HEALTHY LIVING 
BOOK TWO / 
PRINCIPLES OF PERSONAL 
AND COMMUNITY HYGIENE 
BY 
CHARLES-EDWARD AMORY WINSLOW,' D. P. H. 
IOFESSOR OF PUBLIC HEALTH, YALE MEDICAL SCHOOL, AND CURATOR 
OF PUBLIC HEALTH, AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 
ENLARGED EDITION 
WITH A CHAPTER ON "SPORT AND HEALTH" 
BY 
WALTER CAMP 
CHARLES E. MERRILL COMPANY 
NEW YORK AND CHICAGO Copyright, 1917, 1920, 
BY 
CHARLES E. MERRILL CO. 
[12] PREFACE 
Year by year the preservation of health becomes more and 
more a problem which requires the intelligent cooperation of 
the individual with the specialist. Physicians rely on personal 
hygiene or the conduct of the daily life rather than on drugs. 
Health departments are less interested in restrictive ordinances 
than in public health education. In order, however, that the 
teachings of the physician and the health officer may bear fruit, 
they must take root in a soil which has been thoroughly pre- 
pared for their reception. A sound fundamental knowledge of 
the principles of physiology and hygiene and sanitation thor- 
oughly diffused through the community is essential to real 
progress in the future. It is in the schools that the basis must 
be laid, and this book has been prepared in the hope that it 
may be of some aid in laying it soundly. 
In the portion of the book which deals with physiology and 
personal hygiene, the attempt has been made to eliminate all 
needless anatomical detail and to dwell on the working of the 
living machine with its wonderful complexities and correlations. 
Since the writer approaches the subject from the standpoint of 
a biologist interested primarily in public health, special stress 
has been laid on the relation of the living machine to its environ- 
ment, and particularly to its microbic enemies. The marvellous 
achievements of public health science during the past decade 
make it important that every boy and girl should know some- 
thing of the problems of municipal sanitation, of the campaigns 
against infant mortality and tuberculosis, and of the conquest 
of insect-borne disease on the Isthmus of Panama. 
The attempt has been made throughout this book to make 
knowledge a basis for action and to focus the discussion upon 
such practical conduct of life as will conduce to the maintenance 
3 4 
PREFACE 
of a maximum of personal vigor and to an alert cooperation in 
all community movements for the protection of the public 
health. 
The author desires to acknowledge gratefully the assistance 
received from many persons in the criticism of the manuscript- 
In particular, thanks are due to Professor Percy G. Stiles of the 
Harvard Medical School, Dr. J. C. Greenway, director of the 
Department of University Health, Yale University, Dr. Gustav 
Ruediger, Health Commissioner of La Salle, Peru, and Oglesby, 
Illinois, and Dr. Fred Moore, Supervisor of Health and Hygiene 
in the public schools of Des Moines, Iowa, for physiological and 
medical criticisms; to Dr. Edwin C. Broome, Superintendent 
of Schools, East Orange, New Jersey, and Miss Laura S. Plum- 
mer, Head of the Department of Physical Education of the 
Normal School, Boston, Massachusetts, for assistance from a 
pedagogic standpoint. The author also expresses appreciation 
of the services rendered by Miss Gertrude K. Colby, assistant 
in the Department of Physical Education, Teachers College, 
Columbia University, in the preparation of the Questions 
following each chapter, and by Miss A. M. Thompson in the 
preparation of the Index. 
A considerable proportion of the illustrations in the book, 
particularly in the chapters dealing with sanitation, have been 
copied from models, drawings, and photographs in the Hall of 
Public Health and other departments of the American Museum 
of Natural History, New York; acknowledgment is made par- 
ticularly for permission to reproduce Figures 61, 62, 84, 85, 86, 
87, 88, 92, 93, 94, 98, 99, 101, m2, 103, 104, 105, 106, 109, in. 
Anatomical material, in the case of Figures 6, 9, 18, 64, was 
courteously loaned for photographing by Professor H. B. Ferris 
of the Yale Medical School. 
The author also wishes to express grateful appreciation to the 
American Social Hygiene Association for permission to repro- 
duce Figure 78, from The Way Life Begins, by B. C. and V. M. 
Cady, copyright, 19x7, The American Social Hygiene Associa^ PREFACE 
5 
tion; to the American Posture League for Figures 13 and 16; 
to the Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor for 
Figure 100; to Professor Francis G. Benedict, Director of the 
Carnegie Nutrition Laboratory, for Figure 69; to Boy's Life, 
the Boy Scouts' Magazine, for Figure 140; to Professor Irving 
Fisher of Yale University for permission to reprint from 
How to Live the Table of Food Values on pages 391-393; to the 
Henry Street Settlement and the International Film Service 
for Figure 70; to Professor Graham Lusk of the Cornell Univer- 
sity Medical School for permission to reprint the table on pages 
394-396; to the Massachusetts State Department of Health for 
Figures 55 and 119 from Dangers to Workers from Fumes; to 
the Minneapolis Board of Health for Figure 130; to the New 
York City Health Department for Figures 45 and 134; to the 
New York State Department of Health for Figures 97 and 112; 
to Professor W. Lyman Underwood of the Massachusetts Insti- 
tute of Technology for Figures 107 and 108, redrawn from his 
pamphlet The Mosquito Nuisance; to the North Carolina Board 
of Health for Figure 124; to the National Committee for the 
Prevention of Blindness for Figures 73 and 74; to the National 
Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis for 
Figure 120; to John Wiley and Sons for permission to reproduce 
Figure 48 from Elements of Applied Microscopy by the author 
of the present volume. 
C.-E. A. Winslow. 
Yale School of Medicine. CONTENTS 
CHAPTER PAGET 
I. The Living Machine 9 
II. The Parts of the Living Machine 18 
III. The Bony System 55 
IV. The Muscular System 39 
V. The Digestive System 51 
VI. Hygiene of the Teeth 66 
VII. Hygiene of Foods 73 
VIII. Alcohol and Habit-forming Drugs 91 
IX. The Respiratory System 100 
X. The Circulatory System 112 
XI. Air and Health 129 
XII. The Wastes of the Body 142 
XIII. Hygiene of the Skin 147 
XIV. The Nervous System 155 
XV. Alcohol and Habit-forming Drugs and Their 
Effects upon Efficiency 172 
XVI. The Sense Organs 188 
XVII. Growth and Development 203 
XVIII. Habits of Health 208 
XIX. Man and the Microbe 217 
XX. How Disease Germs are Spread 231 
XXI. The Value of Cleanliness 239 
XXII. Purity of Water and Food Supplies 247 
XXIII. Fighting Our Insect Enemies 261 
XXIV. Isolating Cases of Disease 279 
XXV. Immunity and How We can Control It 289 
XXVI. Tuberculosis 297 
7 8 
CONTENTS 
CHAPTER PAGE 
XXVII. Keeping the Baby Well 308 
XXVIII. Municipal Sanitation 317 
XXIX. The Health Board and Its Work 330 
XXX. Accidents and First Aid 342 
XXXI. Saeety First 356 
XXXII. Sport and Health, by Walter Camp 366 
APPENDIX 
Weight and its Relation to Health 383 
How to Make a Flytrap 386 
Table of Food Values 391 
Cost of Standard Foods 394 
A Well-balanced Food Supply 397 
INDEX 399 HEALTHY LIVING 
CHAPTER I 
THE LIVING MACHINE 
Fig. i.-A strong, healthy body makes play and work a delight. 
The Living Machine.-Most of us are interested in 
machines and the wonderful things they do. A small 
child, given a new toy, will ask, "What does it do?" and 
his next question is very likely to be, "How does it 
do it?" 
Boys and girls, and horses and dogs, are just as truly 
machines as steam engines or walking dolls. The ma- 
chinery in a person or an animal is much more complicated, 
however, than the machinery in the steam engine, and a 
living being can do many things which no other kind of 
9 HEALTHY LIVING 
10 
machine has ever done. As we study the way in which 
the various parts of the body work together, we shall see 
more and more what a wonderful thing it is. 
The Structure of the Living Machine: Organs and Sys- 
tems of Organs.-The human body is made up of many 
organs. Each of these organs has its own special task. 
The hand, for instance, is the organ by which we grasp 
things; the eye is the organ by which we see; the heart 
is the organ which pumps the blood. 
These organs are grouped into a small number of sets 
or systems of organs. The bones form one system, which 
gives strength and firmness and at the same time allows 
the body to move. The various muscles make up a system 
whose work it is to bring about this movement of the 
parts of the body. The system of organs of digestion 
prepares the food for use, and each of the other systems 
likewise performs its own important work. 
Tissues.-The various organs and other parts of the body 
are made up of different kinds of living matter which we 
call tissues. The hand, for instance, has skin on the out- 
side, and its central framework is made up of bone tissue. 
Fine threads of nerve tissue run out to all parts of the 
hand, and the muscles in it are made of still another kind of 
tissue. 
Cells.-If we should look at any of these tissues under a 
strong microscope, we should find that it is built of tiny 
bits of living matter called cells, each having a denser 
structure in it called a nucleus. The cells are packed to- 
gether like bricks in a wall to make a layer of skin tissue, 
or muscle tissue, or whatever the particular kind may 
be. The cells of each kind are different from all the 
others. Muscle and nerve cells are long and slender, blood THE LIVING MACHINE 
11 
cells are flattened discs, and skin cells are like irregular 
blocks. 
Protoplasm.-The living material of which the cells are 
made is called protoplasm (pro' to plaz'm). If you look at 
protoplasm under a micro- 
scope, you can see only a 
thick liquid with specks in 
it; but when you know 
something of the changes 
which go on in it, you will 
realize that protoplasm is 
the most remarkable sub- 
stance in the world. When 
you move or see or think, 
it is because of chemical 
changes which are going on 
in the protoplasm of the 
muscle or nerve or other 
cells. 
Protoplasm contains a 
great deal of water and 
some minerals, and some- 
times sugar and fat, but the 
chief thing that is always found in protoplasm is a kind of 
matter called protein (pro' tein). 
How the Cells Work Together.-The cells of the body 
may be compared to the people in a city. Some people 
do one kind of work and some another; one is a carpenter, 
another a motorman, another a banker. If the people are 
good citizens, the work of each one benefits the others. 
The carpenter makes furniture for the motorman and the 
banker; the motorman carries the banker to his office and 
Section through the 
Outer layers of the Skin 
Fig. 2.-The building stones of 
the body. HEALTHY LIVING 
12 
the carpenter to his shop; and the banker takes care of the 
carpenter's and the motorman's savings. Each one does the 
particular kind of work that he can do best, for the benefit 
of all the others. 
Somewhat the same kind of thing is going on in the human 
machine. In a healthy body the cells of the different 
tissues are all good citizens. The stomach cells help to di- 
gest food which will build up the muscles, and the muscle 
cells move the jaws which chew the food so that the stomach 
Fig. 3.-The human body is a machine which may, in many respects, be 
compared with a locomotive. 
can digest it. All the millions of cells are working together 
in harmony for the common good. 
Fuel for the Living Machine.-If any piece of machinery 
is to do the work for which it is intended, two very impor- 
tant things are necessary. First, there must be some force 
or energy to put the machine into motion and keep it work- 
ing; and second, as parts of the machine wear out or become 
broken, they must be replaced. 
In the case of a steam engine, the force or energy needed 
to run it is supplied by coal or oil, or some other fuel, which 
burns under the boiler and makes the heat that turns the 
water into expanding steam. In the case of our bodies, the 
energy needed to keep the different parts at work is supplied THE LIVING MACHINE 
13 
by the food we eat. The burning of coal in the engine is 
the result of chemical action between the oxygen of the air 
and the coal. In somewhat the same way, the food (or 
substance formed out of the food) combines within our 
bodies with the oxygen we inhale, to release the energy 
needed by the living machine. 
Growth and Repair.-The constant running of the steam 
engine causes wear in all its parts, and when a wheel or a rod 
in the engine becomes worn, it must be replaced by a new 
one. The shoes you walk in and the bicycle you ride wear 
out after a while and have to be repaired or discarded. 
Our bodies, likewise, are wearing out day by day, and if 
there were no provision for repair, they would soon waste 
away. There is, however, constantly going on in the body, 
not only a process of waste, but also a process of growth and 
repair; and it is the food we eat which supplies the material 
for this rebuilding. 
If the body is built up faster than it wears out, it grows, 
as it does in children and young people. When you were a 
day or two old, you probably weighed only seven or eight 
pounds. All of the fifty or one hundred pounds of weight 
you have gained since then have been built out of the food 
you have eaten. 
To get food is the first problem of life, for human beings, 
as for the birds and the animals in fields and woods. The 
farmer spends his life cultivating crops for the use of man or 
for the feeding of animals to be used, in their turn, as human 
food. The men digging a ditch, or bending over account 
books in an office, or laboring in a factory, are working for 
money to be used, first of all, to buy for themselves and 
their families the food needed to keep their living machines 
in running order. 14 
HEALTHY LIVING 
The Body as a Chemical Laboratory.-The study of what 
the body does with this food which is secured for it-in 
many cases with much labor-is an absorbing one. To 
change beefsteak and potatoes, bread and butter, bacon and 
eggs, ice cream and fruit, into human flesh and blood is no 
simple task. The solid foods must become liquid before 
they can be used at all, and even liquid foods, like milk, 
must be changed into other forms. 
You perhaps know something about chemical labora- 
tories where chemists study various substances, and com- 
bine and change them so as to make new ones. The human 
body is a kind of laboratory where food is built up into 
living matter, and where a great many other chemical 
changes are always going on-many of them so complicated 
that no chemist in his laboratory can as yet imitate 
them. 
Oxygen, the Supporter of Life.-Just as the living body 
requires food, so also it requires oxygen, a substance con- 
tained in the air. A furnace needs both coal and a draft 
of air to burn the coal; and the body, likewise, needs not 
only food but air to "burn" the food. From the air we 
breathe, we get the necessary oxygen; and just as the fire 
goes out when there is no supply of air, so the body could 
not live if we ceased to breathe. Perhaps you have an 
aquarium and have learned that if too many fishes are put 
into it they soon die, because the supply of oxygen in the 
water is not sufficient. 
The Wastes of the Body.-The furnace with which we 
have been comparing the human body needs another im- 
portant thing, besides coal and a draft of air. The ashes 
must be removed or the grate will clog and the fire will be 
checked. In the body, also, waste matter is formed, which, THE LIVING MACHINE 
15 
like the ashes in the furnace, must be regularly carried 
away. 
Team Work in the Body.-One of the most striking 
things about our living machine is the way in which all its 
Fig. 4.-Like the furnace, the body needs a supply of fuel 
(food) and oxygen, to furnish its heat or energy and, like 
the furnace, it requires that its burned-out waste materials 
shall be regularly removed. 
parts work together. When you do anything, even as simple 
an act as walking across the room, there are dozens of differ- 
ent muscles at work to produce the movements of your legs; 
and each muscle must act at just the right time and in just 
the right way to take a step. Perhaps you have watched a 16 
HEALTHY LIVING 
baby learning to walk and have thought what a hard thing 
walking really is. Yet how easily you yourself can move 
about,-and if you are walking or running and come to 
something in the way, how quickly you can stop short or 
turn aside to pass it! Did you ever think what happens in 
such a case? Your eyes see the obstacle in your path and 
send a message to the brain; and another message, quick 
as a flash, goes out to the muscles, telling some of them to 
stop and others to begin to act. 
The Normal Working of the Living Machine.-When the 
muscles and the nerves and other parts of the body are all 
working well, we say that a person is in good health. Such 
a person feels alert and cheerful and full of energy. But 
when some part of the body is working badly, there is ill- 
ness or disease. 
Some people are born with bodies that arenot very strong; 
and when such people are ill, we should be very kind and 
patient with them. A great many cases of illness, however, 
are due not at all to weak bodies, but to carelessness or 
ignorance. It is easy to injure a body that is naturally 
healthy and thus keep it from working well. Many a 
child has a toothache simply because his teeth have not 
been cared for, or a headache because he has strained his 
eyes by working in a poor light. Many a child catches 
measles or whooping cough merely because he has played 
with other children who had these diseases. 
The Care of the Living Machine.-Many kinds of ma- 
chinery require such careful and skillful attention that books 
are written about them, to be studied by those in charge of 
their operation. This book will help you to learn how the 
living machine works, and what you should do to keep your 
body in the good working order that we call health. THE LIVING MACHINE 
17 
When we study physiology, we learn about the parts of 
the body and the ways in which they act. The study of 
hygiene deals with the management of the body and those 
things which we can do-as well as those we should avoid-• 
in order to keep it strong and well. The study of sanitation 
deals with the effect of outside things on the body, and helps 
us to protect it from disease germs and other injurious 
things which might come from outside the body to harm it. 
Each one of us has a very complicated and delicate 
machine in charge. The chief purpose of this book is to 
teach young people how this machine works and how to 
care for it properly and get the most out of it. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. What are some of the different kinds of cells in your body? 
2. What is protoplasm? 
3. What advantage is there in having each organ do its own 
special work? Can you tell something of primitive Indian life 
and compare it with a modern city, to make the preceding ques- 
tion clearer? 
4. During a street-car strike in a large city, the car service 
was cut to one half. Describe the effects this strike might have 
had on the life of the city. Show how a corresponding "strike" 
in the human body might have far-reaching results. 
5. In what respects is the body like a furnace? 
6. How does the body display force or energy? Where does 
this energy come from? 
7. Can you think of two ways in which the body is superior 
to a machine? 
8. Give some examples of team work in the body. 
9. Define health, physiology, hygiene, sanitation. CHAPTER II 
THE PARTS OF THE LIVING MACHINE 
The General Plan of the Body.-Before the principal 
systems of organs in the body are described, we should know 
something of its general 
plan. 
The body includes 
head and trunk, arms 
and legs. The arms and 
the legs are practically 
solid masses of skin, 
muscle, bone, and other 
tissue, but the trunk 
contains two cavities 
which are not quite 
filled by the organs in 
them. The digestive 
system, a long tube, 
passes from the mouth 
down through both 
these cavities. The up- 
per or thoracic cavity 
(the chest) contains the 
heart and the lungs, as 
well as the upper part of the digestive system. The lower or 
abdominal cavity is nearly filled by the stomach, intestines, 
and other organs connected with the lower part of the 
Fig. 5.-The position of some of the prin- 
cipal organs of the body. 
18 THE PARTS OF THE LIVING MACHINE 
19 
digestive system. The cavities are separated by a dome- 
shaped muscle, the diaphragm. 
The Bony System.-The first thing we need in building 
any kind of machine is a framework, to support and hold to- 
gether all the different parts. This framework in the 
human body is made up of the bones. The body is not 
stiff and rigid, however; it contains many separate bones, 
which are joined together in such a way that they can 
move easily at the joints. (See Fig. 6, page 20.) 
There is, for example, a row of bones running up the 
center of the back, which make up the backbone. A series 
of bones runs down each arm and leg, and branches out 
into a chain of bones in each finger and toe. A series of 
hooplike bones, the ribs, protects the organs in the trunk; 
and a case of bones, the skull, incloses the delicate brain. 
The Muscular System.-About half the total weight of 
the body is made up of the muscles, which are the organs 
of movement. (See Fig. 7.) They hold the parts of the 
body in position and give it form and contour. 
When you bend your forearm up, the motion is brought 
about by the shortening or contraction of a stout muscle, 
attached at one end near the shoulder and at the other 
end just below the elbow. Muscles move the tongue about 
and grind the teeth together when we chew our food. 
Another set of muscles keeps the eye fixed on what we are 
looking at. • Other muscles move the tongue and lips and 
throat when we speak. 
The muscles, however, do more than cause motions that 
can be seen. There are many movements going on inside 
the body that we cannot see at all. The heart is a sort of 
muscle which, by its movements, forces the blood to all parts 
of the body. The stomach and the other parts of the diges- HEALTHY LIVING 
20 
tive system contain muscles which move the food along 
while it is being digested. 
The Digestive System.-In the digestive system the food 
is made liquid and changed into a form in which it can be 
absorbed. It is first 
broken up in the 
mouth by the chew- 
ing action of the 
teeth. Then it 
passes through the 
throat and a narrow 
tube (the esophagus) 
and goes into the 
stomach. From the 
stomach it gradually 
finds its way into 
the small intestine, a 
long coiled tube in 
which most of the di- 
gestion takes place; 
and finally whatever 
remains goes to the 
large intestine. (See 
Fig. 23, page 52.) 
Digestive juices of 
various • kinds are 
poured at many 
points into the mouth, stomach, and intestine, from organs, 
called glands, in which they have been made. After the 
food mass has been changed by the action of these juices, 
the part which the body can use is absorbed through the 
walls of the small intestine and passes into the blood. The 
Fig. 6.-The framework of the body. THE PARTS OF THE LIVING MACHINE 
21 
waste material, which is of no use to the body, passes out 
through the large intestine. 
The Respiratory System.-The oxygen which the body 
needs is taken in by a pair of organs called the lungs, which 
occupy a large part of the chest and open into the throat by 
the windpipe. The lungs are bags or sacs with elastic walls, 
and every time we breathe, the lungs are enlarged so as to 
draw in air through the throat. 
The lungs are liberally supplied with blood vessels. The 
walls between the blood vessels and the air passages in the 
lungs are very thin, and through these walls oxygen from 
the air passes into the blood. At the same time, carbon 
dioxide, one of the waste products of the body, passes from 
the blood into the air spaces and is expelled with the out- 
going breath. 
The parts of the body that work together in respiration, or 
breathing, form the respiratory system. 
The Circulatory System.-We have seen how the food 
material passes into the blood after it has been changed in 
the digestive system, and how the oxygen reaches the blood 
in the lungs. The blood carries these necessary things to 
all parts of the body where they are needed. 
The blood flows unceasingly through a system of fine 
tubes, the blood vessels, and the force that drives it is the 
beat of the heart, which by its regular contractions squeezes 
the blood into the vessels. Through the walls of the blood 
vessels, oxygen and food pass into the various tissues of the 
body. The organs concerned in the work of sending the 
blood through the body are called the organs of circulation. 
The Excretory System.-The blood not only carries 
food and oxygen, but it also takes away from the tissues 
the waste matter that is constantly forming and carries 22 
HEALTHY LIVING 
it to the special organs which discharge it from the body. 
The principal organs which serve to get rid of these waste 
materials are the lungs, the intestines, the liver, the kidneys, 
and the skin. Each of these organs takes out certain kinds 
of waste material. They are called the organs of excretion. 
The Skin.-The skin forms a cover for the soft internal 
parts to keep them from being injured or from drying up, 
and it is the organ through which we perceive heat and 
Fig. 7.-The muscular system. 
Fig. 8.-The nervous system. THE PARTS OF THE LIVING MACHINE 
23 
cold and exercise the sense of touch. It plays an im- 
portant part in keeping the temperature of the body con- 
stant, and assists in excretion by throwing off some of the 
wastes in the form of perspiration. 
The Nervous System.-Perhaps the most important of 
all the systems of organs is the nervous system, which car- 
ries messages from one part of the body to another and keeps 
all the parts working together. 
The nervous system includes first of all the brain, which 
lies inside the skull, and the spinal cord, which runs down 
from the base of the brain through the backbone. From 
both brain and spinal cord, bundles of fine white threads, 
called nerves, run out to all parts of the body. Some of 
these nerve threads bring in messages from the sense organs, 
and some carry messages out to the muscles and glands and 
other parts of the body, to set them in action. The brain 
and the spinal cord are the chief managers of the whole 
complex living machine. 
The Sense Organs.-In order that the body may per- 
form successfully the various things it has to do, it must have 
some means of learning what is going on around it. This 
is accomplished by means of the sense organs. If you 
try to walk or to draw or do almost anything with your 
eyes shut, you will realize how much you depend on the 
messages which come from outside. The chief sense organs 
of the body are the eyes and the ears. In the skin are special 
organs for receiving impressions of pressure, of heat, and of 
cold. Similar organs in the tongue receive impressions of 
taste, and others in the nose receive impressions of smell. 
Each of the systems of organs which have been briefly 
considered here will be discussed in detail in succeeding 
chapters of the book. 24 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. Name the systems of organs in the body. What is the 
special work of each? 
2. Show by examples how the systems of the body are de- 
pendent on one another. 
3. Describe some of the movements of the body brought 
about by the muscles. 
4. What are some of the changes produced in the food in the 
process of digestion? 
5. What two different processes go on in the lungs? 
6. What are some of the uses of the skin? 
7. Of what use are the sense organs? CHAPTER HI 
THE BONY SYSTEM 
The Function of the Skeleton.-The skeleton or bony 
system, as we have seen, furnishes a strong framework or 
support to the body, constructed in such a way that its parts 
can move and thus help in the motion of the body as a 
whole. The skeleton also serves to protect certain parts of 
the body from injury, as in the case of the skull and the ribs. 
What the Bones are Made Of.-Bone consists largely of 
lifeless matter, but it has all been built up out of living 
tissue. In a very young child, the framework of the body 
is made of a soft material called cartilage. Gradually the 
cartilage changes to bone, as lime is added to it from the 
tissues. This makes the bones hard, just as lime gives hard- 
ness to clam shells and oyster shells. 
All bone consists of hard lime and some softer sub- 
stances. We can prove this in several ways. If we heat a 
piece of bone for a long time in the fire, it will become so 
brittle that at a touch it falls into powder. This is because 
all the soft connecting material has been burned out, 
leaving nothing but the lime. A cook extracts much of 
the softer part of bones when she boils them for several 
hours, the soft part (called gelatin) being used in making 
soups. The lime, on the other hand, may be taken out of 
a bone with acid, leaving the bone so flexible that it can be 
tied into a knot. 
Some of the larger bones, which are hollow, have a soft 
fatty material called marrow in the center. 
25 26 
HEALTHY LIVING 
The Bones in Childhood and Old Age.-All through child- 
hood, the bones are very flexible and contain more living 
matter than in later life. When a baby first stands on his 
feet, it is easy to see that the 
bones in his legs are not stiff 
and strong. If a child is al- 
lowed to walk too early, before 
the cartilage has hardened into 
bone, his legs become bent out 
of shape. There is danger that 
the bones will keep this bent 
shape and the child may 
become permanently bow- 
legged. 
The bones of an old person, 
on the other hand, have less 
of the soft living matter. They 
are dry and brittle and break 
easily. A very slight fall, 
which would hardly be noticed 
by a child, will sometimes snap 
the bones of a person of ad- 
vanced years. 
Parts of the Skeleton.-The 
human skeleton includes about 
two hundred separate bones, 
twenty-eight of which are in 
the head, fifty-eight in the 
trunk, and one hundred and twenty in the arms and 
legs. 
The backbone is a kind of column which supports the 
upper part of the body. Above it is the skull, which in- 
Fig. 9.-The longer bones of the 
body are in the form of hollow 
cylinders, which gives them 
great strength combined with 
lightness. THE BONY SYSTEM 
27 
closes and protects the brain. The ribs and the breastbone 
surround the organs in the upper part of the trunk, and a 
group of hip bones, called the pelvis, help to support the 
organs in the lower part of the body. The arms and the 
legs are given strength by a series of long slender bones 
which run like rods through them. (See Fig. 6, page 20.) 
Shapes of the Bones.-The bones are of various shapes, 
and all are admirably suited for the work they have to do. 
The ribs are curved so as comfortably to inclose the organs 
of the upper part of the trunk. The bones of the skull are 
flattened and curved plates, which form a tight box to hold 
the brain. In the joints of the wrists and ankles, there are 
a number of small rounded bones, somewhat like the ball 
bearings in the wheels of a bicycle. The large bones in the 
arm and the leg have the shape of hollow cylinders, a form 
which makes them light yet gives great strength. (See 
Fig. 9-) 
How the Bones are Held Together.-The bones are held 
together at their joints by tough bands or cords of tissue 
called ligaments. The muscles and tendons (to be described 
in Chapter IV) also serve to bind together the whole bony 
system. 
Some of the bones are fixed firmly to those that lie 
next them; this is the case in the skull. Others, like 
the bones in the arm, are connected by movable joints. 
At these movable joints, the ligaments hold the bones in 
place, while allowing them a certain freedom of motion. 
Between the bones, in many cases, there are layers of carti- 
lage, like the substance of which the whole skeleton is 
formed at first. In some of the movable joints, there is 
still another arrangement to make the bones move easily. 
These joints are covered by little bags filled with a liquid 28 
HEALTHY LIVING 
that keeps the ends of the bones wet, so that they move 
freely over each other, acting somewhat like the oil that we 
put into a hinge to keep it from 
creaking. 
Kinds of Joints.-There are 
several different forms of joints 
which make possible various kinds 
of movement. The joint in the 
elbow is of the simplest kind, in 
which a bone moves up and down 
in two opposite directions but not 
sideways, just as a knife blade 
does in opening or shutting. The 
knee joint is of the same kind, and 
there are a number of others that 
you can find for yourself. Such 
joints are called hinge joints. 
The joint in the shoulder is a 
different kind, w'hich allows much 
freer motion in all directions. This 
is called a ball-and-socket joint, 
because one of the bones has a 
rounded knob or ball which fits 
into a cup or socket in the other 
bone and moves about in it. 
Finally, there is a third kind of joint, called a gliding 
joint, in which the bones move or glide over each other in 
different directions but moving only a little each way. 
Such joints are found in the wrists and the ankles. 
The Spinal Column.-The backbone or spinal column 
is very strong so that the body may be held firmly, 
and vet quite flexible so that it may bend easily forward 
Fig. io.-The bones and 
joints of the leg and arm. THE BONY SYSTEM 
29 
or backward or from side to side. It is made up of twenty- 
four distinct and separate ring-shaped bones, called vertebrae 
(ver' te bre) with nine or ten smaller bones at the lower end, 
which are solidly attached to each other. The vertebrae 
are piled one above another in a long column slightly 
curved from front to back. They are bound together by 
ligaments and by many small muscles. When the muscles 
on one side of the column contract, the ligaments on the 
Fig. ii.-Vertebrae with their muscles and ligaments. The 
right-hand figure shows, in an exaggerated way, how one 
muscle contracts and the opposite muscle and ligament 
relax, when the spinal column bends to one side. 
other side stretch and the vertebrae tilt slightly on each 
other. 
The vertebral rings have large prongs or teeth, to some of 
which the ribs are attached. Through the center of the 
rings runs the spinal cord, which is thus carefully protected 
from injury,-a very important thing, since the cord is as 
necessary for the life of the body as the brain itself. 
The backbone, when seen from the side, is not straight 
but is somewhat S-shaped. This form allows a freedom of 
movement which the body would not have if the backbone 
were simply a straight column. 
The Ribs, Breastbone, and Pelvis.-The principal organs 
of the upper part of the trunk are inclosed in the bony cage 
formed by the twelve pairs of hooplike ribs. The ribs are 30 
HEALTHY LIVING 
joined to the spinal column at the back, and all but the 
lowest two pairs are joined at the front to the breastbone or 
sternum. The whole set of ribs can be slightly raised or 
lowered by a special group of muscles. You can feel this 
motion of the ribs when you draw a deep breath. The hip 
bones, which together form the pelvis, make a bowl-shaped 
support for the organs in the lower part of the trunk. (See 
Fig. 6.) These organs are supported also by powerful mus- 
cles in the front wall of the abdominal cavity. 
The Skull.-Eight bones, firmly joined together, make 
a strong, rounded case or box, called the skull or cranium, 
in which rests the brain. The edges of these bones are 
irregular and fit each other tightly. At the base of the 
skull, there is a large opening through which the spinal 
cord enters from the backbone. In the front are open- 
ings through which pass various nerves, including those 
from the eyes. The jaw bones, which hold the teeth, and 
the bones of the face are attached to the cranium. 
The Bones of Arms and Legs.-The number of bones in 
each arm and each leg is the same (thirty), and the ar- 
rangement of twenty-nine of them is the same in each case. 
There is one bone in the wrist not present in the ankle, 
and the front of the knee has a protecting bone (the knee- 
cap) not found in the elbow. 
The bones of the arm are attached at the shoulder by the 
large, broad shoulder blade (scapula) and the clavicle or 
collar bone, which is a delicate bone often broken by a fall. 
You can feel your collar bone extending from the breast- 
bone to the shoulder. In a similar way, the bones of the 
legs are joined to the lower part of the backbone by the 
broad and strong pelvis. 
In both arm and leg, there is a single bone running THE BONY SYSTEM 
31 
down to the elbow or knee, called the humerus in the 
arm and the femur (fe' mwr) in the thigh. Below the 
elbow or knee there is a pair of long parallel bones running 
to the wrist or ankle, called 
the radius and ulna (ill' na) 
in the arm and the tibia 
(tib' i a) and fibula (fib' u la) 
in the leg. (See Fig. io.) 
In the wrist there is a 
group of eight small bones, 
and in the ankle there are 
seven. In the palm of the 
hand and the instep of the 
foot there are five parallel 
bones, which connect with 
rows of two or three bones 
in each finger and toe. 
The joints of the arms and 
legs are excellent mechanical 
devices. The humerus has, 
at the upper end, a rounded 
knob which fits into a socket 
in the shoulder blade and 
turns easily, while its lower 
end has sockets in which the 
two bones of the forearm 
move. Similarly, the femur is attached at the top to the 
pelvis, and its lower end is rounded and fits into the 
bones of the lower leg in such a way as to permit the 
knee to move easily. 
The movements of the wrist and the ankle, in which a 
number of small bones play a part, are even more compli- 
Fig. 12.-The bones of wrist and 
hand as they appear in a photo- 
graph taken with the x-ray. The 
rays pass through the flesh and 
leave no shadow, but the bones 
and the ring on the finger are 
clearly recorded on the plate. 32 
HEALTHY LIVING 
cated than the movements of shoulder and elbow or hip 
and knee, and the fingers are capable of the most complex 
movements of all. The toes of young babies move almost 
as easily as their fingers, but the toes of grown people usually 
lose this power in greater or less degree. 
Holding the Body Well.-As the skeleton is a flexible 
framework, it may take various positions, which are good 
or bad in their effect on the body as a whole. Posture 
depends on the muscles which control the position of 
different parts of this framework. With the same equip- 
ment of bones, one body may be stoop-shouldered and 
slouching and another may be erect and well-knit. One of 
the first things to learn in managing the human machine 
is to hold the body well. 
The backbone, as we have seen, is meant to be slightly 
curved, so as to give elasticity. In people who do not sit 
or stand straight, these curves become greatly exaggerated, 
leading to round shoulders and a drooping head. 
Bad posture is not only ungraceful but unhealthy. If 
the back and shoulders are not held properly, the lungs and 
other internal organs do not get a sufficient supply of blood. 
If a good posture is not maintained, the muscles develop 
unequally, and it becomes more and more difficult to hold 
oneself well. Among growing children, correct posture is 
therefore particularly important. Every boy and girl who 
wishes to have a strong and graceful body should keep the 
back straight, the shoulders square, and the head high. 
The Correct Position for Standing and Sitting.-When 
standing, the head, body, and legs should be poised one 
above the other so that a line dropped from the front of 
the ear falls within the forward half of the foot. The 
shoulder blades should be flat across the back and the feet THE BONY SYSTEM 
33 
should be directed straight forward (not outward). "This 
is the position of the long-distance walker, the mountain 
climber, the best all-round athletes; it is the position of 
command and authority and is found predominant in the 
great leaders of commerce and public life. On the other 
hand, collapsed positions are characteristic of both physical 
Fig. 13.-Good posture, slouching posture, and exaggerated posture. 
Which is which? 
Typical poses presented as examples by the American Posture League. 
and mental weakness. They constitute a distinct aspect of 
weakness and illness, from the tuberculosis patient to the 
feeble-minded.1" 
In sitting, the body should be bent only at knees and 
hips, and the head, neck, and trunk should be kept in one 
straight line. 
Stand in front of the mirror some day in your ordinary 
resting posture and see how you look. Notice whether 
1 Jessie H. Bancroft, in The Teaching of Hygiene. 34 
HEALTHY LIVING 
your head is well up or bent forward, whether your shoulders 
are square or bowed, your chest rounded or flat, your knees 
sagging or straight, your feet set squarely on the ground and 
Fig. 14.-Bad effects of faulty school seats. Note how the boy in the front 
seat of the second row from the right is strained by a desk and seat that 
are too high. 
side by side, or tilted over on weak ankles and toeing out 
or in. 
Some Causes of Faulty Posture.-One bad deformity of 
the backbone is called lateral curvature. The backbone 
seen from front or back should be straight. Sitting at a 
school desk which is too low, or too near the seat, may lead 
not only to round shoulders, but to a bending of the back- 
bone to one side or the other. If seats in the schoolroom are 
adjustable, such harmful effects may be avoided. When 
there are no adjustable seats, a wooden support screwed THE BONY SYSTEM 
35 
under desk or chair makes it possible to raise one or the 
other to fit the pupil's needs. If both seat and desk are too 
high, a board or some bricks may be placed on the floor for 
a footrest. 
Another thing that strains the body out of shape is the 
frequent carrying of a heavy weight on one arm. School- 
books and heavy bundles should be divided and carried 
some on one arm and some on the other. 
Tight clothing may do serious damage by cramping the 
movement of the ribs and getting them out of shape. It 
may twist the organs out of place and crowd them together, 
Fig. 15.-Which of these feet is a normal and healthy one? 
so that they cannot develop and do their work properly. 
It may injure the breathing muscles and seriously affect 
the stomach, the intestines, and the liver. 
Hygiene of the Feet.-The weight of four-footed animals 
is divided almost evenly and produces very little strain on 
the feet. Man's upright position, which places the whole 
weight of the body on two feet, causes a much greater 
strain, especially at ankle and instep. 
The healthy normal foot has a well marked arch under 
the instep, and this arch is very important in giving spring- 
iness or elasticity to the step. When the arch is broken 
down, as in the deformity known as flat-foot, the nerves and 
blood vessels underneath are injured. Pains far up the 
back may be caused by the resulting strains. Exercise 36 
HEALTHY LIVING 
of the muscles which move the toes, if begun in time, will 
often correct this condition. 
The twenty-six bones of the foot are held in place by 
numerous muscles and ligaments. It is impossible to give 
these muscles proper exercise and to keep the feet in healthy 
condition, if the shoe is too narrow or too pointed. A hy- 
gienic shoe should be 
everywhere as wide 
as the sole of the foot, 
and wide enough in 
front to permit the 
toes to move freely. 
The inner edge of the 
shoe should be 
straight, so that a 
line drawn back from 
the middle of the 
great toe touches the 
heel. The heels 
should be low and 
broad. The soles 
and uppers should be 
flexible, so that the 
foot may be bent 
freely. A high shoe should not be so tightly laced at 
the top as to interfere with circulation. A porous 
shoe, like one made of russet leather, is much better 
than an enamel or patent leather shoe, because it allows 
the escape of moisture and prevents overheating of the 
foot. 
Corns are usually due to the wearing of shoes that are too 
tight or of a wrong shape, or to faulty posture. It is 
Fig. 16.-Good and bad shoes and (Fig. 17) the 
shapes of their soles. Which shape is bad 
and why? 
Fig. 17. THE BONY SYSTEM 
37 
much wiser to wear shoes of the proper size than to suffer 
the pain which narrow shoes may cause. 
Injuries to the Bony System.-Sometimes when a person 
twists or strains some part of the body too violently, the 
ligaments which join the bones are torn loose. This is 
called a sprain. If the twist is so severe as not only to break 
the ligaments but to pull the joints of the bones out of place, 
it is called a dislocation. When a person has a bad fall or 
other accident, the bones themselves may be broken. Both 
ligaments and broken bones will in time knit together and 
heal, but in order that this may occur it is important that 
a dislocated or broken bone should be put in its proper 
position by a physician as promptly as possible after the 
accident. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. Of what two substances are the bones composed? What 
quality does each substance give? 
2. Some of the larger bones are not solid; what advantage is 
gained? 
3. Why should a baby be prevented from walking too soon? 
4. A boy and his grandfather were in an accident in which 
they were thrown from a carriage. They were thrown in about 
the same way, but the man had several bones broken and the 
boy was merely bruised. How do you account for this? If the 
boy and his grandfather had each broken an arm, which would 
probably have recovered sooner? 
5. Describe the principal parts of the skeleton. 
6. How many different-shaped bones can you locate? Tell 
how each is especially adapted to its work. 
7. How many hinge joints can you locate? How many ball- 
and-socket joints? 
8. Why should you think that the shoulder joint would be 
more easily dislocated than the knee joint? 38 
HEALTHY LIVING 
9. What would be the disadvantage of having a hinge joint 
at the wrist? 
io. How are the different parts of the spinal column held 
together? 
ii. Explain how the spinal column bends. 
12. What advantages are there in holding the body well? 
13. What are some of the deformities that may come from 
bad habits in standing and sitting? 
14. James has a desk that is too high for him; Mary's is too 
low. What bad deformity may come to both James and Mary, 
as a result? 
15. Make a study of the heights of seats and desks in your 
schoolroom, noting whether they are arranged so that the chil- 
dren can sit comfortably without twisting or bending over. 
16. Charles has been carrying his books in his left arm, so as 
to leave his right arm free. Jane told him to divide them, or to 
change them frequently. Explain why Jane's advice was good. 
17. After your bath, step with wet feet on the floor and ex- 
amine your footprints. Are they curved and irregular or nearly 
straight in outline? Which should they be? 
18. Why is it said that soldiers are only as strong as their 
feet? 
19. Describe a shoe which is ideal from a hygienic standpoint. 
20. What danger is there in narrow, pointed shoes? 
21. What is a sprain? A dislocation? CHAPTER IV 
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 
The Muscles.-There are some five hundred separate 
muscles in the human body and they make up about half 
its weight. They are of many different 
shapes, and of sizes ranging from a 
large muscle in the back that weighs 
several pounds to the tiny muscles that 
move the eyelids. Muscle in an animal 
is the portion we eat as lean meat. 
If a muscle is studied under the 
microscope, it is found to be composed 
of a great number of tiny muscle fibers, 
each an inch or an inch and a half long 
and 2-500 to 25-0 of an inch thick 
(somewhat the shape of a long leather 
shoe string). Each of these fibers can 
contract; and when all the fibers of a 
muscle contract together, the whole 
muscle shortens. It is this contraction, 
or shortening, of the muscles which 
causes movement. 
How the Muscles Move the Parts of 
the Body.-The larger muscles are 
fixed, at one or both ends, to bones or 
other parts of the body, by means of tough whitish strings 
called tendons. These tendons help to make the machinery 
of movement simple and efficient. There are, for example, 
Fig. 18.-The biceps 
muscle and its ten- 
dons. 
39 40 
HEALTHY LIVING 
many different muscles which move the fingers. Some of 
these are relatively large. Instead of running down into the 
wrist to make it bulky and awkward, the larger muscles 
stop in the arm and are attached to tendons which extend 
down to the bones in the hand. You can see these tendons 
working in the back of your hand when you open and close 
it. They do not themselves contract but are pulled by the 
shortening of the muscles in the arm. At or near the point 
Fig. 19.-How the biceps muscle bends the arm. 
where they are attached to the bones, the tendons are often 
held in place by ligaments. 
When a muscle contracts and pulls on its tendons, the 
bones or other parts of the body to which the tendons are 
attached must, of course, move toward each other. Figure 
19 shows how the biceps muscle in the upper arm raises the 
hand. This muscle is attached at one end to the bones of 
the shoulder and at the other end to the upper part of the 
forearm. If you hold your arm in position A of the figure 
and raise your forearm, the biceps muscle shortens and THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 
41 
thickens. You can feel it do this if, at the same time, you 
put your other hand on your upper arm. 
When you want to straighten the arm again, there is 
another muscle on the other side (the triceps) which, by 
contracting, pulls on the lower end of the forearm and draws 
it back into line writh the upper arm. 
Antagonistic Action of Muscles.--The biceps and triceps 
are good examples of what is called antagonistic action. 
One muscle pulls the arm up and the other pulls it down; 
the position of the arm depends on the balance between 
these two pulls. In this way one of the pair of antagonistic 
muscles serves as a check upon the other. It prevents the 
motion from going too far and permits a much more exact 
control of movement than would otherwise be possible. 
Varied Work of the Muscles.-All of the various move- 
ments of the body are made by contractions of muscles. 
Every change in the position of the ribs, the bones of the 
arms and legs, or the backbone is due to the shortening or 
lengthening of muscle fibers. 
It is not only when we move, however, that the muscles 
are active. Holding any part of the body still requires the 
action of a great many muscles, but the antagonistic 
muscles are then pulling equally hard in opposite directions. 
If you hold your arm out straight in the air for a few min- 
utes, you will become very tired from the muscular work 
that you have been doing. 
The body, in standing, is held erect by great bands of 
muscle which run up the back and hold the spinal column 
straight and the head erect. (See Fig. 7.) A skeleton, 
such as you may have seen in a museum, would double up 
and fall over if it were placed upon its feet, for lack of mus- 
cles to hold it up. The organs of the trunk are held in placa 42 
HEALTHY LIVING 
by flat sheets of muscle in the abdominal wall. When we 
shiver with cold, it is because a chill has upset the normal 
relation between the tiny muscles of the skin, and they pull 
first one way and then another, instead of being evenly 
balanced. 
Muscles of the Digestive and Circulatory Systems.-Be- 
sides the muscles which move the skeleton, there are a great 
many other muscles in the body which we do not ordinarily 
think about, but which are constantly at work to keep the 
human machine running. 
Did you ever wonder what becomes of your food after 
you have swallowed it? It does not just fall down. It has 
to move through the esophagus and the stomach and the 
intestines (see Fig. 23, p. 52) and in order to do this it must 
be pushed along by the contraction of muscles in the walls 
of these organs. 
