A Hr# r mv 
/?Y SIOLOGIC /-IsPECTS OF 
Survival and 
Emergency Rations 
QUARTERMASTER FOOD AND CONTAINER INSTITUTE FOR THE ARMED FORCES physiologic aspects of 3URVIVAL AND RmERGENCY RATIONS 
George H Berryman 
a ARTERMASTER POOF and CONTAINER INSTITUTE for the ARMED FORCES 
research and development branch 
Office of the Quartermaster General 
CHICAGO 9, ILLINOIS In oraer to survive until rescue, the castaway must reduce to a minimum 
the adverse physiologic effects due to environment, so that he does not die from 
exposure; he must’conquer fear; he must either find potable water, or at least 
keep his body water losses to a minimum; he'must replace salt losses; and finally, 
for a period of long survival, he must have access to food. These five factors 
are listed in a sequence approximating relative importance; let us examine them 
in greater details 
Environmental protection is of first importance* Occasionally, the 
environment may he irremediable, as for exanple, when a flier is ditched into very 
cold waters such as those around the Aleutians* Here, death from exposure is re- 
puted to occur in less than an hour* In the majority of circumstances, however, 
certain steps can he taken to cope with environment* Thus, in the Arctic, provided 
the survivor is adequately clothed against freezing, it id.ll he of further aid to 
try to avoid sweating and to favor ventilation hy opening clothing at the neck and 
wrists and loosening the waist* The vascular circulation should he aided hy wearing 
clothing loosely. Dry glass or kapok from airplane cushions makes excellent 
Insulation for the feet. Clothing can he kept as dry as possible to deter freezing. 
Shelter can he improvised hy building ’•hough dens” reinforced, with snow, or snow 
caves, and hy the Judicious use of snow hanks. In the summer, sunburn can he 
guarded against, and sun glasses may he improvised to prevent snow-blindness. 
Appropriate steps can also ha taken in the tropics* Staying in the shade 
and other measures sparing of body water are of paramount importance, for obviously 
here the problem of water and salt is critical. The need for avoiding mosquitoes 
is more or less a well known precaution,, as well as the use of malaria-suppressant 
1 drugs* Shelter from ’both sun and rain is usually facilitated "by the profusion of 
trees and other vegetation* Measures to avoid ticks* leeches* spiders, scorpions, 
and the like must also he taken. Protection against poinsonous and irritating 
plants is also necessary* 
Control of fear* or conversely, bravado8 is considered hy many to 
he of almost equal importance with, the necessity for controlling environmental dis- 
advantages. Many a castaway on a raft has hastened the end hy resorting to largo 
quantities of sea water as a means of assuaging thirst. Many a castaway on land 
lias hastened the end hy an injudicious decision to travel in the height of the sun. 
The continuing desire to live may he listed as one personal trait that stands out 
in importance above others. If, then, it he granted - as it is universally - that 
food may favorably influence the kind of decision which, the castaway makes, and 
aids morale and courage, it follows that a survival ration may he a significant 
factor in saving life. 
The need for water is not immediate, hut it may aviso early in the course 
of survival, depending on tho environmental temperature and the amount of physical 
exorcise. Table 1, taken from Army Air Forces Manual 64-0-1, illustrates this 
point, While certain measures can ho taken to conserve water, the minimum daily 
quantity required for the average person in a temperate environment has been esti- 
mated hy Gamble to he about JOO cc. This is, of course, considerably lees than 
the amount normally consumed, which may average about 2,5 liters or more, depending 
on work and temperature. An interesting and important point about the hody*s 
requirement for water is that it may he profoundly influenced hy the kind and 
amount of food that is available. Protein increases the requirement, while carho- 
% 
hydrate and fat decrease it. 
The need for salt is closely related to that of water. The Food and 
2 TABLE 1 
DESERT WATER DATA TABLE 
’Maximum * 
Entire 
Approximate 
If 
Approximate 
Survival ’ 
’Daytime ' 
Water 
s 
Survival Days 
8 
Days 
8 
Supply 
? 
/<•»« n i • 
Tempera— 
pTirtrir iftrs'U.ui'g " 1 
Vmiwu iravuixng wnxy 
'tures In * 
Per Man 
! 
In Shade At All 
9 
Night & Resting In Shade ’ 
'Shade ’ 
S 
Times) 
8 
By Day. Also Distance You' 
t t 
s 
9 
Gan Travel) 
8 
■ VERY HOT 
No water 
1 
2-5 
s 
1-3 days 1 
20 miles ’ 
’ 100°F. { 
1 quart 
8 
2-5| 
. ? 
2-3i- days ’ 
20 miles 
& above 
2 quarts 
s 
2-6 
I 
2-3-J days ’ 
25 miles * 
i i 
4 quarts 
; 
. JirJL. 
t 
days ’ 
30 miles 
, MODERATELY * 
No water 
» 
5-9 
! 
