New york November 1st 1819
Lecture Book-
Robert C Wood



November 1st- Dr. Hosack's Introductory Lecture 
an Eulogy on Dr. Hugh Williamson.
November 2d- Dr. Macneven's Introductory Lecture
on Chemistry & Materia Medica, in which he 
in part, revives the exploded doctrine of the Humoral
Pathology, and maintains that all medicine
act through the medium of the circulating system
he considers the doctrine of Sympathy as untenable,
and adduces many facts, showing that medicines to 
be efficient must enter the Circulation, he mentions
the singular fact, that by a frequent use of the Nitrate
of silver, many delicate women have had their 
complexions changed to a black colour, especially their 
face and hands which were most exposed to the air;
he notices the fact that many animals eat vegetable
substances with impunity which prove mortal 
to man, he mentions the Colchicum as a remedy
for gout, which he says is generally the consequence
of an impaired state of the digestive and assimilative
organs, he notices the different effects which Vegetables
of the same class, and whose sensible qualities

are similar have on the constitution, he closes his Lecture
with a brief history of Chemistry, and its intimate
connexion with the science of Medicine.- 
November 3d- Dr. Mitchells Introductory Lecture 
on Natural History - he commences his lecture 
by dividing knowledge into three branches, Physics
Ethics and Dialectics, by Physics he means those 
laws relating to Matter, by Ethics those laws which
regulate the moral conduct of men, and by 
Dialectics those laws of language whether oral or 
written by which the intercourse between men is 
maintained, Matter is subject to Mechanical &
Chemical Laws, he considers the air in which we
live as compounded of solar, sidereal, and terrene
qualities, and that Epidemics are dependent on 
certain constitutions of the air with which we are
unacquainted, he takes a cursory view of the 
Planetary system, of the effects of heat, light and 
colour as derived from the sun, and of the influence
of the moon on the tides, and on the human 
body, in which he mentions Dr. Mead's Treatise on
the influence of the moon as of great value.

he displays many specimens of Organic remains
showing the changes which the terrestrial globe undergoes,
also many bones of different species of Animals
which are now extinct 
November 4th- Dr. Post's Introductory Lecture on Anatomy
Physiology and Surgery, in which he took a short
and general view of the human body, the organization
and uses of its several parts, the connexion of 
the brain and nervous system with other parts, the 
dependence which Surgery has on Anatomy, and the 
great advantages which a Physician derives from 
an accurate knowledge of Anatomy in the practic
of his profession, he divided his Lecture into three
parts, Anatomy or a knowledge of the structure
of the body, Physiology or a knowledge of the 
functions of the different organs, and Pathology or 
the knowledge of diseases, and their distinctions.
Dr. Macneven commences his course of lectures, by 
pointing out the arrangement necessary for the 
foundation of Chemical knowledge, which consists
of Observation, Analogy and Experiment. 

the powers of Matter are Attraction, Gravitation and 
Cohesion, Chemical Affinity can only take place between
parts of a dissimilar character, which form 
a tertium quid different both from the menstruum
and the thing changed. Salts to undergo Chrystallization
must be in a previous state of solution,
and their distinction is determined by the 
different forms they assume, the aggregation of 
their parts is more regular if the operation of 
Chrystallization is performed slowly, to obtain
them of the greatest purity a double solution and 
rechrystallization are necessary, some chrystals
are only obtained by Caloric, as the Chrystals
of Sulphur for instance which adhere to the rides
of the crucible. In chrystallization the water taken
up is almost equal to the base of the salt, the 
efflorescence of salts is owing to the exposure to the 
air, then deliquescence is owing to their attraction
for water, salts are kept fluid by their exclusion
from the air, then exposure to the air condensing them 
into a smaller space by its pressure and causing them
to chrystallize, Light hastens Chrystallization. 

November 5th- Dr. Post commences his course of 
Lectures On Anatomy by a description of the nature
and property of Bones, their component parts, uses,
colours, forms &c. he divides bones into Cylindrical, convex
and concave and irregular classes, and assigns reasons
for their shapes, he displays many specimens
of ossified glands, as of the mesentery &c Bones are
sensible parts as they are vascular, nervous, and are 
capable of regenerating themselves with the exception
of the teeth which are provided with enamel
to protect them from the air, he concludes with 
showing the absolute necessity of a critical knowledge
of Anatomy -
Dr. Hammonds Introductory Lecture on the Clinical 
Practice of Physic, in which he descouted on 
the duties of a Physician, painted out the advantages
of Clinical instruction, noticed the several
Hospitals in the city, then object, their internal
regulations, and their subserviency to the practical
information of the Clinical student, In the 
course of his lecture, he shewed the uselessness of great
scientific attainments, when unapplied to practical

purposes, or when made instrumental in the promotion
of theoretical and favorite opninions. At the conclusion
of his lecture he related the commencement
and progress of the disease which terminated in the 
death of Dr. DeWitt.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture - Common salt chyrstallizes 
in tubes, Nitre in six sided prisms, Sulphate of Magnesia
in four sided prisms, their different forms necessary 
to be known to distinguish them. Goniometer
an instrument to meausure Chrystalls -
When Attraction takes place between dissimilar
parts it is called Chemical attraction or Affinity.
Some solids united together become fluid, and some 
fluids united together become solid, this is a strong
instance of Chemical action. The Sulphur Potassx 
is a very mild purgative and yet its compounds
are powerful caustics. Infusion of Litmus added
to an Alheli a test of vegetable matter. One effect
of Chemical action is to alter the specific gravity
of bodies, it also changes their temperature.
Minute division accelerates Chemical Affinity
by exposing more surfaces to action. Substances 

passes different degrees of Affinity owing to their various
combinations. Decomposition is caused by the greater 
attraction for particles of another body, the affinity
being greater between the two substances, than their
own particles.
November 6th- Dr Post's Lecture, Bones are possessed
of Elasticity to prevent injuries as in falling from
great height &c. they are made hollow to render
them lighter, and to make their surfaces larger, the 
ends of bones are made larger for the attachments of 
ligaments &c. the foramina in bones are for the transmission
of Arteries, nerves &c No transudation ever 
takes place in a living body, Bones are divided into
compact, spongy and reticular parts, their component
parts, are earth and animal matter, animal
matter consists of gelatin and cartilage, Acids destroy
the earth and fire the Animal matter.
Dr. Post relates a very striking case of Mollities Ossium,
he was called to see a man in the morning who
the evening before was walking about his room apparently
very well, in the course of the night he awoke 
with a violent pain in this thigh, which continued

until morning when it subsided, Upon examination.
Dr. Post found that the limb was distorted, almost
at right angles, and that he could move it in all directions
without exciting the least pain, Upon dissecting
the limb after the man's decease it was found that 
a complete absorption of the bone had taken place except
in a few places where a few spicula of bone was
found, and from the flexibility of the limb when first
examined it seems that this absorption must
have taken place in one night. Bones are 
vascular their arteries are divisible into three orders.
the Medullary arteries, the arteries of the Periosteum,
and the Cellular arteries.-
Dr. Mott's Introductory Lecture on the Principles &
the Practice of Surgery, he commenced by dividing his 
subject into three parts. Anatomy, or a general knowledge
of the human system. Surgical Anatomy or 
a knowledge of the connexion which exists between
different parts of the body, and Pathological Anatomy 
or a knowledge of parts when in a morbid
state, he made many remarks shewing the mutual 
connexion and dependence which subsist between 

Physic and Surgery, and the necessity for a Physician
to acquire a competent knowledge of both
he concluded his Lecture by a few observations on 
Amputation in cases of gun shot wounds he mentioned 
the opinion of John Hunter which was, that 
in all cases of gun shot wounds, Amputation should 
be deferred until the symptomatic fever had subsided,
maintaining that the operation must necessarily
increase the fever, this opinion he endeavours
to controvert, by recommending the performance of 
the operation before the Symptomatic fever has 
supervened, and quotes many authorities, to establish 
the superiority of the practice of immediate
amputation - 
November 8th Dr. Post's Lecture. The cavities of 
the bones are lined with a membrane containing
Marrow. The cells of fat do not communicate
with each other if they did it would settle in the lower 
parts of the body as in Anasarca. There is a 
communication between the lungs and the cavities of 
the bones in [cross out] birds by which their cavities are filled
with air, and their specific gravities decreased 

Dr. Post says the opinion that the oil of bones is to give 
tenacity and strength to them is fallacious, he thinks we 
are unacquainted with its uses, Bones are of a fibrous
nature, which fibres are formed into lamella. Bones 
have absorbents which is proved by exfoliation &c.
he says that wherever there are veins there are absorbents,
X Bones have nerves entering into their constitutions
consequently they have feeling, tho' it is not communicable
to the mind X The features of bones consist
in their eminences &c. Epiphysis consist of 
loose pieces of bone at the articulations, when they 
unite they are called Apophyses - The Periosteum 
is a firm compact membrane immediately
investing the bones, and is the medium of communication
between the bones, and other parts of the 
body on the head it is called pericranium
and on the ligaments perichordrium.
Dr Francis's Introductory Lecture on the Institutes
of Medicine and on Medical Jurisprudence, on 
which he reviewed the use and progress of learning
and its present state, the effect which it has on 
the human mind and the necessity there is, that 

Literacy Institutions should be under the protection
and patronage of government, he noticed the importance
of Medical Jurisprudence, and the great interests
which it often involves detailed the motives
which should govern the public and private character 
of a Physician and cautioned us in our attendance 
on the poor, in curing a consumption of the 
body not to cause a consumption of the purse.
The Lecture throughout displayed his historic research,
Classical erudition and philanthropic feelings.
Dr Macneven's Lecture, Heat and affinity are the 
two processes by which everything is formed, Affinity
varies in different bodies. The force of Affinity
is mortified by the relative proportions of the compounds.
Heat is a modyfying power, it expand
bodies and diminishes cohesion. When the aggregation
of bodies is strong, solid bodies will not act on 
each other, but must be fused, Gases are opposed
to Chemical Affinity as they repel each other 
Electricity also owing to its repellent properties is opposed
to Affinity. The Specific gravity of bodies influences 
their Affinity, as in water and oil.

Precipitation is caused by the specific gravity of the 
precipitate, Compression hastens combination, as in
gases, Carbonate of lime has been melted by strong
compression in an iron cylinder. The laws of Affinity
in bodies are their combination, cohesion, temperature,
State of Electricity, Specific Gravity, and 
Compressibility - When two bodies have received as 
much as possible of each others properties, it is called
Saturation. Acids turn Vegetable substances
red. Affinity is governed by definite laws, 68 parts
of Muriatic Acid will saturate 100 parts of Potash
but it will require 100 parts of Sulphuric Acid.
That process by which the component parts of 
bodies are separated, is called Analysis, that process
by which their parts are recompounded is called
Synthesis. 
November 9th- Dr. Post's Lecture - The use of the 
Periosteum is to protect the bones, to prevent friction
on the bones and for the attachment of ligaments
&c Aneurisms often destroy bones by their pressure.
This membrane in its natural state is nearly
insensible but when diseased it is exquisitely

sensible. Inflamn. of this membrane terminates in
sloughing. It is of a ligamentous nature and extremely
obnoxious to Veneral Affections, as nodes
which begin in this membrane, and afterwards
enlarge the bones. It is worthy of remark says Dr.
Post, that nodes are situated on those bones nearest
the skin, he recommends Blistering for their cure
Cartilage is a dense white substance, placed at 
the ends and between bones to prevent their friction,
they are of a fibrous structure. Dr. Post divides
them in the following manner. 1st- Temporary 
Cartilages, which are in lieu of bone 2d. Articular
Cartilages, or such as admit of motion. 3d-
Interosseous Cartilages, or those placed between
bones as in the ribs and sternum. 4th- Moveable
Cartilages as in the knee joint &c. 5th. Cartilages
which are flexible and form figures as in the 
nose and ears. 6th The morbid formed Cartilages
as in the Spleen, testicles, and other glands -
7th Spurious Cartilages or those which form at the 
two ends of a fractured bone. 8th- Ligamentous Cartilages,
or those uniting the vertebra together which 
are very elastic, Articulations are those parts 

of the body which admit of motion, Connexions are 
when the articulations do not admit of motion -
When the articulation is in a deep cavity is is called
Anathradica, when the cavity is superficial
Anathradica. When both ends of the joint move
as in the arm it is called Ginglymus, The connection
between the bones of the head is called Sutura,
when two parts are in contact Harmonica
and when one bone is driven into another as in the 
teeth Gomphosis. Ligaments connect bones together,
some are elastic, and some inelastic, those 
which are elastic admit of motion, Capsular
Ligaments are inelastic -
Dr. Mitchell's Lecture - He commences his lecture
by laying it down as an axiom that the ultimate
particles of Matter are solid and impenetrable
that it is resolvable into atoms, and that in 
Chemical action, they impinge on each other,
but do not absolutely unite. There is no such thing
as contact in the particles of Matter. Baxter in 
his work on the immateriality of this soul advances
this theory, that Matter consists of ultimate 

particles in the form of bricks, and that the 
bricks are cemented together by immaterial mortar-
Boscovich's theory is, that Matter consists
of Mathematical points which have no parts,
that these points are surrounded with repulsive
powers, also with a sphere of attraction which 
draws them as near as the repulsive power 
of the points will admit. This latter theory
Dr. Mitchel adopts and says that Matter is 
governed by Attractive and Repulsive laws.
Bodies are divisible into Mineral. Vegetable
and Animal classes - Minerals are preventable
by Caloric, Magnetism &c, the forms of Matter
in Minerals are symmetrical, Chyrstals are 
an example of organization without life.-
Vegetables are of vital organization, nourished by 
fluids and gases. The forms of matter in Minerals
are similar - The lower species of Animals 
are distinguished from Vegetables, by their 
greater Irritability as the Polypus &c.- Dr.
Mitchell displayed specimens from the Animal
and Vegetable Kingdoms -

Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Those bodies which do not 
possess ponderosity are the following, the Luminous
fluid, Caloric or the heat making fluid, the Magnetic
fluid, and the Electric fluid. Caloric is 
contained in all bodies in different proportions
We determine the heat of a body by our own
temperature. Heat always tends to an equilibrium
in all bodies, it is elastic and dilatable, invisible,
and of great tenuity, as it penetrates all
bodies, the propagation of heat varies in different
bodies, the heavy metals are the best conductors.
liquids are very bad conductors, gases are non conductors.
Heat always ascends, as is seen in boiling
water, the bubbles arising from the bottom of 
the vessel in consequence of their specific weight
The following experiment was made by Dr. Macneven, 
he put a coloured fluid into the bottom of 
a glass vessel, and afterwards carefully added some 
water, the fluids were entirely separate, he then applied
the upper part of the vessel, in which was the 
water to a lamp untill it boiled, and yet it was not 
at all coloured, he then applied the lower part of the 
vessel which contained the coloured matter to the 

heat of the lamp, and immediately, the colouring
matter began to diffuse itself through the water.
The application of this is very easy, wherever the 
heat is applied, the fluid is made specifically lighter
and consequently ascends - The temperature of 
the atmosphere is highest near the surface of the 
ground and gradually becomes lower as we recede from
the ground. Caloric causes expansion in all
bodies, unless prevented by compression, Gases expand
more than fluids, and fluids more than solids.
Tho' the specific gravities of gases differ, yet they 
all expand in equal degrees of temperature.
Mercury possesses great powers of expansion.
November 10th- Dr. Post's Lecture. The ligaments between
the os occipitis and the spinal processes are elastic
Synovia or that fluid which lubricates the joints is of a 
brownish colour, viscid and consists of water, albumen,
and soda. Dr. Monro's opinion that there are synovial
glands is incorrect, it is secreted by the membrane
of the Capsular ligaments, in the same manner as 
the pleura secretes a fluid. Capsular or Bursal ligaments
are bags which surround the joints and contribute 

to their strength, they are inelastic. The Restraining
ligaments are those which prevent motion. The Crucial
ligaments are those which cross each other, as in 
the thigh. The Lateral ligaments are those on the 
sides of joints - The Interosseal ligaments are those between
bones in the tibia and fibula for instance
The Annular ligaments are those which surround joints,
confining the motion of tendons and muscles as on 
the wrist. Saccula or bursa mucosa are bags, surrounding
tendons to prevent friction of the bones. Cartilages
precede the formation of bone. As soon as the 
formation of parts is manifest. Ossification is discernible.
The ossification of ribs is completed in the third
month, as they are necessary to prevent compression on 
the organs of circulation, the Clavicle also is soon 
formed to protect the arteries which nourish the superior
extremities. Bones are formed from center of ossification.
The secretion of earthy and animal matter
constituting bone is made by vasa vasorum -
Dr. Post relates a case wherein ulceration of the 
bowels was induced by an ossified mesenteric
gland, causing the death of the patient. 

Dr. Mitchell's Lecture - Zoology is that science which 
treats of Animals - Linneus divided Animals into six
Classes 1st Mammalia. 2d- Aves. 3d- Pisces. 4th- Amphibia.
5th- Insecta, and 5th- Vermes.
1st Mammalia are those animals which are provided
with breasts to suckle their young, have a pulmonary
circulation and warm red blood.
2d. Aves are oviparous, have a pulmonary circulation
warm red blood, and feathers.
3d Pisces have no lungs but gills which supply air 
from the element in which they live, their blood
is of the same temperature as the water in which 
they exist, they are covered with squamae.
4th Amphibia exist either in water or on land,
they have generally lungs and cold red blood as lizards,
snakes, &c.
5th- Insecta (from in & seco) breathe through holes
or Stigmata in their skin which is a catachractous
or jointed mailed covering, this hard coat serves for 
the attachment of muscles &c.
6th- Vermes. Under this class were placed all those 
which did not come under the above heads, and which
of course consisted of many varities. 

Cuvier in his system of Zoology divided Animals
into 4 Sections, containing 19 Classes -
Section 1st- Vertebrated Animals or those animals
which have back bones. viz 1st- Mammalia.
2d- Birds. 3d- Fishes. 4th- Reptiles - the description
of these has already been given in the Linnean system
the other 15 classes are composed of those animals which 
in the Linnean system came under the general
head of Vermes.
Section 2d. Moluscous Animals, or those which
are of a soft organization, consisting. 5th- Cephalapodes,
or those which have their feet or organs of motion
on the head. 6th- Terepodes or those which have
their organs of motion in the form of wings.
7th- Gastropodes, or those which have their locomotive
organs on their bellies, as in those shell fish
whose shells are univalve. 8th- Acepholous or those
fish which have no heads, and which are bivalve, as 
the clam and oyster. 9th Branchiopodes, or those 
which have gills attached to the outside of their bodies,
and whose shells are multivalve. 10th- Cerhopodes
or those which have their feet of a curled form as 
the barnacle &c -

Dr. Macneven's Lecture on Materia Medica. Substances
have different degrees of Affinity for different organs 
of the body, every part is evolved with a peculiar irritability,
the excitability also varies, Medicines have peculiar 
properties, and modes of action.
1st- Remedies of the Chylopoctic system - Tonics increase
the contractile force of the animal fibre and strengthen
the tone of the stomach and intestinal canal.
Bitters are in general tonic. Astringents increase the 
contractile force of the solids by shortening their 
fibres, and rendering them more compact. The Physical
cause of Astringency is a proximate principle.
Astringency cannot be determined by the taste
as many substances act on the stomach and intestines
which exert no such power on the tongue, owing 
to their different affinities. Hemorrhages arise from 
Plethora and weakness. Astringents are indicated in 
the last. Astringents are of use in gout by strengthening
the digestive powers. Bitters and Astringents are 
indicated in muscular debility. Aromatics and Alkohol
which are tonic are indicated in low fevers, nervous
affections, scurvy, and scrofula. A regular diet
necessary to be observed by Convalescents, they 

should also drink but little, as it dilutes the gastric
fluid and impairs digestion. The warm and cold
baths are both tonic, the warm bath is stimulant and 
useful in Chronic Rheumatism. The cold bath reduces
the temperature of the body - Exercise both active
and passive is tonic.
November 11th Dr. Post's Lecture. The body is divisible
into head, trunk, and extremities, the extremities into
superior and inferior, the trunk into the neck, chest,
and loins, the vertebrae are in the form of two pyramids,
they are divided into Cervical, Dorsal and Lumbal,
have many foramina, and are of a spongy structure
internally, each vertebra has 7 processes, the 
spinous process projecting immediately backwards
2 lateral or transverse processes, 2 superior and 2 inferior
articulating processes to join them to the other vertebrae,
these processes serve for the attachment of ligaments
&c. and act as levers. The cervical vertebrae are small,
have holes for the passage of the vertebral artery,
and their canals are triangular. The dorsal vertebrae
have their spinous process triangular, their canal rounder,
and lateral processes stronger, the ribs are connected

connected with these vertebrae by Capsular ligaments. The Lumbal 
vertebrae have their lateral processes longer. The 
Vertebrae are united together by a Ligaments Cartilaginous
substance, and by Capsular ligaments.
Dr. Mitchell's Lecture. Curvier's Classification - The two
first Sections were considered in the former lecture.
Section 3d- Jointed or Articulated Animals. 11th-
Annalides or those in the form of rings, as worms &c.
12th- Crustaceans, as Crabs, and Lobsters. 13th- Arachnides
as spiders &c. 14th- Insects, the same as those described
in the Linnean system with the exception of the 
three preceding species. These animals are distinguished
by their antenna and by their metamorphosis, their 
changes are the following. 1st- An egg. 2d- A worm or caterpillar -
3d- A Chysellis, or that torpid state which 
precedes the last change 4th- A Butterfly which was 
considered by the Greeks an emblem of the soul.
Section 4th- The Radiary Animals, or those which have 
radiated limbs in pairs. 15th. Sea urchins, crustaceous
animals. 16th-Intestinal worms, as ascarids &c.
These animals infest the body, and have been found in 
the Stomach, liver, lungs, brain, &c -

17th- Sea-nettles. These are transparent, capable of producing
light, and have little calorie. 18th- Polyps or Polypuses,
these are found at the bottom of the sea, and their
remains often make rocks and islands, they have
many mouths and but one stomach. 19th- Infusory
Animals. These are found in vegetable infusions, in 
infusions of tea, pepper and cinnamon, and in all 
liquids. These animals gave rise to the Animalcular
theory of diseases. La'Mark in his system of Zoology
divided Animals into three Sections, and fourteen
Classes. Section 1st- Apathic Animals or those 
which have no nervous system, or organs of sense.
1st- Infusores. 2d- Polyps. 3d- Radiaries. 4th- Vermes.
Instead of a nervous system he supposed the muscles
endued with a vis insita to excute the motions
of the second division called Sentient Animals
5th- Insects. 6th- Arachnides. 7th- Crustaceons. 8th-
Annelides. 9th- Centipedes. 10th- Molluscous.
Section 3d- Intelligent Animals or those whose brains
are cased in a bony shell, and who have Vertebrae
or a chain of bones forming a spine. There are 4
Classes of these 11th- Fish. 12th Reptiles. 13th-
Birds, and 14th- Sucklers or Mammalia. 

Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Thermometers are of three kinds
Pyrometers, or those which resist fire, and are made of 
Platina or day. the Thermometer containing fluids, and the 
air Thermometer, Mercury is more expansive than any
other substance and on that account is generally used
for Thermometers, it freezes at 40 below 0 Fahrenheit.
The sensibility of Thermometers depends on the smallness
of their tubes, and the small quantity of Mercury they contain.
The freezing point is 32. and the boiling point
212. Fahrenheit. The Thermometer used at present in 
Europe is called the Centigrade, because there are 100
degrees between the freezing and boiling points. Caloric
escapes two different ways, either by passing through the 
air without decomposition, or by being conducted thro'
other bodies, that property of heat of separating from 
bodies is called the tension of Caloric. To prove the reflexion
of heat the following experiment was made,
two highly polished plates of tin were placed at several
yards distance directly opposite a thermometer
was placed at a few inches from one of the plates
and near the other a lighted candle was placed, the 
rays of heat and light were reflected from one to the 
other, and the mercury in the Thermometer which was 

at 66. the temperature of the room rose in a minute to 80.
by placing some coals before the plate, the heat in the 
other plate became so intense as to light a match at 
some distance. To separate heat from light the following
experiment was made, some burning coals were placed
before one of the plates as in the preceding experiment,
and a thermometer placed very near the other 
plate, between the two plates a plane of glass was interposed,
the rays of light passed thro' as appeared by 
the resplendency of the other plate, but the rays of 
heat were arrested by the glass, as the Thermometer
was not at all affected. Polished substances are more 
refractive than others. 
November 12th- Dr. Post's Lecture. The centre of gravity
is anterior to the spine, the spine has several curvatures
its use is fourfold. 1st- to support the weight of the 
body. 2d- for muscular attachment. 3d- to contain the 
spinal marrow which it protects, and 4th. to allow of motion
it admits of flexion, extension, lateral and rotatory motion
it is liable to all the affections to which other bones are subject,
as fracture, dislocation &c. dislocation of the vertebra is always
attended with fracture except in the first vertebra.