It takes a great deal of force to drive the blood through 
the blood vessels that extend all over the body. This is done 
mainly by the heart, which is really a powerful muscle. 
The daily work of this organ is said to be equivalent to the 
lifting of a hundred-ton locomotive a foot in the air. The 
walls of all the blood vessels contain layers of muscles which, 
by their contraction, regulate the size of the blood vessels 
so that each part of the body gets the necessary supply of 
blood. 
Voluntary and Involuntary Muscles.-The muscles that 
move the arms and the legs, the skin of the face, the tongue, 
and many other parts of the body are under the control of 
the will; they are called voluntary muscles. We can move 
such muscles when we wish to do so. Most of the organs 
inside the body, however, like those in the digestive and 
circulatory systems, work automatically. The muscles THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 
43 
which control these movements are called involuntary 
muscles; we cannot contract them at will. 
Keeping the Muscles Strong.-Any one can strengthen 
his muscles by exercise. When a muscle is used, it grows 
more powerful. You 
can tell a baseball 
pitcher or a black- 
smith by the big 
muscles of his arm, 
and a man who has 
rowed on a crew by 
the powerful mus- 
cles of his back. 
It is not necessary 
or wise for all boys 
and girls to take 
part in athletic 
competitions which 
require great de- 
velopment of special 
sets of muscles. 
Every boy or girl, 
however, ought to 
take enough active 
exercise to develop 
all the muscles of 
the body to a rea- 
sonable degree. Nowadays we like to see girls as well as 
boys strong and vigorous, and able to excel in games. 
Effects of Muscular Exercise on the Body as a Whole. 
Muscular exercise is necessary, not only for the develop- 
ment of the muscles, but also for the health of the body as 
Fig. 20.-An example of the value of well- 
trained muscle-Christy Matthewson. HEALTHY LIVING 
44 
a whole. When we exercise the muscles, we exercise all 
the other organs. The heart and the blood vessels work 
better. The lungs take in deeper draughts of air. The 
appetite is increased, and the digestive system does better 
work. The waste products of the body are carried away 
more rapidly. The brain is clearer and the spirit more 
cheerful. 
The natural love of play gives most young people plenty 
of exercise, but as they grow older many of them become 
so busy or so lazy that they forget to give their muscles 
enough to do. Really vigorous health requires active 
muscular exercise. 
Exercise to Develop Special Parts of the Body.-If any 
particular part of the body is weak, special kinds of exercise 
may be used to develop it. A child who does not use his 
lungs properly can take special breathing exercises. There 
are special exercises for developing the muscles of the legs, 
the arms, the chest, the back, the trunk, and other parts of 
the body. Certain exercises, such as dancing, are especially 
valuable, not so much for developing the muscles them- 
selves, as for training the power of balancing or properly 
coordinating the action of various muscles. 
One of the best things about the Greek people in the 
great days of their country was their admiration for the 
perfect and graceful human body. In their wonderful 
statues they showed the ideal body of an athlete, and each 
Greek boy and girl was expected to reach this ideal, as far 
as possible, by training and developing the body. 
The Best Kinds of General Exercise.-The best exer- 
cises (aside from those used to correct special defects) are 
those which develop as many as possible of the different 
muscles of the body. Such exercises are brisk walking and THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 
45 
running, rowing, riding, swimming, and playing tennis, 
baseball, and football. 
It is better to exercise in the open air than indoors, but 
merely being outdoors is not enough. Leisurely walking 
Fig. 21.-The Greek ideal of manly strength and. 
beauty. 
is not exercise. You must use your muscles vigorously, 
so as to make the heart beat faster and the chest expand 
fully, if you are to get the best results. 
Exercise in the form of games has a special value because 
games train and develop the eye and the brain as well as the 46 
HEALTHY LIVING 
muscle. Athletic sports and games that require team play 
teach young people how to cooperate with others, and to 
subordinate self to the good of the team. 
Every boy and girl should have at least one form of ex- 
ercise that he or she likes to do and learns to do well. It 
may be swimming, riding, tennis, basketball, skating, or 
brisk, hard walking. The important thing is to have the 
Fig. 22.-Class drill in the gymnasium is excellent for training the 
coordination of the muscles. 
habit of some kind of outdoor exercise and to love it, so that 
as you grow older you will turn to that sport for relaxation. 
The Gymnasium.-Exercise taken in the form of games 
cannot, however, take the place of systematic drill in the 
gymnasium. Such drill, as has been pointed out, develops 
the special muscles that particularly need developing and 
trains the balancing or coordinating power of the body. To 
many people who live in crowded cities, the gymnasium fur- 
nishes a valuable opportunity for exercise; and even those THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 
47 
who are fortunate enough to have opportunities for out- 
door sports are made and kept fit for these activities by 
training in the gymnasium. 
Few people can play games or even go to the gymnasium 
every day, however; but the body needs some real exercise 
every day to keep in the best condition. Every boy and 
girl should form the habit of going through a few simple 
exercises each morning on rising. A valuable set of exer- 
cises of this kind worked out by the famous athlete, Mr. 
Walter Camp, is described in a later chapter (p. 366). 
The Danger of Over-exercise.-All good things can be 
abused. Exercise draws the blood to the muscles and the 
skin. It is unwise, therefore, to take active exercise just 
before or after a heavy meal, for then the blood is needed 
in the digestive organs. Exercise at any time should not 
be carried so far as to tire one unduly. Great harm may be 
done by severe games, like boat races or Marathon runs for 
boys, or hard basketball games for girls. 
Your object should not be to break records or win games, 
but to have a strong, healthy body and to play school games 
and the game of life gallantly, whether you win or lose. 
The Effect of Alcohol and Other Poisons on Muscular 
Efficiency.-Aside from the need for exercise to develop the 
various muscles and the nerves by which they are made to 
act together, the most important thing to do in order to have 
a strong and efficient muscular system is to avoid poisons. 
The muscles and the other organs of the body may be 
chemically injured or poisoned in various ways. Sometimes 
men who work in trades where they have to use poisonous 
compounds, like certain lead salts, are poisoned by them. 
Sometimes people who eat too much, or too much of par- 
ticular things, are poisoned by the results of decay of food 48 
HEALTHY LIVING 
in their intestines. Among the commonest injuries of 
this kind are those due to alcoholic drinks and narcotic 
drugs. It is recognized to-day that the use of such drugs 
does very great harm, and a special chapter will be devoted 
to the subject later. It will be well, however, to consider 
briefly the effect of alcohol upon the health of the various 
systems of organs, as they are taken up in turn. 
The influence of alcohol on the work of the muscles has 
been studied by physiologists who devote their lives to 
finding out all they can about the human body. Hellsten 
of Sweden, for instance, determined the power of certain 
muscles and their resistance to fatigue by an instrument 
called the ergograph. In this machine the finger may be put 
into a strap which is connected with a weight by a thread 
over a pulley. The finger is bent downward again and again, 
each time lifting the weight on the other side of the pulley. 
The amount of the lift is recorded automatically by a point 
which traces an up-and-down line on a moving surface of 
smoked paper. Studies made with apparatus similar to 
this show that even moderate doses of alcohol cause a 
loss of about eight per cent in the power to do muscular 
work. 
This conclusion from laboratory experiments is borne out 
by practical experience. Men on forced marches and those 
who have to do especially heavy work are no longer given 
alcoholic drinks, for it has been found that the effect is 
not to increase but to diminish endurance. College athletes 
in training for athletic victories are, of course, never allowed 
to use alcohol or tobacco or any other harmful drugs. 
Sir Frederick Treves, a famous English physician, has 
said in this connection: "As a work-producer, alcohol is 
exceedingly extravagant, and like all other extravagant THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM 
49 
measures, leads to a physical bankruptcy. It is also curious 
that troops cannot work or march on alcohol. I was . . . 
with the relief column that moved on to Ladysmith, and, 
of course, it was an extremely trying time by reason of the 
hot weather. In that enormous column of thirty thousand, 
the first who dropped out were not the tall men, or the 
short men, or the big men, or the little men-they were the 
drinkers, and they dropped out as clearly as if they had been 
labelled with a big letter on their backs." 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. What is the special work, or function, of the muscular 
system? 
2. How are muscles attached to bones and other parts of the 
body? 
3. Examine the tendons in a chicken drumstick. How are 
they arranged? 
4. How does a muscle work in moving a part of the body? 
5. When a muscle contracts, how does it change its form? 
6. Raise your arm with palm up. Clench your hand and 
bring it slowly to your shoulder. What happens in your upper 
arm? What happens when you extend your arm again? 
7. How is the body held in an erect position? 
8. What causes shivering? 
9. I know a boy who can drink a glass of water while he 
hangs head downward from a bar. How is this possible? 
10. What is the difference between the action of the muscles 
of the stomach and those in the hand? 
11. What effect does active exercise have upon the muscles? 
12. A boy broke his right arm and kept it in splints and 
bandages for several months. When the splints were removed, 
this arm was soft and weak, and smaller than the left arm. 
Why? 50 
HEALTHY LIVING 
13. What are some of the effects of exercise on parts of the 
body other than the muscles? 
14. Why is it a good plan to learn some games and sports 
which you can continue to play when you are older? 
15. You gain speed, accuracy, and quick thinking in games. 
Of what special value are these in everyday life? Give examples. 
16. How does team work learned in games help to make boys 
and girls better citizens? 
17. Jane and Rose are both fond of basketball. Jane plays a 
brilliant but erratic game, always depending on her own play to 
win. Rose is steady and uses passes to other players who are 
in a better position to throw for a basket. Which is the more 
valuable member of the school team? 
18. John had been working hard all the morning and was so 
hungry that he ate an unusually large dinner. Some of the 
boys came to see him directly afterward, and they all went 
swimming. John had been in the water only a short time when 
he was seized with a cramp in his stomach. What caused the 
cramp? 
19. Is beer a good drink for men on an exploring party? 
Give reasons for your opinion. CHAPTER V 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 
Why We Need Food.-You know that if you go past 
your regular mealtime without eating, you feel hungry. 
You know also that if a person does not eat for a long time 
he grows weak, and that if he continues to go without food 
he finally starves. Three times during the day, or oftener, 
we put food into the mouth, chew it more or less carefully, 
and swallow it. Do you know what becomes of it after- 
wards? 
Food is needed, as we have seen, to furnish the body with 
the energy necessary for its activities, and to make good 
the constant waste of living tissue that goes on during life. 
The human body gets its energy from the energy already 
stored up in other matter: in the bodies of other animals 
(in the form of meat, fish, and eggs), or in plants (such as 
grains, vegetables, and fruits). But the energy for the life 
of all animals really comes from the energy in plants, be- 
cause plants furnish food for animals which, in turn, furnish 
food for other animals. The plants obtain their energy 
from the sunlight, by means of a wonderful power in the 
living matter of green leaves. So eventually we all get the 
energy for our life processes from the sun, by way of the 
green plants and the animals. 
The Process of Digestion.-It is easy to put food into the 
mouth, but there is a great deal more to be done before the 
tissues of the body get the benefit of it. Animals cannot 
use all kinds of food, as a furnace can burn all kinds of coal. 
51 52 
HEALTHY LIVING 
The food must first be changed into a liquid, and the chem- 
ical substances in it must be changed into other substances 
that the body can use. The 
food on which any kind of ani- 
mal can live depends on the 
power of the animal to change 
it in this way. A beefsteak is 
the muscular tissue of an ox, 
but an ox cannot eat steak 
and make new muscle of it; he 
makes his muscle out of grass. 
This work of changing the 
food into the forms the body 
needs is called digestion; and 
when the organs fail to do 
their work properly, either be- 
cause they are diseased or be- 
cause we place too heavy a 
burden upon them, we say 
that we have indigestion. 
The work of preparing the 
food so that it may pass into 
the tissues is done in the di- 
gestive tube or alimentary 
canal. In this tube the food 
is broken up and chemically 
changed or digested by the ac- 
tion of the digestive juices, and the part which the body 
needs is absorbed through the wall of the tube into the blood. 
The parts of the food which cannot be used are not ab- 
sorbed but are discharged as waste material. 
The Organs of Digestion.-The alimentary canal is really 
Fig. 23.-The principal parts of 
the digestive system. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 
53 
a single tube running through the body, larger in some parts 
and smaller in others. It is lined with soft tissue, such as 
we can see in the throat. This tissue is pink because it is 
so full of blood vessels, and is kept moist with a sticky 
mucus (mu' kws), for which reason it is called mucous 
membrane. 
There are six principal parts of the digestive tube, each 
of which has its own special work to do. They are the 
mouth, the pharynx, the esophagus, the stomach, the small 
intestine, and the large intestine. Their general form and 
position in the body are shown in Fig. 23. 
The Digestive Juices.-The digestive juices of the body 
contain curious substances, called enzymes (en'zims), 
which have the power to digest or change foods in ways 
that no chemist can imitate. 
The body makes these juices in special chemical factories 
of its own, called glands. The saliva, or digestive juice of 
the mouth, for instance, is made in small glands which 
connect, like little branching caves, with the floor of the 
mouth. If you have ever had mumps, you know where two 
of the salivary (sal' 1 va ri) glands are, because it is in them 
that the inflammation and swelling of this disease take place. 
Besides the salivary glands in the mouth, there are tiny 
glands in the walls of the stomach and the intestines, and 
two large glands, called the pancreas (pan' kre as) and the 
liver, which open into the small intestine. All of these 
glands manufacture, or secrete, digestive juices, which are 
called secretions of the gland. 
As soon as we taste or smell food that we like, a nerve 
message tells the salivary glands to get ready to help in the 
work of digestion, and they begin to discharge their juices. 
We say at such times that "the mouth waters." 54 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Internal Secretions.-In connection with the glands 
which take part in digestion, something should be said in 
regard to glands which perform other functions in the body. 
The digestive glands, for the most part, discharge their 
secretions into the alimentary canal. Other glands have no 
opening through which secretions are poured out; their 
enzymes pass from the tissues directly into the blood, to 
be carried to various parts of the body where they are 
needed. Such secretions are called internal secretions. 
Among the glands of this kind are the thyroid glands 
(thy' roid), which lie in the neck on each side of the wind- 
pipe. The secretion of these glands is necessary for health, 
and when they do not produce it normally, definite dis- 
eases follow. 
The Mouth and Its Work.-The mouth is the vestibule 
of the digestive system. The tongue forms its floor, and the 
cheeks its sides. The roof of the mouth is called the palate. 
From the back of the palate hangs a soft finger-like piece 
called the uvula (u' vu Id), and at each side of the throat 
at the back are the rounded tonsils. 
Two things happen to the food in the mouth. It is 
broken up into a fine pulp by the action of the teeth, and 
some parts of it are changed chemically by the saliva. The 
processes of chewing and mixing are helped along, and 
the food is finally passed on toward the pharynx (throat) 
and esophagus, by the action of the active and muscular 
tongue. 
The teeth and the way in which they should be kept 
healthy are discussed in the next chapter, but we may 
consider here the importance of the teeth in digestion. 
The rest of the digestive machinery of the body is meant to 
work on a semi-liquid pulp, not on lumps of solid food. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 
55 
One can force down masses of unchewed food by swallowing 
hard and washing them down with liquid; but this is a very 
bad habit which puts a strain on the stomach and the rest 
of the digestive system, and is likely to cause illness. A 
dog bolts much of his food without chewing it, but a dog's 
digestive system is different from ours, and he can do this 
without harm. Our flat grinding teeth were given us to 
use; and if we use them properly, our food will not only be 
ground up into a fine paste, easy to digest, but will be well 
mixed with the necessary digestive juices of the mouth. 
Another reason for slow eating is that only in this way do 
we really taste our food. The taste, besides being pleasant, 
is a helpful aid in the selection of a proper diet. When 
people chew their food and eat slowly, they tend to eat more 
wholesome foods. Moreover, the pleasant taste of food 
encourages appetite and stimulates the flow of digestive 
juices. 
The Work of Digestive Juices in the Mouth.-The diges- 
tive juices which are mixed with the food in the mouth not 
only moisten the food and make it easier to swallow, but 
also play an important part in digesting starchy foods. 
Potato and bread, for instance, are largely composed of 
starch; and starch does not dissolve in water and cannot 
pass through the walls of the digestive tube. An enzyme 
in the saliva acts on this starch so as to change it to 
sugar, and the sugar then dissolves very easily. If we chew 
thoroughly a piece of bread or some other starchy food, it 
finally begins to have a slightly sweet taste because of this, 
change of starch to sugar. 
The Pharynx and the Esophagus.-After the food is swal- 
lowed, it passes down through the pharynx and the esopha- 
gus into the stomach. The walls of the esophagus contain 56 
HEALTHY LIVING 
muscles which contract and push the food along, much as 
you squeeze library paste out of a tube with your fingers. 
Digestion in the Stomach.-The stomach, as shown in 
Fig. 23, is a large pouch or bag, holding about three pints 
in a grown person. Within its strong muscular walls, the 
food is moved round and round and churned up into a thin 
paste, before it is squeezed on into the intestines. At the 
same time, it is mixed with digestive juices from glands of 
the stomach. These juices contain a weak acid and a power- 
ful digestive substance called pepsin. The last of the food 
stays in the stomach about four hours, and when it passes 
into the small intestine it is a rather thick fluid. 
The digestive juices of the saliva, as we have seen, act on 
the starchy foods, but the gastric juice, which is mixed with 
the food in the stomach, serves to digest another class of 
foods, the proteins (such as white of egg or meat). 
It is easy to show how the gastric juice acts by a simple 
experiment in the classroom. Pepsin, the enzyme which 
digests meat in the stomach, can be bought at the drug store 
(this pepsin has been prepared by extracting it from the 
stomach of a calf). In order to do its work, it must have 
an acid present, such as is poured into the stomach by 
the glands. Pieces of meat should be placed in four test 
tubes. These tubes should then be half filled with (1st 
tube) pure water, (2d) a weak solution (2 per cent) of 
hydrochloric acid, (3d) a solution of pepsin, and (4th) a 
solution of the weak acid plus pepsin. After the tubes 
have been put away for half an hour in a warm place, the 
meat in the first three tubes will remain unchanged, but 
in the fourth it will begin to dissolve and will become soft 
and slimy from the combined action of the pepsin and acid. 
If the gastric juice is not poured out in sufficient amount THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 
57 
or is not strong enough, if the stomach muscles do not do 
their work and churn the food well, or if the food is im- 
properly cooked or is swallowed without chewing, painful 
and sometimes dangerous indigestion may result. 
Fig. 24.-Action of the digestive juices of the stomach. 
A piece of meat and some water have been placed in each 
tube. To the first tube (from left to right) nothing has been 
added; to the second, hydrochloric acid alone; to the third, 
pepsin alone; to the fourth, both pepsin and hydrochloric acid. 
In the last case only, the meat has been dissolved so as to 
color the whole of the liquid. 
Digestion in the Small Intestine.-From the stomach the 
food passes to the small intestine. We often speak of the 
stomach as if it were the chief organ of digestion, but this 
is not the case. The digestive juices of the small intestine 
are even more important than the gastric juice in getting 
the food ready to be absorbed into the tissues. 
The small intestine is called "small" because it is a nar- 58 
HEALTHY LIVING 
row part of the digestive tube, but it is really very long, 
usually measuring from twenty to twenty-four feet in a 
grown person. It is coiled up and down and back and forth 
and fills a large portion 
of the lower part of the 
trunk. 
While the food is being 
passed through the small 
intestine by the muscular 
action of its walls, three 
more digestive juices are 
mixed with it. These 
are the pancreatic juice, 
the bile, and the intes- 
tinal juice. The pan- 
creatic juice and bile 
are discharged by large 
glands called the pan- 
creas 1 and the liver, respectively. The intestinal juice is 
discharged by small glands in the wall of the intestine it- 
self. The pancreatic juice is by far the most important of 
these, and, indeed, of all the digestive juices. About a 
quart of it is poured into the intestine each day, and it acts 
on all kinds of foods-starchy and sugary foods, meat 
foods, and fats. 
The Process of Absorption.-Most of the actual absorp- 
tion of digested foods into the blood occurs in the small 
intestine. The food takes a long time to pass the length of 
the intestine-from ten to twenty hours. The absorption is 
not at all a simple soaking-up process like that by which a 
sponge takes up water. There is a living wall or membrane 
Fig. 25.-The stomach and the larger 
glands connected with it. 
1 The pancreas of a calf is the portion that is eaten as sweetbread. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 
59 
between the digested liquids in the intestine and the blood 
into which these liquids must be transferred; and there 
are many things about this transfer that even the wisest 
scientific people do not understand. 
The great length of the intestine helps to make absorp- 
tion possible. In order, however, to give an even greater 
Fig. 26.-A section through the intestinal wall, 
showing the villi. 
surface for this work, the surface of the intestinal wall is 
increased by being raised up in the form of millions of little 
finger-like projections called villi, which are so small that 
they can just be seen with the naked eye. These villi are 
richly supplied with blood vessels, and in some way the liv- 
ing wall of the villi selects from the digested food the things 
the body needs and passes them into the blood, leaving in 
the intestinal tube the material that cannot be used. 
Storage of Food in the Body.-When the food reaches 
the tissues, some of it is used at once to make good the waste 
which is always going on, and some of it is stored for the 60 
HEALTHY LIVING 
future. Thus, in the liver cells there is deposited a starchy 
substance called glycogen (gli' kb jen); fat is stored in a great 
many parts of the body, particularly under the skin. Ani- 
mals that sleep all through the cold winter go into their 
hiding places in the fall loaded with fat, and come out very 
Fig. 27.-Claude Bernard (1813-1878), the 
French physiologist, who discovered glycogen 
in the liver. 
thin in the springtime, having lived all winter on their 
stored-up or reserve food. 
The discovery of glycogen in the liver was one of the most 
important single steps in the growth of our knowledge of 
the human body. Claude Bernard, a great French physi- 
ologist (1813-1878), was studying the changes which food 
undergoes after it is absorbed into the body, when he found THE DIGESTIVE SVSTEM 
61 
to his surprise that the blood in the vein leading from the 
liver contained sugar, even though no sugar-producing food 
was being fed to the animal. This led him to the discovery 
that the liver changes the sugar that comes to it in the blood 
(when sugar-producing foods are eaten) into glycogen, and 
stores it, to be changed again to sugar and given up to the 
blood when needed. 
Good Habits of Eating.-The digestive organs should 
have their regular habits, like all the other parts of the body. 
At the usual meal hours the stomach and the intestines do 
their work better than at other times, and people often harm 
their power of digestion seriously by taking meals too early 
or too late or by eating between meals. 
Breakfast should be a sufficient meal but not a heavy one. 
Fruit, cereal, eggs, and bread and butter make an excellent 
breakfast. There should be one hearty meal, in the middle 
or at the end of the day, and the other meal should be a 
fairly simple one. 
One should not at any meal eat so heavily as to overload 
the stomach; nor should one eat too much indigestible 
food, such as pickles, olives, pie, and cake. Candy is 
a common cause of illness among children, not because of 
any harm in the candy itself, but because too much of it is 
eaten at a time. Too much water at meals, particularly 
if it is very cold, is bad for the stomach. Violent exercise 
or mental excitement just before or after meals also inter- 
feres with digestion; and quiet and calmness at mealtimes 
are important factors in digestive hygiene. 
It may seem a nuisance to think about these things. It 
is, of course, easier and pleasanter at the moment to eat 
what you like. There is no momentary pleasure, however, 
that is so great as the pleasure of having a healthy body, 62 
HEALTHY LIVING 
being able to play as you want to, and feeling well all the 
time. A grown person who has chronic indigestion is gen- 
erally disagreeable and unhappy, and it is worth while 
to form good eating habits so as not to grow up to be such a 
person. 
The Large Intestine and Its Work.-The position of the 
large intestine is shown in Fig. 23. From the point where 
the small intestine joins it, it passes first upward on the 
right side of the body nearly to the level of the stomach, 
then across to the left side and downward to its opening. 
When the food mass reaches the large intestine, it has 
been robbed of nearly everything that can be used by the 
body. All that remains to be done is to absorb the water 
out of it and press it into a solid mass to be discharged. 
The large intestine serves as a storage reservoir for the waste 
material until the time comes for getting rid of it. 
Just beyond the point where the small intestine joins the 
large intestine, a small slender sac branches off from the 
large intestine. This sac, on account of its wormlike shape, 
is called the vermiform appendix. Sometimes the action 
of germs growing in the appendix causes the disease known 
as appendicitis. In such cases, it may be necessary for a 
surgeon to open the abdominal cavity and remove the ap- 
pendix. 
The Importance of Keeping the Intestines Clear.-Mi- 
crobes are little living plants and animals, so tiny that 
they cannot be seen except with a very powerful microscope. 
When milk sours or meat spoils, the change has been 
caused by microbes. In the lower part of the intestinal 
tube, enormous numbers of microbes are at work all the 
time, breaking up the food and waste materials and forming 
from them new chemical compounds. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 
63 
Some of these microbes in the intestines produce sub- 
stances that are poisonous to the body, and it is therefore 
important that food wastes should not remain there long. 
If food stays in the intestines too long, the poisons formed 
by its decomposition are absorbed by the blood and 
carried to all parts of the body. This is why constipation, 
or lack of proper movement of the bowels, is very harmful. 
Many people have headaches and feel dull and miserable 
just on account of such poisons from the intestines. 
It is important to form the habit of clearing out the 
intestines regularly at least once a day, and perhaps oftener, 
so as to keep the intestinal tube clean. If this does not 
happen naturally, the remedy should be found, not in taking 
medicines, but in drinking plenty of water and eating more 
fruit, green vegetables, and coarse foods, or in more exercise, 
sleep, and fresh air. 
When the bowels move too frequently, the condition is 
known as diarrhea. Diarrhea is often due to the growth of 
special kinds of harmful microbes in the digestive tract. 
The best remedy is to cut down the food, particularly meats 
and eggs, and to take a dose of castor oil or some other 
medicine which will help the body to get rid of the microbes 
and poisons. If the trouble continues, a doctor should be 
consulted. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. Show how the energy of the food which you ate for dinner 
yesterday had its source in the sun. 
2. How must the food we eat be changed before it can be 
absorbed, and how is this change accomplished? 
3. What kind of lining is found all through the digestive 
canal? 64 
HEALTHY LIVING 
4. Name the parts of the alimentary canal in the order in 
which the food comes to them. 
5. Find out all you can about enzymes. 
6. What are glands? What do the digestive glands have to 
do with the process of digestion? 
7. What are internal secretions? 
8. What structures can you see in your mouth when you look 
in the glass? 
9. What part of digestion takes place in the mouth? 
10. Are the teeth organs of digestion? 
11. What advantage is there in eating slowly? 
12. Would you expect to find the digestive apparatus of a dog, 
a horse, and a man alike? 
13. What difference does it make in digestion if your food 
tastes good and is properly seasoned? 
14. Mrs. Julian was eating lunch in the school lunchroom 
with her five-year-old son. He was not so hungry as she wished, 
so she fed him, giving him a mouthful before he had time to chew 
the preceding mouthful. His mouth was filled all the time, even 
when she was forcing him to drink a glass of milk. Will she 
make him fatter and stronger by this process? 
15. What happens to the food in the stomach? 
16. What type of food is digested by the saliva? By the 
gastric juice? 
17. Which organ of digestion, the stomach or the small intes- 
tine, has the more important work to do? 
18. What classes of foods are digested in the small intestine? 
19. Why is the food delayed so long in the small intestine? 
20. How is the lining of the small intestine constructed to 
provide special means for absorption? 
21. Where does the digested food go after it is absorbed by 
the villi? 
22. If more food is digested and absorbed than is needed for 
the building of the tissues, what becomes of it? 
23. Where is the fat in the body stored? THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 
65 
24. What is glycogen and where is it found? 
25. Who was Claude Bernard? 
26. Why is it better for the digestion, if we eat at regular 
hours and avoid eating between meals? 
27. What is the work of the large intestine? Why is it im- 
portant to get rid of the waste products of digestion? CHAPTER VI 
HYGIENE OF THE TEETH 
Temporary and Permanent Teeth.-Our first teeth begin 
to grow out from the gums when we are only a few months 
old. There are twenty teeth in this first or temporary set, 
and the last of them generally appear by the end of the sec- 
ond year. These first teeth begin to loosen and fall out 
when a child is about six years old, but some of them re- 
Upper Teeth 
Upper Teeth 
Fig. 28.-The arrangement of the temporary teeth (left) and of the 
permanent teeth (right) before the appearance of the " wisdom teeth " 
or third molars. 
main until he is twelve or older. As the first or temporary 
teeth go, the second or permanent set come in to take their 
places. There are thirty-two of these permanent teeth. 
The last of them, the four "wisdom teeth," may not appear 
until sometime between the ages of seventeen and twenty- 
five years or even later. 
The Different Kinds of Teeth.-The arrangement of the 
permanent teeth is shown in Fig. 28. Flesh-eating animals, 
such as the dog, have only tearing or biting teeth, and some 
66 HYGIENE OF THE TEETH 
67 
of the grass-eating animals, such as the cow or horse, have 
only flat grinding teeth. We have both kinds-four sharp 
cutting teeth or incisors in the front of each jaw; six molars 
or flat grinding teeth at the back of each jaw; and two 
cuspids and four bicuspids (partly for cutting and partly 
for grinding) at the sides of each jaw. 
The Structure of a Tooth.-The part of a tooth which we 
can see above the gum is called the crown. Underneath the 
gum is a root, by which the 
tooth is held in place (see 
Fig. 29). The greater part 
of the tooth is made of a 
hard bony substance called 
dentine. On the crown, this 
is covered with a still harder 
layer of smooth shining 
enamel, and on the root 
with cement. Inside the 
dentine is a soft mass of 
pulp containing nerves and 
blood vessels. 
Tooth Decay and Its Causes.-When particles of food 
are left between the teeth, they decay and the chemicals 
produced by microbes act on the enamel and gradually 
destroy it. When the enamel has been injured, the dentine 
underneath is rapidly attacked and at last, if the cavity 
is neglected, the decay reaches the nerves. Such decay 
of the teeth is known as dental caries (ka/ ri ez). 
There is another very common and serious disease, called 
pyorrhea (pi 0 rez a), in which the microbes infect the edges 
of the gums. Teeth affected in this way may become 
loosened and finally fall out. 
Fig. 29.-The structure of a tooth. 68 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Effects of Tooth Decay.-Neglect of the teeth pro- 
duces many bad effects. The odor from an unclean mouth 
is most unpleasant to other people. The teeth in such 
a mouth decay, and as they begin to grow sensitive, 
chewing is neglected, and the stomach is likely to 
be loaded with unchewed food. Contact with sweet 
or hard substances, or extreme heat or cold, may 
then result in aching teeth, and lead to painful visits 
to the dentist, to have the tooth filled-if it is not too 
late. 
The evil effects of tooth decay are not limited to the 
teeth themselves. Recent studies have shown that the 
microbes which cause decay of the teeth may form poisons 
which affect the whole body. In some cases the microbes 
themselves, after growing in the tissues about the teeth, 
may get into the circulation and pass to other parts of the 
body, where they set up serious diseases, such as rheuma- 
tism and heart disease. A neglected tooth is a gateway 
through which some of our worst germ enemies may gain 
entrance. 
Care of the Teeth.-The enamel is the natural protection 
of the teeth, and it is very important that it should not be 
injured. It is fairly brittle and may easily be chipped, so 
that one should be careful not to crack hard nuts with the 
teeth or to pick the teeth with hard objects which might 
splinter them. 
On the other hand, thorough chewing of the food, and 
particularly of fairly hard foods like crusty bread, tends to 
polish the surfaces of the teeth and to prevent deposits on 
them. The coarse food which savage people eat helps to 
keep their teeth in good condition, and the more of such 
food we eat, the better it is for us. But as most of us do not HYGIENE OF THE TEETH 
69 
eat enough hard foods, especial care is necessary to prevent 
decay and to keep the mouth healthy. 
The most important aid in keeping the teeth in good 
condition is, of course, the toothbrush. It has been said 
that in an army-where the greatest care must be taken of 
the health of the soldier-his toothbrush ought to be in- 
Fig. 30.-The toothbrush drill. Mobilizing against the microbic enemies 
of the teeth. 
spected as systematically as his gun. The teeth should 
be brushed regularly night and morning, at least. It 
is well to brush them after each meal, because the sooner 
deposits of food are removed, the better. Once a day 
a good tooth powder or a good tooth paste should be 
used to aid in cleaning the teeth. It does not matter 
whether paste or powder is used. Either will help 
to remove the sticky materials that collect on the 
teeth, and are hard to get off with the brush alone. 70 
HEALTHY LIVING 
At other times, the brush and plain water alone are 
sufficient. 
The toothbrush should not be too large, and the bristles 
should be of medium hardness and so shaped that they will 
get between the teeth. Both sides and the top of the teeth 
should be thoroughly brushed. It is much better to brush 
down or up from the gums to the cutting edge instead of side- 
ways across the teeth, because when the brush passes side- 
ways the bristles do not get in between the teeth. The most 
effective method is to place the bristles of the brush firmly 
against the teeth, apply pressure as if trying to force the 
bristles between the teeth, and then give the brush a rotary 
or scrubbing motion. Care should be taken to go over both 
the back and front of the cutting teeth in both jaws, as well 
as the flat crowns of the grinding teeth. The gums above 
and below the teeth and the surface of the tongue should 
also be cleaned. 
When the brushing is finished, lukewarm water should be 
taken into the mouth and forced between and around the 
teeth several times, by means of the lips, cheeks, and 
tongue. This is as important as the proper use of the 
toothbrush itself. The tooth toilet should take from three 
to five minutes. 
Even the best use of the toothbrush will not always keep 
the spaces between the teeth entirely clean. If food particles 
collect in these spaces, a bit of dental floss may be passed 
up and down between the teeth, care being taken not to 
injure the delicate gums. 
Dental Care of the Teeth.-In spite of all that we can 
do, a hard substance called tartar often deposits upon the 
teeth, and decay sometimes begins before we know it. In- 
spection of the teeth of school children usually shows that HYGIENE OF THE TEETH 
71 
at least two out of three mouths seriously need dental 
attention. 
It frequently happens that the teeth are crowded irreg- 
ularly into the mouth instead of being evenly arranged. 
Such teeth are unpleasant in appearance and are likely to 
decay, because there are many cavities between them to 
catch bits of food. Since the teeth in distorted jaws do 
not meet properly, adequate chewing is impossible. The 
dentist can straighten teeth of this kind and improve the 
appearance and health of the child at the same time-if 
the matter is attended to early enough. 
It is ■well to have the teeth examined by a good dentist 
at least twice a year. He will remove the tartar, polish the 
teeth, and care for any beginnings of decay. There will 
be only slight pain and little expense. If the teeth are not 
examined in this way, decay is likely to start somewhere; 
and when a toothache finally drives us to the dentist's 
chair, there is suffering in store, and it may be too late to 
save the tooth. It is as true here as elsewhere that Preven- 
tion is better than Cure. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. How many sets of teeth do we have? When do they ap- 
pear? How do they differ? 
2. What are the advantages in having teeth of various 
shapes? 
3. Describe the structure of a tooth. 
4. What causes teeth to decay? 
5. What effect do decayed teeth have on the digestion? 
6. Describe your ideal of what a set of teeth should be. 
Notice the people you meet and see how many have teeth 
which are ideaL 72 
HEALTHY LIVING 
7. What danger is there in cracking nuts or biting thread 
with your teeth? In picking your teeth with a pin? 
8. It is said that the peasants of Scandinavia, who eat much 
hard black bread, have fine teeth. Explain. 
9. Name several means of keeping the mouth and the teeth 
clean. 
10. What kind of toothbrush is best? 
11. Describe the correct use of the toothbrush. 
12. How often should the toothbrush be used? 
13. A little girl in the slums of a big city said that her father 
had a toothbrush, but that she didn't like to use it. Was she 
right or wrong? Explain. 
14. Most large public school systems require an examination 
of the teeth of all school children. They also provide dental 
clinics where the necessary work on teeth is done at a nominal 
price. Why is this considered necessary? 
15. Why should crooked teeth be straightened? 
16. How often should teeth be examined by the dentist? CHAPTER VII 
HYGIENE OF FOODS 
Fig. 31.-A wheat field in the Middle West, one of the places where the 
energy of the sunlight is changed into food for us. 
Where Our Foods Come From.-We eat a great many 
different kinds of foods, which come to our tables from all 
over the world, and hundreds of different animals and 
plants contribute to our daily meals. It would be fasci- 
nating to trace the story of even a single breakfast. The 
orange perhaps grew in a grove on the sunny shores of 
Florida. The rice may have been cultivated in Texas. 
The cream you pour on it probably came from the milk of 
cows in your own state, and the sugar, from a tall plant 
in the cane fields of Louisiana. The bread was made 
73 74 
HEALTHY LIVING 
from wheat grown in the grain fields of the West; the 
butter may have been churned from the milk of a cow 
in Wisconsin; and the eggs were laid perhaps by hens in 
Kansas. 
In other parts of the world men eat things that seem very 
strange to us, and some people thrive on what appears to 
be a very limited menu. The Chinaman eats rats and soup 
made of a sticky bird's nest. The French epicure enjoys 
dishes prepared from frogs and snails. The East Indian 
makes rice the greater part of his diet, while the Eskimo 
eats great quantities of fat and whale oil. Yet they turn 
all these curious things into good human muscle and nerve 
and other tissue. 
The Principal Kinds of Foods.-Different as these various 
foods are in appearance, texture, and flavor, they are in 
reality made up of only a few kinds of substances, which 
are so important that every one should know about 
them. They are water, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and 
salts. 
Almost all foods contain a certain amount of water, 
though they may seem quite dry and hard. It is not sur- 
prising to know that milk is 85 per cent or more water, and 
an orange 65 per cent water; but it hardly seems possible 
that in a piece of beefsteak 60 to 70 per cent is water, and in 
a slice of bread 35 per cent, and that the body itself is about 
70 per cent water. Water is constantly being given off from 
the lungs, the skin, and the kidneys. In order to make 
good this loss, we ought to drink about three pints, or six 
glasses, of water a day, besides the water we get in our foods. 
Proteins are the food substances which are most abun- 
dant in meats and animal foods. Peas, beans, and certain 
other plant foods also contain a good deal of protein. HYGIENE OF FOODS 
75 
The white of egg (egg albumin) is a good example of such a 
food, being made up almost entirely of protein and water; 
and lean beef contains little but these two substances. 
Fig. 32.-What milk is made of. The bottles show the actual 
amounts of the various substances in a quart of milk; they are 
(from left to right) water, sugar, fat, protein, and ash. 
Carbohydrates (kar' bo hi' drats), on the other hand, oc- 
cur most abundantly in plant foods, such as potatoes and 
cereals. Boiled potatoes are 20 per cent carbohydrate, and 
good bread over 50 per cent. Starch and sugar are the two 
commonest kinds of carbohydrate in our foods. 
Fats are found in largest amounts in animal foods. We 
can often see the fat in various cuts of meat. Eggs contain 
about 10 per cent of fat, and milk about 4 per cent. 76 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Our foods also contain salts or minerals of many kinds, 
not only the kind of salt that comes to the table in the salt 
shaker, but other mineral substances like it. These salts 
are present only in very small amounts, but the body needs 
a dozen or more different kinds in order to keep healthy. 
Lime, for instance, is essential to the building up of the 
skeleton, and iron and other salts are necessary for other 
tissues of the body. 
People who live on a restricted diet of only a few kinds of 
foods, particularly cooked foods, may not thrive, even though 
they have plenty of all the five food elements described 
above. This has led to the theory that there are pecu- 
liar substances, called vitamins (vl ta-meens), in certain 
foods, which are necessary to the body. In order to supply 
these elements, the diet should always contain a moderate 
amount of uncooked foods, such as raw fruits, lettuce, and 
tomatoes. Fruits and vegetables are important articles of 
diet for another reason: because the alkaline products 
formed from them in digestion neutralize the acid products 
formed in the digestion of meats, which are harmful to the 
body when present in excess. 
Classification of Common Foods.-The Life Extension 
Institute Manual on How to Live (by Professor Irving 
Fisher and Dr. E. L. Fisk) gives the following table of some 
common foods classified in regard to their richness in protein 
and fat. The foods in the lower left-hand corner of the 
table, which are poor in both protein and fat, are the richest 
in carbohydrate. HYGIENE OF FOODS 
77 
Common Foods Classified 
Poor in Fat 
Rich in Fat 
Very Rich in 
Fat 
Very high 
in 
Protein 
White of eggs 
Codfish 
Lean beef 
Chicken 
Veal 
High 
in 
Protein 
Shellfish 
Skim milk 
Lentils 
Peas 
Beans 
Most fish 
Most meats 
Most fowl 
Whole egg 
Cheese 
Moderate 
or 
Deficient 
in 
Protein 
Most vegetables 
Bread 
Potatoes 
Fruits 
Sugar 
Peanuts 
Milk 
Cream soups 
Most pies 
Doughnuts 
Fat meats 
Yolk of eggs 
Most nuts 
Cream 
Butter 
The Values of Food Substances.-As we have already 
learned, we need foods for at least two general purposes: 
to build up new body tissue to replace that which is con- 
stantly wasting away, and to supply the energy for the 
various activities of life. The protein foods, especially, 
supply the first need-the building up and repair of body 
tissue. Proteins may also furnish energy, but the chief 
energy-producing foods are the carbohydrates and fats. 
A general idea of the energy value of various kinds of 
food may be obtained by driving off the water they contain 
(as by drying for a long time in the sun) and then burning 
them. Heat is a form of energy, and whatever burns has 
energy, or the power of producing heat. Butter and sugar 
burn in a hot fire even without previous drying. Bread and 78 
HEALTHY LIVING 
meat burn freely after the water has been dried out. On 
the other hand, vegetables, such as cauliflower or spinach, 
and fruits dry almost to nothing and burn very feebly. If 
salt is put on the top of the stove, it does not burn at all, 
for salt contains no energy, although salts are necessary 
Fig. 33.-Portions of different foods each yielding approximately 100 
calories of heat energy. They include: an ordinary serving of beans, 3 
large lumps of sugar, 1 large banana, 11 double peanuts, 1 large egg, 1 
potato, 1 chop, 2 slices of bread, 1 orange, 2 apples, | of a glass of 
milk, 1 pat of butter, and an average serving of oatmeal. 
for the upbuilding and the healthy working of the 
body. 
The energy value of food is measured in units called 
calories, just as flour is measured in pounds. One calorie 
of heat energy would warm one kilogram (about two pints) 
of water one degree Centigrade. One large egg, two me- 
dium slices of white bread, an ordinary portion of butter, or 
one large banana, each contains about 100 calories of food 
energy. To keep the body in good condition, the average HYGIENE OF FOODS 
79 
grown person needs 2500 calories a day-or somewhat 
more, if he has much muscular work to do. 
There is a great difference in the amount of energy that 
can be obtained from different kinds of food at the same 
cost. For instance, 100 calories in the form of an egg cost 
ten times as much as 100 calories in the form of flour. It 
is important that people who buy food, and those who pay 
for it, should know something about the energy value of 
different foods, in order that they may get the greatest 
value for the money spent. The relative amount of energy 
value to be obtained for ten cents in buying some com- 
mon foods is shown in Fig. 34 and in the Appendix on page 
391. Actual prices are much higher today, but the relative 
values of different foods remain much as indicated. 
How These Facts were Discovered.-One way of finding 
out the food needs of the body is to study the diet that peo- 
ple select and thrive on, when they can choose the foods 
they want. A more exact way is to keep people or animals 
in a carefully built, tight room, called a calorimeter cham- 
ber. The heat given off from their bodies to the air and the 
walls is measured; the air, which goes in and out through 
special pipes, is measured and analyzed; the food eaten is 
measured and analyzed; and so are all the excretions or 
discharges from the body. In this way it is possible to meas- 
ure exactly the calories of energy which the body takes in 
as food and the calories which it gives off in heat and in 
work done. This sort of study of the food needs of the 
body was begun in Munich by a pioneer German physiol- 
ogist, von Pettenkofer, and is carried on in many labora- 
tories all over the world to-day. 
Importance of Variety in Foods.-It must be remembered 
that the energy value of food is not the only thing to be 80 
HEALTHY LIVING 
FOOD MATERIALS 
Price 
per 
pound 
Ten 
cents 
will 
buy 
Pounds of nutrients and calories of fuel value 
in 10 cents worth. 
Cents 
Lb. 
1 lb. 2 lb. 3 lb. 
2000 Cal. 4000 Cal. 6000 Cal. 
Beef, round 
14 
.71 
■ 
Beef, sirloin 
20 
.50 
■ 
Beef, shoulder 
12 
.83 
■■■ 
Mutton, leg 
16. 
.63 
■ 
Pork, loin 
12 
.83 
Pork, salt, fat 
12 
.83 
Ham, smoked 
18 
.56 
Codfish, fresh, dressed 
10 
1.00 
1 
Codfish, salted 
7 
1.43 
Oysters,35 cents quart 
IS 
.56 
Milk, 6 cents quart 
3 
3.33 
Butter 
25 
.40 
Cheese 
16 
.63 
Eggs, 24 cents dozen 
16 
.63 
1 
Wheat bread 
5 
2.00 
Wheat flour 
3 
3.33 
Corn meal 
254 
4.00 
" 
Oat meal 
4 
2.50 
_ 
Beans, white, dried 
5 
2.00 
no- 
Rice 
8 
ooboo 
Potatoes,60 cents bushel 
1 
10.00 
oooo ' 
Sugar 
6 
1.67 
Fig. 34.-Food value and composition of some common foods. U. S. Dept, 
of Agriculture, 1916. (Actual prices now much higher. See note on 
page 81.) 
considered. As far as energy alone is concerned, we might 
obtain our 2500 calories a day by eating about twenty 
ounces of the white of egg or twenty ounces of sugar or ten HYGIENE OF FOODS 
81 
ounces of butter. If this were all that were necessary, we 
could live entirely on such a simple cheap food as bread. 
