No. 1 
JANUARY, 1941 
STATE OF C A L I F OR N I A 
DEPARTMENT OF INSTITUTIONS 
Psychiatric Monographs 
THE ETIOLOGY OF CHILD BEHAVIOR 
DIFFICULTIES, JUVENILE DELINQUENCY 
AND ADULT CRIMINALITY 
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THEIR 
OCCURRENCE IN TWINS 
BY 
AARON J. RbSANOFF, M.D., LEVA M. HANDY, M.A. 
AND 
ISABEL ROSANOFF PLESSET, B.A 
Price of this issue $l.OO \ 10. 1 
JANUARY, 1941 
STATE OF CALIFORNIA 
DEPARTMENT OF INSTITUTIONS 
Psychiatric Monographs 
THE ETIOLOGY OF CHILD BEHAVIOR 
DIFFICULTIES, JUVENILE DELINQUENCY 
AND ADULT CRIMINALITY 
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THEIR 
OCCURRENCE IN TWINS 
BY 
AARON J. ROSANOFF, M.D., LEVA M. HANDY, M.A. 
AND 
ISABEL ROSANOFF PLESSET, B.A. 
EDITORIAL BOARD 
THOMAS W. HAGERTY, M.D. 
MARGARET H. SMYTH, M.D. 
AARON J. ROSANOFF, M.D 
FRED O. BUTLER, M.D. 
ORTHO H. CLOSE 
MARIAN R. BALLIN, M.A., Secretary 
PUBLISHED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF INSTITUTIONS BY THE CALIFORNIA 
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The main purpose of this new monograph series is to provide a 
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AARON J. ROSANOPF, M.D., 
Editor-in-Chief. 
Sacramento, 
December, 1940. 6 
ETIOLOG.Y OP BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
It has been suggested that, to begin with, we should at least 
attempt a clarification of these concepts by formulating clean-cut 
definitions of them. Otherwise, it has been said, is it not true that all 
children present behavior difficulties and symptoms of delinquency and 
all adults are lawbreakers? 
Similar questions have been raised in connection with other por- 
tions of the material of our research: What is intelligence? How 
would one define mental deficiency? Is epilepsy a clinical entity? etc. 
It seems to us that such questions and suggestions are not help- 
ful ; and that, on the contrary, they would serve but to increase the 
fog of an atmosphere which is already much befogged. While they 
have an appearance of rigid scientific demands, their effect could be 
only to divert attention from the clinical material presenting the prob- 
lems under consideration and to send it off into avenues of speculation 
instead. 
It seems to us that such definitions as have been demanded repre- 
sent possibly the goal, to be reached inductively, rather than the point 
of departure, of such a study as ours. It is more probable, indeed, 
that, as we proceed with the analysis of the material, our preoccupa- 
tion will come to be mainly with other and more concrete matters. 
Accordingly, let it suffice, for the moment, to state that our cases 
of child behavior difficulties were found in child guidance clinics, school 
clinics, neurologic clinics, and in special classes for problem children 
in the public schools. Any boy or girl, under 18 years of age, who 
has been brought to the attention of juvenile court authorities by reason 
of some offense and thereupon either placed on probation or committed 
to a correctional institution, has been classified for our purpose as 
presenting a case of juvenile delinquency. Any person, 18 years of 
age or over, who has been convicted and sentenced by a criminal 
court to serve a term in a city or county jail or in a state or federal 
prison, or granted probation, has been classified for our purpose as 
presenting a case of criminality in an adult. 
In many of our cases of adult criminality the clinical histories 
show that such criminality was preceded by juvenile delinquency and, 
earlier, by predelinquent traits in the shape of child behavior diffi- 
culties. Many other cases present, as complications, mental deficiency, 
epilepsy, psychotic disease, etc. In other words, there is much over- 
lapping not only among the three groups of behavior problems with 
which this monograph is principally concerned, but also between them 
and certain so-called constitutional mental disorders. 
For the successful utilization of twin material in a study of the 
etiology of any physical or mental disorder, it is a matter of first 
importance that the cases of twins be correctly diagnosed as to type, GENERAL SURVEY OF THE MATERIAL 
7 
i.e., whether monozygotic or dizygotic. It is also highly important to 
secure an unbiased selection of the material, the special danger to be 
avoided being that of overloading the material with cases of concordant 
findings. 
The features of method which we have employed in diagnosis of 
twins as to type and in selection of our material have already been 
described in published reports of other phases of our research (10, 11), 
and will not be dealt with further in this connection. 
§ 2. General Survey of the Material 
Our entire material has been summarized in Table I, in which it 
is presented en masse without an attempt at detailed analysis for the 
present. It will be noted that the cases of child behavior difficulties 
have been classified into two general groups, containing, respectively, 
preneurotic and prepsychotic types, and predelinquent types. Our 
use of these terms will, we trust, be made clearer eventually. 8 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Table I. Incidence of Child Behavior Difficulties, Juvenile Delinquency, and Adult Criminality in 409 
Pairs of Twins, by Type of Twinning, Sex, and Number in Each Pair Affected 
Clinical group 
Monozygotic twins 
Same-sex dizygotic twins 
. 
Opposite-sex twins 
Grand total 
Male 
Female 
Male 
Female 
Both 
affected 
One 
affected 
Total __ _ 
Both 
affected 
One 
affected 
Total _ 
Both 
affected 
One 
affected 
Total __ 
Both 
affected 
One 
affected 
Total 
Both 
affected 
Male alone 
affected 
Female alone 
affected 
Total _ _ 
Child behavior difficulties: preneu- 
rotic and prepsychotic types 
14 
5 
19 
8 
2 
10 
10 
9 
19 
11 
21 
32 
16 
14 
10 
40 
120 
Child behavior difficulties: prede- 
linquent types 
8 
— 
8 
14 
— 
14 
5 
4 
9 
8 
11 
19 
9 
7 
2 
18 
68 
Juvenile delinquency 
29 
— 
29 
11 
1 
12 
12 
5 
17 
9 
— 
9 
13 
28 
5 
46 
113 
Adult criminality _ 
29 
9 
38 
6 
1 
7 
5 
18 
23 
1 
3 
4 
3 
25 
8 
36 
108 
Total ’ __ _ 
80 
14 
94 
39 
4 
43 
32 
36 
68 
29 
35 
64 
41 
74 
25 
140 
409 GENERAL SURVEY OF THE MATERIAL 
9 
Both affected has reference not only to similar affections exist- 
ing in both of a given pair of twins, but also to affections representing 
both quantitative and qualitative intra-pair dissimilarities. Thus one 
twin may present in his case history merely a moderately severe child 
behavior difficulty, while in the other there may be a more severe 
and more persistent difficulty which has eventually merged into juve- 
nile delinquency and into recurrent adult criminality; or one of the pair 
may present one of the behavior difficulties which are the principal 
subject of this monograph, while the other is free from such difficulty, 
but is a case of mental deficiency, epilepsy, or psychotic disease. 
In this material, by selection, at least one twin in each pair is 
affected by a child behavior difficulty, juvenile delinquency, or adult 
criminality; or any two of these, or all three, in succession. In many 
individuals thus affected there exists, in addition, a complication in 
the form of mental deficiency, epilepsy, or psychotic disease. 
Accordingly, in the columns of Table I, headed one affected, 
are represented pairs of twins with one of each pair affected by one 
of the behavior difficulties, with or without any of the above listed 
complicating conditions, while the other is free not only from any of 
the behavior difficulties, but also from any of the complicating condi- 
tions. Only such cases will be referred to in this monograph as repre- 
senting discordant findings. The remaining cases will be considered as 
indicating concordant findings. The concordance may be complete or 
partial; and in connection with cases representing partial concordance 
we shall endeavor, in subsequent sections, to take cognizance of both 
quantitative and qualitative intra-pair dissimilarities. 
It will be seen from the figures in Table I that, for each of the 
clinical groups represented therein, as well as for the entire set of 
cases, the relative frequencies of concordant and discordant findings 
among monozygotic twins are in striking contrast with those among 
both same-sex and opposite-sex dizygotic twins, especially the latter. 
The frequencies of concordant findings, for the entire material, among 
the monozygotic, same-sex dizygotic, and opposite-sex twins, amount 
to 86.9, 41.7 and 29.3 per cent, respectively. 
It appears, then, that our findings are roughly in harmony with 
those previously reported for criminal twins by Lange (7), Legras (8), 
Stumpfl (15), and Kranz (6), as suggesting that hereditary factors play 
a part in the etiology of the behavior difficulties under consideration. 
A most striking bit of evidence of hereditary factors in the deter- 
mination of delinquency and criminality is presented by a few cases 
included in our collection, of monozygotic twins reared apart, yet pre- 
senting closely concordant findings. 10 
ETIOLOG.Y OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
In these cases (Nos. 76, 131, and 132), under widely separated and 
more or less dissimilar or even contrasted environmental conditions, 
prevailing from birth or from an early age, the antisocial manifesta- 
tions were not only practically identical, both in kind and in amount, 
but also synchronous in the rhythm of their occurrence. 
It is equally clear, however, that hereditary factors alone do not, 
in all cases, suffice to produce these conditions, for discordant findings 
are revealed in no less than 13.1 per cent of our cases of monozygotic 
twins. 
As we shall see farther on, from a more detailed analysis of the 
material, there is another and very frequent finding—that of quanti- 
tative and qualitative intra-pair dissimilarities among monozygotic 
twins—which tends further to discount the importance of heredity in 
the etiology. 
A third fact which obviously discounts still further the importance 
of hereditary factors is that of the high incidence of concordant find- 
ings among dizygotic twins. This is especially true of the juvenile 
delinquency group, but is quite striking in connection with the other 
groups as well. This finding points, of course, to nonhereditary fac- 
tors, to the influence of which both twins of a pair—whether mono- 
zygotic or dizygotic—are often jointly exposed. 
The magnitude of this finding can be evaluated by comparing it 
with the corresponding figures for singly-born siblings. Apparently 
the only data that are available for the purpose of such a comparison 
are those furnished by Humm (5) pertaining to adult criminality 
in male subjects. 
Among 63 brothers of male criminal propositi, Humm found 15, or 
23.8 per cent, with criminality or with some neuropsychiatric condi- 
tion. Among their 61 sisters he found 7, or 11.5 per cent thus affected. 
The corresponding percentages for dizygotic twin brothers and 
twin sisters of adult male criminal subjects in our material are 47.1 
and 35.7, respectively, i.e., relatively two and three times as high. 
The genetic relationship existing between dizygotic twins is, of 
course, no closer than that between siblings. Accordingly, the enor- 
mous relative excess of concordance in dizygotic twins, as compared 
with singly-born siblings, can be attributed only to nonhereditary 
factors. 
Finally, the figures in Table I indicate plainly that sex is a fac- 
tor of the highest importance in the etiology of the various behavior 
disorders that are under consideration here. Of the total of 818 indi- 
viduals included in our material 464 are males and 354 females. 
Among these there are 389 affected males and 241 affected females. 
Among the 280 individuals included in the opposite-sex group there MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
11 
are 115 (82.1 per cent) affected males and but 66 (47.1 per cent) 
affected females, a relative excess of affected males amounting to 74.2 
per cent. 
These figures, striking as they are, do not tell the whole story. 
There are also profound differences in the kinds of behavior disorders 
that are characteristically observed in the two sexes, as will be shown 
in connection with a more detailed analysis of the material to be under- 
taken in subsequent sections. 
§ 3. Monozygotic Twins : Male 
Group 1. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic and 
prepsychotic types; normal intelligencey1 both affected, 
similarly. 8 cases: Nos. 1-8. 
Case 1. G. twins, Richard and Robert. Born in Los Angeles, 
California, September 20, 1929. Observed by us in November, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Los Angeles Child Guidance Clinic. The 
mother of these twins is herself one of a pair of opposite-sex twins; 
she weighed only 3 pounds at birth; her twin brother was larger; she 
is described as “a markedly inadequate person of low intelligence, 
who has little or no understanding of the emotional needs of ths chil- 
dren and who seems to expect mature reactions from them.” Preg- 
nancy and delivery of the twins were difficult. Richard is inch 
taller and slightly heavier and is right-handed, while Robert is left- 
handed. They were nursed for four months, then put on bottle because 
mother did not have enough milk. There was much nutrition difficulty 
with vomiting, etc., during first year; then they were given blood 
transfusions and have greatly improved physically, but they have 
enlarged tonsils and are mouth breathers. Their mother brought them 
to the clinic mainly on account of persistent thumb-sucking which had 
begun in both at 8 months when they were taken off the bottle; she 
resorted to splints at the elbows in an attempt to break this habit. At 
the clinic they showed similar behavior, both were somewhat negativistic, 
did not respond to all of Kuhlman 2-year tests, refusing to imitate 
motions and unwrap candy. In a Stanford-Binet test they both 
attained an I. Q. of 96; their intelligence may be higher, however. 
Since the mother, upon advice at the clinic, has been ignoring the 
thumb-sucking it has been definitely diminished. 
Case 2. M. twins, James and Gerald. Born in San Angelo, 
Texas, September 5, 1926. Our observation in November, 1931, 
through the courtesy of the San Diego County Bureau of Welfare, 
California. The father had recently become psychotic and was in the 
County Psychopathic Hospital on account of a persecutory trend. 
The paternal grandfather is also psychotic, but has not been institu- 
tionalized. The twins had recently recovered from chorea. At the 
time of our observation the main behavior difficulty was that they 
destroyed flowers, garbage pails, and anything left outside, and the 
1 Throughout this monograph the expression normal intelligence implies an 
I. Q. of 90 or over, or, in the absence of mental tests, a judgment to that effect. 12 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
neighbors complained of this repeatedly. In the home they cried a 
great deal. Another problem was addiction to masturbation. No 
record of a mental test. 
Case 3. E. twins, Richard and Robert. Born in Santa Monica, 
California, October 23, 1924. Onr observation in April, 1931, in one 
of the Los Angeles city schools. These boys had been referred to the 
Department of Psychology and Research for correction of their baby 
talk and their generally “immature manner and behavior.” They 
were “the youngest children in the family and very much spoiled.” 
Intelligence tests in October, 1930, revealed, for both, I. Q. 106. 
Case 4. R. twins, Eugene and Leonard. Born in New York, 
December 4, 1923. Our observation in July, 1931, through the cour- 
tesy of the Institute for Child Guidance in New York. Mother was in 
poor health during pregnancy with the twins. Birth was at full term, 
but they were not robust, both had rickets at 3 years. At school they 
seem stupid, just sit with mouths open most of the time, apparently 
unable to learn to read, failing in studies, held back at promotion 
time; yet Stanford-Binet tests in 1929 revealed, for Eugene, I. Q. 
102, for Leonard, 99. Both have enuresis, diurnal and nocturnal; 
they come home from school wet nearly every day;' mother says 
they are too shy to ask permission to leave the room. When they 
failed to be promoted at midterm they trnanted for two weeks. At 
home they are sullen, rude to family and neighbors, uncooperative, 
refuse to talk or to help in the work; quarrel, tight, and break up 
things, but always stick together against the rest of the world. They 
steal money from mother’s purse to buy candy; do not admit the theft, 
but are indifferent as to the accusation. Eugene is somewhat the 
leader, Leonard the follower. 
Case 5. G. twins, Marvin and Melvin. Born in Escondido, 
California, in 1921. Observed by us in December, 1931, in one of 
the Escondido public schools. No record of a mental test. They 
are a disciplinary problem at school because of quarrelsomeness and 
insubordination. They are constantly fighting with the other boys 
and, as they usually fight together, they often hurt the others badly, 
especially the smaller ones. They are impudent and defiant toward 
the teachers and are, naturally, very unpopular with the rest of the 
children. “No basis on which they could be appealed to has yet been 
found. ’ ’ 
Case 6. H. twins, Willard and Willis. Born in California in 
1921. Observed by us in the public school at Alpine, San Diego 
County, California, in December, 1931. No record of a mental test. 
They are generally together and their behavior is identical. The 
problem is “not so much viciousness as pranks.” They knock books 
out of other children’s hands; fill up the ink wells with trash; take 
screws out of seats, so that they collapse when sat upon; trip up 
pupils; fasten pins in the ends of their pencils and jab others; 
strew tacks over the state highway to watch the passing cars get 
tire punctures; on one occasion smashed a basket of eggs at the 
store “just to hear them crack.” No reasoning or discipline seems MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
13 
to have a deterrent effect. “They will promise solemnly not to do it 
again, but in less than five minutes have repeated the very same act.” 
Case 7. B. twins, Tom and Edward. Born in Chicago, Illinois, 
October 28, 1919. Our investigation in April, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the Los Angeles, California, Child Guidance Clinic. They 
were referred to the clinic by their foster mother, on account of poor 
showing at school, in January, 1930. Although over 10 years of age 
they were only in the third grade, and doing rather poorly; had 
repeated second grade. In other respects, too, they were “babyish” 
and dependent. Investigation revealed a discrepancy between their 
intelligence and educational achievement. Stanford-Binet tests in 
March, 1930, revealed, for Tom, I. Q. 97, for Edward, 94. Achieve- 
ment tests revealed, for both, an Educational Quotient of but 81. 
They seemed to be much more interested and more competent in 
mechanical activities. 
Case 8. L. twins, Milton and Nathan. Born November 14, 1918. 
Our observation in March, 1932, in the Mt. Vernon Junior High 
School, Los Angeles. Their problem consists in disorderliness in 
class, talking out, complaining of other pupils, expressing a feeling 
that they are not getting their rights, and clamoring for more atten- 
tion. They are regarded as “jokes” by many of the other pupils 
and are teased considerably. Their tendency to complain of wrongs 
done them and to “tattle.” on other pupils has made them very unpop- 
ular. They stand together against the other pupils. Mental tests 
in 1931 revealed, for Milton, I. Q. 106, for Nathan, 104. 
Group 2. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; normal intelligence; both affected, similarly. 4 
cases: Nos. 9-12. 
Case 9. D. twins, Chester and Clyde. Born in Madison, Indiana, 
May 9, 1920. Our investigation in June, 1931, through the courtesy 
of the Psychopathic Institute of the Jewish Hospital, Cincinnati, 
Ohio. These boys were admitted to the Institute together on January 
21, 1931, mainly on account of persistent truancy. They had been 
brought up together in a poor environment. The father had been 
unemployed since the summer of 1930. The entire family of seven 
lived in two rooms in a shim neighborhood inhabited mainly by 
negroes. There was much bickering between the parents over the 
discipline of the twins, especially Chester, who seemed to be the 
leader in their misbehavior. On admission the boys were found to be 
slovenly, showing much ignorance or neglect of personal hygiene. 
In less than two weeks Chester escaped from the Institute three times, 
was at all times impertinent, did not respond to correction, was finally 
transferred to the Bureau of Juvenile Research on February 2, 1931, 
partly in order to separate him from Clyde, on whom he was judged 
to have a bad influence. Clyde, too, showed, on admission, a tendency 
to lie, cheat, and to be both disrespectful and cowardly; but it was 
evident that he was following Chester’s initiative. He proved more 
amenable to discipline, did not run away, wanted others to have a 
good opinion of him. For two weeks following Chester’s transfer to 14 
ETIOLOG.Y OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Columbus Clyde remained at the Institute and was then returned to 
his home to be there under occasional supervision of the social worker 
of the Institute with provision for recreational outlets, etc. Thereafter 
there was no more truancy or other behavior difficulty. Stanford- 
Binet tests in 1930 revealed, for Chester, I. Q. 95, for Clyde, 98. 
Case 10. B. twins, Raleigh and Ralph. Part Negro. Born in 
Watts, California, February 1, 1919. Our observation in the Jordan 
High School, Watts, in April, 1932. The trouble with these boys is 
stealing. They are both very dapper and their thefts have usually 
been of neckties and other articles of wearing apparel. Raleigh was 
arrested for attempting to steal a tie pin from a jeweler’s. Ralph 
was not with him on that occasion, but usually they are together and 
both have been mixed up in all the other scrapes. Mental tests (Otis) 
in May, 1931, revealed, for Raleigh, I. Q. 109, for Ralph, 106. 
Case 11. E. twins, Edward and Ernest. Part Indian (Mexican). 
Born in Mexico January 5, 1917. Our observation in Anaheim-High 
School, California, in December, 1931. The main problem in the ease 
of these boys has been that of truancy and gambling. The parents 
of other children have complained repeatedly to the school authorities 
that these boys have “fleeced” their sons out of lunch money by 
cajoling them into gambling games. The twins are always together and 
spend much of their time around pool halls. The truant officer has 
had to go there after them several times. Mental tests (Terman 
group) in 1930 revealed, for Edward, I. Q. 111, for Ernest, 108. 
Case 12. B. twins, Kenneth and Keith. Born in Arizona, May 
28, 1916. Our observation in Compton Junior High School, California, 
in November, 1931. Both boys have been problems in the school, but 
Keith was much the harder to deal with. There seemed to be no basis 
on which an appeal would reach him. Stealing, lying, swearing, tru- 
ancy, and insubordination are the offenses listed against him. He 
had been suspended twice and was finally expelled in October, 1931, 
after which his father took him back to the ranch in Arizona. Ken- 
neth was involved with Keith in several stealing escapades and, like 
his twin, tried to lie out of it. He was suspended once, but is more 
timid than Keith and never really defiant. Since Keith’s expulsion 
and their consequent separation he has seemed morose and sullen, but 
not especially difficult. Mental tests (National) in 1928 revealed, for 
Kenneth, I. Q. 101, for Keith, 97. 
Group 3. Juvenile delinquency; normal intelligence; 
hoik affected, similarly. 14 cases: Nos. 13-26. 
Case 13. M. twins, Harold and Harry. Born in Peoria, Illinois, 
May 13, 1921. Our observation in July, 1932, through the courtesy 
of St. Charles School for Boys, Illinois. Mental tests in 1932 revealed, 
for Harold, I. Q. 95, for Harry, I. Q. 101. Their record of delin- 
quencies begins on July 25, 1929, when Harry drove away a Ford 
truck which had been parked in the street; he was picked up by an 
officer. In July, 1930, Harold was brought in by the police for steal- 
ing a bicycle; the bicycle was then returned, but not intact, as he MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
15 
had removed some parts. On October 9, 1930, the twins, together, 
again stole a bicycle. An experiment was then tried to give them an 
opportunity to earn money for a bicycle: they were to receive $1 for 
every A they earned in their studies and $1 a week for not missing 
school. Within two days, however, they were picked up by the police 
again with two stolen bicycles in their possession. On November 12, 
1930, the twins broke a window valued at S3O. On March 16, 1931, 
Harry, in company with another boy, was arrested for destroying a 
pay-station telephone causing damage to the extent of $37. On 
August 1, 1931, the twins were picked up for “borrowing” an auto- 
mobile truck without permission. After that attempts were made to 
care for them in foster homes, but there was no improvement in their 
behavior. Finally, on April 15, 1932, they were committed to the 
School for Boys at St. Charles, Illinois. At the time of our observation 
of the case they were still inmates there. 
Case 14. C. twins, Jack and Lee. Born in San Diego, California, 
March 9, 1920. Paternal grandfather was alcoholic. Father, as a 
boy, frequently ran away from home up to the age of 10 years, and 
then left permanently. He was 28 years old and the twins’ mother 
was but 14 at the time of their marriage. Their domestic life was 
“miserable” on account of father’s drinking, philandering, and fail- 
ure properly to support the family. Eventually the parents were 
divorced and both remarried. Three older children went to live with 
the father, the twins with the mother. Maternal grandparents were 
divorced on account of failure to provide. The mother suffered from 
epileptic attacks which began after the birth of her first child, and 
she had seizures during her pregnancy with the twins. The three 
older children in the family have never been in any difficulty. The 
twins had been considered a behavior problem since the age of 4 years. 
They were physically frail and at the age of 7 years had to be placed 
in a preventorium. They have since been very troublesome both at 
home and at school, on account of persistent truancy, running away, 
irresponsible behavior, lying, petty stealing, chasing girls; also play- 
ing with little boys and even handling and kissing them. Lee has 
been considered the more troublesome and aggressive of the two, 
much more given to temper outbursts; yet one could not say that he 
was the leader, as they merely quarreled constantly between themselves 
when together. Mother filed a complaint in Juvenile Court first 
against Lee in September, 1930, then against Jack in October, 1931, 
for running away and being incorrigible and uncontrollable. They 
have both been in custody in Juvenile Hall, Los Angeles, and in the 
Boys’ Industrial Home. Finally in April, 1932, they were ordered 
by the court to be placed in a foster home in Saugus, California, 
under supervision of the Probation Department. At the time of our 
investigation of the case, which was in September, 1932, they were still 
there. Mental tests in 1930 revealed, for both, I. Q. 97. 
Case 15. C. twins, Stephen and James. Born in Toronto, Onta- 
rio, Canada, February 1, 1920. Our observation through the courtesy 
of the Victoria Industrial School at Mimico, Ontario, in August, 
1932. The mother has to work for a living and the twins were raised 
first in a creche and later in various foster homes, but were finally 16 
ETIOLOG.Y OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
given up by their foster parents because of their mischievous and 
destructive tendencies. Although they have always been identical 
in appearance and often mistaken for each other, they are unlike in 
several respects: Stephen has had measles three times and has had 
running ears most of his life; has nocturnal enuresis; is a year behind 
James at school; seems to be the leader in their mischievous and delin- 
quent behavior and the more troublesome of the two. James has had 
measles twice; no ear trouble; no enuresis; is more amenable and 
responsive. Mental tests in 1931 revealed, for Stephen, I. Q. 102, for 
James, 113. Their behavior difficulties have existed since early child- 
hood. They are always together, yet always quarreling with each 
other. Described as noisy, impulsive, quick tempered, stubborn, 
unruly, not affectionate toward any one, holding grudges, disobedient, 
not dependable, resentful of authority, defiant; at school they ‘ ‘ caused 
more trouble than all the rest of the boys put together. ’ ’ Finally, in 
February, 1931, they were arrested together for smashing store windows 
and stealing pop corn, candy, etc. On March 5, 1931, they were com- 
mitted to the Victoria Industrial School, where they also proved as 
troublesome as they had been elsewhere. They were still there at 
the time of our investigation of the case in August, 1932. 
Case 16. E. twins, Warrick and Douglas. Born in Pasadena, 
California, August 5, 1916. Our observation, through the courtesy 
of the Juvenile Probation Department, Los Angeles County, in Sep- 
tember, 1932. Parents are divorced and the children are living with 
their mother in a pleasant home. The twins are fine appearing, lively 
boys, somewhat given to innocent pranks. In June, 1932, Warrick 
and three other boys were picked up by a police officer in Pasadena 
“for maliciously breaking a street light”; property damage amounted 
to $5. This was the first trouble of a somewhat serious nature. Juve- 
nile Court dismissed the case. Douglas said he had done the same 
sort of thing but didn’t get caught. No record of a mental test, but 
they are judged to be of normal or superior intelligence, are in 108 
grade at school, doing well in their studies. 
Case 17. IT. twins, Leo Max, Jr., and Frank J. Born in Butte, 
Montana, February 4, 1916. Our investigation in September, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Los Angeles County Juvenile Probation 
Department. The twins’ home environment is good, but they were 
disobedient and uncooperative and their school attendance was irregu- 
lar. They were inseparable and “exactly alike in disposition, except 
that Leo has been the leader of the two.” Leo was the first to come 
to the attention of the Juvenile Court, in March, 1932, for reckless 
driving through an intersection and narrowly averting an accident; 
his driver’s license was taken away and he was granted probation. 
His second arrest was in May, 1932, for stealing a clock from an auto- 
mobile; again granted probation. In August, 1932, the twins were 
arrested together for stealing a Ford coupe and dismantling it; they 
were charged with grand theft and again granted probation. Our 
follow-up investigation in the spring of 1933 revealed that in Janu- 
ary, 1933, the twins, together with their brother and two other boys, 
were arrested again for stealing two roadsters, a Chrysler and a 
Chevrolet, and stripping them of parts and accessories’ which they MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
17 
sold. They were then, on January 23, 1933, both committed to Pres- 
ton School of Industry at lone, California, for the period of their 
minority. Frank, though reported to be under Leo’s influence, had 
been delinquent on his own account as well. In May, 1932, he was 
reported stealing from school shop on at least three occasions; the 
stolen articles were later found at his home where he had hidden them. 
A mental test in 1933 revealed, for Leo, I. Q. 101. There is no record 
of a mental test in Frank’s case, but he was in the same class with 
Leo (11 A) and his scholastic record was about the same. 
Case 18. 11. twins, Roger and Tom. Born in Sydney, Australia, 
April 9, ]914. Our investigation in June, 1931, through the courtesy 
of Judge H. C. Shaw, Juvenile Court, Vancouver, British Columbia, 
Canada. These boys committed various delinquent acts together and 
separately, even when living apart. They were together in the Deten- 
tion Home and before the Juvenile Court at Vancouver in October, 
1927, and in February and May, 1929, the first time for stealing 
bicycles and the second and third times for stealing cars. After that 
Tom was before the court again in March, 1930, for breaking and 
entering; August, 1930, for breaking, entering, and stealing; and 
December, 1930, also for breaking, entering, and stealing. On the last 
occasion he was committed to the Provincial Industrial School and, at 
the time of our investigation, was still an inmate there. Roger, after 
three appearances before the Juvenile Court together with Tom, was 
before the court again in February and in May, 1931, both times for 
automobile thefts. On the last occasion the judge informed him that 
for any further violation of probation he would also be committed to 
the Industrial School. At the time of our investigation he was still 
at large under court supervision. There is no record of any mental 
test for either twin. 
Case 19. K. twins, Harold and Harvey. Born in Chicago, July 
11, 1915. Our investigation in September, 1932, through the courtesy 
of the Los Angeles County, California, Juvenile Probation Department. 
Father is of delicate health; he and two older brothers of the twins 
are living in Chicago. Mother is nervous, lives with the twins and 
two other brothers in California; one of these brothers has tubercu- 
losis, the other is anemic; the twins have hay fever and asthma. Thus, 
the family is divided, but only for health reasons. Harold, as a young 
baby, was extremely delicate, “carried on a pillow for nine months,” 
is said to have had gastric ulcer. Prom this he recovered, and there- 
after the twins presented an identical appearance and were constantly 
confused. At 7 years Harold had whooping cough complicated with 
convulsions. Upon recovery he developed a tendency toward severe 
headaches. At 15 years Harold had an appendectomy, following which 
he gained weight, so that at the time of our observation the twins 
could easily be told apart on account of Harold’s being the stouter. 
They presented no problem at school, were in the ninth grade, mental 
teste given at school revealed, for both, I. Q. 90. Their behavior diffi- 
culties were mild and temporary, developing first in Harvey at the 
age of 16 years. He became rather troublesome and unmanageable at 
home and “worried his parents a great deal”; but he was never 18 
ETIOLOG.Y OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
before Juvenile Court. On May 13, 1931, Harold was arrested and 
placed in Juvenile Hall on a charge of playing sexually with a 5-year 
old girl in a toilet, where he had induced her to come with him by 
promising to give her some ice cream. He remained in Juvenile Hall 
for nine days; was committed to the Preston School of Industry at 
lone, California, but was granted a stay of execution, pending proba- 
tion at home. This episode gave both twins “quite a jolt,” their 
behavior improved greatly, and, at the time of our investigation of the 
case, both were at home and ‘ ‘ getting along splendidly. ’ ’ 
Case 20. R. twins, Ernest and Jack. Born in Victoria, British 
Columbia, Canada, September 10, 1913. Our investigation in May, 
1931, through the courtesy of the Boys’ Industrial School at Coquitlam, 
British Columbia. The mother of these boys died when they were six 
months old. The father has tuberculosis and is in a hospital most of 
the time. The twins were placed in the Providence Orphanage at 
Victoria after their mother died and lived there together for eleven 
years, presenting no problem. For several years thereafter they 
worked at odd jobs. On March 6, 1930, Ernest was committed to the 
Boys ’ Industrial School for forging checks; and he was still an inmate 
there at the time of our investigation of the case. This was his first 
offense and he was sent to the institution “as much for a home and 
care as anything else.” Jack joined the British Navy when he was 
16 years old, but soon deserted, was absent without leave for about 
six months. He was then apprehended and sentenced to the Navy 
Detention Barracks where he served a term of 60 days in the latter 
part of 1930. No record of a mental test for either twin. 
Case 21. D. twins, Ralph J. and Robert. Born in Valley Junc- 
tion, lowa, December 8, 1914. Our investigation in December, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the State Reformatory at Hutchinson, Kansas. 
The case history is very meager. Robert is right-handed, Ralph is 
left-handed. No record of a mental test for either twin. All their 
delinquencies were committed jointly. In 1922, when barely 8 years 
of age, they were committed to the State Industrial School at Topeka, 
Kansas, for horse stealing. After several months there they were 
tried on parole, but violated parole repeatedly and had to be returned. 
They escaped from the institution many times. With such interrup- 
tions they were in the institution altogether 21 months. In 1932 
they burglarized a clothing store in Topeka, stealing $165 worth of 
property, and were committed for a term of 5 to 10 years to the 
State Reformatory at Hutchinson. At the time of our investigation 
they were still inmates there. 
Case 22. N. twins, Lawrence and Charles. Part Indian. Born 
in El Paso, Texas, November 19, 1913. Our observation in Septem- 
ber, 1932, through the courtesy of the Los Angeles County, California, 
Juvenile Probation Department. In January, 1932, Lawrence was 
arrested and placed in Juvenile Hall, where he remained, pending 
lengthy investigation and hearings, until April. On the testimony 
of a girl in the neighborhood he was charged with being the father 
of her illegitimate child. Paternity could not be proved, however, 
as the girl had had other “boy friends,” and, as between the two MONOZYGOTIC TWINS : MALE 
19 
twins, it could not be ascertained which might have been the father, 
as they had both been involved. Charles stated, “I just want to say 
that on March 20, when Lawrence was supposed to be over there, he 
wasn’t. It was me, but the neighbors don’t know the difference because 
we look alike.” The case was finally dismissed—“paternity not 
established.” The boys had been in no other difficulty at home, at 
school, or elsewhere. No record of a mental test for either twin. 
Case 23. C. twins, James Hall and Joe. Born in San Francisco, 
California, March 22, 1912. Our investigation in November, 1931, 
through the courtesy of the San Diego County, California, Probation 
Department. These boys committed numerous delinquencies both 
together and separately, often in company with one or two other delin- 
quent boys in the neighborhood. Parents divorced on account of 
father’s intemperance. The twins are fine-appearing, seemingly well- 
mannered, intelligent boys. No record of a mental test for either 
twin. Aside from irregular school attendance these boys are not known 
to have been in serious difficulty until October 15, 1927, when their 
delinquencies began. On that day Janies turned in false fire alarms; 
later partly confessed, but tried to throw the blame on another boy. 
A week later the twins entered an unfinished house and stole some 
carpenter’s tools. On April 8, 1928, Joe stole a bicycle from in front 
of a theater, took it home, and, in company with James and another 
boy, attempted to disguise it by painting it and removing mud guards 
and carrier. On April 21, 1928, Joe was reported for attempted theft 
of an automobile tire. On January 30, 1929, James was before the 
court on charge of reckless driving and a collision. On April 15, 1929, 
Joe was reported for an attempt to cross the Mexican line to Tia 
Juana; on that and some previous occasions he gave his age as 21 
years. On May 21, July 21, and August 6, 1929, James was before 
the court for speeding and violation of other traffic regulations, and 
his driver’s license wras taken away. On August 14, 1929, James was 
ordered to be placed in the Juvenile Detention Home for repeated 
violation of probation by deliberately withholding from the authorities 
his transfer papers on which the record of his previous delinquencies 
appeared; on reaching the Detention Home he jumped from the auto- 
mobile and ran away. On August 30, 1929, James, together with two 
other boys, stole two airplane radiators and sold them to a junk 
dealer for $13.92. On September 4, 1929, he was apprehended by the 
police and placed in the Detention Home. On September 19, 1929, 
Joe was reported as one of a gang of boys involved in stealing an auto- 
mobile radiator. On the right before, he and another boy had been 
picked up by the police at a late hour, as they had been acting in a 
suspicious way and had in their possession a flashlight and four 
skeleton keys. On October 2, 1929, Joe, together with another boy, 
was seen by an officer to come up and inspect several cars parked 
in the street, finally entering a new Chrysler car, switching lights on 
and off several times, and then stepping on the starter; whereupon they 
were arrested. On October 23, 1929, James was released from the 
Detention Home to take a job, as he had made a perfect record there 
for seven weeks. On November 3, 1929, the twins, together with 
another boy, stole a fur-trimmed coat from a locked automobile; also 
a pair of valuable gauntlet gloves from a motorcycle; sold them for $3. 20 
ETIOLOG.Y OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
On November 13, 1929, they were committed to the Preston School of 
Industry at lone, California. They remained there until January 22, 
1931, when, having made a good record at the institution, they were 
released on parole and placed in jobs. At the time of our investiga- 
tion of the case (November, 1931) they were working as clerks in a 
department store in Los Angeles and apparently getting along well. 
Case 24. T. twins, Roy and Raymond. Born in Park Rapids, 
Minnesota, May 7, 1911. Our investigation in May, 1931, through 
the courtesy of the State Training School for Boys, Chehalis, Wash- 
ington. The mother was once arrested for making beer; on another 
occasion she had a mental breakdown and was for a time a patient 
in the state hospital at Fort Steilacoom, Washington. An older 
brother had also been a juvenile delinquent and an inmate of the 
State Training School for Boys. A sister, also delinquent, had been 
in a girls’ parental school. The twins are of superior intelligence; 
a mental test of Roy in 1922, revealed I. Q. 122; no record of a 
mental test in Raymond’s case. They had presented behavior diffi- 
culties and delinquent tendencies from an early age. Roy had been 
before the court eight times: six times for stealing, once for disorderly 
conduct, and the last time for being one of a group of boys who 
assaulted and dangerously hurt a Western Union messenger boy. 
Raymond had a record of two arrests for truancy, four for disorderly 
conduct, and three for stealing. His last arrest was for being involved 
in slugging and robbing a man. Both boys had been in a boys’ 
parental school from September, 1922, to September, 1923. Finally 
both were committed to the State Training School for Boys at Chehalis, 
Washington, where Roy remained from February 18, 1927, to April 7, 
1928; and Raymond from December 19, 1927, to November 28, 1928. 
At the time of our investigation of the ease (May, 1931) both were 
apparently getting along well, Roy at work on a job and Raymond in 
the U. S. Navy. 
Case 25. K. twins, Anthony and Chester. Born in Nanticoke, 
Pennsylvania, July 4, 1911. Our observation in July, 1932, through 
the courtesy of Eastern State Penitentiary at Philadelphia, Pennsyl- 
vania. Both twins showed the predelinquent type of behavior difficulty 
in childhood and adolescence; they were persistent truants and Chester 
was at one time expelled for truancy. They did poorly in studies, 
attained but the sixth and seventh grades, respectively, though not con- 
sidered to be of subnormal intelligence. There is no record of a mental 
test for either twin. Chester married at 17 years, “settled down,” 
now has two children, has always supported his family, and has not 
been in conflict with authorities, although Anthony said, “He was 
just about like me, only slicker.” Anthony never married, and so 
“did not settle down.” He first got into trouble in 1925 for breaking 
into a roadhouse; was then fined and dismissed. In December, 1928, 
he was arrested for breaking and entering a hardware store. Although 
he obtained “only a few dollars,” he was sentenced on December 28, 
1928, to the Eastern State Penitentiary to serve from 5 to 10 years. 
At the time of our observation of the case he was still an inmate 
there. MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
21 
Case 26. H. twins, Caldwell and Abram. Part Chinese. Born 
in United States in 1903. Our investigation in August, 1932, through 
the courtesy of the Berkeley, California, Police Department. Parents 
were very wealthy and spent much money in getting the twins out of 
their many scrapes. The police record dates back to June 21, 1918, 
when Caldwell, in company with two other boys, was reported for 
stealing cherries. On May 22, 1920, both twins, working separately, 
each without the other’s knowledge, in company with several other 
boys, entered some houses and stole a quantity of wine. Father later 
paid for the stolen property. On September 13, 1921, the mother of the 
twins reported a burglary in their home; investigation directed sus- 
picion to the twins, whereupon the parents quashed further proceedings. 
On January 16, 1922, Abram passed a bad check in payment of debts 
in a pool hall. The parents made good for the amount of the check. 
On July 15, 1922, there was another dispute about money which Abram 
had borrowed on a guitar. The parents again made good. On Octo- 
ber 22, 1930, Abram was found to be associating with a notorious 
homosexual; placed on police probation. The last reports were of a 
fairly satisfactory adjustment of both twins—Abram as secretary to 
a well-known prize tighter, Caldwell in a financial business. No record 
of a mental test for either twin, but they were judged to be of at least 
average intelligence. 
Group 4. Adult criminality; normal intelligence; 
both affected, similarly. 15 cases: Nos. 27-41. 
Case 27. S. twins, Benjamin and Joseph. Born in Walla Walla, 
Washington, November 18, 1912. Our investigation in May, 1931, 
through the courtesy of the State Reformatory at Monroe, Washington. 
These boys were committed together to the State Training School for 
Boys at Chehalis, Washington, on December 23, 1925, for larceny and 
burglary. On May 31, 1927, they were both granted parole. Since 
then Joseph developed an abdominal tumor, was operated on, and 
thereafter remained pale, thin, weak, stooped over, and could do noth- 
ing but a little light work around the house. ‘There has been no 
further record of delinquency or criminality in his case. Benjamin, 
however, has remained well physically. On February 19, 1929, he was 
returned to the State Training School for parole violation consisting of 
running away from home and attempted forgery. lie was again 
paroled on March 18, 1930. About a year later, on March 5, 1931, he 
was sentenced for a term of 1 to 5 years to the State Reformatory at 
Monroe, Washington, for forgery of checks; at the time of our investi- 
gation he was still an inmate there. He said: “ I forged and cashed 
three checks at Pasco, Washington, for a total of about $75. I then 
beat it to Vancouver, Washington, but was arrested when I came back 
to Pasco.” A mental test in April, 1931, revealed for Benjamin, I.Q. 
94. No record of a mental test in Joseph’s case, but they have 
appeared to be of about the same degree of intelligence. 
Case 28. M. twins, Steve and William. Born in Cleveland, Ohio, 
January 2, 1911. Our observation in July, 1932, through the courtesy 
of the State Reformatory at Mansfield, Ohio. History very scant. No 22 
ETIOLOG.Y OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
record of any mental test. Both twins are dairy farmers. They were 
first arrested together in 1930 for automobile theft and put on two 
years’ probation. Within less than a year they violated probation 
together by breaking and entering a filling station and stealing sl7 out 
of the cash register. For this they were sentenced to the State 
Reformatory on June 1, 1931. At the time of our observation of the 
case they were still inmates there. 
Case 29. A. twins, Sigred and Hilbert. Born in Omaha, 
Nebraska, April 29, 1910. Our observation in July, 1932, at the State 
Reformatory, Mansfield, Ohio. History very meager; no record of 
mental tests. According to official records criminal tendency has been 
much more marked in Sigred’s than in Hilbert’s case. They committed 
their offenses independently of one another. Sigred was first arrested 
at the age of 15 years in Elgin, Illinois, for being out late at night; 
was held overnight in jail and then released. His second arrest was 
two years later in Amarillo, Texas, for vagrancy; served 25 days in 
jail. On August 24, 25, 28, and 30, 1928, he committed a series of 
robberies of gas stations in Cleveland, Ohio, holding up the attendants 
with a gun, and taking money in amounts of from $42 to $69. For this 
he was sentenced to the Ohio State Reformatory on October 10, 1928. 
On June 1, 1931, he was granted parole, but on November 11, 1931, was 
returned for violation of parole consisting in carrying a concealed 
weapon. At the time of our observation of the case he was still an 
inmate there. The parents were separated when the boys were in their 
’teens, leaving them to shift for themselves. Hilbert joined the Navy 
at 17 years, served 3 years, and received an honorable discharge. 
There seems to be no police or court record in his case until the latter 
part of 1931 when he committed a robbery for which, on December 10, 
1931, he was sentenced to the Ohio State Reformatory. At the time 
of our investigation of the case he was still an inmate there. 
Case 30. H. twins, Raymond B. and Edmund W. Born in Pima, 
Arizona, December 17, 1909. Our investigation in December, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the State Identification Bureau at Sacramento, 
California. These boys seem to have started in childhood toward a 
career of professional crime. They were beyond their parents’ control, 
were persistent truants from school, and soon drifted into serious 
delinquencies. At 15 years they defrauded a hotel in Los Angeles, 
working together; later passed bad checks, stole an automobile and 
stripped it, etc. At 17 years they were committed together to the 
Preston School of Industry at lone, California, for robbery. Since 
then, working separately for the most part and under various aliases, 
they have been in trouble many times in the states of California, Okla- 
homa, and Washington, on account of burglary, possession of stolen 
property, automobile theft, grand theft, robbery, drunkenness, etc. 
Finally, on January 28, 1932, Edmund was sentenced to serve from 
7 to 20 years in the State Penitentiary at Walla Walla, Washington, 
for robbery. About a year prior to that Raymond had been sentenced 
to San Quentin Prison, California, for grand theft. At the time of 
our investigation they were still inmates in these institutions. MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
23 
Case 31. A. twins, Edward and Frank. Born in Everett, Massa- 
chusetts, November 2, 1906. Onr investigation in August, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the State Department of Correction, Boston, 
Massachusetts. Mother states the twins were inseparable and were 
generally involved in misconduct together. However, their records 
also show delinquencies committed separately. The father died in 
1922 and from then until the mother’s remarriage in 1928 the twins 
lived with different relatives. The probation officers attribute the dif- 
ficulties to ‘ ‘ lack of parental supervision and living in a poor neighbor- 
hood.” Edward’s record of delinquencies begins at the age of 9 years 
when he was committed to the Middlesex County Training School as 
“a stubborn child.” He has since been before the courts in September, 
1922, April, 1924, May, 1924, and June, 1925, for intimidating wit- 
nesses, assault and battery, assault and rape, etc. Both boys had 
married young and on the same date, lived with their wives but a short 
time, are now divorced. Edward has a daughter who was put out for 
adoption. Prank’s record of delinquencies begins in November, 1916, 
with breaking, entering, and larceny. This was followed by arrests in 
December, 1916, and January, 1917, for truancy, larceny, etc. On May 
2, 1917, upon violation of probation, he was committed to the Middle- 
sex County Training School. Following his release from there his 
record shows arrests in November, 1923, May and October, 1924, and 
May, 1925, for non-support, assault and battery, lewd and lascivious 
conduct, speeding, etc. Finally on February 26, 1926, both twins 
were sentenced to the Massachusetts State Reformatory for rape com- 
mitted by them jointly upon a girl whom they were to escort home. On 
October 27, 1930, they were granted parole and, as far as known, 
Frank has been in no further difficulty since then. Edward, on the 
other hand, has not done so well. In February, 1932, he obtained per- 
mission from his parole officer to go to Manchester, New Hampshire, 
ostensibly on an errand for his employer. Instead he went to Nashua, 
New Hampshire, where he married a feebleminded woman who bore 
a child one month later; she had had a child previously by a China- 
man. This marriage took place before his divorce decree from his 
first wife had become final. For this he was rearrested upon his return 
to Massachusetts in April, 1932, but was continued on parole. In 
June, 1932, he left his home and his employment in company with a 
married woman who abandoned her husband and four children in 
order to elope with him. At the time of our investigation of the case 
neither Edward nor the woman who had eloped with him had been 
heard from. 
Case 32. O’H. twins, Robert and Roy. Born in Nebraska City, 
Nebraska, May 26, 1906. Our observation in September, 1932, and 
again in January, 1934, through the courtesy of the Los Angeles 
County, California, Probation Department. The father died of tuber- 
culosis when the twins were quite young. Although the mother remar- 
ried later, the twins were brought up not by her but partly by their 
grandparents and partly by other relatives. They were judged to be 
of normal intelligence (no record of a mental test for either twin), 
but did poorly in their studies, reaching but the eighth grade at the 
age of 17 years, when they left to go to work. During their school 24 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
years they had a record of persistent truancy for which they had to be 
brought into the Juvenile Court. They were millwrights, employed in 
the same place. Although there is no police or court record in their 
eases up to 1927, other than the above-mentioned difficulty on account 
of truancy and, in Roy’s case, an arrest in 1921 for running away 
from home, their reputation where they lived was that of “a pair of 
wild ones.” In 1927, Robert was arrested for carrying a concealed 
weapon, sentenced to 90 days in jail; sentence was suspended and 
he was placed on probation. In 1929, they were arrested together for 
receiving stolen property (radio, worth sls). They were in the county 
jail one month pending their hearing, finally entered a plea of guilty 
and were granted probation for a period of 5 years. There is no 
record of further difficulty from then until September, 1933, when they 
were arrested together on a charge of grand theft (automobile) and 
receiving stolen property. Investigation revealed that in January, 
1933, they opened an automobile wrecking yard as a blind for “a 
racket” of automobile thefts on a large scale. They would buy cars 
ready to be junked and thus obtain “pink slips” and license plates. 
Then they or their confederates would steal good cars of similar model, 
substitute the engine numbers and license plates of the junked cars, 
and then sell them with the use of the “pink slips” and license 
plates obtained as above, thus making the sale appear as a legitimate 
transaction. Although they knew that according to the practice of 
the courts they were not entitled to probation this time on account of 
their previous record, they made a plea for special consideration and 
leniency on the ground that they had turned state’s evidence and 
assisted in the apprehension of other men involved with them in their 
“racket” as members of the car-stealing ring. The recommendation of 
the Probation Department to the Court was against such leniency. 
Case 33. M. twins. Harold and Orvis. Born in Reno, Nevada, 
September 28, 1901. Onr observation in July, 1932, through the 
courtesy of the Eastern State Penitentiary in Philadelphia, Pennsyl- 
vania, and the Police Department of Reno, Nevada. At school Harold 
played hookey habitually, had trouble with some of his teachers, 
“stole a few things as a youngster.” At 15 years he was in court for 
stealing a tire from an automobile, was dismissed with a warning; “has 
been living by his wits off and on ever since”; was in Reno city jail 
in January, 1917, for burglary, in February, 1922, for bootlegging, 
and in March, 1922, for petty larceny; was also in Reno county jail 
in 1929 for burglary. There were other arrests for minor offenses. 
Was divorced by his wife. Finally, on April 25, 1932, he was sen- 
tenced for 10 to 20 years to the Eastern State Penitentiary, Pennsyl- 
vania, for robbery, and was an inmate there at the time of our 
investigation of the case. Orvis’ criminality has been much less 
marked. There was no truancy; first marriage was unsuccessful and 
lasted only a few months; but he has been married to his second wife 
for over 10 years, has worked steadily and has always supported 
his family. In March, 1918, he was in the Reno city jail for drunken- 
ness and was given 1 year’s probation. In May, 1932, he was again 
in trouble, this time with the Federal Government, on account of 
selling liquor to Indians. Reno Police Sergeant told us “he does 
not bear a good reputation in the community; constantly does things MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
25 
just on the borderline of crime; we keep our eyes on him.” No record 
of a mental test for either twin. 
Case 34. U. twins, James and John. Born in Ontario, Canada, 
in 1901. These boys came of a good working-class family, and the 
mother is described as a really superior person. They were the only 
children. From an early age, however, they were in trouble almost 
continually and always together on account of truancy, petty thefts, 
etc. They used their identical appearance often to try to establish 
alibis. They were together in the Ottawa jail from June to September, 
1915, and again from January to July, 1918, for shopbreaking. Their 
last offense, in April, 1920, was killing the policeman who caught them 
shopbreaking again; both admitted firing at him. They were given 
life sentences in the Dominion Penitentiary at Kingston. During their 
first few months in prison they were unruly; but almost suddenly and 
simultaneously they straightened up and started to work. Both took 
advantage of the educational opportunities offered at the Peniten- 
tiary and have won university degrees. At the time of onr observa- 
tion, which was in August, 1932, James was teaching Spanish to other 
students in prison and John was teaching mechanical drawing. Both 
are excellent mechanics and have rendered valuable service at the 
prison. The Inspector “can not speak highly enough of them”; said, 
“We could hardly get on without them now.” 
Case 35. D’A. twins, Kay and Koy. Born in Williamsburg, lowa, 
March 31, 1900. Our investigation in June, 1931, through the cour- 
tesy of the State Penitentiary at Salem, Oregon. The case history is 
very meager and there is no record of a mental test for either twin. 
Ray has a record of serving four days in jail at Milford, Utah, at the 
age of 17 years, for vagrancy; also two years at the State Reform 
School at Monroe, Washington, 1919-1921. Roy has no prior record. 
On June 24, 1927, both twins together with an older brother were sen- 
tenced for life to the Oregon State Penitentiary for murder which all 
three had planned and participated in. 
Case 36. A. twins, Thomas and Leo. Born in Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania, September 30, 1897. Our investigation in July, 1932, 
through the courtesy of Eastern State Penitentiary in Philadelphia. 
Both twins were habitual truants and otherwise troublesome at school; 
however, they finished the seventh grade. No record of mental tests 
for either. According to the records, probably incomplete, Thomas 
was first in court at 14 years for theft, but was released on probation 
after a few days in the House of Detention. In 1915 he served 6 
months in the Philadelphia County House of Correction at Holmes- 
burg for breaking into a store and petty larceny; then 9 months in 
the same institution in 1918 for automobile theft. In 1929 he was 
involved in killing a boy in an automobile accident, was arrested on a 
charge of involuntary manslaughter, was in the Philadelphia county 
jail for 4 months pending investigation, but the case was dismissed 
at the end of that time. In the meantime this episode caused the 
breaking up of his home, he became embittered and desperate and 
thereafter “did not care.” He never worked consistently. Finally, 
in 1931 he was sentenced for 2 years to the Eastern State Penitentiary 
for hold-up and robbery, and was still an inmate there at the time of 26 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
our investigation of the case. Leo was a petty thief as a boy; never 
worked consistently; stole many things for which he was not detected 
and punished; was in the Philadelphia County House of Correction 
in 1919 for automobile theft, and again in 1929 for burglary. He died 
in May, 1932. 
Case 37. C. twins, Elgin and Ernest. Negroes. Born in Rich- 
land, Georgia, January 5, 1896. Our investigation in March, 1931, 
through the courtesy of San Quentin Prison, California. The case 
history is very meager and there is no record of a mental test for 
either twin. Both are single, cook and waiter by occupation. In the 
early part of 1920 they were charged with murder; technically one 
of them was chargeable with first-degree murder and the other with 
second-degree, but it was not known which did the actual shooting. 
No one could tell them apart; even their finger prints are identical in 
all major lines and can be distinguished only through the minor lines. 
Neither would tell on the other, so neither received the death sentence, 
but both were given life sentences, Elgin on July 17, 1920, and Ernest 
on October 21, 1920. Neither had a prior record as far as known. 
Case 38. K. twins, Frank and John. Born in Armenia, October 
28, 1895. Came to this country as young children with their parents, 
four brothers and six sisters. Both have records of constant delin- 
quency and criminality dating from childhood. The records are badly 
mixed on account of their identical appearance and their use of about 
twenty aliases. Prank has been an inmate of Whittier, California, 
State School; State Penitentiary at Huntsville, Texas; Folsom Prison, 
at Represa, California; Fresno County, California, jail; San Quentin 
Prison, California; and again in Folsom Prison, California, where he 
finally died of tuberculosis on September 12, 1926. His crimes con- 
sisted in burglary, robbery, forgery, safe blowing, and assault to com- 
mit murder. Most of the delinquencies and crimes of these twins were 
committed separately, and most of the time they lived apart. John 
was an inmate, in his childhood and adolescence, of the State School 
at Whittier, California, and the Preston School of Industry at lone, 
California, for burglaries. Since then he has been an inmate of the 
following penal institutions for periods of from one month to three 
years: twice in San Quentin Prison, California; Sacramento county 
jail, California; Folsom Prison at Represa, California, twice; Los 
Angeles county jail, California, three times; San Joaquin county jail, 
California; Iron county jail, Parowan, Utah ; Salt Lake City jail, Utah; 
for the following offenses: burglaries, vagrancy, sodomy, robberies, 
automobile theft. Finally, in the latter part of 1930 he committed 
highway robbery in Las Vegas, Nevada, which led to his being sen- 
tenced for sto 20 years to the State Prison at Carson City, Nevada. At 
the time of our investigation of the case, which was in December, 1932, 
he was still an inmate there. 
Case 39. L. twins, Mace Elgin and Elija Claude. Born in North 
Carolina, February. 2, 1894. Our investigation in December, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Orange County jail at Santa Ana, Cali- 
fornia. Nothing is known of these men other than their two arrests, 
as transients, for petty offenses in February, 1921, and in October, MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
27 
1930. The first time they served 30 days for trespassing (riding on 
freight cars) ; the second time 7 days for drunkenness and illegal pos- 
session of liquor. 
Case 40. W. twins, Theodore and Albert. Born in Olney, 
Illinois, July 18, 1889. Our investigation in July, 1932, through the 
courtesy of Eastern State Penitentiary at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 
Both were very troublesome at school, failed in deportment repeatedly, 
beat up their teachers. Although they were physically indistinguish- 
able, except by a birthmark, and both were criminally inclined, there 
seemed to be a marked difference between them in sexual make-up. 
Theodore seemed to be highly sexed, was involved in a number of sex 
offenses beginning at the age of 15 years or before, was married and 
divorced twice, and has lived with several women besides; whereas 
Albert never had much interest in girls, never married, and has no 
record of sex offenses. Theodore’s institutional record began in 1903 
with a term of 14 months in St. Charles School for Boys, Illinois, for 
“incorrigibility.” He served 1 year in the Illinois State Reformatory 
at Pontiac in 1904 for sex delinquency; was sentenced for 5 years 
(served 3 years) to the Southern Illinois Penitentiary in 1904 for a 
statutory sex offense; served 6 months in the Illinois State Penitentiary 
in 1912 for a hold-up; then 6 months again in 3913 in jail in Minne- 
apolis, Minnesota, as a “suspicious character”; and finally was sen- 
tenced for another sex offense for 5 to 10 years, in 1930, to the Eastern 
State Penitentiary in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. At the time of our 
investigation of the case he was still an inmate there. This record is 
admittedly incomplete, especially as to the interval from 1913 to 1930; 
he is said to have committed “innumerable” crimes and to have been 
arrested many times. Albert’s case record is even less complete. He 
was a drinker and a gambler, had been arrested several times, and, 
when last heard from, was serving a sentence in the Illinois State 
Reformatory at Pontiac in 1913. 
Case 41. M. twins, Alexander and John S. Born in Scotland, 
August 11, 1886. Our investigation in November, 1932, through the 
courtesy of Sing Sing Prison, Ossining, New York. -These men 
received their schooling in Scotland, served in the British Army during 
the World War and attained the rank of captain. Their history prior 
to coming to this country is known only as stated by them; they denied 
any previous delinquencies or crimes. Although they are physically 
almost indistinguishable and of equal intelligence (mental tests in 
August, 1930, revealed, for both, I. Q. 100), there is considerable tem- 
peramental difference between them. They have both been employed 
as salesmen for a check-writer company; Alexander has been known 
to his employers as unreliable, dishonest, and scheming, but an excel- 
lent salesman; whereas John has been considered honest and reliable, 
but not so good a salesman. Alexander has also been the leader in 
crime. According to the case history that was furnished to us, Alex- 
ander was the first to get in trouble. He was dismissed by his employ- 
ers for stealing some check-writing machines and pawning them. 
John made restitution and thus saved Alexander from prosecution. 
Alexander then started a jute business, and involved both himself and 
John in crooked finance by opening a number of bank accounts under 28 
ETIOLOG.Y OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
fictitious names by passing forged checks. On July 30, 1928, they 
were both sentenced to Sing Sing Prison, Ossining, New York. In 
prison Alexander specialized as a “ stool-pigeon, ” furnished evidence 
which sent one man to the electric chair, was state’s evidence in many 
other cases, and, in consideration for these services, was granted parole 
on December 23, 1930; whereas John was not released until July 8, 
1932. Upon release from prison Alexander resumed his practice of 
check forgeries, but was dealt with leniently because he continued to 
render valuable service to the police as a “stool-pigeon.” Finally, 
however, he was again arrested for forgery and placed in the 53d 
Street jail, New York City, and was there, awaiting trial, at the time 
of our investigation of the case. He was not sent to the main city 
jail as there were many men there who wanted to “get him” on account 
of his “stool-pigeon” activities. On the other hand, John, upon his 
release, obtained a position and was “going straight” not only accord- 
ing to his own statement, but also that of the parole officer on the case. 
Group 5. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic and 
prepsychotic types; subnormal intelligence; both affected, 
similarly. 6 cases: Nos. 42-47. 
Case 42. D. twins, Mortimer and Maurice. Born in Mexico (of 
white parents) in 1925. Observed by us in October, 1931, in one of 
the Long Beach, California, city schools. Very marked baby talk, 
“have a language all their own.” Stanford-Binet tests in 1931 
revealed, for Mortimer, I. Q. 84, for Maurice, 82. Their principal 
problem seemed to be based on extreme emotional instability. They 
were “always flying off the handle in a violent rage over the merest 
trifles; also would shout with joy when anything pleased them.” Con- 
stantly fighting with the other children, standing together against all 
the rest. Showed a cruel streak; would stand around and shout with 
glee when anyone was hurt; would plague and hurt animals; one day 
tore'a live bird apart. Finally had to be transferred to a semiprivate 
school. 
Case 43. P. twins, Reno and Joe. Born in Oakland, California, 
September 22, 1925. At the time of our observation of the case, which 
was in April, 1932, they were in the first grade in the Dewey School, 
Oakland. They had spent three terms in the kindergarten; in class 
they “just stand around,” being extremely shy. The kindergarten 
teacher said she had not heard either of them speak once during their 
three terms there. They appropriate anything they can lay their 
hands on; if spoken to they become frightened and cry or run off. 
They take no interest in anything that goes on about them. A Pintner- 
Cunningham test in January, 1932, revealed, for Reno, score 6, for 
Joe, 9; i.e., both in “Group E,” corresponding to I. Q. below 70. We 
have classified the case as one of mental deficiency complicated with 
schizoid traits and behavior difficulty. 
Case 44. E. twins, Pete and Jack. Born in California in 1924. 
Observed by us in September, 1931, in the kindergarten class of one 
of the Seal Beach, California, city schools. The father is a laborer, 
economic condition poor, the children are undernourished and unkempt. MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
29 
The mother is ‘‘queer,” dominating, aggressive, loud-voiced, threat- 
ening, “explosive,” i.e., given to sudden outbursts of temper. Although 
there is no record of a mental test for either twin, they are judged to 
be of subnormal intelligence, can not seem to advance beyond the kin- 
dergarten grade, are the oldest and largest children in their class where 
their younger sister is also a pupil. They both have a speech defect, 
being unable to speak distinctly. Their principal behavior difficulty 
is masturbation which is almost continuous both in class and on the 
playground. It is hard to get them to participate in games as they 
seem to prefer to sit around and masturbate. Both have a marked 
“fear complex,” jump and look scared every time the teacher speaks 
to them. They are inseparable, do the same things together, pick on 
the smaller children, fight together against the other children; when 
one is punished or reproved, the other howls. Jack seems to be the 
more amenable; while Pete would be stubborn and fail to respond to 
appeals from the teacher, Jack could be influenced in this way, and 
then Pete would do whatever Jack did. They seem to be very fond 
of their younger sister toward whom they have a protective attitude. 