All fractures of the vertebra are eventually fatal. Concussion
is followed by paralysis and inflam- which is to be remedied
by venesection, low living &c. Curvatures of the spine proceed
from, different causes one cause of curvature is from a softness
of the bones, as in rickets, these curvatures are in a lateral
direction, as the processes prevent them from bending forwards or 
backwards. Dr. Post recommends warm and cold bathing in rickets.
Distortions of the spine often proceed from long continued postures,
as in some particular employments. Another cause of curvature
of the spine is a scrofulous habit to this curvature children
are very subjects, it never taken place after adult age, the 
spine is bent forwards in this disease, owing to the ulceration or 
destruction of some of the vertebra. The first symptom of this 
complaint is an inability to use the lower extremities afterwards
a total inability to walk, joined with a pain about the 
knee &c.
Dr. Mitchell's Lecture - Vertebrated Animals. The vertebra
of a testreds or tortoise consists of one piece which runs along 
the shell. The shell is divided into different parts called the 
marginal and central pannels, and is connected by two pieces
of shell to the lower part called the sternum. The vertebrae
in cartilaginous fish are divided into joints, as in the shark 

are composed of a long cartilaginous matter, and have no canal
for the spinal marrow, in lieu of processes, they are provided
with holes in the vertebra for the attachment of muscles.
In bony fish the vertebra have processes to form a junction
with the ribs and a canal for the spinal marrow, which causes
them to possess sensation and voluntary motion, there are 
two bones in the tal of fishes as a substitute for posterior extremities.
Dr. Mitchell showed a specimen of the birds called
waders with a very long neck and legs.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. The following experiment was 
made to show the different degrees of reflexion which substances
possess 2 tin plates were placed opposite to each other, a tube
which had four equal square sides, was filled with water heated
to 200 degrees of Fahrenheit, one of the sides of the tube was black
one very bright, and one very much scratched it was placed in 
a grate opposite to one of the reflection, in the other was placed a 
thermometer which stood at 64 by exposing the black surface
it rose to 67 in a few minutes by exposing the rough surface it 
soon fell rough surfaces absorb more heat than polished ones
black bodies have more emissive powers than any others. Reflexion
is superficial the power of emission is always equal to the 
power of absorption, points in a body are favourable to 

emission. All bodies tend to an equilibrium in heat when bodies
are of the same temperature absorption and emission are equal
the hotter body radiates more, the colder absorbs more. The mean
temperature of the earth varies but little. Caverns in cold countries
appear warm and in warm countries cold which is owing to the between
their temperature, and that of the external atmosphere.
One of the effects of Caloric is that of changing the form of bodies.
Bodies possess a latent heat, so called because it has no sensible
effect on the Thermometer yet ice can be melted without changing 
its temperature by giving out its latent heat. Liquids evolve
heat when assuming a solid form thus the winter season is 
rendered more temperature when much ice is formed, as the evolved
heat is added to that of the atmosphere.
November 13th- Dr. Post's Lecture. The most general and 
successful mode of treatment in curvatures and other diseases
of the spine is the establishment of issues as near the seat of 
disease as possible two years elapse sometimes before a cure can be
effected. Anchylosis is that process by which bony matter is deposited
between two joints, depriving them of their natural motion, and 
is the consequence of disease. The pelvis is composed of the os ilium
ischium, pubis and coccygis. The os ilium forms the upper and lateral
part of the pelvis, the spine of the os ilium is on the upper 

part, the outer surface of the ilium is called the dorsum, the 
ischium is the bone on which we rest when sitting, the biceps
muscle, the semi-membranosus and semitendinosus arise
from the tuberosity of the os ischium In the operation of the 
Stone, we cut between this tuberosity and the anus. A very large
foramen is situated between the os pubis and os ischium, from 
which hold the obturator externus and internus muscles arise.
Dr. Mitchell's Lecture. Linneus divides the Class Mammalia
into 7 orders viz. 1st- Primates, or those animals which have a 
very complicated organization, a large portion of encephalon,
are intellectual, and have sucking organs on the breast
as man, the ape, baboon, monkey and bats. These have a 
full set of teeth. The distinction of the order is divided from
the teeth and claws 3d- Ferae, or beasts of prey, these are carnivorous
animals, and have sharp teeth to seize and lacerate
their prey. Of this class are the lion, tiger, dog, and cat.
2d- Bruta, as the elephant, this order is always without fore
teeth. *These two orders are here misplaced, the Bruta forming
the second order as expressed by the figures.* 4th- Glires the 
animals of this order have two upper and two lower teeth, a full
sett of grinders but no canine teeth, as the squirrel, mouse &c.
5th- Pecora, or ruminant animals. These are herbivorous, 

have four stomachs, and no teeth in the upper jaw except
the grinders. Of this class are horned cattle. 6th- Belluae
This order includes those animals, not belonging to the five
preceding orders nor to the succeeding one as the horse &c.
7th- Ceta. These animals, have a pulmonary circulation
a double heart, mammae to suckle their young, and a penis
to perform the act of generation as the whale &c.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Tonics are stimulant medicines
which produce durable effects they are applicable in
the feeble forms of disease. The following rules are to be 
observed in their use. 1st- To begin with small doses, with 
some exceptions as in Typhus some Neuroses &c. 2d. Not
to combine many tonics in one prescription but always
to keep some in reserve. 3d- When the excitability of 
the stomach is worn out to introduces them into the [stomach]
body by the skin. 4th- To endeavour to graduate the Medicine 
to the state of excitability of the system. The 
Cinchona officinalis grows in South America, there are three
species used in practice, the pale, red, and yellow, the pale
is more aromatic, and bitter, the red is the most astringent
and efficacious, the pale is often rejected by the stomach
Bark produces very few sensible effects. Intermittents

in their commencement are often attended with inflammatory
symptoms, and in the cold stage, obstructions are 
sometimes formed. In this situation Bark would be inadmissible
as it would increase the fever, and excite pain in 
the obstructed viscera, but Venosect and Mercurial purges
should be the remedies. Bark is generally given in the 
quantity of an ounce in 24 hours, but where the indications
for its use are strong it should be given in as great
quantities as the Stomach will bear joined with some aromatic 
as the Snake root, it should be given in substance
when practicable, it is given in remittent fevers. In continued
fevers as the Typhus which originates from Marsh
miasmata. Mercury and diaphoretics with wine are 
preferable to the bark.-
November 15th- Dr. Post's Lecture. The sacrum is triangular,
the posterior surface convex and irregular, there are four 
foramina on each side for the passage of nerves &c. it has 
spinous processes, it is divided into its superior part, its bore
and apex, the articulation is the same as in the vertebra, it 
has an appendage called the coccyx, there are four pair of sacral
nerves passing thro' the foramina of the sacrum. The 
spine is liable to a disease called the Spina Bifida, which 

is a collection of water in the dura mata membrane surrounding
the medulla spinalis, forming a serous tumor which 
causes a derangement of the nerves in the sac. It is sometimes
an independent disease sometimes combined with 
Hydrocephalus, it is generally mortal but has sometimes
been cured by Mr. Cooper by puncture, evacuating the water
by degrees, and by gradual pressure on the prominent sac.
The os coccygis is composed of four pieces, which are of different
sizes, it has ligaments which connect it to the sacrum
Parturition is sometimes impeded by an anchylosis of this bone
it is sometimes fractured by accidents and in parturition, the 
form of the pelvis is elliptical, the greatest diameter is from 
side to side, the two ischia and the coccyx form the projecting 
points of the lower part of the pelvis, the pelvis of the 
female is larger than that of the male, it is subject to great 
deformity from mollities and curvature, the division of the 
symphisis pubis has been practised, but it is of little use
as the ligaments prevent the bones from separating to any 
distance, the Cesarean operation is sometimes resorted it. In
extra uterine fetuses an incision is made thro' the parietes of 
the abdomen to extract them.
Dr. Mitchell's Lecture. Cuvier divides the Mammalia 

into 8 orders. 1st Bimanes or two hands as man alone.
2d- Quadrumanes or there who have four hands or extremities
as Monkeys &c. 3d- Carnassiers or beasts of prey and Masupiaux
or those animals, the females of which have pouches
on the outside of their bellies. 4th Rougems or knawers
as rats, mice &c. 5th- Edenter or these without teeth. 6th-
Pachydermes or those animals which have rough skins as 
the elephant or they are sometimes called Sumenta or 
beasts of burden. 7th- Ruminants, or those which chew 
the cud, they have four stomachs. 1st- The Rumen or that 
organ which masticates the food. 2d- The Reticulum which
returns the food to the mouth. 3d- The Omasus which 
receives the cud, and further masticates the food. 4th- the
Abomasus which contains the gastric fluid, and completes
the digestion. 8th- The Cetacies, corresponding to the 
Linnean system. The teeth of animals are for their nourishment
and defense, some animals are without teeth as the 
Edentes. There are three sorts of teeth. The incisores, the 
canine or lansing teeth, and the molares or grinders. The 
Order of Primates is divided into Genera, the Primates, have
four incisors, and two pectoral teats. 1st- Homo, distinguished 
by his erect attitude, two hands, feet broad and 
flat, and by the organization of his body. The cerebrum

is larger in man than any other animal, he is destitute
of the ligamentum suspensorium, which supports
the head of animals, and which proves that man 
could never have been a quadruped -
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Most of the modern discoveries
are owing to the discovery of the laws of heat. There are
two kinds of heat. Sensible heat or that which produces effects
cognizable to the senses, and latent heat, or that which produces
no sensible effects. The Sulphate of Soda and fresh
fallen snow will reduce the Thermometer to 0 owing to their 
great affinity for each other. Freezing mixtures are generally
formed of chrystallized salts, which contain a great quantity
of frozen water which extracts the Caloric. They will freeze
Mercury. Bodies assuming a solid form evolve heat, and bodies
assuming a fluid form absorb heat. Water boils at 212.
Ether at 98. Atmospheric pressure restrains evaporation.
Steam contains no greater quantity of heat than boiling water
which is proved by placing a Thermometer in boiling water
and the steam arising from it. Gases expand by adding heat
or diminishing pressure. The reason why fluids boil soonest
on high mountains, is owing to the less pressure of the atmosphere 
at their tops.

November 16th- Dr. Post's Lecture. The bladder when distended
rises above the bones of the pelvis, the thorax is made 
up of the spine, ribs, sternum, and the cartilages which connect
the ribs, the broadest part of the chest is below, the 
upper surface of the diaphragm is even with the fourth
rib, the ribs are twelve in number, there are seven connected
with the sternum called the true ribs and five called
false ribs. A rib is a curved bone divided into its body and 
two extremities called its sternal and vertebral extremities
the external surface of the ribs is plane, the internal surface
convex with a groove in it for the passage of an artery
vein and nerve. A rib has an head, tubercle and angle, the 
tubercle near the extremity for the attachment of the lateral
processes of the vertebra, it has a cavity to receive the cartilage
of the sternum. The circulation can be stopped by pressing
the artery as it passes under the clavicle to supply the superior
extremities. The length of the ribs increases from the 1st-
to the 7th- or 8th- and then decreases. In inspiration the ribs
are drawn upwards by the intercostal muscles, the sternum
is thrown forward, and the diaphragm descends, enlarging the 
capacity of the chest for the admission of the air. In expiration
the ribs and sternum fall, the diaphragm ascends
from the action of the abdominal muscles, diminishing

the capacity of the chest, the function of the seratus posticus
superior is to draw down the ribs, the form of the cartilages
is very similar to that of the ribs, with which they are 
connected. Dislocations of the ribs are very rare owing to their
great elasticity. The sternum is composed of three pieces
the superior, middle and inferior parts, the superior
piece resembles an heart in shape and is connected 
by Cartilage to the clavicle. The inferior part forms
the cartilage ensiformis which is sometimes perforated.
Dr. Mitchell's Lecture. Genus Homo. In Galli Craniology,
the nerves are traced from the organs of sense to the
brain, he pretends to know the character of a man from certain
[ma??es] on the skull, thus the organ of generation, and the organ
of parental fondness are placed behind the occiput,
those who have a projector of the frontal bone are apt to receive
instruction. Physiognomy is placed within the orbit
of the eye &c. Men are divided into Artificial varieties, or 
those who have Conical and Flat heads. Compression of 
the skull is practised in some countries, which makes their 
heads flat. In the South Sea Islands, they disfigure themselves
by puncturing the nose and ears for the purpose of wearing ornaments,
they also practice tattooing, or puncturing the skin 

and inserting a colouring matter which is never absorbed.
The reason why the rite of circumcision which is cutting of 
the prepuce was instituted among Christians, was the prevention
of diseases to which these parts are subject from 
uncleaness &c. There is a practice existing among the Hottentots 
of removing one testicle, the reason unknown. Man is 
the only Animal whose prepuce is not connected with the 
belly. Next come the Morbid Varities, as those men who 
have swellings of the thyroid glands, called the Goiter, which 
is accompanied with a dullness of the faculties and with [illegible]
The Albino's or those whose skins are of a chalky whiteness
whose constitutions are delicate, and their eyes are destitute of the 
pigmentum nissum, which gives them the appearance of 
red eyes, their sight is very weak. Natural Varieties, among
which are the dwarfs or men of small stature as the Labrador
and Esquimarux, the giants or men of larger stature
as in Patagonial the Hottentots whose women have large
sacral bones, and an appendage to the nympha, covering the 
vulva. The brown race as the Tartars of Asia and America
which lead a wandering life.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Ice is produced by evaporation.
Put a small quantity of water into a vessel, and some Ether 

which will remain on the top by its specific gravity introduce
this vessel into an air pump and by producing a vacuum
the ether will boil and evaporate, and the water will freeze
Some sulphuric acid should be placed in the receive of 
the air pump which will absorb the evaporated ether.
Evaporation is moderated by pressure. Extracts are prepared
by evaporation. One gallon of boiling water added to an 100 gallons
of cold water will increase the temperature only one degree,
but one gallon of water converted into steam and condensed
will increase it nine degrees. The sources of heat are the sun
and terrestrial bodies. Rays of heat differ from rays of light
heat can be separated from bodies by compression and percussion
Atmospheric air contains Caloric which was proved by the following
experiment, a piston was pressed into a cylinder air 
tight, which forced the air into so small a compass that fire 
was produced, the spark being quite luminous to this cause
may be referred the accidents which often happen in ramming
down guns. The sources of cold are evaporation and 
the change of form. Light ozydizes bodies, its beams are separable
into seven colours by the prism, the red rays are the 
most refrangible and heating, the violent rays have the 
greatest chemical power, and are the least refrangible
the yellow and green rays reflect most. There are invisible

invisible rays which are more heating as is proved by the Thermometer,
Certain bodies absorb and retain heat without decomposing
it as phosphoric, diamonds, and sea water. Combustion
never occurs without the presence of air.
November 17th- Dr. Post's Lecture. The ribs are subject to fractures
they generally occur from the 5th- downwards. The fracture is known
by a yielding of the bone, an acute pain in inspiration, coughing, 
and bloody expectoration. A crepitur somtimes can be heard.
An emphysema sometimes occurs, which extends to the cellular
texture of the lungs and over the whole body, it is distinguished
by a crackling sensation under the fingers. In cases of fracture
the ribs must be kept free from motion by bandages &c. Venesection
and blister. The emphysema must be prevented or cured
by by cutting down to the rib. The sternum is also liable
to fractures. The superior extremity is divided into the shoulder,
arm, fore arm, and hand. The shoulder is divided
into the scapula and clavicle, the form of the scapula is 
triangular, its external or dorsal surface is convex in the 
centre, its internal surface is concave, it has three edges
the base, and superior and inferior costa, it has three angles
the superior, inferior, and anterior, the glenoid cavity 
is for the reception of the head of the humerus, the coracoid 

process arises from the anterior part of the scapula and serves
for the attachment of muscles. The clavicle is situated between
the scapula and Sternum and keeps them apart, it arises
from the coracoid process of the scapula, it is frequently
fractured, the mastoid, deltoid, and subclavicus muscles
arise from the clavicle, in cases of fracture the shoulder falls,
the shoulder must be raised, the bones best in aptatior
by position, and compresses put between the ribs and 
arm, the bones are very seldom placed in perfect opposition
Dr. Mitchell's Lecture. Dr. M. related a case of a soldier
on Governor's Island who had swallowed five knives 
and passed them by the intestines, he showed the knives.
Dr. M. says that he has a paper which proves that 
America was discovered 500 years before Columbus was there 
Beardless men or those having small beards as the Tartars,
Chinese, and Malays. Brown race as the American and 
Asiatic Tartars, and American and Asiatic Malays. In the 
Fuju Islands there are men who feed on human flesh
Govr. Cass also told Dr. M. that there were seven men
among the Miamis, Indians who lived upon human flesh
The White race arising from the north of where the ark
was supposed to rest, near the sources of the Tigris and 

Euphrates, called the Caucassian or white Arab
Sable race, or negro living in the northern parts of Africa
and the south coast of the Mediterranean. The Generative
varieties, as the mulato &c. The homo ferus or wild
man, who has been found in France and in Poland, they 
are capable of being humanized, and then forgot their former
condition. The Simia, in checking those animals
next to man, called Quadrumanes, or those which 
have four hands or extremities, as the ape, monkey &c. -
Dr. Macneven's Lecture on Mat. Med. Bark is applicable
in rheumatism after the inflamn. fever has been subdued,
it should be given however with caution. In arthitic and gouty
affect. combined with a weakened state of the digestive organs, as 
recommended by Sydenham and Gregory. Dr. M. mentioned two
cases in which gout had been suspended 2 years by bark.
It should be given in all periodical diseases in the intervals
of intermission. It is beneficial in confluent small pox where 
the fever is of the typhoid character. Where tonics are indicated
Bark is the best. Erysipelas is generally inflam. in 
this country, but where it occurs in marshy countries and the 
constitution is feeble Bark is useful. There are two kinds of 
Scarlatina. Scarlatina anginosa, and Scarlatina su aligna

in the latter which is attended with great debility. Bark
is serviceable. Dysentery is a Phlegmasia, but in marshy
countries it has intermissions in which case the Bark is 
indicated. In Scurvy and Menorrhgia Bark combined
with Lime water, and iron is very efficacious. In nervous
and spasmodic complaints. Epilepsy is very frequent
among young people, and is generally owing to congestions
in the blood vessels of the brain, but when it is of long continuance
tonics are indicated. Chorea has been removed by 
free purging, but tonics are applicable when it has existed
some time. Bark is given in the second stage of Pertussis.
Where Asthma is combined with an impaired state of the 
digestive organs Bark in useful. In the Cachexia as in 
Consumption where the hectic fever has periodical exacerbations,
and in that Consumption where there is no hectic
fever, but an emaciated state of the body, dry cough, and 
sweetish expectoration. Bark is indicated. In Scrofulous
constitutions. Bark and Mercury combined acting as an alternative
and tonic are valuable remedies, in the last stage also when 
tumefactions and ulcers are present. Bark combined with Cicuta
and also used externally are useful remedies. In Rickets-
In foul ulcers the internal use of bark should be combined
with the external application of the carrot and charcoal

poultices. In Leucorrhea, one kind of which Dr. M supposes
to occur from a vitiated secretion of the menstrual fluid, and 
which is rendered very probable by the fact, that during the 
disease of Leucorrhea, Menstruation is suppressed. Bark should 
be given. In Gangrene unaccompanied with inflamn. Bark
joined with stimulants as wine, musk, and serpentaria has 
been found very beneficial, but the employment of blisters 
in gangrene has in some degree superseded its use. Bark
applied externally to the stomach where it could not be given
internally has cured chronic diarrhea's and other diseases.
November 18th- Dr. Post's Lecture. Fractures of the scapula
can only be cured by position, its head is sometimes fractured.
The arm is divided into its body and two extremities, its head
forms a section of a sphere is covered with cartilage, and rotates
in the glenoid cavity there are two tubercles near its head to which 
are attached the supra spinatus, the infra spinatus, the subscapularis,
and the biceps cubit flex or muscles. There is an eminence
about its middle caused by the tendon of the deltoid muscle. Two
condyles are situated at the lower end of the arm for the attachment
of muscles, one joins the radius, the other the ulna. The articulation
between the arm and forearm is effected by arthrodia, so called
from the cavity being superficial. Dislocations of this bone take 

place, downwards, backwards, and inwards, the coracoid process
prevents its dislocation upwards, they are most frequent
downwards, and the symptoms are a cavity under the acromion
pain in motion of the arm and the head of the bone being felt in 
the axilla, to effect its reduction there should be one fixed
point for extension as the body, the arm should be raised a 
little, and a gentle continued extension made and in a recent
case when the limb is brought in a proper position the muscles
by their contraction will effect the reduction without the aid of 
either manual or mechanical labour The next most frequent
dislocation of this bone is forwards, in which the symptoms are 
the same except the head of the bone being felt under the pectoralis
muscle, the reduction of this luxation is frequently impracticable.
When the dislocation takes place backwards, the arm
is shortened and the head of the bone is felt on the dorsum of 
the scapula. The two bones of the forearm are the radius and 
ulna, the ulna is the longest and largest and has on its upper
part a process called the coranoid process, it has also a semilunar
cavity, in which a projection of the radius moves and 
by which motion is performed, the lower extremity of the 
ulna is small on the inner surface of the ulna is the 
styloid process. The radius is small at its upper part
and large at its lower part, it has also a styloid process

at its lower extremity, it has a tubercle on its upper part for 
the attachment of muscles &c. the ulna performs most of the motion
of the arm.
Dr. Mitchell's Lecture- The Simia or ape family, 4 teeth
in the upper and lower jaw. The Simia are divided into four Sections
Section 1st- The tailess or those without tails as the Simia Froglodytes
who live in families, the Simia sylvestris or Ourang
Outang. the Simia. satyues or Locks and the Simia. lar or long armed
ape. Section 2d- The short tailed, as the Simia Nemoustrinae 
and the Simia Marmon. Section 3d- The 
long tailed as the Simia. nemeus, the Simia. masiae, and the 
Simia. diarra. Section 4th- The American monkey, of there
are the Sapajours, which have curled tails to suspend themselves
from trees, and the Sagoins, or those whose tails are 
not curled. Lemur with 6 teeth, of these 
some walk and some have wings similar to parachutes by which 
they can descend from trees & without injury as the Vespertilio
or bat which has wings connecting the superior and inferior
extremities, of these are the Vespertilio Vanipyrus, or Vampyre
of which such extravagant stories have been told, the 
Vespertilio Spectrum, so called from its appearing in the night,
the Vespertilio Spasma, so called because the right of it in 

the night has produced spasms. the Vespertilio Amitus
the Vespertilio Minanus from its looking like a mouse
and the Vespertilio Molopus. It will be recollected that
all these belong to the order of Primates, Class Mammalia.
Next comes the order Bruta of the Class Mammalia
which have no front teeth, and some of them none
The Bredipus or Sloth which has six grinders, and is covered
with hair. The Mamegaphega an ant eater, which
has no teeth, and lives upon ants. The Pladipus
which has no front teeth and has flat feet. The Manis
or scaly lizard which has scales on its body.
The Dizipus or Armadillo which has neither hair or scales
but is covered by rings of shell. The Rhinoceros which
has a horn or horns on the nose. There are two species, the 
Rhinoceros, Unicornis, and the Rhinoceros Bicornis, they 
are found in the south of Asia. The Sophatyron or horned
hog. The Elephant which has no front teeth but 
canine and grinders, it has an elongation of the snout, called
proboscis, which serves as an organ of nourishment and 
defense, it is found in the torrid zones but will live in 
the temperature zones. There are two species, the Asiatic and 
the African. The Mastoid so called from 
the form of the teeth.-

Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Simple bodies are divided into six
classes Class 1st. The more simple parts as Caloric Lumic, Ozygen,
Hydrogen and Nitrogen. Class 2d- The acidifiable bases
the most common of which are Nitrogen, Carbon and Sulphur
they are composed, that is acids of two substances, the acidyfying
and acidified bases, the stronger acids are distinguished by their 
ending in ic. and the weaker in ous, thus Sulphuric acid
is stronger than Sulphurous acid. Class 3d- Metallic substances,
which are acted upon by acids, when the metals unite
with acids, but do not form an acid, they are called ozides.
Class 4th- Earths, some are found in a saline state, they 
are generally mixed together. Baryter is the most ponderous
of the earth. Class 5th- Alkalis, Potassa and Soda are 
pure vegetable Alkalis. Ammonia is a compound substance
Class 6th- The complex parts of simple bodies. 
Chemical Nomenclature
1
Simple Substances. as
the earths &
Metals &c.
2
Simple
Substances
combined 
with
Caloric
3 Simple 
Substances
combined
with
Ozygen
4
Simp. Subs.
united with 
Ozyg. & Calor.
to render them
gaseous
5
Simp. Subs.
united with 
acids to form
Neutral Salts
6
Simp. Subs.
united with 
other Simple
Substances

Novemeber 19th- Dr. Post's Lecture. In dislocations of the forearm
moderate extension should be made to disengage the coranoid
process, the ligaments are lacerated considerable inflamn. and fever
supervenes which should be combatted by bleeding &c. the evaporating
wash for the inflamn- the joint should be moved after their week,
should a thickening of the parts take place apply a blister. When 
a fracture of the olecranon happens the triceps muscle draws up
one part, in this fracture a splint should be placed on the anterior
part of the arm to keep it in an extended state, One or both
of the bones of the forearm are liable to be fractured, to discover a 
fracture of the radius which is most frequent take hold of the wrist
and rotate it, and a crepitus will be heard, a fracture of the ulna
is easily discovered from its superficial position. To effect an union
of the fracture bones a splint should be applied under the arm 
and one on the anterior and back parts of the limb, but none on the 
upper part, which should be left for the application of cooling washes
&c. No bandages should be applied in this fracture, for they 
would press together the two bones, and the callus might unite
them. The hand is divided into three parts, the carpus, metacarpus
and fingers, the carpus is made up of 8 bones which are 
connected by strong ligaments, and have considerable motion among
themselves, there are two rows with 4 bones in each, the upper 

row consists to Scaphodes. 2. Lunare. 3. Cuneiforme. 4. Pisiforme.
The lower row consists of 5. Trapezium. 6. Trapzoides. 7. Os. magnum.
8. Muciforme. the first metacarpal bone is attached to the 
Trapezoides, and the middle metacarpal bone to the Os magnum.
The carpus is attached to the ends of the forearm, is convex on its 
back part, and concave on its under part. The bones of the Metacarpus
are divided into a body and two extremities, the lower 
extremities form a ball and socket joint. The fingers are made 
up of three bones, they are connected by ginglymoid joints.-
Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. 3d Ordo Feroe or wild animals.
They have 6 upper teeth. 4 Laniary which are longer than
the rest, and their molares are conico - cuspidated or with 
very sharp points. These are divided into two families the 
Insect eaters, and the Carnivorous.
The Insect eaters of which are the following viz
Genus 1st- The Erinaceus, or hedge hog, living upon insects
it is covered bristles to defend itself. Genus 2d- The Sorex or 
Shrew of which there are the following Species. The Uranus a
fetid shrew - The Fodieus or water shrew, the Moscus, the 
Aquaticus, the Ecordatis, the Satisis, the Semispinosus.
Genus 3d- The Tolper or Mole of which there are the following 
Species, the Europea, the Cristata, and the Cerulea.

The Carnivorous Family. This family is divided
into 3 Orders, the Plantagrades, or those which have flat
feet, the Digitgrades or those which walk on their toes 
and the Amphibious or those which live either on land or 
in water, Ordo 1o- The Plantgrades. Genus 1st
Urous or Bear of these are the following Species. The 
Ursus Arctos or brown bear of Europe. the Urous Americanus,
or black bear of N.A. the Ursus Maritimus or 
white bear. Genus 2d- The Lotor or Racoon as the Carnivorous,
so called from a crab. Genus 3d- The Moles
or Badger, as the Canadensis. Genus 4th- The Gulo or 
Glutton, Genus 5th- The Luscus or Wolverine.
Ordo 2o- The Digitgrades. Genus 1st- The Martes or 
Martin of which there are 4 sub-genua. Sub-genus 1st 
The Putores. The Furo or Ferret. the Sarmaticus, the 
Erminia or Ermine. and the Siberica. Sub-genus 2d- the 
Mustina or Weazel. Sub-genus 3d. the Lutra or Otter
Sub-genus 4th- the Mephitis or Skunk. Genus 2d- 
The Canis or Dog, of these there are the Canis Familiaris
a domestic dog, of which there are about 30 varieties. the 
Lupus or wolf, the Vulpes or fox and the Hyena
with others. Genus 3d- The Felis, or Cat- as the Leo or lion
the Tigris or tiger, the One, the Leopard, Panther, & Lynx or wild cat 

Ordo 3d- The Amphibians, as the Phoea or Seals
of these there are several Species, as the Sea lion, Sea
elephant &c.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. There are 47 simple bodies, the 
compound are more numerous, of these 7 are very active, as 
Oxygen, Hydrogen, Sulphur, Carbon, Boron which are simple
bodies. Oxygen, Hydrogen and Carbon form vegetable matter.
Nitrogen added to these three with sometimes a little Sulphur
forms Animal matter. When two simple metals unite it is called
an alloy. In all gaseous compounds one must have been
solid, except Oxygen and Hydrogen which exist in the air.
The Chemical Nomenclature is formed by uniting the names
of the elements of a compound, and varying its compounds.
A gas is a substance permanently elastic, which distinguishes it
from vapour, the weight of atmospheric pressure is 14 lbs upon
the square inch. The specific gravity of atmospheric air 
is 1000, it is used as a standard for weighing other gases. Oxygen
weights 11.47. Air is weighed by an instrument in the form of a 
globe which contains a given quantity of air, and is provided with 
a stop cork by removing stop cork atmospheric air rushes in and 
fills it in this state it is weighed, afterwards it is screwed on the air pump on 
exhausted of air and again weighed which gives the weight of the air. 

November 20th- Dr. Post's Lecture. The femur which is a cylindrical 
bone is divided into its head and two extremities, the head 
of the bone is connected with its body by a neck, on its upper
part the great and small Trochanter are situated, it is called 
so from the muscles which are inserted in it and rotate the limb
the great trochanter is covered with a tendon of the gluteus muscle,
the psoas magum is inserted in the less trochanter, the linea
aspera is a rough line on the concave part of the femur for the 
attachment of muscles, this bone at the lower part is very large
making the two condyles, between which the patella is situated
The capsula ligament which surround this joint is very strong 
Dislocations of the femur at its upper extremity take place
in 4 different ways. 1st- Upwards and backwards, when it is 
thrown on the dorsum ilii. 2d- Upon the thyroid hole.
3d- Downwards and forwards. 4th- Upwards and forwards.
In fractures or dislocations we are to judge from the relative situation of parts
from the three following especially, the spine of the ilium,
the os pubis, and the great trochanter in their natural state 
When the os femoris is dislocated upwards and backwards, the 
leg is shortened, the toes turned inward, and the limb fixed
Sometimes in consequence or ulceration of the accetabulum, the 
head of the femur is pressed into the pelvis. Fractures are distinguished
from luxations by the mobility of the limb, and by crepitus.

Dr. Mitchell's Lecture. Continuation of the Fever.
The Marsupiaux or those animals which have bags on their belly
The Genus Didelphis or those with double wombs as the Opossum
Virginiana of N.A. The Opossum Marsupialis of 
Cayenne, the Opossum Canivora of Brazil and the Opossum
Dyosurus, the Opossum Paramoles or Phalanges of New Holland.
Ordo 4th- The Glires, or Roughems, or knawers with 
2 front teeth in each jaw, near each other and remote from the 
grinders: Genus 1st The Hystrix or Porcupine. Genus 2d-
The Cavia or Guinea pig. Genus 3d- The Castor or Beaver.
Genus 4th- The Mus or Mouse and Rat. Genus 5th- The 
Actemys. or Marmot. Genus 6th- The Syurus or Squirrels
Dr. Macneven's Lecture on Materia Medica. Tonics. Serpentaria
is perennial, indigious to Virginia the dried root is aromatic
of a pungent taste, the active properties are a bitter resin and 
essential oil, it is stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic, it promotes
the urinary secretion, it is joined with bark in the typhoid
state of fevers, in remittent fevers, it is given in the secondary
stages of pleurisy, in protracted intermittents, is used
for a gargle in sore throats, in Dyspepsia, it checks bilous
vomitings, it is contrained in inflamy. diseases.
Prunus Virginiana, a tonic, it is bitter and astringent to the 

taste, it restrum colliquative sweats, is given in asthma and 
in chronic stages of dysentery. Angostura Bark is tonic
and laxative, and is given in affections of the stomach.
Columbo radix is tonic and antiseptic, is given in Cholera
where there is a redundance of bile, it removes nausea in 
the low stages of puerperal fever - Gentian Lutea, the 
root is generally an ingredient of all bitters, it is given in 
dyspepsia and gout. Quassia excelsa. this is a very
useful bitter.
November 22d- Dr. Post's Lecture. Dislocations of the femur
should be reduced by fixing the pelvis by bandages between the 
thighs, and by making extension, the thigh and leg should be flexed
to relax the muscles. Fractures of the neck of the femur are 
distinguished by the crepitus, and greater mobility of the limb
In fractures of this limb, it should be placed in an horizontal position,
and extension made by means of splints. Dr. P. has only met
with one case of a fracture of the neck of the femur, which he cured
by keeping the limb in a flexed position. The English surgeons
are of opinion that a fracture of this kind never unites, owing to 
the circulation in the limb being interrupted, the French surgeons
are of a contrary opinion. Sometimes the acctabulum, sacrum and 
ischrum are fractured by falling from a height on the ground -

The bones of the leg are three, the tibia, fibula, and patella, the tibia
is more or less of a prismatic form and supports the whole weight of 
the body, it is divided into its body and two extremities, the upper extremity
is large, and has two superficial cavities, or glenoid cavities, separated
by an eminence, its upper part is rough, and has many foramina
it has a tuberosity on its upper part for the insertion of the ligament
of the patella, the lower extremity is enlarged for its articulation
with the [illegible] in amputation when the bones are divided nea the 
insertion of the meduallary artery before it ramifies, considerable hemorrhage
takes place, the artery must be plugged. The fibula is a small 
bone large at the two extremities its principal use is to increase 
the surface of the bone for the attachment of muscles &c. its lower
extremity forms the outer surface of the ancle.
Dr. Mitchell's Lecture. Continuation of the [illegible].
Genus Myoxcus or Dormouse. Hybernation is derived from 
Hyberna, winter quarters, and has been applied to animals, many
animals pass the winter without taking any food, and are nourished
from the absorption of their own fat. Dr. M. contrary to the opinion
of philosophers says that white is the warmest colour, and 
black, the coldest, when not exposed to the rays of the sun, for in
that case the body supplies its own heat, and a white colour being of 
a difficult transmission, the heat is retained, while if it was black 

the heat would pass off, this is the reason why Animals are clothed
in white, in winter, in those countries where the sun does not shine
for many months, and also the reason why black people
suffer so much from cold. Genus Dypus or jumping 
mouse - Genus Lepus, or hare and rabbit, some have 
tails, others are without.
Order 5th- Pecora- Ruminants- These have four 
stomachs, no upper teeth in their front jaw, have six or eight
below, which are remote from the grinders, they have hoofed
feet and tits in their groins. Genus Camelus or Camel, with 
a cleft upper lip, there are several species, as the Dromedary
&c. and all under the government of man. Genus Moschus
or Musk deer which has a bag near the navel containing
Muscle and which is used as an antispasmodic. These Genera have
no horns- Genus Cervus, or Deer family, which shed their 
horns every year, and of which there are several Species.
Genus Antelope - with annulated horns.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. The action of Oxygen is the most 
general of all bodies, it never exists separately, but in its 
most simple state is combined with Caloric and light, it is 
colourness, tasteless and without smell, when strongly compressed
it emits heat, and appears luminous. Carbonic acid gas

and Hydrogen when pressed become hot, but does not appear
luminous. It unites with every simple body, but the 
combinations are in various proportions, it forms an essential
part of the atmosphere and of water, Respiration cannot
be performed without it, and Combustion never takes place
without the presence of oxygen. It is generally obtained from
black oxyde of Manganese by means of heat. Oxygen has a 
strong affinity for Caloric, and combined with metallic bodies
it forms Oxydes, some oxides are entirely decomposed by heat as 
the red oxide of mercury Some salts contain Oxygen, and Nitre
affords it by a strong heat. Substances weigh less after losing
it. The uses of Oxygen gas are extensive, as in supporting respiration
&c. This gas was first discovered and investigated by Dr.
Priestly in the year 1774, but its various properties have been
known only for a few years, it is an acidyfying principle, and is 
not absorbed by water, other gases are. Combustibles burn with 
additional splendor in Oxygen gas as is proved by introducing a 
piece of hot iron, or steel into a vessel filled with this gas 
which burns with great brilliancy, emitting sparks in all
directions A body or its residium rather after combustion is heavier
than it was before, its increase of weight is owing to the absorption
of Oxygen, An acid is formed by the union of an inflammable
base with Oxygen. The products of Oxygen are Oxides,

Acids and Alkali's. Flame is luminous gaseous matter, the 
effect of combustion, though combustion sometimes occurs
without flame.-
November 23d- Dr. Post's Lecture. The Patella is connected to 
the knee by a strong ligament, its external surface is convex, the internal
is divided into two lateral surfaces, divided by an eminence
and applied to the two condyles of the femur upon which they move 
its upper part is called the apex and its lower part the base. The use
of the patella is for the insertion of muscles, that extend the leg, as the 
rectus femoris, crucus, and the tendons of the vasti interni and 
externi muscles, which are inserted into its base. Dislocations of 
the knee joint are very rare, when they do occur, they are generally inwards
or outwards, they very seldom take place backwards, owing to the 
great strength of the crucial ligament, these are easily discovered, and 
to effect their reduction, the limb should be flexed to relax the muscles,
Fractures of the patella are generally transverse, and in 19 cases
out of 20 are the effect of muscular action, in these fractures, the base
of the bone remains in its natural state but the apex is drawn up by 
the action of the extensor cruris muscle. the limb should be kept
at right angles with the body to relax the extensor cruris muscle, and 
the inflamn- which supervenes, should subside, which it generally does 
in 6 or 8 days before bandages are applied, a splint should be applied 

on the under part of the limb, and after the inflamn. has subsided, bandages
should be applied, which are of two kinds, either of which may be used
one is a long roller, made to embrace the whole limb to prevent swelling
and passed round the knee in the form of a figure of 8, the other is [illegible]
of two circular straps, one passed round the lower extremity of the femur
the other below the knee and drawn to each other by longitudinal straps
which approximate the fractured extremities of the patella, the flexor
muscles of the lower extremity are inserted in the tuberosity of the ischium,
and are sometimes fatigued by being kept for a long time in an 
extended position, they will be relieved by gently flexing the leg.
Fractures of the patella generally unite by ligament, and 8 weeks should
elapse before walking is attempted. Dislocations of the patella
are generally inwards or outwards in a lateral direction, and are 
easily reduced.
Dr. Mitchell's Lecture. Continuation of the Pecora.
Genus Capia or Goat with hollow horns. In the stomach of 
one species of the goat stones called Bezoars are found, which consist
of the Carbonate of Lime, it is supposed to be an antidote
to poisons, if so it must act by absorbing and neutralizing the 
acid poison. Genus Ovis, with hallow horns, which are filled
with a process from the skull. There are many species.
Genus Bos or Hine, with hollow horns which are subject to 

disease as caries, ulceration &c. causing hectic fever, emaciation &c 
of these there are several species, as the Bos Temus, including 
all domestic cattle, the Bos. Bison, or American Bison &c.
Order 6th- The Belluœ with obtusely truncated
front teeth and hoofed feet. Genus Equus or Horse
with several Species or the Equus Cabalis or tame horse. the 
Asinus or Jackass, the Mulus or the Mule, the offspring 
of the he.ass. and female horse. the Zebra or the striped
ass. &c
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. The colour of flame depends on the nature
of the combustible body. Gunpower burns in vacuo, this is owing to the 
Nitre which enters into its composition, and which contains Oxygen gas 
Within these three years three other supporters of combustion have 
been discovered Iodine, Chlorine and Fluorine. Iodine is obtained
from Barilla which is the ashes of marine vegetables or from Soda
Barilla contains a great quantity of Sulphate of Soda. Iodine has 
the following properties, it is of a brownish colour with metallic 
luster, is soft and pliable, and easily pulverized, is of an acid 
taste, and evaporates when exposed to the air, it first turns vegetable
that are blue, red and then totally destroys the colour, the 
word Iodine is from the Greek, and signifies purple, which is the 
colour of its vapour, its vapour is heavier than any of the gases. 

It is a nonconductor of electricity, it emits heat with some bodies
with which it unites, but Potassium is the only body with 
which it emits heat and light during its union, when Iodine unites
with simple bodies, the compound is called an Iodine, the 
Iodic acid is astringent and sour when mixed with water, it is 
so heavy that it sinks in concentrated sulphuric acid which is 
twice the strength of water as quick as lead does in water, it corrodes
metallic substances, and is an excellent test of fauna or starch
in vegetables, turning the starch which is white to a blue colour.
The combination which is formed by the union of a base with Iodic 
acid is called an Iodate, it loses all its properties by being leapt
a year though it is excluded from the air. A heated substance
preserves its caloric much longer in vacus than when exposed
to the air -
November 24th- Dr. Post's Lecture. The foot is composed of three parts
the tarsus, metatarsus, and phalanges, there are 7 tarsal bones, the 
os calcis, astragalus, naviculare, cuboides, and the 3 ossa cuneiforme,
the medium, internum, and externum, the os calcis is 
the largest, and sustains the weight of the body, it has two articulating
surfaces with the astragalus, in its posterior part the 
tendo Achillis is inserted, its inner part is hollowed out for the 
passage of arteries, nerves and tendons, it is very spongy in its texture.

texture. The astragalus is very irregular, and has two surfaces for the 
articulation of the malleus internus, and externus processes of 
the tibia, also two under surfaces for its junction with the os calcis.
The anterior surface of the os naviculare corresponds to the 
three ossa cuneiforme, the ossa cuneiforme differ in their size and 
have posterior and anterior surfaces of articulation, the os cuboides has 
three surfaces of articulation, on its outer edge it has a groove for the 
tendon of the peroneus longus muscle, then bones are all connected
by very strong ligaments, and have a considerable motion among themselves,
the tarsus is convex on its superior part, and concave on its 
lower part, the number of bones of which it is composed is of service
to prevent injuries from falling, and to accommodate the foot to the 
inequalities of the ground. There are 5 metatarsal bones which 
are convex on their upper surface, and concave on their under surface
the metatarsal bones of the great and little toe are stronger than 
the others, the three points upon which the body is supported are the 
os calcis, and the metatarsal bones of the great and little toes, the ancle
joint is of the ginglymoid kind, the bones of the toes do not differ
from the fingers except in their relative length. Dislocations
of the ancle joint commonly occur inwards, very seldom outwards
Dislocations of this joint inwards are generally accompanied with fracture
of the fibula, as it forms the outer ancle, sometimes the fibula is 
broken, without a dislocation of this joint. There are two kinds of dislocation,

dislocation. the simple and compound. Compound dislocations are generally
attended with great consequent inflamnn. and to obviate the injury which
the constitution might sustain, some surgeons recommend immediate
amputation, but D.P. has had three patients, who recovered from 
this injury without amputation, by venesection and other means.
In fractures of the leg Dr. P. prefers the bent position, that is the thigh
should be flexed upon the body, and the leg upon the thigh, a splint
should be applied on the under part of the limb. No bandages or 
splints should be applied untill the inflamnn. has subsided and no 
danger need be apprehended, as the callus does not begin to unite 
untill three weeks after the fracture.
Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. Continuation of the Belluœ.
Genus Hipopptamus, or  Water horse, this animal is of an uncouth
form. Genus Tapea. Genus Sus or Swine with tusks, as 
the Sus Scrofa or common hog with many varieties. Scrofula is 
derived from Scrofa, for in many countries Swine are affected with 
glandular swellings &c. which was the reason of the origin of the custom
among the Jews of not eating the flesh of swine. The Fossil Genus
Phaliothereum, of which there are several species.
Order 7th- The Cete which are all inhabitants of the water,
they have breathing holes in the fore part of the skull, Pectoral
fins, no feet, and a horizontal tail, they have no hair or 

scales but a very smooth skin these animals spout water out of their 
breathing holes. Genus Monodon, or Sea Unicorn with an 
elongated snout, these have a single horn on their head. Genus
Balaena or Whale with no teeth, but a horny substance in 
lieu of them. Genus Physeter or Spermaceti Whale with 
teeth in the lower jaw. Genus Delphinus or Dolphin with 
teeth in both jaws.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture on Mat. Med. Quassia Simarouba
astringent and bitter, a valuable remedy in the last stages of 
Dysentery, a small dose is as effectual as a large one. Croton or 
Elentheria Cascarilla, of a bitter warm aromatic taste, the bark of 
which is given in dyspepsia, flatulent colic, diarrhea and the later
stages of hectic fever. Humulus Supulus or Hops which 
is a tonic, diuretic, and narcotic, and used as a substitute for Opium,
it is given in paroxysms of gout as a sedative. Stone and 
Gravel are more rare in countries where cider and acid wines are 
not drank. Mineral Tonics. Iron is the most abundant 
mineral production in nature and the most congenial to the human
constitution as there is nothing deleterious in it. it answers
best when given in small doses, and minutely divided which is 
the case in mineral waters, it is a powerful tonic, promotes objection,
and augments the strength of the muscular fibre, it is given 

in weak Cencophlymatic habits, chlorosis, gleet, palsy, dyspepsia
rickets, and phthisis pulmonalis it must not be given in sanguineous
temperaments it is always found in the blood of warm blooded
animals. Dr. Chapman is of opinion that it is generated in the 
blood but Dr. M. says that the animal economy can compound
and decompound but not generate the effects of iron are very lasting
it is given in all Cacheotic complaints. Purified filings are an
excellent remedy in worms, owing to the Hydrogen which they evolve
and which is fatal to worms: the sulphate is the most tonic.
R. Mur. fer. is an excellent remedy in spasmodic strictures of the 
urethra. Copper is soluble in its metallic state, the Sulph.
Cup. is a powerful tonic, and is given in obstinate intermittents
or an injection for gleet, and a detergent in foul ulcers. the Cup.
Ammon. is given in Epilepsy, but should not be given in this or other 
nervous diseases untill purgatives are promised. 
November 25. Dr Post's Lecture. The head is divided into two 
parts, the cranium and face the skull is made of two tables
with a substance called the diploe between the internal table 
is sometimes broken without the external being broken, much
caution should be used in trepanning as the two tables are sometimes
in contact, the cranium consists of 8 bones, the os frontis,
os occiputis, 2 ossa tempora, 2 ossa parietalia, os sphenoids,

and os ethmoids, these bones are connected by sutures of which 
these are the coronal, sagittal, squamose, lambdoidal, sphenoidal,
and transverse, the ossa triquetra are little bones found 
between the sutures, which are to be distinguished from fractures
the cranium is divided into its upper part or arch, or in its 
lower part or base the arch is convex on its upper part the 
anterior part is the sinciput, the posterior part the occiput
its top the vertex, and its lateral sides, there is a depression
on the os tempora for muscles &c. on the inner part there are 
depressions or pits for the convolutions of the brain, a groove
for the longitudinal sinus of the dura mata, and impressions
made by the arteries of the dura mata. The base of the cranium
is very irregular, and is divided into its anterior, posterior,
and median parts.
Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. Herbivorous Cetacea, those have hands
by which they can hold their young - Genus Manati - as the 
Species Trichecus, or mermaid, or Sea man or woman. Genus 
Dugong, or Indian Wallruss.
Fabulous Zoology. 1st Mistaken observes, exaggerating
and misinterpreting things, whence Sea-serpents, and Flukers or 
floating islands, as they were supposed to be. 2d. Lying Travellers.
3d. Poetic inventors, whence, chimeras, gorpus, centaurs, griffins,

griffins. pegaguses, and harpies, 4th- Creatures of heraldry as quadrupeds
with birds feet, risen with dogs heads &c. 5th- Figments
of imagination, as ghosts, apparitions, and unreal animals 
as devils &c. 6th- Hallucinations of the senses, as of the sight 
and hearing, whence ocular spectra, illusions of the ear, and 
phantasms of the senses. Books recommended by Dr. Mitchills
on Zoology. Dumoids Zoology. Pennants Zoology
Cuvier's Animal kingdom. Cuvier's Fossil Zoology, and 
Cuvier's Comparative Anatomy. This ends the history of 
the Mammalia, it is sometimes called Mammalogy.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Chlorine is one of the supporters of 
combustion and is found only in substances that contain oxygen
it is obtained from manganese, and half the quantity of Sulphuric
acid by a gentle heat, it has a pungent suffocating smell
and deprives all bodies to which it is added of their colours, it 
forms acids with leser. the rays of the sun have great power 
in separating oxygen from bodies, which contain it. The detonating
powder is composed of the oxymuriate of potash,
sulphur and charcoal, and the ignition is produced by the 
percussion. It is found that bodies lose in weight in proportion 
to the oxygen gas they evolve. [illegible] is taken out of 
bodies as are other colours by Chlorine.