3-7 days » 
20-40 miles / 
, HOT 
1 quart 
1 
5§—10 
J 
5w”7t5- days - 
20-45 miles 8 
80°-100op. 
2 quarts 
V 
6-11 
f 
3|—8 days 1 
25-50 miles t 
4 quarts 
? 
7-13 
8 
4-9 days t 
30-60 miles < 
, COOL ? 
No water 
! 
9-10 
\ 
7-8 days : 
40-60 miles 
j Under , , 
1 quart 
10-11 
8 
7-J-8J- days j 
45-75 miles 1 
80°F. t 
2 quarts 
» 
11-12 
8 
8-9 days * 
55-100 miles 
4 quarts 
i 
13-14^- 
8 
9-J—11 days } 
60-150 miles 
Adapted from? Army Air Forces Manual 64-0-1, ’’Survival”, June 1945 0 
3 Nutrition Board, National Research Council, lists five grains daily as being a liberal 
allowance, but further designates the average normal intake of salt to be as high as 
10-15 grams per day, when water intake is not more than 4 liters® For every liter of 
intake above four, an additional gram of salt is recommended® It would seem, however, 
that once adjusted to the environment, the average person may not need as much as 
this, for the salt concentration of sweat is then considerably lower® Basically, 
the needs are to replenish the salt lost by the body® 
It is a truism that the castaway rarely dies from starvation®* The 
specific physiologic need for food in a survival situation is not a critical one, 
although as mentioned above, the psychologic aspects of the problem probably make 
food quite important from the overall standpoint® Insofar as actual starvation and 
its attendant inanition are concerned, it is reported that the castaway on a raft 
can "survive without food, but with ample water, for twenty to thirty days or 
longer, provided he is not subjected to physical strain, ®„«®®..««®®" This may be 
contrasted with average survival time without water, which probably does not exceed 
ten to fourteen days oven under the most favorable circumstances•. At sea, the maxi- 
mum recorded period of survival without water is eleven days and it can be considerably 
less than that in some individuals. 
It does not seem that all the nutritive components of food are needed in 
the some degree for survival. For preventing physical deterioration, calories and 
protein rate highest. (There is, however, a definite limit on the amount of protein 
that should be oaten, for the metabolic and products increase obligatory urine volume)® 
Except for sodium, (as salt), minerals are not a critical factor. For the relatively 
short periods ordinarily involved in survival, there is no evidence from the 
* Thus, in the Arctic, clothing, shelter and signalling devices, fuel and heat, water 
may bo listed as taking precedence over foodj in the tropics, environmental protec- 
tion, salt and water play a more important direct role than food# 
4 physiologic standpoint justifying any concern for vitamins, provided the castaway 
was not originally in a depleted state „* Vitamin supplements may, on the other hand, 
exert a favorable psychologic effect, if they can fit into the ration conveniently* 
Having rapidly reviewed the hierarchy of factors involved in survival, let 
us examine more closely the components of water balance, as a preliminary to consider" 
ing the types of food suitable for a survival ration* The'components of water exchange 
when there is no food intake are indicated in Figure 1* There are two items of expendi- 
ture! (1) water which leaves the body as water vapor by way of the lungs and skin - the 
so-called insensible loss, and (2) water removed by the kidneys* This total outgo is 
only in small part covered by water produced by oxidation of protein, fat, and carbohy- 
drate* In'fasting, there is an additional source of water from the cellular breakdown 
of body substance, but this does not contribute to general dehydration* As Gamble 
states? ’’This is water which, under the circumstances imposed by fasting, is physiolog- 
ically expendible*” In fasting, this source of fluid, together with water of oxidation, 
aids in maintainance of homeostasis* It will be noted from the diagram that water drunk 
under guidance of the sensation of thirst usually provides a generous margin over 
obligatory expenditure, indicated by the broken line, and so leaves a large surplus 
to be removed in the urine* One exception to this occurs in extremely hot environment, 
however, where thirst may not be a dependable guide to water requirements* 
The larger component of the obligatory outgo of fluid is the insensible 
expenditure, and since this has a direct relationship to the metabolism of energy, 
it is apparent that at rest, it will be at a minimum* In the tropics, this is the 
basis for recommendations to avoid physical activity as much as possible, and to 
decrease the vaporization of body water as much as is compatible with maintaining 
body temperature* Usually the castaway in the tropics intuitively takes measures to 
* This statement might possibly require modification if survival periods 
say, three weeks* WATER 
URINE 
Minimal 
Water 
Intake 
Minimal 
Ur in© 
Water 
DRUM 
WATER 
Water 
of 
Oxidation 
Exbra- 
Gollular 
BODY 
INSEN- 
SIBLE 
WATER 
WATER 
Intra- 
cellular 
♦FIG. 1. WATER EXCHANGE DURING FASTING, 
WITH -SURPLUS WATER INTAKE. 