Our instincts teach us, however, to eat foods of different 
kinds, and there is good reason for this. 
Certain native peoples in the Philippine Islands and in 
Japan live largely on rice, which gives plenty of energy but 
lacks certain important food substances. These people 
suffer from a peculiar disease called beri beri, which is 
quickly cured by changing their diet. The sickness called 
pellagra, which occurs in our Southern states, seems to be 
closely connected with a diet poor in protein. In olden 
times, sailors on long voyages used to have a disease called 
scurvy, which we now know was due simply to the fact 
that they were fed on salted and cured meats, with no fresh 
fruits or vegetables. They were starved for one kind of 
food, though they had enough, and too much, of other 
kinds. Fruit juices supply the substances needed and 
quickly clear up any symptoms of scurvy that follow such 
a one-sided diet. Experience teaches that in order to keep 
healthy we must have a considerable variety of foods which 
contain all the kinds of food substance the body needs, in 
the right proportions. 
Explanation of Fig. 34. The broad band opposite each food material 
indicates by its length the amount of nutrients (protein, fats, carbohydrates) 
which can be bought for ten cents. The three vertical lines at the top show 
the points on this scale which correspond to 1 lb., 2 lb., and 3 lb., respectively. 
The narrow, solid black band indicates in the same way the calories of 
fuel value obtained for ten cents. The three vertical lines at the top corre- 
spond to 2000, 4000, and 6000 calories, respectively, when considered in 
relation to the solid black band. 
For example, ten cents worth of fat salt pork furnishes about lb. of 
nutrients (mostly fat) and about 3000 calories of fuel value. Ten cents 
worth of fresh dressed codfish furnishes only about 1/8 lb. of nutrients and 
about 250 calories. Codfish is almost entirely protein. 82 
HEALTHY LIVING 
A Balanced Diet.-Those who are responsible for the 
feeding of large numbers of people, as in armies, or schools 
and colleges, and other institutions-make a scientific 
study of food values and work out regular diets which com- 
bine foods in the right amounts and proportions. Such a 
diet is known as a balanced diet, because in it the various 
food substances are so combined that they balance one 
another properly. 
A good example of a balanced diet reduced to small pro- 
portions for easy transportation is the standard daily field 
ration of a soldier in the United States army. It contains 12 
ounces of bacon, 18 ounces of bread, 2.4 ounces of beans, 20 
ounces of potatoes, 1.28 ounces of prunes or preserves, 1.12 
ounces of coffee, 3.2 ounces of sugar, 5 ounces of evaporated 
milk, .16 gills of vinegar, .64 ounces of salt, .04 ounces of 
black pepper, .64 ounces of lard, and .5 ounces of butter. 
Protein is supplied by the bacon, beans, and milk, and in 
small part by the bread; carbohydrate by the bread, pota- 
toes, sugar, milk, and beans; fat by the bacon, milk, lard, 
and butter. The prunes and preserves help to supply salts 
and "balance" the ration. 
In planning our own meals, it is important to secure a 
properly balanced diet. The bulk of the diet should be 
made up of milk and grain products, such as bread and 
cereals. Vegetables and fruits should be eaten freely. Meat, 
fish, and eggs should form a part of the diet but should be 
used in moderate amounts. On page 397 you will find a 
plan for a well-balanced diet. 
Excesses of Diet.-It is probably more common for 
people to be made ill by too much of certain kinds of food 
than by too little. You have perhaps had some experience 
of your own which has taught you how ill one may be made HYGIENE OF FOODS 
83 
by eating too much candy or green apples or some other 
unripe, indigestible fruit. 
Many grown people become more or less ill because of 
overeating, though they may not have a pain, like the boy 
who eats green apples. They overload their digestive 
systems and do not know what the matter is when they feel 
heavy and dull and cross. In such a case, the whole body 
may be poisoned by the decay of the excess of food in the 
intestines and by the absorption of poisons formed by the 
bacteria which are decomposing it. 
An excess of protein food is particularly unhealthful, and 
many people suffer from eating too much meat. Protein 
should make up about 15 per cent of the calories in the 
diet. 
There are two good rules to remember in connection with 
this question. One is that meat should generally be eaten 
only once a day. The other is a more complicated rule 
suggested by Professor H. C. Sherman of Columbia Uni- 
versity, that an ordinary family should spend about as 
much for milk, vegetables, and fruits as for meat, fish, and 
eggs. Talk this rule over with your family at home. 
Fads in Diet.-A great many people get in the habit of 
thinking they can eat only certain things, and that other 
foods "disagree" with them. Sometimes this is true, but 
often the fear of certain foods is only prejudice. Sometimes 
people have an idea that they should live on nuts or fruits 
or breakfast foods or some other special food. The ordinary 
healthy person thrives best with foods of different kinds. 
If you wish to cultivate habits of eating which will keep 
you healthy, you should learn to eat slo-wly and to like all 
wholesome kinds of vegetables and fruits, bread, butter, 
cereals, and the like. 84 
HEALTHY LIVING 
When to Limit the Diet.-In hot weather the digestive 
system does not do its work so readily as at other times, 
and the body does not need so much energy as when it has 
to produce a great deal of heat. It is always a good plan, 
therefore, to eat lightly in warm weather. 
In illness, too, it is generally well to limit the diet. After 
a long illness, the body may need a good deal of especially 
strengthening food. At the beginning of an illness, however, 
particularly when there is fever or disturbance of the di- 
gestion, the food should often be cut down. Loose move- 
ments of the bowels, in particular, mean that little or no 
food should be taken for a time. Skipping a meal is often 
better than medicine in such a case. 
Pure Food.-The city, state, and national governments 
are doing many things to prevent fraud in foods of all kinds 
and to make sure that only pure food is sold. The national 
Pure Food Law, which was passed in 1906, requires that 
foods and drugs shall not be adulterated and forbids any 
false statements on the labels. It is very important that 
this law should be enforced, so that people may know just 
what they are buying and may not be cheated into paying 
high prices for foods that are mixed with cheaper or less 
desirable substances. 
Clean Food.-It is even more important that food should 
be clean than that it should be pure. Most of the common 
adulterants of food lower its quality or its food value but 
do not make it poisonous. If, however, food has been 
handled by a person with dirty hands, or if flies have crawled 
over it, it may have become infected with disease germs so 
as to be poisonous to people who eat it. Not long ago 
ninety-three people who had attended a church supper in 
California were taken ill with typhoid fever, because one HYGIENE OF FOODS 
85 
of the women who cooked the supper was infected with 
this disease. Every person should make it a rule never to 
handle food, or to eat, without thoroughly washing the 
hands; and all food should be carefully covered and pro- 
tected from flies and dust. 
The Decay of Foods.-Another danger to be considered 
Fig- 35--The Laboratory of the United States Bureau of Chemistry, where 
goods and drugs are analyzed to see that they conform to the Pure 
Food Law. 
in connection with foods is spoiling or decay. The 
spoiling of food is always due to germs growing in it. 
In milk, for example, there are always a few germs; they 
grow very fast if the milk is in a warm place, and 
soon spoil or sour it. Sometimes in this spoiling, poisons 
are formed which make people very ill. All perishable 
food should be kept cool, so as to check the growth 
of germs; and one should be very careful not to eat 86 
HEALTHY LIVING 
food, particularly fish or meat, that does not smell 
sweet. 
Cooked and Uncooked Foods.-Some foods, such as 
fruits, are eaten raw, and we always need some raw foods 
in our diet. Most of our foods, however, are cooked, and 
for good reasons. 
In the first place, many foods would be hard to digest 
without cooking. Starchy foods, like oatmeal or bread or 
potatoes, are highly indigestible unless the little grains of 
starch have been broken up by thorough cooking. In the 
second place, the high temperature used in most processes of 
cookery kills disease germs, and so makes safe many foods 
that would otherwise be dangerous. Cooking also makes 
food pleasant to the taste and thus aids in its digestion. 
Methods of Cooking.-Cooking is an art of great im- 
portance, and girls in particular should take every opportu- 
nity of learning how foods may be prepared so as to be 
healthful and appetizing. 
There are four principal methods of cooking: boiling, 
baking, broiling, and frying. In boiling, the food is cooked 
in water. In baking or roasting, it is cooked in hot air- 
in an oven or over a hot fire, but not in the flame. In broil- 
ing, the food is cooked directly over the fire itself; and in 
frying, it is cooked in a pan of hot fat. 
Boiling is a cheap and easy method of cooking. It 
must be remembered, however, that in boiling much of 
the "goodness" of the food wall escape into the water. 
This is, of course, desirable in the case of soups, but it 
is a wasteful method when we do not eat the liquid in 
which the food is boiled. If it is desired that the food sub- 
stances should be extracted, as in making soup from meat, 
the food should be put on the stove to boil in cold water. HYGIENE OF FOODS 
87 
Otherwise, it should be placed at once in boiling water, 
which has the effect of searing over the surface and keeping 
Fig. 36.-Good cooking makes food more digestible, more 
healthful, and more palatable. 
in much of the strength. One of the advantages of roasting 
and broiling over a hot fire is that the extreme heat forms 
a crust which keeps in the juices. 
Frying is one of the least desirable methods of cooking, 88 
HEALTHY LIVING 
because fried foods are likely to be soaked with fat, which 
makes them hard to digest. To obtain the best re- 
sults in frying, a large quantity of very hot fat should be 
used. This forms a crust over the food which keeps much 
of the fat out of it. 
A very important aid to the housewife is the fireless 
cooker, which consists of a metal pail inclosed in a box, 
with an air space between the pail and the inner surface of 
the box. This air space is partially filled with paper or 
similar material. Food is heated thoroughly before it is 
put into the cooker. Often a hot stone is placed in the 
bottom of the pail before the food is put in. The covers 
of the pail and the box are closed tightly to prevent, as far 
as possible, the escape of heat. The food is then allowed to 
cook very slowly under the influence of the heat already con- 
tained in it and that contributed by the stone. This device 
saves time and expense for fuel, and keeps much of the food 
value and flavor that are lost in other methods of cooking. 
Diet Accessories and Stimulants.-Besides the various 
foods that are necessary for the body, people take many 
things with their meals, or between their meals, which are 
not needed at all as fuel or building materials, but which are 
eaten or drunk because of their pleasant taste or because 
of some stimulating effect on the body. Some of these, 
like soda water and lemonade, are harmless and pleasant 
when taken in moderation. Drinking soda water or other 
beverages too often between meals, however, may lessen 
the appetite for wholesome food and finally do harm. 
Tea and coffee are food accessories that are in very gen- 
eral use. Both of them contain tannic acid-a substance 
which, when used in excess, may be injurious to the mucous 
membrane of the stomach-and caffeine and other stim- HYGIENE OF FOODS 
89 
ulants which act upon the heart and nervous system. There 
is a great difference in the effect of these drinks upon dif- 
ferent individuals, and some people cannot take them at 
all. They should never be used by children. The word 
stimulant comes from the Latin name for an ox whip; and 
whipping up the body to do things is always dangerous. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. What different parts of the world supplied your dinner 
yesterday? 
2. Compare the diet of a Mexican and an Eskimo. Why are 
they so widely different? 
3. Name the principal substances of which our food is com- 
posed. 
4. Name three foods in which each of these food substances 
is found. 
5. What percentage of the human body is water? 
6. Why is it well for us to eat a certain amount of uncooked 
fruit and vegetables? 
7. What is the chief value of protein? 
8. What are the greatest energy-producing foods? 
9. What do we mean by a calorie? 
10. What is the right calorie-value of food for the average man 
per day? 
11. Why does a boy of ten need more food than his mother, 
who is perhaps twice as large? 
12. Why does a man who shovels coal need more food than a 
man who takes tickets? 
13. Criticize the following menus: 
I. Macaroni with tomatoes and cheese 
Baked potatoes 
White bread and butter 
Grapefruit salad, with crackers 
Rice pudding 
II. Cream of celery soup 
Roast pork, fried potatoes 
Peanut butter and banana salad 
Doughnuts 
Hot chocolate 90 
HEALTHY LIVING 
III. Clear beef soup 
Codfish 
Chicken 
Peas 
Beans 
Hard boiled egg salad, with cheese 
Baked meringue (white of egg) 
14. Make a list of the different foods you ate at one particular 
meal, and after each food write its chief nutritive value. Can 
you suggest any improvements in this menu, as regards health? 
15. Why is it well to eat a variety of foods? 
16. John was pale, undersized, and weak. The doctor said 
that he was undernourished. Suggest several possible causes. 
17. What is meant by a balanced diet? 
18. What becomes of the excess, if we eat more food than we 
can digest? 
19. Make a set of rules about healthful eating. 
20. Under what conditions should we use less food than 
ordinarily? 
21. What does the United States Government do for the pro- 
tection of foods? 
22. Why is a refrigerator or spring-house a necessary part of 
every household? 
23. What are some of the advantages gained by cooking foods? 
24. Give an example of each of the four principal methods of 
cooking. 
25. Which are more easily digested-baked or fried potatoes? 
26. Why should doughnuts or crullers be fried in very hot, 
deep fat? 
27. Should we drink water with our meals? Give your reason 
for your opinion. 
28. What effect does the drinking of tea and coffee have upon 
the human body? Compare the effects of these beverages on 
grown people and on children. 
29. What is the best beverage for boys and girls? CHAPTER VIII 
ALCOHOL AND HABIT-FORMING DRUGS 
The Effect of Drugs upon the Body.-Any ordinary food 
taken into the body has a chemical effect upon the blood 
and other tissues. It may influence the activity of the 
body itself, causing the action of some organ to start or 
stop in response to the effect of the food. We have seen 
that even the odor of food may cause the flow of saliva. 
Such effects of food are merely a part of the ordinary 
healthy working of the body. There are other chemical 
substances, not found in ordinary foods, which have special 
and more powerful effects on certain organs. Such sub- 
stances are called drugs. There are, for instance, certain 
drugs which can be given to people who do not sleep well, 
to quiet their nerves. There are drugs which can be used 
to give people an appetite when they are not normally 
hungry. There are drugs which can be used to stimulate 
a heart that is weak and not doing its work well. All such 
medicines are likely to be exceedingly dangerous, and they 
should never be used except under the direction of a physi- 
cian. 
In particular, the various kinds of patent medicines of 
secret composition should be avoided. Some of them are 
drugs that are useful when prescribed by a physician; but 
many of them contain powerful poisons, and it is foolish 
to put into the body, which is properly understood by no 
one but a physician, a drug of unknown nature that may 
do deadly damage to some of the delicate tissues. 
91 92 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Habit-forming Drugs.-One of the special dangers about 
certain of these drugs is that they are habit-forming. This 
means that the person who uses them grows, step by step, to 
depend on them and constantly wants more and more. 
The body is gradually poisoned by the drug; yet the un- 
happy victim craves it and sometimes cannot give up the 
habit, and with health and character broken finally dies as a 
result. The harm done by such substances as-opium, mor- 
phine, and cocaine is so serious that their sale is now strictly 
controlled by law. People are not allowed to get these drugs 
except on a physician's prescription, and careful records of 
all their sales must be kept by the druggists. Unfortunately, 
however, the law does not cover certain patent medicines 
which contain small proportions of habit-forming drugs. 
Alcohol.-There is one drug which has been very gen- 
erally used in the past, chiefly because it is only within 
recent years that its harmfulness has been fully appreciated. 
This is alcohol, the active substance of whiskey, beer, wine, 
and other similar drinks. 
It has, of course, always been known that people who use 
alcohol to great excess are physically and mentally and 
morally injured, and it has also been known that with many 
people the craving for more and more alcohol grows, some- 
what as it does with the users of habit-forming drugs. The 
fact that has been realized only recently is the harm that 
may result from its use even in comparatively moderate 
doses. 
How Alcoholic Drinks are Made.-The weaker alcoholic 
drinks, such as beer, are made by letting a microscopic 
plant, the yeast microbe, act on sugary substances. If you 
add a little of the yeast cake used for bread making to a 
solution of sugar and water, and keep it in a warm place, ALCOHOL AND HABIT-FORMING DRUGS 
93 
the microbes in the yeast cake will change the sugar to 
carbon dioxide, which you can see rising as bubbles, and 
to alcohol, which will be in the liquid though you cannot 
see it. Such a process is called fermentation. In bread 
making, we use the yeast 
to make bubbles of car- 
bon dioxide, which lighten 
the bread. In brewing 
beer and other liquors, 
it is used primarily to 
make alcohol; ales and 
certain wines are pre- 
pared in a similar way. 
The stronger alcoholic 
liquors-such as whiskey, 
brandy, rum, gin, and 
some of the wines-are 
made from weaker fermented liquors by a process of dis- 
tillation. The alcohol, which boils at a lower temperature 
than water, is driven off by heat into pipes, where it is 
cooled and collected again. 
Alcohol as a Food.-There has been a great deal of dis- 
cussion as to whether alcohol is a food or a poison. It is 
both-a very poor food and a powerful poison. Anything 
that combines with oxygen so as to yield energy in the body 
may be technically called a food, and in this sense alcohol 
is a food. On the other hand, it contains no nitrogen and 
so cannot serve as a tissue builder, as proteins do; and its 
energy value is very low. Even the weaker alcoholic drinks, 
such as beer, which contain other food substances, would be 
exceedingly costly sources of food energy, nearly twice as 
expensive as sirloin steak. 
Fig. 37.-The yeast plant as it appears 
under the microscope. 94 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Even if alcohol were a good food and a cheap food, any 
value of this kind which it might have would be far more 
than balanced by its special poisonous effects, and it is by 
these effects that alcohol must be judged. 
The Effect of Alcohol on the Digestive System.-Alcohol 
produces serious effects upon many organs of the body, par- 
ticularly the brain and the nerves. These effects will be de- 
scribed in later chapters, but something should be said here 
of the harm done to the digestion and to the general health 
of the body as a whole. 
Strong alcoholic drinks, like whiskey, contain so much 
poison that even in the throat they smart and sting. The 
delicate walls of the stomach may be irritated by such 
strong drinks so that chronic indigestion results. 
More important than these external effects of alcohol are 
the internal ones. The liver suffers particularly, its tissues 
gradually becoming hard and dead under the action of the 
poison. 
The use of alcoholic drinks before or with meals increases 
the appetite unnaturally and thus leads to overeating, 
which, in combination with the alcohol itself, puts a double 
strain upon the body and contributes in a high degree to 
many serious diseases. 
General Effects of Alcohol on Health.-Every one knows 
that large doses of whiskey or beer poison the man who is so 
foolish as to take them. He loses control, first of his judg- 
ment, then of his muscles, and finally of his senses. What 
many people do not understand is that small amounts of these 
liquors taken over a long period of time may produce just as 
serious, though less obvious, results. Many of the organs 
of the body are slowly poisoned by such use of liquor, though 
no one but the doctor realizes the damage that is being done. ALCOHOL AND HABIT-FORMING DRUGS 
95 
Dr. C. R. Stockard, an investigator in New York, has 
allowed animals to inhale the fumes of alcohol and has stud- 
ied the effect upon their offspring. He finds that for sev- 
eral generations the descendants from such poisoned ani- 
mals are defective and diseased-a fact of the greatest 
importance in estimating the influence of alcohol as a race 
poison, and one which could have been discovered only by 
painstaking experiments of this kind. 
Insurance Companies and Their Studies of the Death 
Rate.-It is very important for life insurance companies 
to know how people's habits affect their health and chances 
of living a long time. The person who is insured pays a 
certain premium to the company each year while he lives, 
and when he dies the company pays the family the amount 
of insurance. The rates of premiums to be paid every year 
are fixed by the general experience of the past, which shows 
how long people will live on the average. Now if a particu- 
lar group of people are likely to be short-lived, the insurance 
companies cannot afford to insure them without charging 
a higher premium than usual. 
In order to find out whether the use of alcoholic drinks 
shortens people's lives and makes them bad subjects for 
insurance, many companies, both in the United States and 
in Europe, have studied very carefully the length of life of 
people who use alcohol as compared with those who do not; 
and the results of these studies are most significant. 
English and Scottish Statistics.-The statistics collected 
by the United Kingdom Temperance and General Provident 
Institution of London showed that the death rate among 
those who used alcoholic liquors was 38 per cent higher than 
among abstainers. The Sceptre Life Association of London 
found the death rate among non-abstainers 52 per cent 96 
HEALTHY LIVING 
higher than among abstainers, and the Scottish Temperance 
Life Assurance Company of Glasgow found it 43 per cent 
higher. 
American Statistics.-An even more important study 
has recently been made in the United States by forty- 
three American life insurance companies, who studied their 
statistics from a great many points of view. The most 
important conclusions which they reached were that the 
death rate of those who use alcohol steadily and freely is 
86 per cent above the normal, while the rate among steady 
Normal 
Using Alcohol 
Moderately 
Using Alcohol 
Steadily and Freely 
Fig. 38.-Alcohol and the death rate. The lengths of the bars show the 
relative death rates among users of alcohol compared with the normal 
rate. From American life insurance statistics. 
moderate drinkers (persons taking the equivalent of two 
glasses of beer or one glass of whiskey a day) is 18 per cent 
above the normal. (Note the relative length of the three 
bands in Fig. 38 above.) 
Mr. Arthur Hunter of the New York Life Insurance 
Company says of these figures: "The relatively low mortal- 
ity among abstainers is not due solely, in my judgment, to 
abstinence from alcohol. Other factors, such as abstinence 
from tobacco, are involved. It requires self-control to be 
an abstainer, and the strength of mind which has made 
abstinence a habit may affect other habits, such as eating, in 
which there should be both moderation and discrimination. 
The low mortality among abstainers may be said to be due to 
temperance in all things and total abstinence from alcohol." ALCOHOL AND HABIT-FORMING DRUGS 
97 
Summarizing his recent studies of the whole field of 
American insurance statistics, Mr. Hunter says: "The 
opinions of the medical directors show that the life insurance 
companies look with disfavor on applications from persons 
who drink freely, although not to the point of intoxication, 
and on those who have taken alcoholic beverages to excess 
in the past but are temperate now. The statistics prove 
conclusively that this attitude of mind is based on facts, 
and that a higher mortality must be expected in these types 
of users of alcoholic beverages. On the other hand, it is 
conclusively proved that total abstainers are longer-lived 
than non-abstainers, even excluding from the latter those 
who drank immoderately at the date of application for in- 
surance or prior to that time. The experience of the seven 
American life insurance companies has proved that ab- 
stainers have from io per cent to 30 per cent lower mortality 
than non-abstainers; and there is no good reason for believ- 
ing that if the other companies compiled their statistics, 
there would be any different result, provided the companies 
exercised the same care in accepting abstainers and non- 
abstainers. The American statistics, now published, cor- 
roborate the British data in indicating the unfavorable effect 
of alcohol on longevity, and in showing that total absti- 
nence decidedly increases longevity." 
Alcohol as a Public Health Problem.-In view of these 
facts, it is clear that any one who is interested in making 
human life longer and happier must be seriously concerned 
about the problem of alcohol. Many of the progressive 
Boards of Health have long been making efforts to educate 
the public as to the dangers of alcoholic drinks, warning 
people against alcohol as they do against the germ of tuber- 
culosis or any other enemy of the race. A bulletin of the 98 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Department of Health of New York City savs, "The dis- 
continuance of the use of alcohol will mark a greater ad- 
vance in public health protection than anything since the 
application of our knowledge of the bacterial origin of 
disease." The New York State Department of Health 
on one of its educational charts has the sentence, "Alcohol 
causes more misery, sickness, inefficiency, and death than any 
other single cause,"-a strong statement, but one which we 
must heed when it comes from an official and scientific body 
whose sole interest is the preservation of the public health. 
Dr. Henry Smith Williams' summary of the harm done 
by alcohol, in his book on Alcohol, How It A ffects the Indi- 
vidual, the Community, and the Race, has often been quoted 
and may well be quoted once more. "I am bound to 
believe, on the evidence," he says, "that if you take 
alcohol habitually in any quantity whatever, it is to some 
extent a menace to you. I am bound to believe, in the 
light of what science has revealed: 
" (i) that you are threatening the physical structure of 
your stomach, your liver, your kidneys, your heart, your 
blood vessels, your nerves, your brain; 
" (2) that you are unquestionably lessening your power 
to work in any field, be it physical, intellectual, or artistic; 
" (3) that you are in some measure lowering the grade of 
your mind, dulling your higher sense, and taking the edge 
off your morals; 
" (4) that you are distinctly lessening your chances of 
maintaining your health and of living to old age." 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. Explain the difference between foods and drugs. 
2. What drug has caused much trouble in China? ALCOHOL AND HABIT-FORMING DRUGS 
99 
3. What is meant by a habit-forming drug? 
4. Why are patent medicines dangerous? 
5. In history and in stories, we read of the vast amount of 
drinking which was formerly considered a proof of manhood. 
Why do we to-day consider alcoholic liquor a dangerous thing, 
and teach people to avoid it? 
6. Compare the part played by yeast in brewing and in 
baking. 
7. Is alcohol a food or a poison? Explain. 
8. What organ of the digestive apparatus is especially af- 
fected by alcohol? 
9. What difference does it make to insurance - companies 
whether a man drinks or not? 
10. What conclusions have been drawn from a study of the 
death rates of abstainers and non-abstainers? 
11. If the last four statements of the chapter are true, is the 
pleasure that may be had from drinking worth the price? 
12. Statistics show that more crimes are due to alcohol than 
to any other cause. Explain. CHAPTER IX 
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 
Our Need of Oxygen.-We hardly ever think of the at- 
mosphere about us, except when the wind sets it in motion. 
Yet the air is a very real substance, as you can feel when you 
press on a paper bag which has been blown up full of it. This 
"atmospheric ocean forty-five miles in depth, surrounding 
our planet, and whirling with it as it whirls around the sun," 
is made up of two gases, nitrogen and oxygen-about one- 
fifth oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen, with small traces of 
other gases. 
All living things need oxygen to make life possible, and 
animals and human beings get their necessary oxygen from 
the air by the process of breathing. This is why respiration 
is a sign of life. If a person is seriously injured and uncon- 
scious, our first impulse is to see whether he is still breathing. 
Oxygen and the body tissues act upon each other so that 
each is changed in certain ways; we say that the oxygen 
reacts with the body tissues. This process is called oxida- 
tion. Oxidation in the body has been compared, in Chap- 
ter I, to the process that goes on in the fire box of a furnace 
when the oxygen in the draft of air reacts with the fuel to 
produce heat energy. In somewhat the same way, although 
by a longer and more complicated process, breathing fur- 
nishes oxygen to react with the body material and to pro- 
duce life energy. 
The Objects of Respiration.-Sometimes when the fire in 
a furnace or a stove burns badly, you can smell some of the 
100 THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 
101 
gases formed by the reaction between the fuel and the oxy- 
gen. When the fire burns well, however, the chief thing 
given off is the gas carbon dioxide, which has no smell. The 
Fig. 39.-When a diver goes down to work under 
water, he must be provided with air to breathe; 
it is supplied through a special form of helmet. 
same gas is formed by the oxidations within the body, and 
in order to keep the human machine at work, the lungs must 
obtain a new supply of oxygen and get rid of the carbon 
dioxide formed in the tissues. This double process is the 
object of respiration. 
The effect of the exchange of gases in the lungs is indicated HEALTHY LIVING 
102 
by the fact that while the air inhaled is 21 per cent oxygen 
and only .03 per cent carbon dioxide, the air exhaled is only 
16 per cent oxygen and 4 per cent carbon dioxide. It is 
easy to show the presence of carbon dioxide in the breath 
by breathing through a glass tube into limewater; a peculiar 
Fig. 40.-The upper part of the respiratory tract. 
milkiness will appear as a result of a reaction between the 
lime and the carbon dioxide. 
The Air Passages and the Lungs.-When you breathe 
properly, through the nose, the air goes through the nasal 
passages into the back of the throat, for the nose at the 
back opens into the throat. From the throat the air passes, 
by way of the larynx, into a tube called the trachea or wind- 
pipe (see Figs. 40 and 41), which opens out of the front of 
the throat just below the mouth. The opening from the 
throat to the windpipe is closed by a little door, the epiglottis. THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 
103 
If a particle of food gets by this door and into the windpipe, 
violent coughing follows, in the effort to dislodge it. 
The trachea branches at its lower end into two smaller 
tubes, the bronchi, each of which in turn opens into one of 
the lungs. The lungs 
are large sacs or 
pouches which he one 
on each side of the 
chest. As the bronchi 
enter the lungs, they 
branch and subdivide 
again and again, and 
each branch finally 
ends in a tiny sac. 
There are about 
725,000,000 of these 
little sacs in the lungs, 
and if their surfaces 
could all be spread out 
side by side they would 
cover 2150 square feet. 
When we take a deep 
breath, each of these 
sacs fills with air and 
swells up like a toy 
balloon. 
In the walls of the small sacs are blood vessels, which are 
separated by a very thin wall from the air in the lungs. It 
is through this thin wall that oxygen passes from the air 
to the blood and, in exchange, carbon dioxide passes from 
the blood to the air. 
The Mucous Membranes of the Nose and Throat.-It 
Fig. 41.-The air passages and the lungs. 
The lung on the left is cut in cross section 
to show the small air sacs. The lung on 
the right, with air sacs removed, shows the 
larger subdivisions of the bronchi. HEALTHY LIVING 
104 
has been pointed out in an earlier chapter that the walls of 
the digestive canal are lined with a peculiar soft moist tissue 
known as mucous membrane. The respiratory passages 
of the nose and throat are lined with the same kind of mem- 
brane. 
The tissue cells of this mucous membrane in most parts 
of the respiratory system are provided with tiny finger 
like cilia or lashes, which 
move back and forth, 
but much more quickly 
and strongly in one 
direction (toward the 
mouth and nose) than 
in the other. By this 
motion they sweep along 
any dust or dirt which 
has been inhaled and has clung to the moist mucous sur- 
faces, sending it toward the nose or throat, where we get 
rid of it. 
Ordinarily this sweeping action of the cilia keeps the 
mucous membranes free from harmful microbes. When 
such microbes settle down and grow on the respiratory 
surfaces, disease may follow. Colds and catarrh result 
when the nose and upper part of the respiratory system are 
affected, bronchitis when the germs are in the bronchial 
tubes, and pneumonia if the infection reaches the 
lungs. 
The Organs of Speech.-In the trachea, just below the 
point where it connects with the throat, is the larynx or 
voice box. Here many of the sounds of speech are made, by 
the vibration of two bands called the vocal cords, which 
work somewhat like the strings of a violin. When you talk, 
Fig. 42.-Cells of the mucous membrane 
with their cilia. THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 
105 
you can feel the larynx move if you place your fingers on 
your throat just under the chin, at the place where the air 
passes from the throat into the trachea. A man's voice is 
deeper than that of a child or a woman because his vocal 
cords are larger and longer and make a sound lower in 
pitch. At a certain period in the growth of a boy, his larynx 
suddenly grows very much larger and the vocal cords 
lengthen. We say his voice is "changing." Care should be 
taken not to strain the voice at this time, for it may be 
seriously harmed. 
We do not speak with our vocal cords alone. Many of 
the sounds are made with the help of the lips, teeth, and 
tongue. A pleasant voice is one of the most attractive 
gifts a person can have, and lips, tongue, and larynx can 
in large measure be trained to produce clear and beautiful 
speech. 
The Process of Breathing.-You have been breathing 
all your life, some 30,000 times every twenty-four hours, yet 
you have never had to think about it unless you have per- 
haps tried to "hold your breath" for a few seconds. It is 
interesting to know how the body brings about this wonder- 
ful rhythmic movement of the air. 
Across the bottom of the chest space stretches a sheet of 
muscle, called the diaphragm, which divides the inside of 
the trunk into an upper and a lower part. It is the upper 
part or thoracic cavity which contains the lungs. The walls 
of this cavity are supported by the ribs, which slope down- 
ward and forward to the breastbone (see Fig. 43). At the 
back they are attached to the backbone. When the muscles 
between the ribs contract, the breastbone and the front 
ends of the ribs are raised; and since they are hoop-shaped, 
the thoracic cavity becomes larger from side to side and 106 
HEALTHY LIVING 
back to front, as they rise. At the same time, the dome- 
shaped diaphragm also contracts (pulls downward) and tends 
to enlarge the central part of the thoracic cavity. All these 
muscles contract together regularly about twenty times a 
minute, making the chest 
space larger at each con- 
traction and smaller at 
each relaxation. 
Each time the chest 
space grows larger, the 
elastic walls of the lungs 
stretch so that the lungs 
fill the enlarged space. 
More air must, of course, 
be drawn into the lungs 
to fill them. This act 
of breathing in is called 
inspiration. 
At expiration (breath- 
ing out), the process is 
reversed. The chest 
space is made smaller 
because the ribs fall 
back into place, and the 
diaphragm rises. The chest space is thus compressed, and 
the elastic walls of the lungs are forced in, so as to drive out 
some of the air. 
This machinery is so wonderfully controlled by the inner 
adjustment of the body that it supplies just the amount 
of air the body needs. You know that when you run, 
you breathe hard and fast. As your muscles work harder, 
they need more oxygen and form more carbon dioxide, and 
Fig. 43.-Breathing movements of the ribs 
and diaphragm. THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 
107 
without any thought on your part your breathing apparatus 
adjusts itself accordingly. 
How to Breathe Well.-Though the inner machinery of 
the body takes care that we breathe so as to get the amount 
of oxygen the body needs, it does not follow that the lungs 
will keep healthy without care on our part. 
When a person slouches in walking, bends over a desk all 
day, or wears tight clothing that binds the ribs and the 
abdominal muscles, the chest cannot expand properly. 
Under such conditions, a person takes short breaths and 
does not get the air into the deeper parts of the lungs. The 
portions of the lungs near the bronchi do all the work, and 
the lower parts, lacking the necessary exercise, are likely 
to become diseased. This is one reason why clerks and 
telegraph operators, and other people who sit much of the 
time in a cramped position, frequently suffer from tuber- 
culosis. In order to have sound, healthy lungs, it is im- 
portant to form good breathing habits. In walking, stand- 
ing, and sitting, the head should be held high and the chest 
out. 
Every one pities a narrow-chested man or woman; but 
scarcely any boy or girl need grow up with a small chest, for 
it can easily be enlarged by proper position and exercise. 
You should breathe slowly and deeply; if this is not natural, 
practice for a little while every day till it becomes a habit. 
Always breathe through the nose and not through the 
mouth, because the nasal passages are made in such a way 
that they warm and moisten the air and strain out its im- 
purities as it is inhaled. Mouth breathing is a bad habit 
and should be overcome. If it cannot be corrected by a 
little thought and effort, there may be something wrong 
which needs medical care. 108 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Adenoids and Tonsils.-Sometimes mouth breathing and 
difficulty in breathing are due to growths in the throat, and 
it is important that this condition should be promptly 
remedied. 
Adenoids are finger-like, spongy growths which develop 
in the back of the throat where the nose opens into it 
(see Fig. 44). They 
often get so large as to 
obstruct the passage 
from the nose to the 
throat. Children with 
adenoids are generally 
mouth breathers and 
are apt to have narrow 
jaws and a peculiar 
strained expression (see 
Fig. 45). They are also 
likely to sleep badly 
and to wake up crying, 
and are often irritable 
and cross and backward 
in their school studies. 
Frequently they have 
trouble with their hear- 
ing, and they are likely to catch colds easily and to be 
slow in getting over them. 
The tonsils are roundish organs on each side of the throat 
(see Fig. 44). They often grow to be too large, or become 
diseased in some way. Bad tonsils are likely to become in- 
fected with bacteria and to lead to tonsilitis and other more 
serious diseases. 
It is important for good breathing and for general health 
Fig. 44.-Air passages of the mouth and 
nose. THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 
109 
Fig. 45.-The effect of treatment for adenoids upon the general appear- 
ance of three children. The upper picture was taken before treat- 
ment, the lower, after treatment. 110 
HEALTHY LIVING 
that any unusual growth, like adenoids or over-large tonsils, 
should be discovered and cured. Many a child is dull 
in school and fretful and unhappy because of such a con- 
dition. The whole disposition of such a child changes when 
the trouble is removed by a safe and simple operation. It 
has been found that about one child in ten has either ad- 
enoids or tonsils that should receive medical attention. 
Effects of Smoking.-The habit of smoking always re- 
sults in injury to the air passages, and a cough and 
"smoker's sore throat" are often caused by the use of 
tobacco. Inhaling, or taking the smoke into the lungs, is a 
particularly dangerous habit, since in this way the poisons 
in the smoke pass directly into the blood and thence to all 
parts of the body. One of the reasons that cigarette smoking 
is so harmful is that the smoke of a cigarette, being milder 
than the smoke from a pipe or a cigar, is much more likely 
to be inhaled. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. What facts do you know about the air? 
2. Hold your nose and keep your mouth tightly shut. How 
many seconds is it before you are uncomfortable? Why? 
3. How long can you stay under water in a dive? 
4. Why do we need oxygen? 
5. We hear stories of lowering a lighted candle into a well 
or unused cellar before any one dares to go down. What is the 
object? 
6. What waste product of bodily activity is thrown off by 
the lungs? 
7. Name the organs of respiration through which the air 
passes to get into the lungs. 
8. Explain how the air and the blood exchange oxygen and 
carbon dioxide in the lungs. THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 
111 
9- What becomes of the dust in the air we breathe? 
io. What is a cold in the head? Bronchitis? Pneumonia? 
ii. How is the voice produced? 
12. What causes a boy's voice to become deeper when it 
"changes"? 
13. Say the different letters of the alphabet and see which 
do, and which do not, require the use of the teeth and tongue. 
14. What muscle separates the thoracic and abdominal 
cavities? What part does this muscle play in the process of 
breathing? 
15. How is the chest enlarged to allow the air to enter the 
lungs? 
16. How is the air forced out of the lungs in respiration? 
17. Watch the breathing of some of the people you know. 
Do you think they use all of their lung tissue? 
18. What habits may interfere with deep breathing? 
19. If you saw a child who kept his mouth open most of the 
time and gasped for breath after closing it for a few minutes, 
what would you conclude was the matter? 
20. Takeahandglassandtry to locate your tonsils. Are they 
pink or red? Which should they be? CHAPTER X 
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 
The Function of the 
Circulation.-The food 
that is absorbed from 
the intestines, and the 
oxygen that is taken in 
through the lungs, must 
in some way be carried 
to all parts of the body. 
It is the task of the 
blood, flowing through 
the circulatory system, 
to bring these neces- 
sary substances to mus- 
cles, skin, brain, and all 
the other organs. We 
may well speak of this 
fluid as "the life- 
blood." 
The living parts of 
the body are changing 
all the time, building 
up new tissue out of the 
food and "burning up" 
both living matter and 
lifeless fuel material by 
the action of oxygen. 
These activities, as we have seen, are constantly produc- 
ing waste materials-carbon dioxide and other things- 
Fig. 46.-The circulatory system. 
112 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 
113 
which, if they are not eliminated, poison the body. These 
waste products must be carried away from the tissues; 
and it is again the blood which does this work. 
The Blood Vessels: Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries.- 
The blood flows inside a system of tubes, the blood vessels, 
which have many branches and go to all parts of the body. 
These blood vessels may be compared to the streets of a 
city, the routes by which everything passes from one place 
to another. Through the streets, the grocery wagons and 
the milk wagons come to deliver food, and the garbage 
wagons and the ash carts take the waste away from the 
houses. In somewhat the same way, the blood flows through 
the blood vessels, carrying food to the tissues and taking 
away their waste products. 
The system of blood vessels starts from the heart, passes 
through all parts of the body, and returns to the heart again. 
The blood vessels that 
run out from the heart 
are called arteries. 
The arteries subdi- 
vide, at their ends, into 
numerous tiny branches 
called capillaries, which 
form a fine network all 
over the body. Wher- 
ever you prick or cut 
yourself deeply, you are sure to strike a capillary, from 
which the blood will flow. 
These capillaries unite to form larger vessels, the veins, 
which bring the blood back to the heart. The walls of 
the capillaries are much thinner than the walls of the 
blood vessels, and through these thin walls the food and 
Fig. 47.-How the substances in the blood 
reach the tissue cells. 114 
HEALTHY LIVING 
other things in solution may pass to and from the tis- 
sues. 
The Blood: Red Corpuscles and Plasma.-The liquid 
part of the blood is not red, but a pale straw color; it is 
called the plasma. 
Its redness, as we 
see it, is due to 
great numbers of 
red corpuscles 
(kor'pus'ls) float- 
ing in it. These 
red corpuscles are 
of a disc shape 
and so small that 
there are millions 
in each drop of 
blood. They are 
living cells, and 
contain a sub- 
stance called hem- 
oglobin, which 
unites very readily 
with oxygen and 
carries most of the 
oxygen from the 
lungs to the capillaries. The red cells contain more of 
the element iron than most tissues. It is said that a French 
physiologist used to exhibit in his lecture room a lump of 
iron which had been extracted from great quantities of 
blood. 
If a drop of blood is set aside for half an hour under an 
inverted tumbler, the substances in it will separate and you 
Fig. 48.-Types of cells in the blood. The lighter 
circles are the red cells; the large, darker ones 
the white cells. They look dark, not white, 
because they have been stained, for photographic 
purposes, with a dye which stains their large 
nuclei. The white cells would be relatively 
much less numerous in the blood itself. THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 
115 
will see a little mass of red corpuscles, mixed with a peculiar 
fibrous substance, floating in a yellowish liquid, the plasma. 
This separation is called clotting or coagulation. The clot 
or mass of solid matter which forms in this way is what 
stops the flow of blood from a small cut in your finger. 
The "flesh color" of the skin is due to the many fine 
blood vessels in it. When the blood contains too few red 
blood corpuscles, as in certain diseases or in cases of under- 
feeding, a person may become very pale in appearance. 
Such a condition is called anaemia (a ne' mi a). 
In addition to the red corpuscles, the blood contains a 
much smaller number of white corpuscles, having their own 
special duties, which will be discussed later. 
The Lymph.-The arteries, veins, and capillaries, as we 
have seen, form practically a system of closed tubes, and 
the exchange of oxygen and food, of carbon dioxide and 
waste products, takes place through the delicate walls of 
the capillaries. How do the oxygen and food reach the 
tissue cells themselves, the living units which make up the 
tissues between the capillaries? 
This final contact with the cells is brought about by means 
another fluid called the lymph, which is found all through 
the body, bathing its tissues (see Fig. 47). A large part of 
die lymph is made up of blood plasma which has passed 
through the walls of the capillaries; and it also contains 
waste products given off from the cells. If you scrape the 
back of your hand a little, but not deeply enough to draw 
blood, a yellowish fluid oozes out; if you burn yourself, a 
yellowish fluid gathers in the blister. This is the lymph. 
The lymph is not a stagnant fluid but is in constant, 
although very slow, motion. Plasma is always passing out 
through the capillary walls into each organ of the body, and 116 
HEALTHY LIVING 
there must be some way for it to get back to the blood 
system again. This it does by means of a second system of 
tubes or ducts, called the lymphatics, which collect the 
lymph from the various organs and carry it to larger and 
Fig. 49.-The heart and some of its chief blood vessels. Blood containing 
oxygen indicated in white; blood poor in oxygen, in black. R. V. right 
ventricle, R. A. right auricle, L. V. left ventricle, L. A. left auricle. 
larger lymphatics, which finally discharge into the large 
veins opening into the heart. 
The Heart.-Did you ever wonder why we speak of 
learning something "by heart" or why pictures of hearts on 
a valentine are a sign of affection? Learning and loving 
belong to the brain rather than to the heart, but the heart 
is such an essential organ of the body, and such an active 
one, that it has come to stand for life itself. 
The heart is the most important part of the circulatory 
system, the pump which, by its rhythmic contraction, drives THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 
117 
the blood through the blood vessels to all parts of the body. 
It is a "heart-shaped" mass of muscle, about the size of a 
man's fist, lying between the lungs. You can feel it beat- 
ing (expanding and contracting) all the time, night and 
day, if you put your hand on the left side of your chest. 
The General Course of the Blood.-The heart is divided 
into halves, and each half is divided into an upper part or 
chamber, the auricle, and a lower chamber, the ventricle. 
From the right half of the heart, a large artery, the pulmo- 
nary artery, carries the blood (which has just returned from 
Fig. 50.-The principal blood vessels of the foot. 
the tissues and has given up its oxygen to them) to the lungs. 
There the blood gets a new supply of oxygen, and large 
veins bring it back from the lungs to the left side of the heart. 
The blood, rich in oxygen, now passes out from the left side 
of the heart by a large artery, the aorta (aor'ta), nearly 
an inch in diameter. It goes through the smaller arteries 
to the capillaries, thence to the smaller veins, and is finally 
brought back through the large veins to the right side of the 
heart, where the cycle begins again. 
If you follow out this course, you will see that in the 
arteries (except the pulmonary artery) and the capillaries 118 
HEALTHY LIVING 
the blood is rich in oxygen, which it is carrying to the tissues. 
In the veins, on the other hand (except the vein coming 
from the lungs), it has given up most of its oxygen and has 
become loaded with carbon dioxide. 
Blood on its way out to the tissues, rich with its gifts of 
oxygen, is bright red, like the capillary blood which flows 
when you cut your finger. Blood on the way back, after 
Fig. 51.-The valves of the heart, when the heart exoands (left) and when 
it contracts (right). 
giving up its oxygen, is of a darker purplish red, almost 
blue, as in the veins in the back of the hand. 
