ALIZARINE, 
NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. 
FRED. VERSMANN, Pii.D. STEP'ftEN angel®. 
prtXter, 
NpW YOJiK. 4%mluf New York, November, 1872. 
The discovery of artificial Alizarine created at tlie time a 
most profound sensation, it realized the chemist’s wish and dream, so long 
indulged in, to rival nature’s skill in the production of a most lovely and 
most useful color. 
My Dear Lutz, 
What seemed to he almost impossible but four years ago, has become a 
plain matter of fact to-day; as soon as the direction had been pointed out. 
it was at once followed up, and now this valuable color is manufactured by 
tinl ton as a regular article of commerce. 
You were among the first, who realized the importance of this new produc- 
tion. and who foresaw the revolution, it is sure to create in one of the largest 
industries of this Large country. 
You were the first to import from Germany this last and brightest child 
of, what in the highest meaning of the word is called, “ applied chemistry.” 
Is it therefore surprising that you should wish to find a home for this 
German child here, where everybody is welcome, who possesses health and 
strength and vitality. And of those sterling qualities the new comer has 
plenty, and he will show them, before he is much older; hut at the present 
moment he is young and may want some one to vouch for his good qualities 
and to place them in the proper light. 
Hence it is very natural, you should have expressed the desire of placing 
before your business friends a short account of this new discovery, which will 
enable them to judge for themselves of the advantages in printing and dyeing 
with artificial Alizarine, instead of with Madder, advantages which are sure, 
sooner or later, to induce the consumers to adopt the one and to discard the 
other. 
I have been fortunate in my visit to America, inasmuch as it gave me an 
opportunity of learning your wish, and of trying to comply with it myself. I 
have written a short account on Alizarine, natural and artificial, comprising 
the principal facts, which I thought would interest your friends, and I offer 
them to you >vith the eai’nest request to accept the same as a token of my 
sincere friendship. With these feelings I inscribe the following pages to you 
and I remain, my dear friend, 
Yours Very Truly, 
Loots Lutz, Esq., 
Messrs. Rumpff & Lutz, 
42 Beaver St., New York. 
FRED. YERSMANN. ALIZARINE, 
NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. 
Nothing is lost in Nature! 
This is merely another expression of the grand truth, that 
matter is indestructible, and the sentence conveys one of the 
most cheering lessons, the attentive study of natural sciences 
and especially of chemistry teaches us every day. 
Wonderful as have been the discoveries of chemistry during 
the last five and twenty years and astonishing as have been 
the results of these discoveries when applied to art and manu- 
facture, they are in no way more beneficial than in bringing 
out the truth of the motto: Nothing is lost in Nature. 
In turning scientific investigations to practical account there 
will often be a tendency to look at the ultimate result only, 
but the higher lessons which every new discovery carries 
along with it, cannot be overlooked by the lover of nature and 
of science, and if in the following pages an attempt be made 
to describe the latest triumph of scientific research, it will 
surely not be out of place to draw attention to this noble 
undercurrent And it will be easy to do so by tracing back 
our subject to its origin. 
Artificial Alizarine, this beautiful coloring substance, is man- 
ufactured from Anthracene, which in its turn is obtained as a 
bye-product in the manufacture of gas from coal, but where 
does the coal come from and how is it formed before wre find 
it in the ground ? 
The answer to this question we may find to some extent by 
looking at the constant changes around us, and by studying 
the wonderful effect the sun has upon vegetation and the dif- 
ferent ways this effect makes itself visible. 
The seed buried in the fruitful ground is called to life by the 
genial warmth of the soil, and as soon as it shows above ground 
it is further developed into a sapling and into a tree by the heat 
and light-yielding rays of the sun; these assist and facilitate 
the assimilation of nutritive salts from the soil and of carbonic 4 
acid from the air, the component parts of which form the body 
and substance of the tree. 
Now let us look at the various colors of the leaves, flowers 
and fruits, all so much condensed sunshine, as it were, 
absorbed and stored up by the different parts of the tree. 
With the change of the seasons we see these colors pass 
through various shades, all indicating changes of the highest 
importance, which have been attentively studied, although not 
yet fully disclosed. But we know that the change in color 
of the leaves from the refreshing green in spring to the beauti- 
ful red and yellow in autumn and ultimately to the sombre 
brown of the dead leaves is owing to chemical changes, assist- 
ed, if not produced, by the light and heat of the sun. 
No wonder this subject has been studied by many men of 
science, especially since the use of the spectroscope has opened 
up a new field of investigation and has revealed new distinc- 
tive marks of substance which chemical analysis does not 
disclose. Sorby has published an interesting paper on the 
various tints of autumnal foliage, in which he gives the results 
of his investigations by the spectroscope; he distinguishes 
more than twenty coloring matters, which he places in several 
groups such as bright green, representing complete vitality 
and growth, red and scarlet, indicating low vitality and change, 
and dull brown, signalising death and decomposition. He 
justly observes that the fine tints of autumn are indications of 
the diminished vital powers of the plants, an observation which 
is strengthened by the fact of unhealthy branches of a tree 
turning yellow while the rest remains green. 
How sad the idea that all the beautiful life of one season 
should delight us for so short a time only and should then be 
lost for ever! How grand, how lofty on the other hand the 
conviction that nothing is lost in Nature and that every thing 
will reappear again and again in due time, although in differ- 
ent forms. 
The seed grows into a mighty tree, which forms only a single 
unit in a forest, but let such forest by some violent revolution 
in nature be buried deep beneath the ground, covered perhaps 
mountain high by rock and soil, and let it rest there for gen- 
erations, hidden from the light, until man’s industry and 5 
perseverance traces it and brings it forth, not in the shape of 
trees but in the form of solid, massive blocks and seams of coal. 
The tree, from a chemical point of view, consists chiefly of 
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen in a variety of combi- 
nations, and slow, indeed, must have been the process of 
separating the carbon in the form of black coal, and fearfully 
strong must have been the pressure of the rocks around and 
above, to condense the gaseous oxygen and hydrogen in this 
carbon. 
Having thus attempted to trace the origin of coal, I may go 
a step further and glance at its application for the production 
of gas, and thereby indicate that the heat and light absorbed 
by the tree during its growth and life is set free again and 
utilized. Coals heated in a closed vessel yield so many pro- 
ducts of decomposition, gaseous, liquid and solid, that their 
investigation has been a fertile field for chemical research, for 
many years. The general development of gas industry is 
highly interesting, because in no other direction has the ad- 
vance in science been of greater service. 
Gas has become such absolute necessity now a days, that 
we can scarcely realize all the difficulties, all the prejudices 
which had to be overcome in the introduction of this substitute 
for the sun. 
When not quite sixty years ago, the idea was first originated 
in London, to light up some streets with gas, and for that pur- 
pose to erect a gasholder and store a quantity of gas, the whole 
undertaking appeared to be so utopian, even to scientific men, 
that Sir Humphry Davy suggested, the inventors of this 
wonderful discovery might perhaps convert the large dome 
of St. Paul’s cathedral into a gasholder. 
About the same time, Mr. Ackermann. of the Strand, in 
London, was the first to erect a small gas retort in connection 
with his kitchen range, and the gas thus obtained, without any 
previous purification, was burned in the shop. This novelty 
was so astonishing, that a lady of title offered Mr. Ackermann 
ten guineas for his new lamp, which she was anxious to take 
home in her carriage, and very angry she grew indeed, on 
learning that the lamp was a fixture and could not be used 
without a certain apparatus in the kitchen. 6 
When, a few years later, the House of Parliament was to 
be lighted with gas, the members became so afraid of the heat 
conveyed through the pipes, which they expected to be filled 
with fire, that they insisted upon having the pipes several feet 
away from the walls of the building, so that these might not 
be injured by the great heat given off by the pipes. 
These anecdotes show how little people understood the 
nature of gas when first introduced, and in like manner chem- 
ists formerly were ignorant of the nature and of the component 
parts of gas. 