♦Taken from: "The Water Requirement of Castaways” by James L. Gamble, 
Proc. Am. Philosp. Society, Vol. 88, $3, 1944. decrease environmental warmth, and to substitute for the vaporization of body 
•water other processes of heat removal. These measures are the following: 
(1) Stay in the shade, 
(Direct reduction of environmental temperature) 
(2) Increase the cooling effect of breeze by removal of 
clothing* 
(Promotion of convection) 
(3) When at sea, periodically immerse in the sea water* 
(Promotion of conduction) 
(4) Wet clothing with sea water, 
(Vaporization of sea water in place of body water) 
An appreciation of the minimum water requirement can be gained by con- 
sidering the concentrating power of the kidney. The total amount of metabolic 
solutes requiring excretion, divided by the maximum concentration that is ordinarily 
found to be within the capacity of the kidney (1,4 osmolar), provides a measure of 
the obligatory urine water, A specific example cited by Gamble illustrates the 
principle, A 24-hour collection of urine amounted to 1240 co, hdving a freezing 
point depression of -1,19°C, An osmole of any solute lowers the freezing point 
of water by -1.86°C, Thus, 1,19 x 1240 = 794 milliosmols of total solutes requiring 
1,86 
excretion; and 794 « 566 co, minimal urine volume, provided there is no impairment 
T3 
in kidney concentrating power, 
Now, it is important to note that the urinary volume can be even further 
decreased if the castaway eats a type of food sparing body protein* This is usually 
considered to be carbohydrate, although fat may exert a similar effect, which may, 
however, be complicated by the production of a concurrent Ketosis* A specific ex- 
ample of the effect of carbohydrate can be cited, again taken from Gamble* Table 2 
7 # . 
presents the essential data. It is seen that, when compared with the results 
found in fasting, feeding of 100 gpi® of glucose has two effects upon water 
balances (l) favorable - in that renal water is decreased, and (2) unfavorable - 
in that there is a decrease in the amount of body \mter arising from extracellular 
and intracellular sources® Since, however, the latter is less than the former, 
the net result is a gain of 140 cc« of water to the individual, as well as a 
sparing of his bodily tissue® Thus, 100 cos of the water requirement for fasting 
can be replaced by glucose, and the incident benefits of glucose (tendency to 
avoid inanition and lassitude, and to maintain cheerfulness) are obtained® In 
addition, carbohydrate, when taken in sufficient quantity, prevents the character- 
istic Ketosis of starvation*, 
TABLE 2 
EFFECT OF GLUCOSE Oil WATER EXCHANGE 
Subject 
Minimal 
Available 
M. Go 
Urine Water, 
Body Water9 
CO 8 
GO o 
I1 asting eooooooooseaoosooooooooeBe 
521 
518 
100 gift 8 glUCO se ©oooo«'oa#e9®oooooc 
223 
360 
Red-UCtiOn • ooaooooocrooooooa'Ooooooa 
Gain in -water exchange 298«158~ 140 
~29fT 
OCo 
150 
* 
Values average per 24 hrs® for 6-day periods omitting first day® 
Taken from? "The Water Requirement of Castaways" by James L* Gamble, Proc„ 
Am® Philosp® Society, Vol® 88, $3, 1944® 
rV • 
Table 3 indicates the role that organic acids of Ketosis may play® It is seen 
that the absence of these substances when glucose is given accounts for thirty- 
eight percent of the total reduction in solute output* Thus, both the anti- 
' ■ fl?v 
Ketogenic effect of glucose and its protein sparing effect reduce the solute output, and thereby conserve body -water* 
TABLE 3 
EFFECT OF GLUCOSE ON OUTPUT OF SOLUTES 
IN URllE 
! 
t 
Sub jeot— M.G. 
I 
f 
Milliosmols 
per 
24 Hrs. 
T 
» Total 
t 
Organic 
t 
i 
Org. Ac 
• ' 
1 
». . 
*Solutes 
i . 
» 
t 
Acids 
t 
t 
mA » 
4 t 
+ m4 
1 
1 
Fasting •«••••••••••••• 
i 
t 
133 
i 
t 
86 | 
219 
} 
100 gm. glucose ••••••• 
- . * 
T 
| 
39 
V 
t 
21 , 
. » 
60 
t 
‘Reducti on, .............. 
1 
94 
i 
+ 
f 
65 
= 159 
|B . 
1 
f 
i 
1 
159/422 
0.38 
J 
4 - ' 
Data from 6- 
day periods (omitting first day). 
Taken fromj "The Water Requirement of Casta-ways" by James L* Gamble, Proc* Am. 
Philosp. Society, Vol. 88, $3, 1944. 
