:ffO. ■! \N.vS* ' H V ^ k;, zyzozeyzcQzacczzzoacyacQxyGZQjOZ^ Surgeon General's Office | Q o no. '/f/Srgrj- INTE^ BY A j^ %^-7^cZQrji-^ZQZ■ 41-15 21*26 37-71 2-70 6 ,, 43-18 21-68 40-67 2-03 0-42 2'96 I 0*20 1'45 7 .» 45-15 22-25 44-00 1-97 0-57 333 I 0-28 1-70 8 „ 46-92 22'66 47-15 1-77 0*41 3-15 I 0*31 i-8o 9 » 49'52 23-27 51-20 2*6o o-6i 4-14 I 6*24 i-6o IO ,, 51-52 23-77 55-50 2-00 0-50 4-21 I 0-25 2TO " >> 52-87 24-33 60-15 1'35 0-56 4-65 I 0-41 3-44 12 ,, 54-45 24-81 64-52 1-58 0-48 4-37 I 0-30 2-76 »3 „ 56-56 26-30 71-00 2-II 1-49 5-48 I 0-70 2" 60 H „ 58-55 28-18 79-57 2-00 1-88 8-57 I 0-94 4-28 15 ,t 60-77 29-70 91-43 2-21 1-52 1186 I o-68 5'36 16 „ 63-42 31-19 107-86 2-65 1'49 16-43 I 0-56 6-20 17 „ 64'95 32-80 u8-o8 i-53 1-71 IO-22 I i-10 6-67 18 „ 65-69 34*o3'i27-25 1-74 1-23 9-17 I 0-70 5'27 19 „ 66-37 34-76131-48 o-68 0-73 4'23 I O'lO 6-22 20 „ 66-80 35-13135-28 o-43 0-37 3-80 I 0-08 0-90 21 ,, 66-80 35-42135-03 o-oo 0*29 o-oo 0"00 o-oo 22 ,, 66-80 35-41134-50 o-oo o*oo o-oo o-oo O'OO 23 „ 66-80 35-45134-08 O'OO 0-03 O'OO O'OO o-oo 24 » 66-95 35-43133-26 0-15 o-oo o-oo o-oo o-oo 25 to 30 67-07 35-48135-00 0-I2 0-03 o-oo I 0-13 o-oo 3° » 5° 67-03 •' 138-33 1 44 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. by the struggle of the day, but the strain of preparation carried on for weeks beforehand. Again, the boys are allowed to enter for far too many trials, whereby the mischief is greatly increased. A protest has been made by sportsmen who are not influenced by a spirit of mere gambling, against the training and racing of " two-year- olds," as having a tendency to produce subsequent un- soundness and general physical deterioration; so would we raise a protest against overwork of any kind, whether physical or mental, at this most active developmental period of human life. The age when such contests may be undertaken without risk is the period when the activity of growth becomes checked—the age, in fact, when most youths enter at the Universities, or begin to engage in the active duties of life. Till then we would urge that the ordinary school games afford quite sufficient exercise for the growing lad. Before quitting this subject we would urge parents, before sending their boys to school, to have them care- fully examined by the family medical attendant with reference to the condition of the heart and lungs, and to determine their freedom from any constitutional taint. If there should be any tendency to heart or lung disease, or should the existence of struma be suspected, it is evident that the boy should not engage in active games which would throw too much strain on weak organs. EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 45 It is in these instances that gymnasia prove useful, and give a delicate boy an opportunity for physical development that is not otherwise attainable. The establishment of " naturalist field clubs " at many of our public schools is a step in the right direction, by pro- viding a motive for exercise to those who are debarred by health from joining in the more active pursuits of the playground. 17. Exercise for Girls.—In these days, when so many women are engaging in intellectual pursuits of a high character, and even are desirous of competing with men in the cares and anxieties of professional life, the ques- tion of their physical training ought to receive more attention than it has hitherto done. In this respect girls stand at a great disadvantage as compared with boys. Up to a certain age, say eight or nine, a girl mixes often on equal terms with her brother in his sports; indeed, not unfrequently excels him both in skill and spirit; but after that age healthy exercise is sacrificed to the bondage of genteel deportment. The growing child is confined in stays, and her feet crippled with tight boots. Anything like vigorous mus- cular movements are thus rendered impossible, and the sole exercise is the torpid regulation walk. Owing to this want of functional activity of the muscular system, the muscles dwindle and waste, and the nutrition of the 46 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. body becomes impaired. Many of the troubles women suffer from in later life are undoubtedly due to impaired muscular vigour, and much suffering would be spared if proper attention were paid in early life to their physical development by a course of systematic training. We do not mean that our daughters should emulate their brothers in the cricket-field, or that female athleticism should become the vogue. But we would point out to parents and the managers of schools the danger entailed by the present neglect of exercise, and indicate the games that could be most easily adopted. Thus fives, rackets, and lawn-tennis are games for which no great space is required; the latter game ought to be taught systematically, just as cricket is to boys at public schools. To play these games with safety, however, stays and tight boots must be altogether discarded. Swimming, too, ought to be taught at all girls' schools, not merely because of the protection it affords, but also from its being in itself an admirable exercise, bringing into play all the muscles of the body. There are few exercises so useful for imparting a graceful carriage as- rowing, and it should be taught wherever opportunity affords. The strength imparted by the development of the muscles of the back would do away with the necessity of the artificial support of stays. Riding, too, is an excellent exercise. It ought, however, EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 47 to be used in moderation till growth has nearly ceased. The great difficulty, however, in providing suitable exer- cise for women is the expense necessarily attaching to its pursuit. It is impossible for ladies to practise in open playgrounds like men ; and even in gymnasia, or places set apart for them, the question of social disparity pre- vents the general adoption. It might, however, be possible for a few schools in large towns to unite in maintaining a joint establishment for the systematic teaching of swimming, rowing, lawn-tennis, and a few special gymnastic exercises. This gymnasium might be open also to private families who might wish to send their girls who were being educated at home. Of course such institutions would have to be under the supervision of a responsible committee, or else the fate which has befallen skating rinks would speedily overtake them. 18. Exercise for Adult Life.—The sports of youth may, with the majority of men, be safely pursued up to the age of forty. At that age the period of middle life is entered upon, and changes begin to take place in the body which render it desirable that all exercise which throws great strain upon the heart and great vessels should be abandoned. Employments which require violent exertion for a short space of time should be ex- changed for more prolonged and slower work. Thus 48 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. hunting, shooting, golf,* and fishing should replace row- ing, football, and Alpine climbing. Although violent exercise might be given up, still at no time during life is the necessity for exercise so imperative as between forty and fifty. It is generally at this period that in previously healthy men dyspeptic troubles begin to make their appearance. The toils, cares, and anxieties of life have commenced to tell on the vital power of the most robust. The circulation is not so vigorous, and as a consequence there is a tendency to passive congestion, especially in the organs of the ab- dominal viscera. The assimilation of food is not thoroughly performed, and there is a tendency toward " functional derangements," especially of the liver; and a series of symptoms manifest themselves, of which the most common are :— (i.) "A feeling of weight and fulness at the pit of the stomach and in the region of the liver, flatulent disten- sion of the stomach and bowels, heartburn, and acid eructation. (2.) "A feeling of oppression, and often of weariness and aching pains in the limbs, or of insurmountable sleepiness after meals, * Golf may be considered as the king of games for the middle- aged. Londoners ought to congratulate themselves on the success ful introduction of this game to their suburban commons. EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 49 (3.) " Troublesome spasmodic cough, with a secretion of viscid mucus from the back of the throat and nostrils. (4.) " Restless disturbed sleep at nights, bad dreams, sometimes attacks of giddiness and dimness of sight, palpitation of the heart, and irregularity of the pulse." Now generally these unpleasant, and, to most men, alarming symptoms, speedily disappear when muscular exercise in the open air is had recourse to. It is, indeed, a matter of common experience with most middle-aged men how beneficial is the effect of a single day's hunting or shooting in clearing their complexion, and in ridding them of dyspeptic symptoms which they had been long combating before. If, however, exercise is not taken and these premoni- tory symptoms be disregarded, it is not long ere graver symptoms make their appearance in the form of gout, gravel, stone, and fatty degeneration. The products resulting