To-day it is well understood, that next to the solid carbon in 
the coal the compressed and condensed hydrogen is of the 
greatest importance in the gas manufacture ; this element part- 
ly combines with carbon to a series of compounds which are 
called hydrocarbons; these burn but do not emit a clear, 
brilliant light, because they are too rich in carbon; a large 
amount of hydrogen, however, passes into the gas not com- 
bined with carbon or any other element and serves to dilute 
and carry along the heavier hydrocarbons, thus giving a mix- 
ture suited for lighting purposes. 
Before leaving the gas works, the gas must be deprived of 
a variety of impurities, one of the most important of which is 
tar. This uninviting, unpleasant and for a long time unprofit- 
able article has become the special subject of chemical inves- 
tigation and has risen to very great importance. 
Nearly fifty years ago, in 1825, Faraday obtained Benzole 
from coal tar, but many years passed before a practical appli- 
cation of this hydrocarbon was originated by Perkin, who 
first succeeded, in 1856, in manufacturing from Benzole a 
variety of those splendid colors, generally known under the 
name of Aniline dyes or colors. Tempting as is the subject of 
these dyes, I must pass it by here, remarking only that they 
afford the first demonstration of the return, or the resurrection 
of those beautiful colors of the leaves, flowers and fruits 
spoken of before, and which had been buried in the coal for 
ages. The manufacture of these Aniline colors, differing from 
all previously known colors, has assumed enormous dimensions 
during the last fifteen years, and has most materially in- 7 
fluenced not only the commerce, but also the taste and fashions 
of the whole world. 
The astounding scientific and commercial results obtained 
in this direction, gave certainly a mighty impulse to further 
investigations on the part of many chemists of all countries, 
which finally culminated in the production of artificial Alizarine, 
another beautiful coal tar color, the special subject of these 
pages. 
The success of artificially producing this color is of the 
utmost importance, not only because the substance thus pro- 
duced is destined to supplant one of the most ancient and 
fastest colors ever known or because its introduction will have 
a marked influence upon the agricultural aspect of several 
countries, or again, because mighty industries have sprung up 
and will spring up in consequence of this discovery, but 
chiefly and most prominently because the artificial building 
up in the laboratory of Alizarine is the first instance of a 
faithful reproduction of an organic dye. 
The discovery of Aniline dyes was the discovery of an en- 
tirely new range of chemical compounds endowed with those 
beautiful colors, none of which had ever been known before ; 
the discovery of the process of artificially making Alizarine, is 
of the highest scientific interest; it results in the formation of 
a substance known and used for centuries, but hitherto pro- 
duced by the hand of nature only. And as success has 
crowned the chemist’s labors in one direction, so surely will 
other imitations of Nature’s work be triumphantly carried out. 
To-day we manufacture Alizarine; when shall we manufacture 
Indigo ? The solution of this problem is a mere question of time, 
but come it must, and to judge from certain indications, in no 
distant time. 
If I wish to speak of artificial Alizarine, its preparation and 
its qualities, I must of necessity refer to the substance it is des- 
tined to supplant and to supersede, and it will be more con- 
venient to do so here. I will therefore give a short ouflinc 
of the history of madder colors and then pass on to the 
artificial compound. 8 
MADDER, AND COLORS DERIVED FROM IT. 
The plant which yields madder root is called Madder in 
English, Krapp or Faerberroethe in German, Garance in 
French, Alizari in Greek and Italian ; the botanical name is 
Rubia tinctornm; the red coloring matter is not found in the 
whole root but almost entirely in the outer part, the inner or 
woody part yielding scarcely any coloring matter at all. 
The coloring matter is not ready formed in the outer part of 
the root. Decaisne and Koechlin have shown that the color- 
ing matter in the fresh root is yellow and becomes red under 
the oxydising influence of the air; this same process of oxyda- 
tion takes place to a certain extent when the roots are left in 
the ground for several years; and this loss of time is naturally 
one of the greatest disadvantages of Madder cultivation and 
the cause of a slow and unsatisfactory return. 
In France the roots are left in the ground for two or three 
years, in Turkey and the East five and more years ; in the 
eastern countries the roots are merely dried in the open air 
and then exported without further preparation, while in 
France and Holland the roots are first artificially dried and 
then ground to powder. 
But even then the Madder is not ready for immediate use, 
but is kept for another two or three years, when the coloring 
or dyeing strength is much improved. This of course is owing 
to chemical changes, which formerly were but little understood, 
and as, with prolonged keeping for years, these changes go on 
till the coloring power is seriously injured or almost destroyed, 
the article requires much care and attention. 
Much uncertainty and risk is thus involved in the cultiva- 
tion of Madder; a crop which can only be gathered in at the 
end of two or three years, and which even then is not ready 
for immediate use and which, while growing, is subject some- 
times to complete failure, is a very dangerous and unsatisfacto- 
ry return for the capital and labor invested in its production. 
The growth of madder has been confined to a few countries, 
foremost among which stand France, Holland, Italy, Turkey 9 
and southern Russia, but interesting experiments for its culti- 
vation have been made in other countries. The soil, the 
climate and the weather have the most decided influence upon 
the growth of the plant and the subsequent developement of 
the coloring principle. Thus, Dutch madder will dye red, but 
not purple, and the color is not fast, Naples madder from 
Italy dyes good red and purple, but the colors are not fast, 
that from Turkey dyes good reds and purples and is very fast. 
France supplies the market with two qualities, called rosees, 
from their dyeing beautiful reds and pinks, and paluds, the 
last name being given because the roots are grown on marshy 
land; this gives a good purple, besides fine reds and is the best 
French quality. 
Mr, T. Sidebotham has published the results of some inter- 
esting experiments on the cultivation of madder-roots, made 
some years ago in England. A piece of rich land in Derby- 
shire was sown with seed from fine palud madder, early in the 
spring of 1868, in the autumn the madder plant came into 
flower and the roots of some pulled up measured thirteen 
inches. The plants came up in the spring of 1869 very strong 
and healthy and so on until August, 1871, when they were 
dug up. To produce the best results, the roots should have 
remained another year in the ground, but for experimental 
purposes this growth was considered sufficient. The quantity 
produced was small, in appearance and size the roots were 
about equal to fine French roots, but on breaking them, 
instead of the deep red color in the best French roots, they 
were orange or yellow. 
The dyeing properties were of a very disappointing charac- 
ter, the colors after soaping were loose and similar to Dutch 
Madder, pinks and reds being loose and weak and the purple 
element entirely wanting; the deficiency of coloring matter 
may be owing to want of sun and heat. It is said that French 
seed, grown in Holland, does not produce a French quality, 
but one similar in every way to the usual Dutch Madder, 
These results show most conclusively the effect of the soil 
and climate, and it is to be hoped that Mr. Sidebotham has 
put aside and intends to keep for some years, part of his crop 10 
iii order to learn whether or not a chemical change and conse- 
quent improvement in the coloring matter will take place. 
The whole question has for many years been enveloped in 
mystery and uncertainty; at the present time, however, we 
know that Madder contains chiefly two coloring principles, 
Purpurine and Alizarine, which may be separately obtained and 
applied. As stated before, these colors are not ready formed in 
the roots, but are products of decomposition of another sub- 
stance, which has no coloring property; according to Decaisne’s 
microscopical investigations, the fresh roots are filled with a 
yellow transparent fluid, which turns red under the influence 
of the air after the cells are broken. 
The subject of extracting the coloring principles has occu- 
pied many people, and has become the subject of many 
patents in various countries. The more foreign matter is mixed 
up with any color, the more the latter must lose in brilliancy 
and purity, and many attempts have been made to concentrate 
the coloring matter of Madder, but the preparation of pure or 
nearly pure Purpurine and Alizarine is of recent date. It 
would be out of place to record all the different methods 
proposed in the manufacture of Madder preparations, but a 
short account of the more important ones must not be omitted. 