November 26th- Dr. Post's Lecture. The anterior part of the base
of the cranium is that part forward of the piterygoid process
it is composed of the lower parts of the os frontis, and of the 
ethmoids, it has certain foramina for the transmission of 
arteries &c. on the superior orbital brim a hole or notch called
the foramen orbitale externum superius for the passage of 
a principle branch of the 5th- pair of nerves, the foramen opticum
for the optic nerve and artery, the foramen Cacerum
an irregular fissure for the passage of the 3d, 4th- 5th- and 1st
branch of the 6th- pair of nerves. In the middle region there
are the cuneiform process of the os occipitis, the body of the 
os sphenoides, and the petrous portion of the ossa tempora, the 
styloid process is very long end projecting and arises from the ossa
tempora, the mastoid process arises on the outside, the zygomatic
process also is in the region, under which the temporal
muscles pass, there is also the foramen ovale for the passage 
of the 3d. branch of the 5th- pair, the glenoid cavities
for the articulation of the condyles of the lower jaw, the eustachian
tube for the passage of the air, and the meatus auditorius 
externus, or bony external orifice of the ear.
In the posterior region of the base of the cranium is the
foramen magnum occipitale, through which the medulla
spinalis &c. passes. -

Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. The 2d- Class of vertebrated animals
Aves. Birds. These are oviparous and biped. this 
science is called Ornithology. Birds have in their fore extremity
a humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpus &c. the articulation between
the scapula, clavicle, and ribs is very similar to the human body
the sternum is very large and projecting, and connected by a 
very firm articulation to the ribs which have very little motion
the length of the neck corresponds to the length of the lower
extremities for obvious reasons, Birds have no pubis, neither do 
they masticate their food, they have the power of moving the 
chrystalline lens either forward or backward to see near or at a 
distance, also a membrana nictitaus which they close at pleasure
they have very little cerebellum, the pharynx of birds and 
in an enlargement called the crow, which terminates in the crop
or stomach, which contains a liquid, that macerates the food preparatory
to its passing through a small position of intestine in 
to the gizard a strong muscular organ which grinds the food this 
organ in carnivorous birds is very weak. Dr. M. thinks that 
birds by instinct swallow stones to assist the trituration of their 
food, which is contrary to the opinion of Spallanzani, who 
supposed they were swallowed by accident, these stones are 
almost irrvariably found in the stomachs of granivorous
birds.

Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Oxygen is found in all animal and 
vegetable substances, and in many inorganic substances.
Chlorine, one of the supporters of combustion, is an acidyfying
principle, and forms an essential part of sea salt. Chlorine
differ from Oxygen in this, that it unites directly with metals, while
Oxygen first oxydates them. Chlorine is the radical of Mur.
acid, which is a combination of Chlorine and Hydrogen -
Chlorine is very heavy while Hydrogen is the lightest body known
their relative weights are as 1 to 33. Fluorine is the basis of
Fluoriespar, it must have flint in its combination to form
the gas called silicated fluoric gas which corrodes glass, and 
is made use of in the arts. Cava glass with wax and then draw
or mark out any design you wish in the wax, and then by adding
the fluoric acid, it corrodes that part of the glass not covered
with the wax. Fluoric acid is a peculiar base united with 
Oxygen. Fluorine is not oxymuriatic acid, as some suppose
but a simple substance. Dry muriate of lime is the greatest
absorbent of moisture known. Potassa has great affinity
for Oxygen, and consequently is made use of to separate it from
bodies which contain it. It was supposed until a few 
years since that Oxygen was the only supporter of combustion
and acidyfying principle but it is now found that there are
three others. Iodine, Fluorine and Chlorine.- 

November 27th- Dr. Post's Lecture. The middle part of the lower 
base of the cranium is formed by the sphenoides in it is contained
that substance called the pituitary gland the 4 clinoid process
of the os sphenoides from sella turcica, the middle lobes
of the cerebrum are contained in this region. The posterior region
is formed by a transverse line, and contains the two lobes of the 
cerebellum, there is a large foramen in it for the passage of the 
jugular vein, also the meatus auditorius internus for the 7th pair
of nerves, the os frontis form part of the orbit of the eye, the frontal
ridge terminates in two processes called the internal and 
external angular processes. The parietal bones are of a quadrangular
figure, and externally convex. The posterior part of the 
os occipitis forms the cuneiform process which has sometimes
given way under great weights carried on the head, causing immediate
death, near this are the condyloid processes for the articulation
of the attas, in this region are foramina for the passage of 
the 9th- pain of nerves.
Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. The backbone of birds is short and 
connected by anchylosis, the ribs have no cartilages, and they 
are very confined in their motion, the voice of birds is formed in 
the glottis, in respiration, the air passes through the lungs into the 
bones giving them their specific lightness which is required in flying 

As they migrate and are subject to great alternations of temperature
in the air, their blood is hotter than any other animals,
and they have the capacity of generating heat, and this is 
absolutely necessary in the act of incubation. Their Vestitus
or clothing is divided into three sorts. 1st- The penna or 
quill. 2d- The pluma or feather, and 3d. The barba or 
hair which immediately invests the body. There are always
10 feathers which arise from the humerus, and an indefinite 
number from the radius and ulna, these quills contain
air.
November 29th- Dr. Post's Lecture. The frontal sinuses are 
situated in the anterior part of the base of the os frontis, and 
communicate with the noses, wherby they are filled with air and
often in severe cold the inflamn. extends from the noses into these
sinuses, these sinuses do not exist at birth but are formed
at the age of six or seven years, worms are very often found
in the frontal sinuses of sheep, but very seldom in man
The os Sphenoides is divided into three parts its body and 
two wings on each side, one large, and the other small this 
bone extends from one bone to the other of the temples, the 
pterygoid processes of this bone form the boundary line of the 
noses behind. The os Ethmoides is a very spongy bone enters

and divided by the crista galli, which sustains the falex
of the dura mater, the ethmoid sinuses communicate with 
the noses
Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. The ovum of a bird is contained
in the oviduct of the female, and consists of the following
parts. 1st- Testa or shell, which consists of carbonate of 
lime, and is full of little pores for the transmission of air 
2d- Membrana or membrane, respecting which there was a difference
of opinion. Harvey maintaining that there was one only
and Mayow that there were two, this immediately invests the 
shell. 3d- Vesica acrea or air bladder. 4th- Albumen
or a white, thick glaring substance coagulate by heat, and 
which serves for a bed to the fœtus, and protects from changes of 
temperature &c. 5th- Vitillus or yelle. which is for the nourishment 
of the egg. 6th- Chalaza or speck where the ligaments
unite to balance the different parts of the egg. 7th- Poli vitelli
or poles of the egg ligaments extend from one pole to the other.
8th- Germen or rudiment not discernible until incubation 
has continued some time. 9th- Punctum saliens, or vital point,
when the germen is discernible, and the heat begins to 
beat. Dr. M. says that the heat preexists before the brain and 
the most irritable part of the body, the brain not very irritable
bone

this also applies to man. 10th- Embryo, Fœtus, and Pullus,
the different stages of being of the chick during its incubation
until its exclusion from the egg. --
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Electricity consists in Attraction and 
Repulsion, or the power which bodies have in different degrees of 
Electricity of attracting or repelling each other. Bodies possessing
the same state of electricity repel each other, while bodies
possessing different proportions of the electric fluid attract each
other, it being a natural law, that electricity like heat always
tends to an equilibrium. to prove that bodies possessing
different degrees of electricity attract each other Dr. M. made 
the following experiment, three metal bells were suspended
to the receiver of an electrical machine, one of the bells communicated 
with the earth by a chain, which preserved the bell 
in its natural state, the other two being non conductors received
the electric fluid from the receiver, and the two being attracted
by the middle one a ringing was made. Amber was the only
electric body known to the ancients, the earth is the great  
source of electricity, where it diffuses itself, and preserves a 
state of equilibrium, there are various ways of exciting it 
as by vicinity, or friction, which is the means generally used
bodies excited are called electrics, and electrics are non conductors 

so called because they do not convey electricity but retain
it, as glass, sealing wax and others. Metals are good conductors as 
is water, whence the reason that electricity cannot be collected
in a moist atmosphere, the bodies of animals are good conductors,
owing to the quantity of fluids they contain to retain
it when collected, it must be seperated from the earth by a 
non-conductor, to prove that bodies repel each other when equally
electrified, suspend two or three feathers over an electrical
machine, and they will hang together on account of their specific
gravity, but electrify them and they immediately diverge from 
each other, there are two kinds of electricity, resinous and vitreous.
Electricity when collected from the cushion is called 
Negative, when from the metallic tube of the machine, it 
is called Positive. Dr. M. says, that Chemical Affinity is 
probably the effect of electric action.
November 30th- Dr. Post's Lecture. When matter forms in the 
autrum Higmorianum, the middle molars should be extracted
to discharge it, sometimes fungus shoots out of this sinus and 
from the orbits, and it is generally incurable, worms are sometimes
found in this sinus. The os nasi is convex externally
and concave internally, connected by the transverse suture
to the os frontis, to the os maxilla superioris by the nasal suture

In operating for the fistula lachymalis if any resistance is made 
to the passage of the instrument it is a sign that we are pressing
the nasal process, as the os unguis is very easily perforated. The 
form of the os mala is quadrangular they form the prominent
part of the cheeks.
Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. Physiology of the Egg. Exciting powers.
1st- Sperma or fecundating liquor of the male, which fecundates
eggs without which they would not hatch though
they are laid. 2d- Caloric which is applied in different
ways as by insolation in the ostrich which deposites her eggs
in the sand to be acted upon by the sun, or Incubation.
3d. Compression of air, air is contained between the shell 
and membrane of an egg, which by heat becomes rarified and 
acts as a mechanical stimulant upon the parts of the egg, another
use of the air bladder is to receive and eliminate such air 
as may be injurious to the chick. 4th- Nutriment by the intestines,
which nutriment is the yolk. 5th- Oxygen which 
is absorbed by the pores of the shell. Dr. M. produced a book
of Mayow published in 1681 by which it appears that 
he was the discoverer of Oxygen, and of its being necessary to 
the existence of animals. Birds turn their eggs once in 24 
hours that they may be supplied with vital air. Eggs will 

not hatch in azotic gas, nor when deprived of atmospheric
air. Dr. M. says that Azote is taken into the circulation of 
animals, and that it is a pabulum viti. 6th- Nutriment
by the mouth which is the albumen, which is taken for nourishment
after the yelle is consumed, and the bill formed.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Two of the effects of electricity are 
light and combustion, it produces a cold current of air,
water is rendered luminous by it, and allcohol is ignited
by it. There is a great analogy between electricity and Caloric,
as they are contained in all bodies, and excited by 
the same means as friction, and both travel with great
velocity, it has a smell which heat and light have not 
it acts with more energy on account of the dryness of 
the atmosphere in winter than in any other season, it 
accelerates fluids in capillary tubes, as is proved by the 
following experiment. Put a vessel containing water on an 
electrical machine, it should have such an opening that 
the water should strap slowly, then electrify it, and the 
water will run a stream. Electricity promotes perspiration
and evaporation, and quickens the circulation, hence the 
reason why in damp weather when there is little electricity
our bodies are so languid.

December 1st- Dr. Post's Lecture. The bone of the lower jaw
has two processes called the coronoid and condyloid, the anterior
is the coronoid, the posterior, the condyloid, which are convex and 
are received into the glenoid cavities of the os. temporis, there is 
an interarticular cartilage in this joint, Dislocations of this 
joint take place anteriorly, to reduce it, the jaw should be 
drawn forward to disengage the process, In fractures of this 
bone in children, two silver plates should be applied to 
the inner and outer side of the jaw to prevent motion -
The teeth of animals differ very much in size, situation, and 
number. The teeth of man are divided into incisores, cuspidati,
bicuspidati, and molares.
Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. The anatomy of birds is divided 
into partis nudae, and tecta. The naked parts are Rostrum
Reale, Cera, ceer, surrounding the nares, Nares nostrils,
Lingua, tongue, Frons, forehead, Faceis, face, Genu, cheeks,
Tempora, temples, Oculi, eyes, Palpebrae, eye lids, Galea
helmet, in some birds, Pes, including the whole limb
from the head of the femur. The covered parts [cross out]
Vestiters or feathers, Caput, head, Pilcus, top of the head,
Occiput, Capiotrum, margin of the bill, Crista, crest,
Callum, neck, Aures, ears, Truncus, trunk, Dorsum, back 

Pectus, breast, Abdomen, belly, Artus, Upper extremities, as 
Aloe, wings, which are divided into Impennes, or wings destitute
of those feathers which are for flying. Penneformes, to assist in 
swimming, and Pinnate or wings for flying -
December 2d- Teeth are composed of two parts, Bone and Enamel
they are divided into body, base, neck, and fang, they possess but 
little vitality, their enamel none, the enamel is very hard to 
resist friction, the bone of teeth is likewise much harder than
other bones, and when [cross out] once coloured with madder always retains
the colour which other bones do not, they are limted with a 
membrane covering the artery, nerve & of the tooth, this membrane
is the seat of pain. Teeth are sometimes united by anchylosis
to their sockets. Dr. Post considered the different forms
and situation of the teeth -
Dr. Mitchill's Lecture - Ornithology, Aves or birds divided into
6 Orders, +Linneus, *Cuvier
+1. Acciptitres. *Oiseaux de proqe. Birds of prey.
2. Picse. " Guinpeurs. " feet for creeping.
3. Passeres " Passeraux. " Living upon seeds & insects.
4. Gallina " Gallinacis. " " " " " fruit.
5. Gralle " Echasscurs. " feet for wading.
6. Unseres " Nageurs. " " " swimming.

Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Nitrogen is an elastic and colourless
gas, and composes 4/5 of the atmosphere, its specific 
gravity is less than atmospheric air, it differs from other
gases in not communicating any acid taste to water,
the processes for obtaining it are various, its two great sources
are the atmosphere and animal matter with Oxygen
it forms nitric acid, it is unfit for respiration or
combustion, it may be obtained from burning phosphorus
in common air, for it will absorb all the oxygen and the 
residuum will be Nitrogen, or as it is sometimes called
and always by the French Azote. Dr. Mitchill says
that it is a pabulurn vite, and enters the circulation which
is contrary to the opinion of philosophers who say that 
it is received into the lungs, with the air, but immediately
thrown out as something deleterious, it is however a constituent
of all animal matter.
December 3rd- Dr. Mitchills Lecture. The genna of birds
can be determined by the form of thin skulls &c. Order Anseres.
Genus Procellaria or Petterol, a web footed water fowl
bill toothless, upper jaw or mandible aduncous, feet palmated.
Genus Diomedia, or Albatross, short bill, upper mandible
hooked, lower one truncated, nares oval, and lateral.

Genus Rynchops, or Sheerwater, a projecting bill, the 
upper mandible shorter than the lower. Order Picoe
Genus Buceros, or Hornbill, bill convex and bent,
skully part of the head, bony, gibbous, and naked, nares
behind the base of the bill. Order Passeres. Genus
Trochilus, or Humming bird, the upper mandible shutting
within the lower.
December 4th Dr. Michtill's Lecture. Wilson the American
Ornithologist divided Birds into Land birds, and water birds or 
waders, and web footed water fowl. The land birds include
the 4 orders of Linneus, viz, the Accipities, Pica, Passeres, and 
Gallina, and the water bids the two remaining orders of 
Grallae, and Anseres. The land birds were divided into
the following Genera
Genera
Vultur or Vulture.
Falco, including the hawk, family.
Strix, owls, night birds of prey.
Lanius - Butcher bird.
Psittacus, Parrot.
Corvus, Crow.
Orion, Hanging birds.
Genera
Gracula, Black bird.
Cuculis, Cuckoo.
Picus, Wood pecker.
Sitta, Muthatch.
Alcedo, Kingfisher.
Certhia, Creepers.
Trochilus, Humming bird.

Genera
Sternus, Starling.
Terdus, Mocking bird.
Ampelis, Chatterer.
Loxia, Gross. beak.
Curvirostia, Cross. beak.
Embiaer, Bunting.
Tanagran.
Fringella. Finch.
Sylvia, Blue bird.
Genera
Alauda, Lark.
Piera.
Parus.
Hirundo, Swallow.
Caprimulgus. Goat. sucker.
Columba, Pidgeon.
Meleagris, Turkey.
Tetrao, Partridge & Quail.
These Genera include all the land birds of Wilson.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Astringents - Acetite of lead is 
given internally in hemorrhage, menorrhagia, diarrhea,
those who work in it are subject to colic, paralysis, and
costiveness, in hemorrhages of the uterus, where it is not 
inpregnated, in the last stages of dysentery, and cholera
infantum, there is more danger in giving small doses, than 
large ones, which act promptly. Alum is given in hemorrhage,
hemoptysis, leucorrhea, diabetes, menorrhagia,
and externally applied to sore eyes.
The Muriate of Berytes is given scrofula, and cancer,
The Carbonate of Barytes is poisonous. 

Aqua calcis contains about a grain of lime in an ounce of 
water, it is tonic and astringent, is applied externally in 
scalds and burns combined with oil, lime water and milk is 
given in an irritable state of the stomach, in dyspepsia, dysentery,
and diarrhea. Oxygen is very irritating to sores. Muriate
of lime mitigates but never cures scrofula.
Creta preparata is given in the dysentery of children
whenever the stools are green, it is an evidence of an acid being 
present. The Mineral acids are all tonic -
The Sulphuric acid is astringent, and strengthens the stomach,
is given in cutaneous eruptions, the concentrated
sulphuric acid should never be given, as it contains the 
sulphate of lead. The Muriatic acid is used as a 
gargle in putrid sores of the mouth.
The Nitric acid is given in the secondary stages of Syphilis,
chronic hepatitis, and glandular diseases, also
used as a wash for scrofulous sores. Tonics of the 
Animal kingdom. Phosphorus is given in the worst cases 
of typhus fever, and where there is great prostration of 
the vital forces. Gelatin is another animal substance 
it is contained in peruvian bark, but not in others medicines
which led many to suppose, that it was the acting principle
in bark, and they accordingly gave it in intermittents.

December 6th- Dr. Mitchill's Lecture.
3d- Class of Vertebrated animals. Amphibia. The science
is called Erpetology from Erpetos a reptile. These animals
have cold blood passing either through the aortal inculation
while they are under water, or through the lungs, which 
extend far down into the abdomen. Their skins are either
scaly as in lizards, bony like the tortoise, or naked as in
frogs, they have but very little brain, but their nerves are 
extended extensively over the body. Tortoises will live a fortnight 
after decapitation, and the heart will beat a long time
after separation from the body., Linneus has divided
them into 2 orders. Repitilia or those which have 
feet, and Serpentia or those without legs 
Order Reptilia
Genus Testudo or Tortoises
" Draco or Dragon
" Lacerta or Lizard
" Rana or Frog
Order Sepentia
Genus Crotalus or Rattle snake
" Boa
" Coluba
" Anguis, or Worms
" Amphisbana
" Cecilia, or Blind snakes 
Cuvier divided them into 4 Orders. 1st Chelouiens. Tortoise
2d- Sauriens, Lizard. 3d- Ophidiens. Serpents. 4th- Batcaciens.

December 8th- Dr Mitchill's Lecture. Order 1st- Reptilia.
Genus Testudo, or Tortoise which have a bony covering. this genus 
is divided into 3 Sections
1 Section - Marina or sea tortoises with legs like fins.
2 " Fluviales, or river tortoises with membranes for swimming.
3 " Terrestres or land tortoises
Genus Ranae, including the toad and frog. 4 Sections.
1 Sect. Bufones, or toads with warty bodies.
2 " Ranae or frogs with smooth bodies.
3 " Hyla or tree frogs with feet by which they can climb a plane of glass.
4 " Caudata, or those frogs which have tails, of this section there
is only one species called the rana paradexa. In this genus
impregnation does not take place in the body of the female, the 
eggs hatch into tadpoles, which afterwards become frogs.
Genus Draco, or Dragon, one species only the Draco volaus.
Genus Lacata or Lizard, scaly and with four legs. 10 Sections
Sect. 1. Crocodile. segmented tail.
" 2. Cordata, scaly bodies.
" 3. Inguana. finny bodies.
" 4. Salamander. clawless feet.
" 5. Gakones. warty bodies.
6th. Chameleons, change colour.
7. Sapes, collars round the neck.
8. Lacerti. striped bodies
9. Scinx. with imbricated scales.
10. Calcidae.
Genus Prateus. This Genus has both lungs and gills.

Dr. Macneven's Lecture. The contractility of the stomach is 
destroyed by over distention, the act of vomiting cannot be complete
without the cooperation of the diaphragm, the liver, gall
bladder, and other abdominal viscera are compressed and acted
upon by the operation of emetics, there is a great sympathy
between the stomach and other parts, through the medium of 
the nerves as by the par vagum, Emetics produce a more 
copious secretion from the glands, and also effect the skin.
There is a reciprocal action between the skin and digestive
organs. In the administration of Emetics, particular regard
should be had to the idiosyncrasy and nervous susceptibility
of the patient where we wish emetics to make a strong
impression on the system, no drink should be given. Emetics
are given in nausea, bitter taste in the mouth, cardialgia, continued
fevers, intermittents, dysenteries of hot climates &c.
they are improper in plethoric habits, or if given depletion
should be premised, as dangerous consequences might result
from their administration, such as Apoplexy, rupture of blood
vessels &c. Vomiting is to be checked according to its urgency by
the following remedies, opium pill, burnt brandy and sugar, warm
fomentations, sinapisms, blisters, and lastly by opiate 
injections. 

