NOT BY BREAD ALONE HARRIS ft EWING NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
THE PRINCIPLES OF 
HUMAN NUTRITION 
HARVEY W. 'wiLEY, M.D. 
DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF FOODS, SANITATION AND HEALTH, 
GOOD HOUSEKEEPING MAGAZINE, 
AND 
AUTHOR OF "1001 TESTS OF FOODS, BEVERAGES AND 
TOILET ACCESSORIES " 
HEARST'S INTERNATIONAL 
LIBRARY CO. : NEW YORK Copyright, 1915, by 
Hearst's International Library Co., Inc. 
All rights reserved, including that of translation into the foreign 
languages, including the Scandinavian 
THE QUINN A BODEN CO. PRESS 
RAHWAY, N. J. FOREWORD 
IN the following lessons an effort has been 
made to present the principles of man feeding 
in plain and simple language for the use of 
the non-scientific reader. The views of the 
author respecting the proper foods for infants 
and children are not shared by all dietitians, but 
are coming more into vogue. Simplicity and 
variety are the keynotes of this treatise-with a 
strong tendency to keep our foods as near to 
Nature as possible. 
The title shows that I do not believe in a "one- 
diet," nor on the other hand do I favor indis- 
criminate variety. Simplicity is possible with 
few foods, but not with over many. 
This book is for the mother, especially the 
mother who believes health is the greatest asset 
of infancy and childhood. At the same time the 
father also will be interested in, and I hope 
informed by, reading it. Better babies and 
healthier children will make more efficient men 
and women. The teacher in public and private 
V VI 
FOREWORD 
schools will, I hope, find valuable aid in these 
pages in protecting the health of the children 
and in securing for them a better and a cheaper 
diet. "To be a good animal is the first duty of 
the citizen." 
H. W. Wiley. 
January, 1916. CONTENTS 
LESSON PAGE 
I Introduction 1 
II Pigs vs. Infants-Definitions . . 14 
III Proteins 39 
IV Animal Proteins 56 
V Carbohydrates 85 
VI Fats and Oils 100 
VII The Role of Mineral Substances . . 109 
VIII How the Fuel and Building Materials 
of the Body are Prepared . . . 120 
IX A Further Consideration of the Intri- 
cate Processes of Digestion . . 126 
X The Kinds and Quantities of Food Re- 
quired to Keep the Body Running 
Smoothly 147 
XI Economy of Nutrition .... 161 
XII Fads of Nutrition 169 
XIII The Sour-Milk Propaganda . . . 187 
XIV Infant-Feeding 197 
XV The Feeding of the Child from Wean- 
ing Until the End of the Third Year 216 
XVI The Feeding of Children Between 
Four and Ten Years of Age . . 230 
VII VIII 
CONTENTS 
LESSON PAGE 
XVII The Food of the Child from Ten to 
Seventeen 243 
XVIII A Large Crop of Children's Dietaries . 257 
XIX The Relations of Good Teeth to Nutri- 
tion 270 
XX Misinterpreted Data .... 294 
XXI Causes of Race Degeneration . . 303 
XXII Old Age 315 
XXIII Diet and Disease 322 
XXIV Practical (Applied) Principles of Nu- 
trition 340 LESSON I 
INTRODUCTION 
THE greatest industry in any community is 
eating. This is not an industry confined to 
a particular class of people; it embraces 
every individual of the community. There are no 
child-labor laws regulating this industry. Infants 
engage in it immediately after birth. Old people 
continue the industry to the brink of the grave. 
The magnitude of the industry is not appreciated 
as it should be. If we count the time spent in 
eating alone, it is of considerable extent. If one 
should live sixty years, which is considerably 
above the average, and eat as he should eat accord- 
ing to the principles of Fletcher and his school, 
he would spend almost three hours a day at the 
table. This is one-eighth of his life, and in sixty 
years would amount to seven years and a half. 
This is probably an exaggerated time compared 
with actual work at the table, but including the 
time of preparing for the dinner in a proper way 
and the time consumed in a proper way in social 2 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
intercourse at the table it may be regarded as 
approximately correct. 
TIME SPENT IN EATING 
The time spent at the table, however, is not by 
any means all the time spent in this great indus- 
try. We must have something to eat and have it 
properly prepared. There is no way of getting 
exact data on this point, but it is probable that 
after reaching the age of service the average man 
or woman spends four hours a day either in get- 
ting something to eat or in preparing it to be 
eaten. In forty-four years of adult life one-sixth 
of the time may properly be ascribed to these ef- 
forts. In round numbers, seven years and a half 
of the allotted time of adult life in sixty years 
of living, namely, forty-four years, is devoted to 
getting food and preparing it to be eaten. 
But this is not all of the time which we devote 
to this industry. Sleep is intimately connected 
with nutrition. It is during sleep that the num- 
berless carpenters and masons that build the body 
and repair its waste are chiefly busy. During 
sleep new particles are built into the body and the 
old particles are taken out, thus completing the 
work which was commenced at the table. We NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
3 
should sleep eight hours a day. One-third of our 
time is spent at complete rest or asleep. In sixty 
years this would amount to twenty years. Add 
that to the fifteen years which we spend sitting 
at the table and getting something to eat and 
preparing it to be eaten, and we have a total of 
thirty-five years of the sixty years we live devoted 
to this one great industry. 
It is consequently a matter which should engage 
our closest attention. We should be trained, if 
possible, to engage in this industry with the maxi- 
mum of skill and benefit. Do we do this? No. 
Here is one great industry in which there are few 
skilled laborers. Everyone is a common day la- 
borer with no idea of the nature of the business 
in which he is engaged and with no special skill 
to perform the duties of that business with effect- 
iveness and benefit. Not being skilled laborers, 
nor experts, we may expect to draw the minimum 
salary. That minimum salary is paid to us in 
diminished years of life and in diminished effi- 
ciency while we live. 
It is true that there are now quite a large num- 
ber of persons who have made the subject of 
dietetics a study. The number of persons who 
are engaging in this study is daily increasing. 4 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
Instead of being a mere theory, the tenets of 
nutrition are now assuming scientific form and 
accuracy. One-third of a century ago there was 
probably not a medical college in the country that 
taught any scientific theory of diet. Today one 
of the armaments of the physician most prized is 
to know something of the philosophy of foods. 
All over the country there are established schools 
of domestic science which, among other things, 
teach the principles of human nutrition. Even in 
the public schools our children are beginning to 
be taught something of that which is most essen- 
tial to their welfare, namely, how to live. We 
are beginning to realize that the feeding of man is 
of more consequence than the feeding of pigs or 
steers. Yet there are a hundred people in this 
country today who know how to feed pigs and 
steers where there is one who knows how to feed 
children or grown people. 
RELATION OF DIET TO HEALTH 
The relations of diet to health are becoming 
fully appreciated. Already text-books have been 
written on the value of diet in preventing disease 
and its usefulness in helping to eradicate it. 
There is growing up in the country a new science NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
5 
which I have called bromatotherapy,1 that is, the 
remedy of disease through proper diet. There is 
another school of medicine which might be called 
bromatoprophylaxis-the prevention of disease 
through a proper diet. The time seems to be near 
at hand when intending parents will have more 
difficulty in securing a license to get married than 
they have had in the past. In some states already 
they are expected to show that they have no 
chronic disease of a character to affect unfavor- 
ably the offspring which they may have. If either 
one of the contracting parties is suffering from 
syphilis, tuberculosis, cancer, or other serious ill- 
ness which may unfavorably affect the character 
of the offspring, he may be refused a license to 
enter into matrimony. It would be well if we could 
have a kind of a civil service in matrimony, which 
would consist not only of a physical examination 
of fitness, but also of an examination which would 
disclose whether or not the candidate for matri- 
mony is competent to feed his offspring in a 
proper way. The gross ignorance respecting the 
fundamental principles of nutrition which exists 
among educated persons is phenomenal. Appar- 
1 Presidential address, American Therapeutic Society, Boston, 
May, 1911. 6 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
ently the time has come for a wider propaganda, 
which will extend into the schools and into the 
homes of the people. 
One reason for the ignorance regarding nutri- 
tion as affecting human beings has been in the 
character of the publications relating thereto. 
These publications, the results of experimental 
evidence, have been couched in language which 
does not appeal to the ordinary intelligent citi- 
zen who has had no technical training in matters 
of this kind. The names of Rubner, Atwater, 
Benedict, Osborne, Lusk, Chittenden, and many 
others, while well known among scientific circles, 
awake no response in the minds of the people. It 
is evident that the fundamental principles which 
underlie the science of nutrition should be so pre- 
sented to the intelligent and educated people of 
the country as to be readily comprehensible and, 
if possible, attractive. To this end I undertook 
to write a series of articles on Nutrition for Good 
Housekeeping Magazine. At the completion of 
this series the editors of the magazine suggested 
that it would be wise to collect these articles into 
book form, expand them somewhat, and thus 
secure perhaps a wider vogue for them than other- 
wise could be obtained. In this small work I have NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
7 
attempted to comply with that request, using the 
articles which were published in Good Housekeep- 
ing in 1914 as a text. I have elaborated them in 
the form in which they are now presented to the 
public. 
TRADITIONAL FALLACIES 
Many of the writers on food subjects today, 
and the number of such writers is rapidly increas- 
ing, are spreading abroad mistaken and harmful 
statements about foods. They do this with the 
best intentions and as a natural result of faulty 
training. Some supposed authority makes a state- 
ment which is not based on scientific fact, and this 
statement is repeated in good faith by the popular 
writer, and, of course, accepted as gospel by the 
reader. While the statements in the following 
lessons may not be devoid of error, an earnest 
effort will be made to base them on well-estab- 
lished scientific data. Where reputable author- 
ities differ in the ascertainment or interpretation 
of data, I shall follow those whose opinions lead 
to the greater economy and safety. In judging 
between economy and health, I shall always favor 
the latter. The health and happiness of the future 
depend largely on the education of the people 
respecting scientific nutrition. 8 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
THE SCHOOL AS A TRAINING CENTER 
The question may be pertinently asked, How is 
this education to be secured? First of all, there 
must be a sufficient number of teachers properly 
instructed to impart the education, and, second, 
some facilities must be secured for the teaching. 
Fortunately there is now a large number of 
schools of domestic science and economy estab- 
lished either in connection with the official schools 
of agriculture or with college or university en- 
dowments. There is also a number of privately 
conducted schools, diet kitchens, and similar or- 
ganizations giving training of this kind. We may 
look forward confidently, then, to a near future 
when there will not be a dearth of trained teachers. 
To me the most hopeful opportunity to extend 
the knowledge of human nutrition among the 
people is afforded by the public school. Many 
public-school principals and teachers will throw 
up their hands in protest against any suggestion 
which looks to the addition of any new study to 
the school curriculum. I say to them, ' ' Come, let 
us reason together." I have no desire to place 
any additional burdens upon our children at 
school. Rather would I lessen them. And hence, NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
9 
in suggesting that the principles of practical 
nutrition be taught to the children in schools, it 
is only fair that some indication should be made 
of what is to be left out. In view of the present 
change in the boundaries of nations, I venture to 
suggest, in the first place, that the study of 
geography, aside from local geographical knowl- 
edge, is not a necessity in the education of the 
child. When he grows up and has practical expe- 
rience and travels he will easily learn all of the 
geography that the average citizen is required to 
know. The space made vacant by eliminating 
geography from the schools, and the time saved, 
would give a fair opportunity for beginning work. 
THE BURDEN OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
Another time-consuming study in our schools 
which might well be eliminated is that of our pres- 
ent system of weights and measures. A system 
of weights and measures which is wholly arbi- 
trary, or nearly so, and in which there is no cor- 
relation between one kind of measure and another, 
is entirely out of place in the development of 
modern science. Our fathers who established 
this nation were wise, in so far as they went, in 
instituting a scientific valuation for our money. 10 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
It is so simple that any intelligent child of six 
or seven years of age can learn to count money 
in a few minutes. It is only a ten-ten-ten problem. 
There is no such coin as a "mill," and the term 
"mill" should be dropped from our system of 
counting money. It only serves to confuse. We 
then begin with the simplest and smallest meas- 
ure, the cent. It is not wise to have both a thou- 
sandth division and a hundredth division in the 
same system of enumeration, and when the mill 
(thousandth) is gone this will be the case. We 
then have only two necessary terms in the count- 
ing of money, the cent and the dollar. For con- 
venience we may continue the dime, though it is 
rarely used in polite society; also the quarter and 
the half, though the terms "twenty-five cents" 
and "fifty cents" are used immeasurably greater 
times than the quarter or the half. Then we need 
only teach the child the cent and the dollar. 
If we had the same simplicity in the rest of our 
weights and measures, the whole problem would 
be solved. The opportunity to eliminate this diffi- 
culty is constantly presented to the people of this 
country. Already the decimal system of weights 
and measures, in vogue throughout almost the 
civilized world, with the exception of England and NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
11 
the United States, is permissible in this country 
by act of Congress. We need to go just one step 
further and make it obligatory. We hardly need 
change the denominations with which we are 
familiar, but only need give them a slightly dif- 
ferent value, to which we would in a few months 
become entirely accustomed. A few illustrations 
will emphasize my meaning. The quart would 
hardly have to be changed at all to represent the 
liter. The pound would require only a very slight 
change to become half a kilogram. The yard 
would have to be lengthened by about 10 per cent, 
to become the meter. We could keep the quart, 
the pound, and the yard, and let the other meas- 
ures go. The abolition of the burden of learning 
the present unscientific, time-consuming, trouble- 
brewing chaos of our ordinary weights and meas- 
ures would give all the time necessary, and more, 
to teach our children the fundamental principles 
of nutrition. 
Those who have not tried to instruct children 
in this matter will be surprised to know how eager 
they are to learn living things and things which 
relate to life, and how retentive they are of the 
principles which they acquire. There is no reason 
why a child of three should not understand the 12 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
fundamentals of nutrition. In my own experi- 
ence I have found that it is an easy task not only 
to make the child understand, but, above all, to 
have a real interest in the matter and to apply it 
to his own method of life with enthusiasm as well 
as success and benefit. 
Further than this, the abolition of our present 
system of weights and measures, with its three or 
four different kinds of gallons, its two kinds of 
pounds, its innumerable designations of measures 
of volume, measures of weight, and measures of 
length, which have no relation to each other at 
all and are purely arbitrary, would restrict the 
opportunity which is now so largely practiced of 
short-weighting what we buy and long-weighting 
what we sell. A simple decimal system of weights 
and measures such as is now used throughout the 
whole world, with the exceptions noted, would do 
much to make dishonesty more difficult and hon- 
esty more popular. 
Thus, without placing any additional burden 
upon the child in school, and, in fact, greatly 
lightening the burdens which he now struggles to 
bear, we could teach all the fundamental prin- 
ciples of nutrition in a manner whereby their 
practical application would at once become gen- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
13 
eral. The parents at home will not be long to 
adopt a system of scientific nutrition which their 
children learn at school and tell them about at 
the table. LESSON II 
PIGS VS. INFANTS-DEFINITIONS 
HUNDREDS of schools in this country are 
engaged in teaching teachers how to teach. 
They are doing fine work. Their num- 
ber and efficiency should be increased. Nearly 
fifty colleges in this country are teaching young 
men how to feed pigs physiologically and eco- 
nomically. Rations are analyzed and compounded 
for particular purposes and classes of animals. 
Stock to be kept over the winter for pasture the 
next summer are fed very different food and in 
very different quantities from animals fed for 
meat or for the production of milk. There should 
be more and better teaching of this kind. There 
are also many schools of so-called domestic science 
in which the art of housekeeping in all its ramifi- 
cations is taught. We should have more schools 
of this class, and they should teach the funda- 
mental principles of nutrition which every house- 
keeper should know. This magazine proposes to 
open a new school of domestic science, with twelve 
14 NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
15 
hundred thousand students at the beginning. 
This, beyond doubt, is the most far-reaching uni- 
versity extension course that has yet been at- 
tempted. 
THE GREAT ECONOMIC PROBLEM 
The great economic problem of the near future 
is the feeding of man. But that is just what the 
great technical schools before mentioned have not 
taught. The women of the country will play 
the leading role in solving this great political- 
economical problem. In many states they already 
vote. In many more they soon will. Whether 
voting or not, this world-wide problem of nutri- 
tion appeals most strongly to them. They can 
neither ignore nor evade it. Therefore they must 
study it. Food, clothing, and shelter are the faith, 
hope, and charity of the new gospel, which, when 
accepted, will lead the nation into the new freedom. 
Therefore every woman should know the essential 
principles of nutrition. 
The increase in the cost of foods is one of the 
most threatening dangers to the stability and 
progress of the community. One of the chief 
causes of this increase lies in the widespread ig- 
norance of the composition and function of foods. 16 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
I think I may safely say that at least twenty- 
five per cent, of the food cost to-day is exacted 
because of the ignorance of the housewife on this 
subject. All the students in the Good Housekeep- 
ing school may count on being able, after gradu- 
ation, to save twenty-five per cent, of the present 
and future cost of foods. Is not that worth 
doing? 
Furthermore, a large part of the ill health of the 
community, and perhaps fifty per cent, of that of 
the children, is caused by ignorance in regard to 
nutrition. 
INFANT MORTALITY 
The mortality among the infants of this coun- 
try under the age of one year, according to the 
data collected by the Bureau of Vital Statistics 
of the Census, amounts to one hundred and 
twenty-seven per thousand. This is a terrible toll 
to exact of humanity. Twelve and seven-tenths 
per cent, of the children born every day in the 
United States, and there are several thousand 
born, live less than a year. If we analyze the 
causes of this great mortality, we shall find that 
defective nutrition is the most important one. 
The infants who die may die directly from the NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
17 
effect of poor food, insufficient food, too much 
food, or food administered at the wrong time. If 
they do not die directly from these causes, their 
vitality is so diminished by improper diet that 
they are easy victims of measles, whooping-cough, 
scarlet-fever, diphtheria, and other diseases 
which are prevalent among children. 
One of the greatest causes of infantile mortality 
is the summer diarrhea, very properly called by 
the mothers of years ago "summer complaint." 
This intestinal disease, while due to an organism, 
is directly promoted by improper food. In fact, 
the exciting cause of the diarrhea is injected in 
the food. Especially is this true if the infant is 
not naturally nourished. The infant at its 
mother's breast has a life insurance, not from 
New York, but from Providence. The chance for 
life of the infant at the breast of a healthy mother 
is very many times greater than if the infant is 
fed any kind of artificial food. In many cases, 
however, it is necessary that the infants have arti- 
ficial food. There is only one substitute for the 
mother's milk that ought to be given. That is the 
modified milk, fresh, clean, and properly handled, 
of a cow that is healthy. When modified under 
the prescription of a physician to resemble the 18 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
milk of the mother, the infant's life may often 
be saved. Alas, too often does the infant have 
dirty milk, old milk, milk from infected animals. 
It is a miracle if an infant thus nourished lives 
through the year. Almost the first lesson in nutri- 
tion is that infants should have the milk of a 
healthy mother, and when that is impossible, the 
best substitute that can be secured. 
In this country the milk of the cow is the only 
substitute available. In other countries the milk 
of the goat is often to be had. In Europe I have 
seen the goats driven up in front of the house and 
the warm, fresh milk used for the nutrition of the 
children. This is not likely to occur in this coun- 
try. While the milk of the cow is not ideal for 
the human infant, it can be so modified by dimin- 
ishing its content of protein and increasing its 
content of milk-sugar as to be an acceptable sub- 
stitute for mother's milk, if it can be had under 
sanitary conditions. 
FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS 
Food, in the physiological sense, is that which, 
when properly introduced into the body, builds 
tissue, restores waste, and furnishes heat. These 
are the three great functions of foods, all of which NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
19 
must be performed. This does not by any means 
imply, however, that the secondary function of 
food as a means of social enjoyment should be 
neglected. In fact, an attractive table and con- 
genial companions serve to render more effective 
the primary purposes of food. 
Classes of Foods: Foods comprise four classes: 
a. Nitrogenous foods, or proteins, which nour- 
ish the muscles, brain, nerves, and tendons, and 
furnish some heat. 
b. Starchy foods and sugars, commonly desig- 
nated as carbohydrates, which nourish the fatty 
tissues, and furnish heat. 
c. Fat foods (oils), which take little part in 
tissue-building, but are fundamentally heat-pro- 
ducers. 
d. Mineral foods (common salt, lime, phos- 
phorus, iron, etc.), which nourish particularly the 
teeth and bones, and furnish the acids and salts 
necessary to digestion and the translation of fluids 
in the body. 
Calorie is a term used to indicate the quantity 
of heat afforded by a food product during the 
process of its journey through the body, or as 
determined by burning the food in a calorimeter 
and measuring the quantity of heat produced. 20 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
The unit of measure is one gram of water (15 
grains); the unit of temperature is one degree 
centigrade (1.8° F.), and the initial temperature 
of measurement is that of the living-room, 
about 70° F. A calorie, therefore, measures 
the quantity of heat which will raise the tempera- 
ture of one gram of water one degree centigrade. 
When spelled with a large C, except at the begin- 
ning of a sentence, Calorie designates the quantity 
of heat required to raise one kilogram (2.2 
pounds) of water one degree centigrade. One 
Calorie is therefore equal to one thousand calo- 
ries. 
When a food is completely burned in the body, 
the same number of calories is produced as if 
it were burned in a calorimeter. Thus fat which 
is used in the body produces the same number of 
calories as fat that is burned in a calorimeter. 
The same is practically true of sugar or starch. 
On the other hand, when a nitrogenous food, 
protein, is burned in the body, the combustion is 
not complete; in other words, the residues of the 
digestion of protein matter are still capable of 
further oxidation. Urea is an example of such 
an incompletely burned product. The utilized 
calories of protein are therefore fewer in number NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
21 
than the calories of protein burned in a calorim- 
eter. 
It is highly important to have a clear under- 
standing of what the fuel value of food means. 
So much has been said respecting the judgment 
of a food by this heat-forming property that the 
reader not posted in the details of nutrition is 
likely to be entirely misled. An understanding of 
how the heat value of food is measured in the 
body and out of it will help clear away the maze 
which so generally surrounds the discussion of 
this subject. 
The heat value of food when burned in the ordi- 
nary way is measured by an instrument called the 
calorimeter. The calorimeter must not be con- 
founded with the thermometer, though one is a 
Latin and the other a Greek name of like meaning. 
The thermometer measures the degree of heat, not 
its quantity; the calorimeter the quantity of heat, 
not its degree. If you were to stick a ther- 
mometer into an iceberg five hundred miles long, 
three hundred miles wide, and a mile thick, it 
would register exactly the same degree that would 
be obtained if you were to put it into a mass of 
ice just sufficient to cover the bulb. A thermome- 
ter in a tank of boiling water that contained a 22 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
million gallons would register exactly the same 
degree of heat as if it were placed in a cup of 
boiling water containing half a pint. On the other 
hand, the calorimeter measures the amount of 
heat. 
THE CALORIMETER 
If you measure the heat produced in the human 
body, there must be a room of a uniform tempera- 
ture (calorimeter) in which the human body is 
placed. To measure properly the quantity of heat 
in natural digestion (metabolism) the tempera- 
ture of the calorimeter should be near that of the 
ordinary working-room. A temperature of 20° C. 
(68° F.) is most suitable for that determination. 
It would be difficult to give a description of a 
calorimeter of this kind in sufficient detail to be 
of any value. It is a very complicated apparatus, 
must be large enough to hold a man of normal 
size comfortably, and so built as to completely 
eliminate any influence of external heat or 
cold. 
The total quantity of the heat engendered is 
measured by a given weight of water, which has a 
higher capacity for heat than any other substance. 
This water circulates around the room at a given NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
23 
temperature and with a measured volume. At the 
end of the test the water has a higher tempera- 
ture and a slightly increased volume. The degree 
of the increase in heat, measured by the ther- 
mometer, multiplied by the weight of water, will 
give the total quantity of heat generated. By 
means of delicate automatic machinery the tem- 
perature of the room (calorimeter) in which the 
man is confined is kept constant. All of the heat 
developed by him is therefore absorbed in the cir- 
culating water, and can be measured with the 
greatest precision. 
It is found in this way that the quantity of heat 
produced by the complete oxidation of a given 
weight of oil or fat in the body is exactly equiva- 
lent to that which would be generated by burning 
the oil or fat in an apparatus outside of the body. 
The laboratory apparatus in which foods are actu- 
ally burned in no way differs in principle from 
the respiration calorimeter in which a man is 
placed. It is, however, very much more simple 
in its construction and more easily operated. 
The food is burned in a strong steel vessel, which 
is usually called a ' ' bomb. ' ' This steel cylinder is 
entirely immersed in water, the temperature of 
which is carefully ascertained before the burning. 24 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
Inside of the bomb there are arranged electrical 
conductors, connected at the point where the food 
is placed by a piece of soft iron wire. The bomb 
is filled with oxygen under high pressure. When 
everything is in place a current of electricity is 
passed through the iron wire which melts and 
ignites the food, and the wire and the food are 
all consumed. The quantity of heat which is pro- 
duced by the oxidation of the weight of the iron 
wire is previously ascertained, and this quantity 
of heat is deducted from the total heat measured 
by the rise of temperature in the water which en- 
velops the apparatus. The weight of water being 
known, the rise of temperature, multiplied by the 
weight of the water, gives the total amount of 
heat. The external surface of the calorimeter is 
protected with the greatest care against any 
changes from the external variations in the atmos- 
phere. 
COMPARATIVE FUEL VALUES OF FOODS 
By this simple and yet very complicated appa- 
ratus the values of foods in producing heat have 
been accurately determined, both in the big calo- 
rimeter where the man lives and in the little steel 
calorimeter where small quantities of food are NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
25 
burned. This operation reveals the fact that 
the quantities of carbohydrates (sugars and 
starches) and fats or oils which are burned in the 
body give practically identical quantities of heat 
with those obtained by burning these products in 
the laboratory calorimeter. When protein is 
burned in the body, however, the quantity of heat 
produced is much less than that obtained in the 
laboratory calorimeter. This is due to the fact 
that in the metabolism of protein the end products 
are not completely oxidized, and thus the total 
amount of heat that could possibly be developed 
from the protein is not secured. The most impor- 
tant end product of protein metabolism is urea, 
and urea can be burned in a calorimeter with the 
production of an amount of heat equivalent to 
that which is missing when the protein substance 
is burned in the body. The study of this fact has 
led to a knowledge of the exact quantity of heat 
which the protein furnishes in the body, and which 
is practically the same as that supplied by an 
equal weight of carbohydrate (sugar or starch). 
On the other hand, if the protein is burned in the 
laboratory calorimeter, the quantity of heat se- 
cured is more than one-fourth greater. 
An illustration will show better than a descrip- 26 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
tion this fact. An average carbohydrate, when 
burned in a calorimeter, will afford four thousand 
one hundred heat units, or Calories. The average 
protein, when burned in a laboratory calorimeter, 
will give fifty-five hundred Calories. Thus it ap- 
pears that in every kilogram of protein which is 
burned in the body there are fifteen hundred 
Calories of unlocked heat. If this important fact 
is kept in view, much of the mystery surrounding 
the descriptions of heat values of foods will be 
dispelled. 
Another important consideration which should 
be kept in view is the fact that the number of 
Calories in a food product is expressed on two 
different bases. In one method the number is ex- 
pressed on the food as it is consumed, that is, 
containing no waste material and its usual amount 
of water. Another method consists in expressing 
the number of Calories on the food as purchased, 
and food as purchased generally contains more 
or less waste material. Meat as furnished con- 
tains bone, skin, and gristle. Fruit as purchased 
contains skin, stem, seeds, and core. Potatoes as 
purchased contain the skin, which, unfortunately, 
is commonly removed. Thus, in getting a clear 
idea of the calorific value of foods for digestive NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
27 
purposes, the above facts should not be forgotten, 
and a statement should always accompany a calo- 
rific description, whether it refers to the foods as 
eaten or the foods as purchased. 
There is still another method of comparison, 
namely, to give the Calorie value of the food ex- 
cluding the water it contains. Very misleading 
ideas may be acquired if this distinction is not 
made. For instance, cheese is made of milk. In 
the manufacture of cheese the greater part of the 
sugar which the milk contains is excluded. Thus 
a gallon of milk turned into cheese would not 
have the food value nor the calorific value of a 
gallon of milk. Yet the number of Calories in the 
pound of cheese is very much greater than that in 
a pound of milk, simply because in the cheese a 
very large part of the water, as well as the sugar, 
originally in the milk has been eliminated. 
The less water a natural food contains, the 
greater proportionately is its calorific value. Yet 
at the same time the food with high calorific value 
may not be so good a food as the one of low calo- 
rific value. Bread as eaten usually contains 35 
per cent, of water. The cereal from which the 
bread is made contains only 12 per cent, of water. 
Thus the Calorie equivalent of a pound of wheat 28 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
is very much higher than the Calorie equivalent 
of a pound of bread. It is quite unusual to eat the 
whole wheat, and yet it would give a larger amount 
of fuel than an equivalent weight of bread. With- 
out keeping this point in view, the intelligent 
reader not an expert in nutrition might be led to 
belive that bread is less valuable as a food than 
wheat. 
There is one class of foods in which the theo- 
retical and food calorific values are practically the 
same. That food is fats or oils. Lard, olive oil, 
cottonseed oil, and other edible oils, are practi- 
cally free of water, and hence the number of 
Calories which they represent is practically se- 
cured when used as food. On the other hand, 
butter contains from 12 to 16 per cent, of moisture. 
If we look in tables, we will find the calorific 
equivalent of butter much less than that of olive 
oil or lard; yet butter has no less food value than 
these bodies, if expressed on a dry basis. In fact, 
butter is believed, as the results of late experi- 
ments, to contain important elements favoring 
nutrition, the character of which is not quite well 
understood, but which favors health and growth. 
The term "vitamin" was unhappily proposed by 
Funk to include the peculiar health-giving and NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
29 
disease-preventing element of the rice grain, 
which exists chiefly in its outer envelope, and 
which is lost in the usual process of polishing rice 
previous to consumption. The special value of 
butter and some other fats may be due to a similar 
body. 
CALORIES AS A STANDARD OF VALUE 
Often the nutritional value of foods is expressed 
in Calories. This is not physiologically accurate. 
The Calories express only the heat-producing 
properties of foods-whereas one of the chief uses 
of foods is to build tissues and restore waste, func- 
tions which cannot be expressed in terms of heat. 
The heat value of food (in other words, the num- 
ber of Calories it contains) is the measure of the 
heat and energy which it will yield, but not by 
any means the measure of its nutritive value. 
Digestion is a term applied to the various chemi- 
cal changes which take place in the foods after the 
process of mastication is completed. The process 
of digestion, in a limited sense, consists of those 
processes which render the foods soluble and 
suitable to be absorbed into the blood-current. 
Enzymes, from a physiological point of view, 
in regard to the digestion of foods, are the organ- 30 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
isms which are active in liquefying the food. 
They are of several classes, namely: 
a. Amylolytic.-Enzymes which liquefy starch. 
The saliva contains an enzyme of this kind, 
ptyalin, which converts starch into sugar. The 
pancreas also secretes a similar enzyme, amylop- 
sin. Invertase is an enzyme which converts sugar 
into dextrose and levulose. 
b. Proteolytic.-Pepsin, the enzyme secreted 
chiefly by the coats of the stomach, the function 
of which is to reduce the insoluble proteins to a 
soluble state, is typically proteolytic. Trypsin se- 
creted by the pancreas is supplemental to pepsin. 
The proteoses (albumoses, peptones) produced by 
pepsin digestion are reduced to amino-acids by 
trypsin and erepsin. 
c. Lipolytic.-The enzyme secreted chiefly by 
the pancreas, the function of which is to render 
fats suitable for absorption into the blood-current. 
It splits the fats into glycerin and fat acids. 
The pancreatic secretion is the most important of 
the digestive agents, since it contains three fer- 
ments, viz., amylopsin, trypsin, and lipase, attack- 
ing starch, protein, and fat, respectively. The 
secretion from the liver (gall) also is active in the 
digestive activities of the small intestine. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
31 
THE PROCESSES OF NUTRITION 
The three kinds of enzymes mentioned above 
are sufficient to render soluble and suitable for 
absorption the various kinds of food taken into 
the stomach. The chief object of chewing is to 
reduce all foods to a fineness suitable to favor 
the action of the enzymes. Starches and foods 
containing cellulose require much more complete 
mastication than do meats, which contain chiefly 
protein substances. As an aid to digestion all 
foods should be carefully masticated, especially 
those of a starchy or fibrous character. The sum 
of the changes which take place before the food 
products enter the blood-current constitutes the 
process of digestion, in the ordinary application 
of the term. 
Assimilation is a term applied to the selective 
action of the tissues of the body in taking up from 
the blood-current the particular foods which 
nourish them and restore their wasted particles. 
Excretion, the opposite of assimilation, is a term 
applied to the process by means of which the cells 
that have performed their function are degraded, 
often rendered soluble, and in this state made suit- 
able for removal from the body through the vari- 32 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
ous organs, such as the skin, the alimentary tract, 
and the kidneys. The residual parts of the food 
which do not enter into the living tissues after 
being wholly or partially burned (water, carbon 
dioxid, urea, etc.) are excreted in like manner. 
Metabolism is a term applied to the sum total 
of the changes which take place in digestion, as- 
similation, and excretion. The process of metabo- 
lism is made up of two distinct stages; namely, 
anabolism, the building up of the tissues, and cata- 
bolism, the tearing down of the tissues. 
Foods, in a legal sense, have been defined by act 
of Congress to include the substances commonly 
known as foods, and also beverages and condi- 
ments. Under this definition, foods include water, 
soft drinks, all alcoholic beverages, and salt, vine- 
gar, spices, flavors, and other condiments. 
Difference between Plant and Animal Foods: 
There is no sharp biological line which distin- 
guishes between plant and animal life. The best 
line of separation is the character of their food. 
Plants eat inorganic, animals organic, foods. An 
organic food is furnished by a living being, such 
as an apple, a product of plant life, or a beefsteak, 
a product of animal life. On the other hand, a 
stone or a metal is not formed by biological NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
33 
processes; they are inorganic. Plants live almost 
exclusively on inorganic materials, such as potash, 
lime, phosphates, nitrates and iron. Animals, on 
the other hand, cannot be directly nourished by 
such foods, but feed on plants or on other animals. 
There are perhaps a few exceptions to this rule, 
as, for instance, certain fungi, such as mushrooms, 
which are plants, and yet, according to some au- 
thorities, live to some extent on organic matters, 
while animals require salt, which is an inorganic 
substance, as a part of their food. Other inor- 
ganic substances, in the form of phosphates and 
lime compounds, are capable of aiding nutrition. 
In general, it may be said that, with the exception 
of salt, all the mineral nutrients of the body may 
be found in their proper quantities in biological 
combination in the normal food of man. 
When man in a state of health is properly fed, 
the only mineral ingredients that should be added 
to his food are chlorid of sodium (common salt), 
and not much of that, and the natural mineral con- 
stituents of good water, which he drinks and with 
which his food is cooked. In disease conditions 
other mineral substances may be indicated, but 
these should be used only under the direction of a 
competent physician. 34 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
WHAT PLANTS DO 
Plants absorb from the soil the soluble salts of 
lime, phosphorus, potash, compounds of nitric 
acid, water, and carbon dioxid (when united with 
water, carbonic acid), and elaborate (change into 
utilizable condition) oxygen, protein, starch, 
sugar, cellulose, fat or oil, citric, tartaric, and 
other organic acids, essential oils, and many other 
minor organic products. Animals cannot produce 
any of these compounds from inorganic foods. 
Animals eat these plants and other animals, and 
make new kinds of protein, bone tissue, fats, etc., 
which are more or less characteristic for each 
species. 
The animal differs chiefly from the plant in that 
it produces in health only a trace of a carbohy- 
drate (glycogen) and sugars derived from protein, 
and no starch or cellulose, whereas the chief prod- 
ucts of plant life are carbohydrates. It is only in 
a diseased state (diabetes) that man secretes 
sugar, and never starch. On the other hand, 
sugar and starch are important products of all 
plant life, and in some cases, as with the potato, 
sugar-cane, sugar-beet, maple, etc., represent their 
chief economic value. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
35 
In respect of the character of their foods, ani- 
mals are of three kinds, viz., those living ex- 
clusively on plants, those living exclusively on 
animals, and those living on a mixed diet. The 
terms herbivorous, carnivorous, and omnivorous, 
are applied to them, respectively. Of common ani- 
mals the sheep and the cow are types of the 
herbivorous, the dog and cat of the carnivorous, 
and man is the omnivorous animal. But flesh-eat- 
ing animals may be fed more or less completely 
on a vegetable diet. The cat and the dog would 
eat no vegetable foods from choice, but often do 
so from necessity. Probably there is no carnivo- 
rous animal that would not eat plant products 
rather than starve. On the other hand, it is doubt- 
ful if many plant-eating animals would eat meat 
under any circumstances. The sheep, especially, 
would refuse any flesh diet. The pig is supposed 
to be vegetarian, but is very fond of a lim- 
ited meat diet. The most scientific feeders daily 
give the hog a small quantity of meat meal. 
Omnivorous animals like man can subsist very 
well on an exclusively vegetable diet, but would 
not thrive well on an exclusively meat diet. 
This fact shows man to be omnivorous in a 
limited degree. He can eat everything that is 36 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
fit, but decidedly prefers a diet largely vege- 
table. 
A MATTER OF ADAPTATION 
If we admit that man is a creature of heredity 
and environment, we should expect the diet of man 
to depend largely on vegetable foods. This is 
found to be the case. Where vegetation is abun- 
dant and perennial, man's natural diet is decidedly 
vegetable, as in tropical regions. In the far North 
for similar reasons it is decidedly animal, as 
among the Eskimos. In the temperate zones we 
find the diet mixed, with a decided tendency to 
fruits and nuts toward the south, and an increas- 
ing consumption of fat, flesh, and fish toward the 
north. The most progressive type of man is found 
in the temperate zones. While diet is by no means 
the sole cause of this difference, it plays an im- 
portant role in that environment which conditions 
the best evolutionary medium of man. 
The facts of comparative anatomy show differ- 
ences of structure between purely vegetarian and 
purely meat-eating animals. Compare, for in- 
stance, the bovine and feline types. The cow has 
only one set of incisors, well suited to gathering 
grass, but useless for seizing and holding the vic- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
37 
tims of prey. On the other hand, the lion would 
cut a sorry figure grazing on the meadow. The 
molars, or grinding teeth, are also quite different 
in the two types, the one with broad surfaces and 
both a perpendicular and a lateral motion of the 
lower jaw, the other with more pointed surfaces 
and a single motion. There is also a marked dif- 
ference in the duration of mastication. In the cow 
it is slow and laborious, in the tiger quick and 
easy. In fact, the meat-eating animals chew only 
to swallow, while the vegetable-eating animals 
chew to digest. The contrast is continued in the 
digestive organs; the first type has one or more 
stomachs of comparatively large size and greater 
area of digestive surface, the other has a re- 
stricted digestive surface and a shorter ali- 
mentary canal. With the herbivore eating is a 
business, with the carnivore it is an incident, em- 
ploying but little time. 
Judged by the standard of comparative anat- 
omy, man is both herbivorous and carnivorous. 
For this reason, the normal diet of man should 
be mixed, but predominantly vegetable. This is 
advantageous not only physiologically, but also 
for economical reasons. A vegetable diet in 
which cereals play a dominant role costs much 38 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
less than a diet in which meats are in excess. In 
many diseased states of the body a more exclusive 
diet is often indicated. Milk is the only food tol- 
erated in some cases, while in others, such as 
tuberculosis, many physicians believe that eggs 
and lean fresh meat should constitute the prin- 
cipal diet. 
But far more convincing than this is the fact 
that in all countries and in all ages of civilization 
man by choice, with only a few exceptions, is, and 
has been, omnivorous. This fact will remain the 
chief reason, until human nature changes, for eat- 
ing moderately of all classes of foods. LESSON III 
PROTEINS 
THOSE compounds of animal and vegetable 
origin which contain as essential ingredi- 
ents nitrogen and sulphur are commonly- 
known as proteins. 
The composition of protein varies with its 
character and origin. Its chief constituents 
occur in approximately the following proportions: 
Carbon 52 per cent. 
Oxygen 22 " " 
Nitrogen .... 17 " " 
Hydrogen ... 7 " " 
Sulphur 1 " " 
Hemoglobin, a protein found in blood, contains 
a little iron. 
Some nitrogenous substances, as nuclein and 
lecithin, also contain phosphorus. The foods 
containing protein are unique in the process of 
digestion. Together with certain mineral mat- 
ters, particularly lime and phosphorus, they form 
the sole building materials of the body for all the 
tissues, with the possible exception of fat. The 
39 40 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
phenomenon of growth is, therefore, associated 
most intimately with protein and mineral foods. 
On the other hand, the phenomena of the produc- 
tion of heat and energy are chiefly associated with 
carbohydrates and fats in the food, although the 
protein foods take an important and yet sec- 
ondary role in the production of heat and energy. 
Great progress has been made in the last few 
years in our knowledge of the role of protein in 
the animal organism. 
THE FUNCTIONS OF NITROGEN 
The cycle of nitrogen in nutrition of animals 
and plants is one of the most interesting and im- 
portant studies in nutritional physiology. We 
may trace the nitrogen from its condition as an 
inert gas in the air. Apparently it has few or 
no affinities in so far as we are able to detect 
them by our usual methods of observation. Four- 
fifths of the atmosphere consists of nitrogen, a 
gas which moves in this immense ocean over the 
surface of the earth, penetrates every crack and 
cranny of the earth's porous surface, extends to 
an indefinite height, exists in direct contact with 
oxygen without any tendency to unite therewith, 
and seems to mock the efforts of man to utilize it NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
41 
except according to its own sweet will. Nitrog- 
enous foods are among the most expensive which 
we have to purchase. Nitrogenous fertilizers, ex- 
cept at the present time of war, when the price of 
potash has been greatly increased, are the most 
expensive of the fertilizers which the farmer must 
procure for his growing crops. 
It is only within thirty or forty years that scien- 
tific investigators have discovered that a certain 
family of plants, and possibly others not yet 
known, has the faculty of elaborating nitrogen 
and converting it into protein substances in the 
plant. This plant family is the legume. Some 
common members of this family are well known, 
such as the pea, the bean, the lentil, all forms of 
clovers, including the red clover, white clover, 
alsike and alfalfa, the peanut and the locust tree. 
The method by which this synthesis of nitrogen 
is accomplished is through the activity of micro- 
organisms of a low vegetable character which live 
upon the roots of leguminous plants. It seems to 
be a rule that they live in symbiosis with this 
family of plants, since their activities are not ex- 
tended to the roots of other plant families in so 
far as known. Nesting on these roots in houses 
of nodules, they erect their tiny laboratories and 42 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
proceed to manufacture nitric acid, which in turn 
is assimilated by the plant into protein. The well- 
known fact that the growing of leguminous crops 
increases the fertility of the soil is thus explained. 
Large quantities of the residual nitrogen made in 
this way are stored in the roots and stubbles, to 
be utilized when the field is next plowed for the 
growth of corn and wheat. To secure the maxi- 
mum yield of fertilization the whole plant may 
be plowed into the soil just before reaching its 
maturity. Thus comparatively poor fields may 
be transformed into rich and productive soil, in 
which it would be necessary only to supply the 
requisite quantities of phosphoric acid and pot- 
ash. 
Instigated by nature's success along these 
lines, man has contrived to utilize considerable 
quantities of nitrogen by purely chemical means. 
When an electric discharge is conducted through 
the air traces of nitrous and nitric acid are always 
produced, that is, the high temperature of the 
electric wave in its translation through the air 
causes a certain quantity of oxygen and nitrogen 
to unite. This union, plus water, forms nitrous 
and nitric acid. Utilizing waste waterfalls for 
the production of large units of electricity, sue- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
43 
cessful attempts have been made to manufacture 
nitric acid or its compounds on a large scale for 
use in the arts and for fertilizing soils. While 
this process has not yet succeeded in making 
nitrogen any cheaper than the stores which nature 
has preserved for human use, it is becoming more 
efficient every day, and it is clear that the time is 
not far distant when nitrogen may be manufac- 
tured in this synthetic way at a lower price than 
it is necessary to pay for it from the ordinary 
stores. 
The animal, however, cannot use mineral nitro- 
gen. It does not assimilate ammonia, nitrous acid 
or nitrites, or nitric acid or nitrates, and these 
are the only forms in which atmospheric nitrogen 
is synthetically utilized by plants. These prod- 
ucts must pass through the organism of the plant 
before they become suitable for animal food. 
Thus synthetic nitrogen products are first used 
in promoting plant growth, and then find their 
way into the nutritive stores for animals. The 
quantities of nitrogen are so vast and the activi- 
ties of micro-organisms in restoring it to the at- 
mosphere so continuous that there is no danger 
of diminishing by any perceptible amount the 
nitrogenous content of the air by all the factories 44 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
manufacturing synthetic nitrogen by any chemical 
processes. 
VEGETABLE PROTEINS 
The proteins are the most useful tissue-builders 
of all nitrogenous foods. There are other foods 
which contain nitrogen, and which are to some 
extent allied in character to proteins, but which 
are by no means so nutritious. What are known 
as flesh-bases or meat-extracts are examples of 
foods of this character. They are largely condi- 
mental rather than nutritious. The so-called 
meat-extracts of commerce, when properly made, 
and the bouillon cubes which are now largely sold, 
are types of this latter class of nitrogenous mat- 
ter. Generally speaking, the proteins, especially 
in meat and eggs, are the most expensive forms 
of foods, but vegetable proteins are cheaper, and 
the object of the present lesson in nutrition is to 
call attention to the vegetable foods which par- 
ticularly yield proteins, and are, therefore, typi- 
cally the builders of nitrogenous tissues; namely, 
the muscles, the nerves, the brain, and the organic 
constituents of the bones. 
The vegetable proteins, while resembling one 
another very closely in chemical composition, NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
45 
have distinctive characters for each particular 
plant. While these characters are not strikingly- 
differentiated, they are sufficiently different to 
enable the expert to distinguish one kind of pro- 
tein from another. They also differ from one 
another in their nutritive values, some proteins, 
like those of milk, being more completely digested 
than some others, such as those of vegetables and 
cereals. These differences in digestive properties 
are not so marked as to warrant any very great 
discrimination in the choice of various foods, so 
far as their nitrogenous content is concerned, ex- 
cept in cases of disordered digestion and disease. 
First of all, it must be borne in mind that the 
elements nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur, 
which are characteristic components of proteins, 
and phosphorus, which exists in nucleins, do not 
exist as such in these combinations, but in or- 
ganic form, where they have practically none of 
the physical properties that are possessed by the 
element nitrogen, sulphur, or phosphorus. It has 
often been urged by those who would use the 
fumes of burning sulphur in food products that 
inasmuch as nature has placed sulphur in foods, 
it is not an adulteration for art to add a little to 
the quantity. The sulphur which exists in com- 46 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
bination with the other elements of protein in 
foods is quite a different substance from the sul- 
phur which exists in the form of sulphur dioxid. 
In the one case it is a natural and essential food 
product, providing the digestive organs with a 
source of the sulphur which is built into the tis- 
sues of the body; in the second instance, it is an 
inorganic, poisonous compound which has no func- 
tion whatever in the processes of nutrition. 
THE GREATEST BODY-BUILDER 
In calling attention to foods which are rich in 
protein, wheat naturally takes the first place. 
Wheat is a complete food in itself, containing 
nearly all the elements necessary to human nutri- 
tion. The wheat crop is divided into two kinds: 
first, that which is sown in the fall and lives 
through the winter, and, second, that which is 
sown in the spring. While these wheats are not 
essentially different, as a rule the fall-grown 
wheats are more plump, starchy, and of a softer 
character, while the spring-grown wheats are 
generally hard and flinty, and more nitrogenous 
in character. The average farm price for wheat 
in time of peace is about eighty-eight cents per 
bushel of sixty pounds, so that it and its products NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
47 
are, or should be, the cheapest as well as the best 
balanced and most nutritious foods which can be 
used in the American household. 
If an abundant supply of milk, yielding basic 
ingredients, can be had with wheat, the diet is 
ideal. 
The average amount of protein in wheat is 12.25 
per cent. A bushel of wheat weighing sixty 
pounds would, therefore, contain 7.35 pounds of 
protein. The price of protein in cereals is lower 
than in any other important food. Aside from its 
nutritive importance, the protein of wheat has a 
technical value. The greater portion of it is what 
is commonly known as gluten. Gluten, as such, 
does not exist in wheat, but the moment flour is 
moistened, two of the proteins which it contains- 
namely, gliadin and glutenin-combine to form 
the product known as gluten. When saturated 
with water, the gluten increases its weight two 
and one-half fold, so that the weight of moist 
gluten obtained is two and one-half times as great 
as that of the dry ingredients from which it is 
made. 48 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
PROTEIN AND GLUTEN 
The gluten in wheat formed by aid of water 
from glutenin and gliadin is valuable from a tech- 
nical point of view by reason of its forming a 
tough, elastic mass, which is well exemplified in 
the ordinary dough of the baker. It is this prop- 
erty which gives to white flour its technical value 
for baking purposes above that of the flour of any 
other cereal. There are other cereals, such as 
oats, that have a higher content of protein, but 
there is no other cereal which begins to compare 
with wheat in its technical uses as an ideal sub- 
stance for making bread. To the gluten of wheat 
the dough owes its property of elasticity, of abil- 
ity to rise and make a light loaf. This is due to 
the entanglement of the particles of the leavening 
gas in the meshes of the elastic gluten. The 
leavening of wheat flour and other products de- 
pends upon the introduction into the mass of 
dough of a gaseous substance, which, when ex- 
panded by heat, produces the lightness of the loaf. 
Speaking in round numbers, ten-twelfths of all 
the protein of wheat is gluten. In the bran there 
is a larger percentage of protein than in the in- 
terior of the grain; but this protein is not all NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
49 
gluten or gluten-forming materials. The gluten 
of wheat is easily digestible, thus giving to wheat 
bread one of its high qualities as a nourishing 
medium. While it would not be sound nutrition 
to advise an exclusive cereal diet, it is both nutri- 
tionally and economically sound to urge upon the 
American housekeeper the advisability of a larger 
percentage of wheat products in the home dietary. 
Personally I prefer the whole ground wheat, espe- 
cially that ground upon an old-fashioned mill- 
stone, which reduces the bran to fine particles. 
A few authorities are quite of the opinion that the 
white flour is superior for dietetic purposes, but I 
think that the whole-wheat flour for wholesome- 
ness, as well as for nutritive purposes, is to be 
preferred. 
But this is not the point at the present time. 
What I desire particularly is to urge upon the 
American housekeeper, in order to reduce the cost 
of living, to make wheat, together with other 
cereals, a large part of the diet. 
