what every one in climbing should be able to do. The contest here is decided by time, and he Avho holds out longest is declared victor. The burden increases every minute, CLIMBING. 269 and so does the uneasiness of the hands. The face gradually reddens from the exertion. At length one looses his hands, and drops to the ground; then a second; presently a third. The more strong and hardy remain looking down upon them Avith a smile. The expres- sion of manly self command, contempt of pain, and patient perseverance, is highly in- teresting in the countenances of these. The contest continues six or eight minutes : the Aveaker drop ; the victor at length follows them, after having Avon the prize by his per- severance. It is not necessary, to grasp the beam al- Avays Avith one hand on each side : sometimes the hands may be both on the same side of the beam : and when the hands and arms are gradually strengthened by repeated exercise, the master increases the difficulty, by direct- ing the boys to suspend themselves by a single hand only, first by the right, next, and more frequently, by the left. The beam, too, is by and by forsaken for a low branch of a tree, or a rope stretched horizontally. This kind of exercise was not unknoAvn to the ancients. Galen mentions a practice in the gymnasia of grasping a cord, or pole, and remaining sus- 270 CLIMBING. pended from it for some time, as a very robust and fatiguing labour.* Hanging by one arm is a variety of this exercise. The apparatus is the same; but the pupils suspend themselves by the arm alone, by bending the elboAV joint over the beam, without the assistance of the hand. The raising or supporting yourself on both hands is of a different kind, but extreme- ly conducive to strengthening the hands, arms, and shoulders. This will be noticed in the following chapter. £. Exercise of the legs and thighs. The object here is so to grasp a rough stem of a tree, or a smooth pole, of larger or smaller dimensions, with the legs and feet, as to be able to sustain the body at any height, Avith- out the aid of the hands. For this purpose the position of the legs displayed in PI. I, fig. 5, is perfectly adapted; and it is easily learned. Each of the party having chosen his tree, the master gives the Avord of com- mand, ' to your posts !' and all climb a little way up their trees. At the word, 'hands off!' each stretches out his arms as in PI. 6, and keeps himself firm by his legs and feet alone. * ' Si quis, fune arrepto, aut etiam pcrtica, sublimis ex ea pen- deat, ac diu teneat, robustum is vaiidumquc labo.cm exercct.' J>~ SaiKit-Mf tuenJj.y Lib. II. cap. 9.' CLIMBING. 271 When the pupils are capable of perform- ing these preparatory exercises to some degree of perfection, every species of climbing will be incomparably more easy to them. Still these exercises should take their turn after- Avards occasionally, on account of their intrin- sic utility. 2. Climbing itself The apparatus for this purpose consists in a long fixed pole, four inches in diameter; a rope ladder; a slender mast; a rope of the thickness of the thumb; and, for the expert, every tree that occurs. Most of these are united into a mechine, de- lineated in PI. 1, fig. 6. AB AB are two posts, sixteen feet high, or more if you please, firmly fixed in the p-round, ten or twelve feet distant from each other. B B is a cross-beam, resting upon these posts. If you have a couple of trees, at a suitable distance from each other, which will admit a cross-beam to be fixed securely to them at a proper height, each end resting on a stout branch, where it forms a fork with the trunk, the upright posts arc unnecessary. This frame supports our implements: x x is a straight pole, with the bark on it, three or four inches in diameter: z z, a rope ladder, ^ 272 CLIMBING. furnished Avith wooden bars at 1, 2, and 3 : y y is the rope, fastened to the cross-beam by a noose. The figure shows Iioav all these are secured. The mast, of Avhich Ave have spoken above, is fixed separately in the ground. It is fifty or sixty feet high, and plained smooth, the rind being first stripped off. A slender fir is the most convenient for the purpose. Mode of exercising, a. The pupils begin Avith the pole x x ; for, as this is rough, and sufficiently slender to be grasped by the hands, the task of climbing it is most easy. The legs and feet, it must be observed, are to be used in the position represented at fig. 5. Any slender trunk of a tree will answer the purpose of this pole. By degrees the master brings his pupils to thicker poles, which they cannot grasp Avith their hands, and Avhich they must consequently embrace with their arms. In this manner they soon learn to climb trees, Avhich they cannot completely encircle either Avith their arms or legs. £. The mast is far more difficult to climb, as its surface is smooth, and it is insuscepti- ble of being grasped by the hand. This particularly requires expertness in the elemen- tary exercise £ (p. 270.) The practice itself is generally knoAvn, and it is in use as a po- CLIMBING. 273 pular sport in many parts of Europe. A few AAreeks ago one of my pupils climbed up such a mast fifty feet high, and fearlessly held him- self to the top by one arm, while with the opposite hand he plucked off some flowers, that were fastened there, and threw them to his playmates below, upon whom he looked doAvn for some time from the giddy height. You may permit boys to climb a mast of this kind without any fear; for such as haAre not surmounted all danger of giddiness will never ascend too high; and if one who has should find his strength exhausted, he will not fall to the ground, but slide down the mast. y. There is still greater difficulty in ascend- ing the slack rope-ladder, fixed at the top alone. It requires an extraordinary exertion of the hands and arms, for they must support the body, which has a constant tendency to bend backwards; and the continual vacilla- tion, which will certainly daunt the weak and unpractised, and turn their heads giddy, increases the difficulty, and renders this exer- cise one of the most efficacious for our pur- pose.* If the ladder be sufficiently strong, • In the Journal de Fat U for 1791, num. 132. is anextraftofa letter from Petersburg rcspe&ing Russian exercises, in which this practice of mounting a rope-ladder not fixed below is reckoned * sort O O 274 C.L IM BIN G • the master permits two or three to climb up and down it together, by which they learn to pass each other Avith facility. He Avho is coming down hangs by one of the side ropes, till the other has ascended above him. The mode of climbing is obvious enough, being, the same as with a common ladder; only, as the rope-ladder hangs perpendicularly, and is completely pliable in every part, the steps on which the feet rest are pushed forward, and the upper part of the body falls backAvard in an inclined position: thus the weight must be sustained by the hands, and the exercise is rendered so laborious, that it is impossible to assend any considerable height in that way. It is necessary, therefore, to hold fast by each of the side ropes, and keep the body as much as possible, not in a bent position, but ex- tended and upright, the toe pointing at the same time a little downward. «r. Climbing the ladder. This exercise is useful for improving the capacity of preserv- ing the equilibrium of the body, arming against situations of danger, and strengthen- ing the hands and arms. A wooden ladder of prodigy. This, however, it certainly is not. I lately saw a boy, eleven years old, who had exercised with the rope-ladder a very little while, climb up.forty steps of one, that was perfectly loose at bot- tom. CLIMBING. 275 is placed leaning against a wall. Beginners learn first to ascend and decend it without fear; and then to go up, without using the hands, as on a pair of stairs, turn round, and come doAvn in the same manner. They then climb up and down the under side of the ladder; and at length this exercise is render- ed more difficult, by employing the hands alone, without using the feet. In this case the climber must hold fast by the rundles, moving his hands alternately from one to the other, while his body hangs in a perpendicular position. One acquires the art of ascending on the under side, creeping through betAveen the uppermost rundles, and descending upon all fours, Avith his head doAvm\7ards. In do- ins: this he hooks his feet over the rundles above, and moves them cautiously from one to another, while his hands alternately shift from one rundle to another below. A second, to prove the flexibility of his body, Avinds himself like a snake through all the rundles, passing over one and under another alter- nately, from top to bottom. A third ascends the ladder in the usual manner, but, when he has reached the top, SAvings round one of the side poles, and descends on the under side with or Avithout the use of his feet. A fourth 1 276 CLIMBING- ascends half Avay, and then grasps the ladder fast, while the master turns it round, so that the upper side becomes the under. These little trials of skill are susceptible of much variation. A ladder eleven feet long is sufficient for these purposes. It must be made perfectly strong and secure. The master must always have his hands ready, to assist the beginner : and this he can Avith the more ease, as in ge- neral one only will be exercising at a time. ». We now come to the single rope* This exercise is more laborious than the preceding, as here are no steps, on which the feet can rest; yet any boy, who can climb the pole x x with ease, can climb the rope in nearly the same manner with tolerable facility. The chief difficulty consists in embracing the rope with the feet in such a manner, as to obtain a firm point of support. In this the knees and legs have nothing to do, the ancle joint alone being employed. If you scat yourself * This gymnastic exercise was not unknown to the ancients, who called it v c.jct c(t/t of («/////(/r(/< hi PRESERVATION OF EQUILIBRIUM, &.C. 287 CHAP. VIII. PRESERVATION OF EQUILIBRIUM, OR BA- LANCING, AND EXERCISES CONNECTED WITH IT. DANCING on the tight rope had been degraded to the rank of a strolling art so early as the times of the Greeks, among whom it Avas well known. We look upon it Avith contempt, though it excites our asto- nishment, because we confound the moral Avorth of the art Avith the moral character of the performers. This is evidently unjust. An art, which so eminendy displays the agi- lity of the human body, as to excite our Avonder, merits more esteem. We cannot, hoAvever, introduce it in its full extent; into our system of corporal education, as it re- quires too much time to learn : but Ave can adopt some imitations of it, as a step to the acquisition in a certain degree of the uncom- mon agility attainable by its means. If Ave endeavour to preserve the equiji- brium of our own bodies, or to balance with our hand any thing that is continually in danger of falling, Ave shall fi^cl prompt, judi- cious, adroit movements and headings of the 288 PRESERVATION OF EQUILIBRIUM, body requisite. By this, hardihood, presence of mind, and justness of eye are exercised; and the body gradually acquires a readiness at avoiding a fall by a dexterous leap. These are no inconsiderable advantages, ac- cruing particularly from this exercise ; at the same time that it equally contributes to the general ends, for which gymnastics are to be recommended. I. BALANCING OF OUR OWN BODY. a. Standing on one leg. I take this exer- cise first, because it may be considered as a preparatory introduction to those that follow, is easy in itself, and perfectly void of danger. The master places his pupils in a row, about a yard distant from each other. At the word of command all lift up the right or left leg, and try Avho can stand longest upon the other. This may seem very uninteresting; but I can affirm, that the necessary display of patience and perseverance exhibits a very amusing spectacle. I have seen boys stand in this manner half an hour. Let any man stand some time upon one leg, and, if he attend to the exertion of all its muscles, and those of the thigh, he Avill at once be convinced of the physical utility of this exercise. That the OR BALANCING. 289 legs must be exercised alternately is suffi- ciently obvious. The master next begins to vary the exer- cise. He places himself in front, and directs the pupils Avhat they arc to do by Avords, or by his OAvn example. For this I need give only brief hints. Standing on the left leg, they place the right, Avith the knee bent, across the left calf, knee, or ham; or stretch it out as far as possible forward, backAvard, to the right, or to the left. They hold the heel of the right foot in the right hand, in the left hand, forAvards, and backwards. They hold the toe in the same manner. They read a few lines out of a book held upon the knee. They write in the same way. When the hands are not otherAvise employed, they may clap them, or place them a kimbo, behind the back, upon the head, &c. The master takes a tolerably heavy stone, or sand-bag, and gives it to the first in the toav, Avho hands it to the next, and thus it is passed from one to another till it reaches the last. This, partly from the additional weight, partly from the necessity of reaching sideways, has considerable effect on the equilibrium, and renders it more diffi- cult to balance the body. Sometimes the bag is throAvn instead of being handed, from one 290 PRESERVATION OF EQUILIBRIUM, to the other. This exercise is still more dif- ficult, and one or another is often losing his balance at it. Frequently the master directs his pupils to pull off their coats in this position, and put them on again. These exercisesmaybe varied Avithothers; but the folloAving, with Avhich I shall conclude this subject, are particularly elegant. The pupils take hold of their toe, and carry it to the lips, first forwards, and then backAvards. By degrees they must acquire the ability of doing it without using the hand, but for this they must be exercised very early. Farther: at the word of command the pupils stretch out the right leg straight before them, and slowly sit down on the ground, Avithout touch- ing it with the right foot, or with the hands, which likeAvise must be stretched out fonvard: they then rise up in the same manner, with- out moving from their place. Mr. Villiaume, in his essay on forming the body,* Avishes children might never be permitted, to pull off boots sitting, or steadying themselves by any object. I not only agree with him perfectly * Revision des gisammten Schul- und Erxiebung sivesens, ' Review •f the management of schools and education in general/ V. Ill, P. 442- OR BALANCING. 291 in this, but am of opinion, that they should neither sit, nor be any Avay supported, Avhile they pull off any garment. The suppleness of the joints in general Avould gain considera- bly by this. Of the exercises just described I find little notice in the ancients; though Galen de- scribes something not very unlike them in the *,t„a,£,v of the Greeks.* The person Avalked a tiptoe, extending his hands and arms over his head, and moving them briskly backwards and forAvards. Before I met with this passage in Galen, I had seen the same thing perform- ed by one of my pupils, from his OAvn inven- tion. He Avalked forAvards not merely on his toes, but on the end of his toes, so that the soles of his feet Avere perpendicular, moving his hands backAvard and forward. b. Balancing on the edge of a plank. The master at length brings his pupils* to a plank, ten or tAvelve feet long, fixed in the ground on its edge. The upper edge must not be above a foot from the ground, so that no one can be hurt by a fall. Here his pupils try who can preserve their balance on it longest, • De Sanitate tuenda, lib. II, cap. 10. ' Est autem wmto?MJ si quis summis pedibus ingrediens, tensas in sublime manus, banc antorsum, illam retrorsum, celcrrime moveat, &c.' 292 PRESERVATION OF EQUILIBRIUM, standing on one foot. This is a pleasant ex- cise, as it affords much laughter. The same board is used to Avalk on, as a rope-dancer does on his rope. In this it is to be observed, that the toes must be turned outwards as much as possible. c. Walking on a pole. An implement in- dispensable in our gymnastics is delineated in PI. I, iig. 8. Its principal part is a round pole, A B, about sixty-four feet long, placed horizontally. Its large end is squared, and let into the thick post C, Avhich is firmly fixed m the ground, and in which it can be support- ed at different heights, by means of an iron bolt, or Avooden pin, passing through it, the hole 1, 2, 3, or 4, and a corresponding hole in the opposite side of the post. Its middle is supported by the stand D, in Avhich, a3 Avell as in C, it can be placed higher or loAver. The end B, being unsupported, has a certain degree of play. The distance from A to x is twenty-eight feet; the upper side of the pole is commonly three feet from the ground, Avhich should be sand, or soft turf. The exercises performed on this are various: I shall pro- ceed from the more easy to the more difficult. ct. The beginners, boys of six or seAren years old, are led along the pole in its lowest OR BALANCING. 293 situation. The toes must be turned straight outAvards, and care must be taken, that the body is kept in a goodpossition. The boys soon accustom themselves to this little Avalk, and the vacillation of the end. By degrees they acquire courage, and learn to preserve their balance. To exercise them at leaping off adroitly, the master at first makes them do so at his direction, by and by he pulls them gently by the hand unwares, so as to make them jump down. All this is done, as observed above, Avith the master's leading : but this he Avill gradually diminish. If at first he held the tyro fast by the arm, he v. ill lead him at length by the end of his finger alone, and at last merely hold out his hand in readiness to assist. Thus the pupil learns, £. to go alone. The master Avill still he at his side; observe how he carries his body, and places his feet, on Avhich every thing depends: and assist him when necessary. y. When he is perfectly expert, not merely at walking boldly and perfectly from, one end of the pole to the other, but at leaping oft' safely, Avhen he loses his balance, Avithout danger of falling, the master J\ increases the difficultv,bv placing stones upon the pole, or holding a sti^k before hi:> 294 PRESERVATION OF EQUILIBRIUM, feet over Avhich he must step, or by giving the end B greater motion than it Avould have of itself. %. Hitherto the pupil has Avalked only from A to B, and then leaped off. By degrees he is brought to turn himself at the end B, and walk back to A. Before he does this, it is to be observed, that he has practised turning several times on the thicker part of the pole. £ The pupil having noAV learned to Avalk with perfect security, the master puts a neAV difficulty in his way, he sets him to Avalk backwards; I mean, to walk from A to B, with his face toward A. When this is attained, it may be suffici- ent; m:iny will think it unnecessary, for their children to acquire still farther expertness in wall:ing on narrow surfaces. But I could wish not to stop here, and therefore propose what follows. I consider Avalking on a rope, under proper conditions, as far more safe and elegant than walking on a pole. According- ly, when Mr. Viliaume asks, Avould it not be right to learn the art of funambulation, both on the tight and shick rope ? Avith regard to the tight rope, I readily answer yes. Fun- ambulation, it must be confessed, in the way in which it is usually practised as an art, re^ OR BALANCING. 