from the disintegration of the food and tissues are not " burnt up," owing to the deficient supply of oxygen introduced into the body, and these accumulate in excess in the blood and tissues and form the materies morbi of the diseases above enumerated ; whilst the tissues themselves, clogged as it were by these products, are unable properly to fulfil their functions and undergo degenerative changes with extreme rapidity; so that if the individual does not actually succumb to effects So EXERCISE AND TRAINING. of induced disease, his life is shortened by an early entrance on the period of old age and decay. The plea offered by most men of middle age for not taking regular and systematic exercise is the want of time and opportunity. We believe this plea to be utterly ground- less. A brisk walk of three quarters of an hour before the business of the day, and half an hour at the end of the day, with a good stretch on Sunday afternoons some distance out of town, would be sufficient in most cases; whilst this brief curtailment of business hours might be met by an earlier hour of rising and retiring to rest. The men who most frequently urge this plea of want of time seem to find no difficulty in spending an hour or two before dinner at their club, in whist, in billiards, or in the smoking-room ; and when taxed with this, and urged to employ this portion of the day in a "constitutional" round the park, plead the sense of fatigue and weariness induced by the labours of the day, forgetting that this sense of weariness is only subjective and speedily disap- pears after a few minutes of brisk exercise. Nor can the want of opportunity for exercise be urged with con- sistency in London or other large towns where the Saturday half-holiday is so universally recognised, and where the facilities for getting into the country by means of the numerous suburban railways, in a reasonable time, are so abundant. EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 51 One caution, however, should be urged with respect to exercise taken at this period of life, viz. the inad- visability of passing at once from a state of comparative inactivity to arduous exertion. During active exercise the heart beats more vigorously (14), and more blood is consequently sent through the great vessels to the lungs and the body generally. When exercise is taken regu- larly, this strong action of the heart is met by a corre- sponding dilatation of the vessels, so that no blockage occurs to the onward flow of the blood; but when exercise is suddenly resumed after a period of pro- longed rest, this concordant action between the heart and blood-vessels is diminished and requires time for its perfect re-establishment. Consequently, on the resump- tion of strong exercise, there is more or less strain thrown on the cavities of the heart and walls of the arteries owing to the resistance of the onward passage of the blood, till the concordant action is thoroughly re-established. In youth, the strain thrown upon the heart and great vessels when passing suddenly from a state of inactivity to arduous exertion is little felt, the concordant compensa- tion generally taking place rapidly; but in middle-age, when degenerative changes have commenced to affect the structure of the heart and arteries, the danger is exceedingly great. The softened muscular wall of the heart, instead of overcoming the resistance offered to the 52 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. onward flow of blood, yields slightly, and, its elasticity being impaired, does not recover itself. Every succeeding strain aggravates the mischief, till serious dilatation of the heart is the result; or the sudden strain thrown on one of the great vessels of the chest may cause a bulging in its walls, and lay the foundation of the formidable dis- ease known as aneurism. 19. Exercise in Old Age.—After sixty years, the period of old age has fairly commenced for most men, and the necessity for vigorous exercise gradually declines. Indeed the change that occurs in the voluntary muscles and other organs of the body renders motion often extremely difficult, whilst the waning energies of the body ought to be carefully husbanded in order to main- tain the calorific processes by which the body is kept warm, and the force requisite to carry on the func- tions of digestion, assimilation, and circulation. The muscles of voluntary motion steadily diminish in bulk, their fibres becoming less elastic and contractile, and re- sponding less readily to stimuli, and less under the control of volition, whilst the tendons and the sheaths are often ossified; all these changes tending to embarrass the movements more and more till actual decrepitude is arrived at Although the necessity and desire for exercise thus gradually declines, still some measure of activity should be EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 53 insisted on, else the period of decrepitude will be reached too soon. Every endeavour should be made to prevent the individual becoming bed-ridden. As long as the vital powers permit he should be dressed and moved into another room, and when the weather is sufficiently warm, gentle movement in a carriage or wheel-chair should be encouraged ; and even when the period of actual de- crepitude is reached and the exhaustion consequent on movement so great that removal from the bed becomes dangerous, a degree of functional activity may be im- parted to the muscles by gentle friction, and even by the occasional stimulus of a mild galvanic current. SECTION III. TRAINING. 20. Object of Training.—Training is the art which aims at bringing the body into the most perfect condition of health, making muscular action more vigorous and enduring, and increasing the breathing power. To use the words of the late Dr. Parkes,* " Training is simply * ' Manual of Hygiene.' By Prof. E. A. Parkes. Fifth edition. Edited by Prof, du Chaumont. Chap. XII., sect. 3, " Exercise and Training." London: Churchill, 1878. 54 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. another word for healthy and vigorous living." The objects of training are obtained by the employment of a regimen, or system of diet, regular and systematic exercise, and a scrupulous attention to matters of per- sonal and general hygiene. These points will now be considered in detail. i. Diet or Regimen in Training. 21. Classification of Foods.—It has been stated (5) that every action of the living body is attended by chemical changes in the composition of its tissues, and that in these chemical changes a quantity of force is liberated, which, either in the form of heat, maintains the temperature, or, as motion, endues it with activity. The work done by the body is derived by burning the elements of the food, which is continuously being in- troduced into the body for the renewal of its tissues in the oxygen taken in at each inspiration. Naturally, when more work is done by the animal machine, more fuel is required; the question, therefore, arises, in what manner this fuel can be best supplied, so that the greatest effective force-value can be obtained. All foods may be divided into four great classes. Table II. Class. Type. Force-value * of 15 grains in dry state. Composition. Chief Constituents of Articles of Diet. I. Albumens. White of Egg. 13,851 foot-pounds. C72o.112NI8023. Flesh (myosin). Bread (gluten). Cheese (casein). II. Fats. Butter. 27,716 foot-pounds. ^57"l04*-'e- Fat of Meat. Milk. Butter. III. Starches. Sugars. Starch. Grape-sugar. 11,720 foot-pounds. C8H10O4 Potatoes, Sago. Honey, Cane-sugar. Grape-sugar in beer and wine. IV. Inorganic constituents. Water. Not known. H20. Common Salt (chloride of sodium). Bone-earth (phosphate of lime) in milk, bread, and meat. Alkaline Salts in meat and vegetables. * What is understood by " force-value " the reader is referred to paragraph 7. tn 56 exercise and training. The albuminous constituents alone contain nitrogen; and as this element is found in every tissue of the body which manifests energy, the albuminates must be con- sidered as the essential elements of the food. Never- theless, taken alone, the albuminous constituents are highly uneconomical as foods: for it has been shown by experiment that a full-grown man requires about 4,000 grains of carbon and 300 grains of nitrogen daily to supply the wants of the body. Now the proportion of carbon to nitrogen in albumen is about 53 of the former to 15 of the latter. In order, therefore, to get 4,000 grains of carbon he must eat 7,500 grains of albumen; but 7,500 grains of albumen contain 1,100 grains of nitrogen, or four times more nitrogen than the body requires. Thus, as Professor Huxley* well puts it, "A man confined to a purely albuminous diet must eat a pro- digious quantity of it; this not only involves a great amount of physiological labour in comminuting the food, and a great expenditure of power and time in dissolving and absorbing it, but throws a great quantity of wholly profitless labour upon those organs (the kidneys), which have to get rid of the nitrogenous matter, of which three- fourths is superfluous." Moreover, the time occupied * ' Lessons in Elementary Physiology.' By Thomas H. Huxley, F.R.S. Tenth edition. Macmillan & Co. 1876. EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 57 in the process of assimilation and digestion is much greater than with other articles of diet; so that the body, when fed on albuminous constituents, either entirely or out of due proportion, falls, as Professor Huxley well observes, " into the condition of the merchant who has abundant assets, but cannot get in his debts in time to meet his creditors." The fatly principles of the food contain about 80 per cent, of carbon, comparing with 53 per cent in albu- minous matter, whilst starch contains 40 per cent. Now carbon is the essential element of fuel; it is therefore not surprising to find the oxidation of fat yields double the force-value of that given by the oxidation of an equal weight of either albumen or starch. Indeed, fat may be regarded as the storehouse of carbon, and one apparent advantage of its freedom from combination with other elements is that it is always ready for immediate service whenever the requirements of the system demand it. Fat also is essential to the growth and nutrition of the tissues ; a larger proportion of fat being met with wherever cell-growth is going on rapidly. Men cannot live in good health without fat, and when excessive bodily fatigue is undertaken a proportionate amount of fatty matter ought to be added to the dietary. The physiological action of the starchy principles of the food is less understood than in the two preceding groups. 58 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. In the body they are converted into sugar by a chemical change effected by the saliva in the mouth and the pan- creatic juice in the intestine. A large proportion of the starchy and saccharine elements of food are undoubtedly converted into fat in the body; yet notwithstanding this, these elements do not seem capable of replacing fat as an article of food. Dr. Parkes * has well remarked, from a consideration of the diets used by all nations (except those, like the Esquimaux, who are under par- ticular conditions of food), that in no case do we find, where it can be obtained, an admixture of starchy food with fat omitted. It is therefore probable, that besides the conversion of starchy and saccharine matter into fat in the body, these principles also play an important part, not yet understood, in promoting nutri- tion, and are, therefore, essential elements to every dietary. The Inorganic Constituents.—Of the uses of water in the economy it is superfluous to speak. The physical pro- perties of many tissues depend upon the water which is combined with them; whilst all the chemical processes going on in the body require the co-operation of water for their due performance, and the influence on nutrition and secretion is very marked. The mineral constituents of the food are most important—by imparting strength * ' Manual of Hygiene,' p. 189. EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 59 and firmness to those textures which, like bone, cartilage and muscle, form the solid portion of the organism, and also in effecting chemical changes in the tissues and fluids. The most important of these are : (a) chloride of sodium, or common salt, which seems to exercise an important influence on the development and growth of the body ; the instinctive craving for this article of diet shows how important it is to the economy, for animals deprived of the use of salt speedily fall into bad con- dition, and will travel miles to obtain it; and certain African tribes, in districts where salt is scarce, will even barter gold for an equal weight of this commodity. (b) Phosphate of lime, or bone-earth, is the chief constituent of our bones, but is absent from no tissue, and is always more abundant in young and growing tissues, (c) Alkalifie salts of soda and potash are required to maintain the necessary degree of alkalinity of the blood; they are chiefly derived from our fresh vegetable food, and when this is withheld for a considerable time a disease known as scurvy is induced—a disease characterised by extreme muscular debility. Accessory Articles of Diet.—These are tea, coffee, alcohol, &c. : these by their decomposition yield but little actual force; they have, however, considerable influence on nutrition, by preventing waste, &c.; physiologists therefore call them " force regulators." The part they 5 6o EXERCISE AND TRAINING. play will be considered when we treat of the actual diet in training. 22. Digestion of Food.—Digestion is a process of solu- tion, by which the insoluble materials of the food are broken up by the mechanical action of the teeth and muscles of the stomach and intestines, and rendered soluble by the action of the secretion of the glandular organs attached to the alimentary canal. Thus, the saliva of the mouth and the juice of the pancreas convert the starch of such food as potatoes, rice, sago, &c, into soluble sugar; the gastric juice attacks the meat, and converts its insoluble albumen into substances known as peptones, which have the power of passing (diffusing) through animal membranes. Fat, too, which we all know to be very insoluble in the presence of watery fluids, be- comes readily soluble when acted on by the alkaline secretions of the liver (bile) and pancreas. In fact these alkaline secretions convert the fatty matter of the food into soap, just as the manufacturer, by boiling tallow with soda, forms that article. During digestion a considerable expenditure of force takes place in the performance of the mechanical act of breaking down the food, and the furnishing the secretion concerned in the digestive process. It is important, there- fore, to diminish the mechanical labour by having the food properly cooked, and to see that the bodily powers are not EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 61 exhausted by fatigue, and that no other work be under- taken till the active labour of digestion is completed. Lastly, as different glandular organs are set apart for the digestion of each particular class of food, it is obvious that digestion will be best performed by giving each organ its proper share of work, by a judicious admixture of the various principles of diet, so as not to overburden any one particular organ. • 23. Construction of Dietaries.—We have stated (4) that the amount of work daily performed by aii adult weighing 150 lbs., under ordinary conditions, is about 3,400 foot- tons; and we have also stated (21) that experiment has proved that a full-grown man requires about 4,000 grains of carbon and 300 grains of nitrogen daily to supply the wants of the body. In Table III., page 62, is a calculation of the amount of water, nitrogen, and carbon, and the energy developed by the burning in the body of one ounce of the chief articles of diet; from a consideration of which we shall be better able to arrive at the best arrangement of the various articles of diet, and the quantity of each that ought to be supplied in order to furnish the required force (3,400 foot-tons), and the 300 grains of nitrogen and 4,000 grains of carbon. Now, supposing the staple articles of a dietary to con- sist of 1 lb. of lean (uncooked) meat, 24 oz. of bread, 1 oz. of butter, 12 oz. of potatoes, 1 oz. of sugar, and 3 oz. of 62 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. Table III.*—Showing the Amount of Water, Nitrogen,, Carbon, and the Energy derived from an Ounce of the following Substances:— Name of Substance. Water. Nitrogen Carbon. Energy. Grains. Grains. Grains. Foot-tons. Lean Beef . 328 IO 64 55 Poultry . 324 H 62 5i Bread (crumb) . 175 5 119 83 Oatmeal . 65 8 127 152 Potatoes . 324 1 49 38 Dried Bacon. 65 6 273 291 Butter . . . ' 26 0-2 315 280 Milk .... 380 3 30 24 Ess {y0hrf ; ;} 321 9 7i ( 22 \ 127 Sugar 13 187 275 Table IV.* Substance. Quantity. Nitrogen. Carbon. Energy. Oz. Grains. Grains. Foot-tons. Meat .... 16 160 1,024 880 Bread 24 120 1,676 1,342 Butter . . . I 0'2 315 280 Potatoes . 12 12 588 456 Sugar I I87 275 Milk .... 9 9 90 72 Total. . . . 63 30I -2 3,880 3.305 * Constructed from Tables in Parkes' ' Practical Hygiene.' EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 63 milk—in fact, a fair instance of what is daily consumed by a healthy man doing a moderate amount of work. In Table IV. the amount of nitrogen is almost exactly supplied, whilst the carbon falls short of the requisite 4,000 grains by 120 grains, and the energy by about ioo foot-tons. It is obvious that, if half an ounce of butter or bacon were added to this dietary, the deficiency in carbon and energy would be made up without adding to the nitrogen. 24. Diet for Laborious Work.