Case 45. J. twins, Henry and Edward. Born in Santa Maria, 
California, March 31, 1921. Our observation in April, 1931, in the 
Lomita, California, city school. The father is dead, the mother 
deserted, and the twins are being raised by their grandmother. They 
were both markedly underweight at birth, Edward weighing 3 pounds 
and Henry 4 pounds. Edward was very weak at birth and it was 
doubted for a time whether he would live. Both had “spasms” up to 
the age of 6 years. Both are retarded at school, Edward the more so, 
being in the low-second grade, while Henry is in the high second. 
Mental tests in 1930 revealed, for Edward, I. Q. 83, for Henry, 89. 
Their behavior difficulty consists in fighting, breaking regulations, emo- 
tional instability, crying on the slightest pretext, resenting punishment 
tempestuously, etc. This difficulty is distinctly more marked in 
Edward’s case, who is described as having “a terrible temper,” sullen 
and uncooperative, whereas Henry “will work very hard for praise or 
small reward.” 
Case 46. H. twins, Mervin and Mearl. Born in Sutton, Nebraska, 
January 27, 1915. Our observation in September, 1931, in the Poly- 
technic High School, Long Beach, California. Although these boys 
are practically identical physically and temperamentally, there is a 
marked contrast between them in intelligence and in educational 
achievement. Stanford-Binet tests in September, 1930, revealed, for 
Mervin, I. Q. 75, for Mearl, 98. Mearl had done good passing work 
in school, while Mervin, last semester, failed in every subject except 
gymnasium. Both boys are markedly schizoid and paranoid. They 
are extremely attached to each other and would associate with no one 
else. A great turmoil arose when, by reason of his inability to do 
regular high school work, Mervin was put in a special opportunity 
class. Both boys rebelled violently against this, began to “ditch” classes, 
and their parents, who seem also to be paranoid, upheld them in this. 
In all interviews concerning this matter complaints of persecution and 
unfair discrimination were constantly reiterated, the whole world was 30 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
against them, exploiting and insulting them, the school was blamed for 
Mervin’s failure, the teachers were accused of picking on -the twins, 
and both boys, with the encouragement of their parents, were sulky 
and uncooperative. 
Case 47. J. twins, Alfred and William. Born in Yetten, Cali- 
fornia, of Armenian parents, September 20, 1911. Our observation 
in August, 1930, through the courtesy of the Church Federation of 
Los Angeles, California. Case was referred to the Department of 
Psychology, Los Angeles Board of Education, in September, 1928, 
as “a behavior problem involving sensitive twins who, due to a combi- 
nation of bashfulness and stubbornness, will not mingle with those 
outside of their own family, except when forced to do so. ’ ’ They were 
born in the eighth month of gestation; delivery was instrumental; 
were obviously immature, lacking finger and toe nails, etc.; there 
was considerable nutrition difficulty during the first year and delayed 
dentition; “they cried almost constantly until they were 7 months 
old”; were troubled with both diurnal and nocturnal enuresis until 
they were in their late ’teens and often had to be sent home from 
school on account of it. At school, especially in the early years, 
“they were together every minute, but did not mix with the other 
children.” They were sensitive about their identical appearance and 
their foreign appearance: “We are alike and people stare at us”; and 
would not go out on an errand until after dark. Their mother said, 
“Never in their lives have they been sociable or even courteous to any 
one who came to the house. When relatives or strangers came they 
would run to their bedroom and stay until after the company left.” 
“They would never tell when they are hurt or in trouble.” Often they 
would argue, quarrel, and fight with each other, but would not tell 
other members of the family what the dispute was about. No history 
of lying, stealing, or truancy. “They have never spent a cent to buy 
anything for themselves; they do not seem to know what money is 
for.” At school they were passed from grade to grade on their 
written tests, in which they did fairly well, as “they never would make 
oral recitations.” They have shown no affection toward any one. 
Their only interest has been in reading, especially detective stories; 
“they want books from the library, but will not go after them.” Wil- 
liam is distinctly the more “schizoid” of the two. Alfred talks a 
little occasionally, but at least two teachers have not heard William 
utter a word in the course of a whole year. One teacher reported that 
the only time she had heard William talk was when she kept him for 
something and he heard the bus coming; he said, “Bus is coming, I 
will be late,” and bolted for the door. Another teacher reported that 
when he refused to recite one morning she told him that he could 
just stay the next period and stand until he decided to talk. He stood 
the entire period and would not say a word. Later she learned that 
he had a class that period, but had made no effort to let her know 
that. William, however, is the more intelligent of the two. Purely on 
the basis of written tests in 1928 their I. Q. ’s were estimated at 84 for 
Alfred and 109 for William. Educational achievement tests at the 
same time revealed, for Alfred, a grade placement in the eighth grade, 
for William in the eleventh. MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
31 
Group 6. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; subnormal intelligence; both affected, similarly. 
4 cases: Nos. 48-51. 
Case 48. L. twins, Alfred and Herbert. Born in Louisville, Ken- 
tucky, February 2, 1920. Onr observation in July, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New 
York. The father is described as “irresponsible, never had a steady 
job, plays pool mostly”; a paternal uncle is in a mental hospital on 
account of dementia praecox. The mother developed severe eclampsia 
three weeks before labor was due, the twins were delivered by Caesarian 
section, mother dying shortly after the operation. Both twins were 
somewhat hydrocephalic at birth, weighed 4| pounds each. They lived 
with their paternal grandmother until the age of 8 years, since then 
with their father and step-mother: “allowed to run wild, attended 
school only one or two days a month. ’ ’ Although they were physically 
almost indistinguishable in appearance, a closer acquaintanceship with 
them brought out marked differences in some respects: Alfred is right- 
handed, is a bedwetter, passive, dominated by his twin, afraid to 
sleep alone, less intelligent. Herbert is left-handed; never wets the 
bed; aggressive, overactive, boastful, abuses his twin, is more intelli- 
gent. Stanford-Binet tests in April, 1931, revealed, for Alfred, I. Q. 
86, for Herbert, 106. Both present behavior problems on account of 
truancy, lying, petty stealing, staying out nights, begging “loans” 
from people to go to movies. 
Case 49. B. twins, Jack and Mack. Born in New Mexico, June 
17, 1917. Observed by us in December, 1931, in one of the Los Angeles, 
California, city schools. Mental tests in 1930 revealed, for Jack, I. Q. 
88, for Mack, 84. Both present a behavior difficulty, though “Mack is 
much the worse.” They are “impudent, very difficult to manage, 
always in mischief, always together; back each other up in impudence 
toward teachers.” They are unreliable, do not keep engagements, 
have been suspected of petty thefts at school, “show oft on all occa- 
sions ’’; very poor in studies. On the playground ‘ ‘ they work together 
to spoil the games for the other children.” 
Case 50. Z. twins, Peter and Alexander. Born in New York, 
September 19, 1915. Observed by us in July, 1931, through the cour- 
tesy of the Institute for Child Guidance, New York, and the Bureau 
of Attendance, New York city schools. Peter has had great difficulty 
with reading and writing and is retarded at school by nearly 3 
years. Mental test in 1928 revealed I. Q. 75. He has presented also 
persistent behavior difficulty: frequent truancy, temper tantrums in 
class, described by principal as “liar, proud of his bad record”; 
expelled from his school as incorrigible and has since been in a special 
school for problem boys and on probation in charge of attendance 
officer. He was also a sex delinquent on a grand scale. He was one 32 
ETIOLOG.Y OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
of a group of boys who had a rendez-vous in Central Park where they 
would bring a girl and all have sexual relations with her. In this 
way, he claimed, he had had relations with more than 30 girls. 
In Alexander’s case mental deficiency is not a factor. A mental test 
in 1927 revealed I. Q. 95. At the time of our observation of the case 
he was in the 7A grade. He, too, however, presented behavior prob- 
lems : a frequent truant, on probation in charge of attendance officer; 
many sex delinquencies, both with boys and girls, some of them in 
company with Peter. Also, following their mother’s death, he had a 
transient psychotic episode; when the undertaker was about to remove 
the coffin containing her remains, Alexander objected to it, created 
a scene, struggled with the undertaker, threw a bottle at his head, 
is described as having been “a little off” since then. 
Case 51. B. twins, Lawrence and Lester. Born in Los Angeles, 
California, December 17, 1915. Our observation in March, 1932, in 
the Jacob A. Riis High School, Los Angeles. Both are of dull- 
normal intelligence; Terman tests in 1931 revealed, for Lawrence, 
I. Q. 85, for Lester, 84. Truancy, rudeness, and gambling are the 
items listed against these boys. “They stand together against the 
rest of the world; are defiant of authority; no appeal seems to interest 
them.” They spend most of their time in pool halls. At school they 
gamble with the other boys and “clean them out.” 
Group 7. Juvenile delinquency; subnormal intelli- 
gence; both affected, similarly. 13 cases: Nos. 52-64. 
Case 52. P. twins, Manuel and Tony. Born in Berkeley, Cali- 
fornia, December 13, 1921. These boys have been extremely trouble- 
some since they were 6 years old or before: throwing rocks through 
windows of passing trains; cutting tires on parked automobiles; break- 
ing windows and entering the school building in the evening; being 
reported to the police as missing children; stealing a watch and other 
articles and hiding them by burying in the garden; stealing marbles 
from show case in store; stealing articles from unlocked automobiles 
parked in the street; getting other boys involved in their escapades, 
etc. They said, “The police can’t do nothing to you anyway.” At 
the time of our observation of the case, which was in August, 1932, 
they were wards of the Juvenile Court and under the supervision of 
the Berkeley Police Department. Mental tests in 1929 revealed, for 
Manuel, I. Q. 75, for Tony, 80. Tony seemed to be the leader. 
Case 53. W. twins, Calvin and Alvin. Negroes. Born in Ohio, 
August 14, 1919. The behavior problem in both cases was petty theft. 
On August 16, 1929, they were committed to the state institution for 
the feebleminded at Columbus, Ohio. On November 15, 1929, they 
were transferred to the state institution for the feebleminded at Orient. 
At the time of our investigation of the case, which was in August, 1932, 
they were still inmates there. Mental tests in 1929 revealed, for Calvin, 
I. Q. 76, for Alvin, 74. 
Case 54. W. twins, Fred and Edward. Negroes. Born in 
Montclair, New Jersey, January 22, 1916. There are eight other ehil- 33 
MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
dren in the family ranging in age from Bto 27 years. Home influences 
were good, and their delinquencies were attributed to bad associations 
with some Italian boys in the neighborhood. They were somewhat 
retarded in school, having reached the fifth grade at 12 years; played 
hookey occasionally. They were always together and were in trouble 
together. Their first arrest was on November 4, 1927, for breaking 
and entering, but the complaint against them was dismissed at that 
time. On December 21, 1927, they were arrested again, charged with 
six counts of larceny, and this time they were committed to the State 
Home for Boys at Jamesburg, New Jersey. There they remained until 
August 23, 1929, when they were paroled to the custody of their 
mother. At the time of our investigation of the case, which was in 
June, 1931, their behavior on parole had been excellent in every 
respect. Mental tests in 1928 revealed, for Fred, I. Q. 79, for 
Edward 83. 
Case 55. H. twins, Dari Martin and Dale Merton. Born in 
Pennsylvania, June 29, 1916. Parents were divorced in 1923 and 
the twins were placed in the Fairmont Children’s Home at Alliance, 
Ohio, where they remained until October, 1924. Since then Dale has 
lived with his father and Dari with his mother. They went to the 
same school, however, and played hookey a great deal. They are prac- 
tically indistinguishable and have used this fact to deceive teachers 
and police and probation officers. While at the children’s home in 
Alliance, Dari stole a pocketbook containing $1.35. Dale seems to be 
the more markedly delinquent; he wTas first in court at 11 years for 
stealing $2O; since then he has been in court 13 times, usually 
for stealing; described as a nuisance to the police, teachers, etc.; 
expelled from school tAvice; burglarized a gas station, robbed a drug 
store, turned in a false fire alarm, “not satisfied unless causing 
trouble.” In April, 1927, the twins, together Avith some other boys, 
stole a pocketbook containing $4O. In May, 1927, Dari stole $2O from 
a filling station. Later in the same month the twins ran aAvay together, 
Avere located in Barberton, Ohio, brought back, and on June 22, 1927, 
were committed to the Boys’ Industrial School at Lancaster, Ohio. 
On March 17, 1928, Dari was paroled, but had to be returned on 
April 5, 1929, this time remaining until April, 1930. Dale was paroled 
on March 17, 1929, but had to be returned on March 12, 1932. At the 
time of our obserAration of the ease, AAdiich Avas in July, 1932, he Avas 
still an inmate there. Mental tests made, respectively, in 1927 and 
1932, reArealed, for Dari, I. Q. 75, for Dale, 71. 
Case 56. G. tAvins, John and George. Born in Roclrwood, Ontario, 
Canada, April 21, 1916. Parents were cousins, father intemperate. 
Birth was by instruments. Twins were always together; associated 
only with each other; both have a record of persistent truancy from 
school. They had been before the courts three times for stealing and 
finally, on August 29, 1929, Avere committed to the Victoria Industrial 
School at Mimico, Ontario. Prom there, on December 2, 1931, they 
were transferred to the Ontario Hospital (for the feebleminded) at 
Orillia. Their behaAuor at Mimico aatis not satisfactory, but since 
admission to Orillia they haAre been reported as obedient and not diffi- 34 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
cult to manage. Mental tests in 1930 and 1931, respectively, revealed, 
for John, I. Q. 53, for George, 47. 
Case 57. S. twins, Raymond James and Rodney. Born in Akron, 
Ohio, February 22, 1916. These twins belong to a family noted for 
delinquency and criminality. Two older brothers are in the Boys’ 
Industrial School at Lancaster, Ohio, and another is in the Mansfield 
Reformatory. Raymond was first brought into court at the age of 
11 years for stealing money. He has been in court on nine occasions 
since for stealing money and bicycles. He has six bicycle thefts 
on his record. The twins usually work together and use their identical 
appearance for establishing alibis for each other. Raymond was com- 
mitted to the Boys’ Industrial School December 14, 1929; paroled 
January 20, 1931; resumed his thefts and was returned to the institu- 
tion October 15, 1931. At the time of our investigation of the case, 
which was in July, 1932, he was still an inmate there. A mental test 
in 1931 revealed I. Q. 77. Rodney was in court for stealing four times 
in 1929 and 1930, the last time for stealing an automobile. Like other 
members of his family, he is proud of his record as a thief. Says he 
has stolen several bicycles and not been caught. Defies them to catch 
him. Seems to hate everybody except his twin. He was committed 
to the Boys’ Industrial School November 8, 1930, paroled July 3, 
1931, returned together with Raymond October 15, 1931. Mental 
test of Rodney in 1930 revealed I. Q. 73. 
Case 58. K. twins, Andrew and Daniel. Born in Harrisburg, 
Pennsylvania, December 12, 1914. Our observation in July, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Pennsylvania Industrial Reformatory at 
Huntingdon. Two older brothers of these twins are serving 5-year 
prison sentences. There is no record of a mental test for either twin, 
but they have done poorly at school, especially Andrew, who is in the 
sixth grade at 18 years, while Daniel is in the low eighth. Both are 
judged to be of subnormal intelligence. Both have presented behavior 
difficulties since the age of 8 years or before, always together, playing 
hookey “lots of times,” stealing peanuts, etc. At 11 years they were 
arrested together for breaking into box cars, and were released on 
probation. Their delinquencies continued, however, and from 1927 
to 1929 they were in the Pennsylvania State House of Refuge for Boys 
at Glen Mills. Soon after their discharge they were in trouble again 
and, on July 14, 1931, were committed to the Pennsylvania Industrial 
Reformatory. At the time of our investigation of the case they were 
still inmates there. 
Case 59. B. twins, Henry Clay and Milton Ray. Born in Cali- 
fornia, April 19, 1915. Father intemperate; mother developed a psy- 
chosis during pregnancy with her last child in 1918, was in Patton 
State Hospital, California, for nine months, discharged as recovered; 
parents were later divorced and mother remarried. During the preg- 
nancy with the twins mother is said to have weighed only 80 pounds. 
Birth of the twins was difficult but not instrumental, both by breech 
presentation. Henry weighed 5 pounds, Milton, 4 pounds. Henry is 
right-handed, Milton left-handed. The twins did poorly at school, 
were in special classes and development rooms, showed increasing MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
35 
“emotional instability,” and finally became so troublesome that they 
were expelled. They were also troublesome and difficult to manage 
at home, and were first brought into Juvenile Court by their father 
in November, 1927. In November, 1932, they were again in court, 
this time on a charge of grand theft (Buick car). They were placed 
on probation, but in February, 1933, were brought up again on a 
charge of petty theft (stealing S6O worth of tools from an automobile). 
They were committed to Pacific Colony (state institution for the 
feebleminded) at Spadra, California, on April 5, 1933. At the time 
of our observation of the case, which was in June, 1933, they were still 
inmates there. Mental tests in 1929 revealed, for Henry, I. Q. 65, for 
Milton, 59. 
Case 60. C. twins, Joseph and James. Born in San Francisco, 
March 22, 1912. These boys were first brought before Juvenile Court 
on November 2, 1927, together, for theft and for turning in false fire 
alarms. Since then they have been before the court repeatedly for 
stealing tires and a woman’s coat, also for speeding on a motorcycle 
and violating probation. They were finally committed to the Preston 
School of Industry at lone, California, November 22, 1929, and paroled 
January 19, 1931. At the time of our observation of the case, which 
was in March, 1931, they were at home and getting along very well. 
Mental tests in 1929 revealed, for Joseph, I. Q. 67, for James, 81. 
Case 61. E. twins, Vincent and Charles Graciano. Born in 
Detroit, Michigan, September 8, 1911. These boys were first brought 
before Juvenile Court in January, 1924, Avhen only 12 years old, on 
a charge of grand larceny. Since then they have been in various 
delinquencies both separately and together: petty thefts, running away 
from home, escaping from institutions, breaking twenty windows, 
violating parole, etc. They have been in Los Angeles Juvenile Hall; 
Pacific Lodge Boys’ Home at Girard, California; Los Angeles County 
jail; Preston School of Industry at lone, California. Charles has also 
been in the State School at Whittier, California, and in the Strickland 
Home for Boys in Los Angeles. At the time of our investigation of 
the case, which was in March, 1931, Charles had been on parole from 
the Preston School of Industry since September, 1930, and was keep- 
ing out of trouble. Vincent had run away from home in March, 1930, 
got a job on a freight steamer and, wffien last heard from, was in 
Baltimore, Ohio. Mental tests made in 1924 and 1926, respectively, 
revealed, for Vincent, I. Q. 70, for Charles, 81. Charles, the somewhat 
more intelligent twin, is said to have been the leader of the pair, yet 
Vincent, when alone, was also markedly delinquent. 
Case 62. B. twins, Waldo and Walter. Born in AVilliston, North 
Dakota, April 8, 1910. The family has a poor reputation; they were 
made to move from one house in which they were living on account of 
being engaged in bootlegging; “wherever they go, they leave a string 
of unsettled debts behind”; an older brother of the twins has a record 
of delinquency and criminality, less marked than that of the twins. 
The twins left school at 15 years, having reached but the sixth grade. 
A mental test in Waldo’s case, in 1928, revealed I. Q. 86. There is 
no record of a mental test of Walter. They are always together 36 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
and associate little with others. “Can’t get jobs.” They have always 
been stubborn and quick-tempered. They were persistent truants at 
school. They were first before the Juvenile Court in Salt Lake City 
for violating the anticigarette law. Later, in California, there was a 
great deal of trouble with them over petty thefts, especially stealing 
bicycles. Finally Waldo was arrested—this time alone—for stealing 
a Chevrolet car and, on June 8, 1928, was committed to Preston School 
of Industry at lone, California. He remained there until July 12, 
1929, when he was granted parole. At the time of our investigation of 
the case, which was in March, 1931, he was still on parole. There is 
no record of either twin having gotten into serious trouble since then. 
Case 63. C. twins, Robert and Richard. Born in Brantford, 
Ontario, Canada, September 13, 1910. In this case the behavior diffi- 
culty seems to be attributable not only to constitutional factors, but 
also to bad influences in the home. The father is a heavy drinker and 
has “a bad moral reputation.” The mother has two court records for 
stealing and shoplifting. Tliere is no record of mental tests on the 
twins, but they are described as “below par mentally.” Robert was 
in court twice prior to 1926 for stealing in company with his mother, 
and Richard has been known to the police as “incorrigible.” They 
were committed on complaint of the Brantford Chief of Police on 
February 28, 1926, to the Victoria Industrial School at Mimico, 
Ontario. Robert remained there until May 27, 1929, when he was 
placed in his sister’s home and given a job in a canning factory. 
Later he went to work for a roofer and helped his sister. At the time 
of our observation of the case, which was in August, 1932, he was 
getting along very well at home and at his work. Richard was 
released from the institution on March 10, 1930, when he was inden- 
tured to a farmer in Streetsville, Ontario. At the time of our obser- 
vation of the case he was still there, well adjusted in every way, had 
“a first class reputation as a helper.” 
Case 64. J. twins, Isaac and Arthur. Negroes. Born in Orange, 
New Jersey, May 6, 1908. In this case the delinquency seems to be 
attributable, at least in part, to an unsatisfactory situation in the home. 
The mother deserted the family when the twins were still babies; the 
father died a few years later, and they were brought up by a paternal 
aunt. This aunt is reported to have scolded and whipped them fre- 
quently and otherwise ill-treated them. They did poorly at school, 
repeated grades, played hookey, reached the fifth grade by the time 
they were 14 years old. In Arthur’s case there is a record of an arrest, 
prior to 1922, for breaking, entering, and larceny, but he denied his 
guilt. They were both committed to the State Home for Boys at 
Jamesburg, New Jersey, on June 2, 1922, for “incorrigibility.” In 
1923 the twins were paroled to the custody of their aunt, Arthur on 
July 10th and Isaac on October 25th. In January, 1925, on account of 
renewed friction with their aunt, they ran away from her home and 
found work and a home on a farm. The parole officer, upon investi- 
gation, allowed them to remain in this new placement. Since then 
they have made a satisfactory adjustment up to the time of our investi- 
gation of the case, which was in May, 1931. Mental tests in 1922 
revealed, for Isaac, I. Q. 78, for Arthur, 80. 37 
Group 8. Adult criminality; subnormal intelligence; 
both affected, similarly. 10 cases: Nos. 65-74. 
MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
Case 65. H. twins, Frank C. and Norman H. Born in Berwin, 
Maryland, September 5, 1911. Our investigation in April, 1931. Case 
history very meager. A mental test in Frank’s case in 1930 revealed 
I. Q. 89. No record of a mental test of Norman. Frank was a soldier 
in the IT. S. Army; on December 20, 1929, was sentenced to U. S. 
Disciplinary Barracks at Alcatraz Island, California, for a period 
of 2 years on a charge of converting automobile to own use. At the 
time of our investigation of the case Norman was serving a term of 
imprisonment in the Maryland House of Correction at Cheltenham 
for theft and assault on jailer. 
Case 66. L. twins, Harold and Howard. Born in Washington, 
New Jersey, February 7, 1910. The father is alcoholic; an older 
brother has been in a boys’ home in Trenton; a younger brother is a 
persistent truant, has a juvenile court record. The twins have always 
been together. They did poorly at school, left at the age of 14 years, 
having reached the fourth grade. Their delinquencies began shortly 
after leaving school and consisted at first in running away from home. 
For this they were arrested twice and placed on probation, but in 
November, 1925, were brought again before Juvenile Court: they had 
run away again, joined a circus, traveled with it as far as Hollywood, 
California; parents testified that they had been “disobedient and 
incorrigible.” Accordingly, on December 5, 1925, they were committed 
to the New Jersey State Home for Boys at Jamesburg. From that 
time on they no longer had opportunity of acting jointly, but their 
delinquencies continued separately. Harold wTas paroled from James- 
burg on May 16, 1927; returned for violation of parole on July 12, 
1927; escaped August 16, 1927; picked up within a few days and sent 
to the State Reformatory at Rahway; paroled from there in December, 
1929. In February, 1930, he was arrested for robbery and recommitted 
to the Rahway Reformatory. Howard was paroled from Jamesburg 
on September 27, 1927; within a few days he was arrested for stealing 
an automobile and on April 20, 1928, was committed to the State 
Reformatory at Rahway; paroled from there in the spring of 1930, 
but was soon arrested again for breaking, entering, and larceny, and, 
on November 13, 1930, was sentenced to the State Prison at Trenton. 
From there he was transferred back to the Rahway Reformatory in 
January, 1931. At the time of our investigation of the case, which 
was in July, 1931, both twins were still in the Rahway Reformatory. 
Mental tests in 1926 revealed, for Harold, I. Q. 79, for Howard, 67. 
Case 67. N. twins, Joseph and Hyman. Born in London, Eng- 
land, November 5, 1910. These boys began to be very troublesome at 
home at the age of 10 years or before, especially Joseph, who has 
always been “by far the worse of the two.” They had been ungov- 
ernable, would steal money at home and run away and be gone for days 
or weeks at a time, associating with pickpockets. Joseph was com- 
mitted to Children’s Village, Dobbs Ferry, New York, on March 15, 
1922, and remained there until September 8, 1922. Within a few 
weeks he stole $lO from his father and ran away from home, and, on 38 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
October 16, 1922, he had to be placed in the Jewish Protectory at Haw- 
thorne, New York, where he remained until June 18, 1924, when he 
was paroled. He then got along fairly well until April 13, 1927, when 
he stole $65 from his father and disappeared. He then served 3 
months in the Navy, later 8 months in the Army, each time getting 
out on a medical discharge. In 1928 he was charged with attempted 
unlawful entry and given a suspended sentence. In the early part of 
1930 he, together with Hyman, stole a Jewish typewriter and on March 
19, 1930, they were both committed to the New York City Reformatory 
at Hampton Farms. From there Joseph was paroled on September 30, 
1930, but while on parole he cashed a check belonging to his employer 
and absconded with the money. He was therefore returned to Hamp- 
ton Farms on December 19, 1930, and remained there until April 17, 
1931. In the early part of 1932 he was arrested on a charge of 
attempted grand larceny (trying to pass a forged check) ; tried a plea 
of insanity, but without success, and on March 11, 1932, was com- 
mitted to the State Institution for Male Defective Delinquents at 
Napanoch, New York. At the time of our observation of the case, 
which was in November, 1932, he was still an inmate there. A mental 
test in 1932 revealed I. Q. 74. Hyman, too, was sent to the Jewish 
Protectory, as an ungovernable child, and was there from February 8, 
1922, to November 5, 1923, and again from July 23, 1924, to February 
23, 1927. There is no record of a mental test in his case, but he, too, 
is undoubtedly of subnormal intelligence with a poor record in studies 
and with behavior difficulties, such as running away from home and 
from the protectory and, later, a very poor work record. As stated 
above, Hyman, together with Joseph, was committed to the New York 
City Reformatory at Hampton Farms, for stealing a typewriter, on 
March 19, 1930. From there he was paroled on November 25, 1930. 
At the time of our observation of the case (November, 1932), he was 
still at large, getting along fairly well, although changing jobs fre- 
quently. 
Case 68. A. twins, Frank and Edward. Born November 2, 1906, 
place of birth unascertained. The record of delinquencies in Frank’s 
case dates back to the age of 10 years, beginning with truancy, breaking 
and entering, and larceny. By the time he was 20 he had been brought 
before the courts on 12 charges. Edward first came to the attention 
of the courts at the age of 17 years on a charge of assault and battery 
and, by the time he was 20, he had been brought up on four charges. 
On February 26, 1926, they were both sentenced for 7 to 10 years to 
the Massachusetts State Prison for assault with intent to rape, being 
involved together in the same offense. Later, on account of their 
youth, they were transferred to the Massachusetts Reformatory. At 
the time of our investigation of the case, which was in September, 
1930, they were still inmates there, but were to be released in the 
near future. Mental tests in 1926 revealed for Frank, I. Q. 79, for 
Edward, 80. 
Case 69. N. twins, John Joseph, Jr., and Michael Joseph. Born 
in Rankin, Pennsylvania, August 29, 1907. Father was a heavy 
drinker, abused wife and children; he was a mill worker, family was 
often destitute and parents would send the twins out to steal bread and MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
39 
milk from people’s porches to have food for the family. Twins have 
one younger brother and four sisters, all free from delinquent tenden- 
cies. The twins were always together until they were sent to different 
penal institutions. They did poorly at school, reached sixth grade at 
the age of 16 years; played hookey together and sneaked into movie 
shows without paying. Michael’s institutional record, on charges of 
larceny (mainly of automobiles), breaking and entering, and finally 
involuntary manslaughter (when in a drunken condition he stole an 
automobile and ran over and killed a 4-year-old child), consists of 
imprisonment on six different occasions, beginning in 1922, for terms 
varying from 30 days to 11 to 22 years, in the Thorn Hill School at 
Warrendale, Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Industrial Reformatory at 
Huntingdon, Allegheny County Workhouse at Blanox, and Western 
State Penitentiary at Pittsburgh. At the time of our observation of the 
ease, which was in July, 1932, he was still an inmate in the last-named 
institution. A mental test in 1931 revealed I. Q. 59. We do not have 
a full record of John’s case, nor any results of a mental test. His 
school record was the same as Michael’s and he, too, may be judged to 
be of subnormal intelligence. He served two terms of 1 year each 
for larceny, one in the Allegheny County Workhouse in 1928 and the 
other in the Pennsylvania Industrial Reformatory in 1929. The record 
is admittedly incomplete. 
Case 70. K. twins, X and Y (the publication of their names 
or initials not authorized; they are Nos. 11760 and 11761, Connecticut 
State Prison at Withersfield). Born in Bridgeport, Connecticut, 
May 4, 1907. Although they are said to have reached the eighth 
grade at school, they have but borderline intelligence. Mental tests 
in 1929 revealed, for Y, I. Q. 78, for X, 77. Both are tattooed from 
head to foot. The official police records of their delinquencies in 
Bridgeport, Milford, and Derby, Connecticut, admittedly incomplete 
and probably to some extent confused on account of their identical 
appearance, begin with an arrest of both together for burglary on 
September 18, 1925. Since then there is a record, for X, of 13 arrests 
for misdemeanors and felonies, such as reckless driving, false election 
registration, drunkenness and breach of the peace, theft, breaking and 
entering, etc. There is a similar record for Y. Most of these arrests 
were for offenses committed jointly, but, for each twin, there were also 
five individual arrests. They have been given probation, fined, and 
given jail sentences of from 30 days to 6 months. On account of their 
youth they were for some years treated with leniency. Finally they 
were sentenced to the state prison on March 1, 1929. On November 10, 
1930, they were granted parole, but on April 13, 1931, were returned 
for violation of same. At the time of our observation of the case, 
which was in August, 1932, they were still inmates there. Their 
behavior in prison has been unsatisfactory; they were being constantly 
reported for various infractions of regulations, such as having contra- 
band in their possession, tattooing other prisoners, disorderly conduct, 
etc. 
Case 71. P. twins, Elmer and Delmar. Born in Illinois in 1906. 
Parents illiterate and very poor. The twins did poorly at school and 
were unable to progress beyond the third grade. There is no record 40 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
of delinquency or criminality until September, 1925, when they were 
arrested together for stealing chickens and charged with grand larceny. 
They pleaded guilty and were committed to the Illinois State Reforma- 
tory, September 21, 1925. On November 9, 1926, they were paroled, 
and later returned to the reformatory a couple of times for small 
offenses, such as failure to send in reports to probation officers and 
throwing stones at an automobile and breaking the glass. At the time 
of our investigation of the case, which was in July, 1932, they were 
again out on parole and in good standing. Their behavior record 
while at the reformatory had also been very good. Mental tests in 
1925 revealed, for Elmer, I. Q. 56, for Delmar, 55. 
Case 72. L. twins, William and John (alias Peter). Born in 
Yonkers, New York, November 24, 1905. Both parents died when the 
twins were still infants and the twins were reared in St. Joseph’s 
Home at Peekskill, New York. Later their aunt took them. They did 
very poorly at school both in studies and behavior. John was the first 
to become involved in serious delinquencies. His record begins with 
an arrest for burglary on July 21, 1920, when he was placed on 
probation. From that time until the early part of 1931 he was 
arrested 11 more times for breaking and entering, robbery, intoxi- 
cation, vagrancy, etc. He served a term in the State Reformatory at 
Elmira, New York, from March 12, 1926, to February, 1928, when he 
was transferred to the State Institution for Male Defective Delin- 
quents at Napanoch. From there he was paroled on May 4, 1929, but 
on August 9, 1931, was returned for holding up a boy in charge of a 
store, with a fake pistol, and taking $4O out of the cash register. At 
the time of our observation of the case, which was in November, 1932, 
he was still an inmate there. A mental test in March, 1931, revealed 
I. Q. 50. William has a record of five arrests between 1922 and 1930 
for unlawful entry, burglary, intoxication, and assault. He was given 
a suspended sentence; was later sent to the Westchester County, New 
York, Penitentiary in 1923 for 1 year; to the House of Refuge, New 
York, in 1925, for an indeterminate sentence; finally was committed to 
Sing Sing Prison at Ossining, New York, in 1930, from where he was 
transferred to Great Meadow Prison at Comstock, New York. At the 
time of our observation of the case, November, 1932, he was still an 
inmate there. A mental test in 1932 revealed I. Q. 72. 
Case 73. D. twins, John M. and James M. Born in Minneapolis, 
Minnesota, September 3, 1899. Case history very meager. Both were 
in the Minnesota State Training School for Boys, at Red Wing, from 
1912 to 1914, for larceny. On July 16, 1917, both were committed 
to the Minnesota State Reformatory, at St. Cloud, and were later given 
two trials on parole, but had to be returned both times for parole 
violations; they were finally discharged together on August 4, 1919; 
the offense was burglary. On February 25, 1926, they were sentenced 
together, on a charge of rape, two counts, to the Folsom Prison, Cali- 
fornia, for from Ito 15 years. They Avere paroled together on June 8, 
1932, and were on parole at the time of our investigation of the case, 
which was in December, 1932. At Folsom Prison they were “well 
behaved when together, but very unruly when separated; they were 
finally permitted to be together and during their last two years there MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
41 
they were inseparable.” There is no record of a mental test, but they 
are obviously of subnormal intelligence, certainly not above the “dull 
normal” level. 
Case 74. L. twins, Leon and Lloyd. Born August 4, 1894. 
Family in fairly comfortable circumstances; twins have three brothers 
and four sisters, all free from delinquent or criminal tendencies. The 
twins did poorly at school, attained, respectively, fourth and third 
grades at the age of 15 years. Leon married at the age of 23 years, 
has two children. His first arrest was for abandonment of his wife 
and children; was given 2 years ’ probation; this was followed 
by divorce and he was ordered to pay alimony. His second 
arrest was for passing a forged check in 1928. He pleaded guilty and 
explained that he did it to get money to pay his alimony. He was then 
sentenced for a term of 1 to 2 years to Wisconsin State Prison on 
May 10, 1928; discharged on expiration of his sentence. At the prison 
he was well behaved, worked in carpenter shop. Mental test in 1928 
revealed I. Q. 60. Lloyd remained single; drafted into the Army for 
service in the World War, honorably discharged in 1919. His first 
and only arrest was in 1928 for passing a forged check; pleaded not 
guilty, demanded a jury trial, was convicted and sentenced to Mil- 
waukee County, Wisconsin, House of Correction on May 8, 1928, for 
1 to 2 years. There he was well adjusted, worked in chair factory, 
was discharged on expiration of his sentence. Mental test in 1929 
revealed I. Q. 59. 
Group 9. Adult criminality complicating subacute 
schizophrenia with alcoholic etiology; both affected, simi- 
larly. 1 case: No. 75. 
Case 75. B. twins, Pearl and Earl. Born in Hocking County, 
Ohio, in the summer of 1908. Our investigation in July, 1932, through 
the courtesy of Athens State Hospital, Ohio. One paternal aunt of the 
twins had a psychosis and was at one time a patient in the Athens 
State Hospital; both parents, three brothers, and two sisters are living 
and well and free from mental trouble and serious social maladjust- 
ment. The twins did rather poorly at school and had reached but 
the sixth grade when they left at the age of 16 years to go to work as 
laborers, chiefly in coal mines. Both began to drink alcoholic beverages, 
at first moderately, later more or less to excess. Although they are 
almost indistinguishable physically, there are some striking contrasts 
in the nature of their psychiatric affection. In Pearl’s case the drinking 
and the psychotic manifestations are less marked than in Earl’s, while 
the criminality is more marked. There is no record of a mental test 
for either twin. Pearl was the first to be committed to the Athens 
State Hospital, on April 23, 1928, on account of a paranoid 
trend; said that he had been picked on for years, first by the teachers 
at school, later by people in the town, that he was blamed for every- 
thing that happened in the community, and finally he threatened to 
kill his mother, brothers, and a police officer. Prior to his commitment 
he had been arrested seven or eight times for petty robberies. At the 
hospital he expressed a vague general persecutory trend, as described 42 
ETIOLOG.Y OP BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
above, was boastful, wanted it understood that he was “tough,” 
described as “a notorious liar.” In four months he made four attempts 
to escape out of the windows, by cutting a panel out of the door, by 
tearing up the floor, etc. On one occasion did escape in spite of being 
handcuffed and locked in a room, but was apprehended by the sheriff 
and returned to the hospital 5 weeks later. Because he was con- 
sidered a dangerous patient to be at large and because of his persistent 
tendency to escape he was transferred on August 20, 1928, to the 
State Hospital for the Criminal Insane at Lima, Ohio. He has since 
been granted release from that hospital, date of discharge unascer- 
tained. Earl was admitted to the Athens State Hospital August 17, 
1929. He had been arrested many times for intoxication. He had a 
psychosis characterized by an hallucinatory and persecutory delusional 
trend, said he heard voices, that a mob threatened to lynch him, was 
disturbed and at times had to be kept in seclusion. Also said he heard 
the voice of Kaiser Bill warning him not to tell about stealing things. 
He attacked other patients and attendants without provocation. He 
also developed a grandiose delusional trend, said he could bring dead 
people to life by his hypnotic powers and could read people’s minds. 
“At the hospital he availed himself of every opportunity to steal and 
destroy. ’ ’ After a rather irregular fluctuating course he began to show 
consistent improvement and was finally discharged as “recovered” 
on December 31, 1930. 
Group 10. Adult criminality complicating a manic- 
depressive psychosis; both affected, similarly. 1 case: 
No. 76. 
Case 76. R. twins, John and William. Born in Arnprior, 
Ontario, Canada, March 5, 1909. Their mother developed involutional 
melancholia and died recently in the Toronto Hospital. A younger 
brother of the twins is an inmate of the Ontario Hospital at Kingston 
with dementia praecox, hebephrenic type. The twins are short, stocky, 
“of pyknic type.” When only a few months old they were separated, 
William being taken by an uncle who was a farmer living 200 miles 
away and in fairly comfortable circumstances, and John remaining with 
his parents. They have seen each other rarely, and only in recent 
years. John was the first to develop psychotic symptoms, although 
William was the first to be hospitalized. John had to leave school 
at the age of 13 years and go to work in a mill, as his father had 
died and he had to help support his mother and sisters. He has been 
somewhat unstable and never seems to have held any one position 
very long. Lately he has worried considerably over the family finances. 
His psychosis developed gradually in the early part of 1930, i.e., at the 
age of 21 years. He developed fanciful ideas of a semireligious nature, 
said that Arnprior (the town in which he lived) had a connection 
with Noah’s ark, gave up his job to spend his time hunting for the 
landing place of the ark, also for the exact site of the garden of Eden 
which, too, he said, was in that vicinity. He became very excited over 
this, and irritable and assaultive when contradicted. By this time 
(May, 1930), his twin brother had suddenly developed a mental break- 
down and was committed. When John heard of this he became even MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
43 
more upset. He went down the street and assaulted several people, 
who, he said, sneered at him about this, although they had not even 
spoken to him. He was arrested for assault and battery and held for 
a month in the Arnprior jail, from which he was committed to the 
Ontario Hospital at Kingston on July 31, 1930. Upon admission he 
was very unstable emotionally, quarrelsome, and assaultive; extremely 
untidy, smeared himself and the walls, showed distractibility with 
marked tendency toward sound associations. In a short time, however, 
he quieted down, developed full insight, laughed at his former religious 
ideas, and was anxious to go to work again. He was discharged as 
recovered on January 29, 1931. At the time of our investigation of the 
case, which was in August, 1932, he was in good health and well 
adjusted at home and at his work. AVilliam had always been very jolly, 
fond of company, ‘ ‘ the life of the party. ’ ’ As has already been stated, 
unlike John, he was raised in comparative comfort. His psychosis 
developed suddenly and under quite different circumstances. In the 
spring of 1930 he applied for a position on the railroad, but did not 
get it. He became quarrelsome and assaultive; went out and placed 
obstructions on the railroad track of the line that would not hire him; 
then developed the idea that they w7ere going to hang him for it. He 
was arrested on a technical charge of vagrancy and promptly com- 
mitted to the Ontario Hospital at Kingston on May 10, 1930. Upon 
admission he was found to be very unstable and variable emotionally, 
showed distractibility, was quarrelsome and assaultive. He, too, cleared 
up in a short time and was discharged as recovered on January 29, 
1931. At the time of our investigation of the case (August, 1932), 
he was at home, in good health, and getting along quite satisfactorily. 
Group 11. Adult criminality associated with mor- 
phine addiction; both affected, similarly. 1 case: No. 77. 
Case 77. McC. twins, Otto and Randolph. Born in Mississippi, 
February 27, 1888. Our investigation in August, 1930, through the 
courtesy of the East Mississippi State Hospital at Meridian, Missis- 
sippi. Otto began using morphine hypodermically at the age of 26 
years, his daily dose increasing to as much as 15 grains. He took 
several treatments for it, but never remained off the drug for longer 
than 1| years. His wife left him on account of his drug habit in 1927, 
which was 5 years after their marriage. His first admission to the 
state hospital was on October 3, 1918; discharged on October 24, 1918. 
Since then he has had ten readmissions and remained for periods vary- 
ing from 4 days to 9 months, leaving the hospital by escape four times, 
by discharge six times. His last admission was on February 19, 1929, 
and he escaped on March 29, 1929. Since then he got into trouble on 
account of illicit possession of morphine and was committed to the state 
prison, where he was at the time of our investigation of the case. 
The hospital diagnosis each time was “drug addiction without psy- 
chosis.” Randolph’s history begins with periodic drinking at the age 
of 20 years. He would go on sprees of 2 to 3 weeks at intervals of several 
months. At the age of 36 years he stopped drinking, but began instead 
to take morphine by hypodermic injection, and this became a daily 
habit within a year. The daily dose increased up to 18 grains. His 44 
ETIOLOGY OP BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
first admission was to the state hospital on June 8, 1928. In April, 
1931, in the course of a follow-up investigation, we learned that he had 
since had three readmissions, the last one on March 8, 1931, and that 
he was at that time still an inmate there. The diagnosis each time was 
“drug addiction without psychosis.” Up to that time Randolph had 
not been in a penal institution. 
Group 12. Juvenile delinquency or adult criminality; 
both affected, dissimilarly, one twin in each pair being of 
subnormal intelligence, but free from delinquency and 
criminality. 3 cases: Nos. 78-80. 
Case 78. C. twins, Elmer and Louis. Born in Bridgeport, Penn- 
sylvania, May 16, 1918. Our observation in September, 1932, through 
the courtesy of the Juvenile Probation Department, Los Angeles 
County, California. The mother, step-father, and five children have 
been on the county since 1927; home very poor and dirty. Mother first 
married at 14 years and gave birth to these twins; then had an illegiti- 
mate child by another man; later married her present husband. Elmer 
did quite well at school; a mental test in 1932 revealed I. Q. 90. 
Had not been in serious trouble until July, 1932, when he, in company 
with several other boys, entered a school building and stole from the 
cafeteria some flour, tomatoes, oranges, and about five dozen empty milk 
bottles which they sold. He had been in Juvenile Hall in 1929, but 
his case was dismissed. This time he was again in Juvenile Hall from 
July 18 to August 1, 1932, and was released to go home on probation. 
He was still on probation at the time of our investigation of the case. 
Louis is of dull-normal intelligence; a mental test in 1932 revealed 
I. Q. 86. However, he has never been in any difficulty; is hard work- 
ing, sold papers on the streets, later bought a newspaper stand on 
York Boulevard. 
Case 79. D. twins, Harold and Vincent. Born in Albany, New 
York, June 14, 1914. They were brought up in orphanages and chil- 
dren’s homes and were described as mischievous, troublesome children; 
did very poorly at school. In 1930 Harold began to issue bad checks 
in small amounts and was finally committed to the reformatory at 
Elmira, New York, on October 27, 1930. From there he was trans- 
ferred on March 25, 3931, to the Institution for Defective Delinquents 
at Napanoch, and was still there at the time of our observation of the 
ease in November, 1932. A mental test in 1931 revealed I. Q. 53. 
Vincent was never adjudged a delinquent, but is emotionally unstable, 
quarrels constantly with his mother and insults her, runs away from 
institutions, once attempted suicide by taking poison. In the early 
part of 1931 he developed pulmonary tuberculosis and spent some 
months in two sanitariums. There is no record of any mental test in 
his case, but his intelligence has been estimated as on the level of high 
grade moronism. 
Case 80. J. twins, Opal and Nolan. Born in Holdenville, Okla- 
homa, November 5, 1908. The twins went to school together, enlisted 
in the Army together, and were never separated for any considerable MONOZYGOTIC TWINS : MALE 
45 
length of time until Opal was sent to prison. In the Army Opal was 
rated as “inferior type, inadequate.” On March 3, 1930, he was 
sentenced to U. S. Disciplinary Barracks at Alcatraz, California, for 
5 years for “desertion, assault, and assault to commit rape.” At 
the time of our investigation of the case, which was in March, 1931, 
he was still an inmate there. A mental test in 1931 revealed I. Q. 72. 
Nolan was “not a good soldier,” but never got into serious trouble, 
has no criminal record, was discharged from the Army at the termina- 
tion of his enlistment period. No record of any mental test, but 
he was judged to be, like Opal, of subnormal intelligence, probably on 
the borderline level. 
Group 13. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic or 
prepsychotic types, normal intelligence; only one in each 
pair affected. 5 cases: Nos. 81-85. 
Case 81. L. twins, Richard and Robert. Indian boys. Born on 
Indian Reservation, San Diego County, California, in 1926. Our 
observation in November, 1931, through the courtesy of the San Diego 
County Health Department. No record of mental tests. Richard is 
reported to have a dozen or more temper tantrums a day. His mother 
states he has been “a yeller and a fighter” ever since he was born. 
It takes two or more adults to hold him to undress him at night and 
again to dress him in the morning. At meal times, if he does not 
get what he wants when he wants it there are more tantrums. 
'ln play he bullies Robert and any other children, is almost constantly 
fighting and already has several big scars as a result of this. 
Robert is a quiet, obedient child, submits indifferently to Richard’s 
aggressiveness and domination, is rather stolid and lazy, but causes no 
difficulty. 
Case 82. B. twins, D and M. Born in Los Angeles, California, 
January 28, 1922. Our investigation in November, 1932, through the 
courtesy of the Los Angeles Child Guidance Clinic. Both twins are 
left-handed; D has a marked hesitancy in speech; M also has one, 
but not so marked. D has a special spelling difficulty; M also has 
one, but less marked. D has, moreover, a special reading difficulty, 
whereas M is free from such handicap and is above his grade in 
achievement in literature. There is a marked difference in their intelli- 
gence; mental tests in 1932 revealed, for D, I. Q. 93, for M, 109. 
There is a corresponding difference in their progress at school; at 
the time of our investigation D was in the A 5 grade; he had had 
to repeat one semester in the second grade; M was in the A 6 grade, 
and had skipped the A 5 grade. In D’s ease there was some evidence 
of a brain injury at birth; at 3 months he had an obscure febrile 
illness with involvement of the central nervous system. A neurologic 
examination in 1925 revealed unsteady station and gait and poor 
muscular coordination; a reexamination in 1932 revealed hypotonicity 
suggestive of a residual of a slight old cerebellar lesion. In Sep- 
tember, 1932, he was referred to the Child Guidance Clinic as present- 
ing a behavior difficulty, “unstable, irresponsible, scattered attention.” 
M was examined at the same time, merely for comparison with his 46 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
twin brother; the neurologic examination was negative, and he pre- 
sented no behavior difficulty. 
Case 83. S. twins, Harold and Donald. Born in Arizona, Novem- 
ber 1, 1915. Our observation in September, 1931, through the courtesy 
of the Vocational Counselor in one of the Phoenix, Arizona, high 
schools. Although they are of equal intelligence (mental tests in 1930 
having revealed, for Harold, I. Q. 113, for Donald, 111), Harold’s 
grades are consistently poorer: 3’s and 4’s, as compared with Donald’s 
2’s and 3’s. At school Harold is rather mischievous, but most of his 
behavior difficulty is in evidence at home: mother visits the school 
frequently and complains of the trouble she has with him at home on 
account of his laziness and disobedience, whereas “ Donald is a model 
son. ’ ’ 
Case 84. H. twins, J. C. and J. P. Born in Blair, Oklahoma, 
July 17, 1915. Our observation in December, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the Counselor at the Venice, California, High School. 
Although these twins are physically identical, there are slight differ- 
ences between them in intelligence and in educational achievement and 
marked differences in attitude and behavior. Mental tests in 1927 
revealed, for J. C., I. Q. 100, for J. P., 107. At the time of our 
investigation of the case J. C. was in the A 6 grade, J. P. in 87. 
Neither is enthusiastic about scholastic work, rather yearning for their 
former “free life on a Texas ranch.” Both had to repeat one grade, 
and J. C., in addition, one semester in another grade. J. C. is marked 
as a behavior problem both at school and at home, is described as. 
extremely stubborn, of sullen disposition, resentful of any discipline 
at school; whereas J. P. presents no behavior difficulty at school, at 
home, or elsewhere. 
Case 85. G. twins, Harry B. and William H. Born in Arizona, 
March 28, 1913. Our observation in September, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the Vocational Counselor in one of the Phoenix, Arizona, 
high schools. Although they are physically identical, there are 
marked differences between them in intelligence, in educational achieve- 
ment, and in attitude and behavior. Mental tests in 1927 revealed, 
for Harry, I. Q. 93, for William, 105. At the time of our investigation 
Harry was still in the junior class in high school; whereas William 
had graduated in May, 1931, with 47th rank in a class of 562. He is 
described as more ambitious than Harry, well liked by his teachers, no 
record of demerits; whereas Harry had over 20 demerits in the past 
year alone. 
Group 14. Adult criminality associated with mental 
deficiency; one affected. 1 case: No. 86. 
Case 86. B. twins, Ralph and Mike. Born in Italy, September 
29, 1905. There has been a marked difference betAveen the twins in 
intelligence, temperament, and behavior since childhood, although 
they are identical physically. Ralph was a persistent truant from 
school, reached only the fourth grade, has never worked steadily, is 
described as “shiftless, a floater, hobo type.” He deserted from the MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
47 
Italian army, later came to this country. Arrested twice in Bridge- 
port, Connecticut, in 1928, for vagrancy, first time given probation, 
second time sentenced to the city jail for 9 months. On July 7, 
1930, he was sentenced, for assault and battery with intent to rape, 
to Western State Penitentiary, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, for to 5 
years; escaped October 26, 1931, recaptured the same day, resentenced 
to serve additional 2| to 5 years in the penitentiary. At the time of our 
investigation of the case, which was in July, 1932, he was still an 
inmate there. A mental test in 1930 revealed I. Q. 58. Mike seems 
normal in intelligence, although there is no record of a mental test. 
He got along well at school, lias always worked steadily as a stone 
mason, served 2 years in the Italian army without trouble, later came 
to this country, has been free from criminal tendency. 
Group 15. Adult criminality; normal intelligence; 
one affected. 8 cases: Nos. 87-94. 
Case 87. G. twins, Huel and Enel. Born in Hamlin, Texas, 
February 17, 1911. Our investigation in November, 1932, through the 
courtesy of the Los Angeles, California, county jail. Both parents 
living; the twins have five brothers and one sister, all in good health 
and without criminal or delinquent tendency. The twins were brought 
up together, went to school together and finished the fourth grade, 
thereafter worked together in oil fields as mechanics. No record of 
any mental tests for either. Enel has never been in any difficulty, 
Huel alone being delinquent and criminal. On his first offense 
he was in jail a few days, having been arrested in a raid on suspicion 
of gambling, but case was dismissed. He was arrested a second time 
for a traffic violation. Finally, on June 30, 1932, he was arrested 
on a charge of rape, two counts, occurring within three days of each 
other. He was convicted on both counts and on September 26, 1932. 
was sent to San Quentin Prison, California, for 2to 100 years. At 
the time of our investigation of the case he was an inmate there. 
Case 88. C. twins, Wendell and Donald. Born in Englewood, 
Ohio, November 30, 1907. Our observation in October, 1932, through 
the courtesy of the Los Angeles County, California, Probation Depart- 
ment. One paternal uncle said to be “half-witted,” but the family 
history is otherwise negative for nervous or mental disorders, delin- 
quency or criminality. The father is a practicing physician and the 
family is highly respected in their community. Although the twins are 
physically identical and almost indistinguishable, and there was a 
single placenta at birth, they have been from infancy “exact oppo- 
sites” in disposition. Donald was the first-born of the twins and was 
the heavier by 1 pound. He has always been quiet and studious, liked 
to stay at home and read, whereas Wendell wanted gay parties and 
excitement. Donald was a year ahead of Wendell at school. Mother 
stated that “Donald had the cares of the world on his shoulders, while 
Wendell never had a care in the world.” They have always had 
different friends and, while there is no antagonism between them, 
they are not specially attached to each other. Donald has never pre- 
sented any behavior difficulty, delinquency, or criminality. Wendell 
has associated with questionable characters, has been known to gamble, 48 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
has used wine tonic and marihuana. He has no prior record of 
arrests, however. On April 25, 1980, he was arrested on charges of 
grand theft and forgery. Pie had stolen an automobile, substituted 
false license plates, which he had also stolen, obtained gasoline by 
leaving a spare tire for security, forged his father’s name to a check 
for $10; later abandoned the car in another town. He entered a plea 
of guilty on all counts. He was first in the town lock-up for a couple 
of days, then in the county jail for 3 months, then in road camp 7 
months, and after that was released on 5 years’ probation. At the 
time of our observation of the case he was at home on probation and 
apparently getting along satisfactorily. 
Case 89. P. twins, Albert and Charles. Born in San Francisco, 
California, December 25, 1900. Our investigation in November, 1932, 
through the courtesy of Los Angeles county jail, California. The 
criminality shown by one of the twins in this pair is very mild, con- 
sisting in a single episode of slight significance. Mother died in child- 
birth at the age of 35 years. Father died at the age of 45 years, of 
unknown cause, when the twins were 12 years old. There were 12 
children born in this family, including these twins and another pair 
of twins. The twins had to quit school early in order to go to work 
and help support the family. They worked together on farms for 7 
years. At the end of that time Charles remained on the farm and had 
made no change up to the time of our investigation; he has never 
been in any difficulty. Albert enlisted in the Army and served 
satisfactorily for 9 years (through three enlistments) and finally 
received an honorable discharge. Since then he has worked as auto- 
mobile mechanic and at odd jobs, but by reason of the depression has 
often been unemployed. In one of the periods of unemployment, on 
October 13, 1932, he was arrested on a charge of vagrancy. He was 
still in the county jail at the time of our investigation less than a 
month later. 
Case 90. M. twins, Glenn and Gene. Born in New Glasgow, 
Nova Scotia, Canada, September 28, 1897. Our investigation in 
November, 1932, through the courtesy of the Los Angeles county 
jail, California. In this case, the very persistent criminal tendency 
which developed in the one affected twin at about the age of 23 years 
seems to be definitely attributable to a cerebral injury. Although we 
have had no opportunity of observing both twins personally there 
would seem to be no doubt of their being monozygotic. They were 
reported by their mother as being identical physically, intellectually, 
and temperamentally; they were constantly confused by neighbors and 
teachers; there was only one placenta at birth; a photograph, too, 
taken of them together, which was submitted for our inspection, left 
no doubt on this point. They had graduated from high school with 
high honors. Both enlisted in the air service of the British Army 
at the time of the World War and both made an outstanding record 
at the front. Glenn received no fewer than seven citations, was 
rapidly promoted to the rank of captain. In June, 1918, while in 
command of his squadron of 16 planes, he engaged the enemy in 30 
planes, part of one wing of his plane was shot off, he crashed in a nose 
dive from an altitude of 1500 feet; his head went through the instru- MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
49 
ment board, a piece of strut pierced his jaw under the chin, emerging at 
right mastoid. He now has a large scar at the emergence point and 
marked deafness in the right ear. He was unconscious for 8 hours. At 
that time he also sustained other injuries, but nevertheless recovered and 
returned to flying 7 weeks later. In September, 1918, he was 
again shot down from an altitude of 1000 feet, with machine gun bul- 
lets disabling his motor and his right arm; used left arm for machine 
gun and held controls between knees; stripped landing gear and 
turned over on enemy territory. He had a multiple fracture of right 
leg, but managed to unhook belt and crawl from under plane, where- 
upon he set fire to it. He then became unconscious and remained so 
for 8 days, finding himself in a German hospital when he came to. 
About a month later he was exchanged through Switzerland. His 
criminal record, under several aliases, began in 1920, with a con- 
viction on a charge of receiving stolen property in the State of lowa, 
was sentenced to reformatory, with suspension of sentence subject to 3 
years’ probation. During the next 5 years he was arrested five times 
in the same state on charges of drunkenness, passing bad checks, and 
breaking and entering, but was dealt with leniently, presumably on 
account of his outstanding and heroic war record, serving jail sen- 
tences of 15 days to 6 months. In 1925, however, he was again 
convicted of receiving stolen property and sentenced to the lowa 
State Reformatory at Anamosa for 5 years. Upon release from there 
in 1928 he came to California and was soon arrested again on a charge 
of forgery, four counts, convicted, and sentenced to San Quentin 
Prison for 1 to 14 years. He was paroled on June 1, 1931, but in 
1932 was arrested twice and spent brief terms in the Los Angeles 
county jail on charges of battery and grand theft, respectively. 
Finally, in the latter part of 1932 he was again arrested on charges of 
forgery, six counts, and violation of parole. At the time of our obser- 
vation of the case, which was in November, 1932, he was in the county 
jail awaiting trial. Gene was wounded at Arras, but not seriously, 
was demobilized in 1918, returned to his position as draughtsman and 
superintendent in a steel construction company in Nova Scotia, is 
married and has two children attending school, is reliable and emi- 
nently successful, has never been in jail in his life. 
Case 91. M. twins, Jesus and Jose. Born in Morenci, Arizona, 
November 17, 1896. The family history is negative and the personal 
histories of the twins were uneventful and the same for both up to 
the age of 16 years. At that time Jesus was injured in a railroad 
accident, sustaining fractures of both legs and one arm and possibly 
a cerebral concussion. He spent 9 years in and out of hospitals. His 
criminal record, as far as known, consists in two jail sentences in Los 
Angeles County, California, in 1930 and 1931, 6 months each, for 
illegal possession of liquor; and a conviction for forgery in 1932, for 
which, too, he was sentenced to serve 6 months and pay a fine of $5OO. 
At the time of our observation of the case, which was in November, 
1932, he was still an inmate in the county jail. Jose is working as a 
laborer, steady, reliable, is married and has six children, has never 
been in any trouble whatever. 50 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Case 92. B. twins, Steve and Nick. Born in Turkey, June 8, 
1896. Our investigation in July, 1932, through the courtesy of the 
Eastern State Penitentiary at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although 
the twins are physically identical and have often been mistaken for 
each other, they have been different temperamentally since boyhood. 
Steve stole fruit as a boy, ‘ ‘ everybody steals fruit, ’ ’ had but two years 
of schooling, went to sea at 14 years, has always been irascible and 
“a fighter,” also a heavy drinker. On one occasion, in a drunken 
brawl, he fought with a man who had a loaded gun; while struggling 
for the possession of the gun the man was accidentally shot and killed. 
Steve was tried for murder, but was acquitted. In 1931 he was again 
arrested on a charge of aggravated assault and battery; he had been 
once more in a fight and knifed a man. The man recovered from his 
stab wounds, so there was no murder charge this time. Steve was 
sentenced to the Eastern State Penitentiary on September 2, 1931, 
and, at the time of our investigation of the case, was still an inmate 
there. Nick had an equivalent of a high school education, presented 
no behavior problem in childhood or adolescence, has worked steadily 
as a carpenter, is married and has three children, supports his family 
well, is respected in his community, has never been in trouble with 
the police. 
Case 93. C. twins, Morris and Henry. Born in Boston, Massa- 
chusetts, September 30, 1893. Our investigation in July, 1932, through 
the courtesy of the Western State Penitentiary at Pittsburgh, Penn- 
sylvania. Father is said to have died of alcoholism at 70 years. There 
had been for many years a temperamental difference between the twins. 
Morris ran a pool room for a time, was much given to gambling, drink- 
ing, and sexual promiscuity; later worked as driver for two taxicab 
companies, but was fired from both on account of many accidents (one 
a fatal accident), insubordination, etc. In December, 1929, he, together 
with two other men, committed a series of store burglaries,, and, on 
December 15, 1929, was sentenced to serve 19 to 38 years in the peni- 
tentiary. At the time of our investigation of the case he was an inmate 
there. A Stanford-Binet test in March, 1930, revealed I. Q. 92. 
Henry has never shown criminal tendencies, is married, owns a meat 
market, keeps aloof from Morris. No record of a mental test. 
Case 94. 0. twins, James and Eddie. Negroes. Born in British 
West Indies, May 16, 1892. Our investigation in July, 1932, through 
the courtesy of the Eastern State Penitentiary at Philadelphia, Penn- 
sylvania. Although these twins have always been physically identical 
and almost indistinguishable, there has been a marked contrast between 
them since boyhood in temperament and behavior. James had but two 
years of schooling, played hookey frequently, went to sea at 18, and 
since then has habitually spent his time ashore in low seamen’s resorts. 
Was verjr often in fights and took a great deal of pride in his pugilistic 
prowess. In one such fight in October, 1930, he maimed a man by 
cutting his face with a broken beer bottle, was arrested, charged with 
assault and battery, and sentenced to the penitentiary; was still an 
inmate there at the time of our investigation. Eddie had an eighth- 
grade education, went into the restaurant business at 24 years, and now 
owns a restaurant. Has always been a steady worker, is married and MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
51 
lias four children, has always provided for his family, has never been 
in trouble with the authorities. 
§ 4. Monozygotic Twins : Female 
Group 16. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic 
and prepsychotic types; normal intelligence; both affected. 
6 cases: Nos. 95-100. 
Case 95. C. twins, Jo Ann and Joy. Born in National City, Cali- 
fornia, in 1925. Our observation in December, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the Public Health Nurse at National City, California. 