295 quires too much time to learn, and endangers the neck: but, were these too objections re- moved, I do not see, Avhy youths should be restrained from a beneficial pursuit, to which they readily incline, because it affords them pleasure. Let the ground be deep sand; and, instead of the usual rope, let a strong belt be used, the breadth of the hand, and not above two feet, or two and an half, from the ground. Under these conditions, I prefer funambula- tion to wralking on the pole; both ivith respect to safety, and to the dexterity to be required by it, though I have never employed it my- self. From its proximity to the ground there is no danger of a severe fall, and the breadth of the belt tends to shorten the time of learn- ing. Such a belt Avould be most convenient- ly made of three or four ropes as thick as a man's thumb, confined together by interweav- ing a slender cord. The machinery for ex- tending it, and the exercises performed on it are sufficiently knoAvn.* * I cannot agree with my author here. I am persuaded, that one who was expert in walking on the pole, would not require much time to learn to walk a thick rope, like that used by rope-dancers in general and would tread on it with far more certainty and security, than on a flat belt, the surface of which would be continually in- clining from its horizontal position and returning to it again, as tha foot bore upon either side with unequal stress, or was removed from it, thus every moment deceiving the person walking on it. T. 296 PRESERVATION OF EQUILIBRIUM, To return to the pole. Precautions. 1. It is absolutely necessary, in walking on it, to turn the toes outAvard. 2. Shoes Avith high heels are improper for this, as for many other exercises. Shoes Avithout heels are the best, as they never occasion falls. * In very dry weather the soles of the shoes and the surface of the pole are too smooth, on which account they should be rubbed with chalk. 4. To improve them in a proper carriage and suppleness of body, courage and adroit- ness in leaping off, and saving themselves in case of falling, qualities already acquired in a great degree by Avalking on the pole, other exercises remain to be recommended, which are among the most elegant of the exercises in the gymnastic art. d. Faulting astride the pole. It is tolera- bly easy, for a person to seat himself upon any object, not higher than the pit of the stomach, by taking a preparatory spring (see p. 203), immediately placing his hands on the object, and then leaping upon it. In the * I think it most advisable, for children to perform their exercises in general in the shoes and dress they commonly wear, that they may be on all occasions ready to exert any dexterity they have acquired, without being incommoded by their garments. T. or. balancing; 29^ same manner he may leap over the object^ if it be not too Avide. This Ave apply to the pole. At first the little beginners are lifted upon it: they then learn to climb up as well as they can: this at length is not permitted, but they are made to vault upon it. For this purpose they are exercised separately at first, the master standing by, to save them from fall- ing. Afterwards it is performed, as well as the folloAving exercises, at command; when it not only affords a pleasing spectacle, but teaches the most prompt activity. Even oh this ac- count it is highly to be recommended. I will describe it as accurately and clearly as possi- ble. Six or seven boys stand in a line on the left side of the pole, one step from it. Thev master stands on the other side, facing them. To make them attentive he gives the worc^ ' prepare!' He lifts up his right hand, and they all do the same. On his letting it fall, they take a short spring toward the pole, place* their hands upon it, and leaping up, throw their right leg over it, so as to bestride it. The master sees, that they seat themselves in a proper position, which is that of a good horseman. By way of change, the pupils may be placed six or eight paces from thg r r 298 PRESERVATION OF EQUILIBRIUM,' pole take a brisk run, a greater preparatory spring, and raise their bodies in leaping much higher above it. The more justly they keep' time in these performances, the more pleas- ing the spectacle. If the master would have the manoeuvre several times repeated they must get off likeAvise at the Avord of command. At the word coff!' they are all attentive: he lifts up his hand, they raise both theirs: he' lets it fall, they place theirs on the pole just before them, raise their bodies up, and, throw- ing the right leg over the p6te behind them, spring back to their former position. In both these maneeuvres neither the leg, knee, nor foot, still less the body, must touch the pole. e. Rising on the hands.' Supposing the boys properly seated astride the pole, they are now to raise irp the body at command by means of the hands. The word, ' rise,' is given, to excite attention. The master raises his hand, they instantly lift both arms ovef their heads : he lets it fall, they clap their hands on the pole before thenv and raise themselves as high as they can from their seat.: In this manner they try, who can support him- self longest. Here again we have a display of manly exertion and perseverance. By and by one of the strongest begins to advance fot* OR BALANCING. 299 ward along the pple on his hands, and is imi- tated by the yest. But we do not stop here. The master tells his pupils, that it is practicable for them, to raise themselves so high, as to place tlieir feet on the pole, just behind tlieir hands. This requires strength in the arms and shoul- ders, and in the pectoral and dorsal muscles: they attempt it, hoAvever, and after long prac- tice succeed. Thence Ave come to f. The standing up on the pole. Great suppleness of the joints, and skill in preserv- ing the equilibrium of the body are necessary for this. When several have acquired the art, it may be performed at command, Every one being seated astride, the master gives the word : S up !' At this they are all attentive. He raises his hand ; tl^ey all raise theirs, as in the preceding instance: he lets it fall; they clap theirs on the pole close before th«m, and spring the legs upwards, with tjhe whole of the body beneath the shoulders, so that the feet are brought upon the pole, in the first position, close behind the hanjds, on which the body instantly assumes an erect posture, so that all stand up at once, To this is added the sitting down on the pole, in which the preceding manoeuvres are {500 PRESERVATION OF EQUILIBRIUM, just reversed. The words, < resume your seat!' are employed to fix the attention. The master raises his hand; the pupils, as before, raise theirs: he depresses it; they place theirs on the pole, support the whole weight of the body, which is bent forwardb,- upon them, and let themselves down gently astride the pole. I insist upon the word gently, to avoid all danger of a blow. He who is in- capable of maintaining his equilibrium, Avhile supporting the body on his hands, must come down to his seat sueldenly; expertness at the preceding exercise, therefore, of rising and going forward on the hands, must be acquired previous to the introduction of this. .. .. < The master, as I have more than once remarked, must be frequently introducing variations in the exercises of his pupils, to improve their dexterity in different ways. He observes to them one day, that standing up on the pole Avith the assistance of the hands is a trifle; and that it is by no means im- practicable, to hold the hands clasped over the head, and rise up thus. This excites their curiosity: they make the attempt, and before it might have been expected, the fob lowing mode is invented. , . . . OR BALANCING. 301 A youth sits astride; lifts his knees up, till they are nearly close together on the pole ; and, bending his body forward, gives it a swing, so as to raise himself upon his knees. He then slides one of his knees back- wards, so as to get it upon the most elevated part of the circumference of the pole, balances himself upon this knee, places the opposite foot upcm the pole, and then rises up. ' Very well;' observes the master : c but I knoAV a shorter method, though more diffi- cult to such as are defective in agiiity. When you are astride the pole, set one foot upon it as close to yourself as you can, and then rise up.' Upon this they first make the trial on plain ground, to sit down from standing upon one leg, and again to rise up with the assise tance of one leg alone, This succeeds; they repair to tl>e pole, and are equally successful there. g. Vaulting up on the pole. All these little arts being mastered, a certain graceful- ness in performing them acquired, and strength combined with agility, we wish for something more. The master proposes to his pupils, to place themselves erect on the pole, without first bestric|ing it, or even touchr 502 PRESERVATION OF EQUILIBRIUM, ing it for more than a single instant. This staggers theni, when he shoAvs them by his own example how it is to be done. Stand- ing a few paces from the pole, he runs toward it, takes a short preparatory spring, lays his hands on the pole, leaps up so as to bring his. feet between them, and is erect in a moment, The more expert alone must be suffered to attempt this. Each makes the tridf singly, and the master places himself on the other side pf the pole, in order to assist him if necessary bj laying hold of the arm, and save him from any danger. When several can accomplish $iis feat Avith perfect security, they may per- form it altogether, at the word of command. It will be easier at first to practise this, neat exercise on a table. h. The pass. By the preceding exercises our pupils are brought to stand on this nar- rOAV surface, Avalk, and turn upon it, Avith facility. At length, tAvo walking upon it at the same time meet, and avquM pass each, other, Avithout leaping down. How is this to be accomplished ? They take hold of each other's arms ; place their right feet close to each other in the fifth position; count one,, tAvo, three ; and immediately turn round each other to the left, taking a step with t^e left or Balancing; S03 foot to the right of each other. Thus they will have changed places; but they must balance their weight against each other Avith accuracy, otherwise they will be forced td leap off, to avoid a fall. i. Gaining the balance. Two persons stand On the thicker half of the pole, each holding a rope dancer's pole Avith both hands, crossing that of his antagonist in the middle, and push- ing him with it sideAva\>s, till one loses his balance. j. The turn sitting. This is no very easy j>erformance, if it be done tolerably quickly, Elnd without touching the pole with either hand; The manner of doing it is obvious : bne leg must be thrown over first, and then the other. k. Vaultirig over the pole is an exercise tending greatly to promote agility. The' person places himself a step from the pole, takes a short preparatory spring, places his hands at the same time on the pole,' and throws both his legs o\rer it, the hands form- ing the point round which the body turns* The master exercises his pupils singly at first, standing himself on the opposite side of the £ole ; and teaches them to leap over either tv-ay,' sAvinging the body to the right or to the- *04 preservation of equilibrium* left. The following mode is someAvhat more difficult. The person about to vault over stands a foot or two from the pole, Avith his i-hiit side toward it; runs along it by tAvo or three short steps ; takes a preparatory springy leys his ri^ht hand in the mean time on the pole, r:icl, leaping up, thrOAVs his legs and body over. In this case the legs are thrown forward, so that the heel and calf are next the pole in passing over it: in the former, they Avere thrown backAvard, so that the toes and knees Avere turned toAArard it. The same should be practised wkh the left hand.- When several have learned either of these exercises thoroughly, they may perform it together at command. In both it must be observed,* that the feet are to be kept close together. 1. Seesaw: A stout plank, sixteen feet long, is supported in the centre two feet from the ground. Tavo of our young pupils place themselves standing one at each end, and gra- dually set the plank in motion up and down, preserving their equilibrium. At length they become so expert at it, that they can leap up a foot or more in the air, and alight again: in their proper standing place. In doing this the feet must be always close together, and the whole body kept in a proper position* OR balancing. 305 That the plank may not deviate from its di- rection, it is suspended between two posts* driven into the ground, at such a distance as to admit its playing freely betAveen them, by means of an iron axle, the projecting ends of which aire received into two iron nuts, one in each post. This exercise^ Avhich tends great- ly to promote adroitness, is a favourite amuse- ment of the ladies in some parts of the Russian empire. The ground should be sand. m. The oval seesaw. With the plank be- fore-mentioned the motion is rectilinear, and therefore not very difficult, but the machine delineated in PI. II, fig; 9, renders it more complex. The figure ABC represents half an oval, the longer diameter of which is ten feet, the shorter, seven feet ten inches: A B is a pretty strong plank, tAvelve feet long. A pin three feet five inches long is let into its centre perpendicularly at x. On this the ma- chine rests, so as to form an angle of 36°, or thereabout, with the ground. At each end is a stand for the feet, y, y, supported by strong brackets, z, z, against which the feet are staid, as the machine moves up and down. The machine may be made in the same man- ner* as the frames on which masons construct s s 306 preservation of equilibrium, arches. Tavo persons, standing on the steps y y, set the machine in motion by pressing on the ground alternately with a staff, Avith Avhich each is provided. This motion, from the form of the machine, is obviously curvili- near /f///t( /// // (/ S/ //{!-{)■// &2 LIFTING AND CARRYING, &C 315 CHAP. VIII. b lifting and carrying; trial of the back; drawing; .and skipping with the rope or hoop. I AM far from wishing, to impose ^eavy burdens on growing children: their bony frame is yet soft and tender, and ought not, therefore, to be oppressed. While'we spare the yaung beast of burden, would it not be barbarous, to load our own youth in such a manner, as might, not merely check their growth, but be injurious to it ? This I permise, to guard against misconseption. If we would strengthen the muscles of the hands, arms, shoulders, and breast, without rendering the vertebrae of the back, and the bones' of the foot, leg, and thigh stiff, we must not set burdens to be carried on the back or shoulders, but in the hands alone, with the arms partly or completely extended: that is, the burden must be lifted or carried in such a manner, as to act chiefly on those muscles,"not on these bones. This may be performed without any injury: that must not be attempt- ed without great prudence anc\ caution. 316 lifting and carrying, The folloAving exercises, I believe, arc perfectly suitable to our purpose. a. Lifting. To lift a weight Avith extend- ed arms, a staff six feet long, such as is de- lineated in PI. I, fig. 10, is very commodi, ous. The part to be grasped by the hand, a b, is six inches in length: the rest, from b to c, is divided by notches at regular intervals, The moveable weight d will be greater or less to the lifter, according to the distance at which it is placed from the hand. There should be tAvo such instruments, that in general both arms may be exercised at once. The person lifting is to stand upright, with his breast pro- jecting forward; hold one of the instruments in each hand, with a straight arm; raise them slowdy, both together, a little above the hori- zontal line; and let them doAvn again in the same manner. In the repetition of this ex- cise, the AAreight is to be moved farther and farther toAvard c, as long as the strength of the arms will admit. This instrument has not the exactness of the steelyard, it must be confessed; and this it would be difficult to give it, because the fule- rum must vary in some degree Avith the size of the hand that holds it; yet it serves ex- tremely Avell, to shoAv the progressive strength SKIPPING AVITH A ROPE, &C. 317 of the arm, if the notches be numbered, and the master note doAvn the notch, at which each individual is capable of lifting the Aveight. , Among those Avho can lift equal Aveights, it may be made a matter of contest, Avho shall support a given weight longest. I have found, that persons by no means robust, if not to be called feeble, have in time acquired strength to lift a Aveight, that would foil a more muscular arm. The utility of this exercise, therefore, is unquestionable. The ancients Avere not strangers to this practice, for Avhich they made use of leaden weights.* b. Carrying. I have already mentioned the conditions, under which I recommend carrying burdens. We first choose such, as can do us no injury, if Ave let them fall. Bags of sand, of different sizes, the weights of which are ascertained, are extremely conve- nient. To the bag a strap is fastened; one end to the bottom, the other to the mouth; for the convenience of holding it. The person, Avho is to carry the burden, lifts his open * I tind it mentioned in Galen, de Sanitatetucnda, Lib. II, cap. g.'------siquis summis manibus, utraque seorsum apprehenso pon- dere(cujusmodi sunt qui in palaestra halteres dicuntur) porre&is his, aut in sublime cre&is, eodem habitu pcrsistat.' 318 LIFTING AND CARRYING, hands, with the palms upAvard, as high as his shoulders, and a bag is hung on each hand, for him to support there, or carry forward. If there be bags enough, several may take them at the same time, and try Avho can hold them longest, or carry them farthest. Children and young persons, who have high shoulders and short necks, should carry in their hands burdens of more or less weight for a certain time every day with their arms hanging down. Perhaps there is no mode of correcting these defects equally advantageous. c. Trial of the back. I have yet mentioned no kind of exercise particularly calculated for the spine and muscles of the back, except in p. 283, Avhere I speak of crossing the legs over a horizontal rope. It might have been # expected in the preceding article; but I have already given my reasons, Avhy I do not wish young persons often to carry burdens on their back.* To supply this defect, I shall here propose a neAV exercise. The Persians had public buildings for bodily exercises, which they called surchcene * Mai. Gcnlis made her pupils carry burdens on their back, in : dosssr, or basket secured by straps passing over the shoulders and under the arms. See Lessons of a Governess. Such an exercise, in my opinion, must be beneficial; and in no way injurious, if the we;ght be no more, than may be carried with facility. T. SKIPPING WITH A ROPE, ScC 319 (houses of strength), in which great and small, rich and poor, pursued them systema- tically. One of their exercises was the fol- lowing. The whole company placed them- selves in a row, on their hands and feet, extending these as far from each other as possible, but without suffering their bellies to touch the ground. In this position every one without moving his hands or feet, described a circle Avith his head tAvice, and then the diameter of one. This exercised the muscles of the neck, and served to mark the time, it being performed to music* The oftener a person could do this, the greater he was esteemed in his art. Many could repeat it sixty times. * The following exercise, fram- ed after this, I can recommend from expe- rience. The young company stand in a toav. At a signal from the master, all set their hands to the ground, and extend their legs as far backward as they can. The Avhole body, from head to foot, must form as straight a line as possible, the back being stiff, and the knee not in the least bent. The feet rest on the points of the toes. In this situation they * Neibuhr, in his Travels, Vol. II, discribes several Persian exercises very circumstantially. 