December 9th- Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. Ichthyology.
4th Class of Vertebrated Animals. Pisces. or Fishes -
Fish breath through gills, the air is contained in the water
which is received by the mouth and ejected by the branchial
arches. Fish have cold red blood, and a single heart an artery
runs from the heart to the gills, their alimentary canal is 
very similar to that of man, they swallow their food whole
and have generally no grinders, they have an air bladder which 
they have the power of dilating or compressing, whereby they either
can float or sink. Fish are divided into bony and cartilaginous,
they have like birds one common outlet for their 
excactions and eggs. The fins of fish are divided into pectoral,
dorsal, ventral, caudal, branchial and anal fins.
Dr. M. says that air is frequently secreted in different
parts of the human body, as in the bladder &c.
Dr. Macnevens Lecture. The atmosphere is a thin, transparent,
elastic, and invisible fluid its Physical properties are its 
weight and elasticity, it is the pressure of the atmosphere 
which retains fluids in their situation, every cubic inch of our 
bodies sustains 14 lbs of stenospheric pressure, it is counterbalanced
by the air which is contained in our bodies, the pressure of the 
air was first discovered by Toncielli in 1643. The ascension of  

the air in the sucking pump is explained by the pressure of 
the air being removed. The mean pressure of the atmosphere is 
equal to 30 inches, and varies but little. The Barometer rises on
mountains which is the consequence of its sustaining a less column
of air. Heavy and light bodies fall to the ground at the 
same time in an exhausted receiver, as was shown by a cent
and a piece of cotton, the attraction to the earth being the same 
in both bodies. The great pressure of the atmosphere shows why 
our bodies are so affected by changes of weather &c.
December 11th. Dr. Mitchills Lecture. Fish have small
brains, eyes situated on opposite sides of the head. Dr. M. says
that he thinks that we see with one eye only, and says that the 
cornea of one eye is always more protuberant than the other 
he mentioned two instances of persons losing the sight of one of 
their eyes without their knowledge, and accidentally discovering
it, one person was his mother. Fish have organs of hearing 
water is an excellent medium of sound, and sounds are 
conducted much farther on the surface of water than merely
through the air as has been proved on lakes the taste and 
touch of fish are not acute, their tongue is often beset with 
teeth. The sexes are in pairs, and the organs of generation
are in the male two testicles, and in the female an ovarium.

In a large cod fish, half a million of eggs have been counted. Fish are
animalivorous, and the same species feed on each other they are oviparous,
the female deposites her eggs in the sand and the male
afterwards bedews them with sperm. Fish are divided into 
2 Classes Bony and Cartilaginous. The bony are divided into 
4 Orders, which are classified by their ventral fins.
Order 1st- Apodes, no ventral fins.
" 2 " Jugulares, ventral fins on the throat.
" 3 " Thoraciæ, " " " " breast.
" 4 " Abdominales " " " " belly.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. The Barometer varies from 29 to a little 
over 30, at the top of the Andes which is 3 miles in height the 
barometer rises to 1666/100, and hemorrhages occur the atmosphere
extends 40 miles above the surface of the earth, which is known
by the rays of the sun being reflected at 40 miles above the 
earth. Air is never completely exhausted by the air pump but 
only rarified, it is very busy out, and it is owing to this property
that some substances float, and birds fly, every body displaces
a quantity of air proportioned to its violence as air rarifies 
and parts with its caloric, it grows cold, as is proved by
a thermometer placed in the receiver of an air pump.
The elasticity of the air is proved by the following experiment.

experiment. Place a bladder which contains a small quantity of 
air, and which of course is collapsed into the receiver of an air 
pump, and then extract the air, you will observe, that as the air 
is rarified in the receiver the air contained in the bladder will
expand it to its full size, afterwards admit the external air, and 
the bladder will immediately collapse to its former shrunk state.
Dr Mitchill's Lecture
December 11. 2d- Class Cartilaginous Fish. Order 5th- Chondriopterygeus 
with cartilaginous fins as the shark &c. Order 6th. Branchiostegeus 
with covered gills. Specimens of Fish - Order Apodes
Genus Murana, Species Anguilla vulgaris, common eel, no ventral
fins, body cylindrically roundish and smooth.- Order Jugulores 
Genus Gadus or cod, Species Gadus collarias, the rack cod of N. York
of a varigated colour, Species Gadus tomcodus, the tomcod.
Order Pectoral Genus Labris - Species Labris tantaga, the tantag
or black fish, with sharp teeth.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Mercury will permeate the pores of 
wood by placing it on the top of an exhausted receiver, owing 
to the compression of the external air, it will descend through
the receiver in a shower. Water will use 33 feet by the pressure
of the air, the entry of air into a vacuum causes an explosion, as is proved
by a bladder over an exhausted receiver, and puncturing it.

Emetics prepare the way for other remedies, and are applicable in almost 
all fevers, particularly in those of hot latitudes, they are generally connected
with a diseased state of the stomach, emetics break the chain of morbid
association, there is a difference of opinion respecting their applicability
in malignant fevers. Dr. M. has found spirits of turpentine very 
beneficial in puerperal fever in the dose of half a wine glass full
it excites evacuations by stool and perspiration. Menstrual blood is 
not pure blood but a secretion from the womb, it does not coagulate
When croup comes on very suddenly it is spasmodic, when gradually
inflammatory, emetics are applicable in both, they are given in 
chronic affections of the breast, particularly in peripneumonia
nottra, in spasmodic, and humoral asthma, the sulphate of 
Zinc is given in, they are given in dyspepsia, foul states
of the stomach, chronic diarrhea, dropsies, tic doulereux, mania
and hernia humoralis, and in some nervous diseases which 
originate from a diseased state of the stomach.
December 13. Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Hydrogene is a permanently 
elastic, invisible gas, and the brightest of all bodies 16 times
lighter than oxygen, it is an acidifiable combustible, in its most 
simple state it is combined with caloric and electricity, and cannot 
be separated from caloric except by affinity by mixing two 
[?easures] of oxygen and one of hydrogen and passing the electric

shock through them the gases detonate and form water which 
is of the weight of the gases, all inflammables exist in a state 
of positive electricity, oxygen exists in a state of negative electricity;
more oxydable bodies occupy the positive pole of the voltaic
apparatus. Hydrogen exists largely in vegetable and animal
matter, it can be procured from iron filings or from zinc by 
pouring on acids much diluted, as a proof that the hydrogen
is obtained from the water, the acid remains not at all diminished
after the process; it is inflammable only when added
to some combustible when an intense heat is produced,
in respiration it is negative, and is not absorbed by water, it 
unites with oxygen in one proportion. Hydrogene unites in 
a determinate proportion with iodine, and chlorine, forming 
hydroiodic, and hydrochloric acids. 
December 14. Dr Macneven's Lecture. The constitution of the 
air as high as has been examined is the same. Hydrogen is the gas 
made use of in balloons. Atomic Theory. All simple and compound
bodies unite in definite proportions, for instance Muriate of 
Soda whether obtained or made by artificial means consists of determinate
proportions, the elements of bodies are unchangeable
and the ultimate particles of bodies are hard and minute 
if it were not so matter could not exist, in compound bodies

each particle is composed of an atom or atoms of the compound
Bodies are never in actual contact as is proved by bodies being contracted
by cold, showing they were not in contact, 100 parts of sulphur and 100
of oxygen form Sulphurous acid, 100 of sulphur and 150 of oxygen
form Sulphuric acid. The Atomic Theory or doctrine of definite 
proportions was established in 1804 by Dalton, and since that has 
been received by all Chemical Philosphers, the only thing assumed
in this doctrine is, that bodies are resolvable into atoms. Alkalis are
acid and turn vegetable blues green, Acids are sour, and turn vegetable
blues red -
December 15. Dr. Mitchills Lecture. Phytology, or Botany, the 
second great division of organized and animated beings.
Vegetables are apathic, they possess motion, but no nervous
system, consequently no feeling. Dr. Percival says that they 
have feeling and perception, they are destitute of local motion
and take their food by inussusceptio, their nourishment
is taken in two ways, from the earth through the medium
of water, and from the air, some vegetable live underground as 
some of the order Fungi some float on the water, and some between
land and water. Fungi grow on a foot stalk, some of 
this order are called parasitical plants, and derive their subsistence
form other plants, whence the word parasite is derived the 

mould that grows on bread and other substances is a species of 
the parasitical kind. The Vegetable World is divided into 
7 great natural families viz -
Family 1st- Fungi Mushrooms. 
" 2. Algae, Flags 
" 3. Musci. Mosses. 
" 4. Filices, Ferns.
5th- Gramina, Grasses.
6. Palmae, Palms.
7. Plantae, Plants.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Emetics. Ipecacuanha is a mild
and effectual emetic, and more certain in its operation than 
the minerals, there are three kinds, the gray, brown and white 
the gray is the best, its greatest activity is in the resinous part
and it operates almost as well in small doses in large, it 
determines to the surface, and is given in febrile diseases,
chronic dysentery, asthma, and hemorrhages. Tartar Emetic
is emetic, purgative and diaphoretic according to the dose 
in which it is given, a solution of tartar emetic should supersede
antimonial wine it is given in exanthematous affections,
and in injection in 8 or 10 grains in cases of obstinate 
constipation, and in tetanus, as an antidote the extractive matter
of vegetables which decomposes it. Turpeth Mineral in a dose of 
6 or 8 grains in swelled testicles. Sulphate of Zinc is a prompt
emetic, and is given in hooping cough, and when poisons are taken.

December 16. Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. Fungi grow by a single
foot stalk, and are the lowest in the scale. Musci have a 
stalk containing seeds at its end. Filices bear their organs of fructification
on their back, remedy for tenia. Gremina, their peculiar 
character is a long stem called culm, hollow, and divided into
joints, of these there are barley, rye, and wheat &c. called
cerealia. Palmæ have a single stem without branches but 
leaves, they grow under the tropics, Cacao and Sago are obtained
from the palm. Plantæ. comprising all those vegetables
not included in the six preceding divisions. Plants are 
divided into 4 Orders. the orders are mostly arbitrary.
Order 1st- Herbaceous, those that die in the winter down to the rest.
" 2. Frutices, Shrubs of small size as the Liloch.
" 3. Subfrutices, Underbrush, as the cranberry &c.
" 4. Arbores. Trees, all those vegetables larger than the Frutices.
They are also divided according to their duration into 
1. Annual, or those which live only one year.
2. Biennial, or those which live two years, as the parsnip &c.
3. Perennial or those which do not die, as the trees.
Dr Macneven's Lecture. Sulphur is generally obtained from 
the neighborhood of Etna, also from Pyrites which is a combination
of sulphur and iron, the sulphur is sublimed by 

heat, Sulphur does not change from exposure to the air, and
is insoluble in water, when it is heated so as to ascend it forms the 
flowers, and when melted it cools in chrystalls, it is soluble in 
Sulphuric ether and in oils, it burns with a pale blue colour
with a suffocating smell. Sulphur when formed into Sulphurous 
acid increases in weight, owing to the Oxygen which it receives.
Sulphurous acid contains 100 parts of sulphur and oxygen
Sulphuric acid contains 100 parts of sulphur and 150 of oxygen
Sulp. ac. turns vegetable blues red, and afterwards destroys
the colour as Iodine. 1/2 volume of oxygen and 1 of hydrogen
forms water, it takes 1 volume of sulphurated hydrogen and 
1 1/2 of oxygen to produce combustion. The specific gravity of 
sulphur and oxygen is 1,111. Sulphurous acid is converted into 
sulphuric by heat as the water which is lighter than the 
acid evaporates. Sulphuric acid is colourless, of a glutinous
consistence, and nearly twice the weight of water. Sulphur 
is 16 times heavier than hydrogen
December 17. Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. Vegetables are divided into 
Indigenous, or those found at the settlement of the country.
Exotic, or those introduced into a country.
Cicurated, or those exotics which become naturalized, and 
thrive in the soil in which they have been transplanted.

Vegetables consist of three great parts. Radix or root, Truncus
or trunk or body and Fructificatio or organs of fructification.
The Radix gives fixity to the vegetable, and is the medium
of nourishment, water is indispensible to the support
of plants. The Truncus is naturally perpendicular, and 
has an inclination to the sun, from the trunk are obtained
by different processes, bark, gum, resin, turpentine, tar,
pyrolignic acid and potash. The organs of fructification,
or the apparatus of vegetable generation consist of the seed
and their appendages. Vegetation ends where Fructification
begins, for where a flower blooms that part never grows afterwards,
but the growth is from other parts.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Sulphuric acid formed by burning Sulphur.
Sulphas. Potass. is a natural bitter salt, and chrystallizes in 
small six sided prisms, it fuses in a strong heat, boiling water 
takes up 1/5 of its weight, it consists of 45 parts acid, and 55 base 
1/4 of charcoal decomposes it and forms the Carb. Potass. The 
Sulphas. Sod. contains 54 acid and 46 base. it is very bitter, and 
more soluble than Sulp. Potass. Sulp. Barytes is made by adding 
Sulp. ac. to any Barytic salt, or to water containing Barytes, it 
takes 43,000 grains of water to dissolve 1 grain of Sulph. Barytes.

It is decomposed by 3 or 4 times as much potash, boiled in a strong
iron vessel, which forms Carb. Potass. Powdered Sulphate of 
Barytes is also decomposed by Charcoal. Sulphate of Lime consists
of 49 acid, and 51 base, it contains water, therefore fuses in a strong
heat, it is decomposed by Carbonated Alkali and Charcoal
Sulph. Magnesia or Epsom salt contains 67 acid, and 33 base
Sulph. Alumenis is a an astringent salt, of a sweetish taste.
December 18. Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. Botany is divided into three
parts
1st. Philosophical Botany, or the Anatomy & Physiology of Vegetables.
2. Systematic " " " Arrangement & Classification.
3. Medicinal, Dietetic, and Technical, the first their virtues as
remedies, second, as diet, and the last, their virtues in manufactures
as tanning and dying. 1st- Philosophical Botany, the Anatomy
of Vegetables. The Germ or punctum vitale of vegetables is of 
5 roots 1st- Semen or seed, the fructus of vegetables, contained within 
the seed, and preceded by a blossom. 
2d- Germa, or bud, growing at the side or end of a branch to protect
it from cold, that is the infant germ.
3d- Bulbus or bulb, inclosing the germ in concentric layers as in 
the onion, it is called hybernaculum, because it protects from cold.
4th- Oculus, or eye, from some vegetables having holes, of some resemblance 

resemblance to an eye, with a radical germ
or root, as the potatoe.
5th- Succulus or sprout, a germ without
a bud, excrescences growing on the trunk
of trees, sometimes called suckers, because
they draw nourishment from the branches 
Botanical Marks.
Annual ☉
Biennial ♂
Perennial χ
Shrubs. ¬
Cicurated  §
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Cathartics increase the peristaltic
motion of the intestines. Some Physiologists have supposed that 
the sensibility of the intestines increases from the stomach downwards.
Purgatives extend their effects to the abdominal viscera,
diminish the circulation, and lessen the fluids, depletion from 
any part causes an afflux of humours to the part. the first action
of cathartics is stimulant, their remote effects sedative, during
their use dilute freely, in hypercatharsis, the best antidote is 
the warm bath, with opium in a solid form. they are given in 
bilious remittent fevers, continued inflammatory fevers, typhus
repeated every two or three days in exanthemata, as measles &c, in 
erysipelas, copious purging, watery solution of opium to allay the itching,
in scarlatina, cold affusion, even in winter, active cathartics in dysentery
in acute diseases of the head, palsy, hydrocephalus, hepatitis,
chorea, epilepsy, truisms nascentium, hysteria. In mania griping
purgatives combined with tart. emetic should be given.

December 20. Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. Seeds are divided into -
1st- Arillus, outer coat, as the pad of a peanut.
2. Membrana, inner lining, in contact with the seed.
3. Fovea. aperture for the admission of air, water, and nourishment.
4. Heilum, cicatrix or navel, whereby the seed was attached to the plant.
5. Corculum, point of life, the incipient plant.
6. Plumula. fatal plant resembling a feather, attached to the Curriculum.
7. Rostellum, the root which turns downwards.
8. Cotyledon, vegetable yelle and white, furnishing nourishment.
Vegetables retain their vitality for a great length of time, the only certain
proof of animal or vegetable life being extinct is the commencement
of the putrefactive process. The great length of time which vegetables
retain their susceptibility to be acted upon by the natural
stimuli has given rise to the theory of Equivocal Generation. The case 
of Dr. Tennant whose funeral was delayed for two days through the 
intreaties of a friend was a strong instance of suspended animation
without the extinction of life, he recovered and lived many years.
Dr Macneven's Lecture. Sulphur combines with alkalis, and 
forms sulphurets. which were called hepaes from their colour being 
similar to a liver. Sulphur and Lime heated have the power of 
absorbing light, and emitting it in the dark. Sulphurets emit a 
bad smell, have an acrid taste, and are decomposed by all 

the acid the sulphur precipitating, and the acid uniting with the alkali
Pour dilute muriatic acid on one of the sulphurets, and sulphurated
hydrogen gas is liberated, this gas smells very offensive, and is inflammable,
if combined with oxygen or atmopsheric air, it inflames with combustion, it 
tarnishes metals, and blackens white paint, it is absorbed by water, and water saturated
with this gas reddens vegetable blues, and if exposed to the air a pellicle
is formed on the surface. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas precipitates all the 
metallic ozides except cobalt and a few others, hence its use a test in 
discovering poisons, it changes water containing arsenic of a dirty yellow
colour, and if tart. emet. an orange red colour. Sulphurets can only be 
kept in a dry state, for if they are exposed to moisture, hydrosulphurets 
are formed. 
December 21. Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. Seeds are divided into several
kinds relative to their Cotyledons or lobes.
1st- Acotyledons, plants without cotyledons or lobes.
2. Monocotyledons, those with one lobe.
3. Dicotyledons, having two lobes.
4. Polycotyledons, having more than two lobes.
Acotyledons, without hunks, structure cellular, destitute of fibres
and pith, vessels scarcely visible, as the families of the Fungi, the 
Musci, Filices and Algae, they are represented by [illustration] showing the 
cellular structure and the vessels scarcely visible. 

Monocotyledons trunks vascular and fibrous vessels and fibres in bundles
is shown in this representation, the dots showing the vessels, and the 
intermediate space the pith which is distributed among the vessels
[illustration], to this division belong the Gramina and Palmæ.
Dicotyledons, compresing all vegetables with the Polycotyledons not 
included in the two former divisions, trunk vascular and fibrous, vessels
and fibres in concentric rings, surrounding the central pith as 
is shown in the following representations [illustration].
Vegetables secrete milk and sugar during their germination as the coconut 
and barley. Sometimes animal sugar is secreted as in Diabetes. Beer
and ale made by the following process, when the barely begins to germinate
it is exposed to heat and dryed, and is then called malt, this 
malt is ground and water added, which forms sweet wort, this wort
assisted by heat and moisture takes on the vinous fermentation, to 
this are added bitters as hop, and sometimes even aloes and opium
Grain put in a fermenting state by heat, or the vinous liquor acted upon
by the same process produces ardent spirits, the process called
distillation, this spirit is a menstruum for resinous substances
and mixes with oils, the effects of ardent spirits very pernicious.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Phosphorus is a simple substance, and 
is obtained from the calcination of bones, the process is the following
Calcine the bones untill the animal matter is consumed, then to an 

100 parts of them pulverised, add 40 parts of strong sulphuric acid, with 
4 times its weight of water. Urine when putrescent and dried affords a little
phosphorus. Phosphoric acid is formed by the union of phosphorus
with oxygen, it has all the proper ties of the acids. Chlorine gas supports the 
combustion of phosphorus, it is dissolved by Alkhahol and oil, is luminous
in the dark, and melts under water at the temperature of 108, it is a violent
stimulus, and unfit to be used as a medicine. Phosp. ac. has the 
the properties of dissolving readily in water, of not being decomposed
by heat alone, and of forming neutral salts by its union with acidifiable
bases, as the phosphate of soda, it consists of 46 72/100 base and of 
53 28/100 oxygen. Phosphates are soluble in the nitric, and muriatic
acids, and then decomposed by lime and ammonia. Phosphoretted
hydrogen burns when it comes in contact with atmospheric air, this 
accounts for the lights seen in chuchyards, which abound with this 
gas. Phosphorus is sometimes given in the doses of 1/8 of a grain.
December 23. Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. Appendages to seeds 1st. Pappus
or flyer to waft the seed. 2d. Stipes a stem. 3d. Ala or wing. 4th. Nux or 
nut, the hard substance covering the seed.
Chemical Analysis of the Monocotyledenous grain, wheat, the 
moist way or by putting it in water.
1st- Pellicula or scum, or brand rising on the top
2d. Mucilago, or mucilage, which turns sour and becomes vinegar.

3d- Gluten, a paste which also rises to the top.
4th- Aurytum, starch, or fecula, which is insoluble, and remains at the bottom.
Mechanical division of wheat, by grinding and boulting into farina
or meal consisting of the two following parts.
1st- Pulvis, or flour, the powdered part.
2d- Furfur or bean, the husky part. } Theory of making bread
1st- Azymic, or unleavened, made of water and grain, the air extricated
from the water gives this bread considerable sponginess.
2d- Zymic or leavened which is made light by yeast. In the fermentation
of wort a great deal of carb. ac. gas which is the heaviest
of the gases remains on the top, which is called barm or yeast, leaven
or emptyings, causing fermentation when added to the dough this 
fermentation is immediately stopped by the process of baking
Turnpike leaven or dry yeast is made in the following manner.
To meal of maize add water, some hops, sweet apples or pumpkins,
then apply a proper degree of heat to make it ferment, while
fermenting add more maize then knead it until it becomes stiff
afterwards dry it gradually in the sunshine and make it into
sticks, by moistening it any time afterwards, it will cause fermentation.
Maize and rice are deficient in mucilage, which is the 
reason why they do not make good bread. Coffee stimulates the 
nervous system without exhausting it, and is very refreshing it 
strengthens digestion. 

Dr Macneven's Lecture. Laxatives, Ol. Ricin. the oil is obtained
from the seeds either by boiling when the oil floats, or by compression
the last is the best, when this oil grows rancid it changes colour its
action is quick and mild and is given in the fibrile stage of dysentery,
cholera infantum, tormina, piles, to lying in women, its taste is 
disguised either by peppermint water or coffee. Olive oil acts nearly
as well and is preferable where poisons have been taken.
Flowers of Sulphur in the dose of ʒj or ʒij is a mild laxative, it 
acts upon the large intestines, useful in chronic rheumatism.
Magnesia is a simple earth, and acts as a laxative whether it meets with
an acid or not which is not the case with the other earths, it is chiefly
obtained from sea water, the calcined is preferable to the carbonated
it should not be combined with Sup. Tart. Potass. Carbon or charcoal
obviates costiveness and is a powerful antiseptic in dyspepsia a 
tablespoonful twice a day, in fetid ulcerations of the fauces, in fetid 
discharges in dysentery, the charcoal poultice corrects fetid ulcers and 
burnt it is the best dentifice. The Neutral salts are useful laxatives
in febrile affections and in diseases of the head.
Cathartics. Rhubarb in a close of ʒss or ʒi is an effectual
cathartic and its operation does not create a feverish disposition
K. Rhei is an excellent remedy in dyspepsia. Rachix Jalapa its activity
depends on its resin. a very effectual purgative in dropsy
is a combination of Jalap and Cremor Tartar. 