PROTEIN IN OTHER CEREALS 
The amount of protein found in other cereals, 
in round numbers, is as follows: In Indian corn, 
10 per cent. The principal protein of Indian 50 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
corn, known as zein, does not by any means have 
the plasticity and elasticity of gluten. The zein 
of Indian cornmeal does not seem to be quite so 
wholesome as the protein of wheat. It is difficult, 
however, to separate the proteins of cereals in 
sufficient quantities to enable feeding experiments 
on a large scale to be made. Indian corn is whole- 
some and nutritious. There are many experts, 
especially in Europe, who think it is unfit for food, 
but it is used in the United States almost as exten- 
sively as wheat flour. A bushel of corn weighs 
fifty-six pounds, and contains 5.6 pounds of pro- 
tein. 
In rye the average content of protein is the 
same as that of wheat, 12.25 per cent. The protein 
of rye is chiefly composed of the bodies known as 
leucosin, gliadin, and edestin. In many parts of 
Europe, especially in Russia and Germany, rye is 
the principal cereal food. It is not very exten- 
sively used in the United States, except by our 
foreign-born citizens. The protein of rye is a 
wholesome, digestible body, and as far as tissue- 
building is concerned is probably almost as valu- 
able as wheat protein. Rye flour as examined by 
the Department of Agriculture has a very low 
content of protein. Since rye and Indian corn NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
51 
are generally a little cheaper than wheat, some 
economy in the diet will be secured by a more 
general use of these products. As a balanced 
ration neither can quite take the place of wheat. 
Of the common cereals in use for food purposes, 
hulled oats has the highest protein content; namely, 
about 14.5 per cent. In a given weight of hulled 
oats the housekeeper will be able to purchase more 
protein per pound than in either wheat or rye. 
The protein of oats is quite deficient in agglutinat- 
ing power, and, therefore, for bread-making it 
cannot be compared to wheat. It makes, however, 
an excellent breakfast diet. 
Barley is not used in this country to any extent 
for food purposes, except in the form of malt, for 
modifying infants' diet, and in soups. Its per- 
centage of protein is almost that of wheat, and 
there is no evidence to show that for nutritive 
purposes and digestibility it is inferior to the pro- 
tein of other cereals. The principal protein of 
barley is hordein. 
Buckwheat, when hulled, produces a flour which 
has an excess of carbohydrates. The protein con- 
tent of the hulled buckwheat flour is only about 
8.75 per cent. A coarser flour with less bolting is 
advisable, and this coarser, unbolted flour will 52 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
have almost 10 per cent, of protein. Buckwheat 
is not to be advised as a daily diet, but it is palat- 
able at times, and nutritious and wholesome. 
Of all the cereals, rice contains the least protein. 
It is essentially a starchy food. Unpolished rice, 
which is the only kind that ought to be eaten, has 
a mean protein content of about 8 per cent., while 
a polished rice, from which the outer bran has 
been removed, has a mean protein content of about 
7 per cent. Rice bran has a mean protein content 
of about 12 per cent., being almost as rich as 
wheat. 
MACARONI AND SPAGHETTI 
Among the by-products of cereals which are 
rich in protein, one of the most important is maca- 
roni, with which may be closely associated a simi- 
lar variety of foods known as noodles and spa- 
ghetti. The average amount of protein in these 
products is a little over 12 per cent. They are 
usually made from wheat rich in protein, and are 
wholesome, nutritious, and palatable. These 
foods have about twice as much mineral matter in 
them as ordinary fine white flour. In other words, 
they contain about two-thirds of the total mineral 
matter found in wheat itself. Hence, as a source NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
53 
of protein in cereal products, where a rich nitrog- 
enous diet is desired, materials of this kind are 
preferable to white flour. 
THE LEGUMINOUS VEGETABLES 
There are other vegetable substances which are 
rich in protein. Among these may be mentioned 
first, as of greatest importance, the different mem- 
bers of the leguminous family; namely, peas, 
beans, lentils, etc. Green peas contain about 80 
per cent, of water, and, therefore, the compara- 
tive percentage of protein is not very high, being 
a little less than 4 per cent. The dry pea, how- 
ever, which contains only 4 per cent, of water, has 
27 per cent, of protein, more than twice as much 
as average wheat-flour. If a vegetable diet rich 
in protein be desired, it can be better provided by 
the pea than by the best wheat bread. As a bal- 
anced diet, however, for complete nutrition, wheat 
is preferable to the pea. 
Closely related to the pea in chemical composi- 
tion is the bean. Fresh string-beans have over 
85 per cent, of water, and only 2.20 per cent, of 
protein. The dry bean, containing 16 per cent, of 
water, has 21 per cent, of protein. Some varieties 
of bean, like the lima, are even richer in protein. 54 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
Lima beans, with 68 per cent, of water, contain 
7.15 per cent, of protein. If green beans are 
served with the pod, as is usually the case, the 
content of protein is correspondingly reduced. 
Leguminous bodies, such as the pea, bean, and 
lentil, are nutritious and desirable articles of 
food, especially when the quantity of protein in 
proportion to the whole amount of food is to be 
increased. In those conditions of disease where 
starch and sugar should be eliminated, the vege- 
tables containing them can be very advantageously 
supplanted by peas, beans, and lentils. 
NUT PROTEIN 
Ordinary nuts are very rich in nitrogenous mat- 
ter. The percentage of protein in the edible por- 
tion of nuts varies greatly with the variety. For 
instance, the peanut has about 30 per cent, of pro- 
tein, while the chestnut has only a little over 6 per 
cent. The almond, which is so great a favorite for 
eating, has a little over 21 per cent, of protein. 
After the oil has been extracted from nuts, the 
proportionate amount of protein in the resulting 
cake is increased. For instance, in the case of 
almonds from which the oil has been extracted, 
the resulting almond-meal has over 50 per cent. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
55 
of protein. Unless one dislikes the excessive 
amount of oil in nuts, their consumption affords a 
fine supply of protein in a highly palatable and 
nutritious form. Unfortunately, many stomachs 
cannot tolerate excessive quantities of fat or oil. 
In cases where there is a tendency to obesity, the 
eating of legumes and nuts to secure the supply 
of protein is better than the consumption of 
cereals or cereal preparations, such as macaroni. 
The nut, however, is not a balanced diet, and its 
excessive consumption is likely, sooner or later, 
to derange digestion. 
There are other less important vegetable foods 
which contain notable quantities of protein. The 
common vegetables and fruits are deficient in pro- 
tein, and could not be recommended as a source 
of nitrogenous diet. While vegetables and fruits 
are extremely wholesome and almost indispen- 
sable to the proper nutrition of the body, they are 
sources of supply for heat and energy rather than 
for the building of tissues, yet all of them contain 
considerable quantities of tissue-building mate- 
rials in the form of protein and mineral salts. 
Their chief dietetic value lies in the sugar or 
starch, minerals and acids which they contain. LESSON IV 
ANIMAL PROTEINS 
MILK 
ONE of the most important sources of pro- 
tein, in so far as human nutrition is con- 
cerned, is found in milk. The milk of the 
human mammal is the least constant in compo- 
sition of any, partly because of the mother's arti- 
ficial and unnatural environment and her more 
complicated nervous and emotional make-up, and 
for this reason it is difficult to arrive at an accu- 
rate average of its composition for comparison 
with the average milk of the cow. However, the 
data given here were compiled from the supplies 
furnished a large hospital, and can be regarded as 
approximately correct: 
Human Milk. 
Cow's Milk. 
Per Cent. 
Per cent. 
Fat 
4.00 
4.00 
Milk-sugar 
7.00 
4.50 
Proteins 
1.50 
3.50 
Mineral salts 
0.25 
0.75 
It is seen that there are important variations 
between these two milks in their quantities of 
56 NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
57 
sugar, protein, and mineral salts. Human milk 
has a large excess of milk-sugar and a marked 
deficiency of protein, as compared with the milk 
of the cow. More striking still is the difference in 
the content of mineral salts, the milk of the cow 
having three times as much as human milk. 
This difference in composition is of the utmost 
importance in regard to the protein food of the 
infant. A study of the digestive excretions of the 
infant shows that they are deficient in hydro- 
chloric acid, the presence of which is important in 
the digestion of protein. The human infant, 
therefore, should not be called upon to digest as 
much protein in proportion to its diet as the 
young of other mammals. Hence the modification 
of other milks as a substitute for human milk 
especially necessitates diminishing the quantities 
of protein and minerals, and increasing the quan- 
tity of milk-sugar. This modification can be ac- 
complished only by experts with accurate facilities 
.of measurement and analysis. The dilution of 
cow's milk with water, so as to double its volume, 
would give to the infant approximately the quan- 
tity of protein found in the normal milk of its 
mother; but this would also reduce all the other 
constituents in the same proportion. The protein 58 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
of milk is probably more completely digested than 
that from any other source, especially by infants, 
invalids, and the aged. Milk must be regarded, 
therefore, as the fundamental source of protein 
for the human animal, and especially for its 
young. 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 363, United States De- 
partment of Agriculture, "The Use of Milk as 
Food," gives a mass of simply presented data and 
diagrams on the comparative nutritive value of 
milk and other foods, which will prove of value to 
those wishing to look further into this matter. 
CHEESE 
From milk is derived cheese, a most valuable 
food product as far as protein is concerned. Al- 
though dozens of different varieties of cheese are 
made in different ways and have different flavors, 
practically all have the same nutritive properties. 
Among typical varieties, Roquefort contains 22.6 
per cent, of protein, and yields a little over 1,700 
units of energy (Calories) per pound; Swiss 
cheese contains 28 per cent, of protein and 34.09 
per cent, of fat, a pound yielding a little over 2,000 
units of energy; while American full-cream 
cheese has 25.9 per cent, of protein and 33.7 per NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
59 
cent, of fat, yielding 1,950 units of energy per 
pound. 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 487, on "Cheese and Its 
Economical Uses in the Diet," caused something 
of a furore over this product, which supplies 
slightly more protein for the money than any 
food except wheat. Relative digestibility must, 
however, be considered. Shortly after the appear- 
ance of this bulletin a newspaper told of a work- 
ingman who, becoming unduly enthusiastic over 
the government's account of the desirability of 
cheese as a cheap nutritive food, purchased a 
couple of pounds, consumed them at one sitting, 
and died forthwith-a warning, even if only a 
fairy tale, to all dietetic faddists who distort 
simple facts out of all proportion! Nevertheless, 
eaten in reasonable quantities, cheese is not so 
indigestible as has been thought, and under nor- 
mal conditions does not cause constipation and 
other physiological disturbances which have been 
attributed to it. 
EGGS 
The white of the egg is the ideal source of pro- 
tein, so far as purity and digestibility are con- 
cerned. The dry substances of an egg consist 60 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
essentially of protein and fat, the protein being 
in excess. When fresh, the egg contains a little 
over 70 per cent, of water. The 28 per cent, of 
solid matter is composed of 13.5 per cent, protein, 
12 per cent, fat, 1 per cent, ash, and 1.5 per cent, 
unnamed. The protein of the egg is easily assimi- 
lated, and fresh eggs will promote growth, and at 
the same time, by reason of the large percentage 
of fat that they contain, furnish a very large 
amount of heat and energy. 
The white of an egg consists almost entirely of 
water (86 per cent.), and 12 per cent, is a pro- 
tein soluble in water, known as albumen. On the 
other hand, the yolk of an egg, which contains 
about 15 per cent, of protein, has also a large per- 
centage of fat (33 per cent.), and only 50 per cent, 
of water. A phosphorus-holding body containing 
nitrogen, allied to the proteins and yet quite dif- 
ferent in its dietetic purposes, is an important 
constituent of the yolk. This substance, called 
lecithin, contains phosphorus in a form pecu- 
liarly adapted for assimilation and for the nour- 
ishment of the phosphatic tissues of the body, 
among which the bones and teeth are the most 
important. Many so-called nerve or brain foods 
lay much stress on the lecithins, nucleins, etc., NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
61 
which they contain, but none of them can approach 
milk, eggs, and whole cereals as sources of these 
important nutrients. The yolk of an egg is a 
much more complete food than the white, by rea- 
son of the fat, phosphorus, and lime which it 
contains, but the white is more nearly pure pro- 
tein than any other food available for human con- 
sumption. A hen's egg, shelled, weighs about 50 
grams (1.7 ounces). Farmers' Bulletin No. 128, 
"Eggs and Their Uses as Food," United States 
Department of Agriculture, will help the house- 
wife to make an accurate estimate of the place of 
eggs in the diet from both an economical and a 
dietetic point of view. 
LEAN MEAT 
Lean meat is one of the most abundant sources 
of protein. The leanest loin of beef may be re- 
garded as typical of the lean meat of bovine ani- 
mals. This consists of about 70 per cent, water 
and 30 per cent, food material. The average pro- 
tein content of the loin, the edible portion, when 
deprived of all visible fat, is 25 per cent., its con- 
tent of fat 3.7 per cent., and of ash 1.3 per cent. 
Each pound yields about 615 units (Calories) of 
energy or heat. The loin is the typical protein 62 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
part of the beef, and contains more protein per 
pound than eggs. But as, in beef usually pre- 
sented for consumption, the lean is mixed with 
more or less fat, the relative quantity of avail- 
able protein is very much less. The approximate 
composition of the fat loin is: water, 55 per cent.; 
protein, 18 per cent.; fat, 28 per cent.; mineral 
matter, 1 per cent. A pound of such loin would 
yield 1,490 units of energy, the increase coming 
solely from the larger amount of fat. 
Mutton does not differ largely from beef in 
chemical composition. With the fat which is 
usually attached to it, the loin consists of 50 per 
cent, water, 16 per cent, protein, 33 per cent, fat, 
and 1 per cent, mineral matter, a pound of it yield- 
ing 1,700 units of energy. Loin of pork, consider- 
ing only the edible portions, as is done in all of 
these cases, contains 52 per cent, moisture, 16.5 
per cent, protein, 30 per cent, fat, and 1 per cent, 
mineral matter, a pound of it yielding 1,600 units 
of energy. 
Sausage, of which pork sausage may be taken as 
typical, contains 40 per cent, moisture, 13 per 
cent, protein, and 44 per cent. fat. A pound of 
sausage of this composition furnishes 2,150 units 
of energy. The sausage made from other animals NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
63 
varies somewhat from this, but the variations in 
the quantity of protein are not important. 
The protein of fowls is an important item of 
nutrition. In grown chickens the edible parts 
contain 64 per cent, water, 19 per cent, protein, 
16 per cent, fat, and 1 per cent, mineral matter, 
each pound supplying 1,050 units of energy. In 
the case of turkey, the edible portions of the meat 
contain 56 per cent, water, 21 per cent, protein, 
23 per cent, fat, and 1 per cent, mineral matter, 
each pound furnishing 1,360 units of energy. 
FISH 
In fish is found a food product particularly rich 
in nitrogenous material. The edible portions of 
the bass, which may be taken as a fairly repre- 
sentative fish, contain 77 per cent, water, 21 per 
cent, protein, 1.7 per cent, fat, and 1.2 per cent, 
mineral matter. By reason of the high content of 
moisture and the low content of fat, a pound of 
black bass yields only 450 units of energy a pound, 
of cod 325 units, and a pound of herring 660 units. 
Shell-fish, such as the oyster, contain very high 
percentages of water. The edible portion of the 
oyster contains 87 per cent, water, 6.2 per cent, 
protein, 1.2 per cent, fat, 2 per cent, mineral mat- 64 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
ter, and a pound yields only 235 units of energy. 
Lobster, edible portion, contains 78 per cent, 
moisture, 18.1 per cent, protein, 1.1 per cent, fat, 
2.5 per cent, mineral matter, a pound yielding 390 
units of energy. 
The above analytical data are approximate fig- 
ures from which single samples may greatly vary. 
GELATINES AND MEAT EXTRACTS 
Gelatines contain a considerable quantity of 
protein, the average dry gelatine having 91.4 per 
cent, and yielding 1,700 units of energy per pound. 
But a product like calf's-foot jelly, as purchased 
ready for use, contains only 4.3 per cent, of pro- 
tein, and a pound of it yields only 405 units of 
energy. 
It must be remembered that gelatine in the form 
in which it is eaten has been much diluted, and, 
therefore, its actual food-value is not as great as 
the analysis would seem to indicate. Unfor- 
tunately, the line between glues and gelatines is 
often carelessly drawn, and while the standard 
brands of gelatine are rendered harmless by the 
process to which they are submitted, the raw ma- 
terials from which they are made are often open 
to suspicion. Tendons, bones, sinews, and skins NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
65 
are used in making gelatines, and the temptation 
to use material that is not sanitary for food pur- 
poses is great. The product has, however, been 
greatly improved, especially in the manufacturing 
part of the process, under the food law. The pro- 
tein of gelatines yields a very poor quality of 
tissue-building materials, and for this reason 
gelatines are not valuable for food products. 
FOOD VALUE OF MEAT EXTRACTS 
The public has been so completely misled as to 
the nature of meat extracts, bouillon cubes, etc., 
that it is difficult to re-educate people. One natu- 
rally thinks that an extract is a strong, concen- 
trated juice, so that the name itself is misleading, 
while extravagant advertising claims have 
strengthened an already false impression. As a 
matter of fact, these products are valuable stimu- 
lants or flavoring agents, but have little or no real 
food-value. The coagulable protein or muscle- 
building part of the meat is almost entirely lack- 
ing. Furthermore, the bouillon cubes contain 
from 49 to 72 per cent, of salt. These products 
have a legitimate place as stimulating, soothing 
beverages; they give a pleasant flavor to a cup 
of hot water, and often are both convenient and 66 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
useful, but they must not be depended upon for a 
child's luncheon, nor for any occasion when a 
nutritive food is needed. 
These data give a general idea of the amounts 
of protein found in animal products. Chemical 
analysis shows very little difference between the 
food properties of the proteins of animal origin 
and those of vegetable origin. There are, how- 
ever, very grave differences due to other consid- 
erations. Man, being by nature an omnivorous 
animal, does not, as a rule, confine himself to any 
one article of food, and so the protein, both of 
animal and vegetable foods, is uniformly associ- 
ated with other food substances. Starving man is 
by instinct carnivorous rather than herbivorous. 
Admiral Peary reports that while he and his men 
were on half-rations during their long forced 
marches their hunger was for warm flesh foods. 
Some vegetarians do not hesitate to employ the 
animal proteins represented by milk and eggs. 
In this sense, therefore, many vegetarians are not, 
strictly speaking, properly labeled. 
The housekeeper serves her household best if 
she provides such a variety of protein-containing 
foods as not only insures the proper nourishment 
of the body-tissues, but at the same time appeals NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
67 
to the sense of taste and excites the appetite. The 
flow of the saliva and the gastric juices, on which 
digestion and assimilation largely depend, is ma- 
terially assisted by pleasing flavors and the odors 
of appetizing foods. For this reason a mixed diet, 
containing both vegetable and animal proteins, 
seems to be the most reasonable and usually the 
most desirable. This is not gainsaying that the 
average person eats too much meat. Especially 
those who take but little exercise could cut down 
the total amount of protein with benefit, and also 
could profitably obtain more of it from beans, 
peas, cheese, and milk, and less from meat. 
In this connection it may not be out of place 
to call attention to the vital part that a "merry 
heart" plays in promoting digestion. In the 
Journal of the American Medical Association the 
sweeping statement was made not long ago that it 
would be better for a nervous patient to eat the 
foods least adapted to his condition under cheerful 
circumstances and with a light heart, than to con- 
sume a scientifically adapted ration under de- 
pressing conditions. The nerves largely control 
digestion and assimilation and the flow of the 
digestive juices, and the old Biblical proverb, 
"Better a dinner of herbs where love is than a 68 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
stalled ox and hatred therewith," is just as good 
dietetics today as it was three thousand years 
ago. 
I 
QUANTITY AND COMPARATIVE COST OF PROTEINS 
A person weighing 150 pounds and engaged in 
moderate exercise, such as is typical of clerical 
and other similar services, requires about 100 
grams (3.5 ounces) of water-free protein per day. 
The expression "water-free protein" must not be 
construed to mean protein deprived of its water. 
Many soluble proteins in such form would be in- 
jured for digestive purposes. The protein is to be 
ingested with its usual content of moisture, but 
the quantity of it is to be calculated to a moisture- 
free basis. For body weights above or below 150 
pounds, proportionately larger or smaller quanti- 
ties of protein are required. For those engaged in 
medium hard labor or hard manual labor a some- 
what larger quantity per pound of body weight is 
necessary. 
Of the sources from which the required daily 
amount of protein may be derived, the cheapest 
are vegetable substances, such as wheat and other 
cereals, peas and other legumes. The average 
person weighing 150 pounds, doing light labor, NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
69 
eats 1 per cent, of his weight of dry food per day; 
in other words, one pound and a half. If he 
should live entirely upon wheat bread, he would 
require about three one-pound loaves, nearly half 
of the weight of loaf-bread being water, shorten- 
ing, and mineral substances, such as salt, baking 
powder, etc. The three pounds of bread, which 
give him just a little over 100 grams of protein, 
would cost 15 cents. We may approximately 
rate the protein in the bread at one-third of its 
total cost. Thus, if one depended on the protein 
of wheat bread alone, it would cost about five cents 
per day. 
Contrast this with loin of beef, which today 
retails at about 25 cents a pound. This beef con- 
tains 25 per cent, protein. A pound of loin, all 
edible, would supply 113 grams of protein, just a 
little more than the estimated daily requirement. 
Thus protein derived from this cut of beef, con- 
taining no bone and the merest trace of fat, costs 
five times as much as the protein derived from 
bread; and the contrast becomes even more 
marked with porterhouse steak, approximately 
half of which is bone and refuse material. The 
cost of protein, as a rule, is less in fish than in 
beef, but in poultry, especially young poultry, it is 70 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
often greater, while in peas and beans it is, as a 
rule, slightly greater than it is in wheat. 
In order to secure 100 grams of protein from 
eggs, If pounds must be eaten. Eight eggs 
average a pound. Allowing for the weight 
of the shells, it would take at least 15 eggs 
to furnish 100 grams of protein. With eggs at 
40 cents a dozen, this would mean 50 cents ' worth. 
One-half of this cost, or 25 cents, may be charged 
to protein. If the protein required for the day's 
ration be derived from milk alone, it would take 
considerably over three quarts to furnish the re- 
quired amount, which, at 10 cents per quart, would 
cost approximately 35 cents, one-third of which 
may be charged to protein. 
BALANCING THE DIET 
Inasmuch as whole wheat is a most wholesome 
food in various forms, and can be used as bread, 
as porridge or mush, and as hot rolls, it is desir- 
able, both economically and nutritively, to use 
generous quantities of cereals, especially wheat, 
in our dietary. Other cereals are perfectly whole- 
some, and furnish well-balanced diets, thus admit- 
ting of agreeable variations, without notably NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
71 
affecting the sources of nitrogen supply or in- 
creasing the cost of the diet. 
The quantity of protein needed by growing chil- 
dren in proportion to their weight is consider- 
ably greater than that required for the adult, 
while that necessary to old people is considerably 
less. An infant that is well nourished doubles its 
weight in six months, thus requiring a very much 
larger ingestion of food per unit of weight than 
an older child or an adult. 
HOW MUCH PROTEIN? 
The question of how much protein should enter 
into the composition of our diet is one that has 
been vigorously and ably discussed. On the one 
hand, we have the school of Chittenden and 
Fisher, advocating a much lower percentage of 
protein in the diet than is found at the present 
time. On the other hand, we have the arguments 
of Benedict and James Creighton Brown in op- 
position to the proposed reduction of the percent- 
age of protein. When eminent investigators, 
fully competent by reason of their training and 
experience to pass an opinion worth while, dis- 
agree, it is safe for the ordinary individual to take 
the middle ground. Extensive study of dietaries 72 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
in different parts of the world and in different 
occupations reveals one unmistakable tendency. 
In temperate regions where the conditions of life 
are hard, where poverty prevails, and especially 
where there seems to be little ambition for better 
things, we find always a diet in which the quan- 
tities of protein are lowered and the quantities 
of carbohydrates increased. Fat usually follows 
protein in this forced choice of a diet. We may, 
without bias, consider what happens in a diet of 
this kind, followed sometimes through the entire 
life of the individual and among large numbers 
and classes of persons. 
DIET AND MILITARY FITNESS 
In those countries where military service is 
obligatory the data show that increasing numbers 
of persons, who. on account of age, are amenable 
to military service, are found unfit in conditions 
of peace to perform the duties of the soldier even 
in time of peace. The recruiting officers of France 
and Germany, of England and of Italy, as well as 
of other nations, have been struck with the grow- 
ing percentage of persons who, when the proper 
age is attained, are unfit for the camp. This con- 
dition has excited grave alarm among statesmen NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
73 
and rulers, not alone because of the threat to the 
individual, but by reason of the supposed threat 
to the state. If the citizens of a country are not 
capable of bearing arms and performing, in mili- 
tary life, the duties which are so unfortunately 
and yet so commonly required, it is time to con- 
sider seriously the threatened welfare of the 
nation. 
In all cases where special studies of the causes 
of this degeneracy have been instituted one funda- 
mental condition has been disclosed; namely, in- 
sufficiency of diet, especially in infancy and child- 
hood. There are many other causes of degen- 
eracy which have been pointed out. Among these 
the use of alcohol and similar drugs occupies a 
prominent position. The unfortunate conditions 
which come from the herding of large masses of 
men in cities predisposes to the creation and in- 
vigoration of the factors which threaten the physi- 
cal welfare of the nation. The use of alcohol, 
tobacco, and other stimulants seems to be a natu- 
ral sequence of crowding. These matters, bad as 
they are, might be tolerated were it not that all 
such indulgences in the way of expensive articles 
which do not nourish limit the funds which can 
be expended for real food. Many students of eco- 74 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
nomical and sanitary conditions are convinced 
that the principal cause of degeneracy, after all, 
is an imperfect diet. 
EFFECT OF EXCESS OF CARBOHYDRATES 
An analysis of the diet in the conditions de- 
scribed, in so far as I have been able to discover, 
always shows a wide nutritive ratio. In other 
words, the proportion of protein, to the fat multi- 
plied by 2|, plus the percentage of carbohydrates, 
is very small. The quotient, arising from divid- 
ing the percentage of fats multiplied by 2|, plus 
the percentage of carbohydrates, by the protein, 
in other words, is large. This quotient may rise 
even to 9 or more in extreme cases. It is the part 
of wisdom to study the general effect of this low 
protein diet continued with large numbers of 
people over long periods of time, as an index of 
what may happen if the protein part of the food is 
diminished much below the normal. Attention has 
been directed already to certain diet diseases 
which depend largely upon an excess of carbohy- 
drate in the food. While in some cases the proof 
is not entirely consistent, it is strong enough to 
convince us almost beyond a reasonable doubt NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
75 
that there is a serious danger to humanity in a 
long-continued low protein diet. 
DIET DISEASES 
Among the principal diseases which seem to 
arise as a result of this diet may be mentioned 
scurvy, beri-beri, and pellagra. I do not think that 
anyone claims for a moment that there is any 
specific cause necessarily inherent in the low pro- 
tein diet which produces these diseases. The case 
seems to be that in a condition of this kind the 
body is so under-nourished as to invite the en- 
trance of these diseases. The general effect of 
malnutrition due to lack of protein is to weaken 
the resistance of the body. All forms of con- 
tagious and infectious disease are more to be 
feared in a weakened condition of the body than 
in a state of health. The particular forms of the 
diseases mentioned above are not of general dis- 
tribution. For instance, in the ordinary com- 
munity in the United States, even in New York 
City and other large centers, there is very little 
scurvy, beri-beri, or pellagra. Scurvy seems to be 
a diet disease closely related to the exclusion of 
fresh foods and the consumption of preserved 
foods, rather than to a low protein diet. Scurvy 76 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
may follow the consumption of foods rich in pro- 
tein, such as preserved meats. On the other 
hand, beri-beri and pellagra are more typical low 
protein diseases. 
The mass effect produced upon the community 
must not be looked for in the development of nu- 
tritional diseases so much as in the general lower- 
ing of the vitality of the body. This leads to a 
stunted growth in infancy and childhood, so that 
the individual when he becomes mature is no 
longer able to bear arms; in other words, no 
longer able to perform the proper functions of a 
citizen. It seems to me that it can hardly be 
denied that the great weight of testimony derived 
from studies of this description is opposed to a 
very low protein diet. I do not minimize the other 
causes, which are associated with a low protein 
diet in the conditions mentioned, which are dele- 
terious. The crowding of too many people in a 
room, the insanitary conditions which surround 
poverty, the degeneracy which comes from sex 
diseases, the woful effects of alcohol, tobacco, and 
other drugs upon the vitality, are all combined 
with a low protein diet in producing the unfor- 
tunate conditions which I have endeavored to set 
forth. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
77 
THE EFFECTS OF OVER-FEEDING 
Let us turn now for a moment to the other side 
of the question. In doing this we come upon an 
entirely different class of people. We are now 
considering those that are well-to-do, or even rich. 
We have before us people who not only have 
plenty to eat, but also who are able to select that 
which is most pleasing to the taste or most desir- 
able in other ways, irrespective of its cost. What 
are some of the prevailing diseases which we find 
among people of this description, and what is the 
character of the food which they consume? The 
latter question perhaps should be answered first. 
A study of the dietaries of the well-to-do and the 
rich reveals a narrow nutritive ratio; in other 
words, the percentage of protein, divided into the 
sum of the percentages of fat multiplied by 2.25 
plus the percentage of carbohydrates, is narrow. 
In other words, the quotient is a small figure, fall- 
ing sometimes even to 4 or below. We thus have 
sharply and widely contrasted conditions of life. 
DISEASES OF OVER-FEEDING 
What are the effects of a long consumption of 
a diet of this description? The nutritional dis- 78 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
eases which we encounter here are gout, hardening 
of the arteries, albuminuria (Bright's disease), 
and glycosuria (diabetes). I do not wish for a 
moment to say that diseases of this kind are not 
found in the first class discussed, but I think it 
will be admitted by those who have access to the 
data that the diseases last named are peculiarly 
found among the well-fed, or may I say over-fed, 
parts of humanity. As in the other case, I do not 
claim that a rich protein diet is specifically causa- 
tive of the diseases mentioned. As is the case 
with the low protein diet, this rich protein diet 
appears to produce a condition of over-nutrition 
which invites the invasion and support of the nu- 
tritional diseases mentioned. It seems to me that 
there is no doubt, from a careful study of all the 
data in the case, that the evils of over-protein- 
feeding are in some respects quite as formidable 
as those of under-feeding. Fortunately, in the 
diet of children the effect of over-feeding is not 
so well marked. The result is that the children of 
the well-to-do or of the rich are apt to be better 
nourished, to grow more to normal size, and to 
enter the race of life better equipped physically 
than the children of those who are surrounded by 
excessive poverty. I would not for a moment con- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
79 
done the over-feeding of children. But it is the 
habit of over-eating after mature life which pro- 
duces the havoc which I have noted. In a choice 
between two evils I think most of us would prefer 
to die from over-nutrition. But why should we 
choose one of these evils? If we could drop off 
from the diet of the well-to-do the excess of pro- 
tein and fat which they consume and add it to the 
diet of those who live in poverty and squalor, we 
would strike a happy medium which would be 
of infinite benefit to both classes of our citizens. 
Specifically, I am of the opinion that the protein 
content of the food of the average man of a hun- 
dred and fifty pounds should not fall below 80 
grams per day, and perhaps would be better at 
from 90 to 100 grams per day. Compare this with 
the enforced diet of the poor, which often falls to 
60, 50, or even 40, grams of protein per day, and 
the contrast between the two classes of the com- 
munity is more highly accentuated. 
SOURCES OF PROTEIN 
As to the sources of this protein, I have already 
called attention to the fact that for the infant it 
should be exclusively from milk, and in the child 
from milk and cereals principally. For the grown 80 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
person, not excluding these sources, it may be de- 
rived largely from fresh or properly preserved 
animal diet other than milk or eggs. From an 
economic point of view, the protein should be de- 
rived from those foods which cost the least, and 
among these no complete nourishing foods can 
rank with the cereals in cheapness. Wheat at a 
dollar a bushel is the most economic food a man 
can eat. It contains a generous portion of pro- 
tein, about 14 per cent, on its dry weight. A 
simple calculation will show the nutritive ratio of 
a diet composed exclusively of whole wheat. In 
this diet there are 14 pounds of protein, 2 pounds 
of fat, 80 pounds of carbohydrates, and 4 pounds 
of ash and unnamed ingredients per hundred. 
Multiplying the fat by 2|, adding the percentage 
of carbohydrates, and dividing by the percentage 
of protein, we have in round numbers a quotient 
of 6, which is an ideal nutritive ratio. When 
foods richer in carbohydrates are consumed, as 
is the case with rice, white flour, fruits, and vege- 
tables, a protein diet which is richer than that of 
wheat should be taken to balance the ration. This 
may be found in the legumes (peas and beans) and 
in lean meats. These sources of foods, however, 
are much more expensive, and hence as the basic NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
81 
diet I have always insisted upon whole cereals as 
the foundation on which the whole menu is to be 
built. 
I am convinced, from a careful study of the con- 
ditions of nutrition which obtain in poverty- 
stricken localities, that a large percentage of the 
suffering for food is due to ignorance of the fun- 
damental principles of nutrition. The organized 
official and non-official and private charities whose 
purse strings are loosed at the cry of distress 
would minister far more efficiently to the wants of 
the hungry if they could take a primer of the fun- 
damental principles of nutrition in one hand and 
their basket of provisions in the other. I think I do 
not overestimate this point when I state that from 
twenty-five to thirty-five per cent, of the suffer- 
ing from under-nutrition could be removed with- 
out expending a single cent more for food by 
spending it for the proper foods. The misguided 
charity which gives tea and coffee and puddings 
and pies and cakes and candy to communities suf- 
fering from under-nutrition is laudable from the 
philanthropic point of view, but extremely unde- 
sirable from the nutritional point of view. 
In so far as the nutrition of the infant is con- 
cerned, this ratio of protein to the other food 82 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
constituents does not hold. In fact, in mother's 
milk the number expressing the ratio may rise as 
high as 10. At the weaning period the ratio rap- 
idly diminishes, so that by the time the infant 
becomes the child of two years it is almost the 
same as for the adult. Poverty, therefore, works 
its most frightful results among the growing chil- 
dren of the suffering communities. If we could be 
well nourished until we were full grown, we could 
tolerate the conditions which exist in poverty- 
stricken localities with far less discomfort and 
disaster than we do at the present time. A child 
who has had the proper food will be fit to serve his 
country in the army and to make forced marches 
and do good fighting on a low diet; and this he 
can never do if the under-nourishment begins in 
childhood. I do not wish to convey the idea that 
war is the sole industry. I only illustrate the case 
by citing fitness to bear arms as a fundamental 
state of physical fitness which every citizen should 
attain, whether called upon to bear arms or not. 
WHOLESOMENESS OE ANIMAL FOOD 
The question of the wholesomeness of animal 
foods for the human animal is eternal. It prob- 
ably will never be answered in a manner to NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
83 
silence discussion. There is no great need that 
it should be. The thing most desirable is that 
the consensus of expert opinion should be inter- 
preted in such a way as to protect to the 
utmost degree the health of the eater. Strong as 
the reasons are in favor of a vegetable diet, they 
break down under the force of experience and 
comparative anatomy. For instance, one reason 
which has been urged in favor of a vegetable diet 
is that carbohydrates form the chief part of 
human food measured by weight or volume. On 
the contrary, in ordinary meat products the 
amount of carbohydrate present is exceedingly 
small, comprising only the glycogen (generator of 
sugar) which the meat may contain. This rarely 
exceeds per cent., and unless meats are used 
soon after slaughter usually falls to almost inde- 
tectable quantities. 
This argument had considerable force, the force 
of analogy, until recent discoveries in the realm 
of nutrition disclosed the fact that a large part 
of the protein ingested as human food is con- 
verted into carbohydrate by the nutritional proc- 
esses, and this carbohydrate, in so far as our 
knowledge extends, is quite as useful in the nour- 
ishment of the body as if it existed primarily in 84 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
the food. Thus the apparent difficulty of recon- 
ciling the health of meat-eating animals, consum- 
ing practically no carbohydrate, with the well- 
known principle that animal foods consist chiefly 
of carbohydrates, has been cleared away. Even 
meat-eating animals have a generous portion of 
carbohydrates, due to the conversion of a large 
part of the non-nitrogenous protein molecule into 
sugar. The cutting the carbohydrates off com- 
pletely from human food, as is often attempted in 
cases of diabetes, does not succeed in furnishing a 
nutriment devoid of sugars if, as is always the 
case, the nitrogenous elements of the foods are 
maintained, or even increased, when the carbohy- 
drate supplies are shut off. Of special impor- 
tance in this case, in view of the confusing direc- 
tions which are given for the nourishment of in- 
fants and young children, is the problem of the 
meat element of their nutrition. LESSON V 
CARBOHYDRATES 
UNDER this term are included all foods 
built upon the type of starch and sugar. 
There are as many different kinds of 
starches as there are plants that produce them. 
On the contrary, the number of sugars used for 
food purposes is somewhat limited. In addition 
to starch and sugar, there are certain celluloses 
which are slightly digestible in the human intes- 
tine, and also are largely digested in the stomachs 
of ruminant animals. 
FUNCTION OF CARBOHYDRATES 
The function of carbohydrates in nutrition is 
apparently the simplest and yet in many respects 
the most complicated of the problems that underlie 
growth and other vital processes. We are content, 
as a rule, to look at carbohydrates solely from 
the energy or heat point of view. If the human 
body develops a certain degree of heat, it must 
have fuel, and carbohydrate is one of those fuels. 
85 86 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
This point of view is of the greatest importance, 
yet it by no means covers the whole ground. In 
fact, it is quite impracticable to select any single 
element of foods and treat it independently of its 
relations to foods in general. 
The energy value of the carbohydrate is easily 
ascertained by burning the carbohydrate in a 
calorimeter. The quantity of heat produced when 
the combustion is properly conducted and con- 
trolled is easily and accurately measured. We 
may, therefore, infer that all of the carbohydrates 
ingested in a state of health are sooner or later 
burned and their energy thus liberated as heat in 
the human body. 
In this process, however, many other functions 
are performed, chief of which is that the carbo- 
hydrate saves the rest of the ration in order that 
the general vital functions may be conducted 
without disturbance. From a food point of view, 
before considering the carbohydrates in detail, it 
is well to understand that they exist in two forms. 
In one form, such as soluble sugars, they are 
ready at once to submit themselves to the action 
of the digestive ferments. When the carbohy- 
drates, on the other hand, are insoluble, that is, 
consisting of starches and cellulose (woody fiber), NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
87 
they are of no value for food purposes until they 
are first changed into soluble materials. These 
changes are produced by the action of enzymes, 
which attack, on the one hand, starch, and, on the 
other, cellulose, and convert each of them into 
sugar (maltose, dextrose), which is soluble in 
water. The enzyme which liquefies the starch 
(ptyalin, amylase) is of a different species from 
that which dissolves the cellulose (cytase). 
SUITABILITY OF DIGESTIVE ORGANS 
The character of the digestive apparatus is, 
also, very different in meat-eating and vegetable- 
eating animals. In animals that live wholly upon 
vegetables the digestive organs are much more 
complicated and have a much greater burden to 
perform than in those that eat solely animal prod- 
ucts. Animals, such as man, that occupy an inter- 
mediate position between the meat-eaters, on the 
one hand, and vegetable-eaters, on the other, have 
a digestive apparatus which anatomically and 
functionally stands midway between the other two 
classes of animals. In the vegetable-eating ani- 
mals, those that eat coarse fibers, such as hay, fod- 
der, and grass, containing large quantities of cel- 
lulose, secrete in great abundance digestive fer- 88 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
ments (cytase) that act upon these bodies. For il- 
lustration, if a meat-eating animal could chew hay, 
he would digest practically none of it. If a horse 
should chew hay, he would digest the greater part 
of it. If a man should eat hay, chewing it very 
finely, he would digest a small part of it. In so 
far as the digestion of cellulose is concerned, one 
of the most important of the carbohydrates in the 
nutrition of ruminant animals, the digestive sys- 
tem of man is much nearer that of the meat-eat- 
ing animal than it is that of the vegetable-eating 
animal. 
This fact is an important one from the point of 
view of the mixed diet, but is not so strongly di- 
rective as to warrant the conclusion that the diet 
of man should be mostly animal. In point of fact, 
the vegetables that man eats contain as a rule 
only minimum quantities of cellulose, and hence 
man does not need the multiple stomachs nor the 
highly active cellulose solvents which are required 
for ruminant animals. The importance of a 
proper quantity of carbohydrates is indicated 
especially in disorders of digestion. There are 
many diseases, as, for instance, diabetes, in which 
theoretically carbohydrates should be as far as 
possible excluded, and yet in practice it is found NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
89 
that such an entire exclusion might work serious 
injury. Again, in that disordered condition of 
the human body which is known as acidosis-in 
other words, when the acids in the body are domi- 
nant over the bases-it is not only a mark of good 
treatment to increase the quantity of basic mate- 
rials in the food, but also it is found that a proper 
increase in the amount of carbohydrates may do 
much towards remedying the disturbed condition 
of the digestive organs. Carbohydrates are not, 
therefore, valuable solely because they constitute 
the greater part of the food of the human body, 
but with equal reason because they regulate, domi- 
nate, and control, to a large extent, the normal 
nutritional processes. 
STARCHES 
The starches differ from one another chiefly in 
physical structure and in their ability to resist 
the action of digestive ferments. All starches in 
their pure state look alike to the eye, but each one 
reveals a peculiar structure under the microscope. 
We may assume that all the principal starches 
used for food differ little in digestive properties, 
and that their physical differences, which consist 
chiefly in the size of the granules and in their 90 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
shape, are of little consequence. Among the 
common starches in which the granules are large, 
that of the potato is the most important. Its 
granules are oval in shape, containing no sharp 
angles, and are marked with a cross when viewed 
with polarized light. Among the smallest of the 
starch granules are those of Indian corn (maize), 
which, though small and of angular shape, are 
also marked with a definite cross under polarized 
light. Wheat starch resembles potato in shape, 
but the granules are very much smaller. Only the 
expert microscopist is able to distinguish with 
certainty many of the varieties of starch. 
All starches have one common chemical prop- 
erty. If a granule of starch is boiled with a little 
water so as to make a thin paste, cooled, and 
treated with a drop of dilute solution of iodin, an 
intensely blue color is produced. The starches 
form the principal bulk of carbohydrate foods. 
From 60 to 70 per cent, of the wheat grain, from 65 
to 75 per cent, of the grain of Indian corn, and 
from 70 to 80 per cent, of the grains of rice, consist 
of starch. All cereal grains are composed chiefly 
of starch. Among the vegetables, the potato is the 
representative starch-producer, having a little 
over 20 per cent, of solid matter, of which approxi- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
91 
mately 18 per cent, consists of starch. Consider- 
able amounts of starch are found also in peas and 
beans, in carrots and radishes, and in many other 
foods. In fact, there is scarcely any of the vege- 
table foods which does not contain a notable per- 
centage of this substance. The artichoke, the 
variety which yields edible tubers, contains a large 
percentage of a carbohydrate known as inulin, 
which is similar to starch in its nutritive value, 
but of quite a different character chemically. The 
percentage of inulin in the artichoke is about the 
same as the percentage of starch in the potato. 
SUGARS 
Closely allied to starch from a nutritive point 
of view, but quite different in physical and chemi- 
cal qualities, is sugar, which, next to starch, is 
the most important of the carbohydrate foods. 
The term "sugar," when used without qualifica- 
tion, indicates the ordinary sugar used upon the 
table. This particular kind of sugar is known to 
the chemist as sucrose, or cane-sugar. It is found 
universally in plant life, and represents probably 
the first product of growth. The physiologists 
have shown that sugars are produced under the 
influence of chlorophyl, the green coloring-matter 92 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
of the leaf, by combining with water the carbon 
dioxid which exists in the air and the soil. Subse- 
quently this sugar is translated to various parts 
of the plant, where it is either stored as sugar or 
converted into starch or cellulose (woody fiber). 
Sugar, therefore, may be regarded as the domi- 
nant factor of plant life, although cereals have 
only a small quantity of it, varying from 1 to 3 
per cent. 
The sugar-cane and the sugar-beet are the chief 
sources of commercial sugar, although small quan- 
tities are made commercially from the sap of the 
maple and the sap of the sugar-palm. The citizens 
of the United States annually consume about 
eighty pounds per head of commercial sugar. 
This does not include a large quantity which is 
consumed in ordinary foods. It would be safe to 
say that the average citizen of the United States 
uses up, in some form or other, nearly one-quarter 
of a pound of sugar per day. This is not all con- 
sumed directly, but in the form of special kinds 
of foods, such as preserves, jellies, jams, confec- 
tionery, cakes, etc. With sugar at five cents a 
pound, each individual in the United States would 
spend about four dollars for commercial sugar 
per year, making the annual charge for this pur- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
93 
pose to the people of the United States something 
near four hundred millions of dollars. 
Besides its pleasant taste, sugar has all the 
food-value of starch, while it is more readily pre- 
pared for assimilation than starch because of its 
natural solubility in water. Sugar, however, is 
not used as such by the tissues. Before becoming 
available for fuel in the body, or for fat-building 
purposes, it is resolved into two related forms, 
which are known in common language as dextrose 
and levulose. These terms indicate that when 
these sugars are submitted to examination by po- 
larized light, the dextrose turns the plane of polar- 
ization to the right and the levulose to the left. 
In a state of health these two sugars are assimi- 
lated and burned with equal facility. In certain 
disorders of health, as, for instance, those which 
induce diabetes, the dextrose is less readily 
burned, and by reason of escaping the process of 
combustion, is excreted in the urine. Even in 
these cases, however, the levulose is either burned 
in the tissues of the body or converted by some 
biological process into dextrose, so that levulose 
is rarely found as a urinary excretion. 94 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
FOODS RICH IN SUGAR 
Among the natural foods which contain notable 
quantities of sugar may be mentioned the follow- 
ing: beets, sweet potatoes, turnips, radishes, car- 
rots, and other root crops. Indeed, all the com- 
mon vegetable foods consumed by man contain 
notable quantities of sugar. The sugar-beet yields 
from 10 to 18 per cent., and the sweet potato has 
from 4 to 7 per cent. The natural food richest in 
sugar content, however, is honey. Nearly all the 
solid content of honey is composed of sugars; 
namely, levulose and dextrose in practically 
equal proportions, in which are usually mixed 
small quantities of ordinary sugar. Honey is the 
type of natural sugar foods. Prepared foods 
which are largely sugars include, besides the ordi- 
nary sugar of commerce, molasses, syrups of all 
kinds, and confections. Among the confections 
are included the sugar cakes of various kinds, 
which are such a common component of desserts, 
and candies of every description. 
NUTRITIVE PROPERTIES 
The carbohydrates, constituting as they do 
practically two-thirds of all human foods, are of 
special interest in all studies of nutrition. The NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
95 
principal function of the carbohydrates is the pro- 
duction of heat and energy. They are burned in 
the tissues of the body, in the normal functioning 
thereof, to carbon dioxid and water. These prod- 
ucts are largely removed from the body through 
the lungs, and, in so far as the water is concerned, 
to a large extent through the skin and kidneys. In 
the process of respiration, the air containing pure 
oxygen is introduced into the blood through the 
lungs. In the capillary tissues of the body the 
oxygen which is carried into the blood burns, 
among other things, the carbohydrates, and the 
carbon dioxid and water produced are carried 
away by the veins and returned to the lungs for 
elimination. The greater part of the heat and 
energy of the human body is, therefore, due to 
the combustion of carbohydrates. 
The carbohydrates also take part in tissue- 
building. Especially is it believed by physiolo- 
gists that a considerable part of the fatty tissues 
of the body are synthesized to a certain extent 
from the carbohydrates of the food. While bio- 
logic change is difficult to demonstrate, the above 
fact has been accepted as a rule by the physiolo- 
gists for a number of years. The carbohydrates 
have also a third function. They modify pro- 96 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
foundly the processes of assimilation of other 
foods, especially of proteins, and play a most 
important role in the general economy of life. 
They also spare the consumption of the nitrog- 
enous tissues of the body. 
PRELIMINARY CHANGES 
All the carbohydrates ingested with the food 
undergo certain preliminary changes in the di- 
gestive tract. In the first place, the sugar is 
changed into dextrose and levulose, or, to use a 
common expression, it is inverted. This change 
takes place under the action of certain sugar-split- 
ting enzymes, which are allied in character to 
those that attack starch. By reason of its high 
degree of solubility, sugar rapidly enters the cir- 
culation when taken into the stomach. It is, there- 
fore, a food product which gives almost immedi- 
ately the raw materials necessary to the living 
processes. A person who is suffering from 
physical fatigue receives a very prompt supply 
of energy from the eating of sugar. Heavy 
physical burdens may be carried and great work 
performed for a limited time from the strength 
and energy derived from the consumption of large 
quantities of this food product. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
97 
Starches which are insoluble in water undergo 
a more profound change. This change commences 
at the very beginning of digestion; namely, dur- 
ing the process of mastication. The saliva con- 
tains an enzyme known as ptyalin, which has the 
property of acting upon starch, making it soluble 
and converting it into maltose and dextrin. When 
the food is swallowed, the acidity of the stomach 
juices hinders after a time the action of the starch- 
splitting enzyme, which does not give its maxi- 
mum activity except in a faintly acid solution. 
When stomach digestion is completed and the food 
enters the small intestine, it meets with alkaline 
media, and the enzymes secreted, especially by 
the pancreas, rapidly complete the resolution of 
the starch into soluble products suitable for 
assimilation. From this it is seen that the process 
of carbohydrate digestion, in the ordinary sense 
of that term, begins in the mouth, is hindered or 
suspended to some extent in the stomach, and re- 
gains its activity in the small intestine. 
QUANTITIES OF CARBOHYDRATES 
The amount of carbohydrate required as a food 
is regulated to a certain extent by the quantity of 
fat which the food contains. As the quantity of 98 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
fat increases, the necessity for large quantities 
of carbohydrates diminishes. In other words, 
carbohydrates and fats are to a certain extent 
complementary in the nutritive process. Assum- 
ing that the daily dietary should contain three 
thousand Calories, it is evident that over half of 
this amount will be derived, as a rule, from car- 
bohydrates. 
Of the ordinary foods the carbohydrates have 
the minimum heat-producing power, less than half 
that possessed by an equal weight of fat. If com- 
plete combustion is secured, the carbohydrates 
are also distinctly inferior in heat-producing 
properties to the proteins, in the proportion of 
about 4 to 5|. As has already been said, how- 
ever, the proteins are not completely burned in 
the process of nutrition, and hence the carbohy- 
drates and the proteins are about equal in respect 
of the amount of heat which they yield to the 
human body. A kilogram of carbohydrate will 
yield 4,000 Calories (round). 
The ordinary individual does not require a 
kilogram of dry food per day, but about 600 
grams. Of this quantity, as a rule, about 425 
grams will be carbohydrates. In other words, 
about one pound of dry carbohydrates per day NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
99 
and approximately one-half pound of dry protein 
and fat will make the ordinary diet of an indi- 
vidual weighing 150 pounds. It is thus seen that 
in regard to quantity of food carbohydrate is the 
leading factor in nutrition. LESSON VI 
FATS AND OILS 
THE third principal division of foods in- 
cludes fats and oils. The common distinc- 
tion which is made between them is not a 
very sharp one. In general it may be said that a 
fatty material that is liquid at ordinary tempera- 
tures is an oil, and an oily material that is solid 
at ordinary temperatures is a fat. Another 
classification, which is also to a certain extent 
indefinite, is that fats are of animal origin and 
oils of vegetable origin; but it must not be for- 
gotten that the whale produces a large amount 
of oil and that there are certain vegetable fats. 