320 LIFTING AND CARRYING, contend avIio shall remain longest, and he that holds out to the last is victor. This exercise will require more exertion, if, instead of remaining still, the performer describe Avith his hands the periphery of a circle of which his feet form the central point. To move round in this circle ten or fifteen times following, is doing a great deal. As a variation the hands may sometimes be made the centre, Avhile the feet describe the circle: In both these the pupils should be exercised separately at first, till they have learned to keep the proper position: afterAvards several may perform it together, being placed1 at a due distance from each other. Delicate children should not continue this exercise too long at a time: a trembling of the thighs and knees shall be a signal, for the master to direct them to desist. d. Drawing. The rope, that Ave have already used for climbing, may be of good service to us in drawing: but it must be strong, adequate to the purpose, and of suffi- cient length. The master divides his pupils into two parties. He knoAvs how to manage this so, that the strength of one shall be ap- portioned to that of the other: and he takes care, that the place of contest shall be per- SKIPPING WITH A ROPE, &C. .521 fectly level, for the least declivity in the ground affects the power of both parties. Each party having taken its end of the rope, and all being in a proper position for drawing, the master gives the signal for beginning the harmless contest by 'one, two, three!' Inv mediately every limb is exerted: feet, knees, legs, arms* hands, back and shoulders. At length the point is decided, and one party has drawn the other along. Sometimes, by way of change, the contesjt may take place between two only: and in this case each will exert himself to the utmost, as the disgrace of defeat must fall on himself alone, and cannot be charged on the weakness or defective exertion of his comrades. I have said above, that the rope must be long; and this is indispensably necessary, Sphere several must stand behind one another, for they should have sufficient room, not to be in danger of treading on each other's feet, which they are very liable to do at this ex- ercise. This exercise was very common among the Greeks, under the name of /itx*w»/« both In and out of the palaestra.* Their jmmw/« u u * SeeMeursius de Ludis Graecorum, & PoUux, lib, IX. cap. 7. 322 lifting and carrying, was different. For this a post as high as a man's head was fixed in the ground, with a hole in the upper end of it, through which a rope passed, Two boys took hold of this rope, one at either end, standing with their backs toward each other, and each endeavour- ed to draw his antagonist up.* In lifting, carrying, and draAving, it is to be observed, that the legs must be kept close together as far as is practicable, that is, they must never be separated sideways, and the mouth must be shut. e. Skipping with a rope or hoop. It is ad- vantageous, frequently to have obstacles to overcome, in performing things that are easy in themselves. By this we promote expert- ness in acting and presence of mind, or pati- ence and firmness of action, which are ob* jects of no small importance in education. The exercises here mentioned are nothing more than running and leaping with additi- onal obstacles. Gentle running is not diffi- cult of itself: but we require, that a cord, held in both hands, be thrown over the head and under the feet at every second step; thus it becomes necessary, to keep time in moving the feet, and the arms likewise are thrown * SecMeursius asabove, and EusUtiut in Iliad, f. SKIPPING WITH A ROPE, &C. 323 into regular motion. Or it is required, to skip over a long rope, swung round regularly by two other persons. Leaping is performed in a similar manner. We will now proceed to explain the particular exercises. a. Skipping in the long rope. For this we use the same rope as served us before for climbing: though perhaps one somewhat less would be as well. It is put in motion by two persons. A stands facing the master, B, four, six or ten paces distant. A holds one end of the rope in his hand; the master, the other. The rope hangs between them, so that it nearly touches the ground in the middle. Each moves his hand in a small circle, so as to give the bow, or .catenary curve, formed by the rope, a circular motion. When the rope is SAVung in this manner, if, while the master stands with his face to the south, the rope move in the direction of the sun, the pupils stand to the right of the master, oppo- site the center of the rope, so that each formS an isosceles triangle with him and A. From this point they are to run singly, or in pairs, between A and B, without suffering them- selves to be touched by the rope; and running every other turn of {he rope, till they are all through, 324 LIFTING AND CARRYING, The same motion of the rope still continu- ing, they have now to return, but this can be accomplished only by leaping over the rope, just as it comes near the ground. This is more difficult, demands a little resolution, and requires the leap to be nicely timed; but is soon learned with a little practice. Only two at most must be allowed to go over at once; otherwise the curve of the rope must be greatly lengthened, which renders swinging it too laborious. If any one should be caught by the rope, the master will let go his end, that he jnay not be thrown down. A third branch of this exercise is perform- ed in the following manner. C places himself in the middle, betAveen A and B, while the rope is held still. A and B swing it over his head, and Avhen it approaches the ground he leaps up, to let it pass under his feet. This he continues to do, as long as he is able: when he is tired, he calls out < halt!' and the master lets go his end of the rope, Two may perform this exercise at once. A contest will natu- raly arise, who shall continue it longest; and it will require considerable exertion to leap pver the rope a hundred times.* The master * A boy of mine, five years and a half old, who had acquired considerable expertness at skipping in the short rope during the win- SKIPPING WITH A ROPE, &C. 325 will take care, that his pupils carry themselves gracefully. The hands should rest on the sides, the head be held up, the breast kept out, and the heels touch the ground after every leap, if the rope be not moved with velocity. If the exercise be performed with great quickness, the feet should rest only on the toes, which should scarcely rise a hand's breadth from the ground, the knees should be kept straight, and the rope should be swung in a short curve. The inexpert will find it not amiss to wear boots. The difficulty of the last performance may be increased by not allowing C to take his place Avhile the rope is still, but making him run in while it is swinging, and get out again, when he is tired, in the same manner. Both these require quickness, and attention to the right point of time. £. Skipping with the short rope is pretty generally known, and therefore needs no long description. The person intending to perform ^ ter, began exercising with the long rope on the 15th of February. Tf One end of the rope was fastened to the arm of a chair, while I held the other and swung it. Nearly an hour a day was devoted to this practice, he and his two brothers leaping over it alternately ; and on the 3oth he leaped over it a hundred and forty-one times, taking a short leap in every interval. One of his brothers, two years younger, who had never skipped in any rope before, leaped over it in the same manner twenty-eight times. In the Sept. following the eldest of these boys leaped over 347 times, th= next 109, and the youngest 78. T. 326 LIFTING AND CARRYING, this exercise holds the tAvo ends of a cord, one in each hand, and lets the middle part hang in a curve. All that is necessary for him is, to take care that this curve be justly propor- tioned to his size: if, while he stands on the middle of the cord, his hands, holding the ends, are as high as the hip joints, the measure w ill be tolerably just. Letting the rope hang down, he steps over to begin his run, sAvings it over his head, and passes it under his feet every third step. When the greater part of the pupils have acquired a certain degree of dex- terity at this exercise they may be drawn up in a line, at proper intervals, set off together at the word of command, and strive who shall advance farthest. This exercise may be performed too with- out moving from the spot, and Avith many va- riations. The performer may skip, that is raise his feet from the ground alternately, passing both over the rope each turn; or hop, keeping one foot constantly in the air, and passing the rope under the other every time he hops, or every other time: or leap, passing the rope in the same manner. A common, but not very easy feat is, to pass the rope twice under the feet during one leap, and some Avill do it even three times, Sometimes boys step SKIPPING WITH A ROPE, &C. 327 over the rope with each foot alternately, one foot only being on the ground at a time, and the other remaining in the air, till it is its turn to step over the rope: this they call climbing the ladder. Sometimes they take a slight hop, after the step, so that each foot alternately strikes the ground twice after the rope has passed it, the exercise in other respects resembling the last: this is called ringing the bells. At other times, while skipping, the rope is swung at intervals once or oftener on either side of the performer, instead of under his feet, and then under his feet again as before : to this they give the name of winding the jack. Tavo pr even three boys may skip in one short rope at the same time. If two skip only, they may Stand back to back, or face to face, Avith the back of one to the face of the other. Whether two or three skip at once, the rope should be swung by the tallest, and if three skip, he should be in the middle. It is necessary, at this sport, that they take care, not to tread on each other's feet; and that the rope be some- what longer than for a single boy.* In all these exercises the rope may be sAvung either fonvard or backward. * I have seen the three boys, mentioned in the preceding note, perform this repeatedly two at a time, and sometimes all three at once. 328 LIFTING AND CARRYING, y. Skipping with a hoop. This exercise resembles the last in every respect, except that a hoop is used instead of a cord, either in its proper form of a complete circle, or cut open so that the performer may hold one end in each hand* I need say nothing, there- fore, on this subject, beside mentioning two little feats peculiar to the hoop, Avhich are amusing, and require some dexterity. In one the performer takes a whole hoop in each hand; leaps up, and' swings the right hoop under his feet; he then leaps again, withdraws the right hoop; and instantly swings the left un* der his feet: thus he*continues, at every leap AvithdraAvirtg one hoop, and SAvinging the Other into its place* To perform this with quickness requires great activity. Sometimes both hoops are brought under the feet at once* So as to cross each other; and in the same manner removed both together. To per- form the other, two boys, A and B, take a larger hoop, which they hold perpendicularly before thenu A, standing to the right of B, holds it Avith his right hand; B, with his left* Thus they set off running, keeping exact time Avith their steps, and at every sixth or tenth step both leap through the hoop to- gether, and return to their former position SKIPPING WITH A ROPfe, &C. 329 by turning the hand round the hoop. This exercise tends to render boys active, and is excellent for creating an appetite. f. Trundling a hoop is a pleasing incentive to running, but is adapted only to a spacious level ground. The hoop is rolled forward like a wheel, and the object is, to keep it in motion, Avithout suffering it to fall. This is accomplished by means of a short stick held in the hand, with which it is impelled fonvard, and occasionally supported by a slight touch on either side, to Avhich the hoop may incline. With the same stick its direction is altered while running, by gently striking it a little before the perpendicular diameter on the side opposite to that, to Avhich you wish to turn it. They Avho are become adepts in this ex- ercise vary it by different little feats: such as throwing it into the air by means of the stick while running, and keeping it on its course after it comes to the ground; or running through it while it is in motion, sometimes to the right, at other times to the left, giving it a stroke in the mean time, that it may not stop. This is a classical exercise, and was com- mon to the Greeks and Romans, as it still is in many countries. The Greeks called it 4> X X ;T30 LIFTING AND CARRYING, &C tpixnixTict. The hoop Avas as high as the breast of the person a\ ho used it, and in the inside Avere fastened rings, or little plates of tin or brass, as is iioav done in many places, to make a jingling noise. Here Marshal calls it gar- rulus annulus. Probably the hoop itself Avas iron, as the rod employed in trundling it Avas made of iron, and furnished with a wooden handle.* * Mercurialis do Arte gymnastica, lib. Ill, cap. 8. Meurjusd*, Ludis Grxcotmn. DANCING, WALKING, &.C. 331 CHAP. IX. DANCING, WALKING, AND MILITARY EXERCISES. a. Dancing is an exercise strongly de- serving recommendation, as it tends to unite gracefulness and regularity of motion with strength and agility. It must consequently have a place in a treatise on gymnastics, though I have little more to observe on the subject, than that it is most proper for chil- dren, and should give place to other exer- cises at the commencement of what may be styled youth. A good gymnastic dance for the open air, approaching the heroic ballet, for young men or boys, calculated to exercise their , strength and agility, excite innocent mirth and youthful heroism and cherish their love of their country by the accompaniment .of song, is an extremely desirable object, which is still Avanting among all our improvements in the art. May some skilful artist take up the idea, and favour us with a patriotic dance for our British youth! b. Walking. We speak not here of the ■ measured dancing master's step,- but of a na- tural, unconstrained gait7 which well deserves 332 DANCING, AVALKINC, AND a little of our care. As the character of a nation is often diplayed in external modes of action, particularly in its peculiar mode of walking; so from the Avalk of individuals we may frequently infer their Avay of thinking and acting. Hence it follows, that every one Avalks according to his natural disposi- tion : but as this natural diposition is suscep- tible of improvement, there is no reason Avhy Ave should not improve the external habits, in which it is displayed. Besides, young per- sons generally form themselves by imitation of some particular person, in whom they fancy excellence, though the peculiarities, Avith which they are struck, may most proba- bly be defects; and generally in this point Ave are either too negligeht, or stupify our pupils Avith our rules and directions. The conse- quences of both these modes of proceeding are unquestionably disadA'antageous. The art of dancing may contribute great- ly to a graceful demeanour; but if its mea- sured steps and regular carriage be adopted in our habitual movements and attitudes, Ave shall announce more pedantry than taste. An easy display of strength and suppleness in all our gestures, without the least appearance of art or constraint, is most to be admired. A MILITARY EXERCISIS. 333 light yet firm and manly step; an upright posture of the body, particularly of the head, breast, and shoulders, yet totally devoid of stiffness; an easy, natural movement of the arms; are what we should chiefly strive to attain. These, however, are not so complete- ly within the sphere of the dancing master, as is generally supposed, but depend in great measure on the early management of children. If Ave deny the tender infant the free use of his limbs, and afterwards debilitate him by ef- feminate treatment, Ave cannot expect strength or suppleness in his movements. Leave the limbs of an infant more at liberty; let him learn to Avalk naturally; then let him exercise his tender joints in the open air, first on the soft sod, afterAvards on' the harder ground, and lastly on uneven places; let him take short AAralks, and bring himself by degrees to longer excursions, first on plain, then on hilly ground: here let him learn to surmount all kinds of irregularities, by placing his feet in a proper manner and to acquire a command over his unpractised limbs; and these prepa- ratory steps in early childhood will lay the foundation of such strength and suppleness, as no dancing master ever produced by all his steps and turns. 334 DANCI\TG, AVALKING, AND A sense of honour is capable of effecting much among young people, particularly Avhen the praise or blame comes from their equals; it Avould not be amiss, therefore, occasionally to introduce the folloAving exercises. The master lets one, two, or three of his scholars at a time, AAralk in different directions; first from the rest of the company, who act the part of spectators and judges, then toAvard them, and lastly across them; now slowly, noAV moderately fast, then very quick. By these variations the walk of each is exhibited in a conspicuous light. Let each of the com, pany then point out the faults he has observ- ed in the performers; and as boys have a very just taste in this respect, and are quick at dis- cerning any thing the least ridiculous, no fault Avill easily pass undetected. When this criticism has been made, let the performance be repeated: in general it will be immediately improved, and thus in time every fault will be corrected. Military exercises, likewise, will contribute much to it: and to these we now proceed. c. Military exercises. In important mat- ters, Avhere the head and heart are concerned, youth should be lead by reason and argument, that they may learn to employ their reason in MILITARY EXERCISES. 335 affairs of the head and heart, when their edu- cation is at an end: but in trifles, such as relate to mere mechanical action, it may be of advantage, to teach them to obey command, that they may learn subordination, without Avhich society is a chaos, where one is conti- nually running his head against another's. The soldier, in performing his exercise, exhibits a perfect pattern of subordination, and of a quick and exact execution of orders, that is highly astonishing. I am persuaded, that it would be very beneficial, to introduce these into the daily management of youth; and that a Avell conducted military establish- ment is desirable in schools, and in large fa- milies, where there is no end to jumping, running, screaming, forgetting things that are necessary, carelessness and disorder Avith regard to articles of dress, he. It is a pleas- ing spectacle, when children and youths fly to their place at the Avord of command, ar- range themselves in order, assume a good attitude, and march in a regular body v. here- ever you direct it: and Avhen they are ac- customed to perform at command things of frequent occurrence, Avhich are commonly accompanied Avith noise, bustle, and confu- sion, Avhile all are running headlong together. 