The Valves of the Heart and Veins.-The blood flows 
out through the arteries (not through the veins) when 
the heart contracts; and it flows in from the veins (not from 
the arteries) wrhen the heart expands. This is due to the 
arrangement of the little flaps or valves located between 
the auricles and ventricles, and at the places where the 
arteries leave the heart (see Fig. 51). The valves of the 
first set open downward, so that when the heart expands 
they open and allow the blood to flow down into the ven- THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 
119 
tricles. When the heart contracts, they close again and the 
valves into the arteries open upward, so that, with the 
contraction of the heart, the blood is pushed out into the 
arteries. When the heart expands, the valves at the arteries 
close again and the valves between auricle and ventricle 
open. In the veins, there are similar valves which allow 
the blood to flow toward the heart but not in the other 
direction. 
The Working of the Circulation.-The fact that the blood 
circulates from the heart to all parts of the body and back 
again, was discovered in 1621 by a famous Englishman 
named William Harvey. Harvey (1578-1667) was Court 
Physician to Charles I, and it is said that being placed in 
charge of the king's children at the battle of Edgehill, he sat 
with them under a hedge calmly reading a book all through 
the fighting. Through his discoveries, he became the great- 
est figure in the history of physiology. 
It seems curious to think that only three hundred years 
ago scientific people believed that the blood flowing into 
the heart by the veins all came from the water and food 
taken in through the alimentary canal, that the expansion 
of the heart sucked this in, and that some kind of suction 
exerted by the tissues drew it out through the arteries. 
The great volume of blood flowing into the heart should 
have shown that this explanation was absurd; but it was 
Harvey who first convinced physicians and physiologists 
that the blood flowing out through the arteries is the 
same blood which comes back again through the veins- 
in other words, that there is a true circulation. 
This circulation of the blood is one of the most wonderful 
of the many wonderful things which take place within our 
bodies. The whole of the blood (in an adult man about 120 
HEALTHY LIVING 
twelve pints) may complete its round through the body in 
from twenty to thirty seconds. At that rate, it makes the 
circuit more than three thousand times a day. Night and 
day, year after year, "this river of life," as one writer has 
Fig. 52.-Harvey demonstrating the circulation of the blood to King 
Charles the First. 
said, "is impetuously rushing through every part of the 
body, by means of an elaborate network of canals." 
The chief force that carries on this work is the beat of the 
heart, which is produced by the contraction of its muscular 
walls. The blood vessels themselves, however, also play an 
active part in the process of circulation. Their walls, par- 
ticularly those of the arteries, are elastic, and they press 
on the blood and help to drive it farther and farther into the 
smaller blood vessels. With a rubber bulb, filled with water THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 
121 
and connected with a rubber tube, you can imitate this 
action. When you press on such a bulb, you force the water 
into the tube, making it bigger; but the tube itself tends to 
contract and press the water onward. Each squeeze on the 
bulb sends a wave of pressure along the tube. This is just 
what happens in the circulation. Each beat of the heart 
causes a wave of pressure to pass along the arteries. 
By placing the finger gently on a large artery, such as 
the one in the wrist, you can feel these changes in pressure, 
which we call the pulse. Each pulse beat corresponds to a 
beat of the heart. In grown men there are about seventy 
pulse beats a minute, and in women about eighty. In chil- 
dren the pulse beats more rapidly. 
How the Heart and Blood Vessels Meet the Changing 
Needs of the Body.-When a muscle is working actively, 
it needs more food and oxygen and has more waste to get 
rid of than when it is at rest. The same thing is true of 
every part of the body. 
If, for instance, a person who has been lying down rises to 
a standing position, the muscles have more work to do in 
holding the body erect, and the heart meets this need at 
once by beating a little faster. If you run or play hard at 
any game, your heart beats a good deal faster, to supply 
extra blood to the muscles. You can easily notice that your 
pulse rate increases during active exercise. 
It is not only the heart beat, however, that varies to suit 
the changing needs of the body. The amount of blood which 
goes to any special organ depends largely on the contraction 
or expansion of the walls of the arteries leading to it. When 
more blood is wanted in a particular place, the muscles of 
the walls of the smaller arteries relax and their fine branches 
grow bigger, so that more blood reaches that particular HEALTHY LIVING 
122 
organ. After a meal, for instance, the stomach and intes- 
tines are working hard and need more blood, and the blood 
vessels in those parts of the body expand to supply the need. 
It is hurtful to take exercise just after meals, because ex- 
ercise draws the blood to the muscles and away from the 
digestive organs. It is because the blood is largely in the 
digestive organs, and the amount flowing through the brain 
is lessened, that we often feel sleepy after eating. 
The way in which the blood vessels change in size is well 
illustrated by the act of blushing. Embarrassment causes a 
dilation of the blood vessels of the skin, and the face be- 
comes flushed, as a result. 
The Temperature of the Body and How It is Controlled.- 
When you go from a hot room into a cold one, your body 
feels colder. In reality, it is only the surface of the body 
which changes its temperature. As long as you are in good 
health, the temperature of the body below its surface stays 
very close to 98.6° Fahrenheit, whatever the temperature is 
outside. In the Tropics the air temperature may rise above 
1300, and in certain factories, iron foundries, and glassworks 
it may for a time be even higher. In Arctic regions it may 
be nearly ioo° below zero. Yet through a range of more than 
2000 difference of air temperature, the body temperature 
remains the same. At the North Pole with Peary or in the 
depths of the Brazilian forests with Roosevelt, the thermom- 
eter placed under the tongue of a man in good health would 
register close to 98.6°. 
The higher animals, such as cats and dogs and birds, all 
maintain their bodies at a constant temperature in this 
way, and as the temperature is usually higher than that of 
the air about them, they are called warm-blooded animals. 
Fishes, frogs, insects, and the like are called cold-blooded, THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 
123 
though what is really meant is, not that they are cold, but 
that they take on the temperature of their surroundings. 
It is mainly by changes in the distribution of blood be- 
tween the surface and the inner parts of the body that the 
general temperature of the human body is kept uniform. 
The life processes are constantly producing heat, and this 
heat is constantly given off from the surface of the body to 
the air about it. When the air is cold, the body will lose 
heat rapidly; but when it is warm, the body, in order to keep 
its temperature at 98.6°, must find some special way of giv- 
ing off its surplus heat. This it does largely by an increase 
in the size of the skin blood vessels, so that more blood will 
go to the skin, to be exposed to the cooling influence of the 
air. 
If you pass from the cold street into a hot room, your face 
becomes flushed. This is because the blood vessels in the 
skin have expanded so as to bring more blood to the sur- 
face to be cooled off. In a cold room, on the other hand, 
the blood in the skin would cool very rapidly and the vessels 
contract so as to prevent too much chilling. 
The fact that the nerves control the blood vessels of the 
skin in this way was another of the discoveries which devel- 
oped from the work of the French physiologist, Claude Ber- 
nard. He found that if the nerves running to a certain part 
of the body were injured, the part would become flushed 
and hot. It was finally shown that this heating was due to 
the expansion of the blood vessels, which let an excess of 
blood into the tissues, and that the vessels expand in this 
way whenever the muscles in their walls are not controlled 
by the nerves. 
A second important aid in keeping the body cool-which 
comes into play particularly when the atmosphere is hot- 124 
HEALTHY LIVING 
is the sweat, or perspiration, which is poured out from tiny 
glands in the skin. When perspiration is produced very 
rapidly, it collects on the skin, but even when the skin does 
not feel moist, there may be perspiration forming and 
evaporating into the air just as fast as it is formed. The 
evaporation of this moisture makes the skin cooler, just as 
your finger feels cool if you wet it and hold it up in a breeze. 
This is the reason that we are so much more comfortable on 
a dry hot day than on a moist hot day, for the sweat cannot 
evaporate freely when there is much moisture in the air. 
Dogs and other animals sweat very little. On a hot day 
they can relieve themselves only by violent panting, which 
draws cool air into the lungs and increases evaporation from 
the surfaces of the lungs and of the nose and mouth passages. 
In our own case, when it grows hot outside, or when we 
exercise and produce a great deal of heat in the body, the 
secretion of sweat increases; when it grows cool, the secre- 
tion diminishes. 
The Circulation and the Body Temperature in Illness.- 
A good healthy circulation is one that meets all the changing 
conditions of life quickly and easily. When the heart, or 
the muscles in the walls of the blood vessels, or the nerves 
which control them are not working properly, we say a 
person has a poor circulation; such a person's hands or feet 
may grow cold very easily, and he may also be very sen- 
sitive to heat. 
In many illnesses, the complicated machinery of the cir- 
culatory system can no longer do its work successfully. In 
certain diseases the heart beats faster than it should-in 
others, more slowly. In some diseases its beat is weak and 
irregular. The feeling of the pulse is often a great help to 
the physician in finding out what is wrong. Its rate, which THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 
125 
is the same as the beat of the heart, can be observed, as well 
as the evenness of the beats and the amount of force with 
which the blood is pressing on the walls of the vessels. 
Of course, the pulse varies greatly even in perfect health- 
as during exercise-and only a physician can tell whether 
or not a particular condition of the pulse indicates anything 
wrong. 
In many kinds of illness the temperature machinery of 
the body is upset. The temperature may rise above 98.6° 
or fall below it. When it reaches ioo° or more, the con- 
dition is known as fever. It is a good plan to have, in 
every family, a clinical thermometer. When any one, child 
or grown person, feels indisposed, the temperature should 
be taken; and if the thermometer records a temperature 
over ioo°, the patient should stay indoors and the doctor 
should be sent for. 
Effects of Alcohol upon the Circulation.-People some- 
times take alcoholic drinks to warm themselves when they 
are chilly. What alcohol does in such a case is to dilate 
the skin blood vessels and make the person feel warmer be- 
cause the skin, where the nerves of feeling are, is warmer. 
But the presence of so much blood in the skin means a more 
rapid loss of heat and a consequent chilling, rather than a 
warming of the body as a whole. As we shall see later, 
alcohol is not really an effective stimulant. 
The delicate machinery of the heart and blood vessels is 
easily and seriously injured by alcohol and other poisons. 
The heart muscles in persons who use alcoholic drinks are 
likely to become flabby and weak, so that they are not 
able to do their work when special strain is put upon them. 
When people grow old, lime collects in the walls of the 
arteries and causes them to become hard and stiff, much as 126 
HEALTHY LIVING 
the bones become richer in mineral matter with advancing 
age. Such arteries, instead of being soft and elastic like a 
new rubber tube, become brittle like old dry rubber, and can 
no longer respond quickly to the needs of the body. Many 
of the diseases from which old people suffer are due to this 
"hardening of the arteries." Alcoholic drinks, the poisons 
which are formed during an attack of a communicable 
disease, and the poisons which are absorbed from bacterial 
decay in the intestines, all help to injure the walls of the 
blood vessels and bring on hardening of the arteries long 
before normal old age should set in. When the arteries 
harden in this way, it takes more force to pump the blood 
through them. The heart is often weakened by such over- 
work, so that it is not able to withstand strains such as 
those put upon it by serious illness. 
Effects of Tobacco upon the Circulation.-Tobacco also 
exerts harmful effects on the heart and the circulation. 
Even the moderate use of tobacco causes shortness of 
breath, which is really due to poor heart action. When 
smokers have "poor wind", it is because their hearts cannot 
pump the blood fast enough to supply the oxygen needed by 
their muscles, and the lungs have to do extra work to make 
good the deficiency. The disease called "tobacco heart" is 
another well-recognized result of smoking. In this disease 
the heart beats very weakly and irregularly. 
It may easily be seen that such disturbances of the 
heart and circulation seriously affect the best working of 
the whole body. Experience shows that smokers are 
much less likely to be successful in athletic competitions 
than those who do not use tobacco. Professor F. J. Pack 
reports that of 93 smokers who tried for places on six dif- 
ferent football teams, only 31 "made the team"; while of THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 
127 
117 non-smokers, 79 were successful. That is, only 33 per 
cent of the smokers secured places on the teams, as against 
68 per cent of the non-smokers. Tobacco is, of course, 
always forbidden to athletes in training. 
i. By what process do digested foods get from the intes- 
tines to the tissues which they build or repair? 
2. By what means are the waste products of the tissues car- 
ried away? 
3. What are blood vessels? How many kinds of blood vessels 
can you name? How do they differ? 
4. Compare the blood vessels with the streets of a city. 
5. Imagine that you are looking at some blood through a 
microscope. What would you see? 
6. What gives the red color to blood? 
7. What part of the blood carries the oxygen? 
8. What is the advantage of the clot which forms when 
blood comes in contact with the air? 
9. Would you suppose that an anaemic person got as much 
oxygen from the air as a rosy person? 
10. What is the special work of the lymph? 
11. Where does the lymph come from and where does 
it go? 
12. Are lymph and blood at all alike? How do they differ? 
13. Why is the heart such an important organ? 
14. Of what kind of tissue is the heart composed? 
15. How is the heart divided? 
16. Outline the course of the blood from the time it leaves the 
heart till it returns. 
17. How does the blood in the aorta differ from that in the 
big veins emptying into the heart? 
18. What prevents the blood from flowing backward when 
the heart contracts? Where else in the circulatory system do we 
Questions for Discussion and Review 128 
HEALTHY LIVING 
find a similar arrangement? Do you know of any pieces of ma- 
chinery which work in the same way? 
19. Who discovered the true facts of the circulation of the 
blood? Of what value do you think this discovery has been? 
20. What kind of walls do we find in the arteries? How do 
they help the work of the heart? 
21. How many times a minute does the heart beat? 
22. Count the pulse of one of your schoolmates, using the 
second hand of a watch. Have him run up and down a flight 
of stairs, and then count his pulse. Make him lie down a few 
minutes and count again. How do you explain the variation? 
23. How is the amount of blood in the different parts of the 
body controlled? 
24. Why is it difficult to study after a hearty dinner? Why 
is it dangerous to play a hard game of ball just after dinner? 
25. What is the normal temperature of the body? What is a 
fever? Does the temperature ever go below normal? 
26. How is the temperature of the body controlled so that it 
is the same in all climates? 
27. What makes one's face red after violent exercise? On a 
hot day? 
28. What is the difference between a cold-blooded and a 
warm-blooded animal? Which is man? 
29. Where does the heat of the body come from? 
30. How does the body get rid of the extra heat? 
31. In warm climates, people cool water bottles by cover- 
ing them with a wet cloth and hanging them in the breeze. Ex- 
plain. Compare with your body. 
32. Why do we drink more water in hot weather than in cold 
weather? 
33. In what ways do alcohol and tobacco affect the circula- 
tion? CHAPTER XI 
AIR AND HEALTH 
Fig. 53.-No indoor ventilation is quite so good as the ventilation of the 
woods and fields. 
Good Air and Bad Air.-The air of a closed room with 
many occupants is different in a number of ways from fresh 
outdoor air. The people in the room, by their breathing, 
have taken oxygen out of the air and given off into it 
carbon dioxide. Gas flames or lighted lamps also cause 
a decrease of oxygen and an increase of carbon dioxide. 
In the air of a crowded, poorly ventilated room, moreover, 
there is almost always a stale smell, which the people in the 
129 130 
HEALTHY LIVING 
room may not notice after they have become used to it, 
but which any one coming in from outside notices at once. 
This smell comes from the mouths and bodies and clothes 
of the people. 
The human body gives off not only carbon dioxide and 
these ill-smelling substances, but also heat and moisture. 
On the average, each person produces about as much heat 
as a candle flame; and the lungs and the skin together give 
to the atmosphere about three pints of water a day. If 
there were a candle burning in every seat in the schoolroom, 
the room would soon get warm; and so it does when there 
is a child sitting in each place, unless the heat is somehow 
carried away. 
Both the heat and the moisture given off by the body are 
greatly increased by exercise, since the muscular work pro- 
duces more heat, and the sweat glands form more perspira- 
tion to keep the body cool. It has been shown that a 
vigorous walk may cause an increase in heat production of 
1000 calories and an increase in evaporation of 800 grams. 
After a hard game, you generally want a drink of water to 
make up for the water lost in this way. 
The Effect of Chemical Substances in the Air on Health.- 
It used to be thought that the air of a crowded room was bad 
because of its lack of oxygen and excess of carbon dioxide. 
Men who go down into mines or deep pits in the ground 
sometimes die because of lack of oxygen, just as a candle 
goes out in a closed space. This danger never arises, how- 
ever, in an ordinary room even when it is most crowded. 
Oxygen and carbon dioxide pass easily through cracks and 
even through walls and ceiling where there are no visible 
cracks, and there is never so little oxygen or so much carbon 
dioxide in a room as to harm any one. AIR AND HEALTH 
131 
The odors in the air of a close room are unpleasant, and 
experiments indicate that stale air has an unfavorable effect 
upon the appetite. It is important for the sake of health 
and decency that the air of schoolrooms and living rooms 
should always be kept fresh and free from unpleasant 
odors. 
The Effect of a Warm Atmosphere on Health.-The worst 
thing about the air of a close room is its heat and, sometimes, 
its excess of moisture. A crowded, badly ventilated room 
is almost always a hot room, since human bodies produce 
heat and moisture as well as carbon dioxide. In such a 
room, the blood vessels in the skin expand and the blood 
goes to the surface of the body to cool off, as may be seen 
by the flushing of the face. The body temperature rises, 
the pulse goes up, and the blood pressure falls. As the 
blood moves to the outer surface of the body, the brain and 
other inner parts are robbed of blood, and one feels dull 
and listless and has little desire to work or play. In studies 
made by the New York State Commission on Ventilation, 
it was found that men did 15 per cent less work at 750, and 
37 per cent less work at 86°, than at 68°. 
People who live in overheated rooms are likely to catch 
cold and to have other illnesses. In such people, the 
mucous membranes of the nose are constantly congested 
(filled with blood and lymph), as the blood vessels dilate 
to keep the body at the proper temperature. As a con- 
sequence, these membranes-instead of shrinking and dry- 
ing promptly, as they should, when they come in con- 
tact with cold outer air-lose their quickness of response 
and stay moist and swollen after the blood vessels them- 
selves have contracted; this makes them an excellent 
breeding place for bacteria. People who have been weak- 132 
HEALTHY LIVING 
ened in this way are very sensitive to the cold air and are 
easily subject to chills. Benjamin Franklin once said, 
"People who live in the forest, in open barns, or with open 
windows, do not catch cold, and the disease called a cold 
is generally caused by impure air, lack of exercise, or from 
overeating"; and he was right. 
The Value of Moving Air.-There is a great difference 
in the effect of still air and moving air, even when the 
general temperature is the same. The body is constantly 
giving off heat, and if the air is quiet, the portion close 
around the body will soon get much warmer than the rest, 
as if the body were surrounded by a kind of blanket of hot 
moist air. A wind breaks up this layer and brings fresh 
cool air to the body all the time; this is why it is so much 
more comfortable outdoors, or with an electric fan running, 
than in a closed room with still warm air. 
Effects of Cold Air.-Moderate cold is a good thing 
for the body. It deepens the breathing, stimulates the 
blood vessels, and makes one feel active and vigorous-if 
the cold is not too great and does not last too long. Exces- 
sive cold is as bad, however, as excessive heat. Unless 
well wrapped up, it is dangerous for those not specially 
''hardened " to it to sit down or lie still in a room that is 
really chilly. Drafts, or local currents of cold air, on a 
particular part of the body seem to be especially harmful. 
It is most unwise to sit or stand in a cool place after you 
have been exercising hard and are flushed and moist with 
perspiration. 
Chilling the body makes it less able to resist disease. If 
there happen to be germs of any kind in your nose or throat, 
the weakening effect of a chill may be just enough to give 
them a chance to grow and cause illness. AIR AND HEALTH 
133 
Effects of Atmospheric Humidity.-From what has been 
said in the last chapter, it will be obvious that on a hot 
moist day we feel more uncomfortable than on a hot dry 
day, because moisture interferes with the cooling effect of 
the evaporation of perspiration. At low temperatures the 
effect of moisture is quite different. When the air is cool, 
little perspiration is formed, and its evaporation is a small 
factor compared with the direct cooling caused by the cold 
air. This direct cooling will be favored by a humid at- 
mosphere, since moisture collecting in the clothing increases 
its power of conducting heat. So it is a curious fact that 
humidity in the air makes a hot day hotter and a cold day 
colder. 
Hot moist air is found in very crowded rooms and in 
certain factories, but most of our rooms in winter are hot 
and dry. The warmer the air is, the more moisture it 
can carry, and when we raise the temperature of cold air 
from outdoors to 6o° or 700 without adding any moisture 
to it, it will become relatively much dryer or more ready 
to take up moisture. 
Watching the Thermometer.-Unless children are pro- 
vided with especially warm clothing, such as is used in open- 
air rooms, a temperature between 65° and 68° is generally 
right for the classroom. Every schoolroom and every 
living room should have a thermometer in it. It is a good 
plan in the classroom to have a pupil appointed each week 
to act as Health Officer and keep a record of the tempera- 
ture hour by hour. When the thermometer gets to 700, 
the windows should be opened to cool the air; for when- 
ever the temperature is above 700, the work of the 
children will be affected and their health is likely to be 
injured. 134 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Dusts and Poisons in the Air.-The ordinary fine dust 
in the air, which you can see as tiny flecks dancing in the 
sunbeam, does no harm. When a great cloud of dust is 
stirred up in sweeping, however, or when clouds of dust are 
whirled along by the wind in the street, there is real danger 
that any disease germs present may be carried and breathed 
Fig. 54.-The danger signal. What is the temperature of your 
classroom? 
into the nose or the mouth. This is why classrooms and 
corridors should never be swept when the children are in 
them. When you are on the street in a dust storm, keep 
your mouth shut so as to take in as little of it as possible. 
The danger in breathing quantities of dust is not, how- 
ever, so much in the germs that the dust may contain as in 
the hard particles themselves, which may hurt the delicate 
lungs. Men who work at certain dusty trades, like steel AIR AND HEALTH 
135 
grinding and granite cutting, easily fall victims to tuber- 
culosis because their lungs have become injured by the 
inhaling of hard dust. 
In other industries, such as white lead making and 
rubbing down paint, there are poisonous dusts or gases 
which may get into the air and do much harm. The only 
Fig- 55--A dusty trade. Breathing fine particles of mineral or metallic 
dust predisposes to tuberculosis. 
poison likely to be found in the air of houses is illuminating 
gas from leaking fixtures or from leaking or carelessly 
handled gas stoves. If there is the least smell about gas 
fixtures or stoves, or if the cocks are too tight or too loose, 
the gas man should be sent for; and great care should be 
taken not to leave cocks turned on unlighted or gas so low 
that it may blow out. A gas oven should never be lighted 
unless the door is wide open, because if, by any chance, 136 
HEALTHY LIVING 
gas has been escaping into the oven an explosion may 
occur. 
What We Mean by Good Air.-Good air means air free 
from poisons or appreciable dust or objectionable odors. 
Above all, it means air that is not too warm or too cool 
and, if possible, in moderate and pleasant motion. 
Heating and Ventilation.-Since cool, clean, fresh air is 
necessary for health, it is very important that the rooms in 
which we live and work should be well ventilated. Ven- 
tilation means a change of the air, or a supply of cool fresh 
air to take the place of that which has become stale and 
heated. About thirty cubic feet of fresh air per minute 
must be brought into a room for each person, in order that 
the bodily heat may be carried off and the air kept fresh 
and free from smell. 
In warm weather and in a crowded room, where the heat 
from many bodies is considerable, overheating is the chief 
problem, and the air that enters should be cooler than 
the air in the room, so as to take up the excess heat. In cold 
weather, if a building has a system of direct heating by 
stoves or radiators in the room itself, the heating effect 
should be sufficient to balance the cool air admitted for 
ventilation. Some buildings are kept warm in winter by 
indirect heating, with warm air from a furnace or from a 
mechanical ventilating plant. In this case, the warm air 
sent into the rooms through the registers serves for both 
heating and ventilation, and should be at just the tempera- 
ture, and in just the amount, to balance heat loss through 
the walls and yet keep the air of the room below 700. 
Methods of Ventilation.-The simplest way to get fresh 
air is to open the windows. Cold air is heavier than warm 
air and tends to fall, while warm air tends to rise. If a AIR AND HEALTH 
137 
window is open at top and bottom and if it is cool outside, 
the warm air of the room will pass out at the top of the win- 
dow, while the cool air from outside will enter at the bottom. 
If the wind is blowing, it may be a great aid in ventilation. 
The trouble with window ventilation in winter is that the 
outside air is so much colder than the air indoors that it 
makes a draft near the windows, and persons sitting near 
Fig. 56.-A window-ventilated schoolroom (Fairfield, Conn.). 
Notice the plates which deflect the air upward, and the 
long radiators under the windows. 
them become too cool. Such drafts may be partially 
avoided by the use of sloping boards or glass plates made to 
fit into the bottom of the window, which direct the cool air 
upwards where it mixes with the air of the room. In very 
cold weather, a vertical board may be placed under the 
lower sash so that air comes in only between the sashes^ 
In some of the best schools, the ventilating and heating 
arrangements include sloping window plates, like those 
shown in Fig. 56, to direct the air upward; large radiators 138 
HEALTHY LIVING 
along the wall under the windows to warm the air some- 
what as it comes in; and ducts leading from near the ceiling 
out through the roof, to carry off the warm air which rises 
to the top of the room. 
In small schools heated by stoves in the classrooms, the 
air often gets very stale if the windows are closed, while 
there are drafts 
if the windows 
are open. A sup- 
ply of fresh, but 
not too cold, air 
can be obtained, 
in such cases, by 
having a jacket 
around the stove 
with pipes lead- 
ing in from the 
outer air to the 
lower part of the 
jacket. The heat 
of the stove will 
make an up-cur- 
rent and draw in 
fresh air through 
these pipes. 
In larger school 
buildings, we 
usually find a system of indirect heating, fresh but warmed 
air being supplied by a mechanical ventilating system. This 
consists of a set of large ducts to bring warmed fresh air to 
each room and another set of ducts to take stale air out of 
each room, the air being driven through the ducts by revolv- 
Fig. 57.-Ventilation of the schoolroom by means 
of a jacketed stove. AIR AND HEALTH 
139 
ing fans. Often this system is combined with radiators in 
the room, the system of heating then being called direct- 
indirect. 
Whatever the ventilating system may be, it is a good plan 
to open all the windows now and then and take a little vig- 
orous gymnastic exercise. The change to a low temperature 
for a few minutes makes you feel brisk and wide-awake, and 
the exercise makes the heart beat faster and the lungs take 
in more air. By exer- 
cising, you make sure 
that the body does not 
become chilled by the 
change in temperature. 
Outdoor Life.-There 
is nothing quite so good 
as life out of doors. If 
you are to grow up to 
be as healthy as pos- 
sible, you should be out 
of doors all you can. 
The wind breaks up the 
layer of warm air that 
clings close to the body, 
and the constant slight 
changes in temperature 
keep the skin in good 
condition, by stimulat- 
ing its blood vessels and nerves so that they can quickly 
adjust themselves to changing conditions. 
Fresh Air in the Bedroom.-It is especially important to 
have plenty of air in the sleeping room. Windows should be 
open at night, even in cold weather. Many people find that 
Fig. 58.-A simple outdoor sleeping porch. 140 
HEALTHY LIVING 
they grow stronger by sleeping on a porch in the open air. 
One should always take care, however, that there are 
enough covers on the bed to keep the body perfectly warm. 
It is dangerous to become chilled in sleeping. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. What is good air? Is the air better in the city or in the 
country? On a hilltop or in a hollow? 
2. What changes take place in the air of an ill-ventilated, 
occupied room? 
3. Why is the air at a moving picture show almost always 
bad? Why is it worse there than at a circus, where there are 
usually more people? 
4. Why does bad air make one sleepy? 
5. In sweatshops in some of the larger cities, the workers 
sew all day in poorly ventilated, over-crowded rooms. Would 
you expect the workers to be strong, rosy, and well-grown? 
Explain. 
6. In reports of Peary's Arctic journeys, it is said that the 
men had no colds until they returned to civilization. Explain. 
7. Why do we have more colds in winter than in summer? 
8. Which do you like better, a still day at 8o° or a windy 
day at go0? Why? 
9. Find out what you can of the punkahs in India. Why are 
they necessary? 
10. Why is one likely to get chilled in going from an over- 
heated room into the cold, or standing in a draft when one is 
very warm from exercise? 
11. Why is dust dangerous? The most up-to-date equipment 
in schools and offices calls for vacuum cleaners. Explain. 
12. Why have big factories found it more economical, as well 
as more humane, to provide large, well-ventilated, well-lighted 
workrooms for their employees? 
13. What trades do you know which are dangerous to the AIR AND HEALTH 
141 
lungs because of fine substances in the air, which are inhaled 
by the workers? 
14. How much air is needed for ventilation in your school- 
room? 
15. Find out how your schoolroom is ventilated; whether by 
a mechanical system or by windows only; where the air comes in 
and goes out; and whether the system works well, so that the 
room never has a higher temperature than 68° and never gets 
stuffy and stale-smelling. 
16. Explain what is meant by direct, indirect, and direct- 
indirect heating. 
17. In the ventilation of a schoolroom, where would you place 
the inlet for fresh air and the outlet for stale air? 
18. In many rural schools the only heat is from one big stove, 
and the only ventilation is at the windows. What are the draw- 
backs to this system? How may the system be modified? 
19. Why do we exercise or play a game while the schoolroom 
windows are open to air the room? 
20. There are many more open-air schools now than there 
were five years ago, and their number is increasing. What ad- 
vantage have they over ordinary schools? CHAPTER XII 
THE WASTES OF THE BODY 
Waste Materials.-The chemical changes in the body 
have been compared to what goes on in a furnace, where 
coal is burned and heat is given off to warm a house or to run 
an engine. As a result of the burning of fuel in the furnace, 
certain waste materials are formed-unburned clinkers, ash, 
and gases. The clinkers and ash drop into the ash pan and 
are removed; the gases pass off by way of the chimney. So 
in our bodies, as a result of the oxidation or "burning" of the 
food, waste products are formed. The carbohydrates and 
fats become carbon dioxide and water. The proteins 
change into other waste products, such as urea. The in- 
digestible remainder which cannot be taken into the body is 
left in the intestines, somewhat as the clinkers are left in the 
ash pan. 
Wastes from the Intestines.-Most of the material which 
is discharged from the intestines has never really been made 
a part'of the living body. You remember that the alimen- 
tary canal runs from the mouth to the lower opening of the 
large intestine. As the food passes through the alimentary 
canal, the usable parts which the body needs are absorbed 
through the walls (mainly of the small intestine) into 
the blood stream, and the indigestible material remains 
finally in the large intestine, from which it must be dis- 
charged. 
The Process of Excretion.-The real wastes of the body 
are the substances formed by the life processes in the cells. 
142 THE WASTES OF THE BODY 
143 
These are carried away from the tissues in the blood stream, 
and must be removed from the blood or they would ac- 
cumulate and poison the body. The removal of these 
wastes, such as carbon dioxide and urea, is brought about 
chiefly by the organs of excretion-the lungs, kidneys, liver, 
and skin. 
In the lungs, the blood in the capillaries and the air in 
the air sacs are separated, as we have seen, by a thin 
membrane or layer of living cells. The carbon dioxide 
and some of the water vapor from the blood pass through 
this membrane into the air of the lungs and are discharged 
with the air which we exhale. The process of excretion is 
somewhat the same in kidneys, liver, and skin, except that 
in each of these organs the wastes pass from the blood into a 
special liquid, which is later 
discharged from the body. The 
wastes of the kidneys are dis- 
charged in the urine; the 
wastes of the liver, in the bile; 
and those of the skin, in the 
perspiration. 
The Kidneys.-The kidneys 
are two bean-shaped, dark red 
bodies which lie in the lower 
part of the back. Each kid- 
ney, in a grown person, meas- 
ures about four inches by one 
and one half inches and weighs 
from four to six ounces. There 
are many blood vessels in the 
kidneys, and from the blood, the cells of the kidneys take 
out water and waste products, especially the wastes from 
Fig. 59.-The kidneys and their 
connections. 144 
HEALTHY LIVING 
protein foods. The liquid thus filtered from the blood in 
the kidneys is called the urine. 
The urine gathers in very small tubes in the kidneys and 
passes by two larger tubes into the urinary bladder, a 
muscular sac below the kidneys, where it is stored until dis- 
charged. The bladder holds about half a pint. Since some 
three pints of urine are formed every twenty-four hours, the 
bladder should be emptied about six times a day. An equal 
quantity of water is given off through the lungs and the 
skin, making a total daily excretion of about six pints. 
In order to keep the kidneys working well, it is important 
to drink plenty of water and to eat freely of fruits, green 
vegetables, and other foods that contain water. The 
wastes of the body must be eliminated regularly, and the 
kidneys can do their work better if plenty of water passes 
through, along with the waste products. 
The Liver as an Organ of Excretion.-Besides the in- 
digestible waste material which it discharges, the digestive 
canal carries off a true bodily excretion, which it receives 
from the bile,-the fluid discharged by the liver. 
The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing three 
or four pounds. It lies in the upper part of the abdominal 
cavity just below the diaphragm. The bile which it forms 
may be discharged by the bile duct directly into the small 
intestine, or it may be stored for a time in a small sac called 
the gall bladder, connected with the bile duct. The bile 
has double work to do. It contains digestive juices which 
help in the digestion of fats, after the bile is discharged into 
the intestine. It also serves to get rid of some of the 
wastes of the body, which are excreted into it in the liver. 
The Skin and the Perspiration.-The skin is not so neces- 
sary for getting rid of wastes as are the lungs, the kidneys, THE WASTES OF THE BODY 
145 
and the liver, but it plays its own part in this important 
work. 
Throughout the skin there are two or three million little 
pockets called sweat glands, which pour out perspiration. 
With a magnifying glass, you can see the tiny mouths of 
these glands as dark spots on the fine ridges of the skin. 
Usually the perspiration "dries up," or evaporates, as fast 
as it is poured out, but when one is hot or is doing hard 
muscular work, so much is formed that it gathers on the 
skin. The perspiration is, of course, mostly water, but 
it also contains waste products like those found in the 
urine. 
The sweat glands, like the other organs of the body, are 
under the control of the nervous system, as is shown by the 
fact that a person who is frightened or embarrassed often 
"breaks out in a perspiration." 
Effect of Alcohol on the Kidneys and the Liver.-Al- 
coholic drinks exert a very harmful effect upon the kidneys, 
often bringing on the serious trouble called Bright's disease. 
Old people may have Bright's disease because their kidneys 
have become worn out by long use, but alcohol often wears 
out the kidneys prematurely and brings on this trouble 
much earlier. The liver also may easily become diseased 
from the heavy burden of getting rid of too much alcohol or 
other poisonous material. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. What would happen to a furnace if ashes were not re- 
moved, if clinkers were allowed to stay in the grate, and if the 
chimney were stopped up? Compare this to similar conditions 
in the body. 
2. What difference is there between the wastes that pass off 146 
HEALTHY LIVING 
through the large intestine and those that are carried away from 
the various organs by the blood stream? 
3. What are the organs of excretion by which the wastes are 
removed from the blood? 
4. In what special form does each organ of excretion throw 
off the wastes from the body? 
5. Describe the process of excretion in the lungs. 
6. Describe the kidneys. Where is the urine stored? How 
much is excreted daily? 
7. How can we help the work of the kidneys by our diet? 
8. Describe the liver. What double work does the bile 
perform? 
9. What part does the skin play in the excretion of wastes? 
10. In how many ways is water given off by the body? How 
is this loss made up? 
11. Does the perspiration contain other substances besides 
water? If so, what becomes of them when the water evaporates? CHAPTER XIII 
HYGIENE OF THE SKIN 
The Skin.-The skin covers the body, like a very tight 
suit of clothes. It has two layers, an outer layer of scarf 
skin, and an inner layer of true skin. When you have a 
blister on your hand, the outer scarf skin is puffed up by 
a liquid (the lymph) 
which collects between 
it and the true skin. 
The scarf skin, as you 
know from this expe- 
rience, is very thin. The 
inner skin is thicker; 
leather is made from 
the inner skin of an 
animal, hardened by a 
special treatment called 
tanning. 
The skin is growing 
all the time in its deeper 
layers and shedding off 
scales of dead tissue at the top. These scales are usually 
rubbed off in washing or by the friction of clothing, so 
that we do not notice them. 
When the skin is subject to special pressure or friction at 
any one place, it grows thicker and forms a hardening, called 
a callosity. Rowers or baseball players often get callous 
places on their hands, and people who walk a great deal are 
Fig. 60.-A section through the skin. 
A, artery; H, hair in hair follicle (F); 
N, nerve; S, sweat gland; V, vein. 
147 148 
HEALTHY LIVING 
likely to have them on their feet. Corns are formed by such 
thickenings of the skin. 
The Functions of the Skin.-The skin does several kinds 
of work. It keeps out disease germs and protects the soft, 
moist inside parts of the body from being injured and from 
losing water too fast by evaporation. It is by means of the 
blood vessels in the skin that the body gives off the heat 
which is constantly being produced inside; and by means of 
the sweat glands, the skin helps to get rid of the body 
wastes. The evaporation of the sweat which collects on the 
skin, as we have seen, cools the body and thus helps in the 
regulation of the body temperature. 
Still another important work is accomplished by the 
little sense organs and nerves in the skin, by which we touch 
and feel, and learn a great deal about the world around us. 
It is through these organs of touch that we find out whether 
a thing is wet or dry, hot or cold, soft or hard. 
Clothing and Shelter.-In cold weather the unclothed 
body would lose heat too fast, even if all the blood vessels 
of the skin contracted so as to become as small as possible. 
Birds have feathers and many animals have thick coats of 
hair to keep their heat in, but we must wear clothing to 
protect ourselves from cold. We must also have our houses 
specially warmed in cold weather. Next to food, clothing 
and shelter are the chief needs of the savage, and they 
demand a large proportion of the earnings of members of 
civilized society to-day. Men and women who support 
themselves and their families are called "bread-winners." 
They must be house-winners and clothes-winners as well. 
Kinds of Clothing.-In choosing our clothing, we should 
remember that some materials are particularly effective in 
keeping heat in, while others allow it to escape more rapidly HYGIENE OF THE SKIN 
149 
to the outside air. Most of our clothing is made of animal 
hairs (woolen cloth and furs), of plant tissue (cotton or 
linen), or of silk, which is a fine web spun by a caterpillar. 
Woolen clothes are warm because they are very porous and 
hold a great deal of air; the air serves to retain the warmth 
Fig. 61.-Very warm clothing is 
needed in the Arctic regions. 
Fig. 62.-In warm countries, only 
light clothing is necessary. 
or, as we sometimes say, it is a poor conductor of heat. 
Wool also takes up moisture readily, so that if it is 
moistened with perspiration it does not feel so wet and 
does not chill the body so much as other materials. 
Cotton is cooler and softer and is better fitted for warm- 
weather clothing. 
It is well to remember that several layers of compara- 150 
HEALTHY LIVING 
tively thin clothing are often warmer than one layer of 
thick clothing. The reason for this is that the air be- 
tween the thicknesses of cloth helps to keep the heat 
of the body from escaping. A newspaper folded under 
the clothing will prove a considerable protection against 
sudden cold, because of the layers of air between its 
folds. 
Hygiene of the Clothing.-It is important to regulate 
the amount of the clothing with some care. If clothes are so 
thin that the body becomes chilled, colds and rheumatism 
and other diseases may result. We should be careful to be 
warmly wrapped while sitting still or lying down in the cold 
air. When we are active and are using the muscles a great 
deal, more heat is formed in the body and less clothing 
is needed-while the exercise is going on. People often, 
however, become heated by exercise and afterward sit down 
or stand in cold drafts. This is one of the easiest methods 
of getting a cold. After exercise, the blood vessels in 
the skin are expanded, the body is wet with perspiration, 
and heat is being rapidly drawn off by its evaporation. If 
the body in this condition is exposed to a cold draft of 
air, it becomes cool too rapidly and a chill is likely to 
result. Even at the risk of being a little too warm for a 
few minutes, one should put on an extra wrap until the 
body has regained its normal temperature. 
Wet clothes and shoes are likely to cause chills, because 
water conducts heat away from the body very rapidly. 
We should be careful, therefore, to change damp clothing 
for dry things as soon as possible. 
On the other hand, it is just as undesirable to wear clothes 
that are too warm as to expose the body to undue chill. 
As we have seen in the chapter on "Air and Health," if the HYGIENE OF THE SKIN 
151 
skin cannot get rid of its heat fast enough, we feel dull and 
sleepy. People who have the habit of wearing too many 
clothes weaken the power of their systems to respond 
quickly to changes in temperature, and so are especially 
susceptible to colds. The way to keep the skin and its 
blood vessels in good condition is to wear light clothing 
indoors and to put on outer wraps when one goes out into 
the cold. 
Hygiene of Bathing.-The first object of bathing is, of 
course, to keep clean. Not only should the dirt and soot 
which soil the body be washed off, but the waste materials 
deposited on the skin by perspiration must also be removed. 
If a daily bath is not taken, the body and the clothing soon 
acquire an unpleasant odor. 
Warm or tepid water is most effective for cleansing the 
hands or body. Bathing in warm water increases the size 
of the blood vessels in the skin and draws the blood away 
from the brain, making one feel comfortably sleepy. This 
is the reason why a warm bath should usually be taken at 
bedtime. 
A cold bath contracts the skin blood vessels and drives the 
blood to the internal organs and the brain, making one feel 
alert and keen. Cold bathing is a powerful tonic to the 
skin, since it trains these blood vessels to respond quickly 
to changes in temperature. People who take cold baths 
regularly are likely to be hardy and little subject to 
colds. 
In the matter of bathing, however, we must again remem- 
ber that the body should be stimulated by cold but not 
chilled too much. A cold bath should be followed by a 
reaction; that is, the surface blood vessels should enlarge 
again so that the skin becomes warm and glowing. Brisk 152 
HEALTHY LIVING 
rubbing with a rough towel helps to secure this reaction. 
If no reaction follows, or if one feels tired after bathing, the 
bath was too cold or too prolonged, or the body is not 
strong enough to endure the shock. In such cases, cold 
baths may do serious harm. 
No bath of any kind should be taken within an hour after 
eating. The blood is needed in the intestines for the process 
of digestion, and it is harmful to disturb the circulation, as 
any bath must do, at such a time. 
The Care of the Hair.-The hair is a kind of outgrowth 
of the skin, as are the feathers of birds and the scales of 
fishes. Each hair grows out of a tiny cup called a hair 
follicle. Opening into the hair follicle are glands which 
discharge an oily secretion that keeps the hair soft and 
flexible. (See Fig. 60.) 
Vigorous brushing of the hair is necessary, not only to 
keep the hair free from snarls and neat in appearance, but 
also to keep the scalp healthy, by bringing the blood into it 
and working the natural oil out to the ends of the hairs. 
Washing the hair with warm water and good soap at least 
once a month is desirable, in order that the scalp may be 
kept clean of scales and dirt. After washing, the hair should 
be thoroughly rinsed to remove all the soap. 
Microbes on the Skin.-Germs of various kinds are al- 
ways present on the skin. These germs ordinarily do no 
harm, but when a person is "run down," tired, and in poor 
condition, they may grow in a hair follicle and cause a little 
swelling or pimple. Boils or carbuncles are more extensive 
germ infections of this kind. Children may occasionally 
have pimples and even a boil without any serious cause, but 
if the pimples appear frequently a physician should be con- 
sulted. HYGIENE OF THE SKIN 
153 
The Care of the Nails.-The nails are folds of the skin 
that have become hard and horny at the ends, but are alive 
and growing at the base. Finger nails are great dirt catch- 
ers, and special care is required to keep them clean. Black- 
bordered finger nails are an unpleasant sight, and there is 
always a possibility that dirty nails (which are germ-bearing 
nails) may introduce dangerous microbes into the skin by 
scratching or rubbing, or may carry pollution to one's food. 
The nails should be kept fairly short so that they are not in 
danger of being broken. They should never be bitten or 
picked, as the result is always unsightly and these practices 
often lead to the tearing of the delicate flesh below the nail. 
Germs are likely to get into any such wounded place and 
may cause serious infections. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. What are the functions of the skin? 
2. How does the skin grow? What color is it? What gives 
it this color? 
3. How does the body get rid of the heat produced by the 
activities of its different organs? 
4. How do we prevent the body from losing heat too 
rapidly? 
5. What are the three chief physical needs of mankind? 
Why? 
6. What kinds of material can you name which are used for 
clothing? From what is each made? 
7. Why is fur clothing warm? Is it warmer, worn with the 
fur side in or out? Why? 
8. Up-to-date manufacturers are making underwear of 
thick loosely-woven cotton. How does this compare with 
woolen underwear? 
9. Take pieces of wool, silk, and cotton, soak each thor- 154 
HEALTHY LIVING 
oughly, and then see which will dry most quickly. What does 
this show you about the choice of material for clothing? 
io. In bed clothing, which is better, one heavy blanket or 
two lighter ones? 
ii. Why do double doors and windows help to keep a house 
warm? 
12. What is the danger when people try to "harden" them- 
selves quickly by wearing too little clothing? 
13. Some boys were taking a long walk, and when they were 
five miles from home a heavy rain came up. Of course their 
feet became very wet. One of the boys feared that they would 
all take cold, but another said that it was all right provided they 
kept walking and changed their clothes as soon as they reached 
home. Which was right? Explain. 
14. Why is it unsafe to come to school in the rain without 
rubbers or a change of shoes? 
15. Is it safer to dress too heavily than to dress too lightly? 
16. Why should material which is unwashable never be worn 
next to the skin? 