For many centuries and until the beginning of the present 
one the root itself was applied directly, and without any scientific 
principle. Schunck was the first, in 1851, to study the change 
in the root, he separated a peculiar ferment and a substance 
named by him Puhian, which by the action of the ferment is 
converted into Alizarine. He also observed that weak acids 
had the same effect, an observation which some years after- 
wards found practical application. 
The analysis of Madder root shows that it leaves about 20 
per cent, of dry substance, but the commercial article contains 
from 16 to 18 per cent, of moisture. 
100 parts of the dry root contain : 
Substance soluble in cold water, 55-0 parts. 
“ “ “ boiling water, B‘o “ 
(including most of the color.) 
Substance soluble in alcohol, l-5 “ 
Fibrous matter, 40'8 “ 11 
Among the substances soluble in water are gum, sugar, 
pectic acid and a yellow coloring matter, discovered by 
Kuhlmann in 1821, and called by him Xanthine, but which 
has not found practical application. The solutions in boiling 
water and alcohol contain chiefly resins and coloring matter. 
The amount of sugar is considerable, some ten or fifteen per 
cent., which is converted by some French manufacturers into 
alcohol; Madder is washed with water, the washings are 
allowed to ferment and the alcohol thus formed is distilled off; 
a ton of Madder gives about thirty gallons of alcohol, which 
has a peculiar, unpleasant flavor, but it is well adapted for 
technical purposes. It has also been suggested to dissolve the 
sugar and to separate it as such; this idea might possibly be 
practically carried out, if the cultivation of Madder carried 
with, it the promise of a long life. 
Schutzenberger’s complete analyses of Madder and its differ- 
ent preparations are also of interest, in as much as they show 
the inorganic impurities contained in the color. 
(Fleur de g 
Garancine. 
Alizarine, c 
Madder car 
o ■$. 
n P 
•S o 
CO 3 
S>3 
p 
3 
o> 
o 
02 
B 2 8= 
P P B 
Pa o 
B S. 
p 
cr* 
02 
P~ 
O O 
<T> * 
o 
o 
p 
M M K 
tO -7 
M- H*. 
lO CO 
Inorganic substance or 
6 cb 
O O Of 
05 05 
CO CO 
ashes, of which 
Soluble in water, chiefly 
-7 O 
chloride of potassium, 
-7 O 
little carbonate of lime. 
M M 
H-»- 1—I- 
w K 
6 ob 
M- O 
CO 05 
Insoluble in water, viz. 
O O Ot 
Of CO 
h-L 
CO to 
to co 
f^cpo 
Silica. 
0^0 
GO O 
or to tP 
dr di rfi- 
05 or 
to -7 
Carbonate of lime. 
o co oo 
to 
M- h-»- 
o o co 
M- M- 
-7 CO 
Phosphate of lime. 
p wo 
O CO 
M. 
co O 
Sulphate of lime. 
ZJl o 
Originally Madder was used without any preparations, 
merely dried and kept a sufficiently long time to develop the 
coloring substance; but attention was directed to the removal 
of some of the foreign matter, which led to the manufacture of 
jieur de garance, which is simply madder deprived of all 
substances soluble in water and afterwards dried again. Then 
the manufacture of garancine was commenced in 1839 ; this is 12 
Madder still more concentrated by treatment with sulphuric 
acid, which destroys part of the woody fibre ; after that extracts 
of Madder were introduced, and finally commercial Alizarine and 
Purpurine, the two coloring principles separately and in a pretty 
high state of purity. 
Julian and Roquet were the first to introduce a purified 
article, which they called Ufleur de garancef and theirs is still 
a very important article of commerce in France ; they merely 
extract the substances soluble in water and dry the residue, 
amounting to about 60 per cent, of the Madder used; the 
aqueous solution containing all the sugar, is allowed to ferment 
and the alcohol thus formed, separated by distillation, as before 
mentioned. 
Robiquet and Collins observed that sulphuric acid does not 
destroy the coloring matter, and Lagier and Thomas produced, 
in 1889, an article, the manufacture of which is based upon this 
observation ; they named their product “ GarancineMadder 
is boiled with Sulphuric acid for some hours, the liquid is 
separated by filtration, the residue washed with weak solution 
of Carbonate of Soda, to neutralize any acid, pressed and dried, 
100 parts of Madder yield from 85 to 87 parts of Grarancine. 
in the form of a fine powder, of a light brown color, which is 
four times as strong as Madder. 
Pincoff and Schunck introduced the application of steam in 
the process of washing; the madder loses much more in 
quantity, but the quality is greatly improved. 
These and other methods had advanced but little the progress 
in the preparation of a pure article, when Kopp published his 
investigations, the result of which was the direct application of 
Schunck’s previous observation as to the action of weak acids, 
and on Kopp’s plan the manufacture of much purer articles 
was undertaken by Schaaf and Lauth, at Strassburg, who have 
now for years brought their preparations into the market. 
This is the most decided practical advance in the history of 
Madder, and a short account of the process may be found 
interesting. 
Large wooden tanks with false bottoms are charged with 
600 lbs. of ground Madder and 1000 gallons of sulphurous acid water at the time. The mixture is allowed to stand for 
12 hours, when the liquid is drawn off through a tap at the 
bottom; the residue is washed with another 150 gallons of 
acid water and the liquid run off after a couple of hours and 
mixed with the first, these liquids are filled into the Purpurine 
vats, holding about 1500 gallons each ; three per cent, of sul- 
phuric acid are then added and the whole heated by steam to 
about 35° to 40° C., when Purpurine soon begins to separate 
in large flakes ; after 12 hours’ standing the Purpurine is col- 
lected on a filter, washed with water and dried; the colored 
liquid is drawn off into the Alizarine vats, then heated to the 
boiling point, when an impure substance, called green Alizarine, 
separates, which is collected similarly to the Purpurine. 
100 parts of Alsatian Madder yield £ to f per cent, of Pur- 
purine, which is about 20 times as powerful as Madder, and 3 
per cent, of Alizarine about 20 times as strong as Madder. 
The Madder residue is not fully exhausted, but is treated with 
the acid washings from Alizarine and dried ; the products, 
about one third of the original substance, is similar togarancine 
but is only half as strong. But even then another preparation 
is obtained from the washings of the last operation ; these are 
kept for some time, when a brownish Alizarine separates, which 
is collected and sold as an extract, being from 1 to 1£ per cent, 
of the Madder first taken. 
Purpurine is little soluble in acid water, pretty soluble in 
pure water, it is freely taken up by solutions of alumina salts, 
gives very pure red, pink and black shades; dilute Iron 
mordant does not produce purple, but rather dark, grayish 
brown shades. Purpurine colors are not acted upon even by 
direct sunlight, but they are not proof against hot soap 
solutions, this disadvantage becomes less serious by the fact 
that the shades are very bright and that the goods require only 
to be passed through weak soap solutions, to have the white 
ground restored., 15 to 20 grains are sufficient to dye a square 
yard of mordanted cloth, even with heavy designs. 
Green Alizarine {alizarine verte), has all the properties of 
flowers of Madder, the color produced is just as fine but faster; 
its intensity is not impaired by soap, acids, alkalies or tin solu- 14 
tions, on the contrary, the color becomes brighter; the mor- 
dant must be one eighth to one tenth weaker than with flowers 
of Madder, Boiled with concentrated hydrochloric acid, green 
Alizarine scarcely loses in weight, but it then dyes purple and 
lilac with a purity and brightness which surpasses any other 
Madder preparation. 
Yellow Alizarine. In treating green Alizarine with alcohol, 
20 to 80 per cent, of yellow Alizarine are obtained, and in this 
manner the first alcoholic extract was prepared, the direct 
treatment of flowers of madder or garancine with alcohol, 
offering too many practical difficulties. Kopp afterwards sub- 
stituted schiste oil or petroleum as cheaper and better suited 
for the purpose. 