The difficulty with both twins has consisted in temper tantrums. This 
is their reaction to every obstacle and it is usually followed by a spell 
of violent sobbing. Sometimes the one starts the scene and immediately 
the other joins in. These occur so often during the day that they 
practically upset the kindergarten activities, and the nurse feels they 
should be removed from school for a time. 
Case 96. Y. twins, Jacquelyn and Myra. Born in Long Beach, 
California, July 5, 1924. Our observation in September, 1931, in their 
home in Long Beach. The father is unemployed and the county is 
supporting the family. Mother has violent outbursts of temper. Both 
twins have temper tantrums several times daily. It generally takes 
2 to 3 hours every morning to get them dressed, mother and children 
fighting and yelling through the whole performance. They wet and 
soil themselves almost daily wdien playing. They are very unpopular 
in the neighborhood on account of their disobedience, destructive habits, 
and constant fighting with other children; neighbors were planning 
to ask the landlord to make them move. The twins also fight with each 
other and torment their younger brother, keeping him howling most 
of the time. They are very much afraid of all animals, including cats 
and dogs that other children play with. There is no record of a 
mental test for either twin; both are in the second grade at school. 
Case 97. Y. twins, Josephine and Dorothy, Born in Oakland, 
California, June 10, 1923. Our observation in April, 1932, in one of 
the Oakland city schools. Father is described as cruel and domineering. 
Several of the other children in the family have an institutional his- 
tory, and one sister is now in the Sonoma State Home at Eldridge, Cali- 
fornia, on account of mental deficiency. The twins are of normal 
intelligence; mental tests in September, 1931, revealed, for Josephine, 
I. Q. 102, for Dorothy, 98. But in spite of their normal intelligence, 
presumably by reason of a handicap of temperament and behavior, 
they have done very poorly at school: they spent years in kinder- 
garten, and have since been in the “Z” (slowest moving) section. They 
are described as “disturbers in the class room, emotionally unstable, 
i.e., given to inordinate laughing and crying, untrustworthy, untruth- 
ful, without initiative.” 
Case 98. C. twins, Grace and Rose. Born in Long Island City, 
New York, October 9, 1921. Our investigation in July, 1931, through 
the courtesy of the Institute for Child Guidance, New York City. 52 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Father is said to have a disagreeable disposition, urged the mother to 
have an abortion performed when she became pregnant with the twins 
as it would cost too much to have a child; drinks to excess, is abusive 
toward the mother, beats her at times. Grace was the first born; Rose 
was born 3 hours later, was thought to be dead, left on the table, “but 
in a couple of hours sneezed and began to breathe.” The twins cut 
their first tooth on the same day, talked the same day, both walked at 
16 months, and were identical physically; there was never as much 
as 1 pound difference between them in weight. In early childhood, 
however, there developed a striking difference between them in intelli- 
gence and in temperament and behavior. Stanford-Binet tests in June, 
1929, revealed, for Grace, T. Q. 118, for Rose, 107. They were referred 
to the Institute for Child Guidance in 1929 on account of “jealousy of 
each other, quarreling with each other, desire to dominate other chil- 
dren, show-off behavior.” The special problem in Grace’s case was 
aggressiveness toward Rose, demanding more attention from the mother; 
whereas Rose was sensitive and shy, dominated by Grace, more nega- 
tivistic and disobedient toward the mother. Grace is, on the whole, 
much more of a problem: “will not eat properly or finish food, selfish, 
always keeps biggest share for herself, domineering, wants mother to 
dress and undress her, is antagonistic toward her father, vain, uses 
rouge and lipstick.” Rose is more passive; gets along better with play- 
mates, as she is not so bossy and disagreeable as Grace; she does not 
sleep well, complains of “seeing bad things”; tires more easily than 
Grace; at school has not done so well in reading as Grace. 
Case 99. H. twins, Grace and Helen. Born in Arizona, December 
17, 1917. Onr observation in September, 1931, through the courtesy 
of the Phoenix High School, Arizona. These twins are of superior 
intelligence; mental tests in May, 1930, revealed, for Grace, I. Q. 126, 
for Helen, 124. They had done well in their studies in elementary 
school, but had slumped badly since entering high school. Described as 
“lacking in energy and ambition, just sitting idly in class, watching 
the others and dreaming, would not even play. ’ ’ In spite of high intel- 
ligence Grace “failed in every subject but English in the past year”; 
while Helen passed, but only with a 3 grade, i.e., a barely passing grade. 
Case 100. A. twins, Ruth and Belle. Born in Cincinnati, Ohio, 
August 8, 1913. Our investigation in June, 1931, through the courtesy 
of the United Jewish Social Agencies, Cincinnati. The father died of 
tuberculosis when the twins were 3 years old. The mother is described 
as emotionally unstable and psychoneurotic; she has been unable to 
support herself and the children and has been largely dependent 
on social agencies. The twins had 1 year in high school and then 
took a commercial course in a trade school. Mental tests in 1929 
revealed, for Ruth, I. Q. 96, for Belle, 90. At the time of our observa- 
tion neither had yet begun to menstruate, although they were nearly 
18 years old. Ruth was the first to be brought to the attention of the 
Psychopathic Institute of the Jewish Hospital in Cincinnati; and this 
was in July, 1922. She was referred on account of peculiar behavior, 
screaming spells, night terrors, laziness, slovenliness, disobedience, etc.; 
described as selfish and emotionally unstable. In December, 1923, she 
was again referred to the Institute, as there had been no improvement MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
53 
in the situation. Belle was first brought to the Institute in November, 
1923, and has since been readmitted twice, in October, 1925, and in 
January, 1926. She was even more of a problem: “nervous, habit tics, 
lazy, egocentric, obstinate, of violent temper.” Was sexually intimate 
with a man in the neighborhood. 
Group 17. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; normal intelligence; both affected. 10 cases: Nos. 
101-110. 
Case 101. H. twins, Una and Ula. Born in Oceanside, California, 
in 1922. Onr observation in December, 1931, in a public school at 
Oceanside. They are a constant source of disturbance at school on 
account of abnormal sex curiosity and exhibitionism; “in all other 
respects they are nice, attractive children. ’ ’ They are constantly pull- 
ing up their clothes and exhibiting themselves and pulling off the 
clothing of other children. They have even attempted to lift the 
teacher’s clothes. “All attempts to correct this have failed.” 
Case 102. S. twins, Phoebe and Phyllis. Born in National City, 
California, in 1917. Our observation in December, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the Public Health Nurse in National City. They are 
behavior problems at school: ‘ ‘ Irrepressible, not amenable to discipline, 
untruthful, laugh uproariously in class, and call out coarse and vulgar 
remarks to and about others in the class; write obscene things on school 
wralls and fences.” They are inseparable and have no other girl 
friends, but go with a bunch of rough boys. 
Case 103. A. twins, Ruth Imogene and Ruby Christine. Born in 
Elk City, Oklahoma, December 2, 1915. Our observation in October, 
1931, in the Polytechnic High School, Long Beach, California. Gen- 
erally irresponsible, especially in past year; never on time, with con- 
stant excuses of many varieties which are often later found to be 
false. They are sophomores, but “crashed” a senior prom on an ille- 
gally secured ticket. They gave fictitious names, claimed to be seniors; 
when identified they refused to divulge how they got their ticket; Ruth 
even tried to brazen it out, denied that Ruby was her sister (in spite 
of their identical appearance). The attendance officer got them out 
of the ballroom, but in the crowd near the door they slipped away and 
a few minutes later were again found in another part of the ballroom. 
This time they admitted their identity, but refused to leave; howTever, 
when a police officer was being brought toward them they got up 
quickly and left. In October, 1931, they were arrested together for 
shoplifting. Mental tests revealed, for Ruth, I. Q. 101, for Ruby, 105. 
Case 104. L. twins, Dorothy and Meredith. Born in Los Angeles, 
California, February 14, 1916. Our observation in March, 1932, in 
Fremont High School, Los Angeles. The father of these twins had 
divorced their mother on grounds of sexual immorality. The twins are 
of average intelligence; mental tests in 1931 revealed, for Dorothy, 
I. Q. 95, for Meredith, 98. “The problem of these girls is of a sexual 
nature, coupled with ditching classes, lying, and loud, boisterous con- 
duct. They have been in several escapades at school and are com- 54 
ETIOLOG.Y OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
monly recognized as leading an immoral life. Their expulsion from 
school is being considered.” 
Case 105. T. twins, Betty and Olive. Born in Redlands, Califor- 
nia, December 11, 1915. Onr observation in December, 1931, in the 
Redlands Junior High School. Mental tests in 1930 revealed, for 
Betty, I. Q. 92, for Olive, 96. However, “they do absolutely nothing 
in their school work and are failing in every subject.” They “ditch” 
classes two or three times a week and are “boy crazy.” When “ditch- 
ing” they are accompanied by two or more boys—not the same ones each 
time. This has become so habitual that the mother telephones every 
morning to see if they are at school. The truant officer tells of their 
great versatility in eluding him. Several times they forged their 
mother’s signature to excuses, but lately have given this up and make 
no excuses for their escapades, but seem to glory in “putting it over.” 
They are quite inseparable. 
Case 106. McP. twins, Eleanor Elaine and Patsy Ruth. Born in 
Escondido, California, September 30, 1915. Onr observation in Octo- 
ber, 1931, in the Polytechnic High School, Long Beach, California. 
“During the past week a raid was made upon the residence in the out- 
skirts of Long Beach of a certain man who was entertaining his men 
friends by ‘artistic tableaux’ of nude girls, the two chief stars being 
these twins.” It was revealed that these girls had been serving as 
“models” for about 3 years. In the medical examination it was 
revealed that Patsy Ruth had a florid ease of syphilis and that Eleanor 
had also contracted syphilis 2 years previously. Their stepfather was 
apparently not interested in the matter, but the mother stated that she 
had not objected to the girls acting as models, as she desired for them 
an opportunity for “artistic development.” The girls were suspended 
from school and turned over to juvenile court officials. At school they 
had been reported by teachers for “silly conduct in class and inatten- 
tion.” In addition, Patsy Ruth was reported by her art teacher for 
“kleptomaniac tendencies”; she would help herself to materials belong- 
ing to other students and would carry off “accidentally” school 
supplies. Eleanor was not known to have “kleptomaniac tendencies.” 
No record of any mental test for either twin. 
Case 107. McL. twins, Hally and Jean. Born in California, July 
2, 1914. Our observation in April, 1932, in the Metropolitan High 
School, Los Angeles, California. Mental tests in 1929 revealed, for 
Hally, I. Q. 95, for Jean, 96. “They do nothing whatever in school 
work, dancing is their only interest, and they tend to disrupt classes by 
their flirtations with boys. They also ditch classes frequently in com- 
pamr with several boys, and are boisterous and vulgar in conduct. 
Have the reputation of being immoral.” 
Case 108. H. twins, Hester and Hazel. Born in Orange, Cali- 
fornia, September 13, 1914. Our observation in December, 1931, in 
the Orange High School. They are very poor in their school work, 
apparently from lack of interest, as they are not considered subnormal 
in intelligence; no record of a mental test for either twin. Their 
problem seems to be a sexual one: ‘ ‘ They are boy crazy; no boy is safe 
when they are around. They have been involved in several school MONOZYGOTIC TWINS : FEMALE 
55 
scandals; should be excluded as undesirable influences.” They are 
inseparable and their conduct is about the same, except that “Hazel 
seems to be somewhat the more aggressive in manner.” 
Case 109. P. twins, Joyce and Grace. Born in Redondo Beach, 
California, October 16, 1914. Our observation in December, 1931, in 
the Redondo Union High School. These girls are always together; 
both are very lively and out with boys constantly, loud and boisterous 
in conduct. In the fall of 1931 Joyce had to be excluded from school 
on account of an illegitimate pregnancy. Thus far Grace has not been 
brought to the office for any marked misdemeanor; but with the 
exception of this incident her conduct has been very similar to Joyce’s. 
Case 110. 0. twins, Gertrude and Grace. Born in Phoenix, 
Arizona, May 30, 1913. Our observation in September, 1931, in the 
Phoenix High School. These girls are of somewhat above average 
intelligence'; mental tests in 1929 revealed, for both, I. Q. 111. In 
spite of this they have made barely passing grades at best in their 
school work. “Their only interests seem to be in clothes, dancing, and 
boys.” They are inseparable and constantly on the streets at night. 
Home background said to be poor; they seemingly never prepare their 
lessons. They seem to have no sense of responsibility, are often truant, 
violate school regulations in general and uniform regulations in par- 
ticular; use make-up to a freakish extent; are always flirting with 
boys; exhibit a bored blase attitude toward teachers, use bad language, 
and “will lie even when truth would stand them in better stead.” 
Group 18. Juvenile delinquency; normal intelli- 
gence; tooth affected, 5 cases: Nos. 111-115. 
Case 111. R. twins, Wilma and Hazel. Born in Toronto, Ontario, 
Canada, September 16, 1922. Our observation in August, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Mental Hygiene Bureau at Toronto. The 
school record of these girls describes them as “troublesome, quarrel- 
some, impertinent, truants; Wilma the more aggressive of the two.” 
Mental tests in 1929 and 1930, respectively, revealed, for both, I. Q. 
90. They were brought before the Juvenile Court in the fall of 1929 
because of many petty thefts. The court record describes them as 
“superficial, flippant, and dirty.” Upon recommendation of the 
Mental Hygiene Bureau it was decided to separate them and on 
November 11, 1929, Wilma was committed to the Shirley School for 
Delinquent Girls, while Hazel was to remain at home and to report 
weekly to the juvenile officer. This was still their status at the time 
of our investigation of the case. 
Case 112. H. twins, Ruth and Eleanora. Born in Visalia, Cali- 
fornia, January 4, 1916. Our investigation in January, 1931, through 
the courtesy of El Retiro (school for delinquent girls) in Los Angeles 
County, California. The principal problem of these girls is sex delin- 
quency which arose, at least in part, under the influence of their 
father. They are of equal intelligence. Mental tests in July, 1930, 
revealed, for Ruth, I. Q. 100, for Eleanora, 101. Temperament- 
ally there seems to be a considerable difference, Ruth being distinctly 
more aggressive, the leader of the two, more excitable, whereas 56 
ETIOLOG.Y OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Eleanora is quieter, more passive, “very much under Ruth’s influence, 
does exactly as Rnth tells her.” They were brought before Juvenile 
Court in July, 1930; their father confessed having had sexual relations 
with both girls many times; the girls also indulged in mutual masturba- 
tion and had had sexual relations with boys, especially their cousins. 
In August, 1930, while still in Juvenile Hall, Ruth led four other 
girls (not including Eleanora), attacked the matron, and organized an 
escape from the institution. The girls also lied, now admitting, now 
recanting incestuous relations with their father. On September 6, 
1930, they were both committed to El Retiro and were still there at the 
time of our investigation of the case. 
Case 113. S. twins, Lucille and Louise. Born in Neely’s Land- 
ing, Missouri, October 6, 1913. Our investigation in June, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the State Industrial Home for Girls at Chilli- 
cothe, Missouri. The home background is bad; there was such pov- 
erty that both girls had to go to work as domestics before they had 
reached their ’teens; father drinks heavily and is cruel to the family; 
the mother finally divorced him, leaving the girls in his custody. The 
girls became sexually promiscuous around the age of 12 years. This 
was reported to their father and he whipped them severely. They 
continued, however, in their promiscuous relations and, upon the 
father’s petition and by reason of their being much gossiped about 
in the town, they were committed to the State Industrial Home for 
Girls on October 2, 1927. At the institution they were noted as being 
“vicious, very sexy, and untrustworthy.” They were finally both 
released on September 24, 1931, going out again to work as domestics. 
Case 114. H. twins, Cora Stuart and Corinne. Born in Wells- 
ville, Missouri, June 30, 1913. Our investigation in June, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the State Industrial Home for Girls at Chilli- 
eothe, Missouri. Home background bad. The father died of tubercu- 
losis when the twins were 5 years old. Mother then married a much 
younger man whose intemperance and abuse toward the girls “drove 
them out on the street”; mother eventually divorced the stepfather. 
The twins began “running around” with men when scarcely in their 
’teens, staying out all night with boys and laborers belonging to a 
section gang on the railroad, although they had been told that some 
of the men were diseased. On July 10, 1927, Cora was committed to 
the State Industrial Home for Girls and, upon admission, was found 
to have a gonorrheal infection. On November 19, 1927, Corinne, too, 
was committed there, also suffering from gonorrhea. They had both 
been sent to the House of the Good Shepherd in Kansas City, Missouri, 
on May 16, 1927, and the delay in Corinne’s commitment to the State 
Industrial Home was occasioned by an operation for a pelvic infection, 
when one ovary and both tubes had to be removed. In the State 
Home they were noted as “not vicious, but good for nothing, accom- 
plishing almost nothing in their school work.” They were both dis- 
charged on May 12, 1929. Subsequent history not ascertained, and 
there is no record of a mental test for either twin. 
Case 115. S. twins, Beatrice and Bernice. Born in Illinois, 
March 7, 1914. Our investigation in July, 1932, through the courtesy 
of Institute for Juvenile Research, Chicago. Although there is no MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
57 
record of a mental test for either twin, they are described as superior 
and “very lovely in other respects.” Their difficulty is attributed 
to the fact that their mother had died in the early part of 1931 and 
they were left in charge of an older sister who was “a prostitute and 
implicated in a number of thefts.” There was no record of behavior 
difficulty or delinquency in the twins prior to their mother’s death. 
After their mother died two boys (brothers) began coming to the 
house and staying all night and having sexual relations with the twins. 
Both girls promptly became pregnant and were committed on Novem- 
ber 13, 1931, to the State Training School for Girls at Geneva, Illinois. 
At the time of our investigation they were still inmates there, wait- 
ing to be delivered of their babies. 
Group 19. Adult criminality; normal intelligence; 
both affected. 1 case: No. 116. 
Case 116. S. twins, Mary and Jane (fictitious names). Born in 
Canada in 1913. Our investigation in August, 1932, through the 
courtesy of the Mercer Reformatory for Women, Toronto, Ontario, 
Canada. These girls are professional prostitutes, rather heavy drinkers, 
and have engaged in bootlegging. The case history is quite incomplete. 
It is known, however, that in 1930 they served a term of 2 months in a 
New Brunswick, Canada, jail on a technical charge of vagrancy. After 
that they went to the United States, were eventually arrested on a 
charge of “lewd and licentious behavior” and conducting a house of 
prostitution and, in the summer of 1932, were deported to Can- 
ada as “undesirable characters.” Blood examinations revealed a posi- 
tive Wassermann reaction in both. On August 20, 1932, they were 
sentenced for a term of 2 years to the Mercer Reformatory for Women, 
and at the time of our investigation of the case were still inmates there. 
There is no record of a mental test for either twin. 
Group 20. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic 
and prepsychotic types; subnormal intelligence; both 
affected. 2 cases: Nos. 117-118. 
Case 117. R. twins, Olga and Della Maria. Born in Colombia, 
South America, September 28, 1921. Our investigation in November, 
1931, through the courtesy of the Nazareth Home of the San Diego, 
California, Catholic Welfare Association. These are illegitimate chil- 
dren; their reputed father was an American policeman in the Canal 
Zone; their mother, a Panamanian girl, died in giving birth to them. 
They are of somewhat unequal intelligence: mental tests in 1931 
revealed, for Olga, I. Q. 89, for Della Maria, 95. In temperament they 
are markedly “schizoid,” being extremely shy, timid, and very quiet 
if left to themselves, but given to excessive crying when interfered 
with in any way. They also present a problem in the form of an invet- 
erate habit of masturbation which the Sisters at the home have not 
been able to correct in spite of various methods of restraint that have 
been tried. On account of this habit and their aloofness toward 
strangers the Sisters have been unable to send them out for adoption. 58 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Case 118. H. twins, Margy and Margaret. Born in El Centro, 
California, July 24, 1916. Our investigation in June, 1931, through 
the courtesy of the Memorial Junior High School, San Diego, Califor- 
nia. Margy is left-handed, Margaret right-handed: otherwise they are 
physically identical. Both are of dull normal intelligence and are fail- 
ing at school, Margy the more markedly so. Mental tests in 1930 
revealed, for Margy, I. Q. 82, for Margaret, 89. They are said to be 
obedient and easily managed at home, but at school they are not only 
backward in their studies, but also present a considerable behavior 
problem: are unruly, require much discipline, whine and complain, 
‘die defensively.” 
Group 21. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; subnormal intelligence; both affected. 4 cases: 
Nos. 119-122. 
Case 119. T. twins, Myrl and Vyrl. Born in Greeley, Colorado, 
March 10, 1918. Our observation in November, 1931, in the Compton, 
California, Junior High School. They are of dull normal intelligence; 
mental tests in 1929 revealed, for Myrl, I. Q. 87, for Vyrl, 84. They are 
physically rather overdeveloped for their age, extreme in their make-up, 
rather loud and vulgar in manner, giggle almost constantly. They 
are described by the Dean of Girls as “emotionally unstable, flighty, 
unreliable, fib a great deal, tardy, flirtatious, and impudent.” Several 
times at school small articles, such as fancy handkerchiefs, vanity cases, 
etc., which had been taken from the teacher’s desk, have been found in 
their possession. They have also been caught forging excuses for 
their own absences and for their friends. 
Case 120. T. twins, Mary and Martha. Negroes. Born in Flor- 
ida in November, 1918. Our observation in September, 1932, in 
“Development Center” in Los Angeles, California (special school for 
problem children), to which they had been transferred a year pre- 
viously partly on account of poor progress in studies, partly because of 
behavior difficulties. Mental tests in 1931 revealed, for both, I. Q. 77. 
Described by teachers as “dirty, untidy, untruthful”; they have a 
record for fighting which makes them a continual cause of classroom 
disturbance and for which they had been expelled from their school. 
They also have a record of persistent truancy. They present, further, 
a problem of sex delinquency and are being almost regularly picked up 
by the police in the streets at night. They are never seen apart, both 
are generally in the same trouble at the same time. 
Case 121. F. twins, Thelma and Wilma. Born in Sedalia, Mis- 
souri, July 25, 1917. Our observation in January, 1932, in Terrace 
Union School, Colton, California. They present, in intelligence, edu- 
cational progress, and behavior, a marked contrast in comparison with 
other members of their family. A younger sister has an I. Q. of 125 
and is a charming girl in every way. They are doing very poorly in 
their studies. Mental tests in 1931 revealed, for Thelma, I. Q. 71, 
for Wilma, 64. Both stammer badly, especially Wilma. Their teacher 
in the small country school considers them the greatest problem there. 
They are overdeveloped physically and “boy-crazy,” and make them- MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
59 
selves obnoxious in the neighborhood because of this. Whenever 
reprimanded in any way or foiled in their plans they cry loudly and 
long—usually have one or two such spells daily. They are quite 
inseparable. 
Case 122. McG. twins, Mary and Felicita. Part Indian. Born 
in Los Angeles, California, January 25, 1915. Both have done poorly 
at school partly by reason of subnormal intelligence, partly on account 
of lack of interest in studies and persistent truancy; both have had 
to be transferred to the “Welfare Center” in Los Angeles (special 
school for problem children). Mental tests in 1929 revealed, for Mary, 
I. Q. 79, for Felicita, 77. Shortly prior to our observation of the case, 
which was in October, 1932, Mary, after one of her absences, was taken 
to the school clinic and found to be 3-months pregnant. The boy who 
was responsible for this was apprehended and forced to marry her, but 
he soon left her and she went to live Avith her uncle; baby due soon. 
Felicita also became involved with a boy and was married 6 months 
after her placement in the “Welfare Center.” 
Group 22. Juvenile delinquency; subnormal intelli- 
gence; both affected. 6 cases: Nos. 123-128. 
Case 123. N. twins, Doris and Dorothy. Born in Toronto, Can- 
ada, May 9, 1919. Both were delicate babies, have speech defect, faint 
frequently, are heavy sleepers. They both have very frequent urina- 
tion; there is a problem of both nocturnal and diurnal enuresis and 
other symptoms suggesting diabetes insipidus. They have caused much 
concern at school on account of their sexual activities and promiscuity. 
They were referred to the Juvenile Court in Toronto; examination 
revealed ruptured hymen in both and gonorrheal infection in Dorothy. 
Dorothy seemed the leader and was committed to the Shirley School 
for Delinquent Girls in Toronto on January 19, 1932, partly for the 
purpose of separating them. At the time of our investigation of the 
case, which was in August, 1932, she was still an inmate there, while 
Doris was on probation at home. Mental tests in 1932 revealed, for 
Dorothy, I. Q. 73, for Doris, 69. 
Case 124. F. twins, Bessie and Betty. Born in Omaha, Nebraska, 
March 22, 1915. Our observation in January, 1931, through the cour- 
tesy of El Retiro (Los Angeles, California, county school for delinquent 
girls). The home background is bad; both parents are heavy drinkers 
and are often drunk, are continually quarreling, use bad language. 
The girls have “acquired the habits of their parents, i.e., smoking, 
drinking, and using profane language. ’ ’ They have practically identi- 
cal features, color of eyes, hair, skin, etc., but Betty is the taller by 
1-J inches and the heavier by 5 pounds. There is also considerable 
difference in intelligence; mental tests in 1929 revealed, for Bessie, 
I. Q. 94, for Betty, 82. Both are left-handed. For 2 years, 1926-1928, 
they were with their grandmother in Omaha, got into difficulty while 
there and were placed in the Riverview Detention Home in Omaha. 
After 7 weeks there arrangements were made for their release for 
the purpose of being returned to their parents in Los Angeles. They 
immediately became a problem in school: “A pester with their loud- 60 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
ness and swearing; they smoke and bring cigarettes to school, ride 
in machines with two Mexican boys; tough and hard-boiled because 
of inferiority complex; can no longer be kept in school, as they 
are bad examples to the other girls.” They were finally brought 
before the Juvenile Court on February 18, 1929, and were paroled to 
their mother. There was no improvement, however, and on November 
9, 1929, they were again in court. This time Bessie was committed 
to El Retiro, while Betty was placed in a foster home. Betty’s record 
in the foster home was unsatisfactory and 10 days later she, too, was 
committed to El Retiro. At the time of our observation they were still 
inmates there. 
Case 125. C. twins, Hazel Mae and Helen Louise. Born in 
Coshocton, Ohio, June 8, 1915. Home conditions were poor, parents 
separated, twins going back and forth between them. The twins left 
school at 16, having just reached the eighth grade. They were running 
around with a noisy and delinquent group of boys, but sexual relations 
were not proved. They were before Juvenile Court for breaking into 
their aunt’s house and stealing various articles. Later they were 
brought in again for ‘ ‘ incorrigibility ” and stealing a boat ride at 
night, although it was shown that Hazel alone was involved in the 
latter. On March 19, 1931, Helen was committed to the Girls’ Indus- 
trial School at Delaware, Ohio. On July 1, 1931, Hazel, too, was com- 
mitted there. At the time of our investigation of the case, which was 
in July, 1932, they were still inmates there. Reported by the institu- 
tion authorities as “insufferably impudent and insolent; obstinate 
and defiant of all orders.” Mental tests in 1931 revealed, for Hazel, 
I. Q. 69, for Helen, 68. 
Case 126. P. twins, Katherine and Lillian. Born in Chicago, 
Illinois, February 24, 1913. Our investigation in January, 1931, 
through the courtesy of the Continuation High School, San Bernardino, 
California. Home conditions poor; father was arrested for petty theft, 
and mother later admitted to probation officer that she had lied to 
obtain his acquittal. Neighbors report both the mother and the girls 
as being sexually promiscuous. The girls have done poorly at school 
and are of subnormal intelligence. Mental tests in 1931 revealed, for 
Katherine, I. Q. 82, for Lillian, 83. Since the age of 14 years, or 
before, the girls have been in the habit of being out late at night with 
boys and men in the neighborhood. In 1928 they established sexual 
relations with a neighbor of theirs, about 40 years old, and later joined 
him, with their mother’s consent, when he had moved to Los Angeles. 
They were first brought to the attention of the Juvenile Court in Los 
Angeles in October, 1928, were returned to San Bernardino and were 
referred to the local probation officer. On November 20, 1928, they 
were placed in a girls’ training school in Alameda, California. After 
several months there they were released and have caused no further 
trouble since. 
Case 127. S. twins, Elsie and Edna. Born in Watsonville, Cali- 
fornia, September 4, 1913. Our investigation in August, 1932, through 
the courtesy of the police department of Berkeley, California. Home 
background unsatisfactory. Mother is feebleminded (I. Q. 56) ; father MONOZYGOTIC TWINS; FEMALE 
61 
deserted when the twins were 5 years old. Mother later remarried, 
second husband being also of subnormal intelligence (I. Q. 73). For 
nearly two years in 1919-1920 the twins were in the Fred F|inch 
Orphanage at Oakland, California, but were refused further care there 
on account of being “chronic masturbators and a bad influence on the 
other children.” After that, for about 6 years, they were in various 
foster homes, at the expense of the county, but frequent changes were 
necessary as the twins were “not amenable to ordinary home discipline” 
or would become “involved in sex play.” The twins did very poorly 
in their studies at school, have always been in special classes; mental 
tests in 1924 revealed, for both, I. Q. 67. In 1925, when their mother 
remarried, the twins were allowed to go to their home, but difficulties 
soon developed on account of their running around with boys, staying 
away for two or more days at a time, etc. In January, 1931, the father 
of a boy in Berkeley reported to the police that his son had contracted 
gonorrhea from Elsie. The girls had by this time become notorious as 
“the shabby twins” and “the whores of West Berkeley.” Elsie was 
then committed to the Sonoma State Home (for the feebleminded) at 
Eldridge, California. There it was discovered that she had been infected 
not only with gonorrhea, but also with syphilis. Eventually she had a 
salpingectomy performed for sterilization and in the early part of 
1932 was granted parole. Shortly after her release she was married to 
a man, aged 40 years. In June, 1931, Edna gave birth to an illegitimate 
child, but could not tell who was the father of it. In October, 1931, the 
child was accidentally scalded while Edna was bathing her and died a 
few weeks later. Following this episode Edna, too, was committed to 
Sonoma State Home on November 27, 1931. At the time of our investi- 
gation of the case she was still an inmate there. 
Case 128. K. twins, Mary and Louise. Born in Chicago, Febru- 
ary 11, 1913. An older sister is insane. The twins did poorly at 
school, having reached but the third grade when they left school at 15 
years. All their delinquencies consisted in sexual promiscuity; they 
served as prostitutes for a club of 20 boys, had incestuous relations 
with their brother; Louise had a chronic gonorrheal infection. They 
were committed to the Dixon State Hospital (for epileptics and the 
feebleminded), Louise on May 16, 1930, and Mary on May 11, 1931. 
At the time of our investigation of the case, which was in June, 1932, 
they were still inmates there, reported as being “constantly in trouble, 
fighting with other girls, using obscene language,” etc. Mental tests 
in 1930 revealed, for Louise, I. Q. 42, for Mary, 43. 
Group 23. Adult criminality; subnormal intelli- 
gence; both affected. 4 cases: Nos. 129-132. 
Case 129. W. twins, Cornelia and Corinne. Part Indian, negro, 
and white (French). Born in Chicago, Illinois, November 16, 1908. 
Our investigation in October, 1932, through the courtesy of the Juve- 
nile Division of the Probation Department of Los Angeles County, 
California. Both are somewhat subnormal in intelligence, Cornelia 
being the brighter and the more dominating. Mental tests revealed, 
for Cornelia in 1925, I. Q. 89; for Corinne in 1926, I. Q. 82. Their 62 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
delinquency has consisted mainly of sexual promiscuity which began 
in their early ’teens. They were before the Juvenile Court, singly and 
together, first in 1924 and repeatedly since then until they became of 
age in 1929, when they were transferred to the Adult Probation Divi- 
sion. Both have had to have treatment repeatedly for gonorrhea. Both 
were committed to El Retiro (county school for delinquent girls) on 
April 29, 1924, and were released on probation on September 24, 1924. 
Later both were sent to the Convent of the Good Shepherd, where Cor- 
nelia remained from September 28, 1925, to April 17, 1926, and Corinne 
from October 20, 1927, to July 25, 1928. 
Case 130. R. twins, Lucy and Theresa. Born in Springfield, 
Massachusetts, January 30, 1914. Our investigation in August, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Massachusetts Reformatory for Women at 
Framingham. Sex delinquencies began in these girls at the age of 12 
years or before, together with persistent tendency to run away from 
home. Theresa was the first to leave home and Lucy joined her shortly 
afterward. “Both girls have been grossly immoral; they have lived in 
various places with persons of questionable reputation.” Their official 
record of delinquencies is as follows: on July 23, 1927, Lucy was 
arrested for lewdness; she then had an illegitimate pregnancy; the 
baby was born and later was adopted by an older sister of the twins. 
In January, 1932, Lucy again gave birth, this time to a pair of twins, 
also illegitimate. On May 7, 1932, she was committed to the Massa- 
chusetts Reformatory for Women, and, at the time of our investigation 
of the case, was still an inmate there. A mental test, made shortly 
after her admission to the institution, revealed I. Q. 82. Theresa was 
arrested for lewdness twice in May, 1932, and the second time was 
sentenced to the Reformatory, but the sentence was suspended to May, 
1934, pending good behavior. There is no record of a mental test, but 
she, too, is judged to be of subnormal intelligence of about the same 
degree as Lucy. The case history states that she had given birth to an 
illegitimate child in September, 1931. 
Case 131. J. twins, Agnes Emmaline and Madeleine Jennie. Born 
in Austin, Minnesota, September 15, 1910. They were healthy attrac- 
tive babies, exactly alike, and won a prize in a baby show. At the age 
of 3 years they were separated, Madeleine remaining with her mother 
in Pasadena, California, and Agnes going to live with her foster 
parents in Rock Springs, Wyoming. Madeleine was brought up in 
somewhat straitened circumstances, while Agnes had many advan- 
tages in the home of her well-to-do foster parents. The twins corre- 
sponded occasionally, but were together only once since their separa- 
tion, namely, during a 4 weeks’ visit at the age of 15 years. Their 
delinquent tendencies developed gradually shortly after puberty. 
These consisted, in both twins, of staying out nights, repeatedly run- 
ning away from hime, sexual relations with boys, lying, etc. After 
repeated appearances before the Juvenile Courts in their respec- 
tive states and trials on probation they finally both were committed, 
Madeleine, on November 2, 1928, to the Ventura School for Girls, Cali- 
fornia, and Agnes, on June 18, 1929, to the Girls’ Industrial School at 
Sheridan, Wyoming. At the time of our investigation of the case, 
which was in March, 1931, Agnes was still in the institution, while 63 
MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
Madeleine was at home with her mother, having been released on parole 
on May 11, 1930. Mental tests, on their admission to the respective 
institutions, revealed, for Madeleine, I. Q. 72, for Agnes, 89. 
Case 132. W. twins, Mary and Gertrude May. Born in Wor- 
cester, Massachusetts, April 1, 1894. They are the illegitimate off- 
spring of a woman who was probably feebleminded, an inmate of the 
Worcester Home Farm until her death. They were given to the Sisters 
of Mercy who arranged for their separate adoption while they were 
still infants. As they matured, each got into trouble repeatedly, 
mainly on account of sexual promiscuity with illegitimate pregnancy, 
etc. Gertrude was in and out of the House of the Good Shepherd; 
finally they both were committed to the Massachusetts Reformatory for 
Women at Framingham, Gertrude on July 22, and Mary on August 
22, 1914. They came under different names and it was not known 
either to them or to the institution staff that they were related. They 
were, however, identical in appearance and behavior to such an 
extent as to be quite indistinguishable. Later their origin was traced 
and it was found that they were twin sisters. Although there is no 
record of any mental test, they were recognized as feebleminded. 
They also were observed occasionally in epileptic seizures. Gertrude 
was released from the Reformatory on July 3, 1916, but could not 
adjust herself outside. She was in the Worcester Home Farm for two 
brief periods in 1917, left there in November of that year, is said to 
have married in 1918, and has not been heard from since. Mary was 
released from the Reformatory on August 21, 1916, but she, too, could 
not adjust herself outside and, on November 2, 1916, was placed in 
the Worcester State Hospital; a year later she was transferred to the 
Foxborough State Hospital where she remained until April 17, 1918. 
There she was found to have mental deficiency without established epi- 
lepsy and without psychosis and was, accordingly, transferred to the 
Worcester Almshouse. At the time of our investigation of the case, 
which was in August, 1932, she was still an inmate there. 
Group 24. Adult criminality; subnormal intelligence; 
both affected, dissimilarly. 1 case: No. 133. 
Case 133. L. twins, Louisa and Rose. Born in Haverhill, Mas- 
sachusetts, of Italian parentage, August 6, 1909. At the age of 14 
years Louisa began to have epileptic seizures. Gradually thereafter 
she seemed to deteriorate mentally and there developed difficulties in 
behavior; she would go out at night with men and stay until 2 a.m.; 
the parents could no longer control her, as she would have outbursts of 
temper, spit in her mother’s face, and threaten to turn on the gas and 
kill everyone in the house. On May 29, 1930, she was committed to 
the Massachusetts Reformatory for Women at Framingham. While 
there she had some epileptic seizures and was therefore transferred, 
on January 25, 1932, to the Monson State Hospital for Epileptics at 
Palmer, Massachusetts. At the time of our observation of the case, 
which was in August, 1932, she was still an inmate there. The diag- 
nosis at this institution was epilepsy with mental deficiency. A mental 
test in 1932 revealed I. Q. 50. However, it would be impossible to 64 
ETIOLOG.Y OP BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
say at this time to what extent this was attributable to original mental 
deficiency and to what extent to epileptic deterioration. Hose never 
developed epilepsy. At first her trouble consisted in severe headaches, 
said to be of migrainous type, occurring just before the menstrual 
periods. Gradually she, too, became hard to manage, wanted to go 
out at night, and quarreled with her parents. On one occasion she 
cut off her hair when her parents refused to permit her to have it 
bobbed. Friction with her parents increased; she became stubborn, 
and finally refused to go to work. In the latter part of August, 1926, 
she suddenly developed psychotic symptoms. An adjoining house had 
caught fire during the night. She was terrified and ran to the 
window calling “Fire! Police!” From that time on psychotic symp- 
toms persisted; she was greatly disturbed, and, on September 11, 1926, 
was committed to the Danvers State Hospital, Massachusetts. There 
she showed rapid deterioration both mentally and physically. A case 
note in the spring of 1928 stated; “Quiet, indifferent, has to be dressed, 
eats poorly, at times has to be tube-fed, does not answer when 
addressed, never speaks except to mutter to herself in Italian.” She 
died in the hospital on May 8, 1928, of pulmonary tuberculosis. The 
hospital diagnosis of the mental condition was dementia praecox. 
Group 25. Child behavior difficulty, preneurotic or 
prepsychotic type; subnormal intelligence; one affected. 
1 case: No. 134. 
Case 134. McC. twins, Rosa and Hazel. Born in Omaha, 
Nebraska, August 22, 1922. Observed by us in November, 1931, in 
the Washington Grammar School at Long Beach, California. The 
mother is described as highly excitable and nervous. In intelligence, 
educational progress, temperament, and behavior there is a striking 
contrast between the twins, although they are physically identical. 
Although there is no record of a mental test for either twin, Hazel 
seems to be of superior intelligence; she is doing excellent work, is in 
the “X-group” (fast-moving) in her class, quick to see what needs to 
be done and does it; is very considerate of others, gets on well with 
other pupils, prefers to be with older children; is very cooperative. 
Rosa seems of subnormal intelligence, is in the “Z-group” (slow-mov- 
ing). Does not get along with Hazel, seems to resent Hazel’s 
brightness. Her main difficulty consists in violent temper tantrums 
which occur in class two or three times a week. “If she makes a mis- 
take in her work or does not get her way she beats her head on the 
desk or the wall, tears her hair, or holds her breath till she grows 
rigid.” When seen by us her head was all bloody from tearing a 
whole handful of hair out of her scalp because she had made a mistake 
in a little sum she had been doing at the blackboard. “After these 
outbursts she is generally limp for the rest of the day.” MONOZYGOTIC TWINS : FEMALE 
65 
Group 26. Child behavior difficulty, predelinquent 
type; subnormal intelligence; one affected. 1 case: No. 
135. 
Case 135. B. twins, Edjuana and Juanita. Born in Los Angeles, 
California, February 29, 1916. Edjuana was the first-born; delivery 
was difficult and instruments were used, injuring the head and leaving 
a severe cut on one side of the face. Her birth weight was 3| pounds. 
She began to have convulsions at the age of 4 years; they occurred 
almost daily up to the age of 11 years. Since then they have been 
infrequent, but she has “violent spells” at the menstrual periods. She 
went to school at 7 years, but eventually had to be transferred to 
a “development school.” She left school at 15 years, when she 
was still doing second grade work. Edjuana became troublesome in 
behavior; she would run away from home and be gone overnight; 
was restless, irritable, and at times threatening. She also developed 
psychotic symptoms: said people had it in for her, told of imaginary 
attacks, and was unstable emotionally, being at times depressed, at 
others hilarious, and at still others tempestuous and violent. Occa- 
sionally she would be seen standing in an awkward position for an 
hour at a time. She finally became so unmanageable that, on May 23, 
1932, she was placed in Pacific Colony (state institution for the feeble- 
minded) at Spadra, California. At the time of our observation of 
the ease, which was in September, 1932, she was still an inmate there. 
It was judged that she was not only feebleminded to begin with, but 
also had suffered some mental deterioration in the course of her epi- 
lepsy and psychotic disease. A mental test in 1931 revealed I. Q. 28. 
Juanita was born without difficulty and without use of forceps. She 
weighed 4 pounds. There was no evidence of injury at birth. At 
the time of our observation of the case she was in the ninth grade at 
school, was in good health both mentally and physically, had never 
had a seizure, and presented no psychotic symptoms or behavior diffi- 
culty. 
Group 27. Juvenile delinquency; normal intelli- 
gence; one affected. 1 case: No. 136. 
Case 136. K. twins, Elsie and Sarah. Born in Cleveland, Ohio, 
May 15, 1900. They were brought up together, went to school together 
up to the age of 16 years, and after that Elsie went to work in a 
laundry while Sarah obtained a clerical position in an office. Elsie, 
like some other girls in the laundry, became promiscuous sexually, 
drifted into prostitution, was infected with both gonorrhea and syph- 
ilis, at the age of 17 years was committed for several months to a cor- 
rectional institution. Upon release she resumed her promiscuous rela- 
tions and in 1918 had an illegitimate pregnancy resulting in a mis- 
carriage. In the latter part of 1931 she was placed in the City Hospital, 
Cleveland, on account of a “nervous breakdown”; the condition 
proved to be progressive, mental deterioration was noted, and on 
April 6, 1932, she was committed to the Cleveland State Hospital. 
At the time of our observation of the case, which was in July, 1932, 
she was still an inmate there. Examination at the hospital revealed 66 
ETIOLOG.Y OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
four-plus positive Wassermann and Kalm reactions in the blood 
together with physical and mental signs of general paresis. Sarah 
has never been in difficulty, maintains a home for herself and her 
husband, continues with her office work. 
Group 28, Adult criminality; normal intelligence; 
one affected. 1 case: No. 137. 
Case 137. B. twins, Gail and Geyne. Born in Charlevoix, Michi- 
gan, October 6, 1904. Our investigation in December, 1932, through 
the courtesy of the Los Angeles, California, county jail. The father 
was accidentally drowned when the twins were 2 years old. The birth 
of the twins had been prolonged and difficult, but there is no history 
of their being injured at birth; the mother, however, was badly torn 
and has been more or less an invalid since. At the age of 6 years the 
twins were separated, Gail remaining with her mother and grand- 
mother, and Geyne going to live with an aunt about 160 miles away. 
Since then their destinies in life have been very different. Geyne has 
been comfortably provided for, studied piano for 12 years, married 
at 21 years, husband is chief chemist for a large steel firm; she is rather 
placid, a club woman, has always been in a protected environment, 
has never been in any difficulty. Gail was not very contented at home; 
at 16 eloped and was married. Marriage was not happy, after several 
years there was a separation and eventually a divorce. Gail went back 
to live with her mother and grandmother. In 1927 Gail and her 
mother were injured in an automobile accident; the mother has since 
been a wheel-chair patient; Gail suffered laceration of face and fracture 
of nose and cheek-bone with resulting deformity. In 1931 she remar- 
ried, husband is a railroad conductor, and not a very adequate pro- 
vider. In the early part of 1932 she was convicted for shoplifting 
in Seattle, Washington, and served 30 days in jail. In the latter part 
of 1932 she was again convicted for shoplifting, this time in Los 
Angeles, California, and sentenced for 180 days in the county jail. 
At the time of our investigation of the case she was still an inmate 
there. 
§ 5. Same-sex Dizygotic Twins : Male 
Group 29. Child behavior difficulties; preneurotic 
and prepsychotic types; normal intelligence; both affected. 
5 cases: Nos. 138-142. 
Case 138. S. twins, Eugene and Thomas. Born in Maywood, 
California, August 17, 1923. Our observation in October, 1931, in the 
Maywood Grammar School. Eugene is the less intelligent and presents 
more of a behavior problem. Mental tests in 1929 revealed, for Eugene, 
I. Q. 92, for Thomas, 108. Both boys seem to delight in hurting other 
children, Eugene being usually the instigator. Eugene had to be put 
back in a lower grade on account of poor progress in studies and lack 
of interest in them, as well as for the purpose of separating the twins. 
Thomas has done much better in studies and, when alone, is much better 
behaved. These twins are not allowed to be together either in the SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS : MALE 
67 
classroom or on the grounds during recess, as trouble occurs whenever 
they are together. 
Case 139. S. twins, Raymond and Robert. Born in Los Angeles, 
California, May 24, 1921. Our investigation in April, 1931, through 
the courtesy of the Los Angeles Child Guidance Clinic. Raymond 
was referred to the clinic as a behavior problem in August, 1928. 
Investigation revealed that he was physically weak, 7 per cent under- 
weight, I. Q. 97. He was described as “destructive, bites nails, sucks 
thumb, stammers, quarrels, prevaricates, disobedient, easily angered, 
not affectionate, self absorbed, inattentive, picks nose,” etc. He has 
done poorly at school. Robert, though not referred to as a behavior 
problem, has nevertheless, upon investigation, also presented a behavior 
difficulty, but of a milder sort, is stronger physically, does better in 
studies at school, has I. Q. of 102. Has been for years compared with 
Raymond to the latter’s disadvantage, and has become aggressive: at 
school he was for a time continually fighting and biting other children, 
is harder to manage in the classroom than Raymond. 
Case 140. B. twins, Joseph and Richard. Born in Chicago, 
Illinois, April 16, 1919. Our observation in November, 1931, in one of 
the Long Beach, California, city schools. These boys are of approxi- 
mately equal intelligence; mental tests in 1928 revealed, for Joseph, 
I. Q. 94, for Richard, 90. There is, however, a marked contrast in 
their temperaments; they both present rather mild behavior problems, 
but of very different types. Joseph is rather quick-tempered, but 
popular with classmates, quite an athlete, “something of a scrapper”; 
has “ditched” classes a number of times in company with other boys, 
‘ ‘ but is honest about it. ’ ’ Frequently in trouble with teachers because 
of pranks. Richard is very seclusive, does not associate with other 
boys, masturbates excessively. He is sullen with his teachers, non- 
cooperative, indifferent to all group diversions and amusements, 
“seems to have no ambition.” He is considerably overweight, and 
sensitive about it; nevertheless is an enormous eater. The twins do 
not get on at all together, avoid each other’s company; Joseph displays 
a very contemptuous attitude towmrd Richard. 
Case 141. B. twins, Gail and Glen. Born in Oxnard, California, 
March 17, 1917. Our observation in November, 1931, in the Jefferson 
Junior High School, Long Beach, California. Both do rather poorly 
in their studies, are described as lazy; Gail is half a grade behind and 
is the less intelligent; mental tests in 1928 revealed, for Gail, I. Q. 90, 
for Glen, 106. They seem to dislike each other greatly. Both present 
mild behavior problems, but of somewhat different kinds. Gail “seems 
to have no interest or ambition”; constantly quarreling with his twin 
brother and with classmates; “often starts a fight and when it goes 
against him runs to teacher and complains of others”; when made 
to do his work tries to copy and cheat; shirks every job, blames others 
for his misdeeds; when teachers detain him for conference he is either 
sulky or cries. Glen is described as somewhat unstable emotionally; 
flares up easily if crossed in any way; is either hilariously happy or 
very blue and feels abused; but “on the whole has a pleasanter dis- 
position than Gail. ’ ’ He is ‘ ‘ quite a scrapper, ’ ’ but fights more fairly, 68 
ETIOLOG.Y OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
takes his medicine better, is better liked by classmates, is much more 
honest than Gail. 
Case 142. W. twins, Nowell and Melroy. Born in Huntington 
Beach, California, October 2, 1910. Observed by us in Huntington 
Beach High School in January, 1932. Both have “very ugly disposi- 
tions, though their reactions in any situation differ.” They are con- 
stantly quarreling and fighting. Melroy “gets into a blind rage that 
leaves him white and limp and ill”; Nowell “curses and blusters, then 
blubbers. ’ ’ Although they are over 20 years old, ‘ ‘ they act like spoiled 
children.” “They are poor sports; can not take defeat or criticism.” 
They stand together in fighting the other pupils, yet seem to dislike 
each other. “Constantly have a chip on their shoulder and grouch 
about everything.” They are very poor in their school work, at the 
bottom of the whole class, “but will be graduated this February 
regardless.” No record of any mental test for either twin. 
Group 30. Juvenile delinquency; normal intelli- 
gence; both affected. 2 cases: Nos. 143-144. 
Case 143. M. twins, Nathan and Morris. Born in New London, 
Connecticut, June 18, 1915. Our investigation in April, 1931, through 
the courtesy of the Jewish Committee for Personal Service, Los 
Angeles, California. These boys are of approximately equal intelli- 
gence; mental tests in 1930 and 1929, respectively, revealed, for Nathan, 
I. Q. 93, for Morris, 96. They are of very different temperaments 
and, although both have records of delinquency, Nathan’s is much more 
serious and persistent. At the age of 8 years, or before, Nathan’s 
delinquencies began with stealing small sums of money from the purses 
of his parents for candy, shows, etc. He has always been of restless, 
impatient temperament, described as “egotistical, saucy, flippant, 
smarty. ” Has been a persistent behavior problem everywhere: at home, 
in every school, in children’s home, in various foster homes, etc. In 
addition to petty thefts his problem has been one of running away, 
associating with other delinquent boys, and “general incorrigibility.” 
Various agencies have been interested in his case: Big Brothers, Child 
Guidance Clinic, private psychiatrists, but to no purpose. On Decem- 
ber 16, 1929, he was finally committed to "Whittier (California) State 
School (for delinquent boys) ; at the time of our investigation of the 
case he was still an inmate there. Morris also showed delinquent tend- 
encies for a time, but of a milder sort; he would go along with his 
brother and loot vegetable wagons, grocery stores, etc., “just for the 
kick he got out of it”; he also smoked; but he never ran away, has 
always been more stable and courteous, and generally caused no trouble. 
In August, 1929, he was arrested, together with Nathan, for stealing a 
book in a department store. He was brought before the Juvenile Court 
and was released on probation. This experience “put the fear of God 
into him” and he has kept thoroughly out of trouble of any kind since 
then. 
Case 144. T. twins, Lester and Chester. Born in Elkhart, Indiana, 
August 31, 1914. Our investigation in September, 1932, through the 
courtesy of the Probation Department of Los Angeles County, Cali- SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
69 
fornia. The delinquency of these boys is limited to an episode during a 
period of a single week under the influence of their father. They had 
not been in trouble either before this episode or since. They are of 
somewhat unequal intelligence; mental tests in 1932 revealed, for Lester, 
I. Q. 94, for Chester, 107. They have been “great pals,” always 
together. Their mother died during an influenza epidemic when they 
were 4 years old. For 3 years thereafter they lived with their father 
and grandmother. Then the father remarried, but 8 years later this 
marriage ended in divorce. The boys continued to visit their step- 
mother after she divorced their father and remarried; she speaks very 
highly of them; blames their father for the trouble they have gotten 
into. On December 16, 1931, both twins were arrested, together with 
their father and another man, on a charge of burglarizing some cabins 
in Topanga Canyon and houses elsewhere during the week of December 
7to 14, 1931. They were kept in the county jail for about 5 weeks, 
then transferred to Juvenile Hall, where they remained about a month. 
Both were then placed on probation, obtained positions—Lester with the 
Western Union Telegraph, Chester on a ranch—and have since been 
self supporting and well behaved. 
Group 31. Adult criminality; normal intelligence; 
both affected. 3 cases: Nos. 145-147. 
Case 145. O’B. twins, Arthur and Walter. Born in Albany, 
Oregon, January 15, 1909. Our investigation in June, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the Western State Hospital at Salem, Oregon. The mother 
of these twins was insane and died in a state hospital. Both twins are 
considered psychopathic personalities and both have been heavy 
drinkers for years. Arthur became involved in 1930 in an automobile 
theft in Klamath Palls, Oregon. He claimed he had done this under 
the influence of liquor and had no recollection of it. He was sentenced 
to serve 3 years in prison, but the sentence was suspended and he was 
placed on probation in the custody of a local priest. Soon thereafter, 
however, again while drunk, he broke into a service station, stole 
another automobile, and wrecked it while trying to escape from pur- 
suing officers. Upon examination he was adjudged insane—“psychosis 
with psychopathic personality”—and on January 4, 1931, was com- 
mitted to the Western Oregon State Hospital. Walter’s police record 
consists of a number of arrests for drunkenness, etc., followed by short 
jail sentences. He is described as unreliable, going with “a bad 
crowd,” leading an irregular life, living by odd jobs. 
Case 146. C. twins, Otis and Otto. Born in Curtisville, Minne- 
sota, August 16, 1904. The father died when the twins were 9 years 
old. The twins shifted around a good deal between their mother’s 
home in Arizona and that of their grandfather in Colorado. Both 
twins presented behavior difficulty in childhood and adolescence; Otto, 
especially, ‘ ‘ was not much for studying, in hot water with teachers most 
of the time”; however, he has never been in serious difficulty and has 
no record of delinquency or criminality. Otis enlisted in the Army at 
14 years, and was “kicked out”; later reenlisted, served 26 months, 
became cadet pilot, was honorably discharged. Eventually married, 
there were two children, and he was separated from his wife. His sole 70 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
item of criminality consists of conviction of violation of Wright Act 
(liquor law) with sentence to serve 105 days in Los Angeles county 
jail (California) on October 17, 1932. 
Case 147. W. twins, Judah and Reuben. Born in Hungary in 
1895. Our observation in August, 1932, through the courtesy of the 
Dominion Penitentiary at Kingston, Ontario, Canada. The twins were 
the youngest of a family of seven children. The father died soon after 
their birth and the mother with the children then came to Canada. The 
eldest son, 15 years of age at that time, got a job and supported the 
family. He has since acquired considerable wealth and has always 
been a substantial citizen, as have the four sisters. The twins ran away 
from home at an early age, but separately. They did this several times, 
disappearing for a year or two at a time, hut always separately. They 
have never been together in any of their enterprises and have not been 
attached to each other. The older brother has helped them both at 
various times and got them out of minor difficulties. Judah was con- 
victed of manslaughter in 1920, spent 5 months in Montreal jail, and 
was pardoned. Prom January, 1923, to June, 1927, he was in the 
Dominion Penitentiary for housebreaking and theft; again from 
August, 1927, to March, 1929, for shopbreaking and theft; finally sen- 
tenced to that institution for the third time in November, 1929, for 
shopbreaking and receiving stolen goods, for a term of 7 years. At 
the time of our investigation of the case he was still an inmate there. 
Reuben has a similar criminal record and, in addition, a chronic schizo- 
phrenia. He was in the Toronto jail from July to August, 1918, for 
“procuring”; again in 1921 to 1922 for theft; and a third time from 
January to April, 1923, also for theft. Finally in April, 1929, he was 
sentenced for a term of 5 years to the Dominion Penitentiary for shop- 
breaking and receiving stolen goods. Although his crime was very 
similar to his brother’s, it was committed in another place, a month 
earlier, and he was sentenced by another court. At the time of our 
investigation of the case he, too, Avas still an inmate at the penitentiary. 
He kept reiterating that his trouble had been caused by the Jews who 
wanted to do away with him because he had Gentile companions and had 
lived with a Gentile woman, though not married to her. He complained 
that they had poisoned his tobacco, that his food Avas tainted with sloav 
poison, that he Avas being slowly electrocuted, etc. He had been 
examined by two psychiatrists from the Kingston Hospital Avho 
reported him as suffering from dementia praecox, paranoid form. 
Group 32. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic or 
prepsychotic types; subnormal intelligence; both affected. 
5 cases: Nos. 148-152. 
Case 148. B. twins, Charles and Robert. Born in Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania, May 20, 1923. The twins are the youngest of ten chil- 
dren; all the others are reported to be normal. Charles Avas greatly 
retarded in learning to walk and talk; still lisps; has enuresis day 
and night. He Avas admitted, together with Robert, to the Children’s 
Hospital and School, Randall’s Island, Ncav York, February 28, 1927. 
Both twins were later transferred to Letchworth Village, Thiells, New SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS; MALE 
71 
York, Robert on May 12, Charles on May 26, 1931. At the time of onr 
observation of the case, which was in July, 1931, they were still inmates 
there. Charles has been free from convulsions or behavior difficulty. 
A mental test in 1931 revealed I. Q. 62. Robert’s mental deficiency is 
more pronounced. A mental test in 1927 revealed I. Q. 32. In addi- 
tion, he has had epilepsy since the age of 4 months. Has concomitant 
strabismus. Soils and wets himself. Presents marked behavior diffi- 
culty : restless, overactive, destructive, screams, strikes other children, 
runs away from the ward, at times requires restraint. 
Case 149. B. twins, Billy and Bobby. Born in Oakland, Cali- 
fornia, July 25, 1922. Our observation in April, 1932, in one of the 
Oakland, California, city schools. The twins weighed 3 and 3| pounds, 
respectively, at birth, were very puny and had not begun to gain until 
they were 3 months old, at which time they were adopted by their 
present foster parents. Bobby is of somewhat subnormal intelli- 
gence; a mental test in 1929 revealed I. Q. 82. Billy was tested in 
1931 and found to have an I. Q. of 101. Both were late in learning 
to talk, namely, not until they were 3 years old. Both are handicapped 
by a special reading difficulty, being practically “nonreaders,” and 
are therefore in the “Z” (slow moving) section in their class. Both 
quarrel with each other and with neighbor children, but Billy much 
more than Bobby. Billy, in addition, developed at an early age a 
tendency toward temper tantrums both at home and at school. He 
lies on the floor and screams and kicks anyone who comes near him. 
Case 150. Y. twins, Stanley and Sterling. Born in Colorado, 
December 25, 1915. Onr observation in October, 1931, in one of the 
Long Beach, California, city schools. Only Sterling is of somewhat 
subnormal intelligence, I. Q. 81; Stanley’s I. Q. is 93. Both, how- 
ever, present behavior problems, but of dissimilar nature. Stanley’s 
extreme effeminacy has made him the butt of the school for several 
years. He never would associate with boys; formerly played with girls, 
but latterly has given that up, stating that they are “too rough.” He 
shuns all young people, but will hang around his mother, or teacher, 
or other woman. He likes helping with household tasks, but has 
grown so sensitive that he hides when anyone comes to the house. 
At school it is very difficult to make him go out on the playground 
or even to gymnasium class; he makes all sorts of excuses to avoid it; 
sits around and dreams. Sterling is characterized by the neighbors 
as “a stick of dynamite.” Although somewhat undersized, he is a 
constant scrapper, always imagining insults, many of which concern 
his twin. He openly scorns Stanley, calls him a fool and a sissy, 
doesn’t want anyone to know they are twins. He is very disobedient 
both at home and at school; is noted for his extensive vocabulary of 
profanity; seems to be the leader of a gang of younger boys who are 
frequently in trouble for stealing fruit from trees, smashing signs, 
and other like depredations. The parents are very unhappy over the 
behavior of the twins and blame each other for it. 
Case 151. B. twins, Tom and Joe. Born in Fullerton, California, 
August 9, 1915. Our observation in November, 1931, in one of the 
Long Beach, California, city schools. Tom is of somewhat subnormal 72 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
intelligence; a mental test in 1930 revealed I. Q. 83. He is retarded 
in studies; at 16 just entering the eighth grade. He also presents a 
behavior problem: “an almost constant ‘ditcher,’ hangs around pool 
halls, is lazy and untruthful, uncleanly, often reported for foul body 
odors, has to be sent out to wash; slouches in his seat, pays no atten- 
tion to lessons, seems to be day-dreaming with mouth open and a 
stupid stare on his face.” Joe is more intelligent; a mental test in 
1930 revealed I. Q. 95. Is also lacking in interest in his studies, some- 
what retarded (in 8a grade at 16), has “ditched” classes occasionally; 
is more tidy about his person; is athletic and wants to be a prize fighter. 
The twins seem to hate each other cordially. 
Case 152. M. twins, Fred and John. Born in Arizona, March 15, 
1912. Our observation in September, 1931, in the Phoenix High School, 
Arizona. Both are of dull-normal intelligence; mental tests in Febru- 
ary, 1930, revealed, for Fred, I. Q. 88, for John, 89. Both are retarded 
in studies, are in junior year in high school at 19 years, taking voca- 
tional courses mainly in machine shop. Both present behavior prob- 
lems leading to frequent disciplinary conflicts; they are “big husky 
fellows who attempt to act smart”; occasional truants. Fred’s chief 
interest is in athletics. John “attempts to run the shop”; is described 
by his teacher as “mouthy, irresponsible, of unkempt appearance.” 
Group 33. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; subnormal intelligence; both affected. 5 cases: 
Nos. 153-157. 
Case 153. H. twins, Floyd and Lloyd. Born in Dallas, Texas, 
November 30, 1921. Our observation in November, 1931, in one of 
the Long Beach, California, city schools. They are 2 years retarded 
at school. Mental tests in 1931 and 1930, respectively, revealed, for 
Floyd, I. Q. 78, for Lloyd, 76. The home background is very poor, 
father is said to be shiftless and quarrelsome, family on charity. 
Both boys present a behavior difficulty, but Lloyd seems to be the 
leader, Floyd the follower. Together they have been persistent tru- 
ants and have been caught in several petty thefts. The family had 
come to Long Beach about years prior to our observation of the 
case. In all that time Lloyd has been in constant trouble with the 
authorities. He seems to be the leader of a gang of boys who have 
committed many thefts in the neighborhood and maliciously destroyed 
property, such as flower beds, trees, shrubs, window panes. Lloyd is 
defiant of attendance officers and they are considering turning him 
over to the Juvenile Court. 
Case 154. C. twins, Tony and Mike. Born June 19, 1921. Our 
observation in December, 1932, in “Welfare Center,” a special school 
for problem children in Los Angeles, California. Tony is said to have 
always been “defiant of authority, with no respect for property rights; 
never follows school or civic laws.” Reported to police for misbe- 
havior in neighborhood: stealing, destruction of property; also has 
stolen many small things at school; “uses foul language habitually, 
swears when reproved”; does not come in when bell rings; is often 
truant. ‘ ‘ Parents take no responsibility; reputation of family is bad; SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
73 
father is usually unemployed; brother Frank sent to a special school 
on account of petty thieving; sister in welfare school for problem cases. 