17. For cleanliness, which is better, a warm or a cold bath? 
Which is better for " toning" the body? How can you get both 
effects? 
18. What kind of bath is good at bedtime? What kind after 
hard exercise? Why? 
19. In swimming, we often find that the water feels icy cold 
at the first plunge. Why does it seem warmer after we have 
been swimming for a while? If the swimmer does not succeed 
in warming up, what is probably the matter? 
20. How are the skin and the hair kept soft and flexible? 
21. Why does brushing the hair help to make it glossy? 
22. What are pimples? 
23. How should the nails be cared for? CHAPTER XIV 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
The Function of the Nervous System.-The human 
body is a delicate and complicated machine, every part of 
which must act in harmony with every other part, if the 
whole machine is to do its work properly. The heart must 
beat just so fast and the walls of the blood vessels must 
exert just so much pressure upon the blood. The lungs must 
be expanded so as to inhale the air just so often. The in- 
testines must move the food along, and the glands must pour 
out the different digestive juices, each in the right amount. 
The kidneys must get rid of the wastes, and a score of other 
processes must proceed in constant harmony. If any part 
of the body works too fast or too slowly, the balance of the 
machine is upset and disease results; for disease is failure of 
the living machine to do its work properly. 
This, however, is only a part of the story. It would not 
do for the body to work at the same rate all the time, like 
an ordinary lifeless machine. It has to change its behavior 
to meet different conditions. Suppose you have been sitting 
still and then get up and play a game of tag or baseball. 
Your muscles begin to work, and at once your whole body 
must adapt itself to the new activity. The heart must beat 
faster to send to the muscles the blood they need for their 
extra activity. The breathing must be deepened and quick- 
ened to supply more oxygen. The blood vessels in the skin 
must be made larger, and the sweat glands must begin to 
work so as to get rid of the waste products. In order that all 
155 156 
HEALTHY LIVING 
these changes shall be properly made, there must be some- 
thing to control and direct all the parts of the body. This 
power which governs the body and makes its teamwork 
possible is the nervous system. 
The Central Nervous System.-The brain, the spinal 
cord, and the nerves that run out from them are the chief 
organs which carry out this important work. They con- 
stitute what is called the central nervous system. 
How the Nervous System Works.-You have perhaps 
seen a switchboard in a telephone exchange. From this 
switchboard, hundreds of wires run out to buildings in every 
part of the town. "493 Broad" calls up and wishes to talk 
to "287 Main"; and the operator makes the connection, so 
that the people in these two houses can speak to each other. 
The nervous system of the body works in somewhat the same 
way. The brain and the spinal cord are like the switch- 
board; from them nerves run to all parts of the body, like tiny 
telephone wires, bringing in messages as to what is happen- 
ing and sending out messages to control and direct action. 
We do not know just how messages are carried along the 
nerves, but we do know that each nerve serves a certain 
part of the body and carries a certain kind of message. A 
prick on the finger hurts because special sense organs in the 
skin are connected with nerves which cause sensations of 
pain. The nerves from the eyes cause sensations of light; if 
these nerves were cut or injured behind the eye, there would 
be no pain but a sensation like a flash of light. In the same 
way, the nerves which control the contraction of muscles 
cause definite movements in particular parts of the body. 
For instance, in a frog there is a certain nerve which, if 
pinched, makes the leg kick, even after the frog is killed and 
dissected. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
157 
Special parts of the brain and cord govern the actions of 
special parts of the body. A blow on a certain part of the 
head may, for instance, cause paralysis of the legs, so that 
the person injured in this way becomes a cripple and cannot 
Fig. 63.-The central nervous system is somewhat like 
a telephone switchboard, where messages come from 
and go to all parts of the body. 
walk, while an injury to another part of the head may take 
away the power of speech. 
The Nerves.-The nerves are shining white threads 
running out from the brain or the spinal cord. These nerve 158 
HEALTHY LIVING 
trunks subdivide again and again, and branch out, like the 
branches of a tree, till they reach every part of the body. 
The largest of the main nerve trunks, which runs down the 
leg, is the size of a large lead pencil. 
The nerve trunks are bundles of fine threads or nerve 
fibers, which are of two kinds: sensory fibers which bring in 
sensations from the various parts of the body to the brain 
Cerebrum 
Cerebellum 
Medulla and 
Top of Spina I 
Cord 
Fig. 64.-The human brain. 
and cord, and motor fibers which carry out the messages 
causing action of the muscles or other organs. 
If you could trace one of the tiny nerve fibers (perhaps 
one-thousandth of an inch in diameter) in a main nerve 
trunk, you would find in most cases that it ran continuously, 
like an independent little telephone wire, right into a special 
nerve cell in the brain (or spinal cord). These nerve cells 
are situated in swellings of the nerve trunks called ganglia. 
The nerve fiber that controls the muscles of the foot can be 
followed to the lower part of the spinal cord in the back, 
for a distance of over three feet. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
159 
The Brain.-The brain is a large organ, weighing nearly 
three pounds, which almost fills the inside of the skull. It is 
shaped somewhat like an oval loaf of bread, with a deep 
groove along its upper side, and has a very irregular surface 
with many smaller grooves and wrinkles in it. In man, 
these grooves and wrinkles are much more fully developed 
than in the lower animals. It is interesting to note, also, 
that the size of the brain varies greatly in different ani- 
mals, being usually much 
larger in the more intelli- 
gent species. 
The brain is largely made 
up of the complicated net- 
work of white nerve fibers 
which run into it. Large 
bundles of these fibers enter 
the brain from the eyes and 
from the nose and ears, 
while at the bottom of the 
skull there is an opening for 
the great number of nerves 
which enter from the spinal 
cord. 
The Gray Matter.-The 
most interesting thing in the 
brain is the gray matter, 
which makes up its outer 
layers. This gray matter contains the nerve cells into 
which the nerve fibers run. These cells exert certain 
chemical or physical effects on one another; and it 
is by these effects that the messages entering along 
the sensory fibers cause sensations, and lead to the 
Fig. 65.-Network of cells in the gray 
matter of the brain. 160 
HEALTHY LIVING 
sending out of messages of action along the motor 
fibers. 
The Three Parts of the Brain.-There are three principal 
regions of the brain (see Fig. 64). The largest part, which 
lies over and covers up the others, is the forebrain or cere- 
brum. It is through the activity of this part of the brain 
that we are conscious of sensations such as we obtain by 
seeing, hearing, smelling, and tasting. The cerebrum is the 
seat also of all reasoning and thinking processes, and by the 
messages it sends out controls our voluntary actions. 
The hind-brain is called the cerebellum, and below it 
lies the medulla (me dul' a). They control such actions as 
those involved in walking and breathing, which are called 
involuntary actions because they usually occur without any 
willing on our part. 
The Spinal Cord.-The outside of the spinal cord is 
covered with a white sheath of nerve fibers, and the center is 
made up of gray matter like that on the outside of the 
brain. As the cord passes through the arches of the verte- 
bral column, it gives off a pair of nerves at each vertebra, 
one to each side of the body. Each of the sixty-two spinal 
nerves, which run out in this way from the thirty-one 
vertebrae, subdivides again and again till the hundreds of 
fine thread-like branches finally reach all parts of the 
body. 
The Sympathetic System.-Besides the brain and cord 
and the nerves directly connected with them, which make 
up the central nervous system, there is another important 
group of ganglia and nerve fibers which form the sympa- 
thetic system. Some of these ganglia lie in two chains, one 
on each side of the spinal column, and others are scattered 
through the various organs of the body. They are con- THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
161 
nected with one another and with the spinal cord by a com- 
plex network of nerve fibers. 
These ganglia control, in particular, the automatic inter- 
nal organs, such as the heart, blood vessels, and digestive 
organs, as well as the heat-regulating and sweat-regulating 
machinery of the skin. It is because they keep the internal 
organs working together, as if they were "in sympathy" 
with one another, that they were given the name "sympa- 
thetic system." It should be remembered, however, that 
the sympathetic ganglia do not make up a wholly distinct 
system. They are connected by special fibers with the 
spinal cord. They send sensory messages to it and get 
motor messages from it. 
Reflex Actions.-Among our commonest activities are 
the reflex actions-actions that are caused directly by some 
sensory message carried to the central nervous system and 
there changed into a motor impulse without the action of 
the will. The particular work of the spinal cord and the 
lower parts of the brain is to serve as a kind of switchboard 
for the control of these reflex actions. 
A reflex action may perhaps be best understood by an 
illustration. Suppose you put your finger on the hot stove. 
You draw it away as quick as a flash. You do not have to 
think about it; in fact, you would find it hard to keep your 
finger on the stove if you tried to do so. 
In that short moment between the time your finger 
touched the stove and the time it was drawn away, a good 
deal happened. First the heat took effect in the skin. Then 
a message passed up the sensory fibers to the spinal cord to 
report that something was wrong at the tip of that finger. 
In the cord, the connection was made between this incoming 
nerve from the finger and the motor fibers going out to the 162 
HEALTHY LIVING 
muscles of the arm; and out along these nerves went the 
message which caused the arm to contract and draw away. 
Reflex actions are very common. Dust tickles your 
throat and you cough. A cinder gets into your eyes and the 
tears flow. You stumble and your hands go out to save 
yourself from falling. All 
these are reflexes. In each 
case, a message comes into 
the nervous system record- 
ing some condition outside. 
It passes to the brain or 
spinal cord along the sen- 
sory nerves; there, connec- 
tion is made with another 
set of nerves; and out along 
these nerves goes an im- 
pulse that causes the neces- 
sary action. 
It may seem to you that 
you pull your arm away 
from the hot stove voluntarily, because the nerve message, 
after making the connection in the cord, passes on to the 
brain and you are conscious of what you have done. But, 
in reality, the message to pull away your arm had gone out 
from the cord before your brain knew that your finger had 
been burned. 
Actions that Become Reflex by Habit.-Many of the 
reflex actions of the body, such as winking when something 
comes near the eye, or coughing when something tickles the 
throat, are natural and do not have to be learned. Other 
actions, which at first require the direction of the brain, 
later become reflex by repetition. For example, when a 
Fig. 66.-Diagram illustrating the 
_ , . c a .. 
mechanism of a reflex action. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
163 
child first learns to ride a bicycle, he must think of each 
movement (using his cerebrum). Even with all his care, 
his legs do not work together properly, and he loses his 
balance and runs into the trees along the road. Gradually, 
however, practice makes him more expert. He learns to 
keep his balance by swaying to the right if his bicycle leans 
to the left. After a time the process becomes quite auto- 
matic, so that he leaps on his wheel and rides off without 
thinking of it at all. If there is something in the way, a 
message goes in from his eyes to his brain, down the cord, 
and out to the muscles, and he turns aside and passes the 
obstacle smoothly and unconsciously. 
What has happened in such a case as this? A new set of 
reflexes has been created, which the body did not have be- 
fore. A new set of connections has been formed between 
various sensory and motor nerve fibers in the cord or lower 
part of the brain, so that the first hint of a loss of balance 
starts certain muscles contracting in just the right way to 
keep the body upright on the wheel. 
Inhibitions.-An enormous number of reflex actions are 
possible in the body. Some of them produce opposite ef- 
fects; that is, one reflex action may change or stop the ac- 
tion of another reflex. A sneeze is an example of an ordinary 
reflex action. Often, however, when you feel that you are 
going to sneeze, you can stop it by pressing your finger hard 
on your upper lip. This pressure on the lip produces a 
nerve impulse that inhibits, or stops, the sneeze reflex. A 
nerve message which tends to stop the action of another 
reflex is called an inhibitory impulse. 
Involuntary Actions.-Many actions of the body are 
quite outside the control of the will. We cannot stop the 
heart from beating or make saliva flow by willing to do so. 164 
HEALTHY LIVING 
The motor fibers which cause these actions are set in ac- 
tivity either by a reflex impulse from a sensory fiber, or 
perhaps by a more direct effect of some chemical or physi- 
cal change in the tissues (producing what are called au- 
tomatic actions). 
It is probable that the actions of such creatures as insects 
are of this reflex and automatic kind, even the very com- 
plicated reflexes that are called instincts. It is instinct, for 
example, which teaches the butterfly to lay its eggs on the 
particular kind of plant that furnishes food for the cater- 
pillar that is to hatch from the eggs. 
Voluntary Actions.-In some of our actions the will plays 
a definite part, although the line between voluntary and 
involuntary actions cannot always be sharply drawn. Cer- 
tain activities may sometimes be unconscious reflexes and 
sometimes voluntary acts. The eye winks without our 
thinking about it, when something comes near it, but we 
can perform the same act by willing to do so. Inhibitions 
play a large part in voluntary actions. If something hot is 
put into the palm of your hand, there is a natural reflex im- 
pulse to drop it; but if it is not too hot, you can control the 
impulse and hold the object by making up your mind to 
do so. 
The voluntary acts (done because we definitely will to do 
them) are all controlled by the forebrain, or cerebrum. The 
power of speech and of writing, and our more complicated 
actions, as well as consciousness-the knowledge of ourselves 
and our feelings and of the world about us-are all dependent 
upon the cerebrum and are lost if this part of the brain is 
injured. The simpler reflexes-such as the movements of 
balance or the tendency to draw back a part of the body 
when it is hurt-can be carried on by the lower part of the THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
165 
brain and the cord even when the cerebrum has been de- 
stroyed. 
Habits and Their Importance.-The example of learning 
to ride a bicycle illustrates 
the importance of habit in 
daily life. Every time a 
certain act is performed, it 
becomes easier to do that 
thing again. The gray 
matter in the brain makes 
any nerve connection more 
readily the second time. 
It would probably be hard 
for you to keep tossing up 
and catching one ball a 
great many times without 
missing it. The jugglers in 
a circus, however, can keep 
half a dozen balls in the 
air without dropping one, 
simply because they have 
practiced until they have 
trained their reflexes so 
that eye and hand work 
perfectly together. 
It is not only in juggling 
balls, and in other physical 
actions, that the forming of 
habits is important. There 
are mental habits, too. The training of a soldier consists not 
only in teaching him how to use his gun, but also in teaching 
him to be brave and obedient and to do what he is told by 
Fig. 67.-The success of the juggler 
comes from the patient training of 
muscle and of nerve until the skill of 
eye and hand becomes a habit. 166 
HEALTHY LIVING 
his officer without a second's delay. The qualities of courage 
and obedience, which are needed among soldiers, are just as 
necessary in everyday life. People do not live in a world by 
themselves, like Robinson Crusoe. We must all work to- 
gether, and if we are to be useful and lovable and are to get 
on in the world, we must learn to do quickly what we are 
Fig. 68.-Keeping step. It is only by the formation of good habits that 
men are able to march together or to work together with success. 
told by those in authority. Obedience is a habit which can 
be learned only by obeying. Cheerfulness and politeness are 
habits which become easier every time we practice them. 
Courage is a habit. Each time we master a difficult lesson, 
or perform an unpleasant task for the sake of some one else, 
we have blazed a trail that will make the way smoother next 
time. 
Unfortunately the same thing holds true of bad habits. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
167 
Some people unconsciously allow themselves to form habits 
of disobedience, surliness, and cowardice which become so 
fixed that they can scarcely be overcome. 
It may help us to realize the importance of doing the 
right thing, if we remember that every act and choice of 
ours really makes a kind of mark upon our nervous system 
which influences our future acts and choices. The time to 
form habits is in youth, when the nervous system and its 
reflexes are most easily influenced. You can bend a young 
sapling or even tie it in a knot; but when it has grown into a 
tree, nothing can change its form, except breaking it to bits. 
It is somewhat so with ourselves. A child can form habits 
easily, but a man who did not form good habits in youth has 
hard work to change afterward. 
Hygiene of the Nervous System.-The nervous system, 
like the other parts of the body, needs rest to keep it healthy; 
and since the nerve cells of the cerebrum are working very 
hard all the time we are awake, their need for rest is par- 
ticularly great. Fatigue after great physical or mental 
labor is caused by the fact that the muscles or the nerves 
have been worked so hard that waste products have col- 
lected too fast to be carried off by the blood and lymph, and 
are poisoning the tissues which produced them. Fatigue is 
nature's danger signal and should always be heeded. In the 
hurry and pressure of modern life, many people forget this 
and drive their bodies so hard that they break down and 
have nervous prostration or some other mental disease. 
It is not hard work that causes these breakdowns so 
much as long-continued work and worry. A healthy body 
and brain will stand hard work. If a man tries to hold a 
heavy weight in the air too long, however, he may strain 
himself seriously; and it is much the same with the mind. 168 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Long concentrated work of one kind is particularly harmful. 
If people were wiser, they would realize that they can ac- 
complish more and keep in better health by working for 
shorter periods and resting between. Some kinds of amuse- 
ments, like social gayeties, may be carried so far as to be 
more tiring than work itself; and many girls and women 
break down from working too hard at this kind of play. 
When we do work, however, it is well to work seriously. 
Children, and grown people too, waste an enormous amount 
of time by half-working, letting their minds wander while 
they gaze out of the window. The habit of concentrating 
the mind can be steadily strengthened by practice, and it is 
one of the finest habits that any boy or girl can form. 
Worry and crossness are very wearing, and one fit of 
anger harms the nervous system more than hours of hard 
work. It is important to form the habit of even-tempered 
cheerfulness, and this is possible for every one in a con- 
siderable degree. A cheerful person can do far more work 
and feel less tired than a cross and worrying one. 
Rest and Play.-There are many ways of resting the 
brain and nerves; and people differ greatly in their rest 
needs. Some are rested by a change of work. In general, 
any occupation which calls for varied kinds of mental 
activity is much less of a strain than doing the same thing 
all the time. Many people get their rest or recreation 
(a very good word, since it means re-creation or building up 
again) by turning to some hobby, such as gardening, or 
studying birds, or collecting stamps or insects. These 
hobbies keep the mind active and interested, but call for the 
use of different brain cells from those which are used in 
daily work. The habit of reading is a great help to many 
people, who always turn to a book for relaxation. Others THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
169 
who do much brain work like to rest the nervous system by 
vigorous physical exercise, such as tennis, or by long walks 
in the open air; and some people's ideal of rest is to lie in a 
hammock or under an apple tree. 
The Importance of Sleep.-The only complete rest for 
both body and mind is in sleep, and no one can keep healthy 
without satisfying this need. In sleep, the blood supply 
going to the brain is so decreased that we lose consciousness; 
that is, we do not think or feel or have any knowledge of 
what is going on about us. The depth or completeness of 
sleep varies. During the first part of the night one usually 
sleeps soundly, while toward morning it becomes more and 
more easy to wake up to full consciousness. Halfway be- 
tween sleep and waking is the land of dreams in which, as 
the blood goes back into the brain and the nerve cells begin 
to act again, strange memories and associations of all kinds 
form a curious, confused picture in the mind. In a state of 
deep and dreamless sleep, the cells of the nervous system 
are best able to free themselves of their waste products 
and build themselves up again for the work of the coming 
day. 
Individuals vary in the amount of sleep they require, al- 
though most grown people need about eight hours. Chil- 
dren who are growing fast and leading an active life need 
more, ten hours at least, and babies sleep from fifteen to 
twenty hours out of the twenty-four. It never pays to re- 
duce the hours needed for sleep, except now and then for 
some special emergency. 
When one has been working very hard, or is "run down" 
by illness, or for any other reason needs special care, it is 
a great help to take a nap in the middle of the day, or even 
to lie down and rest a half hour without actually going to 170 
HEALTHY LIVING 
sleep. A little rest which breaks the day's work is more 
useful than a much longer time added to the night's sleep. 
i. How does the nervous system enable the various organs 
to work together? 
2. Give examples of how the work of the skin, the lungs, 
and the intestines is varied to meet different outside conditions. 
3. What do we mean by the central nervous system? The 
sympathetic system? What is the work of each? 
4. What are nerve fibers? Nerve cells? Where are each 
located? 
5. What is the difference between a sensory nerve fiber and 
a motor nerve fiber? Compare with telephone wires. 
6. Which are better protected, the brain and spinal cord, 
or the nerve fibers? 
7. How does the size of a man's brain compare with that of 
other animals? Is a man's brain smoother or does it have more 
ridges than the brains of other animals? 
8. What is the gray matter in the central nervous system? 
Where is it located? 
9. Describe the brain and tell the special work of the dif- 
ferent parts. 
10. What is a reflex action? Give examples. 
11. What is the use of reflex actions? 
12. Some reflexes do not have to be learned (we say they are 
"instinctive"); others have to be acquired by practice. Give 
examples of each kind of reflex. 
13. Under what control are the feet when we are learning to 
skate? After we have learned? 
14. Why is it that after learning to play the piano you do not 
have to stop to think what notes to strike? 
15. Are all reflexes useful? Name some that are harmful. 
How may they be controlled? 
Questions for Discussion and Review THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
171 
i6. What do we mean by inhibitions? Give examples of in- 
hibitions which would make you a better citizen. 
17. How do inhibitions play a part in learning to be brave? 
In learning a fire drill? 
18. Can the process of digestion be controlled by the will? 
Can perspiration be controlled? Breathing? 
19. Can habits of courage be acquired? Is telling the truth 
a habit? 
20. Why is it important not to allow yourself to say "ain't" 
or "haven't got," even in fun? 
21. Apply to some definite case these rules for habit forma- 
tion: 
1. When you have decided what to do, do it at the first 
opportunity that arises. 
2. Repeat it as often as possible. 
3. Do not let a single exception occur. 
22. What is fatigue? Does it occur in muscles? In nerves? 
23. Cheerfulness makes a smoothly running machine. Cross- 
ness and worry take the oil out of the joints and bearings. Under 
which of these conditions does the machine do better work? 
24. How do nerves rest? 
25. "All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy." Why is 
play beneficial? 
26. Why is sleep necessary? Make a set of rules for sleep, 
including number of hours, air, bed, and bedding. 
27. What is the use of a nap in the middle of the day? CHAPTER XV 
ALCOHOL AND HABIT-FORMING DRUGS AND 
THEIR EFFECTS UPON EFFICIENCY 
Effects of Drugs.-The difference between foods and 
drugs has been pointed out, and the effects of certain drugs, 
particularly alcohol, upon the physical health of the body 
have been discussed at various places in this book. We 
have seen that alcohol and other poisons may gravely injure 
the digestive system, heart, blood vessels, kidneys, and liver. 
Their most serious effects, however, are exerted upon the 
nervous system and are closely related to the general effi- 
ciency of the body as a nervous mechanism. This prob- 
lem is so important as to deserve discussion in a separate 
chapter. 
Alcohol not a Stimulant.-It was once believed that al- 
cohol was a useful stimulant, and that alcoholic drinks could 
be used to whip up the bodily machine to make special 
efforts in some great emergency. It was pointed out in 
Chapter VIII that alcohol is not really a useful stimulant so 
far as physical exertion is concerned, and after our study of 
the nervous system we can understand better just what the 
action of alcohol really is. 
Alcohol, like many other drugs, acts chiefly on the 
nervous system; it does not serve to make any part of the 
nervous system work more readily, but numbs or puts to 
sleep certain parts of it. It acts first of all on the inhibi- 
tions, with the result that some of the nerve actions which 
would ordinarily be inhibited or held in check are allowed 
172 ALCOHOL AND HABIT-FORMING DRUGS 
173 
to go on more freely. This seems like a stimulation or in- 
crease of power, but it is really only a breakdown of the 
system of control. The situation is somewhat similar to the 
case of a runaway horse. The horse is no stronger, but is 
much more dangerous, when it is running away than when it 
is held firmly by the reins in the hands of a skilled driver. 
A person slightly under the influence of alcohol may, for 
instance, talk more and speak more loudly than normally, 
simply because his thoughtfulness and self-respect and 
courtesy have been forgotten. Still larger doses of alcohol 
carry the numbing effect further. The brain becomes more 
and more clouded, the speech thick, the gait unsteady, and 
finally a heavy and unnatural sleep may result, followed by 
headache and acute discomfort on awaking. 
At all stages the alcohol is acting, in lesser or greater 
degree, not as a stimulant but as a narcotic-that is, a drug 
that puts the nervous system or some part of it to sleep, and 
numbs the faculties and powers of the body. 
The Changing Viewpoint about Alcohol.-These facts 
were not fully understood until recent years. In former 
times, people used wine and beer and strong drinks much 
more freely than they do to-day, for no one realized how 
much harm was done by them. In some of the older books 
you read, you may find the use of alcoholic drinks treated 
as if it were a rather fine thing. No one who has studied 
the matter to-day, however, doubts that alcohol is a grave 
danger and a damage to mankind. 
While the writer was first preparing this chapter (before 
prohibition became a law), two things came to his notice 
which illustrated this changing point of view. In a book 
by a great physician, he read a passage describing a shoot- 
ing competition fifty years ago, when the physician and the 174 
HEALTHY LIVING 
other men who were shooting for prizes drank champagne 
freely during the match, with no idea that it would harm 
their accuracy. The day after reading this passage, the 
writer heard a friend describe his work in getting up rifle 
clubs in which men are learning to defend their country if 
the need should come. The friend said, "We find these rifle 
clubs are great things for the men. It keeps them out of the 
saloon, for of course they all know that they cannot shoot 
straight if they drink." 
Laboratory Studies of the Effect of Alcohol on Efficiency. 
Many physiologists, who have carefully studied the effect 
of alcohol upon various activities of the body, have found 
that the use of alcoholic drinks interferes in a marked 
degree with work that requires accuracy and quickness. 
The power of learning by heart or memorizing, accuracy in 
adding columns of figures, and speed and accuracy in setting 
type in printing offices have all been studied in this way, 
with similar results. 
The most thorough and careful work of this kind is that 
which has been carried out by Professor F. G. Benedict and 
his associates in the Carnegie Nutrition Laboratory at 
Boston. The way these studies were made can be under- 
stood by considering one of the many tests that were ap- 
plied, first to young men who took no alcohol, and then, on 
another day, to the same young men before and after taking 
a dose of the drug. 
In the particular test in question, words of four letters 
were printed on a surface which moved along behind a 
screen. In this screen there was a slit through which each 
word could be seen as it passed. By an electrical apparatus, 
the exact time at which the word appeared was recorded to a 
fraction of a second. When the man who was being ex- ALCOHOL AND HABIT-FORMING DRUGS 
175 
perimented with saw the word, he pronounced it as quickly 
as possible, and the time at which the sound of his voice 
was heard was accurately recorded by an electrical in- 
strument connected with a kind of telephone receiver. The 
difference between the time when the word appeared and 
Fig. 69.-Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, showing the elaborate 
apparatus used in testing the effect of alcohol on efficiency. 
the time when it was pronounced was a measure of the 
quickness of action of his nerves and brain and speech 
muscles. 
This was only one of the many reflex reactions of the body 
which were studied by Dr. Benedict. He measured the 
rate of closing the eyelid in response to a movement in front 
of it; the quickness with which the eye could be turned to 
look from one thing to another; the quickness of finger 176 
HEALTHY LIVING 
movements; the sensitiveness of the skin to slight electric 
currents; and the power to memorize words. The tests of 
memory and another of the more complicated tests showed 
but slight effects from the amount of alcohol used in these ex- 
periments; all the other tests (nine in all), however, showed 
a decrease in quickness or accuracy of from 3 to 46 per cent 
in the persons who had taken alcohol. This indicates very 
clearly that this drug tends seriously to interfere with the 
working of the nervous machinery of the body and to make 
its reactions slow and clumsy. 
Relation of Alcoholic Indulgence to^ Accidents.-The 
fact that alcoholic drinks interfere in this way with the 
quick and accurate working of the living machine makes 
alcohol very often a factor in more or less serious accidents. 
A great number of automobile accidents are due to the 
driver's being under the influence of liquor, and the same 
connection is observed in industrial life. European statistics 
of sickness insurance societies (which make weekly payment 
to their members when disabled) show a larger number of 
accidents on Monday than on any other day of the week. 
This is generally explained as being the result of intemper- 
ance during the holiday, although it is probably in part due 
to other causes. An American ironworks reported that there 
was a decrease of 54 per cent in the number of accidents in 
the plant during the first six months after the saloons in the 
town were closed. 
There are laws in many states which provide for Work- 
men's Compensation, or the payment of a sum of money 
to men injured while at work, and almost all of them pro- 
vide that no payment shall be made in the case of accidents 
due to intoxication-showing how generally alcohol is rec- 
ognized as a cause of industrial accidents. ALCOHOL AND HABIT-FORMING DRUGS 
177 
Alcohol and Industry.-Some years ago it came to be 
clearly recognized that alcohol and efficiency in business 
and industry do not go together. 
The Commissioner of Labor of the United States in his 
Twelfth Annual Report (1897-1898) on Economic Aspects of 
the Liquor Problem reported the attitude of employers at 
that time, as indicated by replies to a circular letter from 
establishments employing a million and three quarters of 
workers. Of 6976 employers, 5363 reported that in em- 
ploying new men they considered the applicant's use of 
liquor as an important factor. In some establishments, no 
one known to use intoxicating liquors was employed, while 
in others the rule applied only to especially responsible or 
dangerous kinds of work. The use of alcohol was pro- 
hibited on or off duty for all employees in 696 establish- 
ments, and for certain groups of employees in 1283. The 
use of alcohol while on duty was forbidden for all employees 
in 855 establishments and for certain groups of employees 
in 692 more. 
A later study of this question, presented by Dr. Alexander 
Fleisher at the National Conference of Charities and Cor- 
rections at Indianapolis, May 14, 1916, shows that there 
had been rapid and general progress along the same lines. 
Of ten railroads, employing 400,000 employees, all reported 
rules in regard to the use of alcohol, of which the following 
is an example, although some of the rules were not quite 
so stringent: "The use of intoxicants by employees subject 
to call is prohibited. Their use by any employee or the 
frequenting of places where they are sold is sufficient cause 
for dismissal." 
One railroad official wrote in regard to this question, 
"The policy of the company, as expressed by its chief officers 178 
HEALTHY LIVING 
in their personal lives and influence, is to eliminate entirely 
the use of intoxicants, whether on or off duty. With that 
idea in view, the sale of intoxicants has been taken off dining 
cars and out of all eating houses where the company is in 
absolute control. This has been done so as to show the 
employees an actual example of the desire of the company 
to remove intoxicants from its premises, and to let those 
who wish to use them obtain them off the lines of the road 
rather than on railroad property." 
Much the same feeling is shown in the replies received by 
Dr. Fleisher from street railroads, telephone and gas com- 
panies, department stores, mining companies, steel com- 
panies, and various manufacturing plants. In these indus- 
tries, rules against the use of alcohol were not so severe as in 
railroading, where a moment's slip may mean great danger 
to hundreds of people. In almost all of them, however, the 
danger of alcohol was clearly recognized, and everything 
possible was done to encourage and advance the man who 
did not drink. 
One street railway company employing 8000 men, for 
instance, had a strict rule against the use of intoxicating 
liquors and the visiting of saloons. Every applicant for a 
job was questioned under oath, and if he used intoxicating 
liquor he was not employed. Of four steel companies, one 
prohibited the use of alcohol by employees at any time and 
the other three issued notices to the workmen stating that 
they hoped the men would not use intoxicating liquors, 
that any one using such liquors while on duty would be dis- 
charged, and that the man who did not drink would always 
be given first chance of promotion. 
Dr. Fleisher sums up the results of his study as follows: 
"We have returns from the employers of 750,000 in- ALCOHOL AND HABIT-FORMING DRUGS 
179 
dividuals; this is four per cent of those engaged in trade, 
transportation, and the mechanical and manufacturing 
industries of the United States. These employers forbid 
alcohol in their plants; in many instances its use is con- 
sidered in the promotion and retention of employees; its 
use at any time is prohibited in such industries as transpor- 
tation, and this practice is being followed by some industrial 
establishments. 
"This analysis indicates that a number of employers are 
making up their minds on the use of alcohol by their em- 
ployees. By whatever reasoning they are arriving at their 
conclusion-whether they feel it is in the interest of the 
public, of the employee, or of good business-they seem to 
be taking a stand against the man who uses alcohol. They 
are not considering the intricate questions of the effects of 
alcohol on the mind and body-these preliminaries have 
been ignored; they find the non-drinker the more satisfac- 
tory employee." 
Relation of Alcohol to Nervous Diseases.-So far in this 
chapter we have been dealing, for the most part, with the 
effects of even moderate doses of alcohol in lowering effi- 
ciency. It must always be remembered, however, that 
the harm done to habitual drinkers is very much more 
serious, and a word should be said as to the dangers of a 
continued use of this poison. 
Many unfortunate individuals, without knowing it, come 
to use more and more alcohol as time goes on. The ner- 
vous system gradually comes to crave the effect and requires 
larger and larger doses to satisfy this craving. Each day 
the habit seems harder to break off. The moral strength, 
the will, may be undermined in such a case till the victim 
becomes a helpless slave to his habit. 180 
HEALTHY LIVING 
The poisonous effects of large and continued doses of 
alcohol are, of course, very serious. In addition to the injury 
to the heart and blood vessels, the kidneys and the liver, it is 
likely that the nervous system may break down. The state 
of physical, mental, and moral weakness which follows is 
one of the most pitiable conditions into which a person can 
fall. 
A recent report of a New Zealand State Board of Insanity 
estimated that about io per cent of a group of insane 
persons owed their condition to the excessive use of al- 
cohol. Other authorities place the proportion much higher. 
The Cost of Alcohol.-The price which society has paid 
for the use of alcohol is a heavy one. 
Dr. A. B. Armstrong of the New York Association for 
Improving the Condition of the Poor has outlined some of 
the factors in this burden laid on us by alcohol, as follows: 
i. The Annual Cost: The annual cost of the production 
and importation of alcoholic beverages in the United States 
was about $610,000,000. What would this mean in accom- 
plishment if the same funds could be devoted to constructive 
education, to scientific research, or to disease prevention? 
2. The Waste from Disease: Besides the not easily meas- 
ured incapacity and inefficiency resulting from long con- 
tinued, even moderate, drinking, we have had the unneces- 
sary diseases and death from physical and mental causes, 
involving a tremendous waste in human productivity and 
human life. 
3. The Industrial Waste: The application of sobriety to 
industry means efficiency, productivity, a decrease in 
accidents and sickness, and a decrease in wages lost, and 
in medical cost. Railroad companies and other industrial 
concerns long ago realized the necessity for restriction in ALCOHOL AND HABIT-FORMING DRUGS 
181 
this field and have attempted to control the habits of their 
workers, even during the hours when they are not actually 
employed. 
4. The Economic Wastage Resulting from Poverty, Desti- 
tution, and Crime. Under this heading, Dr. Armstrong re- 
views the conflicting evidence and concludes that to assign 
10 per cent of poverty and crime to the direct effect of 
alcohol would be a very conservative estimate. 
Alcohol and National Efficiency.-To sum up, it is clear 
that alcohol has done a great deal of harm to some people 
and a certain amount of harm to a great many people. The 
fact that some unfortunates might be ruined by this drug 
has made us all want to keep the danger out of their way. 
No man who wants to do anything difficult, and to do it 
well, would use alcohol beforehand. No surgeon about to 
perform a difficult operation would dream of taking a drink. 
No athlete would think of drinking before running a race. 
When a person wants to be at his best, to have his nerves 
and muscles and his whole body working most smoothly 
and effectively, he does not use a drug. 
So it is-with nations. The evil effects of alcoholic drinks 
upon national efficiency, and the wastefulness involved, 
were strikingly recognized in the World War. The Rus- 
sian government stopped the sale of vodka (the Russian 
strong drink), and the governments of France and England 
passed laws to restrict drinking. As soon as the European 
nations wanted to be at their best, to meet a great crisis, 
they laid aside the burden of alcohol. 
At a public meeting held on March 9, 1916, David Lloyd 
George, the great English statesman, then head of the 
government department engaged in organizing the manu- 
facture of munitions, made a remarkable statement about 182 
HEALTHY LIVING 
the alcohol problem. He said: "It will be so much better to 
settle this question by general consent. If we do, the war, 
horrible as it is, will have paid for itself. There are many 
Fig. 70.-A Saloon transformed into a Life Saving Station. With the pas- 
sage of the Prohibition Amendment which abolished the sale of alcoholic 
liquors in the United States, many people began to ask what should be 
found to take the place of the saloon. The Nurses Settlement in New 
York answered this question in one instance by turning an old saloon 
into a Health Center from which nurses go out to care for the sick and to 
teach the rules of health to the nearby community. 
things which I hope we can accomplish through this war. 
There are many changes at home, changes in the outlook of 
the nation, changes in its temper, changes in its attitude of ALCOHOL AND HABIT-FORMING DRUGS 
183 
mind, changes in its industries; but this will be the greatest 
and most beneficent change of all if we succeed in carrying 
it through. If we can possibly convince the nation that suc- 
cess depends very largely upon removing this drag on its 
efficiency, then I feel confident that we shall regard this as 
our greatest triumph." 
In the United States, as in Europe, the critical conditions 
of the World War demanded action on the alcohol problem. 
We have seen that scientific investigations and practical 
business experience had made it clear before 1917 that al- 
cohol was a foe to national health and to national efficiency. 
When the United States entered the war in that year, the 
time had come to act. The first step was to forbid the use 
of alcoholic liquors by men in the uniform of the army or 
navy7. The second step was inspired particularly by the 
waste of valuable food materials involved in the manufac- 
ture of beers and distilled liquors; it consisted in the stop- 
page of brewing and of the manufacture of spirits on De- 
cember 1, 1918. The third of these war measures estab- 
lished universal national prohibition, to go into effect 
July 1st, 1919, and to continue until demobilization of our 
armies was completed. Meanwhile an amendment to the 
Constitution of the United States, providing for permanent 
nation-wide prohibition, had received the approval of three 
fourths of the states of the Union, to go into force January, 
1920, and the United States thus became a prohibition 
nation. 
Dangerous Medicines.-It is important to remember that 
both alcohol and many harmful and habit-forming drugs 
are often taken unknowingly in various kinds of patent med- 
icine. Some of the commonest and most widely advertised 
"tonics" and "spring medicines" owe any effect they have 184 
HEALTHY LIVING 
to the fact that they are composed largely of alcohol. 
Remedies supposed to cure catarrh, tuberculosis, and other 
diseases often contain opiates that may lead to a drug habit. 
Medicines advertised to soothe babies usually contain mor- 
phine or opium, and headache cures frequently contain 
deadly poisons, such as acetanilide. No one should ever use 
such preparations without first consulting a physician. 
The well person has no need of drugs of any kind, and if one 
is ill enough to need drugs, he is ill enough to benefit by 
Fig. 71.-Relative amounts of alcohol in certain intoxicating 
liquors and in a popular patent medicine. 
medical advice. Very often the physician will not suggest 
medicines at all but a change in food, more rest or exercise, 
or some other precaution in the way of hygienic living. 
The Tobacco Habit.-Tobacco is not a habit-forming 
drug in the sense that opium and morphine are, but it 
is somewhat like them, since people who smoke are very 
likely to get into the habit of smoking more and more. The 
effects of tobacco, when used by grown people, are much 
less serious than those of alcohol, though tobacco contains 
nicotine and other poisons in small amounts. The digestion ALCOHOL AND HABIT-FORMING DRUGS 
185 
and the action of the heart may be seriously affected, how- 
ever, by smoking. The hand of a confirmed smoker often 
trembles from the effect of tobacco on the nerves, and 
youths who smoke are generally considered unreliable in 
their work, so that many people will not employ them. 
As in the case of alcohol, the cost of tobacco is, in the 
aggregate, a serious burden on the economic resources of 
the nation. 
Tobacco is especially harmful to young people, and no 
boy under twenty who cares for his health and strength and 
success in after life can afford to handicap himself by the 
use of cigarettes. 
Statistics gathered in many different schools and colleges 
have shown that boys and young men who smoke make 
a worse showing in their studies than do non-smokers. 
Professor F. J. Pack, in a study of the scholastic records of a 
group of football players, found that 101 non-smokers had 
marks averaging 79.4, while the marks of 81 smokers 
averaged 74.5. In another series of cases, 82 smokers had 
70 conditions and failures, and 98 non-smokers had 43. 
Dean Briggs of Harvard says, "The peculiar evil in 
cigarettes I leave for scientific men to explain; I know 
merely that among college students the excessive cigarette 
smokers are recognized even by other smokers as repre- 
senting the feeblest form of intellectual and moral life." 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. What did we learn about the effects of alcohol on the 
heart and the blood vessels? On the kidneys and the liver? 
2. What mistaken idea do some people have about the effect 
of alcohol on the bodily machine? 
3. To what organs does alcohol do the greatest harm? 186 
HEALTHY LIVING 
4. In a telephone system, if the wires are interfered with, the 
messages are either confused or lost, and everything depending 
upon that system is upset. Compare this with a nervous sys- 
tem under the influence of alcohol. 
5. Recall the use of inhibitions. Give an example. Suppose 
that these inhibitions were temporarily removed by the in- 
fluence of alcohol. What would be the result? 
6. Give an example (not in the text) of a force which is 
valuable when controlled, and dangerous when turned 
loose. 
7. In the story of the rifle clubs (page 174), why c< uld not the 
men frequent saloons and shoot well? Do you think that this 
would apply to basket ball or football? 
8. Describe Professor Benedict's experiment to test the 
effect of alcohol on quickness and accuracy. What does this 
show? 
9. How does the use of alcohol cause accidents in traffic and 
in industry? 
10. Do you think an employer had a right to say that the men 
he employed should not drink intoxicating liquors? 
11. Make a list of the effects of alcohol which endanger a 
man's health. Make a list of those which make him a poor 
citizen and an undesirable employee. 
12. Are the physical effects of alcohol permanent or tem- 
porary? 
13. Two men had to make an important business decision. 
One went to bed early the preceding night. In the morning he 
took a quick cold bath and a good rubdown, ate a light break- 
fast, and walked to his appointment. The other stayed up late 
to prepare his arguments, slept poorly because his brain was 
over-tired, rose rather late, and hurried to the appointment. 
On his way he took a drink to brace himself for the meeting. 
Apparently the two men were in equally good condition. Whose 
judgment would you be more willing to trust? Give your 
reasons. ALCOHOL AND HABIT-FORMING DRUGS 
187 
14- Discuss some of the principal items in the cost of alcohol. 
15. Why did America adopt the Prohibition Amendment to 
the Constitution? 
16. Why is it important that all medicines be plainly and 
truthfully labelled, to show what they contain? 
17. What are some of the evils of the tobacco habit? 
18. In what ways does smoking affect one's efficiency? CHAPTER XVI 
THE SENSE ORGANS 
How We Learn What Goes on about Us.-The nervous 
system not only keeps all the different parts of the body 
working together, but constantly regulates and alters their 
activities to meet conditions in the world outside. We are 
all the time looking up to see something, reaching out to 
grasp something, listening to hear something. How does 
the nervous system get the messages from the outside world 
which enable it to do this work so quickly and accurately? 
Have you ever noticed the queer things that children do 
when they are playing blindman's buff or trying blindfolded 
to pin the tail on the donkey? Have you ever tried to do for 
five minutes with your eyes shut any of the things you do 
in your daily life? It is easy to see in this way how depend- 
ent we are upon our eyes. But the eyes are not the only 
doors through which messages enter the brain. With our 
eyes shut, we can still hear, feel, taste, and smell. We can 
hardly imagine what the world would be like to us, if all 
these senses were taken away. 
There are many different senses by which we learn what is 
going on about us, but five of them are so much more 
familiar than the rest that they are generally called the five 
senses. These are sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. 
The Senses Compared to the Telephone.-In the ordinary 
telephone, there is at one end an instrument called the 
transmitter, into which a person speaks, and at the other 
end an instrument called the receiver, which another person 
188 THE SENSE ORGANS 
189 
holds to his ear. A wire runs between these two parts. In 
our bodies, the brain and spinal cord correspond to the re- 
ceiver; the sense organs-such as the eyes and ears-are 
like the transmitter; and the nerves run between these 
parts, like the wires. The sense organs respond to light or 
sound or some other influence from outside, and pass on 
a message that is sent up along the nerve to the spinal 
cord or brain. 
The Structure of the Eye.-The eyes are in some ways 
the most beautiful and most useful of all the sense organs of 
the body. They teach us the greater part of what we know 
about the world. Through them we perceive the beauty of 
sun, trees, and flowers, and through them we are able to 
learn what people in other ages have thought and done, by 
looking at the things 
they have made and 
reading the books they 
have written. 
The eye (as shown in 
Fig. 72) is somewhat 
like a camera. In the 
front is a transparent 
lens, which makes a lit- 
tle picture at the back of the eye, just as the lens in the 
camera makes a picture on the film or plate, by bending the 
rays of light that pass through it. The lens in the eye is 
not hard like glass, however, and its shape can be changed 
so as to make it flatter or rounder, by the pull of tiny 
muscles and membranes attached to it. 
At the back of the eye is the retina, which corresponds to 
the sensitive plate in the camera. There the light sets up 
chemical changes that make the picture. Color blindness, 
Fig. 72.-The structure of the eye. 190 
HEALTHY LIVING 
or the inability to distinguish certain colors (usually red and 
green), is due to the lack of substances which are found in 
the normal retina. 
In the retina, the picture of what we are seeing is changed 
into a nerve message which passes to the brain by way of 
the large optic nerve. By means of this nerve message, and 
the connections that it makes in the brain, we know what the 
picture is that is formed on the retina. It is with the brain 
that we really see consciously, and in the brain the mes- 
sages brought from the eye are passed on from one nerve 
cell to another till they lead to action. The picture on the 
retina would be nothing but a dead picture without the 
nerve and brain behind it. 