1 part of green Alizarine is boiled with 15 to 20 parts of 
rectified petroleum boiling at about 160° C., as soon as the 
boiling ceases, the green insoluble matter separates as a sedi- 
ment, after a few minutes the liquid is decanted, it contains 
much Alizarine, part of which separates on cooling; as soon 
as the liquid has cooled down to about 100° C., dilute 
caustic soda lye is added and the mixture well shaken. The 
lye takes up all the Alizarine with a blueish purple color, while 
the petroleum becomes almost colorless and may be used again- 
The lye is then poured into dilute sulphuric acid, Alizarine 
separates in yellow flakes, which are collected on a filter, 
washed until perfectly free from acid and dried. This yellow 
Alizarine then is the purest article of commerce and from it 
absolutely pure Alizarine may easily be obtained by sublima- 
tion. Robiquet and Colin, of Paris, were the first to separate 
it from Madder as far back as 182G ; they treated Madder with 
strong sulphuric acid and charred most of the fibrous sub- 
stance, from the resulting black mass called by them charbon 
de garance, they obtained crystals of pure Alizarine by 
sublimation. 
Another process, which has been followed very extensively 
and for many years, is based upon Leitenberger’s observation 
that the two coloring principles are separately soluble in 
water at different temperatures, viz.: that Purpurine is soluble 
in water at from 25° to 55° C., while Alizarine requires a very 15 
high temperature. Leitenberger therefore repeatedly ex- 
tracts Madder with water heated by steam to a temperature 
not exceeding 55° C. and precipitates the Purpurine thus 
dissolved by Lime or Barytes; the precipitate is then decom- 
posed by hydrochloric acid, when the Purpurine separates ; it 
is then washed and dried. 
The Madder is afterwards dried and fully exhausted with boil - 
ing wood-spirit, which dissolves the Alizarine, this is separated 
nearly chemically pure, by pouring the solution in water. 
According to Leitenberger’s statements h§ obtains 2 to 3 per 
cent, of Purpurine and 4to per cent, of Alizarine, he also 
claims great superiority of his preparations over other products, 
which he has expressed in the following numbers, as quantities 
required to produce the same effect upon equal pieces of cloth : 
Leitenberger’s Alizarine, 2 
Schaaf and Lauth “ 8 
Garancine, 20 
Madder, 70 to 80 
Extracts of Madder, are prepared by many firms, amongst 
whom Pernod holds a prominent position, he thinks extracts 
of Madder ought to be used like extracts of logwood and other 
dye woods by printing directly and steaming without the use 
of a mordant and that the cause of frequent failure is owing to 
the great impurity of most extracts. He therefore produced 
an extract which is in fact a mixture of coloring matter and a 
mordant. He treats Madder or better Garancine with boiling 
water until all the coloring matter is exhausted ; on cooling an 
orange colored precipitate separates, which is collected on a 
filter, washed, thickened with gum or starch and according to 
the shade required acetate of Alumina or of Iron added; this 
extract is ready for printing, the goods are steamed and passed 
through a soap solution at 60° C. 
This extract contains 10 per cent, of dry residue, it is four 
times as strong as good flowers of madder, and superior to it in 
brightness and purity of shade. 
Before leaving the subject of treating madder I may mention 
another process which is based upon the very opposite principle 
of that followed in all other methods. All other manipula- 16 
tions aim at the extraction of the coloring matter from the 
woody fibre, leaving the last undissolved, while Paraf, the 
inventor of this new process, proposes to remove the great 
bulk of the fibre by a solvent, -which does not act upon Pur- 
purine and Alizarine; his idea is to treat madder with an ammo- 
niacal solution of oxide of copper which shall dissolve the fibre, 
while the coloring substances form an insoluble compound 
with the copper which is then separated. The idea certainly 
claims the merit of novelty, but the expenses involved in the 
process must make its practical application more than ques- 
tionable. 
Purpurine and Alizarine are then the two important princi- 
ples in Madder, but others of minor importance have also 
been separated, and to complete the description I will subjoin 
a table giving the names and properties of all those coloring 
principles in Madder, which have occupied the attention of 
many chemists. 
Solubility in 
Name. 
Spectroscope 
Crystallization. 
Effect of 
heat. 
Alkalies. 
Benzole. 
Alcohol. 
Alizarine. 
Band near red 
Long orange 
colored needles. 
Keadily 
sublimates. 
Blueish 
purple 
solution. 
Soluble. 
Soluble, 
more 
readily 
in warm 
than cold. 
Purpurine. 
One band 
near red, 
another near 
yellow. 
Bed needles, 
sublimated and 
then crystal- 
lised from 
alcohol. 
Snblimates 
under de- 
composition. 
Bed 
solution. 
Soluble. 
Same as 
above. 
Pseudopurpurine. 
Same as 
above. 
Fine brick red 
needles crystal- 
lised from 
benzole. 
Bed 
solution. 
Soluble. 
Very 
little 
soluble. 
Orange matter. 
No bands. 
Small groups 
crystallised 
from alcohol. 
Decomposes 
and yields 
purpurine. 
Sublimates. 
Bed 
solution. 
Insoluble. 
Beadily 
soluble. 
Purpurosanthine. 
No bands. 
Yellow needles, 
crystallised 
from alcohol 
and benzole. 
Y ellow 
solution. 
Soluble. 
Soluble. 
Alizarine sublimates at a temperature of about 240° C. and 
may then be collected as pale orange crystals; it is nearly 
insoluble in water, but the solubility increases with the 
temperature, viz. : 
100 parts of water of 100 °C. dissolve *034 parts. 
“ “ “ “ 150 “ “ -035 “ 
« “ “ “ 200 “ “ -820 “ 
“ “ “ “ 225 “ “ 1-700 “ 
“ “ “ “ 250 “ “ 3160 “ 17 
The above five substances are closely allied in chemical 
composition, and this similarity strengthens Decaisne’s opinion, 
that the Madder root originally contains only one color-giving 
principle, which by the oxidising influence of the air is suc- 
cessively converted into Alizarine, Purpurine and the other 
compounds. Bolley showed that Purpurine heated to a high 
temperature loses oxygen, and is converted into Alizarine. 
As all Madder preparations have frequently been adulterated, 
it may be useful to state a simple method of testing their 
purity. Pernod divides the dyewoods and other substances 
which may be used for this purpose into two classes, namely, 
those which give colored combinations with alumina and iron, 
such as brazilwood, logwood, fustic, etc., and those which 
contain tannic acid, but no coloring principles, or at least very 
little, such as several barks, galls, sumac, etc. The last do 
not produce any colored combination with Alumina, while 
they give black or brown precipitates with oxide of iron. 
To detect even small quantities of any of the substance 
belonging to the first division, the following test is given; 
take a piece of white paper about four inches square, dip it 
into an acid solution of chloride of tin, place it on a glass or 
porcelain plate and sprinkle a little of the finely powdered 
substance over it. In about half an hour any adulteration 
will show thus: brazilwood carmine red points; logwood 
purple spots; fustic yellow coloration, while with pure Madder 
only a faint yellow color will show. The same method is 
followed in looking for substances of the second class, merely 
substituting a solution of sulphate of iron for the chloride of 
tin. Any substance containing Tannic acid will produce 
blueish black spots, which increase in intensity the more the 
sample is adulterated. One part of any of such fraudulent 
admixtures in a thousand part of Madder may thus readily be 
detected. 18 
ARTIFICIAL ALIZARINE. 
Anthracene CmHio. 
The substance which serves as the starting point of the 
manufacture of artificial Alizarine, is Anthracene, one of the 
many hydrocarbons obtained in the distillation of coal tar. 
This substance, Anthracene is, as its name indicates, a deriva- 
tive from coal, viz. avOpak coal. In distilling coal tar, the 
first portion of distillation contains Benzole, the liquid hydro- 
carbon, discovered by Faraday, and which is the basis of the 
Aniline colors, while the very last portions of this distillation 
yields the solid hydrocarbon Anthracene. 