—The preceding table represents the diet necessary for a healthy man doing moderate work. When, however, the amount of exercise is greatly increased, more food is required in order to supply the requisite amount of force that the additional labour demands, as well as to repair the waste of the tissues consequent on increased action of respiration and circulation which additional muscular effort evokes. In convict prisons, men on hard labour receive 255 grains of nitrogen and 5,289 grains of carbon; on this diet they lose weight, and have to be continuously shifted from heavy to lighter work. In the case of military prisoners at hard labour, 282 grains of nitrogen and 5,373 grains of carbon are not sufficient to prevent men losing weight; but with 300 grains of nitrogen, and about 5,300 grains of carbon, the weight is stationary. The old trainers increased the supply of food entirely in one direc- 64 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. tion, viz. the albuminous constituents : thus Dr. Lyon Playfair ('Food of Man in Relation to his Useful Work') gives the diet of the prize-fighter as containing 690 grains of nitrogen and 4,366 grains of carbon—a wasteful and, as we have seen (21), comparatively in- effective diet. Talking of the work done on an average by University crews, and the lesser amount performed by crews of College eights, as fair instances of severe and moderate training respectively, we should say, in the former case, 450 grains of nitrogen and 5,300 grains of carbon, and in the latter, 380 grains of nitrogen and 4,600 grains of carbon would amply meet all the requirements of the body. As a rule, we may state that at present the dietaries of Col- lege crews are in excess of the work done, and a member of a " torpid," or a second or third division boat, thinks it his duty to copy—certainly in matters of diet—the Uni- versity oarsman, who probably does twice the amount of work. Of course no single standard will meet all cases, as individual conditions, as size,* digestive powers, &c, have to be taken into consideration. The following tables, however, will form a useful guide to trainers as to the relative quantities of the staple articles of diet that should be given daily. * Average weight of University crews may be taken as ranging between 11 and 12 stone ; of College crews, from 10 to 11 stone. EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 65 Table V.—Staple Articles of Diet in Severe Training. Moderate Training. Substance. Quantity. Nitrogen. Carbon. Quantity. Nitrogen. Carbon. Meat and Oz. Grains. Grains. 0, Grains. Grains. Poultry* Bread . . Butter . . Potatoes . Sugar . Milk . . Oatmeal . 24 24 I* 8 1 4 2 240 120 0-3 8 12 6 1,526 1,676 45° 392 187 120 250 20 24 I* 8 1 3 2 200 120 9 6 I,28o 1,676 450 392 l87 90 250 Eggs • • 6 57 426 4 34 284 Total , 7oJ 443'3 5,027 63* 377"3 4,609 The meat should be of the best quality, and should be thoroughly cooked. Underdone or overdone meat is indigestible. It should be either broiled or roasted. When the latter, care should be taken to keep the juices of the meat from running out. This is effected as follows : Plunge the joint for ten minutes into boiling water. This hardens the outer surface of the joint, forming a slight out- side core that keeps the gravy inside; then place the joint * Weighed raw and free from bone. About I "8 oz. should be deducted from every 12 oz. of meat in deducting weight of bone in legs of mutton, sirloins of beef, and mutton chops. 66 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. opposite a good clear fire, not too near, and roast slowly for three hours and a half; then, for the last half-hour, bring the joint quite close, so as to brown the outside. This is known as the slow process of cooking, and few cooks will adopt it, because it deprives them of a large quantity of dripping, one of their perquisites. Meat done by the slow process is quite red when cut into, from the contained gravy, but is not raw, as is shown by the meat losing the red colour when cold, the gravy having drained out by the cut surfaces. As the flesh of fowl contains nearly as much nitrogen and carbon as an equal weight of meat, and has nearly the same force-value, it is useful as a change of diet. Plain broiled chicken is a good breakfast dish, and roast fowl might replace beef and mutton for dinner at least twice in the week. The weight of bread is taken as baker's weight, i.e. when new. It should, however, be a day old before it is used. The quantity given in the above tables is in excess of that usually allowed. It is strange how the prejudice which some trainers entertain for this article of diet, has arisen. It is eminently nutritious and digestible, and men do not tire of it. Butter, too, is another article against which a prejudice exists. We have seen (21) how essential fatty principles of the food are to nutrition, and the enormous amount of EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 67 force yielded by its combustion. Where fat is well digested, it may be freely given, even in excess of that stated in the above tables, which only represents the ordinary " commons," or " sizing " for butter at Oxford or Cambridge. In addition to this allowance of fatty matter, men who can digest it should be encouraged to eat the fat served with chops, steaks, and joints, and not to reject it, as is too commonly the case. When fat is not well digested, an additional quantity of oatmeal should be used, as porridge, made with milk. Potatoes contain (Table IV.) a very large proportion of water, and consequently very little nutriment in a large bulk; they cannot be omitted from a dietary, because they supply vegetable salts which are required to keep the body in health; and as the potato is particu- larly rich in these, they are most economically adminis- tered in this article of diet. The potato, too, is very rich in starch, which is converted into sugar by the saliva and the pancreatic juice. If, however, a large quantity of potato is taken, some of the starch may escape conversion, and then it will decompose in the intestines and cause flatulence, " internal fat." We have known trainers who would not allow a crew to touch bread, except in the form of toast or crust, permit an almost unrestricted use of potato ! Sugar is required for sweetening tea and jellies, and 68 EXERCISE AND TRAINING- light puddings; it should not per se be used as an article of diet by adults, as it is liable to give rise to acidity, dyspepsia, heartburn, &c. Eggs are very useful and convenient articles of diet. An egg weighs about two ounces. The best way of cooking is " poaching." One egg a day, at least, is to be used in making light farinaceous puddings. Other vegetable food beside potatoes are not men- tioned in the diet tables, as having little nutritive value. Their chief use is to " purify " the blood by the supplying the alkaline salts. The best are watercress, beetroot, tomatoes, spinach, broccoli, cauliflower, baked apples, and stewed pears. As yet no consideration has been paid to the im- portant question of the amount of fluid that should be taken in training. In ordinary conditions a healthy adult requires about 70 ounces (3\ pints) of water for nutrition, about 20 ounces (1 pint) of which is intro- duced into the body with the food combined in the meat, bread, &c. (Table III.). The remainder is taken as liquid. In training there is an increased elimination of water by the skin and lungs; consequently there is an increased demand for it in the system. The amount, therefore, required in training may be placed at 100 ounces (5 pints) in winter, and 120 ounces (6 pints) in summer. Of this about if pint will be EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 69 taken in combined with the food. In the old system of training, the amount of fluid was rigidly limited, and. rarely exceeded three pints. The fallacy of such restric- tion has been thoroughly exposed by Mr. MacLaren,* and now more liberal views are held by trainers with respect to the amount of fluid drunk. The two great points to remember are that fluid should not be drunk shortly before taking exercise, nor large quantities during or immediately after meals. The following table gives the approximate quantity and best time for taking fluids:— On rising . o§ pint of cold water. Breakfast . . . .of ,, weak tea. Lunch or supper . 1 ,, water or weak tea. Dinner . . . . 1 ,, water or table ale. Two hours after dinner o| ,, weak tea. In porridge . . . oj ,, milk or water. 4! pints This, with the 1J pint contained in the articles of diet, meat, bread, &c., makes 6 pints, an ample allowance. 25. Accessory articles of Diet.—These are tea "and * ' Training in Theory and Practice.' By A. MacLaren. Lon- don : Macmillan, 1866. 7° EXERCISE AND TRAINING. alcohol. Their great duty is to prevent waste, and re- spectively to stimulate the nervous and circulatory systems. Tea is a decided stimulator of the nervous system; perhaps, owing to the warmth of the infusion, there is increased action of the skin. Owing to its astringent qualities, it lessens the action of the bowels. Taken in large quantities, and in strong infusion, it is apt to cause dyspepsia and flatulence. In training it should be taken weak (two tea-spoonfuls of tea to a pint of boiling water). It. should not be taken late at night, as it in- duces sleeplessness. A large breakfast cup of weak tea, taken fully two hours after a heavy meal, quickens digestion. Alcohol.