Description of Mike’s case is given in about the same terms, except that 
“Tony’s case seems more marked.” Mental tests revealed, for Mike, 
I. Q. 86, for Tony, 92. Both have been frequently punished for attend- 
ing to toilet needs on school grounds. They have been so troublesome 
at school that they have had to be transferred to special classes or 
to the “Welfare Center.” 
Case 155. J. tAvins, Richard Clayton and Robert Granville. Born 
in Bedford, Indiana, June 4, 1920. At the time of our investigation 
of the case, which was in December, 1932, they were both in the fifth 
grade of one of the Bloomington, Indiana, city schools, i.e., about 2 
years retarded. Mental tests in 1932 revealed, for Richard, I. Q. 75, 
for Robert, 89. They also both present a behavior difficulty, in which, 
however, Robert is distinctly the leader. The behavior difficulty is 
probably attributable, at least in part, to an unsatisfactory home situ- 
ation. The mother deserted the family when the twins were still 
infants. The father remarried, but soon divorced the stepmother. The 
twins seem to have no supervision. They fight, swear, and steal small 
things at home and at school. In the classroom they are often impu- 
dent and difficult to manage. For a time they took to tormenting a 
neighboring farmer’s hogs with sharpened sticks until one valuable 
hog died. As already stated, Robert is the leader in mischief, but 
when they are caught he always lays the blame on Richard. 
Case 156. C. twins, Angus and Tillman. Born in 1915. Observed 
by us in March, 1932, in Fremont High School, Los Angeles, Cali- 
fornia. Mental tests, in 1930, revealed, for Angus, I. Q. 88, for Till- 
man, 97. These twins are reported to have come from “a poor, bad 
home; the father has been in jail for stealing a car; the boys are said 
to have been implicated in this theft, although no court action has 
been taken against them.” They are rude and rough in school, and 
sullen when corrected. Angus seems to be the more aggressive of the 
two. “Last fall they were in trouble over destroying property in the 
neighborhood—breaking windows, etc.” 
Case 157. M. twins, Albert and Charles. Part Indian. Born in 
San Bernardino, California, in 1914. Observed by us in December, 
1931, in one of the Anaheim, California, city schools. Mental tests, in 
1931, revealed, for both, I. Q. 74. The problem is petty theft. When 
the children at the school miss things, they are very often found in the 
possession of the twins. Of the two, Albert is described as “the sly 
one,” and Charles as “the bully,” but they always work together, and 
are said to be equally at fault. 
Group 34. Juvenile delinquency; subnormal intelli- 
gence; both affected. 10 cases: Nos. 158-167. 
Case 158. F. twins, Clifford and Clarence. Born in Illinois, 
November 10, 1918. Clifford was committed to the St. Charles School 
for Boys, Illinois, on October 29, 1931. Clarence was committed to the 
same institution on November 17, 1931. At the time of our investiga- 74 
ETIOLOG.Y OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
tion of the case, which was in July, 1932, they were still inmates 
there. Both were reported as “incorrigible.” The particular act 
which led to Clifford’s commitment was stealing an automobile in 
October, 1931. Clarence had stolen “corn and a calf and other prop- 
erty” at various times during the year preceding his commitment; 
it was also stated in the complaint that “he wanders about the country 
and is out late at nights on no lawful business.” Mental tests in 1931 
revealed, for Clifford, I. Q. 78, for Clarence, 73. 
Case 159. T. twins, Harley and Earle. Born in Springfield, 
Missouri, April 8, 1912. The twins are both delinquent, but are 
markedly contrasted in degree of delinquency and in intelligence. 
Harley was before the Juvenile Court in 1927, twice in 1928, and again 
in the early part of 1930. In February, 1930, he was committed to 
the Preston School of Industry at lone, California, where he remained 
until March, 1931. His record there was very good and he earned an 
early parole. At the time of our investigation of the case, which was in 
March, 1931, he had just been paroled. At the time of his commitment 
he seemed to be proud of his record of delinquencies, boasted of having 
committed 16 burglaries and stolen 14 automobiles. He said he got 
a thrill out of stealing “bigger and bigger things” and did not care 
what happened to him; but he did not want to get his twin brother into 
trouble, so when he was going out “on a job” he made his brother 
stay at home. He hated school, got only as far as the seventh grade, 
then quit to go to work. Worked at odd jobs quite consistently, even 
while thieving. A mental test in 1931 revealed I. Q. 77. Earle did 
somewhat better at school, reached the eighth grade before leaving to 
go to work. Was before Juvenile Court only once, in 1927, for petty 
stealing, was released on probation, and has not been in further trouble 
since then. A mental test in 1931 revealed I. Q. 92. 
Case 160. K. twins, Stanley and Joseph. Born February 2, 1915. 
Joseph is the larger and stronger of the two, also the more intelligent; 
but both boys are delinquent. They were admitted together to the 
St. Charles School for Boys, Illinois, on August 21, 1931. At the time 
of our observation of the case, which was in July, 1932, Stanley was 
still an inmate there. In the early part of 1929, Joseph, in company 
with several other boys, burglarized two houses and stole an automatic 
gun and other property amounting to nearly $2OO. He was also 
involved with some adults in counterfeiting. At that time he was 
placed on probation. In March, 1931, Stanley, in company with some 
other boys, was arrested for stealing an automobile. He, too, was given 
probation. On August 6, 1931, both twins, in company with some other 
boys, stole a Chrysler automobile and were about to go to California 
in it, when they were arrested; this led to their commitment to the 
St. Charles School. Mental tests in 1931 revealed, for Stanley, I. Q. 
76, for Joseph, 93. Both had done poorly at school, their Educational 
Quotients being, respectively, 71 and 79. 
Case 161. D. twins, Roy Hugh and Charles. Born in Columbus, 
Ohio, December 17, 1917. Home and neighborhood conditions described 
as “deplorable.” Roy is the less intelligent, more unstable, and more 
delinquent of the two. A mental test in 1932 revealed I. Q. 75. He SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS : MALE 
75 
was first brought before Juvenile Court at 6 years, for setting fire to a 
house. He has been in court six times since then. He has been doing 
petty stealing from houses and stores since the age of 8 years. In 
February, 1932, Roy, Charles, and four other boys were arrested for 
breaking into several railroad cabooses and stealing food and clothes 
amounting to SSO. In June, 1932, Roy was again arrested, together 
with three other boys, for breaking into 50 or more refrigerator cars. 
On June 4, 1932, he was placed in the Boys’ Industrial School at Lan- 
caster, Ohio. At the time of our observation of the case, which was 
in July, 1932, he was still an inmate there. His record at the institu- 
tion had been rather poor, marked by “disobedience, impudence, 
and fighting.” Charles has been before the Juvenile Court five times, 
twice for truancy, twice for stealing, and the last time, in February, 
1932, for participating with the gang in breaking into the railroad 
cabooses, as mentioned above. He was then let off with a suspended 
sentence. There is no record of a mental test in his case. 
Case 162. G. twins, Kenneth and Carl. Born in Van West, 
Ohio, December 14, 1917. The father is in the Ohio Penitentiary for 
grand larceny; he had encouraged the twins to steal and to defy the 
law. Kenneth is definitely subnormal in intelligence; a mental test in 
1930 revealed I. Q. 68. In Carl’s ease there is no record of a mental 
test. At school Kenneth fought his teachers because “they tried to 
run him.” On September 15, 1928, Kenneth was committed to the 
Boys’ Industrial School at Lancaster, Ohio, for “wrecking a train, 
burglary, stealing a bicycle, puncturing automobile tires, and using 
profane and obscene language.” On March 4, 1930, he was released 
on parole, but had to be returned on April 9, 1930. At the time of 
our investigation of the case, which was in July, 1932, he was still an 
inmate there. Carl had also been before Juvenile Court repeatedly. 
The court records contain the following statement: “Wholly bad and 
vicious; record of continuous violations of the law; has been associated 
with his twin in practically all his misdemeanors. Carl is a confirmed 
blackguard and liar. They are probably the worst pair we have had 
before the court.” Carl was committed to the Boys’ Industrial School 
at Lancaster, Ohio, on February 9, 1930; escaped March 8, 1930; 
returned April 10, 1930; escaped again September 11, 1930; returned 
again March 20, 1931; paroled September 2, 1931. On December 15, 
1931, he fell from a roof he was climbing and was killed. 
Case 163. D. twins, Lottie (male) and Andy. Born in East 
Orwell, Ohio, September 24, 1915. The mother died when the twins 
were 4 years old. Father remarried. Home very poor and crowded. 
Counting the stepbrothers and stepsisters, there were seventeen persons 
living in a small four-room house. The twins have been before Juvenile 
Court repeatedly for stealing, mainly food, chickens, milk from porches, 
supplies from ice boxes, etc. On the occasion of his last appearance 
in court, Andy was given a suspended sentence and has been working 
at odd jobs on neighboring farms. In the early part of 1932 Lottie 
stole some money from a neighbor’s house, and on May 4, 1932, was 
sent to the Boys’ Industrial School at Lancaster, Ohio. At the time 
of our observation of the case, which was in July, 1932, he was still 
an inmate there. A mental test in 1932 revealed I. Q. 64. There is 76 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
no record of a mental test in Andy’s case; but he, too, is judged to be 
subnormal in intelligence. 
Case 164. N. twins, Peter and Joseph. Born in South River, 
New Jersey, February 2, 1914. These boys were committed together for 
“incorrigibility” in February, 1927, to the State Home for Boys at 
Jamesburg, New Jersey. Under outside pressure and against the 
advice of the parole committee they were released on parole in August, 
1928. They were returned as parole violators on September 10, 1929. 
Soon thereafter they were transferred to the State Colony for Feeble- 
minded Males at New Lisbon, New Jersey. At the time of our investi- 
gation of the case, which was in August, 1930, they were still inmates 
there, “behaving as well as could be expected, Peter working in the 
dining room and Joseph in the store room.” Mental tests in 1928 
revealed, for Peter, I. Q. 64, for Joseph, 59. 
Case 165. F. twins, Flenard and Odie. Part Negro. Born in 
Tennessee, February 5, 1916. Parents seem to be subnormal in intelli- 
gence, very poor, home is dirty. In 1928 and 1929 Flenard was before 
the Juvenile Court four times for stealing, breaking into a print shop, 
and breaking into a commission house. On June 5, 1929, he was finally 
committed to the Boys’ Industrial School at Lancaster, Ohio; escaped 
July 19, 1930; granted parole August 1, 1930; discharged from parole 
October 2, 1931, to let him return to his parents in Tennessee. Odie was 
first brought before the Juvenile Court at the age of 13 years for steal- 
ing. He has been in court for similar offenses four or five times since 
then. The last time he burglarized a store and was committed to the 
Boys’ Industrial School at Lancaster, Ohio, on March 18, 1932. At the 
time of our investigation of the case, which was in July, 1932, he was 
still an inmate there. He is described as “incorrigible at home, in 
school, and on the streets.” Mental tests in 1929 and 1932, respec- 
tively, revealed, for Flenard, I. Q. 62, for Odie, 56. 
Case 166. C. twins, Sidney and Thomas. Born in Toronto, 
Ontario, Canada, May 19, 1914. The mother is of subnormal intelli- 
gence ; an older sister of the twins is an imbecile, one brother has 
“dementia praecox,” another brother is considered “psychopathic.” 
The twins were born in the eighth month of gestation and both were 
retarded in walking and talking. They have been together in all their 
delinquencies, Thomas invariably as the leader, Sidney as the follower. 
In June, 1923, they were before the Juvenile Court for getting into two 
houses under construction and doing about $7OO worth of damage. In 
November, 1923, they were again in court for breaking into a house 
and stealing. They were at first given probation, but their delinquen- 
cies continued, and on February 7, 1924, they were committed together 
to the Ontario Hospital at Orillia, Canada. At the time of our obser- 
vation of the case, which was in August, 1932, they were still inmates 
there. Mental tests in 1923 and 1928, respectively, revealed, for 
Thomas, I. Q. 85, for Sidney, 53. 
Case 167. Y. twins, Roy and Ray. Born in Colton, California, 
April 2, 1910. Parents were separated when the twins were still young; 
four children in the family were born out of wedlock; all children, 
including the twins, were neglected, often eared for by charitable SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS : MALE 
77 
neighbors. According to the rather incomplete records delinquencies 
began when the twins were barely 13 years old. Roy is less intelligent 
and more delinquent than Ray. A mental test in 1924 revealed, for 
Roy, I. Q. 84; no record of a mental test in Ray’s case. Roy came to 
the attention of the Juvenile Court in February, 1923, on account of 
persistent truancy and “being troublesome in every way”; soon there- 
after stole a bicycle, committed many petty thefts, wandered about 
“without visible means of subsistence,” ran away repeatedly from his 
father’s home. In November, 1923, the twins, together with two 
other boys, broke out of the Juvenile Detention Home in Colton, 
went to Los Angeles, there stole a car and started north, but were 
intercepted by the police. Roy was then committed to Whittier State 
School; transferred to Sonoma State Home in February, 1924; from 
there again transferred to the Preston School of Industry at lone, 
California, in February, 1925; finally discharged routinely upon 
attaining the age of 21 years, on April 2, 1931. Ray was committed to 
Preston School of Industry on February 8, 1928, for grand theft (auto- 
mobile) ; was tried on parole twice, in 1929 and in 1930, but had to be 
returned for parole violations, although his conduct at the institution 
had been at all times uniformly satisfactory. He, too, was routinely 
discharged upon attaining the age of 21 years. 
Group 35. Adult criminality; subnormal intelli- 
gence; loth affected. 2 cases: Nos. 168-169. 
Case 168. M. twins, Samuel and Morris. Born in Detroit, Mich- 
igan, July 11, 1913. They were “unwanted children.” Samuel seems 
to be the less delinquent of the two; both have a speech defect, but 
Samuel’s is the less pronounced; Samuel is also somewhat the more 
intelligent; mental tests in 1929 revealed, for Samuel, I. Q. 73; for Mor- 
ris, 66. Samuel is classified not as presenting a ease of adult criminal- 
ity, but as a juvenile delinquent, as he seems to have gotten along with- 
out serious difficulty since he attained the age of 18 years. Morris, how- 
ever, at the time of our investigation of the case, which was in June, 
1932, was serving an indeterminate sentence of 5 years to life in 
San Quentin Prison, California. Both twins were troublesome from 
early childhood; reported by the parents as uncontrollable and incor- 
rigible; did poorly at school, disliked school, played hookey. They 
quarreled with each other and were hardly ever together. Both sought 
odd jobs to make money for clothes, to go to dances, “for a good time.” 
Morris had run away from home repeatedly for days or weeks at a 
time. They have been before Juvenile Court repeatedly on charges of 
“unlawful use of automobile,” traffic violations, larceny, robbery, 
‘ ‘ carrying an unregistered gun, ’ ’ etc. 
Case 169. F. twins, Mike and Walter. Born in Lyons, Oregon, 
July 6, 1904. Mike is the less intelligent and the more markedly crim- 
inal of the two. Mike is a truck driver, single, served in the county jail 
at Centralia, Washington, in 1929-1930, for 6 months, charged with 
stealing a car; was then tried and sentenced to the Washington State 
Reformatory for from 1-| to 15 years. At the time of our investigation 
of the ease, which was in May, 1931, he was still an inmate there. A 
mental test in 1930 revealed I. Q. 81. Walter is a farmer, married; he 78 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
has been arrested four times for drunkenness, and on one of these 
occasions was charged also with illegal possession of liquor. Served a 
term of 6 months in the county jail at Albany, Oregon, in 1928. No 
other criminal record. There is no record of a mental test in his ease, 
but he is judged to be of normal intelligence. 
Group 36. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic 
and prepsychotic types; normal intelligence; one affected. 
7 cases: Nos. 170-176. 
Case 170. F. twins, Seymour and Eugene. Born in New York 
City, December 23, 1919. Observed by us in their home in New York 
during their school vacation in the summer of 1931. The birth of the 
twins was premature by about a month. Seymour was the weaker of 
the pair at birth and the slower in development subsequently. He 
could not hold up his head, walk or talk until he was 18 or 19 months 
old; presented a feeding problem until the age of 4 years, including 
rickets; was very sickly through his childhood; is three terms behind 
Eugene at school, and is less intelligent than Eugene,—l. Q.’s, respec- 
tively, 97 and 119. He alone, of the pair, has always presented a 
behavior difficulty—according to our classification, of preneurotic or 
prepsychotic type. Parents state he is nervous and unstable, “now in 
good spirits, then suddenly, for no apparent reason, becomes dizzy and 
stubborn”; is jealous of Eugene’s progress at school, fights with him, 
destroys his things, disobeys his parents, has been given to excessive 
masturbation from infancy in spite of all efforts to make him stop— 
including beating and shaking him. Eugene is an excellent student, 
has skipped a grade in school, is highly praised by his teachers, spends 
all his spare money on books (which Seymour, in temper, sometimes 
destroys), is helpful and cooperative at home. 
Case 171. R. twins, Fred and Alfred. Born in Fullerton, Cali- 
fornia, June 25, 1919. Observed by us in October, 1931, in one of the 
Fullerton city schools. Both twins are of very superior intelligence; 
but Fred alone, the more intelligent of the pair, with an I. Q. of 142, 
presents a behavior difficulty—according to our classification, of pre- 
neurotic or prepsychotic type. Fred is described as very disobedient in 
school. Although he has the highest I. Q. in the school, he won’t do his 
work, and hence just gets by, whereas Alfred makes the best grades in 
class. When asked by the teacher to do anything, he invariably refuses 
and feels abused and “picked-upon. ” He is aggressive toward the 
other children on the playground, starts fights frequently, and then 
comes with tales of persecution. Insists that the other boys bully and 
mistreat him and that the teacher “has it in for him” because he won’t 
be her slave. Alfred has an I. Q. of 127; is described as “a fine manly 
chap”; a good student, making the best grades in his class. He is a 
great reader, chiefly interested in popular science, “at present working 
on an airplane, which he is doing very creditably.” He is easy-going, 
allows himself to be bullied and dominated by Fred. 
Case 172. S. twins, Robert and Richard. Born in Long Beach, 
California, July 3, 1919. Observed by us in November, 1931, in one 
of the Long Beach city schools. Both twins are of normal intelligence; SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
79 
mental tests in 1929 revealed, for both, I. Q. 104. Robert alone, of 
the pair, presents a behavior problem. The parents are separated; 
the twins are with their mother, who is of a very emotional type. Rob- 
ert is frail physically, has been much coddled and petted by his 
mother, and is excessively dependent on her, wanting to be with her 
all the time; he cries when separated from her even for a few hours; 
wants to be petted frequently, still sleeps with his mother, and cries 
when she has to go out in the evening and leave him. The mother 
encourages him in this attitude, says it would break her heart if he 
were not affectionate. She says, “Bob is just like me, whereas Dick 
is heartless like his father.” Robert has a special reading difficulty, 
also stammers somewhat; is in a special reading class. Richard is a 
rather good student, good athlete, “a pleasant, frank, normal boy”; 
indifferent to Robert, though not hostile; is well adjusted in school, 
gets on well with playmates. 
Case 173. C. twins, Claire and Francis. Born in Champaign, 
Illinois, October 23, 1917. Observed by us in April, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the Department of Psychology and Research of the Los 
Angeles, California, city schools. Claire was brought to the attention 
of the Department of Psychology and Research, by reason of a lack of 
interest in his school work, an outstanding spelling difficulty, and 
a resulting retardation: he is in the B7 grade, whereas Francis is in 
the AB. Claire was given a mental test in 1929, which revealed I. Q. 
91. Francis has never had any trouble; no record of a mental test, 
but he seems normal in intelligence, as well as in every other way. 
Case 174. P. twins, Morris and Jacob. Born in Brooklyn, New 
York, May 15, 1915. Our observation in July, 1931, through the cour- 
tesy of the Institute for Child Guidance, New York. Morris was the 
weaker of the pair at birth; and is the one who has turned out to be 
the less intelligent, presenting a chronic behavior difficulty. He 
was a tiny baby, not quite 3 pounds, lifeless and inert at birth, had to 
be resuscitated. A mental test in 1931 revealed I. Q. 100; at the 
same time Jacob’s test revealed I. Q. 136. In personality and achieve- 
ment Morris presents a marked contrast not only to his twin brother, 
but also to the other children in the family. He is a school failure, 
has no job, shows “complete lack of interest in everything.” He 
repeated one primary grade and failed twice in grade 88. Teacher 
reports he is capable of doing good work, but is “the laziest boy she 
ever saw. ’ ’ Morris has played hookey many times and has been 
warned by truant officer; has no recreational interests; will sit or 
lie down, or just toss a ball in the air for half an hour or more at 
a time; is a day dreamer, much preoccupied with ruminations on sex- 
ual matters. Jacob does excellent work at school, has just graduated 
from high school, grades all A’s and B’s; now has a job and works 
well, turns over his pay check to his mother, is planning to work his 
way through college. 
Case 175. N. twins, Benham and Fred, Jr. Born in California, 
May 19, 1915. Observed by us in March, 1932, in one of the Pasa- 
dena, California, city schools. Benham is the less intelligent of the 
pair, also the one with the behavior difficulty. Fred had a mental 
test in 1928, which revealed I. Q. 113; Benham, at the same time, was 80 
ETIOLOG.Y OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
found to have an I. Q. of 98. The father of the twins, a teacher, says 
they have never been able to do anything with Benham; he has not 
been resistive, but always utterly indifferent to anything the parents 
said to him. “He lives his own life with no regard for others, though 
not unkind. ’ ’ Has indulged in runaway escapades at least a dozen 
times: usually has gone off for one or two days and, upon return, gives 
no explanation as to where he has been or why he went. “Over a 
week ago he ran away from home and has not yet been located.” 
Case 176. H. twins, Edwin and George. Born in San Francisco, 
California, October 31, 1909. Observed by us in September, 1931, 
through the courtesy of one of the Long Beach, California, city high 
schools. Both twins are of mediocre intelligence; mental tests revealed, 
for Edwin, I. Q. 97, for George, 90. Edwin alone has presented a 
behavior difficulty; at school he had a reputation for general irresponsi- 
bility, work seldom prepared, frequent tardiness, lost books; his merit 
record was usually near the borderline; his speech is a little thick, 
showing a slight impediment. He was always good natured, however, 
and was well liked; no vicious habits noted. Edwin did not graduate 
from high school, but withdrew in 1928, at nearly 19 years of age, 
when his twin brother graduated. Since then he has held a number 
of jobs, but usually only for a month or two. He quits because “the 
boss is rude” to him; thus, when working at the Ford plant, he 
knocked his supervisor down, because he did not like the way he cor- 
rected him. George graduated from high school with a “C” average 
and a good merit record. His teachers commend him for his “steady, 
solid qualities.” Since graduation he has worked as a salesman of 
marine insurance and has done exceptionally well, earning over $lO,OOO 
last year. 
Group 37. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; normal intelligence; one affected. 2 cases: Nos. 
177-178. 
Case 177. M. twins, Virgil and Veath. Born September 22, 1916. 
Observed by us in March, 1932, in one of the junior high schools in 
Los Angeles, California. Both are of mediocre intelligence; mental 
tests in 1930 revealed, for Virgil, I. Q. 90, for Veath, 94. Veath is 
described by his teachers as “a fine boy, no trouble at all, a good 
average student.” Virgil alone presents a behavior difficulty; the 
school authorities consider him one of their worst problems; he is in 
the office for some misconduct constantly: “he ditches, cheats, and 
lies; is suspected also of bad sex habits.” 
Case 178. S. twins, Frank L. and Harold. Born in Colton, Cali- 
fornia, August 2, 1912. Observed by us in September, 1931, through 
the courtesy of one of the Long Beach, California, city high schools. 
Both twins are of mediocre intelligence; mental tests revealed, for 
Frank, I. Q. 91, for Harold, 90. Harold has presented no problem; 
he graduated from high school in February, 1931, with a “C” aver- 
age; “rather slow, steady, reliable boy”; personally neat and clean, 
attractive; worked outside of school, helping his father in his poultry SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
81 
business. Frank was in high school four years, but never got beyond 
sophomore standing. Merit record ranged from 55 to 43 (“100 is per- 
fect; below 80, send for parents; below 70, suspension”) ; was sus- 
pended for various misdemeanors at least once every term. Violent 
temper; on several occasions, when corrected by teachers he had tan- 
trums, destroying textbooks and his desk. His father is also a man of 
violent temper; reported to have beaten Frank more than once until 
he was unconscious. Frank also truanted repeatedly, hanging around 
pool halls. Cheated at school. “His performance never equalled 
an I. Q. of 90; more like 60 or 70.” Reported untruthful, forged 
mother’s signature to excuses, caught using slugs in gum and peanut 
machines; appropriated other pupils’ books and pens without asking, 
then left them lying around anywhere. Unclean in person, always 
emitted offensive odor; swore and used vile language; “a chip on 
his shoulder” all the time. 
Group 38. Juvenile delinquency; normal intelli- 
gence; one affected. 3 cases: Nos. 179-181. 
Case 179. P. twins, Edgar and Edward C. Born in Pomona, 
California, May 4, 1916. Edward presents no problem either in 
studies or in behavior. Edgar is of normal intelligence; mental test 
in 1930 revealed I. Q. 106; but “since the time he walked his conduct 
has been difficult to control.” At school in Pomona he fought on the 
slightest pretext, was insolent to the teachers, created a general dis- 
turbance almost daily, finally was expelled for stealing and truancy 
at the age of not quite 11 years. A study was then made of his case 
by the Los Angeles Child Guidance Clinic, and he was placed on a 
ranch in Simi Valley, California. He escaped from there a couple 
of times, but stayed altogether about 8 months. Upon return home 
and reentering public school, he was soon again expelled and was 
arrested for theft. After a few weeks in the Detention Home he was 
committed to Whittier State School, California, and, at the time of 
our investigation of the case, which wTas in December, 1930, he was 
still an inmate there. He is said to have improved materially during 
his stay at Whittier; “he likes music, and is in the Band Cottage.” 
Case 180. A. twins, Roy and Robert. Born in Chicago, Illinois, 
February 17, 1915. Robert has never caused trouble at home, at school, 
or elsewhere. Roy has always been troublesome; at home fought with 
his stepfather; at school had a poor record of attendance; also has 
been repeatedly in conflict with authorities. He is of average intelli- 
gence; mental test in 1931 revealed I. Q. 99. His official record of 
delinquencies begins with an arrest for speeding on March 31, 1931; 
his driver’s license was suspended for 8 weeks. On June 1, 1931, he 
was again arrested for speeding; license again suspended. On August 
28, 1931, he was arrested for burglary and forgery of checks; was 
allowed to go home on probation, after spending about 3 weeks in jail 
and in Juvenile Hall. 
Case 181. E. twins, John and Branch. Part Negro. Born in 
Ogden, Utah, November 22, 1914. Branch has never been in any 
trouble; good worker. John got in trouble on June 29, 1932, apparently 82 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
for the first time. A police officer was about to arrest a friend of his 
on a charge of illegal possession of liquor, when John interfered with 
the officer, took the gun from him and struck him. A fight followed, 
in the course of which John was subdued and handcuffed, but never- 
theless succeeded in making his escape with the handcuffs on. A war- 
rant for his arrest was issued, but he was not found until the early 
part of August, 1932. At the hearing before the Juvenile Court he 
was committed to Preston School of Industry, at lone, California, but 
was granted a stay of execution and released to his grandmother. At 
the time of our investigation of the case, which was in October, 1932, 
he was still with his grandmother, “doing fine, a good helper in the 
home. ’ ’ 
Group 39. Adult criminality; normal intelligence; 
one affected. 17 cases: Nos. 182-198. 
Case 182. G. twins, Tony and Charles. Born in Sicily, Italy, 
June 18, 1912. Charles has never been in trouble; he stated that 
although he and Tony had always lived together, they never went 
around with the same friends; he feels that Tony’s associates were the 
cause of his getting into trouble. He stated further that he and Tony 
were so different that he sometimes Avondered that they were twins; 
they were entirely different not only in physical appearance but also as 
to personality. Tony has a history of arrests and was finally com- 
mitted to the reformatory at Elmira, Ncav York, on April 10, 1931, for 
robbery, second degree. At the time of our investigation of the case, 
which Avas in November, 1932, he was still an inmate there. 
Case 183. C. twins, Lloyd and Floyd. Born in Spokane, Wash- 
ington, March 10, 1912. Only Lloyd has a criminal record; Floyd, as 
well as the rest of the family, is free from such record and in good 
standing in the community. Lloyd’s record begins with a 5 days’ 
sentence to the city jail in Long Beach, California, in 1932, for drunk- 
enness. He has long been subject to frequent headaches from unknown 
cause. In November, 1932, he held up a night clerk in the lobby of a 
hotel at the point of a gun, got some money, and escaped. About 6 
weeks later, as he AAras “walking home at 5 o’clock in the morning,” 
he Avas stopped and searched by police officers Avho found a gun on 
him. He was later put through a police “show-up” and identified by 
the hotel clerk whom he had robbed. He was thereupon charged with 
robbery with a gun and entered a plea of guilty. He Avas sentenced 
to San Quentin Prison for 5 years to life. There is no record of 
a mental test for either twin, but they are obviously of normal intelli- 
gence; both had completed 3 years of high school, then left to go 
to Avork. 
Case 184. R. twins, Kenneth and Edmund. Born in Mt. Carmel, 
Illinois, August 6, 1910. The family is of good standing and free from 
criminal record; Edmund has never been in trouble of any kind; only 
Kenneth has shown antisocial traits, and these are possibly attributable 
to a cerebral trauma at the age of 7 years. At that time the tAvins 
Avere engaged in killing a mole, for doing which they Avere to earn a 
dollar. Kenneth was accidentally struck on the head Avith an axe, was SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS : MALE 
83 
laid up for 3 months, now has a 2-inch scar on head. Trouble started 
upon his return to school; he developed a dislike for school, although 
he was easily able to obtain better than average grades; became dis- 
obedient, refusing to do assigned work; annoyed teachers by bringing 
live snakes into class, etc. However, he completed the eighth grade 
and went to high school for 3 months, then quit, because he was 
“girl-crazy.” At 16 years he enlisted in the Army (Coast Artillery), 
but soon was court-martialed for forgery of cheeks (three counts, total 
S9O), and served about a year in military prison on Alcatraz Island, 
California. He received a dishonorable discharge from the Army; 
but almost immediately upon his release from military prison he com- 
mitted forgery again (three counts, total $400) and was committed to 
Preston School of Industry, lone, California, in 1927. After 14 months 
there he was given parole, and soon thereafter spent 2 months in the 
Los Angeles county jail for violation of parole. In 1928, at the 
age of 18 years, he married; after a baby was born he failed to support 
his wife and child; wife divorced him, and he was ordered to pay 
alimony and provide for his child. However, in 1930, he served 6 
months in the Los Angeles County jail for failure to provide; and in 
1932, was again sentenced to jail for failure to provide, this time for 
a term of 2 years. At the time of our investigation of the case, which 
was in November, 1932, he was still an inmate there. 
Case 185. I. twins, Michael and Douglas. Born in Seattle, Wash- 
ington, May 6, 1908. Michael’s official record of criminality begins 
with an arrest in Seattle, Washington, in July, 1930, “on suspicion of 
pimping”; but he was released on account of insufficient evidence. 
Within a month he was again arrested on suspicion of robbery, and 
once more released for lack of sufficient evidence. He was arrested for 
the third time in September, 1930, for grand larceny—theft of auto- 
mobile—and this time convicted and sentenced to the State Reform- 
atory at Monroe, AVashington. At the time of our investigation of the 
case, which was in May, 1931, he was still an inmate there. He made 
this statement: “I stole a LaSalle car at Spokane, AVashington, and 
drove it to Lewiston, Idaho, where I rented a garage and stored it. I 
had just taken out the car to use it when an officer arrested me. I had 
sold one tire.” A mental test in October, 1930, revealed I. Q. 92. 
Douglas has never been in difficulty. 
Case 186. T. twins, James and Taffy. Part Negro. Born in 
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, February 6, 1909. Taffy seems perfectly 
normal; he finished eighth grade; quit school because of illness; has 
never been arrested, says, ‘‘ I never expect to be; there is as much 
difference between James and me as day and night”; works as an auto 
mechanic, has held present job for 5 years. James got only as far 
as the sixth grade in school; not interested; failed in deportment a 
number of times; was arrested a number of times for drunkenness and 
reckless driving, ‘ ‘ forgot the names of the penal institutions ’ ’ in which 
he had been incarcerated at various times; on several occasions got in 
trouble for car thefts; claims, however, that he never really stole one, 
but would merely take a car and, when through using it, would leave 
it near where he got it. On November 14, 1930, he was sentenced to 
the Eastern State Penitentiary at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and at 84 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
the time of our investigation of the case, which was in July, 1932, he 
was still an inmate there. No record of a mental test for either twin, 
but both are judged to be of normal intelligence. 
Case 187. T. twins, Leonard Darby and Leon. Born in Athens, 
Oregon, August 7, 1907. Leon has never been in trouble; there is no 
record of a mental test for him; he is, however, judged to be of 
superior intelligence; is a gas engineer by occupation. Leonard’s prior 
history is very meager. In November, 1930, he was sentenced to the 
State Reformatory at Monroe, Washington, for from 3 to 20 years, 
for two counts of forgery, first degree. He stated: “I forged and 
cashed six or seven checks. I cashed them at Grand Anew and at 
Snnnyside, AVashington. I realized about $490 in cash. I made the 
checks payable to myself and forged John AV.’s signature.” A 
mental test, upon admission to the reformatory, revealed I. Q. 96. 
At the time of onr investigation of the case, which was in May, 1931, he 
was still an inmate there. 
Case 188. F. twins, AVarden F. and AViley Thomas. Born in 
Gordonville, Texas, December 8, 1906. One brother of the twins “liked 
to be a hobo”; would ride on freight trains for hundreds of miles, then 
work for a few weeks, then start out on the road again. The family 
history is otherwise negative, except for familial tendency to twinning: 
one sister of the twins has a pair of twin boys; the maternal grand- 
mother was a twin; one maternal aunt was a twin; two maternal aunts 
bore twins, one of them having two sets of twins. AATiley has been free 
from delinquency or criminality and has presented no behavior diffi- 
culty of any kind. Warden alone has been in trouble, mainly on 
account of drunkenness. He has always been of “nervous, impulsive” 
temperament; has a scar on scalp, L| inches long, incurred in knife fight 
with a Filipino. AVas married for 2 years; now divorced; no children. 
At the time of our investigation of the case, which was in January, 1933, 
he was serving a term of 180 days in the Los Angeles County jail for 
drunkenness. 
Case 189. C. twins, Tony and X (name withheld). Born in Los 
Angeles, California, April 8, 1905. X is married, got along well in 
school and since, is a building contractor, has never been arrested. 
Tony alone is criminal, and has been more or less troublesome since the 
age of 10 years. There were two prior convictions, for gambling, in 
1926 and in 1927. He was married, but could not adjust himself to 
domestic life, and is now divorced. In November, 1929, he was sentenced 
to San Quentin Prison, California, for from 5 years to life, for robbery, 
first degree (hold-up with a gun). At the time of our investigation 
of the case, which was in June, 1931, he was still an inmate there. There 
is no record of a mental test, but he is judged to be of normal intelli- 
gence; completed tenth grade in school. 
Case 190. N. twins, James Garland and Harlin. Born in Okemah, 
Oklahoma, January 22, 1903. Both twins were employed in a bank; 
they lived together and were closely associated all their lives; yet Harlin 
was never in any trouble, has never been arrested. James alone robbed 
the bank for which he was working and, on February 14, 1931, was 
sentenced to the State Penitentiary at Salem, Oregon, for 5 years, for SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS : MALE 
85 
grand larceny by embezzlement. There is no record of a mental test 
for either twin, but they are both judged to be of normal or superior 
intelligence. 
Case 191. TI. twins, Elliot R. and X (name withheld). Born in 
Fall River, Massachusetts, June 8, 1903. These twins come of good 
family and X has always been a law-abiding citizen. Elliot is said 
to be “a sexual pervert” of some kind. At the time of our investiga- 
tion of the case, which was in August, 1932, he was in the State Prison 
at Howard, Rhode Island, for murder. The history of his case is to 
the effect that on the evening of March 23, 1931, he took a young nurse 
for a ride; next day she was found choked to death by the side of the 
road, with evidences of a severe struggle. He disappeared for four or 
five days, but was then apprehended. 
Case 192. La P. twins, Theodore and Rovald. Born in St. Eugene, 
Quebec, Canada, August 8, 1903. Rovald has never been in trouble, is 
described as “a steady, reliable man”; lives in Canada, has good posi- 
tion and salary. Theodore, too, had had no trouble previously; is a 
steam engineer; has been in California since 1927. Was arrested for 
the first time in his life in August, 1932, charged with grand theft, two 
counts, and, shortly thereafter, convicted. 
Case 193. S. twins, John Michael and James. Born in Indiana, 
February 6, 1901. James has never been arrested and has never shown 
any antisocial traits. “There is a great personality difference between 
the men, John being much more careless and happy-go-lucky.” There 
is no prior criminal record in John’s case, but it is suspected by his own 
relatives that he had committed crimes before but was not caught. On 
June 7, 1928, he was sentenced to San Quentin Prison, California, for 
first degree robbery on the highway, two counts; and at the time of our 
investigation of the case, which was in April, 1931, he was still an 
inmate there. 
Case 194. J. twins, Edwin and Alfred. Born in Hamburg, Ger- 
many, March 23, 1899. These twins come of good family; Alfred has 
never been in trouble; Edwin alone has shown criminal inclinations. 
In 1921 he embezzled $1,953 from his employer; his father made resti- 
tution and the charge was not pressed. In May, 1922, he was again 
arrested for embezzlement, and was this time sentenced to the Reform- 
atory at Elmira, New York, where he remained 14 months. Almost, 
immediately upon his release, in 1923, he was again in trouble: he was 
entrusted with SSOO which he was to exchange at the bank for German 
currency and deliver to a designated person; he never delivered it; 
on that occasion was given a suspended sentence in Hoboken, New 
Jersey. Finally, on March 31, 1930, he was sentenced to Sing Sing 
Prison at Ossining, New York, for 10 years, for embezzlement. For a 
period of about 6 months prior to his last arrest he had been failing to 
deposit money to his employer’s account and using the money for 
himself, “mainly for gambling and a generally good time.” The total 
amount was nearly SIO,OOO. His wife left him on account of his dis- 
grace; but, at the time of our investigation of his case, which was in 
November, 1932, he was looking forward to release from prison after a 
few years by obtaining commutation for good behavior, and stated 86 
ETIOLOG.Y OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
that he felt sure that he could ‘‘patch it up” between his wife and 
himself. 
Case 195. B. twins, Leon and Benjamin. Born in Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania, December 11, 1896. The family is entirely free from 
criminal tendencies, and none among them, other than Leon, has been 
addicted to liquor or drugs. Benjamin has been entirely normal. Leon 
alone has been in trouble, and this began at the age of 17 years or before. 
He began then to use heroin and 2 years later began using cocaine as 
well. Has since had a couple of cures, but without lasting benefit. He 
has a prior record of numerous arrests on charges of robbery, entering 
and larceny, unlawful possession and use of narcotics, etc.; has skipped 
bail; was in the county jail in Philadelphia on two occasions; served 18 
months in the Federal Penitentiary at Atlanta, Georgia. Finally, in the 
latter part of 1931, he entered a cordial shop, held up the proprietor 
with a gun, obtained a few dollars from the cash register, then, as he 
tried to escape in a taxicab, he was pursued by a policeman. Leon shot 
and killed the policeman, was convicted for murder, and executed in 
Sing Sing Prison, New York, in March, 1932. 
Case 196. W. twins, Harold F. and Stephen R. Born in Phila- 
delphia, Pennsylvania, May 14, 1887. These twins come of excellent 
family. Stephen is a high-ranking official, somewhat impulsive, erratic, 
but never in trouble. Harold graduated in medicine from Harvard; in 
1914 volunteered for surgical service in the Canadian Army for the 
World War; was honorably discharged in 1919. Soon thereafter, with- 
out known cause—possibly as a sequel of an unrecognized encephalitis 
while in the military service—he became persistently criminal and 
has passed under at least six aliases, besides his own name. His record 
—only in part—includes 3 months in the Massachusetts House of Cor- 
rection, in 1920, for larceny; again, for 6 months, in 1921; lost his medi- 
cal license; enlisted in the U. S. Army in 1926; deserted within 2 
weeks; was court-martialed and served 6 months in prison, dishonorably 
discharged from the Army. In 1927 enlisted again under an assumed 
name, but was soon discharged for “undesirable traits, including sexual 
perversions.” There were other offenses and convictions. Finally, in 
November, 1929, he was convicted in Los Angeles on three counts of 
forgery of checks, and sentenced for a term of 4 years. The checks were 
issued in payment for a diamond ring, some haberdashery, etc.; and one 
check was issued to a beauty parlor operator in payment for a perma- 
nent wave that the defendant had had. Possibly his maladjustment is 
based in part on a chaotic sexuality. 
Case 197. K. twins, Charles Alonzo and Howard. Born in Penn- 
sylvania, in November, 1859. Howard has never been in trouble. 
Charles’ record, too, has been perfectly clean up to the time of the 
present trouble which happened in 1931. He had been a respectable 
member of the community up to the age of 71 years; was dairyman, 
later storekeeper and postmaster. His store burned down, whereupon 
he was charged with arson, tried, and convicted. He denies guilt; 
friends, too, question his guilt, as the store and stock were valued at 
more than the amount of the insurance. SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: MALE 
87 
Case 198. C. twins, Tom and George. Born in Tansendtown, 
Maryland, September 17, 1841. George was a normal individual, 
supported his wife and child, was killed at Antietam in the Civil War. 
Tom has always had an ungovernable temper; was arrested several 
times for fighting. Finally, in 1926, at the age of nearly 85 years, 
in an altercation with a man he shot him in the arm and the man bled 
to death. Tom was convicted and sentenced for life to the Eastern 
State Penitentiary, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. At the time of 
our investigation of the case, which was in July, 1932, he was still an 
inmate there, though 90 years old. 
Group 40. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic 
and prepsychotic types; subnormal intelligence; one 
affected. 2 cases: Nos. 199-200. 
Case 199. S. twins, Frank Stanford and Stanley. Born in Long 
Beach, California, January 1, 1915. Stanley is described by his 
teachers as “just an average boy.” Very tranquil by temperament, in 
sharp contrast with Frank; he is also larger and more robust physically. 
A mental test in 1928 revealed I. Q. 93. He is not a specially good 
student, and not a leader in any way, “just one of the boys.” He is 
a grade ahead of Frank and might have been further on, but was kept 
back at parents’ request. They were anxious to keep the two boys 
together, although they are not special pals. Frank is physically 
greatly retarded, small in stature and underweight. He also made a 
poorer showing in the intelligence test: I. Q. 81. Scholastically he is 
decidedly inferior to Stanley; his grades have been mostly “presents,” 
and at that he is behind grade—in eighth grade at 16 years. Our 
observation of this case was in November, 1931, in one of the Long 
Beach, California, city schools. Frank’s behavior difficulty is described 
by the teachers and by the school psychologist as follows: ‘‘ He is 
emotionally very unstable; when corrected in his work he breaks down 
and cries, turns pale, and on one occasion last year, when reprimanded, 
he fainted. He is very wilful, generally refuses to do what is asked. 
He knows he does things he shouldn’t do, but trusts his physical 
condition will get him off. When reprimanded, he stays at home, ill 
in bed, for a day or two. Constantly demands encouragement and 
coddling.” 
Case 200. M. twins, Frank and Joseph. Born in Brooklyn, New 
York, May 18, 1912. Birth was difficult, instrumental, in Frank’s 
case by breech presentation. Joseph has gone through school and has 
worked normally; no record of mental tests, but he seems of average 
intelligence. Frank has been weak from birth, could not sit up until 
2 years, started to walk at 4 years. He was placed in the Children’s 
Hospital and School, Randall’s Island, New York, on May 16, 1924, 
and discharged as unimproved to the custody of his mother on Novem- 
ber 17, 1924. Our investigation of the case was in July, 1931. He 
has a spastic paralysis with markedly exaggerated knee-jerks, more 
pronounced on right side; he is also left-handed, and has double 
internal strabismus; speaks indistinctly. He also presents behavior 
difficulty at home: has temper tantrums, fights with brothers and 88 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
sisters, stamps his feet, screams, throws things. A mental test in 
May, 1923, revealed I. Q. 56. 
Group 41. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; subnormal intelligence; one affected. 2 cases: Nos. 
201-202. 
Case 201. H. twins, Vinton and Victor. Born in Kansas, August 
13, 1915. Vinton has always been the stronger physically and is taller 
by 5 inches than Victor. He has, however, been inferior intellectually. 
At the time of onr observation of the case, which was in April, 1931, 
Vinton was in the “development class” in the Torrance, California, 
elementary school, while Victor was in the first year of high school at 
Wilmington, California. Mental tests, in 1928 and 1931, respectively, 
revealed, for Vinton, I. Q. 75; for Victor, 99. Vinton presents a 
behavior difficulty; he is much larger physically than the other pupils 
in the school which he attends, is very profane, leads the smaller boys 
into mischief of all kinds. Victor presents no behavior problem what- 
ever, ‘‘ is almost too reserved. ’ ’ 
Case 202. W. twins, Earle E. and Edward N. Born April 11, 
1914. Observed by us in March, 1932, in one of the Los Angeles, 
California, city schools. Mental tests in 1931 revealed, for Earle, 
I. Q. 77, for Edward, 121. Edward is an excellent student, popular 
with his schoolmates, prominent in various school activities, president 
of the senior class. There is also a marked physical contrast, Edward 
being the taller by 4 inches. Earle is doing poorly in studies, not 
interested, ‘ ‘ ditches ’ ’ classes about 2 days a week, is generally sulky and 
sullen, seems especially to dislike his twin brother and his parents, 
perhaps from envy of Edward. 
Group 42. Juvenile delinquency; subnormal intelli- 
gence; one affected. 2 cases: Nos. 203-204. 
Case 203. DiM. twins, Jim and Joseph. Born in Denver, Colo- 
rado, June 1, 1917. On October 9, 1930, Jim, in company with another 
boy, was arrested and placed in Juvenile Hall and charged with a 
morals offense. He had forced a 2|-year old boy to take his penis into 
his mouth; the little boy went home to his mother, vomiting and sick 
for several days. Jim had not been in trouble previously. Had done 
rather poorly in his studies at school. Mental test in 1930 revealed 
I. Q. 89. At the hearing before the Juvenile Court he Avas released 
on probation. Joseph has never been in trouble: “a good boy”; no 
record of a mental test. 
Case 204. S. tAvins, Joseph and John. Born in Blackstone, 
Massachusetts, NoArember 1, 1915. Joseph has always been the smaller 
and Aveaker of the twins physically and of subnormal intelligence. 
A mental test in 1931 revealed I. Q. 66. Home conditions good. He 
caused no trouble until he left school at about 16 years. At that time 
he began to stay out late, would not appear for meals, went around 
with boys mostly younger than himself. In December, 1931, he and 
two other boys stole a car, ran it about a block, crashed into a tele- SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
89 
phone pole, then got ont and ran away. At home he got a gun, shot 
a bullet through a door and another through the fleshy part of his 
hand. On December 16, 1931, he was placed in the Sockanosset School 
for Boys, at Howard, Rhode Island. At the time of our investigation 
of the case, which was in August, 1932, he was still an inmate there. 
There is no record of any mental test in John’s case. He is described, 
however, as normal and well adjusted in every way, and is self-sup- 
porting. 
Group 43. Adult criminality; subnormal intelli- 
gence; one affected. 1 case: No. 205. 
Case 205. W. twins, Elmer and Arthur. Born in Pittsburgh, 
Pennsylvania, April 30, 1901. The father and one brother of these 
twins have criminal records; the mother was in an institution for the 
insane. Arthur has never been in any trouble, is married, supports 
his family, is a brakeman on the Pennsylvania Railroad. Elmer has 
been a behavior problem since childhood. Would not go to school, 
would sleep away from home, did very poorly in his studies, reached 
but the sixth grade when he left school at the age of 17 years. Mental 
test in 1930 revealed I. Q. 80. Has done very little work; has been in 
and out of correctional and penal institutions since the age of 7 years. 
Has used at least two aliases; crimes have consisted of trespassing, 
larceny, robbery, breaking and entering, escaping from custody, putting 
poison in food, etc. He has served terms in Thorn Hill School, AVar- 
rendale, Pennsylvania; State Farm, Green Castle, Indiana; U. S. Dis- 
ciplinary Barracks, Governors Island, New York; State Reformatory, 
Mansfield, Ohio; Minnesota Training School at -Red AATing; and com- 
mitted twice to AYestern Penitentiary at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, last 
time in January, 1930, for from 3to 6 years for robbery. At the time 
of our investigation of the case, which was in July, 1932, he was still 
an inmate there. 
§ 6. Same-Sex Dizygotic Tavins : Female 
Group 44. Child behavior difficulties; preneurotic 
and prepsychotic types; normal intelligence; both affected. 
6 cases: Nos. 206-211. 
Case 206. L. twins, Dora and Rhoda. Born in Los Angeles, Cali- 
fornia, November 17, 1925. Referred together to Los Angeles Child 
Guidance Clinic in November, 1928, at the age of 3 years, as pre- 
senting ‘‘ a practically identical disciplinary problem: they are hard 
to manage; both show enuresis; somewhat negativistic.” Stanford- 
Binet tests showed, for Dora, I. Q. 105, for Rhoda, 100. 
Case 207. Z. twins, Christine and Josephine. Born in Long 
Beach, California, April 15, 1923. Our observation in September, 1931, 
in one of the Long Beach city schools. Family live in a good neigh- 
borhood, own their home, and mother always keeps children clean 
and neat. Parents were divorced in the summer of 1931. Christine 
is dark, resembles mother; Josephine is blonde, resembles father. 
Both present behavior problems, almost identical except that Jose- 90 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
phine’s are more marked; both are somewhat cross-eyed, Josephine 
more so than Christine. “They are holy terrors; fight with each 
other, with their mother, and with the other children in the neighbor- 
hood ; a favorite sport is slipping up behind other children, pinching 
them, and running away and hiding. They call out nasty names and 
remarks to passers-by. Both are cruel to animals; disliked and feared 
by other children, especially Josephine.” 
Case 208. F. twins, Emma and Irma. Born in Bunker Hill, 
Kansas, February 6, 1917. Referred together to Los Angeles, Califor- 
nia, Child Guidance Clinic on September 11, 1930, as presenting a 
behavior problem. “Both are failing at school. Emma is rebellious 
toward mother, tyrannizes over her twin sister, is resentful of any 
interference or discipline, is flighty and irritable. Irma is thoroughly 
dominated by her twin sister, somewhat more amenable to mother; 
but she, too, becomes sulky when criticized.” Stanford-Binet tests 
revealed, for Emma, I. Q. 98, for Irma, 91. 
Case 209. K. twins, Mary and Ruth. Born August 31, 1916. 
Observed by us in March, 1932, in one of the junior high schools in 
Pasadena, California. They are of normal intelligence, I. Q. ’s 98 and 
94, respectively, by Stanford-Binet tests. Their teachers report them 
as presenting a constant behavior problem: “They bully the other 
pupils, fight, smash other pupils’ property, are rude to teachers, and 
defiant of authority. They are unclean and untidy, but use much 
make-up and are boy-crazy and markedly aggressive. They come 
from a very poor home, the father beats them until the neighbors inter- 
fere; the mother yells at them.” 
Case 210. D. twins, Armena and Angelina. Born in San Diego, 
California, in August, 1915. Observed by us in December, 1931, in the 
San Diego Children’s Home. Both are of approximately normal intel- 
ligence, I. Q.’s 96 and 98, respectively, by group test. There was in the 
family an older pair of twin girls: one, very badly deformed, died in 
infancy; the other was mentally deficient and, when about 12 years 
of age, was committed to the Sonoma State Home, California, but 
escaped from there with a man who had come for her, posing as her 
father, and has not been heard from since. Both twins present 
behavior problems, but Armena more markedly: ‘ ‘ From earliest infancy 
she has had temper tantrums. Often she was very helpful and agree- 
able ; but fully half of the time she spent seeing how many rules she 
could break and in what ways she could defy authority. She would 
bite and scratch those who came near her, break dishes, and tear the 
bedding. She is emotionally very unstable, hilariously dancing and 
singing one moment, and then suddenly breaking into tears for which 
she would give no reason. ” “ Angelina is not so temperamental, but is 
quite inclined to be sullen. She is unwilling to do her share of tasks 
about the home, and sulks when asked to do so. She is not so good a 
mixer as Armena.” The mother of these twins is chronically psychotic 
and has been in the Patton State Hospital for several years. 
Case 211. McK. twins, Rosie and Rose. Born in Bakersfield, 
California, December 11, 1914. Our observation in October, 1931, in SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
91 
one of the Long Beach, California, junior high schools. Both girls 
are educationally retarded, Bosie mainly by reason of her behavior 
difficulty based on emotional instability; Rose on account of sub- 
normal intelligence. Mental tests revealed, for Rosie, I. Q. 92, for 
Rose, 84. Both girls have repeated the fourth and the eighth grades, 
barely passing grades the rest of the time. Rosie alone presents a 
behavior problem: ‘Mias temper tantrums, both at home and at school, 
when reprimanded, but recovers quickly from them. She is very talk- 
ative, exceedingly active, always rushing from one thing to another, 
boisterous; too rough in athletic games; her temper gets her into diffi- 
culties with her playmates as well as with her teachers.” Rose is 
rather sedate. The twins differ in their friends and in most of their 
tastes. They seldom go or play together. 
Group 45. Child behavior difficulties; predelinquent 
types; normal intelligence; both affected. 3 cases: Nos. 
212-214. 
Case 212. N. twins, Muriel and Ruby. Born in Tulsa, Okla- 
homa, December 19, 1922. Our observation in November, 1931, through 
the courtesy of the County Welfare Bureau, San Diego, California. 
“They live next door to a grocery store and are constantly in trouble 
for their pilfering. When reprimanded by the grocer they retort by 
throwing stones at his windows and destroying anything left outside.” 
They are reported also by the health nurse as unclean in personal 
habits. Regarded as “almost incorrigible.” “They are constantly 
together and indulge in the same escapades, though Muriel seems to 
be the leader.” 
Case 213. N. twins, Betty and Patsy. Born in San Diego, Cali- 
fornia in 1919. Our observation in December, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the San Diego County Welfare Bureau. These girls are 
reported by the Public Health Nurse as being “guilty of almost every 
delinquency possible; stealing has been outstanding, not only by the 
twins, but also by other members of the family.” Sex delinquencies 
are also reported. In addition are enumerated “frequent truancies, 
lying, cheating, bad language, impudence, and defiance.” They were 
excluded from one school, and “the feasibility of placing them and 
their three other sisters in some institution is being considered.” 
Case 214. MacP. twins, Ruth and Theresa. Born in Escondido, 
California, in 1915. Our observation, in the public school at Escon- 
dido, in December, 1931. The problem of these girls has been chiefly 
a sexual one, although there has been considerable truancy also. ‘ ‘ They 
were found in a place of bad repute when a raid was made in the fall 
of 1931. They have both been mixed up in several sexual escapades 
with boys in the school and with men in town. ’ ’ The school principal 
feels they are a very bad influence on the other children and steps 
should be taken to exclude them from the school. They are always 
together and their problems are the same. 92 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Group 46. Juvenile delinquency; normal intelli- 
gence; both affected. 2 cases: Nos. 215-216. 
Case 215. G. twins, Martha and Mary. Born in Salt Lake City, 
Utah, July 24, 1914. Observed by us in April, September, and Octo- 
ber, 1932. Parents had been separated for some years. Girls were 
continually absent from school, spent much of their time in a soft- 
drink place with men. At home they would sit around, refuse to help 
mother in the housework, go out with boy friends in the evening. 
They were dirty, infested with lice. Arrested many times at wild 
parties; were taken to Juvenile Hall, Los Angeles, in December, 1930, 
when they were both found to be infected with gonorrhea, and Martha 
had, in addition, syphilis. They were also given to petty thefts; once, 
when arrested, they had in their possession a number of articles they 
had stolen from a ten-cent store; they confessed that this was a habit of 
theirs. Mental tests revealed, for Martha, I. Q. 106, for Mary, 99. 
Case 216. C. twins, Carol and Florence. Born in Los Angeles, 
California, November 11, 1911. Our observation in September, 1932. 
The family consists of the parents, three older well-adjusted children, 
and these twins. Parents stated, “there have been no difficulties with 
the other children, but the twins have been a nuisance ever since they 
were born.” During elementary school years they were considered 
unmanageable, vile-minded, dressed indecently. In junior high school 
their behavior was consistently bad, and for over a year they were not 
allowed to attend. There was a great deal of promiscuous sex activity, 
going around with a gang of about 40 boys and men, frequenting a 
garage evenings where the men stood in line awaiting their turn. In 
July, 1927, Carol was caught in an attempt to run away to San Fran- 
cisco as a stowaway on a steamer. In September, 1927, the twins, in 
company with a third girl, were arrested for forging and passing nine 
checks ranging from $3 to $36. They were then placed in Juvenile 
Hall, Los Angeles, and were granted probation. At that time they 
were separated and placed in homes as mothers’ helpers. There has 
been no trouble since then. In February, 1929, they were discharged 
from parole and soon thereafter allowed to return to school. At the 
time of our observation (1932) both were married and well adjusted; 
“seem to be very nice young women now.” Mental tests, in 1927, 
revealed, for Carol, I. Q. 98, for Florence, 91. 
Group 47. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic 
and prepsychotic types; subnormal intelligence; both 
affected. 5 cases: Nos. 217-221. 
Case 217. L. twins, Lorna and Donna. Born in Los Angeles, Cali- 
fornia, February 26, 1925. Our observation in April, 1932. Both are of 
dull-normal intelligence; I. Q. ’s, respectively, 87 and 82. Lorna alone 
presents a behavior difficulty. She has temper tantrums: “When the 
least annoyance or obstacle is encountered she flies into a rage, screams, 
yells, kicks, throws herself on the floor, then finally bursts into a spell 
of violent crying which does not stop until she is absolutely limp. These 
incidents are of daily occurrence and sometimes oftener. ’ ’ SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
93 
Case 218. K. twins, Emma and Irma. Born in National City, 
California, in 1922. Our observation in December, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the Public Health Nurse, National City. Both twins are of 
subnormal intelligence and educationally retarded, being in the second 
grade at the age of 9 years. There is no record of mental tests. Irma 
alone presents a behavior difficulty; she has been crippled since birth; 
described as “exceedingly nervous and excitable, cries easily and flies 
into tempers whenever she can not accomplish what she sets out to do; 
does not mix well with other children, hits them when they get in 
her way; is a very unhappy child.” 
Case 219. B. twins, Thelma and Velma. Born in Taft, California, 
October 25, 1920. Our observation in 1932 in one of the Long Beach, 
California, city schools. These twins present behavior problems in 
that they are very uncooperative at home and at school, are “oppor- 
tunity-room” cases. They are both of subnormal intelligence; Thelma 
more markedly so. Mental tests revealed, for Thelma, I. Q. 75; for 
Velma, 89. 
Case 220. B. twins, Ethel and Elsie. Born in Santa Barbara, 
California, August 26, 1916. Our observation in 1931, through the 
courtesy of the Social Welfare League of Long Beach, California. 
Father of these twins is a sailor, deserted the family in 1917. Mother is 
feebleminded, has mental age of 6 years. Mother has a younger child, 
an illegitimate son, who is a low-grade moron and very hard of hearing. 
Landlord requested that family be moved, as the children were so 
destructive and ill-behaved that they were causing other tenants to 
leave. Ethel is reported by school teachers as not getting along with 
other children: “quarrels and fights constantly; breaks school rules 
every day.” Elsie has had epilepsy almost from birth. Stanford-Binet 
tests revealed, for Ethel, I. Q. 108, for Elsie, 84. 
Case 221. C. twins, Eleanor and Evelyn. Born in Long Beach, 
California, October 17, 1912. Our observation, in one of the Long 
Beach city high schools, in October, 1931. Both twins are of subnormal 
intelligence; I. Q.’s, respectively, 82 and 85. Eleanor alone presents 
a behavior difficulty: “Her merit record the last semester was only 
54 out of a possible 110 points, due to continuous refusal to obey rules. 
When she wishes to stay out of class or go off grounds she does so and 
makes no attempt to hide her action. She is sullen and, in the grade 
school, had a record of temper tantrums. She has quite a speech defect 
and declines to recite in class. Her behavior is in marked contrast 
with that of her sister Evelyn, who is of pleasing disposition and fairly 
popular. Eleanor, at times, shows jealousy of her twin; also seems 
to dislike her mother intensely.” 
Group 48. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; subnormal intelligence; both affected. 5 cases: 
Nos. 222-226. 
Case 222. McD. twins, Bernice and Beatrice. Born in California 
in 1916. Observed by us in December, 1931, in Long Beach city schools. 
Bernice is of slightly subnormal intelligence (I. Q. 86) ; Beatrice is 94 
ETIOLOGY OP BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
normal in that respect (I. Q. 96). Both present behavior difficulties, 
apparently due in large measure to their mother’s mismanagement. 
‘ ‘ The mother is a rather elderly widow and determined that her daugh- 
ters shall be mathematicians, as their father was. The girls haven’t 
the slightest inclination toward a scholastic career, but the mother has 
hounded both them and their teachers to obtain her ends. She is out 
of sympathy with modern young people. She refuses to let the girls 
go out evenings, with the result that they escaped out of the window 
several times after they were supposed to be in bed and were found in 
dance halls on the Pike. In May, 1931, Bernice ran away with a sailor 
and was gone for about 2 weeks before she was found. The mother is 
having the marriage annulled and Bernice has been put back in 
Junior High School. Beatrice has not been quite so aggressive as 
Bernice in defying her mother, but her hatred for the mother is intense 
and she declares it openly, and vows she is going to run away. Her 
conduct at school with various boys has brought her into the office 
several times. Also she has forged her mother’s signature a couple of 
times to notes giving excuses for absence. She is quite pretty and a 
good dancer, and says she is going on the stage, which is another 
source of conflict with the mother.” 
Case 223. K. twins, Mary and Clara. Born in Los Angeles, 
California, February 11, 1917. The home background is one of 
extreme poverty. The twins Avere observed by us in March, 1932, in 
one of the Los Angeles city schools. Both twins are retarded at school, 
Mary by 3 years, Clara by 2. Mental tests in 1932 revealed, for Mary, 
I. Q. 77, for Clara, 85. There is no behavior difficulty in Clara’s case, 
but Mary has been in considerable trouble. The main problem is 
stealing, handkerchiefs being the chief item. She is also very untidy, 
wets herself daily, is very untruthful, and unpopular among her school- 
mates ; she cries frequently and says the others pick on her. She is also 
physically undersized. 