Both Benzole and Anthracene were known to chemists for 
many years before the great practical importance they enjoy 
to-day became evident, but there is a radical difference in the 
manner in which they were introduced into technical industry, 
which may be well worth while to point out. 
In looking at the development of any industry, or at the 
practical application of scientific discoveries generally, we 
mostly find that the starting point, i. e. the raw material 
which serves as the basis of some new chemical compound, 
has been well known for years and it may be, that its very 
abundance has suggested some new application. This was 
very likely the case with Benzole, and its investigation first 
undertaken by Perkin, which ultimately resulted in the pro- 
duction of the Aniline dyes. Yery seldom indeed, has a sub- 
stance been taken out of the collection of interesting but prac- 
tically useless chemical compounds and has suddenly become 
a most important article of manufacture and commerce. Such 
however, has been the case with Anthracene, which was 
commercially unknown at the time when the process of con- 
verting it into Alizarine was first discovered, until then, only 
three years ago, perhaps not 10 lbs. had ever been separated, 
while to-day it is manufactured in very large quantities. 
Anthracene was not commercially known before its present 
application ; true it was obtained in the distillation of coal tar, 
the last portions of which are used in England as a good 
lubricating material under the name of green grease, but the 19 
buyers of this article often complained to the distillers of a 
sediment or grit in the oil, which they returned as useless and 
which of course, was chiefly the now valuable Anthracene. 
Dumas and Laurent, in 1832, first obtained Anthracene 
from the last fractions of the distillation of coal-tar; the oily 
matter was exposed to extreme cold, when a crystalline sub- 
stance separated, which was pressed and treated with alcohol, 
and the residue was further purified by redistillation, crystal- 
lization, and sublimation. This product, however, was not 
pure Anthracene, as shown by the low melting point of 180° 
C. and by the formula assigned to it, viz. : Ci»IL», which is half 
as much again as that of Naphthaline, for which reason the 
authors named the new hydrocarbon Paranaphthaline. 
Laurent submitted the compound to new investigations, and 
obtained several interesting derivatives, but as Professor 
Kopp suggests, in his masterly memoir on Anthracene and its 
derivatives, published in the Moniteur Scientifique, Laurent 
had evidently only small quantities of the impure hydrocar- 
bon at his disposal, and he therefore, could not determine the 
true composition of the substance, which he now named 
Anthracene. 
Fritsche, in 1857, described a hydrocarbon obtained from 
coal-tar which he found closely to resemble Anthracene, but 
which had a melting point of 210—212° C. and gave the 
formula Cl 4 H,O. 
Anderson published in 1862 a most searching investigation 
on Anthracene and its derivatives; he retained Laurent’s 
name of Anthracene, and confirmed Fritsche’s formula CiiHio. 
Limprecht showed, in 1866, the production of Anthracene 
from the decomposition of chloride of Benzoyl by water, at 
180° C. ; and in the same year Bertholet commenced his 
splendid researches on the action of heat upon the hydrocar- 
bons, their origin, characters, and composition ; he showed the 
circumstances under which Anthracene is formed by the 
action of heat upon several more simple hydrocarbons; he 
found that Toluol, or mixtures of Styrol and Benzol, of Ben- 
zol and Ethylene, passed through a red hot tube, furnished 
Anthracene; he also described the extraction of Anthracene 20 
from coal-tar, its purification and character, and further con- 
firmed Anderson’s results. 
In 1867 Graehe and Liebermann commenced their valuable 
publications on Anthracene, Anthrachinon and artificial 
Alizarine, which have now become the starting point of a new 
and most important branch of industry in England and 
in Germany. 
Although the artificial production of Anthracene has been 
indicated by Bertholet, there is no likelihood of its ever being 
successfully carried out on a large scale, and coal-tar will al- 
ways remain the basis of Anthracene manufacture. 
In distilling coal-tar the last 10 or 15 per cent, of the 
product of distillation are collected separately, and are 
allowed to stand for some time, when a crystalline deposit of 
solid hydrocarbons separates, which is freed from adhering oil 
by filtration and pressing. But the quantity thus obtained is 
only small, if compared with the large demand ; as soon as 
Graebe and Liebermann’s process of converting Anthracene 
into Alizarine was shown to be practicable and highly 
remunerative, other chemists brought out different processes, 
all of which have been patented in Europe, and the demand 
for Anthracene rapidly increased; it is, therefore, not surpris- 
ing to find that the price of pure Anthracene in Europe has 
risen within two years from £5O a ton to £5OO, and even 
more. 
It is also natural, that chemists and manufacturers should 
have tried to discover new sources of this valuable substance. 
Now in distilling coal-tar the residue in the still is pitch, and 
it has hitherto been assumed, that all the Anthracene could 
be extracted by the old process. Fenner and Yersmann, 
however, were the first to discover and to practically demon- 
strate that much more Anthracene could be obtained by 
continuing the operation, with increased heat, until the pitch 
has been completely destroyed or converted into coke. 
Their invention, which has been protected by letters patent, 
both in this country and in Europe, consists in obtaining 
Anthracene from pitch as a separate operation, and in the 
combination of this process with the ordinary method of 21 
distilling coal-tar, by which a considerable portion of Anthra- 
cene is saved, which otherwise would be lost. 
The product obtained in either way, is mixed with a 
considerable quantity of heavy or dead oil, from which it is 
separated, as already stated, by filtration and pressing; the 
residue in the form of a more or less dry cake of greenish 
yellow color, contains from 30 to 60 per cent, of pure 
Anthracene, and forms the ordinary article of commerce, 
which is sold by percentage of the pure substance. 
The impurities of this article are chiefly dead oil and two 
other solid Hydrocarbons, Naphthalene and Chrysene, and as 
the manufacturers of Alizarine require a nearly pure sub- 
stance, they are very anxious to induce the tar distillers to 
supply them with an article as pure as possible. Hr. Gessert, 
one of the earliest and most successful manufacturers of 
Alizarine, writes on this point, as follows: It is to be 
regretted that the tar distillers are not more careful in the 
manufacture.of commercial Anthracene. The manufacturer of 
Alizarine has not the necessary plant at his disposal, which is 
required for the purification of such impure Anthracene; at 
all events he loses much time, and has no use for the 
oily residues resulting from the purification. 
The tar distillers on the other hand, can always use their 
by-products along with their other oils ; they ought to take 
the greatest care iu the pressing of the well-filtered and drained 
Anthracene, by using powerful hydraulic presses, and by 
pressing first cold and then hot, as strongly as possible. Such 
crude, well-pressed Anthracene is readily powdered and 
passed through a sieve, and in this state of fine division it 
may be treated with petroleum spirit, boiling between 70° and 
90°0. and after sufficient washing, it may again be submitted 
to strong pressure. 
The percentage of Anthracene depends upon the quality of 
coal, and it differs with coals from different localities. It is 
generally assumed that the coal which yields much Benzole 
gives also much Anthracene, while coals producing a tar rich 
in hydrocarbons of a higher boiling point, such as Toluol, 
Xylol and Cymol, contain but little Anthracene. In 22 
England it is stated that Glasgow and Edinburgh tar, which 
yield little Benzole and much Toluol is poor in Anthracene, 
and that the tar from South Staffordshire coal is rich both in 
Benzole and Anthracene. 
This distinction may possibly hold good in the separation 
of Anthracene from coal tar only, but it loses its importance 
when pitch is operated upon, because there is little doubt that 
while the Anthracene is ready formed in the tar, it is not so 
in the pitch, but it is a product of decomposition resulting 
from the effect of increased heat. 
The average quantity obtained from the distillation of coal 
tar is about half a per cent., whereas in Fenner and Yers- 
mamis process the pitch yields about two per cent, of 
Anthracene. A valuable by-product in operating upon the 
pitch is the coke, which is of course quite free from sulphur 
and so dense as to withstand the strongest blast; for this 
reason it is well adapted for smelting purposes and is as good 
as wood charcoal in the manufacture of steel. 