—Opinions are divided as to the dietetic value of alcohol. Certainly in the form of wine and spirits it is absolutely unnecessary for young healthy men. On this subject Dr. Parkes* says :—" A small quantity of alcohol does not seem to produce much effect, but more than two fluid ounces manifestly lessens the power of sustained and strong muscular work. In the case of a man on whom I experimented, four fluid ounces of brandy ( = i • 8 fluid ounces of absolute alcohol) did not apparently affect labour, though I cannot affirm it did not do so; but 4 ounces more, given after four hours, * ' Manual of Hygiene,' p. 381. EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 71 when there must have been some elimination, lessened muscular force; and a third 4 ounces, given four hours afterwards, entirely destroyed the power of work. The reason was twofold. There was, in the first place, narcosis, blunting of the nervous system. The will did not pro- perly send its commands to the muscles, or the muscles did not respond to the will; and secondly, the action of the heart was too much increased, and induced palpita- tion and breathlessness, which put a stop to labour. The inferences were that any amount of alcohol, though it did not produce narcosis, would act injuriously by in- creasing unnecessarily the action of the heart, which labour alone had sufficiently augmented. I believe these experiments are in accord with common experience, which shows that men engaged in any hard labour, as iron-puddlers, glass-blowers, navvies on piece-work, and prize-fighters during training, do their work more easily without alcohol." We quite agree with these remarks, and we think the routine practice of giving two glasses of port wine or claret to men in training after dinner not only unnecessary, but in many cases positively injurious. This consideration does not apply to the use of light table ales, which contain only a very small quantity of alcohol (about three-quarters of an ounce to a pmt). The men being accustomed to these would feel their with- drawal, whilst the quantity of alcohol in that diluted form 72 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. is quite insignificant. The quantity of beer, however, should not exceed ij pint daily, as, containing a con- siderable amount of sugar, it is apt to cause dyspepsia and flatulence if taken in large quantities. The use of wine should, in our opinion, be restricted to " training off," when men, from over-fatigue, lose their relish for food and begin to fall in weight. Then a glas's of sherry, with an equal quantity of water, taken at the commence- ment of dinner, will have a wonderful restorative effect on the digestive powers. 2. Personal and General Hygiene. 26. Rest.—Our whole life, says Dr. Poore,* "consists in a series of vibrations, periods of tension alternating with periods of relaxation; and although the rapidity of these vibrations varies immensely, they are recognisable in all our acts, be they voluntary or involuntary." Thus, taking the heart, which is ceaselessly vibrating indepen- dently of our control, we find that each vibration (taking the rate of vibration at 72 to the minute), if divided into ten parts, gives four of these parts for the systole, vigorous contraction, hard labour; three are occupied by the * ' Text-book of Electricity in Medicine and Surgery.1 By G. Vivian Poore, M.D. London, F.R.C.P. London: Smith, Elder-& Co. 1876. EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 73 diastole, the period of recoil, which, although hardly work, is an exercise of function; during the remaining three there is absolute rest. Dr. Poore suggests that we may apply the lesson taught by the vibration of this organ, whose periods of active labour, functional exercise, and rest have been regulated for it, to the habits of our daily life. "If we divide," he says, " the day of twenty-four hours in ten equal parts, and give four of these to active work, three to functional exercises of other kinds, and three to sleep, we shall find that nine hours and a half work, seven and a quarter's relaxation, and seven and a quarter hours' sleep is what a normal man may, and as a rule does, perform without injury to himself." This statement of what is the physiological require- ment for sleep is in accordance with the practical ex- perience of Mr. MacLaren,* who says :—" It must, I think, be viewed as one of the errors of training tactics that men are encouraged to take too much sleep; at any rate, to spend too much time in bed. What requirement can young men, in undergoing such bodily exertion as present training practice involves, have for ten or eleven hours' sleep? What need to spend nearly half their time in bed ? In this, as in most things, some men will require more than others, but, speaking generally, seven * ' Training in Theory and Practice,' p. 124. 74 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. hours will be found abundant at this time of life. To sustain the body in full vigour, if a man goes to bed at eleven o'clock he ought to be out of it at six." In addition to the rest obtained during the period allotted for sleep, a measure of rest should be taken after exercise, so that fatigue induced by muscular exer- tion be fully recovered from before fresh work is under- taken by the body. A period of rest should certainly intervene between the strong exercise of the day and the principal meal. Yet how rarely is this allowed, and men hurry up from the boats or from a long walk and sit down at once to food, whilst the bodily powers are jaded and the digestive powers are depressed. Every endeavour ought to be made to ensure perfect mental quietude whilst in a state of training. We know that horses in training are extremely susceptible of ex- ternal influences ; the change of stables, of water, or the absence of a stable companion, often causing a horse to train off. We can therefore understand the effect dis- couraging criticism has on a crew. Men who are anxious and worried will quickly fall out of condition, because these disturbing influences interfere with the processes by which the nutrition of the muscular and nervous systems are carried on. Under the old plan of training, every effort was made to keep the crew as quiet as pos- sible, and in ignorance of the progress they were making, EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 75 and the time of the trials was only known to the " captain " and the " coach," a little extra praise from the latter being the only encouragement received. The ad- vantage of this plan is obvious; it kept a crew from becoming careless, from counting too much on fast trials, whilst it prevented the demoralization that bad perform- ances always entail. 27. Bathing. — The habit of daily bathing in cold water is now so generally adopted that we need say nothing to recommend the practice to healthy men. The best time for the cold bath is undoubtedly on first rising, when its influence on the nervous and circulatory systems is most powerful. It is a question whether it may be repeated during the day—after exercise. Con- sidering the powerful physiological action of the bath, we doubt whether a second complete immersion is advis- able at a time when the bodily powers are depressed ; and we think a rub down with a cold, wet sponge quite sufficient. The cold bath ought always to be followed by vigorous rubbing with a dry towel, to promote re- action, and to remove scales of dead skin and the pro- ducts of its secretion, which by clogging the pores prevents its free action. The occasional use of the warm bath, with plenty of soap, is advised, in order the more thoroughly to remove the accumulation of secretions at the mouth of the sweat 6 76 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. ducts or pores. The best time for the warm bath is the last thing at night. 28. Sweating.—With the impression that accumulation of fat could be speedily removed by sweating, the old trainers used to promote vigorous action of the skin and induce profuse perspirations. Such unnatural excite- ment of the skin could not, however, last long, and the endeavour to force it only led to the function being gradually weakened. The practice was founded on physiological error; for accumulations of fat only occur in the body in health when the gain to the body is in excess of the waste. And it can only be removed by burning it off, by increasing the oxidizing action going on within the body. The products of this burning are carbonic acid and water; of which nine parts of the former pass off by the lungs, and one part only is eliminated by the skin, whilst the kidneys, in the form of urine, carry off three times as much water as is removed in the form of sweat. Now, when increased natural exercise is taken, all three channels—the skin, the lungs, and the kidneys—are proportionately engaged in getting rid of this effete car- bonic acid and water. But when the skin is unduly stimulated, it is generally at the expense of the other two functions. A man who is taking exercise swathed in thick flannels has his breathing power embarrassed, and EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 77 consequently does not get rid of so much carbonic acid by the lungs as he otherwise would ; and as the skin only eliminates a very small quantity of carbonic acid, the increased activity of its function does not compensate for the diminished exhalation by the lungs. Again, the kidneys are the chief channel for the elimination of water, and any great withdrawal of this substance from them impairs their functional activity.