Ordinary temperatures mean those of the living- 
room, which usually do not fall below 60 and 
rarely rise above blood-heat (about 98| degrees 
Fahrenheit). 
An important distinction in composition is to be 
noted between the sugars and starches, represent- 
ing the carbohydrates, and the fats and oils, rep- 
resenting the third class of food products. In the 
100 NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
101 
Quantities of Fats and Oils in Some of the Principal Foods 1 
Almonds 54 per cent. 
Barley 2.2 " " 
Beans (dried) 1.8 " " 
Buckwheat 1.2 " " 
Cheese 33 " " 
Chestnuts 5.4 " " 
Chocolate 48 " " 
Cocoa 28 " " 
Cocoanut 50 " " 
Dates 2.8 " " 
Indian Cornmeal (whole) 4.7 " " 
Oatmeal 7.2 " " 
Olives 20 " " 
Peanuts 38 " " 
Peas (dried) 1 " " 
Pecans 70 " " 
Pine Nuts 60 " " 
Potatoes 0.1 " " 
Rice 0.3 " " 
Rye Meal 2 " " 
Spinach 0.3 " " 
Sweet Potatoes 0.6 " " 
Tomatoes 0.4 " " 
Walnuts 64 " " 
Wheat 1.7 " " 
Wheat Flour 1 " " 
Among the concentrated foods which are offered for consump- 
tion, the vegetable oils, lard, tallow, suet, etc., are practically pure 
fats or oils. Butter contains 82.5 per cent, of fatty substance, the 
rest being water, 12 to 15 per cent., curd, 1 to 2 per cent., and 
salt, from none to 3 per cent. 
starches and sugars, the elements hydrogen and 
oxygen occur in the same proportion as in water, 
1 Compiled from 0. E. S. Bulletin 28 Rev., U. S. Dept, of Agr. 102 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
whereas in the oils and fats the oxygen exists in 
only very small quantities. In other words, the 
sugars and starches may be regarded as partly 
burned, while the extent of the burning in the fats 
and oils is extremely slight. For this reason the 
fats and oils are distinctively heat-formers, fur- 
nishing the maximum degree of heat and energy 
during the processes of combustion in the various 
tissues of the body. A kilogram (2.2 lbs.) of 
sugars or starches will furnish 4,000 Calories 
(units) of energy, while a kilogram of fats or oils 
will furnish 9,300 units of energy. 
CLIMATE AND FAT CONSUMPTION 
As a consequence, fats and oils are consumed in 
increasingly large quantities as the temperature 
of the environment falls. Near the equator, where 
the average temperature is but little below that 
of the blood itself, there is little loss of heat by 
radiation from the human body, and hence those 
elements which particularly produce heat are re- 
quired in minimum* quantity. But as we ap- 
proach the polar limits of human habitation, 
where the average temperatures of the year are 
below the freezing-point of water, the radiation 
of heat from the body is greatly increased, and NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
103 
the requirement of fat in the food is correspond- 
ingly greater. A man living at the equator would 
suffer severely if he consumed the diet of the 
Eskimo, while the Eskimo would speedily freeze 
if he tried to live on the fruits and vegetables of 
the equator. 
On the same principle, the quantity of fats and 
oils in foods of people living in climates like our 
own should be very much greater in winter than 
in summer. Our discomfort during hot weather 
is largely due to the fact that we are not suffi- 
ciently acquainted with the principles of nutrition 
to change our diet to suit the temperatures. It is 
every bit as foolish during the hot summer months 
to eat foods rich in fats or oils as it would be 
to wear our heavy underclothing and fur coats 
during the same period. 
Fats and oils, as is the case with starches and 
sugars, are often offered for consumption in a 
practically pure state. In this they differ from 
the proteins, which are rarely eaten unmixed with 
other food products. It should not be forgotten, 
nevertheless, that nature has mixed the oils and 
fats in our foods so as to give us a very consider- 
able proportion of them, whether we consume any 
of them in the pure state or not. Animal foods, 104 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
as a rule, contain a very considerable proportion 
of fat. Certain vegetable foods, such as nuts, are 
also rich in oil. The cereals represent a class of 
foods which contain the minimum proportion of 
oils. In milk we find the fat in larger quantity 
than the protein, but in a somewhat smaller quan- 
tity than the sugar, indicating, doubtless, the nat- 
ural method of combination for the first years of 
human existence. 
PROPORTION OF FAT IN A NORMAL RATION 
The list on page 101, although far from com- 
plete, will give a general idea of how fats and 
oils are distributed in vegetable foods. No 
definite percentage of fat can be stated for 
animal foods, because they may be almost free 
of fat or may contain large quantities of it, de- 
pending upon the condition of the animal when 
slaughtered and how the cut is made. 
It is also difficult to give any definite expres- 
sion of the quantity of fat or oil which enters into 
the normal ration. Aside from the influence of 
climate, the taste of the individual, natural or ac- 
quired, and the possibility of securing such a 
ration as the individual craves, are important 
factors here. Environment and personal choice NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
105 
have a profound influence, not only on the amount, 
but on the character and distribution of the food 
components. There are many persons whose 
tastes differ from those of the great majority of 
their fellows. One will be unable to eat butter, 
another lard, while a third will draw the line at 
a vegetable oil-and so on, in Jack Sprat style, 
with every element of diet. In order to determine 
what is approximately normal, we exclude idio- 
syncrasies of this kind. In general, it may be 
said that the total average quantity of fat con- 
sumed per day by an individual weighing 150 
pounds and living in the temperate zone is about 
80 grams, almost a fifth of a pound. While 
in individuals wide variations from this average 
are often found, it may be regarded as a good 
approximation of the usual requirement of a fat 
or an oil. 
The quantity of sugar and starch consumed per 
day is considerably greater than this. There is 
reason to believe that, especially during the cold 
months, it would be a wise dietetic practice if the 
people of our country would consume a larger 
quantity of oil and less sugar and starch. In the 
warm months, when succulent vegetables and 
fruits are abundant, the fat content of the ration 106 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
is somewhat diminished. One reason for sug- 
gesting a practice of this kind is that an increased 
consumption of oils, especially for salad pur- 
poses, would tend to secure a freer peristaltic 
action of the intestines, and in this way remedy 
the very common state of constipation from which 
so many suffer. 
While the normal average requirement of fats 
is stated above as 80 grams, it is certain that the 
people of this country are not getting their full 
share. Especially in southern Europe is the con- 
sumption of oils much larger than in this coun- 
try. On the contrary, the fact that in the United 
States the consumption of butter is in excess of 
that of most other countries tends to counterbal- 
ance this. If one desires an increased amount of 
fat, butter is not the cheapest, though otherwise 
the best, way in which to secure it. Such sub- 
stances as olive oil, purified cottonseed oil, pea- 
nut oil, and other edible vegetable oils are much 
simpler in constitution, and also, with the excep- 
tion of olive oil, much cheaper. Butter is a per- 
fectly wholesome and delicious article of diet 
when eaten in moderation, but would not be ideal 
for general uses. However, it should be remem- 
bered that butter-fat is something more to the NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
107 
body than the mere heat and energy that it yields. 
It has properties that give it peculiar value in 
promoting growth, as has been shown by recent 
experiments. Sooner or later small animals fed 
on fat-free foods fail to grow. Butter is the best 
fat to restore ability to grow. 
Undoubtedly olive oil is the most desirable of 
all the vegetable oils for table use, but a properly 
prepared cottonseed or peanut oil, either of 
which is much cheaper, may be substituted. In 
fact, those who are not accustomed to discriminat- 
ing between the fine flavors of oils are usually 
quite as well satisfied with these cheaper sorts. 
Many dietitians assert that animal oils are not as 
wholesome as those of vegetable origin, but there 
does not appear to be any reliable scientific basis 
for this statement. 
OILS PREFERRED TO FATS 
There is one scientific reason which would lead 
to a preference in favor of the vegetable oils. 
These oils are in a liquid state at the temperature 
of the body, and hence would seem to lend them- 
selves more readily to the enzymic action which 
prepares them for absorption into the blood. I 
do not recall any scientific demonstrations of this 108 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
principle, save the following, but its truth would 
seem to be self-evident. Results of late experi- 
ments by A. von Feger (Experiment Station Rec- 
ord, Vol. XXXII, No. 9, p. 858) show that the 
higher the melting point and the greater the vis- 
cosity the longer the fats remain in the stomach. 
Emulsified fats leave the stomach more rapidly 
than those not emulsified. We must admit, never- 
theless, that the digestive organs have very little 
difficulty in disposing of the somewhat solid fats 
which are taken in the consumption of ordinary 
meat products. LESSON VII 
THE ROLE OF MINERAL SUBSTANCES 
IN a general way, the plant and the animal are 
distinguished as regards their nutritional 
needs by the character of food each requires. 
We think of the animal as living solely on or- 
ganic materials, such as flesh, fruits, cereals, 
vegetables, etc., while we regard the plant grow- 
ing in the soil as living solely on inorganic mate- 
rial, such as potash, phosphorus, nitrogen, sul- 
phur, oxygen, carbon dioxid, etc. In the main, 
this assumption is correct, but in detail it is not 
so. There are many plants, such as mushrooms 
and other fungi, that live largely on organic ma- 
terials, and all animals require inorganic constitu- 
ents in their foods. This requirement of the 
animal is of a double nature. In the first place, 
inorganic matter, such as phosphorus and lime, 
is required for purely nutritional or growth pur- 
poses. These two elements nourish particularly 
the bones of the body, though they are found- 
especially phosphorus-in all the tissues. Iron 
109 110 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
also is an important and perhaps necessary con- 
stituent of the blood, and other minerals play 
various roles in the animal economy. 
In the second place, mineral substances are in- 
dispensable to living organisms in securing the 
movements of the liquids of the body, as, for in- 
stance, in the circulation of the blood and lymph. 
The direct impulse is given by the action of the 
heart; but the heart would refuse to act if the 
blood were deprived of its mineral constituents. 
This is demonstrated in cases of very weak heart 
action, due to depletion of the mineral constitu- 
ents of the blood, where the injection of a weak 
salt solution will stimulate the heart's action, and 
often tide the patient over a crisis and save life. 
The slow movements of the lymph are due chiefly 
to varying mineral content. 
HOW MINERALS EXERT FORCE 
The pressure produced by separating liquids of 
different saline content by means of a membrane 
furnishes another illustration of the utility of 
mineral substances. If a thin membrane, such as 
a bladder, be partly filled with a salt solution and 
then immersed in a vessel of water, the external 
water will enter through the membrane more rap- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
111 
idly than the internal solution will exude; and 
while a certain amount of salt will pass to the ex- 
terior portion of the bladder, the total volume of 
the liquor therein will increase. If the bladder be 
furnished with an upright tube, the liquid con- 
tents will be forced into the tube, thus showing 
that a high degree of pressure is exerted under 
the conditions stated. 
The term "osmotic" is given to a force of this 
kind, and the process of translation of the liquids 
through the walls of the membrane is called 
"osmosis." Osmosis plays a most important role 
in animal life, owing to the fact that the quantity 
of saline constituents in the different liquids of 
the body is variable. Mineral matters that are 
concerned in osmotic pressure need not necessar- 
ily undergo any change in the body. A very large 
proportion of the common salt which is ingested 
in the food is secreted unchanged in the urine. 
On the other hand, mineral matters may undergo 
digestive processes; in other words, suffer 
changes of a radical character. Common salt in 
the body may be, and is to a certain degree, sepa- 
rated-the chlorin, which is one of its constitu- 
ents, appearing as hydrochloric acid, especially in 
the stomach, and the sodium, which is its other 112 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
constituent, appearing in combination with the 
carbon dioxid in the blood-stream, serving to 
maintain its alkalinity. Sulphur and phosphorus 
in foods are largely transformed in the process 
of nutrition. 
SAVE THE MINERALS 
It is easy to see, therefore, how profound a role 
mineral substances play in animal economy, and 
how the very common habit of minimizing their 
use in foods is founded on error. It is true that, 
as with all good things, the use of them may be 
abused. This is often the result of a somewhat 
vitiated taste, as where one acquires a liking for 
an excessive amount of common salt. On the 
other hand, it may be due to errors in the prepa- 
ration of food, such as the introduction into bread 
of very large quantities of mineral matters in the 
form of baking powders. 
There is a well-known mineral hunger which 
is normal, not only in plants, but in animals; and 
that course of diet is not based on sound physio- 
logical principles which denies to man the normal 
amount of mineral substances. As a rule, with 
the possible exception of common salt, all the 
mineral substances necessary for human nutrition NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
113 
are found in pure and wholesome foods. By rea- 
son of the refinements, or progress, or whatever 
you please to call it, of modern cookery, the 
greater part of the natural mineral substances in 
some important human foods has been eliminated, 
little by little. Nature has placed the larger 
amount of minerals in foods chiefly on their ex- 
terior coverings. In the skins of the potato, the 
apple, the peach, and other fruits, and in the bran 
of cereals, is found the greatest quantity of the 
mineral substances in these products. The com- 
plete removal of these coverings influences in a 
very unfavorable way the wholesomeness of the 
food. Especially for the growing child should 
care be exercised to secure foods in the form 
which retains these essential ingredients. It is a 
great dietetic mistake to feed young children, 
when they are able to chew thoroughly, exclusively 
on white flour, peeled fruits, and other foods from 
which the chief part of the mineral substances has 
been removed. 
PHOSPHORUS AND LIME 
The two most important mineral foods, from 
the point of view of growth, are phosphorus and 
lime. The phosphorus in foods exists largely in 114 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
two forms. First, there is organic phosphorus, 
which is found in large quantities in the yolk of 
eggs and in the germs of cereals. In these cases 
the phosphorus exists very largely in the form of 
compounds known as lecithin and nuclein, which 
apparently is the ideal source of phosphorus for 
nutritive purposes, although, as combined in these 
bodies, phosphorus is hardly to be considered a 
mineral, because it exists in organic combination. 
While it is true, doubtless, that pure, inorganic 
phosphorus in the form of mineral salts may be 
assimilated, there is little doubt that its most 
favorable form for nutritive purposes is in an 
organic combination of the kind mentioned. 
The phosphorus which enters the body has a 
double fate. That part of it necessary for restor- 
ing waste and building new tissues is abstracted 
from the blood-stream and assimilated by the tis- 
sues to which it belongs. Any excess of phos- 
phorus in the food would be excreted chiefly 
through the feces. In the second place, the phos- 
phorus which has performed its function in the 
human economy is forced back into the blood- 
stream, and separated therefrom chiefly by the 
kidneys, and appears in the urine. In a person 
of average weight, living on a normal diet, the NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
115 
daily requirements of phosphates are from three 
to five grams (45 to 75 grains). This quantity of 
phosphorus is found in the normal diet, provided 
the latter has not been depleted of its mineral 
content in its passage through the mill and the 
kitchen. 
Another important mineral constituent is lime. 
Lime is carried in all whole foods of a vegetable 
origin, and is also a universal constituent of 
drinking waters-other than rain or distilled. 
Lime is one of the most valuable constituents of 
milk, being combined chiefly with citric acid (the 
acid of citrous fruits). As has already been 
stated, one of the chief functions of lime is in 
the structure of the teeth and the osseous portions 
of the skeleton. It is universally distributed in 
small quantities in the other tissues of the body. 
In this particular respect the animal and the 
plant are closely allied in regard to their nutri- 
tional wants, both requiring abundant quantities 
of lime and phosphorus. Sulphur is another very 
important mineral nutrient, but apparently it is 
utilized solely in organic combination. About 1 
per cent, of proteins consists of sulphur, and this 
is supplied abundantly in both vegetable and ani- 
mal forms. The sulphuric acid which plays such 116 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
an important part in the excretion of the end 
products of protein metabolism comes chiefly 
from the sulphur in protein foods. 
SODA AND POTASH 
The alkalis, in the form of the salts of soda 
and the salts of potash, seem to take a leading 
part in tissue life. Potash especially is an im- 
portant constituent of the protoplasm and soda 
of the circulating fluids. Sodium compounds are 
especially valuable, in the form of carbonates, in 
contributing to the maintenance of the alkalinity 
of the blood, which is a condition necessary to 
health. There is always a threat of grave danger 
when the alkalinity of the blood falls below the 
normal; indeed, if it falls too far below, the condi- 
tion of acidosis, which is a grave threat to both 
health and life, is established. The salts of the 
alkalis apparently are those most fundamentally 
concerned in the production of osmotic pressure. 
Iron is one of the mineral elements of the blood 
which has a peculiar function, acknowledged by 
most physiologists, in relation to the oxidations 
which take place in the body. Iron compounds 
are well known as carriers of oxygen, and physiol- 
ogists generally maintain that iron is one of the NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
117 
materials indispensable to the correct functioning 
of all the organs. In addition to these mineral 
substances of superior importance, it is probable 
that magnesia and other elements exist in small 
traces normally, and contribute in a measure to 
the osmotic conditions which are necessary to life 
and health. lodin also is found in, and is thought 
to have an important function in connection with 
the thyroid gland. 
Other mineral substances are found as acci- 
dental constituents of the body, such as fluorin 
and arsenic, but these can hardly be considered 
as essential constituents of the tissues of the 
human body. 
It should not be forgotten that the physio- 
logical balance of mineral constituents is of the 
utmost importance. It is a wonderful adaptabil- 
ity of nature and an exhibition of the highest pos- 
sible chemical skill which maintains, in health, so 
unfailingly an acid condition of the stomach and 
an alkaline condition of the small intestines and 
of the blood. If this balance should be disturbed 
even for a short period, if the stomach should 
become alkaline and the blood slightly acid, life 
could not long be maintained. 118 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
FOODS PROVIDING MINERALS 
Many of our correspondents ask what foods 
should be eaten to provide mineral ingredients. 
Although the latter are scattered in small amounts 
throughout almost the entire dietary, some foods 
contain larger amounts than others, and the ac- 
companying list, from Dr. M. S. Rose's "Labora- 
tory Hand Book for Dietetics," gives the foods 
that contain notable amounts of the three most 
important minerals; namely, calcium or lime, 
phosphorus (P2 O5), and iron. 
The idea that you can feed your brain, or teeth, 
or bones with a special diet is a mistaken one, but 
it is most essential to the growing child, who is 
forming bones and teeth at a rate never to be 
equaled in later life, that its ration should not be 
lacking in these mineral salts, especially calcium 
and phosphorus. The mere fact that a little 
larger amount of these ingredients exists in one 
food than in another, does not necessarily indi- 
cate superiority. The element may be present in 
smaller amounts, but in a more available form, 
or the food which contains the smaller amount 
may be eaten in larger quantities. There is great 
danger of distorting and misapplying dietary NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
119 
figures of this kind, and they should all be used 
with a grain of common sense, and with a broad 
view of the subject. 
Table Showing Percentages of Calcium, Phosphorus, and 
Iron in Common Foods 
PHOSPHORIC 
LIME 
▲CID 
IRON 
(CaO) 
(Pa 05) 
(Essen- 
(Needed 
(Essen- 
tial ele- 
by 
tial to 
ment of 
bones 
cell life 
the blood 
and 
and to 
and of 
teeth) 
the bones) 
cell nuclei) 
Per cent. 
Per cent. 
Per cent. 
1 Cheese 
1.10 
1.45 
2 Almonds 
30 
.87 
.002 
3 Cottage cheese 
30 
.50 
4 Beans (dried) 
22 
1.14 
.007 
5 Egg-yolk 
2 
1.0 
.0085 
6 Milk 
168 
.215 
.00024 
7 Wheat-bran 
14 
3.0 
8 Chocolate 
14 
.90 
9 Oatmeal 
13 
.872 
.0036 
10 Lentils 
12 
.66 
.0086 
11 Peanuts 
10 
.90 
.002 
12 Spinach 
09 
.13 
.0032 
13 Turnips 
089 
.117 
.0005 
14 Raisins 
08 
.29 
.005 
15 Carrots 
077 
.10 
.0008 
16 Rye 
07 
.81 
.004 
17 Whole wheat 
061 
.902 
.0053 
18 Prunes 
06 
.25 
.0029 
19 Salmon 
011 
.42 
.0015 
20 Lean beef 
Oil 
.50 
.0038 LESSON VIII 
HOW THE FUEL AND BUILDING MATE- 
RIALS OF THE BODY ARE PREPARED 
HAVING briefly described the principal 
classes of foods, we now come to the more 
particular study of the process of nutri- 
tion itself. It is well to have a clear understand- 
ing of terms, in order that no confusion may arise. 
The term "digestion" is commonly employed to 
mean the preparation of the food for absorption 
into the blood-stream from the alimentary or- 
gans. In this sense digestion consists of the fol- 
lowing steps: 
If the food is not liquid or already in a finely 
divided state, the first step in digestion is a me- 
chanical one, and consists of mastication. The 
mastication of food has a double purpose. In the 
first place, mechanically it reduces the solid par- 
ticles of food to a more or less impalpable pulp. 
At the same time mastication favors the solution 
of the starch particles of foods. In the process 
of digestion the flow of saliva is not only useful 
120 NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
121 
mechanically, in forming a semi-liquid mass of 
the food preparatory to deglutition, but the saliva 
also contains a digestive ferment which actively 
participates in the conversion of starch into a 
soluble form. This particular ferment in saliva 
is known as ptyalin. 
THE DIGESTION OF NITROGENOUS FOODS 
When the food reaches the stomach it comes 
into contact with an acid medium. The principal 
acid of the stomach is hydrochloric (muriatic), 
derived probably from the separation of the ele- 
ments of common salt. This acid is sufficient to 
neutralize more or less promptly the slightly alka- 
line saliva, and then temporarily to restrict or 
inhibit its activity. This retardation is manifested 
first only on the exterior parts of food, and the 
starch digestion of the interior of the food may 
continue an hour or longer after it reaches the 
stomach. 
Stomach digestion is essentially confined to the 
nitrogenous matters of the food. Most of the 
nitrogenous foods which we eat are wholly insolu- 
ble in the alimentary liquids, and hence must be 
reduced to a soluble state before incipient diges- 
tion is secured and their preparation for absorp- 122 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
tion is completed. This digestion of the nitrog- 
enous matters is largely effected by a ferment 
secreted from glands in the walls of the stomach, 
particularly at the time of taking food. It is 
known as pepsin, and its function is to render 
soluble the nitrogenous elements of foods. An- 
other ferment in the stomach is rennin, the sole 
purpose of which is to curdle milk. The clotted 
milk is retained in the stomach until dissolved by 
the pepsin. In normal conditions of health and 
with proper mastication and proper quantities of 
foods, the action of the pepsin goes on rapidly, 
so that in a few hours after the ingestion of pro- 
tein food the stomach is practically empty. The 
starch has already been sufficiently liquefied to 
pass through with the other liquid or semi-liquid 
contents of the stomach into the upper end of the 
small intestines, the duodenum. 
DIGESTION IN ITS FINAL STAGES 
It is thus seen that when the food passes 
through the pylorus into the duodenum, it has 
been partially liquefied, both as to its starch and 
its nitrogenous elements. Sugars are already 
liquids, and fats and oils are practically so at 
the temperature of the stomach. We have thus a NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
123 
somewhat heterogeneous semi-liquid mass pass- 
ing into the stages of final digestion. The nitrog- 
enous portions having been thoroughly liquefied 
or semi-liquefied, enter now, together with the 
other contents of the stomach, into an alkaline 
medium, the acidity of the stomach's contents 
being neutralized either by the absorption of the 
acid or by a combination with bases supplied by 
the bile and pancreatic and duodenal juices. 
In the small intestine, especially in the upper por- 
tions of it, the food again comes into contact with 
another series of digestive enzymes, secreted 
chiefly by the pancreas. The pancreas, however, 
not only has the property of secreting enzymes 
which transform starch into sugar, but it also 
secretes enzymes which complete the breaking 
down of the nitrogenous tissues and emulsify and 
split the fat globules. Thus the food, as it passes 
through the small intestine, is reduced completely 
to those forms suitable for passage into the blood- 
stream. It is claimed by some authorities that the 
final splitting of the protein molecule into amino 
acids is accomplished in the membranes of the in- 
testines, or even in the tissues of the body. 
The ferments which are active in the digestion 
of the food belong to three classes. Those that 124 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
split starch and sugar are called, from the Latin 
name of starch, amylases. Those that reduce the 
nitrogenous tissues to their final form of assimila- 
tion are called proteolytic ferments. Those which 
split the fats are called lipases. The object of 
digestion is not only to secure a liquid which will 
pass into the absorbent system and reach the 
blood-stream, but also to reduce these materials to 
a form suitable for use in the body. As the pur- 
pose of food is to build tissue, restore waste, and 
supply energy (heat), the digestive process must 
reduce the food to a proper degree of disintegra- 
tion to be used for these purposes. 
THE ACTION OF ENZYMES 
The final form to which foods are disinte- 
grated is not definitely determined, but enough is 
known to show that the sugar which is ingested 
is converted into dextrose and levulose, while the 
starch is changed chiefly into maltose, dextrin, and 
dextrose. The fats are emulsified and split into 
glycerin and fatty acids, and the protein mate- 
rials are reduced to "amino acids." The various 
amino acids are the fundamental building-stones 
of all the nitrogenous tissues of the body. When 
the various forms of food, under the influence of NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
125 
enzymic action, have been reduced to the proper 
degree of sub-division, they pass readily through 
the walls of the intestine and enter the blood- 
stream on their way to new life and new duties. 
In the above review of the fate of the food in 
the intestines the changing acidity and alkalinity 
of the digestive secretions has been noted. Im- 
portant as these changes are, their magnitude is 
not great. The digestion of all the kinds of 
foods goes on synchronously in all parts of the 
alimentary canal. While starch digestion takes 
place in the very slightly alkaline saliva, recent 
investigations have shown that an exceedingly 
faint acidity gives the optimum activity to the 
starch-splitting ferment. A pronounced acidity, 
however, checks this action. Thus starch diges- 
tion may be temporarily activated when the saliva- 
starch mixed food first enters the stomach. LESSON IX 
A FURTHER CONSIDERATION OF THE 
INTRICATE PROCESSES OF DIGESTION 
THE process by which the digested food is 
taken into the blood-stream, built up into 
the tissues, and finally discarded, is a sub- 
ject connected directly with nutrition, and a 
knowledge of it is fundamental in understanding 
the true function of the nutritive processes. It is 
by the study of these problems in chemical physi- 
ology that we reach a true conception of what the 
constitution of the food should be in order to 
afford a proper nourishment of the body. 
Already sufficient progress has been made in 
this direction to show that it is not merely a prob- 
lem of protein, for instance, in the balancing of 
the ration, which has to be considered, but also the 
kind of protein. If the protein does not in its 
decomposition furnish the right kind of building- 
stones, it is evident that the building cannot go 
on. In the same manner it has been found, by 
recent researches in controlled feeding, that cer- 
126 NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
127 
tain kinds of fat appear to be more useful in the 
diet than others. This is particularly true with 
regard to butter fat, which recent investigations 
show has certain peculiar properties in the pro- 
motion of growth which other fats in equal quan- 
tity do not seem able to provide. 
For the same reasons it may be discovered later 
on that the starches and sugars also have different 
relations to nutrition, although theoretically they 
yield approximately the same quantities of heat 
and energy. I have long held to the opinion that 
the sugars which are formed by natural processes 
-such, for instance, as cane, beet, malt, and milk 
sugar-are better suited to the nourishment of 
the body than equal quantities of dextrose or dex- 
trin produced from starch by the action of acids. 
The development of these facts, although be- 
longing chiefly to biological chemistry, is shedding 
great light on the fundamental principles of nu- 
trition. In like manner, the mechanism by which 
the digested foods reach the blood-stream, and 
the way in which they are distributed therein, the 
changes which take place in the liver and in the 
tissues, looking to the transformation of food 
materials into tissues of the body, are fundamen- 
tally connected with a correct idea of nutritive 128 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
processes. In fact, it is quite impossible to draw 
a close line of demarcation between physiological 
chemistry and the science of nutrition. 
FINAL PREPARATION OF FOODS FOR ABSORPTION 
In regard to the absorption of the food from the 
alimentary canal, attention has already been 
called to the fact that some parts of the food are 
absorbed from the stomach. The digestive proc- 
esses in the stomach, however, are quite incom- 
plete, and hence it is not surprising to find that 
the principal absorption of the food materials 
takes place in the small intestine, where the final 
processes of digestion are completed. In the 
small intestine the finely comminuted and par- 
tially dissolved food products are brought into 
contact with the elements which complete the di- 
gestive processes. They are furnished chiefly by 
the pancreas, but the activities of certain intes- 
tinal glands and secretions from the liver (bile) 
also take part in the process. All these secretions 
are mixed with the food soon after its exit from 
the stomach, and the processes which they induce 
are carried on simultaneously during the course 
of the food through the small intestine. 
The most important step in the final process of NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
129 
digestion consists in the completion of the con- 
version of starch into sugar. The enzyme which 
produces this action is similar in character to that 
contained in the saliva, but is much more abundant 
and active. The final product of this combined 
enzymic action is a sugar (called dextrose), al- 
though it is certain that on the road to dextrose, 
dextrins and maltose are intermediate products. 
This final act in the digestion of starch is only a 
completion of the process of digestion which be- 
gins in the mouth. 
The oils and fats also are profoundly changed 
through the action of the bile and pancreatic se- 
cretion. The final action on the fats and oils is 
undoubtedly to break them up into their constitu- 
ent parts of fatty acids and glycerin. There is 
also a distinct physical phenomenon connected 
with this chemical process of separating the fats 
into their component parts. This physical action 
is known as emulsification. The fat globules are 
not chemically decomposed by emulsification, but 
are separated mechanically into fine particles which 
no longer coalesce to form distinct droplets. This 
emulsification is probably promoted by the action 
of the acid due to the decomposition of the fat. 
This acid combines with an alkaline base, such as 130 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
soda or potash, and forms a soap, and the soap 
thus formed is an active principle in the further 
emulsification. 
A most interesting fact has been lately discov- 
ered in connection with the lipase, the fat-split- 
ting enzyme; namely, that it can not only 
decompose the fat into an acid and glycerin, but 
that its action is reversible, so that it may syn- 
thesize a fat from these elements. As this enzyme 
exists in the various tissues of the body to some 
extent, it is fair to presume that the building of 
the fat particles of the body may result partly 
from this action of the lipase, which is capable 
of re-forming the fats from their separated ele- 
ments in the blood. 
According to some theories, after they are sepa- 
rated and emulsified they are re-combined and 
enter the circulation as neutral fats, while other 
physiologists hold to the view that they enter the 
circulation in the form of glycerin and free acids. 
Whatever may be the facts in the case, it seems 
certain that the bile, as well as the pancreatic 
juice, takes an active part in preparing the fats 
for absorption and in securing their passage into 
the blood-stream. 
The important fact in relation to nutrition in NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
131 
this connection is that the kind of fat has a very- 
distinct relation to its absorption. The fats which 
are fluid-that is, the oils-are more readily di- 
gested and absorbed than those whose melting 
point is above that of blood temperature. Olive 
oil, for instance, and other edible oils are almost 
completely absorbed; while fats which partake of 
the nature of tallow are less completely absorbed. 
Spermaceti, the fat from the whale, has a very 
low percentage of absorption. The amount of fat 
which escapes absorption is largely dependent 
upon its source and its physical character. 
The method by means of which the soluble pro- 
tein bodies are finally converted into amino acids 
by the action of the enzymes in the small intestine 
has already been referred to. 
HOW THE FOOD ENTERS THE BLOOD 
The next important step in connection with the 
food, after tracing the changes which it under- 
goes in order to be suitable to enter the blood- 
stream, is, How does it find access to the blood 
so that it may by the blood be carried to all the 
tissues of the body? We might think that a ques- 
tion of this kind could be answered with perfect 
definiteness. In other words, it seems reason- 132 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
able to suppose that the continuous investigations 
of the phenomena of digestion by competent ex- 
perts over so long a period of time would lead 
to exact data respecting the methods by means 
of which the dissolved food reaches the circula- 
tion. In general, we may say that this is true. 
There are three possible methods of absorption 
of the dissolved foods. In the first place, they 
may enter the circulation through the venous or 
arterial capillaries, being absorbed directly into 
the blood-stream through the walls of the contain- 
ing vessels. The digestive tract is lined with a 
mucous membrane which is by no means smooth 
when observed under the microscope, but is pitted 
in much the same way as the skin, so that the sur- 
face of the mucous membrane is much greater 
than the superficial area of its inner coat meas- 
ured in straight lines. Throughout this whole 
region there is a constant interchange of liquids, 
principally through the processes of osmosis, so 
that matters are excreted into the intestine and 
presumably absorbed from the intestine continu- 
ously. This method of food absorption is not of 
any important magnitude. 
The second method of absorption is in its in- 
cipiency similar to the general method which I NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
133 
have just described, with this exception, that there 
is an apparently special system of absorbent cells, 
each with its small duct leading into others, and 
thus forming larger vessels, and finally reaching 
the portal vein, whence the contents absorbed are 
carried directly to the liver. The scope of ab- 
sorption which is exercised by the small blood 
vessels, which, when they unite, form the portal 
vein, may be said to be as wide as the surface of 
the intestine itself. The greater part of the blood 
which returns to the heart from the walls of the 
intestines is carried first by the portal vein into 
the liver, and from that organ redistributed to 
the general circulation. 
THE LIVER AND SUGARS 
This disposition of the blood is important from 
the nutritional point of view because of the 
changes which the liver exerts on the products of 
absorption. Reference should now be made to 
the dominant influence of the liver in its care for 
the soluble carbohydrates which the portal vein 
carries into the liver in the shape of dextrose or 
maltose. The question naturally arises, "Since 
the carbohydrates compose practically two-thirds 
of the total quantity of food consumed, and since 134 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
they are all converted into sugars before they 
enter the circulation, why is it that the blood when 
examined for sugar shows so small a content 
thereof?" The answer to this question is em- 
braced in the statement made above; namely, that 
the liver converts the sugars into a parent sub- 
stance (glycogen), which does not enter the cir- 
culation, but is stored largely in the liver and tis- 
sues, and which may, under the action of certain 
ferments, generate such additional quantities of 
sugar as are required by the heat and energy 
needs of the body. This substance is known as 
glycogen, that is, a generator of sugar. So vigor- 
ous is the action of the liver that when we eat at a 
meal perhaps as much as half a pound of carbo- 
hydrates, all of which enters the circulation with- 
in from two to four hours, there is not any quan- 
tity of sugar in the blood at any time which is 
very much greater than that during the intervals 
between two separate periods of digestive activ- 
ity. In other words, the quantity of sugar in the 
blood remains almost constant during the twenty- 
four hours, though fresh quantities of sugar are 
not poured into the blood except at the intervals 
of from two to four hours after a meal. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
135 
THE LIVER AND PRODUCTS OF PROTEIN DIGESTION 
The next most important function of the liver 
in caring for the food products carried into it 
through the portal vein is in its action upon the 
products of protein digestion. It is now quite 
generally admitted by experts, following the lead 
of Folin, that a large proportion of the protein 
which is ingested in our foods never becomes a 
part of the living tissues of the body. These 
products of protein digestion which are not ab- 
sorbed into the living cell are converted by the 
liver into two great classes of bodies. In the first 
place, the radicles of the carbohydrates which are 
contained in the amino acids, products of protein 
digestion, are separated completely from the 
nitrogenous radicles therein and converted by the 
liver into sugar, and probably stored as glycogen 
for subsequent use. 
The question then arises, What becomes of the 
nitrogenous radicles? This question also has 
been answered in an authoritative way by the 
recent progress in our knowledge of the physi- 
ology of nutrition. The nitrogenous radicles are 
finally reduced to the form of urea, enter the 
blood-stream, are separated by the kidneys, and 136 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
excreted in the urine. Earlier theories of the 
physiology of nutrition were based upon the as- 
sumption that practically all of the nitrogenous 
elements passed through the cycle of cell life and 
were there broken down into their end products 
of urea and other nitrogenous matters. A mod- 
ern theory has led Folin to recognize two kinds 
of metabolism of nitrogenous bodies. The nitrog- 
enous bodies which are built into the living cell 
and pass through the cycle of life and are finally 
secreted as urea are said to suffer endogenous 
metabolism. Those nitrogenous bodies which 
enter the liver through the portal vein and are 
there de-aminized into urea and sugar are said to 
suffer exogenous metabolism. 
The question as to which kind of metabolism 
uses up the greater quantity of our nitrogenous 
foods has not been definitely answered. One as- 
sumption which has long held sway in regard to 
the rapidity of the change of the living particles 
of our body suffers a shock of a considerable de- 
gree of severity by the adoption of the new theory 
of the changes which take place in nitrogenous 
foods. Formerly it was estimated from the total 
quantity of nitrogen ingested and the total 
amount excreted that the excreted portions pre- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
137 
sumably came from the destruction of living tis- 
sues, and there was, therefore, a very rapid 
change in these tissues. Perhaps this view 
should now be modified. Not until we are able 
to ascertain the relative proportions of endog- 
enous and exogenous metabolism of nitrogenous 
substances can we recast our theories of the dura- 
tion of any particular particle of nitrogenous 
material in the living cell. It is evident that the 
more rapid and thorough the change of the par- 
ticles of living tissue the greater the expectation 
of continued youth. The advent of old age, as 
pointed out by Professor Minot, is associated with 
the opacity, hardening, and longer detention of 
the protoplasm. It is reasonable to suppose that 
the living particle exercises its greatest vital 
function at the time of its incorporation into the 
cell tissue, and that this vitality or viability con- 
tinuously diminishes until the time that the par- 
ticle is excreted as waste matter. The more 
completely the cell is composed of new living par- 
ticles, the younger, therefore, it will be. Possibly 
the phenomena of old age may be explainable on 
the ground of retarded metabolism, the particles 
of tissue matter remaining longer in the tissues 
as we grow older. 138 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
FAT ABSORPTION 
The third method of absorption from the intes- 
tinal walls is most interesting from the fact that 
the food particles do not at first enter the blood 
at all. They are collected by the series of ab- 
sorbent vessels called the lymphatics, and the 
liquid which they secrete is known as lymph. The 
"blood" that flows in the lymphatic vessels is not 
red, but white, the white color doubtless being 
due to the absorbed particles of fatty acid in an 
emulsified form. The lymph appears to be both a 
nutrient and waste fluid, and its movement is very 
much slower than that of the blood. The velocity 
of the blood varies with the diameter of the blood 
vessel, the quantity of blood passing, and the force 
of the heartbeat. In the large vessels, like the 
aorta, the blood is supposed to flow at the rate of 
at least a foot per second. In the capillaries the 
flow of the blood is extremely slow. It is quite 
impracticable, with the facilities now at hand, to 
make any definite statement as to the exact rapid- 
ity of the flow of blood through the capillary. We 
only know that it is very slow, thus giving time 
for the transfer of the nutrients which the par- 
ticle of blood carries and the absorption of the NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
139 
waste materials which the capillary vein bears 
away. It is evident that in a stream of this kind 
the total area of a cross-section of all the vessels 
at any one part of the complete circulation must 
be directly related to the speed of flow. The 
slower the speed, the greater the area of the cross- 
section. It follows from this that if we could col- 
lect into one expression the cross-section areas of 
all capillaries, it would be immensely greater than 
the cross-section areas of the blood vessels near 
the heart. 
FORMS OF LYMPH 
The lymph exists in two forms: one appears to 
be the nutrient or protecting fluid which parallels 
the blood circulation and forms a cushion or bath 
for the various blood vessels and nutrient cells. 
The lymph which is absorbed from the intestines 
we are now particularly considering seems to 
have quite a different function. As before stated, 
the white color is doubtless due to the large quan- 
tity of fat which the lymph of the intestinal area 
contains. The lymphatics originate in the little 
projections which have already been referred to 
in the walls of the mucous membrane. Each one 
of the little projections is called a villus. It is 140 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
composed of a membrane which is continuous 
with the lining membrane of the intestine and ab- 
sorbent cells within this projection, centering in 
a small duct leading from each villus. Since the 
liquid contained in these absorbents is of a milk 
color, the lymphatics which are active in the ab- 
sorption of food products from the intestine have 
long been known as lacteals. While the lymphat- 
ics have for their chief function the collection of 
fat, there is no reason to doubt that other kinds 
of food products also are associated with it. 
The lymphatics are gradually collected into a 
larger vessel, which rises towards the thorax, and 
is known as the thoracic duct. It ascends to near 
the top of the thorax, and, curving downward, 
enters, near the left shoulder, into the subclavian 
vein. The creamy, smooth mass produced by 
solution of the food in the stomach and small in- 
testine has long been known by the name of 
chyme, while the fluid in the thoracic duct, which 
is made up largely of the fats absorbed from the 
chyme, has long been known as chyle. The terms 
are now losing their vogue. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
141 
CHIEF METHODS OF ABSORPTION 
From the above brief outline of the mechanics 
of absorption it is evident that the two principal 
sources by means of which nutrient matter enters 
the blood are, in the one case, through the portal 
vein, which carries the great majority of all the 
soluble products of protein and carbohydrates, 
and, in the second place, through the thoracic 
duct, which carries the larger quantity of all the 
products of the hydrolysis and emulsification of 
fats and oils. The quantity of food which enters 
the general circulation without first passing 
through the portal vein or the thoracic duct must 
be quite small in comparison with that which 
enters in the ways described. There is a possibil- 
ity of small quantities of food entering the cir- 
culation through the skin, but this quantity, if 
any, is undigested and of no practical value. 
The question of how much absorption takes 
place from the coats of the stomach, if any, is 
one which has been frequently discussed. It is 
evident that the great majority of the foods we 
eat is not in a physical state suitable for absorp- 
tion while in the stomach. Until complete di- 
gestion takes place, it is not possible for the 142 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
particles of food to enter the pores of the stomach 
and thus find their way to the circulation. Some 
forms of ingested articles are found to be rapidly 
absorbed by the stomach. This is particularly 
true of alcohol. On the other hand, water, which 
we would expect to be easily absorbed by the 
stomach, apparently has a very low factor of ab- 
sorption. It is demonstrable that certain forms 
of sugar may pass in small quantities into the 
circulation through the walls of the stomach. 
The stomach, however, must be regarded as a 
laboratory for reducing the foods, chiefly by chem- 
ical means, to finer particles rather than as an 
absorbing medium. 
The principal degree of absorption takes place 
in the small intestine. This is not only a finishing 
mill in which the particles of food are reduced to 
the simplest forms, at the same time retaining 
their liquidity, but it is also the great absorption 
area from which the food enters the circulation. 
The large intestine, like the stomach, is not in its 
essential function an absorbing medium, though 
there is no question of the fact that absorption 
takes place to a much greater degree than in the 
stomach. Water, especially, is absorbed from the 
large intestine, as is evidenced by the fact that NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
143 
the feces in normal conditions of health become 
less and less watery, that is, harder and harder, 
as they approach the rectum. Food products also 
are absorbed undoubtedly to a certain extent in 
the large intestine, and poisonous products of 
metabolism, especially of protein, are likewise 
supposed to be absorbed into the circulation from 
the large intestine. In fact, the indol, phenol, and 
skatol, which are the three end products of decom- 
position which are thought to be the most toxic, 
seem to be absorbed particularly from the large 
intestine rather than from the small, and in nor- 
mal conditions are excreted through the urine. 
As regards the products of bacterial activity, it is 
evident that they are chiefly absorbed from the 
large intestine, because the large intestine is the 
particular home of the innumerable bacteria which 
seize upon the undigested portions of the food 
and make an effort to render them soluble by 
passing them through their own organisms. It is 
reasonable to suppose that many of these digested 
products of bacterial activity are perfectly harm- 
less, while others are supposed to be the toxins 
which tend to induce disease and shorten life. 144 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
SELECTIVE ABSORPTION 
When it is remembered that the tissues of the 
body are extremely variable in their composition, 
it is evident that there is a selective power in their 
cells to take from the blood-stream those mate- 
rials which are suitable for their needs. The 
tissue-building materials may be likened to the 
bricks or building-stones of a building in course 
of erection, and each kind of building-material 
is selected by the tissue peculiar to it. From the 
blood-stream are separated the materials which 
build the bony tissue, composed chiefly of phos- 
phate of lime, and the protein tissues of the body 
of various kinds as they appear in the muscles, 
the bones, the nerves, and the brain, and in the 
protective tissues of the body, such as the nails, 
the skin, and the hair. We must not forget, how- 
ever, that not all protein bodies have the same 
ability to maintain life and induce growth. There 
are certain protein bodies which, if eaten alone, 
fail to perform the functions that this kind of 
food is expected to secure. Among the protein 
bodies which apparently are adapted for com- 
plete nutrition are the casein of milk, and to a 
less degree the glutenin of wheat. On the other 
hand, such protein bodies as gelatin lack that NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
145 
ability. Thus the wisdom of a varied diet is illus- 
trated. Inasmuch as the human animal must be 
nourished whether he understands the laws of nu- 
trition or not, it is a fortunate thing that he has 
access to various forms of nutritious materials, 
so that upon the whole no element necessary for 
his nourishment is lacking. 
CHARACTER OF GELATIN 
Special attention should be given to gelatin, 
because it has in many instances been represented 
as a very sufficient protein diet. At one time 
these gelatinous principles were recommended 
very highly as a superior article of food; while 
at another just the opposite opinion prevailed. 
There is no doubt of the fact that gelatin is a 
food product, but it is certain that if it is the 
only protein substance used, growth and develop- 
ment will be arrested, or may even be started on 
a retrograde scale. Again, one of the proteins of 
Indian corn, namely, zein, alone is not sufficient 
to perform all the functions of a protein diet, but 
zein becomes a valuable protein when fed in con- 
nection with milk. 
The average citizen, however, need not bother 
himself much about the character of the proteins 146 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
he consumes, provided he does not neglect any of 
the natural foods from their varied sources, and 
does not devote himself to one particular and ex- 
clusive form of diet. In order to be safe, I would 
suggest that any exclusive diet that is adopted 
be composed largely of one of the established 
foods, such as milk or wheat, which are found 
capable of sustaining life. 
WHAT MAN DOES NOT KNOW 
There is much of mystery, as well as of science, 
connected with the wonderful processes which go 
on in the nourishment of the tissues of the body. 
It is useless to undertake to explain the causes 
of this selection. We know only that it is oper- 
ated through fundamentally established laws of 
physical chemistry which are unalterable and un- 
changeable. The wonderful syntheses or com- 
binations which are thus produced, forming from 
this practically inert matter the living tissues in 
all their varied forms, are of so delicate and com- 
plex a nature as to be totally beyond the reach 
of the most expert chemists. Attempts at the syn- 
thesis of organic bodies have been successful out- 
side of the living organism, only in the case of 
simple substances, such as urea and sugars. LESSON X 
THE KINDS AND QUANTITIES OF FOOD 
REQUIRED TO KEEP THE BODY RUN- 
NING SMOOTHLY 
IN the practical application of the principles 
of nutrition it is necessary to understand 
what is meant by the phrase "a balanced 
ration." In the building of a house it is quite 
customary to submit the plans and specifications 
to a builder or quantity engineer to determine the 
amounts of the several materials to be used. The 
owner of the proposed property does not want to 
buy a lot of material which will not be utilized. 
The builder does not want to be hampered in his 
work by running out of any of the materials which 
he is to use. It is, therefore, the part of economy, 
as well as of good business, to have all the mate- 
rials collected in proper proportion, so that noth- 
ing will be wanting, and when the building is com- 
pleted little, if anything, will be left. 
The building of the body is in every sense com- 
parable to the building of a house. Certain quan- 
147 148 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
tities of the various nutrients are required to do 
the work. It is highly desirable that these quan- 
tities be furnished from day to day in the propor- 
tions in which they can be utilized. Thus all the 
tissue of the body will be properly nourished and 
no burden of excess will be left for the body to 
dispose of. In the interest of economy, both in 
the purchase of food and in the utilization thereof 
for body-building and heat-forming, it is desirable 
that the essential elements be present in the 
proper proportion. That particular arrangement 
of the diet which enables it to perform all its func- 
tions without any large amount of left-over mate- 
rial is called "balancing" the ration. In order 
that the ration may be properly balanced, due at- 
tention must be given to the period of life. The 
growing child needs, according to its body-weight, 
more carefully selected materials and a larger 
amount of them than the grown person; a large 
man needs proportionately a greater quantity of 
food than a small one; a man at hard labor needs 
a much larger quantity of food than the man of 
sedentary habits. All these factors must be con- 
sidered in establishing a ration. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
149 
NORMAL METABOLISM (SLEEPING) 
The scientific standard or basal metabolism is 
that of an animal at complete rest (sleeping), 
since in this state the least heat is required. 
Generally we begin with the study of a bal- 
anced ration for a man of average weight, say, of 
150 pounds, engaged in light physical labor, or 
taking sufficient amount of exercise to represent 
that labor. These data, properly ascertained, 
furnish a basis of computation of a balanced diet 
for those varying from the standard. 
For practical purposes it is well to compute 
the ration upon the average condition of food as 
respects moisture. While the water in foods is 
not metabolized in any way, it exercises a very 
great influence on the processes of digestion, and 
these processes, on the other hand, produce a 
great quantity of moisture within the body by the 
burning of the fats and the carbohydrates, and, to 
a certain extent, of the proteins. 
The average man of 150 pounds engaged at 
light labor needs one and a half pounds of dry 
food per day. The term "dry food" does not 
mean that the food is to be dried, but it means 
the quantity of food in the day's ration in addi- 150 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
tion to the water which it contains. In other 
words, the human animal at light labor eats 1 
per cent, of his weight of dry food per day. The 
man at hard labor needs a greater quantity. 
The man who is entirely sedentary in his habits 
needs a less quantity. The relative amounts of the 
four principal classes of food in the day's ration 
of one and a half pounds are approximately: 
Mineral matters, 2 per cent.; nitrogenous matters 
(protein), 18.8 per cent.; fats and oils, 15 per 
cent.; carbohydrates, 64.2 per cent. Converting 
24 ounces into quantities representing the above 
percentages, we have the total amounts of the 
four classes of nutrients needed in a daily ration 
expressed in ounces and grams as shown in the 
second and fourth columns of the following table: 
Dry Nutrients For 150-Pound Man Per Day 
Total 
Assimi- 
Total 
Assimi- 
Class 
Ounces 
lated 
Grams 
lated 
Calories 
Mineral 
.5 
.4 
14.2 
10.8 
Fat 
3.6 
3.6 
102. 
102. 
949 
Protein 
. .. 4.5 
4.1 
127.2 
114.5 
458 
Carbohydrates ... 
... 15.4 
13.9 
436.3 
370.9 
1484 
2891 
In the above computation are included both the 
digestible and indigestible portions of the diet. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
151 
Practically 90 per cent, of the protein, 85 per cent, 
of the starches (carbohydrates), and 100 per 
cent, of the fat and oil are assimilated; that is, 
they enter the circulation and take part in the 
functions of food in the body. The residue re- 
mains as undissolved matter. This matter, how- 
ever, is not without utility. While it serves no 
function as food, it does serve a useful mechanical 
purpose in securing a proper content of the in- 
testines to secure their normal functioning. 