This new process of manufacturing Anthracene is of great 
importance, inasmuch as the yield from coal tar altogether is 
increased about five times, and serious doubts as to the pos- 
sibility of meeting the demand have thereby been effectively 
removed. It may therefore be interesting to learn, that one 
of the patentees, the writer of these pages, is at present in 
this country with the view of introducing the new process, 
and that he has already succeeded in starting large works, so 
that in a short time Anthracene will be added to the list of 
articles of export to Europe. 
The commercial Anthracene is not pure, but contains, ac- 
cording to the care and attention paid to its manufacture, from 
30 to 60 per cent, of pure substance. It is sold by percentage 
of pure Anthracene, to ascertain which, a uniform test is em- 
ployed. 
A given quantity of the sample to be analyzed is boiled 
with alcohol, the same relative proportion of both always 
being taken; it is then allowed to cool, placed on a filter 
washed with another quantity of alcohol, dried and weighed; 
an additional test is made by determining the melting and 23 
solidifying point, which should be as near as possible to 
210° C. (410°F). 
The commercial Anthracene is further purified by washing 
with light petroleum spirit, it is then sufficiently pure for 
manufacturing purposes, but it is by no means chemically 
pure and to obtain it in this state is a rather tedious process, 
a detailed description of which would be out of place here. 
Pure Anthracene crystallizes in rhomboidal plates, which 
melt at 2IB°C. (415°F) to a clear colorless liquid, which soon 
becomes colored. On cooling it assumes the appearance of a 
foliated, crystalline mass. It distils at about 360° C. (680°F) 
and this quality is sometimes taken advantage of in its purifi- 
cation. The partially purified material is placed into a retort 
and heated to the melting point; a current of air is then 
blown into the retort; the Anthracene is rapidly carried off 
and solidifies in the neck of the retort in the shape of brilliant 
flakes with a beautiful violet fluorescence. 
It is very indifferent to most solvents, cold Alcohol, Ben- 
zole and Bisulphide of Carbon dissolve '6, '9 and IT per cent, 
respectively, considerably more when hot; it is insoluble in 
water and solutions of caustic alkalies, sulphuric acid, even 
when concentrated, dissolves Anthracene, without decomposing 
it, but it forms compound acids; light petroleum, which readily 
dissolves Naphthalene, has but little effect upon Anthracene, 
but the heavy oils of coal tar and petroleum dissolve it in 
considerable quantity, and the separation is often, especially 
in hot weather, a matter of some difficulty. 
Picric acid forms a very remarkable compound with An- 
thracene, viz., Picrate of Anthracene, which may serve to 
characterize the Hydrocarbon and to distinguish it from 
Naphthalene and other homologous Hydrocarbons. On mix- 
ing boiling alcoholic solutions of Picric acid and of Anthra- 
O O 
cene the Picrate deposits on cooling in the form of fine 
starlike needles, of a very brilliant ruby red color, appearing 
as long prisms under the microscope. Artificial Alizarine. ChHBoi. 
Alizarine obtained from Madder has often been analyzed 
by chemists, and it may be, that the different results obtained 
as to its chemical composition, owing to the difficulty of pre- 
paring it absolutely pure, may have somewhat retarded the 
solution of the great question, how to obtain it artificially. 
After the wonderful success' of the Aniline colors, all 
derived from coal tar, it would have been very natural to 
search amongst the substances derived from the same source 
for one, which properly treated, might yield Alizarine. But 
the number of chemical compounds, which have already been 
separated from coal tar, is so large, that the task of submitting 
even a part of them to investigation with the object of obtain- 
ing a certain result would have been entirely hopeless. 
Instead of trying, therefore, to obtain Alizarine from some 
other substance, two German chemists, Messrs. Graebe and 
Lieberrnann conceived the idea of taking Alizarine from 
Madder and endeavoring to split it up into more simple com- 
pounds, and in this they succeeded ; they obtained Anthracene 
from Alizarine, after which it was a comparatively easy task 
to convert Anthracene into Alizarine. 
The discovery is scarcely three years old, but its vast im- 
portance became evident at once to many people, and to-day we 
see five or six large firms in Germany and England manufac- 
turing this new color every day by the ton. 
A detailed consideration of the scientific chemical part of 
the manufacture would lead me too far away; suffice it, 
therefore, to say that Anthracene is not directly converted 
into Alizarine in one single operation, but an intermediate 
compound, Anthrachinon, (CnILO) is first formed, from 
which Alizarine is obtained. 
Graebe and Lieberrnann, Gutzkow and Brunner and 
Perkin are patentees of several processes which differ but 
slightly; they vary only in the modus operandi and in the 
chemicals employed, but the result of all their manipulations 
is always the same, viz., the conversion of Anthracene into 25 
Anthrachinon and then into Alizarine; this is expressed by 
the following formula: 
Anthracene. 
CuH.o 
Anthrachinon. 
CiiHsOa 
Alizarine. 
C.JlsO* 
According to Graehe and Liebermann’s patent, one part, by 
weight, of Anthracene is heated for several hours with four 
parts by weight, of Sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1848, at a tempera- 
ture of about 100° C. (212° F.) and then for one hour at 150° C. 
(300° F.) After cooling, the mass is diluted with three parts 
of water and then two or three parts of Peroxide of Man- 
ganese are added ; the whole mixture is boiled for some time, 
to complete the reaction the mixture may be concentrated by 
evaporation or may even be brought to dryness. Cream of 
lime is then added in excess to neutralize Sulphuric acid and to 
precipitate soluble Manganese salts and to the filtrate, Carbonate 
of Soda is added to separate any Lime. The clear liquid is 
evaporated to dryness, the saline cake thus obtained, is dis- 
solved in water together with two or three parts of caustic 
Potash or Soda and heated for about an hour, at a tempera- 
ture of from 180° to 260° C. (360° F. to 500° F.) until a sample 
dissolved in water gives a copious precipitate of Alizarine on 
addition of some acid. The whole is dissolved in water, acid 
is added in excess and the precipitate which is formed, is col- 
lected on a filter and well washed. Instead of Peroxide of 
Manganese other oxidizing agents may be taken, as for 
instance, Peroxide of Lead, Chromic acid, Nitric acid, etc. 
The precipitate thus collected and washed may be dried, when 
it represents the Alizarine in the most concentrated form, as a 
dry powder; but in practice it has been found to be more 
convenient to use it in the form of a paste and as such it is 
sold by all manufacturers. Most of the paste is brought into 
the market as containing 10 per cent, of coloring matter, 
seldom 12 per cent. The dry powder is not so readily dis- 
solved or mixed in printing as the paste, and if the percentage 
of the last is to be depended upon, and if the inorganic salts 
are all removed by continued washing, the paste will be more 
acceptable to the printer than the powder. 
I have made a series of experiments with samples from 26 
different manufacturers in order to ascertain how far these 
conditions are complied with, and I give the result in the 
following tables: 
I. 
II. 
III. 
IY. 
V. 
VI. 
VII. 
Solid residue consists of 
Solid residue consists of 
Organic 
Inorganic 
Organic 
Inorganic 
Per 
Solid Resi- 
Matter de- 
matter less 
matter 
matter sol- 
cent. 
due dried 
stroyed by 
after 
insoluble 
uble in 
stated. 
at 120°G. 
ignition. 
ignition. 
in water. 
water. 
No. 1. 
10$ 
10-64 $ 
10-53 $ 
•11 $ 
10-46 $ 
•18 $ 
2. 
10 
9-91 « 
9-81 “ 
•10 “ 
9-76 “ 
•15 “ 
3. 
10 
9-99 “ 
9-48 “ 
•51 “ 
9-50 “ 
•49 “ 
4. 
10 
10-88 “ 
10-29 “ 
•54 “ 
10-03 “ 
•80 “ 
5. 
10 
22-89 “ 
? 
? “ 
11-83 “ 
11-06 
6. 