Case 224. C. twins, Mamie and Minnie. Born in Orange, Cali- 
fornia, in 1915. Observed by us in December, 1931, in one of the 
Orange city schools. Although there is no record of intelligence tests, 
the girls are obviously of subnormal intelligence, and retarded educa- 
tionally: at 16 they are in the 7a grade. Their behavior difficulty, as 
reported by their teacher, consists in ‘ ‘ stupidity and stealing. ’ ’ Minnie 
is said to be much more aggressi\re than Mamie, though they are usually 
together. Teacher believes that Mamie, by herself, Avould not get into 
trouble. “Mamie will do better what she is told, while Minnie is 
stubborn and defiant. ’ ’ In addition to many thefts of other children’s 
things at school, there have been reports of their stealing fruit and 
candy from grocers. 
Case 225. G. tAvius, Winifred and Dorothy. Born in San Diego, 
California, in 1908. Observed by us in November, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the San Diego County Health Department. The twins had 
done poorly at school, having reached but the sixth grade. There is 
no record of mental tests, but they are obviously subnormal in intelli- 
gence, estimated I. Q.’s betAveen 60 and 70. While still at school, 
Winifred was mixed up in some sexual escapades. Soon after leaving 95 
SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
school, she married, but is nevertheless seen on the streets constantly, 
often with sailors, flashily dressed; bears a poor reputation around 
town. Dorothy has also been promiscuous, though not so conspicuously 
as Winifred. Soon after leaving school she had an illegitimate preg- 
nancy; this resulted in miscarriage due to a venereal infection. Since 
then she has been under treatment for the venereal infection at the 
Public Health Clinic. 
Class 226. E. twins, Martha and Margaret. Born in California, 
August 1, 1906. Our observation of them was in November, 1931, 
through the courtesy of the Fullerton, California, High School. Both 
twins are of somewhat subnormal intelligence; I. Q. ’s, respectively, are 
89 and 86. Both have also been persistent behavior problems. They 
were past 20 years of age when they entered high school, but were 
finally expelled in their second year there because of “grave sexual 
misconduct.” Martha is generally known as a prostitute. Margaret 
has a child believed to be illegitimate, though she tells a tale of marriage 
to a man whom she later discovered to be already married. Margaret 
has worked more steadily and is considered a trifle more dependable 
than Martha. They work chiefly in packing houses in season. 
Group 49. Juvenile delinquency; subnormal intelli- 
gence; both affected. 7 cases: Nos. 227-233. 
Case 227. S. twins, Nora and Dorothy. Born in Hamilton, 
Ontario, Canada, July 27, 1917. The twins were born at full term, but 
the birth was difficult and accomplished with the aid of forceps. They 
attended a parochial school. Nora proved hardly teachable and 
became almost at once such a sex delinquent that she was considered a 
menace to the other children and the Sisters refused to have her at 
the school. As she approached maturity she became more and more of 
a problem, would run away from home, was having illicit relations with 
men, and finally the Big Sisters Association arranged for her commit- 
ment to the Ontario Hospital at Orillia, Canada, on December 11, 1931. 
At the institution she was found to be “a distinct sex problem”; also 
showed schizoid traits: “constantly grimacing and blinking; whenever 
approached she covers her face with her hands and will not look up; 
answers only in low monosyllables.” A mental test in 1931 revealed 
I. Q. 57. Dorothy is much brighter, reached the sixth grade at 13 
years. There is no record of a mental test, but her I. Q. is estimated 
at 85 or 90. At 13 she, too, had become a persistent sex delinquent, 
was considered incorrigible, and was committed for an indefinite period 
to the Home of the Good Shepherd. 
Case 228. S. twins, Beulah and Eulah. Born in Imperial Valley, 
California, November 14, 1914. Beulah is the less intelligent of the 
twins, also the first to have gotten into difficulty. The twins have a 
second stepmother. In February, 1928, Beulah was first brought 
before the Juvenile Court as “incorrigible, disobedient, running out 
at night”; she had attempted suicide by drinking tincture of iodine; 
vaginal smear revealed venereal infection. She has since been before 
the court on two other occasions, was cared for in the Convent of the 
Good Shepherd from December, 1928, to March, 1929, and finally was 96 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
committed to the Los Angeles Comity institution for delinquent girls 
(El Retiro) on June 11, 1930. She escaped from there on August 4, 
1930, and was returned the same day, and was still an inmate there 
at the time of our observation of the case, which was in January, 1931. 
A mental test in 1930 revealed I. Q. 79. Eulah has a much higher 
intelligence; in her case a mental test in 1928 revealed I. Q. 112. But 
she has also been a sex delinquent. She is described as of erratic 
temper, stubborn, unmanageable. First brought before the Juvenile 
Court in January, 1929. She was then put on probation, but violated 
it, and on July 1, 1929, was placed in the Convent of the Good 
Shepherd. From there she was released on March 7, 1930, but soon 
got into trouble again and on October 3, 1930, was committed to El 
Retiro (Los Angeles County institution). On December 15, 1930, 
she ran away from there, but was picked up within 2 days and placed 
in Juvenile Hall. At the time of our investigation of the case, in 
January, 1931, she was still there awaiting further court action. 
Case 229. B. twins, Lila and Lola. Born in Bagley, lowa, Sep- 
tember 30, 1914. Mother is an invalid, has had three miscarriages in the 
past 3 years; also lost a set of triplets. The girls were known in the 
neighborhood as “high fliers, out nights, lazy, irresponsible.” In 
June, 1930, they were reported by the family to the police as missing. 
On July 3, 1930, Lila was arrested in a drunken condition and taken 
to Juvenile Hall in Los Angeles. She then told of her and Lola’s 
having started for Oregon by hitch-hiking; but they returned to Los 
Angeles and there lived with various men for several weeks. Lola 
then went off with a man and has not been heard from since. Lila 
was found to have a gonorrheal infection with kidney involvement; 
she remained under treatment in Juvenile Hall until September 4, 
1930, when she was transferred for further treatment to the Los 
Angeles County General Hospital. Following her discharge from 
there in October, 1930, she, too, has been lost track of. A mental test 
of Lila in 1930 revealed I. Q. 69. There is no record of a mental 
test in Lola’s case. 
Case 230. S. twins, Madeline Pearl and Viola Jane. Born in 
Merlin, Ontario, Canada, January 10, 1915. The home background is 
poor; mother is epileptic and sexually promiscuous. The girls had 
“a bad reputation” from childhood. Madeline served a term in the 
London, Ontario, jail, “for indecent exposure,” from July 16 to 
September 21, 1930; and another term “for lewd and licentious con- 
duct,” from May 23 to June 7, 1932. She was then committed to the 
Ontario Hospital, London. At the time of our observation of the case, 
which was in September, 1932, she was still an inmate there. In 1931 
she had given birth to an illegitimate child (stillborn). A mental test 
in 1932 revealed I. Q. 45. On admission to the hospital she was found 
to have a gonorrheal infection. The admission note states that she was 
“profane in her language; kicked the nurse in the face; threatened 
suicide; talked chiefly of sexual experiences; at times refused food.” 
Viola, too, is obviously of subnormal intelligence, judged to be on the 
level of high-grade moronism or borderline; works as domestic on a 
farm and “does not have a very good reputation.” However, she has SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
97 
not been in conflict with the authorities and is not considered to be 
definitely delinquent. 
Case 231. MeC. twins, Edith and Gertrude. Born in Toronto, 
Ontario, Canada, July 23, 1914. Home conditions unsatisfactory; 
father has a jail record; mother drinks and has a bad reputation. 
Edith has been an habitual truant from school and has been involved 
in some petty thefts. Gertrude has been a sex delinquent from the age 
of 12 years; at that age she was brought to the attention of the Juvenile 
Court. She was released, but continued to be promiscuous sexually, 
and in June, 1931, was discovered to be pregnant, and a blood test 
proved positive for the Wassermann reaction. On June 7, 1931, both 
twins were committed to the Groves School for Delinquent Girls in 
Toronto for supervision until they became of age. At the time 
of our observation of the case, which was in August, 1932, they were 
still inmates there. Mental tests in 1926 revealed, for Edith, I. Q. 78, 
for Gertrude, 86. 
Case 232. 11. twins, Eva and Elsie. Born in Toronto, Ontario, 
Canada, July 26, 1913. Mother is said to be immoral, unpopular in 
the neighborhood, and is alleged to have encouraged the twins in their 
misconduct. Both twins are of subnormal intelligence. Mental tests 
in 1926 revealed, for Eva, I. Q. 72, for Elsie, 64. Both are also juvenile 
delinquents. Eva was sent to the House of Industry, Toronto, on 
June 6, 1926, “for incorrigibility.” She remained there until Janu- 
ary 14, 1928. Soon after her release she became pregnant and in 1929 
gave birth to an illegitimate child. On January 14, 1931, she was 
committed to the Edith Groves School for Delinquents in Toronto, and 
at the time of our investigation of the case, which was in August, 1932, 
she was still an inmate there. Her case is also complicated with 
epilepsy; convulsions began at the age of 1 year and have occurred 
since at the rate of about one a month. Elsie also has been promiscuous 
sexually, gave birth to an illegitimate child in February, 1930, and on 
May 4, 1930, was committed to the Ontario Hospital at Orillia, Canada. 
At the time of our observation of the case she was still an inmate there. 
She has never had any manifestations of epilepsy. 
Case 233. P. twins, Lily and Pansy. Born in Peoria, Illinois, 
June 29, 1913. These girls were cared for in an orphanage until the 
age of 9 years, when they were placed in a foster home. As they 
matured, they became unmanageable and disobedient, persisting in 
running around with men at all hours. The orphanage refused to take 
them back, and in the summer of 1930 they were brought before the 
Juvenile Court. Both were placed on probation after employment 
had been secured for them as domestics. They did well as far as their 
work was concerned, and there has been no further difficulty with 
Pansy. Lily had to be repeatedly scolded for being out late, sometimes 
until 2 a.m., and finally, in November, 1930, she disappeared and was 
not located again until January 4, 1931. It was learned that she had 
been living with one man after another, associated with bootleggers, 
had been an inmate of a house of prostitution, etc. Accordingly, on 
February 20, 1931, she w’as committed to the State Training School 
for Girls at Geneva, Illinois. At the time of our observation of the 98 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
case, which was in July, 1932, she was still an inmate there. A mental 
test in 1931 revealed I. Q. GO. There is no record of any mental test 
in Pansy’s case. 
Group 50. Adult criminality; subnormal intelli- 
gence; both affected. 1 case: No. 234. 
Case 234. C. twins, Rose and Lillian. Born in West Springfield, 
Massachusetts, May 3, 1897. The home background is very poor. 
Mother is illiterate and “has an extremely poor reputation”; is said 
to have encouraged the twins in their drinking and sexual promiscuity; 
both brothers have court records for theft and drunkenness; an older 
sister is epileptic; another sister has dementia praecox; none of the 
children in the family got beyond the fifth grade in school. The home 
is in a wretched neighborhood, disorderly, dirty, and has been under 
police surveillance as a suspicious resort. Rose has worked at odd jobs, 
but is usually idle. In 1914 the twins ran away from home and were 
found later dressed in boys ’ clothes, living in a shack by the river, and 
were arrested “for immorality and drunkenness.” Lillian had been 
arrested on similar charges in 1913. Both have had illegitimate chil- 
dren and were infected with both gonorrhea and syphilis. Lillian 
has a congenital club-foot. She served a term in the Massachusetts 
House of Correction from January 20, 1919, to June 19, 1919. No 
record of a mental test in her case, but she is obviously of subnormal 
intelligence, estimated as in the degree of high-grade moronism or 
borderline. Rose was in the Massachusetts Reformatory for Women 
at Framingham from August 26, 1918, to April 7, 1920; again from 
April 11, 1922, to April 10, 1924; committed there for the third time 
on March 10, 1932. At the time of our investigation of the case, 
which was in August, 1932, she was still an inmate there. A mental 
test in 1923 revealed I. Q. 60. In the intervals between her residence 
in the reformatory she was an inmate of houses of prostitution, “an 
eye-sore on the streets, ’ ’ a hustler for her ‘ ‘ pimp husband. ’ ’ 
Group 51. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic 
and prepsychotic types; normal intelligence; one affected. 
14 cases: Nos. 235-248. 
Case 235. P. twins, Claire and Carol. Born in California, Decem- 
ber 30, 1926. Our observation in March, 1932, in one of the Pasa- 
dena, California, city schools. ‘ ‘ Claire is excessively shy and timid; 
weeps almost continuously, not noisily, but quietly to herself. Can 
not be induced to participate in the little kindergarten games. Clings 
to her twin sister. Has to be taken home daily. ’ ’ They had attempted 
to start her in school one year previously, but had given it up because 
of her inability to adapt herself to school. “Now the parents are 
puzzled as to what to do with her.” Carol, while somewhat shy, 
nevertheless cooperates well with the teacher and other pupils. “She 
mothers Claire and is always watching out for her.” 
Case 236. W. twins, Marie and Genevieve. Of mixed race, Negro- 
Indian-White. Born in San Diego, California, in 1926. Observed SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
99 
by ns in December, 1931, in the San Diego Children’s Home. Marie 
has had temper tantrums almost since birth. “When she does not get 
every whim gratified, she kicks and howls and holds her breath till 
she goes limp. It is a fight with her every day to get her to drink 
her milk, another scene to get her bathed, etc.” Genevieve is very 
placid and docile, seems normal in every way. 
Case 237. S. twins, Lois and Lee. Born in Long Beach, Califor- 
nia, February 21, 1925. Our observation in October, 1931, through the 
courtesy of a private reference. “Lois is very aggressive, with a 
violent temper, very disagreeable toward other children, slapping 
them if they will not obey all her commands. Her chief difficulties, 
with adults, have been from her fibbing—not merely giving false 
excuses for misbehavior, but spontaneously giving weird accounts of 
misdemeanors of other children chiefly directed against herself.” Lee 
is a placid, helpful child, usually dominated by Lois; neat with her 
toys, whereas Lois is untidy. Lee usually picks up all of Lois’ things 
for her and straightens up the cupboard. 
Case 238. C. twins, Suzanna and Patricia. Born in Pasadena, 
California, November 11, 1924. Our observation in March, 1932, in 
one of the Pasadena city schools. These children are of very superior 
intelligence, I. Q.’s, respectively, 139 and 129. Suzanna alone pre- 
sents a behavior difficulty: ‘ ‘ She is painfully shy; shrinks when spoken 
to; can not be induced to recite in class or to take part in the games of 
other children; she cries silently whenever any pressure is put upon 
her to play with the others. She sits huddled up in her seat, either 
reading a book or gazing into space. Is immaculately neat and 
orderly. ’ ’ Patricia is also somewhat shy, but much less so, and adjusts 
satisfactorily. 
Case 239. McL. twins, Ruth Elizabeth and Mary Irene. Born 
in Hynes, California, July 22, 1924. Our observation in October, 1931, 
in one of the public schools of Hynes. Ruth is the brighter child, 
Stanford-Binet test revealed I. Q. 107. Mary’s I. Q. is 97. Ruth 
alone presents a behavior difficulty, in the nature of a schizoid tempera- 
ment. Her teacher states: “Ruth is the most painfully shy child I 
have ever had to deal with. She does beautiful written work, but you 
simply can not get her to recite in class. When little contests or 
matches are on she will stand with her face to the wall, and will cry 
if any pressure is brought to bear to make her participate. No trouble 
whatever in any other respect.” “Mary is a very sweet, charming 
child; shines better in class than Ruth, but does not do as good written 
work; is very popular with all her playmates.” 
Case 240. W. twins, Doris and Prances. Born in San Pedro, 
California, May 28, 1920. Observed by us in September, 1931, through 
the courtesy of the Social Welfare League of Long Beach, California. 
These twins, anfi their four brothers and sisters, were placed in a 
church home, when their mother died, and were practically aban- 
doned by their father, who remarried, choosing a girl in her ’teens. 
Doris is of mediocre intelligence (I. Q. 90), and she alone presents a 
behavior problem: “Has trouble at school, is very untruthful; when 100 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
punished, laughs loudly and hysterically through it.” Frances is 
brighter, I. Q. 115, seems never to have been a problem in any way. 
Case 241. R. twins, Nancy and Jean. Born in Evanston, Illinois, 
November 18, 1918. Our observation in March, 1932, in one of the 
Pasadena, California, city schools. Both girls are bright, I. Q.’s, 
respectively, are 129 and 118. Nancy alone presents a behavior prob- 
lem : £ ‘ She is very quarrelsome, not only at school, but at home. The 
parents have come to the school counselor seeking advice as to what 
to do with her. She is impudent and defiant; constantly in conflict 
with her teachers. Haughty and overbearing toward the other pupils, 
and is disliked by them, has no friends. Every regulation is a chal- 
lenge to her for defiance; she refuses to listen or respond to any 
reasoning or appeal; seems to especially dislike her twin.” “Jean 
is a good student and a very sweet girl. ’ ’ 
Case 242. R. twins, Marjorie and Margaret. Born in Santa 
Monica, California, July 21, 1917. Observed by us in October, 1931, 
in Long Beach, California. Marjorie alone presents a behavior prob- 
lem. Her aunt states: ‘ ‘ She is the most utterly lacking in affection 
of any person I ever knew. From infancy she has coolly and deliber- 
ately exploited for her own ends everyone with whom she has come 
in contact, giving nothing in return. Stronger than Margaret as a 
child, she tyrannized over her and pinched her and abused her till the 
family had to keep them in separate pens. Throughout school she 
has manifested the same traits, changing her friends on the basis of 
their serviceability to her, and teasing and tyrannizing over younger 
and smaller ones. When a baby is brought to the house she watches 
her opportunity to pinch it or otherwise hurt it. It is the same with 
pets. She has never cared for an animal, but always seeks to hurt 
them. Some of these incidents have been of long-drawn-out cruelty 
and she seems fascinated watching an animal suffer or die.” She is 
bright in school, makes better grades than Margaret, but has been 
detected cheating several times. “She is a very good dancer, and at 
present wants to go on the stage via Hollywood.” Margaret is 
described by her aunt as of “very lovable, affectionate disposition; 
considerate of others, helpful in the home; a good housekeeper, a 
neat and willing worker. She has a quick temper, but soon gets over 
it, and bears no grudges.” 
Case 243. W. twins, Vena and Verna. Born in Redondo Beach, 
California, January 15, 1915. Our observation in December, 1931, in 
the Redondo Union High School. “Vena just entered high school 
this last fall (1931), while Verna is 2 years ahead of her. In addi- 
tion to being slower mentally, Vena has a violent temper. If she 
makes a mistake in her lesson, she tears up the paper, perhaps the 
textbook too, and throws things about. She has been sent to the 
office several times for discipline because of this.” “Verna seems a 
nice, capable, average high-school girl, well liked by her companions, 
does fair work in school.” There is no record of a mental test in 
either case, but they seem to be of normal intelligence. 
Case 244. M. twins, Dora and Nora. Born in Milwaukee, Wis- 
consin, June 21, 1913. Our observation in December, 1931, in SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
101 
Redondo, California, Union High School. Dora alone presents a 
behavior difficulty, which is based on an extremely schizoid tempera- 
ment: “Her shyness is painful. She is dreadfully sensitive about her 
height and thinness.” Dora is 5 feet 9 inches tall and weighs 115 
pounds. Nora is 5 feet 4 inches tall and weighs 125 pounds. “Dora 
can not be induced to mingle in any of the gaieties of the young people, 
but goes off by herself and cries when parties are in progress. She 
does beautiful work in school, makes the highest grades in her class, 
and is greatly liked by her teachers who are much worried about her 
sensitiveness. The twins seem fond of one another, though Nora is 
a good mixer and is usually with the crowd having a good time, while 
Dora sits in her seat alone.” 
Case 245. P. twins, Victoria and Virginia. Born in California, 
in 1913. Onr observation in November, 1931, through the courtesy of 
the San Diego County, California; Health Department. Victoria alone 
presents a behavior problem, based on a markedly schizoid tempera- 
ment : “She has a very marked speech defect and is exceedingly self- 
conscious. She is also quite stout, and so remains excessively shy and 
retiring; seems to be very unhappy most of the time. Her nervous- 
ness and timidity are extreme. She does excellent written work, but 
can not be induced to attempt a recitation.” “Virginia is just a nor- 
mal, bright, attractive high-school girl.” 
Case 246. W. twins, Helen Regina and Lulu Carolina. Born in 
Belleview, lowa, in 1913. Our observation in September, 1931, in 
one of the Long Beach, California, city high schools. Helen alone has 
a behavior difficulty, based on a markedly egocentric temperament. 
Described as “bold, aggressive, forward, can brook no rivalry. Her 
jealousy of her twin is outstanding: her disposition antagonized people, 
whereas Lulu’s pleasant temperament made her very popular. Among 
young people Helen shines more at first meeting, but her irritability 
and aggressiveness soon cause her to lose friends. Lulu’s popularity 
seems to infuriate Helen. Helen, also, is very bossy, completely domi- 
nates her twin. Helen doesn’t like to stay at home, gets jobs as 
helper in other homes, but becomes dissatisfied or quarrels with mis- 
tress after 3 or 4 months and gives up or loses her job.” Lulu .is 
much more stable, more considerate of others, less selfish, has strong 
domestic tastes, is an excellent cook. 
Case 247. B. twins, Mildred and Millieent. Born in Holly, 
Michigan, January 10, 1907. Onr observation in August, 1932, through 
the courtesy of the Pontiac, Michigan, State Hospital. Mildred has 
had difficulty from birth, possibly due to a cerebral birth trauma. The 
difficulty increased and eventually led to a chronic psychotic condition. 
At birth Mildred weighed 5 pounds, was a bine baby, always frail. Had 
sinking spells during first week. Not a good mixer, never played with 
others, just looked on. Slower in developing than her twin, took a year 
longer to finish high school. A nail biter in childhood. Always jealous 
of her twin. At home always on the defensive. Described as “nervous 
and high-strung.” In December, 1926, she had an illegitimate child, 
putative father disappeared. Around that time she seemed to be 
deteriorating mentally; became careless, undependable, at her job in 102 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
a factory would not apply herself, soon lost the job. Then was often 
noted talking and laughing to herself, refused to wash for several 
months, struck her mother, said people stole her thoughts, heard voices, 
expressed delusions centering around the father of her child. Finally 
was institutionalized, first in the Psychopathic Hospital at Ann Arbor, 
Michigan, for about 6 months; eventually, on August 3, 1931, was com- 
mitted to the State Hospital at Pontiac, Michigan. At the time of our 
observation of her case she was still a patient there. The psychotic 
manifestations were mixed, i.e., both manic-like and schizophrenic. The 
course was at first interrupted by well marked remissions, but even- 
tually became chronic. Millicent was healthier as a baby, got on better 
at school and later in a good job for 4 years. “Has always been very 
popular, a leader in sports and in sociability.” Married in 1930, has 
a very healthy child. 
Case 248. McG. twins, Clara and Lucy. Born in Southfield, 
Michigan, December 5, 1883. Our observation in September, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Wahjamega, Michigan, State Hospital. 
Clara alone presented behavior difficulties, associated with epilepsy, 
and eventually leading to psychotic deterioration. The troubles began 
at birth and are probably due to a cerebral birth trauma. Clara 
weighed only 2-| pounds at birth, whereas Lucy weighed 6 pounds. 
Clara was puny from birth, Lucy a healthy baby. Clara had convul- 
sions several times daily for 6 weeks after birth. Cried a great deal 
as a child; had night terrors; walked at 2\ years; talked at 4 years. 
‘ ‘ Always a behavior problem, hard to control, irritable; at 20 attempted 
to drown herself.” At 14 years convulsions recurred, were at first 
irregular, with long remissions, eventually established themselves at the 
rate of 2 or 3 a week, of great severity, and often followed by a dis- 
turbed and violent spell. She was finally committed to the Wahjamega 
State Hospital on October 12, 1928, and at the time of our observation 
of the case was still an inmate there. Lucy was a healthy baby, walked 
and talked before she was a year old, always larger and more robust 
than her twin. “She is normal in every way, exceptionally bright, is 
married. ’ ’ 
Group 52. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; normal intelligence; one affected. 9 cases: Nos. 
249-257. 
Case 249. K. twins, Marie Phyllis and Ruth. Born on June 3, 
1917. Our observation in March, 1932, in one of the Pasadena, Cali- 
fornia, city schools. Marie, though the brighter of the two, is the one 
presenting a behavior difficult}?-. Mental tests, in 1930, revealed, for 
Marie, I. Q. 123, for Ruth, 106. “Marie has been suspended from three 
different Pasadena schools for her behavior. It has been chiefly of a 
sexual nature, personal exhibitionism and teaching sex practices to 
other pupils. She is also untruthful and a ditcher, forging excuses, 
and trying to lie out of her escapades. She is decidedly a leader wher- 
ever she is, and is regarded as a very bad influence. ” Ruth seems quite 
normal in every way. SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
103 
Case 250. B. twins, Dorothy and Evelyn. Born in New York 
City, September 18, 1915. Our observation in July, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the New York Institute for Child Guidance. Parents 
divorced; mother illiterate, not very intelligent; she is unreliable, 
apparently leading an immoral life. Dorothy weighed 5 pounds at 
birth, was the weaker of the twins. She has been tried for adoption 
several times, but her extremely antisocial activities made her removal 
necessary. Reports from these foster homes state that she refused to 
wash and dress, went to other apartments and smashed things, swore 
and used vile language. Bed wetter until age of 7 years. “Now she 
seems to have a great deal of surplus energy and is over-active. Dis- 
likes baths, difficult to make her take one. Has had sex experience. She 
states that she was attacked by an older boy in one of the foster homes; 
also that the janitor attacks her every time she goes to the basement.” 
Has a record of stealing and lying since the age of 9 years. In school 
she ‘ ‘ likes to tell on others ”; is disorderly, inattentive, fidgety in class; 
always has too much money and has various stories as to how she 
came by it. A Stanford-Binet test in 1925 revealed I. Q. 91. Evelyn 
has been adopted since the age of 5 years. Reported by Home for 
Hebrew Infants to be “a normal, bright, attractive child; was placed 
in an excellent private home where she would have every advantage. ’ ’ 
Case 251. C. twins, Edna and Euretta. Born in suburb of 
Toronto, Ontario, Canada, in 1915. Our observation, privately 
arranged, in October, 1931, in Santa Monica, California. These twins 
were separated at birth, when Euretta was taken to be brought up by 
her grandmother. Euretta thus received a very strict upbringing and 
became “'a sweet, submissive type.” Edna was retained by her parents 
and brought up with every indulgence. “As a young girl in the lower 
grades she was mixed up in several sex escapades, and acquired also 
quite a reputation for untruthfulness. Twice in the summer of 1931 
she disappeared from home for about 3 days each time, and was found, 
in both instances, in rather notorious night clubs, drunk. She was also 
mentioned in connection with some stolen goods which had been found 
in the possession of some youngsters she was with, but she seemed to 
have been too drunk to know anything about it. Her parents are very 
religious, think there is something wrong with her mentally, and that 
she should have treatment in a sanitarium.” 
Case 252. E. twins, Roberta and Genevieve. Born in Zion, Illi- 
nois, November 10, 1918. Our observation in May, 1935, in one of the 
Los Angeles, California, city high schools. These twins are of mediocre 
intelligence, both have an I. Q. of 92. The twins were born prematurely, 
at 7 months, and both together weighed not quite 6 pounds. Genevieve 
is quite normal, has never presented any behavior problem, is dominated 
by Roberta. Roberta was a difficult problem from birth, probably due, 
at least in part, to a cerebral birth trauma. She came as a breech 
presentation; the midwife had difficulty in delivering the head. She 
was a blue baby and had to be resuscitated by being dangled by the 
feet and spanked. Her training in bowel and bladder control was 
very difficult; mother had to resort to coaxing, bribes, threats, and 
finally whipping and switching to make her quit soiling herself. There 
was no such difficulty with Genevieve. At the age of 3 years Roberta 104 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
went through a severe attack of scarlet fever, was in a coma for 4 
weeks. Roberta ran away from home frequently, almost as soon as 
she learned to walk. She had to be tied by a rope in the yard in 
order to keep her at home. She was “mischievous and into every- 
thing”- also made up fantastic stories. When disciplined by being 
sent to lied she would scream so loudly as to alarm the neighbors. After 
a quarrel with a little boy in primary school, she got a knife and cut 
up his rubbers. She was in general overbearing toward other children, 
and always dominated and imposed on her twin. At 16 she began to 
have sexual experience with a boy at school, and there was some diffi- 
culty in preventing her eloping with him. 
Case 253. H. twins, Margaret and Mildred. Born in Georgia, 
April 6, 1915. Our observation in one of the Long Beach, California, 
city high schools. Margaret is much the more intelligent of the twins. 
A Stanford-Binet test revealed I. Q. 135; whereas Mildred’s I. Q. 
turned out to be 93. Mildred is a good houseworker, presents no 
problem, is her mother’s favorite. Margaret is studious, being in that 
respect unlike the rest of the family and in general conflict with them, 
especially with Mildred. Margaret has the ambition to become a 
teacher of mathematics. Her mother says, “This child is a brain 
worker, never able to do much with her hands.” She is also described 
as impulsive and excitable. Her delinquency was brought to light 
through the following episode: “The case came before the Juvenile 
Court and Margaret was subpoenaed, with another girl, after they had 
jointly written some obscene literature, which was found by the school 
authorities. ’ ’ Margaret was put on probation and later dismissed. 
Case 254. G. twins, Mary Louise and Betty Jane. Born in 
Detroit, Michigan, July 8, 1915. Our observation in January, 1934, 
through private reference. The parents were separated when the twins 
were very young. The twins were placed in an orphanage and from 
there adopted, together, at the age of 3 years. Betty Jane has never 
been a problem, was always favored by her own parents and by others 
since, which caused Mary Louise to be jealous and antagonistic toward 
her. At the time of our investigation of the case Betty Jane was in 
junior college preparing for the career of trained nurse. Mary Louise’s 
behavior problem grew more difficult with time. In junior high school 
she did not work, cribbed, was boy-crazy. Later was placed in art 
school, but did not do much better; “was on the street most of the 
time.” “In past 2 or 3 years has been running with boys, sneaking 
out of the house, disobeying, etc. In 1933 began having sexual rela- 
tions.” Described as being of violent temper, given to lying, generally 
unadjusted. “Does not want to work. Once, when placed in a job, 
she forged a note threatening the kidnapping of a child, in order to be 
fired, sent home, and not have to work.” 
Case 255. J. twins, Edith and Mary Jane. Born in San Jacinto, 
California, in 1913. Our observation in December, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the San Diego County, California, Health Department. 
“It was not generally recognized that these girls were twins, because 
of their unlikeness. They did not go together. ’ ’ The unlikeness existed 
from birth, when Mary Jane weighed 12 pounds and Edith but 5 SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
105 
pounds. “Mary Jane made a very excellent record at school and is 
now at Scripps College. Is reported to be a very superior girl in 
every respect.” Edith has been a problem for some years. She did 
not complete her high school course. Since leaving school she has 
been a waitress in a small cafe in a poor section of the town. “Has 
acquired an unsavory reputation; has not lived at home for about 2 
years; is syphilitic and is being treated for it at the San Diego Clinic. ’ ’ 
Case 256. B. twins, Armine and Irene. Born in Tnscolla, Texas, 
July 21, 1910. Onr observation in June, 1932, through the courtesy 
of the State Hospital at Abilene, Texas. Armine is normal in every 
respect: “A graduate of a business college and working in a restau- 
rant. Now successfully and happily married. ” Irene has the residuals 
of an infantile cerebral palsy, the left arm being partially paralyzed 
and atrophied. From the age of 7 weeks she has been subject to 
epileptic seizures, but these were not very frequent, and she was able 
to go to school until her graduation from high school at the age of 18 
years. She did not go to work because of her paralysis, but drifted 
into sexual promiscuity, and was finally picked up on the street as a 
prostitute. She was found also to have “florid secondary syphilis.” 
On account of her disabling paralysis, epilepsy, and sex delinquency 
she was committed to the Abilene State Hospital on September 10, 1930. 
At the time of onr observation of the case she was still an inmate there. 
Case 257. B. twins, Ruth and Josephine. Born in Coldwater, 
Ontario, Canada, in 1910. Our observation in August, 1932, through 
the courtesy of the Toronto Psychiatric Hospital. An older sister of 
the twins has been in the Ontario Hospital at Woodstock for some years, 
on account of epilepsy which began at the age of 17 years. Ruth has 
presented a behavior problem, characterized by instability, from early 
childhood. While still in elementary school, at 16 years, she became 
pregnant and contracted syphilis. Her illegitimate baby was born in 
May, 1927, in the Haven (a detention home for unmarried mothers 
in Toronto). After a few weeks she escaped from there in the night, 
together with another girl. At the age of 20 years she began to have 
epileptic seizures, sometimes as many as three in one day. In February, 
1931, she became depressed, bought some arsenic, and threatened to 
end her life. She was taken in custody and, while at the police station, 
tried suicide again by turning on the gas, but was detected. She was 
then placed in the Toronto Psychiatric Hospital, and later sent to the 
Women’s Farm at Toronto. Josephine has been free from behavior 
difficulty, epilepsy, or any other serious trouble. 
Group 53. Adult criminality; normal intelligence; 
one affected. 1 case: No. 258. 
Case 258. F. twins, Ethel and Edith. Part Negro. Born in 
Quincy, Illinois, April 15, 1898. Our observation in July, 1932, through 
the courtesy of Dwight Reformatory, Illinois. Edith has presented no 
problem of any kind. Ethel’s criminality seems to have consisted of 
an isolated episode, occurring at the age of 34 years. A Stanford- 
Binet test, administered in 1932, revealed I. Q. 105. Her offense was 
petty larceny, and the sentence was for 6 months in Dwight Reform- 106 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
atory, Illinois. “Ethel had an 8-grade education. Thereafter worked 
with her mother as maid in the railroad depot. She is married and has 
a daughter 3| years old. Has never been discharged from a job. 
Former employer speaks highly of her. Her husband was shot while 
gambling. No other member of her family has ever been in trouble. 
In her own case there is no history or evidence of prior criminality. 
She took 2 dresses from a girl at the boarding house where she was 
working. The girl recognized them on her on the street, and had her 
arrested.” 
Group 54. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic 
and prepsychotic types; subnormal intelligence; one 
affected. 7 cases: Nos. 259-265. 
Case 259. H. twins, Eva Florentine and Edith Ernestine. Born 
in Roanoke, Virginia, October 5, 1925. Observed by us in one of the 
Long Beach, California, city schools. Florentine was then repeating 
kindergarten, while Ernestine had progressed to the first grade. Mental 
tests in 1931 revealed, for Florentine, I. Q. 60, for Ernestine, 91. 
Ernestine presents no behavior problem or difficulty of any kind. 
Florentine, on the other hand, is a problem both at home and at school. 
She seems to crave attention constantly, and, to gain it, will throw 
herself on the floor, pound the floor with her head, or will have a 
temper tantrum, yelling and kicking. The other children in the kinder- 
garten seem to fear her and will not play with her. A recommendation 
has been made to put her in a special school for problem children, 
“not only for her sake but, also for that of the other childen in 
the class.” 
Case 260. L. twins, Elizabeth Mary and Gertrude Florence. Born 
in Canada, November 8, 1919. Our observation in August, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Toronto Psychiatric Hospital. The mother 
of these twins died when they were 2 years old, and at that time they, 
with three other children, were placed in the Protestant Children’s 
Home. Soon the twins were separated, Gertrude being placed for adoption 
in a good home in St. Mary’s, Ontario. “At 13 years she is in the first 
year of high school and is doing very well. Has always been very 
healthy. Her foster parents are very fond and proud of her.” Eliza- 
beth has been paralyzed since birth or early infancy. She walks Avith 
a limping, shuffling gait; arms move jerkily, hands are held in partial 
flexion, and she manipulates them poorly. No history of conditions at 
birth is available, but her clinical appearance suggests a cerebral birth 
trauma as the etiologic factor. A Stanford-Binet test in 1932 revealed 
I. Q. 81. At the age of 6 years, by reason of her paralysis, she was 
placed in the Home for Incurable Children. There she showed fre- 
quent episodes of uncontrolled emotional outbursts, described as fol- 
lows: “For a week she will be cheerful and acquiescent, and then has 
a devilish spell, screams, cries, smashes things, has to be forcibly 
restrained. During her calm spells she works well at her studies and 
is very attractive. At times she has shown a sullen vindictiveness.” 
By reason of her psychotic spells, she was admitted to the Toronto 
Psychiatric Hospital on May 22, 1932. At the time of our investiga- SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
107 
tion of the case she was still a patient there. Case notes, about a week 
apart, state: ‘ ‘ Depressed spell, refused to eat, wanted to die, worri- 
some. ” “Cooperative and amiable.” “Very irritable, destructive of 
clothing; screaming, crying, beating her head against the wall.” 
“These spells rotate in about the same manner constantly.” 
Case 261. M. twins, Lorraine and Edna. Born in San Francisco, 
California, April 18, 1919. Observed by us in April, 1931, through 
the courtesy of the Department of Research, San Francisco city 
schools. A mental test in Lorraine’s case, in 1929, revealed I. Q. 88. 
She was also “so unstable that she could not be handled in a regular 
class, and has therefore been in an ungraded class since January, 1927. 
Investigation also revealed that she was a congenital syphilitic with a 
three-plus Wasserman reaction. ” Edna is apparently brighter than Lor- 
raine and has always made better progress in school. At the time of 
our investigation, she was in the sixth grade in a parochial school at the 
age of 12 years. She has never been called to the attention of the 
school authorities for any reason. 
Case 262. B. twins, Violet and Viola. Born in Fresno, California, 
February 6, 1917. Observed by us in March, 1932, in one of the Pasa- 
dena, California, city schools. There is a marked contrast between the 
twins. Violet is physically much smaller and is subnormal mentally; 
she has done very poorly at school. Mental tests in 1930 revealed, for 
Violet, I. Q. 76, for Viola, 117. Violet is also very quarrelsome, bullies 
the younger girls, is impudent to the teacher, “a nuisance in the class- 
room”; she is very untruthful, blames others for her misdemeanors; 
cries a great deal, “from temper, not sorrow.” Viola does very well 
in her studies and presents no behavior difficulty. 
Case 263. S. twins, Helen and Hilda. Born April 5, 1915. Our 
observation in April, 1931, through the courtesy of the Bureau of Child 
Welfare, Berkeley, California. Hilda is of normal intelligence, Stan- 
ford-Binet I. Q. 103, was in high tenth grade at 16 years, has never 
presented any behavior problem. Helen is of subnormal intelligence, 
Stanford-Binet I. Q. 82, is educationally retarded, and is a problem 
in that she is “a scared girl all the time, makes very poor adjustments.” 
Case 264. M. twins, Dorothy and Mildred. Born in Winthrop, 
Massachusetts, May 29, 1913. The twins were brought up together and 
to the same school, but when they reached the fourth grade 
Dorothy began to fall behind and gradually developed behavior diffi- 
culty, whereas Mildred went ahead without any trouble. Dorothy became 
restless, disliked school, would complain of pains or illness to evade 
tasks at school, said the noise of typewriters and the conversation of 
other children bothered her, was described as slovenly and lazy, 
developed an attitude of antagonism toward the teachers and toward 
her family, would have frequent temper tantrums, and finally became 
quite unmanageable and was referred for diagnosis and recommenda- 
tions to the Psychopathic Institute of the Jewish Hospital at Cincinnati, 
Ohio, where she was under observation from September to November, 
1928. A mental test in 1928 revealed I. Q. 79. This was in contrast 
to the result in Mildred’s case, when her I. Q. had been found to 
be 110. On November 7, 1928, Dorothy was placed in the Hillcrest 108 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
School (for delinquent girls) in Cincinnati, and, at the time of our 
investigation of the case, which was in June, 1931, she was still an 
inmate there. In the new environment she has shown marked improve- 
ment and her temper tantrums ceased. 
Case 265. H. twins, Edith C. and Mary Jane. Born March 19, 
1913. Our observation in June, 1931, through the courtesy of the 
San Diego, California, High School. Edith is of subnormal intelli- 
gence (I. Q. 86), retarded educationally, and presents a behavior 
problem : ‘ ‘ Retarded in school; failing in studies; behavior very eccen- 
tric. Can not get along with anyone except her twin. Given to 
boisterous outbreaks. Is defiant and antagonistic toward the world. 
Has been excused from reciting in class because of the scenes she 
creates when called on. Refuses to make any effort; prefaces every- 
thing with ‘I can’t, I know I’m dumb.’ Untidy, has habit of nail-biting. 
Takes no interest in anything except music. Plays ’cello with fair 
ability; spends many hours a day in practice.” “Mary Jane does 
excellent work in school, in marked contrast to her twin sister. I. Q. 
104. Is extremely devoted to Edith, shields her from the world, waits 
upon her, coaches her in her studies, takes her part in the many family 
quarrels. ’ ’ 
Group 55. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; subnormal intelligence; one affected. 2 cases: 
Nos. 266-267. 
Case 266. B. twins, Goldine and Geraldine. Born in Cedar 
County, Missouri, March 25, 1918. Our observation in June, 1931, 
through the courtesy of one of the junior high schools of San Diego, 
California. “Goldine is failing in her studies; is at present in sub- 
standard group. She is abnormally sex-curious; giving of sex informa- 
tion fails to satisfy her curiosity. She is always involved in obscene 
jokes and stories; draws obscene pictures. She is indolent at home, and 
takes no part in household tasks which are willingly performed by her 
twin sister. She is exceedingly jealous of the twin sister and is not 
at all companionable with her; there is no intimacy between them.” 
Intelligence tests in 1930 revealed, for Goldine, I. Q. 89, for Geraldine, 
106. “Geraldine is doing average work in school and is apparently 
perfectly normal in every way. ’ ’ 
Case 267. D. twins, Yera and Yelma. Born in Needles, California, 
August 22, 1917. Our observation in September, 1931, in one of the 
Long Beach, California, junior high schools. Both girls are edu- 
cationally retarded, being in the 6B grade at 14 years. However, 
Velma’s grades are B’s and C’s, while Yera’s are mostly D’s. Yera 
is in the lowest section of her grade. Stanford-Binet tests in 1931 
revealed, for Vera, I. Q. 86, for Velma, 92. “Yera has been in trouble 
for the past 2 years, because of affairs with boys. A number of notes 
were secured which she had written to various boys. These notes 
referred to assignations, and much obscene language was used. When 
confronted with them, she made no attempt to disown them, but seemed 
proud of her success. ’ ’ SAME-SEX DIZYGOTIC TWINS: FEMALE 
109 
Group 56. Adult criminality; subnormal intelli- 
gence; one affected. 2 cases: Nos. 268-269. 
Case 268. R. twins, Minnie and Ethel. Born in Brooklyn, New 
York, May 17, 1913. Minnie left school at 14 years “because of a fit of 
melancholia.” Since then she has shown much instability, would stay 
out late nights and refuse to account for her comings and goings, 
would frequent night clubs in the colored section of the city, was 
promiscuous sexually, especially with colored men, had an illegitimate 
pregnancy and an induced abortion in 1931, was described as “a street 
walker.” In the spring of 1932 she was placed in the Kings County 
Psychopathic Hospital, Brooklyn, for mental observation, but was pro- 
nounced “not insane, but unstable, neurotic, and impulsive.” She was 
committed to the Westfield State Farm (reformatory for women) 
at Bedford Hills, New York, on May 10, 1932. At the time of our 
observation of the case, which was in November, 1932, she was still an 
inmate there. A mental test in 1932 revealed I. Q. 77. Ethel has been 
normal in every respect, had a course in business college, and has been 
steadily employed and highly regarded by her employers over a period 
of years. No record of a mental test, but she is obviously of average 
intelligence or above. 
Case 269. H. twins, Mary and Agnes Helen. Born in Odell, 
Illinois, December 2, 1909. Observed by us in July, 1932, through the 
courtesy of Dwight Reformatory, Illinois. Poor home background. 
Mary attended rural school; through eighth grade at 16 years. She 
married at 18, divorced 2 years later. Stanford-Binet test in 1931 
revealed I. Q. 86. She has worked some at housework on farms. Admits 
she has practiced prostitution since 18 years of age, saying, “it pays 
better than housework and is easier.” Pregnant twice, both aborted; 
husband had full knowledge and encouraged her. She was finally 
arrested for being an inmate of a house of prostitution in Streator, 
Illinois, and committed to Dwight Reformatory on September 25, 1931. 
At the time of our observation of the case she w7as still an inmate there. 
At the time of her admission there she had a gonorrheal infection and 
her body was covered with impetigo. “Outstanding in her personality 
is her emotional instability. She tells wild tales about her adventures, 
obviously untrue. Thinks people are trying to ‘ get her in bad ’; seems 
to borrow trouble. Careless about her work, though willing.” Agnes 
is living at home and helping her mother. Unattractive, languid type. 
There is no record of a mental test, but she seems to be of normal, though 
mediocre, intelligence. Her conduct, too, must be counted, under the 
circumstances, as within normal limits. She admits freely and indif- 
ferently that she has gone out some with Mary and men—doesn’t know 
how many; but she has never been in a house of prostitution and has no 
court record. 110 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
§ 7. Opposite-Sex Twins 
Group 57. Child behavior difficulties, 'preneurotic 
and prepsychotic types; normal intelligence; both affected. 
3 cases: Nos. 270-272. 
Case 270. P. twins, Martin and Sarah. Born in Cincinnati, Ohio, 
January 23, 1917. Our investigation of the case was in June, 1931, 
through the courtesy of the Psychopathic Institute of the Jewish 
Hospital in Cincinnati, where both twins had been under observation. 
Martin had convulsions in infancy, but none thereafter. He has since 
had a problem consisting of persistent bedwetting. The main feature 
of his case has been that of very poor progress at school; he has not 
been able to learn to read and write. A mental test in 1924 revealed 
I. Q. 73, a showing which, of course, does not fully account for his com- 
plete reading disability. Sarah’s difficulty has been of a different sort. 
She has an intelligence well above the average; a mental test in 1928 
revealed I. Q. 116. She has done well in her studies at school. She 
also has a history of bedwetting; talks in her sleep. Has a behavior 
problem suggesting prepsychotic manifestations: restless, irritable, 
unreliable, unable to concentrate, emotionally unstable, now highly 
elated, and now greatly depressed. 
Case 271. H. twins, Philip and Phyllis. Born near El Cajon, 
California, in 1925. Our observation in December, 1933, in the El 
Cajon public school. “Since starting to school in September Phyllis 
has cried a major portion of every day. She seems fearful of every- 
thing, jumps and screams in terror if a book or a pencil drops in the 
room; clings frantically to the teacher, who finds it almost impossible 
to conduct the regular class, because of the demands of Phyllis. All 
attempts to adjust her have so far failed. If a child runs toward her, 
she cries and declares they are going to hit her, though nothing of this 
sort has happened at school.” “Though not so emotionally unstable as 
Phyllis, yet Philip is a very serious child. He can not be induced to 
play with the other children; just sits around and looks as though the 
burdens of the whole world were resting on his shoulders. He is shy 
and timid, but does not react so violently as Phyllis. The one thing 
that makes him cry is any allusion to his red hair, of which he seems to 
be dreadfully ashamed. The teacher finds it difficult to keep the other 
children from calling him red-head, which always precipitates a scene. ’ ’ 
Case 272. H. twins, David J. Jr., and Catherine. They were 
born abroad of American parents in 1891. David had frequent temper 
tantrums in early childhood; later he was described as seclusive, self- 
opinionated, inclined to pick quarrels, always taking the opposite side 
in arguments. The father was in the diplomatic service, and the twins 
had excellent educational opportunities in Switzerland, France, and 
Holland, in private schools, and under tutors and governesses. David, 
however, made a poor record in his studies. Subsequently his voca- 
tional record was equally poor and he never made a sustained effort 
to be self-supporting. His quarrelsomeness was most marked with his 
mother. Gradually he developed a psychosis, around the age of 19 years, OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
111 
the course of which was characterized by slow deterioration. At 25 
he married a French governess, who died 2 years later, leaving a child. 
At about 30 he was hospitalized for brief periods in private institutions 
in England and in France, and on February 20, 1922, he was admitted 
to the Sheppard and Enoch Pratt Hospital at Towson, Maryland. At 
the time of this record—September, 1930—he was still a patient there. 
Throughout his residence he presented a picture of chronic schizo- 
phrenia with marked deterioration: untidy, drooling at the mouth, 
irrelevant in his answers, mumbling to himself with occasional outbursts 
of loud laughter; evidences of visual and somatic hallucinations. 
Catherine was described as brilliant intellectually, but undisciplined in 
childhood and adolescence, with history of petty thefts, cheating at 
school, and precocious sexual activity. She was strongly attached to 
her father, even after her marriage at 24, when she continued to spend 
most of her leisure time in reading to her father, walking and driving 
with him. This led to a gradual estrangement between her and her 
husband. They lived in a home supplied by her father; their two 
children were cared for by a nurse. Catherine showed jealousy toward 
her husband and the nurse. A subacute psychosis developed in the 
latter part of 1927, at the age of 36 years. She became overactive, 
bought useless articles, had terrors in the night, and finally, early in 
March, 1928, she had a panic, screamed out of the window, called the 
police, and was moved to the Sheppard and Enoch Pratt Hospital at 
Towson, Maryland. There she was for a time excited, restless, anxious 
about the family, expressed notions of purity and morality, wanted to 
be ‘‘ an example to the children. ’ ’ In her utterances there was marked 
sexual and religious content with evidence of hallucinations. She 
showed rapid improvement, however, and on June 18, 1928, was 
paroled. The improvement continued while on parole and on August 
3, 1928, she was discharged. The hospital diagnosis was schizophrenia. 
Group 58. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; normal intelligence; both affected. 1 case: No. 
273. 
Case 273. C. twins, Nellie and Robert. Born in Michigan, April 
4, 1921. Observed by us in April, 1931, in a private boarding school 
for orphans in Los Angeles, California, where they had been placed 
following their mother’s deatn, the father being unable to manage them 
properly. Mental tests made, in 1930 and 1929, respectively, revealed, 
for Nellie, I.Q. 77, for Robert, 109. Nellie has done poorly at school 
in her studies, has had to repeat both the first and second grades; other- 
wise she presents no problem. Robert has done well in his studies, but 
has presented a behavior difficulty from an early age. Before his 
mother died he stole constantly, but without penalty, as his mother 
made good his thefts and kept them from the father’s knowledge. 
Robert is much interested in burglary, reads all he can find about it in 
the newspapers. Also, on one occasion, he tried to set fire to his father’s 
house. 112 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Group 59. Juvenile delinquency; normal intelli- 
gence; both affected. 1 case: No. 274. 
Case 274. K. twins, Sherman and Margaret. Born in Baltimore, 
Maryland, January 3, 1921. Our observation in November, 1931, 
through the courtesy of the Juvenile Court of Baltimore. The twins 
are of normal intelligence; mental tests in 1931 revealed, for Sherman, 
I. Q. 98, for Margaret, 94. Mother had nephritis and convulsions 
before the twins were born; their birth was premature, at 7-J months; 
Sherman weighed but pounds, was born by breech presentation, was 
partly asphyxiated; Margaret’s birth said to have been normal. ‘ ‘ Sher- 
man is led into most of his misbehavior by Margaret, and accepts 
blame for her in many things; he lies, steals, and has a record of 
sexual delinquency, including incest with Margaret; writes obscene 
letters.” Has made normal progress in studies at school. Was in 
St. Mary’s Industrial School, Baltimore, for about 6 weeks, later com- 
mitted to Maryland State Training School (October, 1931), by the 
Juvenile Court, for burglary. At the time of our investigation of the 
case he was still an inmate there. Margaret is described as “sly and 
cunning; lies and steals, but is seldom caught; leads Sherman into 
thefts and lets him take the blame.” She is an habitual truant. Has 
a history of homosexual attempts, masturbation, and incestuous rela- 
tions with Sherman. In November, 1931, was committed to the Mont- 
rose School for Girls, following a charge of burglarious entry. The 
twins came from a clean, comfortable home; parents kindly and 
interested; but the twins have proved incorrigible. 
Group 60. Adult criminality; normal intelligence; 
both affected. 2 cases: Nos. 275-276. 
Case 275. P. twins, Sidney and Belle. Born in New York City, 
February 5, 1906. Sidney’s case is one of imbecility which has been 
evident almost from the beginning. It has been attributed either to a 
cerebral birth trauma sustained in the course of the difficult and instru- 
mental delivery, or to a fall from his baby carriage at the age of 4 
months, in which he struck his head on the pavement. He did not 
walk until 3 years and did not talk until 6. He was sent to school at 
10 years and put in an ungraded class, but was taken out after 2or 
3 days, as he was ill-treated by the other children. He was active 
in a troublesome and mischievous way, and difficult to care for at 
home. He was placed in the Children’s Hospital and School, Ran- 
dall’s Island, New York, for brief periods at the ages of 12 and 18 
years, and finally was committed for permanent care and custody to 
Letchworth Village at Thiells, New York, on May 6, 1927. At the 
time of our observation of the case, which was in November, 1932, he 
was still an inmate there. A mental test in 1927 revealed I. Q. 33. A 
recent case note states: ‘‘ He goes out with a group of boys from the 
cottage, but will not do any work except under constant supervision.” 
Belle developed behavior problems both at home and at school early in 
adolescence. She would make a disturbance in class, walk out of the 
room, and return at her convenience. This grew worse, and eventually OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
113 
she became so troublesome that she bad to be taken out of school, and 
for over 2 months she remained in the house continuously, refused to 
see anyone, would lock herself in her room, and spent most of the 
time, day and night, reading. Her father then placed her for obser- 
vation in the Psychopathic Pavilion of Bellevue Hospital, where she 
stayed for 2 weeks in April, 1924. There she was classified as “a 
constitutional with a mania, presumably narcissistic, ’ ’ but 
was not committed at that time. Immediately upon her release from 
Bellevue Hospital she disappeared from home and it was soon learned 
that she had joined a traveling burlesque show and married. She 
lived with her husband only 3 days, and later the parents had the 
marriage annulled, partly for the reason that she was a Jewess and 
her husband a Gentile. In April, 1926, she disappeared again and was 
located by the police within a few days “in one of the lowest of 
cabarets.” Thereupon she was committed as “a wayward minor” to 
the Westfield State Farm at Bedford Hills, New York, on May 8, 
1926. There she apparently settled down, and on March 21, 1927, she 
was allowed to go home on parole. She obtained a very good position 
and got along well for several months; but, in September, 1927, she 
disappeared again. It was reported to the parole officer that she had 
been seen in speakeasies, drinking, wearing expensive clothes, etc., 
and she was finally located in a night club in Mamaroneck, New York. 
She was then taken back to the Bedford Hills institution on May 2, 
1928, seemed again to improve, and on December 14, 1928, was granted 
once more a parole at home. On February 2, 1929, she was again 
returned to the institution, as she had violated her parole by running 
around with a married man, etc. She was then observed to have defi- 
nitely psychotic symptoms, “talked constantly, showed flight of ideas, 
walked the floor, and talked in a rambling manner most of the night,” 
and was therefore committed to the state hospital for the criminal 
insane (Matteawan) at Beacon, New York, on June 1, 1929. The 
observations at the Matteawan State Hospital have been summarized 
as follows: ‘‘ On admission here she was restless, overactive, facetious, 
irritable, appeared to be under considerable pressure of activity and 
showed flight of ideas. She commented freely on things seen and heard, 
denied hallucinations, was approximately oriented, and her memory 
appeared to be good as far as could be ascertained. Following her 
admission she continued restless, overactive, noisy, had to be placed 
in a room by herself, where she sang constantly, frequently pounded 
on the door, used violent and obscene language, was elated, seemed to 
be enjoying the situation thoroughly, and showed marked distracti- 
bility and flight of ideas. In October, 1929, she was noted as being 
somewhat quieter, and from that time on she improved steadily. On 
February 24, 1930, she was discharged as recovered.” The hospital 
diagnosis was manic-depressive psychosis, manic type. Unlike her 
twin brother, Belle had good, even somewhat more than average intelli- 
gence. A Stanford-Binet test in 1928 revealed I. Q. 113. 
Case 276. F. twins, Arthur and Lilly B. Born in East Boston, 
Massachusetts, March 24, 1889. Our observation in August, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Social Service Department of the Metropoli- 
tan State Hospital, Waltham, Massachusetts. Arthur has been, for 114 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
many years, “in jail much of the time” by reason of alcoholism and 
disorderly conduct, resulting from this. Lilly is of markedly sub- 
normal intelligence; has been, for years, given to constant masturba- 
tion, perverted sexual practices, soliciting children for sexual purposes; 
eventually developed hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms, and 
was committed, September 9, 1911, to Danvers State Hospital, where a 
diagnosis of “psychosis with mental deficiency” was established. She 
has since been transferred to Grafton and, later, Metropolitan State 
Hospital, and was still an inmate in the last-named institution at the 
time of our observation of the case. 
Group 61. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic 
and prepsychotic types; subnormal intelligence; both 
affected. 13 cases: Nos. 277-289. 
Case 277. J. twins, David George and Dorothy Euth. Born in 
Oakland, California, December 20, 1922. Observed by us in one of the 
Oakland city schools in November, 1931. Mental tests in 1931 revealed, 
for David, I.Q. 79, for Dorothy, 88, David presents an annoying 
behavior problem. His outstanding characteristic seems to be cruelty. 
‘ ‘ Wherever he is, children are crying: he pinches, hits, trips, and sticks 
pins in them both in and out of school. He is also a coward, and when- 
ever a child turns on him, he runs, crying, for safety. Always denies 
his actions, but will repeat the same thing 5 minutes later. It is the 
same with animals: he has been bitten twice quite badly by dogs which 
he was abusing. The teacher is keeping him seated in a part of the 
room away from other children. Dorothy presents no problem of any 
kind, except that she and David do not get along well, as she seems to 
be afraid of him; and except, of course, that arising from her slightly 
subnormal intelligence. 
Case 278. E. twins, Leonard and Daisy. Born in Phoenix, 
Arizona, January 10, 1921. Our observation in May, 1931, in one of 
the Santa Monica, California, city schools. Leonard was the first-born 
of the twins, and weighed only 3 pounds. Daisy was born 3 hours 
later, and weighed 6 pounds. Daisy started to walk 6 months ahead of 
Leonard. She was always a healthy baby, and is even now larger 
and more robust than Leonard. They both had smallpox at 3 years, 
Leonard’s was a severe case, Daisy’s a very mild one. Leonard was 
a sickly boy during infancy and early childhood. They are also very 
unequal in intelligence. Mental tests made in 1928 and 1929, respec- 
tively, revealed, for Leonard, I. Q. 72, for Daisy, 89. Daisy has made 
good progress in studies, is industrious, and presents no behavior dif- 
ficulty. Leonard has done poorly at school and is a behavior problem; 
“Never works if he can get out of it; often causes trouble in the class- 
room ; on the playground is the coward-bully type; torments the smaller 
boys, but cries on the slightest provocation; is untruthful and quarrel- 
some. ” 
Case 279. B. twins, Dorothy and Donald. Born in San Diego, 
California, in 1919. Our observation in December, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the San Diego Children’s Home. These twins are of ille- 
gitimate birth; mother seems of subnormal intelligence, does not know OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
115 
who their father is. There is no record of any mental tests in these 
eases, but they are obviously of subnormal intelligence, estimated as not 
higher than the dull normal level. Dorothy presents a marked behavior 
problem at school: ‘ ‘ fusses over everything; does not want to do any- 
thing she is told to do; is not defiant, but fusses till she wears out the 
teacher’s patience; at 12 years she is only in the fourth grade.” 
Donald is markedly undersized; “looks pinched and weazened, like a 
little old man. He is extremely excitable; stutters badly; if anything 
the least bit out of the usual occurs, he goes all to pieces, laughs, jumps 
around, cries, tries to talk, becomes incoherent, and, after it is over, 
is utterly limp.” 
Case 280. M. twins, Lawrence B. and Florence. Born in Illinois, 
January 20, 1919. The home situation is unsatisfactory, the children 
are ill-fed, scolded and beaten. The early history of the twins is unas- 
certained. Lawrence was admitted to the Lincoln State School and 
Colony, Illinois, March 28, 1927. On April 19, 1928, he was trans- 
ferred to the Dixon State Hospital, Illinois; and at the time of our 
observation of the case, which was in June, 1932, he was still an inmate 
there. At the time of his admission he was averaging 12 seizures a 
year at irregular intervals. Under treatment these became less fre- 
quent, and since December, 1930, he has had none. A mental test in 
1927 revealed I.Q. 75. There is no record of a mental test in Florence’s 
ease, but she is obviously of subnormal intelligence, estimated as on the 
level of high-grade moronism. At the age of 13 years she is but in the 
fourth grade and doing very poorly; her teachers have recommended 
placement in an institution. Florence has been free from epilepsy, but 
she presents a behavior difficulty: swears at her teacher, calls the other 
children foul names, eats worms, drinks ink, etc. 
Case 281. M. twins, Ruth and Ruben. Born in Compton, Cali- 
fornia, September 30, 1918. Observed by us in February, 1932, in one 
of the Compton city schools. The mother of these twins is described 
as over-religious, tries to discipline them by telling them they won’t 
go to heaven, forbids amusements; and they disobey her surreptitiously. 
Both twins are of subnormal intelligence. Mental tests in 1931 
revealed, for Ruth, I.Q. 60; for Ruben, 53. Both are also doing poorly 
in their studies at school. Ruth, at years, is in the low fifth grade; 
Ruben is in the “opportunity room,” struggling with fourth-grade 
work. Ruth cries frequently, but presents no marked behavior prob- 
lem. Ruben is very troublesome: “has a bad temper, swears on slight- 
est provocation, picks on smaller and younger children, likes to kill 
animals; used an open knife in a scuffle with another boy; sneaks out 
in the evening to get a free admission to the movies; troublesome 
incidents at school are of almost daily occurrence.” There are plans 
under way to commit him to an institution for the feebleminded. 
Case 282. J. twins, Rosie and James. Born in Portland, Idaho, 
July 30, 1918. The father deserted the family and they are supported 
by the county. One sister and one brother are in a detention home as 
juvenile delinquents. Both twins are of subnormal intelligence. 
Mental tests made in 1932 and 1926, respectively, revealed, for Rosie, 
I. Q. 62, for James, 83. Both have also done poorly in their studies 116 
ETIOLOGY OF BEPIAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
at school. Rosie stayed three terms in the low first grade, three terms in 
the high first grade, repeated the third grade, is now rated “D ’ ’ in all 
her studies. James repeated the first and third grades, is in the “Z” 
(slow-moving) section, and rates “D” in work and effort. Both twins 
also present behavior difficulty, Rosie more markedly so. Rosie has had 
temper tantrums both at home and at school; “she is agreeable only 
when things go her way.” She also has a record of truancy. “She 
is continually being hurt: arm cut; finger crushed; head bruised; hand 
cut; knee bruised, etc.” “James also has a temper, is mostly sullen 
and stubborn; like his twin sister, he is continually being hurt. ’ ’ 
Case 283. S. twins, Edna and Edwin. Born January 5, 1917. 