In regard to the mineral matters ingested, 
practically 75 per cent., including common salt, 
enters the circulation. 
The above is a most generous diet under the 
conditions specified, being richer in fat and pro- 
tein than I would as a rule recommend for persons 
not engaged in vigorous labor or exercise. 
It is now quite customary to judge of the value 
of a ration largely by its heat-forming qualities. 
The production of animal heat is, of course, one 
of the important functions of food, and a suffi- 
cient amount of food should be eaten to supply 
the heat (energy) requirements of the body. 
A man in the following conditions of activity 
requires the number of heat units indicated 
below: 152 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
Asleep 65 Calories per hour 
Awake and at rest.. 100 " " " 
Engaged in light exercise 170 " " " 
Engaged in active exercise 290 " " " 
Engaged in severe exercise 450 " " " 
Playing at football or rowing 600 " " " 
Applying this rule to the typical ration, it will 
be seen that the quantity of heat formed by the 
amount of food represented in the table would 
keep a man at light muscular exercise for ten 
hours, using 1,700 Calories, and supply him at 
rest and asleep for fourteen hours, using 1,191 
Calories. 
Another method of judging a balanced ration 
is by securing the ratio of the protein consumed 
to the total amount of carbohydrates, plus the 
amount of fat multiplied by 2|. If the result is 
a small numeral, 4 or 5, it is said to be a narrow 
ratio. If it is a large numeral, 6 to 9, it is said to 
be a wide ratio. Determining the nutritive ratio 
of the digestible food in the table on p. 150, we 
find that the carbohydrates, 371 grams, plus the 
fat or oil, 102 grams multiplied by 2|, and their 
sum divided by the quantity of protein, 115, gives 
a quotient of 5.2. The nutritive ratio of the 
typical ration above described is, therefore, 5.2, 
and is neither a narrow nor a wide ratio. For a NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
153 
man at hard work the quantity of carbohydrates 
and fats would be very much increased. In other 
words, the daily ration for a hard-working man 
should contain more fat and more carbohydrates 
in proportion to the amount of protein than the 
typical ration which is given. The nutritive ratio 
for a man engaged in hard or violent physical ex- 
ercise should be a wide one, represented by figures 
extending from 6 to 8. 
In the above computation I have adhered to 
the common experience in regard to human diet. 
I have not considered the modern theories which 
hold that the protein of the average diet is pro- 
portionately too high. If, for instance, the pro- 
tein of the daily ration was reduced to 90 grams, 
the amount of heat energy in the typical diet 
would be reduced by approximately 100 heat units. 
In this case, it would be necessary to increase the 
carbohydrates or the fats. If the increase were 
solely in the carbohydrates, it would require 24 
grams additional. If it were wholly in the oil or 
fat, it would require 10 grams additional. In 
other words, whenever one class of ingredients 
is diminished in a ration, in order to secure the 
proper amount of heat, the other classes of nu- 
trients must be increased in thermal proportions. 154 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
By far the greater number of competent 
judges are opposed to the extreme reduction in 
protein advocated by Chittenden and his school. 
At the same time there is a general feeling that 
the nutritive ratio could be widened (that is, the 
protein lowered and the carbohydrates and fats 
increased) from 5.2 to 6.5 without danger, and 
perhaps with benefit. Personally, I am of the 
opinion that it would not be wise to diminish 
very greatly the average quantity of protein in a 
man's diet, and in this I believe the far greater 
number of investigators and experts agree. On 
the other hand, it is undoubtedly true that in 
many instances and in many occupations, espe- 
cially those of hard labor, the proportionate 
amount of protein in the diet might be materially 
diminished with favorable results. It will re- 
quire a much more extended study of the subject 
before it can be safely said that the typical diet 
in the table above should be very profoundly 
modified. 
There is one other reason, and a cogent one, 
why no greater amount of protein should be 
eaten than is necessary. All protein ingested 
must be at once cared for. Fat can be stored. 
Sugar is converted into glycogen. Protein must NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
155 
be used daily as it is eaten. Thus an excess of 
protein increases the amount of heat and places 
on the excretory organs an instant burden. 
In presenting this typical idea of a balanced 
ration I am fully aware that important departures 
therefrom are constantly occurring and must be 
regarded as normal. In the extensive studies of 
human dietaries made by the Department of Ag- 
riculture, under the direction of Professor At- 
water and others, the ratio of protein to the 
carbohydrates and fats, that is, the nutritive 
ratio, varied from 4 to 9.3. The widest ratio, 9.3, 
was found among negro families in Alabama and 
Virginia. The lowest ratio was found in the case 
of a Japanese professor. 
I do not lay very great stress on the idea of 
securing constantly a typical balanced ration 
such as that described. A most important fact in 
connection with this discussion is that the human 
animal, when he has access to foods of various 
kinds-in other words, in what we would call a 
normal condition of life-naturally selects a 
ration which is so well balanced as to require but 
little amendment. The departures from a reason- 
ably well-balanced ration are due not to human 
selection but to the artifices of man in denatur- 156 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
ing natural food products. The human animal 
who has access to nature's stores of foods does 
not require a trained dietitian to write a menu 
for him. Inasmuch, however, as a large per- 
centage of us have access only to prepared foods, 
it is well to be on our guard. Not only are we 
likely to get an excess of fat and carbohydrates 
and a deficiency of protein, but also we are in 
greater danger of living on demineralized foods, 
and thus suffering from the threatening effects of 
mineral starvation. Even if we eat only whole 
cereals, we do not get a proper balance, because 
of the incompleteness of the basic mineral ele- 
ments and the tendency to get an excess of acidic 
matter (phosphoric acid). 
INSUFFICIENCY OF A MONO-CEREAL DIET 
Late investigations in nutrition have shown 
that even wheat, which is the most evenly bal- 
anced ration among the cereals, is not suited 
alone to maintain normal life and growth nor to 
secure normal reproduction of the species. By 
reason of the large quantity of phosphoric acid 
in wheat it does not supply sufficient basic mate- 
rial to promote and continue all the natural func- 
tions. When wheat alone is used as a diet an NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
157 
additional quantity of basic materials is required. 
The mineral mixture intended to supply the basic 
materials in a too-acid diet, which was used by 
McCullom and Davis (Journal of Biological 
Chemistry, July, 1915, p. 625), consisted of the 
following ingredients: Sodium chloride, 12.31 
per cent.; acid potassium phosphate, 28.08 per 
cent.; acid calcium phosphate, 0.74 per cent.; dry 
magnesium sulphate, 1.56 per cent.; magnesium 
citrate, 5.75 per cent.; sodium citrate, dry, 3.12 
per cent.; calcium lactate, 46.80 per cent.; ferrous 
lactate, 1.64 per cent. The elemental constituents 
(100 parts) of this mixture are as follows: So- 
dium, 5.67 per cent.; potassium, 12.6 per cent.; 
lime, 6.89 per cent.; magnesium, 0.89 per cent.; 
chlorine, 7.47 per cent.; phosphorus, 5.17 per 
cent.; sulphur, 0.42 per cent.; iron, 0.319 per cent. 
While in certain conditions a distinctly acid 
ration is tolerated for a long while, yet in the end 
various disturbances occur, and especially a 
menace to posterity. McCullom and Davis con- 
clude from the results of their investigations 
that " Growth to the normal adult size at the 
usual rate and continued well-nourished appear- 
ance is not sufficient evidence that a ration is fully 
adequate. Ouly when normal reproduction and 158 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
rearing of the young is repeated at normal inter- 
vals can a ration be said to be physiologically 
sufficient. ' ' 
One chief purpose of having a diet properly 
balanced in respect of basic mineral constituents 
is to avoid that end state of excess of acids which 
sometimes promptly, but more often after many 
years, brings on a state of chronic ill health. 
ONE CLASS OF FOODS NOT A SUBSTITUTE FOR ANOTHER 
It is well to heed this additional caution in re- 
gard to foods, to avoid the fallacy of thinking 
that one class of foods may be fully substituted 
for another-as, for instance, fats substituted for 
carbohydrates or vice versa. Theoretically, such 
a substitution would not unbalance the ration if 
it were made according to thermal equivalents. 
In reality, however, such a substitution would un- 
balance the ration in this respect, that it would 
present to the digestive organs an excess of one 
or the other of these classes of foods, and thus 
interfere with nutrition in a very sensible manner 
without interfering with the quantity of potential 
heat-energy ingested. The man who is possessed 
by a theory in regard to foods not based upon 
sound dietetic data is always in danger of derang- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
159 
ing his ration in a manner whereby injury may 
occur. 
If he should live on fruits principally, he would 
have a very wide nutritive ratio, because he 
would eat a very great excess of carbohydrates, 
principally sugars. These, of course, would fur- 
nish heat and energy in sufficient quantity if 
enough of them were ingested, but would not form 
a well distributed ration. In like manner, one 
who made his diet chiefly of nuts would probably 
get a large excess of protein and fats over the 
total amount of starches and sugars. In this case, 
however, the heat-forming elements of the diet 
would be largely fats instead of carbohydrates, 
and the character of the ration would be greatly 
disturbed from that which nature intended. 
Again, if one should confine his diet chiefly to 
meats, he would certainly have a very narrow nu- 
tritive ratio, as the lean meats are chiefly protein, 
and the fat is rather incidental. There would be, 
in my opinion, sooner or later, a grave disturb- 
ance of nutrition if a diet composed chiefly of 
meat were too long continued. 160 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
ALARM SIGNALS 
Nature has provided alarm-signals for dangers 
of this kind. If a man is confined to a diet com- 
posed largely of cured, salt meat, nature runs out 
the scurvy-signal of danger. If he lives almost ex- 
clusively on polished rice, nature's semaphore dis- 
plays the danger-signal of beri-beri. If his nutri- 
tion in general is low and insufficient, according 
to the recent reports of the Public Health Service, 
nature signals with pellagra as its sign of danger. 
It is now becoming a popular practice among a 
certain school of sanitarians to belittle the im- 
portance of pure and wholesome food in the diet, 
and to magnify the other elements of sanitation 
at the expense of pure food. All the principles 
of sanitation are essential, and there is none that 
is of greater importance than that which relates 
to a properly balanced ration consisting of pure 
and wholesome food in sufficient quantity to pro- 
mote growth, preserve health, and guard against 
disease. It is not alone the infant that suffers 
from improper food. It is true that the infant is 
most susceptible, but the child and the adult yield 
sooner or later, and pay tribute to the evil effects 
of a poorly balanced diet or one based on unwhole- 
some elements. LESSON XI 
ECONOMY OF NUTRITION 
TOO much stress is often laid on the gas- 
tronomic function of food. Let us chiefly 
consider food simply as nutriment. Due to 
war conditions in Europe, there is now a world- 
hunger such as never was known before. Are you 
interested in food as a hunger-satisfier? Are you 
willing to nourish yourself and your family just 
as well as you are doing now at half the expense? 
Or do you think it noble and aristocratic to pay 
twice for what you eat yourself, while a human 
brother, driven by fire and sword, is perishing of 
hunger ? 
If the American people would consent to nour- 
ish themselves scientifically and economically- 
for the terms are almost synonymous-they could 
generously feed every starving person at home 
and in Europe without contributing a cent over 
what they would save from this proper economy 
in nutrition. One simple example illustrates the 
whole situation. We pay today 300 per cent. 
161 162 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
more for the cereals which have unfortunately 
taken the name of "breakfast-foods" than the 
cost of production and their nutritive value 
justify. The same extravagance rules in practi- 
cally all classes of foods, but not to the same 
astonishing degree. It is time to call a halt. It 
is time to return to the simple life. 
CONVENIENCE AND HIGH PRICE OF PACKAGE GOODS 
The various factors which have increased the 
expense of living have not failed to affect the price 
of foods. The convenience of package foods has 
led to a phenomenal development of foods more 
or less prepared for eating, and preserved in 
packages of various forms. Many years ago, in 
speaking of beverages in this country, I used the 
phrase, "We drink labels." Since the advent of 
package goods I can with almost equal truthful- 
ness say, "We eat labels." The amount of money 
which is paid in this country annually for labels 
would, if it could be ascertained, reveal one of 
the most effective causes of increased living-cost. 
The business of printing labels for foods sold 
under brand names is a specialty which has grown 
to enormous proportions. Theoretically, the 
cheapest foods are those which can be secured in NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
163 
bulk. In practice all foods must have some kind 
of a container, in order to be properly trans- 
ported, subdivided, and sold to the retail dealer. 
The expense of the package, as well as of carry- 
ing, is justly added to the cost of the food. I am 
not speaking now of this necessary expense of 
containers for foods. I am speaking of the habit 
which in this country has grown to such enormous 
proportions of specially packing foods in artistic 
and often expensive covers, to attract the eye be- 
fore the contents satisfy the stomach. To those 
in affluent circumstances such a practice is of 
little importance. To those in moderate or 
straitened circumstances, however, quite a differ- 
ent aspect of the question is presented. The good 
points of package goods must not be lost sight of: 
first, their extreme convenience; second, the 
facility with which food products thus contained 
are kept clean and wholesome; third, the economy 
of using up at once the contents of the package, 
so that none may be left over to be lost or wasted; 
fourth, the saving in the cost of preparation and 
cooking in the home. These are all points in 
favor of package goods, and should not be mini- 
mized. 164 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
COST OF DRIED BEEF 
As I was writing this article a question was 
propounded to me as to the cost of dried beef. 
Shaved for ready consumption, the retail price 
of dried beef is now 50 cents a pound. I have 
just had my attention called to canned dried beef 
-although I do not know why such products as 
cheese and dried beef and cured ham should be 
canned. The particular can of beef to which my 
attention was called contained 3| ounces, and 
sold for 18 cents. At this rate a pound of beef 
would cost 82 cents. I have just eaten a palat- 
able and well-known preparation of wheat. I 
asked how much it cost a pound. The answer 
was, "Ten cents." This was so much less than 
I anticipated that I called for the package. In 
rather small letters I read, "This package con- 
tains 5 oz. net weight." At this rate a pound 
cost 32 cents; wheat costs 2 cents a pound; here 
is an increase of 30 cents, a percentage increase 
of 1,500! 
PRODUCER VS. CONSUMER 
It is always important, and especially so just 
now, to know something definite respecting cheap 
and nutritious foods. The following table offers NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
165 
a comparison of the prices paid to the producer 
and those paid by the consumer: 
To the farmer or 
producer, per lb. 
By the con- 
sumer, per lb. 
Wheat 
$0.02 
$0.04 
to .32 
Indian corn 
01% 
.04 
" .40 
Beef on the hoof 
07 
.14 
• .35 
Potatoes 
01% 
.03 
* .04 
Butter 
25 
.30 
" .40 
Oleomargarine 
15 
.20 
" .25 
Eggs (per dozen) 
25 
.35 
" .50 
Lard 
08 
.14 
" .16 
Fresh fish 
05 to .15 
.10 
* .25 
Dressed chickens 
10 
.18 
* .30 
Turkeys 
12 
.20 
" .30 
These prices vary from time to time, but very 
nearly represent those now prevailing. Many of 
the above-named articles could be purchased by 
the consumer directly from the producer, or, at 
most, with the intervention of one intermediary. 
In point of fact, however, even when bought in 
large quantities, the consumer as a rule pays a 
considerably higher price than that received by 
the producer. For instance, dressed and cooled 
beef suitable for cooking will range from 14 cents 
a pound for the cheapest cuts to 35 cents a pound 
for the best cuts. An average of 20 cents a 
pound, therefore, is a reasonable estimate. 
Apples, turnips, carrots, and potatoes may be 166 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
bought by the bushel even by a single family. The 
price of good eating-apples by the barrel today is 
$3, and potatoes by the bushel, 65 cents. If 
bought at retail, in the usual small quantities- 
by the half-peck or peck-the prices will be prac- 
tically double those named. It is highly advisable 
that groups of families living near each other 
buy such staple articles as those named in bulk. 
I have just had some experience in doing this. 
A barrel of good eating-apples, Grimes Golden, 
was purchased for $2.25 and divided among four 
families. In this way practically all the apples 
will be consumed, and there will be little loss by 
decay. I have also had experience in buying fresh 
fish at the wharves for two or three families. 
While fish was retailing at from 10 to 18 cents 
a pound it was purchased at the wharf at from 
5 to 8 cents a pound. Freshly opened oysters 
can be had in like manner, and you can wait while 
they are opened. 
This is not the place, however, to illustrate the 
economies of marketing. In the examples which 
are given I am using the price which the ordinary 
consumer, buying, however, in some considerable 
quantity, would be likely to pay. There is no 
doubt that great economies could be secured by NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
167 
a union of neighboring families in the manner 
just suggested. Special examples will show how 
small a sum may be devoted to securing a maxi- 
mum degree of nourishment. But before giving 
these examples I will answer a question which 
has often been asked me in regard to the economy 
of using oleomargarine. Inquiries in the market 
have led me to believe that good, wholesome oleo- 
margarine, uncolored, may be secured at the mar- 
kets at about 10 cents a pound less than butter. 
It is quite equal to butter in its chief nutritive 
function-the production of heat. It is decidedly 
inferior to butter in flavor and in the possession 
of minute quantities of unseparated constituents 
that stimulate growth. As an economy in nutri- 
tion it may safely be commended to healthy grown 
people. It is, I think, undoubtedly true that in 
most cases an uneducated palate would not dis- 
tinguish between butter and oleomargarine ex- 
cept when the butter is slightly rancid. Under 
standard conditions oleomargarine keeps very 
much longer without exhibiting rancidity than 
pure butter does, and, therefore, the frequency 
with which rancid oleomargarine is met in the 
market is much less for equal quantities consumed 
than it is for butter. Again, it must not be forgot- 168 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
ten that butter fat is the natural food of the 
young, and it would be undesirable to substitute 
oleomargarine for butter or cream in the nourish- 
ment of young children. Late investigations have 
shown that butter contains some constituent, per- 
haps a lecithin, which is a powerful stimulant to 
growth, and hence oleomargarine should never be 
substituted for butter in a child's diet. The man 
at hard manual labor can eat it freely. The ques- 
tion of buying tub butter at 34 cents instead of 
print butter at 38 cents was raised by a corre- 
spondent. There is no reason why this should not 
be done, provided the bulk butter is of equal 
quality. LESSON XII 
FADS OF NUTRITION 
THE art of feeding men and women ought to 
be based on scientific truths. Surely so 
common a phenomenon as human nutrition 
is capable of scientific study and elucidation. 
While the science of feeding pigs and poultry, 
cows and calves, and horses and sheep is now in a 
state of satisfactory exactitude, the science of 
feeding man is far from that realm of exact 
knowledge which is capable of uniting different 
investigators or different promoters in a har- 
monious and concordant plan. This is due largely 
to perversion of taste by artificial systems of liv- 
ing, to the establishment of an unnatural craving 
for stimulants and sedatives, and to the great 
part played in the functioning of the digestive 
organs by the emotional, nervous, and mental 
states of the more highly organized human being. 
Then, too, the appetites of the lower animals are 
controlled by our higher intelligence, while our 
own appetites often run riot! 
169 170 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
VAGARIES OF FOOD FADDISTS 
There have sprung up various schools and 
cults of food faddists, driven with an enthusiasm 
and energy which are often measured by the lack 
of scientific knowledge. Even those who are 
students of the science of nutrition in a proper 
and systematic manner are often far from agree- 
ment on many fundamental points. 
Many of the ideas which are prevalent concern- 
ing diet are based partly on tradition, without any 
scientific basis whatever, partly on theories more 
or less tinged with a scientific nuance, but vague, 
illogical, and inconsistent-and to a limited de- 
gree on solid facts and experiment. Unfortu- 
nately, also, the common notions relating to the 
nutritive value of foods are largely influenced by 
an immense volume of widely disseminated asser- 
tions found largely in advertising matter and 
published for purely mercenary purposes. As an 
instance of this I have just read a widely circu- 
lated advertisement of a nostrum in which the 
following language is used: "Meat forms uric 
acid, which excites the kidneys; they get sluggish 
and fail to filter the waste and poisons from the 
blood; then we get sick." Another advertisement 
will tell the reader that all his ills are due to NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
171 
some other food product, and so the susceptible 
victim is driven almost to despair. Claims of ex- 
cellence and peculiar adaptability to specific cases 
of malnutrition are continually paraded before 
the public, and have had a powerful influence in 
forming in the minds of their readers a most gro- 
tesque picture of nutritional requirements. 
It appears to me that there is just about as 
much quackery in theories of diet as there is in 
therapy. One prominent idea of these articles 
is to lay a foundation for a simple gospel of nu- 
trition not glorified with optimism nor charged 
with charlatanry. The exuberant theories which, 
mushroomlike, spring up during the night are al- 
ready sunken and shriveled before the sun goes 
down. Among these theories many are commonly 
known: vegetarianism, exclusive meat diet, nut 
diet, fruit diet, milk diet, raw-food diet, sour-milk 
diet, etc. Practically all these theories are built 
about a crystal center of truth. Vegetarianism 
may have and does have at times broad-minded 
and deeply learned advocates who are able to 
present a well-nigh impregnable argument. It 
has an additional vogue because of the general 
over-indulgence in meat in many homes. The evil 
effects of eating too much meat are most com- 172 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
monly found in cities among those of sedentary- 
occupations who need but little meat, and to a 
large extent among travelers. 
Many foods are naturally preferred raw. 
That, however, is not a fact which could justify a 
plea to do away with cooking. Many nuts and 
vegetables and most all fruits are preferably 
eaten raw. That fact, however, does not prove 
that peanuts should not be roasted nor potatoes 
baked. 
FUNDAMENTAL ERROR 
The fundamental error in such fads lies in 
ignorance of the true functions of foods and of 
the consequent necessity of a ration so balanced 
as to offer all the elements necessary to encour- 
age growth, restore waste, and furnish heat and 
energy. These unscientific applications of par- 
tial facts receive additional vogue because they 
often prove helpful in individual cases. The 
thoroughly bad methods of eating so commonly 
practiced are responsible for this phenomenon. 
One who has habitually eaten too much meat is 
at once benefited by a strict vegetarian diet. He 
who has eaten nothing but cooked foods over long 
periods is undoubtedly helped by turning to raw 
berries, nuts, and fruits. The excessive coffee- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
173 
drunkard gets quick relief by substituting a bev- 
erage made of parched cereals, chicory, or roasted 
bananas. We all know that help comes from a 
changed environment; change of location, new 
landscapes, ocean voyages, a visit to the springs, 
are all beneficial in chronic troubles. So, in like 
manner, a complete change of diet is likely to 
help a weary stomach which for long periods has 
had no change in its ingested contents. Neverthe- 
less, the common fads in diet are fundamentally 
unscientific and are repugnant to the generally 
accepted principle that man is an omnivorous ani- 
mal. The rapid progress in experimental de- 
termination of the facts of the phenomena of 
nutrition is shedding valuable light on all these 
problems. Well-informed people are no longer 
quite such easy victims of the popular fad. They 
sift all such theories, to find the kernel of truth, 
and they reject the chaff. 
REASONS FOR A VARIED DIET 
A complete vindication of the desirability of a 
varied diet is found in the latest additions to the 
sum of our knowledge of digestion and assimila- 
tion. The essential elements of foods-the carbo- 
hydrates, proteins, fats, and minerals-are pre- 174 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
sented in entirely new aspects. In some forms of 
foods these elements are found to be much more 
useful than in others. The old rule of regarding 
these elements as of equal nutritional value, no 
matter what their sources, has been proved unre- 
liable. The sugars are not by any means of the 
same value. The starches, long regarded as of 
equal worth, are now known to be unequally re- 
sistant to the action of the digestive ferments. 
Their nutritional value doubtless varies as do 
their differences in constitution. There is a grave 
question as to the assimilability of the various 
forms of phosphorus. The organic forms of phos- 
phorus, such as the lecithins, doubtless have a very 
different role in the living organism from the 
mineral phosphates, such as those of soda and 
lime. Greatest of all, however, are the wide dif- 
ferences in the value of protein nutrients. (Inci- 
dentally, numerous references have been made to 
these varying values in preceding chapters of this 
study.) Even in the same substance the proteins 
have widely varying functions. Thus, in wheat 
the glutenin is more valuable than the gliadin, 
and in Indian corn the most abundant protein- 
zein-will not alone promote growth. Among the 
fats and oils similar differences are known to NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
175 
exist. Thus, butter-fat has a greater value in 
growth than many other fats and oils. 
That life can be maintained on a single article 
of food for an indefinite time is doubtless true, 
provided that article contains all the elements of 
nutrition. There are two common foods that 
come very near complying with that requirement; 
namely, milk and wheat. In infancy milk is the 
only food that should be used. The best milk for 
the infant is that supplied by his mother. Quick- 
growing young, such as the colt and the calf, re- 
quire milk of quite a different composition from 
that of the human infant. Especially do they re- 
quire more protein, the tissue-builder. The milk 
of the cow contains twice as much protein as that 
of the woman; and this fact is not forgotten in 
modifying cow's milk for the use of the human 
infant. Milk is the wheat of the infant, and wheat 
is the milk of the adult. I mention wheat as the 
typical cereal. Some others, oats especially, have 
almost equal value. Indian corn, because of the 
amount of zein it contains, is not so well suited 
for growing animals as wheat. Yet while wheat 
will support adult life, it would not be sound 
dietetics, according to my view, to urge its adop- 
tion as the sole food of man. 176 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
MONO-DIET A POSSIBILITY 
A striking case has just been called to my at- 
tention in a letter from an injured workman, who, 
by reason of a street-car accident, may never be 
able to return to his work as printer and book- 
binder. He asked if he could live on wheat alone, 
for if so he might be able to get on without ap- 
pealing to charity. In reply I said, "Yes, I think 
you can live on wheat alone, in the form of whole- 
wheat products, but not on white flour alone." I 
called his attention to the deadly monotony of 
such a diet, and suggested that while the cost of 
living on wheat alone would, in his case of en- 
forced sedentary habits, not be much over 1 cent 
a day (farmer's price), some variation should be 
provided if possible. By allowing 6 cents a day 
for food, or $1.80 a month, 4 cents' worth of milk 
(one pint) could be added to the daily cent's worth 
of whole wheat. Such a diet as this will supply 
abundant nourishment to one enforcedly quiet. 
Five cents' worth of milk at the farmer's price, 
$1.40 for 100 pounds, would be more than three 
pints. This diet is not a fad, in some cases, but 
a necessity, and it contains all the essential ele- 
ments necessary to the nourishment of man. 
In order to secure the specific benefits of each NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
177 
food product the normal diet should be reason- 
ably inclusive. Fruits, vegetables, nuts, cereals, 
dairy products, meats, and oils, all find a place. 
Some of these should be cooked and some used 
raw. Not many things should be eaten at any one 
meal. In the interest of correct nutrition, the 
principal dish of the meal, to whatever class it 
may belong, should be varied according to season 
and means. Thus abundant nutriment will be se- 
cured, the psychology of digestion be recognized, 
and the taste gratified. It seems to me that the 
victim of a fad must always be unhappy, and this 
mental condition will affect to some extent the 
normal progress of digestion. The best-nour- 
ished man is temperately and carefully om- 
nivorous. 
THE MISLEADING TENDENCY OF FADS 
The seductive and misleading thing about these 
fads is that most of them, perhaps all, have in 
them a nucleus of fact. These schools may be 
broadly divided into two classes: first, those that 
believe that only vegetables should be used for 
foods, and, second, those who think that meats 
only are the proper foods. The vegetable wing of 
this force is by far the more numerous. There are 178 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
perhaps a hundred preachers of the propaganda 
of vegetarianism where there is one who clings 
to the theory of meat alone. I need not repeat 
here the reasons which I have given in a differ- 
ent place for my belief in the omnivorous nature 
of man. This belief is based not only on anatomi- 
cal resemblance, but also upon practically uni- 
versal experience. The number of persons who 
restrict their diet solely to vegetables or animal 
products is extremely small. If I should venture 
to say that it was one-half of 1 per cent., I would 
probably overestimate the numbers who belong 
to these cults. Apparently, from the amount of 
literature which is extant, nearly all of humanity 
would be embraced in these two schools, but you 
cannot always judge of the number of frogs in the 
pool by the resonance and rotundity of the chorus. 
In a country as rich as ours and so abundantly 
supplied with food there is a very large percent- 
age of our people who are overgenerous to them- 
selves in the amount of food which they eat. I 
have said in other places, and I think it is true, 
that probably fifty people die of overeating in 
our country where one dies of starvation. While 
there are no means of securing any scientific data 
on this point, I imagine that I have greatly under- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
179 
stated the ratio. Especially among men and 
women who are well off, who are able to indulge 
their tastes and appetites, is there an enormous 
percentage of the overfed. When a man in 
middle life, or slightly beyond that, feels the ef- 
fects of his active life and his generous diet in 
a loss of physical, and even of mental, ability, he is 
led to seek a cure. He goes to the sanitarium, 
where he is placed upon a restricted vegetable 
diet. At once he responds to this change. It is 
just what nature has demanded, after many years 
of excess in eating animal foods. Wonderful im- 
provement is in evidence. After a few weeks the 
man leaves the sanitarium apparently restored to 
health and full of enthusiasm as to its cause. In 
this case a purely vegetable diet has undoubtedly 
been of most excellent service, because it was in- 
dicated by the previous excess of meat-eating. It 
would be unfair, however, to hold an instance of 
this kind up as an argument toward excluding all 
meat from the diet. Yet I praise the work of the 
vegetarians, realizing what a great benefit it has 
been to humanity, and I may say an increasing 
benefit. I myself advocate little or no meat for 
children and a much smaller quantity for grown 
people than we are accustomed to eat. 180 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
PROTEIN POISONS AS LIMITS OF LIFE 
Attention should be called to the fact that most 
of the poisonous products formed in the body 
from the food consumed are derived from the 
protein of the diet. In the breaking down of the 
protein tissues, or in the final disposal of those 
portions of the proteins which do not enter into 
tissue-building, poisonous principles of a very 
serious nature are developed. If these are not 
promptly excreted from the body, serious conse- 
quences ensue. If protein in an undigested form, 
as, for instance, the albumen of the egg or any 
of the soluble proteins of foods, should be in- 
gested directly into the blood-stream, most 
threatening disturbances would occur. Even 
after digestion, during which the protein is ren- 
dered soluble, being decomposed into proteoses 
and peptones, the injection of these bodies into 
the blood-stream in this form might result in 
serious poisoning. It is only after the protein 
is reduced to a much more simple form, by the 
activity of the digestive enzymes secreted by the 
pancreas, that it is ready to enter into the cir- 
culation. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
181 
ASSUMED CAUSES OF OLD AGE 
Many authorities attribute old age and its in- 
firmities to the retention of these poisonous prod- 
ucts of protein metabolism, either in the blood or 
in the alimentary canal. While I do not subscribe 
to the doctrine that all the evils of life result from 
poisoning by the degraded forms of protein, yet 
it is undoubtedly in the interest of good health 
and long life for the normal individual to secure 
the prompt and efficient excretion of the products 
of protein metabolism. If we should die only 
when poisoned by the digestive residues of fats 
and carbohydrates, human life would be length- 
ened to an almost interminable degree. However, 
there are few benefits in the world without their 
attendant dangers, and the fact that proteins are, 
in their final disposition, the most dangerous ele- 
ment of food does not alter the fact that they are 
also the one most essential to the building of the 
body. It simply remains for us to learn their 
nature and action, and use them intelligently-so 
that they shall serve and not hinder sound 
health. 
I cannot, therefore, quite agree with those 
scientific men who base their opposition to the 
eating of meat upon the fact that the end prod- 182 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
nets of digestion of meat are more poisonous and 
do more to hasten senescence than the similar end 
products of vegetable foods. It is not quite fair 
to attribute to a meat diet the autotoxins (self- 
poisoners) of ordinary digestion. In other words, 
we ought not to charge meat with all the evils of 
autointoxication. Our knowledge of the bodies 
produced during digestion or by bacterial activity 
after digestion is too limited to ascribe to them 
the sole efficient causes of old age. If it were pos- 
sible, without injuring the health in any way, to 
cut out the large intestine, where these bodies are 
supposed to congregate, so that all of them as 
they arise would be at once eliminated from the 
body, it would not, in my opinion, defer old age. 
Our bodily powers at a certain period of our life 
would begin to fail, our hair would begin to turn 
gray, our natural senses to be dimmed, and all 
of the phenomena which attend old age would un- 
doubtedly come upon us practically as early in 
life and with such overwhelming effects as they 
do at the present time. 
NOT A TENABLE THEORY 
The theory which I am combating is that old 
age is produced solely by these autotoxins result- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
183 
ing from the digestion of our food, and the vege- 
tarian claims that they practically all come from 
meat foods. This claim I do not believe to be 
justified by existing scientific data. We could 
have a bacterial flora of innumerable numbers 
producing quantities of end products which are 
poisonous and hurtful with purely vegetable 
foods, as we have them now with our mixed foods. 
To three of these end products are particularly 
ascribed harmful effects. They are indol, skatol, 
and phenol. These bodies become conjugated with 
the sulphuric-acid radicle and are eliminated 
as sulphuric-acid compounds in the urine. That 
the retention of these and similar bodies in the 
system would produce harmful effects there is 
no doubt, but that their production could in any 
way be prohibited by any kind of a restricted diet 
that would sustain life in my opinion is impos- 
sible. Hence the idea that the eating of meat in 
moderate quantities shortens our lives seems to 
me to be untenable. 
PREVENTION OF OLD AGE 
Almost every day someone advertises a specific 
against old age. There has just come to my table 
as I write this a typical illustration of these dis- 184 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
coveries of panaceas to preserve youth and retard 
old age. The discoverer of this perfect panacea 
writes as follows: 
"In looking over the July number of Good 
Housekeeping I noticed your article on 'Foods, 
Sanitation, and Health,' and was very much in- 
terested in said article. But I take exception to 
what you say about blood purification in the fol- 
lowing statement: 'There is only one way to 
purify the blood, and that is by hygienic living.' 
I claim to have discovered a perfect blood puri- 
fier, and if you will carefully read the testimony 
of letters embraced in circular enclosed in this 
letter you will find many strong endorsements for 
my remedy for blood purification. 
"Now, in compounding this remedy, I use sul- 
fur, glycerine, powdered slippery elm, and oil of 
wintergreen. Consequently there is nothing in it 
that will harm an infant, and if we believe one- 
half of what people say about it, it is one of the 
most wonderful discoveries ever made." 
Attached to this letter were printed testi- 
monials, with pictures of men seventy, seventy- 
five, and eighty years of age, with all the appear- 
ance of youth ascribed solely to the virtues of 
this remedy. The writer of the above is perfectly 
honest and sincere in his belief that a little of NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
185 
the flowers of sulphur once a week will ward off 
old age and conserve youth. If one were suffer- 
ing from constipation there might be some benefit 
obtained by a laxative, though the continued use 
of a drug for this purpose, in my opinion, in the 
end will do more harm than good. 
WHISKY AS A LIFE-PRESERVER 
Whisky is also largely advertised as a pre- 
server of youth and an enemy of old age. Old 
men are prolix with testimonials to the effect that 
their extreme vigor and long life are due to drink- 
ing Duffy's Malt Whisky. When we consider 
that competent students of sanitation and physi- 
ology are of one mind in regard to the effect of 
whisky, how can we patiently contemplate such 
attempts as are made through the newspapers 
and magazines to increase the consumption of 
whisky under the false idea of lengthening life? 
The data in regard to alcohol are so conclusive 
in the other direction as to make it incredible that 
any editor or manager of a newspaper who has 
any interest in the welfare of the public would 
consent to carry such dangerous and misleading 
advertisements in his columns. Dr. Irving Fisher, 186 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
in speaking of the effect of alcohol on health, 
says: 
"The best authority on the subject of the mor- 
tality of alcohol-users in this country is undoubt- 
edly Mr. Edward Bunnell Phelps. In his book on 
this subject he shows that of the male deaths in 
the area of the United States for which we have 
accurate registration of deaths, between the ages 
of twenty and seventy-four, 12 per cent, of the 
cases of tuberculosis of the lungs are due in whole 
or in part to alcohol, 16 per cent, of the deaths 
from heart disease, 22 per cent, of the deaths from 
pneumonia, 22 per cent, of the deaths from paraly- 
sis, 22 per cent, of the deaths from apoplexy, 23 
per cent, of the deaths from diseases of the ar- 
teries, 30 per cent, of the deaths from Bright's 
disease, 67 per cent, of the deaths from cirrhosis 
of the liver. Mr. Phelps also states: 'Roughly 
speaking, alcohol may have been directly or in- 
directly responsible for about 66,000 deaths in 
continental United States in 1908, or for about 
one in every thirteen deaths at adult ages. ' ' ' 
I have given a somewhat extended space to the 
discussion of the proposition that the use of alco- 
hol prolongs life, because I believe that doctrine 
is in itself most pernicious and threatening. LESSON XIII 
THE SOUR-MILK PROPAGANDA 
QUITE a different kind of life-preserver is 
the recent theory ascribed to Metchnikoff, 
that the use of sour milk is one of the best 
aids toward reaching a green old age. This theory 
is based upon the fundamental idea that life is 
shortened by reason of the activities of the bac- 
terial flora of the large intestine, producing toxins 
which tend to shorten life. It is well known that 
in a medium where different forms of bacteria 
grow there is usually one which is dominant and 
by its vigorous growth restricts or destroys the 
growth of other kinds of organism. The farmer 
knows that if his corn gets a vigorous start it 
will prevent the weeds from growing; if, on the 
other hand, the weeds get the start, they will pre- 
vent the corn from growing. The fundamental 
idea of the sour-milk theory is to introduce into 
the large intestine living bacilli; that is, the or- 
ganisms which produce acidity in milk. These 
bacilli are vigorous in growth, and thus, based 
187 188 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
upon the principle above outlined, will limit the 
activity, or even prevent it, of those organisms 
which produce toxic bodies. Metchnikoff observed 
that among the mountainous regions of Bulgaria 
there was a very large percentage of centenarians, 
larger than in most countries. The conclusion de- 
rived from this observation is that because these 
mountaineers drink large quantities of sour milk 
their life has been prolonged thereby. This is 
another illustration of assigning a false cause for 
a true cause. A mountainous country is always 
conducive to old age. The pure air, the exercise, 
the environment, the simple food which the moun- 
taineers live upon, are all helpful. Notwithstand- 
ing this fact, however, the average length of life 
in Bulgaria, as established by careful vital sta- 
tistics, is less than it is in the United States. In 
the report of the mortality statistics (1913) of the 
Census Bureau the average death rate of the 
United States, 1901-5, was 16.2 per 1,000, and dur- 
ing the same period in Bulgaria it was 22.5 per 
1,000. 
I do not like to discuss this part of the ques- 
tion immediately after the remarks I made in re- 
gard to the life-preserving qualities of a certain 
brand of whisky. Sour milk and whisky are in NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
189 
quite different classes. Sour milk is a wholesome 
and delicious food, and, therefore, as such tends 
to prevent disease and prolong life. That sour 
milk is a specific against the particular cause of 
old age which has been assigned does not appeal 
to me as true. 
KINDS OF SOUR MILK 
Many investigations have been made of the 
claims of sour milk in its different aspects as a 
food product. There is no doubt that there are 
many conditions of digestion in which sour milk 
of some description is indicated. I have myself 
seen most happy effects follow the judicious use 
of kumiss (not a trade-mark product) in cases of 
low assimilation and low nutrition. Kumiss is 
one of the types of milk in which not only has 
there been an acid but also a slightly alcoholic 
fermentation. There is another class of milks in 
which only acid fermentation is produced, and this 
is easily accomplished by means of a proper fer- 
ment, of which the Bacillus Bulgarians is a type. 
The acid which is formed by such a fermentation 
is, of course, chiefly lactic. Of the fermented 
milks which contain alcohol, kumiss sometimes 
contains as much as 2 or 3 per cent., though 190 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
usually not more than 1 per cent. Milk soured by 
a sound, pure-bred lactic-acid organism is, there- 
fore, to be preferred to kumiss in a child's diet. 
While sour milk has its uses, and in certain cases 
of digestive disorders is undoubtedly beneficial, 
there is no established scientific basis for the popu- 
lar fad of today. This has been admirably set 
forth by the Journal of the American Medical As- 
sociation, from which many of the following facts 
are drawn. 
KINDS OF ARTIFICIALLY SOURED MILK 
The acid-fermented milks have been long known 
in Asia, Africa, and the eastern countries of Eu- 
rope. In the United States buttermilk is prac- 
tically the only acid-fermented milk which has 
been generally used. Among the Scandinavian 
people a thick, fermented milk known as tiitemelk, 
or kjernemelk, is used. The most interesting of 
the acid-fermented milks is the one known as 
yoghurt, which originated in Bulgaria, and is pre- 
pared in the following manner: Cow's milk is 
evaporated in a clean vessel over a slow fire to 
about half its volume. It is then cooled to 45° C. 
(113° F.) and inoculated with the ferment 
"maya," a small remnant of a previously pre- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
191 
pared lot being used. The ferment is thoroughly- 
mixed by stirring, and the vessel is wrapped in 
skins and cloths so as to maintain the desired tem- 
perature. (At a lower temperature abnormal fer- 
mentations cannot be avoided, since the ferment 
contains many micro-organisms. The chief acid- 
forming element of the ferment is the Bulgarian 
bacillus, and the best temperature for its use is 
about 45° C.) The souring of the milk is com- 
pleted in from ten to twelve hours. The finished 
product has the consistency of a pudding, and is 
eaten mixed with brown bread or sugar. This 
half-solid milk is very palatable to most persons, 
especially to those accustomed to it. It is claimed 
by some analysts that the casein of the milk has 
been rendered more soluble, but this has not been 
established by competent scientific evidence. 
There is, however, no doubt of the fact that the 
casein, or curd, is more easily digested when pre- 
pared in this way, because it is more finely divided 
and the digestive enzymes have better access to 
it than they have in the thick curd formed from 
milk itself; therefore, in many cases this acidified 
milk has an advantage as food for infants and in- 
valids, because it is somewhat more easily di- 
gestible. 192 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
The yoghurt which is prepared according to the 
above recipe is not usually found in western Eu- 
rope or in this country. The domestic product is 
prepared from whole milk, without concentration; 
it is always advisable to have it boiled, cooled, and 
inoculated, to destroy the bacteria in milks com- 
mon on the market. 
CAUSE OF POPULARITY 
The widespread popularity of such sour-milk 
products and the commercialization and exag- 
geration of their therapeutic value are due largely 
to a mistaken application of Metchnikoff's sugges- 
tion that the presence of the Bacillus Bulgaricus 
in the digestive tract prevents premature senility 
due to auto-intoxication or other disorders. That 
this claim rests upon no definite scientific data is 
now acknowledged to be true. Likewise the gen- 
erally circulated ideas that this sour milk is not 
only a prophylactic against old age but also a 
remedy for many of the ordinary diseases, must 
be taken with a grain of salt. All kinds of stomach 
troubles, scarlet fever, whooping-cough, anemia, 
scrofula, gall-stones, diabetes, chronic rheuma- 
tism, dysentery, appendicitis, tuberculosis, and a 
host of other diseases, are said to be cured by the NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
193 
use of yoghurt. Too much caution cannot be 
urged in regard to claims of this kind. While it 
is undoubtedly true that artificially soured milk 
has its uses, and in many cases very valuable 
uses, the idea that it will postpone old age and 
cure all kinds of disease is wholly without 
scientific warrant. Even if we should inject 
into our stomachs large numbers of the Bul- 
garian bacillus with our sour milk, we have no 
reason to believe that they will ever survive until 
they reach the large intestine, where most of the 
damage done to life by auto-intoxication is sup- 
posed to take place. Extensive experiments have 
shown that the viability of these organisms, up to 
the point where they can be effective in the large 
intestine, has not been fully demonstrated. It has 
been established that the intestinal flora have not 
been materially altered by this kind of feeding, 
and that often Bulgarian bacilli could not be 
found in the excreta a short time after feeding 
of the sour milk was discontinued. Since more 
than 90 per cent, of all the bacteria which are 
found in the excreta are dead, it is not likely that 
any system of feeding will permanently increase 
the number of living organisms, and we must ad- 
mit that a dead Bacillus Bulgaricus is certainly 194 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
without value as a means of prolonging life. The 
fact, therefore, that enormous numbers of dead 
organisms are found in the excreta after the use 
of the Bulgarian sour milk, is no proof that they 
were killed by that means. 
Extensive studies of commercial preparations 
have shown that many of them contain few if any 
living organisms, being far inferior to fresh but- 
termilk. Moreover, the Bulgarian bacillus ap- 
pears normally in the intestines and is found in 
the feces of persons who have not been taking such 
artificial preparations. 
Generally, the good effects, if any, that are 
found to attend the use of sour milk in the diet are 
associated with other reforms which are quite as 
important. Metchnikoff himself has not stated 
that the Bulgarian bacillus alone can defer old 
age, but that a regular diet, with a decrease of 
meat and a general compliance with sanitary con- 
ditions, when accompanied by the use of sour 
milk, are valuable aids to health. This is prob- 
ably unquestionable, but of the factors mentioned 
the sour milk has, perhaps, the least to do with it. 
In general, it may be said that it is advisable from 
time to time to use sour milk in the diet, but not 
exclusively, and only under such conditions as NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
195 
may give an opportunity to insure its full nutri- 
tive and therapeutic effect. The idea that man 
may live forever if he only uses enough of arti- 
ficially soured milk is preposterous. The fame of 
a great man like Metchnikoff is somewhat tar- 
nished by the unwarranted use of his ideas by 
promoters and manufacturers of fermenting- 
organisms. 
MARCHING AND COUNTERMARCHING 
Thus one reformer after another comes along 
with his panacea. In one case it is whisky; in an- 
other case it is flowers of sulphur; in another case 
it is sour milk; in another case it is a vegetable 
diet; in another case it is a restricted vegetable 
diet, such as fruits or nuts; in another case it is a 
raw-meat diet; in another case it is a strictly 
mono-diet, only one kind of food, one cereal or 
one fruit or one kind of nut or one kind of meat; 
in another case it is no food-fasting, which is 
the best of them all. 
And so on the faddists come and go, marching 
and countermarching, with flags flying and drums 
beating, and humanity continues to die. The old 
Latin poet has very truly said, "Medio tutissi- 
mus ibis"; that is, if you keep in the middle of 196 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
the road you will be safe. This is a good motto 
in the choosing of a diet for long life. Select from 
all except whisky and other drugs those things 
which are pure, wholesome, nutritious, and pala- 
table, and out of these build your diet, well-bal- 
anced, with all of the elements of nutrition and all 
of the materials necessary for repair, and you 
will live longer, be freer of disease, be happier, 
and render better service to humanity, than if you 
become a devotee of any mere fad or fancy. LESSON XIV 
INFANT-FEEDING 
THE problem of infant-feeding is one of such 
supreme importance that it merits careful 
study of every parent and every guardian. 
I would go farther than this and say that it should 
be a special study with every physician and every 
hygienist. We call a physician whose specialty 
is diseases of children a pediatrist, which, when 
analyzed as to its derivation, is found to repre- 
sent two Greek words which mean ' ' the healing of 
children." It is indeed an important profession, 
and many a poor infant lies under the marble to- 
day by reason of the fact that the physician called 
to attend him in his illness was not skilled in such 
matters. 
More important, however, is that treatment of 
a child which would avoid the most common enemy 
of the infant, an enemy under many disguises, 
which is best known by the title "summer com- 
plaint." The digestive tract of the infant is ex- 
tremely sensitive to disorders and is far more 
197 198 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
easily affected by improper food than the stomach 
of the adult. Not only the children of the poor, 
but of the rich; not only those of the educated, 
but of the ignorant, alike succumb to those dread- 
ful maladies caused almost exclusively by im- 
proper food. 
Statistics show a wide variation in infant mor- 
tality in various parts of the country. According 
to the latest statistics of some of the principal 
cities, the total mortality in the registration area 
is 170 per thousand under the age of one year. 
The registration area embraces that part of the 
country where the state law, and in the District 
of Columbia the national law requires the keep- 
ing of human statistics, otherwise known as vital 
statistics. Some of the laws are extremely crude, 
but if they secure a correct census they have the 
greatest value. The fundamental data which are 
necessary in vital statistics are births, deaths, 
ages of death, and causes of death. When these 
facts are correctly reported we get a line on the 
vitality of the community. We know their average 
life span, we know the character of the diseases 
to which they are most obnoxious, and we know, 
especially, how many of the little innocents who 
are helpless to care for themselves fall victims to NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
199 
the indifference, the ignorance, or the love of their 
parents or guardians. 
mother's milk a life-preserver 
I cannot emphasize too strongly the fact that 
the only real proper food for an infant is the milk 
of a healthy mother. The child at its mother's 
breast has a life-insurance policy, not payable at 
its death, but payable by its life. Unfortunately, 
in most cases vital statistics do not bring out 
clearly the number of bottle-fed or artificially fed 
children that die in proportion to the total num- 
ber. What we want especially to bring out in all 
of its appalling nature the danger of the arti- 
ficially fed infant is a set of vital statistics which 
will give the total number of infants breast-fed, 
the total number artificially fed or bottle-fed, and 
the number and percentage of deaths in each 
case. 
An investigation made by Dr. Dublin in Fall 
River, Massachusetts, in 1913, has done this. In- 
fants that were artificially fed beginning with the 
second week showed at the end of the first year 
a death rate of 421 per 1,000, while breast-fed in- 
fants in like circumstances showed only 131 deaths 
per 1,000. The death rates of the two classes 200 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
gradually approximated until at weaning time 
they were nearly the same. These data show the 
dangers of artificial feeding of infants in a most 
striking manner. The total number of infants 
under observation was 641; of these 565 were 
breast-fed and 76 hand-fed. 
BEST TIME FOR WEANING INFANTS 
From the statistics which are available and 
from our own experience we know how very much 
safer the breast-fed infant is. Unfortunately, too 
many mothers wean their children at the begin- 
ning of the warm season. I strongly advise the 
extension of the nursing period to fifteen months 
rather than to terminate it at ten or eleven 
months, on the approach of summer. The chil- 
dren that have the best chances to live are those 
that are born from October to February. These 
children, if fortunate enough to have a mother 
capable of doing so, are at the mother's breast 
during the warm season of their first year. They 
are well along in their second year before the sec- 
ond summer arrives. This point ought to be of 
significance to parents who may determine the 
period at which their children are born. The in- 
fant which has the worst chance, as a rule, is the NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
201 
one who spends his first summer on the bottle, 
for he is destined to bear the vicissitudes of the 
summer at the age of least resistance. 
The older the child is at the beginning of sum- 
mer, the better chance he has to live. We face 
this problem, nevertheless, of necessity or misfor- 
tune which consigns the new-born infant to arti- 
ficial feeding. Whether this arise from the ill- 
ness or death of the mother, or from her inability 
to secrete milk, or whether it is an unfortunate 
and misplaced and almost criminal choice, makes 
no difference to the victim. Whatever the cause 
of his artificial nourishment is, the dangers are 
the same. 