336 DANCING, WALKING, AND To him, who has daily to do Avith a great many young persons, Avhat I have said will be perfectly intelligible. Another motive, that induces me to re- commend military exercises, is altogether gymnastic. This is the improvement of the carriage. Infinite numbers of young people are extremely careless and indolent Avith re- gard to gait and attitude. As a remedy for this, military exercises, and particularly the various evolutions, that are connected with determinate positions of the body, are strong- ly to be recommended; and they are very agreeable to youth, provided, of course, we do not treat them as slaves, and drill them with the cane. It will readily be conceded also, that young people cannot be too early inured to difficul- ties, to teach them patience, and harden them for a future period. For this purpose long marches of some miles are excellent; and if the road be barren of natural objects, or a speedy progress be desired, the regular mili- tary pace is extremely convenient. The three different grounds here adduced render it necessary, to practice various march- ings and evolutions, in which boys will take much delight, and Avhen once they have ac- MILITARY EXERCISES. 337 quired a certain dexterity in the practice, they will come of themselves, and request their leader to march with them. Beside all these, military exercises are Avell calculated, to animate the courage of youth, to fortify their naturally bold, enter- prising spirit, and to harden them against bodily pain, which the effeminacy of our common mode of living renders highly neces- sary. All exorcises, Avhich have this tenden- cy, if they be not in other respects injurious, merit our regard: and if the refined and fash- ionable world give them the epithet of rude, let us consider, to Avhat point fashion and re- finement have brought and will bring us; and Iioav they crippled all our ardour for the duties of a christian and a man, when it should be displayed in energy of action, and magnani- mous self denial. Our young company divides itself into tAAro parties, representing hostile armies. Their weapons are such as will inflict pain, Avith- out doing injury, being sticks of a moderate size. Their heads and faces being protected by helmets,* they proceed to battle. A part of the Avood, or hill of sand in our * These may be procured at a trifling expcnce. The boys can make them themselves of strong pasteboard, or millboard. y y 338 dancing, walking, &c. place of exercise, is occupied by one party: and this the other endeavours to gain. All folloAv their leader. If no advantage can be obtained by artifice a formal attack comment ces, and a contest ensues for the possession of the ground.* This is a very good play for the night, to familiarize boys with objects in darkness and obscurity. In Avinter snowballs may take the place of sticks. A spacious plain being chosen for the field of battle, each army endeavours by marching and counter- marching, to gain the advantage of the wind, the sun, or the ground, which in a deep snow requires some exertion; and as this is com- bined with throAving and avoiding the balls throAvn,- it exercises the strength of the arms, shoulders, and breast, the swiftness of the foot, the flexibility of the body, and the ac- curacy of the eye. This exercise is best adapted to the com- mencement of a thaw. There is a time, Avhen snow by pressure becomes a ball of ice, and when consequently it would be dangerous. * As a preparatory to this, I would recommend the boys to learo the use of the broadsword, which is an extremely useful and elegant gymnastic exercise. In certain parts of England playing at backsword, or singlestick as it is sometimes called, is in common use as a public gameat wakes and fairs. Strength, vigilance, activity, and fortitude, are improved by it; and skill in it may enable a man to defend himself against the attack of a ruffian-. T. i ? ' ■r.'l ')(i/fnii(j k Jmninuna [ 339 ] CHAP. X. BATHING AND SWIMMING. WERE I to collect encomiums on bathing, that have been publishedby writers on physic, philosophy and education, I should fill a considerable volume. It is remarkable, that all, without exception, recommend it: but more singular, that little or no attention is paid to it almost eA^ery where. The experience of ages has taught us, that the cold bath is asto- nishingly conducive to health; the example of the ancients, who had a bath in almost every house, or at least frequented the public baths; the religious use of the bath among the JeAvs and Mohammedans, an use founded on sound policy; the practice of our ancestors, who renderedtheir newborn infants hardy by plung- ing them ifito the cold brook; the almost uni- versal habit of bathing inrude and half civilized nations, to whom Ave are far inferiour in bodily strength and health; and the concordant testi- monies of ancient and modern physicians in re- commendation of the bath; all should excite us, to pursue the benificial practice. But unfor- tunately our prejudices haAre almost established it as a laAv of decorum, to refrain from bathing 340 BATHING, AND because, as Ave have no public buildings for the purpose, the bather must strip himself in the open air : unless at afewplaces ofpublic resort, Avhere it is tolerated for its medicinal uses, yet of Avhich scarcely any but the Avealthy and idle can avail themselves. Thus Ave carry about us all our lives a coat of dirt, the very idea of Avhich is sufficient to excite disgust, and, in the Avords of Frank, from Avhich, as from the annual circles of a tree, a man's age might be told. Is not this universal want of cleanliness, with regard to all parts that are not immediately exposed to vieAv, intolerable ? Does it appear credible, that it should exist in a civilized nation, Avhere it is deemed a disgrace to Avear dirty clothes ? Surely, to cover Avith clean garments the filth, Avhich adheres to the whole surface of the body, displays little of the true spirit of cleanliness. Unzer says of people, Avho indulge in dirt out of affectation, that they deserve to be treated as objects of general contempt. In my opinion, the general custom of leaving the greater part of the body unwashed from the cradle to the grave merits it in an equal degree. At least let us not divulge this to the unpolished inhabitants-of quent to a neglect of this. Every one knows the bad effects of this obstruction ; colds coughs, tooth-ach, head-ach, rheumatic pains sore-throat, inflammation of the eyes, cutane- ous diseases of different kinds, &c. We are noAV accustomed to these complaints, and fancy they are incident to our nature ; while Scarcely any one thinks of ascribing them to that Avant of cleanliness, which generally pre- vails, and to which, in great measure at least, they are oAAring. It is indeed clear, that many of our diseases arise from our neglect of clean. ing the skin, and the obstruction of perspiration thence ensuing : consequently a considerable portion of human misery might be prevented, Avere the practice of bathing introduced into private families, and encouraged by public ac- commodations, When an indiv idual has apparently lost his life by droAvning, intense cold, or noxious vapours, Ave think highly of his restoration, and not AAithout reason. Institutions for the recovery of such of our unfortunate fellow- creatures are established in various places, and instructions for the purpose are liberally dis- persed. Let us then act consistently. Surely to secure the health of millions is of far greater importance, than to recal to life a feAv SWIMMING. 343 individuals, to some of whom the boon may be little Avorth acceptance. For my part, I consider the cold bath as an essential object in a good physical educa- tion; and a bathing place, as an indispensable appendage to a public school. A particular building, for the purpose, hoAvever, is unne- cessary; a safe, retired spot appears to me sufficient. Were children permitted to bathe in such a place under proper inspection, they Avould have no temptation, to evade the father's eye, and fill the mother's heart Avith alarm. Hoav many promising youths are annually lost to their country, merely from the Avant of such institutions ! No doubt I shall have many ready to start objections here: such as, bathing is not every Avhere practicable, because Avater is wanting: who will take upon himself the charge of su- perintendance ? who will defray the expense of bathing dresses? These and similar objec- tions only show, that men do not take up the matter in earnest, and consider education properly so called, as far as tuition is out of the question, with an indifference little to their honour. The advantage, which youth Avould de- rive from the cold bath, is not difficult to 344 BATHING, AND comprehend. I say expressly the cold bath: for I would not employ for the purpose the Avater Avarmed by the sun of a summer after- noon but the much cooler stream of the early morning. This braces every muscle, and every nerve; imparts to the body a powerful capacity of supporting cold; steels the skin, on the tensity or laxness of which so much depends, against the influence of the air, and renders it fit for the exercise of its na- tural function, perspiration; refreshes the Avhole system; gives alertness to the body, and animation to the spirits; and is particu- larly serviceable for cooling the blood in the heat of summer. Still there may be timid parents, Avho will be apprehensive of colds, coughs and other diseases, from the cold bath. To these I shall offer the result of my own experience. I have now for several years seen about thirty young persons in the habit of bathing, not in summer merely, but through the whole of autumn, till winter; in the most sultry Avea- ther, in shoAvers of rain, and on cold days, wdien the ground Avas covered thick Avith rime, and the puddles of Avater Avere frozen OArer; once indeed a little before Christmas, on a sudden thaw, in a pond w here the ice Avas an *.*/ SWIMMING. 345 inch thick, through which the bathers broke a hole in the middle with a large stick; while what remained around it was strong enough to bear them, and another time in a deep collection of snow-water, both at their urgent intreaty.* Brought up myself too tenderly, and not early emancipated from the preju- dices thus imbibed, I have paid strict atten- tion to the subject; and to the question, ' is such a practice free from danger ?' Experi- ence has uniformly answered me, with very feAv modifications, « it is not only free from danger, but beneficial to the health.' So far from either cold, or cough, or any other disorder ensuing from it; I have found, that those, who adopted this powerful preser- vative of health, scarcely knew the meaning of catching cold, which most people dread like the plague. Among us Germans, or rather among us polished Europeans, instances of this kind are very rare. We hear with astonishment of the Russian, Avho runs reeking from his stove, to bathe himself in the snow, and as- cribe this to his hard and savage nature. But * This very day, the 19th of February, 1799. there are four boys bathing themselves in a pond of snow-water, in a field behind my house, which last week was covered with skaters t T. Z 2! 246 BATHING, AND to be healthy, is not to be savage; and health is far more to be prized, than all effe- minate refinement, than all the polish of taste. Of memorable examples I shall quote just one more. On the 8th of August, 1791, a little girl was born at Schnepfenthal. Her father named her Thusnelda Gertrude. She Avas a lively little thing. When she was six or seven days old, he bathed her in a cold spring, and re- peated this every second or third day. Be- fore this she had constantly respired the pure and cool air, often been exposed to it naked, and frequently washed with cold water. From the first the child regarded it but little; for the feeling of infants is not very acute, and still less unstrung to nervous debility: though she cried sometimes. By degrees, however, it became so habitual, that she seldom utter- ed a single cry. The AAreather greAV cold, winter came, and the Avater was often covered with ice; yet Thusnelda bore it very well. In the mean time she was often carried out half or quite naked, in Avind, and rain, and snow. Pardon me tender mothers, ever in anxiety for your darlings, if I here set before you an example, which has the appearance of being borroAved from the true ancient Ger- SAVIMMING. 347 mans, and is so diametrically opposite to your principles of physical education. Thus- nelda enjoyed such uninterrupted plenitude of health, and such strength of body, as I scarce- ly ever observed in a child of her age. Often have I thought, as I beheld her, our sturdy forefathers were in the right, to bring up their children hardily; for, according to all appearance, hardy treatment is the only true way to health. Accordingly, we chose a convenient place in the neighbouring river, for ponds are not so agreeable. The banks are skreened by bushes. The depth with which we are well acquainted, is not too great, yet sufficient to admit of diving; and the current is gentle. The bank is perpendicular, and a few feet high, so as to afford a commodious situation for leaping into the water. We undress our- selves singly behind the bushes, and put on a pair of linen drawers, reaching only half- way down the thigh. We are not afraid of disordering our hair, for it is merely combed in the simplest manner. The folloAving rules are deduced from my own experience with young persons. 1. A gradual progress should be obser\red. Beginners should be first taken to bathe in the 348 BATHING, AND latter part of a hot summer afternoon, be- cause the Avater is then warmest. But 2. The best time for bathing is the morn- ing; very early, if possible; but on no ac- count just after a meal. 3. The master will never suffer his pupils to go into the water Avhen they are hot, but takes care, that they suffer themselves to grow cool first. This he can ascertain by examin- ing their armpits. 4. It is most eligible, to leap into the water, and plunge the whole body under it instantly. They who cannot do this, may throw the water over their heads with both hands. Diving, however, requires but little previous exercise; merely that of dipping the head frequently, and then crawling along un- der the water. When a person has acquir- ed a facility at this, he will soon be able to move himself under Avater at pleasure, and in a very little time will learn to leap into the water head foremost, and dart away like a fish. 5. Five or ten minutes are sufficient to refresh the body, and strengthen the nerves. A pair of worsted gloves, or a piece of flan- nel, should be used to rub the skin, Avhich will then be cleansed and invigorated. SWIMMING. 349 6. I do not think it necessary to refrain from bathing on account of a cold, or cough; but such a case will seldom occur, for young persons, who are in the habit of using the cold bath, seldom knoAV any thing of these complaints, if their way of life be in other re- spects answerable to this practice.* 7. Every person, who bathes, should Avipe himself dry as soon as he gets out of the Avater, and dress himself speedily. A little exercise after it is beneficial: if the bathing place be a quarter of an hour's walk from the house, the returning home is sufficient. These few simple rules, according to my experience, are quite sufficient. But the summer passes away, and autumn arrives. No matter: time and practice create habit. I have adduced instances above, and I can engage, that any boy, even though of a delicate constitution, will not only be able to persevere without difficulty, if he bathe con- stantly every tAvo or three days, but will find it conduce greatly to fortify his health, and strengthen his body. t I can aver, that I have often found washing the whole of the upper part of the body, neck, arms, and shoulders, with very cold vvater, of excellent use in catarrhal complaints, and' have curud a 5'oarsenessby this method. 350 BATHING, AND For such of my readers, as are convinced of the salubrity of this physical treatment, I do not mean to exclude the Avinter. I am persuaded, that avc may bathe in the open air at all seasons :* but I Avould not require too much. May all parents have this regard for the health of their children, to let them bathe at least once every Aveek : Avater and a bathing tub cost much less, than the medicine that will be saved in general by the practice. In all Avell regulated societies, bathing houses, for the sake of health and cleanliness, are indispensable in every town, and every village. A clean, firm, undebilitated skin, is requisite to health ; and this is best preserved by bathing. Hoav desirable then must it be to the poor and labouring class to have it in their power, to frequent a cold bath at little cost, or which is still better, at the public expense ! From bathing to swimming the transition is easy. Our pupils shall be kept diligently to their bathing, that they may learn to sAvim in the mean time. To be able to preserve the life of a fellow creature is surely a matter of exquisite delight: but Avhat avail injunc- * Poor Jewesses, who cannot afford a bath in their own houses, break the ice to get into a pond or a river, and return home through fro it and snow, without injury. SWIMMING. 351 tions, excitements, or public rewards, for rescuing a man from a Avatery grave; or Avhat the strong impulse of our OAvn humanity ; when we are obliged to run about in quest of that assistance, Avhich we do not possess in our OAvn faculties ? Nay if it were possible, that Ave could regard our own safety alone, the utility of the art is too obvious, to need farther recommendation. The Athenians, when they would express the idea of a man's knowing nothing, and being fit for nothing, used to say, that he could neither read nor swim. All beasts can SAvim: therefore swimming is no art, but a natural faculty of the animal body, which the Creator bestOAved on it, because he kneAv it must be perpetually exposed to the danger of falling into an element so generally abundant. Man only, or rather the polished European, cannot; partly because it never enters into his mind to attempt it, partly because the natural faculty is more or less destroyed by the physical treatment of his youth. This is a serious charge, because it includes Avith the annihilation of this faculty a number of dis- eases of the thorax, by which multitudes are sent to the grave. Scarcely is the infant come into the world, when his chest is compressed. This vile 352 BATHING, AND fashion does not cease here ; our usual dress^ fastened across the breast, is a continuatioit of it. In this do avc not act diametrically op- posite to nature ? She Avould have our body obey its innate propensity to enlarge: but we confine it by our clothing. The breast-bone and ribs are at first mere cartilages, and should extend Avith the growth: the increasing lungs should contribute to this by the act of respi- ration, enlarge the cavitites of the thorax, and assist in forming that beautiful arched chest; Avhich is commonly observed in strong per- sons. But this Ave counteract, and acquire a form very different from that of the son of Na- ture The diminution of the chest in con- sequence is the occasion of many diseases of the thorax, as Avell as of greater difficulty in acquiring the art of SAvimming. Practice must supply Aviiat Ave have lost, and to this I noAV proceed. I cannot here omit the testimony of Dr. Franklin, who was an excellent swimmer, as is given in the words of Campe. ' Nothing, in fact,' says the latter, ' can be easier than learning to swim. Little more is necessary ^ than the persuation, that you can swim if you Avill. This I Avas taught by the celebrated Franklin, see his letters, Avhen I Avas six and SWIMMING. 