There is yet another factor, although a slight one, involved in -water 
balance. This pertains to -water of oxidation. Table 4 indicates the relative 'amounts 
of water produced by the oxidation of 1 gram of carbohydrate, fat or protein, will 
be noted that the water of oxidation of fat is high by comparison, but more importantly, 
that of protein is least - another reason why the level of protein consumed in the 
absence of water must be limited. 
9 TABLE 4 
WATER OF OXIDATION FROM FOOD 
Substrate of oxidation 
produced 
. . i m\ 
(gnu) 
Glucose 
0.600 
Sucrose 
0.579 
Starch or glycogen 
0.556 
Fat 
1.071 
Protein 
0.396 
In summary, the following points are salient for the conservation of the 
body water of the castaways 
(1) in isolation, where water supply is a problem, the 
type of food consumed may play an important role in 
prevention of rapid dehydration 
(2) the chief component of food adversely affecting water 
balance is protein, because its metabolic end products 
require water for excretion, and less important, its 
water of oxidation is less than that of carbohydrate 
or fat 
(3) carbohydrate and fat exert a protein-sparing effect, 
and thus decrease the amount of obligatory urine. 
Carbohydrate also aids in preventing Ketosis, and is 
much less nauseating than are equal quantities of fat. 
(4) insensible loss of body water should be kept at a mini- 
mum by limiting activity and promoting cooling. 
Turning now to the application of these principles to the development of 
rations, it will be recalled that one of the early survival rations - the Life Raft 
10 Ration - was composed of 100 grains of pure carbohydrate in the form of Charms•candy• 
On the basis of the foregoing, it is apparent that this ration ms based on sound 
physiologic principles,, The other Survival or Emergency Ration, the D Bar, contained 
other nutrients that were surprisingly close in quantity to the amounts presently pro- 
posed, as we shall see* However, there were also several objections to these rations 
on acceptability groundse Thus the candy ration was reported to cause sore mouths and 
to be unappetizing for any length of time exceeding a day or two* Candy is thirst pro- 
voking to many* The D Bar depressed appetite, caused gastro-intestinal upsets in some 
and, in general, ms claimed to be thirst provoking because of the chocolate content. 
These rations were, therefore, not ideal ,5 yet, in retrospect, they had several happy 
properties in relation to size, shape, stability, and caloric density. In addition, 
* I 
* 
they could play an important role in contributing to the morale of the subject. At 
this point, we might digress momentarily to state that to many, the psychologic problems 
of survival far outweigh the physiologic0 This feeling about the relative unimportance 
of what (and if) one eats in survival circumstances is seen in such statements as "the 
best survival ration is a rapid rescue", and others of that nature. This line of 
thought might be pursued further, however. If food is to be provided for psychologic 
reasons primarily, there is still no reason why it should not also be physiologically 
sound and of such a nature as to conserve physical and mental efficiency* After 
) 
rescue, overall recovery with return to duty, wound healing, etc*, will proceed at a 
far faster rate when extreme depletion has been prevented. By all criteria, therefore, 
if a survival ration is to be made, it should not be planned oblivious of food values* 
In 1943 there occurred the most important technologic achievement of the war, 
as far as survival is concerned* This was the rendering of sea water potable by a 
desalination technique® A solar still ms also developed® The upshot of these advances was that in many situations * at sea, dehydration was no longer the factor 
completely limiting the kind of food that could be used in survival. It ms esti- 
mated that an average 800 cc, of water could be depended upon daily as the combined 
output from desalination kit, solar still, and from rainfall. This turn of events 
roused again the conviction that many had held previously; namely, that while 
survival rations must necessarily be high in calories and sparing of body water, 
they should nevertheless contain familiar and well-liked food items, should be less 
confection-like, and furthermore, should contain as much protein as possible in the 
interests of preventing marked loss of body protein. The big question ms — how 
much protein could be incorporated for a water intake presumably averaging 800 oo# 
per day, and what source of protein would favor the attainment of nitrogen balance? 
This last factor involved the amino acid make-up of protein — and this was a field 
only recently explored, insofar as the familiar human foods were concerned. As a 
means of obtaining the needed information, several research projects were established 
through the Committee on Food Research, Quartermaster Food & Container Institute for 
the Armed Forces, Within the past two years, valuable information has been obtained, 
not only relating to these immediate problems, but also in the basic physiology of 
low-oalorie, low-protein feeding. These will be discussed briefly. 
Early in the program of investigation, there emerged one finding that 
appears to be basic in feeding the small amounts of food characteristic of survival 
rations, Swanson, working at Iowa State College, found that egg protein apparently 
conserved body protein in protein-depleted animals, and caused an unexpectedly marked 
reduction in the amount of urinary nitrogen excreted on a protein-free diet# This 
work, ms then repeated and verified by Swanson, as well as by Allison and co-Yjorkers 
at Rutgers University, using rats and dogs respectively as test animals. Furthermore, 
12 this effect ms similar to that obtained when an equivalent amount of dietary nitro- 
gen ms supplied in the form of the ten essential amino acids. The effect seemed to 
* 
be related to the high methionine content of egg protein, for the addition of dl- 
methionine to diets containing proteins other than egg resulted in greater nitrogen 
sparing. 