HAND-FED INFANTS MAY BE SAVED 
Modern sanitation and medical science have 
demonstrated that even the artificially fed infant 
may be saved in most cases. It is useless to dis- 
cuss the various preparations which are offered 
for infant-feeding. Not one of them is worthy of 
confidence. There are some which are used in 
modifying the milk which is given to a child which 
may be helpful at times and under certain dis- 
ordered conditions, but the parent or guardian 
who depends upon them solely for the infant's 202 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
nourishment is more likely to have a doctor's and 
a funeral bill than a healthy child at the end of 
the first year. Pure, clean, fresh milk from 
healthy cows is the one substitute which com- 
mands confidence. In a matter of such importance 
one would think that communities and parents 
would actively collaborate in securing at least 
pure milk for the unfortunate infant deprived of 
its mother's breast. In some localities this col- 
laboration is practiced, but, oh, how few they are! 
What success would a parent have, going into a 
strange town, in securing the kind of milk I have 
just described for his infant's nourishment? In 
most places no such locality would be discovered 
where pure milk, certified, and handled in a sani- 
tary manner, could be had. The hand-fed infant 
on a journey is in as much danger, almost, as if he 
were a soldier in the trenches. At any moment the 
food which he consumes may carry the deadly 
bullet in the form of an organism which will pro- 
duce disturbance, diarrhea, and death. It is the 
duty of every community to provide at least one 
station where clean, pure milk can be had. If it is 
impossible to do this for the whole community, it 
should be done for the infant and the child. More 
important by far than the fire department, the NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
203 
police department, or the school department, is 
such an institution in every village and in every 
city. 
LIFE FIRST 
"Safety first" is a motto which now enjoys 
great popularity. The motto for the infant and 
the child should be "Life first." It is not so 
much accident that he is to be guarded against, as 
is indicated by the usual application of the motto 
"Safety first." It is disease which threatens, ac- 
cidental perhaps, but a no less preventable acci- 
dent than being run over by a motor-car or a fire- 
truck. There may be someone in every town who 
reads this book who will take sufficient note of 
what I say to induce him to become a leader in 
organizing in every locality a depot where pure 
milk can be secured. The public school, the pulpit, 
the newspaper, the rostrum, must be utilized 
everywhere to guard the very threshold of human- 
ity from the inroads of disease and death. 
Milk is safer when taken from a number of 
cows, unless the particular animal from which the 
milk is derived is thoroughly healthy. It is not 
sufficient that the animal be free of disease, espe- 
cially tuberculosis, though these conditions are 204 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
fundamental. It must also be reasonably free of 
the natural contaminations which the milk secures 
from internal and external sources. We are well 
acquainted with the sanitary methods by means 
of which the cow, the milker, and the vessels can 
be kept thoroughly clean and thus the milk be pro- 
tected from external contamination. This is not 
quite enough when the life of the infant is at 
stake. There are things in milk which are not 
milk, even when taken from the healthiest cow and 
in the most sanitary manner. The udder is an 
excretory organ, not only of milk but also of cer- 
tain other products which naturally arise. The 
white corpuscles of the blood, the epithelial scales, 
excretions from the membranes of the udder, are 
found in what is known as clean, fresh, pure milk. 
You need only to subject this milk to separation, 
where the cream and the skimmed milk may be 
obtained separately, to find what I mean. On the 
walls of the separating machine, after the opera- 
tion is over, will be found a sticky, slimy mass, 
separated from the milk, and which is not due to 
any lack of caution or sanitation or care of health. 
It is advisable, therefore, that all milk intended 
for infants and children should first be separated 
when first drawn from the cow and the stream of NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
205 
skimmed milk and cream allowed to flow into the 
same receptacle, thus re-forming the milk with all 
of its milk elements, and with the slime, the cells, 
and the detritus removed. This re-formed milk 
as it comes from the separator is to be instantly 
cooled, and is then ready for infant use after 
warming to blood-heat. 
DIFFICULTIES OF PRODUCING PURE MILK 
Where apparatus is at hand the cost of thus 
purifying the milk is so slight as to leave no ex- 
cuse for not practicing it. One thing is largely in 
the way of this special purification of milk, and 
that is the early hour of moving the milk from the 
dairy to the point of consumption. If the milk 
train leaves early in the morning, it does not give 
time for the dairyman to separate and clarify his 
milk, unless the milking hour is put so early in 
the morning as to be a burden both upon the 
milker and the cow. The practice of milk delivery 
is at fault in this, that people as a rule want their 
milk delivered early in the morning. This means 
that practically no milk is delivered in the city 
the morning it is milked. All the milk so delivered 
may be twelve or twenty-four hours old, at least. 
The proper time to deliver milk is about the 206 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
middle of the day. In this way the morning milk 
can be delivered to the consumer within a few 
hours after milking, while the evening milk will 
be in the hands of the consumer not to exceed 
twenty hours after milking. The better plan, of 
course, is to have two deliveries a day, but this 
adds too much to the cost. The evening milk could 
be delivered in the morning and the morning milk 
in the afternoon. Distributers can do this by 
charging an extra price, which the consumer ought 
to be willing to pay for the sake of his infant and 
his child. It is strange to me to see people in 
good circumstances, who keep a car, a butler, and 
two maids, and spend twenty-five dollars a week 
on amusements, bristle with resentment when they 
are asked to add two or five cents a quart to the 
milk for their own children. This indifference to 
the welfare of the child and this economy are not 
faults of character, but are the results of lack of 
education. "Pigs is pigs," as the author has well 
illustrated, but milk is not milk, as I have just ex- 
plained. Milk is any old thing, reeking with dirt 
and as old as the natural law of the formation of 
acidity will permit, which the producer and the 
dealer are willing to palm off upon the people. 
I don't know of any reform more imperative NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
207 
than that connected with the milk service. I don't 
know any way in which paternalism could do so 
much good as in the town or city taking over the 
distribution of its own milk supply, thus lessen- 
ing expense, and thus paving the way for a much 
better quality. I know something from both ends 
of the line in regard to milk production. I am a 
milk-producer, and know the great difficulty of 
and extra expense incurred in producing clean, 
fresh milk. I am also a consumer, and know how 
hard it is to reconcile the item of expense with 
that of our neighbors who pay eight or nine cents 
a quart for their milk while we pay from twelve 
to twenty cents a quart for ours. If I have to 
economize, it will not be on the milk for my chil- 
dren. It will be on their clothing and schooling 
and expensive foods, and not on that staff of 
child-life-milk. 
MODIFYING MILK 
The milk of the cow is not identical in compo- 
sition with that of the mother. Nature has 
adapted the food of the infant and the child to 
its needs. Perhaps I had better not say that. 
The needs of the infant and the child have secured 
the secretion of a milk suitable thereto. The child 208 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
is a very slow grower. He is not of full stature 
until he is twenty-one, and sometimes not until he 
is older than that. The calf is a fast grower. He 
reaches his full stature at from three to four 
years. The tissue-building material of cow's milk 
is therefore very much larger in percentage than 
it is in the milk of the woman. This is most strik- 
ingly seen in the item of protein, the great tissue- 
builder. The milk of the cow contains 3| per cent, 
of protein; the milk of the woman contains from 
1 to per cent. The cow's milk is, therefore, not 
suited to human infant consumption without modi- 
fication. 
The simplest modifying element of milk is pure 
or freshly boiled water. When cow's milk is di- 
luted with water the percentage of protein may 
easily be reduced to 2 or 1| per cent.; but this 
also reduces the quantity of fat and of sugar in 
the milk. To avoid this, the top milk, that is, part 
cream, may be selected for reduction, and thus 
the modified milk, reduced by water to or 2 per 
cent, of protein, may still contain its 4 per cent, of 
fat. There remains now only to supply the sugar. 
This is done by using pure milk-sugar. If there 
is a tendency to overacidity, a little limewater 
may also be used, but only in moderation. As the NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
209 
child grows the quantity of water added to the 
milk becomes less, and when he is one and a half 
to two years of age he is capable of assimilating 
the cow's milk without change. 
I do not claim that this modified milk is as good 
as mother's milk. By no means. But it is so good 
that the infant and child who live upon it may not 
fear the dreadful disasters which I have pointed 
out. 
The fundamental need of artificial feeding is 
pure milk. What may be said of the various in- 
fant foods advertised to the public? I answer, 
"They are excellent for grown people." The 
great majority of infants' foods, so-called, are 
modified starch. The infant's stomach is not fur- 
nished to digest very much starch. If starch 
foods are to be given, it is a mercy to the infant 
to have the starch first converted into sugar. 
There is an easy and effective way of doing this; 
namely, by the action of diastase (malt) on the 
cereals. The greater part of the starch which 
cereals contain, when subjected to the action of 
malt, is converted into a sugar known as maltose, 
which is far more easily digested and absorbed in 
the child's stomach than starch, and even more 
so, perhaps, than cane sugar. 210 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
There are certain disorders in child-life where 
milk "does not agree with the child," as we say, 
where additions of malted cereals may prove bene- 
ficial. The admixture of malted cereals with the 
milk in such cases is justifiable, but it should be 
done with moderation and careful study, and 
under the eye of a competent expert (hygienist 
or physician). There may also be mixed with milk 
in such circumstances a little cereal paste, that is, 
a barley or wheat flour boiled with water until it 
assumes a gummy or pasty condition, and a little 
of this may be added to the milk. It is not so 
important, perhaps, from a nourishment point of 
view as it is for a deterrent of the coagulation of 
the milk in the stomach into too large particles. 
There are preparations, especially of barley, on 
the market reduced to the very finest flour form 
which are much prized by some physicians and 
parents in the modification of milk. 
I would not say that infant foods should not be 
used, but as long as the child is healthy on the 
modified milk without them, and as long as it is 
not constipated, the addition of any extraneous 
substance is inadvisable and not called for. The 
less we tamper with the fundamental food of the 
infant and the child, the better it will be. It is not NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
211 
until the infant is ill, until that terrible condition 
produced by summer complaint is fully estab- 
lished, when its little life is ebbing away by reason 
of the disturbance of the intestinal tract caused by 
improper food, that we begin to realize how much 
it all means to us. In the grief of the father and 
the mother for the little one prematurely taken 
away there should be some little pricking of the 
conscience in the realization of the fact that it 
might all easily have been avoided. I am not opti- 
mistic enough to suppose that we shall ever get rid 
entirely of these fatal diseases of the infant. With 
the greatest care, with the most expert super- 
vision, with the keenest attention to detail, there 
may be opportunities to introduce in the food the 
disturbing germ which will produce the disastrous 
effect. At least the parent or the guardian in 
these cases would not spend many terrible days 
and nights in self-examination and self-accusa- 
tion of indifference and ignorance. 
In all cases where certified milk, or milk of 
known purity and cleanliness, cannot be secured 
the market article should be subjected to thorough 
pasteurization at a temperature not lower than 
145° F., for at least twenty minutes. Evaporated 
milk, which is sterile, when made of good milk, is 212 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
advisable where only poor fresh milk can be had. 
It has long been recognized that the digestive 
tract of the infant and young child acts in a man- 
ner distinctly different from that of an older child 
or an adult. In a late article by Dr. McClendon 
(Journal of the American Medical Association, 
July 3, 1915, p. 12) is given a review of the data 
which have been established in regard to the di- 
gestive tract of the infant and young child. Dr. 
McClendon adds investigations of his own along 
the same line. He found that the acidity of the 
infant's stomach remains nearly stationary dur- 
ing the first hour after feeding, after which it 
rises steadily until the next meal. If this meal 
be delayed by as much as four hours, the acidity 
of the infant's stomach may be as great as that 
of the adult. 
ACIDITY OF THE SMALL INTESTINE 
The contents of the duodenum in the infant and 
young child are found to be more acid than the 
full stomach, and this in spite of the presence of 
the bile and pancreatic juice, which are recognized 
as of an alkaline character. Peptic digestion of 
nitrogenous foods would, therefore, continue in 
the duodenum of the infant, and this is peculiarly NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
213 
desirable in the case of milk as a diet. The milk, 
although coagulated in the stomach, readily passes 
the pylorus to the duodenum, and hence if the 
duodenum were as strongly alkaline as it is in the 
adult the further digestion of the milk would be 
interfered with. Pepsin was found in the duo- 
denum of infants, and this is confirmatory of the 
theory that peptic digestion continues. Trypsin, 
which is the nitrogenous digester from the pan- 
creas, which is encountered chiefly in the small in- 
testine of the grown person, is found in the 
duodenum of the infant, but was less abundant, 
even, than pepsin. As trypsin is complementary 
to pepsin, the fact that flakes of undigested pro- 
tein may sometimes be found in the feces of the 
infant is thus accounted for. 
Whether or not this acidity of the digestive 
juices continues throughout the small intestine 
has not been determined by experiment. The fact, 
however, that the feces of the infant are still acid 
leads to the conclusion that the intestinal juices 
of the infant are acid throughout the whole length 
of the digestive canal. This is a strong reason for 
not giving the infant starch, which requires an 
alkaline or only faintly acid medium. The infant 
and the young child do not excrete very much bile, 214 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
which is one of the principal alkaline secretions 
that neutralize the acidity of the stomach juices 
when they enter the duodenum. The small intes- 
tine of the infant, however, has an abundant 
supply of the fat-splitting ferment-lipase. Thus 
the infant's digestive organs are well adapted for 
the utilization of fat. There is also believed to 
be some lipase in the mother's milk, and the 
glands of the infant also secrete lipase. 
Dr. McClendon asks the following pertinent 
question: 
' ' Since the infant may some day become a man, 
the question arises as to what becomes of the di- 
gestion in the transition process. We observed 
that the infant's duodenum is not too acid for 
tryptic digestion, and, therefore, when the acidity 
of the intestine in the growing child decreases so 
that peptic digestion can no longer take place, it 
is still equipped with an efficient agent for prote- 
olysis." 
Thus it is seen that there is a scientific basis 
for the theory that the transition of the dietary 
of the infant to that of the adult should take place 
gradually, as there is every reason to believe that 
the secretions which determine the character and 
rate of digestion are changed very gradually from NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
215 
those of the infant, designed particularly for the 
digestion of milk, to those of the adult, where the 
digestive secretions are adapted to the general 
utilization of promiscuous food. 
The supreme importance of a reasonably safe 
diet for hand-fed and weaning children is becom- 
ing more generally appreciated. The most fruit- 
ful field of labor in saving life is presented by 
this problem. Neglect here is speedily fatal. 
That municipality which offers unfortunate 
mothers a safe milk supply is more to be praised 
than for good schools, efficient police and fire 
departments and safeguarded public utilities. 
The safest supervisor of this commodity is the 
municipality. It is too vital to be left to the pro- 
ducer. Better dedicate the streets to the service 
of a corporation for street railways than to leave 
the helpless infants of the town to the mercy 
of uncertified milk. A few hundred dollars would 
bring into every incorporated community a safe 
food for the hand-fed infants. LESSON XV 
THE FEEDINGOF THE CHILD FROM WEAN- 
ING UNTIL THE END OF THE THIRD 
YEAR 
THERE is no event in the history of the child 
to which the mother looks forward with 
more foreboding than the weaning-time. 
I have already intimated that the best time to 
wean a child is in October or November. Hot 
weather brings the threat not only of bad milk 
but of debility due to the excessive heat. This 
latter threat is not at all mitigated by the com- 
mon method of swaddling children. The diaper, 
while necessary for cleanliness, is a threat and a 
burden to the development of the child. If some 
genius would devise a means of cleanliness and 
at the same time do away with the diaper, he 
would confer a world-wide benefit upon humanity. 
But in addition to this the infant must wear long 
skirts, for what reason I do not know, and no one 
else does, and be bundled with interminable 
wrappings both by day and by night. The naked 
216 NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
217 
child, lying on a fireless porch with the air of 
heaven blowing over him, would be the ideal of 
summer raiment. 
PRINCIPLES OF WEANING 
The first principle in weaning should be grada- 
tion. There should be nothing sudden. The time 
having been selected, and, in my opinion, it 
should not be before the twelfth month, though 
usually it is earlier than that, a careful study of 
the problem should be made and a plan of pro- 
cedure mapped out. The family physician unfor- 
tunately is not always an authority in dietetics, 
and while in cases of disease he is to be first con- 
sulted, there are often wise and well-informed 
mothers who are better judges of how and when 
to wean a child than the general practitioner. 
First of all, the supply of the clean, fresh milk 
described in the last chapter must be secured. 
Then the nursing-bottles, with nipples, methods of 
warming, and the means of sterilizing, are to be 
provided. These bottles are now made specially 
and provided with all necessary appliances for 
securing the proper temperature and manipula- 
tion. The dealer, however, cannot supply the 
sterilization. Rubber nipples are usually em- 218 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
ployed, and these are injured by boiling water. 
The nipple, after use, is to be thoroughly washed 
with warm water and then placed in an antiseptic 
solution (a 10 per cent, borax solution is the sim- 
plest and best), where it is kept until time for its 
next use. It is taken out of the solution by a pair 
of sterilized forceps and dropped into a vessel of 
freshly boiled water, still quite hot, and moved 
back and forth through this water until all traces 
of the borax solution are removed. Meanwhile 
the thumb and finger of the manipulator, which 
have been thoroughly cleansed and held for a 
short time in the borax solution, are rinsed with 
freshly boiled water, and the nipple is then taken 
and placed upon the bottle. The modified milk in 
the bottle is thoroughly stirred, in order that the 
cream may be uniformly distributed, and is then 
warmed to a temperature of 100° F. It is then 
ready for use. 
It is a safe custom, where refrigeration is pro- 
vided, to fill all the sterilized bottles with the modi- 
fied milk when the solution is first made, that is, 
enough for twenty-four hours. These bottles are 
then stoppered with sterilized cotton and placed 
in the refrigerator and taken out one by one at 
time of use, and warmed as above described. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
219 
This is a more convenient method than keeping 
the milk itself in the refrigerator and making up 
each bottle separately. It is also a great time- 
saver. When the day's bottles are ready for 
cleaning they should be thoroughly rinsed out, 
each one as soon as the child is through with it. 
They are then placed in a vessel of cold water suf- 
ficiently large to cover them with water, and the 
water is heated until it comes to a boil, and this 
boiling is continued for three or four minutes. 
The bottles are then removed and placed on a 
clean, perforated surface (wire or punctured 
metal), mouth down, to cool and dry. The per- 
forated surface on which the mouth rests permits 
the moisture on the inside of the bottle to escape. 
They are left standing in this position until they 
are filled for the day's use. 
The size of the bottle depends upon the amount 
of milk to be given to the infant. The first feed- 
ing should be even less than an ounce, and the 
quantity of milk in the bottle may be increased 
very slightly day by day, and the amount of milk 
taken from the mother's breast correspondingly 
decreased. After two or three weeks of this 
gradual treatment the child may be entirely 
weaned. Both the child and the mother in this 220 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
way escape any discomfort, and the weaning be- 
comes a process which is so gradual that the new 
style of life is entered without shock to either 
mother or child. 
CHANGING FROM MILK FOOD 
Next to the importance of weaning is the 
gradual introduction of the child to solid food. 
This must also be by degrees. It is possible by 
a careful study of the situation and proper 
manipulation to teach the child to eat solid or 
semi-solid food, diminishing to that extent the 
quantity of milk, until his quota of solid food is 
sufficiently large. The period at which this is to 
be accomplished cannot be arbitrarily fixed, but 
should depend upon the number of teeth the child 
has. As soon as the temporary molars are well 
developed, nature intends the child shall begin to 
chew. Learning to chew is a process which is 
mastered by the child himself. There is not much 
opportunity of teaching by precept or example. 
For this reason the first foods that are given 
should be semi-solid. There is nothing better for 
this purpose than a finely mashed fruit, vegetable, 
or cereal. Vegetables and fruits should be thor- 
oughly cooked at this stage and passed through a NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
221 
very fine colander. Children two years old will 
soon learn to like spinach, asparagus, potato, 
apple sauce, and foods of this kind, when given in 
this way. 
These foods should be administered in small 
quantities, gradually increasing, but never to the 
extent of doing away with a very considerable 
quantity of the milk. The cereal I think the best 
for this purpose is wheat, not excluding, however, 
oats, maize, barley, and rice. There is a very 
great difference of opinions respecting the form 
in which these cereals should be administered to 
the child of two years and over. My convictions 
are rather strong on this subject, as I believe the 
demineralization of our cereal foods which is so 
commonly practiced is a threat to the proper 
growth and nutrition of the young child. The 
principal objection to giving whole cereals is 
based on the fact that the bran thereof may be ir- 
ritating to the mucosa of the intestines. There is 
some basis for this opinion. If, however, the 
cereal be properly ground, so that the bran does 
not exist in large flakes but in small particles, no 
danger of irritation need be feared. I do not 
think it is advisable to grind cereals for the use 
of children on the common roller mill. The bran, 222 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
in these cases, is always very flaky. Cereals for 
children's use, and for grown people for that 
matter, are best ground on old-fashioned, well- 
sharpened buhr millstones. The bran coming 
from these millstones is very finely divided, and 
thus rendered incapable of mechanical irritation. 
VALUE OF BRAN 
It has also been objected to the feeding of 
cereals to young children that they do not digest 
the bran, that these particles are found practi- 
cally undigested in the feces. There is also a basis 
of truth to this objection. It does not follow, how- 
ever, that, because some particles of bran are not 
digested, injury has been inflicted. On the con- 
trary, one of the very common defects of child 
nutrition is found in persistent constipation. 
Constipation does not threaten a child's life as 
diarrhea does, but the retention of the feces over 
twenty-four hours is detrimental. The feeding of 
whole-ground cereals is one of the best correctives 
of this fault. The quantity, of course, should be 
diminished if diarrhea or too frequent movements 
should supervene. The mother who is carefully 
watching her child's life and growth can easily 
determine this point. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
223 
QUANTITY OF FOOD FOB A CHILD 
The quantity of food required for a child from 
two to four years old is important. Authorities 
differ in regard to the quantity, and well they 
may, because the same amount is not advisable for 
every child. As the weights of children from two 
to four years of age vary at the same age, so 
should, as a rule, the quantities of food which they 
ingest be varied. Below is given the table of 
Calories (energy and heat requirements) for chil- 
dren of given weights between the ages of two and 
four: 
Weight, 28-32 pounds-Calories, 700- 900 
" 33-38 " " 900-1,200 
Children of these weights require from 80 to 70 
Calories for each kilogram (2.2 pounds) of 
weight. Example: A child weighs 18 kilograms 
(40 pounds). Energy requirement = 18 X 70 = 
1,260 Calories. 
I have already spoken of the inadvisability of 
forming an artificial desire for sweets in the 
young child. I am not so set against this as to 
deny the value of sugar as a food. Its utility, and 
even necessity, are well known. My objection to 224 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
the use of added sugar to a child's diet rests on 
entirely different grounds. While sugar is a food, 
it is a dynamic food. It produces heat and energy 
almost exclusively. These are important things 
in the life of every human being, and especially in 
growing children. But sugar, starch, and oil 
(fat), while they have important and necessary 
functions in nutrition, afford nothing to supply 
or restore worn-out tissues. The child needs a 
full supply of nitrogen-containing foods and min- 
eral-containing foods, out of which all the tissues 
of the body, with the exception of fat, are elabo- 
rated. While the infant and the child live on 
milk, they have a balanced ration containing all 
the necessary elements of nutrition in proper pro- 
portions for all the tissues of the body. The 
bones, the hair, the skin, the teeth, the muscles, 
the nerves, and the glands, all draw from this com- 
mon stream the elements necessary for their up- 
building and sustenance. 
IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS TO CHILDREN 
As the milk is removed from the child's diet 
gradually when his teeth are developed and he can 
chew solid or semi-solid foods, the customs of this 
and other countries have endangered the normal NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
225 
growth of the child by removing, especially, the 
mineral constituents of foods, which are so impor- 
tant. The child, by reason of the deficiency of his 
digestive organs, is supposed to be incapable of 
eating any of the skins of vegetables or fruits or 
cereals. It is in these skins that these mineral 
elements chiefly reside, and hence the necessary or 
supposed necessary elimination of them is calcu- 
lated to diminish the amount of mineral matter at 
the disposal of the organism. I do not deny that 
the skins in large flakes are undesirable in infants' 
foods. If the skins of vegetables and fruits and 
cereals cannot be reduced to an almost impalpable 
powder, they are not suitable for introduction into 
the child's digestive organism. The cereals, espe- 
cially, suffer from this almost universal habit of 
removing mineral ingredients. 
DANGER OF SUGARS 
If, in addition to this diminution of mineral 
substances, the foods are largely composed of 
added sugars, the damage is all the greater. 
Specifically, the addition of sugars to the diet 
threatens the welfare of the teeth as well as of 
the other tissues of the body. It is highly impor- 
tant that the development of the teeth of the in- 226 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
fant and young child be safeguarded. If we do 
not get good teeth by the time we are twelve years 
of age, we probably will never have them. It is 
not only for the day that we are building, but for 
all future time, when we tamper with the natural 
diet of the child and lay the foundations of an 
early decay and loss of his teeth. We not only 
threaten him day by day, but we injure him for 
the years of his activity yet to come. There is 
no more pathetic sight than to see one arrive at 
the age of young manhood or womanhood with a 
set of teeth helplessly decayed and useless. Good, 
plain, whole foods, such as I advocate, will do 
much to guard against these disasters. 
If I were trying to standardize the forces which 
make for good teeth, I would not by any means 
seek to belittle cleanliness, but I would magnify 
nutrition. Unless we have good, sound teeth, 
built of the right material, cleanliness is of little 
avail to prevent decay. I should say, just at a 
rough venture, that three-fourths of the factors of 
good teeth are nutrition and only one-fourth 
cleanliness. At least twice a week the mouth of 
every child should be examined by his parent to 
see if there be any incipient decay. Once or twice 
a year the child should be carried to the dentist, NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
227 
who should explore the hidden recesses of spaces 
between the teeth and see whether or not there be 
any need of professional attention. This, with the 
proper cleaning of the teeth, which the child can 
soon be taught, coupled with the proper nutri- 
tion, will bring all our children to manhood and 
womanhood with perfect teeth, which, if cared for 
in the future, will last them to a green old age. 
MEAT IN A child's DIET 
In regard to the use of meat, I am not a tee- 
totaler, but a temperance man. I am perhaps ex- 
traordinarily temperate. I agree with Dr. 
Lorand when he says that the digestive organ- 
isms of the young child are not fitted for the care 
of the end products of meat digestion. In animal 
foods for children I am a great believer, espe- 
cially milk, and, where there is no idiosyncrasy, 
a coddled or poached egg. There are many chil- 
dren who are sensitive to egg. A very little of it 
makes them ill. Children do not crave flesh foods 
unless, as is the case with sugar, their taste is 
excited by use. A little bit of fresh chicken, a 
bit of fish once a week, will probably be sufficient 
for all necessary meat uses in the development of 
the child between the ages of two and four. Meat 228 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
has, in my opinion, an important and specific use 
in the nutrition of man, but the inception of its 
use should be deferred for several years. Expe- 
rience has shown that man may live his entire 
mature life on a vegetable diet apparently, and 
yet we know that in his early life, at least, and 
probably during his whole life, he eats animal 
products, such as milk, meat, and eggs. My plea, 
however, is for the child. I believe he is better 
off, at least until he is four years of age, with 
little or no meat. 
FREQUENCY OF FEEDING 
The frequency of feeding a child should rap- 
idly diminish after infancy. The child from two 
to four may possibly have four meals a day, from 
two to three especially, but he may soon be taught 
to do with three. The constant nibbling at bis- 
cuit, zwieback, or fruits, or other foods, between 
meals should be early discouraged. In fact, it 
should never be begun. Children naturally like 
to be eating; but it is no mark of affection to the 
child to yield to its every desire. In fact, one of 
the greatest enemies of child-life is the mother's 
love. Her tender heart cannot resist the plaintive 
appeal of her young. Without thought of whether NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
229 
it is good or bad, she gives the child what he 
wants. This application of parental affection 
must be carefully curbed. We cannot have the 
proper nutrition of the young child if its parents ' 
love leads to an indulgence in his every whim. 
There is no reason why even the child of three 
years of age may not be firmly grounded in the 
principle that he should eat what is good for him. 
There is no reason why every child may not even 
reprove his parents, as mine has done, for offering 
him things which he has been taught to believe 
are injurious. We fail to comprehend the teach- 
ableness of the infant and the young child. The 
teacher's work begins the day of the child's birth 
and never ceases until the old man of eighty-five 
or ninety is carried to his grave. The time which 
is spent in coddling children, in yielding to their 
whims, in foolish baby-talk, might well be de- 
voted to serious instruction. The child likes it 
better than he does nonsense. He becomes speed- 
ily interested, before he can speak, in serious 
words spoken to him and in everything pointed 
out to him, the beauties of nature, and the trees 
and brooks, the mountains and the forests. We 
wait too long to begin the education of our 
children. LESSON XVI 
THE FEEDING OF CHILDREN BETWEEN 
FOUR AND TEN YEARS OF AGE 
THE child at four has developed his tempo- 
rary teeth, but has still a serious trial to 
undergo in their loss and the development of 
the permanent teeth. Of great significance is the 
care of the temporary teeth. Soon after the age 
of four the growth of the permanent teeth begins 
to increase in vigor, and the pressure which they 
exert upon the roots of the temporary teeth causes 
them to absorb until gradually the temporary 
tooth is so far undermined that it comes away of 
itself or as the result of slight traction. This is 
the natural and proper way to get rid of the tem- 
porary tooth. The canal through which the per- 
manent tooth emerges is thus kept solely for its 
own use. If a temporary tooth decays or is lost 
before its time, not only will the permanent tooth 
which belongs to its place seek to emerge there- 
from, but each of the buds of the permanent teeth 
230 NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
231 
on either side will endeavor to follow the line of 
least resistance. The result is, therefore, deform- 
ity, often of a serious character. If the tempo- 
rary teeth begin to decay at any period before the 
time of their natural disappearance, this decay 
should be combated as if it were a permanent 
tooth, in order to avoid the misfortunes of 
distortion and malformation of the buccal 
cavity. 
From the periods of five to ten food should be 
so chosen as to make it possible for the child to 
masticate his foods with the impaired apparatus 
which is then at his disposal. Incisors are the 
first of the temporary teeth to disappear. Foods 
that are hard to bite are, therefore, to be dis- 
couraged during this period. At the same time 
the molars are still operative, and it would be 
unfortunate if no food which requires mastication 
should be taken. This difficulty is avoided by of- 
fering the hard foods in small pieces, so that they 
do not have to be separated by the incisors, but 
are still capable of furnishing activity to the 
molars. Hard bread, biscuit, tough vegetables, 
fruits, and things of that kind, during this period, 
are to be cut into small pieces, so as to avoid giv- 
ing unnecessary or perhaps impossible labor to 232 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
the incisors. By the seventh or eighth year the 
permanent incisors are fully developed, or at 
least sufficiently so to again perform their func- 
tions and separate the harder foods into lumps 
of convenient size for mastication. At this period 
the chewing capacity of the child is restored, at 
least until the temporary molars are ready to dis- 
appear. Thus the physical state of the food be- 
comes a matter of grave importance during the 
ages from five to ten. 
CHARACTER OF FOOD OF OLDER CHILDREN 
In regard to the character of the food of the 
child at this age, little need be said in addition 
to that which has already been developed. 
Breads and mush made from whole cereals and 
pure, wholesome milk should continue to be the 
basis of nutrition. The child may now be inducted 
into the use of small quantities of meat, and by 
this I mean flesh foods in general; namely, that 
which is usually called meat, fowl, and fish. The 
child's digestive functions are still sensitive to 
foods that are passe, or, as it is usually ex- 
pressed, to ptomaine poisoning, whatever that 
may include, and during this period of child-life 
the colic and its attendant diarrhea may be ex- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
233 
pected in children whose foods are not carefully 
controlled. The child has not yet acquired the 
sense of responsibility as to his diet, and hence 
is apt to overeat whenever he has access to any- 
thing which he likes. Nausea, vomiting, and 
diarrhea are not unusual sequelae of these faults 
of diet. 
DANGERS OF CODDLING 
The child cannot always be watched. He must 
be left to himself for the purpose of developing 
individuality and character. While I advocate 
careful control of the child's diet and conduct, I 
am far from thinking he should spend every mo- 
ment of his time under the eyes of his nurse, his 
mother, or his tutor. Self-confidence, individual- 
ity, and character are rapidly formed during this 
period. The watched and coddled child is apt to 
become a being described rather indefinitely, but 
still distinctly, by the term "mollycoddle." We 
used to say that such a child was tied to his 
mother's apron-string, that he was a "sissy." 
Other expressions of a similar character are used 
to designate the overwatched and overfondled 
child. The parent is to steer a middle ground 
in this case, developing, on the one hand, indi- 234 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
viduality and character, and, on the other, ward- 
ing off dangers which are, alas! too often fatal. 
QUANTITY OF MEAT FOR CHILDREN FIVE AND TEN 
The quantity of meat which the child between 
five and ten should use is not very great. It may 
be increased little by little until the tenth year. 
Even at ten the child should have only a small 
fraction of the meat which an adult consumes. 
It is difficult to specify any particular amount or 
kind, as such a specification would fit only one 
particular class. A better way is to have the 
parent watchful and considerate respecting the 
dictates of hygiene and health, on the one hand, 
and, on the other, consulting the tastes and likes 
and dislikes of his child in so far as that can be 
done without injury to health. If a child requires, 
say, from 1,200 to 1,400 Calories in his diet per 
day, it would be amply sufficient on an average 
that from 50 to 100 of them should come from 
meat, say 50 in the child at five and 100 in the 
child at ten. This quantity, in my opinion, would 
be an ample allowance, but should be varied ac- 
cording to the individual tendencies as outlined 
above. 
Meat given the child at this period should be, NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
235 
as a rule, fresh. Cured meats are better left for 
a later period of life. Canned meats, especially, 
should be avoided, in my opinion, for children, not 
that canned meats are not, as a rule, perfectly 
wholesome, but there is always a danger, perhaps 
a remote contingency, but, nevertheless, one which 
should not be overlooked, of some fault in the 
canned article which might pass without influence 
upon the adult, and yet which might seriously 
affect the child. By fresh meats I do not mean 
those immediately slaughtered, because, in my 
opinion, all meats, except fish and shellfish, are 
improved by being kept in a cool room until their 
natural heat has disappeared. In other words, 
the fresh chicken is better after hanging in a cool 
room for twenty-four hours than it is if cooked 
immediately after slaughter. Fish, unfortunately, 
are usually more than twenty-four hours old be- 
fore they come to the table, and yet a fish is never 
so good as the moment at which it is taken, when 
it should be killed by cutting off its head and al- 
lowing its blood to escape. Beef is well known 
to be better after from three to five weeks' hang- 
ing in a cold room just above the freezing point. 
Pork, veal, and lamb are better hung for twenty- 
four hours or more in a cool room after slaughter. 236 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
All of these, however, even beef, that have been 
hanging for three weeks are recognized as fresh 
meat. 
One meal a day, preferably the noon meal, 
should be the meat meal. Meats are more rapidly 
digested in the stomach than cereals, for the sim- 
ple reason that the stomach digestive organisms 
are almost solely those that attack nitrogenous 
foods. The reason I recommend meat for the 
midday meal is that it is especially active in pro- 
ducing heat, not by reason of its composition so 
much as by some specific action the protein has 
upon metabolism. In other words, the system 
seems determined to burn all protein matter 
which is digested, whereas starch and sugars may 
be stored for a long while before they are burned. 
As the child is active during the day, and espe- 
cially the afternoon, the meat at noon supplies 
the heat and energy which he consumes in play. 
Similar reasons would lead to the use of meat for 
breakfast, if not used in the midday meal. As the 
child is quiescent at night, it is better that no 
meat enter his diet for the evening meal. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
237 
CALORIE VALUE OF THE DIET 
The quantity of food, measured by Calories, 
which a child from five to ten years of age needs 
is set forth in the following data: 
Weight, 35-50 pounds-Calories, 1,200-1,400 
" 50-75 " 11 1,400-1,800 
Calories per kilogram of weight, 70-60. Ex- 
ample: Weight, 25 kilograms. Energy require- 
ment = 25 X 70 = 1,750. Children who are very 
quiet will require less fuel, and those hard at play 
more than the numbers given. 
The vigor of the child's physical activity in- 
creases rapidly during the age from five to ten. 
It is essentially the age of play and bodily exer- 
cise. It is also the age of the beginning of the 
growth in length. For this reason the child needs 
a greater amount of food according to his weight 
than the grown person, and this excess of food is 
used up in the vigor of play and in continued 
growth. During these ages, also, the child that 
has been properly trained as an infant and young 
child, and whose training is continued in the fun- 
damentals of diet, will develop a character and 
habit which will be a guide to safety during the 238 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
rest of his life. Not only is he able to obey his 
parents' injunction not to eat those things which 
are injurious, but he will begin to understand the 
reasons why, and this will add strength to the 
firmness of his conviction. 
TELL THE CHILD THE REASONS FOR HIS DIET 
It is too early, perhaps, to begin to instruct the 
child seriously in the fundamentals of nutrition. 
This is indeed not necessary at this early age. It 
comes in a very proper place a little further on. 
But he can understand the reasons for specific 
exemptions in the matters of things eaten and the 
selection of others. He will also begin to under- 
stand the function of play, not simply to amuse, 
but the necessity of it to develop the strength of 
limb and brain. He will also understand what a 
major factor food is in connection with this de- 
velopment. Care should be exercised at this 
period to guard the child against the habit of eat- 
ing candy and other sweets. The temptations to 
do so are much more frequent than at the earlier 
age, and often they are presented in the absence 
of his parents or guardians. The eating of large 
quantities of sugar, candy, and sweets not only 
interferes with normal growth and nutrition, but NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
239 
especially tends to injure the quality of the per- 
manent teeth which are making their appearance. 
We are not ready, even at ten, to open the doors 
to the flood of sugared foods. If it comes at all, 
it must be later in life. 
DANGERS OF THE SCHOOL 
During this period the child usually begins to 
attend the public school. Here he is obnoxious 
to a whole army of dangers from which he is 
practically free at home. Bad air, infection, and 
bad company are to be expected in a public school. 
Everybody may go to a public school, and thus 
the unfortunate circumstance arises where the 
child is brought into contact with a small number 
of bad units whose influence is often disastrous. 
Among the bad influences to which he would be 
subjected is the habit of eating sweets of all kinds, 
cakes, and so forth, which is so largely practiced 
by school children. Cheap candy stores have a 
great vogue near the large public-school building. 
The package of candy that can be had for a penny 
is greatly in demand, and these booths are fre- 
quented by the school children during the hours 
of intermission, with pennies which unfortunately 240 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
their parents have given them without a warning 
as to how they shall be spent. 
IMPORTANCE OF SCHOOL LUNCH 
The midday lunch at school is a matter which 
the parent should consider most seriously. It is 
here that the little sandwich which contains some 
good meat does its best work. I do not share the 
general prejudice against so-called cold foods, 
meaning foods at the ordinary temperature of the 
room. It is extremely inconvenient to provide a 
hot lunch for the child at school, unless the school 
building be furnished with a kitchen. The parent 
will look forward to the luncheon at the ordinary 
room temperature as the condition which usually 
obtains. A sandwich made out of brown bread 
and butter, or with a little piece of cold beef or 
cold chicken, or with a lettuce leaf and a little 
mayonnaise or other dressing upon it, is to be re- 
garded as the basis of the school-day lunch. If 
the school building contains a refrigerator, where 
a bottle of milk can be kept at a low temperature, 
so as to avoid the development of micro-organ- 
isms, it is advisable to provide the child with that 
ration; but this is usually not available, and the 
luncheon, therefore, may be faced with the idea NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
241 
of excluding milk. Coffee, tea, or chocolate is out 
of the question for luncheon purposes, or, in fact, 
for any purpose connected with the nourishment of 
the child. Fruits lend themselves remarkably well 
to luncheon purposes. An orange or an apple is 
easily transported and is appetizing and whole- 
some. I do not .recommend so highly bananas, 
though, of course, in moderation the banana is a 
wholesome enough diet. It is too preponderantly 
carbohydrate. It does not have the acid principles 
of the orange and the apple, and, therefore, I do 
not regard it as so wholesome an article of diet. 
Desserts, in my opinion, should be excluded from 
the child's school lunch. Neither cake nor pie is 
desirable. The luncheon should be simple. The 
whole cereal bread sandwich of some kind, the 
glass of milk, and the orange or the apple should 
be regarded as the ideal for this meal. 
INFLUENCE OF FOOD ON DEPORTMENT AND PROGRESS 
Experience has shown that children who are 
not well nourished either at home or at school are 
backward in their studies, inattentive, and often 
mischievous. In those localities where the public 
spirit or the enlightened philanthropy of the citi- 
zens or the school committee has provided for a 242 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
hot lunch, it has been found that the sandwich 
with a piece of roast beef produces the ideal re- 
sults. Those children who are not able to bring 
wholesome food to school are vastly benefited by 
an arrangement of this kind. The study of the 
breakfast basket of the school child throughout the 
country has revealed a woful state of ignorance of 
the parents regarding the principles of nutrition, 
or else a lamentable lack of means to secure the 
proper diet. The hastily baked, so-called biscuit, 
a pickle, or a piece of sad pie, are too often found 
in the armament of the midday meal. The suc- 
cess of the child at school depends not alone upon 
the teacher, nor the curriculum, nor the school- 
book-it depends most of all upon the nourish- 
ment of the child. LESSON XVII 
THE FOOD OF THE CHILD FROM TEN TO 
SEVENTEEN 
WE have one further step in the study of 
the proper food for growing children; 
namely, from ten years of age until they 
reach the status of maturity, at least in so far as 
nutrition is concerned. From ten to seventeen 
years of age is a critical period in the history of 
early childhood. During this period both physical 
and mental growth are extremely rapid, and the 
bent is given to the character which determines 
practically the conduct of future life. The real 
man or woman is in the making particularly dur- 
ing this period. 
First of all, the fact must be kept in view that 
the digestive organs at the beginning of the tenth 
year have approximately reached development. 
There is little difference in the nutritional proc- 
esses of the child of ten and the mature man of 
twenty-five, yet there is a progressive scale indica- 
tive of the passing years. For equal weights the 
243 244 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
child during this period still needs a larger amount 
of food than the grown person. Not only is this 
an age of great physical and mental activity, thus 
requiring an abundant source of heat and energy, 
but it is also an age when new tissues are con- 
stantly added to the old, thus demanding an in- 
creased supply of body-building materials. An 
important crisis in the life of the child takes place 
during this period in the advent of puberty. Espe- 
cially with girls at this period there are often de- 
veloped abnormal tastes and desires for the eat- 
ing of things which are anything but wholesome. 
This is the era of chalk, lead pencils, and pickles 
for the budding girl. The effect of puberty on the 
boy is not nearly so marked as on the girl, but, 
nevertheless, it is most important. 
FOOD NUTRITIONAL AND NOT STIMULATIVE 
The food of this period should be nutritional 
in every sense of the word, and not stimulative. 
The new life to which the child awakens in this 
period is of itself sufficiently stimulating without 
any adventitious help. There is no period of life 
when stimulating and exciting foods should be so 
carefully avoided as during this period. Unfor- 
tunately, also, this is the period of life in which NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
245 
habits of diet are contracted that are likely, 
if of an improper kind, to prove of immediate and 
lasting injury. In the case of the boy, especially, 
the temptation to use tobacco and alcohol is pre- 
sented in most attractive forms, and it requires 
the careful oversight of the parent or guardian and 
the proper instruction and firmness of will of the 
child to safeguard him through these threatening 
conditions. The literature to which the child has 
access is quite as important as the food at this 
period. Erotic novels, stories of hairbreadth es- 
capes, and the whole realm of yellow literature, 
are to be excluded from the life of the child during 
this period, as well as exciting, stimulating, and 
improper foods, and ill-chosen moving pictures. 
CANDIES AND CONFECTIONS 
Some of the things which are not permissible 
before the age of ten may now be indulged in 
without immediate danger. A moderate amount 
of sweets may be introduced into the child's diet 
to help furnish the heat and energy for his active 
life. I do not advise this. I think it better that 
normal foods with only the amount of sugar which 
they naturally contain should be used, but I realize 
that the mode of life to which we are subjected in 246 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
this country must be taken into consideration in 
a study of this kind. The universal use of sweets 
is sufficient excuse for studying to determine, if 
possible, what are the safe limits of toleration. 
It is not so much the sugar which these bodies 
contain as it is their appetizing quality. Unfor- 
tunately, in our system of eating, the dessert, 
which usually contains the sweets, is given after 
a meal which in itself is entirely sufficient for the 
needs of the body. The result is that the system 
is overloaded with food-forming material. Not 
only is this so, but these bodies have such a pleas- 
ing taste that we crave more and more of them. 
I need only refer to the experience of everyone 
to whom palatable candy is offered. He is not 
satisfied with one or two small pieces, but the 
tendency always is to continue eating until we are 
gorged. This is the great danger of the intro- 
ducing of sweets, especially of candies, into the 
diet of the young. Worse than this, candy, espe- 
cially, is not so much eaten at meals as it is be- 
tween meals, thus threatening the digestion with 
a new danger of disturbing its process by asking 
it to begin all over again on a new supply. I 
earnestly recommend, therefore, that sweets be 
indulged in most temperately, and, if possible, in NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
247 
such a way as to prevent the formation of the 
habit. 
MEAT A CONSTITUENT OF THE DIET 
The addition of meat to the diet may now be 
regarded as proper. The quantity eaten, how- 
ever, should not be as large in proportion to the 
whole diet as in the mature person. If the Calo- 
ries requirement per day in the child of ten to 
seventeen runs from 1,200 to 2,000, I should say 
that 10 per cent, of the total Calories to be derived 
from meat is amply sufficient. This would give 
120 Calories arising from meat for a child ten 
years old, and 200 Calories arising from meat for 
the child seventeen years old. I am aware of the 
difficulty of fixing any hard and fast limits for 
matters of this kind. I am only suggesting what 
to me seems a fair mean amount. There are some 
children who are extremely fond of meat, and they 
might have a little more; others who do not care 
so much for it, and they should have less. If a 
child does not like meat, I would strongly advise 
against teaching him the meat-habit. His natural 
instincts are probably a better guide in this re- 
spect than the judgment of his parents. 
The ages which we are now considering are 248 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
the scholastic ages, that is, preparatory to col- 
legiate and university studies. The importance 
of diet to the child in the public school or in the 
high school is of great interest to his progress in 
his studies. Overeating, especially before going 
to school, is highly objectionable because of the 
burden it places upon the digestive tract, depriv- 
ing the brain of its fair supply of blood by reason 
of the excitation of the digestive organs. It is 
difficult to fix one's mind on a study and to get 
the benefit that should come from it in a condition 
of this kind. On the other hand, deficient nutri- 
tion works in equally as disastrous a way. The 
middle ground is the safe one-an abundance of 
pure, simple food, which, however, should not be 
taken principally at breakfast, nor at noon, but 
in the evening after the school-work is done. 
DANGERS IN TEA AND COFFEE 
The use of tea, coffee, and chocolate, of soft 
drinks of a practically harmless character, and 
of so-called soft drinks containing an added alka- 
loid, is to be avoided with the utmost care. The 
soda fountain is an attractive place for the child. 
The attraction of it consists chiefly in the sweet- 
ness of the syrups used, and not so much in the NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
249 
bitter flavoring matters which soft drinks so often 
contain. The soda-waters are supplied ice-cold, 
as a rule, and this chilling of the stomach is bad, 
not only for the grown person, but especially for 
the child. I would discourage, in so far as pos- 
sible, the frequenting of soda fountains by chil- 
dren under the age of seventeen. No one knows 
just what kind of material you are going to get. 
Even the ethical druggist who operates the soda 
fountain is not always informed as to the nature 
of the materials he is dispensing. The gathering 
of children about the soda fountain does not speak 
well for their health nor for excellence in their 
studies. 
Experience has shown that the drinking of tea 
and coffee is extremely detrimental to children, 
and especially does it interfere with the progress 
in their studies. It is true that the caffein which 
tea and coffee contain and the theobromin and 
caffein of cocoa and chocolate stimulate in a cer- 
tain way the mental faculties. That they build 
up or strengthen these faculties no one claims. It 
is a wholly artificial stimulation, entirely differ- 
ent from that of normal nutrition, and can be 
looked upon in the light of scientific investigation 
only as eventually leading to injury. A study of 250 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
the size and health of children and their progress 
in their studies as between those who drink coffee 
and those who do not drink coffee has been uni- 
formly favorable to the non-drinkers. The parent 
who permits his boy or girl to form the habit of 
coffee, tea, or chocolate drinking is unwittingly 
standing sponsor for future ill health and inef- 
ficiency. 
THE SMOKING HABIT 
Smoking is now becoming fashionable among 
women, and there is no reason to believe that in 
the near future we may not have a threat to our 
girls in the way of cigarette-smoking such as has 
been presented to our boys for many years. So 
disastrous is the effect of smoking on children 
that many states forbid the sale or giving away of 
cigarettes to minors, and others place the use of 
these materials under strict restrictions. The 
best way of all is to place a ban upon it abso- 
lutely at the home. Teach boys and girls the 
danger of the habit. Show them its uselessness 
and extravagance. Let them learn that it means 
for them deficient mental and physical ability. 
Supplement this instruction by such regulatory 
acts as will place a ban upon dispensing cigarettes NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
251 
or tobacco in any form to minors. In this way 
the evil will be avoided. There is no more pitiable 
sight to me than to see a boy of ten to seventeen 
smoking a cigarette. I at once lose faith in his 
future. I see in his development only an inef- 
ficient and perhaps invalid citizen. 
AVOID A MONO-DIET 
The diet of the child between ten and seven- 
teen is to be sufficiently expansive to introduce a 
variety of foods which will prevent any bad effects 
from a mono-diet. Well-made bread from whole 
wheat contains practically all of the elements 
which nourish the human body, and yet our motto 
is "Not By Bread Alone." The whole-wheat 
bread should be the basic diet of the child. If a 
beverage is to be used, and I advise its use dur- 
ing these ages, pure, clean, wholesome milk is the 
one to be selected. It is not so important that the 
percentage of milk in the diet at this age should 
be as great as that in the earlier ages of child- 
hood. It is largely a matter of opportunity and 
taste. It is expensive to supply the right kind of 
milk to a large family. If any economy in this 
matter is to be exercised, it should be for the pro- 
tection of the infants and younger members of 252 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
the family. With the exception of milk I would 
not advise the use of any beverages during the 
meal. Experiments have shown that the use of 
water at mealtime is by no means injurious, al- 
though the earlier physiologists taught us that it 
was. It undoubtedly tends to diminish the excre- 
tion of saliva, and hence I believe that it is better 
to eat our meal with no beverage except milk and 
to drink the water afterwards. No harm will 
come, usually, from diluting to this extent the 
contents of the stomach. 