353 thirty years old. On this authority I made the trial and suc«eeded. He says, " All men can SAvim, as well as all beasts: nothing more is requisite, than to have the courage to put yourself into a proper position, and make the same motions with your hands and feet as you see the frogs. But this courage you will not have^ till you have found by experience, that you can keep yourself afloat in this manner. To make this experiment, Avalk into the Avater, Avhere it deepens gradually, till you are up to your middle, and turn about your face to the shore. In this situation, you will not be afraid to throw yourself forwards, and imitate the knoAvn motions of SAvimming, because you are certain, that you can soon reach the ground, and raise yourself up whenever you please. Thus you Avill soon find, that Avater has the poAver of supporting you: you repeat the trial, and every time your confidence increases : you gradually venture farther and farther from the shore, and thus the sAvimmer is formed." For my part, I Avas taught to swim by Christian Augustus Wolf, of Halle, who travels about as a professor of the art, and shall deliver what I learned from him, and our practice here. 3 A 354 BATHING, AND 1. The learner should be accustomed frequently to plunge the Avhole of his head under water. At first this gives a kind of stunning sensation; for Avhich reason it is very necessary, to be perfectly familiarized to it, as in first learning to SAvim it Avill una- voidably occur. But it should be carried farther : the learner should try to SAvim under Avater, and keep himself under as long as possible.* With this view I have found it very advantageous, to draAv as much air into the lungs as possible immediately before div- ing, and let it out again sloAvly under Avater. 2. If the water reach a little above the hips, it is deep enough for swimming. The * This I can strongly recommend from my own experience; and L will add, that when once a person can move his limbs with facility, slowly and regularly, under the water, which requires nothing but coolness and resolution, all that is necessary for him is, to hold his head back, so as to bring his face nearly perpendicular ta the horizon, and in striking his hands forward, to carry them as near as may be to the surface, without raising them out of the water; when he will find, that he can swim. At first, it is true, he will be able to swim perhaps but a very little way : but let him not be discouraged at this; all unusual motions are at first difficult and laborious, but practice soon renders them easy. Most beginners exhaust themselves by striking very quickly, in order to prevent their sinking: but let them confide in the buoyancy of the water, of which they may easily be convinced by their »wn experience, and by reflection on its specific gravity, which is in general somewhat more than that of their own bodies ; and remember, that the more slowly they move their limbs, the less they will fatigue them, and the less liable they will be to move them improperly. T. SWIMMING. 355 whole of the place intended for bathing should be accurately examined; and it Avould not be amiss, to drive in stakes as a warning against the deeper places. 3. It is likewise necessary, to have a guide, who, if he cannot SAvim, is not afraid of the Avater, and may support beginners Avith his hand, placing it under their belly oppo- site the short ribs, that they may learn to move their legs and arms Avithout fear of sinking. 4. When the learner has acquired some expertness at this, and the guide feels, that he bears less upon his hand, a cord should be fastened to a belt passing round his body at the armpits, and while the guide has hold of the end of this, he should go on till the water is up to his neck„ or even till he is out of his depth. Here he will exert his powers, and commonly learn to SAvim in a short time. I have seen ten or a dozen boys, Avho had practised swimming with the support of the guide's hand for some months, or even years, to no purpose, who were thus rendered swim- mers in a feAv lessons. 5. In swimming on the belly the body lies in an inclined position, the feet being deep- est, and the head being thrown back, so that 356 BATHING, AND the chin is above the Avater, while the eyes look forward along its surface, not doAvn into it. Neither the hands nor feet should come out of the water. The fingers and thumb of each hand being close together, and the elbows bent, the tAvo thumbs should be brought into contact, or the hands laid one upon the other, and thus, keeping the surfaces in a horizon- tal position, they should be thurst forward as near the surface of the water as possible, till the arms are extended in a straight line. At this point the hands should be turned so as to be nearly perpendicular to the plane of the horizon, the thumbs being downward, and the fingers being very slightly bent so as for the inside of the hand to form a trifling hol- Ioav; and in this manner they should be mov- ed in a curve first outAvards and then back- wards. While the hands are pushed for- wards, the heels are to be draAvn up toAvard the buttocks, either keeping them close toge- ther, or which is the practice of the best swimmers, crossing the legs at the small; and while the hands are moving outAvards and backAvards, the feet should be moved out- wards and backAArards likewise, the soles push- ing against the water, till the legs are brought close together in an extended position, whig!} SWIMMING, 357 finishes the stroke. The same proceeding is to be repeated, as often as you please; taking care, that the hands and feet move regularly, sloAvly, and at the same time: by the first their effect will be more uniform ; by the second, less fatiguing; and by the third, more forcible. 6. In sAvimming on the back likewise the body is in a slightly inclined position, the feet being lower than the head, and the face alone being above the water. The arms be- ing laid along close by the sides, to increase the surface of the body, the knees are to be draAvn up till they make a right angle with the body, keeping them close together so that they will appear above the water. This is the preparation for the stroke, which is to be given by separating them from each other, and pushing against the water Avith the soles of the feet, in the same manner as in swimming upon the belly. This mode of swimming is very commo- dious when the SAvimmer begins to be fatigu- ed, as the arms are perfectly at rest, and a considerable interval may be allowed between the strokes with the feet, as the body remains suspended in this posture for some time, the the feet sinking very gradually. 358 BATHING, AND If you Avant to rest the legs, you may keep yourself afloat, by laying on the back as nearly as possible in a horizontal position, and moving the hands on each side in very short but pretty quick strokes, holding them in the same position as when you SAvim on the belly. If a person should be seized Avith the cramp in the leg while swimming, Dr. Frank- lin recommends while thus lying on the back, to lift the leg out of the water, and give it a sudden, vigorous, and violent jerk in the air. Treading water, as it is called, is another mode of resting. To perform this, the swimmer suffers his feet to sink till his whole body is in an erect position, and then he raises his feet a little way and depresses them alter- nately, as a man does when he sets any ma- chinery in motion by means of tAvo treadles, at the same time moving his hands up and down in a similar manner just before him, the elboAvs being bent. When a person is tolerably expert at sAvimming, it will be highly advisable for him, to practice occasionally Avith all his clothes on, as he Avill most probably be in this situation, if at any time he should fall into the water by accident. My teacher never SWIMMING. 359 SAvims without a linen jacket, and long troAv- sers; and he asures me, that he can swim in his great coat and boots. Young persons after they are capable of swimming, should practice leaping into the Avater from considerable heights, since this may be useful to them in various cases. In this no farther instructions are necessary, than to begin with little heights, take care not to fall on the belly, and, if you leap in head foremost, to protect the forehead from the stroke of the Avater Avith one hand.* It is safest likeAvise to keep the legs close to- gether. * If the two hands be joined, and held just above the fore part of the head, this I should think unnecessary. It is requisite, how- ever, that the water should be of a sufficient depth, proportionable to the height from which you leap. I remember when a youth, on leaping from a bridge into a river about eight or nine feet deep, I struck the crown of my head a smart blow against a broad stone at the bottom; this, had the place from which I leaped been higher, or had the stone been pointed instead of fiat, might have been attended with serious consequences. Perhaps thebst way of leaping into the water, on several accounts, if the height be at all considerable, is with the feet foremost, taking particular care, to keep the legs close, and folding the arms across the breast. T. t 361 ] CHAP. XI. OF SOME OTHlR EXERCISES, THAT OUGHT NOT TO BE WHOLLY FORGOTTEN IN EDU- CATION. WE do not always find things go on smoothly through the whole course of our lives: people are daily exposed to dangers and inconveniencies, to which Ave pay so little at- tention in education, as if Ave thought our children exempt from them. Our education is calculated more for the parlour, for a quiet, still, inactive life, than for living among things as they really are, which requires energy, ex- ertion, presence of mind, and not unfrequent sacrifices of our own ease or convenience. Youth is the golden age of life: let us not embitter it by severity; yet let us remem- , ber that youth will not last for ever, and pre- pare our pupils for the change. The parent, who feels a tender affection for his children, should not be misled by it, to treat them with imprudence. At an early period he should make them acquainted with the dan- gers, that threaten us, and ask them, how they would ward them off, or how they would extricate themselves. He should not content 3 * 562 MISCELLANEOUS himself Avith this: he should give them practi- cal instructions, and teach his children to act, as if the danger or inconvenience were really present. Instructions of this kind appear to me of great importance, as they concern our OAvn pre servation. We Avould not therefore by any means neglect, even at the expense of a little learning, to acquire a habit of presence of mind on the occurrence of unexpected acci- dents, and a knowledge of the best mode of acting in them. At the alarm of fire Ave start from our sleep, tremble with fear, and know not Avhat we shall do. At the fire of Gera, a Avealthy man snatched up his backgammond-table in a fright and left all his money behind him. Our chil- dren stand crying in their shirts, for they have .' j no idea of what is passing, or what they ought >. to do. The only way of preventing all this" »j is, to anticipate such a danger, lay doAvn a proper plan of proceeding, and frequently act \ it over, as if it really happened. A cautious parent, therefore, will often converse with his children on. this fearful event, render it fami- liar to their minds, instruct them what first they ought to do, hoAv to provide for their OAvn security y what'they should endeavour to save, EXERCISES. 363 and the like, according to the local circum- stances of his house and family, and the im- minence of the danger. But verbal instructions are not sufficient, the business requires active practice. Accord- ingly, I would sometimes rouse my children from their sleep at midnight, and let them perform every thing, that they must do in case of a real fire. This may seem hard ; but is it not in reality affectionate care ? Can it be expected, that children should act properly in such an emergency, unless they be in some degree prepared for it ? In one house, which was on fire, I saw the master leap out of the garret Avindow, by which he ruined his health for the remainder of his life; his Avife, Avho was pregnant, killed herself by the fall; his servant and child Avere both burned to death: and this in a place well provided Avith active firemen. Should not this be a warning to us, not to depend Avholly on the assistance of others, but to pre- pare ourselves as much as possible against such a misfortune ? It is not sufficient, to teach children how they should act in case of fire, and to carry youth to see houses in flames, if opportunity oner, that they may have a more lively idea of 364 MISCELLANEOUS such an event; they should be familiarized with the terrible element, that too frequently destroys both dAArellings and their inhabitants, and taught to rush through it unhurt. How many persons suffer themselves to be misera- bly burned to death, because they Avant cou- rage to dart boldly through flames, which are as permeable as the air itself, instead of possess- ing the solidity of a brick wall ? That this is practicable we ought to know from the com- mon tricks boys play at bonfires.* There is a school, at which the following exercise is practised. A long line of straw is placed on the ground, narroAv at the beginning, and gra- dually Avideningto the end, so that the flames, where the line is largest, ascend as high as a man-s head. The straAV being set on fire, youths and boys jump over it as speedily as possible, backward and forward; under care, ful inspection of course. Whoever has prac- tised this exercise a few times in his youth, will not be afraid I imagine, to rush out of a house through a burning door-way. * The following passage in I rontinius's Stratagems, lib. 5, ^ 27, is also to the purpose. • Hanne, ab hostibus clausus, locum eruptioni maxime aptum aggestis levibus materiis incendit; turn hoste ad eaeterosexitus custodiendos evocato, milites peripsam flammam eduxit adminotus ora scutis, crura vestetegerc.' EXERCISES. 365 I am a strenuous advocate for allowing children a due portion of sleep, as it is requi- site to their growth ; but I am of opinion at the same time, that we ought to accustom them to Avatching; and deem it proper there- fore, that, when the body has attained a con- siderable degree of strength, as at the age of twelve or fourteen, they should be occasion- ally exercised in keeping awake, that they might not become slaves to sleep : for times may come, when they may find it necessary to refrain from rest. The same doctrine is applicable to eating. The stomach and palate rule the Avorld. It would certainly be advantageous to our chil- dren, to emancipate them from the despotic sway of these tyrants; which may be affect- ed, by gradually teaching them, to subject their appetites to their reason. Occasionally I see a whole school, with their master at their head, make a common cause against appetite, and cheerfully content themselves with a piece of dry bread, relinquishing their usual dinner.* * The advantages of temperance, and indifference about viands are eminently displayed in the life of Dr. Franklin ; a man, who* ;xarPrcannotVtoo strongly recommended as a patten ft* youth. T. ^ 366 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. But I am noAV stepping into the con- fines of moral education, and must therefore break off. [ 367 ] CHAP. XII. READING ALOUD, AND DECLAIMING. IT is justly expected from every au« thor, that he Avrite with grammatical accura- cy ; and there are several literary societies in Europe, Avhose object is the purity of their written language. With regard to pro- nunciation hoAvever, and the management of the voice in speaking or declaiming, objects of high importance, as they are not of mere private concern, but, in the case of public speakers, have considerable influence on the welfare of whole communities and nations, they are commonly left to the industry of the individuals themselves, and Ave think we have done enough, if we see, that our children are not tonguetied, when they come into the world. This negligence is inexcusable. Hence it is, that we scarcely find one person in ten, who has a regular, just, and pleasing enunci- ation. Stammering, lisping, speaking thick, pausing to take breath at improper places; inability of pronouncing certain letters, such as the r, the omission of which is too com- mon in many places ; omitting the h before 368 READING ALOUD, many wrords, and aspirating others which be' gin Avith a simple voAvel; employing av for v, and v for w ; drawling, singing, speaking in a key different from that which is natural to the speaker's voice, Sec.; appear to me to grow daily more common. We need not wonder at this, for speaking is learned entire- ly by imitation, and faults are too apt to be imitated, because negligence requires less ex- ertion, than perfectly accurate articulation, Avith attention to the proper accent and em- phasis. There is not one part of England,' Avhere the people at large do not display pe- culiar faults in their dialect, and from these the metropolis is very far from being exempt. Another fault, that appears to me of equal importance, is Avcakness of the lungs. Ho at many of our'clergy deliver sermons, excellent in style and composition, in such a weak voice, that feAv of the congregation can un- derstand them ; or with such unimpassioned monotony, that their effect is lost! The source of this fault is chiefly in the physical education of children :* Ave are continually prohibiting our children from speaking loud in the house, because fashion brands it with * AVhat was said in the chapter on swimming mav be recollected here. AND DECLAIMING. 