* It frequently happens, however, that a man who has been leading a sedentary life for some time, and is generally out of condition, finds on first going into training that the skin does not possess its healthy activity, and that with increased exercise the skin remains dry and harsh. Instead, however, of resorting to violent measures, he will find that the warm bath, with plenty of soap, fol- lowed by the cold douche and vigorous " towelling," will do more towards restoring a natural skin action than any amount of sweating under blankets in a hot room, or exercise on a hot day with the traditional great coat. 29. Bowels.—Constipation is often a serious difficulty with men in training. The increased quantity of food, * In health the great object is to give each organ its proper and proportionate share of work. In disease, however, the physician often seeks to relieve and rest a weak and disordered organ by stimulating those that are sound to increased activity, and thus do the duty of the enfeebled member. 78 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. and consequently the larger amount of undigested residue left in the intestinal canal, together with the drier nature of the food on the one hand, and the increased with- drawal of water from the system by the skin and kidneys on the other, seem to be the chief factors concerned in producing this condition. The bowels not only should be open once a day, but care should be taken to see that the evacuation is com- plete ; that is, that the whole faecal matter has been got rid of. For the detention of the intestinal contents leads to serious discomfort, and interferes materially with digestion. In the first place, the result of their decomposition gives rise to flatulence, or distension of the bowels with wind; and these, by pressing upwards, prevent the proper expansion of the lungs, and thus diminishes the breathing power. The " internal fat," the bugbear of trainers, is, in the majority of cases, nothing but this flatulent disten- sion, "wind in the wrong place," and would easily be put right by the administration of half a tumbler of Friedrichshall or Pulna water. Secondly, the putrid products arising from decomposition are absorbed into the blood, giving rise to a great disturbance of health, and often induce great irritation of the mucous membrane of the bowel, and set up diarrhoea. 30. Tobacco.—Most trainers rigidly prohibit the use of EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 79 this article, and, where smoking has not become an inveterate habit, they are quite right. It diminishes the elimination of carbonic acid, and thus interferes with the respiratory power. It also checks the natural waste of the body. It is therefore of use when great fatigue is under- gone, and the amount of food is limited. When, however, the supply of food is abundant, there is no need for it. When smoking, however, has become an inveterate habit, the struggle to give it up often produces great depression, and thus interferes materially with the process of training, and the trainer may feel disposed to break a wholesome rule, and allow it in great moderation. In selecting a crew, however, unless the smoker is an exceptionally good man, and his services indispensable, such indulgence should not be permitted; for, when the habit has become inveterate, there is generally considerable impairment of muscular and nervous energy, and also dyspeptic trouble. 31. " Training off."—When a man becomes "stale," it is obvious that he has departed from that condition of " healthy and vigorous living" which it is the great object of training to promote. The causes of " training off" are various. It may be from over-work, over-anxiety, some derangement of digestion, ill-health arising from some external cause difficult to ascertain—a not infrequent one being a dose of sewage gas, or sewer-polluted water, taken inadvertently at some river-side training quarter. Or it 8o EXERCISE AND TRAINING. may be the result of a break-down of the constitution, some hitherto latent taint manifesting itself under the strain of unwonted pressure. The symptoms are generally apparent. The man begins to lose weight; has a dis- relish for food; feels languid after exercise, and does not recover his spirits or elasticity; does his work carelessly, is inattentive, and is restless and sleepless at nights. These are the less serious symptoms, which perhaps a little proper management and care may soon put right. If, however, it is associated with much distress during the actual performance of the daily work, and there is also some degree (however slight) of breathlessness, and an intermittent action of the heart, "training off" assumes a serious aspect. The proper course to pursue, in all cases when a man becomes " stale," is to consult a physician in order to determine the exact nature of the break-down. There can be no object in patching up a man who will fail when the pinch comes in the race itself; whilst if the staleness be due to any organic mischief, a continuance of work in any form would be highly injurious. And lastly, it would be unjust to turn off a good man who was merely suffering from temporary indisposition, which a timely rest and a little judicious advice about diet might speedily put right. A physician alone can decide on these points, and indicate the proper course to be pursued under the circumstances. EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 81 32. General Hygiene.—Under this head is included questions of drainage, ventilation,* water-supply, &c.; but as one of the series of " Health Primers " is devoted to the consideration of this important subject, we refer the reader to its pages. 3. Amount of Exercise. 33. The daily work that ought to be performed during a course of training will depend materially on the con- ditions of the race for which preparation is being made. Thus men preparing for College races of little more than a mile will not undergo the severe preparation that is requi- site for a crew intending to compete over the University course of rather more than four miles and a half. In judging of the amount of work necessary to be accom- plished attention must be given to two important elements, * We would remark here, however, that the condition of the bedrooms at our Universities, with respect to ventilation, are dis- graceful, being mostly small cupboards, averaging barely 250 feet in cubic capacity, without chimneys ! The occupants, however, may do something towards remedying this unwholesome arrangement. As long as the two Universities entrust the sanitary management of the colleges and lodgings to clergymen, utterly untrained for such duties, it is too much to expect the authorities to see the necessity for or undertake the much-needed reform at their own expense. 82 exercise and training. muscular power and breathing power. For it is quite possible, as Mr. MacLaren* has pointed out, that a " man of good physical capacity may be trained so that the voluntary muscles of his arms and chest would be powerfully developed, with a contractile force propor- tionate to their size ; and yet his respiratory power shall be so disproportionate that he could not run a hundred yards without gasping; and another, or the same indi- vidual, if possessing ordinary locomotive capacity and fair development, may be trained to run ten times the distance without distress, but the voluntary muscles of whose arms and chest shall remain as they stood at the time that the training began." The tendency of modern athleticism has certainly been towards throwing greater stress on the respiratory powers, without a corresponding increase of muscular exertion. Indeed, as far as rowing is concerned, all the improve- ments in racing boats, the outrigger and the sliding-seat, have tended to diminish muscular effort and increase the rapidity of the stroke. On this point Mr. MacMichael,f a distinguished Cam- bridge oarsman, bears most important testimony:— * ' Training in Theory and Practice,' p. 36. t 'The Oxford and Cambridge Boat Races.' By W. F. MacMichael, B.A., late Secretary of the Cambridge University Boat Club. 1870. exercise and training. 83 " What strikes me most forcibly, in reading the accounts of what University crews used to do in former days, is the much greater amount of hard work they did than we do now." Mr. MacLaren's evidence on this point is also very decisive:—" The exercise in rowing a College race (a short mile) is barely sufficient to keep a healthy man well; it is not sufficient to keep up the condition of a strong one. The best men fall off when racing, or the exclusive training exercise for the racing, begins; under it powerful men dwindle: and this not from ' training down,' as the phrase goes, for the reduction is not in weight only, but in girth and tension and contractility of muscle, and in the stamina which gives endurance of fatigue." Taking rowing, then, as the typical exercise on which our remarks on training have been founded, let us consider the amount of work, muscular and respiratory, that ought to be accomplished in order to develop both powers to the fullest extent. 34. Muscular Work.