IMPORTANCE OF WHOLE FOODS 
The proportion of whole foods for the child of 
this age should be as great as possible. The whole 
cereals, potatoes with the skins, and raw apples 
with the skins or baked apples with the skins, and 
vegetables that, if boiled, are boiled dry, so that 
extracted salts may be re-absorbed, are highly ad- 
visable. This is the age when mineral starvation 
should be rigidly excluded. The bones, especially, 
need plenty of nourishment during this period, 
and also the mineral elements which enter into the 
bones-namely, phosphoric acid and lime-have 
important functions in other tissues of the body. 
The diet should be so regulated that constipation NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
253 
is entirely avoided. While it is possible to live 
in a state of health with only one evacuation of 
the bowels a day, two ought to be recommended. 
The best periods for this are early in the morn- 
ing and late at night. The diet should be espe- 
cially regulated so that the child does not take 
on any unnecessary fat. 
DANGERS OF ALCOHOL 
It is probably unnecessary to give a warning 
respecting the use of alcohol. Happily, in most 
instances the children of our country today are 
brought up in a manner whereby the danger of 
forming the alcohol-habit is practically elimi- 
nated. There are few parents at the present time 
who give their children alcoholic beverages of any 
description as a part of their diet. I doubt if 
there are any parents of American birth who do 
this. Among our citizens born abroad there may 
yet be cases where beer and wine are a regular 
part of the child's diet, but these cases are not 
the rule. I have often heard it urged that the 
safer plan to avoid drunkenness in mature years 
is to be accustomed to the use of alcoholic bev- 
erages as a child. The facts on which this state- 
ment is based are found in the general condition 254 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
of the people in wine- and beer-drinking coun- 
tries. In Italy, Germany, and France drunken- 
ness among grown persons is not nearly so com- 
mon as in England and in the United States. I 
do not see the pertinence of the argument. It is 
not because our children are brought up without 
alcoholic beverages that some of them use these 
beverages in excess afterwards. It is the habit 
of life in our country. Conviviality is of a more 
special, though perhaps no more general, kind 
than in other countries, but, unfortunately, our 
idea of conviviality is too often based upon the 
quantity of alcoholic beverages consumed. In 
other words, the American youth, if tempted to 
use alcohol, is apt to be in a company where it is 
used to excess, whereas the child that is taught to 
use alcohol at home, in France and Germany, is 
taught to use it in moderation. I cannot see any 
direct relation between strict sobriety in youth 
and inebriety in mature age. I prefer, therefore, 
in the case of my own children, to be as careful 
as possible to protect them against forming the 
habit of consuming alcoholic beverages in youth. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
255 
EFFECT ON HEALTH AND MORALITY 
I do not intend here to go into a discussion of 
the effects of alcohol upon health, upon mentality, 
and upon morality. One needs only to search the 
records of our criminal courts to find how often 
the intemperate use of alcoholic beverages is the 
incidental cause of crime. It is a common belief 
among experts that the excessive use of alcohol 
by the parent tends to cause degeneracy and over- 
sensibility to disease in the offspring. The rec- 
ords compiled by the life-insurance companies in- 
dicate that heavy drinkers, and even moderate 
drinkers, do not have expectation of as long a 
life as those who are temperate or total ab- 
stainers. These are facts which are based upon 
statistics believed to be reliable. I am not 
ignorant of the fact that often men who have been 
addicted to the use of alcoholic beverages, even to 
some excess, have lived to a green old age. 
The same is true of those who use excessive quan- 
tities of coffee and tobacco. I am convinced, how- 
ever, that the general effect of alcoholic beverages 
is bad. It tends to make its users more subject to 
disease, more likely to perform criminal acts, and 
less likely to live to a green old age. The protec- 256 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
tion of our civilization, in my mind, rests largely 
upon rigid control, or even suppression, of the 
traffic in alcoholic beverages. 
CAEE IN THE USE OF CONDIMENTS 
Children between the ages of ten and seventeen 
should avoid the use of difficultly digestible or 
highly spiced foods. The pickle, the oversalted 
meat, the too abundant use of pepper and other 
condiments are not to be recommended even for 
grown people, and certainly they are not good for 
the young. The simpler the diet, the truer to na- 
ture, the more complete in affording all the ele- 
ments which the natural foods contain, the better 
for the boy or girl. The quantities of foods which, 
upon the average, are to be consumed by children 
from ten to seventeen years of age are found in 
the following table: 
Weight, 60- 90 lbs.-Calories per diem, 1,400-2,000 
" 90-110 " " " " 2,000-2,800 
Calories per kilogram of weight, 65-55. Exam- 
ples: Weight, 30 kilograms. 30 X 60 = 1,800 Calo- 
ries. Weight, 50 kilograms. 50 X 55 = 2,750 
Calories. LESSON XVIII 
A LARGE CROP OF CHILDREN'S 
DIETARIES 
THE question of proper food for infants and 
children is of perennial interest. One au- 
thority after another utters the dictum 
which, from his point of view, settles the matter. 
The trouble is that the dicta are contradictory. I 
have already given my own ideas in regard to 
this problem. It is only fair that I should tell why 
I object to many popular practices in choosing the 
child's diet. No wonder the intelligent mother 
finds herself in a hopeless maze in seeking the 
right path for her child's diet. The woman's 
journals and new books are constantly pouring 
not always a flood of light, but a flood of mate- 
rial upon the problem. All have their menus for 
budding men and women from the age of one day 
to eighteen years. A late number of a woman's 
magazine gives twenty-one menus for a week's 
feeding of a normal, healthy child after the third 
year, which is truly formidable in its number of 
257 258 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
items, and at times wonderful in variety and com- 
position. One meal is as follows: 
Dinner-Lamb stew with vegetables; baked 
spaghetti; white bread and butter; lettuce, French 
dressing (use few drops lemon juice with oil); 
baked custard. 
When it is considered that the same child has 
two other meals for that day, each with different 
kinds of foods, and the same variety for the other 
six days, we are certain at least that children thus 
fed will not suffer from a mono-diet. 
BEER AS FOOD FOR A CHILD 
Lately there has been injected into the area a 
propaganda to show that beer is a much better 
food than milk! A sustained effort has been made 
to drive milk out of its trenches. It has been 
urged that milk and beer are alike in raw mate- 
rials, methods of manufacture, and composition, 
and should have similar standards. Eminent au- 
thorities are cited to show the excellence of beer 
and the deadliness of milk. "Beer is liquid 
bread"; "Beer has the food value of milk"; 
"Beer must be regarded as a veritable food prod- 
uct"; "Alcoholic fermentation is a phenomenon NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
259 
correlative with life"; "Alcohol is a food because 
it yields energy, though it does not build tissue"; 
"Relatively, milk is too rich in protein and too 
poor in carbohydrates to be a perfect food"; 
' ' There is no article of human diet so much under 
suspicion, hygienically, as milk," etc., etc., show 
the plan of the campaign. 
All this looks quite formidable. These learned 
men have been talking about one thing, and now 
the beer propagandists are trying to make them 
sponsors for quite a different thing. The trouble 
comes from confusing fuel value with nutritional 
worth. Alcohol has a higher fuel value than any 
class of foods except fats. The carbohydrates, 
proteins, alcohol, and fats are relatively classed 
as to fuel value by the numerals 4, 4, 7, 9. It 
doesn't follow that beer is good for children. In 
point of fact, I think it highly injurious. The 
burden of getting rid of the toxic alcohol just as 
soon as possible, by burning and excretion, more 
than offsets any value it has for supplying heat 
and energy. As a food, milk is as unlike beer as 
Dr. Jekyll is unlike Mr. Hyde. 
What are we going to do in the midst of all 
this confusion? Paul says, " Prove all things; 
hold fast that which is good." Happily for his 260 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
reputation, he wrote that phrase before children's 
diet became a subject of discussion. He, indeed, 
would have a Herculean task set for a life rival- 
ing that of Methuselah if he should attempt to 
"prove all things" claimed for children's foods 
and dietaries. Moreover, the child's life is too 
precious to become a subject of proving. We had 
better do the "proving" on mice and guinea pigs. 
Happily, there are some things that need no 
proving. One is that clean milk, fresh and pure, 
is the ideal food of the infant, and, for many 
years after infancy, of the child. Second, we 
know that the infant's digestive tract is not 
adapted to the digestion of starch and meat. And, 
third, we know that the digestive organs of 
young childhood from two to six cannot ade- 
quately handle animal foods other than milk, and 
perhaps eggs. 
When I look over a child's diet, as I have just 
done, and find recommended for children over 
three, well-cooked farina, hamburg steak, roast 
beef, molasses cake, chocolate, cornstarch, and 
lady-fingers, I am at my wits' end. Being favor- 
able as I am to meat as a part of human diet, I 
cannot bring myself to the belief that any consid- 
erable quantity of it should be used in the early NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
261 
years of the child's life. After he is ten or more, 
meat may become a regular article of diet, but not 
before. As for white bread, cornstarch, farina, 
and polished-rice pudding, I am quite convinced 
that these things had better be left out. 
The child's diet should be simple and confined 
to the fewest articles necessary to secure proper 
variety. Fruit, whole cereals, well-baked bread 
from whole cereals, milk, butter, and vegetables, 
especially spinach, asparagus, roast potato (eaten 
with the skins), beans and peas, whole fruit, and 
baked apple will give the child a proper basic 
diet. Soft-boiled egg, a small piece of the white 
of the chicken once a week, a bite of fresh fish 
on Friday morning, and possibly a taste of roast 
beef or lamb chops once or twice during the week, 
are entirely sufficient, as far as meat is concerned. 
IMPRACTICABLE TO PRESCRIBE A DEFINITE DIET 
To prescribe for a child a definite diet which 
is invariable would be the height of folly. Among 
the basic foods which I have mentioned there is a 
variety sufficient to supply the needs of practi- 
cally every normal child. An excess of starch 
and of sugar is as carefully to be avoided as an 262 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
excess of meat. We want a child to grow, not to 
fatten. It is muscle and bone, and not adipose 
tissue, that we need to create. The apparent ro- 
tundity of infants and children fed on modified 
starches, which represent the great majority of 
so-called infants' foods, is illusory and decep- 
tive. These children are not healthy; they are 
fat. They are probably among the least resistant 
to the inroads of diseases which are so fatal to 
child-life. 
These products of the hydrolysis of starch have 
also quite a vogue as milk-modifiers. The makers 
realize the bold mercenary character of the at- 
tempt to substitute them bodily for milk. But 
why should good milk be modified other than by 
the addition of water and milk-sugar? Does the 
physiological knowledge of the maker of infants' 
food excel that of the Creator? Largely, this 
business is based on the fact that bad milk is so 
generally administered to infants and young chil- 
dren. The more you mix such milk with other 
neutral bodies, the less dangerous it becomes. 
Many doctors advise the use of barley flour, dex- 
trose, maltose, and even cane sugar, in cases where 
the infant already has diarrhea and incipient 
starvation. Even these unnatural foods are bet- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
263 
ter than bad milk. But for the healthy child who 
can get pure milk they have no warrant. 
When the "doctors" prescribe such a wonder- 
ful variety of diet for a child, hesitate before put- 
ting the precept into practice. Remember the 
gospel of simplicity that I am trying to preach. 
A simple diet of wholesome foods is what the 
child needs for its proper development. Begin 
early. Avoid the possibility of forming the 
" sugar-habit. " I was proud, only yesterday, at 
a gathering of grown people and children, where 
cake was served, to have my three-year-old son 
come running to me when the cake was brought 
out, crying out in great joy, "Daddy, I won't eat 
that cake; it isn't good for me." Only a few days 
before this his mother, hearing the noise of a 
battle in the front yard, ran to the window and 
saw the young dietitian astride the prostrate form 
of Dickey, his even-aged playmate, administering 
an assorted variety of Jess Willard "knock- 
out drops." "What are you doing, Harvey?" 
she cried. "Dickey will eat candy, and it isn't 
good for him," was the response. Shall we have 
to come to militant methods to save the health and 
teeth of our children? 264 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
USE OF EGGS 
In regard to the use of eggs, which is so uni- 
formly recommended as an effective method of ad- 
ministering animal protein to infants and growing 
children, too little attention has been paid to the 
fact that many children are oversensitive to the 
influence of eggs. In the establishment of that 
condition of the body which is known as anaphy- 
laxis, that is, extraordinary sensibility to the 
poisonous effects of foods, too little attention has 
been paid to the fact that children may frequently 
exhibit this peculiarity. 
A case in point has lately been brought to my 
attention. A child in Boston who had just com- 
pleted his third year gave evidences of some 
dietetic disturbance resulting particularly in a 
bad breath, paleness, and lack of activity for one 
of his age. The mother was greatly concerned in 
regard to this matter, and, among others, con- 
sulted me regarding it. She submitted to me a list 
of the articles of food which the child was eating, 
which, measured by the ordinary standards, was 
fully sufficient for the child's perfect nourish- 
ment. Among these articles of diet egg was men- 
tioned as being frequently administered. Knowing NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
265 
that at this age egg was a very common diet rec- 
ommended by competent experts for children, I 
failed to find any part of the menu which could 
be scientifically criticised. It is rather a hopeless 
task, anyway, to give any valuable opinion in a 
case of this kind in absentia, and so it was with 
considerable regret that I was compelled to write 
to the child's mother that I did not see anything 
at all wrong with the diet on which the child was 
nourished. Soon after that the mother happened 
to see in a newspaper an account of a child who 
had suffered very much in the way of ill health, 
and when the egg was taken away from his diet 
the annoying symptoms and the disease itself 
from which the child was suffering soon passed 
away. Acting on this hint, she took the egg out 
of the diet of her child. The result was most 
striking. Immediately the child began to im- 
prove. In a very short time the bad odor of his 
breath disappeared, and the conditions of com- 
plete health and physical activity speedily re- 
turned. 
In the case of my own son, we have never had 
any success in giving him egg. It doesn't agree 
with him. He doesn't like it, and he is evidently 
supersensitive to its effects. There may be simi- 266 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
lar oversensibilities to other forms of animal 
protein. Parents are, therefore, urged to be ex- 
tremely observant of the effects of the adminis- 
tration of animal protein to their young children, 
and if any peculiarity of conduct or any variation 
from a state of health results it is advisable to 
withhold at least one of the proteins, and maybe 
all of them, one by one, until it is possible to dis- 
cover which one is causing the trouble. 
THEORETICAL VALUE OF ANIMAL PROTEINS 
Theoretically, it would seem that animal pro- 
tein would be more suitable than vegetable for 
animal nourishment. Let us recall for a moment 
that in the process of digestion all proteins are 
entirely broken up, so that they enter the blood- 
stream in very primitive and simple forms of com- 
bination. From this simple form they are built 
up into various proteins of the new organization. 
Apparently animal proteins would lend them- 
selves best to the synthesis of this kind, because 
they contain the building-stones of animal tissues. 
If this supposition were true, then the cannibal 
would have the purest food of any human beings, 
inasmuch as he eats that character of food repre- 
sented by his own body which he wishes to nour- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
267 
ish. In point of fact, scientific investigations do 
not support a contention of this kind. Were it 
true, the great body of animals that feed upon 
plants would be at a decided disadvantage in com- 
parison with the meat-eating animals of the 
jungle. The data which we have in regard to the 
comparative vitality, the length of life, and the 
amount of service which different animals may 
furnish, do not bear out any such supposition. 
COMPARATIVE VALUE OF MEATS OF DIFFERENT 
ANIMALS 
Many contradictory statements confront the 
person who wishes to get the truth respecting the 
differences in the value of the meat of different 
animals. A great many authors give dogmatic 
statements as to what should be and should not 
be eaten. None of these statements seem to rest 
on truly scientific foundations. The Mosaic dis- 
pensation provided certain rules to guide the con- 
sumers of meat. The fundamental rule in the 
hygienic code of Moses is that man should eat the 
flesh of those animals that have cloven hoofs and 
chew the cud. The range of animals suitable for 
human food is very greatly restricted by this pro- 
vision. Experience has shown that there is no 268 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
animal food, in so far as any scientific reason is 
known, that is in itself specifically inhibited. 
Grasshoppers, snakes, toads, eels, wild game of 
almost every description, practically every kind 
of fish, with all kinds of domesticated animals, in- 
cluding cats and dogs, have served for human 
food. There is a distinct difference, however, in 
the flavor of these foods. We exercise, in other 
words, ideas of cleanliness, and the sense of taste 
and smell in selecting our foods, and are no longer 
guided by the cloven hoof and the chewing of the 
cud. 
Esthetically, animals of the cleanest habits are 
preferred for food. Yet the hog, who is con- 
demned to live, usually, in squalor, is perhaps the 
most generally eaten animal of the world. The 
hog, however, is, in point of fact, an animal of 
excellent taste and discrimination, and if he had 
opportunity would probably be the most cleanly 
of the farm animals. He is more careful of his 
bed and table by far, if he has the opportunity, 
from a sanitary point of view, than is the sheep 
or the ox. Animal foods that are tender, that 
have a good taste and a pleasant odor, may be 
regarded as suitable for foods. At the same time 
it would be useless to attempt to eradicate a NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
269 
prejudice, and it may be well founded, against 
animals that eat decayed flesh or live by prefer- 
ence in insanitary surroundings. The flesh of the 
vulture or the buzzard will never be preferred to 
that of the chicken or the turkey. One will not 
choose a steak of the hyena when he can have a 
cut from a full-blooded Aberdeen Angus steer. LESSON XIX 
THE RELATIONS OF GOOD TEETH TO 
NUTRITION 
MODERN methods of the preparation of 
food and of feeding have robbed the teeth 
of much of their normal activity. All un- 
necessary grinding or pulping of foods before 
they are eaten tends to interfere with the normal 
functional activity of the teeth. Nature develops 
the teeth at a period of life when milk ceases to 
be the sole food required and solid foods of vari- 
ous descriptions are beginning to be used. The 
deplorable condition of the teeth of the children 
of the country, and consequently of the grown peo- 
ple, is not commonly known. The investigations 
which have been made into the character of the 
food eaten by our school children have been sup- 
plemented by an investigation of the character of 
the teeth which are called upon to masticate these 
foods. The revelations of the latter investigation 
are quite as terrorizing as the first. The per- 
centage of children of school age that have irre- 
270 NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
271 
proachable teeth is extremely small. Investiga- 
tions have shown that 60 to 90 per cent, of the 
children in our public schools have defective 
teeth, running from the merest beginning of decay 
to the worst forms of irregularity and disease. 
A very considerable proportion of the children, 
probably 10 per cent., could not be well nourished 
even if they had an abundant supply of the best 
kinds of food. 
Not only do bad teeth interfere with the normal 
processes of chewing, but they go a great deal 
farther than this, and threaten the general health. 
Any focus of infection, wherever it may be, in 
the teeth, in the tonsils, in the lungs, or in other 
vital organs, does more than local injury, because 
of its intimate relations with the circulatory sys- 
tem and the possibilities of carrying the poison 
resulting from the local infection to all parts of 
the body. As a means of maintaining health and 
promoting growth good teeth are of supreme im- 
portance. I have treated this matter at some 
length in my presidential address before the Na- 
tional Mouth Hygiene Association, delivered in 
conjunction with the American Public Health As- 
sociation meeting in Jacksonville, in December, 
1914, a synopsis of which follows:1 
1 American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 5, No. 5, p. 412. 272 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
MOUTH HYGIENE NOT A NEW STUDY 
The hygiene of the mouth is not a new study. It 
has been generally recognized for many years as 
an important adjunct to the hygiene of the body. 
It is only of recent years, however, that the study 
of mouth hygiene has assumed the dignity of a 
separate branch of public health activity. In the 
general oversight of the public health, the medical 
profession of the United States has taken the 
initiative and leading part. In the organization 
of mouth hygiene as a distinct branch of the pub- 
lic service, the dental profession of the United 
States has taken the initiative, and is expected to 
assume the leading role. 
BAD TEETH A MENACE TO HEALTH 
Lack of care of the mouth and its appendages 
is prejudicial to health in several ways. In the 
first place, a decaying tooth is always a menace, 
and especially when the decaying process reaches 
below the gums. Ulcerations, pyorrhea or Riggs' 
disease, and other infections of the root of the 
tooth, are difficult of access and treatment, and 
for this reason are always to be regarded as a 
dangerous condition. Aside from the pain and NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
273 
suffering which these diseases of the teeth pro- 
duce, we must not forget the possibility of direct 
infection. So-called blood poisoning and death 
have been frequent sequelae of diseased teeth. 
Some forms of inflammatory rheumatism are 
thought to be caused by the infection of pyorrhea, 
and in general the health is injured in proportion 
as the teeth are affected. 
In the second place, defective teeth are a threat 
to health by reason of impairment of mastication 
and consequently of digestion. There is no dif- 
ference of opinion concerning the value of good 
teeth, properly used, in the preparation of food 
for the digestive processes. While the vigorous 
stomach may attack particles of food of consid- 
erable size and resistance, the process of digestion 
is naturally slowed up in proportion to the mag- 
nitude and firmness of the unground particles. In 
addition to this, the admixture of healthy saliva 
with the food during the process of mastication is 
of no little consequence, especially in the diges- 
tion of starch. Thus defective teeth not only in- 
jure by reason of imperfect mastication, but like- 
wise by reason of a failure to properly incorporate 
the saliva with the finely divided particles of the 
food while it is still in the mouth. 274 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
DENTAL SCHOOL CLINICS 
On Monday, the twenty-third of November, 
1914, it was my good fortune to be invited to at- 
tend the first dental clinic ever held in the city 
of Washington in a public-school building. Fifty 
of the progressive dentists of Washington have 
made an agreement to give two hours of their time 
per month to a public-school clinic, and the Board 
of Education has set aside a small room in the 
Pierce School building, at the corner of G and 
Thirteenth Streets, Northeast, for the installa- 
tion of the operating room. Gifts of dental chairs 
and apparatus have been made by dentists and 
others, so that the room is now equipped with two 
chairs and a small but somewhat effective set of 
apparatus suitable for clinical work on children. 
For some time the city of Washington has in- 
stituted partial dental inspection of the children 
in the public schools. From the dental inspector I 
have obtained the following data: During the 
two years in which he has been engaged, for part 
of his time only, in dental inspection, he has ex- 
amined 10,230 of the school children of the city, 
between the ages of six and sixteen years. He 
has found 32,307 cavities in the teeth of these NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
275 
children. He has found that of the permanent 
teeth 984 have been lost. He found a total of 
81,910 teeth that needed systematic cleaning, and 
6,056 that were so far decayed that they needed 
extracting. Of the total number of children ex- 
amined, 9,071 had cavities in their teeth and 468 
had abscesses at the roots of the teeth. A num- 
ber of children whose mouths had been examined 
by the dental inspector were present for the clinic 
on the date mentioned. One need only look into 
those neglected mouths and note the ravages of 
disease and lack of attention and cleanliness to 
understand the urgent necessity of work of this 
kind. 
It is a matter of shame that the capital city of 
the country is so far behind many of the other 
cites in a reform of this nature.1 It seems almost 
incredible to believe that until the present time 
no systematic steps have been taken in Washing- 
ton to remedy these crying defects. I imagine 
there are many other cities in the country even as 
badly off as Washington, and there may be some 
of the first class that have not yet installed a 
1 In Boston, the Forsythe Dental Infirmary for Children, richly 
endowed, and housed in an ideal building, has been formally 
opened. 276 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
dental clinic for the benefit of those children 
whose parents are wholly unable to hire the work 
which is necessary. 
In Washington it is proposed to operate in the 
public-school clinic only on those children whose 
parents are unable to meet the expense of the 
work. Children of parents who are able to pay 
for the work will be given a card, describing the 
nature of the work which is necessary to be done, 
for presentation to their parents, and the school 
authorities will urge upon the parents the neces- 
sity of having this necessary work done. No at- 
tempt will be made at the present to bring any 
pressure to bear upon the parents by excluding 
their children from school or otherwise. It is evi- 
dent, however, that the full value of the dental 
clinic in a case of this kind will not be secured 
until some method is devised of bringing pressure 
to bear upon the parents in order that the dental 
work necessary may be done. 
We now have a provision in our public schools 
which excludes unvaccinated children. This is a 
wise precaution to prevent the introduction of 
smallpox into the public schools. When it is re- 
membered, however, that bad mouths, decaying 
teeth, and neglected gums are doing far greater NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
277 
damage to the people of the city of Washington 
than smallpox, we may well ask why we are so 
careful in regard to the lesser danger and so neg- 
ligent in the face of the greater? As I looked into 
the faces of these poorly nourished children, who, 
even if they had good food, would be unable to 
properly assimilate it, I was impressed with the 
magnitude of the work and the great underlying 
principle of humanity and philanthropy to which 
it owes its inception and to which it must look 
for support. It will evidently be some time before 
the school authorities of Washington are able to 
secure from Congress the necessary authority and 
facilities to thoroughly renovate the mouths of 
the school children of the city. 
VAEUE OF A WHOLESOME LUNCHEON 
In Washington, as in many other places, the 
value of a good, wholesome luncheon for children 
has been fully established. By means of a popu- 
lar subscription, warm luncheons, often with a 
piece of roast beef, have been provided for many 
of the indigent children of the city. Improvement 
in deportment and scholarship was most marked 
in these cases. Can we doubt that a similar im- 
provement in deportment and scholarship would 278 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
attend the renovation of the children's mouths? 
It seems to me that it would be very proper for 
this association in some official way to throw its 
influence toward a general movement through- 
out the country for betterment of conditions in 
the mouths of the children. Through the chil- 
dren, best of all, the parents can be reached, and 
through them the gospel of sanitation and hygiene 
of the mouth may be carried into the home and 
made the more effective. 
EARLY CONSERVATION OF THE TEETH 
Hundreds of the school children in Washington, 
and I suppose the same is true of other cities, have 
never been instructed in the use of the tooth- 
brush and know nothing of its value. It seems 
almost incredible that such crass indifference, 
threatening the very foundations of society in so 
far as health is concerned, can prevail. I never 
realized fully the value of an organization of this 
kind until I attended this clinic and was over- 
whelmed with the testimony which was visually 
presented to me of the necessity of action. As I 
look at the matter it is highly important that we 
should begin our work of conservation of the 
teeth long before the children enter the school. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
279 
The tooth is a tissue which needs a particular 
kind of nourishment. While it is true that there 
is no such thing as special food for nerves, or 
brains, or muscles, or teeth, it is true that a 
properly balanced diet is necessary for the gen- 
eral sustenance of the body. The tissues of the 
tooth are composed chiefly of lime and phosphoric 
acid. The foods that contain the proper amount 
of these bodies are, therefore, fundamental in se- 
curing the proper growth of the teeth. The cam- 
paign for sound teeth in the child should be 
inaugurated many years before his birth. 
The temporary teeth of children should be good, 
solid, and enduring, in order that they may remain 
in place until the permanent teeth are ready to 
erupt. Otherwise the permanent teeth may be ex- 
tremely irregular in character and deformed in 
contour. If decay set in in the temporary teeth, 
it is highly important that it should be arrested 
by a filling of a cheap character, but, nevertheless, 
sufficiently enduring to last as long as the tem- 
porary tooth. Thus the proper direction of the 
permanent teeth is secured, and at the same time 
they are not subject to any special germ of de- 
terioration by reason of contact with decayed 
temporary teeth. 280 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
FOOD TO PRODUCE GOOD TEETH 
In regard to the production of teeth of the right 
character as a function of food, I may say that 
the milk of a healthy mother has in it all the ele- 
ments necessary to nourish the temporary teeth. 
As some of these teeth, however, erupt after wean- 
ing, it is of the utmost importance that the child, 
after weaning, be fed a diet sufficiently rich in 
tooth-building material to produce a complete 
temporary set of teeth of the best quality and to 
lay the foundations for the production of the per- 
manent teeth. My own experience leads me to be- 
lieve that the child, after weaning, should receive 
a generous supply of pure, clean, wholesome milk 
from tuberculin-tested cows, and at the same 
time be fed cereals which have not been denatured. 
Of these, wheat, Indian corn, barley, and oats are 
types. Rice which has not been polished and 
which has not lost the important principles of the 
rice bran may also be given once or twice a week 
in moderate quantity. As soon as the temporary 
teeth are sufficiently developed, hard substances, 
such as toast, zwieback, or graham biscuits, 
should be given daily in sufficient quantity to de- 
velop, by the proper exercise of their functions, NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
281 
the character of the teeth. Fruits and vegetables 
suitable for the child's nourishment are not to 
be neglected. A little spinach once or twice a 
week is excellent in the furnishing of some of the 
elements, such as iron, which are important. 
The things to be avoided in the nourishment of 
the teeth of the young child are starch, sugar, 
candy, and polished rice. The child that is fed 
good, wholesome milk and such cereals, fruits, and 
vegetables as I have mentioned, needs scarcely any 
other adjuvant for the nourishment, not only of 
his teeth, but of all the tissues of the body. If 
milk is not given in some considerable quantity, a 
little powdered carbonate of lime or a little lime- 
water may be given from time to time to supply 
the deficiency of lime in the cereals, where the 
phosphoric element is usually in excess. Such a 
diet will develop in the child a normal growth of 
temporary teeth and lay the proper foundations 
for those of a permanent character. If you do not 
get good teeth in childhood, you will never have 
any. The mature molars are of but little account. 282 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
NO NATURAL SWEET TOOTH 
When the first permanent molars begin to erupt, 
the necessity for continuing this kind of diet is 
still paramount. In fact, the whole regimen of 
the child, as long as growth continues, should be 
based upon a balanced ration in which all of the 
elements necessary to nutrition are present in 
proper quantities. This idea of the balanced 
ration in respect of the development of good teeth 
is somewhat at variance with the common practice 
of dosing children from earliest childhood, ip fact, 
almost during infancy, with sweets. My own ex- 
perience shows that a child has no natural sweet 
tooth. If he is not fed sugar and candy and other 
sweets, he will have no craving for them; in fact, 
may have a positive dislike for them. Nature not 
only is one of the best chemists, but also one of 
the best hygienists. In the sugar which she puts 
in milk she finds no place for a sweet taste, milk- 
sugar being almost devoid of sweetness. I am 
more and more convinced by experience, study, 
and observation that the common habit of feed- 
ing children sugar, candies, and starches is highly 
detrimental, and especially so to the development 
of the teeth. It is a common idea, which I think NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
283 
is a correct one, that the eating of sugar and 
candy is bad for the teeth. It is not so bad for 
the teeth, however, in the common acceptation of 
the term, which implies that the eating of sugar 
and candy tends to produce decay in the teeth. 
That, in my opinion, is not the chief objection. 
The eating of sugar and candy unbalances the 
ration and interferes with the proper composition 
of the tooth itself during growth, thus leaving it 
especially subject to the ravages of decay. 
FOOD THE DOMINANT FACTOR 
I urge upon this association the careful study 
of this problem, namely, the proper nutrition of 
the child to secure a good set of teeth. I believe 
we will come pretty close to striking at the heart 
of the trouble when, through investigation and 
study of this kind, we come to the conclusion that 
the child's food is the dominant factor in the char- 
acter of his teeth. In thus emphasizing this im- 
portant fundamental principle I do not in the least 
intend to minimize the importance of caring for 
the teeth once they are formed. The child who 
has hard, sound, regular teeth needs to be taught 
the principles of proper care. This means, of 284 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
course, in the first place, the proper functioning 
of the teeth. There must be an abundance of 
chewing of the right kind, and it must be well 
done. The tooth is no different from any other 
organ of the body. To be in prime condition it 
must be properly exercised. In order that it may 
be kept from the ravages of decay it must be 
kept clean. Eternal vigilance is the price of good 
teeth. 
After the age of childhood, the care of the 
teeth, while not so important, is no less desirable. 
It is not at all uncommon at the present time to 
see men and women of middle age with false teeth 
or none at all. This, of course, means simply im- 
proper development of the teeth, in the first place, 
or carelessness in their use, in the second place. I 
do not know of any reason why the teeth should 
not last as long as the eye or the ear or any other 
organ of the body. While I am aware that age 
lessens the usefulness of all the organs of the 
body, I am an advocate of that course of life 
which would keep all of the organs in synchronic 
usefulness ending in synchronic decay. My ideal 
of life is set forth in that wonderful poem of Dr. 
Holmes (which most people think is only a bit of 
fun, and yet it is the expression of the most salu- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
285 
tary philosophy); namely, the story of the One- 
Hoss Shay. 
Does anyone here doubt that human life would 
be very much lengthened and made far more en- 
durable if, without the change of any other of the 
conditions of the environment, we could assure to 
men and women during their life an excellent, un- 
impaired, and serviceable set of teeth? It would 
be extremely unscientific and unwise to make any 
estimate of how much human life would be length- 
ened if human teeth were kept in a perfect state, 
but I would not come far from the truth if I 
should suggest the average lengthening of life by 
many years as the reward of such an accomplish- 
ment. 
HEALTH THE GREATEST BLESSING 
I take it for granted that in this association no 
one will doubt that the greatest of human bless- 
ings is health. Health means not only freedom 
from pain and a capacity for enjoyment, but a 
great deal more than this. It means ability to 
serve. We hear much now of efficiency in busi- 
ness. We read of the stories of the efficiency en- 
gineer, who goes into a manufacturing establish- 
ment and turns a deficit into a profit without 286 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
expending a single dollar more than was spent 
before. It is known as "system" or "efficiency." 
And so, without increasing in any degree the ex- 
pense of human existence, we may make it far 
more effective by the introduction of that system 
which secures the highest efficiency. 
One of the dominant factors in this system is 
health. We all approve the efforts which are 
making everywhere to exclude the causes of dis- 
ease, especially the causes of contagious and in- 
fectious diseases. To this end we establish quar- 
antines, we destroy foci of infection, and we arm 
the individual with an additional resistance by 
means of vaccination and disinfectants. We teach 
in our schools and colleges the principles of sani- 
tation. It is a matter of gratification that the 
principles, as well as the practice, of the sanita- 
tion of the mouth are not to be neglected. In 
one great institution of learning in this country 
there has been established a department of mouth 
hygiene under the supervision of Dr. William J. 
Gies, who has already done special service in 
studying the chemistry of the mouth. Other great 
institutions have departments of sanitation, hy- 
giene, and public health. I feel quite certain that 
the example which has been set by Columbia Uni- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
287 
versity will be speedily followed by other institu- 
tions of learning throughout the land. 
Instructions of this kind will prove more effec- 
tive than the teachings in the dental schools for 
professional students. It is a kind of instruction 
which will filter out through the newspapers and 
magazines and from the public schools and the 
pulpits of the country into the homes of all our 
people. Knowledge is a precedent to effective 
service in any direction, and effective service in 
sanitation cannot be accomplished by striking in 
the dark. We may sometimes by a lucky thrust 
in the dark strike our antagonist, but we are just 
as apt to strike a friend. It is the "pestilence 
that walketh in the darkness ' ' which baffles human 
endeavor to suppress and not the pestilence which 
has come out into the open and "wasteth at noon- 
day." Yellow fever and smallpox and typhoid 
and measles and whooping-cough and diphtheria 
are all pestilences which have ceased to walk in 
the darkness and have come out into the light. 
These diseases are effectually combated. It is 
cancer and arterio-sclerosis and Bright's disease 
and diabetes that are still walking in the dark- 
ness. The pestilence that is destroying the teeth 
of our children or which has not allowed them to 288 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
be produced has long been walking in the dark- 
ness. We will now bring it to the light, where 
effective work in guarding against it and in de- 
feating its purposes may be accomplished. 
At the Atlantic meeting of the American Medi- 
cal Association, last June, Dr. Billings read an 
instructive paper on focal infection as the cause 
of endocarditis, arthritis deformans, rheumatic 
fever, nephritis, acute and chronic; myocarditis, 
exophthalmic goiter, chalicystitis, and diabetes, in 
which he said: 
"The focus of infection may be located any- 
where in the body. The usual site is in the head, 
in the form of alveolar abscess, deep tonsilar or 
peritonsilar abscess and chronic sinusitis." 
Dr. Thayer, in discussing the paper, said: 
"When one meets today a mitral stenosis or in- 
sufficiency he proceeds in a very different way 
from that in which he did twenty years ago. One's 
first thought now should be to search for a focus 
of chronic infection by the removal of which the 
probability of progression of the malady may be 
greatly reduced." 
Dr. Anders said: NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
289 
"If foci of inflammation are found there, they 
should, of course, be energetically attacked with- 
out delay. It is important to recollect that if re- 
moval of such focal infections fail to bring about 
a cure .of the condition from which the patient 
may be suffering, it is not evidence to the con- 
trary, but means, as pointed out by Dr. Billings, 
that hematogenous metastasis has already taken 
place." 
Dr. Rochester said: 
"I wish to speak of focal infections especially 
of the teeth and tonsils. In three cases having 
teeth infections accompanied by endocarditis in 
which there were no manifest symptoms in the 
mouth, but in which the Roentgen ray showed an 
abscess at the roots of the teeth, when the abscess 
was removed the symptoms subsided and the pa- 
tients improved clinically. The organism found 
was the ordinary streptococcus pyogenes." 
While writing this paper, Dr. King, of Wash- 
ington, told me of a case of diabetes which had 
just been under his care in which the removal of 
a pyorrheal tooth effected a speedy disappear- 
ance of sugar in the urine. 
From the pathological laboratories of the Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania, Drs. Smith, Middleton, 290 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
and Barrett have just published a paper on "The 
Tonsils as a Habitat of Oral Endamebas," in 
which they say: 
"In connection with work recently carried on 
by Smith and Barrett in the pathologic labora- 
tories of the University of Pennsylvania indicat- 
ing that the parasitic amebas of the mouth hold 
an important relation in the etiology of pyorrhea 
alveolaris or Riggs' disease, and that by the use 
of emetin (alkaloid) as an amebicide these organ- 
isms may be destroyed and the pyorrheal lesions 
cured, we have sought to determine whether these 
protozoa may not find their way also into the ton- 
sils and there perhaps be of importance in deter- 
mining or in maintaining certain of the inflamma- 
tory lesions of these structures, at least with or 
without associated systemic complications. To 
the present time only the first of these proposi- 
tions can be said to be proved, that is, that these 
parasites actually at times involve the tonsils. 
The conditions of the tonsils of persons in whom 
they have been found located, and the behavior 
of several positive cases with systemic complica- 
tions after the administration of emetin, however, 
are decidedly suggestive and encouraging to con- 
tinued investigation now in hand. 
"Riggs' disease has for years been suspected of 
primary relationship to various systemic disturb- 
ances, including particularly certain chronic or NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
291 
recurrent arthritic affections, and possibly, too, 
some of the anemias of obscure origin and degen- 
erative lesions of various parenchymatous organs; 
and even greater suspicion, amounting almost to 
certainty, has attached to tonsillar affections in 
relation to such systemic complications. Follow- 
ing these ideas, which are essentially those of 
Hunter and others, the possibility of more gen- 
eralized influences must necessarily occur, the 
effects of either the endamebiasis or of the asso- 
ciated bacteria, or both. Direct extension of the 
inflammatory processes, or lesions due to metasta- 
sis by lymphatic or hemic convection, or due to 
the effects of swallowed or absorbed toxic 
products, are, logically, at least, to be thought 
of. 
"In several instances in the series of cases 
treated for pyorrhea by Dr. Barrett there has 
been noted, after the cure of the pyorrhea, the 
disappearance of symptoms of gastric and intes- 
tinal disorders. Similar experience has been re- 
lated to us by several dentists following emetin 
medication; and while perhaps in a few cases this 
may be due to the happy effect of a coincidence of 
pyorrhea and amebic dysentery (as in a case com- 
municated by Dr. F. C. Narr, of Philadelphia, to 
us), this explanation can be accepted only in ex- 
ceptional instances. It would rather suggest that 
the cure of the oral lesions has diminished the 
bacterial and other poisons which previously had 292 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
been swallowed and had been causative of some 
grade of gastritis. 
"Whatever other relation may obtain between 
the amebas and the accompanying vegetable 
micro-organisms, one may be certain that the 
amebas feed largely on the latter and in this bac- 
terial phagocytic action they doubtless set free 
from this and from that organism different endo- 
toxins. Doubtless bacterial toxins thus originating 
play a more important part than do toxins from 
the amebas themselves, if there be amebic toxins; 
and the end-results of toxic absorption are sure, 
therefore, to vary, now manifesting as hemolysis, 
now as cellular degenerations or nevroses of fixed 
tissues, now as inflammatory changes as of syno- 
vial or serous membranes." 
Thus it is seen that many of the fundamental 
conditions which attend common infestations of 
the mouth reach out in organic connection with 
some of the most destructive and painful diseases 
to which we are obnoxious. Mouth hygiene thus 
establishes an organic relation to diagnosis and 
therapy in a manner which is most suggestive of 
proper prophylaxis and remedial treatment. 
Pyorrhea alveolaris is the "great white plague" 
of the teeth, and recent progress in its etiology 
and treatment is beginning to offer some hope of a NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
293 
speedy check to this tuberculoid pest. The intra- 
alveolar injection of a strong solution of bifluoride 
of ammonia and the intravenous use of emetin are 
indications of the therapeutic dental triumphs of 
the near future. 
ALL STAND TOGETHER FOR THE PUBLIC HEALTH 
All who are here, and many thousands who are 
not, have enlisted in this army to battle for the 
public health. There should be no bickerings, nor 
cross-purposes, nor envy, nor jealousy, to mar the 
effectiveness of our campaign. There should be 
no ingress of an attempt to serve mercenary in- 
terests under the guise of serving the public 
health. Allies can be effective only when they 
work to the same purpose. The National Mouth 
Hygiene Association has cordial organic rela- 
tions with the American Public Health Associa- 
tion and with all similar organizations that are 
battling for the betterment of humanity. It is a 
good omen that we meet at the same place and in 
the same rooms and that our audiences are com- 
posed of the same people, that we are working in 
a common cause and our victory will be for the 
benefit of all humanity. LESSON XX 
MISINTERPRETED DATA 
THERE is a widespread belief that the nutri- 
tion experts of the Department of Agricul- 
ture in the Bureau of Experiment Stations 
have stated that wheat white flour, that is, the 
fine patent flour of commerce and other flours 
similar thereto, has higher nutritive value than 
the flour made from the whole wheat. This is 
due to statements made in Bulletin No. 126 of 
the Department of Agriculture, Office of Experi- 
ment Stations, printed in 1903. In order to clear 
this point up, I quote from the Bulletin, page 50, 
as follows: 
"As shown by analysis, the patent flour, 
ground from the hard and soft wheats studied, had 
a somewhat lower protein content than the gra- 
ham flour and entire-wheat flour ground from the 
same wheats, but according to the results of di- 
gestion experiments with the different grades of 
flour from these wheats the proportion of digest- 
ible protein and the available energy in the patent 
flour was larger than in the coarser grades. The 
294 NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
295 
lower digestibility of the protein in the latter is, 
it appears, due to the fact that in these grades a 
considerable portion of this constituent is con- 
tained in the coarser particles (bran), and thus 
escapes digestion, as it is not acted upon by the 
digestive juices. Thus, while there may be actu- 
ally more protein in a given amount of graham 
or entire-wheat flour than in an equal amount of 
patent flour ground from the same wheat, the 
body secures less of the protein and energy from 
the coarse flour than it does from the fine, since, 
although the retention of the bran and germ in- 
creases the percentage of protein, it decreases the 
digestibility. By digestibility is meant the dif- 
ference between the amounts of the several nu- 
trients consumed and the amounts excreted in the 
feces. No attempt was made to study the ease 
or rapidity of digestion of the different sorts of 
flour. When the digestibility of different grades 
of patent flour was studied it was found that there 
was no marked difference between standard patent 
flour and the other grades in this respect. The 
digestibility of all these flours was found to be 
high, apparently owing largely to their mechanical 
condition, that is, owing to the fact that they were 
finely ground. 
" Microscopical studies of the feces from bread 
made from the different grades of flour indicate 
that the superior digestibility of patent-flour 
bread is due to the fineness of division of the flour 296 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
particles and also to the fact that the cell walls 
of the material making up the interior of the 
wheat berry are less resistant to digestive juices 
than the walls of the cells making up the outer 
layers of the grain. In other words, the patent 
flour is superior as regards digestibility, on ac- 
count of both its mechanical condition and its 
physical properties. . . . 
''Briefly stated, the most important deductions 
from the results of these investigations with hard 
and soft wheat are in accord with the conclusions 
drawn from the earlier investigations of this 
series. The nutritive value of flour, in so far as 
the quantities of digestible protein, fats, and car- 
bohydrates, and available energy are concerned, 
is not increased by milling the wheat in such a 
way as to retain a large proportion of bran and 
germ. The differences in the amounts of total 
nutrients furnished the body by the various 
grades of flour are, however, relatively small, all 
grades being quite thoroughly digested. The 
coarser flours have a tendency to increase peri- 
staltic action, and are on this account especially 
valuable for some persons. Judged by composi- 
tion and digestibility, all the flours are very nu- 
tritious foods, which experience has shown are 
wholesome as well. When also the fact is taken 
into account that they furnish nutritive material 
in an economical form, their importance is evi- 
dent. The fact must not be lost sight of that NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
297 
using different grades of flour for bread-making 
and other household purposes offers a convenient 
method of adding to the variety of the daily diet, 
a matter which is of undoubted importance." 
A careful study of the above statements shows 
that no special claim is made that white flour is 
more valuable than the whole-wheat flour. The 
general tenor of the text, however, is well suited 
to induce a belief in the superiority of white 
flour. It is claimed that the white flour is ground 
into finer particles and that the nutrient materials 
contained therein are assimilated to a higher de- 
gree than is the case with whole-wheat flour, 
which is usually coarsely ground. The depart- 
ment bulletin distinctly says that a finely ground 
wheat flour has less protein than the entire-wheat 
flour. The same statement is true of its mineral 
content. Although the proportion of the elements 
digested is to a very slight degree smaller in the 
whole-wheat flour, it is evident that there is noth- 
ing in the department bulletin to indicate that the 
total nutritive value is less. There is a larger 
quantity of excrementitious matter in the feces 
when whole wheat is eaten, and this in itself is an 
evidence of its greater wholesomeness. The re- 
port of the department recognizes this fact in call- 298 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
ing attention to the increased peristaltic action 
due to the ingestion of whole-wheat products, 
which is admitted to be valuable to some persons. 
The common citing of the departmental bulletins 
as an evidence that finely ground white flour is 
more nutritious than the whole-ground wheat flour 
is, therefore, not warranted. 
WHOLE-WHEAT FLOUR PREFERRED 
There is an almost universal consensus of 
opinion among dietetic experts to the effect that 
properly ground whole-wheat flour is a more 
wholesome product both for children and grown 
people than the fine wheat flour of commerce. Ex- 
periments have been conducted by competent sci- 
entists in the feeding of small animals, such as 
mice, on a diet composed of fine-flour products, on 
the one hand, and entire-wheat products on the 
other. Results of these experiments have always 
been disastrous to the animals fed on the fine- 
flour products, while normal growth and health 
have been maintained by those animals fed on the 
whole-wheat products. It is true that men are 
not mice; but it would be extremely unwise to 
conclude that children might eat with impunity 
an article which, when fed to mice, would produce NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
299 
emaciation, starvation, disease, and death. The 
salvation of the human infant is found in the 
fact that he does not eat these products solely, 
because if he did there is no reason to believe that 
the fate of the white-flour-fed mice would not soon 
overtake him. 
There is no question of the excellence of prod- 
ucts made from fine-wheat flour. Well-made 
bread, made of fine white flour, not only has an 
excellent taste and aroma, but is also highly nu- 
tritious when eaten with a mixed diet, especially 
for workingmen and grown persons. I have no 
desire to eliminate the white-flour loaf from the 
table, but I caution parents to guard their chil- 
dren against injury from too much of such a diet. 
It is delightfully surprising to see how the young 
child, when fed whole-cereal products, such as 
properly ground whole-wheat flour, whole-corn 
flour, whole-oat flour, and whole rice, establishes 
an appetite and desire for these bodies, which 
renders their exhibition as foods easy and suc- 
cessful. 
IMPORTANCE OF PROPER MILLING 
The one important thing is proper grinding, 
preceded by proper cleaning. The wheat berry, 300 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
especially, is difficult to clean. The cleft on one 
side holds dust with singular persistence. The 
mere running of the grain through a cleaning mill 
which removes all detachable matters is not 
usually sufficient to clean the cleft. It is desir- 
able, when possible, to first have the wheat grains 
broken by passing through a roller mill, properly 
adjusted, and afterwards have them cleaned by 
passing through a wind-blast. In this way almost 
perfect cleanliness of the grains before grinding 
is secured. Next, the grinding itself should be 
done in old-fashioned millstones (buhrs). These 
should be sharp, perfectly adjusted, and as closely 
approximated as possible to secure a very finely 
divided bran. Especially should this be the case 
when this food is used for infants or invalids. 
Strong, healthy grown people may eat the coarsely 
ground wheat flour with apparent impunity. The 
only loss is in the fact that large flakes of bran 
are usually excreted without digestion, whereas 
if the bran is finely ground more or less of its 
minerals and proteins will be acted upon by di- 
gestive ferments. 
My advocacy of whole, clean cereal products is 
based largely upon their mineral content. They 
contain the salts of lime and of potash, usually NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
301 
combined with phosphoric acid, which are most 
useful in digestion and assimilation. It is true 
the report of the Department of Agriculture, to 
which attention has been called, contains a some- 
what unscientific insinuation that these mineral 
salts are not assimilated. The report says: 
"In view of the fact that there is apparently 
no satisfactory method for determining the pro- 
portion of ash in the feces, derived from meta- 
bolic products, and that it is, therefore, impos- 
sible by present methods to determine the true 
digestibility of the mineral constituents, no values 
for the digestibility of ash have been included in 
the present bulletin. It may be noted in this con- 
nection that it is a well-recognized fact that when 
the coarser milling products are fed to cattle no 
great amount of phosphorus (one of the most 
important manurial elements) is retained in the 
animal body. This may possibly be an indication 
that the phosphorus, even if present in consider- 
able amounts in the feed, is not in a form which 
can be assimilated by animals. This is, however, 
little more than conjecture, and more experiments 
with man and the lower animals are needed be- 
fore satisfactory conclusions can be drawn." 
The last sentence of the above quotation shows 
that the writer himself did not consider the suppo- 302 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
sition of any value. The harm the attitude of the 
department officials has done is in influencing 
many readers to believe that these so-called waste 
products of wheat have no nutritional value. 
The common experience of dairymen in the feed- 
ing of wheat bran shows how erroneous such a 
conclusion is. It is not expected that the quantity 
of phosphorus in full-grown animals shall be in- 
creased. It is quite different with young animals, 
such as calves, for they need the phosphorus for 
growth purposes, and if experiments are made 
with calves it will be seen how great the content 
of phosphorus stored in the body is when proper 
amounts are fed. Fortunately, the experiments on 
man and the lower animals have been made since 
the above bulletin was written, and the feeding 
of animals, especially young animals, on whole- 
wheat products versus fine-flour products has 
given the information which was wanting. There 
is no longer any doubt of the fact that the demin- 
eralization of our foods, especially the cereal 
foods, is unscientific, unwise, and unnecessary. A 
generous mineral diet, as nature has prepared it, 
is a necessity for the growing child and a desir- 
ability for the grown person. LESSON XXI 
CAUSES OF RACE DEGENERATION 
IN the last quarter of a century military serv- 
ice has been compulsory in most of the great 
nations of the world. In England and in the 
United States during this period military service 
has been wholly voluntary. Whether compulsory, 
as in Germany, France, Russia, Italy, and Austria, 
or whether voluntary, as in England and the 
United States, the same story comes from all 
countries. This story is less accentuated in the 
United States than in any other country, but still 
its teachings should not be neglected. There are 
certain bodily qualifications which are considered 
necessary in a recruit before he can be assigned 
to military service in the camp or in the field. 