The most important parts of the eye, the lens and the 
retina, are inclosed in a nearly'spherical eyeball. There 
are three coats or layers in the wall of the eyeball, the 
sclerotic (skle rot'ik) coat, the choroid (kd' roid) coat, and 
the retina itself. 
The sclerotic is the tough outside coat which incloses the 
whole eyeball, except where the nerve passes in at the back. 
It is white in color, except in the middle of the front of the 
eye, where it becomes transparent. This transparent win- 
dow is the cornea. The part of the sclerotic coat around the 
cornea is what we call the white of the eye. 
Inside the sclerotic lies the choroid coat, which has a cir- 
cular opening in front, opposite the middle part of the 
cornea. The part of the choroid coat around this opening 
forms a kind of curtain, called the iris, which can be ex- 
panded so as to make the central opening smaller, or drawn 
back so as to make it larger. It is the iris which we see as a 
colored ring when we look into a person's eye (the part 
which makes the eye black or blue or brown). The dark THE SENSE ORGANS 
191 
central opening, the pupil, is the opening behind the cornea 
by which the light passes to the lens. 
The large space behind the lens is filled with a trans- 
parent jelly-like substance called the vitreous humor; 
the space between the lens and the cornea with a watery 
fluid, the aqueous humor. 
How the Eye Accommodates Itself to Changing Condi- 
tions.-In a dark room the iris is drawn back so that the 
pupil is very large. In a bright light it shuts in, as if it were 
drawn by a puckering string on the inside edge, and makes 
the pupil smaller and smaller. In this way the amount of 
light that enters the eye is regulated. When you go into a 
dark room, you cannot see clearly till the iris has had time 
to open and let in more light. 
If you have ever taken photographs or watched some one 
else taking them, you know that the camera has to be 
focused; that is, it has to be adjusted a little, according to 
the distance of the thing to be photographed. When you 
have taken a picture of an object near at hand and then 
want to take one of a building some distance away, you have 
to focus, by moving a screw which changes the distance 
between the lens and the plate. The eye has to do some- 
what the same thing. Look at a pencil a few inches from 
your eyes and then look quickly to the other end of the 
room. For a second, while your eye is focusing, everything 
will look blurred. 
In the case of the eye, this focusing is done, not by chang- 
ing the distance between the lens and the retina, but by a 
change in the shape of the lens itself. When the eye is at 
rest or looking at something a long way off, the lens is quite 
flattened; but when we look at an object near at hand, tiny 
muscles in the eye contract in such a way that the lens HEALTHY LIVING 
192 
becomes more rounded. Rays of light are bent by a flat lens 
so as to make a picture of far-off objects, and by a more 
curved lens, so as to make a picture of things near at hand. 
This adjustment of the eye which is necessary when we 
change from looking at things far off to things near by, or 
the reverse, is called accommodation. 
Fig. 73.-How the schoolroom looks to the normal child. 
The Protection of the Eye.-The eye is very carefully 
protected by a deep socket-setting with a bony ring around 
it, by a soft lining of fat, and by the eyebrow above. It is 
also protected by the eyelid, a fold of skin which helps to 
keep out too much light, and which closes instantly at any 
sudden motion that seems to threaten injury. The eye- 
lashes help to guard the eye from dust. 
The Lachrymal Gland.-In the outer corner of each eye 
is the lachrymal gland, which pours out a liquid to wash the THE SENSE ORGANS 
193 
eye and keep it clean. Ordinarily this liquid is formed very 
slowly, and after passing across the eye is carried off by a 
small channel into the back of the nose. Sometimes, if a 
person is angry or hurt or sad, a reflex nervous action causes 
the lachrymal gland to secrete very rapidly. The liquid 
gathers in the eye and overflows, and we call it tears. 
Fig. 74.-How the schoolroom looks to the near-sighted child. 
The Function of Eyeglasses.-The eye is a complicated 
organ and in many people it does not work perfectly. 
In order that we may see clearly, the lens must focus, 
or form its picture, exactly on the screen of the retina. 
In some eyes the lens is curved too little, or is too close to 
the retina. People with such eyes cannot see things near at 
hand without effort, in spite of the contraction of the eye 
muscles; we call such people far-sighted. 
Other people have lenses that are curved too much. They 
can read a book in their hands but cannot see a blackboard 194 
HEALTHY LIVING 
across the room clearly. Such people are said to be near- 
sighted. 
Another kind of eye trouble, called astigmatism, is 
caused by an irregular shape of the cornea or of the lens, 
which bends the light rays so that they do not come to a 
clear focus. 
Fig. 75.-A test of vision. The upper line of letters should be read at 30 
feet, the middle line at 20 feet, the lower line at 15 feet. 
Sometimes a child seems to be stupid just because his eyes 
have some of these defects and he does not see clearly. If 
one keeps on trying to see with eyes that do not focus well, 
the muscles of accommodation are constantly strained, and 
bad headaches or nervousness or other troubles may result. 
All such difficulties may generally be cured at once by the 
use of eyeglasses. The lenses in the eyeglasses are shaped 
so as to correct the defects of the cornea and lens by bending THE SENSE ORGANS 
195 
the light rays so that they will make a clear picture. A good 
oculist can find out just what is wrong with the eyes and 
have a pair of glasses made to correct the trouble. With the 
right kind of glasses, a person can see clearly and without 
- constant strain on the focusing muscles. 
The use of eyeglasses often makes a wonderful change in a 
child's life, makes him better at school work and in games, 
and cures him of headaches and other troubles that were due 
Fig. 76.-With one eye closed, look at either of these figures. If the 
lines appear blurred, astigmatism is present. 
to weak eyes. If you have to hold a book very close to your 
eyes when you read, if the writing on the blackboard does 
not look distinct to you, if you have headaches, if your eyes 
hurt you after you have been reading for a while, or if they 
are red and inflamed, you should have them examined. 
The examination of the eyes should always be made by a 
physician trained in this work (an oculist) and not in an 
eyeglass shop, for only a physician can do the work prop- 
erly. Eyeglasses that are not just right will do more harm 
than good and may seriously injure the eyes. It is a good 
plan, as a precaution, to have the eyes examined about once 
a year, whether they are known to give trouble or not. 196 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Examinations of the eyes of children in certain schools have 
shown that one out of every five needs eyeglasses. 
Some of the Ways in Which Eyes are Strained.-Whether 
we wear glasses or not, it is important to remember not to 
strain the eyes by using them too long at a time for close 
work, or by trying to read, sew, or do any other fine work in 
a poor light. Children often hurt their eyes by reading in 
the late afternoon when the light is failing. Too bright a 
light may be just as bad as too dim a light; and it is harmful 
to read with sunlight or lamplight glaring into the eyes or 
reflected directly from the paper. If you cannot see the 
writing on the blackboard clearly or if there is a glare of 
light in your eyes, you should ask to have the shades drawn 
up or down, or perhaps to have your seat changed. 
When one is reading, writing, or sewing, the light should 
come from the left side and from above, because in this way 
less shadow is cast on the work by the active right hand. 
The book or work should always be held at least twelve 
inches away from the eyes. 
A flickering, unsteady light is very trying, and reading on 
trains or cars is often harmful for this reason. We should 
not read when lying down, for this makes the eyes work in 
an unnatural position and always strains them. 
Directions as to the removal of cinders or other foreign 
bodies which may get into the eye will be found on 
page 243. 
The Ear and Its Functions.-When a stone is thrown into 
the water, waves spread out from it in all directions. When 
a person calls out, when a bell rings, or when any other 
noise is made, waves of air are produced which are some- 
what like these water waves. They are called sound waves. 
We cannot see them with the eyes or feel them with the THE SENSE ORGANS 
197 
hands, as in the case of the water waves, but the ear is 
made in such a way that it is affected by them. There are 
only certain kinds of sound waves that the ear can catch, 
and people vary somewhat in their power of detecting 
them. The cry of the bat, for instance, is so shrill that 
some people cannot hear it at all. 
The ear which we see on the outside of the head is just a 
kind of trumpet to catch the sound waves, and is not the 
Fig. 77.-The structure of the ear. 
real organ of hearing. It opens into a tube, at the end of 
which is a thin membrane called the ear drum. On the 
other side of the ear drum is a space called the middle ear, 
and beyond this is the inner ear, another curiously shaped 
space filled with liquid. 
When sound waves come into the outer ear, they make the 
delicate ear drum quiver. This moves a chain of three little 
bones that stretch from the drum across the middle ear. 
These bones carry the motion along to the fluid in the inner 
ear, where the 'nerves of hearing are situated, and where the 198 
HEALTHY LIVING 
movement of the fluid causes messages to pass along these 
nerves to the brain. 
From the middle ear there is an opening called the 
Eustachian tube, which enters the back of the throat. After 
a cold in the head, germs sometimes work their way up 
through this tube into the middle ear and cause serious 
disease and sometimes deafness. Pain or rumbling in the 
ears or discharge from the ears are signs of danger, and indi- 
cate that a good physician should be consulted. If a person 
has any reason to suspect that his hearing is not good, the 
source of the trouble should at once be sought. 
Wax in the ears is entirely normal. It is formed by small 
glands in the outer ear and helps to guard the approach to 
the ear drum. It should not be removed except when too 
much forms, and then only by a physician, as digging into 
the ear with pointed instruments may injure the delicate 
drum. 
The Organs of Taste and Smell.-There are many other 
organs of sensation in the body, much smaller and less 
familiar than the eyes and ears,-the organs of taste and 
smell, for example. 
If you look at your tongue closely in the glass, you will 
see many little ridges like tiny mountains and valleys cover- 
ing the whole upper surface. The organs of taste, called the 
taste buds, are situated in these little valleys. They are tiny 
rounded masses of cells, sensitive to the taste of certain sub- 
stances. The organs of smell are similar groups of sensitive 
cells with nerve connections, situated in the upper part of 
the nose. They are affected by different substances from 
those which affect the taste buds. 
It is with the sense organs of the tongue that we taste and 
distinguish sweet and salty things, sour and bitter things; THE SENSE ORGANS 
199 
but most of the flavors of food which we call "tastes" are 
really smells, perceived by the sense organs in the nose. 
(You remember that the nose and throat are directly con- 
nected by an opening at the back of the throat.) If you 
hold your nose so that no air can get up to these sense 
organs, most of the flavors of the things you eat will not be 
noticed at all. Sometimes during a severe cold in the head, 
when there is difficulty in breathing through the nose, these 
so-called tastes, which are really smells, are almost lost. 
The organs of smell are perhaps the most marvellously 
delicate sense organs of the body. Particles carried by the 
air, so small that they cannot be seen, upon coming in con- 
tact with these organs of smell will make one aware of odors. 
A bowl of dried rose leaves may stand in a room for a long 
time without losing enough of their substance to be de- 
tected by weighing on the most delicate scales, yet through 
all that time microscopic amounts of fragrant substances 
have been given off from the rose leaves and have affected 
the sense organs of the nose, so as to send an impulse up the 
nervesand produce in the brain the sensation of their charac- 
teristic odor. 
Other Sense Organs.-Scattered over the surface of the 
body are tiny end organs of the nerves with which we feel 
the touch of things, and others by which we distinguish heat 
and cold. 
These three kinds of sense organs appear to be distinct, 
some perceiving heat only and some cold only, while others 
serve for what we ordinarily call feeling. If careful studies 
are made of the power to feel very small hot and cold ob- 
jects, it is found that only certain areas of the skin (having 
cold sense organs) are sensitive to cold, while others (having 
heat sense organs) are sensitive to heat. Sense organs of 200 
HEALTHY LIVING 
touch are particularly numerous in some parts of the skin. 
The ends of the fingers, for instance, have a delicate sense of 
touch, but on the back and shoulders the sense of touch is 
very imperfect. If two blunt points an inch apart are 
placed on the back, you cannot tell whether two points or 
one are touching you. 
There are various other sensations-such as the sensa- 
tions of position, pain, hunger, and thirst-all of which are 
felt by means of nerves connected with special sense organs 
in various parts of the body. 
Questions tor Discussion and Review 
i. By what means do we learn what is going on in the world 
about us? 
2. Try this game. Place a person at one side of a large room, 
and tell him to look directly across at a certain point on the 
other wall. While he is looking, blindfold him, and then have 
him walk to the point indicated. Watch and see how reliable a 
guide his muscles are. If some one stood at the point of des- 
tination and spoke to the blindfolded person, what difference 
would it make? 
3. Name the special sense organs. Which of them seems to 
you the most valuable? 
4. What is the name of the outer coat of the eye? The 
middle? The inner? Describe each. 
5. Stand beside a person and look across the front of his 
eye. What is the transparent, slightly convex window which 
you see? 
6. What part of the eye regulates the amount of light that 
enters the eye? To what part of a camera does this corre- 
spond? 
7. Why is it that when you first go from a brightly lighted 
room into a dark room you cannot see so well as you can after 
you have been in the dark room a few moments? THE SENSE ORGANS 
201 
8. Have you ever tried "bending" a ray of light with a 
mirror? With a prism? A lens? What happens to the rays of 
light when you start a fire with a burning glass? 
9. In a camera, what does the lens do? How do you focus 
the lens so that the picture is formed clearly on the plate or film? 
10. Where must the picture be formed in the eye, in order 
that it may be seen clearly? 
11. How is the lens in the eye changed in focusing for different 
distances? 
12. Stand at a window and look at the glass, or better still at 
the window screen. Then look in the same direction at some 
point as far away as possible. See how the screen, or any mark 
on the glass, disappears. Look alternately at the screen and 
away, until you can feel the difference. What is happening in 
your eye? What name do we give to it? 
13. What must happen in the eye and behind it, in order that 
the brain may be conscious of the picture on the retina? 
14. In what ways is the eye protected from injury? 
15. What is the function of tears? Where do they come 
from and where do they go? 
16. What do we mean by near-sightedness? Far-sightedness? 
Astigmatism? What are glasses for? 
17. How can poor eyes make a child seem stupid? Does a 
child always know that he is not seeing as well as he should? 
How may such cases be tested? 
18. What are some of the indications of eyestrain? Should 
we wait for eyestrain to appear before we care for the eyes? 
19. If a person has to bring his work nearer than twelve inches 
from his eyes, what is probably the matter? 
20. Why is it harmful to the eyes to read on a train? By 
firelight? 
21. Make a set of rules for the care of the eyes. Also a set 
of "Don'ts." 
22. What is sound? Do sounds exist which the human ear 
cannot hear? 202 
HEALTHY LIVING 
23. What is the ear that we see on the outside of the head? 
What separates the outer ear from the middle ear? 
24. How do the vibrations from the air reach the middle 
ear? Explain the arrangement whereby these vibrations reach 
the nerves of hearing and, finally, the brain. 
25. What is the Eustachian tube? How does it sometimes 
become a source of danger? 
26. Of what use is the sense of taste? Where are the organs 
of taste located? What influence does taste have on digestion? 
27. Of what practical use is the sense of smell? How do the 
senses of taste and smell overlap one another? Give examples 
of so-called sensations of taste which are really sensations of 
smell. 
28. How do blind people make the sense of touch take the 
place of sight? Find out all you can about Helen Keller. She 
was blind, deaf, and dumb because she could not hear, but she 
learned to talk, and has gained a good education. CHAPTER XVII 
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 
The Development of Living Things.-One of the most 
interesting peculiarities of living things is that they all go 
through a regular and definite course of changes, forming a 
cycle, or circle, of development. Sometimes these changes 
Fig. 78.-The life cycle of an insect: A, egg; B, larva; 
C, pupa; D, adult. 
are quite complicated. For instance, from the egg of a 
butterfly there comes, not a butterfly, but a caterpillar or 
larva. The caterpillar grows, and at last changes into a 
pupa (puz pd), or resting stage (the chrysalis), and from 
this chrysalis the new butterfly comes out. 
203 204 
HEALTHY LIVING 
The changes are often much simpler than this; but it is 
always true that the young of any living thing is different 
from its parents, and that it goes through a definite series of 
changes until it arrives at maturity. 
Growth and Development.-After a child is born, it is 
weak and helpless, wholly dependent upon its parents. 
Fig. 79.-Average weights of boys and girls at dif- 
ferent ages. 
From any age on the bottom of the graph, read up 
to the curve and then from that point on the curve 
read to the left, to learn the weight at that age. 
Thus, a girl of io should weigh, on the average, 60 
pounds. 
Then slowly, day by day, week by week, and month by 
month, it grows in size, weight, strength, and intelligence. 
It learns to creep and then to walk, to coo and then to 
speak, and becomes in time an active, romping boy or girl, 
and finally a full-grown man or woman, in possession of all 
the powers of maturity. 
The average rate of growth in height and weight, cal- 
culated from the measurement of a large number of chil- GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 
205 
dren, is shown in Fig. 79. At birth, as a rule, the baby- 
weighs six or eight pounds and is less than twenty inches 
long, about one-twentieth of its weight when full grown and 
less than a third of its final height. By the end of the first 
six months, the child's weight has doubled. By the fifth 
year, he weighs on an average forty pounds, by the 
tenth year sixty, and by the fifteenth year one hundred 
pounds. The growth, as you see by the diagram, is very 
rapid at first, and the per cent of increase grows less and less, 
as is indicated by the flattening of the curve. 
Growth as a Measure of Health.-The growth of a child 
is a reasonably good measure of its general health. Failure 
to reach the weight which is normal for a child of a given 
age and height is a sign that something is wrong. On page 
384 are given tables showing normal weights of boys and 
girls. Children who are much below these normal weights 
can often gain in health and vigor by improvements in diet 
or other measures of personal hygiene. 
Youth, Maturity, Old Age.-For the first twenty or 
thirty years, the child and the young man or woman are 
growing bigger and stronger physically and mentally. 
From thirty years to fifty years, the man or woman is in 
the full prime of mature life and vigor. The wasting away 
of the body, which goes on all through life, is overbalanced 
in youth by the growth of new living tissue, but in the prime 
of life it is about equalized by the building-up process. At 
forty-five or fifty years of age, the wasting away begins to 
be greater than the growth. The walls of the blood vessels 
harden and lose their elasticity, and the kidneys do not 
work so well as in youth. After this, though the mind may 
be at its best, the rest of the body is less vigorous, and 
finally old age comes on. 206 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Hygiene in Relation to Youth and Old Age.-Healthful 
habits are particularly important in youth, because it is 
during this period that the strength and beauty of the 
mature body are usually determined. If a child gets poor 
food or not enough food, he will never grow to full height 
and strength. If he does not live much in the open air and 
sleep with windows open, he will be liable to colds and 
diseases of the lungs and throat. If he does not exercise, 
his muscles will not grow strong. If he forms the habit of 
slouching, he will find it hard to carry himself well when he 
grows up. If he gets into nervous and fretful habits of 
mind, it will be difficult for him to get out of them in later 
years. 
Just as the habits of youth have much to do with health 
and happiness in mature life, so the habits of both youth 
and mature life have much to do with the coming on of old 
age. Most people grow old too soon. There is an increase 
year by year in the diseases of adult life. The way to keep 
well and strong as long as possible is to form and retain 
habits of healthy living. 
Effects of Tobacco on Growth.-It is commonly believed 
that the use of tobacco by boys has a definite effect in stunt- 
ing growth. Some years ago, Dr. Seaver of Yale made a 
comparison of the physical development of smokers and 
non-smokers during the four years they spent at college. 
He found that the students who did not use tobacco gained 
io per cent more in weight, 24 per cent more in height, 27 
per cent more in chest expansion, and 77 per cent more in 
lung capacity than did the smokers. 
It should be remembered, in such a comparison as this, 
that many things besides smoking may have some effect on 
the results. For instance, athletes are not allowed to smoke GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 
207 
while in training, and being men who lead a healthy outdoor 
life, are certain to develop well. The boys who smoke in col- 
lege, on the other hand, are very likely to do other things 
that will injure their health. 
We are quite sure, however, that tobacco affects the di- 
gestion, the heart, and the nervous system, particularly 
when used by young people, and these unfavorable effects 
naturally react upon growth and development. It is cer- 
tain, also, that smoking has some effect on "the wind" 
(really, as we have seen, on the heart) which unfits a boy for 
athletic success, and that its effect on the nervous system 
lowers the power of concentrated mental work. 
It is for these reasons that most state laws make it a 
crime to sell or give tobacco to boys under a certain age. 
Questions for Discussion Ind Review 
i. What hatches from the egg of a butterfly? What is the 
life cycle of a butterfly? 
2. Is there any difference, other than size, between a baby 
and a full-grown man or woman? 
3. Look at the curve on page 204 and see what an average boy 
should weigh at 3 years of age. At 9 years. A girl at 7 years. 
At 11 years. 
4. Where does the child's body get material from which to 
grow? 
5. What is the difference between the processes going on in 
the body in youth and in old age? 
6. Why is it easier to form good health habits while you are 
young and growing than after you are full-grown? 
7. It is known that smoking injures the digestion, the respira- 
tion, and the heart action. What effect would this have on a 
boy's growth? CHAPTER XVIII 
HABITS OF HEALTH 
Health, Strength, and Happiness.-It is interesting to 
know how the body does its wonderful work. The study of 
hygiene should result in much more, however, than the 
storing of your mind with knowledge. It will fail in its main 
object if it does not lead you to form habits of health which 
will help you throughout your life. You should think of 
health as something splendid and worth while. Health 
means strength, and beauty, and power to do things well, 
and cheerfulness, ar^d happiness, and usefulness. 
Some children are naturally stronger and healthier than 
others. If you are one of these fortunate ones, you should 
make the most of it, and not waste your strength by doing 
things that harm the body, and so throw away the chances 
that nature has given you. If you are not naturally strong, 
remember that you can become healthier and stronger by 
forming good habits. Theodore Roosevelt was a sickly 
boy, and became a national example of energy by leading a 
hygienic life on a western ranch. 
When an athlete is going into a race, he trains for it and is 
glad to pay attention to his body, to get it into the best 
condition. Life itself is a race, and your success in it will 
depend very largely on keeping your body strong. It is 
worth while to form health habits so that you may win in the 
game of Efe. 
Health is not usually to be gained by taking medicines or 
tonics. In certain diseases, medicines taken under the doc- 
208 HABITS OF HEALTH 
209 
tor's advice are of value; but self-doctoring is almost always 
harmful. When anything goes wrong, a physician should be 
consulted promptly to see whether special treatment is 
needed; but a healthy human body can cure itself of many 
diseases. We can be sure of having a healthy body only 
by observing the rules of personal hygiene, particularly in 
regard to food, fresh air, exercise, and rest, and by avoiding 
poisonous drugs and stimulants. 
Let us now review some of the important principles of 
health which have been discussed in the earlier chapters. 
Food and Health.-The body cannot grow strong, if it 
does not get enough food to build itself up. On the other 
hand, overloading the stomach with more food than it needs 
is almost as great an evil. People are realizing more and 
more the importance of knowing what foods to eat and in 
what combinations and quantities. They are thinking 
more and more, also, about the relative cost value of the 
nourishment that different foods supply. When you grow 
older, you will learn more fully than you can in this course 
how much food value different foods give the body and 
what they cost, and with this knowledge you can buy food 
so as to get the most for your money. 
The kind of food is just as important as the amount. 
An excess of rich food or fried food, or too much candy, will 
harm the body. Too much of the protein foods-meat, fish, 
and eggs-is bad. The diet should be simple and varied. 
Milk is one of the best of foods, provided it is clean and pure. 
Fruits and green vegetables contain things that the body 
needs and cannot get easily from other sources. Every one 
should eat some hard and coarse foods, like oatmeal and 
brown bread. 
All foods should be chewed thoroughly before being 210 
HEALTHY LIVING 
swallowed. Bolting the food puts an extra burden on the 
stomach and makes one lose the pleasure and the safeguard 
that come from the exercise of the power of taste. 
Air and Health.-A second important factor in keeping 
healthy is fresh air. A current of fresh air bathing the body 
keeps the blood vessels of the skin healthy, makes one feel 
active and strong, and encourages appetite. People who 
live in the open air are much less likely to have colds, 
pneumonia, and tuberculosis, than those who shut them- 
selves up in overheated rooms. It is best never to stay any 
longer than necessary in a room that is warmer than 700. 
One should be out of doors as much as possible and should 
always sleep with windows open. 
Too much cold, on the other hand, may be harmful. It is 
especially bad to sit or lie still (without sufficient covers) in 
a cold room, to sit with wet feet or clothing, or to be ex- 
posed to a draft after the body has become heated so that 
it is perspiring. 
Clothing and temperature should be adapted to each 
other, and wraps should be put on or off so as to avoid chills 
or overheating. 
Exercise and Health.-The muscles of the body may be 
developed surprisingly by proper use, and on their develop- 
ment the health of many organs directly depends. A slouch- 
ing boy or girl with half-used lungs and flabby muscles is 
never thoroughly healthy. 
For the sake of strength, beauty, and health, one should 
learn to hold the body well, to support the upper part of 
the body from the hips, and to sit and stand straight, with 
stomach in, chest out, and head up. 
The only way to keep the lungs healthy is by exercising 
them, by breathing deeply and keeping the chest ex- HABITS OF HEALTH 
211 
panded and the small lung passages at work and filled with 
air. 
Habits of regular physical exercise are necessary to keep 
the muscles healthy. Special exercises in the gymnasium 
will develop weak parts, and it is also desirable for every 
child to learn to play some outdoor game, so that when he 
grows up it will be a never-failing source of pleasure and 
Fig. 80.-A good outdoor game develops the mind and the character, as 
well as the body. 
recreation. Baseball, basket ball, tennis, skating, swim- 
ming, riding, rowing-every boy or girl should make some 
one or more of these sports his friend for life. 
Rest and Health.-The muscles, nerves, and all the 
other parts of the body need rest as well as exercise. Playing 
rests you when you have been working, but play may be 
harmful if it is too hard or too prolonged. 
Remember that the body needs complete rest or sleep 
for eight or ten hours a day, according to a person's age. 212 
HEALTHY LIVING 
If work or play interferes with sleep, only one result can be 
expected-a tired, cross, disagreeable person, who cannot 
get fun out of life or be of much use to other people. 
Keeping the Body Free from Wastes.-Getting rid of 
the wastes of the body is as important as supplying it with 
the food it needs, for wastes poison the body, whether they 
are food wastes in the intestines or wastes from the life 
process in the body itself. The body is helped greatly in 
getting rid of its wastes by free perspiration, and hard 
exercise that makes one perspire is an important factor in 
good health. 
It is very important that the wastes from the intestines 
should be removed regularly at least once a day, in order 
that poisons may not be absorbed into the body. Drinking 
a glass of water on rising, and eating oatmeal and fruit and 
other bulky foods for breakfast, help to secure this result. 
Hygiene of the Mouth.-The mouth is the gateway of 
the body, and its protection against dirt and disease is one 
of the first essentials of hygiene. In later chapters we shall 
read about keeping contaminated foods, dirty fingers, and 
other harmful things out of the mouth; but the mouth 
itself needs constant care, to prevent harm from the 
microbes always present there. Decayed teeth, which 
result from a neglected mouth, not only mean suffering, 
but open the way for many serious diseases of the whole 
body. 
The regular and thorough use of the toothbrush at least 
twice a day, and better still after each meal, will do a great 
deal to prevent painful visits to the dentist and premature 
loss of teeth. 
Avoidance of Drugs and Stimulants.-No athlete in 
training is allowed to use alcohol or tobacco or any other HABITS OF HEALTH 
213 
drugs or stimulants. Without exception, these things make 
people less efficient physically and mentally. Many of them 
are habit-forming; that is, the body which has learned the 
unnatural taste wants more and more. It becomes harder 
and harder for the slave to the alcohol, tobacco, or drug 
habit to get free and live a healthy life again. They are all 
poisons, which in time do serious harm. 
The wise man or woman keeps in training all the time,, 
so as to be as healthy as possible, and uses no drugs or 
Fig. 81.-Four of your best friends. 
stimulants of any kind, for they do no good and always 
harm the body in the long run. The safest and easiest 
thing to do is to let them entirely alone. 
Discovering Physical Defects in Time.-If each one of 
us started out with a perfect body and lived an absolutely 
hygienic life, there would be little need for doctors. Not 
one of us has a perfect body, however, and not one of us al- 
ways treats his body just as he should. Something is sure to 
go wrong now and then; tonsils become diseased, teeth 
decay, or eyes need glasses. 214 
HEALTHY LIVING 
These physical defects can be cured if they are taken in 
time, but if they go on too long they may become serious. 
The purpose of regular medical examinations is to discover 
anything that is going wrong, before it is too late to remedy 
it. Such examinations are very necessary, especially for 
children, whose whole future health may depend upon hav- 
ing defects discovered in time. 
Most schools now have a special school doctor to do just 
this thing-to examine eyes, ears, throat, teeth, chest, and 
other organs occasionally, and to find out what ought to be 
done to keep them in good condition. In many schools 
there is also a school nurse to help examine the children and 
to visit the homes and tell the parents what treatment the 
children need. 
Fifteen Rules of Health.-The manual How to Live, pre- 
pared by Professor Irving Fisher and Dr. E. L. Fisk for the 
Life Extension Institute of New York, summarizes some of 
the most important principles of personal hygiene in the 
following excellent rules: 
I. Air: 
1. Ventilate every room you occupy. 
2. Wear light, loose, and porous clothes. 
3. Seek out-of-door occupations and recreations. 
4. Sleep out-of-doors, if you can. 
5. Breathe deeply. 
IL Food: 
6. Avoid overeating and overweight. 
7. Eat sparingly of meats and eggs. 
8. Eat some hard, some bulky, some raw foods. 
9. Eat slowly. HABITS OF HEALTH 
215 
III. Poisons: 
10. Evacuate thoroughly, regularly, and frequently. 
11. Stand, sit, and walk erect. 
12. Do not allow poisons and infections to enter the 
body. 
13. Keep the teeth, gums, and tongue clean. 
IV. Activity: 
14- Work, play, rest, and sleep in moderation. 
15. Keep serene. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
1. No amount of knowledge is of any value unless it is put to 
use. How does this apply to the study of physiology? 
2. Why do you want health? Even if you didn't care any- 
thing about health yourself, what do you owe to other people 
which should make you work to gain it? 
3. Which should try harder to develop good health habits, 
the child who is naturally well and strong or the child who is 
inclined to be sickly? 
4. What good habits can you form with regard to food and 
health? Can eating between meals become a habit? Why is it 
harmful? 
5. Examine your present habits. Have you the ice-cream 
soda habit? The candy habit? Do you eat too much dessert 
and too few vegetables? Do you take a mouthful of milk or 
water to "wash down" food? Do you chew your food? Do 
you eat fast? Do you hurry through your meals to get back 
to play or to school, or do you spend a little extra time at the 
table talking and laughing? 
6. If a person becomes accustomed to work and play in- 
doors all the time, he does not enjoy the open air. What harm 
will result? 
7. The girl or the boy who plays outdoors in cold weather 216 
HEALTHY LIVING 
without heavy wraps, because it is "too much bother" to put 
them on, is in danger. Why? 
8. Why do people who have learned to sleep and live out- 
doors feel suffocated in a closed place? Are they better off than 
the people mentioned in Question 6? 
9. Why should boys and girls learn to swim, row, ride, and 
skate, and to play such games as baseball, basket ball, and 
tennis? 
10. Why are regular sleeping hours necessary? What is 
likely to be the result if schoolboys and girls go to evening 
parties, theaters, and moving picture shows during the week? 
11. What is the duty, in the great health campaign, of every 
boy and girl who has learned about the evil of habit-forming 
drugs and stimulants? 
12. Why is the mouth the easiest gateway of disease? How 
should it be guarded? 
13. What habits should we form in the care of the teeth? 
14. Is it good for one to think about the body and health all 
the time? How will good health habits make that unnecessary? 
15. Why should children who are apparently well be ex- 
amined from time to time by a doctor? 
16. Do the Fifteen Rules of Health seem to you to cover all 
necessary health habits? CHAPTER XIX 
MAN AND THE MICROBE 
The Art of Sanitation.-So far, we have, for the most part, 
been studying about the body itself and the way to use it so 
as to keep it in good health. Some diseases come, however, 
not primarily from any careless use of the body or any nat- 
ural weakness in it, but from some cause entirely outside, as 
when one has "caught" measles or scarlet fever or some 
other disease. The work of guarding against these diseases 
that come from outside, keeping water and food pure, and 
preventing the spread of communicable diseases from one 
person to another, is called sanitation. 
A great deal has been learned by scientific men in their 
laboratories about the working of the body itself, but the 
most remarkable discoveries have been made in this field of 
sanitation-discoveries that have given us protection 
against many dread diseases and have saved millions of 
human lives. 
Communicable Diseases.-The diseases with which 
sanitation deals are those known as communicable diseases. 
Diphtheria, scarlet fever, measles, whooping cough and in- 
fluenza, are all sicknesses of this kind; so is tuberculosis; so 
is a common cold. All are alike in certain particulars. 
These diseases begin in a very characteristic way. A 
child may get up in the morning seeming perfectly well. 
After a while he begins to feel dull and heavy and does not 
want to work or play. Then he has a headache, perhaps, 
and grows hot and feverish. He says he is sick, and goes 
217 218 
HEALTHY LIVING 
home to bed. The doctor is sent for. What has happened 
to change a healthy child into a sick one in a few hours? 
Communicable diseases stop almost as mysteriously as 
they begin, after a regular course of a few days or weeks. 
The sick person gets worse for a certain length of time and 
then (if he does not die) he begins to get better and finally 
recovers. After recovery, he is fairly certain not to have 
that particular disease again for a while, and in the case of 
some diseases he will never have another attack. 
The most striking thing, however, about diseases of this 
kind is the fact which gives them their name, "communi- 
cable,"-the fact that they are communicated or spread from 
one person to another. The great influenza epidemic that 
raged in the United States in the fall of 1918 killed over 
half a million people. What is it that causes a particular 
disease to spread thus from one person to another, striking 
down each one in turn almost as fire spreads through a 
heap of papers? 
The Discoveries of Pasteur.-It was Louis Pasteur 
(pas tur'), the great French scientist (1822-1895), who first 
found the answer to these questions. In the year 1865 there 
was great trouble in the districts in the south of France, 
where many of the people followed a curious industry, the 
raising of silkworms. Silk is obtained from the cocoon spun 
by a caterpillar, and the silkworm cultivators must con- 
stantly feed and care for these caterpillars up to the time 
when they spin their precious web. At the period of which 
we are speaking, there was something wrong with the silk- 
worms. Instead of spinning their cocoons, they stopped 
eating the fresh green leaves that were brought to them, 
turned dark-colored, dropped to the ground, and died. 
The loss of the silk crop was very serious to the people MAN AND THE MICROBE 
219 
who made their living in this way, and Louis Pasteur was 
called on to help the silk growers. He was busy with his 
scientific studies and did not wish to leave the work in 
which he was obtaining brilliant results; he protested that 
Fig. 82.-Louis Pasteur (1822-1895), founder of the 
sciences of bacteriology and preventive medicine. 
he had never even seen a silkworm. Those who knew 
Pasteur's keenness and patience insisted, however, that he 
was the man to solve the mystery, and his patriotism finally 
yielded to this call for help from one of the great industries 
of his country. He went to the silkworm district. He dis- 220 
HEALTHY LIVING 
covered in the bodies of the sick worms tiny living organisms 
that he could just barely see with his microscope. He suc- 
ceeded at last, after several years of study, in showing that 
these little organisms were the cause of all the trouble, and 
he taught the silk growers how to select healthy worms and 
keep them free from the disease. 
Microbes and Disease.-This discovery, as is often the 
case, led to other discoveries of far greater importance. 
Pasteur was soon able to 
show that not only this 
disease of silkworms, but 
also diseases of chickens 
and cattle, and finally 
of men, were caused in 
the same way. To-day, 
thanks to the work of 
Pasteur and of his fol- 
lowers, Koch in Ger- 
many, Lister in England, 
and many more, we know 
that all the communi- 
cable diseases are caused 
by microbes or germs, 
tiny living plants or 
animals. It is these liv- 
ing microbes which are 
spread from one person 
to another. In the body 
of each new victim they grow and multiply, very much 
as a mold grows in jelly, and poison the tissues by the sub- 
stances they form, as the mold may turn the jelly musty. 
All through the course of the disease, there is a struggle 
Fig. 83.-A famous parasite. A bunch 
of mistletoe, growing on a gum tree. 
The mistletoe sends suckers down into 
the wood and gets its life energy from 
the sap of the tree itself. MAN AND THE MICROBE 
221 
between the invading microbes and the tissues of the body, 
and when a person gets well it is because the body tissues 
have at last conquered the microbes. 
Parasites.-When any plant or animal lives in the body 
of some other plant or animal and at its expense, we call it a 
parasite. This was the name the ancient Greeks gave to any 
one who lived in the house of a rich man and ate at his table 
without doing anything for him in return. The mistletoe is 
a plant which grows as a parasite on a tree, sending its 
suckers down into the wood and sucking out its food from 
the tree itself. The tapeworm, which sometimes gets into 
the intestines and lives on the food there before it can be ab- 
sorbed, so that the person affected almost dies of starvation, 
is a parasite. The flea, which lives on the blood it sucks out 
of its victim, is a parasite. But disease microbes are the 
most dangerous parasites of all. • 
Activities of Microbes.-The word microbe means simply 
a little living thing; and there are a great many different 
kinds of microbes which play an important part in the world. 
If a glass of milk, a jar of jelly, or a piece of meat stands 
for a few days in a warm place, the milk sours, the jelly 
turns musty, and the meat decays. In each case there is a 
chemical change, called fermentation or decomposition, 
and in each case the change is not due to the food itself but 
to microbes which have entered the food in some way and 
changed it. 
Some microbes are little animals and some are little 
plants. The microbe that causes malaria is classed as an 
animal, although you would never guess it from its looks. 
The yeast which makes our bread rise is a plant microbe. 
The molds which grow on preserves are plant microbes- 
very familiar to housekeepers. The most important of all 222 
HEALTHY LIVING 
the microbes are those which belong to the group called 
bacteria. 
Bacteria.-Although they are plant microbes, bacteria 
are very different from the plants we are accustomed to see. 
They are so small that 400,000,000 of them could be packed 
in a grain of granulated sugar. They are simple in shape 
Fig. 84.-The forms of certain typical bacteria. From Models in the Hall 
of Public Health, American Museum of Natural History. 
A. The bacillus of tuberculosis. 
B. A coccus or spherical bacterium. 
C. The bacillus of tetanus (showing spore). 
D. The spirillum of cholera. 
E. The bacillus of anthrax (a very large rod). 
F. The coccus of pneumonia. 
and look like tiny rods or dots, or minute sausages or cork- 
screws. Some of them have slender fins or flagella by 
which they swim about when they are in a liquid (for they 
are like animals in their power of movement), but they have 
no other parts at all, no stem, leaves, or fruit-no head, 
eyes, or stomach. 
Bacteria grow very fast when they have plenty of food; 
and when one bacterium gets to a certain size, it simply MAN AND THE MICROBE 
223 
splits in half, and then there are two. This may happen 
again and again, every twenty minutes under favorable 
conditions. A little arithmetic will show that a very few 
bacteria in a glass of milk 
may increase to millions 
and millions within ten 
or twelve hours. Figure 
it out for yourself and see. 
Bacteria can live on 
many different kinds of 
food, but they must first 
change, or decompose, the 
food substance to a form 
which they can absorb. 
They bring about the 
changes in these sub- 
stances by producing 
chemicals called enzymes 
or ferments, which are much like the enzymes formed by 
the digestive glands in your body. 
How Bacteria are Studied.-The men and women who 
study bacteria are called bacteriologists, and in their 
laboratories they cultivate all sorts of bacteria, somewhat as 
plants are cultivated in a garden. All you would see in such 
a germ garden would be rows and rows of glass test tubes 
partly filled with liquid, or with slanting surfaces of jelly in 
them. On the top of the jelly, if you looked closely, you would 
see a grayish smear, or perhaps a whitish paste, or a brown 
wrinkled mass; this smear or paste or mass would be a growth 
made up of millions of bacteria. The bacteriologist, when he 
wishes to plant bacteria in a new tube, carries a tiny bit 
•over from the growth on the point of a fine wire. By grow- 
Fig. 85.-The germ of typhoid fever, 
showing the flagella by which it 
swims about. 224 
HEALTHY LIVING 
ing bacteria in different kinds of fluid, he can study their 
action on proteins, sugars, and other substances, and find 
out what they do and how the harmful ones can be killed 
and the useful ones cultivated. 
The bacteriologist can determine, by a simple process, 
how many of these tiny plants there are in water or milk or 
any other substance. He mixes a measured amount of milk, 
for instance, with a melted jelly containing food which the 
microbes can use. Then he lets the jelly cool and harden 
Fig. 86.-Some of the apparatus used by the bacteriologist in cultivating 
his germ garden. 
in a covered glass dish, and keeps it at a temperature favor- 
able for germ life. Each of the microbes imprisoned in the 
jelly begins to grow and multiply. After a day or two, little 
spots will appear, each spot being a colony of millions of 
microbes descended from the single germ planted there. 
By counting these colonies, we can determine how many 
germs there were in the milk that was mixed with the jelly. 
Good and Bad Microbes.-Bacteria of some sort are 
found almost everywhere. There are a few floating in the 
air. There are some in almost all water, even the clear 
water we drink. There are more in dirty water, and untold MAN AND THE MICROBE 
225 
numbers in the tiniest speck of earth. There are millions 
and millions of them in your mouth and in your intestines, 
and many on your skin, hair, and every part of your body. 
If you could see the tip of your finger with a high-power 
microscope, you would find bacteria clinging there. 
Many kinds of bacteria are useful rather than harmful to 
mankind. The flavor of butter is due to bacteria which 
Fig. 87.-Colonies of microbes. 
have grown in the cream from which the butter was made, 
and have formed pleasant-tasting compounds. Vinegar 
is made out of fruit juices by the action, first of yeast 
microbes, and then of vinegar bacteria. Bacteria destroy 
the dead bodies of plants and animals and other waste 
materials, which would make the woods and fields very 
unpleasant if they were not removed; and they change 
the waste materials into a form in which they can be used 226 
HEALTHY LIVING 
as food by plants, thus helping to make the soil fer- 
tile. 
Sometimes microbes decompose things we do not want 
changed, like the molds which grow in jelly, or the microbes 
which sour milk or spoil meat. We have to take great 
pains to prevent these microbes from growing, by keeping 
food cold, or by killing the germs by heat, as in canning and 
preserving. 
Finally, there are several kinds of microbes which grow 
in the human body and cause disease. It is with these 
disease germs that we are particularly concerned just now. 
How Microbes Cause Disease.-The particular kinds of 
microbes that cause disease are parasites; that is, they have 
the special power of growing in the body and at its expense. 
Some microbes may multiply in the nose and throat or in the 
intestines without doing any harm. The disease germs, how- 
ever, form poisons called toxins, which are absorbed into the 
blood and cause the dull feeling, the headache, and other 
symptoms of sickness. Most disease germs do more than 
this. They find their way through the walls of the nose or 
alimentary canal, for instance, into the blood stream itself, 
and grow and multiply in the blood or in the organs of the 
body. Each kind of disease germ grows in certain special 
parts of the body, producing a particular kind of toxin and 
causing particular symptoms of disease, so that we can often 
tell by the kind of sickness which sort of microbe is at work. 
At the place where the microbes are growing, there is al- 
most always inflammation, or a reddening and heating of 
the part, due to the dilation of the fine blood vessels; and 
there is often local swelling and pain as well. Headache, 
fever, weakness, and disturbance of the bowels are common 
general symptoms of a bacterial invasion. MAN AND THE MICROBE 
227 
How the Body Fights the Microbes.-After the microbes 
have been at work for a while, and the body feels the effect 
of their poisons, one of the most wonderful of its powers, 
vital resistance begins to show itself. The body attempts 
to defend itself against the invading germs. 
This fight against the microbes is carried on, in large 
part, by the colorless cells of the blood, the white cor- 
puscles, to which reference was made in Chapter X. These 
white corpuscles are scavenger or soldier cells, which attack 
microbes in the blood, swallow them, and digest them by 
means of enzymes. 
In the blood itself, too, special chemicals appear, which 
tend to kill the disease microbes and also to destroy the 
poisons they have formed. Throughout the course of the 
disease, this struggle is going on between the invading 
microbes and the body. If the patient gets well, it is be- 
cause the microbes have been beaten. 
After recovery, the blood for some time keeps the power 
of destroying that special kind of microbe and its poisons. 
This is why the person who has recovered from an attack 
of a communicable disease is immune from that particular 
disease for a longer or shorter time. 
The Common Cold as a Type of Communicable Disease. 
The next time you have a cold in the head, think about 
these things you have learned, so that you may understand 
just what is going on. 
There are three or four kinds of germs that cause colds. 
Whenever any one "catches cold," it is because some of 
these germs have entered his nose or throat and begun to 
grow there. 
A cold often begins just after one has been chilled, or has 
had wet feet, or has become overtired. The healthy body 228 
HEALTHY LIVING 
can defend itself against the germs of a cold, and such 
germs may be present in the nose or throat for a long time 
without causing any trouble. But after a chill, the body is 
weakened so that the microbes begin to grow and the real 
cold develops. 
When the sneezing or coughing starts and the nose begins 
to run, it is because the germs are growing in the nose and 
throat and poisoning and irritating the delicate membranes. 
Some of the poisons have meanwhile been absorbed into 
the blood and are causing the sick feeling and the fever. 
The best thing to do for a cold is to stay quietly in bed for 
a day. Rest helps the body to fight off the disease and de- 
stroy the poison of the germs. When one recovers from a 
cold, this process has been successfully accomplished, and 
for a little'while afterward (only a little while in the case 
of the common cold-much longer in many diseases), the 
body is able to defend itself against germs of the same kind. 