December 24. Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. The anatomy of a vegetable
trunk exemplified in a section of discotyledonous plants.
1st- Medulla, pith the central part, softer than the rest.
2. Lignum, wood proper, complete wood, timber.
3. Alburnum, sap wood, incomplete wood.
4. Cambrum incipient bark, that which supplies new bark when denuded.
5. Liber. inner bark, used formerly to write upon with a style.
6. Cortex. bark proper, used in manufactures and in pharmacy.
7. Epidermis. cuticle, covering to protect the trunk.
Animal skins are prepared for tanning by maceration, the tannin of 
the bark unites with the gelatin of the skin.
The several kinds of the trunk are the following. viz -
A. Caulis. trunk supporting the leaves and flowers.
B. Culines. culm. peculiar to grasses.
C. Scarpus. trunk supporting fructification.
D. Pedunculus, footstalk. supporting fructification
E. Petallus. footstalk supporting the leaves.
F. Frans, a species of trunk, a substitute for branches.
G. Stipes, the base of the frond.
H. Ramus, branch, subdivison of the trunk.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Carbon or Charcoal when pure is without 
taste or smell, and for the most part black, heat has no effect on 

it, when air is excluded. Diamonds consist of indurated carbon and possess
great refractibility and are very combustible. Carbon absorbs all the acids the 
lower the temperature, the greater the absorption, for heat increases the elasticity
the absorption depends on the porosity of the woods furnishing charcoal
Carbon forms the greatest part of animal and vegetable matter, it is found
imbedded in the earth, and is then called coal, and is obtained from peat,
resins and oils when impure it contains hydrogen, and is of great use, as 
fuel, for correcting impure water, and smelting metals, mixed with 
iron it forms steel. Carbon burnt in oxygen gas converts it into carb.
ac. gas, and is of the same volume and weight that the oxygen was,
this gas is called chock dam on account of its suffocating quality, and 
is found in low places as wells &c it is a poison and unfit for respiration
or combustion, it is obtained in large quantities from chalk and 
marble by the acids, its specific gravity is much greater than atmospheric
air, and on this account it can be poured from one vessel to another 
the same as water, immediately displacing the atmospheric air
by its greater gravity it immediately extinguishes flame.
December 27. Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. Fulera or appendages of Vegetables
sometimes called props consisting of.
1. Stipula, an appendage to the leaf or footstalk supporting the leaf.
2. Bractea, floral leaf, supporting the peduncle of the flower. 

3. Spina, thorn, a sharp excrescence of wood.
4. Aculcus, prickle attached to the cuticle as in the rose.
5. Cinhus, tendril, clasping other objects to support it, as peas &c. vines.
6 Glandula, gland, excretory duct of vegetables, the same as the scab on the 
fore leg of horses and swine, the diseases of swine cured by opening this scab.
7. Pilus, hair. excretory ducts on the surface of leaves. Count Rumford discovered
that sharp points of any substance placed under water in the rays
of the sun evolve bubbles of oxygenous gas.
8. Pubis, down, excretory ducts.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Carbon is insoluble in water, undergoes
no change in the most intense heat, is a good conductor of electricity
and a bad conductor of caloric it destroys all odours and is 
therefore made use of to purify water and spirits and to deprive them
of their disagreeable flavours the reason why water becomes foul
in casks is that it decomposes a portion of vegetable matter, charcoal
has a strong affinity for moisture. Plumbago is a composition
of carbon and iron of which lead pencils are made it is a good 
conductor of electricity. Diamond is very combustible but cannot be 
melted. Carbon unites with hydrogen forming carburetted hydrogen, this 
is generated in stagnant pools, which is deleterious it burns in contact with 
common air, with oxygen it detonates, it exists in coal mines, and is 
used for lights in manufactories.

December 28. Dr. Michill's Lecture. Inflorescence of Vegetables
or their made of Flowering.
1. Verticillus, whurl, the manner in which flowers surround the stalk.
2. Racemus, cluster, flowers growing in clusters.
3. Spina, spike supporting fructification on the end.
4. Corymbus, corymb, growing upon a number of footstalks.
5. Fasciculus, bundle, footstalks in bundles.
6. Capitilum, fructification in globular heads.
7. Umbella, umbel, so called from a fanciful resemblance to an umbrella
most of these are venomous but their poisonous qualities may be altered
by domestication as in the carrot, parsnip &c.
8. Cyma, cyme very nearly resembling the umbel.
9. Pannicula, pannicle.
10. Thyrsus, bundle, open sparse pannicles.
Leaves of Vegetables. Folia are considered according as they are 
1. Simple, or a footstalk with one leaf.
2. Compound, a footstalk with more leaves.
3. Determinate. the relation which they have to the plants.
The reason why leaves fall off in autumn is the substraction of 
Caloric at that season, if they do not lose their leaves they are 
called Sempivernal, or evergreens. Flowers are the generation organs,
and leaves the respiratory organs of plants. Dr. Darwin supposed
that leaves were furnished with arteries and veins, passing 

through the footstalk to carry them their nourishment. Dr. M.
thinks that Oxygen enters both by the stomach and lungs and also 
that Arote enters the circulation, and is as much a pabulum vita 
as oxygen itself, in respiration oxygen unites with the carbon which 
is evolved from the lungs, forming. Carb. ac. has. Some contend that 
Oxygen is taken in by the stomach alone. Many animals appear
luminous which is owing to their parting with their redundant light
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Carb. Potass is composed of 31 71/100 acid and 
68 29/100 base this turns vegetable blues green and effervesces with acid
Mercury absorbs many times its bulk of Carb. ac. gas before it becomes
saturated to prove the purity of Alkali, first determine
have much acid a given quantity of acid will take up this for a 
standard, then afterwards by this test you can discover the purity
of any alkali. Sub carb. potass deliquesces in the air, and retains its 
Carb. ac. gas at the highest temperature, it has a strong alkaline
taste, more carb. ac. gas may be united by compression forming the 
Bicarb potass, which is the best antacid that can be used, also 
for the effervescent draught, it does not deliquesce in the air but 
requires four times its weight of water to deliquesce it. Carb. Soda
consists of 42 acid, and 58 base, with a double quantity of acid it 
forms the Bicarbonate of Soda. Carb. ac. gas has a strong affinity
for Ammonia they both exist in a gaseous state, yet their union  

forms a solid the Carbon. Ammon. Sal. Ammoniac consists of 
Ammonia and Muriatic acid. 2 vol of Alkaline gas and 1 Carb.
ac. gas forms the Sub. carb. Ammon. this loses some of its weight
by exposure to the air. Carb. ac. unites also with the earth as with 
Barytes forming Carb. Barytes which is a poison it is composed of 
22. acid. 78. base. Chalk and marble are Carbonates of Lime.
Lime water attracts Carb. ac. gas from the atmosphere, which 
forms a crust, and afterwards precipitates. Liquid Magnesia
is made by forcing Carb. ac. gas into magnesia by compression
it is an excellent medicine, as a laxative.
December 29. Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. Simple leaves differ from each
other and are divided into.
1. Circumscriptio, the outline of plants.
2. Angula, angle, the prominent parts of plants.
3. Sinns. counterpart, the inlets of angles.
4. Apex, the extremity or point of a plant.
5. Margo, margin, or lateral border.
6. Superficies, surface, upper and lower.
7. Substantia the matter of the two sides of the leaf.
Compound leaves are such as grow upon one stalk.
1. Structure, articulated, digitated, binated, pinnated &c.
2. Their degree relative to the composition or subdivision   

The Determinate leaves are divided thus.
1. Locus the point of insertion.
2. Situs, the deposition of leaves on the trunk as thick or sparse &c.
3. Susertio. the place where it is inserted.
4. Directio, whether adverse or oblique to the sun, or horizontal.
Fructification of plants, a complete [crossed out] flower consists of 
7 parts. 1. Calix, flower cup, 2. Corolla, wreath. 3 Stamen. hive.
4. Pistil. 5. Pericarpium, inclosure. 6 Semen seed. 7. Receptacutum
receptacle.
Dr Macneven's Lecture. Worms are of different kinds. the Ascaris
is generally found in the rectum, the lumbricus in the smaller
intestines and the tenia which is sometimes ten feet long in the whole
tract of the intestines, Hydatids are also animals, and are found in different
parts of the body, the are transparent bodies. Dr. M. was once called
to deliver a woman, but instead of a fetus a bunch of hydatids were 
extracted. There are two opinions respecting worms some supposing 
them taken in to the body and others that they are generated in the body
Dr. M. is of the latter opinion they are found in almost every part
of the body, and often perforate the intestines. Every thing that weakens
digestion favours their production, and children and females are 
the most subject to them. they produce local and sympathetic effects, 
and diseases caused by them often assume the forms of nausea,

colic, vertigo, epilepsy, bilious vomiting, and fever, the symptoms
of worms are swelling of the abdomen, alternation of looseness and constipation,
emaciation, irregular pulse, fetid breath, slimy stools,
dry cough, tenesmus, itching of the nose and anus and many anomalous
symptoms. Anthelmentics act in different ways, some as 
poisons, some as evacuants, some mechanically, and some indirectly,
that is by strengthening the alimentary canal.
December 30. Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. 1 The Calyx or flower cup is of several
forms, and it thus named.
A. Brianthium. situated at the base of the flower, embracing it.
B. Involucrum. flower cup peculiar to umbelliferous plants.
C. Amentum, scaly flower cup, containing the fructification.
D. Spatha, peculiar to pals, onions &c.
E. Gluma. peculiar to grasses.
F. Calyptra. peculiar to mosses.
G. Volva. peculiar to fungi.
2. Corolla, wreath, the coloured part which consists of one or 
more petals, called Monopetalous and Polypetalous.
1. Monopetalous, of one petal, which petal is divided into 
Tubes, tube, or its upper part, and into Limb, or its lower 
part.
2. Polypetalous, of many petals, which petals are divided 

into Unguis or claw, that part attached to the plant, and into 
Lamina, or its expanded part. Monopetalous plants are divided
according to the form of their petals into 1. Camparttata.
resembling a bell. 2. Infundibuliforme, resembling a tunnel.
3. Ringeus, resembling a laughing mouth. 4. Personata. 5. Hypocraterforme, 
resembling a salver. 6. Protata. like a wheel.
Polypitalous plants are called Pappillionacea. resembling a 
butterfly. Flowers are called Lillaceous, resembling a lilly and 
Rosaceous from their resemblance to a rose.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Put two vials into a scale one containing 
a solution of alkali, and one of acid, and equipoise them, then mix
the two together, a bush effervescence will take place, with an extrication
of carb. ac. gas, then weight them and you will find that 
they have lost a great deal of weight.
Boron is a simple inflammable, with oxygen it forms Bor. ac. which 
is a hard white substance, greasy. Boron is insoluble in water, is of a 
greenish brown colour, no taste, neither feasible nor volatile, is soluble
in ether and oil, Boracie ac. is the sedative salt of Hombers,
by fusion a transparent glass is formed. Bor. ac. with salifiable bases
forms borates. Sub. bor. sod. or common borax has a styptic taste
and effloresces in the air, it is used as a gargle in Apthae of children
Potassa has a strong affinity for Oxygen.



January 3. 1820. Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Metals are very 
brilliant bodies in an aggregate state they are simple bodies
they are the best conductors of electricity and good conductors of Caloric
they combine with oxygen forming oxides which are of a dull 
colour, and heavier than the metals from which they are formed
There are 39 metals, divided into 6 Classes according to their 
affinity for Oxygen.
1. Those whose nature is dubious.
2. Those which absorb oxygen at the highest temperature.
3. Those which absorb oxygen at the highest temperature, but 
do not decompose water without a red heat.
4. Those which absorb oxygen at the highest temperature but do 
not absorb water at all.
5. Those which require a high temperature to unite with oxygen.
6. Those which do not decompose water nor absorb oxygen.
Physical properties. They are solid at the common temperature except
mercury of different colours of a peculiar taste depending
on their power of refracting light, opaque, dense, 1 Pare ductile
and 13 brittle, the ductile have tenacity, and their strength depends
on their tenacity, they differ in their hardness. Metals have elasticity
and sonorosity in proportion to their hardness, and are 
dilatable by heat, those which [cross out] are most oxydable have most
taste and smell, the structure of Metals is various.

Chemical properties They are fusible in different degrees of heat, some 
are infusible some are volatile at a high temperature the most inflammable
bodies will not burn in pure hydrogen or nitrogen.
They burn with various coloured flames. The atmosphere consists
of 21 Oxygen and 79 Nitrogen. Natural State. They are very 
seldom found pure, they are found in the four following states
1. Pure metals. 2. Oxydated metals. 3. Combined with combustibles
as with arsenic and sulphur. 4. Metallic salts, generally
the sulphuric, fluoric, phosphoric and carbonic acids with 
the metals, their uses are very extensive. No nation ever became
civilized without the discovery of the metals preceding it. 
January 4. Dr. Macneven's Lecture. On the galvanic battery Metals
burn with different coloured flames. Silver burns with a green flame
yet it is not oxydated by its combustion. Some combine with oxygen
by mix exposure to the air they form oxides at different temperatures.
Water is the great oxydizes of metals. All acids contain
oxygen, hence they oxydate metals, the nitric and oxymuriatic
acids are the best oxydizes as the affinity of their bases is not 
great. Equal weights of metals will decompose unequal parts
of hydrogen. Iron has a very strong affinity for oxygen. Acids
effervesce with metals, but not with oxides, because oxides are 
already supplied with oxygen. Oxydation is a simple combination 

combination with oxygen. Some metals require more oxygen than others.
Metals unite with oxygen in definite proportions, and different
oxides of the same metal require different degrees of acid as Corros.
Sub. and Calomel. The quantity of acid which metals require to 
oxydate them is in proportion to the oxygen which their oxides
contain, as oxides contain different quantities of oxygen.
January 5. Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Anthelmentics. Poly podium
Mas, male fern, has an astringent bitter taste, nauseous smell and 
is deemed a specific against tania, the patient should be prepared
by an emollient gliota then take two or three drachum of the powdered
root of the fern to be given in the morning with some strong cathartic
afterwards, the tania is generally expelled by the first dose, probably
the cure depends on the strength of the cathartic the patient should
eat freely, for the worm will attack the intestines if not. Those
who live upon indian grain are the most subject to lumbricus, these
are very dangerous, as they sometimes perforate the intestines, they are
frequently voided by the mouth and anus. The Cabbage bark is 
the most certain remedy in lumbrici, it is the bark of a tree in 
Jamaica, though seldom prescribed, it is given in different forms
Decoction ℥i of the bark a quart of water, sweetened with sugar
it is to be given in proportion to the age of the patient, until nausea
is produced. Lime juice is the best antidote when narcotia


poisons have been taken. Dolichos pruriens. cow itch. the hairy
substance on the pod is serviceable in lumbrici, a cathartic to 
be given afterwards. Calomel should always be an ingredient in purgatives
for worms. Dr. M. has used the Dolichos with great success,
its action is mechanical. Spigelia. pink root, is a good vermifuge,
a vomit should be premised, and a laxative given with 
it. Chenapodium has a bitter taste, and is active in a small
dose, the whole plant may be used. Dr. Heberden relates a case
of worms cured by enormous doses of salt, after other remedies had
failed, he took two pounds of salt dissolved in a little water
in less than an hour, which induced strangury and other complaints,
the next day he took the same quantity which induced
the same complaints, but his other complaints were gradually
cured. Tin is a good vermifuge, its operation is partly mechanical,
and its virtues are also owing to the hydrogen which is given
out in the intestines, if sulphur is present Sulphurtted hydrogen
will be formed. Iron filings also give out hydrogen and those
are good vermifuges. Sulpuric ether in conjunction with fern
coat is used with great success in France, afterwards a dose of Castor
oil should be given.
January 6. Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Specific gravity of bodies is 
determined by a comparison of the weight of one body with another 

both must be of the same bulk, as per example a cubic inch of water, and 
of iron, would be as 1 to 7. Distilled water is generally made use of to ascertain
the specific gravity of bodies any substance weights less in water
than in the air, because water resists pressure. We obtain the specific
gravity of bodies by first weighting them in the air, and afterwards in
water, and then divide the weight of the body in air, by the quantity of  
water displaced, and the quotient will give the specific gravity. The 
following experiment was made in an hydraulic scale, a piece of metal
was put in the scale and weighted in the air its weight was 115, then 
it was weighted in water, and its weight found to be 100, new to find 
its specific gravity, divide 100 its weight in air by 15 its loss in water, and 
the quantity will be the specific gravity, hence when any difficulty occurs
in distinguishing metals, for some resemble each other in colour
&c., you may determine them by referring to tables of specific gravities
To find the specific gravity of fluids, first fill a vessel with distilled
water, and weigh it, then fill it with the liquid, whose weight you
wish to ascertain, and weigh it, the difference of their weights will
give its specific gravity; another made is to immerse it in distilled water,
its specific gravity will be determined by its relative weight to the 
water. The Hydrometer is a graduated glass tube to weigh liquids.
The goodness of acids may be determined by their specific gravities.
Temperature must be attended to in determining the specific gravity
of Spirits, for they are rarified by heat, and condensed by cold 

hence experiments of this kind are generally made at a temperature
of 60 Fahrenheit. The Specific gravity of gases are found by weighing
equal batter of them, and ascertaing their relative weights.
Atmospheric air is the standard. Light substances are weighed in 
water by attaching weights to them.
January 7. Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Those Metals that attract water 
from the air, and absorb heat at the ordinary temperature of these there 
are manganese, Zinc, iron, and tin. Manganese when united with 
iron in Manganesia, it consists of 2/3 oxygen, it is of a grayish white 
colour, of no taste or smell, very brittle. Spec. grav. 8. it is more 
fusible than iron; a small addition of iron makes it magnetic.
it changes colour in the air, it has three definite oxides the protoxide,
deutoxide and peroxide. Ammonia separates iron from
manganese, the precipitate of protoxides is white, and of peroxides
brownish. To obtain oxygen from manganese strong sulph
acid must be added and heat applied. The oxide of any metal
to become soluble in acids must have 20 parts oxygen in the 
proportion of 100 parts, the per and protoxides unite with sulphur.
ac. forming sulphates, Manganese makes white precipitates
with alkalis. Manganese is made use of to obtain oxygen
and also chlorine which last destroys all colours, it is also used to 
clear glasses, and porcelain it contains iron as in shown by the 

green precipitate which it forms with the prussiate of potash
Zinc is obtained in combination with sulphur and oxygen
its specific gravity varies, but the best is the lightest, it oxydates
in water, but not in air, hence its use to cover houses, it 
decomposes water, evolving hydrogen gas. Fire converts it into 
the oxide, which is heavier than the metal by the absorption of 
oxygen. Zinc unites with chlorine forming the chlorate of zinc
Corros. Sublim. consists of chlorine and mercury.
January 8. Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Diuretics increase the secretion
of the kidnies. there is a great affinity between certain materials and 
our own organs, hence medicines produce catharsis, diuresis &c. Medicines
have peculiar powers on different parts of our bodies. We have a voluntary
power over the bladder, owing to connexion with the sympathetic
nerve. Some suppose that there is a more direct passage to the bladder
than though the circulation, for the ureters of clop have been tied and 
yet, upon drinking a large quantity of water they pass it copiously, the 
cure of ascites by cathartics increases this supposition, for the fluid
must have been taken up by the lymphatics of the intestines, this
passage is supposed to be by the lymphatics. Cold air and cold immersion
increase the discharge of urine, as does alcohol. The sensibility
of the bladder in old age is more obtuse than in youth. Rollo supposes
the primitive seat of diabetes to be in the stomach, it is owing 

to the unassimilation of the food. Dropsical patients should
drink freely. There is a great sympathy between the skin and kidnies.
Neutral salts are generally laxative and diuretic, and are injurious 
in all mucous discharges as in catarrh and gonorrhea. Diuretics act 
in two ways either by promoting absorption or increasing secretion;
whatever promotes perspiration diminishes the secretion of urine
to increase it their clothing and cold aspersion on the pubis. The 
activity of the absorption appears to be in an inverse proportion to 
the debility of secretion. Diuretics excite the action of the lymphatic
system, hence their use in dropsies, in diseases of the chest, they 
reduce the activity of the system. Particular diuretics. Potassa.
Sub. carb. potass has considerable powers. Tart. Potass is much better,
and Sup. Tart. Potass. is much more active than either. Nit. Potass.
in the dose of ʒi in 24 hours is a powerful diuretic, with Jalap it 
forms an hydragague much used in dropsy. Spirt. Actha. Nitros. is 
a very good diuretic in the dose of ℥ss. for an adult. A decoction
of parsley root is a very good domestic diuretic.
January 11. Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Iron is the most abundant
of all minerals and exists in almost all fossils, also in animal and 
vegetable matter, it is of bluish white colour, its spec. grav. 738/100
Native iron is flexible and cellular, it combines with oxygen, in 
heat and air having a great affinity for it. Oxygen combines with 


it in two proportions the protoxide which is formed by burning iron wire
in oxygen gas forming a black powder, and the peroxide which is a brownish 
powder. Native oxides of iron are very numerous. Magnetic ores
of iron contain a small quantity of oxygen, they are chiefly met with 
in primitive forms. Oxides are connected into metals by charcoal
it absorbing the oxygen of the oxide, and forming the carb. ac. gas,
Salts of iron become red by exposure to the air from the absorption
of more oxygen. salts formed with the peroxides do not chrystallize.
Iron unites with chlorine forming chlorate of iron. iron wire
burnt in chlorine gas forms the perchlorate of iron. Iodine also 
unites with it. Merc. ac. dissolves the per and protoxides.
Sulphur unites with iron in two proportions of owing the black
and yellow sulphurets of iron. Iron pyrites by exposure to heat
and moisture forms sulphate of iron. Sulphuric ac. unites with 
the protoxides in the proportion of two acid, and one iron and by heat
forms the Sulph. Fer. Oxy sulphurets are obtained by the peroxides in 
dilute muriatic acid. Phosp. Fer, obtained by Phosphoric acid and 
iron. Iron unites with carbon, forming carbonates of iron. When 
Prussic acid is added to solution contain'g iron which is peroxide
the precipitate is blue, if protoxide white, this acid is an excellent
test of mineral springs containing iron, forming a blue colour, Hydra
sulphuret of Ammonia is another test forming a black colour. Chrystallized 
is made by washing it in dilute acids.


January 12. Dr. Michill's Lecture. Continuation of the parts of a flower
3d. Stamen or chive is divided into 3 parts, it is the male organ of 
the vegetable, the three parts are 
A. Filamentum or filament conveys nourishment to the Anthera.
B. Anthera or secreting organ of the pollen.
C. Pollen, or fecundating dust which colour the flower.
The Anthera is the vegetable testis, it secretes the vegetable semen
or pollen. The Pollen or fecundating fauna varies in all flowers.
Moisture causes the anthera to burst with an explosion and 
at the same time moisture on the female organ attracts the pollen
thus moisture is the medium of fecundation. The Pollen is generally 
yellow and its falling in large quantities from trees in high 
winds has given rise to the stories of showers of brimstone falling.
4th- Pistillum or pointal is the female organ of generation, it 
is divided into three parts.
A. Germen, the lower part, or immature inclement of the fetus
contained in the vegetable uterus. 
B. Stylus, which is analogous to the fallopian tube in women
carrying the pollen to the vegetable uterus.
C. Stigma, the top of the style, receiving the pollen.
By castrating the male organs in vegetables, or taking away the 
female organs no impregnation takes place, thus proves the sexual 
system of plants. Where both organs exist in the same  

Corolla or Calix. they are called bisexual or hermaphrodite
They are called male or female plants according to the situation
of the generative organs.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Scill. marit. or squills is a stimulating
diuretic, it acts also on the lungs hence its use in hydrothorax it 
is more efficacious when combined with Cal. it is applicable in 
cases of dropsy arising from visceral obstructions, it is also given with 
the neutral salts, the root is the medicinal part, it is nauseous
and intensely bitter to the taste, and very acrid, it should not 
be given in large doses to those subject to hemorrhoids, it is applicable
in all pulmonic affections unattended with inflamn. in 
cases of dropsy attended with thirst nitre may be joined with 
it, it is 4/5 stronger in a dried state than when recent.
Colchicum autumnale is very acrid in its recent state, an 
oxymel and syrup are prepared from its root, it is given in 
gout and rheumatism, and is supposed to be the basis of bean
medicinale, a quack remedy used with great success in the above
complaints in France, it is found to be an almost invariable remedy
in gout, and by many eminent physicians in England
is considered a specific.
Lobelia syphilitica has cathartic and diuretic qualities, and 
was supposed though without any foundation to be a remedy

for Syphilis is hence its name.
Digitalis purpurca, foxglove, the leaves of which are generally
made use of, they are bitter, nauseous, and acrid, and should
be gathered when the flowers are just opening, Digitalis produces
all the effects of the narcotic poisons, and its antidotes are 
the same as a blister on the stomach stimulants &c. when it 
once produces diuresis, it continues for several days as ptyalism
from mercury It is a very singular fact that persons under
the influence of this medicine while standing have their pulse
at 140, while sitting at 70, and if they lie down their pulse
falls to 40. Digitalis acts more particularly on the absorbent
system, and is an excellent remedy in dropsy. Dr. Darwin found
it most beneficial in dropsy attended with debility a brought
on by intemperance. Dr- Beddoes considered it an almost certain
remedy in phthesis, it is given in substance, and tincture.
Turpentine, and Balsam, Copaiva have also diuretic qualities
and are given in gleet.
Cantharides or Spanish flies are diuretic, and are given either 
in substance or tincture in edematous swellings of cold leucophlegmatic
habits. Women after parturition are often subject
to an involuntary dribbling of urine, and cantharides given internally,
and applied externally in the form of a blister to the 
perineum effect a cure.