—We have seen (4) that, from calculations made by different observers, the amount of force daily expended by an adult weighing 150 lbs. in the performance of the internal, calorific, and external mechanical work of the body, has been estimated at about 3,400 foot-tons, or, in other words, in the expendi- ture of force requisite to lift 3,400 tons one foot high. 84 exercise and training. Of these 3,400 foot-tons, about 300 are expended in the ordinary external mechanical work of the body, muscular work. And we also saw that estimates had been made of the amount of work a man weighing 150 lbs. could accomplish in a given time with different kinds of exercise, thus:— Foot-tons. Authority. Rowing one mile at racing speed = 18-56 MacLaren. Walking one mile . . . . = 17-67 Parkes. From these data it is easy to arrive at an approximate idea of the amount of work actually performed by men in training on any given day. Mr. MacLaren tells us that at Oxford the training practice, allowing for the difference of some Colleges when a short run is preferred to the morning walk, is as follows :— Walking.*—One mile, averaging four miles an hour..........= 15 minutes. Rowing.—Twice over the course and back, part of the distance at racing speed, part at two-thirds speed, and part at half speed. Whole distance, say five miles at one mile in nine minutes.....= 45 »> Mr. MacLaren, 'Training in Theory and Practice,' p. 55. EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 85 The period of training lasts about three weeks; once or twice during this period the crew are taken for a long row (seven miles) to Nuneham. At Cambridge the plan is very similar, only the course being further away from home than is the case at Oxford, the distance rowed each day is slightly longer—the dis- tance being from Jesus Sluice (near the boat-houses) to Bait's-bite, 3 miles 3 furlongs 22 yards. As the boats do not start actually from Jesus Sluice, nor row quite to Bait's-bite lock, allowance must be made at each end ; so that probably, allowing for the different turning-points adopted by the various Colleges, the average daily row at Cambridge may be considered as six miles. Their time per mile, however, is rather slower than it is at Oxford, owing to the narrowness of the river, causing repeated " easies" on the journey down to the locks. Of the six miles, one-fourth of the course is rowed at racing speed, the remainder at three-quarter speed and paddling. In these calculations, no allowance has been made for the exertion taken in the ordinary business of the day— the walking to the boats, to and from College class- rooms, general " loafing," &c. This kind of work may be safely estimated as not likely to exceed four miles a day. Thus we have, then, five miles' pedestrian exercise, and 86 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. six miles' rowing, as the external mechanical work done on an average by men in training for College races. Foot-tons. Five miles' walking (17-67x5)= 88 -35 Six miles' rowing (18-56 X 6) =111-36 199-71 This amount of 199-71 foot-tons unfavourably com- pares with the 300 foot-tons, the average work of a strong healthy man, engaged in ordinary manual labour, and is little above the minimum allowance of 150 foot- tons which Professor Parkes considers that every healthy man ought to take in some way as exercise every day.* * Professor du Chaumont, of Netley, has given some interesting particulars of the work done in India by natives. (1) Thus a hill coolie will go thirty miles, with an ascent of 5,500 feet, in three days, carrying 80 lb. weight, the weight carried on a frame supported on the loins and sacrum, and aided by a band passed round the forehead —work per diem, 500 tons lifted 1 foot. (2) Eight palanquin-bearers carried an officer weighing 180 lb., and the palanquin weighing 250 lb., twenty-five miles in Lower Bengal; assuming each man weighed 150 lb., the work was 600 foot-tons. Lastly, the work done by the sledge parties in the Arctic Expedition of 1875-6 has been calculated by Professor du Chaumont, as for the northern party (Markham's), at a'daily mean of 574 foot-tons per man, with a maximum of 859 ! The western party (Aldrich's) did a mean of 443, and a maximum of over 600. Even this large amount was con- sidered an under-estimate by the commander. EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 87 Certainly, as far as muscular work is concerned, mem- bers of College crews are not overtaxed.* 35. Respiratory work, or Breathing Power.—The act of breathing consists of the alternate expansion and con- traction of the walls of the chest, by which air is alter- nately drawn into and expelled from its interior. This action is carried on by two forces : (a) the elasticity of the lungs themselves; (b) by the exercise of certain muscles, the intercostals and the diaphragm.^ Inspiration is effected by enlarging the chest in all its diameters. Thus, the diaphragm by its contraction enlarges it in its vertical diameter, or depth, whilst the action of the external inter- costals, by raising the ribs, enlarges it in width. In extraordinary or forced inspiration, as in violent exer- cise, other muscles are called into service, the chief of which are the serratus magnus, pectorales, and trapezius muscles, which we have seen (12) are also employed in drawing the arms forwards and backwards from the trunk. Expiration.—The enlargement produced by in- * ' Manual of Hygiene,' pp. 420-422. t The intercostals are the muscles between each rib—the external and internal. In the former the fibres run obliquely downwards and forwards, and draw the ribs up. In the latter the fibres are downwards and backwards, and draw the ribs down. The diaphragm is a large flat muscle, which serves as the partition between the chest and abdomen. When it contracts, it pushes down the ab- dominal viscera, and thus enlarges the chest cavity. EXERCISE AND TRAINING. spiration is recovered from by the elastic recoil of the lungs, and little or no muscular power is required when the breathing is quiet; but when hurried and forced, the internal intercostals, by pulling down the ribs, aid the lungs by diminishing the cavity of the chest.* The quantity of air changed in the lungs in each act of ordinary breathing is,, in healthy adults, about 30 to 35 cubic inches. The number of respirations such a man would make in a minute ranges from 14 to 18. In health the proportion of breathing to the rapidity of the pulse is as 1 to 4; the respiration being 18, the pulse, under normal circumstances, will be 72 per minute. According to Dr. Haughton, the work done by the respiratory muscles, under ordinary circumstances, in the twenty-four hours amounts to 21 foot-tons. * The following table, drawn up by Mr. Hutchinson, shows the relative power of the inspiratory and expiratory muscles in ordinary and extraordinary respiration :— Power of Inspiratory Muscles I'5 2-0 2-5 3-5 4'5 5'5 60 ro Weak breathing Ordinary . Strong . Very strong . Remarkable . . Very remarkable Extraordinary Very extraordinary (Kirke's ' Physiology,' by Morrant Baker.) Power of Expiratory Muscles. . 2-0 • 2-5 • 3'5 • 4'5 • 5-8 • 7-o • 8-5 . IO'O EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 89 With vigorous exercise there is increased activity of the respiratory process. The number of respirations is greatly increased, at the same time the heart's action becomes more frequent. In rowing, for instance, at a stroke of 37 per minute, the respirations will be increased from 18 to 35 or 40, and the pulse from 72 to no or 120 a minute. At the same time the quantity of carbonic acid discharged from the lungs is greatly augmented (14). Now, it is very evident that such important organs can- not pass from a condition of comparative quietude to such intense rapidity of action without having an immense strain thrown on them. And this is what really does occur in training. Nearly all the distress experienced by men after a severe race, or in the earlier periods of training, when un- dertaking quick work before the concordant action between the heart and the blood-vessels, is due to the embarrassment of the lungs, and not to muscular fatigue. As we have seen (34), the work done by the muscles during an ordi- nary race is anything but severe ; while the effect on the circulation and respiration, as evidenced by the gasping, shallow respiration, and rapid, irregular pulse that follows violent and injudicious exertions before the body is pro- perly accustomed, is enormous. These facts lead us to the following conclusions, which may be thus briefly summa- rised :— (a) That the chief object of the work in training is to 9o EXERCISE AND TRAINING. establish a reciprocal action between the heart and lungs, so that the increased supply of blood sent to the lungs by the heart may pass through them freely; that there should be no blockage, and consequently no strain.