Here ms an exciting possibility for use in survival ration planning. How- 
ever, verification in human subjects ms needed* This ms undertaken initially by 
Sohwimmer and co-workers at Hew York University* It ms later investigated by R. M. 
Johnson and co-workers*at the University of Southern California, and also coincidently 
by Cox and co-workers at Washington University School of Medicine, St, Louis, and at 
Hew York University. The overall results were strikingly similar, and served to 
point up the great care needed in applying to humans results obtained by animal ex- 
perimentation, even though the latter is a necessary and important forerunner. For 
in the human, no nitrogen-sparing effect duo to added methionine ms found such as 
that observed in rats and dogs. The conclusion ms reached that a difference in 
species requirement for methionine ms responsible for the difference in results* 
At about the same time, additional work ms begun on other phases of the 
low protein, lovf calorie intake problem by Sohwimmer and associates. Comprehensive 
investigations upon several series of human volunteers undergoing twenty-eight 
dietary regimens were carried out. These investigations were based on the previous 
findings discussed above, and were designed to investigate several important 
questions that had arisen as a consequence* The resulting data, together with 
those originally obtained, form the basis for the present planning of the Survival 
* Under the direction of Dr* H, J* Deuel. 
13 ration. The immediate applicable findings* of the New York group were these: 
1. Nitrogen sparing is absent in the 400-500 calorie range 
of feeding (level of standard Life Raft Ration). 
2. Nitrogen utilization is optimal at 1500-1800 calories 
when 20 grams of protein (derived from dehydrated fermented 
egg white) are fed. When 40 grams are fed, a striking im- 
provement in nitrogen balance occurs at all levels from 900 
to 1800 calories, and the net amount of nitrogen retained 
by the body is greatest at the 40 gram protein intake level. 
3. Urinary volumes are not increased when as much as 20 and 40 
grams of protein are fed at 1500-1800 calories, averaging 
30-60 cc. less than when no protein is ingested at 450 
calories, and 115-145 cc. less than when 10 grams of protein 
are given at 450 calories. 
In addition, the superiority of egg white over certain other types of protein 
•was again reported. This was significant, for it provided verification of the earlier 
findings in animals that were withheld from application to survival ration planning 
when the species difference in the methionine effect was uncovered. The findings of 
Schwimmer and co-workers showed very clearly that for short periods of time, when 
egg white was the sole sdurce of protein, there was a marked reduction in nitrogen 
excretion** as compared with the results obtained when lactalbunen (high ash content) 
or malted milk protein was used, or no protein at all. This same effect was obtained 
at both the 20 and 40 gram levels of protein intake. The basis for the apparently 
superior effect of egg protein over many other proteins is apparent from a tabulation 
of the amino acid content of egg white and whole egg versus certain other foods* 
See Table 5, 
♦ These findings were obtained over experimental periods of 5 days only, however. 
** It is recognized that to some, nitrogen-balance considerations may not be 
acceptable as a criterion for Survival feeding policy; i.e., blood protein 
and hemoglobin regeneration may be equally valid criteria. 
14 (it will be noted that the egg white and whole egg values per 100 grams 
exceed man*s average requirements — Columns 1, 2, and 3 — while none of the other 
common proteins approach the egg in biologic value, considering all the component 
amino acids, with the prominent exception of SERUM PROTEIN* 
Using egg white and whole egg values as criteria, zein, ricin, peanut flour, 
soybean meal, and wheat flour would have marked amino acid deficiencies, quantitatively 
speaking, when used as the only source of protein* (NOTE: It is quite possible that 
if some of these proteins were used together in a ration, they would supplement each 
other to the exbent of obviating the quantitative deficiencies they have individually*)) 
Other important data were obtained from this series of investigations* It 
was found that the frequency of feeding (one feeding versus four versus twelve) had 
no statistically significant effect upon the sparing of nitrogen or upon urine volume. 
The principle of frequent feeding requires further investigation, however, because it 
is reported that in the Arctic an overall feeling of well-being occurs from eating 
more often, and also because of the general belief that more efficient utilization 
of food in the body is promoted by feeding a given amount of food in small 
quantities as compared with a single large quantity* 
Increase of caloric output did not appear to affect nitrogen balance or 
urine volume to any great extent* This finding, too, should be checked, for it is 
an important point* It may have a bearing on the situation in the Arctic where a 
greater amount of energy is needed, presumably due to factors not encountered in 
warmer regions such as (1) need for maintaining body temperatures (2) direct effect 
of cold upon B*M*R* when shivering or its preceding muscular tenseness occurs; (3) 
'’hobbling** effect of Arctic clothing, which increases the caloric cost of any 
activity* It will be recalled that dietary protein at low levels of intake may or 
may not be used for tissue repair and replacement purposes depending on the fraction 
of the daily energy requirement that is supplied. Thus, in the Arctic, if a survival  
1 
s 
" T 
* ~T 
7 
g 
9 
MAN'S 
AMINO ACIDS 
AVERAGE 
EGG 
WHOLE 
EGG 
EGG 
SERUM 
LACTAL- 
WHOLE 
REQS. * 
MITE 
EGG 
YOLK 
ALBUMIN 
PROTEINS 
CASEIN 
BUMIN 
MILK - COW 
gra. 