January 13. Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. Continuation of the organs 
of fructfication in plants. 
5th. Pericarpium or seed vessel which is in different forms.
A. Capsula which bursts determinately to let out the seeds, that 
is into regular parts as the Datura Stramonium.
The pericarp in the form of capsule consists of 4 parts.
1. Valvula, that part between the divisions of the pericarp
2. Discipimentum, a part separating the chambers of the valves.
3. Columella, the central point where the valves unite.
4. Loculamentum, the chamber or place where the seeds reside.
B. Siliqua a dry pericarp consisting of two valves which have 
a partition between them, as the mustard seed.
C. Silicula, has the same constitution as the siliqua but differs in
shape. None of the siliquose or siliculose plants are poisonous,
the antiscorbutic plants are of this kind.
D. Legumen, a dry pericarp having no septum, the seeds attached
to one side, open determinately as the bean, pea &c.
E. Concepticulum, pericarp splitting open one side, showing a 
part horizontally divided with the seeds attached, as the pleurisy.
F. Drupa. a pericarp without any valve inclosing the seed as 
the stone first, the peach stone for example.
G. Pomum, a valveless pulpy pericarp, inclosing a capsule
with its seeds as the apple, quince &c. 

H. Bacca a valueless succulent pericarp inclosing seeds without
capsules as the gooseberry currant &c.
I. Strobilus a woody pericarp holding the seeds all the coniferae
or cone bearing trees are of this kind as the pine &c.
J. Pepo, a pericarp having a pulpy substance containing the 
seeds as the water melon, squash &c.
K. Aurantium a pericarp with the seeds laying in the 
pulp as the lemon, orange and lime.
L. Folliculus, a pericarp the seeds of which after its bursting
are suspended by a thread for some time as the cucumber tree.
M. Syncarpos the fig the pericarp which becomes enlarged
forming the first, the seeds are in the centre.
N. Cariopois the pericarp which is where the husk adheres
to the grain, as barley, rice &c.
January 14. Dr. Mitchills Lecture. Continuation of the parts
of fructification. Receptaculum is that part in which all the 
parts unite, or are joined it is divided into 6th- part.
A. Receptaculum Proprium, the receptacle peculiar to one flower
as the apple and peach, under this lead are the 
Recep. fructificationis, or hermaphrodite plants.
Recep. flour, the male plants where the parts unite.
Recep. fructus. where the parts unite in the female plants 

Recep. Seminum, receptacle of the seeds as in the pineapple.
B. Receplaculum commune common to all plants divided into 
Umbella or umbell, a common receptacle.
Umbellicula, or little umbell, which umbells are divided into
Simplex where the umbell has only one centre of divergence or 
Compostia where there are two or more centres of divergence.
Cyma, an instance of compound receptacle.
Spadix another instance of compound receptacle.
Compound flowers have a calyx surrounding a common receptacle.
Arctius Lappa, burdock an instance of a common receptacle.
A Corn cob an instance of elongated receptacle.
The Semen, seed the 7th- part of fructification has been
already described.
The Gallic acid is a product of disease in bees, and is an excellent
test of iron. This with sulphuric acid makes ink
and we should be very careful that the acid is not too strong
lest it should destroy the paper.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Iron is of three kinds. Cast iron which
is of two kinds light and dark coloured the light coloured is the 
most brittle. 2. Forged iron. 3. Steel which is a combination
of iron and carbon. Iron is formed into steel by burning it with 
charcoal in a reverberating furnace, the charcoal being absorbed

absorbed by the iron. If iron is heated and then suddenly cooled
it becomes very hard, the texture of iron is fibrous, steel is laminated,
to distinguish iron from steel, drop any acid on the substance
you wish to test, if it is steal the acid does not dissolve
it owing to its hardness, if it is iron the acid dissolves the iron
and does not leave a spot which is the case with steel
Staunum, tin has been known from the remotest ages it was 
mentioned by Moses it is found in the state of an oxide, and is 
obtained from the oxides by charcoal, it absorbing the oxygen
The protoxide is obtained by Ammonia. There are solid as 
will as fluid acids. The Spec. grav. of tin is of which is seven
times the weight of oxygen. Chlorate of tin is made by burning 
tin in chlorine gas. Oxy. Muriate of tin is obtained by boiling
tin in Nitro. Muricatic acid. Protomuriate of tin dropped
in a solution of cochincal forms a light scarlet precipitate
it is used in the dyeing of sills. Sulphur unites with tin in 
two proportions forming the protosulphuret, and bisulphuret,
the latter has two proportions of sulphur to one proportion 
tins 
Cadmium is a metal which has been discovered very lately in 
1817 in Zinc, its Spec. grav. 8. Air produces no change unless
when heated when it forms an oxide which is soluble in 
acids the oxide of Cadmium.

January 15. Dr, Mitchill's Lecture. 8th- part of Vegetable
Fructification. Nectacium or nectary, every part not included
in the foregoing descriptions, it is an excrescence from the 
Corolla which is in different forms. This ends the consideration
of vegetable gums.
2d- Gemmae. buds which have been already explained they are 
Wanting in some as in the Cassia and Mimosa.
Deciduous where they exist and fall off as the lilly and saxifas.
Foliiferoe, non floriferoe, but producing leaves but not flowers. 
Foliiferoe et floriferoe bearing both flowers and leaves, as most
trees do, this is common to the generality of vegetables
Foliiferoe et floriferoe distincta, have flowers on one bud and 
leaves on another, as the poplar and willow.
Foliiferoe et floriferoe faminae. having leaves on one bud 
and female flowers on the other.
Foliiferoe et floriferoe masculine having leaves on one 
bud, and male flowers on the other.
Bus are a succedaneum to keep up vegetable life if other
means fail as if the pollen should be lest by wind &c.
If you instead the occulus of one tree into another it will become 
part of it which is called inoculation, they unite 
through the medium of kindred vegetable juices. Grafting
is another made of inoculation by inserting a twig into a 

tree, this is the means of obtaining a variety of fruits.
3d- Bulbse, bulbs, which have been already explained
All bulbous roots will grow in consequence of the nourishment
they contain within their substance. Bulbs are divided into 
implicated, tunicated, and solid. The Arista or beards
of oats may be used as hygrometers, water shortens their fibres
and afterwards by drying them the fibres elongate by 
which they move in various directions, This finishes the 
consideration of Physiological or Philosophical Botany.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Lythoritriptics  or solvents of Calculi
Calculus is seldom cured except at the commencement, it has 
been ascertained that in the Hospitals in Europe are in five
die from the operation of stone, principally men, stone are extracted
from women by the dilatation of the urethra. The formation
of calculi in the different organs containing urine is independent
of any specific action. Substances are recorded of the organization
of one kidney being destroyed and the other performing the 
office of both. Sometimes calculi are formed in the beginning 
of the urethra in the shape of a tunnel, any extraneous matter
taken into the bladder will be a nucleus for a stone, they 
are often mistaken when in the urethra and prostate gland
for strictures of the canal, they may be distinguished by the 

sound. The symptoms of stone in the kidnies are a long 
continued pain in the region a purulent and discharge, and eventually
a destruction of the organization of the kidney, the greatest
pain is felt in the passage of the stone through the water
a brick coloured sediment in the urine, a retraction of the testicle
with a numbness of the thigh. The symptoms of stone in 
the bladder are an itching and pain at the extremity of the 
penis, a sudden stoppage of the urine when it is flowing.
The tendency to form stone is generally preceded by an impaired
state of digestion, as flatulence and acidity. All calculi
are depositions from the urine, their colour and spec. grav. differ
they are of different kinds and are divided into.
1. Lithic or Uric acid which is of a brown colour and smooth
it is dissolvable in the caustic alkalis, and in the Nit. ac.
Gouty persons during their paroxysms generally void a large
quantity of lithic acid in their urine. Lithic ac. always exists
more or less in the urine, and it is this substance which 
forms the sediment in some fever. it has acid properties and 
reddens litmus paper.
2. Earthy phosphates which are white and friable, and 
when pulverised are soluble in the Nit. and Mur. acids. 
3. Ammoniaco. Magnesia. phosphates. a compound of 
Ammon. Magnes. and Phosp. ac. which is of a white colour.

4. Fresible calculi are a compound of Ammon. Magnes. phos.
and phosp. cale. they are more easily pulverised than any 
other calculi, and it is this substance which is found in the 
fingers of gouty persons.
5. Mulberry calculi so called from their colour, they consist
of the Oxalate of lime, and are not soluble in acids.
6. Cystic oxide which resembles the triple calculus or 
Ammon. Magnes. phos. and is more soluble than any other 
calculi. Carb. Ammon. enters into its composition of course
it contains oxygen whence its name.
January 17. Dr. Mitchills Lecture. 2d- part of the course.
Systematic Botany. Arrangement of Vegetables in Classes.
Orders, Genera, Species and Varieties. The Linnean or Sexual 
System adopted from which the Classification is made.
Examples to support the Sexual system.
Planta Decline out Dioicous having two beds, or the male and female
flowers in different parts, the most common instance is the 
Humulus. Lupulus, hop, the spinage is another instance where the 
male flower is on one part, and the female on another, also hemp
and palm trees are examples.
Planta Monoclines or Monoicous, plants having one bed, or one 
on different parts of the same plant, instances, indian corn, cucumber,

the melon family, squashes. The Zizania Aquatica grows on
the banks of the Michigan, it is an excellent bread corn called
wild rice by the Indians many tribes live upon it, it produces
spoutaneous harvests, it grows on the banks of the river, and promises
to be an excellent substitute for indian corn.
Bisexual plants have been already described.
Sexual Denominations. Flowers having anthers are male
the filament is sometimes wanting.
Flowers having stigmata are female, the style sometimes wanting.
Flowers having anthers and stigmata are bisexual.
Plants having male flowers are Male.
Plants having female flowers are Female.
Plants having both male and female flowers are Bisexual.
Plants having male and female flowers distinct are called
Androgynous. Willows of this country are all female.
Plants having Bisexual of flowers in one part, and male or female
flowers on another part are called Polygamous plants.
Analogy between Animal and Vegetable organs of generation
in a bisexual plant.
Calyx Analagous to the Pudenda externa.
Corolla " " " Nympha.
Filamenta " " " Vasa spermatica.
Antera " " " Testes.

Pollen Analogous to the Sperma.
Stigma " " " Os uteri.
Stylus " " " Tubus Fallopianus.
Germen " " " Ovarium.
Semen " " " Ovum.
Pericarpium " " " Uterus gravidus.
Vegetables are disseminated over the globe by their seeds in various
ways as.
1. Currents of air. Seeds have been carried from this country to Europe
by their pappi and aloe.
2. Rivers and streams, an instance in the fowl medow grass of 
Conneticut, which first grew where the remains of a bird were 
found, and afterwards was distributed by the Conneticut river.
Another instance is a grass in Virginia which only grows on the margin
of rivers as high as the tide rises
3. Currents in the ocean. Seeds have been carried by the Gulf streams
to the Western parts of Europe.
4. Migrations of men, instances of this are all the garden plants,
coffee, indian corn, and all the exotics.
5. Reclamation from a wild state.
6. Pappus by which they are often carried through the air.
7. Aloe by which also they fly.
8. Elasticity of the Capsule. 

January 18. Dr. Mitchills Lecture. The Classificaton of 
Plants is founded on the parts of Fructication in 4 points.
1. Numerus, the number of the parts.
2. Figura, the figure of the different parts.
3. Situs, the situation of the different parts.
4. Proportio, the relative proportion of the parts.
Other qualities of plants have been rejected and been considered
uncertain, they are not therefore Botanical marks - viz -
1. Colour. 2. Smell. 3. Taste. 4. Weight. 5. Magnitude.
The parts of Fructication are 7. they have the following
forms or modifications viz -
Calyx has 7 modifications
Corolla " 2 "
Stamen " 3 "
Pistill " 3 "
Pericap " 8 "
Seed " 4 "
Receptacle " 4 "
In the System of Linneus Plants are divided into 24 
Classes not including the Palmae. They are called
1. Monandria, plants having one Stamen.
2. Dicandria " " two Stamina. as the Sage
3. Triandria " " three " as bread corn. 

4. Tetandria having four Stamens, as the Dog wood tree.
5. Pentandria " five " as the Jalap and Cinchona.
6. Hexandria " six equal Stamens as the Lililaceous plants.
7. Heptandria " seven Stamens.
8. Octandria " eight "
9. Eniandria " nine " as the family of the Lauri.
10. Dicandria " ten " as the Evergreens. 
Plants never have eleven Stamens in a natural state 
if they are met with they are Lusi nature.
11. Dodicandria comprehend all plants between twelve
and twenty, they are very irregular.
12. Icosandria having twenty Stamens always situated on 
the brim of the Calyx as the rose, apple, peach and other fruit,
also those which have more than twenty Stamens situated
on the brim of the Calyx.
13. Polandria, having more than twenty Stamens but not on 
the Calyx, generally on the Receptacle as the tulip, poppy.
14. Didynamia, having four Stamens. two long, and 
two short.
Dr. Macneven's lecture. Those Metals which do not absorb water
at all, and attract Oxygen at a high temperature only, there are 
five of these, one is Arsenic which is generally obtained from 

a mine in Bohemia. The Chinese use it in syphilis. Arsenic
is obtained from white arsenic or as is generally called white 
oxide of arsenic. When Carbon and an oxide are heated the charcoal
absorb the Oxygen leaving the metal. The Alkalis or black flux
is added to arsenic when we wish to sublime to retain it as it is 
very volatile. The metal is of a bright steel colour, very brittle
its spec. grav. 89/10, very volatile, vapour emits a strong garlic
smell, when melted in the air the fumes are white oxide of arsenic
owing to its attraction for oxygen the metal and all its compounds 
are virulent poisions, the metal has a foliated laminated
texture, and has a strong affinity for Oxygen forming two 
compunds Arsenous and Arsenic acids which have a sour taste
are soluble in water and unite with other metals. Arsenous
acid is of a white colour, and capable of being formed from combustion
of the metal, its spec. grav. 37/10. acrid taste and of a 
nauseous sweetness. Arsenic produces inflamy. and gangrene
in the stomach, and is fatal when applied to wounds
hence it ought not be used in cancerous affect it also 
acts on the Nervous system for it sometimes causes death
without inflamy. the remedies are emetics copious dilution
and every thing to obviate inflamy. Arsenic is distinguished
from Corros. Sublimiate. by its almost insolubility in water
Salts obtained with the Arsenous acid are called Arsenites, and 

from Arsenic acid Arseniates by boiling Alkalis or the earths 
with the acids. The following are some of the tests of arsenic. viz
A solution of Arsenite of potash. and a solution of Sulphate of 
copper together form an apple green precipitate the best way is 
to add to the solution of arsenic some solution of potash and then
add some arsenous acid when the apple green precipitate is
formed the carb. potass forms a bright green precipitate and 
the sub. carb. potass. a pale green precipitate. On opening
the stomach examine the villous coat of the stomach, and 
then examine the contents which should be slowly evaporated.
Nit. Potass. lunar caustic. when brought in contact with 
Arsenitc of potash is decomposed that is both and an arsenite 
of silva is formed which is first a white and afterwards
a yellow precipitate. Sulphuretted hydrogen is another test
of arsenic, it forms a yellow precipitate. In controversies
however respecting poisons nothing should be relied on but 
the reduction of the metal which is thus effected. Put the 
suspected parts in a tube of glass and then close which is 
easily done by heat, then sublime it by heat, the white powder
should then be thrown on a hot iron and if a garlic smell
is emitted it is a sore test this must be the metal however
for the white oxide does not emit a smell. Alkalis or charcoal
must be added to absorb the oxygen in it. 

Arsenic acid is obtained from 4 parts Muriatic. ac. 24 parts
Nitric. ac. and Arsenous. ac. the oxygen of Arsenic acid and Arsenous
acid is as 3 to 2. with alkalis and earths it forms Arseniates.
There are found several natural Arseniates as the 
Arseniates of iron and copper which are found in Cornwell
also the Arseniates of lead and cobalt.
January 19. Dr. Mitchills Lecture. Continuation of the Classes.
15. Tetradynamia having six Stamens 4 long and 2 short.
16. Monodelphia, all the Anthers united in a cylinder.
17. Diadelphia, ten Anthers nine distinct, one by itself as the pea.
18. Polydelphia stamens arising in two or three clusters.
19. Syngenesia five distinct Stamens arising from the Corolla Anthers
united in a cylinder, common Calyx, and Receptaculum.
20. Gunandria, male and female flowers on the same receptacle.
21. Monocea, male and female flowers separated.
22. Diascia, where the parts of fructification are on distinct plants
as in the hemp.
23. Polygamia with flowers producing male and also female, also 
bisexual as the ash and maple.
24. Criptogamia, inconspicerous parts as the great families of 
the Fibres, Fungi, Alga and Musci. 
The Palmae are not included in these 24 Classes.

January 20. Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. As the Classes are mostly
taken from the male parts of Fructification, so that the Orders are
chiefly taken from the female parts. In examining a plant
first look at the Stamens which will give the Class and then 
at the Pistils which will give the Order. these are the Orders viz.
1. Manogynia having one Pistil.
2. Digynia " two Pistils.
3. Trygynia " three "
4. Tetragynia " four "
5. Pentagynia " five "
6. Hexagynia " six "
7. Heptagynia " seven "
8. Octagynia " eight " and so on
" Polgynia " many "
The number of Pistils is counted from the base of the style
and when there is no style, from the base of the stigma.
In the Class Didynamia the 2 Orders are taken from the 
figure of the pistil as naked and covered seeds. These having 
naked seeds are remarkable for their aromatic and medicinal 
qualities. Those of the Order Angiaspermia or covered seeds
as the Digitalis purpurca. fox glove.
In the Class Tetradynamia the 2 Orders Siliquosa and Siliculosa
are taken from the condition of the seeds. 

The Orders of the Classes Monodelphia, Diadelphia,
Polydelphia, Gunandria, Monoecia and Diacia are 
taken from the male parts of Fructification.
The 5 Orders of the Class Syngenesia or Compound flowers 
are taken from the Polygamy which exists in them viz
1. Polygamia Equalis: the florets all equal and fertile, the 
central part is called the Discus or dise, and the part surrounding
it the Radius or ray as in the dandelion.
2. Polygamia Superflua. Hermaphrodite and futile florets
in the centre or dise and female florets in the radius which are 
also fertile and therefore superfluous as the tansy.
3. Polygamia Frustanca. Hermaphrodite florets in the disc
and neuter ones in the radius as the sun of flower.
4. Polygamia Necessaria. Hermaphrodite florets in the disc 
but barren as the marygold.
5. Polygamia Segregata, the florets separated by partial calyxes
or partial calyxes in some common calyx.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Arsenate of potash forms precipitates
with almost all the salts, with the salt of Manganese a reddish
brown precipitate, with permuriate of iron a brownish precip. 
with the protoxide of iron no precipitate is found at first.
Sulphuratted hydrogen is a test arsenic. Put ʒi Sulph. Antimon.

and ʒij Sulphuric acid into a retort. the neck which leads into 
a solution of arsenous acid, then apply heat, and sulphuretted hydrogen
passes over and mixing with the solution turns it of a lemon
yellow colour. Arsenic unites with Chlorine forming Chlorate of
arsenic which is a white deliquescent compound the chlorine
should be passed through warm water of about 90 or 100 for 
cold water absorbs it. The Chlorate of arsenic is also formed by uniting 
6 parts Menias Hydrarg with one Arsenic. Chlorate of arsenic
is of a butycaceous consistence, hence it is sometimes called
butter of arsenic as antimony is for the same reason. Chlorate
of arsenic is decomposed by water forming Muriatric acid from 
the liberation of hydrogen in the water which unites with the 
chlorine. Hydrogen is the lightest of all bodies and decomposes arsenic
though it is a very heavy metal. If a bubble of oxygen gas
is passed into phosphuretted hydrogen gas combustion is produced
with the evolution of heat and light, Arsenic unites with Iodine
forming the Iodate of arsenic. Arsenic and Sulphur unite forming
Sulphur of Arsenic. Orpiment or the yellow sulphuret
of arsenic is as poisonous as the metal itself. There is also a 
Sulphurate of Arsenic and iron, there is no Carbonate of arsenic
Sulphur has been used as an antidote to Arsenic supposing 
that it would neutralise it, but it is found that the Sulphurates
of arsenic are equally poisonous as the metal itself.


Arsenic forms alloys with other metals. The white oxide of arsenic is 
generally made use of as a poison, and it is a common test to burn it 
between Copper if it is the white oxide no white stain will be made 
but first the white oxide should be reduced to the pure metal by burning
it in charcoal, and then by burning it between copper a white 
stain is left by the union of the two match forming an alloy.
Chrome unites with oxygen forming Chromic acid. Chromic acid
unites bases forming Chromates. The Chromate of potash is of a yellow 
colour. The Chromate of silver is of brown colour. The Chromate
of lead makes a beautiful yellow pigment which has superseded
other paints of that colour the chromate of lead may be mixed
with the carbonate of lead without having its colour impaired
it will however dilute it. The peroxide of Chrome is red.
January 22. Dr. Post in his lecture of to day acknowledged that 
he was unacquainted with the manner in which impregnation
takes place it is supposed by some that the uterus receives the 
seed and that it is taken up by the Fallopian tubes and 
from them received by the Ovaria, now in the first place the 
sides of the womb adhere or are in contact, if the semen should
be received into the uterus how is it to get into the Ovaria?
the natural action of the fallopian tubes is to convey the 
egg when impregnated into the uterus, then if it carries the 


semen to the uterus must be by a retrograde action again the Ovaria
are attached to the broad ligaments which are duplicatures of peritoneum
and the fimbria are considerably below the ovaria, suppose
however the tubes should be acted and the fimbria embrace the 
Ovaria, there is a covering of the Ovaria which would prevent its passage
different parts of animals as teeth and bones have been found in the 
Ovaria without copulation having taken place the egg also is a strong
instance to prove that the fetus may be formed without copulation.
Menstruation prepares the blood and womb for impregnation
Dr. Post supposes that blood has a vital principle, in this he agrees
with Hunter who says that new vessels will be formed in the 
blood to carry on the circulation this is his principal argument.
Bell contends that those new vessels are merely elongations of the 
other vessels, and that or wounds new vessels are never formed.
Dr. Post says that there is no communication between the maternal
and fatal parts of the Placenta for the Decidua divides
the two portions, he showed preparations where the injections had 
not passed between the two portions if they ever pass it must be 
by extravasation or rupture of the decidua. Dr. Hosack maintains 
that there is a direct communication that is that the arteries
of the mother send their blood to the Placenta and is taken up by 
the veins, and that injections have passed between the maternal
and fatal portions. it is a feet that there will be little hemorrhage


hemorrhage from the mother if the cord is divided the cord arises from the 
fatal portion. Dr. Post also supposes that the Placenta performs the 
office of the lungs, in decarbonizing the blood. It should be mentioned
that one opinion is that in impregnation the semen is taken
up by the absorbents of the vagina, mixes with the blood and as 
some must pass through the ovaria it might act on them and make 
them evolve their ova, this is somewhat plausible.
Dr. Mitchill's Lecture. The Two Classes Polydelphia and
Polygamia are somewhat uncertain in their characters and have 
been rejected by some modern Botanists. To find out what a plant
is first examine its character to find its Class and then its Order
you may also determine its Genus and Species in this manner.
A magnifying glass is necessary to examine the minute parts of 
a plant. The character of a plant must be determined by its flower.
Where you cannot draw, you may delineate plants in this manner.
Take some good paper and oil it until it is penetrated with it
by which it becomes transparent then hold the paper over a lamp 
until it is smutted with charcoal then place a leaf or any other 
part on it, and it will attract the greasy soot and leave the impression.
Insects have particular plants on which they feed
and leave their eggs, thus the butterfly is almost universally
found on the fennel hence you often know that you are in the 

neighbourhood of particular plants by the insects you see.
Dr. M. recommended the following books on Botany
System of Vegetables by the Litchfield Society one of whom
was Dr. Darwin. Genera Plantarum of Linneus in Latin.
Rich's Synopsis of American plants a very useful manual.
Muhlenbergs Catalogue. Nuthal's System of the Genera of 
North American plants to the year 1817.
Dr. Post when speaking of the brain took occasion to mention
the theory and supposed discoveries of Gall and Spurseim
They suppose that the Medulla Oblongata is the seat of the 
sinus &c. and attempt to prove that the Medullary and Cortical
part of the brain comprehending the Cerebrum and Cerebellum
is an appendage to the Medulla Oblongata and that certain
marks or configurations of the external skull indicate certain
propensities or show disposition and mental capacity.
Dr. P. does not consider that this deserves any consideration.
The brain is made up of Cortical or Cenautious matter and of 
Medullary or white matter. Where the brain is Cortical externally
it is medullary within and vice versa. There are ten 
pair of nerves arising from the brain and thirty from the 
Medulla Spinalis. The Medulla Spinals terminates in a 
bundle of nerves called Cauda Equina.