12 
12-38 “ 
11-75 “ 
•63 “ 
11-64 “ 
•74 “ 
7. 
12 
14-67 “ 
11-71 “ 
2-96 “ 
11-62 “ 
3 05 “ 
The third column gives the total amount of solid residue, 
which is separated in columns IV and V into organic matter 
and incombustible inorganic salts, and in columns VI and 
VII into organic matter insoluble in water and inorganic 
salts. Taking for a moment the organic matter of columns 
I V and VI as pure Alizarine, we find that all the samples 
contain nearly the amount claimed, while columns V and VII 
show that five of the samples are singularly free from inor- 
ganic impurity, that is to say have been well washed, while 
No. 7 is imperfectly washed and No. 5 is extremely impure. 
The last sample was, in every respect, the worst and differed 
from the others in every respect; the color of the differen- 
pastes, with the exception of No 5, was of a greenish, olive 
brown to a bright yellow brown. The impurities in the saint 
pies were chiefly Potash and Soda, combined with Chlorine 
and Sulphuric acid. The Paste readily separated and the 
water above was nearly clear and colorless. No. 5 was of a 
dirty mud color, it smelled strongly of Acetic acid, the 
supernatant liquid was of a dark purple color, showing some 
of the Alizarine had been dissolved in free Acetic acid. The 
impurities, amounting to nearly the same weight of the organic 
matter, were chiefly Acetates, and for this reason the determi- 
nations of columns IV and V have not been given, as the 
residue left after burning, did not represent the original saline 27 
impurities, the acetate having been decomposed by the heat, 
into carbon ate. 
Now comes the question whether the organic matter con- 
tained in the paste is absolutely pure Alizarine, and this 
question must at present, be answered in the negative. The 
transformation of Anthracene has not taken place without the 
formation of other products of decomposition, which may be 
carried into the precipitate. This is shown by heating some 
of the dried residue in a retort, when with all samples a 
carbonaceous residue was left in the retort, which would not 
have been the case, if all the organic matter had been pure 
Alizarine, 
Schunck separated from artificial Alizarine a compound 
crystallizing in yellow, silky needles, which he, named An- 
tlrraflavic acid; this substance is found to possess no tinctorial 
power; it cannot influence or weaken the effect produced 
by Alizarine. It is, of course, very desirable to obtain the 
substance as nearly pure as possible, and the manufacturers 
will, no doubt, very shortly succeed in doing so. 
A much more important question than the absolute purity 
of the article is its identity with Alizarine from Madder, 
which, although proved to exist by many chemists, has been 
questioned by others. Bolley, Kopp, Schunck, Perkin and 
others, whose names are well known in connection with this 
particular branch of science, have come to the conclusion, that 
the chemical composition of the two substances is identically the 
same. Alfraise, a French chemist has, on the other hand, 
published experiments, made with the view to prove that the 
new preparation is not Alizarine, but Bolley insists that these 
experiments were not made with sufficient care and with too 
impure a material, to deserve the required confidence. 
It may therefore be safely asserted, that the artificial and 
natural Alizarine are identically the same; they agree in all 
their physical and chemical properities, both crystallize in 
needles, which are usually curved, especially when small, they 
dissolve in caustic alkalies, forming violet solutions of the 
same kind ; their absorption spectra are identical, their tinc- 
torial powers are the same, the colored lakes which they 28 
form -with alumina, iron and copper salts, are of tlie same tint, 
and possess the same degree of solubility, and they remain 
alike unaltered by the action of the light, so that when they 
are fixed in the cotton fibre, they yield equally fast colors. 
Artificial Alizarine has been objected to as a substitute for 
Madder, on the ground that pure Alizarine alone will not pro- 
duce the Madder color, other coloring matter being required. 
But Schunck, who surely is one of the best authorities, has, by 
a long course of experiments, been led to the conclusion that the 
final result of dyeing Madder is simply the combination of 
Alizarine with the various mordants employed, and he recom- 
mends extraction from Madder prints as the easiest method of 
preparing pure Alizarine on a small scale. Perkin could also 
find nothing but Alizarine on finished Madder print, Purpur- 
ine, the merest trace of which could readily be detected by the 
spectroscope, being entirely absent. 
I have already mentioned that artificial Alizarine, as sup- 
plied at the present time, is not absolutely pure, but it surely 
will not be long before a really pure article will be manufac- 
tured and sold ; meanwhile we may be satisfied with the assur- 
ance that the impurities will not interfere with the color pro- 
duced. The principal organic impurity is Schunck’s Anthra- 
flavic acid, which does not combine with the mordants and 
consequently cannot be injurious. 
The result with Madder and its preparations is totally dif- 
ferent, because the nature of the impurities is such as to 
seriously interfere with the brightness of the colors, and it is 
important to point out this distinction in comparing the value 
of the two preparations. 
All Madder root contains pectin, which is always carried 
over into all the extracts and preparations; now pectin by 
itself is probably an indifferent substance, but in conse- 
quence of the ease and rapidity with which it passes into 
pectic acid, it may act very prejudicially in dyeing by com- 
bining with the mordants and preventing them from taking 
up the coloring matters. 
Another impurity in Madder is the extractive matter, which 
by the action of oxygen readily becomes brown, especially at 29 
high, temperatures, and contributes, together with the colored 
resinous matter, to deteriorate the color and to dirty the 
white ground of the cloth. This is the cause of the uniform 
dirty, reddish brown tint on a piece of cloth, both on the 
printed and imprinted portions, the removal of which tint is 
one of the objects of subsequent soaping. 
There cannot be any doubt, therefore, that Artificial Aliza- 
rine is superior and preferable to the natural from Madder 
preparations. 
It is a compound of known, definite composition and proper- 
ties. It can be produced chemically pure, and if this has 
hitherto not been done, the impurities are of such a nature as 
not to interfere with the coloring effects produced; besides in 
its present state it is already considerably purer than the best 
Madder -extract. 
Practical tests in the hands of the most competent men have 
pronounced in its favor. On the other hand, pure Alizarine 
from Madder is not known as a marketable article. 
The extracts, and more so Madder itself and Garance, con- 
tain several coloring matters together with a number of organic 
and inorganic impurities in variable and unknown proportions, 
which involve a degree of uncertainity in the application, 
often resulting in loss and disappointment; these impurities 
always impair the desired effect and involve labor and trouble 
in counteracting the injury they have produced. And here 
the greatest advantage of artificial Alizarine will at once be- 
come apparent to the printer. Most of the Madder prepara- 
tions cannot be applied by direct printing, the goods must be 
first mordanted and then passed through the dyebeck, while 
artificial Alizarine is mixed with the mordant and printed in 
one operation; in fact the dyehouse will become useless and 
the saving in time and labor will be most important. 
The time will and must come when the artificial Alizarine 
will not only gain the mastery over the natural material, but 
will drive it out of the field altogether. This end will not be 
obtained in a day, because it is very natural that a new article 
of commerce should be looked upon with doubt and suspicion 
in some quarters, especially when it threatens to stifle a most 30 
important industry, and such the cultivation of Madder and 
the manufacture of its various preparations undoubtedly is. 
Great and powerful interests are involved in the Madder 
industry, and as its very life and existence is threatened, no 
effort will be spared to kill the new intruder, before it has 
time to grow strong on its own superiority. But such attempts 
will be made in vain, because the tendency of our age is to 
fairly consider any improvement on its own merits; and as 
soon as the question has been fully and convincingly decided 
by the printers and dyers, and they find that artificial Alizarine 
is in every respect at least equal, if not superior to the natural, 
then the Madder plant will die out, the thousands of acres of 
land now occupied in its cultivation will be thrown open, and 
those countries which may at present appear to suffer most by 
the introduction of the new discovery, will reap the greatest 
benefit in an agricultural point of view. 
It is one of the greatest advantages of modern chemistry to 
add continually to the wealth of the community and in no 
other case will this be more strikingly illustrated than here. 