Mental tests in 1928 revealed, for Edna, I.Q. 77, for Edwin, 83. Both 
are also retarded at school: at the time of our investigation of the case, 
which was in May, 1931, Edna was in the fourth grade, and Edwin in 
the fifth. Edwin has presented no other problem, but in Edna’s ease 
there has been, in addition, a behavior difficulty, with a suggestion of 
possibly prepsychotic traits: she was whipped by her mother and ran 
away from home in the spring of 1929; upon her return, she suddenly 
became afraid that her mother wras going to whip her again, so she ran 
away a second time and appealed to the police for protection. She was 
therefore placed in the Girls’ Parental School in Seattle, Washington, 
on May 1, 1929, and at the time of our investigation, which was in 1931, 
was still an inmate there. 
Case 284. M. twins, Sidney and Alice. Born in Los Angeles, 
California, May 5, 1915. Our observation in October, 1932, through 
the courtesy of the Welfare Center, Los Angeles city schools. Sidney 
is of slightly subnormal intelligence, I.Q. 80. He has been a behavior 
problem in all the four schools that he has attended, and has finally 
been assigned to the Welfare Center. Described as “unstable, can not 
concentrate, clown in class, a nuisance to anyone near by, continually 
disobedient, a disturbance in any class he attends.” Also described 
as “dishonest, discourteous, overbearing, very loud, always fighting, 
insulting toward teachers.” Alice is of normal intelligence, I.Q. 102; 
but in the past year she, too, has presented a behavior problem: “In 
1931 she often cut classes, and this year she refuses to go to school 
altogether; mother does not know where and how she spends her time. ’ ’ 
Case 285. R. twins, Louise and John. They are of Polynesian 
race, parents being native Hawaiians. Born in Santa Clara, California, 
February 10, 1912. Louise did poorly at school, could not get 
beyond the third grade. By reason of psychotic episodes, characterized 
by emotional outbursts and aggressive tendencies, she was committed 
to Agnews State Hospital, California, on January 12, 1928. She 
remained there only half a month and, as her excitement subsided, was 
returned to her home. Her spells of excitement recurred, however, and, 
on May 26, 1928, she was committed to the Sonoma State Home, Cali- 
fornia, as feebleminded. From there, too, she was tried on parole twice, 
in 1928 and 1930, but each time had to be brought back to the institu- 
tion, partly by reason of her excited episodes and partly because of a 
behavior difficulty (soliciting men on the street). At the time of our 
investigation of the case, which was in February, 1931, she was still an 117 
OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
inmate there: ‘ ‘ Disturbed a great deal of the time; housed on disturbed 
ward. ” A mental test in 1931 revealed I. Q. 59. John has never caused 
trouble, was somewhat retarded at school, probably of dull-normal 
intelligence. No record of a mental test on him. 
Case 286. H. twins, Catherine and David. Born in Allerton, 
Massachusetts, February 17, 1910. The father had a manic-depressive 
psychosis, manic type, and died in a state hospital. The mother is 
feebleminded. An older sister of the twins is epileptic. The home is 
very poor and dirty. Both twins were placed in the Wrentham State 
School, Massachusetts, on February 8, 1921. David, however, was 
discharged on May 10, 1921, and has since been living with his mother 
and working in a grocery store. There is no record of a mental test 
in his case, but he is obviously of subnormal intelligence, judged to be 
on the borderline level. Catherine is more markedly feebleminded. A 
mental test in 1931 revealed 1. Q. 46. While at the Wrentham State 
School, she developed psychotic complications which increased in 
severity to such an extent that it became necessary to transfer her to 
the Boston State Hospital on May 29, 1931. At the time of our obser- 
vation of the case, which was in August, 1932, she was still an inmate 
there. The official diagnosis is mental deficiency with psychosis. Recent 
case notes state: ‘ ‘ During her excited periods she is noisy, has a wild 
appearance, shouts and screams and uses profane and obscene language. 
Strikes anyone near her. Breaks windows and furniture. Afterwards 
sits staring into space, hair disheveled, immobile. In her disturbed 
periods it takes several people to restrain her from doing injury to 
herself and others. Thinks people are talking about her. Stutters, 
except when excited. ’ ’ 
Case 287. L. twins, Joseph and Margaret. Born in Boston, 
Massachusetts, June 10, 1909. The mother is said to have had some 
mental trouble. Joseph has had grand-mal seizures at the rate of two or 
three a year since the age of 6 years. He has done poorly at school and 
advanced but as far as the fifth grade. There is no record of a mental 
test, but he is obviously feebleminded, probably in the degree of high- 
grade moronism. He runs errands and does odd jobs for his father, 
who has a cobbler’s shop. At the time of our observation of the case, 
which was in August, 1932, he had not been institutionalized, Margaret 
did somewhat better at school, finished eighth grade at 17 years; judged 
to have been of dull-normal intelligence. She had scarlet fever at 14 
years and, around 16 years, began to show a definite personality change. 
She became quiet, seclusive, sensitive, worrisome, depressed. After 
school she went to work as a factory hand, but could not hold any job 
for more than a short time. Psychotic symptoms developed suddenly 
in the early part of July, 1929. She became restless, talked in a ram- 
bling way, imagined she was pregnant, cried a great deal. On August 
20, 1929, she was committed to the Worcester State Hospital, Massachu- 
setts, and on December 19, 1930, she was transferred to the Metropoli- 
tan State Hospital at Waltham, Massachusetts. At the time of our 
observation of the case, which was in August, 1932, she was still an 
inmate there. Upon her admission to the Worcester hospital, she was 
restless, cried a great deal, said God had sent a certain fellow to have 118 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
sexual relations with her. A case note in May, 1932, states: “Periodic 
spells of confusion and disturbance; unusually indolent and apathetic; 
incoherent and irrelevant; untidy; manneristic.” The hospital diag- 
nosis is dementia praecox. She has never had any manifestations of 
epilepsy. 
Case 288. S. twins, Earl and Florence. Born in Newmarket, 
Ontario, Canada, October 8, 1888. Earl had very little schooling, did not 
advance beyond the second grade. There is no record of a mental test, 
but he is obviously of subnormal intelligence, estimated as in the 
degree of moronism. He was a laborer, doing odd jobs. In June, 
1916, he enlisted in the army, but proved to be unsatisfactory and was 
discharged in December, 1916. While in the army he heard voices, 
but stated that they did not bother him much. Later got a job in a 
casket factory, lost it after 4 months, but then continued to hang 
around the plant, would not leave, and the police had to be called. 
After a brief term in jail, he wandered from one town to another, never 
could hold a job longer than a few days; finally, on September 9, 1925, 
he was committed to the Elgin, Illinois, State Hospital. At the time 
of our observation of the case, which was in June, 1932, he was still 
an inmate there. Recent case notes describe him as untidy in appear- 
ance, dull, apathetic, smiling to himself; runs and hides when he sees 
children, saying they are after him. The hospital diagnosis is dementia 
praecox, hebephrenic Florence has never been in an institution, 
but is obviously handicapped both intellectually and temperamentally. 
There is no record of a mental test, but she is judged to be not above 
the level of borderline intelligence. She was found living in the base- 
ment of an apartment house in a poor section of the city; very slat- 
ternly in appearance, coarse and vulgar in her language. Scrubs floors 
and cleans windows when she can get work, and thus has to support 
not only herself but also her husband, as he is not working. Complains 
a great deal and blames everybody she can think of for both her 
brother’s and her own hard luck. Judged to be an inadequate and 
paranoid personality. 
Case 289. S. twins, Charles A. and Lucy. Born in Holbrook, 
Massachusetts, June 16, 1888. Our observation in August, 1932, 
through the courtesy of Metropolitan State Hospital, Waltham, Mass- 
achusetts. One paternal uncle of the twins was insane. The twins 
were born prematurely, 1 month before term. Charles was a sickly 
child, slow in learning to walk and talk. In childhood had frequent 
temper tantrums, when he would throw dishes about and tear his 
clothes. Has always been of irritable and quarrelsome temperament; 
poor mixer, kept to himself. Worked as shoe cutter, but was often out 
of a job. Obviously of subnormal intelligence. In the thirties he grad- 
ually developed psychotic symptoms, became depressed, thought people 
were following him, threatened to kill himself; later said he was the 
highest official in the United States, tried to direct street traffic, got 
arrested for this, and was finally committed to the Taunton, Massachu- 
setts, State Hospital, on January 21, 1925. In 1930 he was transferred 
to the Metropolitan State Hospital; and at the time of our observation 
of the case he was still an inmate there. The official diagnosis is OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
119 
dementia praecox. Lucy is of obviously subnormal intelligence; also 
untidy, shiftless, generally inadequate; but has never required insti- 
tutionalization. 
Group 62. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; subnormal intelligence; both affected. 8 cases: 
Nos. 290-297. 
Case 290. C. twins, Alvin and Maxine. Born in San Diego, 
California, July 10, 1923. Observed by us in November, 1931, in one 
of the Long Beach, California, city schools. Alvin is of subnormal 
intelligence, I. Q. 81. Maxine’s I. Q. is 93. “A few weeks ago the 
twins were caught initiating a group of 10 or 12 children into various 
sexual practices. Investigation revealed that this had been going on 
for some time. The court records show that on October 7, 1929, the 
father was jailed for fornication. Previously he had been on probation 
for contributing to the delinquency of a minor; he is now serving a 
penitentiary sentence. The family (wife and 6 children) are being 
supported by the Social Welfare League.” 
Case 291. B. twins, Phillip and Phyllis. Born in the Philippine 
Islands, of American parents, on May 4, 1920. Our observation in 
April, 1931, through the courtesy of the Department of Research, San 
Francisco, California, city schools. Phyllis is of slightly subnormal 
intelligence, I. Q. 89; but presents no behavior problem. Phillip, 
though of normal intelligence (I. Q. 105) is unadjusted educationally, 
has to be in an ungraded class, on account of a marked behavior diffi- 
culty : ‘‘he is afraid of fire, jumps at a quick sound, is afraid of fire 
engines; is a very restless sleeper; troublesome and disobedient in 
class; some trouble on account of truancy; at home is morbidly 
attached to his mother, and at the same time very jealous of his twin 
sister. ’ ’ 
Case 292, Y. twins, William and Evelyn. Born in Oakland, 
California, February 24, 1920. Our observation in April, 1931, 
through the courtesy of the Los Angeles, California, Child Guidance 
Clinic. Stanford-Binet tests revealed, for William, I. Q. 94, for 
Evelyn, 89. Evelyn, besides being of slightly subnormal intelligence, 
was referred to the Clinic, in 1927, on account of “nervousness, disobe- 
dience, has difficulty in learning; scatter-brained; acts without careful 
thinking.” William was referred in 1930, for a somewhat more 
serious behavior problem: disobedience, fighting, stealing. Twins were 
brought up together and both seem to have received from their parents 
inconsistent, inadequate, and inappropriate discipline. 
Case 293. T. twins, Aurora and Edward. Born in Oakland, Cali- 
fornia, February 13, 1918. Observed by us, through the courtesy of 
the Institute of Child Welfare at Berkeley, California, in March, 1932. 
Their father is serving a sentence in San Quentin Prison, California. 
Both twins are of subnormal intelligence. Mental tests made in 1929 
and 1930, respectively, revealed, for Aurora, I. Q. 77, for Edward, 
72. Both are also retarded at school, Aurora by 2 years, and Edward 
by 3. Edward presents no other problem, but Aurora presents a 
behavior difficulty consisting of stealing and lying. 120 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Case 294. M. twins, Leo and Leola. Born in Willows, California, 
July 22, 1917. Our observation in September, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the Social Welfare League of Long Beach, California. 
Father is in the Navy; deserted the mother when the twins were very 
young, because of her sexual promiscuity. The mother has since had 
an illegitimate child; has been under treatment for syphilis; her 
boarding house in San Diego has been closed by the police as a brothel. 
On a later occasion the family were evicted by their landlord on account 
of mother’s entertaining sailors. In 1930 Long Beach police vice 
squad learned mother had been staging wild parties and had recently 
been put out of a dance hall on the Pike on account of being drunk 
and disorderly. Leola is of. slightly subnormal intelligence, I. Q. 88. 
Leo’s I. Q. is 102. Both twins have presented behavior problems since 
the age of sor 6 years. In 1923 Leo was found abusing Leola sexually, 
using a button hook until she bled. The twins were then taken from 
their mother and placed in a boarding home. After about 10 months 
the boarding home refused to keep them longer on account of their 
sexual practices; they were their placed in separate boarding homes. 
Difficulties, however, continued. Leola was boisterous and rough in 
manner, domineering toward other children. Leo was in constant 
trouble: ‘ ‘ immoral practices with other boys, ’ ’ using bad language, 
writing obscene words on porches, walls, sidewalks; stealing pencils, 
milk bottles; being frequently tardy, often playing hookey. Finally, 
in August, 1931, both twins were brought to the attention of the Juve- 
nile Court on account of “indecent conduct and truancy,” and were 
made wards of the court. 
Case 295. C. twins, Floy and Coy. Born in Sweetwater, Okla- 
homa, January 12, 1914. The mother died when the twins were young 
and the father is a disabled war veteran, an inmate of the Soldiers’ 
Home at Sawtelle, California. The twins have been practically without 
a home and without supervision. Floy is of subnormal intelligence; 
a mental test in 1930 revealed I. Q. 73. Coy’s intelligence is normal; 
a mental test in 1929 revealed I. Q. 93. Although both have been 
before Juvenile Court repeatedly, their cases are not classified as 
juvenile delinquency, as they were referred mainly on account of lack 
of proper guardianship. They both played hookey from school, and 
Coy was also a runaway. Floy was eventually committed to Sonoma 
State Home (for the feebleminded) on December 10, 1930; and at 
the time of our investigation of the case, which was in April, 1931, 
she wras still an inmate there. 
Case 296. W. twins, Edward and Martha. Born in Crockett, 
California, December 26, 1913. Both are of subnormal intelligence. 
Mental tests made in 1931 and 1930, respectively, revealed, for 
Edward, I. Q. 67, for Martha, 59. There are several other children in 
the family, all of whom are bright and present no behavior problem. 
Edward is well behaved, has worked since the age of 9 years after 
school hours as a helper in a butcher shop. Martha has never wanted 
to go to school, used to run away; talked nothing but neologisms up 
to the age of 4 years, and still has a marked speech impediment. Just 
before menstrual periods she becomes restless and attempts to leave 
home. She became quite unmanageable, and, on August 10, 1926, she OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
121 
was committed, to Sonoma State Home (for the feebleminded), Cali- 
fornia. On August 19, 1927, she was granted parole and almost imme- 
diately contracted a gonorrheal infection. She was therefore returned 
to the institution on October 20, 1927, and was sterilized. Since then 
she has been given two more trials on parole, but could not get along 
outside and had to be returned. At the time of our observation of the 
case, which was in February, 1931, she was still an inmate there. 
Case 297. C. twins, Marguerite and Braggie. Negroes. Born 
in Los Angeles, California, July 22, 1916. Observed by us in April, 
1931, through the courtesy of the Department of Psychology and 
Research, Los Angeles city schools. Both are of subnormal intelligence. 
Mental tests in 1930 revealed, for Marguerite, I. Q. 66, for Braggie, 82. 
Both are retarded in studies, Marguerite more so than Braggie. Mar- 
guerite has been reported repeatedly for stealing money and clothing 
at school. Although apprehended in the act, with the missing things 
found in her locker, she has denied the charges. 
Group 63. Juvenile delinquency; subnormal intelli- 
gence; both affected. 12 cases: Nos. 298-309. 
Case 298. C. twins, Jack and Grace. Born in Brunswick, 
Ontario, Canada, March 15, 1919. Our observation in August, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Ontario Bureau of Mental Hygiene, 
Toronto, Canada. Both twins are of somewhat subnormal intelligence. 
Stanford-Binet tests, made in 1930, revealed, for Jack, I. Q. 85, for 
Grace, 82. Their mother has a bad reputation; does not pay bills; 
resents any interest in her children by authorities. Jack is described 
as ‘‘oscillating, variable in moods, vain and slovenly, suspicious of 
everyone; has record of many petty thefts; an incipient criminal.” 
In June, 1929, he was brought before the Juvenile Court for theft of 
a bicycle and attempt to sell it. Was committed to Bowmanville 
School for Delinquent Boys for supervision and training until 21. 
At the time of our investigation of the case he was still an inmate 
there. Grace is failing in school; a frequent truant; described as 
“restless and impudent”; no Juvenile Court record. 
Case 299. H. twins, Stanley and Phyllis. Born in Todmorden, 
Ontario, Canada, March 8, 1918. The mother is obviously feeble- 
minded ; the home is dirty. Both twins have enuresis. Stanley has 
had to repeat several grades at school; a mental test in 1927 revealed 
I. Q. 79. He also stammers badly. Since the age of 12 years he has 
become a sex delinquent and was eventually expelled _ from school for 
initiating another boy into homosexual practices. Finally, on Janu- 
ary 2, 1931, he was committed to the Reform School at Beamsville, 
Ontario. At the time of our investigation of the case, which was in 
August, 1932, he was still an inmate there. Phyllis is somewhat more 
intelligent; a mental test in 1927 revealed I. Q. 87; has done better 
in her studies at school; is said to have had chorea and is a bed- 
wetter; otherwise she has presented no problems. 
Case 300. D. twins, Michael and Mary. Born in Pennsylvania, 
March 2, 1916. Parents were separated in 1917. Father was a heavy 122 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
drinker and brutal to the family. Mother negligent, wasteful, prob- 
ably feebleminded. Michael is of subnormal intelligence; a mental 
test in 1931 revealed I. Q. 76. He was first brought into Juvenile 
Court at the age of 13 years for destroying property, and, in October, 
1929, was placed in the Cleveland, Ohio, Farm School, where he 
remained until October, 1930. Since then he has been before Juvenile 
Court on four occasions for stealing, destructiveness, and with a bad 
record of truancy. Finally, on May 22, 1931, he was committed to 
the Boys’ Industrial School at Lancaster, Ohio. At the time of our 
investigation of the case, which was in August, 1932, he was still an 
inmate there. There is no record of a mental test in Mary’s case, 
and we have had no opportunity of observing her. In Michael’s social 
history it is stated that in 1929 Mary was placed in the Blossom Hill 
Home for Girls, Ohio (a private Catholic home for delinquent girls), 
as “an incorrigible.” She was later removed to some convent, but 
where and why could not be ascertained. 
Case 301. E. twins, Alberta and Albert. Born in Toronto, Ontario, 
Canada, February 21, 1917. Alberta has a poor school record, was 
twice expelled “for incorrigibility and bad influence on other girls”; 
she is also of subnormal intelligence; a mental test in 1929 revealed 
I. Q. 78. She has been a sex delinquent almost from childhood. On 
January 12, 1931, she was placed in the House of Industry, Toronto, 
and was discharged on January 11, 1932. She got into various troubles 
again almost immediately, and on July 6, 1932, was committed to the 
Alexandria Reform School for Girls, Toronto. At the time of our 
observation of the case, which was in August, 1932, she was still an 
inmate there. Upon admission there she was found to be infected with 
both gonorrhea and syphilis. She is very flippant and blase, has loud 
manner, not ashamed of her sexual promiscuity; says all girls do the 
same, only some are more secretive; has scorn for girls without sexual 
experience; not interested in working; aggressive and headstrong. 
Albert is less troublesome; but he, too, is both feebleminded and 
delinquent. A mental test in 1929 revealed I. Q. 66. On July 6, 
1931, he Was brought into Juvenile Court for stealing a purse out 
of a car. Because of bad home background he was committed to the 
Ontario Hospital at Orillia. At the time of our observation of the 
case he was still an inmate there. 
Case 302. McN. twins, Jane and John. Born in Cobalt, Ontario, 
Canada, September 6, 1916. Home conditions are said to be unsatis- 
factory. Jane has been running the streets and has been known to 
the Juvenile Court as a sex delinquent since the age of 13 years. On 
April 21, 1931, she was committed to the House of Industry, Toronto, 
because of “lewd and licentious behavior.” At the time of our obser- 
vation of the case, which was in August, 1932, she was still an inmate 
there. A mental test in 1930 revealed I. Q. 76. John is somewhat 
more intelligent; mental test in 1927 revealed I. Q. 87. But he, too, 
has been troublesome on account of delinquency. At school he was 
a behavior problem and a truant. In April, 1930, he, together with 
another boy, broke into and robbed a grocery store of both money and 
goods. On May 16, 1930, he was committed to the House of Industry, OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
123 
Toronto. At the time of our observation of the case he was still an 
inmate there. 
Case 303. F. twins, Catherine and Lawrence. Born in Harris- 
burg', Pennsylvania, December 18, 1915. Mother described as erratic, 
garrulous, inadequate, probably of subnormal intelligence; constantly 
demands to be relieved of the burden of taking care of the twins, as 
she is unable to manage them. An older brother (or half brother) of 
the twins, born out of wedlock, was at one time in a reform school in 
Pennsylvania. The home is filthy, “an impossible place for the chil- 
dren.” Catherine did poorly at school; reached but the sixth grade 
at 17 years. A mental test in 1932 revealed I. Q. 72. She was 
expelled from school in Chattanooga, Tennessee, for stealing a watch. 
Later, in Los Angeles, California, she stole a purse at school in 1931 
and was placed in the Rowan Welfare School (a special school for 
problem children). In October, 1932, the mother filed a complaint 
against Catherine and brought her before the Juvenile Court for dis- 
obedience, staying out nights, irregular school attendance, attempting 
sexual intercourse with her 9-year-old brother, etc. Catherine was 
eventually referred to the Catholic Welfare Bureau for placement in 
a foster home. Lawrence has also been in trouble. A mental test in 
his case, too, revealed I. Q. 72. In February, 1933, at the time of our 
investigation of the case, he was under arrest on a charge of burglary. 
Case 304. T. twins, Lena and Jake. Born in St. Joseph, Mis- 
souri, November 22, 1915. At the time of our observation of the case, 
which was in October, 1932, Lena was put in an ungraded room in 
the Norfolk Development School, Los Angeles, California; I. Q. 70, 
She is quiet, docile, causes no trouble, good helper at home. Jake is 
more intelligent; a mental test in 1929 revealed I. Q. 87. He is emo- 
tionally unstable, cries readily, has violent temper outbursts. His 
delinquency episode occurred in October, 1930, when he and another 
boy forced a 2-|-year-old boy to use his mouth on their genitals. 
After two weeks in Juvenile Hall, Los Angeles, he was granted 
probation. 
Case 305. V. twins, Florence and James. Born in Kamloops, 
British Columbia, Canada, November 6, 1914. Both twins are of sub- 
normal intelligence, but Florence much more markedly so. Mental tests 
made in 1930 and 1926, respectively, revealed, for Florence, I. Q. 58, 
for James, 81. Florence has been, in addition, a sex delinquent. She 
stayed out nights, her father gave her a beating, later, in 1928, brought 
her before the Juvenile Court. She spent much time in the Hindu 
district in New Westminster, British Columbia, and was said to be 
intimate with Hindus and Chinese. She was tried on probation but 
there was no improvement, and on July 27, 1929, she was committed 
to the Girls’ Industrial School at Vancouver. At the time of our 
investigation of the case, which was in May, 1931, she was still an 
inmate there. James did rather poorly at school, reached but the 
seventh grade, but otherwise has presented no problem. 
Case 306. L. twins, Abel and Esther. Born in Santa Barbara, 
California, October 15, 1914, Both twins are of subnormal intel 124 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
ligence. In Abel’s case a mental test in 1930 revealed I. Q. 64. In 
Esther’s case there is no record of a mental test; she was in the seventh 
grade at 16 years, and on the basis of her educational achievement 
her I. Q. is estimated at about 80. However, she has presented no 
problem otherwise. Abel did very poorly at school, soon began to 
dislike school, and has many times asked his parents to allow him to 
quit school. At the age of 12 years he fell in with bad companions, 
leaving home repeatedly. In 1927, he, in company with another boy 
who had had a reform school record, stole an automobile, but the 
charge was not pressed at that time. He continued to run around 
with bad companions, and in May, 1929, he and twTo other boys burglar- 
ized a storehouse in Ojai, California. Abel was then given another 
chance. In November, 1929, he ran away again, went to San Pedro, 
California, intending to enlist in the Navy. He was brought back, 
and on November 29, 1929, was committed to Whittier State School, 
California, At the time of our investigation of the case, which was 
in January, 1931, he was still an inmate there, getting along quite 
satisfactorily and adjusting well to the institutional environment. 
Case 307. B. twins, Melbourne and Melba, Born in California, 
November 15, 1913, Both were retarded at school, and both are of sub- 
normal intelligence. Mental tests made in 1929 and 1926, respec- 
tively, revealed, for Melbourne, I. Q. 74, for Melba, 66. Only Mel- 
bourne has a record of delinquency, and this consisted of a single 
episode of sexual relations with a 10-year-old girl (statutory rape) 
when he was 15 years of age. For this he was brought before the 
Juvenile Court in Los Angeles on April 11, 1929, and released on 
probation on April 22, 1929. At the time of our observation of the 
case, which was in July, 1931, the twins were living at home and 
causing no trouble. Melbourne was working as an auto mechanic’s 
helper, and Melba was helping her mother with the housework. 
Case 308. P. twins, Harry and Rose. Born in Stockton, Califor- 
nia, January 12, 1912. Both are of somewhat subnormal intelligence and 
both are mildly delinquent. Harry has been a persistent truant from 
school and was picked up by truant officers several times. In Decem- 
ber, 1928, he and two other boys had been given several drinks of 
wine by the father of one of the boys. Then the three boys climbed 
over the fence of an automobile wrecking company and were helping 
themselves to automobile parts when they were discovered and arrested. 
On April 30, 1929, Harry was committed to Preston School of Indus- 
try at lone, California. A mental test in 1929 revealed I. Q. 74. He 
remained at the Preston School until June 14, 1930, when he was 
granted a parole. At the time of our observation of the case, which 
was in April, 1931, he was still on parole, getting along fairly well, 
working at odd jobs. Rose is somewhat more intelligent; a mental 
test in 1926 revealed I. Q. 84. She, too, would not go to school, lied 
about her age, and, on May 13, 1926, was committed to Ventura 
School for Girls, California, because she had “no parents or guardian 
capable of exercising proper parental control.” The institution rec- 
ord states that “she lacks moral sense and has not had sufficient disci- 
pline.” However, she was released by court order on August 1, 1926. OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
125 
Case 309. E. twins, Clarence Ernest and Clara. Born in Code- 
rich, Ontario, Canada, June 1, 1912. Clarence’s case represents, a 
combination of mental deficiency, mild epilepsy, and behavior diffi- 
culty from early childhood, culminating in juvenile delinquency. He 
has always been disobedient, hard to manage, truant from school and 
home. He proved to be unteachable and can barely write his own 
name. He has always been in trouble for theft and destruction of 
property, considered “a menace to the public and especially to young 
girls.” He was in the Bowmanville Reformatory, Ontario, from July 16 
to October 16, 1923, for stealing a horse and buggy; again from April 
27, 1925, to April 27, 1926, for stealing a bicycle; in the Goderich 
jail, Ontario, from July 9, 1929, to February 10, 1930, for an offense 
against a young girl; and was finally committed to the Ontario Hos- 
pital at London on July 23, 1930. At the time of our investigation 
of the case, Avhich was in September, 1932, he was still an inmate there. 
A mental test in 1931 revealed I. Q. 44. About once a month he has 
spells when he loses consciousness and afterwards has no knowledge 
or recollection of what happened. Clara had never been institution- 
alized, but, according to the case history, she had epilepsy and died 
of it at the age of 14 years. 
Group 64. Adult criminality; subnormal intelli- 
gence; both affected. 1 case: No. 310. 
Case 310. B. twins, Dorida and Edward. Born in Canada, May 
15, 1909. The maternal grandfather was sentenced to the Massachu- 
setts State Prison in 1922 for incestuous relations with his grand- 
daughter (Dorida) ;he gave her a venereal infection. The mother is 
of subnormal intelligence and has a police record for fornication. The 
father also served a term, in Norfolk jail, for sexual offenses. He, too, 
committed incest with Dorida and caused her first illegitimate preg- 
nancy. Dorida was first arrested on July 29, 1925, as a wayward 
child and sent to the House of the Good Shepherd for 1 year. On 
October 8, 1931, she was convicted of fornication and sentenced to 
the Reformatory for Women at Framingham, Massachusetts. At the 
time of our investigation of the case, which was in August, 1932, she 
was still an inmate there. She has three illegitimate children; is not 
sure who the fathers are, as she had been with as many as twelve men 
in one night. Her first child showed evidences of venereal infection 
since early infancy with eyes, ears, nose, and fingers discharging pus. 
A mental test of Dorida in 1931 revealed I. Q. 65. Edward has pre- 
sented a problem of alcoholism since his adolescence. He has a record 
of five arrests for drunkenness from 1925 to 1928 with probation, fines, 
and imprisonments in the House of Correction, Massachusetts. He mar- 
ried, but failed to support his family, and on June 5, 1930, was arrested 
for nonsupport of family; was placed on probation and ordered to 
pay $2 weekly. There is no record of a mental test in his case, but 
he is obviously of subnormal intelligence. 126 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Group 65. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic 
and prepsychotic types; normal intelligence; male alone 
affected. 6 cases: Nos. 311-316. 
Case 311. W. twins, Loren and Lorena. Bom in Huntington 
Beach, California, November 4, 1921. Our observation in December, 
1931, in one of the Huntington Beach city schools. Both twins are of 
more than average intelligence; mental tests in 1930 revealed, for Loren, 
I. Q. 121, for Lorena, 114. “Almost every day Loren is brought into 
the office because of his bad conduct on the playground. He quarrels 
with all the children and hits hard, frequently hurting children in 
this way. In the classroom he is very lazy, and indifferent to anything 
the teacher says to him; he sits and dreams there; but when he is out 
with other children, he is constantly fighting. Despite having the 
higher I. Q., he is a whole year behind his twin sister at school. His 
parents also report their inability to. make him act differently.” 
“Lorena is just a nice average girl; she does her work well at school; 
presents no behavior difficulty. ’ ’ 
Case 312. M. twins, Robert and Lois Elizabeth. Born in Long 
Beach, California, May 2, 1920. Our observation in October, 1931, 
in one of the Long Beach city schools. A paternal uncle of the twins, 
in a fit of depression, committed suicide. Both twins have above- 
average intelligence; mental tests revealed, for Robert, I. Q. 119, 
for Lois, 112. The next-door neighbors refer to Robert as “that 
little red devil.” His teacher describes him as “explosive”; he states, 
further, “You never know when some casual remark in the lesson 
or some other trifling incident will send Bob off into a violent temper 
tantrum or an equally violent outburst of hilarity, regardless of the 
appropriateness of the occasion. If he trips over a chair or desk, he 
turns on it and tries to smash it regardless of how he skins his knuckles 
in the process. On at least one occasion he beat against some inani- 
mate object that was in his way until he dropped unconscious. When 
not in a tantrum, he is a most bright, attractive, likeable lad, full of 
fun, with a keen sense of humor, and kind, especially to pets. ’ ’ Betty’s 
teacher says, “She is about a perfect child; sweet disposition, meticu- 
lously neat, accurate in her work.” The next-door neighbors say 
the same. 
Case 313. S. twins, Harry and Mary. Born in Long Beach, 
California, in 1919. Our observation in November, 1931, in one of the 
Long Beach city schools. The twins are of normal intelligence; mental 
tests in 1930 revealed, for Harry, I. Q. 103, for Mary, 97. “Mary is 
very cooperative and dependable; a very pretty child with charming 
manners. Her achievement in school is superior, better than her I. Q. 
would indicate, although it is in her oral rather than written work 
that she excels. Has fine social qualities.” “Harry has an antagonis- 
tic attitude toward all authority;, has temper tantrums when not 
allowed to have his way. Although he has the higher I. Q., he is one 
grade behind his twin sister at school and does very poor work in 
that. Seems to dislike her greatly, resents her superiority. Untruth- 
fulness is an outstanding trait of his, much of it apparently without OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
127 
rhyme or reason. ’ ’ The parents of these twins are religious fanatics, 
street-corner evangelists, and will not recognize that Harry presents 
a problem. They insist he is “a perfect angel” and blame the school 
for any difficulty. He is their favorite, and “is already trying his 
hand at evangelism.” Mary is indifferent to it, and is not approved 
of by the parents for her gaiety and pleasure-loving disposition. 
Case 314. A. twins, John and Mary Jane. Born in Oakland, 
California, February 14, 1918. Observed by us in April, 1931, through 
the courtesy of the Department of Psychology and Research, Los 
Angeles, California, city schools. Mental tests in 1928 revealed, for 
John, I. Q. 102, for Mary, 110. The slight behavior difficulty in 
John’s case seems to be due entirely to his mother’s nagging. At 
school there is no complaint of him. Mother says she knows he is 
brilliant and is not getting the results that he should. Says also, “He 
doesn’t mind at home; I have to remind him continuously to brush his 
teeth, etc.” The mother holds up Mary as an example to John, praises 
her and encourages her to tell tales on John. Mary, on her part, 
“watches John like a hawk” and reports to mother everything he does. 
She is notably her mother’s favorite. John, on the other hand, is 
jealous of Mary and, to protect himself, is unresponsive and unreli- 
able. 
Case 315. McC. twins, John and Margaret. Born in New York 
City, April 10, 1916. Our investigation in July, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the Institute for Child Guidance, New York. Stanford- 
Binet tests in 1930 revealed, for John, I.Q. 99, for Margaret, 108. 
There has been a marked contrast between the twins from the beginning. 
John did not sit up until 16 months, did not walk until 2 years; at 
school he failed of promotion three times, his main difficulty being with 
arithmetic and spelling. Margaret walked at 9 months; makes high 
grades at school, has skipped two grades. She is a good-looking, well- 
poised, popular girl, presenting no behavior problem. John, in addi- 
tion to the early difficulties already mentioned, developed a behavior 
problem which seems to have become aggravated since his two attacks 
of chorea, the one in 1925, the other in 1928. He is described as 
“very destructive, knocks over everything, breaks furniture, uses vile 
language, tries to hurt smaller children; has constant trouble at school; 
stubborn, moody, sullen.” Most of these traits seem to come out in 
spells or attacks. 
Case 316. R. twins, Richard and Beatrice. Born in Los Angeles, 
California, September 14, 1914. These are perfectly normal young- 
sters, investigated by us in February, 1933, through the courtesy of the 
Juvenile Court of Los Angeles. The slight episode of so-called delip- 
quency which had brought Richard into court in December, 1931, 
consisted of his driving an automobile, without a license, at a rate of 
50 miles per hour in a 45-mile zone. The case was dismissed when it 
was shown that he was trying to reach home at a time specified by his 
mother. 128 
ETIOLOGY OP BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Group 66. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic 
and prepsychotic types; normal intelligence; female alone 
affected. 5 cases: Nos. 317-321. 
Case 317, R. twins, Ora and Loren. Born near San Diego, Cali- 
fornia, in 1921. Our observation in December, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the San Diego County Health Department. These twins 
are apparently of normal intelligence, although there are no records of 
mental tests. Loren presents no difficulty of any kind at home or at 
school. Ora, however, seems to be underweight and of delicate health 
physically and, at the same time, peculiarly lacking in emotional con- 
trol : ‘ ‘ Frequently has uncontrolled fits of laughing and crying; has 
had to be carried out of picture shows because of this; also has to be 
sent home from school about twice a week for the same reason.” In 
addition, she stutters very badly, blushes easily, is a very poor sleeper, 
eats poorly. 
Case 318. W. twins, Jane and Wayne. Born in Long Beach, 
California, December 21, 1919. Our observation in November, 1931, in 
one of the Long Beach city schools. Jane is a girl of high average intel- 
ligence, I. Q. 119; Wayne’s I. Q. is 108. Wayne is an average student, 
a good mixer, of cheerful temperament, without any behavior problem. 
Jane has been of markedly schizoid temperament almost from birth. 
Even as a small child she would hide whenever company came. She has 
always been in good health, except that she faints at the sight of blood. 
Her excessively shy disposition is in sharp contrast with her parents 
and her twin brother. ‘ ‘ She does very superior written work at school, 
is painfully conscientious, cries easily and often, is very sensitive. 
She doesn’t approve of her twin brother and his boisterous, careless 
ways. She has no playmates, but is an inveterate reader. All attempts 
to get her to participate in school activities have failed.” 
Case 319. V. twins, Margaret and Francis Edwin. Born in Los 
Angeles, California, September 18, 1915. Our observation, by private 
reference, in February, 1931, Francis is a normal boy in every way, 
is in the third year in high school. In Margaret’s case difficulty 
began at birth; for some unstated reason her delivery was more diffi- 
cult than Francis’, and was instrumental. At 9 months she had a con- 
vulsion and has been epileptic ever since, with seizures occurring at 
weekly intervals, sometimes in series of two or three. Her behavior 
problem is essentially based on an ungovernable temper. She is 
described as obstinate; “flies into a rage when told to obey; has 
destroyed furniture and clothing in a fit of rage.” This difficulty 
became so pronounced that she could no longer be cared for outside of 
an institution, and was therefore committed to Sonoma State Home, 
California, on January 1, 1928, and was still there at the time of our 
investigation of the case. A Stanford-Binet test in 1928 revealed 
I. Q. 97. 
Case 320. S. twins, Kathryn and Ralph. Part Indian. Born in 
Moapa, Nevada (Piute Reservation), in 1914. Our observation in 
December, 1931, in the Indian School at Arlington, California. These OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
129 
twins are of normal intelligence; mental tests, in 1930 and 1929, respec- 
tively, revealed, for Kathryn, I. Q. 99, for Ralph, 108. Ralph is 
described as “a nice-looking, pleasant boy, the brightest in the Indian 
School, always cooperative.” Kathryn is in frequent conflict with the 
school authorities. As an Indian chief’s daughter she refuses to be 
bound by the rules of the school; has to be watched carefully, as she will 
leave the premises whenever she feels like it, and fights viciously when 
they attempt to restrain her. She will not do her room work, or obey 
other rules unless she feels like it. Of late she has grown very sullen, 
uncommunicative, and says she is going to leave the school for good. In 
the school work she is very good and likes to read, chiefly wild-west 
stories. 
Case 321. G. twins, Beatrice and Roy. Born in Dayton, Ohio, 
July 28, 1911. Our investigation in October, 1931, through the cour- 
tesy of the Department of Public Welfare, Columbus, Ohio. Roy 
has had a common-gchool education, later joined the Marines, rendered 
most satisfactory service, has never presented any problem at home, 
at school, or at his work. Beatrice has been a difficult child from an 
early age. She was adopted into a very fine home at the age of 5 years. 
There was increasing difficulty both at home and at school. Despite 
a normal intelligence (I. Q. 97) she did rather poorly at school; seemed 
unable to concentrate; had to repeat the eighth grade. Thereafter was 
given private tutoring, but did no better. In November, 1925, she was 
placed for observation in the Psychopathic Institute of the Jewish 
Hospital iu Cincinnati, Ohio, being referred on account of “contrari- 
ness, annoyance to others, always troublesome and difficult to live with, 
selfish, destructive, mean, disrespectful, given to lying,” etc. The 
diagnosis eventually arrived at was “psychopathic personality with 
psychosis,” leading to commitment, on February 5, 1927, to Longview 
Hospital, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
Group 67. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; normal intelligence; male atone affected. 2 cases: 
Nos. 322-323. 
Case 322. M. twins, Curtis Janies and Theresa. Born in San 
Diego, California, in 1921. Our observation in December, 1931 
through the courtesy of the County School Nurse at Spring Valley, 
California. The father of those twins is a sailor and does not provide 
well for his family; sometimes they do not hear from him for months 
at a time. Curtis has been caught stealing several times; usually it is 
candy or toys from stores; also at times things from the other children 
at school: “Heis a bright, likeable child, popular with his classmates, 
and would not steal if he could have more of these things in his home.” 
“Theresa is a nice, clean, intelligent child who is well adjusted and 
causes no trouble.” 
Case 323. C. twins, Robert and Olive. Born in Cincinnati, Ohio, 
January 29, 1918. Robert is of mediocre intelligence, I. Q. 92. “He 
has been a behavior problem for years, both at home and at school, and 
was referred for diagnosis to the Psychopathic Institute of the Jewish 
Hospital in Cincinnati, where he was under observation for about 7 130 
ETIOLOGY OP BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
weeks in 1928.” The main complaints were troublesome behavior at 
school, petty theft, and inability on the part of his mother to control 
him: “The father is dead, and Robert knew that he had his mother 
bluffed, and took advantage of that fact.” At the Institute he was 
noted as being “of violent temper, dishonest, unreliable, emotionally 
unstable, lacking in self-control, and showing a great deal of sex curi- 
osity. ’ ’ In Olive’s case there is no record of a mental test; but she has 
made good progress in her studies at school, and has presented no 
behavior difficulty either at home, or at school, or elsewhere. 
Group 68. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; normal intelligence; female alone affected. 1 case: 
No. 324. 
Case 324. M. twins, Mildred and Milton. Born in California, 
November 14, 1914. Observed by us in December, 1931, in one of the 
high schools at Redlands, California. Intelligence tests, in 1930, 
revealed, for Mildred, I. Q. 98, for Milton, 97. “Milton slides along 
in his work, does not seem to have ambitions or ideals; but he has never 
been a problem, and his merit record is normal.” Mildred is consid- 
ered a bad influence in the school: ‘ ‘ She does nothing in her work; is 
loud, vulgar, and boy-crazy with no inhibitions; has been sent to the 
office several times for writing notes of a smutty character to boys; 
frequently ditches classes; is on the streets at all hours of the night.” 
Group 69. Juvenile delinquency; normal intelli- 
gence; male alone affected. 18 cases: Nos. 325-342. 
Case 325. G. twins, Vernon and Verna. Born in Tacoma, Wash- 
ington, January 25, 1917. Our observation in September, 1932, through 
the courtesy of the Probation Department of Los Angeles County, Cali- 
fornia. The twins had always been regarded as fine children, causing 
no trouble. Vernon has an I. Q. of 107 and, at 15 years, is in the ninth 
grade. The only difficulty was that with Vernon, in October, 1931, 
when he was brought before the Juvenile Court on charges of six counts 
of burglary and possession of a revolver. He was released on proba- 
tion until the age of 21 years, and made restitution of stolen articles. 
Subsequent reports have been to the effect that he was making good 
on probation. 
Case 326. McC. twins, Ted and Virginia. Born in San Francisco, 
California, June 22, 1915. Our observation in October, 1932, through 
the courtesy of the Probation Department of Los Angeles County, 
California. Ted has an I. Q. of 106; and the delinquency in which he 
alone was involved, was a mild one, consisting in a traffic violation. In 
November, 1930, he was brought into Juvenile Court, following his 
arrest for speeding—s2 miles per hour in a 15-mile zone. His driver’s 
license was suspended and thereafter the case was dismissed. “Very 
superior appearing family, living in a beautiful home.” 
Case 327. T. twins, Dan and Violet. Born in Los Angeles, Cali- 
fornia, February 17, 1913. Case brought to our attention in October, 
1932, through the courtesy of the Probation Department of Los Angeles OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
131 
County, California. Father is dead; mother remarried; there are six 
brothers and sisters, some half brothers. Mother and stepfather own 
their home. There is no delinquency or criminality in the family, 
other than that in Dan’s case. Dan has been before Juvenile Court on 
at least five occasions, the first time at the age of 13 years, on charges of 
malicious mischief, traffic violations, and cruelty to animals. One 
instance of malicious mischief consisted in throwing stones at a passing 
railroad train and injuring a woman passenger. Cruelty charge con- 
sisted in renting horses and not returning them, but letting them stray 
about without food and care overnight; was in the county jail 2 weeks 
following arrest on that charge, in the early part of 1931. 
Case 328. D. twins, Albert and Alberta. Born in Salt Lake City, 
Utah, March 18, 1914. Case brought to our attention in October, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Probation Department of Los Angeles 
County, California. At that time, however, there was no longer any 
problem in the case of these twins. The delinquency, which involved 
Albert alone, consisted of a single episode in August, 1930, when 
Albert was arrested and placed in the county jail for entering a store 
and stealing cigarettes. Following a hearing before the Juvenile Court 
he was granted probation for 1 year, made good, and the case was 
dismissed at the end of that time. 
Case 329. P. twins, Frank and Gwendolyn. Born in Tucson, 
Arizona, December 31, 1914. Our investigation in September, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Probation Department of Los Angeles 
County, California. Gwendolyn has always been a good child, has 
caused no trouble, does well at school, helps mother in the housework 
at home. Frank’s delinquency has consisted of a single episode, in 
June, 1932, when he was brought before the Juvenile Court on a charge 
of burglarizing a mountain cabin together with five other boys. Court 
ordered restitution in the amount of $91.50 and Frank was granted 
probation. When interviewed by us in his home in September, 1932, 
Frank seemed a nice boy, apparently not vicious, very much ashamed 
of his juvenile court record, said it was “just a lark.” 
Case 330. W. twins, Howard Lome and Mary Louise. Born in 
Petersburg, Ontario, Canada, April 21, 1917. Observed by us in 
August, 1932, through the courtesy of Victoria Industrial School, 
Mimico, Ontario. “Mary Louise is attending high school and doing 
satisfactorily.” Howard is of mediocre intelligence; I. Q. 92. The 
father of these twins has a court record for making “bootleg” and 
selling it to tourists. He and his wife quarrel frequently until the 
neighbors have to interfere. There are two other sets of twins in the 
family, but they have no court records. The Children’s Aid Society 
has taken the younger children. Howard was committed to the Victo- 
ria Industrial School on August 11, 1930, and at the time of our 
investigation of the case 2 years later he was still an inmate there. He 
was committed for entering and theft: he, with another boy, entered 
a house and took the contents of a purse found in a dresser drawer; 
also some food out of the cupboard. 
Case 331, S. twins, Anthony and Anna. Born in Dilles Bottom, 
Ohio, October 9, 4917. Our observation in July, 1932, through the 132 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
courtesy of Boys’ Industrial School at Lancaster, Ohio. “Anna is in 
high school and is doing well.” Parents foreign-born, Croatian; father 
killed in mine in 1926; mother peddles patent medicines; poor home. 
Older brother has long court record. Tony was first brought into court 
at 12 years for stealing. Has had five court appearances since. His 
last offense for which he was committed to the Boys’ Industrial School 
was indulging in fellatio with younger boys. 
Case 332. W. twins, Harold and Hazel. Negroes. Born in Ala- 
bama, July 29, 1914. Our observation in July, 1932, through the 
courtesy of Boys’ Industrial School at Lancaster, Ohio. Both parents 
are dead; twins live with a maternal aunt; home is in poor colored dis- 
trict. No mental test in Hazel’s case, but she i^obviously of normal, 
though mediocre intelligence, has a record of satisfactory reports of 
progress at school, and has been free from behavior difficulties at home, 
school, or elsewhere. Harold was committed to the Boys’ Industrial 
School on September 26, 1930; and, at the time of our observation of 
the case, was still an inmate there. The institution psychologist’s report 
indicates a normal intelligence (I. Q. 100) and states, “Most of his 
delinquencies have been committed in company of other boys, largely as 
a result of unfortunate environmental factors.” Harold was first 
brought to the attention of the court in February, 1928, at the age 
of 13 years, for breaking into a dwelling and stealing money and 
jewelry. He was placed on probation. In April, 1930, he was again 
in court, with other boys, for stealing from the National Biscuit Com- 
pany wagon; he was in court on two other occasions for thefts, and 
was finally committed. 
Case 333. V. twins, Eugene Louis and Eugenia Louise. Born in 
Seattle, Washington, November 7, 1913. Our investigation in October, 
1932, through the courtesy of the Probation Department of Los Angeles 
County, California. Parents and three younger children, 4to 11 years 
old, live in a neat home. Eugenia is a very nice appearing young lady, 
had done well at school, has since worked as a mother’s helper for her 
board and $lO per month, is engaged to be married, has presented no 
behavior difficulty. Eugene’s delinquency consisted of two episodes: 
In June, 1930, he was in court for molesting two girls, 7 and 5 years 
of age; was placed on probation and his case was dismissed at the 
end of 1 month, as he was apparently making good, “having joined 
the Y. M. C. A. and taken an active interest in athletics.” On April 
28, 1932, he was arrested in Beaumont, California, for destroying 
property of the Southern Pacific Railroad—telephone booth, telephone 
wires, and semaphore lights. He did this in company with eight or ten 
other boys, who had boarded a freight train for Imperial Valley, in 
search of a job. They were put off the train by the guards, and Eugene 
admitted being the instigator of the damage—though “for fun and 
not in a malicious spirit.” After 20 days in jail pending a hearing he 
was finally granted probation. 
Case 334. S. twins, Dennis and Doris. Negroes. Born in New 
York City, March 14, 1914. Our investigation in July, 1931, through 
the courtesy of the Institute for Child Guidance in New York City. 
Dennis is somewhat more intelligent than Doris. Stanford-Binet tests OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
133 
revealed, for Dennis, I.Q. 105, for Doris, 93. Doris had to repeat the 
fourth grade in school, but otherwise has had no difficulty in studies or 
in behavior at school or elsewhere. The mother seems to have been a 
factor in Dennis’ delinquencies, by reason of her own emotional 
instability and outbursts of temper. Doris is tolerant of this, is better 
poised than her mother, and seeks to soothe mother’s outbursts when 
they happen. Dennis, on the other hand, has resented mother’s out- 
bursts and has been disobedient and impertinent toward her. In Octo- 
ber, 1928, Dennis stayed away from home and school for a week, till 
found by the police. He said he had slept in the park and swiped milk 
bottles off porches which he sold for nickels to buy food. Finally 
longed for comforts of home and let himself get caught. On March 26, 
1929, because of repeated truancy and at mother’s request he was sent 
to the Parental Home, Flushing, New York, from where he was paroled 
on June 25, 1929, because of “exemplary conduct.” However, on 
account of further truancies and disobedience, he was sent to the House 
of Refuge on October 18, 1929; and paroled from there on March 10, 
1930. Since returning from the House of Refuge he has had occasional 
jobs, but mainly just “bums around.” He has continued to be very 
antagonistic toward his mother, and finally, in June, 1931, left home 
and his whereabouts were still unknown about a month later at the 
time of our investigation of the case. His body build suggests a 
residual of puny immaturity at birth and early childhood, as he is 8 
inches below normal height for his age, also underweight, and extremely 
sensitive about this. 
Case 335. H. twins, Thomas and Betty. Born in Ann Arbor, 
Michigan, in 1914. Our investigation in August, 1932, through the 
courtesy of the Psychopathic Hospital at Ann Arbor, Michigan. Betty 
is in high school, doing well in her studies, has never presented any 
behavior problem, is described as “normal in every way.” Thomas is 
of mediocre intelligence (I.Q. 92). According to the history of his case, 
there has been trouble practically from birth: convulsions during the 
teething period; enuresis all his life; speech rapid, jerky, and indis- 
tinct ; as a young child was afraid of policemen, would scream at the 
sight of them; since 8 years has been irritable, impatient, and had 
temper tantrums; has failed three times in school. He was first brought 
before the Juvenile Court in July, 1930: he had taken an automobile 
from the street, was driving too fast, was stopped for speeding, and 
it was discovered that the car was not his. He was then put on proba- 
tion. In October, 1930, he was again arrested and placed in the County 
Detention Home for stealing two other cars. When brought before the 
judge he had a spell in which he screamed and then fainted. At the 
Detention Home he attempted suicide by tying bed clothes around his 
neck. On January 7, 1931, he was placed in the Psychopathic Hospital 
at Ann Arbor for observation where a diagnosis was made of ‘ ‘ psycho- 
pathic personality, constitutional inferiority, forensic actions, juvenile 
delinquency,” whereupon he was transferred to the Ford Republic, 
Ford, Michigan, on February 10, 1931. He was still there at the time 
of our investigation of the case. 
Case 336. G. twins, Herbert and Elizabeth. Born in Buffalo, 
New York, May 13, 1918. Our investigation in September, 1932, 134 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
through the Psychopathic Hospital at Ann Arbor, Michigan. Our 
information concerning Elizabeth is solely from the case history record, 
which states that she died in 1930, at the age of 12 years, following an 
operation for appendicitis complicated with general peritonitis. She 
had done web at school, was in seventh grade, had never presented any 
behavior difficulty. Herbert weighed less than 4 pounds at birth. Had 
severe temper tantrums as a child, given to nail biting since early child- 
hood, always a day-dreamer, seclusive. “Pouts, is sulky and stubborn 
unless he has his own way; won’t play with other children unless he is 
boss.” Has always been an habitual truant from school. At 9 years 
he left home several times and was gone 2 or 3 weeks at a time. Has 
always been inclined to lie and since 9 years has been stealing, at first 
from his mother, but now takes goods from home and stores and tries 
to dispose of them. “When whipping is attempted he yells bloody 
murder and calls the neighbors to protect him from being killed.” He 
was in the County .Detention Home for 2 weeks in 1927 for theft; 2 
weeks in 1929 for truancy; and 3 months in 1930 for persistent truancy 
and incorrigibility. In March, 1932, he was placed in the Psychiatric 
Hospital at Ann Arbor for observation. There he was noted as “hav- 
ing occasional outbursts, quarreling with other patients, having a 
grudge against the whole world; making friends with none at the hos- 
pital and being a nuisance to all; no rapport could be established with 
him; giving a history of masturbation, mutual masturbation and 
pederasty with other boys.” On April 18, 1922, he was transferred to 
Ford Republic, Ford, Michigan, and was still there at the time of our 
investigation of the case. 
Case 337. McC. twins, Neil and Netta. Born in Los Angeles, 
California, May 31, 1914. Our investigation in September, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Probation Department of Los Angeles 
County, California. The father deserted when the twins were 8 years 
old; mother earns $6O a month as a cleaning woman and thus supports 
herself and the twins. Netta did exceptionally well at school, gradu- 
ated from high school with honors, now working in the daytime and 
taking a night school secretarial course. Neil is of somewhat above- 
average intelligence, but has lagged in his work at school “from lack 
of incentive.” When nearly 14 years of age he began running away 
from home and remaining away weeks at a time; would steal money 
from paper boxes at street corners. In June, 1931, in company with 
three other boys, he was arrested for burglary, having run away from 
a foster home in which he had been placed by the Catholic Bureau. He 
had robbed a poor box in the Catholic Church; was implicated in enter- 
ing a feed store and committing two hold-ups. Was placed in a Cath- 
olic school at Watsonville, but ran away from there, arrested for shop- 
lifting, returned to the school, then again ran away. On September 4, 
1931, he was committed to Whittier State School, and was still there 
at the time of our investigation. Described as ‘ ‘ loud-mouthed, profane, 
uncontrollable temper, bullies other boys.” 
Case 338. A. twins, John and Beatrice. Part Indian. Born in 
Nogales, Arizona, October 16, 1917. Our investigation in September, 
1932, through the courtesy of the Probation Department of Los Angeles 
County, California. Family consists of the parents, the twins, and OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
135 
two other children; live in a neat home in Mexican neighborhood. 
None of the other children, including Beatrice, has been in any trouble; 
but John has had a persistent tendency to play hookey from school 
and run away from home, staying away for days at a time. This has 
happened six times within 3 years. On May 4, 1932, in company with 
four other boys, he w7as caught in the act of burglarizing a cigar 
stand; he then also confessed to some other thefts from school and 
from a parked car. Following a hearing before the Juvenile Court he 
was granted probation; now selling papers and giving the money to his 
mother. 
Case 339. N. twins, George and Georgetta. Born in Huntington 
Park, California, June 21, 1918. Our investigation in September, 
1932, through the courtesy of the Probation Department of Los Angeles 
County, California. Georgetta is a very superior girl, doing well in 
school, perfectly healthy, “always the direct opposite of George in 
manners and habits.” George is of normal intelligence (I. Q. 100) 
and had no serious difficulty until the age of 7 years. At that time 
he was run over by an automobile, had arm and leg broken, also sus- 
tained a head injury and was critically ill for 2 months. About 
one year after the accident he began to have epileptic seizures, had 
one episode of status epilepticus, but then received treatment in the 
Children’s Hospital, since when the seizures have been much less 
frequent. Gradually, following recovery from the injury, he developed 
behavior difficulties: “rough, always fighting, irritable; had to be 
excluded from school; mean to his two sisters; disobedient; numerous 
complaints from neighbors as nuisance and menace to life and prop- 
erty.” In January, 1932, he was arrested for burglary, was in Juve- 
nile Hall about 6 weeks, then given probation at home. Did not do 
well on probation: “intolerable toward older sister; uses profane 
language; draws obscene pictures; unable to adjust in special school.” 
He was returned to Juvenile Hall in April, 1932, and was released 
again in June for placement by special arrangement in the home of 
one of the probation officers. He was still there at the time of our 
investigation of his case. 
Case 340. W. twins, William and Eleanor. Born in Winslow, 
Arizona, October 22, 1912. Our investigation in October, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Probation Department of Los Angeles 
County, California. Eleanor is a student in junior college, helps with 
housework at home, has never presented any behavior difficulty. The 
twins come of good family, have a comfortable home, are well supplied 
with pocket money, etc. At home William seemed well behaved, but 
at school had been in petty croubles for years, unknown to his father. 
He also was known to the police as associating with a gang of boys 
not altogether desirable. On November 5, 1928, he was arrested, in 
company with two other boys and charged with burglary of the 
Methodist Church in the town. Following a hearing before the Juve- 
nile Court he was granted probation, and finally the case was dis- 
missed on December 2, 1929. At the time of our investigation, nearly 
4 years later, he was working at a gas station and had been in no 
further difficultv. 136 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Case 341. J. twins, David and Delia. Born in Los Angeles, 
California, June 22, 1915. Our investigation in February, 1933, 
through the courtesy of the Probation Department of Los Angeles 
County, California. David’s delinquency was of a very mild character 
and consisted of a single episode. On a Saturday evening he was 
going to a party to be given by three other boys. Having seen a pint 
bottle of whiskey in dresser drawer, he decided to take it to the party 
and treat the boys. As he was about to enter the house and hesitated 
on the sidewalk two officers came along, questioned him, and then 
searched him, finding full bottle unopened. He was charged with 
Wright Act violation (possession) and brought before the Juvenile 
Court on January 25, 1931. Following hearing he was granted proba- 
tion for 1 year, and his case was dismissed at the end of that time. 
Delia has never been in any difficulty; is attending high school, doing 
excellent work. 
Case 342. E. twins, Warwick and Florence. Born in Pasadena, 
California, August 5, 1916. Our investigation in February, 1933, 
through the courtesy of the Probation Department of Los Angeles 
County, California. Warwick’s delinquency consisted of a single and 
very mild episode. He, in company with three other boys, were riding 
in an automobile, left car to wander around in the public park, tried 
marksmanship and thus broke a street light. They were arrested by 
officers and charged with malicious mischief. Brought before Juvenile 
Court on June 2, 1932, he was ordered to pay his share of the damage, 
whereupon his case was dismissed. Florence has presented no problem 
of any kind. 
Group 70. Juvenile delinquency; normal intelli- 
gence; female alone affected. 1 case: No. 343. 
Case 343. A. twins, John and Mary. Born in Aurora, Illinois, 
April 15, 1916. Our investigation in July, 1932, through the courtesy 
of St. Vincent’s Orphanage, Illinois. The home background is very 
poor; the father has chronic tuberculosis and spends a large part of 
his time in hospitals; when out, he drinks to excess, and when drunk 
beats Mary so severely that she has to stay at home for a few days 
until the bruises heal. By reason of the unsatisfactory home environ- 
ment, the authorities have placed John in the Catholic orphanage. 
He is well behaved, except that he runs away when not allowed to 
go home to see his mother, she being too poor to visit him. He is 
always perfectly willing to return to the orphanage after his visits to 
his mother. Mary’s delinquency developed around the age of 10 
years and consisted at first in truancy from school. At 12 years she 
forged her mother’s signature on a $12.50 check, cashed it, and dis- 
tributed the money among her classmates. At 14 years she jumped 
on a girl and hurt her so that the girl had to remain at home for three 
weeks. In August, 1931, she ran away from home and remained away 
for several days. More recently she developed a racket of going into 
stores, buying a cheap article, stealing an expensive one, and then 
returning the stolen one and getting the money for it. There is no 
record of a mental test for either twin, but they seem to be of normal 
intelligence. OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
137 
Group 71. Adult criminality; normal intelligence; 
male alone affected. 17 cases: Nos. 344-360. 
Case 344. Della M. twins, Luigi and Mary. Born in Italy, June 
21, 1876. Our investigation in December, 1932, through the courtesy 
of Dannemora, New York, State Hospital for insane convicts. Luigi’s 
offenses have been entirely of sexual nature, mainly sodomy upon 
boys. In 1922 he was sentenced for a term of 5 to 7 years. Upon 
release, almost immediately, he was convicted of a similar offense 
and sentenced for a term of 15 years. While serving his second 
sentence he developed psychotic symptoms and was transferred to 
the Dannemora State Hospital, and was still an inmate there at the 
time of our investigation of the case. Mary is married, has eight 
children, has never been in trouble with the police, has never had any 
mental disorder. 
Case 345. D. twins, John and Mary. Born in Ware, Massa- 
chusetts, August 25, 1898. Our investigation in September, 1930, 
through the courtesy of the U. S. Veterans Bureau Hospital, North- 
ampton, Massachusetts. The criminality in John’s case is mild and 
incidental to the incipient stage of his psychosis. He had been a 
policeman, had some domestic difficulty, and was charged with, and 
convicted of, nonsnpport. While serving his sentence on that charge 
he was discovered to be psychotic and, on June 17, 1927, was com- 
mitted to the Northampton, Massachusetts, State Hospital. His mental 
trouble, according to the history, had developed in August, 1926, or 
before. Soon after his commitment to the state hospital he was trans- 
ferred to the U. S. Veterans Hospital No. 95, and was still an inmate 
there at the time of onr investigation of the case. The official diagnosis 
is dementia praecox, paranoid. Mary presented nothing in the way 
of psychotic, criminal, or other abnormal tendency. 
Case 346. W. twins, Jeff and Nanny. Born in Franklin, Texas, 
June 30, 1888. Our investigation in June, 1931, through the courtesy 
of the Oregon State Penitentiary. Jeff had no prior criminal con- 
victions, nor, as far as known, any criminal tendency. In November, 
1930, he was committed to the Oregon State Penitentiary for a term 
of 20 years, following conviction on a charge of rape (statutory) of 
a 14-year-old girl. At the time of onr investigation he was still an 
inmate there. No criminal or other abnormal behavior has been noted 
in Nanny, who is married and keeping house for her family. 
Case 347. G. twins, Roy and Rose. Born in Kerens, Texas, Feb- 
ruary 14, 1903. Onr investigation in June, 1931, through the courtesy 
of the Oregon State Penitentiary. Roy has a record of a prior convic- 
tion following which he served a term in San Quentin Prison, Califor- 
nia, May 13, 1924, to June 23, 1926. He also has a history of at least 
four previous arrests on suspicion of burglary, auto theft, etc. The 
known arrests were in Sacramento, Colusa, and Los Angeles, in Califor- 
nia, and Phoenix, Arizona. Was released each time for insufficient evi- 
dence. He has assumed a number of aliases. On February 26, 1930, 
he was committed to the Oregon State Penitentiary to serve a 10-year 
sentence for ‘1 assault and robbery and being armed with a dan- 138 
ETIOLOGY OP BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
gerous weapon,” and was still an inmate there at the time of our 
investigation of the case. Rose is married, living in Texas, a waitress 
by occupation, reported to be normal in every way. 