Dr Macneven's Lecture. All the apparatus that is necessary to 
determine the different kinds of Calculi is a blow pipe which may
be of glass or brass, a candle and a small pair of the tongs, the best are
made of platuia because it resists fire. All calculous patients discharge
more or less and if you can obtain a particle of the six of a pins head
it is sufficient you distinguish them in the following manner.
1. Lithic or Uric acid which is of a brownish colour, very hard generally
of an coal figure, first before the blow pipe it first becomes
flat, then blackens omits a peculiar colour, and burns leaving an 
Alkaline ashes. It may also be distinguished by its solubility
in caustic alkali which is effected by applying gentle heat 
which dissolves it, the residuum may be precipitated by 
every acid into a white powder a chap or two of Nitric
acid on it will dissolve it, turning it of a pink colour by 
mixing it with water it will give it the same colour by then
adding an alkali the colour may be taken away.
2. Phosphate of lime not use fuse before the blow pipe, but 
it first blackens owing to the combustion of the animal matter
then it whitens, it is soluble in dilute Muriatic acid. Oxylate
of Ammonia will decompose and form a precipitate.
3. Ammon. Magnes. Phosphate, or triple calculus which has two 
bases united to one acid the Phosp. it has a sparkling chrystalline
appearance a few particles of it burnt in a gentle heat  



emit a pungent smell of Ammon. by adding caustic potash
the same smell is given out, by the heat of the blow pipe the 
Ammon. is volatilized, leaving the Phosphate of magnesia which 
is soluble in dilute acids, it may be recomposed by adding Ammon.
4. Fusible Calculus so called because it fuses before the blow
pipe at a moderate heat, it is a compound of lime and magnesia
both of which are infusible separately. You may separate the lime 
and magnesia by the oxalate of Ammon. This Calculus is soluble
in all the acids, especially the Muriatic.
5. Mulberry Calculus which is of a brown tubercular appearance,
it consists of the oxolate of time, it expands and efferesces
in heat, turning into a white substance. this is proved to be an 
alkali by the usual tests.
P. Cystic oxide. This is distinguished from other calculi by 
being unstratified, and soluble bath in acids and alkalis.
Compound Calculi may be distinguished by the confusion
of their results when analyzed.
Calculi are unorganized substances having no life and are 
therefore subject to the laws of affinity. The disease of Stone
may be mitigated and the further progress prevented though it 
cannot be cured when very far advanced by medicine. The 
Calculi most commonly met with are the Phosphate of lime,
the Phosphate of Magnesia, and the lithic acid. The earthly 

salts are soluble in Phosphoric acid, hence the reason why it is always
found in urine. If urine be kept two or three days the Ammon.
neutralises the Phosphoric acid and the earthly salts are not kept in 
solution but Ammon. Magnes. Phosphorate is formed. If you add
an alkali to urine already abounding with it a precipitate is formed 
this may also be a test of the preponderance of an acid, as in that case
a quantity of alkali might be added and the super abundant 
acid would neutralise it and when precipitated it would be an 
evidence of its saturation. The two great Chemical principles to be 
attended to are when Lithic acid is present Alkalis should be 
given, when the Earthy phosphates are present Acids should be 
adminstrated. Some deny the conveyance of either acids or alkalis 
to the bladder, but any one may prove it on himself by taking 
alkalis for two or three days, the urine will be alkaline as may 
be proved by the usual test. Dr. M. thinks it is conveyed to 
the urinary passages in a more direct way than through the circulation.
It is more difficult to detect acids when administrated
as the urine is always acid but Mr. Brand has discovered the Muriatic
and Sulphuric acids in the urine. Alkalis independent
of their solvent quality when combined with Opium sooth irritation. 
A difficulty occurs in treating compound calculi but you 
may often by examining the sediment in urine determine what
predominates and act accordingly. In Gravel especially during its 

passage active cathartics are proper, also for gouty persons who often
pass gravel during their paroxysms. The administration of opium
and turpentine is often followed by the discharge of Lithic acid.
Calculous affections are said to be more frequent in cold countries
than in warm ones, perspiration also retards the formation of calculi,
hence the state of the skin should be attended to.
January 24. Dr. Post says that females when pregnant have died 
of hemorrhage without the childs suffering. Inject the uterus and 
the maternal part of the placenta will be injected but not the 
fatal portion also inject by the umbilical vein and the fatal
portion will be injected but not the maternal part.
Dr. P related the following case. A woman whom he attended
had the usual symptoms of pregnancy until 5 months then 
in consequence of great fatigue the symptoms of pregnancy ceased
she was no longer sensible of the stirring of the child and her 
abdomen which was considerably enlarged began to diminish in 
size, she thought she must have been mistaken. 5 months afterwards
making 10 months from conception she was taken with 
labour pains and was delivered of a child exhibiting the usual 
appearance of a five month's abortion, there were no symptoms
of decomposition, the membranes were natural, and upon detaching 
the placenta the usual hemorrhage occured showing that 

the circulation had been carried on during the last five months
Dr. P. exhibited the fetus and membranes to the Class.
He also mentioned the following case which was communicated
to him from the Southward. A child a girl of twelve years
old was taken with pain in the bowels, and after some time she 
passed some platted hair from the rectum, at length a tumor
presented at the rectum and was taken out, examined and found
to contain a part of a child as the head, cervical vertebrae, and four 
canine teeth which were of the usual six in the fetus, after the 
delivery of this she regained her health which during her whole
life had been very infirm. Dr. P. showed the fetus and teeth.
He supposes this was a case where one ovum was enclosed within
the other of which there have been several instances, and that 
one grew to the ordinary size while the other, owing to deficient
nourishment soon perished and became attached to the other 
and in process of time was discharged. Dr. P. showed two preparations
where the umbilical cord had three knots in it. 
Dr. Mitchills Lecture. Exercise on the Hand flower tree of 
Mexico which is a very rare tree. Class Monodelphia.
Order Pentanshia. Genus Chiranthodendrion or Manata
Species Pentadactylon, it has the following parts.
1. Calyrx - none unless the Bractea is so called. 


2. Corolla Monopetalous, campanulata, persistent, quinquefid,
the division oblong and fleshy.
3. Stamens, five, smooth and crooked, somewhat unequal in 
length, united below in a cylinder. Another oblong, wavy, situated
on the beck of the filaments, and shorter than the Pistil.
Germ elevated, oval, five sided. Style angular, rather enlarged,
curved at the top, and shorter than the filament. 4. Stigma simple
and pointed.
5. Pericarp. a woody capsule, oblong, elliptical, having five sides
five lobes, five cells, and five excavations around the Germ.
6. Receptacle figured like the Capsule to which it adheres.
7. Seed, ten or twelve on each locutament, oval, smooth,
shining, black, with a small spherical gland near the base 
enwrapped in a sort of hair!
Observation. It has considerable resemblance to the Bombax of Lin.
Exercise of green Tea which comes from China.
Class Polygamia. Ardo Monogynia. Genus Thea. Species
Viridis.
Calyx - Perianthium quinque partitum, minimum, planum,
symentis rotundis, obtusis, et persisten tentilus.
Corolla - petala sex, subratunda, concava, duo exteniora
minora inequales, quotuor interiora magna, equalia, antequam
deciclunt recurvata. 

Stamina - Filamenta numerosa (circiter 200) filiformia Corolla
breviora - Anthere cordatae, biloculares. Germen globosatrigonum.
Pistillum - Stylus simplex apice trificlus petales staminibus
lapsis recedentis - Stigmata simplicia.
Pericarpum - Capsula tribus globis trilocularis, apice trifarium
delisceus.
Semina solitaria, globosa, introrsum angulata.
Receptaculum non est descriptam ed est indistinctum.
Observations on the tea plant. The leaves have an emarginated
apex, a very entire base, smooth, glossy, bullate and 
petiolated,foot stallers very short.
January 25. Dr. Post recommends in opening the temporal
artery to make a longitudinal incision instead of a transverse
one as is usually done, Wounds of the veins are seldom
dangerous you can distinguish them by the colour of the blood
which will be very dark coloured pressure generally commands
them. Dr. P. has taken up the external iliac artery
for aneurism successively, also the carotid in wounds of the 
hands when difficulty occurs in stopping the hemorrhage
both the radial and ulnar arteries should be tied, the hand 
will not suffer for it will be supplied by the interosseous 

artery, the same applies to the fort, the arteries of the hand
as also of the foot anastomose very freely. In Venesection
the median rein is preferable, for the artery runs under the 
basilic, and the cephalic is invested in so much loose
cellular substance that it might elude the lancet.
The Superior and Inferior Mesenteric and Splenic veins
unite in the abdomen to form the Vena Portarum yet 
Mr. Abernethy relates a case where the above veins formed
a common trunk which entered the inferior Cava, the liver
was supplied by the hepatic artery only. One theory respecting
the peculiar circulation is that in the fetus the liver which 
receives the blood by the ductus venosus weakens the impetus
and prevents its lacerating other parts, it is however untenable 
for the liver is a very friable organ, the ductus venesus 
becomes obliterated in delivery, the other peculiarities of the 
fatal circulation are the ductus arteriosus, a duct between the 
pulmonary artery and the aorta, and the foramen ovale or 
communication between the two ventricles of the heart, these 
also become obliterated, but the remains of the foramen
ovale are apparent always in the heat of the adult, the 
use of the foramen ovale is for the circulation between the 
ventricles, that of the ductus arteriosus, that the blood might be
sent through the lungs and body at the same time. 

Dr. Mitchill's Lecture, Exercise on Saccharum or Sugar cane
one of the Gramina. Class Trianchia, Orcler Diggnia. Genus
Saccharum.
Calyx- none there being merely a down longer than the flower
including bent a single flower.
Corolla bircglve, the valves oblong.
Stamens. three capillary filaments Anthers somewhat oblong.
Pistil. Germ all shaped. Stigma simple.
Pericap - none at all.
Leed. oblong and single.
Exercise on the Myristica officinalis or Nutmeg tree.
The nutmeg prepared and preserved in spirits with the mace.
Class Polyandria. Order Monogynia. Genis Myristica.
Essential Character. The berry fleshy, one seeded with a 
netty membrane, dry, and situated between the bacca and seed.
Observation. The seed is the nutmeg, and the membrane the 
mace of commerce and the shops.
Ergot a Spurred Rye. Class Triandria, Order Digynia.
Genus Secale. Species Cereaha:
Ergotism is a disease not peculiar to rye it sometimes exists
in barley and other grains, the grain when diseased is elongated,
curved, and blackish, it is considered as a fungus substituted
fot the grain as is sometimes the case in indian corn, the 


ergot contains insects. It exists in three states. 1. per se. 2. containing
insects which make their nidus int it. 3. as it is left 
by the insects full of holes and full of feculent matter.
Rye is much cultivated in the district of Salogne in France
and when diseased and eaten by the people has produced anoulsions
with spontaneous gangrene of the extremities the hands
and feet falling off. In this country other effects have been
ascribed to it. It has been said that it is the cause of some 
Epidemics a Spotted fever &c. when eaten, these fevers however
have prevailed where the cross of rye had failed. The Army
Surgeons during the last war on the lakes ascribed the great
mortality to the actions which it is said were made of bad
grain. Ergot is remarkable for its specific action on the uterus.
Dr. M. thinks it one of the hocus pocus tucks of Midwifery
and that it should never be used as we are as yet unacquainted 
with the insects with which it abounds, they
may be poisonsus. It is never recommended in preternatural 
labour, and in natural ones it is not needed.
Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Plumbum or Lead. Acetate of lead
is astringent. The Subacetate of lead or Goulard's extract used 
externally also to distinguish pus from mucus. Lead was used 
very anciently. The Indians reduce the metal to purity 

by fusion. Lead is of a bluish white colour nearly tasteless, very
soft. Spec. grav. 11 35/100 its tenacity is increased by drawing it 
into wire, very malleable, it can be rolled into very thin sheets,
melts at 612 Fah. when fused it chrystallizes, it is frequently
mixed with copper. To obtain pure lead dissolve it in Nit.
acid and then chrystallize it. this to be done repeatedly. Lead
is converted into an oxide by exposure to air, that is the surface
is which prevents the other from being oxydized. Leaden pipes
are dangerous for an oxide is fumed. The Perxoxide of lead is 
brown. The Protoxide is yellow the peroxide contains two
atoms of oxygen the protoxide one atom thus the latter contains
half the quantity of the former. the composition of the peroxide
is 100 lead 13 oxygen. The composition of the protoxide
100 lead. 7 oxygen. When lead is exposed in a vessel a grey
pellicle is formed on the top which if taken off fevers again
with an increase of weight, owing to the absorption of oxygen.
The process which white lead is formed is by exposing
lead to the fumes of vinegar The peroxide dissolved in
Nitric acid fume the protoxide, red lead in water with 
chlorine gas passed through it forms the peroxide which is 
tostelep. The Spec. grav. of red bad 8 14/100. All the oxides run
easily into glasses. If gold is mixed with copper or any other 
metal forming an alloy, you can purify it by lead, take the 

alloy and four times its weight of lead put them into a cucurbit
and apply heat, the lead will unite with the base metals
and the gold will be left. Lead generally contains a 
small quantity of silver and the nerves in Vermont contain 
it in considerable quantity its separation is called refining,
good lead are generally gives 60 or 70 per least pure metal
the silver is separated from lead by heat, silver remaining
after the lead is volatilized. All the oxides of lead give 
out their oxygen readily by heat, red lead put into sulphur
acid with heat gives out pure oxygen gas, oxides give out 
their oxygen to any thing that has a greater affinity for oxygen
To reduce the oxides 1/8 of charcoal is necessary. Lead unites
with Carros Sublim. forming chlorate of lead. Muriate of 
lead is very fusible and easily volatilized. It is very dangerous
to put acids in glaced vessels or they contain lead Submuriate 
of lead is obtained by heating muriate of lead with 
an Alkali. Carb. ac. gas unites with lead forming Carbonate 
of lead or the common white lead, by exposing 
sheets of lead to the fumes of vinegar. In New York the 
carbonate of lead is first formed then the carb. ac. gas is passed
into it. making a beautiful white. You can test lead by 
passing through it sulphuretted hydrogen gas which induces
it of a dark colour.

January 26. Dr. Post's Lecture. Nerves are so modified that 
they receive peculiar sensations. Some have supposed that the 
spinal marrow controls voluntary motion, you can destroy the 
life of different parts by destroying peculiar parts of the spinal
marrow. The great solar plexus is in the abdomen and all the 
nerves of the abdominal viscera derive some of their branches from 
it forming little plexuses before they enter the viscera. Nerves
have medullary matter in them as may be shown by pressing
the optic nerve. Dr. P. supposes that the ganglia of nerves
generate a certain influence which acts on the involuntary
muscles as nerves going to them have always ganglia while
those going to the voluntary muscles have seldom any.
Sanglia appear to be merely an enlargement of the nerves.
Dr. Monro supposed them to perform the office of little
brains. Nerves acquire a preternatural irritability, and  
also become paralysed yet their structure does not appear to 
undergo any change. Nerves also influence the involuntary
muscles as appears by the effects which certain passions of 
the mind have on the heart. Some suppose as does Dr. P. 
that many medicines act not by direct application, but 
on the stomach, and that by sympathetic action, through the 
medium of the nerves their effects are extended to different
parts of the system. Some Physiologists suppose that 


Electricity is the cause of Nervous action which precedes the 
body and under certain circumstances is transmitted through 
different parts of the body as in Gymnotus Electricus a fish 
which has very large nerves, a small brain and which can at 
pleasure give out its electricity.
Dr Mitchill's Lecture. Class Criptogamia. O. Fungi. G. Agaricus.
fungus horizontal, lamellated beneath including the 
family of agaries which are used as styptics.
G. Boletus - fungus horizontal, porous beneath.
G. Lycoperdon, puff ball, fungus roundish, filled with impalpable
mealy seeds like flower escaping from the top.
G. Tuber a subterranean fungus roundish with a solid pulp
as the Tuceahoo which is also called Selecotina because a 
new vegetable principle has been found in it called Selecotine
which is insoluble resisting all Chemical agency, it 
has been supposed by some to be a parasitical plant, that 
is growing on other plants. Books recommended by Dr. M.
Michaux's Flora Boreali Americana 2 Vol. in Latin.
Michaux's Historic des Chênes - of oaks 1 Vol. in French
Michaux the son on Forest trees 1 Vol. in French.
Persh's Flora Americae Septantrionalis 2 Vol in English.
This ends Physiological Botany.

3d- Part of Medical Botany. Examples
C. Diandria. O. Monagynia. G. Canilla S. Mariana called
Dittany an agreeable aromatic given either in infusion or 
decoction as a remedy in anorexia and dyspepsia.
S. Pulegordes, Pennyroyal the same virtues as the former
G. Vernena. S. Carolinia Lime scented vervain, aromatic
S. Officinalis one of the same family
G. Gratiola. S. Virginia hedge hyssop a febrifuge.
G. Lycopus. S. Americanus. water horehound febrifuge.
C. Triandria. O. Triandria. G. Lechea. S. Major of Wilderrow
and Cirtus Canadensis of Linneus. the frostweed. It
has been used with great success in New York by Physicians
and Quacks in strumous swellings and ulcers, particularly
those about the neck, it is to be given freely according to its 
effects, in infusion or decoction, the foot, stem, leaves and 
flowers are used, a cataplasm should also be applied to 
the tumours and sores made of the plant.
C. Tetrandria. O. Monogynia. G. Frasera. S. Waltheri. the American
Columbo, or pyramid flower, and equals the Asiatic Columbo
in appearance and quality and can be used with equal success.
G. Cornus. S. Florida common dogwood, the bark tonic, astringent
and bitter, used instead of Cinchoria. Officinalis. S. Lenica swamp
dogwood is an antidote to poisonous plants.

Dr. Macneven's Lecture. Remedies of the Cutaneous system
They are considered under three heads. 1. As an absorbing
system. 2. As an exhaling sysem. 3. As a sentient system.
The skin is [cross out] an exhaling, absorbing, sentient system under
the immediate aging of air, heat, light &c.
1. As an absorbing system - The lymphatics open through the 
epidermis as in proved by mercurial frictions, rubbing the 
body with turpentine & baths increase the weight of the body 
The actively of the absorbents removes bruises, purulent matter
and accounts for the metastasis of diseases. If the bladder
loses its action, or the gall bladder becomes obstructed, the 
urine and bile are carried into the circulation. The history
of contagious diseases proves the activity of the absorbents. The 
skin according to its state must be stimulated or its irritability
lessened. Absorption is stopped by Elephantiasis
and leprosy - Mr. Cruitestaute relates a case wherein 
a person having a knee swelled with synovia took
a dose of tart. emet. by mistake instead of cremor tartar
which completely dissipated the swelling. John Hunter
also relates a case where there was a bubo almost fit to be 
opened which was cured by vomiting. An ointment of aloes
rubbed into the abdomen will cure obstinate costiveness
after other remedies have failed, Cinchona, opium and 

camphor by friction produce their usual effects, digitalis has 
cured ascites in this manner rhubarb and scammony also 
produce their usual effects by friction. Radix Tentarium is 
a certain remedy for psora, it was first discovered in France.
Olive oil neutralises the poison of serpents, a man before 
the Royal Society of France allowed himself to be bitten
by a poisonous serpent, the usual symptoms supervened
when by applying warm oil to the wounds he was cured.
Acetic ether assuages the pain of rheumatic limbs.
2. As are exhaling system - The remedies are Diaphoretics.
The stoppage of the perspiration causes many complaints
the anatomy of the exhalents is as yet imperfect, perspiration
is affected by temperature air &c. it is a secretion from 
the minute arteries, and it is the perspiration which probably
changes the colour of the blood. Heat acts immediately
on the exhalents causing perspiration. When the heat 
of the body is above 108 Fahrenheit cold water and cold affusion
will cause immediate perspiration for the body
will give out its superabundant caloric to the water, but 
when the body is of its natural temperature or below it the 
tepid affusion is applicable, for the cold affusion will reduce 
the temperature below its ordinary state, when the 
body is very hot, cold water will cause the heat to condense 



on the surface of the body forming sweat. Diaphoretics act best
in the morning, for during sleep the irritability of the absorbents 
increases, hence the reason why consumptive persons
always morning sweats.
January 27th- Dr. Post took up the par vagum of a dog when 
vomiting and shortly after death came on, this is the principal nerve
of the stomach and lungs, if you take up one par vagum
the voice is very much weakened owing to the recurrent nerve which 
arises from the par vagum and which is reflected up behind the 
aorta, there are no very serious symptoms however after a few 
months you may take up the ether and yet no serious symptoms
supervene even a piece of the nerve has been taken out, which 
shows that nerves like other parts have the power of regeneration
the 8th pair of par vagum when it leaves the brain passing 
down in the sheath inclosing the carotid artery and jugular 
gives off branches to the lungs, and has been called the pneumatic 
nerve by the French in taking up the carotid we must 
avoid this nerve which his under the artery. this nerve afterwards
divides into two branches which supply the stomach. The 
nerves which go to the tongue are distinct, a branch of the 
5th- pair are for taste called the gustatory nerve, the 9th- pair 
or lingual nerve to supply the muscles moving the tongue. 

Dr. Mitchills Lecture, C. Monandria. O. Monogynia. G. Amomun
Fingiber. ginger aromatic, used as a tonic and carminative in atomic 
gout, in delirium tremens. S Cardomomum. cardomon, another species
of the same genus. G. Maranta. Arundinacea, indian arrow root, the 
root dried and macerated furnishes the fecula which is nourishing and 
emollient. G. Curcuma, turmeric, of which there are two species
the rotunda and longa, it is a mucilaginous somewhat bitter root
sometimes used for dyeing. The East Indians makes great use of it,
and are so fond of the colour that is produces, that they always colour 
their rice with it before they eat it.
C. Diandria. O. Monogynia. G. Olea. Eurpoea, olive oil -
Chemists says that it consists of carbon and hydrogen - this oil is 
nutritive, laxative and anthelmintic - speaking of worms Dr. M.
said that they are not worms but zoophytes. Dr. M. says that olive
oil does not check perspiration as is commonly supposed, but promotes
it, he has used it with success in yellow fever by friction, it has also 
been used in plague, dysentery &c and is preferable to drastic purgatives
when hardened faces are collected in the intestines as it lubricates
the passage and softens the scybala. Oil united to sal.
soda makes soap. Soda was the name formerly for heartburn
and the remedy used for that complaint has the name of the 
complaint itself.