ARGININE 
3.5 
5.8 
8.2 
5.7+0.3 
5.8+0.3 
4.1+0.2 
3.5+0,5 
4.3 
HISTIDINE 
LYSINE 
2.0 
5.2 
2.2 
6,5 
2.6 
5*5 
1* 8+0.3 
4,5+0,5 
2,6+0.1 
8.0+0.4 
2,5+0.3 
6.9+0.7 
2.0+0.3 
8.0+1.1 
2.5 
7.5 
TYROSINE 
TRYPTOPHANE 
PHENYLALANINE 
3.9 
1.1 
4.4 
4.8 
1.6+0.2 
5.5 
5.3 
1.6+0,2 
57? 
4.2+0,1 
1.4+0.2 
6 
5.4+0.3 
i • ?iP • i 
5*4 
6.4+0,4 
1,8+0.2 
5.2+0,5 
5.3+0.1 
2,3+0.3 
5.6 
5.3 
1.6 
5.7 
CYSTINE 
METHIONINE 
SERINE 
3.8** 
2.3+0.4 
474 
1.9 
2-3 
1.7+0.2 
5.0“0.3 
7.6“ 
3.6+0*1 
2.1“ 
0,36+0.04 
3.5+0.3 
6-7 
3.0+0,2 
2.8+0,2 
4.9 
1.2 
2,8 
THREONINE 
LEUCINE 
ISOLEUCINE ' 
3,5 
9.1 
3.3 
4.9 
19.0+2.1 
5.3T0.3 
3-4 
9.4 
6.3 
18 
3 
3,9+0*3. 
12.1“ 
6,5 
5,3 
15a 
4.6 
f 
j 
VALINE 
GLUTAMIC ACID 
ASPARTIC ACID 
3.8 
4.4+0.d 
6.8 
16 • 3+0.2 
8.2+0.2 
6 
7,0 
22.8 
6.3 
4 
GLYCINE 
ALANINE 
PROLINE 
IIYDR OXYPROLINE 
• 
2.5 
1,9 
7.4 
4-5 
0 
0.5 
5.6 
0,2 
2 
0-1 
Calculate 
A 
u 
* * •" 11 ,1 
** Cystine plus Methionine 
a Leucine and isoleucinc 
TABLE 5 
APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE OP AMINO ACIDS IN VARIOUS FOODS (BLOCK L BOLLING) AMINO ACIDS 
10 
ZEIN 
11 
RICIN 
12 
PEANUT 
FLOUR 
15 
SOYBEAN 
IDEAL 
14 
WHEAT 
FLOUR 
ARGININE 
1*G+0,2 
11.7 
9.9 
5.8 
3,9 
HISTIDINE 
0 • 9+0 • 2 
0.0 
2a 
2.3 
2.2 
LYSINE 
0.0““ 
6 
3.0 
5.4 
1,9 
TYROSINE 
5 a0+1«2 
2,7 
4.4 
4 a 
3.8 
TRYPTOPHANE 
0a~ 
0.4 
1.0 
. 1.6 
0,8 
PHENYLALANINE 
6 * 4+0,7 
5.4 
5.7 
5.5 
CYSTINE 
0.8+0,1 
1.0 
1.6 
O.G+1.4 
1.9 
METHIONINE 
2,4 
0.9 
2.0 
3 
SERINE 
THREONINE 
2,4 
2.7 
1.5 
4,0 
2.7 
LEUCINE 
15aa 
5,5 
6.6 
12,0+2 e6 
ISOLEUCINE 
4a 3+0 O4 
3,4 
4.7 
3,7+t).2 
VALINS 
2.4+0.9 
2 
4.0 
4«2 
3.4+0*5 
GLUTAMIC ACID 
35,6~ 
19 
ASPARTIC ACID 
3.4 
2 
GLYCINE 
0.0 
5.6 
7 9 
ALANINE 
9.9 
t » Cj 
PROLINE 
9-12 
A 
HYDROXYTROLINE 
1 
0 
APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE OF A1IIN0 ACIDS III VARIOUS FOODS 
TABLE 5 (Conti1 d) 
aa Includes isoleucine ration provides a smaller fraction of the daily energy requirement than was 
originally planned, the whole purpose of nitrogen-sparing might b© defeated* 
Another interesting and important point which has been raised by this 
same series of investigations concerns the effect of fat upon the sparing of nitro- 
gen. There is now some indication that the same nitrogen-sparing effect found to 
occur in the 1500-1800 calorie range, can also occur at a lower calorie level, 
provided the fat content of the diet is increased at the expense of the carbohydrate* 
This finding is at once both important and potentially dangerous* It is important 
in that the foot soldier under survival circumstances requires as compact and 
calorically high a ration as can be devised for him to carry conveniently, and in 
that it will permit the easier carrying of emergency food for longer periods of 
time, while presumably inhibiting hunger* It is somewhat dangerous, however, in 
that tho goal of high caloric density may bo permitted to supersede that of highest 
palatability.* Any diet containing too much fat would not only bo nauseating to 
most, but might also dispose towards a condition of ketosis and ao-idosis* Above 
all other considerations, however, there is every indication that such a ration 
would lack palatability - and paradoxical though it may seem, there is a considerable 
amount of evidence that the castaway will not “eat anything", even though starving* 
It is port5.nent, now, to appraise where we stand in the actual development 
of a survival ration. On the basis of the previously described evidence that was 
* Then, too, it is desirable to supply as much of the daily caloric requirements 
as possible; therefore, many feel that additional fat should be considered 
from that standpoint, rather than only as a means of deoreasing the size of 
the ration* obtained. through a practical and intensive program of research coordinated and 
brought to overall fruition through the efforts of Dr0 Samuel Eepkovsky, the 
indications now are that the nutritional characteristics of the Survival Satina 
should be as follows 8 
&o Total caloric intake - 1600 calories per man per day., 
ho Proportions of carbohydrate,, fat and protein - 
Protein — g»e0 per day (8-10$ of calories) 
Pat •— *K)-6o gms0 per day (20-30$ of calories) 