* (b) This reciprocal action will be best attained by gradually increasing the respiratory work, otherwise the immediate effect of fast exercise being to cause aug- mented action of the heart, the increased amount of blood sent to the lungs will cause embarrassment to the respiration, a checking of the flow of blood through them. This causes more violent breathing efforts, which may lead to expansion of the air-vesicles of the lungs (emphy- sema), or dilatation of the heart. (c) The action of the lungs and circulation should be carefully watched during training. If the breathing becomes laborious, especially sighing, and the pulse ex- ceeds 120-130 and becomes irregular, the training should not be persisted in. If trainers paid a little more attention to these points, failures at a late period of training would not be so frequent, inefficient men being eliminated at an early period. 36. Fatigue. Our observations on muscular and re- spiratory work would not be complete without some reference to the condition known as fatigue; the more * All races, such as "scratch pairs," rowed by untrained persons, are for this reason positively dangerous, and ought to be discouraged. EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 91 so as this condition has recently received considerable attention from physicians, and the existence of a number of distinct affections known as "fatigue diseases" are now recognised. For this purpose we cannot do better than summarise the excellent description given by Dr. Poore,* who has thoroughly studied this subject. Work, he says, results in fatigue, and fatigue is a regular and constantly recurring symptom experienced by us all. As our life consists of a series of vibrations—periods of tension alternating with periods of relaxation—therefore periods of functional activity invariably alternate with periods of repose, during which the waste caused by the exercise of function is repaired. Fatigue occurs directly we attempt to alter the rhythm of our vital vibrations by prolonging the periods of tension at the expense of the period of relaxation. Fatigue may be local or general, and both forms may be either acute or chronic. Local fatigue is caused sooner by prolonged and sus- tained muscular effort than by repetitions of short mus- cular contraction having due intervals of relaxation between them. Thus we find it difficult to hold a weight at arm's length, or standing in one position more tiring than moving the same weight frequently, or by the alter- * ' A Text-book of Electricity in Medicine and Surgery.' By G. Vivian Poore, M.D. London, Assistant Physician University College. London, 1878. 1 92 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. nate action of the limbs in walking. The symptoms of local fatigue are a loss of power, the irritability of the muscular tissue becomes exhausted, the force of its con- traction is lessened. Tremor is another symptom of muscular exhaustion, and is generally noticeable after an unwonted muscular effort. It is characterised by a peculiar jerking of the muscles throughout the body, which gives uncertainty to all muscular movements. The effect of cramp as the result of fatigue is familiar to most of us. It may come on during actual exercise, or some hours after. The symptoms of general fatigue are mostly those of nervous exhaustion, and consequently we find there is a disability for performing either mental or physical work, especially that requiring sustained effort or attention. The acute forms of local or general fatigue are usually recovered from without leaving traces of injurious effect behind them. When, however, fatigue is frequently in- duced, it is a common cause of many of those chronic maladies which are characterised by irregular muscular action. But it must not be forgotten that fatigue, in all its forms, is preceded by impaired nutrition, and this im- pairment of nutrition has to be recovered from before functional activity can be restored to its pristine vigour. Trainers should therefore be careful to avoid fatiguing the men under their care, for one day of overwork has EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 93 probably to be followed by days of rest or of inefficient work. Recognising also the fact that monotonous re- petition of the same act is one of the most potent causes of fatigue, trainers should endeavour to get the greatest amount of work out of their men by a constant variety of exercise. 37. General Conclusions.—-We have now passed in review the means by which the trainer brings the body into the most perfect condition of health, making mus- cular action more vigorous and enduring, increasing at the same time the breathing power. We will now en- deavour to systematize our remarks by drawing a plan on which a day's training should be conducted. Rise about 6-30 a.m. in summer, and at 7 a.m. in winter. The Bath.—Immediately on rising use the cold bath. This in summer is best in the form of a douche or shower. In the winter the sponge is sufficient. When the weather is very cold, the water should be placed in the bath overnight, so that the temperature is not exactly ice cold. Morning Exercise.—At 7 a.m. in summer, and 7*30 in winter, start for a brisk walk of two miles, with occa- sional quick runs, which may be lengthened as the " breathing power " becomes developed. Breakfast.—At 8 o'clock breakfast, which should con- 94 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. sist of a chop or steak (i lb.) broiled, a poached egg, a couple of cups of weak tea, or, if preferred, cocoa made from nibs, with plenty of milk; stale bread (brown re- commended, if troubled with constipation) and water- cresses. Broiled fish or chicken may occasionally be substituted for meat as a change, when men are beginning to weary of an exclusively flesh diet. After Breakfast.—Generally, from 9 to 12, men are engaged in their ordinary pursuits. From 12 to 1, how- ever, if the time can be spared, may be profitably spent in the gymnasium. We have already seen (34) that certainly, as far as muscular work is concerned, members of College crews are not overtaxed. Besides, as the chief work they do is thrown on the trunk and lower limbs, it is advisable to bring into play other groups of muscles; for by so doing one of the most potent causes of fatigue, the monotonous repetition of the same act, is avoided, and the trainer is able to get a greater amount of work from his men by thus varying the exercise. Nor should Dr. Parkes' statement—(14), that when a single muscle, or group of muscles, is exercised to too great extent, these, after growing to a great size, commence to waste ; this does not seem to be the case when all the muscles are exercised—be forgotten. The exercises of the gymnasium bring into action muscles that are little used in rowing and walking, and thus fulfil the condition indicated by EXERCISE AND TRAINING. 95 Dr. Parkes, for maintaining a healthy state of the muscles that are called into severe action. Where the use of the gymnasium is not possible, boxing and fencing will be found useful substitutes. Lunch.—This meal should be taken quite an hour and a half before going to the boat, and should be as light as possible. Bread and butter, with cold chicken, or cold roast meat; a glass of light bitter ale, or, better still, cold spring water. Afternoon Exercise.—At 2-30 say the active exercise of the day is commenced. This for College races usually consists in rowing about one mile at full speed, three miles at three-quarter speed, and one and a half mile at half-speed. Long distance rows at three-quarter speed should be adopted twice a week; on those days the course would not be rowed at full speed. The time spent on the river should not exceed, when the course is rowed, more than one hour and twenty minutes; when the long journey is made, about two hours and a quarter should be allowed. If more time is required, the crew should start earlier, so as to return at least an hour and a half before dinner. After the row the men should have a rub down with a wet sponge, followed by a good " towelling," and walk quietly back to their rooms and rest till the dinner hour. Dinner.—Usually at six o'clock. Meat, slowly roasted 96 EXERCISE AND TRAINING. and full of gravy, either beef or mutton. Roast fowls twice in the week advisable, as a change; and boiled fish (soles, cod, haddock, turbot, whiting) may be added, if any of the men fall off in appetite, or suffer from consti- pation and boils. Plenty of green food, in the shape of spinach, turnip-tops, asparagus, broccoli, young green cabbage, French beans; beet-root or tomato excellent. Potatoes limited to one of fair size, mealy, and thoroughly cooked. Stale bread. Light farinaceous puddings, tapioca, sago, &c. Baked apples, stewed pears, rhubarb, prunes. Light table ale, one pint. No wine recom- mended ; a glass of light claret, if desired, permitted. Supper.—At 10 o'clock, one pint of oatmeal gruel. Bed. —By 11 o'clock during the first period of training, and at 10-30 p.m., during the last week, all members of the crew should be actually in bed.* C. H. R. * These rules are subject to some modification, according as the training is carried out in the winter or summer months. In the former case the exercise is done in the afternoon before dinner; in the latter, in the evening and after dinner. In this case dinner is at half-past one and supper is taken at nine P.M., after the evening row, and should consist of cold meat, chicken, stale bread, water- cress, one pint of cold spring water or of weak tea, or a basin of oatmeal porridge. CO 4