369 the name of rudeness; and we neglect to ex- ercise and improve their chest and lungs. The only general remedy for this is read- ing aloud and declaiming in the open air. On a sultry day,' we wish to refrain from violent bodily exertion, yet would not doze aAvay our valuable moments: these then are our resource. A shady spot in our place of ex- ercise is appropriated to this purpose; and here we take our seats. These are at one end of a Avalk a hundred and fifty paces long, every ten paces marked by a post, or a stone, so as to give fifteen different stations for the reader. The master provides a good and entertaining book; perhaps travels, an orati- on, a poem, or a play, according as he Avishes to exercise the reader in narrative, declama- tion, verse, or dialogue. The exercise commences. The reader repairs to the first, second, third, or some other station, according to the strength his organs have acquired by practice, and the calmness of the weather. All the rest are at- tentive, to detect faults in his pronunciation, or delivery. When the reader has finished a period, he stops. If the audience have not heard it plainly, they all cry out: 'indis- tinct! unintelligible!' He must then exah; 3 G 370 reading Aloud, &c. his voice, or take a nearer station. If, on the contrary, his delivery be just and clear, they Avill applaud him by clapping their hands. If his voice be louder than is necessary for the distance he has chosen, they will make signs to him, to take a remoter station* If it be possible, to render the organs of speech more perfect, and strengthen the lungs, by means of exercise, this is certainly the way. Here is no assistance to be derived from the Avails of a room; every thing must be effected by the organs themselves : these must be exerted ; and the greater the energy employed by them, the more distinctly will each syllable be pronounced: and as attenti- on must be paid to strength artd clearness of tone* precipitancy is rendered impracticable. The case is someAvhat like that of draAving; the smaller and fainter our outline, the less distinct it is; the stronger and bolder the strokes, the more clearly it strikes the eye. It is not my place here to give rules for pronunciation and delivery; these I must leave to the teacher, and to the books Avrit- ten expressly on the subject: it is sufficient, that I have noticed the defect, and pointed out the remedy. [ 371 1 CHAP. XIII. EXERCISE OF THE SENSES. THE capacity of man for receiving ideas by means of impressions made upon.the senses affords an ample and fertile field, hitherto but little cultivated and that chiefly by accident. I term it ample and fertile, because from it we ^tner the greater part of ™ir knowledge ; and I consider it as left to accident, because Ave commonly give our- selves no trouble, to cultivate it systematical- ly. Hoav much pains do Ave take to train a pointer ; wrhile, at the same time, instead of endeavouring to improve our own organs of sense, many things Ave do have a direct ten- dency to deaden them ! That this censure is not more severe than just, I need only appeal, not to the acuteness of the senses of man in a state of nature, but of him Avho has exercised them in a degree more than ordinary, as is done in many mechanic occupations. The dullness of the senses in many others is so great, that we may almost say, they have eyes and see not, noses and smell not, and their judgments, Avhen they depend on sen- sations, are as childish as those of the infa it, 372 fcxERCISE OF who stretches out his little hand to take hold of the Moon. The best preceptors have recommended the exercise of the organs of sense, but they have done it only in general terms, without entering upon particular precepts. Rousseau, from Avhom much instruction might have been ^expected on this subject, merely recommends it; saying to shoAv its importance, ' if Ave would learn to think, Ave must exercise our organs, Avhich are the implements of the Un* ^erstanding;' and then proceeds to give two or three examples only. As the subject is difficult from want of ex- periments upon it, I must request the reader's indulgence on some of my opinions, particu- larly as in forming them I have taken no guide. Indeed it is generally more advan- tageous to the cause of truth, to express our OAvn sentiments, than to repeat those of others. Mine, hoAvever, must be considered merely as an attempt. In it three questions come under our consideration. 1. Is an artificial cultivation of the senses practicable ? In other Avords, can the senses be cultivated in a degree more than is conv mon ? 2. Is it productive of any benefit ? THE SENSES. 373 3. In what manner can the senses be cul- tivated ? Hence this essay divides itself into three parts. I. On THE PRACTICABILITY OF CULTI- VATING THE SENSES. The manner, in which impressions made upon the organs of sense convey ideas to the mind, is of no importance in our inquiry. On our coming into the world, either the organs are dull, or the mind is deficient in the faculty of perceiving the impressions they receive. Be this as it may, the sense of feeling appears to be the first, that is excited in us; it is some time perhaps before we acquire that of hearing; and that of smell is probably still later. At first all our senses appear to be very imperfect, and the impres- sions received by them very obscure. By degrees, as they are more exercised, and acquire more experience they improve seem- ingly in proportion. How far this improve- ment may be carried, is difficult to conjecture. We see daily, that a man, whose occupation has required the exercise of his sight, or of his feeling in a particular Avay, has obtained a great superiority over other men in the accu- racy of it: and there have been blind men, 374 EXERCISE OF Avho, by applying the sense of feeling with attention to that object, have acquired the capacity of distinguishing colours by the touch. The instances, indeed, of those, Avho have carried one sense to such a degree of per- fection, as nearly to supply the place of another they had lost, are too numerous to be related here ; yet I must not pass them over, Avith, out-quoting an example or two. In Puisaux lived a chemist and musician, who had been born blind. He learned to read by means of letters cut in relief, and taught his son to read also. He estimated ^liS distance from the fire by the degl'ee of heat it gave: and could tell when he came near any thing, by the impression the air made on his face. He could distinguish an open street from one which wras not a thoroughfare; his face being sensible to the slightest change in the atmosphere. The weight of a body, or the capacity of a vessel, he could estimate very nicely; his hand being an accurate balance, and infallible measure. He could detect the slightest irregularity in a smooth surface, or variation in the tone of voices. Saunderson, the blind professor of mathe- matics at Cambridge, had such nice feeling, that by it he could detect spurious coins, a- THE SENSES* 375 mOng any number of genuine ones, though they were executed so nicely, as to deceive the acutest eye. The blind sculptor, tbo, must not be forgotten, who, after having lost his sight for ten years, modelled the figure of the great duke Cosmo in clay Avith the utmost accuracy, as he did that of pope Urban the eighth, and that of the duke Bracciani in a dark cellar. Kersting, avIio died a feAv years ago, is a more recent and striking instance. This man, in his youth, Avas often obliged to go through a dark passage late at night. From fear he often shut his eyes. On this occasion he made a remark, that proved of great import- ance to him in his subsequent blindness j whenever he came near any solid body, he felt a certain warmth all over him. On this he made a frequent practice of Avalking Avith his eyes shut, and uniformly perceived the Same sensation on approaching any object. This he carried so far as never to run against any thing. After this he lost both his sight and hearing, Avhen the faculty he had acquired enabled him, to go any where without danger. When blind he not only wrote a treatise on shoeing horses, but carried his sense of feeling to such a degree of perfection, as to be 376 EXERCISE OF able to read any book in large print by passing the ends of his fingers over the letters. By Avay of amusement he cultivated a garden; grafted and budded his fruit-trees; planted his tulips and hyacinth roots ; laid his carna- tions : &c. Every morning he examined his plants and floAvers, could distinguish them accurately by his feeling, and knew every eye and bud on his trees. Still his deafness ap- peared to be a misfortune, for which no re- medy could be hoped. One morning, hoAv- ever, his Avife lying accidently with her mouth against his shoulder, while she gave some di- rections to the maid, who came into the room, he felt a series of strange sensations in his arm. This exciting his attention, he laid his hand on her mouth, while she pronounced all the letters of the alphabet in their order. At each letter he perceived a different sen- sation, which he carefully noted, finding it ahvays the same at the repetition of the same letter and by practice he acquired such rea- diness at distinguishing sounds in this manner, that his wife had nothing to do, but to carry his hand to her mouth, and speak gently, in order to converse Avith him as readily as Avhen he possessed his hearing. When his wife first pronounced the alphabet in this way loudly, THE SENSES. 377 as soon as she came to the letter r, he felt as if he should be strangled : his heart was op- pressed, he shuddered and trembled in every limb, screamed out Avith anguish, and said to his wife : * my God ! what are you doing to me ?' in consequence she~ ever after avoided this letter as much as possible ; and when it was indispensible, pronounced it as softly as she could. It is said of this man, that, while he was blind and deaf, he was almost ahvays happy and content, extremely cheerful, and extraordinarily clear and luminous in his ideas. To convince myself of the possibility of cultivating the senses, I have several times exercised several of the pupils of our aca* demy, and received convincing proofs of it. Lastly, that my observation might be more presise, I selected two, W** of Langensalz, and L. von H* of Copenhagen, and exercis- ed them three successive Sundays, an hour or two in the evening each time. From such short trials no wonders are to be expected, but the following journal of what was done will shoAv, that the want of one sense is not absolutely necessary to the improvement of another. 3 a 378 EXERCISE O* January 27, W** and H* being complete- ly blindfolded, learned to-day, 1: todistinguish gold from silver coin SAvith great facility; Prussian, from those of BrunsAvick, new French double louisd'or, from Prussian and Saxon. Among a number ©f new double louisd'or, they learned to pick out the Saxon, Prussian, and French. All this they did readi- ly. 2: to tell with accuracy the number of pieces of gold, as far as 12 or 14 louis, by their weight, they being placed in a pile on the extended fingers. 3: to know the face* of all coins from their reverses very quickly. 4: among several sixpenny pieces to pick out the Prussian. 5: to distinguish by the ear all the noises, that were made expressly for the purpose. 6: to write with tolerable quickness, but not very perspicuously. Feb. 3. 1. They distinguished old French crowns from neAv by the touch. 2. They told the number of German dollars, laid upon the hand in a pile, as far as thirteen. H*, in parti- cular, Avas scarcely to be deceived in this point, manage hoAv I would. For instance I laid on Iavo, then three, then six, or two, five, and seven, and he told precisely each time the number on his hand. I then took away or THE SENSES. 37S kidded to the pile on his hand various irregu- lar numbers, and he could always tell exactly how many remained. 3. H* found the date on a German dollar, but could not tell the year. 4. He distinguished the number 24 on a Hessian grosch by the finger. He was directed to point out the reverse : and did so. * Is it a head ?' he was asked. «No' « What is it?' 'Not a horse.' 'What then.' 'A coav. ' In fact it Avas the Hessian lion : and I must add, he did not know I had such a grosch, and indeed had never seen one. 5. I took a book, and let each of them feel the thickness of a single leaf, then of five together, then of ten. Thus I furnished them Avith a standard, I then gave them ten leaves, forty five, tAventy, thirty six, a hundred, sixteen, fifty, and so on, between the finger and thumb ; and in this way they learned at length to tell the number of leaves pretty accurately, or only Avith trifling errours extending from two to five leaves. 6. I then put the book into the hand of one of them, and desired him to open it as he pleased himself, and tell the page. This he did many times very ex- actly, though he had always to multiply by two in his head, and in general with trifling mistakes, not exceeding eight pages. 580 EXERCISE OF Feb 10. To-day Ave could not prac- tice much on account of company: still we did a little. 1. They very readily distin^ guished various gold coins, namely Prussian, Saxon, Brunswick, and French louisd'or- 2. The 2d experiment of last Sunday with the dollars was repeated. H* told the number several times as far as sixteen, and Avas scarcely ever mistaken. I often laid them on his hand by guess, withoutknowingthe liumber myself. Thus I found, that he had not lost the impres- sions of last Sunday. Mr. L* Avas present and not a little astonished. 3. The exercises five and six of last Sunday were repeated, first giving the standard again afresh. H* told the page so accurately, that I was surprized; and one of his school fellows, who came in, observed, that an indifierent spectator might suspect some deseption. Indeed at first I was doubtful myself, and thought he might see through the handkerchief: accordingly, though I consider him as one of the most ingenuous youths in all Denmark, I tied an- other handkerchief over it; but this made no difference. At different times he told the pages, 70, 84, 60, 88, 38, 68, 104, 116, 56, 84, 76, 84, 86, exactly, and pretty rea- dily. In his other numbers nine times he THE SENSES, 381 mistook by a single leaf, nine times by two leaves, five times by four or five, and only twice by nine or ten. When it is considered, that this was done by beginners, after very little practice, it will scarcely be questioned, that the senses are susceptible of cultivation. * What extensive capacities,' says Herder, 'liehidden in each of the human senses, which necessity, want, and disease, the defect of some other sense, monstrous conformation, or accident, occa- sionally discloses! thus giving us room to conjecture, that other senses may be con- cealed in us, not to be unfolded in this world. If some blind men have raised their sense of feeling or hearing, the memory, the power of calculation, to a degree that appears, fabu- lous to men of ordinary faculties, undiscovered worlds of variety and perfection may lie asleep in other senses, not yet developed in our complex machine.'* II. Is THE CULTIVATION OF THE SENSES PRODUCTIVE OF ANY BENEFIT? Locke has clearly shoAvn, that none of our ideas are innate, but all acquired through the medium of the senses: it can scarcely be * Herder's Philosophy of History, book iv,chap. 3, p. 86-6;:. 382 EXERCISE OF questioned, therefore, that the rectitude of a man's understanding, the quickness of his intellect, and the soundness of his judgment, must be in proportion to the accuracy of his senses, the facility with which they perform their functions, and the clearness of the per- ceptions they convey to the mind. If the senses be dull, and the preceptions obscure, to a certain degree, an id\ot is formed. This happily is not a frequent occurrence: but if Ave look abroad into the Avorld, Iioav many shall Ave find, who judge so erroneously on various occasions, that you Avould often sup- pose them in Avant of common sense ! Where this is not the effect of prejudice or passion, it can arise only from dullness of the senses, or the obscurity of the perceptions they con- vey to the mind. Now, that the senses are capable of improvement, has already been shown; and if the mind acquires all its facul- ties through the medium of the senses, the exercise of the senses must evidently be the direct way, to improve its capacity; at the same time that it will prove indirectly the means of eradicating our prejudices, and giving reason the superiority over the pas, sions. THE SENSES. 383 Understanding is nothing but the faculty of perceiving things; reason, of tracing cau- ses and effects from a chain of ideas: judgment, of discerning the different properties of things. It is obvious then, that the soundness of our understanding, reason, and judgment, must depend on the clearness and accuracy of our senses, or acquire a habit of indolence in their use, from Avant of exercising them, those valuable faculties of the mind will become proportionably Aveak. Nothing deserves so much to be shunned as this habit of indolence, mental and corporal; for nothing has occa- sioned so much mischief, so much misery, and so much unhappiness in the Avorld. The exercise of our sensess therefore, must be of the highest utility; and certainly it is no small improvement in our system of educa- tion, that Ave begin to instruct children more by imprinting ideas upon their minds through the medium of the senses, instead of filling their heads Avith empty Avords, Avhich often: convey to them vague, if not erroneous ideas, and thus lay the foundation of many subse- quent mistakes in their judgment and conduct. III. MODE OF CULTIVATING THE SENSES. The first step to the excitement of an idea is an impression made upon some one of the 384 EXERCISE OF organs of sense. This impression may be perceived, or it may not be perceived : and, if it be perceived, the perception may be com- plete, or incomplete, or erroneous. Thus our attention is called to the truth or falshood of I the perception, its completeness or incom- pleteness, and the slumber of the sense. a. Of the truth or falshood, completeness or incompleteness of a perception. Errours of the senses arise from various sources. a. From judging by a mediate idea of the object. Impressions are caused by external objects, either through immediate contact as in the sensation of feeling, smell, and taste; or through mediate contact, as in those of sight, by means of the rays of light, or of hearing, by means of vibrations of the air. If our ear Avere in a place void of air, it could hear nothing: if our eye be in a place void of light it can see nothing: and the other senses will perceive nothing, unless some substance come into contact with them.* Thus, then, Ave have immediate perceptions from the senses, only when some object touches the nerves of feel- j * The nose does not touch the flower it smells.it is true, but the effluvia, that emanate from the flower, come into contact with our olfactory nerves. T. STHE SENSES. ' 385 ** ing, taste, or smell, rays of light enter the eye, or vibrations of the air reach the drum of the ear, and the mind perceives and considers the impression. But Avhen from the impression made upon one sense we infer an impression before made upon another, it is not a mere sensitiAre idea, but partakes of tlie#iature of an abstract idea, and this idea I call mediate. For instance, a man lifts a lump of lead Aveigh- ing a hundred and twelve pounds, and the sense of feeling gives him an immediate idea of a hundred Aveight: but, if he afterwards sees a mass of lead of the same shape and size, and say it is a hundred Aveight, he has not an immediate idea of its Aveight, but a mediate idea, inferred from a previous perception. Or my dog lies by my side, I see him, I stroke him, and have an immediate idea of him. He runs out, I hear him bark, I judge it is my dog, and the idea of him enters my mind; but this idea is only mediate, for I have no imme- diate idea but that of barking. Here then an important question arises: in what cases can our senses furnish us Avith immediate, in what only with mediate ideas ? The nature of the senses themselves is not sufficient, to afford a satisfactory ansAver to this,"without consider- ing at the same time the objects, by Avhich 3 E 1 386^ EXERCISE OF 0 they are affected. The general qualities, by means of which bodies act upon our senses, or the data, by Avhich our senses distinguish bodies, are figure, magnitude, gravity, colour, hardness or softness, odour, flavour, and motion in its most extensive signification, in- cluding ca0equently every species of action. On comparing these Avith the nature of our " senses, Ave shall instantly perceive, that the£ cannot all convey immediate ideas to every sense, but only in the following order. Immediate ideas of "Figure can be imparted by the sight, and touch. Magnitude - - sight, and touch. Gravity - touch- Colour - - ♦ sight. 4 Hardness or softness - - touch, Odour, - - smell. Flavour - taste. Motion - hearing, sight, and touch. The following appear on close consideration to be the scources of our mediate ideas. Mediate ideas of Figure can be imparted by the hearing. Magnitude - - - hearing. Gravity - - sight, and hearing. THE SENSES. 