The quantity of Madder consumed is immense and so is the 
money value paid for it. It has been calculated that every 
year more than 100 millions of pounds are produced, a con- 
siderable part of which, one-fifth or perhaps even one-fourth 
finds its way to this country ; taking it at 10 cts. per pound it 
represents a capital of over $10,000,000, of which at least 
$2,000,000 are sent from here to Europe, and it may well be 
asked, whether this sum may not be added to the national 
wealth by assisting in manufacturing an article from a home 
product. 
Alizarine is at present manufactured in Germany and 
England only, and although there is no valid reason why it 
should not be made in this country, it may yet take a long- 
time before this is done. However the starting point of the 
manufacture is a residue, hitherto useless and valueless, but 
now commanding good prices ; there are no statistical records 
of the gas manufacture of this country, but it is quite certain 
there ought to be no difficulty in producing a thousand tons of 
Anthracene, the value of which would more than cover the 31 
sum which goes every year to Europe for Madder, and which I 
believe will soon go there for artificial Alizarine. 
It is interesting to follow the strange ways certain industries 
sometimes take. There are so many accidental but vital ques- 
tions connected with the development of every manufacture 
that we often see a country fail in supplying itself sufficiently 
with a manufactured article, although the raw material is 
abundant, and we find the last exported to a foreign country, 
there to be changed into the resulting product, which is then 
returned to the mother country. 
Such is the case with the manufacture of all coal-tar colors. 
England produces immense quantities of Benzol, the greatest 
part of which goes to Germany, there to be converted into 
Aniline dyes, a considerable quantity of which goes back again 
to England. Germany is comparatively poor in the products 
from coal-tar, and she must therefore go into the English mar- 
ket for the raw material. No other country is so far advanced 
in the manufacture of the coal-tar colors as Germany, a conse- 
quence, no doubt, of the admirable system of scientific and 
technical education, which produces so great a number of men 
trained in science and practice. The German manufacturer is 
thus enabled to counteract the natural disadvantage, he has to 
contend with. 
And the same case holds good with artificial Alizarine, the 
production of which has hitherto been limited to Germany and 
England; France, the native soil of Madder, has not yet com- 
menced to manufacture the substitute. The quantity of Aliza- 
rine manufactured by the German makers far surpasses the 
English production, but the principal supply of Anthracene 
comes from England, which, with its large and densely popu- 
lated towns, produces the coal-tar under more favorable 
conditions and in larger quantities, than Germany, where the 
principal towns are spread far apart. 
If Anthracene could be converted into Alizarine without 
the formation of other products of decomposition, involving 
considerable loss of Anthracene, the relative proportion as 
calculated from their chemical composition would be about as 32 
8 to 5, viz. 8 parts of Anthracene should yield 5 parts of 
Alizarine. 
The quantity of coal which must be converted into gas in 
order to supply the Anthracene for a given quantity of Aliz- 
arine may be calculated as follows: 
100 tons of Coal yield 3 tons of Pitch, 
100 “ Pitch yield 2 “ Anthracene, 
100 “ Anthracene should yield 166 “ Alizarine. 
or theoretically 1000 tons of Coal (producing about 10,000,000 
cubic feet of gas) should give one ton of Alizarine. It is not 
known how far the practical result falls short of this calcula- 
tion, but the quantity of coal required may safely be doubled. 
In conclusion I will add a few recipes for printing with 
artificial Alizarine, which will be found useful in practice. 
Recipes for Printing Artificial Alizarine. 
Reds. 
5 lbs. Alizarine paste 10 per cent. 
16 lbs. Thickening 
1 lb. Acetate of Alumina 10 Be=ls°Tw. 
£ lb. Acetate of Lime 16 Be=2s°Tw. 
Pinks. 
The same, diluted with 2 or 3 parts of Thickening. 
For double printing, when deep red is printed on first, the 
goods must be steamed one hour, before the second printing 
takes place. After the second printing the goods must again 
be steamed one hour and hung up to air for 21 hours; they 
are then passed through one of the following baths at a tem- 
perature of 120° to 140° F., remaining in the bath not longer 
than 1 to minute. 
250 gallons Water, 
60 lbs. Chalk, 
3 lbs. Tin Crystals. 
Or 
250 gallons Water, 
40 lbs. Chalk, 
10 lbs. Arseniate of Soda. The goods are then washed and brightened as follows : take 
for 10 pieces of 50 yards each : 
Ist Soaping at 130°F, 3 lbs. of Soap, J lb. Tin Crystals. 
2d “ at 160° F. 3 lbs, of Soap. 
3d “ at 175° F. 3 lbs. of Soap. 
Wash between each soaping. 
Red for Mosaics (Mille-Fleurs). 
8 lbs. Alizarine paste 10 per cent. 
10 quarts Thickening, 
ounces Nitrate of Alumina 15°Be=23°Tw. 
19 ounces Acetate of Alumina 10°Be=15°Tvfr. 
13 ounces Acetate of Lime 16°Be=25°Tvv. 
Very Deep Red. 
10 lbs Alizarine paste 10 per cent. 
10 quarts Thickening, 
13 ounces Nitrate of Alumina 15° Be = 23°Tw. 
19 ounces Acetate of Alumina 10°Bd = 15°Tw. 
16 ounces Acetate or Lime 16° Be = 35°Tw. 
Another Red without Oil. 
lbs. Alizarine paste 10 per cent. 
9£ lbs. Acetic Acid B°Be = 12°Tw. 
3£ lbs. Flour. 
5 pts. Water. 
Boil well and stir till cold, then add. 
Ist Acetate of Lime 18°Be=:29OTw. 
2d Nitrate of Alumina, looBe=23°Tw. 
3d Hyposulphite of Lime, 9 °Be = 13°Tw. 
Purple. 
3 lbs. Alizarine paste 10 per cent. 
10 quarts Purple Thickening. 
6 ounces Pyrolignite of Iron 13°Be=T8°Tw. 
13 ounces Acetate of Lime 16°Be=35°Tw. 
The printed goods are steamed for an hour or two and then 
hung up to air for 24 to 36 hours, they are then passed in a 
padding machine through the chalk and arseniate of soda bath, 
same as for reds, after which they are washed and soaped in a 
single soap bath without any crystals of Tin, and if required 
cleaned with a little bleaching powder. 34 
12 pounds Wheat Starch, 
40 quarts of Water, 
4 quarts Acetic Acid 6°Be = 9°Tw. 
1J pounds Gum Tragacanth, 
3 pounds Olive Oil. 
Thickening for Reds. ' 
Boil the whole well together, and stir till cold. 
Thickening for Purple. 
10 pounds Starch, 
27 quarts Water, 
3 quarts Acetic Acid, 
1-J- pounds Gum Tragacanth, 
2 pounds Olive Oil. 
Boil the whole well together, and stir till cold. 
The mordants used for the above recipes, are prepared in the 
following manner, viz.: 
Acetate of Alumina. 
30 pounds Hydrate of Alumina are stirred into 6 quarts Acetic Acid, 
warmed, filtered and the solution reduced to the required degree. 
The Hydrate of Alumina is prepared by dissolving 
72 pounds Alum in 100 gallons Water, 
02 pounds Soda in 100 gallons Water, 
and mixing the two solutions; the precipitate thus obtained 
is well washed, thrown on a filter and squeezed out and 
dissolved in the acid before it gets dry. 
Nitrate of Alumina. 
2 pounds Nitrate of Lead. 
2 pounds Alum. 
2 quarts Water. 
Dissolve and separate the liquid from the precipitate by 
filtration, and dilute to proper degree. 
The red is more yellow with Nitrate, than with Acetate of 
Alumina, and when the first is used more Acetate of Lime 
must be taken in addition. 
Acetate of Lime. 
A solution of Acetate of Lime at 16° Be contains 25 per 
cent, of Acetate of Lime ; generally one-tenth of the weight of 
Alizarine paste is required, but it is safer with a fresh quantity 
of Alizarine, to ascertain on a small scale the quantity required.