Too often, however, a person has meanwhile passed on the 
germs of his cold to other people, and by the time he has 
recovered they are going through the discomfort and dan- 
ger-for danger may sometimes follow even from a common 
cold. 
It is important that people should learn more about the 
way in -which disease germs spread. They may then know 
how to avoid real dangers, and they may also save them- 
selves from worrying needlessly about things that some 
people fear without good reason. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. What is the difference between hygiene and sanitation? 
2. What is a communicable disease? Name some common 
communicable diseases. Which have you had? MAN AND THE MICROBE 
229 
3. Describe some of the general symptoms of a communicable 
disease. 
4. Who first discovered how communicable diseases pass 
from one person to another? How did the discovery happen 
to be made? 
5. Do you know of any diseases which are carried from one 
plant to another or from one animal to another? 
6. What is a microbe? What changes do microbes cause 
in different kinds of food? 
7. What is a parasite? Give examples not in the text. Do 
we ever call people parasites nowadays? 
8. What are bacteria? How do they grow? How fast do 
they multiply under favorable conditions? What do you 
mean by "favorable conditions"? 
9. How do bacteria change food so that they can absorb it? 
Give examples of similar work done in our bodies in the process 
of normal digestion. 
10. How do bacteriologists study the characteristics of dif- 
ferent bacteria? 
11. What work is done by some of the "good" microbes? 
12. In what ways are all disease microbes alike? How do they 
differ? 
13. What weapons do bacteria use in attacking the body? 
What is the defending army of the body? How does this army 
fight? How does it destroy its enemies? 
14. Is the body always successful in its fight? How does the 
length of the fight vary? 
15. What is meant by vital resistance? What effect do hy- 
gienic habits have upon it? What habits can you name which 
tend to lower vital resistance? 
16. What is immunity? Does it always last through life? 
17. One boy has a very slight cold. Another "catches" a 
cold from him. Is the second boy's cold sure to be as slight as 
the first, or may it develop into a more serious cold? 
18. After thinking about the last question, do you believe 230 
HEALTHY LIVING 
that for the sake of other people we are bound to avoid having 
colds, as far as possible? Explain. 
19. A man said, "I was all run-down and I caught a cold." 
What did he mean? 
20. A woman said, "When I am very tired and run-down, I 
do not dare to ride in crowded street cars." What did she mean? 
21. What is the danger in leaving a soiled handkerchief about 
when you have a cold? What is the danger in sneezing, with- 
out putting a handkerchief to the mouth? 
22. When one has a cold, why is it wise (1) to rest in bed, 
(2) to eat lightly of simple food, (3) to keep the intestines clear, 
(4) to have plenty of fresh air, (5) to drink plenty of fresh 
water, (6) to keep the body warm? CHAPTER XX 
HOW DISEASE GERMS ARE SPREAD 
Where Disease Germs Come From.-The kinds of germs 
that cause disease do not come like wild animals from the 
forest or crawl out of the earth, nor are they created in de- 
caying organic matter, as some people believe. To be 
afraid of the air that blows in through the windows, or of 
the good rich earth children dig in in the garden, is very 
foolish. Disease germs do not come from the great world of 
nature, but from people. They are microbes that have be- 
come especially fitted to live in the human body or in the 
bodies of some of the other higher animals. The body is the 
only place, as a rule, where they can grow and increase in 
numbers, because there only do they find the high tempera- 
ture, rich food, and other conditions which they need. We 
may get disease germs into our bodies directly from water, 
milk, food, or some object; but we can always be sure that 
the germs came first from some other person or animal. 
The germs of a particular disease must come, moreover, 
from a person or an animal already infected with that 
particular kind of microbe. Typhoid germs always come 
from other typhoid germs, diphtheria germs from other 
diphtheria germs, just as oak trees come from acorns. On 
the seacoast of Massachusetts there are acres and acres 
of pasture covered with a beautiful yellow flower called the 
broom plant. It is said to have spread from a few plants 
sent from England over a hundred years ago. So it is when 
some new disease, such as a plague or cholera, is introduced 
231 232 
HEALTHY LIVING 
into a country. It may spread like wildfire; but it can only 
spread as the broom did, by the living seed being carried 
from place to place. 
Human Carriers of Disease.-It is not only people known 
to be sick who may spread the germs of disease. When a 
person is once in bed, he can be cared for, and the danger of 
distributing his germs is lessened. 
Many diseases, however, are 
most catching in the early stages, 
before any one realizes that any- 
thing serious is the matter. 
Measles, which is a dangerous 
disease and often fatal to young 
children, is most catching at the 
beginning, when the child who 
has it shows almost no signs of 
illness, except that he appears to 
have a cold in the head. Such a 
child may continue to go to 
school and mingle with other 
children, and may infect many 
of them with measles. 
In some cases, as in diphtheria 
and typhoid fever, the germs 
may continue living and grow- 
ing in the bodies of people who 
have entirely recovered from the 
disease. Sometimes they even grow in the bodies of persons 
who have never had diphtheria or typhoid at all. Such per- 
sons are, for some reason, able to resist the germs, but may 
spread them to others who are not so fortunate. These well 
people in whose bodies disease germs are growing are called 
Fig. 88.-How milk bottles 
may be infected from the 
hands of a carrier. HOW DISEASE GERMS ARE SPREAD 
233 
carriers. An outbreak of over three hundred cases of 
typhoid in New York City was caused by a milkman, a 
typhoid carrier, who had had typhoid in Michigan forty-six 
years before and had been cultivating the germs in his body 
ever since. 
There was a famous typhoid carrier known as "Typhoid 
Mary," who was found by the New York City Board of 
Health to have caused twenty-six cases of typhoid fever in 
different families where she had been employed as a cook. 
She was kept in restraint for a time by the Board of Health, 
and was then released, upon her promise not to act as a cook 
again. In 1914 a typhoid epidemic occurred in a hospital in 
New York City, and when it was investigated, Typhoid 
Mary was found to be the cause of it. She had broken her 
word, gone into the hospital as a cook, and had again in- 
fected food with her typhoid germs. 
The studies of bacteriologists show that among people 
who seem to be quite well, two or three out of a hundred 
may be carriers of diphtheria germs, and two or three out of 
a thousand may be carriers of typhoid germs. The disease 
germs in some carriers are weak and not readily able to 
cause disease; in other cases they may be strong and 
vigorous. 
What Happens to Disease Germs outside the Body.-- 
Disease germs, as we have learned, are parasites especially 
suited for living in the bodies of human beings. In gain- 
ing this power, which the ordinary microbe does not 
have, they have lost the power of getting an honest 
living in the world outside. While most microbes grow and 
increase in numbers in dirty water, in the earth, or in decay- 
ing matter, disease germs die out in such places, for lack of 
the special foods and the other conditions which they need. 234 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Fig. 89 shows how the number of typhoid germs decreases 
in a bottle of water which is allowed to stand quietly for 
several weeks. Much the same thing happens to all disease 
germs outside the body,-that is, they cease to multiply and 
Fig. 89.-Diagram illustrating the rate of reduction of typhoid germs 
in water. 
gradually die out,-although in milk disease germs may 
sometimes actually increase. 
Germs do not die off at once outside the body. They may 
survive for a time in drinking water, on the fingers, on the 
edges of drinking cups, on towels, and on other things that 
have been soiled. Their numbers are always growing less, 
however (except in milk), and the stories of disease caused 
by toys or books put away for months or years are not 
generally believed to-day. The diseases supposed to be ob- HOW DISEASE GERMS ARE SPREAD 
235 
tained from such sources were probably caught from some 
unsuspected carrier in the street car or on the play- 
ground. 
In order that communicable disease may spread, the 
germs, while still alive and active, must be carried quickly 
from one person to another. There are three principal 
ways in which disease germs are thus carried: by personal 
contact, by food and drink, and by insects. These three 
ways may be easily remembered by three catchwords, the 
three F's of sanitation: Fingers, Food, and Flies. 
How Germs are Spread by Contact.-The most impor- 
tant of all the ways in which disease germs are spread, is by 
what we call contact. The catchword "Fingers" stands not 
only for the fingers themselves, but for all the ways in which 
germs may be spread by touching things. It is not neces- 
sary for people even to see each other in order to come in 
contact in this sense. The word contact is used to cover 
direct infection, such as occurs when one person coughs or 
sneezes into another's face, and also more roundabout 
transfer, such as occurs if germs on an infected towel are 
transferred to another person's hands and later to his 
mouth. 
How Germs are Spread by Food.-The second important 
way in which disease germs are spread from person to person 
is by means of articles of food and drink. A supply of water 
or milk may carry disease germs to hundreds of people at 
once, all over a whole city. Some of the most dreadful 
epidemics have been caused in this way. 
Foods which are eaten raw are most likely to be at fault. 
Thorough cooking destroys disease germs; and most cooked 
foods are dangerous only when they have become infected 
after cooking. Among raw foods, many are safe because 236 
HEALTHY LIVING 
they are peeled before eating. Of all foods, the most dan- 
gerous are water and milk, because they are easily polluted, 
because they are drunk promptly before the disease germs 
have a chance to die cut, and because they are usually not 
cooked. 
How Germs are Spread by Insects.-The third common 
way in which disease germs are spread is by means of in- 
Fig. 90.-The fly on its travels. 
sects. The catchword is "Flies," because flies are perhaps 
the most important insect carriers of disease in the United 
States. By picking up infected material on their legs and 
bodies and carrying it to food, they may distribute many 
microbes. 
In warm countries, where there is a great deal of insect 
life, the danger of insect-borne disease is greatest; and in the HOW DISEASE GERMS ARE SPREAD 
237 
tropics such diseases as yellow fever, which is spread by the 
bite of a certain mosquito, are very prevalent. 
Diseases Caught from Animals.-A few diseases may be 
caught from animals, although, as a rule, the germs that 
affect animals cannot attack human beings. It is an un- 
clean habit, however, to kiss animals or to allow them to lick 
one's face, because of the dirt with which they may have 
been in contact. After fondling a cat or a dog, one should 
wash the hands with special care before eating. 
The most serious disease which may be caught from 
animals is rabies (ra/ bi ez), which is contracted from the 
bite of a dog suffering from this infection. He is called a 
"mad" dog because a dog with rabies rushes about, 
biting the people and animals he meets. Whenever 
there are cases of rabies in the vicinity, all dogs should be 
muzzled, so that they may not infect people or each 
other. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. How do disease germs differ from the germs in decaying 
trees and leaves, and in the rich earth? 
2. Where do disease germs come from? 
3. In the preceding chapter, we spoke of the first epidemic 
of measles in the Faroe Islands. How must that epidemic 
have started? 
4. What do we mean by a human carrier of disease? Is it 
necessary that a disease carrier should ever have had the disease 
himself? 
5. The germ carrier, Typhoid Mary, could not help her 
unfortunate condition. Do you think that it was right, however, 
for her to continue to do a kind of work which endangered the 
lives of others? 
6. Why do disease germs die after they have been outside 238 
HEALTHY LIVING 
the body for some time? If they die in this way, how are dis- 
eases spread? 
7. What are the three F's of sanitation? Explain "Fingers." 
8. Suggest several ways in which germs may be spread by 
food. 
9. Why should milk and water receive special care? 
10. A man made the remark that the feeling against flies 
was growing to such an extent that the day was not far distant 
when flies in a house would be regarded as a disgrace to the 
household. What do you think about it? Was his opinion 
warranted? 
11. Do you consider a kitchen full of flies clean? Is there 
danger in one fly? 
12. Why does the Board of Health sometimes require that all 
dogs should be muzzled? CHAPTER XXI 
THE VALUE OF CLEANLINESS 
Clean Dirt and Dirty Dirt.-Most of us think of anything 
that is soiled, stained, spotted, or in any way discolored, as 
dirty; and so of course it is, in a way. From a health stand- 
point, however, some kinds of dirt are much worse than 
others. 
The worst kind of dirt is that which contains disease 
germs; and since such germs come from the human body, it 
is clear that anything which has been soiled with human 
excretions, or which has been in contact with the mouth or 
nose, is the kind of dirt that does most harm. A drinking 
glass that has just been used by another boy or girl may 
look bright and clean to the eye; but it is really dirtier than a 
boy's trousers green with grass stains. The green stains 
may be bad for the trousers, but they will not hurt the boy. 
On the other hand, if you looked at the rim of the glass with 
a microscope, you would probably see scales or particles 
from the lips of those who have used the glass, and many- 
bacteria as well. Most of these bacteria would be harmless, 
but if, by any chance, the child who drank last were a 
diphtheria carrier, there might be diphtheria germs there 
and any one who used the glass without thorough cleansing 
would be likely to get diphtheria from it. 
We must remember that different kinds of dirt are likely 
to go together. The child whose clothing and hands are 
usually dirty is not only unpleasant to look at but he is 
likely to catch any communicable disease that breaks out 
239 240 
HEALTHY LIVING 
in the school. There is a good chance that he may pick up 
disease germs along with the ordinary dirt he carries about 
with him. 
Germs in Dust.-Some people are afraid of the dust that 
blows about in the air and always think that it contains 
disease germs. This danger is, however, not nearly so 
great as one might suppose at first. 
It is true that dry dust contains a great many microbes, 
but most of them are harmless. The disease germs that are 
coughed, sneezed, or spit out into the street or on the floor, 
die out rather rapidly as they dry, particularly if they are 
exposed to air and sunlight. A few remain, of course; and 
if a wind stirs up a heavy cloud of dust in the street, a per- 
son may get a good deal of dust into the mouth and nose, 
taking in disease germs with it. This is particularly true 
in the case of the germs of tuberculosis, which are very wide- 
spread and are not so easily killed by drying as are other 
disease germs. 
Care should therefore be taken, in sweeping, not to stir up 
any more dust than is necessary. For the same reason- 
and also because the moving of dust from one place to 
another is a foolish waste of time-dusting should be done 
with a soft cloth, not with a feather duster. The vacuum 
cleaner is the ideal instrument for cleaning, from this 
standpoint. 
The fine dust which floats in the air of a quiet room, and 
which you can see as tiny glittering motes in a sunbeam, 
contains very few germs of any kind. In general, there is 
little danger of catching any disease from the air unless one 
is close to a person who is coughing or sneezing, or unless 
heavy dust is being stirred up by the wind or by careless 
sweeping indoors. Disease germs have no wings and cannot THE VALUE OF CLEANLINESS 
241 
fly across the room. They are spread, for the most part, 
not by the wind but by careless people who carry them 
about. 
How Germs Pass from Mouth to Mouth.-When a 
person with some disease coughs or sneezes, a spray of fine 
drops is thrown out from the 
mouth. Each of these tiny drops 
may have thousands of mic- 
robes in it. If you wish to under- 
stand how diseases are spread, 
notice-the next time you have 
a cold in the head-how many 
chances the germs have of pass- 
ing to some one else's mouth. 
Notice whether you put your 
handkerchief down and ask some 
one to hand it to you. Notice 
whether you cough in some one's 
face or over his hands or food. Notice how often you cough 
in your hand and then touch the water faucet or the door 
handle. If you watch, you will soon see the fingers that 
touched your handkerchief or the faucet or the door handle 
go into their owner's mouth, or touch something that goes 
into his mouth. There are thousands of such ways in 
which germs-and sometimes disease germs among them- 
pass from mouth to mouth. 
The danger of spreading the germs of tuberculosis and 
other diseases is one of the principal reasons why well- 
mannered people never spit on the floor or on the street, and 
why health authorities make regulations prohibiting people 
from indulging in this filthy habit. The sputum of a con- 
sumptive may contain millions of tuberculosis germs; and 
Fig. 91.-How disease germs 
are spread by mouth spray. 242 
HEALTHY LIVING 
if discharged on the sidewalk, they may not only dry and 
blow about, but-a much more serious danger-while 
fresh and virulent, they may be carried on shoes, and 
from the shoes or from things the shoes have touched may 
easily get to the fingers and then to the mouth. 
Guarding against Intestinal Diseases.-There are some 
diseases, like typhoid fever, in which the germs are spread, 
Fig. 92.-These two girls are doing their sums with one pencil. Have they 
been well-trained in health habits? 
not by way of the nose and mouth, but in the discharges of 
the alimentary canal and kidneys. The most common 
ways in which these microbes are spread is by polluted water 
or milk, or by flies. In the city, where there is a sewer sys- 
tem, the sewage is carried away at once in closed pipes, but 
in the country it is often hard to get rid of it in a sanitary 
manner. There is always danger that the drainage may 
pass through cracks in the ground and carry disease germs 
to the well, or that they may be distributed to food by flies. THE VALUE OF CLEANLINESS 
243 
Hookworm Disease and Its Control.-In the warmer 
parts of the United States a large number of people suffer 
from hookworm disease, chiefly as a result of the careless 
disposal of bodily excretions. The hookworm is a tiny 
whitish worm, a little less than half an inch long, which 
lives in the intestines and sucks blood from the wall of the 
alimentary canal. People affected with this disease grow 
pale, weak, and listless, often without knowing what is the 
matter with them. 
The eggs of the hookworm pass out with the discharges 
from the intestines; and the young worms which hatch 
from them usually get into the body of a new victim 
by boring in through the skin of the foot, since in these 
warm regions many people go barefoot. The worm may 
also be taken in with dirty drinking water or dirty food. 
People who have hookworm disease can be cured by 
special drugs which kill the worms in the alimentary canal. 
The most important step in preventing this disease, how- 
ever, is to provide good toilet facilities, so that the soil will 
not be polluted with discharges containing hookworm eggs. 
Guarding the Gateway of the Mouth.-Most of the com- 
mon disease germs enter by way of the mouth. This is true 
not only of colds, influenza (or grippe), tuberculosis, ton- 
sillitis, whooping cough, diphtheria, and the like, in which 
the throat and nose and lungs are the parts first affected, 
but also of such diseases as scarlet fever, measles, cerebro- 
spinal meningitis, and probably infant paralysis. The 
first essential in avoiding communicable disease is to keep 
a guard over this gateway of the mouth and to see that the 
enemy does not enter there. You have perhaps read about 
the Trojan War and remember that when the Greeks wanted 
to get into the city of Troy they built a great wooden horse, 244 
HEALTHY LIVING 
and hid some men in it, and left it on the plain outside the 
city walls. The Trojans were so curious that they brought 
the wooden horse into the city. At night the Greeks jumped 
out and opened the city gates to their comrades. That is 
the way with the disease germs. They hide on pencils, 
drinking glasses, and fingers, and we put them right into 
our own mouths. 
I. Nothing should ever go into the mouth except things to eat 
and drink-and the toothbrush. Nothing should ever go to the 
nose except a clean hand- 
kerchief. 
Since at mealtimes we 
must handle many things 
that are to go into the 
mouth, there is another 
rule of sanitation almost 
as important as the first 
one. The second rule is 
this: 
II. The hands should 
be thoroughly washed be- 
fore meals and before eat- 
ing any food handled with 
the fingers. 
Soap and hot water 
will destroy many germs, 
and a hard scrubbing will 
rub away any disease 
germs that are likely to come off on bread or cake. It 
should be pointed out here that the use of a common 
towel-a roller towel, for instance, that has been used by 
other people-may more than undo all the good accom- 
Fig. 93.-Washing the hands before eat- 
ing is one of the first essentials of 
sanitation. THE VALUE OF CLEANLINESS 
245 
plished by washing, and may pollute the hands with fresh 
and dangerous germs deposited there by the last user. 
If the boys and girls who study this book really learn 
these two simple rules of sanitation, and follow them, 
the time they spend upon this study will be well worth 
while. 
The Care of Cuts and Wounds.-As a rule, it does not 
matter much if we get dirt on the outer skin, provided it 
does not reach the mouth. The skin is too thick and firm 
for germs to find their way through it. 
If there is a cut or a scratch, however, it is very different. 
The kinds of germs that cause diseases of wounds may get 
in through any break in the skin. They are very common 
in dirt and earth of all kinds and do not have to come fresh 
from sick people or carriers, as in the case of the communi- 
cable diseases. 
A wound that has dirt in it is likely to get red and sore 
from the action of these germs, and sometimes the disease 
that follows is painful and dangerous. Any scratch or 
wound on the surface should be allowed to bleed freely 
and then washed out thoroughly with clean warm water. 
All wounds should be watched to be sure they are healing 
well. If they grow red and "angry," a physician should be 
consulted. In the case of a deep wound, a physician should 
always be called at once, for deep wounds are dangerous and 
cannot be safely dressed by any one else. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. From a health standpoint, is a boy who has been digging 
in the garden or hoeing potatoes dirty? 
2. People sometimes say in fun, " What's the use of washing? 
You get dirty again." Answer that question in earnest. 246 
HEALTHY LIVING 
3. Do we get many disease germs from dust? Under what 
circumstances? What other danger is there from dust? 
4. What is one great advantage of vacuum cleaners? If 
one does not possess a vacuum cleaner, what advantages may 
be gained by moistening the floor before sweeping? 
5. Name some of the ways in which germs may be passed 
from mouth to mouth. What is meant by contact, in a sanitary 
sense? 
6. Why is expectoration on the street or in other public 
places prohibited by law? 
7. How is the hookworm disease passed from one person to 
another? Why is it more likely to be found in the poorer rural 
districts of the South than in cities? 
8. Why is picking the nose a dangerous as well as an un- 
pleasant habit? Criticize the habit of biting finger nails; sucking 
lead pencils; using a public drinking cup. 
9. Why should one always wash the hands before eating? 
10. Do you have your own towel in school? Do you have 
your own towel, washcloth, and toothbrush at home? 
11. Why is it dangerous to allow dirt to get into a wound or 
a cut? CHAPTER XXII 
PURITY OF WATER AND FOOD SUPPLIES 
Water Supplies and Health.-Of all foods, water has 
caused the most terrible epidemics of disease. In cities and 
towns where the water supply is carefully protected, this is 
no longer the case, but we still hear now and then of epidem- 
ics of typhoid fever due to polluted water in places where 
people are neglectful. The most dangerous source of supply 
Fig. 94.-The epidemic of typhoid fever in the Merrimac River Valley 
in 1890-1891. Pollution was carried from the North Chelmsford cases 
to Lowell, and from the Lowell cases to Lawrence, farther down the river. 
is a stream into which city sewers empty or into which 
pollution from outdoor closets may be washed in times of 
rain. 
A famous example of water pollution of this kind was the 
epidemic of typhoid fever in the Merrimac River Valley in 
1890-1891. At this time, the two large cities of Lowell and 
Lawrence in Massachusetts both used the water of the river 
for drinking, without any purification. In the fall of 1890 
there were several cases of typhoid fever in the little village 
247 248 
HEALTHY LIVING 
of North Chelmsford, situated on a brook running into the 
Merrimac River a few miles above Lowell. Because of the 
careless disposal of sewage, the water in the brook became 
infected, and between October and January there were 503 
cases of typhoid fever in Lowell. The sewage of Lowell was 
carried down the river to Lawrence, and between November 
and February there were 223 cases of typhoid fever in 
Lawrence. After this unfortunate event, both cities pro- 
vided for purifying their water supplies, in order to prevent 
such occurrences in the future. 
Purifying the Public Water Supply.-No surface water 
from lake or stream is safe for drinking, unless it has been 
purified in some way, because pollution may anywhere get 
on to the ground and be washed in by rain. Many cities 
that use river water purify it for drinking by the processes of 
filtration, in which the water is passed through great beds of 
sand which strain out harmful bacteria (as discussed further 
in Chapter XXVIII). 
Protection of Well Water.-Just as river water may be 
made pure by passing it through a sand filter, so the water 
in an ordinary well is often purified by its passage through 
the soil, for if soil is of the right kind it will strain out bac- 
teria, as the filter does. 
Too often, however, a well is not protected at the top 
against surface drainage, and is really not a well at all but 
a little pond; and sometimes there are cracks in the soil 
through which pollution finds its way underground. The 
well should always have a curb rising above the surface of 
the ground, and a tight cover. It is important also that the 
upper eighteen inches of the well should be made tight 
against surface drainage. In order to avoid danger of 
pollution through the soil, the well should be at least fifty PURITY OF WATER AND FOOD SUPPLIES 
249 
feet away from the cesspool or outdoor closet or manure 
pile. It should not be on a lower level than these possible 
sources of pollution or between them and the nearest stream 
or pond, for the direction of flow of the underground water 
is generally toward the nearest body of surface water. 
If there is any doubt as to the purity of drinking water, 
it should always be boiled. Boiling kills all disease germs 
and makes the most dangerous water safe to drink. Boiling 
drives out the air in the water and gives it a flat taste, but 
the water will soon take in air again if it is allowed to stand 
in an open pitcher for a time or is poured back and forth from 
one pitcher to another. 
The Individual Drinking Glass.-It is quite as important 
that water should be drunk out of a clean glass as that it 
should itself be unpolluted. Drinking from a glass pre- 
viously used and soiled along the rim with germs from the 
lips is a common source of disease. This is the reason why 
many state and city laws forbid the use of common drinking 
cups. Every child in school should have his own individual 
glass, which should be kept in his desk and not left by the 
Fig. 95.-A bad farmyard well and a good one. Which is which? 250 
HEALTHY LIVING 
sink for others to use. It is still better for the school to be 
provided with a good type of bubble fountain, so that no 
glass is necessary. If you want a drink where there is not a 
clean individual glass or a bubble fountain, it is easy to 
make a drinking cup out of a clean sheet of paper by folding 
it as shown in Fig. 96. 
Ice.-Cold does not kill germs, as heat does, but it pre- 
vents them from growing. When ice forms on the surface 
Fig. 96.-How to make a paper drinking cup. 
of a pond, most of the germs are thrown out-in the act of 
freezing-into the water below the ice. Those that are left 
will almost all die out while the ice is being stored, since 
it generally stands for some time before being used. 
The most important danger from ice is that it may be 
polluted by handling just before it is used. On this account, 
it is safer not to put ice into the drinking water. The best 
plan is to cool the water by placing it near the ice in the ice 
box. PURITY OF WATER AND FOOD SUPPLIES 
251 
Dangers from Milk.-In most well-governed cities, the 
public water supplies are now carefully guarded. Milk, 
however, is still one of the commonest sources of disease and 
probably causes more epidemics than water. If the greatest 
possible care is not taken, there are many chances for dirt 
to get into milk, from the body of the cow, from the 
stable, from the hands and clothes of the milker, from 
cans and bottles, and in the various steps of cooling and 
bottling. The ordinary germs from dirt do not die out in 
milk, as they tend to do in water, but multiply so rapidly 
that if the milk is not kept cold there are soon many 
millions in a thimbleful; and even the disease germs may 
multiply in milk at times. The souring of milk is the re- 
sult of the activity of certain microbes growing in it. The 
dirt germs often affect milk so as to make it poisonous to 
young children; and the chief cause of sickness among 
babies in summer is dirty cow's milk. 
In addition to the common dirt germs, the germs of 
tuberculosis may get into the milk from diseased cows, and 
germs of such diseases as typhoid fever, diphtheria, and sore 
throat may get in from sick people or disease carriers who 
handle the milk. 
The history of city and state health departments is full of 
epidemics of typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, and 
septic sore throat, caused by milk infected by a sick person 
or a carrier on a dairy farm. Fig. 97 tells the story of such 
an outbreak in a village on Long Island, New York. The 
daughter of a woman who owned a milk farm had a bad 
sore throat on April 16th, 1914. On May 9th the woman 
herself was taken ill, and on May nth a man who did the 
milking and bottling became ill in turn. The germs of the 
disease got into the milk, and early in June septic sore 252 
HEALTHY LIVING 
throat broke out among the customers of the dairy. Over 
two hundred cases of the disease occurred before the epi- 
demic was ended. 
How to Make Milk Safe.-In order that uncooked milk 
shall be safe, it must come from cows that are free from 
tuberculosis 1 or other disease; the barn and dairy buildings 
If 
These Cases 
Had Been Reported 
These Cases 
Would Never Have Occurred 
Fig. 97.-The story of the epidemic of septic sore throat on Long 
Island. The length of each vertical line shows the number of 
cases reported on a given day. (See scale of numbers on left.) 
must be kept scrupulously clean; people who have sore 
throats or any other signs of disease must not milk the cows 
or handle the milk in any way; and the milk must be cooled 
at once and kept cool, to prevent the growth of germs. 
It is very hard to be sure that all these things are at- 
tended to all the time. Fortunately there is another pre- 
1 It is possible to find out whether a cow has tuberculosis germs 
growing in its body by the use of a test called the tuberculin test. PURITY OF WATER AND FOOD SUPPLIES 
253 
caution that may be taken-milk may be pasteurized,-- 
and this is the only way to make it really safe. 
Pasteurization.-Pasteurized milk is milk which has been 
heated to a temperature of 1450 Fahrenheit and kept at that 
temperature for thirty minutes. This process kills all the 
disease germs, and most of the other germs in milk, without 
making it indigestible. It is named for the great French- 
man, Pasteur, who first discovered that microbes cause 
disease. 
On account of the great danger from raw milk, all milk 
for drinking, particularly for babies and young children, 
should be pasteurized. It is probable that some of the 
vitamins in milk are destroyed by heating, and when 
babies are fed only on pasteurized milk they should be 
given orange juice to make up for this deficiency. 
In most cities it is easy to buy milk that is already prop- 
erly pasteurized, but sometimes milk is sold as "pasteur- 
ized" which has been heated very hot for a few minutes or 
seconds only. This "flash" treatment, as it is called, is not 
pasteurization at all, and such milk is never safe. 
How to Pasteurize Milk at Home.-Where properly 
pasteurized milk cannot be bought, the next best thing is to 
get good clean bottled milk and pasteurize it in the home. 
Never buy milk that is dipped out of a tank, for it is always 
dirty. It is almost as easy to pasteurize (or cook) milk as 
it is to cook any other food, and there is no more reason why 
we should drink uncooked milk than eat raw meat. 
The best way to pasteurize milk is to set the bottles in a 
deep pan of water on the stove, put a milk thermometer 
into the water, heat up to about 1450 or a little over, and 
then set the pan on the back of the stove, moving it back 
and forth now and then to keep the temperature, for half an 254 
HEALTHY LIVING 
hour, as near 1450 as possible, say between 1400 and 1450. 
If you have no milk thermometer, it will do almost as well 
to heat the pan till the water boils, and then let it stand on 
the back of the stove for half an hour, although this may 
give the milk a slight cooked taste. 
After the milk has been pasteurized, it should be cooled at 
Fig. 98.-Pasteurizing milk in the home. 
once. Though pasteurization kills all the disease germs, it 
does not kill all other germs, and those that are left will 
increase and will spoil the milk if it is not kept cool. The 
greatest care should be taken not to let milk stand in open 
dishes or in warm places, but to keep it covered and cold. 
An interesting experiment may be made with four bottles PURITY OF WATER AND FOOD SUPPLIES 
255 
of fairly clean fresh milk. 
Pasteurize the milk in 
one bottle by heating it 
in a pan of water over 
an alcohol lamp in the 
classroom, or at home 
beforehand. Add some 
dirt to the milk in the 
second bottle. Then 
keep these two bottles 
and one of the others in 
a cold place, and the 
fourth bottle in a warm 
place. The bottles 
should be examined 
every day to see when 
each one curdles. 
The Dangers in Un- 
cooked Food.-Besides 
water and milk, there 
are other foods that are 
eaten raw, such as oys- 
ters, lettuce, and celery, 
which sometimes cause 
disease if they are not 
clean. Fig. 99 shows 
how oysters which had 
been polluted with sew- 
age in a creek on Long 
Island, New York, car- 
ried typhoid fever to Goshen, Newburgh, and Suffem, 
three distant points in the state. 
Fig. 99.-How typhoid and diarrhea were 
spread by oysters polluted in a creek 
at Canarsie, N. Y. Each black dot at 
Goshen, Newburgh, and Suffern repre- 
sents a case of typhoid fever; each small 
circle, a case of diarrhea. 256 
HEALTHY LIVING 
As a rule, cooking will destroy disease germs, but if the 
germs are in the inside of the food and the cooking is not 
thorough, they may survive. A disease called trichinosis 
(trik' i no sis), caused not by a bacterium but by a parasitic 
worm which infects the hog, sometimes follows the eating of 
raw or partially cooked pork products. 
Care of Food in the Store and Home.-Care should al- 
ways be taken to protect foods from dust and flies, par- 
Fig. ioo.-Food on sale should be covered to protect it from flies 
and dirt. 
ticularly cooked foods and those which are to be eaten raw. 
Flies may easily carry filth and disease germs to food, and 
it is important to keep the kitchen and the dining room 
screened and to buy only from stores which protect their 
food in the same way. 
Food is also often polluted with disease germs by hand- 
ling. The danger of such happenings would be much less if 
people with colds or other signs that they are "coming PURITY OF WATER AND FOOD SUPPLIES 
257 
down" with some disease would, so far as possible, keep 
away from the preparation and handling of food, and if 
every one who touches food would first wash his hands 
thoroughly. 
Food Poisoning.-It sometimes happens that a number 
of people are made ill by eating meat, fish, or some other 
food that has become spoiled. Such attacks of food poison- 
ing, also called ptomaine poisoning, are not caused by the 
common germs of decay. Indeed, some kinds of cheeses and 
other foods are generally eaten when they are decayed, 
without doing any harm. It is only when special kinds of 
germs are present that there is danger. Only a bacteriolo- 
gist, after elaborate study, can tell whether these dangerous 
germs are present or not, and their presence cannot be de- 
tected by any special taste or odor. In order to be on the 
safe side, one should avoid all food, particularly meator fish, 
that is spoiled or tainted to such an extent that it smells or 
tastes bad, or looks soft, slimy, or discolored, for such food 
is likely to contain the germs of food poisoning. 
Meat that has been chopped up into small pieces, as in 
hashes or fricassees, is particularly likely to spoil on account 
of the amount of surface exposed to the germs of decay. All 
such dishes should be watched with special care. 
Preservation of Food.-In order to avoid the danger of 
food poisoning, and to prevent the loss of good food by 
spoiling, it is important that all foodstuffs should be care- 
fully guarded against decay. Since decay is caused by the 
growth of microbes, anything that will keep microbes from 
growing will keep foods from spoiling. 
One way of doing this is by canning or preserving. In 
these processes the microbes already present in the food are 
killed by heat, and the can or jar is then sealed so that no 258 
HEALTHY LIVING 
more microbes can get in. Tinned foods should be removed 
from the cans as soon as they are opened, for food stand- 
ing in the open tin may absorb poisonous substances dis- 
solved from the can by bacterial action. 
Cold is another excellent preservative. It does not kill the 
germs, as high heat does, but it checks their growth; and in 
cold storage warehouses where food is kept at freezing 
temperature or below, it will keep sweet and good for 
months or years. Food preserved in this way spoils quickly 
when it is taken out, and should be handled with care and 
used promptly. We cannot, of course, get temperatures as 
low as freezing in the home, but the ice chest is cool enough 
to check the growth of germs and helps greatly in keeping 
food fresh. 
Another way of preserving foods is by the use of chemicals 
which stop the growth of germs. Sugar, salt, and vinegar 
are used in the household for this purpose; and other 
chemicals, like sodium benzoate, are used by manufacturers. 
Some of these commercial preservatives may be poisonous 
when they are used in too large amounts. 
Keeping food clean always helps greatly in preserving it. 
If food is exposed to dust or to crawling insects, or if it is 
kept in dirty dishes or handled with dirty hands, it is likely 
to spoil. Special pains should be taken to keep the ice chest 
clean and free from odors, which are readily absorbed by 
many foods. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. Why is it not safe to drink the surface water of a lake or 
stream? 
2. Why is the water in wells not always pure? What meas- 
ures should be taken to protect it? 
3. Where does the water supply of your school come from? PURITY OF WATER AND FOOD SUPPLIES 
259 
Your home? What measures are taken to insure the purity of 
this water? 
4. Is lake water more dangerous before or after a heavy 
rain? Why? 
5. By what simple method may any drinking water be made 
safe, in the home? 
6. Have you your own drinking cup at school? Learn how 
to make one of paper, preferably paper with a glazed finish so 
that the water will not soak in easily. 
7. Did you ever use a bubble fountain? What is its advan- 
tage? How high should the water in the fountain rise above 
the metal base? 
8. Does freezing kill disease germs? Why do they die when 
stored in ice for some time? 
9. Why do germs grow faster in milk than in water? Com- 
pare the chances of disease germs getting into water and into 
milk. 
10. What causes milk to sour? Will it sour if there are no 
disease germs in it? 
11. What steps should be taken to keep milk clean and rela- 
tively free from germs? Have you ever seen a model dairy? 
What measures are taken in such a dairy to make everything 
sanitary? 
12. What is pasteurization? What does this process do to 
milk? 
13. What could you learn in the experiment with the four 
bottles of milk (page 255)? 
14. What are vitamins? Review pages 76-81, and see what 
vitamins do in the body and what conditions arise when they 
are not present. 
15. There are dangers in uncooked foods. Does that mean 
that we should eat only cooked foods? 
16. Does cooking always destroy germs and their toxins? 
17. What is the cause of so-called ptomaine poisoning? 
18. A government meat inspector found in a butcher shop 260 
HEALTHY LIVING 
some beef which was dark and slimy and had an unpleasant 
odor. The proprietor insisted that he did not intend to sell the 
meat to his customers. It was to go into a consignment to a 
sausage factory. What do you think of his defense? 
19. What causes the spoiling of foods? Describe some ways 
of preventing or postponing such spoiling. 
20. What do we mean by cold storage? What can you say 
for and against it? 
21. When manufacturers' bottled or boxed foods are marked 
"Guaranteed under the Food and Drugs Act, June 30th, 1906," 
what does it mean? (See page 84, Chap. VII.) Does it mean 
that foods so marked are guaranteed as good to eat? 
22. A housekeeper said, "If my kitchen and bathroom are 
clean, I never worry about the rest of the house." Explain. 
23. Write to the Board of Health of New York City (or 
any large city near you) for the Sanitary Code. Find out 
what the city demands for the care and protection of food from 
dirt and infection. CHAPTER XXIII 
FIGHTING OUR INSECT ENEMIES 
Insect Carriers of Disease.-The third important way 
in which germs are carried from person to person is by 
means of flies, mosquitoes, and other insects. 
The germs of some diseases may be carried by insects oc- 
casionally and accidentally, as in the case of the ordinary 
fly, which picks up infected matter on his feet and carries it 
to food. There are other diseases, like malaria and yellow 
fever, in which the germ actually grows and multiplies 
in the body of the insect. Most diseases of this last kind 
are spread by the bite of one particular insect and in no 
other way. 
Plagues of Olden Times.-In olden times when our 
great-great-great-grandfathers lived in conditions of filth 
that no one would think of enduring to-day, there were a 
great many more insect pests than there are at present. 
Perhaps the most terrible of all human diseases was the 
bubonic plague or Black Death, which swept over Europe 
in the fourteenth century and killed a quarter of the whole 
population. We now know that this is a disease of rats; the 
germ is carried from one rat to another, and finally from 
rats to men by the bites of fleas. 
In 1894 there was an outbreak of bubonic plague in Asia, 
and since then the infection has been spread along the 
great highways of commerce all over the world, by the ships 
passing from one seaport to another. We have had single 
cases in San Francisco and New Orleans, and there have 
261 262 
HEALTHY LIVING 
been others at various points from England to Australia 
and from China to Brazil. Yet nowhere outside of Asia has 
the disease made any headway, because at every seaport 
where it has appeared there has been a vigorous campaign 
against rats, which has stamped out the infection. At some 
seaports it was found that the rats passed to and from ships 
Fig. ioi.-A ship from a plague-infected port; the ropes are equipped with 
guards to prevent rats from getting ashore. 
along the mooring hawsers, and this has been prevented by 
slipping wide collars along the hawsers, which block the 
progress of the rats. 
Another terrible disease of olden times was typhus fever, 
sometimes called ship fever, or jail or camp fever, because 
it was so common under the unsanitary conditions of ships, 
jails, and army camps. The germ of this disease is carried FIGHTING OUR INSECT ENEMIES 
263 
from one person to another by the bite of the louse. With 
the better habits of personal cleanliness which prevail to- 
day, this disease had almost disappeared from civilized 
countries; but in 1915 the filthy conditions along the south- 
eastern battle front of the 
European war gave it a new 
chance to spread. 
The Filthy Fly.-There are 
many different kinds of flies, 
but the commonest kind about 
our houses is the one which, 
on that account, is generally 
called the house fly. It ought 
not to be a house fly, and we 
intend that it shall soon cease 
to be a house fly. It always 
is and always will be a filth 
fly, however, for it breeds in 
filth, lives largely on filth, 
and carries filth wherever it 
goes. 
The fly, like many 'other in- 
sects, goes through four stages 
in its life history. The mother 
fly lays her tiny white eggs in manure, garbage, or other 
refuse or decaying organic matter. From each egg hatches 
out a little white maggot or larva (lar'vd) which grows 
for four or five days. It then burrows down into the 
ground and changes to a motionless resting stage, called 
the pupa, like the chrysalis of a butterfly or moth. After 
four or five days more, the adult fly comes out of the pupa 
and makes its way up to the air. 
Fig. 102.-Armed against typhus 
fever. An orderly in a French 
Military Hospital, dressed in a 
suit closed tightly at wrists and 
neck, to exclude lice. 264 
HEALTHY LIVING 
As the fly passes from 
the places where it 
breeds to our houses, 
and possibly to the din- 
ner table, it carries all 
sorts of filth germs on 
its feet and body, and 
among them there may 
be disease germs too. If 
you let a fly walk over a 
bacterial culture plate,-■ 
a shallow dish contain- 
ing a jelly on which 
germs can grow,-its path will be marked by colonies of 
bacteria which it has planted there. The dirtier the sur- 
roundings, the greater is 
likely to be the number 
of microbes carried by 
the fly. A bacteriologist 
collected some flies and 
washed off the germs on 
their bodies by shaking 
them in water. The 
average number of mi- 
crobes per fly was over 
one million for flies from 
dirty places and only four- 
teen thousand for flies 
caught in clean places. 
In the Spanish-American War, about one out of every five 
of our volunteer soldiers had typhoid fever, and it was 
found that the fly was one of the principal agents in spread- 
Fig. 103.-The house fly, or filth fly. 
From the Model in the Hall of Public 
Health, American Museum of Natural 
History. 
Fig. 104.-The foot of the fly, showing 
the relative size of typhoid germs 
which it may carry. FIGHTING OUR INSECT ENEMIES 
265 
ing the disease. In Jacksonville, Florida, flies used to cause 
a great deal of typhoid, until a campaign for the screening 
of outside closets reduced the typhoid death rate of the city 
to less than one fourth of what it had been 
Typhoid fever is by no means the only disease that is 
carried by flies. Studies made by the Association for Im- 
Fig. 105.-Relative deadliness of battle and disease in the Spanish-American 
War of 1898. (Above) One man out of 100 wounded in action. 
(Below) Thirteen out of 100 ill with typhoid and one dead. From the 
model in the Hall of Public Health, American Museum of Natural 
History. 
proving the Condition of the Poor in New York City showed 
that babies which were carefully protected from flies had 
only one half as much diarrheal disease (summer complaint) 
as babies not protected in this way. 
How to Fight against the Fly.-Flies are not only a 
nuisance, therefore, but a real danger to health. 
There are four principal ways by which we may fight 266 
HEALTHY LIVING 
against them: by preventing their breeding, by trapping 
them, and by keeping them away from human discharges 
and from food. Anti-fly campaigns are becoming very 
popular in many places, and justly so. These campaigns, 
however, might sometimes be conducted so as to do much 
more good than they now accomplish. "Swatting" flies 
often has a prominent place in them, but "swatting" is a 
much less effective method than preventing the breeding 
of flies and trapping them. 
Destroying the Fly's Breeding Places.-The first and 
most important thing to do in getting rid of flies is to 
prevent their breeding by taking care of the materials in 
which the maggots can grow. As manure is the fly's 
favorite breeding place, great pains should be taken, wher- 
ever there is a stable, to keep the manure in tight, dark, 
covered bins and to disinfect it with borax or hellebore to 
destroy the maggots. Another good way to keep manure 
is in a box with a perforated bottom, having a pan of water 
underneath. If the manure is kept moist, the maggots 
when full grown will go down in search of the earth, and 
crawling through the holes in the bottom will drop into the 
water, where they drown. 
Manure is not the only breeding place of the fly; all sorts 
of decaying rubbish must be cleaned out from the yard and 
street, if the number of flies is to be reduced. The removal 
of such fly-breeding rubbish is one of the most important 
factors in an anti-fly or general "clean-up" campaign. 
Trapping Flies.-Trapping the adult flies is also an im- 
portant measure of control. The traps which are most 
effective consist of wire cones opening upward into wire 
cages. Some bait that will attract flies is placed under the 
lower wide opening of the cone, and the flies on leaving the FIGHTING OUR INSECT ENEMIES 
267 
bait will fly upward through the small end of the cone into 
the cage. 
A description of a good fly trap and of the way in which 
any one can easily make such a trap is given at the end of 
this book (page 386). 
Other Protections against Flies.-Cleaning up and trap- 
ping greatly reduce the number of flies, particularly if 
begun early in the season; but these measures will not 
destroy them entirely. It is important to prevent the re- 
maining flies from carrying disease germs, by keeping them 
away from human discharges where they pick up such 
germs, and from food where they may deposit them. Out- 
side closets should be made tight and screened against flies, 
and the doors and windows of houses should be screened, 
especially in the kitchen and the dining room and in any 
room in which there is a case of sickness. Care should be 
taken to see that screens fit closely and that they are always 
in place, and that screen doors are not left ajar or held open. 