387 Hardness or softness - sight, and hearing. Colour - touch ? Odour - - sight. Flavour - - sight. Motion - smell, and hearing. Immediate ideas are founded on the inva- riable fidelity of the organs of sense: * medi- ate ideas, on conclusions formed Inn antece- dent impressions and ideas. If part of these impressions in time be effaced, ourjudgment, and the idea arising from it, will be erroneous. For example, if the impression of the magni- tude of a hundred Aveight of lead be ever so little effaced, Ave shall afterAvards imagine a larger or smaller Jump to be of that Aveight. We may also be deceived in another Avay. If Ave see a holloAv mass of lead of the same size, so placed, that the vacuity is not visible to us, Ave shall judge, that it Aveighs a hun- dred and tAArelve pounds. Hence our mediate ideas are far more liable to errour than our * As the organs of sense receive impressions from external objects, according to immutable laws of nature, I cannot be persuad.d, that they are liable to deception. When the stick, part of which is in the water, part out, appears to us broken, the eye represents the objedt faithfully, but the mind forms a false conception of it, for want of considering the effect of the medium through which it is seen. The expression, therefore, ' our senses deceive i's,' is as deficient in philosophical accuracy, as that of ' the Sjn rises.' It would be more proper to say, ' we are deceived in o :r senses/ r.-hsj* we are speaking of the organs. 338 exercise or immediate; and from the preceding tables it is evident, that the hearing is most exposed to this deception. £. From the sphere of action of the sense and its organ being too extensive. The greater field a sense embraces, the more freqttttatiy, of course, it must be ex- posed to eflrour. If Ave reckon the different qualities cognizable by the several senses, according to the preceding tables, the differ- ent sorts of ideas, on which they are employ- ed, ay ill be found to be as follows. i'mm ediai :e ideas; mediate ideas ; in a The sight has 4 4 8 hearing 1 5 6 touch 5 0 5 smell 1 I 2 taste I 0 1 From these proportions the sight and hearing appear to be oftenest exposed to er- rour; and the same may be inferred from their almost uninterrupted, and in great mea- sure involuntary use. y. From ihefecbLncss of the impression. Every impression made by an object immedi- ately upon the nerves is mere active and THE SENSES. 389 effectual, than those in which the object does not operate upon them so directly. The latter case applies particularly to the senses of hearing and sight. Hence the impressions conveyed by the touch are always more for- cible, than those imparted by the eye: * and this is the reason, why the latter are more frequently mistaken by us. -*, J\ From disease, of the organ or its nerves. This case is easily conceived. To a short- sighted person every object at a little distance appears obscure. A person, Avhose nerves ere weak, sees tAvo candles, two ink- horns; he wills to take the pen, is deceived, and carries his hand to the Image of it. Here we have an errour of the sense OAving to dis- ease of the nerves. t. From the state of the mind. This state of the mind always has the character of ab- sence : for example, it may consist in want of attention, sleep, profound meditation on some abstract idea, trouble, strong passions, &c. In this case the mind receives the impression only in part, or obscurely, whence the idea of it may very easily be erroneous. » This is the reason why infants fee!, before they hear or see: and if we do not so well understand i/.- impressions made by iha touch, the fault is entirely in our n^L-tla; to cultivate this sense. 590 EXERCISE OI f. From too violent action of another organ. Thus extreme pain may overpoAver the im- pressions made on some one or other of the senses, so that the ideas arising from them may be false or obscure. w. From an imperfect application of the senses. We acquire knoAvledge of an object by considering its different qualities, which require the application of more senses than one. Hense it folloAvs, that we cannot have a perfect idea of a thing, Avhich comes under the cognizance of diffeient senses, if Ave ex- amine it by one alone. By these observations from a to y\, Ave arc enabled to class the senses according to the degree in Avhich they are liable to err; and from them Ave may deduce rules, to be ob- served in the natural exercise of the senses. 1. Order of the senses with regard to erro- fieonsness. The sight considers corporeal objects in all their particulars: it embraces figure, magni- tude, gravity, colour, matter, and motion: the occasions, therefore, en which it may be exposed to err, are frequent. Add to this, many thousand objects act upon it at the same time: whence an infinite number of impres- sions are made upon the eye, to which Ave pay THE SENSES-. 391 no heed, or Avhich avc see falsely; particularly as most of them act too gently, to excite our attention. As these circumstances do not take place by any means to an equal extent in any other of the senses, there is no one, ia which Ave are liable to be more frequently de- ceived, than in the sight. The hearing is formed for sounds alone. If these strike our ears in an articulation* with which Ave are familiar, we understand them, Ave have immediate ideas actually ex- cited by them: but these ideas are of the sounds only, not of the objects by Avhich they are produced. In this case we are not much exposed to errour. But if from these tones we infer figure, magnitude, gravity, matter, and motion; and form our inferences, as is commonly the case, from inarticulate sounds: if Ave infer the size of a stone from the noise it makes in falling, the figure of a glass from its sound, the matter of a sonorous body from its tone, or the motion or action of a moving substance from the noise it occasions: no sense, the sight accepted, can be more apt to deceive us, than the hearing; for, next to the sight, it is employe"d on the most particu- lars, and embraces the greatest number of simultaneous objects; and v. hat is still more, 392 EXERCISE 0E there is no sense that gives us so many me- diate ideas.* All the qualities of corporeal substances, flavour, odour, and perhaps colour generally speaking,! excepted, are cognizable by the sense of feeling; but Avith more certainty, because immediately, so that on this account it is less liable to errour than the two preced- ing. Besides its sphere is more limited; for while the sight embraces objects from the foot of the observer to the stars in the firma- ment, feAv of these are Avithin reach of the touch. These three are termed the nobler senses, because by their means chiefly our minds are enriched Avith ideas. Hence, too, they more eminently deserve to be cultivated; particu- larly as Ave are most exposed to errour in their use. Smell comes next to feeling; as, beside examining odour, it endeavours to form con- clusions of motion: whence it is more liable to deception than * For this reason the sense of hearing must be of all most liable to mislead us: though it is possible, that we may be somewhat oftener deceived by the sight, as we more frequently form judgments by this sense. T. t Blind men, it must be remembered, have distinguished colour by the touch. THE SENSES. 393 The taste, which is confined to flavour alone, and the sphere of action of which is more limited. 2. Rules for the natural exercise of the senses. olol. Mediate ideas are not adapted to the capacities of very young children, for the conclusions, on Avhich they are founded, must be deduced from numerous observations, which are to be made, and deeply imprinted on the memory, before conclusions from them can be brought into use. To prepare them for the future, however, they cannot receive too many immediate ideas; but this can be effected only by the steady and unin- terrupted impression of sensible objects upon the mind. Thus should the seeds of future knoAvledge be sown; and this will prepare the mind for the reception of abstract ideas. What can be a more delightful occupation for parents? By this you will show more real kindness and true affection for your chil- dren, than by( overwhelming them with cares- ses, and loading them with the productions of the toyshop; by this you will benefit them more, than all the book-learning, which you so early endeavour to drive into their heads. Begin this office when the child is in his era- 394 EXERCISE OF die: stupify him not Avith eternal tossing and dandling: gradually rouse his faculties frorri their slumber by sensible impressions. Gent- ly rub his limbs, laugh and talk to him, sing to his unpractised ear, sIioav him the light, carry him into the open air, let every thing be life around him, that he may learn to live* When a year has thus passed away, his facul- ties will be in a considerable degree unfolded,, he Avill creep about upon all fours, and in a little while will run upon the sunny turf. Now let every thing, that the senses can compre- hend, be introduced to his notice: let the house, the garden, the court, with the persons and animals around him, be his amusement, he will want few toys beside; and the fewer he has, the better. Be you his instructors; converse with him both by words and ges- tures ; point out to him the several parts of objects, and give them their proper names; acquaint him Avith their properties and uses, as occasions offer. Does he not understand you ? No matter: he will learn, and his voice will form itself, first to the pronunciation of one word, then of another; and thus, inex- pressible delight! he will learn language, and With it real ideas.* I will boldly affirm, that * People are too apt to imagine, that infants do not understand words, when they are unable te express themselves in them. But THE SENSES. 395 a more pleasing and effectual mode of forming the mind does not exist: as I am convinced by my own experience in eleven children, all sound in body and in mind. The exercises of the infant are over; the little fellow speaks intelligibly, and with great simplicity, for he understands what he says, and speaks as he thinks. But the employ- ment of his senses proceeds, for this is be- come his most agreeable amusement. To him every thing in nature is alive; every where wonders present themselves in abun- dance to his eyes, superior to the most costly toys. The spider employed on her web, the caterpillar gnawing the leaf, the garden full of plants and insects., the pond with its aquatic inhabitants, the air Avith its birds, the ground with its minerals, animate and inanimate nature, display an immense field to his senses, and he observes, searches, and discovers no- velties on every side. Presently he begins to make experiments; he collects and brings to his father or preceptor Avhat he finds; and noAV instruction begins amid sensible ideas, and scientific knowledge assists the curious little very little observation is sufficient, to evince the contrary : and ii we consider, when we learn a foreign language, how much readier we can understand it, than express ourselves in it, this will appear v«rv natural. ?• r\/i EXERCISE OF inquirer in his progress, where his sensible ideas are insufficient. This is the a b c of a sound mind, to be found in no primer, and to be acquired neither by putting letters together, nor by stuffing the head Avith unintelligible Avords, to Avhich the learner annexes no ideas.* Read! learn to. read! is the universal cry. This, people think, cannot be begun too early; and when the child has learned to read, he knows not A\iiat use to make of his learning: for books are filled Avith thoughts, but thoughts are un- intelligible to him, if they be not founded on the ideas he possesses. ' Ideas, without thoughts,' Kant says somewhere, 'are blind:' but thoughts without ideas are dumb; they are like nuts Avithout a kernel; like clouds, that elude the grasp. Thus the human in- tellect first requires ideas, then thoughts. This is the reason why modern preceptors insist upon conveying instruction through the medium of the senses; and, which is still more to the purpose, why children are greedy of instruction through this medium. €£ The senses of sight and hearing are extremely precipitate and comprehensive in their action. Hence arise numerous errors. * Or, which is still worse, and frequently the case, false ones. T. THE SENSES. 397 The eye commonly glances over a thousand objects, as quickly as the lightning's flash, and Ave see far too much, to perceive any thing. For this reason thousands go through life without the spirit of observation, for they are not accustomed, to fix their eye; that is, in reality, they have not the habit of attend- ing to impressions made upon the eye, and thinking upon them. For this there is no remedy, but early exercise on sensible ideas, as I haA e observed in the preceding section, a a, and shall proceed to notice still further in the folloAving, yy. I have the proofs of the utility of this before mine eyes. I see several boys, educated in this manner, distinguishing themselves by their spirit of observation, and like little spies detecting nature; for scarcely a movement or an action escapes them, be- cause they Avere early accustomed, to employ their eyes effectually on sensible objects. yy. The impressions made on the organs of sight and hearing may be faint, likeAvise; the grounds of which were noticed above, secti- on y. p. 388. You may frequently call a person several times, and he will not hear you: but touch him, and he is sensible of it at once. The fault, of which Ave are speaking, is not in the organ, but in the impression 398 EXERCISE OF made on it not being perceived. Nothing can remedy this but attention; and attention must be produced by habit. It is necessary, therefore, early to accustom children, not merely consider Nature at large, but to ex- plore her in the minutest objects, even those that are scarcely visible to the naked eye. All the three kingdoms of nature afford pleasing opportunities for this. Let not your child consider merely the conspicuous parts of the flower ; teach his eye to explore the vessels, scrutinize the structure of the leaves, bark, wood, and various seeds, and examine the organs of fructification Avith their various parts. Let him likewise discriminate the structure of different kinds of wood, stones, and salts, and distinguish the various parts of insects. Occasionally assist his eye Avith the the magnifying glass, and let him con- template the circulation of the blood in the frog, the crystallization of salts, the doAvn of the butterfly's wing, animalcules of infusion, &c. Nature is inexhaustible : quitting the microscope, lead the youth again into the fields, and you Avill find ample scope for exercising his senses. What flower is that, twenty yards off, Avaving over the brook? What stone is that by it? What insect is that THE SENSES. 399 buzzing among the grass? What tree is that yonder, a hundred yards off, a thousand, or more? What isthatmovingonthesideofthe hill ? is it a man or some beast ? how is he dressed? what is he doing? What kind of corn is that growing in yonder field ? What bird sits on that bough? Let his auditory organs be early formed by music and song: let him attend to the difference of sound betAveen carts and Avaggons empty and laden, the number of horses the creaking of doors, the voice and tread of persons, the songs and cries of birds, &e. Similar exercises offer themselves to every sense; but I have said enough, to indicate the path to be pursued. as walk- ing, Avriting, making pens, and the like, are soon discovered; accordingly the master will proceed to such as are more unusual, for in- stance, stepping up on a chair, sitting down upon the ground, &c. Still this will be found with tolerable facility; and then he will go farther. He will give them to conjecture the figure, size, and substance of things by the ear. For example, Avhat do they hear sound ? a glass, a basin, a bell, a piece of iron, steel, copper, silver, wood; the table, the bureau. Of Avhat size, of Avhat shape is it ? Sec. J\ Exercise of the smell and taste: A person blindfolded may distinguish flowers, various articles of food, many metals, leaves of trees, fresh and in many cases dry pieces of wood, and several other substances, by th« 410 EXERCISE Of smell alone, Avithout touching them; and most of them by the taste likewise. Every one, Avho has reflected on the func- tions of the senses, may multiply and refine experiments of this kind in a very extensive degree. Each, hoAvever, requires its particu- lar method, to enlarge upon which here would carry me too far, at the same time that it will readily occur to the reflecting mind. One of the most general rules in these artificial exer- cises of the senses is, to proceed in a method exactly the reverse of the natural; employ- ing first that sense, the impressions of which are the slightest. For example : the person being blindfolded, a piece of paper is the subject of his inquiry. We begin with its qualities. I hold it before his nose, to try whether he can smell it. If he cannot while it is dry, I moisten another piece of the same paper, and then perhaps his nose will be sen- sible of the odour. If he now say, < it is pa- per ;'T ansAver, perhaps, 'do not judge too hastily;' in order to keep him in a state of un- certainty, that his other senses may perform their part. I recommend to him, to appeal to the evidence of his hearing, and pass the poin$ of my finger lightly over the paper, or let it fall gently on the ground. If he say, ffHE SENSES. 411 *yes, it is paper;' I reply, may it not be parchment, or a large dry leaf?' Thus I ren- der him uncertain again, to excite his attenti- on. I now roll up a small ball of it, moisten it with water, and let him taste it. He will now affirm with more positiveness, that it is paper. I say, ' make yourself more certain of it,' and let him feel the paper : on which he is pleased to find, that he did not mistake. I permit him, hoAA ever, to feel a small part of it only betAveen his finger and thumb, that he may not obtain any knowledge of its size, which is the next object of his inquiry. I let it fall to the ground several times, draw the edges of it between my fingers, and leave him to guess the size of the paper from the sound. In a little practice he will be able to distinguish an octavo leaf from a quarto. I now give him the piece, that he may iell me its size in inches, and describe its figure. He passes his finger carefully round the whole of the edge, and tells me both these. If its figure be such as not to admit a precise verbal de- scription, I desire him to retain it accurately in his memory, as I shall require him to de- lineate it, after his eyes are unbound. I noAV inquire concerning the colour of the paper. The possibility of acquiring an immediate idea 412 EXERCISE Q* THE SENSES. of this by the touch appears to me extremely doubtful: but probably he will infer it from the density of the paper : at least he will be able in time to discover whether it be white, brown, or blotting paper, stained, printed, written upon, or blank. Here the examination ends. I put away the paper ; he draws its figure with a pencil, Avithout having seen it; and we now compare the drawing with the paper, and prove the accuracy of the other- senses by the eye. C 413 ] CHAP. XIV. REVIEW OF GYMNASTIC EXERCISES AC- CORDING TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS 07 THE BODY, TO point out the particular muscles called into action by each of the exercises I have recommended might be very Avell for those, who are skilled in anatomy, but Avould little suit a popular treatise. I confine my- self, therefore, to a classification, which every one may understand, and Avhich the practical teacher of gymnastics will find extremely convenient, or rather absolutely necessary. 