Primarily, the recruit must not be suffering 
from any organic lesion or hereditary taint which 
renders him physically unfit. In the second place, 
he must have a certain stature and girth, which 
are considered necessary to undergo the burdens 
of the camp, the field, and the battle. At the time 
303 304 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
of the Boer War, in England it is stated that two 
out of every five recruits who offered their serv- 
ices to the king wTere found physically unfit to 
endure the hardships of military life. In Ger- 
many, several years prior to the beginning of the 
present war, statistics showed that between 40 
and 50 per cent, of the conscripts did not measure 
up to the standards required for service in the 
army. These data seem extraordinarily high. It 
was not possible to alter the stature of the re- 
cruits, and, therefore, in order to keep the armies 
up to the maximum strength required, the physi- 
cal standards had to be lowered. It is a pretty 
poor excuse for a man at the present time that 
will be rejected in Europe by a recruiting officer. 
Smallness of stature, if it did not carry nec- 
essarily diminished strength, would not be a 
handicap for a soldier, but a positive advantage. 
The smaller the target, the more difficult to hit. 
It is evident, however, that in the burdens of army 
life, especially as war is carried on today, when 
men live in trenches and under hardships unknown 
in former wars, lack of physical stamina is likely 
to cause the recruit to be a burden instead of an 
aid in military operations. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
305 
SEEKING THE CAUSE OF FAILING VITALITY 
Many inquiries have been instituted in many 
countries seeking for the cause of diminishing 
physical strength and size. Without exception, 
as these causes have been traced, it is found that 
under-nutrition or malnutrition of infants and 
children plays a most important role. The ques- 
tion of the proper nourishment of young human- 
ity, therefore, comes squarely up to every country 
as one of the greatest problems looking to the 
future advance and prosperity of the nation. The 
admirable school systems which have been insti- 
tuted in most countries meet with the just and un- 
qualified praise of every person interested in the 
welfare of man. May it not be pertinent to in- 
quire, nevertheless, if we are putting the cart be- 
fore the horse? If Ruskin was right in saying 
that it is the first business of every man to be a 
good animal, is not the State wrong in failing to 
take every precaution necessary to secure a good 
animal before it undertakes his education? 
The first care of the State, it seems to me, 
should be physical. Where the welfare of the 
nation is at stake, the right of the State to safe- 
guard its infants and children and bring them up 306 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
to a healthy manhood and womanhood must be un- 
challenged. The first education that the child 
should have is that which relates to his physical 
welfare. The mental training comes after with- 
out difficulty. If, however, there be no physical 
basis of health and strength, the effort toward 
mental training must of necessity fail. The school 
life which neglects the primary function of edu- 
cation, namely, the health of the child, may prove 
a curse instead of a blessing. 
A GREAT EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM 
In the United States we have organized a great 
national system of education based upon the fun- 
damental idea of instruction in agriculture, the 
mechanic arts, and military service. This system 
of education, established at the time of the Civil 
War, was conceived in the minds of our wise 
statesmen many years prior thereto. In fact, a 
bill very much like the one which is now a law 
was passed by Congress during the presidency of 
James Buchanan, and was vetoed by the Presi- 
dent on the ground that it was unconstitutional. 
This seems like strange doctrine at the present 
day, that it is unconstitutional for a country to 
look after its fundamental welfare. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
307 
The Declaration of Independence and the Con- 
stitution of the United States specifically regard 
the pursuit of happiness and the establishment of 
the public welfare as fundamental rights and 
duties. That nation which did not look after the 
beginnings of its citizens and make an effort to 
safeguard their infancy and childhood would be 
indulging in neglect which would threaten its very 
existence. In other words, such a policy is of 
necessity suicidal. I do not think it a prophecy 
to say now that in the next years the importance 
of nutrition and physical training will be realized 
by all authorities in this country and in the states 
and cities charged with any duty concerning the 
welfare of the young. I hardly need to be a 
prophet to see within a few years a radical change 
in our system of training in the public schools, 
and even in the kindergartens of the country, by 
substituting for much of what is now called men- 
tal and technical training a series of fundamental 
lessons on how to breathe and how to eat and 
how the body is nourished. It would be a most 
happy thing if we could go back still further in 
this matter and instruct the parents of our chil- 
dren along these lines; but that is a difficult, per- 
haps impossible, undertaking. We must be con- 308 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
tent to instruct the children from now on, that the 
parents of the near future may be competent to 
supervise the earliest days of life in a scientific, 
hygienic, and sanitary manner. If we are going 
to have grown men and women fit for the duties 
of citizenship, civil and military, we must begin 
even before birth, and especially at birth, to care 
for the infants and children. 
Just how this is to be done is a matter of detail 
which is quite insignificant, compared with the 
necessity of having it done. I have above referred 
to the system of agricultural, technical, and mili- 
tary instruction which has been, by the generos- 
ity of Congress, made possible in every state and 
territory of our country. Connected with these 
schools are now very important foundations de- 
voted to the teaching of so-called domestic science. 
If I understand domestic science, it is the science 
of the home-life, and the home-life, first of all, 
is the proper feeding of the inmates of the home. 
If you think that the mothers and fathers of to- 
day are capable of safeguarding the welfare of 
their children, just make a few inquiries and in- 
vestigations. I do not mean to go among the 
illiterate contingent of our people, but among the 
educated and well-to-do and the intelligent. Ask NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
309 
a dozen mothers at random what are the funda- 
mental necessities of feeding the children after 
weaning, and see how many of them will have any 
correct idea of this fundamental problem, lying as 
it does at the very basis of the happiness of home- 
life and the welfare and prosperity of the country. 
Go further than this. Take a dozen physicians at 
random and ask them for a definition of the proper 
food of the child-you will be astounded, I am 
sure, to find how promiscuous an answer will be 
given. And one need not be surprised at this 
when he remembers that it is only within a few 
years that the science of nutrition, so fundamental 
in medicine, has been taught in medical colleges, 
and in many of them, at the present time, if the 
science is taught at all, it is by one not skilled 
in the very fundamentals of this greatest of all 
practical sciences. 
LACK OF ECONOMY IN CHARITY 
Social work is now a fad in many quarters. It 
is taken up by men and women who are wealthy 
and who desire honestly to serve humanity. The 
organized charities of the country, civic and po- 
litical, have the same object in view. Charity, to 
be effective, must be economical. The fault with 310 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
our charities today is that the overhead charges 
are often greater than the total direct adminis- 
tration to the wants of the suffering. But that is 
not the only fault. One great source of weakness 
in the administration of our charities is in the 
nutrition of those who are entitled to help. The 
articles which are collected and administered for 
food purposes to those who are in a starving or 
semi-starving condition are far from meeting the 
wants of the suffering. Coffee, tea, sweetmeats, 
confectionery, pastry, and other articles of diet 
which are intended, if for use at all, as luxuries 
and not as necessities, form a large part of the 
food which is devoted to the relief of starvation. 
Our people complain, and justly so, of the high 
cost of articles of diet. When you compare the 
price the farmer gets with the price the consumer 
pays, there is a wide margin of profits to the 
middlemen. A certain share of profits to the mid- 
dleman is a necessity of commerce, but it should 
not be greater than that necessity requires. When 
the farmer gets 14 cents a gallon for his milk and 
the consumer pays 40 cents a gallon for the same 
milk, there must be some fault of an economic 
character. Granting that a large part of the cost 
of food is devoted to the transportation and dis- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
311 
tribution thereof, the chief cause of the high cost 
of living is yet unexplained. 
I unhesitatingly say that the great waste in the 
foods of our country is in their unsuitability to the 
purposes of nutrition. If the workingman and 
his wife would listen to my plea, and I had the 
opportunity to go into the home of every wage- 
earner in the country whose income is less than 
a dollar and a half a day, I believe I would be 
able to double the value of his income without 
giving him a single additional cent, and would 
be able to make a dollar and a half go twice as 
far in the nutrition of his family as it does at the 
present time. I would undertake more than this, 
to say that the family would be better nourished 
under a regime which would establish a scientific 
basis of nutrition than it is at the present time. 
These faults of nutrition have of necessity one 
result, which is of supreme importance, namely, 
that we are bringing into full citizenship in this 
country men, and, let us hope, in the near future, 
women, who are physically unfit, after allowing 
for all the vices of heredity and all the disad- 
vantages of congregating in large numbers in 
cities, with the attendant insanitary surround- 
ings. I think we must admit, after all, that the 312 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
prime factor in the unfitness of men and women 
for citizenship when they reach the age of 
twenty-one is to be traced to faults of nutrition 
during the early years of their lives. 
The efficiency of the individual, the happiness 
of the family, the welfare of the nation, demand a 
radical change in our method of instruction. The 
simple laws which underlie right living are not 
difficult to explain even to the youngest of our 
children. I have had no difficulty in imbuing the 
mind of a boy of three years of age with the fact 
that he should eat, not according to taste nor 
desire, but according to what is good for him. 
This principle might easily be implanted in every 
child, first at the home, then in the kindergarten, 
and then in the public school. To this end all 
social workers, all teachers of physiology and hy- 
giene, all parents interested in the welfare of their 
children, and all legislators who make laws for 
the benefit of the country, should unite in one com- 
mon campaign to improve the system of nutrition 
practiced throughout our land. 
REFORM OF DIET IN ENGLAND 
The fundamental importance of wholesome and 
simple diet to the national welfare is well illus- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
313 
trated by the work which is now doing by the 
educational health and food campaign propa- 
ganda in England, under the auspices of the 
Bread and Food Reform League. This is a 
purely uncommercial, educational, non-political 
association. It has received the support of roy- 
alty, science, and all classes of society, and di- 
rected attention to the subject of food for thirty 
years. It is not an organization which has been 
created, therefore, since the beginning of the war, 
but a third of a century previous thereto. This 
organization very properly says: 
' ' A knowledge of the right selection and proper 
preparation of food is of vital interest, and, owing 
to a calamitous war, the food question is now of 
momentous importance." 
In its relations to health the council calls at- 
tention, in a late publication, which was first pub- 
lished more than thirty years ago, with the 
approbation of Professors Church, Huxley, 
Frankland, and Drs. Carpenter, Pavy, and Rich- 
ardson, to the following statement: 
"Wheatmeal bread, made from meal ground to 
a uniform fineness, which contains all the nour- 314 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
ishment of wheat in an easily digestible form, is 
much more wholesome than white bread; and for 
children, especially, it is very superior. They 
cannot grow up strong and healthy unless their 
food contains sufficient nourishment of the right 
kind. . . . And there is good reason for thinking 
that children fed principally on white bread are 
liable to suffer from rickety bones, consumption, 
and bad teeth, consequent on an insufficiency of 
lime and other mineral substances in their food. 
If these mineral substances are absent from the 
food, life cannot be sustained." 
All of the investigations which have been made 
on this subject since confirm the soundness and 
practicality of the above statement. Much of the 
success in the effort to secure better food for the 
people of England has been due to untiring ac- 
tivities of Miss May Yates, who is the executive 
head of this propaganda of reform in diet. LESSON XXII 
OLD AGE 
DIET IN ITS RELATIONS TO OLD AGE 
OLD age is a physiological phenomenon 
which is as unavoidable as birth and as 
death. There is a natural course of every 
living being, whether vegetable or animal. There 
are means, however, at our disposal which, when 
wisely used, prolong the period of juvenescence 
and delay senescence, and which, if neglected, 
exert an inverse influence. The normal life of each 
individual is peculiar. It depends, first of all, upon 
his heredity, and, second, upon his environment. 
As heredity and environment are nearly always 
different with different individuals, the natural 
expectation of life for each individual is different. 
It may be only a variation of a few days, weeks, 
or months, but at least it is particular in his case. 
THE AVERAGE LENGTH OF LIFE 
We reach an average statement by combining 
together large numbers of individual data, and 
315 316 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
thus establish what we call an average length of 
human life. The vital statistics, which are worthy 
of consideration, in so far as they have been com- 
piled, indicate that in the registration area of the 
United States, which, in round numbers, embraces 
two-thirds of the people therein, the average 
length of human life is approximately forty-four 
years. This does not seem a very long period, 
and, in fact, it is not. The average person is just 
beginning to reach the maximum of his efficiency 
as a citizen and as a wage-earner at that period 
of his life. The factor which is most active in 
reducing the average length of human life is in- 
fant mortality. The chances of life of the new- 
born infant are much less than those of the man 
twenty, thirty, or forty years of age. In point of 
fact, as nearly as can be expressed in round num- 
bers, 12 per cent, of all the infants born in the 
United States die before the age of one year. If 
this same rate of mortality were continued 
through the other periods of life, the average 
period of our existence would be only eight and a 
half years. 
Fortunately, the dangers which threaten life are 
greatly diminished after the first year, and the re- 
sistance to disease is vastly increased after the NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
317 
fifth year. These two factors act together to make 
the periods of life after childhood and up to the 
end of middle life much less subject to death than 
the first period. As has already been pointed out, 
the chief cause of the high infant mortality is 
improper diet, combined as it is with the low re- 
sistance of the infant to the inroads of disease. 
It has been an interesting physiological question 
to speculate upon the possibility of lengthening 
human life. There is a universal consensus of 
opinion among sanitarians, physiologists, and 
physicians that the span of human life may be 
very materially ^extended. In former times it 
was taught that an animal is likely to live four 
times as long as it requires to reach maturity. 
While this law or statement is not based upon 
strictly scientific observations, it may be accepted 
as being practically true in so far as the human 
animal is concerned. If we assume that it requires 
for the average person twenty years to reach 
maturity, he ought by that token to live until 
eighty. That any of us now living shall ever see 
the arrival of that day when the span of human 
life is practically twice as great as it is now is 
very problematical. It is the belief of most stu- 
dents of vital statistics that the average length of 318 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
human life at the present time has been increased 
over that of twenty-five or fifty years ago. There 
is, however, a difficulty in making the comparison, 
by reason of the fact that we had no extensive 
system of vital statistics twenty-five or fifty years 
ago on which to base our major premise. 
ADVANCE OF SANITARY SCIENCE 
It is reasonable to suppose that the great ad- 
vance in sanitary science in the last quarter of a 
century and the very extensive application of the 
principles developed by this advance have had a 
favorable influence on postponing death. It is un- 
doubtedly true that in those sections of the coun- 
try where the milk supply has been controlled in 
accordance with the dicta of scientific investiga- 
tions the death rate of bottle-fed infants has been 
materially decreased. There are localities in the 
United States where the death rate of infants 
under the age of one year has fallen as low as 7, 
or even 6, per cent. These areas unhappily are not 
very extensive, and the total effect of the advance 
of sanitary science and the perfection of our 
knowledge in the care of infants has not gone far 
enough to bring the average of the country be- 
low the rate noted above. If we make such slow NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
319 
progress in a case where the road is so clearly 
marked out, what are we to expect in the way of 
advance in those cases where there is still much 
difficulty in finding the road and where the diffi- 
culties of progress are enormously greater? 
AVERAGE LENGTH OF LIFE 
When I was a boy I was told that the average 
length of human life was about thirty-three 
years. Probably this is very near the truth at 
the present time. There are many countries 
where the average length of human life is very 
short, as, for instance, in India, where it is con- 
siderably under thirty years. There are a few 
countries where the average length of human life 
is greater than in the United States. I believe 
this is true of the Australian countries. In fact, 
the average length of life in the United States is 
probably very considerably higher than the aver- 
age for the whole world, if data could be secured 
to determine that point. I have intimated that 
the average length of human life ought to be at 
least eighty years. Would it be too optimistic to 
fix that as a goal towards which we should press ? 
I think not. Our aim should be high, even at the 
risk of undershooting the mark. 320 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
DIET THE DOMINANT FACTOR 
I hardly need emphasize in this respect how 
important the diet is in our progress toward the 
goal. If, as has been illustrated, the chief cause 
of infant mortality is improper diet, we cannot 
shut our eyes to the fact that a very considerable 
fraction of the total mortality of man is due to a 
similar cause. A reform in our diet, basing its 
practice upon scientific data of a reliable charac- 
ter, must of necessity increase the average span 
of human existence. I do not wish to pose as a 
prophet nor to be over-optimistic, but if a few 
men and women, by careful control of their diet, 
by living in a hygienic manner, and by obeying 
the well-known laws of health, are able to live to 
seventy, eighty, or even ninety, years of age, it fol- 
lows that a much larger proportion of men would 
be able to attain the same end in the same way. 
This fact alone would be an excuse for writing a 
book on the influence of food upon health and life, 
particularly for the ordinary, intelligent reader 
who does not claim to be a specialist in any line 
of scientific research. 
Seizing upon this idea of the desirability of ex- 
tending human life and its popularity, various NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
321 
theories of diet have been founded having for 
their principal tenet the avoidance of disease and 
the lengthening of life. The one general fault 
which attaches to all these theories is the mag- 
nification of the effect produced by a cause which 
apparently, on analysis, is not capable of the ac- 
complishment claimed. It is the old fallacy of 
logic into which so many people fall, of mistaking 
the cause of the effect produced-what the logi- 
cians call "non causa pro causa." I have not 
time here to enter into a detailed analysis of 
these various theories of diet which are advanced 
with the assurance on the part of their sponsors 
of perfect success. I exclude from this list of 
theories all the fakery and deception of the pro- 
fessional exploiters of a gullible public. For my 
purpose it will be sufficient to develop, in a brief 
manner, the leading theories or fads which are 
the basis of the different propagandas. LESSON XXIII 
DIET AND DISEASE 
ONE of the results of the more careful study 
of human diet which has characterized the 
attitude of investigators and physiologists 
during the last third of a century has been the 
recognition of the importance of food, both as a 
causative and curative agent in disease. As a 
student of medicine at the time when the medical 
profession was undergoing its great transforma- 
tion, namely, from 1870 to 1880, I was frequently 
struck with the fact, as I studied the causes of 
disease in hospitals, of the great prevalence of 
diseases of the digestive organs. A careful study 
of the inception of these diseases led me to the 
conclusion that they were caused largely by faults 
of diet. 
Food causes disease in a number of ways. 
First, the lack of food, fasting, or starvation re- 
duces very rapidly the vitality of the body and 
renders it less able to resist the inroads of infec- 
322 NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
323 
tious and contagious diseases. Lack of nourish- 
ment thus threatens, not only life, but, in case of 
relief and a supply of food before starvation 
reaches a fatal end, it predisposes to diseases of 
many other kinds. Second, a very great variety 
of diseases is produced by excess of food. When- 
ever more food is ingested than is necessary for 
the ordinary course of life and for the slight re- 
serve which is always advisable to be kept on 
hand, it is disposed of either by being stored as 
fat or glycogen or by being converted into heat 
and energy. Superabundance of food thus keeps 
the body in a state of plethora. There is too much 
blood; the blood pressure is apt to become 
greater. The secreting organs of the body are 
overworked and fail to do their proper part, and 
all of the organs suffer from the burdens which 
are placed upon them by the excess of food. 
There are certain diseases which have been pe- 
culiarly associated with superabundance of food. 
Among these gout perhaps takes the leading role. 
Generous living and gout are associated by com- 
mon consent, but gout is not by any means the 
only disease which overeating may produce. The 
excess of work upon the excretory organs has the 
effect of exhausting them, so that they fail to per- 324 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
form their work as well as they should. The prod- 
ucts which should be excreted are, therefore, left 
largely in the blood or tissues of the body. These 
products are often of a poisonous nature. The 
result is a breaking-down of the resisting power 
of the body and an opening of the way for various 
forms of disease. This is manifested usually in 
failure of the digestive organs under the great 
burdens placed upon them. 
These disorders of the stomach often begin 
simply by what is called heartburn or hyper- 
acidity. When the stomach is filled with a great 
volume of food the acids which are natural to the 
stomach are greatly diluted. At the same time, the 
food in the stomach excites a much larger flow of 
digestive acids, and after a while they are found 
to be present in excess. Those who have suffered 
from so-called heartburn are aware of the fact 
that it comes on from an hour to two or three 
hours after eating. You are also aware of the 
fact that additional quantities of food relieve the 
unpleasant sensation, due, of course, to a dilution 
of the acid. Hyper-acidity is one of the forerun- 
ners of dyspepsia (indigestion). After a while 
the overworked organ becomes almost useless, and 
serious effects result, ending in an inability of NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
325 
the digestive organs to furnish enough food to 
support the ordinary functions of the body. 
As a sequel of indigestion, all kinds of infec- 
tious and contagious diseases may be set up. 
Various forms of skin disease are traced often 
to a faulty stomach. Worst of all, the vitality of 
the body is so diminished and the power of assimi- 
lation so disordered that the circulatory system 
itself becomes seriously affected. The coats of 
the arteries become hard and unyielding. The 
volume of the blood is so great as to burden the 
heart. The blood pressure increases, producing 
a pressure on the heart walls which causes them to 
dilate. The heart becomes large and its walls 
weak. The condition of arterial sclerosis, which 
is such a common enemy of middle and after- 
middle life, is set up. Following or synchronous 
with these troubles are various forms of diseases 
of the kidney, which also becomes an overworked 
organ and seeks retaliation by setting up a dis- 
eased condition which is a threat to life. The 
two most important diseases of the kidneys are, 
first, that condition of malnutrition which leaves 
the sugar unburned in the body and causes it to 
appear in the urine. This disease may not be 
essentially a kidney disease. It is probably asso- 326 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
dated with disorders of the functions of the liver 
particularly. At any rate, the kidney is called 
upon for a new burden, namely, to separate sugar 
from the circulatory liquids and excrete it, instead 
of having it properly burned up into carbon dioxid 
and water in the tissues of the body. Diabetes is 
a very common result of overeating and over- 
drinking. 
Another kidney disease which is directly con- 
nected with excessive food ingestion is albumi- 
nuria (Bright's disease). The presence of albu- 
men in the circulatory fluids and in the tissues 
in such quantities as to be removed in the urine 
is an expression of a very grave disorder of 
the body which, if not speedily checked, will lead 
to fatal results. There is no doubt in my mind 
that Bright's disease, as a rule, may be traced 
directly to the evils of overeating. Other degen- 
erative diseases of old age, such as cancer, are of 
obscure origin, and have not been directly con- 
nected wTith faults of diet. I am led to the con- 
clusion, nevertheless, that many of the unknown 
causes of degenerative diseases of this kind may be 
connected very intimately with faults of diet, and 
usually with overeating. Thus it is seen that, 
from the point of view of the causation of disease, NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
327 
all kinds of disorders may arise, both from an 
insufficient quantity of food and also from an ex- 
cessive quantity of food. 
The degenerative diseases incident to old age 
serve to counteract the effect of diminished infant 
mortality. 
DISEASE DIRECTLY CAUSED BY FOOD 
Food also is a direct cause of disease. If rea- 
sonably wholesome foods are eaten in any large 
quantities with imperfect mastication, so that the 
stomach is entirely overloaded and unable to rid 
itself of the load, we have that very common diffi- 
culty of sour stomach, nausea, vomiting, and diar- 
rhea. Even if food be wholesome, excessive quan- 
tities of it may produce these results. On the 
other hand, if a food itself be unwholesome, be 
partly on the road to decomposition, or contain 
some specific poisonous ingredient, it produces a 
genuine intoxication, beginning in the stomach and 
extending through the intestines to all parts of 
the body. This condition of affairs is very often 
called ptomaine poisoning. Ptomaines are sup- 
posed to be the results of the decomposition of 
animal nitrogenous tissues in the body. The word 
itself means "a dead body." Ptomaine poisoning 328 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
is a general expression applied to a toxic con- 
dition caused by food rather than a definite point- 
ing out of the nature of the disturbing body. 
Certain ptomaines have been discovered and 
isolated from food products, but only with great 
difficulty and often without being able to repeat 
successfully the quest. Hence we cannot set down 
any specific ptomaines of definite composition as 
the cause of the difficulties which I have described. 
In general, sickness from these causes is described 
as food poisoning, and, alas! too often fatal re- 
sults follow. Fresh foods never produce ptomaine 
poisoning. Preserved foods of all kinds may pos- 
sibly do so unexpectedly. Vegetable foods are 
less likely to develop ptomaines than animal foods, 
such as milk, fish, meat, cheese, et cetera. 
It follows that food is a pregnant cause of dis- 
ease. It either diminishes the vitality of the body 
when present in too small quantity, or it over- 
burdens the organs of the body when present in 
too large quantities, all of these conditions invit- 
ing the entrance of contagious and epidemic dis- 
eases. Excessive food tends to produce disturb- 
ance of the digestive organs-dyspepsia, heart- 
burn-and in this way diminishes the ability of 
the digestive tract to properly nourish the body, NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
329 
favoring the same condition of sensibility to dis- 
ease which has just been described. Bad foods 
may act specifically by the presence of poisonous 
bodies which produce extreme nausea, vomiting, 
and even death, without the investigator being 
able, as a rule, to distinguish any distinct definite 
chemical compound which would correspond to the 
chemical idea of ptomaines. 
As an illustration of the powerful effect of food 
in causing disease, I may call attention to the 
summer complaint of children. By the term 
"summer complaint" I mean to embrace all the 
various forms of intestinal disturbance and diar- 
rhea from which children so commonly suffer in 
hot weather. It is not difficult to show that in all 
these cases bad food has been the moving cause. 
The infection has been introduced and promoted 
by its presence. Inasmuch as a very large per- 
centage of all infants who die under the age of 
one year die of intestinal trouble, the importance 
of pure food for the infant as a means of pre- 
venting disease, and especially fatal disease, is at 
once shown. 
There are certain common articles of food which 
produce serious disturbances of health in certain 
people who have an acute sensibility to their in- 330 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
fluences. It is well known that egg is poisonous 
to some people. The ingestion of small quantities 
of it produces very serious effects. Strawberries 
cannot be eaten by some people for the same rea- 
son. In fact, almost all people have some par- 
ticular pet abhorrence in the way of a food 
product, and the attempt to eat a product of this 
kind usually results disastrously. It is the part of 
wisdom in all persons, in relation to their foods, to 
study carefully the quantities necessary for their 
maintenance in ordinary condition and to use only 
simple, wholesome, and clean foods, and in mod- 
erate quantities. Children may be controlled, if 
the parents really desire it, so that they do not 
have access to those foods which bring on diar- 
rhea. 
Bad milk is the most frequent cause of this trou- 
ble. How often the parent allows the child to 
choose its own food, often unwisely, rather than 
insist on following the plain dictates of enlight- 
ened hygiene! Food is not only our sustenance, 
but also in many cases the cause of our taking-off. 
SPECIFIC FOOD DISEASES 
There are certain specific diseases caused by 
certain faults in nutrition which are now well es- NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
331 
tablished. It has long been known that scurvy, 
which manifests itself by a peculiar affection of 
the gums, but is, in fact, a systemic disease, is 
caused by eating cured or canned foods exclu- 
sively. Persons suffering with scurvy soon re- 
cover if they can have fresh vegetables, fresh 
milk, and fresh meats. Closely allied with scurvy 
is the disease known as beri-beri, which is pro- 
duced by eating a diet too rich in carbohydrates 
and poor in mineral and nitrogenous foods. Beri- 
beri was a very common disease in rice-eating 
countries where the practice of polishing the rice 
before consumption gained a vogue. Men who 
live almost exclusively on a diet of polished rice 
are very apt to acquire the disease known as 
beri-beri. An interesting thing in connection with 
this disease is that if the bran of the rice which 
is removed in polishing be used as a medicine, the 
disease is diminished, and even cured. The eat- 
ing of white flour as an exclusive diet causes a 
similar disease. These facts accentuate the im- 
portance of eating whole cereals in all cases where 
the food is largely composed of cereals. 
Pellagra is a disease the cause of which is still 
to some extent unknown. Recent investigations of 
the Health Service of the United States seem to 332 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
indicate that pellagra is also a diet disease. In 
those localities where pellagra flourishes it is 
found that the poor people, especially, eat a diet 
in which the carbohydrates are in great excess 
and the mineral and nitrogenous foods corre- 
spondingly deficient. Pellagra, which is a dis- 
ease very resistant to ordinary treatment, yields 
very readily when the patients are placed upon a 
generous diet in which the minerals and the pro- 
tein are restored to their proper proportions. 
There are certain diseases of the teeth which 
also are intimately associated with an improper 
diet. Whenever the mineral substances and 
nitrogenous substances in the foods of children 
are reduced below the normal there is a threat to 
the proper nutrition of the teeth. Without suffi- 
cient material for growth the teeth cannot be ex- 
pected to attain the degree of strength and 
solidity proper for the discharge of their func- 
tions and to secure immunity against disease. 
The eating of excessive quantities of candy and 
sugar is known to be hurtful, in so far as the 
teeth are concerned. These foods have no mate- 
rials out of which teeth can be built, and they also 
seem to exert a specific harmful influence by pro- 
moting fermentation between the teeth and the NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
333 
development of an acid which softens the enamel. 
Children who eat large quantities of candy con- 
tinually are generally found to have bad teeth. 
Rickets is another disease, especially of the 
bony structure, which is intimately connected with 
diet. Children who have rickets always suffer 
from some form of malnutrition. The form most 
common is a deficiency in the nutritive matters 
from which the bones are formed. The bones of 
the child, therefore, remain soft and yielding, and 
the bony structure is unable to support the weight 
of the body. ■ Deformities, especially of the legs, 
result constantly in rickety children. Also, the 
skull is apt to fail to harden, and thus promotes 
the excretion of fluids in the membranes of the 
brain, which enlarge the head, destroy the intel- 
lectual capacity, and bring the child-life to a most 
unfortunate end. 
CURATIVE PROPERTIES OF FOODS 
Inasmuch as foods are known to have such an 
important function in the causation of disease, it 
is not strange that the attention of the medical 
profession has been called to the possible value of 
foods remedially. It seems a common-sense 
proposition to suppose that if a given disorder 334 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
has been brought on by improper food it may be 
speeded on its exit by returning to a proper diet. 
The case is not so easy, however, as it looks. Im- 
proper food not only specifically hurts, but also 
incidentally, as has been shown. When the disease 
incident to bad food once takes a hold it may be 
beyond the reach of proper food to eradicate it. 
Unfortunately, the general principle that food 
may be used to promote recovery from disease has 
led to the development of many false ideas con- 
cerning its efficacy. This development has even 
gone so far as to bring food down to the plane 
of the patent nostrum. Newspapers and maga- 
zines have been carrying advertisements far and 
wide offering to cure all forms of disease by pre- 
scribing a particular form of diet. The reader 
cannot be too skeptical concerning all such claims. 
Even the educated and trained physician who has 
the patient in charge knows what a hard task he 
has to restore the health of a person suffering 
from dyspepsia. It is often necessary to feel 
one's way in the direction of foods which the dys- 
peptic may tolerate, and thus preserve to a cer- 
tain extent his vigor. That a person in absentia 
can prescribe a diet for a case of this kind is 
absurd upon its face. Yet thousands of our people NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
335 
have been defrauded by trusting the promises of 
these quacks and fakers. It has been necessary 
in some cases to evoke the laws against fraud by 
prohibiting the use of the mails for advertising 
remedial foods. You may at once conclude that 
the person who offers to cure you, without a per- 
sonal inspection, of any disease from which you 
suffer by prescribing a certain kind of a diet, will 
accomplish no result of any value except the in- 
creasing of his bank account and the diminution 
of yours to a like amount. On the other hand, the 
careful selection of food by a competent expert 
and the persistence in a course of rational diet 
on the part of the patient may secure most valu- 
able and successful results if the patient will fol- 
low it out. 
There is one disease particularly in which a 
proper diet is of the greatest importance. Tu- 
berculosis is the scourge of humanity. This dis- 
ease of the lung or other parts of the body caused 
by a particular organism is usually beyond the 
direct reach of remedial applications. The ad- 
ministration of drugs hypodermically or through 
the stomach cannot possibly reach the seat of the 
trouble. They often do worse than fail-they 
diminish still more the vitality of the body to re- 336 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
sist disease. Large experience lias shown that 
the only successful treatment of tuberculosis is to 
keep the patient in the open air, without allowing 
him to exert himself violently either physically 
or mentally, keeping him away as far as possible 
from business, placing him in agreeable surround- 
ings, and feeding him a generous diet in which 
milk and eggs occupy a very important position. 
The outdoor life of freedom from care, and the 
rest, combined with a good nutrition, often suc- 
ceeds in arresting, or even eradicating, the dis- 
ease. Other forms of disease, where the vitality 
of the body has sunk very low, may be combated, 
at least for a time, by a careful study of the pos- 
sibilities of nourishing the body directly through 
nutritious and adaptable foods. 
The fakery and deception which have charac- 
terized many of the propagandas relating to the 
influence of food on health, and especially its cura- 
tive powers, have had a depressing effect upon 
the general public, and even upon professional 
men, in their estimation of the true functions 
which the food performs. Nevertheless, a patient 
investigation has succeeded in elucidating some 
of the fundamental principles which underlie this 
problem. Some notable books have been recently NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
337 
published devoted to this theme. Among these the 
fourth edition of "Diet in Health and Disease," by 
Friedenwald and Rurah, holds the first place. A 
more popular exposition of the subject is found in 
the book of Lorand, entitled "Health Through 
Rational Diet." Dr. Bishop also has published a 
most interesting contribution to this study in his 
book, "The Causes and Treatment of Arterio- 
sclerosis." Dr. Bishop confines himself to the 
function of food in retarding or removing the con- 
ditions which are grouped together under the 
rather unfortunate name of arterio-sclerosis, 
which, being translated, means "hardening of the 
arteries." The disease, however, is of a much 
wider significance than this name implies. It is 
peculiarly systemic, and affects not only the ar- 
teries, but especially the heart, and incidentally 
the excretory organs. This very considerable 
volume of literature illustrates the interest which 
scientific men are now taking in this matter. 
TAKING THE WATERS 
In addition to this, we should not forget the 
large numbers of sanitaria which have been es- 
tablished throughout the country, in which the 
principal benefit secured by those suffering from 338 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
disease undoubtedly results from a wise ordering 
of the diet. It has long been recognized that per- 
sons in easy circumstances-in other words, well- 
to-do or rich-derive considerable benefit from 
"taking the waters," meaning by that a sojourn 
of from one to two months per year at some of 
the so-called health springs. In this country there 
are various resorts of this kind, the more impor- 
tant of which are the Hot Springs of Virginia, 
the Hot Springs of Arkansas, the springs at West 
Baden, Indiana, and the springs under the control 
of the State of New York at Saratoga. Among 
these springs those at Hot Springs, Arkansas, and 
at Saratoga are under the control of the United 
States and the State of New York, respectively. 
Large numbers of invalids, especially those suf- 
fering from rheumatism and similar chronic dis- 
eases, resort to these springs each year, and re- 
ceive, as a rule, benefit from their sojourn. While 
the waters undoubtedly have something to do with 
this, the most important curative functions, in my 
opinion, are exercised by the freedom from care, 
the rest, and the restriction of the diet. Muldoon 
has a resort in New York of a similar character, 
which is particularly frequented by those who have 
broken down in public life. The water of these NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
339 
resorts is not regarded as of any very great sig- 
nificance. They probably are not at any other 
places. They become, however, a rallying point or 
means by which the invalids are attracted and put 
into an environment where the diet and the free- 
dom from care and worry are permitted to im- 
prove health and strength. LESSON XXIV 
PRACTICAL (APPLIED) PRINCIPLES OF 
NUTRITION 
IT is interesting and instructive to have access 
to the data which give reliable information 
respecting the composition of foods and to 
understand the functions which each class of food 
constituents exercises. This knowledge does not 
reach its full value until it is applied in the mar- 
ket, the kitchen, and the dining-room. The object 
of the present chapter is to enable the attentive 
reader of this book to get practical benefit from 
it in his daily life. The fundamental data which 
have been presented are now to be arranged in a 
form for home use. 
The United States Department of Agriculture 
has made extensive studies in the Bureau of 
Chemistry and the Office of Experiment Stations 
of foods, dietaries, and nutrition. The investi- 
gations of dietaries and nutrition were under the 
direction and inspiration of the late Dr. W. 0. 
Atwater, who was the pioneer among the nutri- 
340 NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
341 
tion investigators of this country. The results of 
all these studies, including the investigations of 
food adulterations and their effect on health, are 
published in numerous bulletins of the Bureau 
of Chemistry and the Office of Experiment Sta- 
tions during the past thirty years. 
In order that these data may be utilized in the 
arrangement of scientific bills-of-fare, they have 
been tabulated and adapted to common use. The 
base analyses are copied from the tables in Bul- 
letin No. 28 (revised edition) of the Office of Ex- 
periment Stations, by Atwater and Bryant. The 
data representing the Calories per kilogram, 
grams per 100 Calories, and ounces per 100 Calo- 
ries were calculated by the author. From these 
calculated data the quantities of all common 
foods to make a balanced ration of any chosen 
number of Calories can be easily ascertained. In 
computing the quantities the data representing 
the edible portion of the food are used. The data 
representing the value of the foods "as pur- 
chased" are very important from the economical 
point of view, inasmuch as they indicate the losses 
suffered in the refuse portions, and are, therefore, 
included in the tables. 342 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
TO CONSTRUCT A RATION OF ANY GIVEN NUMBER 
OF CALORIES 
For a basic ration it is convenient to select one 
representing 1,000 Calories, one meal for the av- 
erage active man, so adjusted that one-sixth of the 
heat units is derived from protein and five-sixths 
from carbohydrates and fats. 
The typical meal does not include soups, coffee, 
tea, or dessert, since these items are mostly stimu- 
lants, or, in the case of sweets, unbalanced food 
adjuvants which, on the whole, were better 
omitted. Let us choose a meal consisting of bread, 
butter, milk, meat, and potatoes. By consulting 
the tables the following data (whole numbers) are 
obtained: 
Typical Meal 
Ounces 
Calories 
Bread 
3 
200 
Roast beef 
3 
250 
Milk 
16 
300 
Butter 
0.5 
100 
Potatoes 
6 
150 
- 
Total 
28.5 
1000 
In all cases the quantities refer to the edible portion. 
From the percentage of protein in these food 
products and the quantities used in the ration it is NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
343 
found that the 1.5 ounces of protein in the meal 
furnished 160 (round) Calories and the carbo- 
hydrates and fats 840 Calories. This ration, 
therefore, has a nutritive ratio of 5 (round). 
Assuming that the mineral content of the ration 
which is not included in these calculations is of the 
right kind and amount, three meals of the above 
proportions furnish an ideal ration of the aver- 
age man at active work for one day. 
INDEX FOR CONVENIENCE IN USING TABLES 
Among a multitude of data arranged by groups 
of like kinds the particular article of diet will be 
hard to find. The food products, which include 
most of the kinds commonly consumed, are ar- 
ranged alphabetically in the following table index. 344 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
( E. P. 
Beef Kidneys.. -< 
1 A. P. 
( E P 
Beef, corned, J 
all analyses... 1 p 
Bacon, all J 
analyses j p 
w 
SO 
5 o 
• EJ 
: B 
• a 
• p 
• 5* 
: B 
hfl 
( E. P. 
Bacon, lean....-< 
1 A. P. 
Beef, Tender- | 
10in | A. P. 
Ribs, all analy- J 
8e8 ( A. P. 
I E. P. 
Ribs, fat ■< 
| A. P. 
( *E. P. 
Beef Ribs, lean. / 
( *A. P. 
Name. 
19.9 
9° I 
go ; 
17.0 
p • 
QD 
22.6 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
76.7 
63.1 
53.6 
49.2 
20.2 
18.4 
O GO 
bo 
31.8 
26.5 
59.2 
57.0 
45.3 
48 5 
39.6 
67.9 
52.6 
Per Cent. 
Water. 
16.6 
13.7 
15.6 
14.3 
10.5 
9.5 
p p 
U io 
15.5 
13.0 
p • 
io 
17.8 
14.4 
15.0 
12.7 
19.6 
15.2 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
4.8 
1.9 
26.2 
23.8 
64.8 
59.4 
67.4 
62.2 
42.6 
35.5 
24.4 
24.6 
20.0 
35.6 
30.6 
12.0 
9.3 
Per Cent. Fat. 
• p 
Per Cent. 
♦Carbohydrate. 
1,144 
737 
3,069 
2,796 
6,446 
5,907 
6,660 
6,149 
4,587 
3 828 
2,926 
3,014 
2,442 
3,916 
3,355 
1,914 
1,485 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
620 
835 
1,395 
1,271 
2,930 
2,685 
3,030 
2,795 
2,085 
1,740 
1,330 
1,370 
1,110 
1,780 
1,525 
870 
675 
Calories 
per Pound. 
87.4 
135.7 
32.5 
35.8 
15.5 
16.9 
15.0 
16.3 
21.8 
26.1 
I 
34.2 
33.2 
41.0 
25.5 
298 
52.2 
67 3 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
3.19 
4.8 
1.16 
1.27 
0.55 
0.6 
0.53 
0.58 
0.78 
0.93 
1.22 
1.18 
1.46 
0.91 
1.07 
1.84 
2.41 
Ounces per 
100 Calories. 
Table I.-Meats. 
* E. P. = Edible Portion. A. P. = As Purchased. 
t Meat of freshly killed animals and of the horse and lobster have small quan- 
tities of a carbohydrate-yielding body, glycogen. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
345 
Lamb, leu, free ( E. P. 
from all visi--< 
ble fat ( A. P. 
Lamb, leg, hind, J P- 
fat I A. P. 
Lamb, ( E. P. 
side, without ■< 
tallow ( A. P. 
( K P 
Ham, boneless, ) ' 
raw | A. P. 
Ham. smoked, J 
boiled 1 A p 
Ham, smoked, J 
all analyses... j p 
( p p 
Ham, smoked, ) ' ' 
fat ( A. P. 
( K P 
Ham, smoked, ) 
medium fat. • • j p 
Ham, smoked, j 
1 e&n.. •.. • ... | p 
( E. P. 
Calf's Liver....-< 
| A. P. 
Name. 
F9t 
8 z 
co • 
CO • 
co • 
12.2 
co • 
13.6 
or • 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
72.3 
54.6 
47.3 
58.2 
47.0 
50.1 
48.5 
51.3 
39.8 
35.8 
27.9 
25.2 
40.3 
34.8 
53.5 
47.2 
73.0 
Per Cent. 
Water. 
25.3 
18.3 
15.8 
17.6 
14.1 
14.9 
14.3 
20.2 
16.5 
14.5 
14.8 
12.4 
16.3 
14.2 
19.8 
17.5 
19.0 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
>0 • 
27.4 
23.7 
23.1 
18.7 
28.5 
27.5 
.... 
22.4 
38.8 
33.2 
52.3 
53.7 
38.8 
33.4 
20.8 
18.5 
co 
Per Cent. Fat. 
Per Cent. 
Carbohydrate. 
1,287 
3,289 
2,849 
to 
co oo 
iO Ci 
o 
3,256 
3,135 
2,904 
4,279 
3,674 
5,467 
5,489 
4,268 
3,685 
2,739 
2,431 
1,265 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
8? : 
1,495 
1,295 
1,300 
1,055 
i S 
1,320 
1,945 
1,670 
2,485 
2,495 
1,940 
1,675 
1,245 
1,105 
Or : 
C* 
Calories 
per Pound. 
77.7 
30.4 
35.1 
34.9 
43.1 
30.7 
31.9 
34.4 
23.3 
27.2 
18.3 
18.2 
23.4 
27.1 
36.5 
41.1 
3 • 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
to z 
1.09 
1.25 
1.25 
1.54 
1.09 
1.14 
1.23 
0.83 
0.97 
0.65 
0.65 
0.83 
0.97 
zri 
08 I 
2.82 
Ounces per 
100 Calories. 
Table I.-Meats.-(Continued.) 346 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
Tongue, J 
Beef (Ox) Jap 
1 
Chickens, J E. P. 
Broilers 1 A p 
(HP 
Sweetbreads, ) * 
Beef•••••••••! a p 
( K P 
Sausage, J m. r. 
average Pork. | A p 
Pork, Tender- J P' 
10in ( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Ox tail, canned. ■< 
( A. P. 
Mutton, hind 1 E. P. 
leg, all analy- > 
ses ) A. P. 
Mutton, hind J 
leg, fat | A. P. 
Mutton, hind J 
leg, lean | A p 
Lamb, leg,hind, J 
all analyBes..| A p 
Name. 
26.5 
41.6 
29.7 
17.7 
to : 
16.8 
CO • 
QD 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
70.8 
51.8 
74.8 
43.7 
70.9 
39.8 
66.5 
67.9 
47.7 
63.2 
51.9 
55.0 
48.2 
67.4 
56.1 
58.6 
50.3 
Per Cent 
Water. 
18.9 
14.1 
21.5 
12.8 
16.8 
CO • 
o 
18.9 
26.3 
18.5 
18.7 
15.4 
17.3 
15.2 
19.8 
16.5 
18.6 
16.0 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
O <0 
io 
b» 
io ; 
44.2 
13.0 
o» 
CM CO 
17.5 
14.5 
27.1 
23.8 
12.4 
10.3 
22.6 
19.7 
Per Cent. Fat. 
• • 
; • 
Per Cent. 
Carbohydrate. 
1,628 
1,199 
1,111 
649 
1,815 
.... 
4,675 
O86'I 
1,661 
1,177 
2,387 
1,980 
3,223 
2,838 
1,958 
1,628 
2,860 
2,486 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
740 
545 
505 
295 
CM • 
2,125 
1 
755 
535 
1,085 
900 
1,465 
1,290 
890 
740 
1,300 
1,130 
Calories 
per Pound. 
61.4 
83.5 
90.0 
154.1 
at Z 
CM ' 
21.4 
90S 
60.2 
85.0 
41.9 
50.5 
31.0 
35.2 
51.1 
61.4 
34.9 
40.2 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
2.3 
2.98 
3.2 
5.5 
1.97 
0.76 
00 • 
2.20 
3.03 
00 CM 
1.11 
1.26 
... 
2.19 
1.25 
I 1.43 
Ounces per 
100 Calories 
Table I.-Meats.-{Continued.) NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
347 
( E. P. 
Scallops •< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Lobsters, whole •< 
I A. P. 
( E. P. 
Oysters, bulk..-< 
| A. P. 
1 E. P. 
Oysters in shell ■< 
| A. P. 
Crabs, hard- ( E- P- 
shell, whole.. "I p 
( E. P. 
Crab meat -< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Eggs, Hens'....•< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Turkey ■< 
| A. P. 
( E. P. 
Fowls •< 
( A. P. 
Kidneys, J 
Mutton 1 A p 
Name. 
61.7 
81.4 
.... 
52.4 
11.2 
22.7 
25.9 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
80.3 
79.2 
30.7 
88.3 
86.9 
16.1 
36.7 
3 : 
73.7 
65.5 
55.5 
42.4 
63.7 
47.1 
78.7 
Per Cent. 
Water. 
bo • 
16.4 
5.9 
o ; 
o • 
6.2 
1.2 
CO • 
16.6 
13.4 
11.9 
21.1 
16.1 
19.3 
13.7 
.... 
16.5 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
p : 
o >-* 
<1 00 
CO • 
p 
io io 
p : 
co 
tO • 
b • 
10.5 
9.3 
22.9 
18.4 
to p 
co bo 
CO • 
io • 
Per Cent Fat. 
03 
o p 
io 
w ; 
do • 
3.7 
0.7 
p • 
Cl 
io • 
Per Cent. 
Carbohydrate. 
8 ' 
CO 
858 
308 
g i 
Ci 
517 
99 
S : 
CO • 
co 
1,584 
1,397 
2,992 
2,365 
2,299 
1,705 
co I 
8 : 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
03 I 
8 
390 
140 
W • 
CO * 
o 
235 
45 
co : 
Or 
Of 
720 
635 
1,360 
1,075 
1,045 
775 
£ : 
O • 
Calories per 
Pound. 
131.8 
116.5 
324.7 
197.6 
193.4 
1010.1 
233.1 
109.5 
63.1 
71.6 
33.4 
42.3 
43.5 
58.7 
103.3 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
5 • 
4.1 
11.59 
7.06 
6.9 
36.1 
00 • 
co • 
3.91 
2.3 
2.55 
1.2 
12 
1.55 
2.08 
03 • 
Ounces per 
100 Calories. 
Table I.-Meats.-(.Continued.') NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
348 
( E. P. 
Corn, green.... < 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Celery ■< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Cauliflower 
| A. P. 
( E. P. 
Carrots -< 
u,. 
( E. P. 
Cabbage •< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Beans, String.. -< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Beets, cooked.. -< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Beets ■( 
I A. P. 
( E. P. 
Asparagus -< 
( A. P. 
o 
OD 
►d ^0 
Name. 
61.0 
20.0 
I 
20.0 
15.0 
© • 
20.0 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
75.4 
29.4 
94.5 
75.6 
92.3 
88.2 
70.6 
91.5 
77.7 
89.2 
83.0 
88.6 
87.5 
70.0 
94.0 
79.5 
Per Cent. 
Water. 
3.1 
1.2 
© 
© U. 
do • 
1.1 
0.9 
© 
to to 
U co 
: to 
• co 
co © 
oo • 
to ; 
o 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
p *-* 
O p 
p : 
O' 
© p 
io 
© © 
io co 
p o 
co co 
: p 
• i-t 
o p 
p ; 
io 
© • 
io • 
Per Cent. Fat. 
19.7 
7.7 
to co 
o co 
co 
p 
00 
7.4 
6.9 
• 2 
<1 
co • 
© ; 
Per Cent. 
Carbohydrate. 
1,034 
396 
187 
154 
1 
1 : 
462 
352 
319 
275 
968 
: § 
473 
374 
8 : 
8 : 
CO 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
470 
180 
3 8 
1 : 
210 
160 
145 
125 
195 
180 
: 8 
215 
170 
8 : 
co • 
o 
CUT 
Calories 
per Pound. 
96.7 
252.5 
534.7 
649.3 
324.7 
216.4 
284.1 
313.4 
363.6 
233.1 
252.5 
245.7 
211.4 
267.4 
432.9 
124.5 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
3.4 
9.02 
19.1 
23.19 
11.59 
7.7 
10.14 
11.2 
12.98 
8.3 
9.02 
• 9° 
• do 
7.5 
9.55 
p I 
4.45 
Ounces per 
100 Calories. 
Table IL-Vegetables, Fresh. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
349 
( E. P. 
Pumpkin -j 
( E. P. 
Potatoes, Sweet < 
| A. P. 
( E. P. 
Potatoes •< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Peas, Green.... < 
1 A.P. 
( E. P. 
Parsnips ■< 
| A. P. 
( E. P. 
Onions s 
( A. P. 
I E. P. 
Lettuce -< 
| A. P. 
I E. P. 
Leeks -< 
1 A.P. 
( E. P. 
Eggplant -< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Cucumbers 
| A. P. 
Nime. 
30.0 
20.0 
20.0 
.... 