Case 348. H. twins, Eugene Curtis and Irene. Born in Blackwell, 
Oklahoma, June 16, 1904. Our investigation in May, 1931, through the 
courtesy of the "Washington State Reformatory. Eugene was charged 
in 1926 with theft of a car, and later in the same year with second- 
degree burglary; both cases were dismissed. In 1928 he was convicted 
on a charge of attempted petty larceny and served 3 months in the 
county jail in Aberdeen, Washington. In September, 1930, he was 
charged with attempted robbery, tried, and acquitted. In 1930 he was 
charged with breaking and entering and burglary, convicted, and 
sentenced to serve a term of 1 to 14 years in the Washington State 
Reformatory. At the time of our investigation of the case he was still 
an inmate there. His own account of the last offense is as follows: 
“Walter E. and I broke into Wm. W.’s home and stole some liquor, a 
watch, and an auto tire. I took nothing but the liquor. B. was 
arrested with the watch and tire in his possession. He told on me. E. 
was released.” Eugene had been a bookkeeper; married and later 
separated; I. Q. 102. Irene is married, keeps house for her family, 
worked as a saleslady prior to marriage, reported as normal in every 
way; has never been in any difficulty. 
Case 349. T. twins, Lawrence P. and Clara. Born in Alabama, 
June 15, 1897. Our investigation in April, 1931, through the courtesy 
of San Quentin Prison, California. Lawrence was committed to San 
Quentin Prison March 24, 1930, remained until March 24, 1931, and 
was then paroled. The crime was “riding in a car without the owner’s 
consent.” He had not been in trouble previously except on one occa- 
sion when he was fined $5 for being with a man who was driving a 
stolen car. Lawrence and Clara were placed in an orphan home in 
Ohio at the age of 8 years when their 'mother died. At the age of 9 
years Lawrence was taken to live with his uncle and since then has 
seen little of his sister. However, she was taken out of the orphan 
home by another uncle and aunt and was given a better chance than 
Lawrence. She went through high school, “has always been very good, 
is a stable person, ’ ’ is married, and lives with her family in Ohio. 
Case 350. 11. twins, Howard and Hannah. Born in Kentucky, 
May 15, 1904. Our investigation in April, 1931, through the courtesy 
of San Quentin Prison, California. Howard has had 10 years of school- 
ing, finished second year of high school. He was brought up together 
with his twin sister until the age of 15 years, when he left home. He 
was sentenced to San Quentin for bank robbery and entered the prison 
March 31, 1926. At the time of our investigation he was still an inmate 
there. Although he has no official prior criminal record, he admits 
having done things before without being caught; would not mention 
anything specific. Hannah had 3 years in high school; prior to her 
marriage lived at home and helped in the housework. She has never 
shown any criminal tendency and is at present “a very dutiful house- 
wife.” 139 
OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
Case 351. P. twins, Edwin and Lena. Born in Lynn, England, 
January 20, 1876. Our investigation in August, 1932, through the 
courtesy of the Toronto, Canada, Psychiatric Hospital. Edwin’s crime 
was of a sexual character, namely, exhibitionism. Following his arrest 
he was placed in the Psychiatric Hospital in Toronto where he was 
under observation for about 8 days in March, 1931. He was then 
sentenced to the Provincial Gaol, Toronto, for 2 years less 1 day; and, 
at the time of our investigation, was still an inmate there. He had 
been organist of several of the most prominent churches in Canada 
and is said to be an exceptionally fine musician ; but lost one job because 
of drinking and two others because of scandals connecting his name 
with several women. The offense which led to his arrest was as follows; 
he stood in the concourse of a large department store and whenever a 
woman approached he opened his coat and exposed his privates, making 
signs to them. Complaints had been coming in to the store about this 
for several days, so finally two of the store detectives caught him. He 
is married and has two children. Lena is the wife of a contractor in 
Canada, 11 a very fine woman, ’ ’ well to do; has helped Edwin financially 
several times; is at present paying for the education of his younger son. 
Case 352. C. twins, George Francis and Margaret. Born in Sioux 
City, lowa, October 21, 1900. Our observation in November, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Los Angeles, California, county jail. 
These twins are the only children of their parents; grandparents lived 
to be between 80 and 90 years of age; parents are living and well; the 
family is free from mental disorders, criminality, alcoholism, or other 
abnormality, except that of George. Margaret graduated from high 
school, then married, has two girls who are now in school, has never 
been in any difficulty whatever. George, though of normal intelligence, 
has never taken any interest in school, finished but the fourth grade at 
14 years, then left to go to work despite the wish of his parents that 
he go on. He got a job as truck driver, did that for 3 years; at 17 
years he enlisted in the Army, served for 8 years and, at 25 years, 
received an honorable discharge. He married at 18 years; was divorced 
at 26 years; married again at 30 years; no children. On August 23, 
1932, he was arrested and placed in the Los Angeles county jail on a 
charge of two counts of grand theft: in company with two other men he 
had stolen an auto truck and trailer. All three entered pleas of guilty 
and George’s two partners were sentenced to imprisonment in San 
Quentin and Folsom, respectively. George, too, was sentenced to go to 
San Quentin, but a stay of execution was obtained for him and he was 
placed in the Psychopathic Hospital for observation as to his mental 
condition. In November, 1932, he was adjudicated sane, but, at the 
time of our observation, was still in the jail fighting to obtain a new 
trial. 
Case 353. R. twins, Harry and May. Born in Jacksonville, 
Florida, November 26, 1908. Our observation in November, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Los Angeles, California, county jail. The 
twins came of good family; the father died at 37 years of pneumonia; 
the mother is living and in good health. The twins have two brothers 
who are normal in every way. May is married to a dental surgeon; 140 
ETIOLOGY OP BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
she herself is a graduate of Barnard College, and, at the time of 
our observation, was a dental student at Lehigh University. At the 
birth of the twins the labor was prolonged, the difficulty being mainly 
with Harry: he was delivered in breech presentation and had “a black 
eye” at birth. He was graduated from New York University in 1932, 
having majored in electrical engineering. He had driven a friend from 
New York to Los Angeles to the Olympic games when he was arrested, 
in September, 1932, and charged with car theft, two counts; he also had 
received four tickets for speeding. At the time of our observation he 
was awaiting trial. 
Case 354. K. twins, Prank and Prances. Born in Buffalo, Newr 
York, January 16, 1897. Our observation in December, 1932, through 
the courtesy of Dannemora, New York, State Hospital. At the time of 
our observation Prank was a patient in the Dannemora State Hospital 
for insane convicts, having been transferred there from Clinton Prison 
on account of ‘* a psychotic episode in a psychopathic personality. ’ ’ He 
had been previously a patient in Dannemora, namely, from June, 1930, 
to March, 1931, with a similar psychotic episode. At the end of that 
time he had recovered from his psychotic symptoms and -was returned to 
Clinton Prison. lie appears to be of normal intelligence. Is serving 
a sentence of 20 years, plus 5 years additional, for first-degree robbery 
with the use of a revolver. He has a long criminal record. Was 
confined five times in Erie County Penitentiary for such offenses as 
intoxication and petty larceny. In 1915 he was arrested for carrying 
burglar’s tools. In December, 1918, he received a suspended sentence 
for burglary and was returned to the Army from which he had deserted. 
Prances is married, keeping house for her family, has never been in any 
difficulty with the police, has had no mental trouble, seems to be normal 
in every way. 
Case 355. S. twins, Claude and Eve. Born in Chase, Kansas, 
November 12, 1902. Our observation in December, 1932, through the 
courtesy of Folsom Prison, California. The twins come of good family 
and are of Cerman-French descent ; they have one older brother who 
is married, employed at a good salary; parents are living and well. 
There are no instances of criminality or other mental abnormality in 
the family, other than that of Claude. Eve has had 2 years in college, 
is a gown designer and has a wealthy clientele. Claude has a B.A. 
degree with a major in commerce. He has a record of persistent crim- 
inality which seems to have begun at the age of 21 years; In 1924 
served 6 months in St. Louis workhouse for burglary and forgery; in 
1926 was arrested and placed in the Chicago jail and charged with 
embezzlement, but the case was dismissed for insufficient evidence, and 
he was released after 15 days. He served from April, 1927, to March, 
1929, in the Kansas State Reformatory for grand larceny. During the 
year 1931 police records show that he was wanted in Los Angeles, 
Fresno, San Diego, also in Memphis, Tennessee, and by the Burns 
Deteeti\re Agency in San Francisco for forgeries of checks 
and bank checks. In February, 1932, he Avas committed to Folsom 
Prison for 1 to 14 years for forgery, tAvo counts, and, at the time of 
our observation of the case, Avas still an inmate there. The abo Are OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
141 
official record contains but a fraction of his crimes; he had 15 aliases 
which he used in connection with a great many check forgeries and the 
like. 
Case 356. P. twins, Pete and Marie Leone. Born in New York 
City, December 10, 1912. Our investigation in October, 1932, through 
the courtesy of the Probation Department of Los Angeles County, 
California. Pete, a young farm laborer, has been given to petty crimes, 
is described as a futile, ambitionless person; would work 3 days and 
lay off 2 days. In debt to an ice cream company in the amount of 
$13.75 for ice cream which he had taken out to peddle, but failed to 
turn in the money for. Was implicated in theft of a tire, but at that 
time was not prosecuted. At 17 years was brought before the Juvenile 
Court in Los Angeles County for vagrancy: he had been arrested at 
Central Market where he had been hanging around, would not go away 
when told, stole fruit, was shooting craps with some other boys, and 
“was generally a nuisance.” After a hearing the case was dismissed. 
Was in county jail about 10 days in December, 1930, for breaking into 
a grocery store and stealing two hams, some bacon, and some eggs. As 
he was just over 18 years, his case was dismissed from the Juvenile 
Court, and he was not further prosecuted. Marie lives in Pennsylvania, 
has never been in difficulty, is married and keeping house for her 
husband, said to be doing very well. 
Case 357. B. twins, Alfred and Virginia Grace. Born in Texas, 
January 24, 1910. Our investigation in March, 1931, through the 
courtesy of San Quentin Prison, California. Alfred’s behavior dif- 
ficulties started in childhood. His institutional record is long, starting 
at 10 years when he was in the State Reform School in Texas for over 
a year. In 1923 he was in the county jail at Dallas, Texas, for about 
6 months, in the Juvenile Department. Was there a second time in 
1924 for 9 months. Was also in jails in Pine Bluff, Arkansas, and in 
Los Angeles and Riverside counties, California, in 1927 and 1928. 
His delinquencies have consisted mainly of car theft, bootlegging, rob- 
bery, burglary, and one assault with a deadly weapon with intent to 
kill. On February 18, 1928, he was committed to San Quentin Prison, 
California, following conviction for robbery of a cafe. At the time of 
our investigation of the case he was still an inmate there. In telling 
his story he said he liked work and committed his many offenses only 
when he could not get work and was flat broke or when he was drunk; 
said he was the only “bad one” in the family. Virginia reached the 
third year in high school, then took up stenography, has been in no 
difficulty, now works as a stenographer. 
Case 358. J. twins, John Fred and Elizabeth. Born in Newtowm 
Square, Pennsylvania, September 8, 1900. Our investigation in July, 
1932, through the courtesy of Eastern State Penitentiary, Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania. John reached the eighth grade at school, had had no 
difficulty either in studies or in deportment. At 17 yeans he ran away 
from home, and in the same year was arrested for chicken stealing, 
spent one night in the Westchester, Pennsylvania, county jail, and was 
released the next day when the chickens were paid for. He was mar- 142 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
ried at 23 years, lived with wife only one year, and was later divorced. 
His last offense was sodomy upon a 16-year-old boy, for which he was 
sentenced to Eastern State Penitentiary for a term of 2\ to 5 years; 
was admitted there in January, 1932, and was still an inmate there at 
the time of our investigation. It was impossible to obtain from him 
a detailed history of his sexual life. In the prison he is confined in a 
ward designated as “solitary,” in which are kept the known homo- 
sexuals. Elizabeth reached the eighth grade in school; until her mar- 
riage she helped her mother at home; married 4 jmars, no children; 
works out to help family finances. Has never been in trouble of any 
kind. 
Case 359. C. twins, John Murile and Mary. Born in Norway, 
January 4, 1861. Our investigation, through the courtesy of Eastern 
State Penitentiary, Pennsylvania, in July, 1932. John went as far as 
the eighth grade in school in Norway; got along well in studies and in 
deportment; however, he was given to petty thefts in boyhood and 
later as a sailor. He went to sea at 9 years on an apprentice ship. At 
20 he ran away from ship in Baltimore, Maryland, enlisted in the U. S. 
Navy, on the battleship Texas, served through four wars. Has been 
a steady drinker all his life. On June 21, 1930, he entered Eastern 
State Penitentiary to serve a 6 to 12-year sentence following convic- 
tion on a charge of manslaughter. Original charge was murder. The 
episode was the result of drunken brawl; John claims a drunken man 
attacked him and he killed him in self-defense. Mary’s history, as 
given by the prisoner, was that she had had a high school education, 
later became a trained nurse, worked in one hospital for 22 years; was 
steady, reliable, economical; never in any difficulty; died at 60 years 
in Norway, cause of death not known to informant. 
Case 360. T. twins, Grantis Mark and Dorothy. Negroes. Born 
in Manayunk, Pennsylvania, November 18, 1898. Our investigation 
in July, 1932, through the courtesy of Eastern State Penitentiary, 
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Mark finished the eighth grade, but his 
behavior difficulties began at school with habitual truancy. His occu- 
pation was chauffeur; also musician; he married at 21 and has one 
child. His official criminal record goes back to the age of 12 years, 
when he served 30 days in the Philadelphia county jail for vagrancy. 
In 1918 he was sentenced for 1 year to the Atlantic City jail “for 
sitting in automobile.” In 1921 he was sentenced to serve 5 years in 
the Maryland Penitentiary, Baltimore, for car theft. In February, 
1932, he was sentenced to serve 10 to 20 years in Eastern State Peni- 
tentiary, Pennsylvania, for burglary, and was still an inmate there at 
the time of our investigation of the case. When asked if he had com- 
mitted other offenses, not included in the official record, Mark said he 
had never done anything he had not been caught at. Dorothy gradu- 
ated from Teachers’ Training School in Atlanta, Georgia; married at 
25, no children. Was an obedient child; is now teaching school, hap- 
pily married, respected in the community. OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
143 
Group 72. Adult criminality; normal intelligence; 
female alone affected. 5 cases: Nos. 361-365. 
Case 361. C. twins, Hazel J. and Hal G. Born in Joplin, Mis- 
souri, May 10, 1905. Our investigation in December, 1932, through 
the courtesy of the Los Angeles, California, county jail. Hazel had a 
partial high school education and her occupation is given as actress. 
No history of her case is available other than the official criminal 
record, and this goes back to the age of 23 years when she was arrested 
for shoplifting in Kansas City and fined $25. Between 1929 and 1930 
she served 6 sentences of from 10 days to 6 months for drunkenness, 
petty thefts, shoplifting, and violation of State Poison Act. In July, 
1930, she was convicted of burglary, two counts, and sentenced to San 
Quentin Prison, California, for 1 to 14 years. At the time of our 
investigation of the case she was still an inmate there. Hal has 
never been in difficulty either in his native state or since coming to 
California. He works in a garage, lives with his mother and is the 
support of the household; is not married; “seems to make every effort 
to make up to the mother for the grief Hazel has caused her. ’ ’ 
Case 362. D. twins, Katheryn and Leo J. Part Negro. Born in 
Jamaica, West Indies, in 1891. Our investigation in July, 1932, 
through the courtesy of the Reformatory for Women at Dwight, Illinois. 
Katheryn’s occupation is given as evangelist, singer, and writer. Her 
husband is a Hindu whom she married “according to the rites of his 
country.” At the time of our investigation of the ease he was in jail 
awaiting trial and deportation for practicing medicine without a license 
and performing abortions. Katheryn has a prior record of 1 year in 
1930-1931 in the House of Correction, Chicago, for beating her hus- 
band because he was too attentive to his women patients. Her com- 
mitment to the Dwight Reformatory for Women was on December 4, 
1931, for a term of 14 years, for assault with intent to kill; she had 
attacked two of her husband’s women patients with a knife. A 
psychiatric examination in 1931 yielded the report: “She considers 
herself a spiritualistic medium; is so unstable that when crossed, her 
immediate reaction is homicidal; expresses grandiose ideas, says her 
husband gives her a check for $lO,OOO every week, she could not live 
on less.” Since admission to the Reformatory she is reported to have 
been ‘ ‘ downright mean; has vowed to kill one of the matrons; is a con- 
stant complainer, has resentful attitude; has had epileptiform attacks, 
considered hysterical in nature. She has canvassed girls in the 
reformatory to let her perform abortions on them; is also a sex pervert, 
seducing other girls, is now kept in an isolation cell; writes long, 
rambling letters to the Superintendent, the Governor, and others filled 
with pseudo-scientific terms and religious phrases.” The information 
concerning her twin brother, Leo, is meager. It is known, however, 
that he was an attorney, without any police record; was shot and killed 
in a disorderly house in a fight, having gone there to get his wife and 
to bring her home. 
Case 363. R. twins, Vivian and Vernon. Born in Tennessee, 
June 16, 1899. Our investigation in July, 1932, through the courtesy 144 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
of the Reformatory for Women in Dwight, Illinois. Vivian’s crim- 
inality centers around morphine addiction. She is of normal intelli- 
gence, I. Q. 106. She finished two years in high school at 18 years, 
then started nurse’s training in a hospital in Chicago, but left to get 
married. Had one pregnancy, hut had it aborted. She has been a 
morphine addict for 10 years; says it began following an appendectomy: 
got the drug from the man who later became her husband, and he still 
gets it for her. She has taken five cures without result. She was com- 
mitted to the Reformatory for 6 months on March 3, 1932, for posses- 
sion of a hypodermic syringe and needle; was still an inmate there at 
the time of our investigation of the case. Vernon is an automobile 
salesman; is “a bit wild and something of a spendthrift,’’ but has 
never been in any trouble with the police; is married and takes care 
of his family. 
Case 364. McD. twins, Dorothy and James. Born in Scotland, 
April 9, 1909. Our investigation in August, 1932, through the courtesy 
of the Psychiatric Hospital at Toronto, Canada. The parents died 
when these twins were very young and both were placed in a found- 
lings’ home where they were brought up. At the time of our investi- 
gation Dorothy had one illegitimate child born in London, England, 
just prior to her coming to Canada, and a second one born in Canada 
where she had been living out of wedlock for a year and a half with 
a man who later put her out after he had found her in bed with one of 
the boarders. She has lived more or less promiscuously with a number 
of men. She was arrested in February, 1931, for writing several bogus 
checks and placed for observation in the Toronto Psychiatric Hospital. 
During her 10 days there she was seen to have a typical epileptic 
seizure, but was not aware of ever having had one previously. With 
that exception, no neuropsychiatric trouble was found that might 
justify her placement in a mental hospital, and she was committed to 
the Woman’s Farm, Toronto, Canada, and was still there at the time 
of our investigation. James is a blaster by occupation, in good health, 
married, has three children; has no court record. At the time of 
Dorothy’s court trial he appeared in court and testified that she had 
always been in trouble. 
Case 365. R. twins, Edna and Kelter. Born in Wapakonita, 
Ohio, May 6, 1891. Our investigation in August, 1932, through the 
courtesy of Toronto Gaol, Canada. Edna’s difficulties are traceable 
largely to alcoholism. She had been drinking heavily for about 5 
years, had been in private sanitariums on two occasions, had grown 
very nervous and irritable, became promiscuous sexually; finally her 
husband, quite a prominent business man in Toronto, left her and later 
obtained a divorce. On the day of her arrest, in September, 1931, she 
was on her way home from a bootlegger’s, driving her car in a drunken 
condition and having, in addition, some bottles with her. She ran her 
car up the sidewalk and on to a lawn and crashed into a veranda on 
which some people were sitting. She was sentenced to 3 months in 
Toronto Gaol which she served from September 3 to December 3, 1931. 
Kelter is the manager of a life insurance office in Reading, Pennsyl- 
vania, and is a very fine man. OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
145 
Group 73. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic 
and prepsychotic types; subnormal intelligence; male 
alone affected. 8 cases: Nos. 366-373. 
Case 366. B. twins, Jack and June. Born in Long Beach, Cali- 
fornia, June 15, 1926. Our observation in October, 1931, in one of 
the Long Beach city schools. When Jack finishes what he is eating, 
unless the parents watch closely, he picks up the dish and throws it 
on the floor. This is not done in a fit of temper, but in an indifferent 
manner, and no amount of reasoning with him or even punishment 
seems to affect him at all. If his sister gets in his way he hits her or 
knocks her down, although otherwise he seems fond of her. The 
kindergarten teacher has reported him several times for the same 
traits, and the school has threatened to transfer him to a special oppor- 
tunity room. He does not seem to have temper tantrums, but when 
anything is in his way he removes it by force, utterly regardless of 
consequences, and no appeals seem to have any weight with him. Very 
stubborn; when he starts to do anything he can not be deterred, except 
by force, and then he returns to it the first moment he is free to do so. 
There is no record of a mental test for either twin, but Jack is obvi- 
ously of subnormal intelligence. June is a bright, pleasing, attractive 
child. Her kindergarten teacher says she is quite the leader of the 
class. Her mother says she is very helpful at home and anxious to 
learn new things; responds promptly to appeals. 
Case 367. R. twins, Milton Eugene and Mary Ellen. Born in 
Long Beach, California, June 4, 1925. Our observation in November, 
1931, through the courtesy of one of the Long Beach, California, city 
schools. Milton is of somewhat subnormal intelligence, I. Q. 84. He 
is described as painfully shy, cries almost whenever he is asked to do 
anything, does not seem to know how to play, refuses to cooperate 
with other children; when toys are put before him he knocks them 
away or breaks them. He still wets and soils himself and is felt to 
be such a problem in the kindergarten that they feel they will have to 
dispose of him otherwise. Mary is of average intelligence, I. Q. 97. 
She seems to adjust satisfactorily in kindergarten. She is quiet and 
obedient, gets on well with the other children. 
Case 368. L. twins, Marvin and Marita. Born in Pasadena, 
California, July 12, 1924. Our observation in March, 1932, in one of 
the Pasadena, California, city schools. Marvin spends most of his time 
at school weeping. He utterly lacks self-confidence. Will not attempt 
anything by himself, but cries because he can not do it. He jumps and 
looks frightened when any one speaks to him, and then bursts into 
tears. Has occasional enuresis; is thin and undernourished; it is 
hard to get him to eat. He does not play with other children, but just 
sits and dreams. There is no record of a mental test for either twin, 
but Marvin is obviously of subnormal intelligence. He has been unable 
as yet to complete the first grade in school, while Marita has already had 
two promotions beyond him. As regards Marita, the counselor’s report 
states: “Her emotional control is very good; she is socially very well 
adjusted; self-confident and helpful at all times.” 146 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Case 369. McE. twins, Paul and Jessie. Born in California, in 
1921. Our observation in November, 1931, in one of the Long Beach, 
California, city schools. Paul is of slightly below-average intelligence, 
I. Q. 88. His behavior problem is mainly one of truancy from school 
and running away from home. His parents say he has been “a wan- 
derer all his life.’7 Plays hookey almost weekly. “Today (Nov. 18, 
1931) he had just been returned after a 10-day absence from school. 
He was found in North Long Beach trying to beg his way into a 
picture show. How he had spent his time meanwhile could not be 
found out, as he refused to tell.” He often asks to go to the toilet, 
then leaves school and is not seen again for several days. He causes 
no other trouble, and is rather quiet and secretive. Usually he goes 
off alone, although once he coaxed a younger child to go with him. 
His parents say he causes no trouble except for this trait, and they 
are unable to wmtch him closely enough to prevent his running away. 
Generally, upon his return, his appearance suggests that he has spent 
his time out in the open. He seems to have no interests in any of his 
school work and no hobbies. Jessie seems to be an average child in 
every way and presents no behavior difficulty. She is of average intel- 
ligence, I. Q. 100; is in 6B grade; does average work; gets on well 
with other children. 
Class 370. D. twins, Charles and Clara. Born in Monterey Park, 
California, March 14, 1919. Our investigation, in December, 1931, 
through the courtesy of the Research Department of the Alhambra, 
California, city schools. Charles is of slightly subnormal intelligence, 
I. Q. 81. He has been a very difficult boy at school for years: “dis- 
turbs the whole class by talking, whistling, running around, punching 
other children; has frequent and violent temper tantrums; fights 
other boys.” Has a speech difficulty, can not sound “th,” says “de” 
for “the.” Other children make fun of him on account of his speech 
defect. He greatly dislikes school. He has been placed in an oppor- 
tunity room; later recommended for state institution, but the parents 
refused to have him committed. He finally evicted from public 
school because of lighting fire in school room. At the time of our 
investigation of the case he was on trial in a parochial school. 
Clara is of average intelligence, I. Q. 98; she works diligently at her 
studies and with average success. She has never caused trouble either 
at home or at school; is ashamed of her twin’s behavior and seems to 
try to make amends for it. 
Case 371. R. twins, Leßoy and Anna. Born in Illinois, May 11, 
1919. Both parents are said to be of subnormal intelligence, and 
both are intemperate; father is said also to be psychotic and epileptic. 
Anna has presented no problem of any kind. She has done well at 
school and was due to enter the eighth grade in the fall of 1932. Her 
aunt, with whom she had lived for 7 years, spoke highly of her, said 
she was a fine helper in the house. No record of a mental test. Leßoy 
has been abnormal from the start. Was a bed-wetter for years; at 11 
years was still in the first grade. A mental test in 1932 revealed I. Q. 
58. He was also a behavior problem at school; often absent, con- OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
147 
stantly defiant; teacher said, “No one could accurately describe the 
terrible behavior of this boy.” Finally the school refused to keep him. 
He was referred to the Lower North Side Child Guidance Clinic in 
Chicago, which reported, in June, 1930: “He continues to run the 
streets; steals and is becoming increasingly difficult to control.” On 
November 17, 1930, he was committed to the Dixon State Hospital, 
Illinois. At the time of our investigation of the case, which was in 
July, 1932, he was still an inmate there. 
Case 372. G. twins, Gideon and Catherine. Born in Nogales, 
Arizona, October 25, 1913. Observed by us in April, 1931, in one of 
the Los Angeles, California, city schools. Mental tests in 1930 revealed, 
for Gideon, I. Q. 77; for Catherine, 95. Gideon presents a double 
problem: he is very backward in his studies and is ‘ ‘ schizoid ’ ’ in his 
attitude and behavior. He is described by his mother as “extremely 
sensitive, very easily downed; will not show temper, but is quietly 
resentful toward any one who hurts his feelings; seldom ever makes 
up to such person.” Catherine is doing well in her studies and 
presents no problem of any kind. 
Case 373. K. twins, Frederick Field and Freda. Born in Mel- 
rose Highlands, Massachusetts, May 8, 1906. A maternal aunt is 
epileptic; mother “very nervous”; paternal grandfather had migraine. 
The home is one of prosperity and culture. The twins represent the 
mother’s only pregnancy. Labor was at full term, but prolonged, 
difficult, and with use of instruments and anesthesia. Freda was 
the first-born, has always been in good health physically and men- 
tally, graduated from high school at 18 years and was on the honor roll, 
and has been entirely normal since. Frederick was the second-born; 
a podalic version was performed, followed by rapid extraction. He 
weighed pounds, head rather large; had to be resuscitated; legs 
and hands seemed paralyzed, and he was judged at the time to have 
sustained a cerebral birth trauma. “He cried practically all the time 
during infancy and childhood.” Had a convulsion when 3 days old, 
and has been having grand-mal and petit-mal seizures since, the for- 
mer at the rate of two or three a year, the latter almost daily and up to 
several in one day. The paralysis which he seemed-to have at birth 
quickly disappeared, leaving behind merely increased knee-jerks, poor 
muscular coordination, and divergent strabismus of right eye. There 
was some delay in learning to walk and talk, as compared with his 
sister, and he has done poorly in his studies at school. A mental test 
in 1931 revealed I. Q. 73. In his early adolescence he developed 
rather marked behavior difficulty, became emotionally unstable, quar- 
relsome, abusive and threatening toward his mother, and would run 
away from home and disappear, for several days at a time, two or three 
times a year. On August 1, 1923, he was committed to the Monson 
State Hospital, Massachusetts (for epileptics), and at the time of our 
observation of the case, which was in August, 1932, he was still an 
inmate there. 148 
ETIOLOGY OP BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Group 74. Child behavior difficulties, preneurotic 
and prepsychotic types; subnormal intelligence; female 
alone affected. 5 cases: Nos. 374-378. 
Case 374. G. twins, Marian May and George. Born in Wor- 
cester, Massachusetts, September 2, 1918. A paternal aunt of the 
twins is said to be defective and delinquent; the mother, too, is said 
to be subnormal mentally. Marian was born by breech presenta- 
tion and was a “blue baby.” She began to have convulsions at 6 
months at the rate of one or two a month, but occasionally in series 
lasting all night. From 2to 4 years she wras free from them, but 
then they began again and have since continued at the average rate 
of four a week. She has never talked, makes inarticulate noises 
and gestures. Walks and feeds herself; has choreiform movements: 
is very untidy. At times becomes tempestuous, screams,, hits, bites. 
On October 22, 1922, she was placed in the Hospital Cottages for 
Children at Baldwinsville, Massachusetts, from where she was trans- 
ferred to the Monson State Hospital, Massachusetts, on December 7, 
1923. At the time of our observation of the case, which was in August, 
1932, she was still an inmate there. No record of a mental test, but 
her mental deficiency is judged to be in the degree of idiocy. George 
is a normal boy, free from epilepsy, goes to school, makes good progress. 
Case 375. B. twins, Georgina Teresa and George. Born in 
Toronto, Ontario, Canada, November 22, 1911. Our investigation in 
August, 1932, through the courtesy of Ontario Hospital, Toronto. 
Home background very bad: mother said to be mentally dull; father 
is serving a term in Kingston Penitentiary for theft. Georgina was 
raped by her father when she was 10 years old, and she has been 
sexually promiscuous since then. Also, she did poorly at school, reached 
but the sixth grade, is obviously of subnormal intelligence, although 
there is no record of a mental test. In addition to her behavior diffi- 
culty, which was mainly sexual, she developed, at the age of 16 years, 
a tendency to have frequently recurring psychotic spells, classified as 
manic-depressive in type. Thus, in 1928, “she became very excited, 
laughing loudly, screaming, and crying without cause; created a 
disturbance at the factory where she was employed, also in her home 
neighborhood; slapped anyone who tried to interfere with her; talked 
incessantly and at random.” She had three admissions to the Ontario 
Hospital, Toronto, in 1928, 1929, and 1931, and, at the time of our 
investigation of the case, she was still a patient there. George died 
at the age of 16 years of diphtheria. He is said to have been “per- 
fectly normal in every respect.” 
Case 376. C. twins, Mary Agnes and John. Born in Darlington, 
Indiana, March 3, 1901. Our investigation in November, 1930, 
through the courtesy of Patton, California, State Hospital. Mary 
was a problem from birth. She was the first-born of the twins, was 
delivered with difficulty, by podalic version. There is no record of 
a mental test, but she was obviously of subnormal intelligence; barely 
reached the eighth grade at school, and that with difficulty, whereas 
John went on to high school and later continued his education while 
serving two enlistments in the Navy. Mary was described as “of OPPOSTTE-SEX TWINS 
149 
violent temper always, kleptomaniac since 7 years of age (stole from 
stores), sexually promiscuous since the age of 16, and a pathologic 
liar.” She was emotionally unstable, irresponsible; her father paid 
bills that she had incurred, in the amount of $1,300, when she forged Ids 
name to checks; on one occasion attacked her sister with a carving 
knife; on another occasion attempted suicide; in September, 1925, was 
delivered of a stillborn 5-month baby, illegitimate; in 1926 had another 
illegitimate pregnancy, with a psychotic complication. On July 2, 
1926, she was committed to Patton State Hospital with a diagnosis 
undecided as between “psychopathic personality with psychosis” and 
“dementia praecox hebephrenic type.” Since then she was tried at 
home on parole twice, but had to be returned to the hospital both 
times after a period of a few weeks. At the time of our investigation 
of the case she was still a patient there. Recent ease notes state she 
is “slovenly as to personal appearance, indifferent to her surround- 
ings, indolent; irritable and quarrelsome at times.” John is normal 
in every way, is Chief Gunner’s Mate in the Navy, is a torpedo expert, 
helps his mother financially. 
Case 377. F. twins, Louise and John. Born in Mishawaka, 
Indiana, November 29, 1901. John developed normally, finished school 
at 14, then went to work, is a teamster, married, makes a good living 
for his family. Louise has never been a healthy child, began to have 
seizures, light and severe, in early childhood. She did poorly at 
school, left at 15 years when she had attained but the fifth grade. 
From the age of about 13 years she has had psychotic symptoms of 
gradually increasing severity and associated with a progressive dete- 
rioration. After school she tried to work in a paper mill and as a 
domestic, but could not keep a position longer than a week or two. 
At home she was emotionally unstable, showed disagreeable disposition, 
would set fire to clothes, run and hide, refused to eat with the family, 
made use of profane language, attempted suicide, would at times 
become so violent that she had to be restrained; epileptic seizures con- 
tinued to occur both day and night, and finally, on February 4, 1932, 
she was committed to the Logansport, Indiana, State Hospital. At 
the time of our observation of the case, which was in July, 1932, she 
was still an inmate there. On admission to the hospital, a physical 
examination revealed increased knee-jerks, right talipes equino-varus, 
also ankle clonus and Babinski sign on right side. Recent case notes 
state: “Excited, restless, many mannerisms, threatens violence to other 
patients; has also attacked visitors on the lawn.” A mental test in 
1932 revealed I. Q. 54, but it would be impossible to say to what 
extent this might be attributed to original mental deficiency and to 
what extent to deterioration. 
Case 378. W. twins, Edna Pearl and Edwin. Born in Fairview, 
Pennsylvania, in 1888. Edna did poorly at school, advanced only as 
far as the sixth grade. There is no record of a mental test, but she 
is judged to be mentally deficient in the degree of high-grade moron- 
ism. Her main difficulty has consisted in episodes of excitement which 
increased in frequency and severity to such an extent that she could 
no longer be cared for at home. On April 11, 1929, she was com- 150 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
mitted to the Western State Hospital at Salem, Oregon. A diagnosis 
of mental deficiency with periodic psychotic spells was made. She 
was tried on parole twice, in 1929, and in 1930, but each time she had 
to be returned after several months. At the time of our investigation 
of the case, which was in August, 1931, she was still an inmate there. 
Edwin has always been in good health physically and mentally and 
is well adjusted. 
Group 75. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; subnormal intelligence; male alone affected. 5 
cases: Nos. 379-383. 
Case 379. P. twins, Winan and Wanda. Born in Compton, 
California, December 4, 1923. Our observation in January, 1932, 
through the courtesy of one of the Compton, California, city schools. 
Winan is of slightly subnormal intelligence (I. Q. 87). “He does 
practically nothing in his school work; is sulky and sullen with his 
teachers; a frequent ditcher, hangs around pool halls. He does not 
get on well with the other pupils, fights with them, bullies the younger 
ones, is generally disliked, considered not a good sport.” Wanda is 
of average intelligence (I. Q. 100) ; “does good average work at school, 
tries hard; has a good disposition, and gets on well with everyone.” 
Case 380. P. twins, Paul and Helen. Born in Glens Falls, New 
York, April 11, 1916. Our investigation in December, 1931, through 
private reference. These twins come of a family of nine children in 
which are included three pairs of opposite-sex twins. Our Case No. 381 
is one of these pairs of twins (see below). The family history, on the 
paternal side, reveals a markedly psychopathic strain: the paternal 
grandmother was alcoholic, committed suicide. A paternal great aunt 
and one paternal uncle also committed suicide. The father was so 
religious that he had his car painted with religious mottoes; he made his 
living on Chautauqua and Lyceum concert tours as singer and imper- 
sonator; he was described as “very temperamental”; had one nervous 
breakdown from which he recovered, but 7 years later, on return from 
one of his concert tours, he committed suicide when he learned that 
his wife had not paid debts that he had sent her money for. Paul, 
with an I. Q. of 88, is “a musical genius,” but is “totally irresponsi- 
ble” and “will not use his ability for his own support or to help the 
family.” He was a bedwetter up to the age of 16; also stole up to 
about the same age “whatever appealed to him, both at home and 
outside the home.” He reached the ninth grade at school, but was 
failing in all subjects, including citizenship, and finally had to be taken 
out of school following a stealing episode. At the time of our investi- 
gation he was “living in luxury” in a hotel, with an older man, a 
musician. He is esthetic, indolent, effeminate, affects an English man- 
ner, despises “the common herd,” and when his twin sister was mar- 
ried his comment was that she was “just plain vulgar.” Helen is more 
studious; very dependable; helps in the home as much as she can; 
married recently, hut is continuing with a business course she began 
a few months ago. She is more intelligent than Paul; I. Q. 110. OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
151 
Case 381. P. twins, Robert and Carol. Born in Glens Falls, New 
York, April 22, 1922. They are brother and sister to the P. twins in 
our Case No. 380 (see above), investigated by us at the same time. 
Robert has been a bedwetter all his life, and still is. This is attributed 
by the family to his being a very heavy sleeper: “he fights like a tiger 
if anyone tries to waken him, so we make no effort to waken him to 
prevent his wetting the bed.” He has “an awful temper” when 
crossed. At the age of about 8 years he began to steal money, first at 
home, later from other children and from teachers at school, for candy, 
shows, etc. On three occasions he disappeared from home and arranged 
to spread the alarm that he had been kidnapped. On one of these 
occasions he left a note in the door which read: “ I am the doctor. I 
took the boy. I am going to kill him with this: (picture of an axe). 
Your friend, The Doctor.” Later he confessed that he had stolen 30 
cents from his sister’s purse, went to the movie across the street, stayed 
through two shows, and was brought back by the police at 1 a.m. He 
is of slightly subnormal intelligence (I. Q. 89). Carol is of average 
intelligence (I. Q. 102); is studious, dependable; advanced one grade 
beyond Robert at school; has presented no behavior difficulty. 
Case 382. H. twins, Ray and Faye. Born in Oklahoma, December 
3, 1914. Our observation in December, 1931, in one of the Redlands, 
California, city schools. The home background is very poor. Ray is of 
slightly subnormal intelligence (I. Q. 88). He was suspended from 
school for stealing, Which had apparently been going on for some time. 
He had previously been sent to the office for cheating on examinations. 
The school principal described him as “a boy of no standards, no 
basis on which you could make an appeal to him; he would say 
‘boloney’ to any appeal to his honor.” Faye is much more intelligent, 
I. Q. 109. She is described as a very nice girl, well adjusted, makes 
average grades in her studies, or better. 
Case 383. L. twins, Walter and Bertha. Born in Germany, in 
1908. Walter was admitted to the Dixon, Illinois, State Hospital (for 
epileptics) on October 19, 1923. At the time of our observation of the 
case, which was in June, 1932, he was still an inmate there. Case his- 
tory very meager. Upon admission he was having 10 or 15 seizures a 
month, but they gradually became less frequent and he had had none 
at all for over a year prior to June, 1932. His case, however, was 
complicated with mental deficiency (or deterioration), persistent 
behavior difficulty, and occasional psychotic symptoms. A mental test 
in 1926 revealed I. Q. 56. Neurological examination revealed impaired 
hearing in right ear and increased knee-jerks. He has been very 
troublesome, quarreling and fighting with other patients; on one occa- 
sion struck a patient and broke his nose; on another occasion was 
caught practicing homosexuality with other patients; on still another 
occasion he, with two other boys, broke into the stockroom and stole 
clothes, tobacco, and matches. He has also been very moody from time 
to time and, in December, 1925, attempted suicide by locking a belt 
around his neck; was found in a cyanotic condition. Bertha has 
always been in good health physically and mentally, free from epilepsy 
or behavior difficulty, works at home on the farm. 152 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Group 76. Child behavior difficulties, predelinquent 
types; subnormal intelligence; female alone affected. 1 
case: No. 384. 
Case 384. A. twins, Mabel and John. Born in Detroit, Michigan, 
August 12, 1906. Father is alcoholic. The twins had ten brothers and 
sisters, three of whom died of epilepsy; one had an infantile palsy. 
Mabel began to have epileptic seizures at the age of 11 years at inter- 
vals varying from one to two days to several weeks. Even before the 
seizures began she presented a behavior problem in the nature of sex 
delinquency and was taken in hand by the St. Vincent de Paul Society. 
On December 20, 1920, she was committed to the Farm Colony for 
Epileptics at Wahjamega, Michigan, and at the time of our observation 
of the case, which was in September, 1932, she was still an inmate 
there. The seizures are often preceded by a period of unruliness, 
defiance, profanity and obscenity in language. A mental test in 1922 
revealed I. Q. 58, but it would be impossible to state to what extent 
this is attributable to original mental deficiency and to what extent to 
deterioration. John has always been in good health physically and 
mentally, has never had a seizure, finished eighth grade at 14, and has 
since worked as a chef. No record of a mental test, but his intelligence 
is obviously normal or better. 
Group 77. Juvenile delinquency; subnormal intelli- 
gence; male alone affected. 10 cases: Nos. 385-394. 
Case 385. F. twins, Homer and Lethia. Negroes. Born in Toledo, 
Ohio, October 17, 1918. Our observation in July, 1932, through the 
courtesy of the Boys’ Industrial School, Lancaster, Ohio. Home back- 
ground very poor: economic condition low; family live in a single room; 
father was killed in a dice game; mother remarried; stepfather mean to 
the family; Homer hates him. Homer was admitted to the Boys’ Indus- 
trial School on February 13, 1932, for “incorrigibility and truancy 
from home.” At the time of our investigation of the case he was still 
an inmate there. According to the history of his case, he had caused 
a good deal of trouble since 1930: habitual truancy from home and 
from school; stealing from home and from trucks; “no discipline has 
hitherto been successful in straightening him out.” A mental test 
following his admission revealed I. Q. 83. At the school, too, he proved 
to be difficult; used a knife on another boy there in an altercation; 
prognosis considered unfavorable for rehabilitation. Lethia has been 
sent to live with relatives on a farm in Missouri, and is getting along 
very satisfactorily; has never presented any behavior difficulty. 
Case 386. B. twins, Donald and Dorothea. Born in Detroit, 
Michigan, August 27, 1917. At the time of our investigation of the 
case, which was in February, 1931, Dorothea was in the eighth grade in 
school, making normal progress, fond of her work, of calm and sociable 
disposition, and presenting no problem of any kind. Donald, too, got 
along normally until the age of 8 years, when his troubles began, fol- 
lowing a head injury. He fell a distance of two stories, landing on a 
concrete pavement, was rendered unconscious and remained so all night, 153 
OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
and kept bleeding from his month and nose. Upon recovery from the 
immediate effects of his injury, a great change was noticed in him. He 
complained of severe frontal headaches, developed a tendency to stut- 
ter; at times walked in his sleep, would scream out, and would resist 
violently all attempts to get him back to bed; the next day he would 
have no recollection of these episodes. He also became a persistent 
truant from school and developed a habit of running away from home. 
He became disobedient, difficult to manage, had temper tantrums, and 
in anger would pound his head on the floor or pavement. Soon, he 
developed also a tendency to steal money from home. Often he would 
spend all day in picture shows and would remain out late at night by 
himself. He was known in the neighborhood as a vicious boy who 
quarrels and throws stones at other children. Finally, on July 30, 
1930, he was committed to Whittier, California, State School. At the 
time of our observation of the case, which was in February, 1931, he 
was still an inmate there. A mental test in 1930 revealed I. Q. 73. 
The institution records state: “Although a great deal of time was spent 
in an effort to get at the underlying reason for the boy’s persistent 
running away, he insisted that he just gets the notion all at once.” 
The boy said: “Feeling rotten, terrible, just sitting down in a chair 
thinking, then all at once I just go off.” 
Case 387. S. twins, Joe and Cecilia. Born in Missouri, Septem- 
ber 19, 1917. The twins come of a good home, and were the first-born 
of five children. Only Joe has been a problem, his twin sister Cecilia 
and the three younger children being normal in intelligence and in 
behavior and having done well at school. Joe is of subnormal intelli- 
gence; a mental test in 1931 revealed I. Q. 57. He did very poorly at 
school, soon became a persistent truant, and was first brought into 
Juvenile Court at the age of 12 years for that reason. Since then, he 
has been in court three more times for stealing fruit and candy. Said 
he wanted to be put in jail, thought it would be fun to ride in the police 
patrol. In the summer of 1931 he broke into a box car, then ran away 
from home (in Ohio), got as far as Buffalo, New York, was appre- 
hended, returned to Ohio, and on September 18, 1931, was committed 
to the Boys’ Industrial School at Lancaster. At the time of our obser- 
vation of the case, which was in July, 1932, he was still an inmate 
there. His record at the institution has been unsatisfactory: has tried 
to escape; stole sweet potatoes from the kitchen and ate them raw; 
stole table silver and hid it in his room; uses vile language; was found 
indulging in homosexual practices with another boy; stole things from 
one boy, hid them in another boy’s desk, then tried to throw the blame 
on the other boy. 
Case 388. T. twins, Frank and Susie. Born in South Lebanon, 
Ohio, August 6, 1916. Onr investigation in July, 1932, through the 
courtesy of the Boys’ Industrial School, Lancaster, Ohio. The twins 
were second in birth order of six children. The father died in 
1931; the home is very poor; mother makes $3 a week as a cleaning 
woman. Frank was brought into Juvenile Court for burglarizing 
a school and was committed to the Boys’ Industrial School on January 
13, 1932. At the time of onr investigation of the case he was still an 
inmate there. He had previously been before the court, together with 154 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
another boy, for stealing an automobile. On that occasion Frank was 
released on suspended sentence. A mental test in January, 1932, 
revealed I. Q. 86. His conduct record at the Industrial School has been 
poor since his admission ; ‘ ‘ indifferent, careless, sloppy, fights with other 
boys.” Susie was placed in the Warren County, Ohio, Children’s Home 
some years ago, because of extreme poverty in her own home. Their 
reports of her are very favorable; she presents no behavior problem 
and seems normal in every way. 
Case 389. B. twins, Luis and Juana. Part Indian. Born in 
Mexico, June 21, 1915. Juana is a normal girl, rather attractive, helps 
in homes and care of babies, has never been in difficulty. Luis is of 
subnormal intelligence; mental test in 1932 revealed I. Q. 65. He has 
been before Juvenile Court in Los Angeles, California, on three occa- 
sions, twice in 1930 and once in 1932, respectively, for “malicious 
destruction” (of railway switch lights), stealing from a warehouse, and 
stabbing another boy in a fight three times, necessitating treatment in 
the Receiving Hospital. At the time of our investigation of the case, 
which was in September, 1932, he was at home on probation: disagree- 
able, rather ill-tempered, undersized, smaller than his twin sister. 
Case 390. S. twins, Theodore F. and Virginia. Born in Kentucky, 
January 15, 1915. Our investigation in July, 1932, through the cour- 
tesy of the Boys’ Industrial School, Lancaster, Ohio. Both parents 
are dead, twins live with elderly aunt, who states that Virginia has 
never caused any trouble, “is a darling, a perfect child.” But the 
aunt has never been able to control Theodore. He has been known to 
the Juvenile Court since 1926, when he was brought there on account of 
being a persistent truant from home and being incorrigible. He was 
released to the care of the Bureau of Juvenile Research. He ran away 
from home again and thereupon was committed to Franklin County 
Children’s Home. In 1928 he was returned to court for destroying 
railroad property. He continued to cause trouble, and in January, 
1930, was in court again for automobile theft. Was then released on 
suspended sentence, but in August, 1930, was picked up with a strange 
man in an automobile, indulging in homosexual relations. He was then 
placed in the Boys’ Industrial School, and was still there at the time 
of our investigation of the ease. A mental test upon admission there 
revealed I. Q. 87. He stated that his ambition was to join a circus, so 
he could travel from place to place. His conduct at the Boys’ School 
has been quite unsatisfactory: ‘ ‘ defiant, impudent, sticks pins in other 
boys, urinates on the floor, steals food from kitchen, etc.” 
Case 391. H. twins, William Thomas and May. Born in Spokane, 
Washington, April 25, 1913. William was before the Juvenile Court at 
the age of 14 years for burglary and at 16 years for “delinquency,” 
unspecified. Released to parents each time. In the summer of 1930 
he was again arrested on a charge of assault in second degree, and on 
July 2, 1930, he was sent to the State Reformatory at Monroe, Wash- 
ington. At the time of our investigation of the case, which was in 
May, 1931, he was still an inmate there. His own account of his offense 
is as follows: “A girl about 10 years of age came to our house selling 
papers. I met her at the door and asked her in the house. I asked her OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
155 
to take off her pants, but she would not, so I started to take them off. 
She began crying, so I stopped and let her go. She went home and 
told her parents. I was arrested.” He was sentenced to the reforma- 
tory for 1 to 10 years. A mental test in 1930 revealed I. Q. 78. 
May has never presented any problem. She is doing well as a stenog- 
rapher in Princeton, British Columbia, Canada. No record of a mental 
test in her case. 
Case 392. T. twins, Clarence and Lena. Born in Reno, Nevada, 
October 26, 1912. Our investigation in October, 1932, through the 
courtesy of the Los Angeles County, California, Probation Department. 
Home background bad; family of 22 children, 13 of whom are living. 
Three brothers of the twins have been delinquent and feebleminded; 
two of them have been in Preston School of Industry at lone, Cali- 
fornia. Clarence was first arrested in 1925 for climbing into attic 
of moving picture theater, causing plaster to fall, and creating a panic; 
was then placed on probation. In July, 1931, he was associating with 
a gang of boys well known to the police, and was arrested on account 
of being implicated in burglary of a candy store. He was again 
granted probation. Since then he has done well; was at home, with 
good conduct reports, at the time of our investigation of the case. 
A mental test revealed I. Q. 82. Lena “is a fine girl, married to a 
truck driver, no children, works in cannery during season”; has never 
presented any behavior difficulty. 
Case 393. M. twins, Kenneth and Lucille. Born in Chicago, 
Illinois, February 5, 1912. Our investigation in July, 1932, through 
the courtesy of Institute for Juvenile Research, Chicago, Illinois. 
Kenneth’s behavior difficulty seems to be traceable to a severe attack 
of pneumonia, complicated with delirium, at the age of 7 years. Since 
that illness he has been “different,” father thinks he is “off.” He 
is a persistent truant, hangs out with motormen in a car barn, is given 
to the use of profane language. He was doing rather poorly at school; 
is of subnormal intelligence, I. Q. 83. He was first brought before 
Juvenile Court in March, 1926, and was committed to the custody of 
the Evangelical Lutheran Home Finding Society. In July, 1928, he 
was released to his father. At the time of his commitment he was 
reported as ‘‘ impertinent, defiant, and very destructive; walks down the 
street and breaks windows, calls women vile names; stays out over 
night; was expelled from school for obscene talk.” There was also 
a history of bedwetting up to the age of 13 years. Lucille is appar- 
ently normal; doing much better in her school work; has never pre- 
sented any behavior difficulty. 
Case 394. C. twins, Allen and Alice. Born in Vermont, May 
31, 1909. Allen has presented both mental deficiency and a behavior 
problem. A mental test in 1927 revealed I. Q. 54. In 1925 he fell 
in with evil associates who apparently exploited him in bootlegging, 
etc. The police took him off the street in Massachusetts and took him 
to court on charge of hugging girls. He was sent to the Boston Psy- 
chopathic Hospital for observation. As he was a legal resident of 
Vermont, arrangements were made for his placement in the Brandon 156 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
State School, Vermont, on December 28, 1925. On July 20, 1928, he 
was granted parole for work on a farm. He did well and was dis- 
charged on June 16, 1930. At the time of onr investigation of the 
case, which was in August, 1930, he was still working as a farm hand 
and adjusting satisfactorily. Alice has shown no evidence of mental 
deficiency, made normal progress at school, and has presented no 
behavior problem. No record of a mental test. 
Group 78. Juvenile delinquency; subnormal intelli- 
gence; female alone affected. 4 cases: Nos. 395-398. 
Case 395. H. twins, Christina and Kenneth. Born in Dundalk, 
Ontario, Canada, February 21, 1917. Christina did poorly at school, 
reached but the sixth grade at 15 years. A mental test in 1932 revealed 
I. Q. 72. Since the age of 9 years she has had a record of petty 
thieving, such as taking candy and fruit from stores. She has been 
expelled from school several times for breaking rules and “incorrigi- 
bility.” She has also been a persistent sex delinquent: “takes no 
interest in anything but boys; has been intimate with a boy with an 
old court record.” In October, 1931, she ran away with another boy 
and was then committed to the Edith L. Groves School for Delinquent 
Girls, where she remained until January, 1932. On March 30, 1932, 
she was committed to the Ontario Hospital at Orillia, Canada. At 
the time of our observation of the case, which was in August, 1932, 
she was still an inmate there. At this institution she has been noted 
as being lazy, stubborn; “refuses to work, says she is sick; has indulged 
in temper tantrums at night until she has to be put in a restraining 
sheet.” Kenneth is in the eighth grade now (1932) and reported 
as satisfactory; has been truant several times, but not enough to get 
him into trouble. No record of a mental test. 
Case 396. P. twins, Ruth Olivia and Richard Olanda. Bom in 
San Francisco, California, January 29, 1915. Ruth has always been 
somewhat shy, “schizoid,” also of slightly subnormal intelligence; 
mental test in 1929 revealed I. Q. 79. She became a sex delinquent 
before her fourteenth birthday, going out with sailors, strangers met 
on the street, etc. In August, 1929, she disappeared from home, and 
it was learned later that she had been picked up by a couple of 
strangers who took her to their room, gave her liquor, and had sexual 
intercourse with her. In February, 1930, she again disappeared from 
home, having been picked up by a sailor. - She was then committed to 
Ventura School for Girls, California, on February 21, 1930. At the 
time of our investigation of the case, which was in December, 1930, 
she was still an inmate there. At the institution she has been coopera- 
tive, an honor girl, described as somewhat shut-in and self-conscious. 
Richard is of normal intelligence, is in the second year of high school, 
is partly earning his way, has presented no problem of behavior. 
Case 397. K. twins, Pauline and Paul. Negroes. Born in Los 
Angeles, California, August 30, 1914. Pauline is described as of sullen, 
unfriendly temperament, emotionally unstable, unreasonable, with 
general persecutory trend. She is also of subnormal intelligence; a 157 
OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
mental test in 1932 revealed I. Q. 78. She has been running around 
with married men, and on June 3, 1932, she was placed in Juvenile 
Hall, Los Angeles, as a sex delinquent. She was then found to be 
3 months pregnant. After a couple of months there, she was dis- 
missed, as she was approaching the age limit of juvenile court juris- 
diction (18 years). There is no record of a mental test in Paul’s ease, 
but he did very well at school, both in scholarship and in behavior, 
and, at the time of our observation of the case, which was in Septem- 
ber, 1932, he had worked for the same employer for 2, years and 
was highly recommended. 
Case 398. 0. twins, Mary and Frederick. Born in Stapleton, 
Staten Island, New York, January 13, 1914. Our observation in 
November, 1932, through the courtesy of Manhattan State Hospital, 
Ward’s Island, New York. Mary has had a bad school record, both 
as to studies and conduct. She is of subnormal intelligence; mental 
test in 1930 revealed I. Q. 74. She has been something of a tomboy, 
often dressing in boys’ clothes, very athletic, interested in boys’ 
games. Around the age of 15 years, or before, she developed a habit 
of staying out all night; would be found wandering about the streets 
and returned home by the police in the early hours of the morning. 
In February, 1930, she was charged in Juvenile Court with being a 
wayward minor and put on probation. She soon violated probation 
by going riding with a man and later accompanying him to a hotel. 
In March she repeated this performance. In April she was found 
riding around aimlessly in a taxicab, was arrested on a complaint 
filed by her father, and committed to Westfield State Farm, Bedford 
Hills, New York, where she remained for 1 year, and was released 
on parole at the end of that time. In May, 1931, it was reported 
that she was unmanageable since her release from Bedford, had been 
out all night four times in the 5 weeks, at home. This continued, 
led to repeated arrests, and finally she developed psychotic symptoms, 
and on June 3, 1931, was committed to Manhattan State Hospital, 
where a diagnosis of “psychosis with psychopathic personality, emo- 
tional instability” was made. She was at first noted as being noisy, 
resistive, uncooperative, irritable, but “perfectly oriented and pre- 
senting no hallucinations or delusions.” For about 8 months she 
remained stubborn, quarrelsome, threatening, at times requiring 
restraint. On one occasion she poked her arm through a pane of 
glass. She was also quite aggressive, fighting with other patients. 
Eventually she showed improvement and in April, 1932, she was 
released on parole. She got along quite well until July, 1932, when 
she was sent to a store on an errand and failed to return. A week 
later she was found in Providence, Rhode Island, and brought home 
in an excited state, trying to break windows, and threatening suicide. 
She was then returned to the hospital, and, at the time of our investi- 
gation of the case, was still an inmate there. Frederick graduated 
from business college and is employed as a clerk (1932). He is well 
adjusted and is “the pet of the family.” 158 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Group 79. Adult criminality; subnormal intelli- 
gence; male alone affected. 8 cases: Nos. 399-406. 
Case 399. G. twins, John and Isabelle. Negroes. Born in New- 
port News, Virginia, August 27, 1911. Our investigation in November, 
1932, through the courtesy of Sing Sing Prison, New York. John is 
obviously of subnormal intelligence, although there is no record of 
a mental test; he went to school from 7 to 14 years, but advanced only 
as far as the third grade. He has been given to gambling at cards, has 
been in several fights, often drank to excess, promiscuous sexually, had 
one child by a “temporary common-law wife.” In 1929 he served 60 
days in the New York City Workhouse for disorderly conduct. Prom 
May to December, 1931, he was in the Virginia State Penitentiary for 
burglary. On June 14, 1932, he was sentenced to Sing Sing Prison, 
New York, also for burglary, and, at the time of our investigation of 
the case, was still an inmate there. Isabelle has had an eighth-grade 
education, is married, keeping house, well adjusted, has never been in 
trouble. 
Case 400. L. twins, William Chester and Jeanette. Born in 
Santa Cruz, California, October 29, 1907. The mother is psychotic, in 
Stockton State Hospital, California. William was first placed in 
Sonoma State Home at Eldridge, California, because he had done 
poorly at school and was found to be feebleminded, in the fall of 1927. 
He was paroled, after some training, and did fairly well for a time as 
an automobile mechanic’s helper. In the summer of 1930 he was con- 
victed of forgery (checks), but, on account of his previous adjudica- 
tion as feebleminded, was not sentenced to prison, but recommitted to 
Sonoma State Home on June 14, 1930. At the time of our observation 
of the case, which was in February, 1931, he was still an inmate there. 
A mental test in 1930 revealed I.Q 76. Jeanette is of normal intelli- 
gence, has presented no problem, reached the fourth year in high school 
and left on account of having to have a tonsillectomy. Later married, 
now has two normal children, is well adjusted. No record of a mental 
test in her case. 
Case 401. McE. twins, Hubert R. and Della. Born in Yoevil, 
Ontario, Canada, September 22, 1907. History very meager. Hubert 
worked as a farm hand and had no prior criminal record. On March 
14, 1931, he was sentenced to the Washington State Reformatory at 
Monroe for a term of 6 months to 15 years for second-degree burglary. 
At the time of our investigation of the case, which was in May, 1931, 
he was still an inmate there. His account of the offense is as follows: 
“I entered a building and stole steel drills, Hammons saw, etc. I 
sold the tools for $7.50. I also stole a camera out of a house where we 
were rooming. I sold the camera for 50 cents.” A mental test in 
1931 revealed I.Q. 73. Della is normal, married, lives in Holstein, 
Ontario, Canada. No record of a mental test in her case. 
Case 402. L. twins, Gugliardo and Georgina. Born in Wilkes- 
barre, Pennsylvania, October 18, 1907. Our investigation in July, 1932, 
through the courtesy of Eastern State Penitentiary, Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania. Gugliardo is of subnormal intelligence, although there OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
159 
is no record of a mental test. He left school at 15 years, to go to work, 
having finished hut the fifth grade. He worked in coal mines; was also 
a prize fighter. Married at 20 years, has one child. States he never 
had deportment difficulty at school, and has no prior criminal record, 
had never been arrested before. On February 23, 1932, he was con- 
victed on a charge of rape and sentenced to the Eastern State Peni- 
tentiary. At the time of our investigation of the case he was still an 
inmate there. States he is not guilty of the crime for which he was 
convicted. Georgina finished the eighth grade; helped her mother until 
marriage. Married 5 years, two children. Keeps house for her family; 
is well thought of in the community. 
Case 403. A. twins, Reuben and Ruth. Born in Bellingham, 
Washington, February 27, 1903. Our investigation in May, 1931, 
through the courtesy of Eastern State Hospital, Medical Lake, Wash- 
ington. Reuben was sentenced to the State Penitentiary at Walla 
Walla, Washington, May 3, 1924, for murder; but the prison physician 
found him insane, with disconnected and rambling speech and delusions 
of persecution. Accordingly, on July 31, 1924, he was transferred to 
the State Hospital at Medical Lake. At the time of our investigation 
of the case he was still an inmate there. According to the history of 
the case, Reuben had a severe infection, diagnosed as influenza, for 
which he was treated in a hospital for 5 weeks as a young boy, “He 
was perfectly all right before that, but has never been right since.” 
The infection left him with markedly subnormal intelligence with a 
deteriorating trend until, finally, he was judged to have slumped to 
the level of imbecility, although there is no record of a mental test. 
The murder of which he was convicted occurred as follows: in March, 
1924, Reuben, together with his brothers and sisters and George, the 
fiance of one of his sisters, were sitting together in the living room at 
home. Reuben was playing with a shotgun and, unnoticed by the 
others, slipped a shell into it. He then shot George in the heart with- 
out warning, killing him instantly. He gave, as his reason, that at 
one time he had asked George how old he was and George replied, ‘ ‘ Oh, 
about 400 years. ’ ’ Reuben claimed this was an insult, and that he had 
been figuring on killing George for about a year, but that his nerve 
had failed him. Ruth is a school teacher, perfectly normal in every 
respect. 
Case 404. R. twins, Mack and Susie. Negroes. Born in Jack- 
sonville, Florida, February 25, 1900. Their mother died in a hospital 
for the insane. Mack did poorly at school, had reached but the third 
grade at the age of 12 years, when he left. He also has a poor work 
record. He has a long criminal record and has used at least one alias. 