1. EXERCISES THAT OPERATE GENERALLY. The shoulders, chest, back, arms, hands, loins, hips, thighs, knees, and legs, Avith their muscles and tendons, are exercised in the fol- lowing species of gymnastics. Leapfrog, p. 208. The leap in height with a pole, p. 211. The leap from a height with a pole, p. 215. The leap in length Avith a pole, p. 218. The leap in height and length, or depth and length, with a pole, p. 223. All kinds of wrestling, p. 247 to 263. Climbing up the pole, and the mast, p. 272. Vaulting astride the pole, p. 296, Vaulting up on the 414 REVIEW OF pole, p. 301. Vaulting over the pole, p. 303. Standing up on the pole, p. 299. Gaining the balance, p. 503. Walking in stilts, p. 306. Balancing extraneous bodies, p. 312. Trial of the back, p. 318. Drawing, p. 320. Skipping with the rope, and with the hoop, p. 322. Trundling a hoop, p. 329. Walk- ing, p. 331.. Military exercises, p. 334. Swimming, p. 339. 2. Exercises for the upper parts of THE BODY. For the shoulders, back, chest, arms and hands. Simple throwing, p. 238. Slinging,p. 239. ThroAving the dart, p. 239. Shooting with the bow, p. 241. Throwing the discus, p. 242. Wrestling for a stick, p. 263. Sus- pension by the hands, p. 268. Climbing the ladder, p. 274. Climbing the single rope, p. 276. The fastening yourself to the rope, p. 283. Climbing the oblique rope, p. 283. Climbing the rope-ladder, p. 273. Rising on the hands on the pole, p. 298. Lifting, p. 316. Carrying, p. 317. 3. Exercises for the lower parts of the body. Loins, hi-s, muscles of the belly ? thighs, knees, legs, and feet. GYMNASTIC EXERCISES. 415 Hopping, p. 198. The ballotade, ib. Hopping on one leg, p. 199. All kinds of leaping, particularly those Avithout a pole, p. 197 to 224. The continued leap, 222. Running, p. 225. Exercise of the legs and thighs, 270. Standing on one leg, p. 288. Balancing on the edge of a plank, p. 291. Walking on a pole, p. 292. Standing up on a pole Avithout the assistance of the hands, p. 299. See-saAv, p. 304. Oval see-saw, p. 305. Skating, p. 309. Skipping in the long rope, p. 523. 4. Exercises, that operate mors forcibly, though not exclusively, on particular parts of the body, Shoulders, All kind > of jaculation, p. 237. to 246. The light wrestle, p. 256. Suspension by the hands, p. 268. Climbing the rope-ladder, p. 273. Climbing the ladder Avithout the assistance of the feet, p. 274. Climbing the rope by the hands alone, p. 278. The fasten- ing yourself to the rope, p. 280. Climbing the oblique rope, p. 283. Rising on the hands, and Avalking with them, p. 298. Lifting, p. 316. Carrying, p. 317. Trial of the back, p. 318. DraAving, p. 320. SAvim- i 416 REVIEW OF ming, p. 339. All the kinds of leaping witk the pole, p. 211, &c. Chest. This part is concerned in all the exercises of the shoulders. Lungs. These participate in all the violent exer- cises, which accelerate the respiration; parti- cularly hopping, p. 198. The ballotade,^ ib. Hopping upon one leg, p. 199. Running, p. 225. All the kinds of wrestling, p. 247. to 263. Skating, p. 309. The trial of the back, p. 318. Skipping in the long rope, p. 323, Avith the short rope, p. 325, and with the hoop, 328. Trundling the hoop, p. 329. Swimming, p. 339. Reading aloud, and de- claiming, p. 367. Hands and Arms. All kinds of leaping Avith the pole, p. 21L ckc. Leapfrog, p. 208. All the kinds of jaculation. p. 237 to 246. All kinds of wrestling, p. 247 to 263. Climbing, p. 265. 271—283. Rising on the hands, p. 297. Lifting, p. 316. Carrying, p. 317. DraAV- ing, p 320. SAvimming, p. 339. Hands. Climbing the rope Avithout the assistance of the feet, p. 278. Climbing the rope-lad- CYMNASIC EXERCISES. 417 tier, p. 273. Lifting, p. 316. DraAving, p. 320. Suspension by the hands, p. 268. Wrestling for an apple, or a stick, p. 263. Spine and muscles of the back. The leap from a height, p. 215. The half Avrestle, p. 257. Climbing the oblique rope, p. 283. The trial of the back, p. 318* Hips. Most particularly in hopping on one leg, p. 199. Thighs and knees. Eminently in hopping on one leg, p. 199, more especially with the rope, p. 326. Hop- pin^, p. 198. The ballotade, ib. The con- tinued leap, p. 222. Running, p. 225. Ex- ercise of the legs and thighs, p. 270. Draw- ing, p. 320. Legs and feet. Particularly in hopping, p. 199. The continued leap, p. 222. Running, p. 225. Standing on one leg, p.- 199. Drawing, p. 320. The organs of speech. / Reading aloud and declaiming, p. 367. • The different senses. Exercise of the senses, p. 371 to 412. 3 i METHOD. 419 CHAP. XV. METHOD. EMPLOYMENT OF TIME. GENERAL RULES. CHILDREN are naturally active? but it sometimes happens, from an early check put upon this propensity to action, that they become indplent. This commonly arises from the indolence or weakness of those, who have the management of them; from their over-great carefulness of them; or from the circumstances in Avhich they are placed ren- dering it incommodious, to allow their acti- vity free scope. Whatever be the cause, Avhen indolence, with its concomitant weak- ness, is induced, we should endeavour to remove it. Rousseau is Avrong in recom- mending bribes for this purpose : they give the mind a wrong bias, and soon fail of their effect, unless you go on increasing them. The pleasure of exercise is itself a sufficient incentive to exertion, if once you can get a child to taste it; and the best and most natural stimulus to it is example; the example of other children, and the example of his parents, and those about him. Let it be remembered, too, that Avhat is not done with pleasure, will 420 METHOD. never be done effectually, Avill never be done well: avoid constraint, therefore; excite, but do not compel. Beside the incentive of example, Ave may impress upon the mind of a child the extreme value of activity, health, and hardiness of body. Nothing can supply the Avant of these: neither Avealth, nor title, nor honour, nor virtue, can save him from the consequences of bodily weakness, indolence, and effemi- nacy; Avhich must necessarily lay him at the mercy of others, to whom he must be conti- nually obliged for their assistance, because his body is unable to obey his will: an assis- tance, often afforded with unAvillingness, and procured by purchase, or obtained by flattery. Ambition is one of the most poAverful motives for exciting either the mind or body of children to action. This chains them to their book, Avhen nature Avould prompt them to be gamboling in the fields; and surely, therefore, it cannot be less efficacious in ex- citing them to Avhat is more natural, bodily ex- ertion. The ancients rewarded their victors Avith branches of trees, or croAvns made of them: and such are the prizes, to Avhich I have alluded in several of the preceding chap- ters. He who has distinguished himself by EMPLOYMENT OF TIME. 421 his exertions, obtains a small twig, bearing from three to six leaves, Avhich he aa ears in his bosom for the day, as a token of his proAvess. If one have done some extraordinary feat, which was never performed before, he will be richly reAvarded Avith a slight croAvn. But Ave arc not formed lor the pursuit of gymnastic exercises alone; the time to be spent in them,' therefore, is a proper object of consideration. Let us take nature for our guide. She gradually prepares the machine, Avith which the mind is to act; and at first appears to pay her chief regard to the mould- ing of the body. From this she passes by sIoav degrees to the understanding ; till at length, having brought the body to a certain pitch, she imperceptibly relinquishes her ope- rations upon it, and, leaving it entirely, con- fines herself wholly to the improvement of the mind. We should pursue her steps; and assist, not tliAvart her, in her labours. Let the beginning of life, the first six years per- haps, be employed entirely in forming the body, and the organs of sense, as much as possible in the open air, Avithout regard to Aveather or the seasons. I do not mean, that the child should be suffered to groAv up like a wild animal; for his mind may receive con- 422 EMPLOYMENT OF TIME. siderable instruction through the medium of the senses, and from Avhat passes among the persons about him; and in these tAvo ways he may acquire much more knowledge by the end of his sixth year, than a child aa ho, had learned to read in his fourth. In his seventh year let him spend an hour every day at his book; in his eighth, two hours; and so on, till in his seventh he will have nine hours allotted for study. I may be permitted to give the folloAving sketch, not by Avay of prescribing precisely Iioav a boy's time should be employ- ed, but as a proof, that children Avill not want time for exercise to improve the body. Age. Hours Waking Of the In study. Meals, Corporal of sleep, hours, latter rest, &c. "exercises. may he employed. 7 9 15 1 4 10 8 9 15 2 4 9 9 9 15 3 4 8 10 8 16 4 4 8 11 8 16 5 4 7 12 8 16 6 4 6 13 8 16 "i 4 5 14 7 17 8 • 4 5 15 7 17 9 4 4 In this sketch I have had in view a youth destined to the pursuit of science ; and I do GENERAL RULES. 423 not think such a one should ever employ more than nine hours a day in study, and then he will have four left for gymnastic exercises. Even when he is grown up, whatever be his office, he ought not to have less than three hours a day to employ in bodily exercise. With those who are not to be employed in professional studies, and those who are des- tined to mechanical occupations, the case is different; such, I think, should not study more than six hours a day after the age of twelve, and should employ six hours in gym- nastic exercises, or natural labour. When describing the different exercises, I have introduced some particular rules, but there are others of more general import, which I have reserved for this place, to avoid frequent repetition, 1. Gymnastic exercises should never be performed after a meal, till the food is digest- ed. In this all physicians agree. Hippo- crates says; « labour before meals.' The remarks of others to the same purpose I need not repeat. The morning, immediately after rising, therefore, appears to be particularly adapted for exercise. By this the body shakes off that listlessness, which it always acquires from the bed, and Avhich otherwise hangs 424 GENERAL RULES. about it frequently for hours ; the fresh air braces it; and the exertion fatigues it suffi- ciently, to give it an inclination for sitting to study. We may likeAvise employ in exercise a portion of time immediately before dinner and before supper; for nothing is better adpated to cleanse the digestiA'e organs, and fit them for the due performance of their func- tions. It is not to be inferred, from what has been said, that all motion after a meal is injurious : millions go to Avork immediately after dinner, Avithout suffering any inconve- nience from it; and no harm appears to accrue to youths from gentle exercise after meals. 2. No child in health is injured by being overheated, and I never was able to discover the least detriment arising from it: but drink- ing Avhen extremely hot, or being cooled too quickly, in Avhatever manner it happens, may prove highly pernicious. It is proper there- fore, to take off the clothes before beginning to exercise, and put them on again imme- diately after. Lying doAvn upon the cold ground, too, must not be allowed. 3. On commencing any exercise, begin not with its more violent degrees, but Avith the more gentle; and leave off in the same manner : bearing in mind, that sudden tran- sitions are ahvays AArong. MANUAL 425 4. Never let bodily exertion, or your attempts to harden the frame, be carried to excess ; in other words, do not .produce in- sensibility, or exhaust the youthful body, and render it languid. In my opinion, however, I must confess, this caution is unnecessary for the present age, 5. In all exercises attention should be paid to a proper carriage, and such a position of all the parts of the body, that none may be exposed to injury. For example, the tongue must never 'be suffered to remain between the teeth, the legs must not be separated too.far. 6. It is necessary and very advantageous to the pupils themselves, ^rticularly where they are numerous, :to keep up a certain de- igree of military regularity and obedience to command. Of this I have given instances in the book itself. 7. Distinguish the feeble from the athletic, and measure them not by the same standard. Attempt not to make the weak hardy and strong at once, but take time, and proceed gradually. The best standard for the feeble at first is their own desire, their own inclina- tion, animated by the love of praise. 8. Endeavour to make yourself acquaint- ed with the constitutions of your pupils. 3 K 426 LABOURS. At least distinguish those Avho enjoy perfect healdi, from those Avho are less healthy. The former may attempt all kinds and de- grees of gymnastic exercises Avithout danger : the latter must proceed more cautiously with respect to both. Try these by gradation in every exercise; and observe the effect, that each degree has upon them, both at the present time, and subsequently: thus experi- ence Avill be your safest guide. 9. Observe what limbs of each young gymnic are the feeblest, and let these be par- ticularly exercised. The left hand and arm are commonly weaker than the right; let them be frequently exercised, therefore, by lifting, carrying, drawing, and supporting the Aveight of the body by suspension Avith the left hand, till they become as strong as the other. 10. The gymnast must bear in mind, as much as possible, the degree attained by each of his pupils in every exercise, that he may not set them upon any thing above their ability, by taking too long a step at once.. This is a grand rule for avoiding danger. MANUAL LABOURS. 427 CHAP. XVI. MANUAL LABOURS. ' EMILIUS shall learn some trade,' says Rousseau; and all that he says upon the subject may be reduced to this, that it is an estate for life; in other Avords, a man Avho possesses a trade, whatever may befal him, will always be able to earn a livelihood. The wealthy, hoAvever, have never yet thought it necessary, to folloAV this precept of Rousseau; and I am acquainted Avith scarce a single instance, Avhere a person of fortune has suf- fered his son to learn a trade formally, that his OAvn hands might be able to procure him subsistence in case of need, against which no one can be secure.* This argument certainly ought to have weight in the present day; and no doubt there are multitudes living, Avho deeply regret, that themselves or their parents disregarded that advice of Rousseau. But there are still stron- ger reasons for learning a trade. When the youth has attained a certain age and begins to be tired of the amusements of childhood, it is proper that he should labour ? it is necessary, * eon.ider the case of the French emigrants. 428 MANUAL that he should be fully occupied. Where noAV shall Ave find a resource equal to this ? Neither Avill it be useless to him in his future life, even if it should not be Avanting for his support. The domestic man, and domestic life is the life of happiness, often finds occasion for little mechanic operations, and may frequently ob- tain comfort and convenience, as Avell as amusement, from the expertness and dexterity of his own hands. The man who in his little, peaceful cottage is a second Robinson Cru- soe, if he neglect not the principal buisiness of his life for trifles, is in my eye so much the more amiable a being; his skill is pleasing to his Avife and children, and adds another link to the chain of their affection. There are strong objections, it is true, to learning a trade in the ordinary Avay : the time required for an apprenticeship, and the com- pany to which youth is exposed. Both these, hoAvever, may be avoided by the man of fortune, Avho would not Avish to make his son a mere mechanic. The question then is, what trade shall our youth learn ? Rousseau bids the youth handle the axe and the saw Avith nervous arm, hew the massy beam, and mount the lofty roof. This is excellent in itself, but in our vieAV of things perhaps a little beyond the middle path. In- LABOURS. 429 deed Emilius goes not to the carpenter, but to the cabinet-maker, and thither let us follow him. For my part, I knoAV not any occupa- tion more excellent, or better adapted for our purpose, than that of the cabinet-maker, par- ticularly if that of the turner be united Avith it. For how many pleasant hours am I indebted to it! Most of our youth are destined for employments, in which the use of the hands is necessary; and in this occupation they will have constant opportunity of improving the strength of their arms, the dexterity of their hands, and the acuteness of the organs of sense. There is an art intimately connected with this, and well adapted to young men of supe- rior education, that of the harpsichord and piano forte maker, which, on account of the alterations and improvements of Avhich it is susceptible, is continually affording opportu- nities of exercising the invention, and thus is an employment for the head as well as the hands. Beside the advantages hitherto mentioned from the acquisition of some handicraft, we should not forget another important object, that of initiating the youth, whether study be his destination or not, into the mysteries of a 43© MANUAL science, which is the soul of active common life, the science of mechanics. As he must come to act his part on the stage of life, surely it must be of advantage to him, to be acquaint- ed with a science, Avhich has so much influ- ence on its daily occupations, and is so inti- mately connected with the knoAvledge of things. This appears to me one of the most inexcusable neglects in the ordinary plan of education : for no one will deny, that the science of mechanics is one of these feAv,Avhich are indispensible to every one, from the peasant to the peer, either practically, in his actual employments, or theoretically, as an introduc- tion to more extensive knowledge. What may not be expected from a nation, apt for invention from its penetrating mind and per- severing spirit, when a theorectical and prac- tical knowledge of mechanics, to \Arhich we are indebted for most of our inventions and manufactures, is generally diffused through all its members ? I deem it therefore, extremely beneficial, first to instruct the youth practically in the art of the cabinet-maker and turner, and thus to familiarize his hand to the mechanical use of tools ; and as soon as this is accomplished, to lead him to the construction of machinery, LABOURS. 431 combining the theory of mechanics Avith the practice, by employing him in making models of different machines, and at length prompting him to invent new ones himself.* There are other useful mechanical labours, which might be learned, as those of the book- binder, and basket-maker ; but more particu- larly that of the gardener, Avhich I would strongly recommend, as Avell adapted to chil- dren. Every boy, Avhere it is practicable, should employ part of his time in this pleasing occupation, Avhich has a valuable tendency to expand the mind. It is a delightful sight, to see youth and innocence attached to nature, and our original destination. Here plans are formed, and a piece of waste ground is gra- dually dug up, enclosed, planted, watered, and kept in order, by the exercise of juvenile poAvers : the important ideas of the produc- tion of something by our own exertion, the value of manual labour, and articles of food, are instilled into the mind ; and the disap- pointment of pleasing hopes compensated by i * An expert practical man, capable of forming a systematical plan for instructing youth in their mechanical labours, leading them gradually from what is easy to the more difficult, might render considerable service to the world by the publication of a concise treatise on the subject. 432 MANUAL LABOURS. fresh exertions keeps the mind in activity, and teaches it to think lightly of the failure of its expectations. THJL EArD. • 'I' <"< << M ' • " 'H' '"■ i ' WILLIAM DUAXE, flilNTER.