Carbohydrates — 2J5-325 per day (60-J0$ of’’calorie®) 
titamins and minerals — as., provided in the natural food 
composition of the rationD 
Co Pood composition - Protein sources of highest nutritional 
value? e0go8 dehydrated whole egg or egg whit®, rice flour, 
dehydrated skimmed milk? fat sources must b# those likely •** 
to undergo a minimum of deterioration? carbohydrates chiefly 
soluble starches, and sucrose0 
do Highest order of acceptability Palatable, edible under 
temperature extremes (-5®° to yiaO^fo), non-tUrst-provekiag 
(subjectively)e swallowed easixy with free water 
supply (approximately 600 ce0 per day), and should provide 
variety in fora, color, flavor8 and consistency,, 
These are the requirements as set forth by Headquarters9 Army Air forces. It is 
highly doubtful that these same requirements can be used, for other operations, 
particularly the foot soldier, for the size and weight requirements for an Air 
force Emergency ration are very different from most others,, (There is the possi- 
bility that such a ration could be dropped by the Air force to castaways In a 
wide range of circumstances„) On the basis of present knowledge, a combination of food items embodying the characteristics listed above has been developed by the 
combined efforts of the Quartermaster Food & Container Institute for the Armed Forces 
and the Aero-Medical Laboratory. It is felt by many, however, that considerable im- 
provement can yet bo made in the acceptability of these food items which represent 
only the initial attempt at incorporating into a ration the desired characteristics. 
In such efforts, one is brought face to face with the too frequently unappreciated 
difficulty of transposing physiologic requirements into the palatable, familiar, 
easily-packaged, compact, stable food items that are required ultimately for use as 
a ration. It is gratifying to be able to state that considerable progress along this 
very line has been made by the Food Development Division of the Institute© Their most 
recently developed food items were presented for inspection at the Survival and 
Emergency Ration Conference of 5 September 1947, Chicago© 
Despite the definite progress that has been made in the basic physiologic 
aspects of the survival problem, and the equally encouraging advances in the develop- 
mental phases, there yet remain many problems which require urgent answer® As a means 
of pointing up the host of details involved in "perfecting’' a ration, some of the more 
immediate problems may be enumerated. One basic problem lies in the fact that practi- 
cally all of the data obtained on human volunteers are predicated on the availability 
of 800 oc. of drinking water a day, while living in a temperate environment. There 
is, of course, no real assurance that such will be available to every castaway, and 
what is perhaps more pertinent, there is considerable likelihood that in the Arctic 
such an amount would not be available unless adequate fuel for heat, and perhaps, 
shelter, are provided. It is strange to conceive of lack of water in the midst of 
ice and snow, and yet the results of recent Arctic trials indicate that for the 
19 castaway in those regions the melting of ice would take much time and heat, 
particularly if he were without shelter* It is basic premise for survival feeding 
that the less the available quantity of drinking -water, the closer one is forced 
towards a pure carbohydrate ration, if renal losses of body fluid are to be kept at 
a minimum. With further reference to the Arctic itself, there is great need for 
determining the effect of cold upon survival requirements* 
Certain technical questions remain Ydiich may require repeating or extending 
the investigative work done earlier* Thus, it would be desirable to extend the ex- 
perimental periods used in order to determine the effects found during experimental 
periods of a few y/eeks; it would also be desirable to compare the relative effects 
-upon urine volume of lactalbumen and egg protein when the former is ash-free; and 
possibly, additional investigation might be done on the effects of methionine when 
added to the diet in larger and smaller amounts® Some work is already underway in 
these connections. 