In February, 1922, he wras sentenced to the Florida State Farm, at 
Raiford, for 4 years, for grand larceny, but escaped from there. In 
1926 he was sentenced for larceny to the Federal Penitentiary at 
Atlanta, Georgia, for 4 years. On November 22, 1930, he was sentenced, 
for breaking and entering, to Western Penitentiary, Pittsburgh, Penn- 
sylvania, for 10 to 20 years. At the time of our investigation of 
the case, which was in July, 1932, he was still an inmate there. He 
stated that he had broken into two adjoining jewelry stores in Wilkins- 
burg, Pennsylvania, by breaking the windows; stole jewelry valued at 160 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
about $1,000; sold some of it, and pawned the rest. Theft was traced 
through pawn shop; he pleaded guilty. A mental test in 1930 revealed 
I. Q. 70. Susie attended school, leaving at 18, then worked as seam- 
stress, later married, and is a housewife. Has never been in serious 
difficulty. No record of a mental test in her case. 
Case 405. B. twins, Joseph and Mary. Negroes. Born in Lafay- 
ette, Louisiana, March 1, 1899. The father and five brothers of the 
twins are laborers on a farm; mother died at 29 years in childbirth. 
Mary is normal, has been a school teacher, is now married, and has 
never been in any serious difficulty. No record of a mental test in 
her case. Joseph is the only troublesome member of the family. He 
has a long criminal record: 1 year in U. S. Disciplinary Barracks at 
Port Leavenworth, Kansas, for larceny; many arrests and jail sentences 
for minor offenses, such as drunkenness, disorderly conduct, petty 
larceny, etc., in Youngstown, Ohio, Buffalo, New York, and towns in 
Pennsylvania, for terms of 30 days to 6 months. He had done 
poorly at school, reached the fifth grade, but his educational achieve- 
ment was scarcely above the second grade. A mental test in 1930 
revealed I. Q. 62. Very poor work record. Described as “a typical 
negro floater, addicted to drinking, gambling, and the pursuit of 
women.” On April 12, 1930, he was sentenced to Western Penitenti- 
ary at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, for 2 to 5 years, for of $2B 
from a candy, store, although he claims to have won the money in a 
crap game. At the time of our investigation of the case, which was in 
July, 1932, he was still an inmate there. 
Case 406. P. twins, Carmelo and Pilomena. Born in Italy, April 
26, 1891. Carmelo was committed to the State Institution for Male 
Defective Delinquents at Napanoch, New York, on May 27, 1932. At 
the time of our investigation of the case, which was in November, 1932, 
he was still an inmate there. He had cut another Italian with a knife 
in a fight which grew out of an argument about the war. No previous 
criminal record. He is illiterate and of subnormal intelligence. A 
mental test in 1932 revealed I. Q. 47. Pilomena is in Italy, married, 
has never been in any trouble ; no record of a mental test. 
Group 80. Adult criminality; subnormal intelli- 
gence; female alone affected. 3 cases: Nos. 407-409. 
Case 407. A. twins, Helen and Moe. Born in Brooklyn, New 
York, September 25, 1910. Helen presented no problem in childhood 
and made approximately normal progress at school up to the age of 
about 13 years, when she reached the seventh grade. At that time a 
change developed in her. She found the work at school too hard for 
her, could not get ahead, refused to go to school; also refused to help 
around the house or to do any work. She then ran away from home, 
was found and brought back by her father, but soon ran away again. 
In the course of 2 or 3 years she was found to be increasingly unman- 
ageable and finally, in the latter part of the summer of 1926, she was 
found living with another girl and a man and suffering from a pelvic 
infection, and was arrested as “a wayward minor.” On September OPPOSITE-SEX TWINS 
161 
16, 1926, she was placed in the Kingston Avenue Isolation Hospital, 
Brooklyn, New York, and remained there under treatment until Octo- 
ber 5, 1927, when she was transferred to the Westfield State Farm, 
Bedford Hills, New York. On September 10, 1928, she was granted 
a parole in the custody of her parents. Five months later she dis- 
appeared from home again, and a month after that was found living 
in an apartment with two other girls and three men. She had been 
drinking heavily; the men were notorious gangsters and bootleggers. 
Accordingly, on March 4, 1929, she was placed again in the Bedford 
Hills institution. In the course of both her first and second sojourns 
in that institution she was observed to have, from time to time, psy- 
chotic spells, apparently of manic-depressive type. ‘‘ At periodic 
intervals she becomes excited, over-talkative, and displays character- 
istic hypomanie activities; invariably breaks glass when this is avail- 
able. These periods are of short duration, although the cycles are 
seemingly becoming more frequent, the last two having occurred within 
a week of one another. During these episodes she is fully oriented, 
not hallucinated, but gives expression to fanciful ideas; e.g., stated 
that she had gone to Arizona and returned the same day. ’ ’ On account 
of these spells she was transferred, on March 4, 1929, to Matteawan 
State Hospital (for criminal insane) at Beacon, New York. There 
she remained until September 17, 1929, when she was returned as 
“much improved” to the Bedford Hills institution. On December 
10, 1929, she was again granted a parole. After 3 months she dis- 
appeared once more from home, went to Saratoga Springs, New York, 
and became an inmate of a house of prostitution. On November 18, 
1930, she was arrested, and on December 12, 1930, was committed to 
the Albion State School, New York (reformatory for girls). From 
there she was sent back to the Bedford Hills institution on January 
27, 1932, and on March 10, 1932, she was given a third trial on parole. 
This time she got along very well for a while, held one job for sev- 
eral months, rendered satisfactory service, and even received a raise 
in salary. Then she disappeared again, was found and taken over by 
the Jewish Board of Guardians. Another job was obtained for her 
and she did very well for a month, although she appeared quite ner- 
vous. On October 20, 1932, she was once more arrested for prostitu- 
tion, but because she displayed psychotic symptoms again, she was, 
on October 28, 1932, placed in the Psychopathic Pavilion, Bellevue 
Hospital, New York City. At the time of our observation of the case, 
which was in November, 1932, she was still an inmate there. A diag- 
nosis of “psychopathic personality with episodes of elation, irrita- 
bility, excitement, and sexual misbehavior” was made there, an unfa- 
vorable prognosis was rendered, and it was recommended that she be 
returned to the Bedford Hills institution. A mental test in 1927 re- 
vealed I. Q. 79. In the course of her many escapades she had used 
at least two aliases. She was described by a representative of the 
Jewish Board of Guardians as “a pathetic figure; she tries very hard 
with each new chance to do better; one of the jobs was very disagree- 
able and many people had refused it, but she took it and for a time 
tried to do her best; but she seems to last only a few months at the 162 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
most.” Moe has never presented any problem; attended high school 
for two years, then learned the trade of electrician, and has since been 
working steadily. No record of a mental test in his case. 
Case 408. C. twins, Leona and Leo. Born in Canada, December 
26, 1903. The mother died in childbirth at the time the twins were 
born. The twins were adopted in separate homes. Leona did poorly 
at school, reached but the seventh grade at 17 years, when she had 
to leave to go to work, as her foster parents had lost all their money. 
She worked as a domestic. On May 30, 1931, she was arrested on a 
technical charge of vagrancy preferred by her foster father. For a 
year and a half she had been living with a negro; the neighbors com- 
plained of their drinking parties late at night. Leona was found to 
be infected with syphilis. She was committed to the Home of the 
Good Shepherd at Toronto,- Canada, on June 11, 1931. At the time 
of our investigation of the case, which was in August, 1932, she was 
still an inmate there. A mental test in 1931 revealed I. Q. 75. Leo 
had a high school education, then worked as a telegraph lineman; 
was highly thought of and never presented any behavior problem. 
He was killed accidentally by a contact with a live wire, while at his 
work, at the age of 24 years. No record of a mental test in his case. 
Case 409. B. twins, Rose and Walter. Born in Bancroft, Ontario, 
Canada, October 7, 1898. Our investigation in August, 1932, through 
the courtesy of Toronto Psychiatric Hospital. The mother died when 
the twins were 6 years old; “the 9 children in the family grew up by 
themselves.” Rose went to school only occasionally, for a few days 
at a time. She is of slightly subnormal intelligence; mental test in 
1930 revealed I. Q. 86. She is a domestic, single, but has seven illegiti- 
mate children, all but the last two by different men. The history is 
incomplete, but the official records show that she served 3 months in 
Belleville, Ontario, jail in 1922 for two counts of petty theft. In 1923 
she was again in difficulty over trying to get a pension from the govern- 
ment, posing as the widow of an ex-soldier with whom she had been 
living prior to his death. Her last arrest was in August, 1930, on a 
complaint made by the wife of a man with whom Rose had been living 
for over 3 years and who is the father of her last two children. She 
was then placed for 10 days’ observation in the Toronto Psychiatric 
Hospital and from there committed to the Toronto Women’s Farm on a 
technical charge of vagrancy. She remained there for 2 years and was 
released from there a few days prior to the time of our investigation 
of the case. Walter is a laborer, married, has no police record, has 
been in no difficulty. No record of a mental test in his case. Intelli- 
gence and education obviously mediocre, but probably within normal 
limits. HEREDITARY FACTORS IN BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
163 
§ 8. Nature of the Hereditary Factors in the Etiology 
of Child Behavior Difficulties of all Types, Juve- 
nile Delinquency, and Adult Criminality 
It is one thing to say that hereditary factors play a part in the 
etiology of child behavior difficulties of preneurotic, prepsychotic, and 
predelinquent types, juvenile delinquency, and adult criminality; 
but it would be quite another thing to say that there are special genetic 
factors which determine antisocial behavior. For the first proposition 
there is strong support in the family histories of delinquent and crimi- 
nal subjects and in the twin material; but for the second proposition 
the evidence is so inadequate as to be practically negligible. 
The question arises, then, What is the nature of the hereditary 
factors in the etiology of these conditions? Other twin studies, not- 
ably those of epilepsy (11) and of mental deficiency (10) in twins, have 
led to the raising of similar questions. The clue that presents itself 
most prominently and abundantly, as far as twin material is con- 
cerned, is that the hereditary factors which play a part in the etiology 
of these conditions produce their effect hy determining an undue vul- 
nerability of the brain tissues, thus greatly increasing the hazard of 
a cerebral birth trauma. 
Cerebral birth trauma, as all know, is capable of producing infan- 
tile cerebral palsies, epilepsy, mental deficiency, deteriorating psychoses 
of children and adolescents, and some other conditions. In its turn, 
cerebral birth trauma results either from the traumatizing factors of 
difficult labor (contracted pelvis, late primiparity, rigidity of soft 
parts, abnormal presentations, operative delivery, etc.) ; or from fac- 
tors determining an undue vulnerability of the brain tissues (heredi- 
tary factors, prematurity, male sex, multiple pregnancy, etc.) ; or from 
various combinations of both types of factors. 
The conditions which may be produced by a cerebral birth trauma 
may also be produced by other factors, notably postnatal cerebral 
trauma and various infections in which there is cerebral involvement. 
In our study of mental deficiency in twins (10) we found child 
behavior difficulties, juvenile delinquency, and adult criminality as 
being among the more common complications of the mental deficiency. 
Perhaps the most outstanding general finding of that study is 
that of the importance of cerebral birth trauma in the etiology of 
mental deficiency and of certain complicating conditions with which 
it is often associated—an importance which had theretofore not been 
fully appraised. 
Can behavior difficulties of childhood, juvenile delinquency, and 
adidt criminality—whether associated with mental deficiency or not— 
be caused by cerebral birth trauma? 164 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
§9. Cerebral Birth Trauma as a Factor in the 
Etiology of Child Behavior Difficulties, Juvenile 
Delinquency, and Adult Criminality 
In the course of our analysis of the material which we had gathered 
for an investigation of mental disorders in twins it developed that the 
twin material was serviceable not only, as had been suggested, for the 
determination of the relative importance of hereditary and non- 
hereditary factors in the etiology of such disorders, but also as a great 
aid in the determination of the part played by cerebral birth trauma 
as an etiologic factor. 
In some cases it is possible to establish, by direct observation of 
happenings in the sequence of their occurrence, the fact of cerebral 
birth trauma and, later, the residuals or sequels resulting from it. 
In other cases, however, the fact of a cerebral birth trauma passes 
unnoticed at the time of its occurrence, and the part that it has played 
in the later-noted residuals or sequels therefore remains unascertained. 
Many syndromes which are known to occur as residuals or sequels 
of cerebral birth trauma can, of course, be produced also by other 
etiologic factors, such as postnatal cerebral trauma, acute infectious 
encephalitides, neurosyphilis, etc. When, in the course of an investi- 
gation of the etiology of a given clinical condition it appears that cere- 
bral birth trauma may play an important part therein, the issue can 
sometimes be clarified with the aid of statistical techniques, provided, 
of course, that the necessary statistical data are available in adequate 
numbers. 
Experience has shown that the following criteria must be ful- 
filled before a given syndrome can be established as one characteristi- 
cally or frequently originating in cerebral birth trauma. 
1. Inasmuch as there are apparently hereditary factors among 
those determining cerebral vulnerability, it may be expected that, if 
one of a pair of monozygotic twins shows the syndrome under con- 
sideration, the other of the pair will also be affected, by a similar or 
dissimilar traumatic syndrome,—not invariably, but consistently more 
often than in a control group of dizygotic twins. 
2. In a significant proportion of cases the affection in the two 
twins of a monozygotic pair may be expected to be dissimilar quanti- 
tatively or even qualitatively (i.e., with different traumatic syndromes, 
as, for example, epilepsy in one and mental deficiency in the other) ; 
the reason being, that factors other than hereditary may determine 
both degree of cerebral vulnerability and severity, extent, and localiza- 
tion of the birth trauma. 165 
CEREBRAL BIRTH TRAUMA AS A FACTOR 
3. Partly by reason of the hereditary factors, the near relatives 
of subjects with syndromes produced by cerebral birth trauma may be 
expected to be affected by traumatic syndromes, similar or dissimilar, 
more often than random groups from the unselected population. 
4. The degree of genetic relationship that exists between dizygotic 
twins is the same as that existing between siblings. However, twins, 
more often than siblings, are exposed to common prenatal and intra- 
natal factors other than heredity. For this reason it may be expected 
that the dizygotic twin brothers and twin sisters, of subjects affected 
by a syndrome produced by cerebral birth trauma, will also be affected 
by a traumatic syndrome, similar or dissimilar, more often than their 
singly-born siblings. 
5. Inasmuch as premature birth, or underweight condition at birth, 
or both, are among the factors determining cerebral vulnerability, it 
may be expected that subjects with a history of such conditions at 
birth will furnish a higher proportion of any given syndrome produced 
by cerebral birth trauma than the unselected population. 
6. Conversely, among subjects exhibiting a given syndrome pro- 
duced by cerebral birth trauma, we may expect to find a relatively high 
proportion of cases with a history of premature birth, underweight con- 
dition at birth, or both. 
7. Because premature birth, underweight condition at birth, or 
both, occur more often in twin than in single births, the incidence of 
any given syndrome produced by cerebral birth trauma may be 
expected to be higher among twins—either monozygotic or dizygotic— 
than among singly-born subjects. 
8. For obvious reasons, any syndrome attributable to birth trauma 
may be expected to occur mainly as a disorder of childhood, adolescence, 
or early adult life. Similar syndromes developing in later life may 
be expected to be less common and would be attributable to lesions of 
other origin: postnatal trauma, cerebral arteriosclerosis, neurosyphilis, 
brain tumor, and the like. 
9. Inasmuch as cerebral vulnerability is more marked in male than 
in female fetuses and infants, sex becomes a factor. Accordingly, it 
may be expected that any given syndrome attributable to birth trauma 
will be found with greater frequency in males than in females. 
10. Inasmuch as labor is, as a rule, more prolonged and more dif- 
ficult in primaparae than in multiparae, we may expect to find the inci- 
dence of any given syndrome produced by cerebral birth trauma to 
be higher among first-born than among later-born subjects. 166 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
11. For similar reasons, it may be expected that an etiologic rela- 
tionship will be found to exist between any factor of dystocia—narrow 
pelvis, breech or other abnormal presentations, early rupture of the 
amniotic sac, conditions necessitating rapid or instrumental extraction, 
and the like—and any given syndrome produced by cerebral birth 
trauma. 
12. Although the various conditions which have been listed as 
syndromes characteristically and frequently produced by cerebral 
birth trauma (infantile cerebral palsies, mental deficiency, epilepsy, 
behavior difficulties, early deteriorating psychoses) are often enough 
seen as isolated clinical manifestations, it may be expected that, with 
significant frequency, any one of them will be found in combination 
with one or more of the others in the same subject: e.g., epilepsy in 
association with a behavior difficulty; or subnormal intelligence fol- 
lowed by psychotic disease developing in adolescence or at an early 
adult age. This is to be accounted for, of course, by the common 
etiology of such syndromes. 
The question, whether or not cerebral birth trauma plays an 
important part in the etiology of child behavior difficulties, juvenile 
delinquency, and adult criminality, may be investigated by the appli- 
cation of these criteria. 
Applying the first of the twelve above-enumerated criteria, we 
find, by referring to Table I (page 8), that its requirements are 
fulfilled. Thus, for male twins, we note concordance of findings in 
85.1 per cent of the monozygotic pairs, and in but 47.1 per cent of the 
dizygotic pairs. The corresponding figures for female twins are 90.7 
and 45.3 per cent for the monozygotic and dizygotic pairs, respectively. 
The second criterion (intra-pair dissimilarities in monozygotic 
twins) we find, by referring to the individual case records of our mono- 
zygotic twin pairs with concordant findings, to be also fulfilled. 
Among the 80 pairs of male monozygotic twins with concordant 
findings, there were at least three pairs in which the twins were 
affected dissimilarly (Case Nos. 78, 79, 80). Also, among the 39 
pairs of female monozygotic twins with concordant findings, at least 
four pairs were affected dissimilarly (Case Nos. 98, 124, 131, 133). 
Slight dissimilarities in behavior, temperament, intelligence, or 
physique have not been included in this count, but would constitute 
a large amount of additional evidence. 
As to the third criterion (familial occurrence), our material does 
not contain the data that would be required in the test. The litera- 
ture, however, affords ample eAudence of an extremely high incidence 
of criminality, mental deficiency, psychoses of adolescence, and epi- CEREBRAL BIRTH TRAUMA AS A FACTOR 
167 
lepsy among the near relatives of delinquent and criminal subjects in 
comparison with the unselected population. 
Thus, the studies of S. and E. T. Glueck (1, 3) have yielded the 
following data and comments: 
“It is impossible to state with accuracy what percentage 
of the general population of Massachusetts or of the United 
States is criminal. To estimate it at sor 10 per cent would 
be to place it probably too high, even if one were justified in 
including violations of the prohibition and automobile laws. 
In the families of our group of 510 graduates of the Massachu- 
setts Reformatory, however, there is an official record of 
arrests or commitments for violation of criminal laws which 
is extremely high and which throws light on the type of 
family we are dealing with. In 207, or 51.5%, of the 402 
families upon which we have reliable information, there was 
discovered a court record for various offences (including 
drunkenness). This is the record of offences against the law 
committed by the parents, brothers, sisters, or (in nine cases 
only) near relatives prior to the imprisonment of the men 
whom we are studying. In 118 families in addition (29.4%), 
there were delinquencies, such as drunkenness and immorality, 
which were apparently not recognized officially by police or 
courts. Thus, of the group of 402 families there were only 
61 families (15.2%) in which it could be stated definitely 
that careful investigation had disclosed no known delin- 
quency.” (1) 
“Criminality in the families of our delinquent hoys was 
found to be very generally present. Of 918 families regard- 
ing whom this information was available, we found an official 
criminal record for parents or siblings or both in 532 (57.9%) 
cases. In addition there was criminality among parents and 
siblings of the juvenile delinquents, which somehow had 
escaped official recognition by police or courts, in 241 families 
(26.3%) ; and there was criminality among near relatives 
(though none were found in the immediate family) in 23 
(2.5%) of the families. Thus, some 796 of the families 
involved (86.7% of the known total) contained members, 
other than the juvenile delinquent himself, who were delin- 
quent or criminal. If we exclude those families in which 
drunkenness (whether resulting in arrest or not) was the only 
offence, 103 in number, there will still be some 75.4% of the 
families of our young delinquents containing members, other 
than the juvenile examined by the Judge Baker Foundation, 
who at one time or another had committed criminal acts.” (3) 
The same authors report (2), as follows, their findings of delin- 
quency and criminality in the families of a group of delinquent women 
who had been inmates of the Massachusetts Reformatory for Women: 
“In the high proportion of 80.7% of the cases there was 
delinquency and criminality among the members of the 
family (excluding our girl), as follows; in 45.5% of all the 168 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
families the parents or siblings had actually been arrested; 
in 31.0%, although arrests had not occurred, the antisocial 
conduct of parents or siblings was of such nature as to lay 
them open to arrest; and in 4.2% more of the eases, although 
there was no delinquency in the immediate family, near rela- 
tives with whom the girl was in frequent contact, or members 
of her foster family, were known delinquents. Thus in but 
19.3% of the families was there no delinquent conduct among 
the members of the families of our girls.” 
The fourth criterion (higher incidence of traumatic syndromes 
in dizygotic twins as compared with singly-born siblings) can be 
shown to be fulfilled for cases of adult criminality by a comparison of 
the findings among dizygotic twins with those among singly-born 
siblings. The evidence lias already been submitted in §2 of this 
monograph. For eases of child behavior difficulty of various types 
and for cases of juvenile delinquency the material that would be 
required for such a comparison is not available as far as we know. 
Accordingly, this phase of the matter must remain, for the present, 
as a subject for future research. 
In our twin material there is abundant evidence which would 
harmonize with the requirements of the fifth and sixth criteria (pre- 
mature birth and underweight condition at birth as factors in the 
etiology of traumatic syndromes). Such evidence is, however, incon- 
clusive and could not be regarded as fulfilling the requirements. 
There is, of course, a high degree of correlation between twin births, 
on the one hand, and premature birth or underweight condition at 
birth or both, on the other. This phase of the matter, too, must 
remain, for the present, as a subject for future research. The material 
for such research will have to consist, obviously, of singly-born subjects 
rather than twins. 
The fulfillment of the requirements of the seventh criterion 
(higher incidence of traumatic syndromes among twins as compared 
with singly-born subjects) is partly accomplished by a comparison of 
the findings among dizygotic twins with those among singly-born 
siblings, as already submitted in §2 of this monograph, for cases of 
adult criminality and with special reference to the requirements of 
the fourth criterion. 
It would be desirable, though rather difficult, to gather special 
material for a further and final check of this phase of the matter. 
As to the eighth criterion (characteristic occurrence of traumatic 
syndromes in childhood and adolescence), it would seem to be fulfilled 
by all criminologic statistics, despite the fact that such statistics, in so 
far as they pertain to age distribution of delinquency and crime, deal 
only with police, court, correctional school, reformatory, and prison CEREBRAL BIRTH TRAUMA AS A FACTOR 
169 
data, and not with the earliest manifestations in the form of child 
behavior difficulties, including so-called predelinquent traits. 
Age 
All subjects (at the time of our 
observation) 
Subjects affected by behavior 
difficulty or delinquency (at 
the time of its onset) 
Male 
Female 
Male 
Female 
Under 10 years. 
40 
44 
141 
73 
10-19 years 
241 
225 
183 
143 
20-29 years 
108 
50 
39 
6 
30 years and over 
75 
35 
14 
3 
Total _ _ 
464 
354 
377 
225 
Table 11. Age Distribution of Subjects 
We submit, in Table 11, the pertinent data for our material. 
Computations from the figures given in the table show that among 
a total of 602 subjects who had shown child behavior difficulties, 
juvenile delinquency, adult criminality, or two of these, or all three 
in succession, the onset of the difficulty occurred before the age of 
10 years in 35.5 per cent of the cases; under 20 years in 89.7 per cent. 
Turning now to the ninth criterion, the requirement of which is 
to the effect that any condition in the etiology of which cerebral birth 
trauma characteristically plays an important part, would occur more 
often in the male than the female sex, all criminologic statistics with- 
out exception, including the material of this study, show that the 
requirement is not merely fulfilled, but greatly overfulfilled. 
The significance of the enormous contrast between the sexes as to 
the relative incidence of delinquency and crime obviously extends far 
beyond the much slighter contrast—such as is noted in the statistics 
of mental deficiency and epilepsy—which is attributable to the greater 
cerebral vulnerability of male, as compared with female, fetuses. 
As a matter of fact, the contrast existing between the sexes is not 
merely one of the relative amounts of crime but also of the types 
of delinquency and crime distinguished qualitatively. A further dis- 170 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
mission of the factor of sex in the etiology of delinquency and crim- 
inality will be offered in a subsequent section of this monograph. 
The requirement of the tenth criterion, which is to the effect that 
a syndrome produced by cerebral birth trauma should be found to 
occur more often among first-born than later-born subjects, was shown 
to be fulfilled, as regards the etiology of crime, in a study by Karl 
Pearson (9) published over a quarter of a century ago. 
As far as we know, the material that would be required for the 
application of the eleventh criterion (dystocia as an etiologic factor) 
to our problem is at present not available. Accordingly, this issue, too, 
becomes a subject for future research. 
The twelfth criterion, which is the last in our list, and which 
requires that a syndrome assumed to be characteristically produced 
by cerebral birth trauma, must be shown to be complicated, with signifi- 
cant frequency, by the coexistence, in the same subject, of other 
traumatic syndromes, may be judged to be fulfilled both by material to 
be found in the literature and by our data. 
There is a much higher incidence of epilepsy among inmates of 
reformatories and prisons than in the unselected population—2.4 per 
cent, according to S. and E. T. Glueck (1), which is about five times as 
high as in the unselected population. 
According to the same authors there is an abnormally high inci- 
dence of psychotic disease and of subnormal intelligence among inmates 
of reformatories and prisons:—3.4 per cent and 42.9 per cent, respec- 
tively. The latter figure includes “feeblemindedness” (I. Q. 50 to 
70), 20.6 per cent; and “borderline deficiency” (I. Q. 70 to 80), 22.3 
per cent. 
In our twin material, too, the cases of child behavior difficulty, 
juvenile delinquency, and adult criminality were very often compli- 
cated with subnormal intelligence (I. Q. under 90), psychotic disease, 
epilepsy, infantile cerebral palsy, or various combinations of two or 
more of these. 
Thus, among the total of 818 subjects included in our material, 
188 were normal, i.e., free from behavior difficulty, juvenile delin- 
quency, adult criminality, and any of the above-enumerated compli- 
cating conditions. There were 28 other subjects affected only by sub- 
normal intelligence (25 cases) or by epilepsy (3 cases), but not by any 
behavior abnormality, their twin brother or twin sister alone showing 
a behavior abnormality. The remaining 602 subjects were affected by 
one or another of the behavior abnormalities dealt with in this study. 
In 260 of these, i.e., 43.2 per cent, there was also subnormal intelli- 
gence, often combined with one or more of the following conditions: CEREBRAL BIRTH TRAUMA AS A FACTOR 
171 
psychotic disease (22 cases), epilepsy (13 cases), infantile cerebral 
palsy (7 cases). 
In our material the case histories are, in many instances, incom- 
plete; and we believe that our figures, representing the incidence of 
complicating conditions associated with the behavior abnormalities, 
are an underestimate of the facts. 
Thus, of the twelve postulated criteria for the establishment of 
child behavior difficulties, juvenile delinquency, and adult criminality 
as a group of conditions in the etiology of which cerebral birth trauma 
plays an important part, we find seven to be fulfilled either by material 
to be found in the literature, or by our twin material, or both (1, 2, 3, 
8, 9, 10, and 12) ; four partly fulfilled (4, 5, 6, and 7) ; and one not 
fulfilled by reason of the lack of the necessary material. Apparently 
none of the available data are in conflict with the hypothesis under 
consideration. 
Further research would be required for the final and complete 
verification of the hypothesis. In the meantime we are led to the 
conchision that all available facts point to cerebral birth trauma as an 
important etiologic factor in the behavior abnormalities which are the 
subject of this monograph. 
During the first stage of our research on mental disorders and 
behavior abnormalities in twins, when we were collecting our material, 
neither we nor others had fully appraised the importance of cerebral 
birth trauma as a factor in the etiology of many of the clinical condi- 
tions which we were investigating. Accordingly, the forms that we had 
prepared for our use in obtaining and recording data for our study 
had no provision for including information concerning conditions at 
birth of the twins. 
Only a small number of our cases have in their records more or 
less definite reference to cerebral birth trauma as having occurred in 
one or both of the twins. In these cases the information was given to 
us spontaneously and incidentally. We refer particularly to the fol- 
lowing cases: Nos. 47, 59, 135, 200, 248, 252, 256, 260, 274, 278, 319, 
353, 373, 374, 376. 
It is well known that postnatal cerebral trauma, too, is capable of 
being followed by chronic residuals or sequels characterized by delin- 
quency or criminality. In this connection, however, postnatal trauma, 
as an etiologic factor, is of much less frequent occurrence than is that 
of intranatal trauma. Its importance, for us, lies in the very clear-cut 
demonstration which it affords of the fact of cerebral trauma as a cause 
of delinquency or criminality. In our material such demonstration is 
contained in the following cases: Nos. 90, 184, 339, 386. 172 
ETIOLOGY OP BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
There is a great deal of eAddence indicating that a cerebral birth 
trauma which is, at the time of its occurrence, seemingly slight, or 
unnoticed, or even unnoticeable, is capable of being followed by resi- 
duals or sequels such as infantile cerebral palsy, epilepsy, mental defi- 
ciency, child behavior difficulty, juvenile delinquency, adult crim- 
inality, deteriorating psychoses, or various combinations of these. 
Whether, in a given case, a cerebral birth trauma shall result in 
stillbirth, or in death in the neonatal period or in early infancy, as it 
often does; what degree of mental deficiency, if any, it shall produce; 
whether it shall give rise to one or another of the above-mentioned 
traumatic residuals or sequels; whether it shall produce but a relative 
mental deficiency, i.e., leaving behind an intellectual capacity which is 
still within normal limits (as apparently happened in our cases 
Nos. 82 and 85) ; or whether it shall leave the subject without damage 
to his neurologic or mental function, are, presumably matters deter- 
mined by the nature, extent, and localization of the brain injury and 
by the course of the subsequent tissue reaction. 
The great diversity of syndromes and combinations of syndromes 
that may occur as residuals or sequels of cerebral birth trauma need 
not surprise us. Indeed, their diversity is far from being fully indi- 
cated in our enumeration of them. As we have had occasion to point 
out elsewhere, many other manifestations should be added, such as 
left-handedness; stuttering, stammering, lisping, or indistinct speech; 
spelling and reading disabilities; congenital aphasia; strabismus; extra- 
pyramidal syndromes; enuresis, etc. In our individual case histories, 
sketchy and incomplete as most of them are, many instances of such 
conditions will be found. 
Each of the syndromes presents a wide range of quantitative varia- 
tion, from a scarcely demonstrable trace to a gross and crippling dis- 
ability. No two eases are quite alike, even among monozygotic twins. 
This diversity of manifestations, we repeat, need not surprise us. 
There would be no more reason to expect that the lesions in any two 
eases of cerebral trauma would be identical in severity, extent, and 
localization—and therefore in their clinical manifestations—than that 
the cracking or splintering of two glass tumblers would be identical 
upon their being dropped to a concrete floor. 
Likewise, the occurrence of behavior abnormalities on a basis of 
cerebral lesions of other than traumatic origin need not surprise us. 
In our own material, instances of behavior difficulties based on infec- 
tions with cerebral involvement are represented in eases Nos. 393 and 
403, and probably in some others. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS 
173 
§ 10. Social and Economic Factors in Delinquency 
and Criminality 
Among the etiologic factors in delinquency and criminality it is 
possible to distinguish, more or less clearly, some which are inherent in 
the individual and others which are external. Factors in the first 
group may be of hereditary nature or origin; or they may consist in 
residuals or sequels of cerebral birth trauma, or postnatal cerebral 
trauma, or in residuals or sequels of acute infectious encephalitides; or, 
as we have seen, they may appear as a product of a combination of an 
hereditary factor determining a special vulnerability of cerebral tissues 
and an acquired factor in the form of a cerebral birth trauma. Factors 
in the second group are frequently of social or economic nature; also of 
toxic nature, particularly in the form of the effects of alcohol (as in 
our cases Nos. 145, 146, 169, 183, 186, 188, 234, 276, 310, 351, 357, 
359, 361, 365, 399, 405, 407, 408) or narcotic drugs (as in our cases 
Nos. 195, 363). 
In analyzing the etiology of a given episode of antisocial behavior 
—assuming that all pertinent data are available in the given case—we 
find almost invariably that we are dealing with a product of the two 
groups of factors. The relative importance of the factors in the one 
and in the other group varies from case to case within wide limits. 
The greater part of our twin material seems to indicate that, on 
the whole, the factors which are inherent in the individual, and which 
have been variously termed endogenous, constitutional, predisposing, 
etc., appear as the basic and truly etiologic factors of antisocial behavior. 
On the other hand, the external factors, which have been variously 
termed exogenous, environmental, precipitating, etc., are but quasi- 
etiologie factors, appearing as occasions rather than causes of antisocial 
behavior. However, this circumstance renders the part played by the 
external factors no less real, and no less important from a practical 
standpoint. 
In our own material the cases Nos. 54, 63, 64, 71, 136, 144, 222, 314, 
359, and 394 are outstanding examples of delinquency and criminality 
in which external factors have been, relatively, of greater importance 
and in which, accordingly, a change of environment either has readily 
effected a satisfactory rehabilitation or may be expected to do so. 
Among the social and economic factors in delinquency and crim- 
inality, that of the broken home is noted with significant frequency. 
Thus, in their investigation of parolees from the Massachusetts Reform- 
atory, S. and E. T. Glueck (1) found that 60 per cent had come from 
broken homes; whereas in the unselected population broken homes are 
found to the extent of but 14 per cent. These authors have noted, 
further, that if, in addition to the broken homes, cases are included 174 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
whose parents were present but gave no adequate supervision, the per- 
centage of abnormal homes is brought up to 84. 
Other social and economic factors, though powerful in their effec- 
tiveness, are so vague, imponderable, and, no doubt, complex in their 
nature and manner of operation, as to be beyond the possibility of 
being specifically defined. It is to such factors that the great varia- 
tions in the homicide rates of different countries, also in different parts 
of this country, and at different times, are to be attributed. The homi- 
cide rates have been studied by F. L. Hoffman (4) : 
“Our murder death rate for the registration area for the period 
1909-1913 was 6.4 per 100,000 of population. The rate for England 
and Wales (1904-1913) was 0.8; for Prussia (1904-1913) 2.0; for 
Australia (1910-1913) 1.9; and finally, for Italy (1908-1912) 3.6.” 
The homicide rates for large cities were as follows (1907-1911) : 
Greater New York, 5.5; Paris, 3.5; Berlin, 2.0; London, 0.9; Copen- 
hagen, 0.45. 
In different parts of this country the homicide rates have varied 
over an almost incredibly wide range. Thus, in 77 cities with a total 
population of 28,221,698 in the year 1924, and with an average homi- 
cide rate of 9.9 per 100,000 of population, they varied from 0.0 in 
Concord, Lawrence, Malden, and Newton; and under 2.0 in Brockton, 
Pall River, Grand Rapids, Manchester, and New Bedford; to 32.5 in 
New Orleans, 36.0 in Nashville, and 58.8 in Jacksonville. Among 
American cities the highest homicide rates seem to be fairly consist- 
ently in Memphis, where, between 1910 and 1923, they have fluctuated 
between 51.8 and 88.7. 
In this country, too, the homicide rates have varied widely from 
time to time. According to Hoffman’s figures there was an upward 
trend between the years 1901 and 1924, when the rates rose from 
4.9 to 10.3. 
As another striking example of the powerful influence of social 
and economic factors in the causation of delinquency and criminality, 
may be mentioned the now well-established fact of delinquency areas 
in large cities. 
This fact was first demonstrated for Chicago by C. R. Shaw and 
his collaborators (12) in 1929, and, since then, by these and by other 
workers, for a number of other cities. 
For purposes of the Chicago study the city was divided into 
square-mile areas and into zones encircling “The Loop.” The prin- 
cipal findings were as follows: 
1. Male school truants brought before the Juvenile Court from 
1917 to 1927 included from 0.0 to 15.4 per cent of the total male 
population 10 to 16 years of age in 1922, in different square-mile areas. 175 
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS 
2. Percentages of boys dealt with as alleged delinquents by juve- 
nile police probation officers during the year 1926 ranged from 0.0 
to 26.6. 
3. Delinquent boys dealt with by juvenile police probation officers 
during 1927 comprised from 0.0 to 21.8 per cent of the total, in differ- 
ent square-mile areas. 
4. Different square-mile areas showed from 0.8 to 19.4 per cent of 
boys brought before the Juvenile Court as delinquents between 1917 
and 1923. 
5. Between 1900 and 1906 corresponding percentages ranged from 
0.6 to 29.3. 
6. Mule offenders, aged 17 to 21 years, brought before the Boys’ 
Court on felony charges between 1924 and 1926, included from 1.2 
to 28.0 per cent of the male population aged 17 to 20 in 1925, in 
different square-mile areas. 
7. Adult male offenders, 17 years of age or over, placed in Cook 
County jail during the year 1920, included from 0.15 to 5.2 per cent 
of the total male population between the ages of 17 and 44 years, 
in different square-mile areas. 
8. Delinquent girls, aged 10 to 18 years, brought before the Juve- 
nile Court between 1917 and 1923, represented from 0.1 to 9.0 per cent 
of the total in different square-mile areas. 
9. In six zonal areas percentages of recidivism among juvenile 
delinquents varied from 32.1 to 60.4. 
The authors of the study (12) offer some interesting comments: 
‘ ‘ There is marked similarity in the distribution of 
truants, juvenile delinquents, and adult criminals in the city. 
High rates occur in the areas which are characterized by 
physical deterioration and declining populations. The high- 
est rates are found in the areas adjacent to the central 
business districts and the larger industrial centers, while the 
lowest rates occur in the outlying residential communities. 
These areas are in the process of transition from residence 
to business and industry and are characterized by physical 
deterioration, decreasing population, and the disintegration of 
the conventional neighborhood culture and organization. 
When business and industry invade a community, the com- 
munity thus invaded ceases to function effectively as a means 
of social control. It is probably significant that most of the 
boys appearing in the Juvenile Court are members of delin- 
quent gangs.” 176 
ETIOLOGY OP BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
It may be judged that the endogenous or constitutional factors 
of delinquency and criminality are of variable strength; and that in 
most cases they determine a tendency toward delinquency and crimin- 
ality which, under ordinary conditions, remains latent. 
It may be judged, further, that in so-called delinquency areas 
and other places which are characterized by a relatively high incidence 
of antisocial behavior, many social and economic factors are operative 
which force to the surface tendencies toward delinquency and crimin- 
ality which, under ordinary conditions, would remain latent. 
There is a great deal of evidence indicating that in a certain pro- 
portion of the cases the strength of the endogenous or constitutional 
factors making for delinquency and criminality is such that even under 
average or favorable social and economic conditions the tendency 
toward antisocial behavior fails to lapse into latency, but remains 
manifest and active in more or less marked degree. 
In our material this point is well demonstrated in cases Nos. 148, 
174, 175, 183, 184, 194, 195, 196, 216, 296, 327, 338, 340, 353, 355, 386, 
387, 393, 405. 
In this connection, the experiences had in recent years in the 
Soviet Union in the course of efforts of rehabilitation of prostitutes, 
alcoholics, and criminals, as reported by H. E. Sigerist (13), are of 
significance: 
“Until 1931 the task of the prophylactoria was relatively 
easy, as most prostitutes were unemployed women driven into 
prostitution by poverty. They were normal women and were 
easy to re-educate. Once they had learned to work and had 
been given a job and a room, they were readjusted to life. 
After 1931 and the disappearance of unemployment, the task 
became infinitely more difficult, because prostitutes were then 
recruited from women ivho did not want to work. Many of 
them were psychopaths and feebleminded girls, who were 
unable to perform any skilled labor and found it easier to 
make a living through prostitution. The Moscow prophylac- 
toria treated 3,810 women between 1926 and 1935 of whom 
3,277 were infected with venereal diseases. Of the 3,810 per- 
sons treated, 2,143 or 56.3 per cent later 'went to work in 
industry; 1,237 or 32.5 per cent voluntarily left the prophy- 
lactorium, and 382 or 10 per cent were expelled for having 
violated the rules of the institution. The prophylactorium 
keeps in constant touch with its former inmates who are work- 
ing in factories or on farms. Ninety per cent of all the 
former pupils working in industries have remained there and 
41 per cent of them have become shock workers, that is, highly 
qualified workers. Only 10 per cent have not remained at 
work. Half of these have returned to the prophylactorium 
for further education. In 1928 there were about 3,000 pros- SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS 
177 
titutes in Moscow. This was at a time when 80,000 women 
workers were registered as unemployed. In 1930 it was found 
that the number had decreased to about 800.” 
“Alcoholism, like prostitution, is the result of unfavorable 
social and economic conditions. In 1913 the consumption of 
vodka, the most popular liquor in Russia, amounted to 8.1 
litres or more than two gallons per person. The average 
worker spent more than a quarter of his wages on liquor. The 
average consumption of vodka dropped to 4.5 litres in 1931 
and to 3.7 in 1935. Less than half of the pre-Revolutionary 
amount is now being consumed. It is very rare to see intoxi- 
cated persons in the streets of Soviet cities. There are drunk- 
ards, of course, and the problem they present is very similar 
to that of prostitution. As long as there was unemployment, 
some people spent their last kopek on liquor. People who 
drink now are often neurotics and not easily curable. Treat- 
ment, however, can be enforced by law. If a man is caught 
drunk, repeatedly, he can be arrested and can be compelled 
to undergo therapy in a special institution. The prophylac- 
torium for the treatment of alcoholics in Moscow which I 
visited was organized in 1930 and has a staff of seven physi- 
cians and fifteen nurses. Patients stay there from four to 
six weeks and about a thousand persons are treated annually. 
The treatment is primarily educational and consists largely 
of occupational therapy. The prophylactorium maintains that 
20 per cent of its patients are permanently cured, 30 per 
cent are temporarily cured, and 50 per cent represent doubt- 
ful cases.” 
“Closely connected with alcoholism and prostitution is 
another social disease, crime. In June, 1936, I visited the 
labor commune, Bolshevo, near Moscow, with its 5,000 mem- 
bers most of whom were former thieves. Today the commune 
consists not only of the 5,000 members but also of their 
families. Thus the commune has a total population of about 
10,000. Among the facilities for the children of these former 
thieves is a splendid nursery which I found to be spotlessly 
clean and beautifully furnished. A crowd of happy young- 
sters attended by nurses were at play. When a person is con- 
victed of crime, he is given an opportunity to work in Bolshevo 
or in a similar place instead of going to jail. It sometimes 
happens that criminals do not wait until they are caught by 
the police, but report voluntarily and ask to be allowed to 
work in a labor commune. Once a man has joined the group, 
full confidence is shown him. The colony is not guarded, but 
the members have to pledge themselves to keep four iron rules: 
never to steal, never to drink, to work, and to obey strictly 
the rules which the members themselves have made. Bolshevo 
has no state subsidy. It is not only self-supporting but it is 
a prosperous industrial center producing commodities valued 
at 80 million rubles a year. It has specialized in the manu- 
facture of sporting goods, such as skis, hockey sticks, tennis 
12—93242 178 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
rackets, and footballs. Since treatment consists of reeducation 
to work, all members of the commune are employed in the 
various workshops. They receive union wages and pay for 
their board and lodging. A period of from two to three years 
is considered sufficient to reeducate a man. After that time, 
he may leave if he chooses and his criminal record is destroyed. 
Many, however, prefer to remain in the commune. Similar 
communes have been established in all the larger cities. Crime 
reached its peak between 1930 and 1933 when the kulaks 
opposed the Five-Year Plan. There has been a steady 
improvement since then. From 1933 to 1935, crimes against 
personal property decreased by 55 per cent, murder and man- 
slaughter by 50 per cent, and sexual offenses by 75 per cent. 
There is still a great deal of hooliganism which will ulti- 
mately disappear when the last of the homeless waifs and 
vagrant children have been absorbed by society. Regardless 
of future decreases in the amount of crime, there will always 
he some psychopaths ivho will become criminals. Their 
rehabilitation will constitute a difficult task, but one for which 
the medical profession should assume responsibility.” 
It would seem, then, that even under the most favorable condi- 
tions that can be provided in the treatment of antisocial behavior a 
residual group of cases will remain in which the prognosis as to 
rehabilitation will prove to be quite unfavorable. This suggests for 
these cases an underlying organic cerebral pathology, as does also a 
consideration of their etiology. 
A large amount of crime, but not the major part of it, is found, 
upon close scrutiny, to be either mild or merely incidental, and mani- 
fested by persons who, by all reasonable standards, are to be judged 
as normal. The word criminality must include such, as well as other, 
cases in its designation. But the word criminalism should be more 
restricted in its application. It should be used to designate only 
cases of abnormal personality make-up, whether of hereditary, trau- 
matic, or infectious etiology, which are characterized by a more or less 
marked and more or less persistent tendency toward antisocial 
behavior. 
In our own material many cases are included which are classifiable 
in the category of mild or incidental criminality. As outstanding 
examples, the following may be referred to: Nos. 16, 19, 39, 89, 115, 
137, 146, 181, 197, 198, 203, 253, 258, 318, 322, 325, 326, 328, 329, 340, 
341, 342, 345, 346, 349, 352, 353, 358. The antisocial episodes in these 
cases have occurred mainly at adult ages and, characteristically, are not 
traceable to behavior difficulties of preneurotic, prepsychotic, or pre- 
delinquent types, or to delinquency, in childhood or adolescence. How- 
ever, the touchstone whereby the differential diagnosis is to be made SEX FACTORS 
179 
between incidental criminality, on the one hand, and constitutional 
criminalism, on the other, is that of recidivism, which characterizes 
the latter category of cases. 
All statistical evidence indicates that the hulk of crime is com- 
mitted hy recidivists. Thus, in the report Prisoners 1938 recently 
published by the Bureau of the Census (16), we find, on page 8 in 
Table 8, that among felony prisoners received from courts, in the 
total number of 58,151, only 51.8 per cent were without prior commit- 
ment. The rest, who have accounted for at least 60 per cent of all the 
crime represented in the table—and probably much more than 60 per 
cent—had had from one to three or more prior commitments to jails, 
juvenile institutions, or prisons. 
§ 11. Sex Factors ix Delinquency and Criminality 
We have already had occasion, in § 8 of this monograph, to refer 
to sex factors in the etiology of delinquency and criminality. We 
shall now undertake a more detailed inquiry into this matter. 
The higher incidence of child behavior difficulties, juvenile delin- 
quency, and adult criminality in the male as compared with the female 
sex has been noted by all observers everywhere. 
We have already had occasion to point out that all clinical condi- 
tions, which arise characteristically as residuals or sequels of cerebral 
birth trauma, are of higher incidence in the male than the female sex. 
We have used, heretofore, the data revealed by opposite-sex twins 
as the most conclusive evidence of such higher incidence. 
Thus, in a group of 139 pairs of opposite-sex twins, selected on the 
basis of the existence of mental deficiency in one or both of the twins 
in each pair, we found that 111 males and 87 females showed mental 
deficiency: a relative excess of males amounting to 27.6 per cent (10). 
Similarly, in a group of 45 pairs of opposite-sex twins, selected 
on the basis of the existence of epilepsy in one or both of the twins in 
each pair, we found that 31 males and 21 females were epileptic: a 
relative excess of affected males amounting to 47.6 per cent (11). 
In the material of this monograph the contrast between the sexes 
is even more striking. 
We haAm a total of 140 pairs of opposite-sex twins selected on the 
basis of the existence of child behavior difficulty, juvenile delinquency, 
or adult criminality in one or both of the twins in each pair. We find 
that 115 of the males and 66 of the females are affected with one of 
these conditions: a relative excess of males amounting to 74.2 per cent. 
The figures are not equal for the four groups of cases into which 
our material has been classified, as will be seen from Table 111. 180 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
Table 111. Relative Excess of Males Over Females Affected, 
in Four Clinical Groups 
Clinical group 
Per cent of relative 
excess of males 
affected 
Child behavior difficulties: preneurotic and prepsy- 
chotic types _ _ 
15.4 
Child behavior difficulties; predelinquent types 
45.5 
Juvenile delinquency- 
127.8 
Adult criminality- 
154.5 
Striking as the figures are for the last two groups of our cases, they 
represent, in our opinion, an underestimate of the contrast which actu- 
ally exists between the sexes as to the incidence of juvenile delinquency 
and adult criminality. Our impression is that in the work of collect- 
ing our material for this monograph we received better cooperation 
from officials of female correctional schools, reformatories, and prisons 
than we did from those of corresponding male institutions. In conse- 
quence of this, female cases have attained, in our material, a dispro- 
portionately high representation. 
The contrast existing between the sexes as to the incidence of 
juvenile delinquency and adult criminality is more fully represented 
in the statistics of correctional schools for juveniles and of penal insti- 
tutions for adults. 
Thus, on June 30, 1939, the two state correctional schools for 
boys in California (AVhittier State School and Preston School of Indus- 
try) contained 1,033 inmates; whereas the corresponding institution 
for girls (Yentura State School) contained but 165 inmates; a relative 
excess of boys amounting to 526.1 per cent (14). 
Similarly, the numbers of inmates in state and federal prisons and 
reformatories on December 31, 1938, according to a recently published 
report of the Bureau of the Census (16), were, males 154,383, and 
females 5,435; a relative excess of males amounting to 2,740.5 per cent. 
The contrast, in this respect, as it exists between the sexes, becomes 
even more significant when we consider it not only in its quantitative, 
but also in its qualitative, aspects. The types of delinquent behavior 
are quite unlike in the two sexes. 181 
SEX FACTORS 
Thus, among the 879 first commitments to the two correctional 
schools for boys in California (Whittier and Preston) during the year 
ended June 30, 1939, the causes of commitment in 734 cases—B3.s per 
cent of the total—were as follows, given here in their order of fre- 
quency: auto theft, burglary, grand and petty theft, incorrigibility, 
robbery, checks and forgery. 
In contrast with this, the 137 first commitments to the correctional 
school for girls (Ventura), during the same year, were for the follow- 
ing causes: in danger of leading an immoral life, lack of parental 
control, habitually refuses to obey, home unfit, wandering with no fixed 
place of abode, violates an ordinance; in only one case was there a 
violation of the Motor Vehicle Code. 
We see, then, from our comparison of the two sexes with reference 
to the respective amounts and kinds of delinquency and criminality 
among them, as no other data show it so fully, a great contrast in their 
fundamental psychologies. Here, as elsewhere, the male exhibits his 
venturesomeness, initiative, aggressiveness, and instinctive interests as 
gatherer and provider; the female her passivity and preoccupation with 
the love aspects of life. 
Granting that cerebral birth trauma is an important etiologic factor 
in delinquency and criminality in both sexes; and granting that, by 
reason of the greater vulnerability of cerebral tissues peculiar to the 
male sex, the incidence of cerebral birth trauma, and of all its residuals 
and sequels, is higher in that sex; this circumstance accounts but in 
relatively small part for the enormous relative excess of delinquency 
and criminality in the male sex. Obviously, too, it accounts not at all 
for the qualitative differences in the delinquency and criminality of 
the two sexes. 
Apparently, the part played by cerebral birth trauma or postnatal 
cerebral trauma as an etiologic factor in delinquency and criminality, 
is but that of impairing or destroying inhibitory brain mechanisms, 
the function of which is to control and regulate behavior. A free rein 
is thus gained for the now feebly inhibited or wholly uncontrolled 
behavior trends of the individual, which may be antisocial. But there 
is no ground whatever for assuming that cerebral trauma of any kind 
might be capable of reversing the fundamental psychologies of the 
sexes and thus, for example, imparting to a girl the aggressiveness 
and interests of the male as gatherer and provider, and of substi- 
tuting these traits of masculine psychology for her natural passivity 
and instinctive sex interests. 182 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
§ 12. Summary 
The material on which this study is based consists of 409 pairs of 
twins, including both monozygotic and dizygotic types, which have 
been selected on the basis of the existence of child behavior difficulty, 
juvenile delinquency, or adult criminality in one or both of the twins 
in each pair. 
The cases of child behavior difficulty are represented in 188 of 
these pairs of twins, subdivided into two groups: (a) preneurotic and 
prepsychotic types (120 cases), and (b) predelinquent types (68 
cases). 
The cases of juvenile delinquency are represented in 113 pairs of 
twins. 
The cases of adult criminality are represented in 108 pairs of 
twins. 
As to types of twins our material is divided as follows: 
Monozygotic male twins 94 pairs 
Monozygotic female twins 43 pairs 
Same-sex dizygotic male twins 68 pairs 
Same-sex dizygotic female twins 64 pairs 
Opposite-sex (dizygotic) twins 140 pairs 
The first fact yielded by a general survey of the material, is that 
the relative frequencies of concordant and discordant findings among 
monozygotic twins are in striking contrast to those among both same- 
sex and opposite-sex dizygotic twins, especially the latter. The fre- 
quencies of concordant findings are as follows: 
Among monozygotic twins 86.9 per cent 
Among same-sex dizygotic twins 41.7 per cent 
Among opposite-sex twins 29.3 per cent 
These findings are roughly in harmony with those previously 
reported for criminal twins by Lange, Legras, Stumpfl, and Kranz, 
and suggest that hereditary factors play a part in the etiology of the 
behavior difficulties under consideration. 
However, hereditary factors alone do not, in all cases, suffice to 
produce these conditions, for discordant findings are revealed in 13.1 
per cent of our cases of monozygotic twins. 
There are, moreover, quantitative and qualitative intra-pair dis- 
similarities among those monozygotic twins who have presented con- 
cordant findings—a fact which tends to discount further the importance 
of heredity in the etiology. 
The importance of hereditary factors is still further discounted by 
the fact of the high incidence of concordant findings among the 
dizygotic twins in our material, as compared with the corresponding 
findings among singly-born siblings. Control material for this pur- SUMMARY 
183 
pose is available only for the group dealing with adult criminality. 
Dizygotic twin brothers of criminal propositi present concordant find- 
ings in 47.1 per cent of the cases, and twin sisters in 35.7 per cent. 
The corresponding figures for singly-born siblings are 23.8 and 11.5 
per cent respectively. The genetic relationship existing between dizy- 
gotic twins is, of course, no closer than that between siblings. Accord- 
ingly, the enormous relative excess of concordance in dizygotic twins, 
as compared with singly-born siblings, can be attributed only 
hereditary factors, to the influence of which both twins of a pair— 
whether monozygotic or dizygotic—are often jointly exposed. 
As a corollary emerging from the evidence of the twin material, 
it appears that hereditary factors are not always present—therefore 
not essential—in the etiology of child behavior difficulty, juvenile 
delinquency, and adult criminality. 
In §§ 3 to 7 inclusive our entire material is fully presented, 
classified in 80 groups of cases. 
A detailed analysis of our material yields strong evidence indi- 
cating that cerebral birth trauma is a fact’pr of the highest importance 
in the etiology of child behavior difficidty, juvenile delinquency, and 
adult criminality. 
The question thus arises: What is the mechanism of cooperation 
between the hereditary factors apd the factors of cerebral birth 
trauma ? 
It is one thing to say that hereditary factors play a part in the 
etiology of antisocial behavior; it would be quite another thing to 
say that there are special genetic factors which determine such 
behavior: for the latter proposition the evidence is so inadequate as to 
be practically negligible. 
It appears, rather, that the hereditary factors which play a part in 
the etiology of antisocial behavior produce their effect by determining 
an undue vulnerability of the brain tissues, thus greatly increasing 
the hazard of cerebral birth trauma. 
Like other syndromes occurring as manifestations of residuals and 
sequels of cerebral birth trauma, antisocial behavior has its onset, for 
the most part, in childhood, adolescence, or early adidt life. 
In our own material, for example, the onset of the difficulty 
occurred before the age of 10 years in 35.5 per cent of the cases; under 
20 years in 89.7 per cent. 
Cases of antisocial behavior often present, as complications, other 
conditions which also are known to occur as residuals or sequels of 
cerebral birth trauma. 
Among the 818 individuals represented in our twin material 
selected for this study, there are 602 affected by one or another of the 184 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
behavior anomalies dealt with herein. In 260 of these, i.e., 43.2 per 
cent, there was also subnormal intelligence, often combined with one 
or more of the following conditions: psychotic disease (22 cases), 
epilepsy (13 cases), infantile cerebral palsy (7 cases). 
Whether, in a given case, a cerebral birth trauma shall result in 
stillbirth, or in death in the neonatal period or in early infancy, as 
it often does; what degree of mental deficiency, if any, it shall pro- 
duce ; whether it shall give rise to one or another of the post-traumatic 
residuals or sequels (infantile cerebral palsy, epilepsy, mental defi- 
ciency, child behavior difficulty, juvenile delinquency, adult criminal- 
ity) or various combinations of these; whether it shall produce but a 
relative mental deficiency, i.e., leaving behind an intellectual capacity 
which is still within normal limits; or whether it shall leave the subject 
without damage to his neurologic or mental function, are, presumably, 
matters determined by the nature, extent, and localization of the brain 
injury and by the course of the subsequent tissue reaction. 
As we have had occasion to note elsewhere, many other possible 
manifestations should be added to the above list of residuals and 
sequels of cerebral birth trauma, namely, left-handedness; stuttering, 
stammering, lisping, or indistinct speech; spelling and reading dis- 
abilities; congenital aphasia; strabismus; extrapyramidal syndromes; 
enuresis; etc. In the individual case histories comprising the material 
of this study, sketchy and incomplete as most of them are, many 
instances of such conditions will be found. 
Each of the post-traumatic syndromes presents a wide range of 
quantitative variation, from a scarcely demonstrable trace to a gross 
and crippling disability. No two cases are quite alike, even among 
the most closely concordant monozygotic twins. 
This diversity of manifestations need not surprise us. There 
would be no more reason to expect that the lesions in any two cases 
of cerebral trauma would be identical in severity, extent, and localiza- 
tion—and therefore in their clinical manifestations—than that the 
cracking or splintering of two glass tumblers would be identical upon 
their being dropped to a concrete floor. 
Among the so-called “exogenous,” “environmental,” or “precipi- 
tating” factors of delinquency and criminality, the most outstanding 
are those of social or economic nature; also of toxic nature, particu- 
larly in the form of the effects of alcohol or narcotic drugs. 
Tliese are not truly etiologic, hut merely quasi-etiologic factors, 
appearing as occasions, rather than causes, of antisocial behavior. 
However, this circumstance renders the part played by them no less 
real, and no less important from a practical standpoint. Such factors 
as those of the broken home and those of delinquency areas in large 
cities may be specially mentioned. SUMMARY 
185 
The elimination or correction of environmental factors can have 
the effect of a previously manifest and active delinquent or criminal 
tendency lapsing into latency, perhaps in a large majority of the cases; 
but even under the most favorable environmental conditions we may 
expect to find a residue of severe cases in which, by strong “endoge- 
nous” or “constitutional” determination, the tendency toward anti- 
social behavior will persist. 
Incidental criminality should be distinguished from constitutional 
criminalism. The touchstone for the differential diagnosis here is that 
of recidivism. The hulk of all crime is committed by the comparative 
handful of recidivists in our population. 
The factor of sex is of overwhelming importance in the etiology 
of delinquency and criminality. In the psychology of the sexes no 
contrast is so great as that represented by the comparative incidence 
in them of delinquency and criminality. 
The most serviceable part of the twin material for bringing out 
this contrast is that describing the opposite-sex twins. From this 
part of onr material it appears that the contrast is least marked 
among the cases of prenenrotic and prepsychotic types of child 
behavior difficulties—with 15.4 per cent of relative excess of males 
affected—and most marked among the cases of adult criminality— 
with 154.5 per cent of relative excess of males affected. 
By accident of selection, the contrast between the sexes, as repre- 
sented in our material, is greatly underestimated. Among inmates 
of state and Federal prisons and reformatories, according to figures 
furnished by the Bureau of the Census, there is a relative excess of 
males affected amounting to 2,740.5 per cent. 
The contrast is also a qualitative one. For example, among 879 
commitments to the correctional schools for boys in California during 
the fiscal year ended June 30, 1939, the causes of commitment in 83.5 
per cent of the cases were auto theft, burglary, grand and petty theft, 
incorrigibility, robbery, checks and forgery. In the same year the 
causes of 137 commitments to the correctional school for girls were 
as follows: in danger of leading an immoral life, lack of parental con- 
trol, habitually refuses to obey, home unfit, wandering with no fixed 
place of abode, violates an ordinance; in only one case was there a 
violation of the Motor Vehicle Code. 
In small part the contrast existing between the sexes as to inci- 
dence of delinquency and criminality is to be accounted for by the 
greater vulnerability of the cerebral tissues in males, as compared with 
females, with their residting greater liability to suffer cerebral birth 
trauma. But for the most part we are dealing here with a special 186 
ETIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR DIFFICULTIES 
expression of a fundamental biologic fact. Here, as elsewhere, the 
male exhibits his venturesomeness, initiative, aggressiveness, and 
instinctive interests as gatherer and provider; the female her passivity 
and preoccupation with the love aspects of life. 
Apparently, the part played by cerebral birth trauma or post- 
natal cerebral trauma, as an etiologic factor in delinquency and crim- 
inality, is but that of impairing or destroying inhibitory brain mechan- 
isms, the function of which is to control and regulate behavior. A 
free rein is thus gained for the now feebly inhibited or wholly 
uncontrolled behavior trends of the individual—whether they be in 
the direction of masculine or of feminine lines of interest and activity 
—which may be “neurotic,” “psychotic,” or “antisocial.” REFERENCES TO LITERATURE 
187 
References to Literature 
1. Glxjeck, S. and E. T. Five hundred criminal careers. New York: Knopf, 
1930. 
2. Glxjeck, S. and E. T. Five hundred delinquent women. New York: Knopf, 
1934. 
3. Glxjeck, S. and E. T. One thousand juvenile delinquents. Cambridge, Mass.: 
Harvard Univ. Press, 1934. 
4. Hoffman, F. L. The homicide problem. Newark, N. J.: Prudential Press, 
1925. 
5. Hxjmm, H. G. Mental disorders in siblings. Amer. J. Psychiat., 1932, 89, 
239-283. 
6. Kranz, H. Lehenschicksale krimineller Zwillinge. Berlin: Springer, 1936. 
7. Lange, J. Crime and destiny. (Translated by C. Haldane.) New York: 
Boni, 1930. 
8. Legras, A. M. Psychose en Criminaliteit hij Tweelingen. Utrecht: Univ. of 
Utrecht, 1932. 
9. Pearson, K. The handicapping of the first-horn. London: Galton Labora- 
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10. Rosanoff, A. J., Handy, L. M., and Plesset, I. A. The etiology of mental 
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11. Rosanoff, A. J., Handy, L. M., and Rosanoff, I. A. Etiology of epilepsy, 
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Chicago, 1934, 31, 1165-1193. 
12. Shaw, C. R., Zorbaxjgh, F. M., McKay, H. D. and Cottrell, L. S. Delin- 
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14. State of California. Statistical report of the Department of Institutions, 
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15. Stxjmpfl, F. Die Ursprunge des Verhrechens, dargestellt am Lehenslauf von 
Zwillingen. Leipzig: Georg Thieme, 1936. 
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printed in California state printing office 
SACRAMENTO, 1940 GEORGE H. MOORE, STATE PRINTER