45.0 
.... 
20.0 
10.0 
15.0 
15.0 
.. 15.0 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
93.1 
46.5 
69.0 
55.2 
78.3 
62.6 
74.6 
40.8 
83.0 
66.4 
87.6 
78.9 
94.7 
80.5 
91.8 
78.0 
92.9 
95.4 
81.1 
Per Cent. 
Water. 
1.0 
0.5 
QO 
to 
bo Vo 
03 O 
CO 03 
03 
© io 
© io 
• io 
0.8 
0.7 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
10 
IO 
0.7 
0.6 
p p 
p p 
to CT 
0.5 
0.4 
p O 
CO CO 
0.3 
0.2 
© p 
rfk. CT 
: p 
• do 
0.2 
0.2 
Per Cent. Eat. 
52 
2.6 
27.4 
21.9 
18.4 
14.7 
16.9 
9.8 
13.5 
10.8 
00 p 
CO CO 
2.9 
2.5 
CT CT 
© bo 
• 
• 
JO co 
© 
Per Cent. 
Carbohydrate. 
264 
132 
1,254 
1,012 
847 
682 
1,023 
561 
660 
528 
495 
451 
198 
165 
330 
286 
i g 
176 
154 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
120 
60 
570 
460 
385 
310 
465 
255 
300 
240 
225 
205 
ct © 
150 
130 
3 8 
Calories 
per Pound. 
378.8 
757.6 
79.7 
98.8 
118.1 
146.6 
97.7 
178.2 
151.5 
189.4 
202.0 
221.7 
505.1 
606.1 
303.0 
349.7 
349.7 
568.2 
649.3 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
13.53 
27.05 
2.85 
3.53 
4.22 
5.2 
3.49 
6.3 
5.41 
6.76 
7.21 
7.92 
18.03 
21.64 
10.82 
12.48 
12.48 
20.3 
23.19 
Ounces per 
100 Calories. 
Table II.-Vegetables, Fresh.-(Continued.) 350 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
( E. P. 
Turnips ■< 
( A. P. 
I E. P. 
Tomatoes •< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Squash ■< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Spinach •< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Rhubarb -< 
| A. P. 
( E. P. 
Radishes ■< 
( A. P 
Namb. 
OOE 
O'OS 
40.0 
0'08 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
89.6 
62.7 
94.3 
88.3 
44.2 
92.3 
94.4 
56.6 
91.8 
64.3 
Per Cent. 
Water. 
p 
O CO 
p : 
io 
p 
to : 
p p 
Ci 
1.3 
0.9 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
o p 
U io 
p : 
p p 
io Ur 
p : 
03 • 
O p 
o p 
Per Cent. Fat. 
8.1 
03 • 
io 
9.0 
4.5 
03 * 
io • 
JO 03 
io Ci 
O 00 
Per Cent. 
Carbohydrate. 
407 
275 
*-*■ • 
473 
231 
*o • 
231 
143 
§ 9 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
185 
125 
o ' 
Ur 
215 
105 
o • 
105 
65 
135 
95 
Calories 
per Pound. 
245.7 
363.6 
432.9 
211.4 
432.9 
413.2 
432.9 
699.3 
336.7 
478.5 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
8.8 
12.98 
15.4 
7.55 
15.4 
14.7 
15.5 
24.98 
12.02 
17.08 
Ounces per 
100 Calories. 
Table II.-Vegetables, Fresh.- {Continued.) NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
351 
( E P 
Horseradish, ) ' ' 
evaporated... J A p 
( E. P. 
Horseradish.... ■< 
| A. P. 
( E. P. 
Corn •< 
| A. P. 
Beans, Hari - ( E. P. 
cots, Flageo-/ 
lets, average. ( A. P. 
( E P 
Beans, Haricots, J ' ' 
Verts,average.-) A p 
( E. P. 
Beans, Wax....-< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Beans, String.. •< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Beans, Lima....■< 
I A. P. 
( E. P. 
Beans, baked... •< 
| A. P. 
( E. P. 
Asparagus j 
Name. 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
CO • 
86.4 
2 • 
81.6 
95.2 
94.6 
93.7 
79.5 
68.9 
94.4 
Per Cent. 
Water. 
11.0 
£ • 
to ; 
do • 
Ci • 
o • 
© • 
p • 
CD 
br • 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
p : 
QO • 
p ; 
io • 
io • 
p : 
p * 
• i-i 
p ; 
• 
p : 
p ; 
bo 
to : 
br • 
p : 
j-* • 
Per Cent. Fat. 
77.7 
10.5 
19.0 
12.5 
to : 
br 
co • 
co : 
do • 
14.6 
p • 
o • 
to : 
do • 
Per Cent. 
Carbohydrate. 
3,707 
C5 
000'1 
£ = 
£ : 
2 • 
to • 
co ' 
to • 
1,320 
oo : 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
1,685 
i : 
a i 
CO 
8 : 
2 • 
8 = 
I 
Or 
co • 
O • 
05 I 
8 : 
Calories 
per Pound. 
27.0 
197.6 
.... 
100.0 
.... 
142.0 
649.3 
568.2 
478.4 
126.3 
75.8 
534.8 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
96'0 
7.06 
co I 
5.07 
23.2 
20.3 
h-A . 
I 
to : 
* 
p I 
• 
Ounces per 
100 Calories. 
Table III.-Vegetables, Canned. 
• In articles which are all edible A. P. and E. P. are synonymous terms. 352 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
Table III.-Vegetables, Canned.- {Continued.) 
( E. P. 
Tomatoes -< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Pumpkin -< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Okra •< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Peas, Green.... •< 
( A. P. 
Macedoine, ( E. P. 
mixed vege--< 
tables ( A. P. 
Name. 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
94.0 
91.6 
94.4 
85.3 
CO 
»-* • 
Per Cent. 
Water. 
io • 
o : 
do • 
p • 
CO • 
Ci • 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
p : 
io • 
p ; 
io • 
p ; 
p • 
io • 
Per Cent. Fat. 
o • 
p • 
CO • 
Ci . 
p • 
00 • 
CT • 
Per Cent. 
Carbohydrate. 
§ : 
§ : 
oo • 
g : 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
s • 
or : 
O 
8 : 
*o • 
or • 
CH ' 
o • 
Calories 
per Pound. 
432.9 
.... 
303.0 
534.8 
178.2 
413.2 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
15.4 
10.8 
p I 
I 
Ci I 
co ; 
14.8 
Ounces per 
100 Calories. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
353 
( E. P 
Lemons ■( 
( A. P. 
i E. P. 
Grapes -< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Cranberries ....-< 
( A. P. 
1 E. P. 
Cherries -< 
( A. P. 
( K P 
Raspberries, J 
black j A p 
( E P 
Raspberries, ) ' 
red | A.P. 
( E. P. 
Blackberries ... -< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Bananas -< 
( A. P. 
i E. P. 
Apricots •< 
( A. P. 
( E. P. 
Apples ■< 
( A. P. 
Name. 
30.0 
25.0 
ot • 
b • 
OSS 
p • 
b • 
.... 
25.0 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
89.3 1.0 
62.5 0.7 
i 
77.4 1.3 
58.0 1.0 
88.9 0.4 
80.9 1.0 
76.8 0.9 
84.1 1.7 
1 
85.8 1.0 
86.3 1.3 
1 1 
75.3 1.3 
48.9 0.8 
85.0 1.1 
79.9 1.0 
84.6 0.4 
63.3 0.3 
Per Cent. 
Water. 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
0.7 
0.5 
io b 
p • 
b • 
p o 
oo do 
b • 
b • 
p p 
b 
p p 
do b 
Per Cent. Fat. 
p 00 
b b 
19.2 
14.4 
p * 
b • 
16.7 
15.9 
Jo : 
b • 
jo • 
b • 
10.9 
22.0 
14.3 
13.4 
14.2 
10.8 
Per Cent. 
Carbohydrate. 
451 
319 
990 
737 
CO • 
803 
759 
$ : 
to • 
Ot 
Ci • 
Ot * 
1,012 
660 
594 
561 
638 
484 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
205 
145 
450 
335 
to : 
CH 
365 
345 
CO • 
Ot 
$ : 
o • 
460 
300 
270 
255 
290 
220 
Calories 
per Pound. 
221.7 
313.5 
101.0 
135.7 
211.4 
124.5 
131.7 
146.6 
178.2 
168.3 
98.8 
151.5 
168.3 
178.2 
156.7 
206.6 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
7.92 
11.2 
3.61 
4.8 
b • 
4.45 
4.7 
pt • 
io : 
p I 
p • 
b : 
3.53 
5.41 
6.01 
6.4 
5.6 
7.4 
Ounces per 
100 Calories. 
Table IV.-Fruits, Fresh. 354 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
Strawberries...- 
Prunes -< 
Plums - 
OD 
o 
o 
00 
Oranges - 
Watermelons.. - 
a 
H 
' E. P. 
A. P. 
j E. P. 
1 A. P. 
j e. p. 
! A. P. 
j E. P. 
| A. P. 
j E. P. 
• A. P. 
j E. P. 
1 A. P. 
i E. P. 
A. P. 
p I 
o • 
p • 
do 
pt • 
o • 
10.0 
1 
18.0 
.... 
27.0 
.... 
59.4 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
90.4 
85.9 
79.6 
75.6 
78.4 
74.5 
84.4 
76.0 
89.4 
73.3 
86.9 
63.4 
92.4 
37.5 
Per Cent. 
Water. 
p 
C© o 
p p 
1.0 
0.9 
0.6 
0.5 
p p 
bt -i 
p p 
bi 00 
p p 
io 4^ 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
90 
9'0 
0.5 
0.4 
p p 
p p 
io 
0.2 
0.1 
Per Cent. Fat. 
7.4 
7.0 
18.9 
17.4 
20.1 
19.1 
14.1 
12.7 
<1 c© 
11.6 
8.5 
to P 
Per Cent. 
Carbohydrate. 
396 
385 
814 
737 
869 
814 
649 
572 
418 
341 
528 
374 
308 
132 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
180 
175 
370 
335 
395 
370 
295 
260 
190 
155 
240 
170 
140 
60 
Calories 
per Pound. 
252.5 
259.7 
122.8 
135.7 
115.1 
122.8 
154.1 
174.8 
239.2 
293.2 
189.4 
267.4 
324.6 
757.6 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
9.02 
9.3 
4.39 
4.8 
4.11 
4.4 
5.5 
6.2 
8.54 
10.5 
6.76 
9.5 
11.6 
27.05 
Ounces per 
100 Calories. 
Table IV.-Fruits, Fresh.-{Continued.) NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
355 
Strawberries, ) 
stewed j 
Prunes, sauce.. 
Pineapple 
Pears 
Peaches 
Marmalade, 1 
Orange f ' * 
Figs, stewed... 
Cherries 
Blueberries ... 
Apricots 
Apples, sauce.. 
Name. 
► 
► 
> 
► 
► 
► 
► 
> 
_*d 
hd 
• 
• 
Per Cent. 
• 
• 
Refuse. 
Ci 
00 
8 
g 
8? 
00 
© 
Per Cent. 
do 
Ci 
do 
bi 
bi 
io 
bi 
rfK 
>-k 
Water. 
© 
© 
© 
© 
o 
© 
© 
© 
© 
Per Cent. 
br 
co 
© 
io 
b> 
© 
io 
Protein. 
• 
© 
o 
p 
p 
© 
© 
© 
© 
© 
Per Cent. Fat. 
• 
bo 
»-* 
bo 
bi 
bo 
*0 
8 
co 
© 
00 
00 
to 
Per Cent. 
o 
CO 
© 
do 
bi 
'© 
i-*- 
bo 
ba 
io 
Carbohydrate. 
© 
^7 
co 
© 
© 
Calories 
to 
© 
co 
00 
»-* 
00 
$ 
co 
CM 
00 
© 
© 
per Kilo. 
o 
© 
g 
CM 
g 
§ 
1,585 
§ 
CM 
8 
CM 
© 
§ 
Calories 
per Pound. 
98.8 
105.7 
63.6 
to 
00 
© 
206.6 
28.7 
57.9 
109.5 
165.3 
133.7 
62.3 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
co 
CO 
CM 
SO 
Ounces per 
bi 
8 
bi 
3 
© 
© 
<1 
io 
to 
100 Calories. 
Table V.-Preserved Fruits. 356 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
Cheese, 1 A P 
full cream f A' r' 
Brown bread A. P. 
Graham bread.... A. P. 
White bread. ) . p 
all analyses j ' A- 1 
Soda biscuit | a P 
crackers 
Oyster biscuit A. P. 
Saltines A. P. 
Biscuit meal, ) . p 
cracker meal J ,A- r' 
Graham biscuit I * p 
crackers f "a" r' 
Barley, Pearl.... A. P. 
Name. 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
£ 
£ 
S 
CT 
OT 
CO 
CT 
Per Cent. 
io 
Ci 
© 
bo 
Ci 
to 
b< 
Water. 
CT 
00 
CO 
>-» 
© 
© 
00 
Per Cent. 
co 
co 
to 
bo 
ba 
CO 
© 
br 
Protein. 
133. 
CO 
© 
to 
Ci 
© 
_L 
Per Cent. Fat. 
bo 
bo 
ba 
CT 
*3 
O 
rfA 
to 
s 
8 
03 
© 
8 
a 
oo 
77.8 
Per Centr. 
br 
co 
bo 
Carbohydrate. 
i 
2,310 
2,662 
2,673 
4,235 
4,323 
4,411 
3,982 
4,301 
3,630 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
1,950 
1,050 
1,210 
1,215 
1,925 
CO 
3 
2,005 
1,810 
1,955 
1,650 
Calories 
per Pound. 
& 
CO 
37.4 
8 
22.7 
25.1 
23.2 
27.6 
Grams per 
ba 
ba 
bi 
Ci 
100 Calories. 
890 
hi 
© 
© 
o 
© 
© 
U.L 
Ounces per 
£ 
£ 
£ 
£ 
8 
bo 
HA 
© 
© 
100 Calories. 
Table VI.-Groceries. NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
357 
Name. 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
Per Cent. 
Water. 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
Per Cent. Fat. 
Per Cent. 
Carbohydrate. 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
Calories 
per Pound. 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
Ounces per 
100 Calories. 
Butter A. P. 
.... 
11.0 
1.0 
85.0 
.... 
7,931 
3,605 
12.6 
0.45 
Cake, 1 
all analyses, V ..A. P. 
except fruit ) 
19.9 
6.3 
9.0 
63.3 
3,685 
1,675 
27.1 
0.97 
Cocoa A. P. 
4.6 
21.6 
28.9 
37.7 
5,104 
2,320 
19.6 
0.7 
Cornmeal, ) A P 
granular J 
12.5 
9.2 
1.9 
75.4 
3,641 
1,655 
27.5 
0.98 
Corn starch A. P. 
90.0 
3,685 
1,675 
27.1 
0.97 
Chestnuts, j E. P. 
dried i p 
24.0 
5.9 
4.5 
10.7 
8.1 
7.0 
5.3 
74.2 
56.4 
4,125 
3,135 
1,875 
1,425 
24.2 
31.9 
0.87 
1.14 
Chestnuts, I E' 
fresh j a p 
16.0 
45.0 
37.8 
6.2 
5.2 
5.4 
4.5 
42.1 
35.4 
2,475 
2,079 
1,125 
945 
40.4 
48.1 
1.44 
1.7 
Cream, 1 
25 per cent. >- ...A. P. 
butter fat ) 
63.0 
6.0 
25.0 
6.0 
2,805 
1,275 
35.7 
1.27 
Cream, 1 
36 per cent. >.A. P. 
butter fat ) 
54.0 
4.0 
36.0 
6.0 
3,748 
1,704 
26.7 
0.95 
Cocoanut, i A P 
prepared J 
3.5 
6.3 
57.4 
6,875 
3,125 
14.5 
j 0.52 
Table VI.-Groceries.-{Continued.) 358 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
Lobster, 1 
canned J 
Lard, refined.... 
Lard, unrefined, 
average 
Honey 
Gelatine 
Ice cream 
Flour, 1 
buckwheat J ' * 
Flour, wheat, | 
all analyses j ' 
Figs, dried 
Currants, dried.. 
Name. 
!> 
► 
► 
► 
► 
► 
► 
► 
hd 
If 
: 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
■ a 
64.0 
U-L 
k-^ 
Per Cent. 
3 
do 
bo 
00 
io 
co 
b> 
CO 
b> 
po 
bo 
io 
Water. 
18.1 
io 
io 
p 
91.4 
p 
© 
© 
10.6 
co 
io 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
100.0 
o 
© 
k-^ 
Per Cent. Fat. 
© 
o 
io 
►-1 
co 
3 
© 
-Q 
Per Cent. 
O 
io 
o 
© 
CO 
io 
io 
Carbohydrate. 
© 
00 
co 
co 
K) 
co 
CO 
3,245 
3,289 
Calories 
§ 
go 
g 
s 
3 
k-A 
8 
2 
§ 
per Kilo. 
k-a 
»-k 
Calories 
s 
g 
© 
o 
o. 
8 
© 
O' 
I 
s 
s? 
3 
© 
Ot 
per Pound. 
116.6 
p 
bo 
11.3 
29.9 
26.7 
45.8 
28.1 
27.3 
8'08 
30.4 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
o 
© 
© 
Ounces per 
£ 
k^ 
§ 
© 
2 
© 
S3 
k- 
100 Calories. 
Table VI.-Groceries.-(Continued.) NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
359 
Rolls, I A P 
all analyses J * * r- 
Rice A. P. 
Pickles, mixed....A. P. 
Oatmeal A. P. 
( E. P. 
Olives, green... ■< 
( A. P. 
Mincemeat, 1 * p 
home-made [•••"• *• 
Mincemeat, ) . p 
commercial J '" ' 
Milk, whole A. P. 
Macaroni A. P. 
Molasses, cane....A. P. 
Name. 
27.0 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
29.2 
to 
co 
93.8 
CO 
58.0 
42.3 
54.4 
27.7 
87.0 
p 
bo 
Per Cent. 
Water. 
QO 
CD 
go 
o 
r 
p 
J-A 
p 
do U 
bo 
p 
CO 
w 
13.4 
to 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
*• 
o 
co 
p 
to 
27.6 
20.2 
p 
o 
p 
CD 
Per Cent. Fat. 
56.7 
79.0 
o 
67.5 
11.6 
8.5 
3 
60.2 
p 
o 
2 
69.3 
Per Cent. 
Carbohydrate. 
3,069 
3.586 
to 
4,092 
3,080 
2,255 
2,134 
2,871 
CH 
3,663 
2,838 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
1,395 
1,630 
o 
GO 
o 
1,400 
1,025 
§ 
1,305 
1 
1,665 
1,290 
Calories 
per Pound. 
32.6 
27.9 
413.2 
24.4 
32.4 
44.3 
46.9 
£ 
bo 
139.9 
27.3 
35.2 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
1.16 
66'0 
14.4 
0.87 
1.16 
1.58 
1.67 
1.24 
4.99 
0.98 
to 
o 
Ounces per 
100 Calories. 
Table VI.-Groceries.-{Continued.) 360 
NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
Vermicelli A. P. 
Syrup, Maple A. P. 
Sugar, 1 A p 
granulated j • • 
Soup, Tomato A. P. 
Soup, Lap 
Mock Turtle J • • 
...... J otuuiosnoo 
<1 V । 'dnog 
Shredded wheat, Lap 
all analyses J A' r' 
Sardines, J E' 
canned "1 p 
Starch, Corn A. P. 
K 
n 
p< ; 
o 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
11.0 
006 
89.8 
96.0 
p 
Ci 
52.3 
53.6 
00 
o 
Per Cent. 
Water. 
10.9 
bo 
pt 
io 
to 
UX 
to 
23.0 
23.7 
p 
io 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
to 
o 
p 
io 
bo 
19.7 
12.1 
p 
to 
Per Cent. Fat. 
72.0 
71.4 
100.0 
pt 
Ci 
to 
bo 
p 
75.2 
0'06 
Per Cent. 
Carbohydrate. 
3,575 
2,926 
4,092 
§ 
§ 
to 
3,740 
060'8 
ZU'Z 
3,626 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
1,625 
1,330 
1,860 
g: 
1,700 
1,260 
950 
1,638 
Calories per 
Pound. 
28.0 
34.2 
24.4 
245.7 
245.7 
826.4 
26.7 
36.1 
47.8 
27.6 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
o 
1.22 
0.87 
go 
bo 
go 
bo 
29.51 
0.95 
1.3 
1.71 
0.97 
Ounces per 
100 Calories. 
Table VI.-Groceries.-(Continued.) NOT BY BREAD ALONE 
361 
Lake Trout.... ■ 
Baes ■ 
Namb. 
j E. P. 
' A. P. 
j E. P. 
► 
j E. P. 
48.5 
O'SS 
34.9 
Per Cent. 
Refuse. 
70.8 
36.6 
W 
77.7 
40.9 
64.6 
Per Cent. 
Water. 
17.8 
9.1 
00 
18.6 
15.3 
22.0 
Per Cent. 
Protein. 
10.3 
5.1 
Mb 
to 
00 
go 
b 
12 8 
Per Cent. Fat. 
Per Cent. 
Carbohydrate. 
1,683 
847 
- 
o 
1,023 
1,450 
2,090 
Calories 
per Kilo. 
765 
385 
1 
s 
Ci 
Ci 
O 
o 
s 
Calories 
per Pound. 
59 
118 
§ 
8 
Cl 
00 
s 
Grams per 
100 Calories. 
to 
to U 
00 
b 
CO 
b 
2.43 
Ounces per 
100 Calories. 
Table VII.-Fish. INDEX OF THE TABLES SHOWING 
THE COMPOSITION AND FUEL 
VALUE OF FOODS 
Apples, 353. 
Apples, sauce, 355. 
Apricots, 353, 355. 
Artichokes, 348. 
Asparagus, 348, 351. 
Bacon, all analyses, 344. 
Bacon, lean, 344. 
Bacon, medium fat, 344. 
Bananas, 353. 
Barley, pearl, 356. 
Bass, 361. 
Beans, baked, 351. 
Beans, haricots, flageolets, 351. 
Beans, haricots, verts, 351. 
Beans, lima, 351. 
Beans, string, 348, 351. 
Beans, wax, 351. 
Beef, corned, all analyses, 344. 
Beef kidneys, 344. 
Beef, ribs, lean, 344. 
Beef, tenderloin, 344. 
Beets, 348. 
Beets, cooked, 348. 
Biscuit meal, cracker meal, 
356. 
Blackberries, 353. 
Blueberries, 355. 
Brown bread, 356. 
Butter, 357. 
Cabbage, 348. 
Cake, all analyses, except fruit, 
357. 
Calf's liver, 345. 
Carrots, 348. 
Cauliflower, 348. 
Celery, 348. 
Cheese, full cream, 356. 
Cherries, 353, 355. 
Chestnuts, dried, 357. 
Chestnuts, fresh, 357. 
Chickens, broilers, 346. 
Cocoa, 357. 
Cocoanut, prepared, 357. 
Corn, 351. 
Corn, green, 348. 
Cornmeal, granular, 357. 
Corn starch, 357. 
Crab meat, 347. 
Crabs, hard shell, whole, 347. 
Cranberries, 353. 
Cream, 25 per cent, butter fat, 
357. 
Cream, 36 per cent, butter fat, 
357. 
Cucumbers, 349. 
Currants, dried, 358. 
Eggplant, 349. 
Eggs, hens', 347. 
Flour, buckwheat, 358. 
Flour, wheat, all analyses, 358. 
Figs, dried, 358. 
Figs, stewed, 355. 
Fowls, 347. 
Gelatine, 358. 
Graham biscuit crackers, 356. 
Graham bread, 356. 
Grapes, 353. 
Ham, boneless, raw, 345. 
Ham, smoked, all analyses, 345. 
Ham, smoked, boiled, 345. 
363 364 
INDEX 
Ham, smoked, fat, 345. 
Ham, smoked, lean, 345. 
Ham, smoked, medium fat, 345. 
Honey, 358. 
Horseradish, 351. 
Horseradish, evaporated, 351. 
Ice cream, 358. 
Kidneys, mutton, 347. 
Lake trout, 361. 
Lamb, leg, free from all visible 
fat, 345. 
Lamb, leg, hind, all analyses, 
346. 
Lamb, leg, hind, fat, 345. 
Lamb, side, without tallow, 345. 
Lard, refined, 358. 
Lard, unrefined, 358. 
Leeks, 349. 
Lemons, 353. 
Lettuce, 349. 
Lobster, canned, 358. 
Lobsters, whole, 347. 
Macaroni, 359. 
Macedoine, 352. 
Marmalade, orange, 355. 
Milk, whole, 359. 
Mincemeat, commercial, 359. 
Mincemeat, home-made, 359. 
Molasses, cane, 359. 
Mutton, hind leg, all analyses, 
346. 
Mutton, hind leg, fat, 346. 
Mutton, hind leg, lean, 346. 
Oatmeal, 359. 
Okra, 352. 
Olives, green, 359. 
Onions, 349. 
Oranges, 354. 
Oyster biscuit, 356. 
Oysters, bulk, 347. 
Oysters, in shell, 347. 
Ox tail, canned, 346. 
Parsnips, 349. 
Peaches, 354, 355. 
Pears, 354, 355. 
Peas, green, 349, 352. 
Pickles, mixed, 359. 
Pineapple, 355. 
Plums, 354. 
Pork, tenderloin, 346. 
Potatoes, 349. 
Potatoes, Sweet, 349. 
Prunes, 354. 
Prunes, sauce, 355. 
Pumpkin, 349, 352. 
Radishes, 350. 
Raspberries, black, 353. 
Raspberries, red, 353. 
Rhubarb, 350. 
Ribs, all analyses, 344. 
Ribs, fat, 344. 
Rice, 359. 
Rolls, all analyses, 359. 
Salmon, 361. 
Saltines, 356. 
Sardines, canned, 360. 
Sausage, average pork, 346. 
Scallops, 347. 
Shredded wheat, all analyses, 
360. 
Soda biscuit crackers, 356. 
Soup, consomme, 360. 
Soup, mock turtle, 360. 
Soup, tomato, 360. 
Spinach, 350. 
Squash, 350. 
Starch, sage, 360. 
Strawberries, 354. 
Strawberries, stewed, 355. 
Sugar, granulated, 360. 
Sweetbreads, beef, 346. 
Syrup, maple, 360. 
Tomatoes, 350, 352. 
Tongue, beef (ox), 346 
Turkey, 347. 
Turnips, 350. 
Vermicelli, 360. 
Watermelons, 354. 
White bread, 356. INDEX 
Absorption, 126. 
chief methods, 141. 
from the stomach, 141. 
in the small intestine, 142. 
large intestine, 142, 143. 
selective, 144. 
Acidosis, 89. 
Acids, danger to health, 158. 
Age, cause of old, 137. 
diet in its relations to, 315. 
Air, bad, in schools, 239. 
Alarm signals, 160. 
Albuminuria, 78. 
Alcohol, absorption from the 
stomach, 142. 
cause of disease, 186. 
dangers of, 253. 
effects of, 76. 
effect on health, 255. 
effect on morality, 255. 
fuel value, 259. 
harmful, 185. 
Almond, 54. 
Amino acids, 123, 124, 135. 
Amylase, 87. 
Amylopsin, 30. 
Anabolism, definition, 32. 
Animal, duty to be a good, 305. 
food, wholesomeness, 82, 83. 
Animals, carnivorous, 35. 
character of food, 34. 
herbivorous, 35. 
omnivorous, 35. 
Apple sauce, 221. 
Apples, 165. 
price, 166. 
Arterial sclerosis, 325, 337. 
Arteries, hardening, 78. 
Asparagus, 221. 
Assimilation, definition, 31. 
Autotoxins, 182. 
Baby-talk, 229. 
Bacillus Bulgaricus, 189, 192, 
193, 194. 
Bacterial activity, 143. 
Baking powders, 112. 
Balanced ration, 147, 148. 
variations from, 155. 
Bananas, roasted, 173. 
Barley, 51. 
Basic materials, supplemental, 
157. 
Beans, 53. 
content of protein, 53. 
lima, 54. 
Beef, cost of dried, 164. 
Beer drinking, 254. 
food for the child, 258, 259. 
unlike milk, 259. 
Beri-beri, 75, 160, 331. 
Beverages, use during the meal, 
252. 
Bile, 128. 
Blood pressure, 325. 
purifiers, 184. 
velocity, 138, 139. 
Body building, 147. 
Bomb calorimeter, 23, 24. 
Bran, proportion of protein in, 
48. 
value of, 222. 
Bread, made from whole-wheat 
meal, 313, 314. 
quantity of water, 27. 
Breakfast foods, expense of, 
162. 
Bright's disease, 78, 287, 326. 
Buckwheat, 51. 
content of protein, 51. 
protein in, 52. 
Bulgaria, length of life in, 188. 
Butter, heat value, 28. 
365 366 
INDEX 
Butter, natural fat of the 
young, 168. 
price, 168. 
special nutritive properties, 
106, 107. 
fat, increased value in 
growth, 175. 
fat, superiority, 127. 
Buttermilk, 190. 
Cake, not good for the child, 
263. 
Calorie, definition, 19. 
unit of measure, 20. 
Calories, number furnished by 
carbohydrates, 102. 
number furnished by fats and 
oils, 102. 
standard of value, 29. 
Calorimeter, definition, 21, 22. 
Calorimetry, fundamental data, 
22. 
Candies, 94, 245. 
Candy, avoid eating, 238. 
eaten between meals, 246. 
effect upon teeth, 333. 
penny package, 239. 
Cane sugar, 91. 
Canned meats, 235. 
Carbohydrates, 19. 
builders of fat tissue, 95. 
composition, 100, 101. 
danger of exclusion, 84. 
definition, 85. 
effect of enzymes on, 96. 
effects of excess of, 74. 
end products, 95. 
energy value, 86. 
function, 85, 86. 
influence on other foods, 95, 
96. 
not produced by animals, 34. 
nutritive properties, 94. 
per cent, assimilated, 151. 
principal function, 95. 
principal products of plants, 
34. 
produced in the liver, 135. 
Carbohydrates, proportion in 
diet, 98. 
quantities used, 97. 
quantity of heat produced, 
26, 98. 
quantity required in the daily 
ration, 98, 99. 
regulating effect, 89. 
requirements at hard labor, 
153. 
soluble and insoluble, 86, 87. 
sparing nitrogenous tissue, 
96. 
thermal equivalents, 153. 
Carbon dioxid, 92. 
Carrots, 165. 
Casein, 144. 
Catabolism, definition, 32. 
Cell, length of life of, 137. 
Cellulose, 87, 88. 
Cereals, acidic character, 156. 
importance in diet, 37, 38. 
malted, 210. 
principal element of the diet, 
49. 
Character, development of, 237. 
Charity, lack of economy in, 
309. 
misguided, 81. 
Cheerfulness, importance in di- 
gestion, 67. 
Cheese, 58. 
fuel value, 59. 
protein in, 58. 
Chew, learning how to, 220. 
Chewing, object of, 31. 
Chickens, 63. 
Chicory, 173. 
Child, early teaching, 229. 
feeding at weaning, 216. 
food of, from ten to seven- 
teen, 243. 
quantity of food for the 
growing, 148. 
Children, feeding of, over ten, 
232. 
flourish on whole-wheat flour, 
299. INDEX 
367 
Children, food for, at two years 
old, 221. 
Children's dietaries, 257, 258. 
Chlorophyl, 91. 
Chocolate, 241. 
Chyle, 140. 
Chyme, 140. 
Citric acid, 115. 
Classes of foods, substitution, 
158. 
Climate, effect upon fat con- 
sumption, 102, 103. 
Clotted milk, 122. 
Coddling, dangers of, 233. 
Coffee, 241. 
dangers of, 248. 
effect upon studies, 249, 250. 
Condiments, care in use of, 256. 
Confections, 245, 246. 
Constipation, 222. 
Containers, necessity of food, 
163. 
Cottonseed oil, 106. 
Cytase, 87, 88. 
Decimal system of weights and 
measures, 10. 
Degeneracy, due to diet, 73. 
Dental clinics in schools, 274. 
Desserts, exclusion of, 241. 
Dextrose, 87, 93, 94, 96. 
Dextrose, occurrence in urine, 
93. 
Diabetes, 34, 78, 84, 88, 287, 
326. 
Diarrhea, 222. 
cause of, 327. 
Diet and disease, 322. 
as prescribed by physicians, 
309. 
calorie value, 237. 
cause of degeneracy, 73. 
danger of a low protein, 76. 
dominant factor in health, 
320. 
for children between four and 
ten, 230. 
ideal for the child, 261. 
Diet, impracticable to prescribe 
a definite, 261, 262. 
in health and disease, 337. 
in relation to military ef- 
ficiency, 72. 
mixed, 88. 
natural selection, 155. 
predominantly vegetable, 37. 
proper balancing, 70, 71. 
reasons of, 238. 
reform in England, 312. 
relation to health, 4. 
relations to old age, 315. 
simple, 263. 
theories of, in relation to 
long life, 321. 
wisdom of varied, 145. 
Dietaries, 340. 
children's, 257, 260. 
Dietary tables, 341. 
Digestion, definition, 29, 31, 
120. 
psychology of, 177. 
Digestive enzymes, 123. 
ferments, classes, 123, 124. 
organs, variability, 87. 
tract, infant, 212. 
Diphtheria, 287. 
Disease, relations to diet, 322. 
Diseases, degenerative, 327. 
sequelae of indigestion, 325. 
Dishonesty in relation to 
weights and measures, 12 
Domestic science, 308. 
schools of, 4. 
Duodenum, 122. 
Eating, time spent in, 2. 
Edestin, 50. 
Education, 306. 
agricultural and military, 306. 
burdens of, 8. 
in nutrition, 8. 
things to leave out, 9. 
Efficiency, 286. 
necessary to happiness, 312. 
Eggs, 59. 
composition, 60. 368 
INDEX 
Eggs, composition of white, 60. 
composition of yolk, 60. 
injurious effects, 264. 
sensibility to, 264, 265. 
use of, 264. 
weight of, 61. 
Emulsification, 129. 
Environment, 36. 
Enzymes, action, 124. 
amylolytic, 30. 
definition, 29, 30. 
lipolytic, 30. 
proteolytic, 30. 
Eskimos, character of food, 36. 
Excretion, definition, 31. 
Fads, fundamental error, 172. 
misleading tendency, 177. 
Fallacies in nutrition, 7. 
Fat and oil, per cent, assimi- 
lated, 151. 
absorption, 138. 
mistaken for health, 262. 
proportion in normal ration, 
104. 
quantity consumed per day 
per person, 105. 
Fats, 19. 
composition, 100, 101. 
definition, 100. 
form in which consumed, 103. 
heat value, 28. 
preparation for absorption, 
130. 
quantities in principal food 
products, 101. 
Fatty acids, 129. 
Feeding, frequency of, 228. 
Fish, 63. 
Fletcher, principles of mastica- 
tion, 1. 
Flour, greater wholesomeness of 
whole-wheat, 297. 
nutritive value of different 
kinds of milling, 296. 
nutritive value of white, 294. 
nutritive value of whole- 
wheat, 294, 295. 
Flour, whole-wheat preferred, 
298. 
Food, amount of dry repre- 
sented by carbohydrates, 
98. 
amount of dry required, 98. 
definition, 18. 
effect of superabundance, 323. 
efficiency, impaired by igno- 
rance, 81. 
faddists, 170. 
fuel value, 21. 
heat-forming properties, 151. 
influence on deportment, 241, 
242. 
minimizing importance of 
pure, 160. 
nutritional and not stimula- 
tive, 244. 
physical character suitable to 
teeth, 232. 
quantity for child, 223. 
quantity of dry required, 149. 
Reform League, 313. 
table of prices, 165. 
theories, 195. 
Foods, absorption from the 
small intestine, 131, 132. 
acute sensibility to, 329, 330. 
as purchased, 26. 
cause of waste, 311. 
classes of, 19. 
comparative fuel values, 24. 
curative properties, 333. 
dangers of preserved, 328. 
edible portion, 26. 
geographical influences, 36. 
inorganic, 33. 
legal definition, 32. 
necessity of variety, 159. 
nostrums and quackery, 334. 
organic, 33. 
plant and animal, 32. 
quantities for children from 
ten to seventeen, 256. 
quantities of each kind in 
daily ration, 150. 
raw, 172. INDEX 
369 
Foods, reduction of cost of, 15. 
rich in sugar, 94. 
Fruit diet, 171. 
Fruits, chief dietetic value, 55. 
wholesomeness, 55. 
Fuel value, 21. 
Gelatine, 145. 
food value, 64. 
Gelatines, 64. 
composition of, 64, 65. 
little value for foods, 65. 
Gliadin, 47, 50. 
Gluten, dry, 47. 
functions in bread making, 48. 
how formed, 48. 
moist, 47. 
occurrence, 47. 
Glutenin, 47, 144, 174. 
Glycerin, 129. 
Glycogen, 83, 134. 
Glycosuria, 78. 
Goat milk, 18. 
Growth, dependent on protein 
and mineral foods, 40. 
Happiness, pursuit of, 307. 
Health, the greatest blessing, 
285. 
through rational diet, 337. 
Heartburn, 324. 
Heat units, quantities per hour, 
152. 
Hemoglobin, occurrence, 39. 
Heredity, 36. 
Honey, 94. 
Hordein, 51. 
Hot Springs of Arkansas, 338. 
of Virginia, 338. 
Hydrochloric acid, 111, 121. 
Ignorance, cause of food de- 
ficiency, 81. 
India, average length of life in, 
319. 
Indian corn, 175. 
protein in, 49. 
wholesomeness, 50. 
Indigestion, cause of diseases, 
325 
Indol, 143, 183. 
Industry, the greatest, 1. 
Infant, change in digestion, 
214. 
digestive tract, 212. 
feeding, 197. 
mortality, 16, 198. 
susceptibility to improper 
food, 160. 
Infants, artificially fed, 199. 
breast fed, 199. 
hand fed, 201, 202. 
weaning, 200, 201. 
Infants' foods, composition, 209. 
mortality at Fall River, 199, 
200. 
Intestines, acidity of small, 
212. 
Inulin, 91. 
lodin, 117. 
Iron, 109. 
occurrence in blood, 39. 
compounds, 116. 
Jack Sprat, 105. 
Kjernemelk, 190. 
Kumiss, 189. 
Leavening process, 48. 
Lecithin, 60, 114, 174. 
Legumes, 41. 
effect on fertility of the soil, 
42. 
Lentils, 53. 
Leucosin, 50. 
Levulose, 93, 94, 96. 
Life, average length, 285, 315, 
316, 319. 
first, 203. 
importance of outdoor, 336. 
insurance, 199. 
possibility of extending, 317. 
Lime, 113, 114, 115. 
Lipase, 30, 130, 214. 
Liver, action on sugars, 133. 370 
INDEX 
Lobster, 64. 
Lunch, composition of, for 
school children, 240. 
importance of school, 240. 
value of the wholesome, in 
schools, 277. 
Luxuries, 310. 
Lymph, 138. 
varieties, 139. 
Lymphatics, 138, 139, 140. 
Macaroni, 52. 
Maize, starch granule of, 90. 
Maltose, 87. 
Man, both herbivorous and 
carnivorous, 37. 
chiefly omnivorous, 38. 
diet predominantly vegetable, 
37. 
Marriage, conditions of, 5. 
Mastication, duration of, 37. 
purpose, 120. 
Meal, typical, 342, 343. 
Measles, 287. 
Meat, diet for the child, 227. 
extracts, 64, 65. 
extracts, little value as food, 
65. 
fuel value, 62. 
lean, 61. 
lean, composition, 61, 62. 
not good for children, 179. 
not the sole cause of old age, 
183. 
preferably eaten at noon, 236. 
quantity, 247. 
quantity for children from 
five to ten, 234. 
tendency to eat too much, 67. 
when to be given to children, 
247. 
Meats, comparative value of 
different animals, 267. 
evils of eating too much, 172. 
preference for that of clean 
animals, 268, 269. 
preliminary treatment of, 
235. 
Meats, universality of kinds, 
268. 
" Medio tutissimus ibis," 195. 
Metabolism, definition, 32. 
endogenous, 136. 
exogenous, 136. 
normal, 149. 
retarded, 137. 
Metric System, permissible, 11. 
Mice, effect of feeding white 
flour, 299. 
Military service, unfitness, 304. 
Milk, 56. 
a balanced ration, 224. 
bad, frequent cause of dis- 
ease, 330. 
certified, 211. 
clarifying, 204. 
comparison of human and 
cow, 56, 57. 
cow, 56. 
danger of bad, 262. 
danger of dirty, 18. 
delivery to consumer, 206. 
diet, 171. 
difficulties of producing pure, 
205. 
dilution with boiled water, 
208. 
expense of, 207. 
fermented, 190. 
food, changing from, 220. 
from healthy animals, 203. 
human, 56. 
kinds required for young of 
different animals, 175. 
modification, 57, 207. 
preparation of modified, 218, 
219. 
price of, 310. 
separating, 204. 
supplemental to cereal diet, 47. 
Milling, importance of proper, 
299. 
Mineral foods, 19, 109. 
foods, in relation to growth, 
40. 
hunger, 112. INDEX 
371 
Minerals, affecting circulation 
of the blood, 110. 
chiefly on the exterior, 113. 
importance to children, 224. 
important for child growth, 
113. 
indispensable, 110. 
methods of movement, 110. 
per cent, assimilated, 151. 
physiological balance, 117. 
principal foods containing, 
119. 
sources, 118. 
Molasses, 94. 
Mollycoddle, 233. 
Money, counting, 10. 
Mono-diet, 251. 
a possibility, 176. 
dangers of, 159. 
objections to, 176. 
Mother's milk, 199. 
substitute, 17. 
Mouth, chemistry of, 286. 
hygiene, 272, 292. 
Moving pictures, 245. 
Muriatic acid, 121. 
Mutton, 62. 
Mystery in metabolism, 146. 
Nausea, cause of, 327. 
Nitric acid, how prepared for 
human nutrition, 43. 
production of, by electricity, 
42. 
Nitrogen, occurrence in air, 40. 
functions of, 40. 
Nitrogenous fertilizers, 41. 
foods, 19. 
Normal diet, 177. 
Novels, erotic, 245. 
Nuclein, 114. 
Nut diet, 171. 
Nuts, not a balanced diet, 55. 
protein of, 54. 
Nutrients, quantity and kind 
for 150-pound man, 150. 
Nutrition, application of prin- 
ciples, 340. 
Nutrition, articles on, 6. 
Bulletins relating to, 340, 
341. 
definition, 120. 
economy of, 161. 
economy of scientific, 161. 
fads of, 169. 
ignorance of, 5. 
importance of teaching, 307. 
important for good teeth, 
226. 
scientific, 169. 
the great economic problem, 
15. 
Nutritive ratio, 74, 152, 155 
for hard labor, 153. 
ideal, 80. 
narrow, 77. 
Oats, hulled, 51. 
Oil cake, 54. 
proportion in normal ration, 
104. 
Oils, composition, 100, 101. 
definition, 100. 
effect of increased consump- 
tion, 106. 
form in which consumed, 103. 
heat value, 28. 
preferred to fats, 107, 108. 
quantities in principal food 
products, 101. 
substituted for olive oil, 106. 
wholesomeness of animal, 
107. 
Old age, assumed causes, 181. 
inevitable, 182. 
prevention, 183. 
Oleomargarine, 167. 
difference from butter, 167. 
economy of, 167. 
Olive oil, 107. 
One-Hoss Shay, 285. 
Osmosis, 111. 
Osmotic conditions, 117. 
force, 111. 
Overeating, dangers of, 178, 
179, 248. 372 
INDEX 
Overfeeding, danger of, 77. 
Oyster, 63. 
Oysters, fresh, opened, 166. 
Package goods, benefits of, 162. 
convenience of, 163. 
expense of, 162. 
Pancreas, 123, 128. 
Parched cereals, 173. 
Parental affection, dangers of, 
229. 
Peanut, 54. 
oil, 106. 
Peas, 53. 
dry, content of protein, 53. 
green, content of water, 53. 
Pediatrist, 197. 
Pellagra, 75, 160, 331. 
Pepsin, 30, 122, 213. 
Phenol, 143, 183. 
Phosphates, quantity, 115. 
Phosphorus, 109, 112, 113, 114. 
occurrence in lecithin, 39. 
organic forms, 174. 
relation to growing animals, 
302. 
retention in body, 301. 
Pickles, 244. 
Plants, character of food, 34. 
Polished rice, 52. 
Pork, 62. 
Portal vein, 133, 141. 
Potash, 116. 
Potato, 221. 
content of starch, 90, 91. 
Potatoes, 165. 
Poverty, effects on infants and 
children, 82. 
Prepared foods, 156. 
Protein, average amount in 
wheat, 47. 
content in rye, 50. 
converted into carbohydrate, 
83. 
diminution of, in diet, 154. 
fate in the body, 135. 
in oats, 51. 
in relation to growth, 40. 
Protein, in relation to infants' 
and children's diet, 81, 82. 
minimum quantity, 154. 
minimum quantity in food, 
79. 
minimum quantity required, 
71. 
poisons, 180. 
production of, by legumes, 41. 
quantity assimilated, 151. 
quantity of food to supply 
one hundred grams, 70. 
quantity of heat produced, 
25. 
thermal equivalents, 153. 
the tissue builder, 208. 
time of use, 154. 
Proteins, best way of provid- 
ing, 66, 67. 
comparative cost, 68. 
description, 39. 
differences in composition of 
animal and vegetable, 66. 
most economical sources, 68, 
69. 
quantity required, 68. 
sources of, 79, 80. 
theoretical value, 266, 267. 
vegetable, 44. 
Protoplasm, hardening, 137. 
Ptomaines, 327. 
Ptyalin, 30, 87, 121. 
Puberty, 244. 
Public health, importance of, 
293. 
Pylorus, 122. 
Pyorrhea, 290, 292. 
Quackery, in diet, 171. 
Race degeneration, causes, 303. 
Ration, constructing with any 
given number of calories, 
342. 
Registration area, 198. 
Rennin, 122. 
Reproduction, normal, 157. 
Rice bran, protein in, 52. INDEX 
373 
Rice, polished, 52. 
Rickets, 333. 
Riggs' disease, 290, 291. 
Rye, principal cereal food, 50. 
Safety first, 203. 
Salt, 111. 
chlorid of sodium, 33. 
Sanitary science, 318. 
Saratoga, Springs of, 338. 
Sausage, 62. 
School, dangers of, 239. 
Science, advance of sanitary, 
318. 
Scurvy, 75, 160, 330. 
Senescence, 182. 
Skatol, 143, 183. 
Sleep, connected with nutri- 
tion, 2. 
time spent in, 3. 
Smallpox, 287. 
Smoking, habit of, 250. 
Soap, formation, 130. 
Soda, 116. 
Soft drinks, 249. 
Sour milk, 187. 
diet, 171. 
not a specific against old 
age, 189. 
wholesome, 194, 195. 
Spaghetti, 52. 
Spinach, 221. 
Starch, final steps in digestion, 
128, 129. 
not good for an infant, 213. 
Starches, 89. 
changes undergone in diges- 
tion, 97. 
chief of carbohydrate foods, 90. 
common chemical property, 90. 
shape of granule, 89. 
Stomach digestion, 121. 
not active in absorption, 128. 
uses as laboratory, 142. 
Strawberries, not tolerated, 330. 
Sucrose, 91. 
Sugar, annual cost per head, 92, 
93. 
Sugar cane, 92. 
consumption of, 92. 
beet, 92. 
beet, content of sugar, 94. 
definition, 91. 
dominant factor of plant life, 
92. 
effect on fatigue, 96. 
effect on physical exertion, 
96. 
food value, 93. 
quantity in the blood, 134. 
sources of, 92. 
speedily digested, 96. 
unbalances the ration, 283. 
Sugars, 91. 
dangers of, 225. 
superiority of natural, 127. 
Sulphur, 112, 115. 
occurrence in proteins, 45, 46. 
Sulphuric acid, 115, 116. 
Summer complaint, 17, 197, 
329. 
Sweet potato, content of sugar, 
94. 
Sweets, inadvisability of, 223, 
224. 
Symbiosis, 41. 
Synthesis in living tissues, 146. 
Syrups, 94. 
Tatemelk, 190. 
Tea, 241. 
dangers of, 248. 
effect upon studies, 249, 250. 
Teeth, bad, cause of many dis- 
eases, 288, 289, 290. 
bad, found in school children, 
271. 
bad, menace to health, 272, 
273. 
conservation of temporary, 
279. 
early conservation, 278. 
food necessary to produce 
good, 280, 281. 
food the dominant factor, 
283. 374 
INDEX 
Teeth, importance of care of 
temporary, 231. 
importance of cleanliness, 
284. 
production of good, 226. 
relation to nutrition, 270. 
threat to proper nutrition, 
332. 
variations of, in different 
animals, 36, 37. 
Theories, in diet, 171. 
Thermometer, definition, 21, 22. 
Thoracic duct, 140. 
Thyroid gland, 117. 
Tobacco, dangers of, 250, 251. 
effect of, 76. 
Tooth, no natural sweet, 282. 
Toxins, 143. 
Tradition in relation to nutri- 
tion, 7. 
Training in nutrition, 14. 
Trypsin, 30, 213. 
Tuberculosis, relation to food, 
335. 
Turkey, 63. 
Turnips, 165. 
Typhoid fever, 287. 
Urea, 135, 146. 
Varied diet, 173. 
reasons of, 173, 174. 
Vegetable foods, 328. 
proteins, 44, 45. 
Vegetables, 80, 177. 
chief dietetic value, 55. 
wholesomeness, 55. 
Vegetarianism, 171. 
popularity, 178. 
Vegetarians, not properly la- 
beled, 66. 
Villus, 139, 140. 
Vital statistics, 16. 
Vitality, 198. 
cause of failing, 305. 
Vitamin, 28. 
Vulture, flesh of, 269. 
Washington, schools of, 274, 
275. 
Water, absorption from the 
stomach, 142. 
Waters, taking the, 337, 338. 
Weaning, best time for, 200. 
feeding after, 216. 
principles of, 217. 
Weights and Measures, 9. 
West Baden, Springs of, 338. 
Wheat, body builder, 46, 47. 
cleaning, 300. 
deficient in basic substances, 
156. 
economy in nutrition, 46, 49. 
entire flour, 297. 
gluten, 48. 
greatest body builder, 46. 
milling, 300. 
monotony of diet, 176. 
patent flour, 294. 
typical cereal, 175. 
white flour, 299. 
whole flour, 298. 
whole products, 302. 
Wheat flour, 210. 
nutritive value, 295, 296, 297. 
Whisky, 196. 
brand of, 188. 
as a life preserver, 185. 
White flour, 49, 80. 
Whole cereals, importance of, 
80, 81. 
Whole foods, importance of, 
252. 
Whole-wheat flour, 49. 
Whooping cough, 287. 
Wine drinking, 254. 
Women, in relation to nutri- 
tion, 15. 
Yellow fever, 287. 
Yoghurt, 190, 191, 192. 
Zein, 50, 145, 174. 
less wholesome than gluten, 
50.