There are other problems related to determining which combinations of 
protein might produce an effect upon nitrogen-sparing that exceeds that found to 
occur when egg protein alone is used. The well-known "supplementary'* value of two 
or more proteins used together in a diet should be exploited fully so that not only 
is a maximum effect obtained in the physiologic sense, but what is probably of more 
practical concern, so that food items may be developed without restriction as to 
one main type of protein. Such a restriction begets artificiality, and no artifi- 
cial ration is likely to attain ultimate success® 
' The possibility of devising a survival ration for use in all environments 
is an enticing but elusive goal. There is some question as to whether or not an 
"all purpose" survival ration will ever be realized* It is known, for instance, 
that calorie requirements are much greater in the Arctic than elsewhere, due mainly to the three factors mentioned previously® (This requirement could he net by more 
quickly using up the supply of the survival ration, hut this obviously may decrease 
the length of time the castaway will hold out9 and if the water supply were not in- 
creased commensurately, the amount of protein consumed would be in excess from the 
standpoint of conserving body water0 Of even more immediate importance than this, 
however9 is the wide difference in packaging and stability requirements that 
characterize extremes of environment* The difficulties in the tropics would seem 
to be chiefly those of stability., although packaging problems there are by no means 
non-existent* In the Arctic, both packaging and stability are involved, in ways 
that may not be immediately apparent unless one visualises the difficulties of re- 
moving packaging in the extreme cold and eating food which, although frozen whan it 
cones into use, may have been stored previously in a heated warehouse and other 
supply points indoors or outdoors<> The need for supplying the food in bite-sized 
pieces will also have to be determined, as well as the types and combinations of 
foods that are least thirst-pro Yoking r, 
We can, however, go only so far' in the laboratory toward producing a 
finished item that will be acceptable as the Emergency and Survival Ration© Although 
it is obvious that many additional research and developmental problems remain to be 
solved, on© of the most promising directions for future progress would seem to lie 
in operational trials of the food items recently designed for this ration® The 
completion of such trials is now looked forward to as the source of critical informa- 
tion which will bring the Institute to the final stages of this project, and the 
attainment of a long sought goal® In the words of General Larkin, The Quartermaster General of the Arrays ’’The development of a satisfactory Survival Ration is indeed 
an important project,, for the preservation of life is not only instinctive to man,, 
it is also of fundamental importance for successful military operationa” 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
Appreciation is expressed to Dr0 Howard D„ Lightbody, Dr„ George Gelraan, and 
Major Jo Go Armstrong for their interest and helpful suggestionse 
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SCHOOL OF AVIATION MEDICINE, A.A.F. 
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OFFICE OF NAVAL RESEARCH, U.S.N. 
SCHOOL OF AVIATION MEDICINE, U.S.N. 
BUREAU OF SUPPLIES AND ACCOUNTS, U.S.N. 
NAVAL MEDICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE 
CHEMICAL LABORATORY, U.S.N. 
U.S. NAVAL SUPPLY CORPS SCHOOL 
U.S. NAVAL ACADEMY 
U.S. MARINE CORPS. 
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF HEALTH, PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE, FEDERAL 
SECURITY AGENCY 
AGRICULTURE RESEARCH ADMINISTRATION, U.S.D.A. 
FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION, FEDERAL SECURITY AGENCY 
FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR 
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL, NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
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INDUSTRY y the . . . 
Jo provide the research and development and prepare the specifications 
for the foods, rations, and containers required bv the Armed Forces; to 
provide an advanced technical training program for personnel intended 
for various subsistence assignme... to provide quality control j 
dures and analyses for Quartermaster supplies; to provide manufacturers 
with technical assistance in the production of new items; to provide for 
the dissemination of technical information concerning the Institute’s 
activities; to maintain current plans for 'he organization and ev-r ;sro:i 
of activities relating to foods and containers in time of national emer- 
gency; to represent the Office of The Quartan issuer General on federal, 
military, and any other specification boards and on technical and scien- 
tific boards and commissions dealing with fu'-ds a id containers organized 
by the following: National Research Council, The National Academy of 
Scion- ■, Military Testing Boards, the United States Department of Agri- 
cult -n, The Federal Food and Drug Administration and other military, 
federal, national, or international technical organizations.