If wire screens cannot be provided, flies may be kept out by 
cotton mosquito netting tacked over the windows. 
Mosquitoes and Malaria.-The name malaria means 
bad air, and not very many years ago it was thought that 
this disease was caused by some strange gas that rose from 
marshes or from places where the earth had been dug up. 
It was finally discovered that the cause of malaria is a germ 
which grows in the blood. This germ cannot get out of the 
body and be carried from one person to another in any direct 
way, but only by the bite of a mosquito which has drawn 
the germ up through its sucking tube along with the blood it 
feeds upon. This discovery cleared up at last the mysterious 
connection between malaria and marshes and upturned 
soil. Mosquitoes breed in stagnant or slowly running water, 268 
HEALTHY LIVING 
and the reason why ditches and swamps favor malaria is 
that they furnish the water in which mosquitoes breed. 
Curiously enough, there is only one kind of mosquito 
(the A noph' e les mosquito) in whose body the malarial 
germs will live long enough to be carried from one person to 
another. Mosquitoes, like flies, go through four distinct 
stages of growth, and in the second and fourth of these 
Fig. 106.-A typical mosquito-breeding marshland. 
stages it is easy for any boy or girl to tell the malarial 
mosquito from the common kinds. (See Figs. 107 and 108.) 
From the eggs laid by a mosquito on the surface of a 
pool or sluggish stream, there hatches out a little larva or 
wiggler, so called because it jerks about in the water in 
which it lives and grows. If there are mosquitoes about 
your house or school, a little observation will soon show you 
where they are breeding. The little blackish wigglers, about 
three eighths of an inch long, are generally collected at 
the surface. When they are quiet, the wigglers of the com- FIGHTING OUR INSECT ENEMIES 
269 
mon mosquito (Culex) rest at an angle with the surface, and 
those of the malarial mosquito (Anopheles) rest flat against 
it. If you dip up some water from a pool or stream in a 
white cup and find little wigglers like the picture, you 
may be sure that mosquitoes are breeding there. After a 
week or so the larvae change to curiously shaped pupae, 
and in a few days more these pupae hatch out into adult 
mosquitoes, which emerge from the pupa cases floating 
Fig. 107.-Resting position of the larvae of the common mosquito, Culex 
(left), and the malarial mosquito, Anopheles (right). 
on the surface of the water and, after strengthening their 
wings for a few moments, fly away. 
The common mosquito, when full grown, rests in a sort of 
humpbacked position more or less parallel with the wall on 
which it is standing, while the malarial mosquito stands out 
from the wall in a nearly straight line (see Fig. 108). You 
can also tell the malarial mosquito by the fact that it has 
spotted wings. 
How to Control Mosquitoes.-The way to control the 
breeding of mosquitoes is to drain or fill in small pools, clear 
the channels of sluggish, weedy streams, and empty barrels, 270 
HEALTHY LIVING 
pails, tin cans, and everything else containing stagnant 
water in which the insects may breed. If a pool cannot 
be got rid of, mosquito breeding can be prevented 
by pouring a little kerosene or crude oil on the water 
every two weeks. 
The oil spreads out 
in a thin layer on 
the surface and kills 
the larval mos- 
quitoes because the 
wigglers must come 
up to the surface 
to breathe, and if 
the surface is cov- 
ered with oil they 
cannot get their 
breathing tubes 
through it to reach 
the air. 
Fish, frogs, and some of the larger water insects eat a good 
many mosquito wigglers. A pool that is too pretty to be 
drained or oiled is often stocked with fish to prevent mosqui- 
toes from breeding. 
Houses in malarial regions should be carefully screened, 
and beds protected by netting. Particular care should be 
taken to avoid letting Anopheles mosquitoes bite malarial 
patients and thus acquire the infection which they may carry 
to others. 
School Sanitary Squads.-In many schools, Health 
Leagues or Sanitary Squads have been organized to work 
under the direction of one of the teachers, the school physi- 
cian, or the school nurse. Their task is to study and im- 
Fig. 108.-Resting position of common mosquito, 
Culex (right) and malarial mosquito, Anopheles 
(left). FIGHTING OUR INSECT ENEMIES 
271 
prove the sanitary condition of the school building and 
grounds. 
Such a Sanitary Squad can do real service by inspect- 
ing the surroundings of the school to see where insect pests 
are breeding. They can soon learn to recognize fly maggots 
and mosquito wigglers, both the common and the malarial 
kind. Once the breeding places are found, it is generally 
easy, by cleaning up or oiling, or by some of the other ways 
described above, to get rid of most of these dangerous 
pests. 
The Health Leagues should meet at regular intervals for 
talks by teachers, health officers, or public-spirited physi- 
cians, in regard to the sanitary problems of the school and 
the community. They may select their own officers and 
provide for and appoint, with the approval of the teacher, 
committees on heating and ventilation, water supply, toilet 
facilities, school grounds, flies, and mosquitoes. 
The war against insect pests requires keenness, patience, 
ingenuity, and real scouting work to find the enemy. It is 
civic service of the right sort, for every campaign against 
these pests is a part of the great defensive war of human- 
ity against disease. 
Committees of the Health League.-A Committee on 
Heating and Ventilation should be formed, including a health 
officer in each classroom. His work is to read the thermom- 
eter at regular hours each day for a certain period and chart 
the readings on a blackboard space reserved for the purpose, 
where pupils, principal, janitor, and visitors can see a week's 
record at a glance. It is the duty of this committee, when 
conditions permit, to readjust heat sources, ventilators, or 
windows to secure proper temperature, which, when artifi- 
cial heat is used, should never exceed 68° Fahrenheit. Older 272 
HEALTHY LIVING 
boys may make observations of humidity, dust, and air 
currents.1 
A Committee on Water Supply should study the source of 
water supply in use by the school or the community, in the 
light of instruction given at one of the meetings of the 
League; and should be charged particularly with the duty 
of observing and guarding against the use of common 
drinking cups. 
A Committee on Toilet Facilities is charged with super- 
vision of the cleanliness of toilet apartments. Washing 
facilities and the danger of the common towel fall within 
the scope of this committee's work. 
A Committee on School Grounds is responsible for the 
general neatness of the school yard and surroundings. 
It is the duty of a Committee on Fly Prevention to 
make a careful study of neighboring rubbish heaps in order 
to find out where the maggots are breeding. Boys who are 
clever at carpentry can build fly traps for the school yard 
and schoolrooms. 
A Committee on Mosquito Control undertakes to locate 
the breeding places of mosquitoes; and the older boys 
may perhaps be intrusted with the periodic oiling of the 
breeding pools. 
The Conquest of Tropical Disease.-In warm coun- 
tries there are a great many insect-borne diseases, and 
their control since the beginning of the twentieth century is 
the most brilliant chapter in the history of public health. 
One of the first and most important steps in this great task, 
the discovery of the transmission of yellow fever by the 
1 The work of such a committee in regard to heating and ventilation 
is described in the Report of the Committee on Janitor Service of 
the National Education Association, July, 1913. FIGHTING OUR INSECT ENEMIES 
273 
mosquito, was made by four American army surgeons. The 
story is such a splendid one that all American children 
should know it. 
These four men, Doctors Reed, Carroll, Lazear, and 
Agramonte, were sent to Cuba in 1900 to study yellow fever, 
Fig. 109.-Major Walter Reed (1851-1902), leader 
of the band of gallant American army surgeons 
who discovered the secret of yellow fever. 
which had been killing seven hundred and fifty people a 
year in the city of Havana and was spreading among our 
soldiers. The investigators suspected a certain mosquito 
as a possible cause. They could not experiment with 
animals, because only human beings have yellow fever. 
So they tested their theory by allowing themselves to be 274 
HEALTHY LIVING 
bitten by mosquitoes which had bitten yellow fever patients. 
Carroll was the first to be successfully infected with the 
disease in this way. He came down with yellow fever and 
was very ill, but finally recovered. Lazear was the next to 
come down, and he died. Yet the experiments went on, and 
there was never lack of volunteers from the army to take 
this terrible risk. 
Besides the physicians, the first volunteers to offer them- 
selves were two men in the government service, one a 
soldier and the other a civilian,-Kissinger and Moran. 
The only stipulation they made was that they should re- 
ceive no pay, since they were performing this service for the 
sake of humanity. Major Reed, when they made this 
offer, touched his cap and said, "Gentlemen, I salute 
you." 
Both Kissinger and Moran were exposed to the bites of 
infected mosquitoes and came down with the disease. 
Kissinger was the first of the non-medical volunteers to be 
experimented on. Of him Dr. Reed wrote, "In my opinion 
this exhibition of moral courage has never been surpassed in 
the annals of the army of the United States." Both of 
these men recovered, but Kissinger ten years later was 
awarded a pension from Congress for hopeless physical 
disabilities resulting from the experiments. 
By March, 1901, this gallant band of investigators was 
able to announce that yellow fever was spread by the bite of 
a certain mosquito, and in no other way. At once an active 
campaign was begun against this particular insect, and the 
result was that there were only eighteen deaths from yellow 
fever in Havana that year, and none at all in 1902. The 
terrible disease which had cursed the city for half a century 
was wiped out in a single year. FIGHTING OUR INSECT ENEMIES 
275 
Heroes of Science.-The history of medicine and public 
health is full of examples of quiet, unnoticed heroism, such 
as that which occurred at Havana. Howard T. Ricketts of 
Chicago was a brilliant young American investigator who 
gave his life in the fight against insect-borne disease. He 
died of typhus while studying its control in Mexico. Fif- 
Fig. no.-The Panama Canal, a triumph of American sanitation. 
teen or more members of the United States Public Health 
Service have lost their lives in the course of their studies 
and as a result of them. 
The Building of the Panama Canal.-It was the discov- 
ery made by Major Reed and his associates, with other 
discoveries in regard to insect-borne diseases, that made 
possible the building of the Panama Canal. The Isthmus of 
Panama was one of the most notorious plague spots in the 
world, and it was disease rather than engineering difficulties 276 
HEALTHY LIVING 
that drove the French back when they attempted to build a 
canal across it. 
When the United States began its work, Colonel W. C. 
Gorgas, fresh from the fight against yellow fever at Havana, 
was placed in charge of the sanitary part of the under- 
Fig. in.-William C. Gorgas (1854- ), con- 
queror of yellow fever on the Isthmus of 
Panama. 
taking. He began a campaign against mosquitoes similar 
to that which had been so successful in Cuba. He had to 
overcome the opposition of those who looked upon the 
mosquito theory as an impractical one, but his success was 
immediate as soon as he was allowed to deal with the yellow 
fever problem in the way which the Havana experiments FIGHTING OUR INSECT ENEMIES 
277 
had indicated. So successfully did his sanitary army ditch, 
drain, and oil, remove mosquito breeding places, and de- 
stroy adult mosquitoes, that yellow fever has been abol- 
ished on the Isthmus, and malaria reduced to a low 
figure. The completed Canal stands as a triumph of Ameri- 
can engineering, and as an even greater triumph of 
American public health science. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. Compare the history of plagues in the fourteenth and in 
the nineteenth centuries. What was the difference? 
2. How is the bubonic plague carried? By what measures 
may it be controlled? 
3. W7hat conditions existed in 1915, on the southeastern 
battle front in Serbia, which would cause such a disease as 
typhus fever to spread? 
4. What are the different life stages of a fly? When is the 
best time in the life of a fly to destroy it? 
5. What diseases are frequently carried by flies? 
6. In what different ways can we fight the fly? 
7. Jenny left her baby brother's carriage standing for a long 
time outside a badly kept stable. Was this dangerous? Why? 
8. How should manure be kept? How may fly maggots be 
killed? 
9. Explain the working of a trap like the one described in the 
Appendix (page 366). Make one like it, if you can. 
10. Compare the life stages of the mosquito with the life 
stages of the fly. 
11. Why did people think that malaria came from swamp 
gas? How is malaria carried from one person to another? What 
connection has this with marshy land? 
12. How do mosquitoes breed? Where are the eggs laid? 
How may the eggs and wigglers be destroyed? 
13. John found an old rain barrel swarming with mosquito 278 
HEALTHY LIVING 
wigglers. There were none in a goldfish pond near by. What is 
the probable explanation? 
14. How could you organize a Sanitary Squad or Health 
League in your school? What work could you find for this 
League to do? 
15. What health conditions were found in Cuba when our 
soldiers went there during the Spanish-American War? What 
was done to remedy these conditions? 
16. Which do you think requires the finer courage: going 
into battle, or offering yourself for such a scientific research 
experiment as is described on page 274? Which is of greater 
service to the world? 
17. Tell the story of the Sanitary Campaign in Panama. 
Even if our engineers had been no more skillful than the French 
engineers, why would we have succeeded in building the canal 
when they failed? CHAPTER XXIV 
ISOLATING CASES OF DISEASE 
Importance cf Isolating Infected People.-Since disease 
germs come originally from infected people, it is clear that 
one of the best ways of stopping the spread of disease is to 
find these people and see that they do not pass their germs 
on to others. In the case of carriers who are perfectly well, 
we cannot do this, because we usually do not know who they 
are until an epidemic occurs. 
When we do know, however, that a person has some 
communicable disease, everything should be done to see 
that the infected person is separated from others, so that 
disease germs shall not spread farther. This practice is 
called isolation. 
What Isolation Means.-Until recent years, before it 
was known just how disease germs spread, not only the sick 
person but the whole family were often shut off from the 
rest of the world. This is called quarantine. Sometimes 
quarantine was declared against a whole country where 
some terrible disease was known to exist; that is, a govern- 
ment would decree that no one from the country where 
disease was raging should enter its borders. Old-fashioned 
quarantine was very inconvenient, and it is seldom neces- 
sary to-day to take such harsh measures. The modern 
way, when ships come from countries where there is plague 
or cholera, is not to quarantine the whole ship's company 
but to detect the few infected individuals by bacteriological 
tests, isolate them, and let the rest depart. 
279 280 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Isolation means simply the taking of proper precautions 
to prevent disease from spreading, inside the family or out. 
In order that this may be done, the law requires that all 
cases of communicable disease shall be promptly reported 
Fig. 112.-Bedside care of a case of communicable disease. 
to the health authorities, so that the health officer may 
arrange for the necessary care. 
The person who is suffering from the communicable 
disease must be in a separate room, away from the rest of the 
family. The nurse, mother, or other person in charge must 
take the greatest care that nothing soiled by the discharges 
of the patient leaves the room without first being disin- 
fected-treated in such a way that the disease germs will be 
destroyed. All discharges from the nose, mouth, and ears 
of the sick person should be received on clean cloths which ISOLATING CASES OF DISEASE 
281 
can be burned or disinfected with chemicals. Handker- 
chiefs, bedding, forks, spoons, dishes, and anything else 
which may have been infected by the patient should be 
boiled or otherwise disinfected. No one, except the doctor 
and the person caring for the patient, should come into the 
room. The nurse or attendant must see to it that she does 
not carry germs out of the room on her fingers or clothing. 
She should always wash or disinfect her hands before leaving 
the room, and it is a good plan for her to have a special 
gown for the sick room, which she changes when she goes out. 
Fig. 113.-The relative importance of certain common commu- 
nicable diseases as causes of death in New York City. 
Whenever there is a case of communicable disease in a 
house, a placard should be posted outside to warn people 
not to enter. If the patient is properly isolated, however, 
the members of the family who do not come in contact with 
him need not be a danger to others; if they are immune from 
the disease (by reason of an earlier attack), they may in 
many cases go freely about their business. People who have 
once had chicken pox, German measles, measles, mumps, or 
whooping cough are generally immune from these diseases. 
If, on the other hand, the house is crowded or for any 
other reason isolation cannot be carried out there, the sick 
person should be taken to an Isolation Hospital, where he 
can be properly cared for. 282 
HEALTHY LIVING 
The Communicable Diseases That must be Isolated.-• 
The Board of Health in each city, and in many states, has 
special rules as to just what diseases are to be isolated and 
how the isolation is to be carried on. There are thirteen 
diseases which are so common and so important that special 
precautions are taken in regard to them almost everywhere. 
These are chicken pox, diphtheria, 'German measles, in- 
fant paralysis, influenza, measles, mumps, scarlet fever, 
septic sore throat, smallpox, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, 
and whooping cough. 
In almost all these diseases, the germs are spread in the fine 
spray thrown out from the mouth in coughing or sneezing, 
and in the other discharges from the nose, mouth, and 
sometimes the ears. 
Every one knows that diphtheria, scarlet fever, smallpox, 
and typhoid fever are serious, but many people think 
that measles and whooping cough are merely "children's 
diseases" and are not of much consequence. This is a great 
mistake, for in many cities more people die of measles than 
of typhoid fever, and more die of whooping cough than of 
scarlet fever. These diseases are particularly deadly for 
young children, and the greatest care should be taken to 
protect them from infection. 
How Long Isolation should Continue.-Each communi- 
cable disease has its own definite period of duration, and 
experience teaches that a certain number of days or weeks 
must pass before it is safe for the patient to mingle with 
other people. The periods of isolation for the more common 
communicable diseases of children are shown in the follow- 
ing table. In each case, of course, the patient should be 
isolated until he has entirely recovered from the disease, 
and running of the nose or ears has ceased. In diphtheria, ISOLATING CASES OF DISEASE 
283 
the only safe rule is to wait until tests made by a bacte- 
riologist show that the nose and throat are free from diph- 
theria germs. 
Isolation Period of Common Communicable Diseases 
of Children 
Disease 
Isolation Period from Time of Beginning of Attack 
Chicken pox 
12 days 
German measles 
8 days 
Measles 
io days 
Mumps 
2 weeks 
Scarlet fever 
30 days 
Whooping cough 
8 weeks, or until one week after the last whoop 
Disinfection and Cleansing.-After a person has re- 
covered from an attack of a communicable disease, the 
health authorities sometimes order that the room in which 
he has been ill shall be disinfected or fumigated. Disinfec- 
tion is the treating of anything with chemicals, or heat, or in 
other ways, for the purpose of destroying disease germs. 
Sterilization is the destruction of all germs, whether disease 
germs or not. In fumigating, a room is filled with a gas 
which has the power of disinfecting. This process will kill 
only the germs exposed on the surface of things and cannot 
take the place of a thorough cleansing of the room. It is 
important to destroy all small objects which may have been 
soiled or handled by the patient, and which cannot be 
purified by disinfection or washing. The room should be 
aired and flooded with sunlight, if possible. After the dust 
has settled, the woodwork and the plain furniture should 
be washed, and the floor scrubbed with hot water and 
soap. 
It should be remembered that the time of real danger is 284 
HEALTHY LIVING 
during the disease, not afterwards. Most diseases are much 
more catching at the beginning than toward the end. 
Proper care while the disease is going on is of the greatest 
importance; nothing the health authorities can do afterward 
will help much if the patient and the nurse have been care- 
less. 
Signs of the Beginning of a Communicable Disease.- 
The fact that many diseases are particularly catching just 
when they are beginning makes it very important to watch 
for the onset of disease and to start isolation as soon as 
possible. 
Measles, for instance, begins like an ordinary cold in the 
head, with sneezing and running nose and eyes. Generally 
people think it is just a cold, and the child who has it runs 
about and plays with other children as if nothing were the 
matter. Yet it has been found that there is far more danger 
of spreading the germs of measles at this time than there is 
later, when a rash has appeared and the patient has been 
put to bed. 
Children should never be sent to school, and should not 
play with other children, when they have any of the signs 
which may mean an attack of a communicable disease, 
particularly if there is reason to think they may have been 
exposed to infection. 
The principal signs of the beginning of an attack of com- 
municable disease are as follows: 
Coughing 
Weak, tired feeling 
Sneezing 
Watery eyes 
Running nose 
Headache 
Sore throat 
Vomiting 
Feverishness 
Diarrhea 
Rash or spots of any kind 
Swelling or pain back of or under the ears ISOLATING CASES OF DISEASE 
285 
Isolation of Exposed or Contact Cases.-In each par- 
ticular disease, a certain time must elapse between the day 
when a person first gets the germ into his body, and the 
day when the actual symptoms of disease appear. This is 
called the period of incubation; during this time the germs 
are growing in the body until there are enough of them to 
make the person feel sick. The incubation period varies 
with different diseases, from a few days to several weeks. 
The periods for the commoner diseases of children are 
shown in the table below: 
Disease 
Incubation Period 
Chicken pox 
11-22 days 
German measles 
i1-22 days 
Measles 
8-15 days 
Mumps 
15-22 days 
Scarlet fever 
7 days 
Whooping cough 
14 days 
When children are known to have been exposed to com- 
municable disease, they should be kept out of school 
and away from other children until the period of incubation 
has passed without any signs of the disease appearing. In 
the case of chicken pox, German measles, measles, mumps, 
or whooping cough, this is not necessary if the child has 
had the disease before and is, therefore, immune. In 
diphtheria, the incubation period is short (from one to five 
days), but carrier cases are so common that all persons who 
have been exposed to diphtheria should be examined and 
have samples taken from their throats by the doctor or 
health officer. An examination of the samples by a bacte- 
riological test will show whether any diphtheria germs are 
present. 286 
HEALTHY LIVING 
The Sanitary Conscience.-We shall never stop the 
suffering that comes from needless communicable disease 
until people remember how dangerous it is to expose others 
to infection. It is not a sign of courage for a person to keep 
up and about when that involves danger to others. The 
next time you have a cough, or a running nose, or feel half 
sick, and yet still want to go to a party or to school, remem- 
ber that you may be coming down with some communicable 
disease, and that if you mingle with other children you will 
Fig. 114.-The relative fatality from measles, scarlet fever, and whoop- 
ing cough, for children from one to fifteen years of age. The 
length of the bars shows the relative proportion of fatal cases to total 
cases at each age. 
be almost sure to infect them, and that some of them may 
be very ill and may even die as a result. 
If you have a light case of whooping cough and feel well 
enough to go out to play, remember that however light your 
case may be, some other child may catch the disease from 
you and be dangerously ill. 
Above all, remember that it is to young babies that these 
diseases are most fatal. Measles and whooping cough are 
more than five times as deadly in infants under one year of 
age as in children over five. So, whatever else you do, keep ISOLATING CASES OF DISEASE 
287 
away from babies and young children, if you have the least 
sign of illness of any kind. 
On the other hand, if you are well yourself, it is wise to 
keep, as much as you can, away from others who seem to 
be "coming down" with some communicable disease. In 
epidemics like the outbreak of influenza which occurred in 
1918, one should remain at home as much as possible and 
avoid crowds and public gatherings. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. What do we mean by isolation? What do we mean by 
quarantine? 
2. Why do we have quarantine stations in all our big 
ports? Is complete quarantine usually required nowadays? 
Explain. 
3. What precautions must the doctor and the nurse take so 
that they will not carry germs to others? 
4. Why is it a good plan for a patient suffering from a com- 
municable disease to use old soft muslin or cheesecloth in place 
of handkerchiefs? 
5. Suppose that a nurse was holding a spoon to the mouth 
of a child that had diphtheria, and the child coughed violently. 
Suppose that the nurse then laid the spoon on the table, went 
to the bathroom, and turned the faucet with the same hand 
that had held the spoon. Would this be good isolation? 
6. In what diseases is isolation considered necessary? 
7. Which diseases are transmitted by the fine spray from 
mouth and nose? 
8. What determines the length of time a patient must be 
isolated on account of a communicable disease? 
9. What is meant by disinfection? Sterilization? Fumi- 
gation? 
10. What should be done to clean a room after the patient 
has left it? 288 
HEALTHY LIVING 
ii. At what stage in a disease is there usually greatest danger 
of passing on the disease. 
12. In a school where there had been cases of measles, a 
child who sneezed and coughed and who had running eyes and 
nose was sent home by the school doctor. Explain. 
13. What is the incubation period of a disease? 
14. What are some of the common signs of the beginning of 
an attack of communicable disease? 
15. Mary has measles. Her brother John had the disease 
four years ago, and her brother Walter has never had it. The 
Health Officer said that John could go to school, but that Walter 
must stay out for fifteen days after the day on which he last 
played with Mary. Why? 
16. Which are more likely to catch any communicable disease, 
little children or grown people? What do you think of exposing 
children to measles or whooping cough in order that they may 
"get it over with"? 
17. How can we be careful about passing on a disease to other 
people? 
18. How can every one help in the campaign to stamp out 
disease? 
19. What is the " sanitary conscience "? CHAPTER XXV 
IMMUNITY AND HOW WE CAN CONTROL IT 
Natural and Artificial Immunity.-Vital resistance, or 
the natural power of the body to fight against invading 
microbes, varies greatly with different people. A high or a 
low degree of vital resistance sometimes runs in certain 
families. It was probably this fact that led people to think 
that tuberculosis could be inherited. A germ disease cannot, 
properly speaking, be inherited, although the germ can be 
passed from parent to child; but a low vital resistance 
against disease can be inherited. 
Besides this sort of general vital resistance, there is a 
very special kind of vital resistance, or immunity, which 
follows an attack of a particular disease. Every such at- 
tack, as we have learned, is a real battle between the disease 
germ and the human body. As soon as the germ enters, the 
tissues begin to form substances to fight against it, and the 
white blood cells set out to destroy it. When a person re- 
covers, it is because the white cells and the substances 
formed to kill the disease germs have prevailed. Sometimes 
the body retains the power of killing this particular kind of 
germ, or destroying its poison, for some time after recovery, 
and after certain diseases it retains this power for life. 
In several diseases, thanks to the brilliant discoveries of 
physicians and bacteriologists, it is possible to make people 
immune beforehand, or to help them recover after the 
disease has set in. This is accomplished by the use of cer- 
tain substances called vaccines (vak' sins) and antitoxic 
289 290 
HEALTHY LIVING 
sera (singular, se' rum). These vaccines and sera produce 
an artificial immunity in the body, similar to the immu- 
nity that follows recovery from an attack of communicable 
disease. 
Vaccination against Smallpox.-The earliest, and one of 
the most important, vaccines ever discovered is that used 
Fig. 115.-The large greyish bodies with darker 
nuclei are the soldier cells of the blood in the 
act of destroying chains of invading cocci. 
for protection against smallpox. Smallpox used to be one 
of the most terrible of all diseases until in 1798 Edward 
Jenner, an English physician, discovered this method of 
preventing it. Jenner was a country doctor in a dairy farm 
district. It had been noticed that the cows in this region 
suffered from a very mild disease, somewhat like smallpox, 
called cow pox. Little swellings, like blisters, are found on 
the skin of cows that have this disease. Jenner discovered 
that the lymph from these swellings, if rubbed into scratches IMMUNITY AND HOW WE CAN CONTROL IT 
291 
in the human skin, had the wonderful power of giving a 
person immunity against smallpox. It has been said that 
this discovery of Jenner's was the greatest single practical 
benefit ever bestowed by one man upon the human race. 
Fig. 116.-Edward Jenner (1749-1823), who in- 
troduced the practice of vaccination against 
smallpox. 
As soon as vaccination was generally introduced, the 
dreaded epidemics of smallpox ceased, and this disease now 
exists only so far as vaccination is neglected. During the 
eight years before the American army entered Havana, 
there were 3132 deaths from smallpox in the city; during 
the next eight years, when vaccination was enforced, there 
were seven. 292 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Vaccination has conquered smallpox so successfully that 
people have almost forgotten what a terrible disease it was, 
and some of them have grown careless about vaccination. 
Then, too, there are others who object to being vaccinated 
for fear some infection may get into the wound. All vaccine 
used in the United States is now tested as to its purity by 
the national government, and there is no danger from its 
use, provided that the place where the vaccine is rubbed 
into the arm or leg is kept clean and free from dirt germs. 
The protective effect of vaccination wears off after a time. 
Every child should therefore be vaccinated when about a 
year old, and again at about the seventh year. 
Pasteur's Work on Vaccines.-For a long time Jenner's 
vaccine was the only substance of its kind known. No one 
had any idea that the principle he had discovered could be 
applied to other diseases as well. It was Pasteur who 
laid the foundation for the many other treatments of the 
kind which we have to-day. 
While Pasteur was studying a disease of fowls called 
chicken cholera, he was away from the laboratory for a time, 
and some of his cultures of the germs dried up. He found 
that these germs, though still alive, were so weakened that 
they could no longer cause disease. Fowls treated with 
these weak germs, however, were found afterward to be 
immune against fresh, powerful cultures. Here was a 
great and promising discovery; and Pasteur at once began 
to study whether he could produce vaccines for other dis- 
eases in the same way. 
He succeeded at last in doing this with a disease of cattle 
called anthrax, and on a famous day in 1881 he demon- 
strated to a great company of doubting farmers and doctors 
that he could successfully protect cattle against anthrax by IMMUNITY AND HOW WE CAN CONTROL IT 
293 
treatment with his vaccine, which consisted of a culture of 
anthrax germs that had been weakened by heating. By this 
discovery he has saved millions of animals, since that time, 
from suffering and death. Above all, he established the 
fact that weakened disease germs (or in some cases the dead 
disease germs) can stimulate the tissues of the human 
body and the white cells in the blood so that they can 
Fig. 117.-Death rates from typhoid fever in the United 
States army. Vaccination was voluntary in 1909 and 1910, 
and was made compulsory in 19n. 
fight successfully against that particular kind of germ, just 
as an actual attack of the disease would do. 
Vaccination against Typhoid Fever.-One of the most 
successful of the vaccines discovered in recent years is that 
used to protect against typhoid fever. Its effects in con- 
trolling this disease in the American army have been most 
remarkable (see Fig. 117). In 1913 there was not a single 
death from typhoid fever among the United States troops. 
Vaccines against typhoid, cholera, and other diseases were 
used with striking success in the European armies in 1914 
and succeeding years. 294 
HEALTHY LIVING 
The Treatment of Diphtheria by Antitoxin.-Vaccines, 
as we have seen, are weakened or dead germs which stim- 
ulate the body tissues to form substances that will destroy 
the particular germ used, or its poisons. Vaccines are 
generally used beforehand as preventives of any future 
attack of disease. 
Another way of controlling immunity is by the use of 
antitoxic sera, or antitoxins, as they are often called, of 
which diphtheria antitoxin is the best example. Diphtheria 
antitoxin is made by introducing into the body of a horse 
the poison, or toxin, formed by the diphtheria germ. The 
toxin acts somewhat like a vaccine and stimulates the tissues 
of the horse to form an antitoxin, a substance which destroys 
this particular toxin. Then some of the blood of the horse is 
drawn off, the clear part or serum is separated and purified, 
and this serum (containing the antitoxin formed by the 
tissues of the horse) can be put into the body of a person 
suffering from diphtheria, to destroy the poisons of the 
germ. 
Diphtheria antitoxin was introduced into the United 
States by the New York City Department of Health in 
1894, and it has reduced the death rate from diphtheria in 
that city from 155 deaths for every hundred thousand of the 
population to 24. The antitoxin is of comparatively little 
use when the disease has gone on for a long while and the 
body has become severely poisoned; but if it is used as soon 
as the disease begins, it is a practically certain cure. 
When a case of diphtheria occurs in a family or in a 
school, the children and grown people who have been 
exposed to infection and are likely to come down with 
the disease, may be given doses of antitoxin to head 
it off. IMMUNITY AND HOW WE CAN CONTROL IT 
295 
Keeping up the General Vital Resistance.-It must be 
remembered that, aside from the special immunity which 
follows an attack of a particular disease, or treatment with 
a vaccine or serum, there is a considerable vital resistance 
against most diseases that goes with a general condition of 
good health. All the things that hygienic living demands- 
such as good food, fresh air, exercise, and rest-help to 
build up vital resistance. 
Alcohol and Vital Resistance.-Alcohol and other poisons 
lower vital resistance and make the body a more ready prey 
to disease germs. 
Observers who have studied the effect of alcohol on the 
power of animals to form immune substances in the blood, 
report that it reduces this power. As a matter of practical 
experience, physicians find that in fighting against such a 
disease as typhoid fever, where the struggle is a long and 
severe one, the person who has used alcohol to any con- 
siderable extent is heavily handicapped. 
The importance of the part played by vital resistance 
varies a great deal in different diseases. In smallpox, for 
instance, there is almost no natural vital resistance. Every 
one who has not had smallpox already, or has not been pro- 
tected by vaccination, will take this disease if the germ 
enters his body. In pneumonia/ on the other hand, many 
people may have the germs in their noses or throats without 
having pneumonia-provided they are strong and well. 
Just as soon as the general vital resistance is lowered, the 
pneumonia germ is likely to grow and produce disease. In 
such a case as this, the effect of indulgence in alcoholic 
drinks is particularly serious; the danger of pneumonia in a 
person poisoned by alcohol is well recognized by all physi- 
cians. 296 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. How does the body fight disease? 
2. Can vital resistance be inherited? What -would be meant 
if any one said, "Catching cold seems to run in a family?" 
3. What is immunity? When you have a disease, -what 
change takes place within your body, to make you immune? 
4. Can you ever be made immune without having a disease? 
How? Which is better-to become immune before you are ex- 
posed to a disease or after you have had it? 
5. What diseases do you know of, from which you can be 
made immune without having the diseases? 
6. What does vaccination do to the body? Why does the 
law almost everywhere require that a child must be vaccinated 
against smallpox before he can enter the public schools? 
7. How may all danger in vaccination be avoided? 
8. Who discovered the powder of vaccination against small- 
pox? Who found that the theory could be applied to diseases 
other than smallpox? How was each discovery made? 
9. What is the difference between a vaccine and an antitoxic 
serum? 
10. How is diphtheria antitoxin made? When is it used? Is 
the antitoxin of any use when diphtheria is well started? 
11. What has the use of diphtheria antitoxin accomplished in 
New York City? What has typhoid vaccine accomplished in 
the United States army? 
12. How does the power of vital resistance vary in different 
diseases? 
13. How does hygienic living lessen the chances of catching a 
communicable disease? CHAPTER XXVI 
TUBERCULOSIS 
Tuberculosis, the Great White Plague.-One of the com- 
municable diseases is so much more common and so much 
more deadly than any of the others that it deserves a special 
chapter. This is tuberculosis, sometimes called the Great 
White Plague. 
Tuberculosis is caused by a bacterium, which may grow 
in a great many different parts of the body, although it is 
most likely to be found in the lungs, causing tuberculosis of 
the lungs, or consumption. The germ does not grow all 
through the lungs in this disease but here and there at 
special points, where there form hard little knots or 
tubercles, from which the disease was named. 
Tuberculosis of the bones is not uncommon among chil- 
dren, and a great many of the lame people we see on the 
streets are crippled from this cause. 
The course of this disease is very slow, and it may take 
months or years to develop. When the germ is first gaining 
headway against the natural defenses of the body, the per- 
son begins to feel tired and weak, to lose weight and ap- 
petite, to feel feverish toward evening, and, in the case of 
consumption, to have a cough that does not yield to treat- 
ment. 
If proper steps are not taken to check the disease, it 
continues and grows worse. People between eighteen and 
forty-five suffer particularly from tuberculosis. It causes 
the death of about one third of all the people who die be- 
297 298 
HEALTHY LIVING 
tween these ages, and each year it kills about 150,000 people 
in the United States-more than were killed in battle in 
the whole Civil War. 
How the Germ of Tuberculosis Spreads.-The primary 
cause of tuberculosis is always the microbe itself. This 
germ is discharged in the spray and sputum coughed out by 
consumptives, and in most cases of the disease, infection re- 
sults from getting these human discharges into the mouth. 
Sometimes the germ is inhaled in dust, but it is more fre- 
quently transferred from one person to another by the 
various kinds of contact described in Chapter XXI. 
A great many cattle suffer from tuberculosis, and children 
may become infected by drinking the milk of tuberculous 
cows. 
How to Prevent the Spread of the Germ of Tuberculosis. 
To prevent the spread of tuberculosis, it is necessary, 
first of all, to prevent the spread of the germs discharged 
from the mouths of consumptives; and second, to pas- 
teurize the milk of all cows not certainly known to be free 
from the disease. 
The careless consumptive is a great danger to his family 
and associates, but one who is always careful to destroy his 
sputum and to avoid coughing out mouth spray into the 
air, need not be a menace to the health and life of others. 
The consumptive should always cough into a cloth or hand- 
kerchief, or a paper napkin which can be burned, and all 
sputum should be received in paper cups and burned at the 
end of the day. If handkerchiefs are used, they should not 
be put into a laundry bag or basket with other soiled linen, 
but should be boiled for twenty minutes in a strong soap- 
suds solution. When all these precautions are taken, it is 
not dangerous to live or work with a careful consumptive. TUBERCULOSIS 
299 
All rooms or apartments that have been occupied by 
persons suffering from tuberculosis should, upon the re- 
moval of the patient, be thoroughly cleansed and renovated 
by airing and exposing to sunlight, if possible, by washing 
woodwork and plain furniture, and by scrubbing the floor 
with soap and water. Renovation or repapering and paint- 
ing is sometimes also desirable. 
Vital Resistance and Tuberculosis.-Tuberculosis is a dis- 
ease in which vital resistance plays an especially important 
part. The germ is unfortunately very common; in fact, 
almost every individual, sooner or later, is slightly infected 
with it. 
This does not mean that every one has tuberculosis, in 
the sense of suffering from actual disease. The human 
body has a considerable povzer of defending itself against 
this invader, and a few germs entering the healthy body are 
quickly overcome. It is when a great many germs are 
taken in, and particularly when the strength is reduced by 
attacks of other diseases, or when resistance is lowered by 
intemperate habits, by living and working in overheated 
rooms, by eating insufficient food, or by breathing sharp 
dust particles, that the invisible enemy overcomes the de- 
fenses of the body. 
People who have recovered from tuberculosis, and those 
in whose family there has been a case, should be especially 
on guard against allowing their vital resistance to become 
weakened. 
How to Build up Vital Resistance against Tuberculosis. 
Tuberculosis is primarily a disease of those who work too 
hard and get too little food, of those who live in dark, un- 
ventilated tenements and work in dusty factories, of those 
who do not get enough exercise, fresh air, and sunlight. 300 
HEALTHY LIVING 
We can largely control tuberculosis by applying the ordi- 
nary principles of hygiene. Knowledge of the calorie-value 
and cost of food makes it possible to secure a nourishing diet 
Fig- 118.-A crowded tenement district-where the bacillus of 
tuberculosis works its ravages unless checked by vigorous pre- 
ventive measures. 
even with a small income. Fresh, cool air can generally be 
secured by opening the windows. Every effort should 
be made to have the bedroom well ventilated, and to 
keep the windows open at night all the year round. Suffi- TUBERCULOSIS 
301 
dent sleep could be enjoyed by most people, if they would 
realize that one cannot work all day and play half the night. 
Indoor workers can get at least some outdoor exercise by 
walking to their place of work. 
Industrial Tuberculosis.-Among the most important 
causes of tuberculosis are the unsanitary conditions of 
Fig. 119.-A factory equipped with hoods and exhaust ducts to remove 
dangerous dust from grinding and polishing wheels. 
factory life. An overheated, unventilated workshop is 
certain to lower vital resistance and make the worker an 
easy prey to the tuberculosis germ, particularly if he is 
weakened by long hours of labor. An especially dangerous 
thing about some industries is the fact that the air of the 
workshops is full of fine particles of mineral or metallic dust. 
These dust particles are inhaled and injure the delicate 302 
HEALTHY LIVING 
tissues of the lung, so that tuberculosis germs find it easy to 
grow there. The workers in some of these industries- 
granite workers and grinders, for instance-are two or 
three times as likely to contract tuberculosis as are people 
who work at less dangerous trades. 
In all such places there should be special pipes with 
exhaust fans to draw off the dust from the air. Where this 
cannot be done, the worker should wear a respirator over 
his mouth to keep out the deadly dust particles. 
Alcohol and Tuberculosis.-Alcohol, of course, lowers 
vital resistance against disease of all sorts, and since vital 
resistance plays so important a part in the fight against 
tuberculosis, the effect of alcohol is especially serious in 
this disease. Again and again we find that alcohol has 
been the thing that has weakened a man so that he could no 
longer defend himself against this enemy which is always 
waiting. The avoidance of alcoholic drinks is an essential 
part of the campaign against the Great White Plague. 
The International Congress of Tuberculosis recognized this 
fact when it adopted the resolution: "We strongly empha- 
size the necessity and importance of combining the fight 
against tuberculosis with the struggle against alcoholism." 
The Cure of Tuberculosis.-Just as the tuberculosis germ 
fails to gain a real foothold in the body of a thoroughly 
healthy person, so by proper hygienic treatment it can be 
conquered even after it has begun its work. 
There are no medicines, in the ordinary sense, that will 
cure tuberculosis. All so-called "Consumption Cures" are 
frauds which waste the money of their victims and do im- 
measurable harm by the loss of precious time. The cure 
for tuberculosis is hygienic living under the advice of a 
competent physician-properly directed rest and exercise, TUBERCULOSIS 
303 
plenty of fresh air, and a sufficient amount of wholesome 
food. If such treatment is taken early in the disease, tuber- 
culosis can generally be cured. 
The cure does not depend on any special climate, as was 
once thought to be the case. With proper treatment, people 
get well in all parts of the United States, and the strain and 
Fig. 120.-A tuberculosis sanatorium on the slope of a mountain. The 
patients sleep in the small tents, which are fully equipped for ven- 
tilation, and at the same time afford protection from the weather. 
expense of a long journey are usually unnecessary. Treat- 
ment can be carried out best, however, in a sanatorium or 
hospital established especially for the cure of tuberculosis. 
In such a hospital, where there is constant medical supervi- 
sion and nursing care, the patient stands a far better chance 
of recovery than anywhere else. The care of the patient in a 
hospital also ensures the protection of family and friends, 304 
HEALTHY LIVING 
who might be in danger of infection if the patient were 
cared for carelessly in the home. 
Where, for any reason, hospital treatment is impossible, 
the cure can often be taken at home, if the advice of the 
physician is carefully followed. A tuberculous patient 
should always sleep alone and, whenever possible, should 
have a separate bedroom. Both the bedroom and the 
living room should have as much sunlight as possible, and 
should always have an abundance of fresh air. The win- 
dows should be open day and night. 
Many consumptives have benefited greatly from sleeping 
out of doors-in tents, on roofs, or on piazzas (see Fig. 58). 
A sleeping porch, protected from storms by an awning, can 
be built at small expense. If sleeping out of doors is not 
feasible, a window tent may be substituted; this is partic- 
ularly suitable for winter. With plenty of bed clothing and 
a woolen hood over the head, tuberculous patients often 
sleep out of doors all winter when the temperature is well 
below zero, and seem to benefit by it. 
The Importance of Early Treatment.-The main thing 
is to begin the treatment of tuberculosis as soon as possible. 
In the family or immediate circle of each person known to 
have active tuberculosis, there is generally another early, 
unrecognized case. If such cases could be discovered, 
they could easily be cured. The time to put out a fire, or 
to control a disease, is before it gets well under way. When 
tuberculosis has gone far, it cannot usually be checked, but if 
the disease is attacked early there is every reason to be hope- 
ful. Any one who has a cough that hangs on, or who feels 
run-down and tired without knowing why, or who grows 
feverish in the afternoon, should consult a physician at once, 
so that if the enemy is present it may be discovered in time. TUBERCULOSIS 
305 
The Campaign against Tuberculosis.-Since about 1895, 
a strong, organized campaign has been carried on against 
tuberculosis by the establishment of sanatoria and hospitals, 
dispensaries, open-air schools, and day camps; by the work 
of Boards of Health in finding early cases of the disease and 
getting treatment for them; and by the education of the 
Fig. 121.-An open-air schoolroom. 
public through exhibits, lectures, and in other ways, as to 
the measures whereby the disease can be controlled. 
The result of this campaign, and of a general improve- 
ment in living conditions, is that the death rate from tuber- 
culosis has been reduced to about one half of what it was 
fifty years ago. There is still much to be done, however, for 
even to-day tuberculosis remains the largest single cause of 
preventable disease. 306 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. What causes tuberculosis? From what does it get its 
name? 
2. What part of the body is most often affected in this 
disease? What other parts of the body are sometimes af- 
fected? 
3. Is tuberculosis caught from other people? In what ways 
does it differ from other communicable diseases, such as ton- 
silitis or measles? 
4. What are some of the first symptoms of tuberculosis? 
5. Between what ages does it usually develop? 
6. What percentage of deaths are caused by it? 
7. Explain how tuberculosis may be carried from one person 
to another by "Fingers." By "Food" By "Flies." 
8. What can the patient do to save others from getting tuber- 
culosis? What can the family do? What can you do? 
9. What effect does vital resistance have upon tuberculosis? 
10. Do you suppose that you have ever had a tubercle 
bacillus in your body? Why have you not developed tuber- 
culosis? 
11. People who work in close, dark places where the air is 
bad are likely to contract tuberculosis. Why? 
12. People who work beyond their strength with insufficient 
food often have tuberculosis. Why? 
13. Those whose work makes it necessary for them to breathe, 
constantly, air which is full of sharp particles are very likely to 
develop tuberculosis. Why? 
14. If there is a big factory in your town, find out about the 
lighting, air, rest rooms, and general care of the employees. 
How can you justify increasing the running expenses of the fac- 
tory for sanitation? 
15. What effect does the use of alcohol have upon the develop- 
ment of tuberculosis? 
16. Why can a tuberculosis cure be carried out better in a 
sanatorium than at home? TUBERCULOSIS 
307 
i7- Why is it necessary to begin treatment in the very earliest 
stages of the disease? 
18. How can the education of the public help to wipe out 
tuberculosis? 
19. A laundress had to support her husband, who was con- 
fined to his bed with tuberculosis. They lived in one room, and 
she had to do the washing, drying, and ironing in that place. 
What harm would this do to the husband? What danger was 
there to others? 
20. Has there ever been a Red Cross Seal Campaign in your 
town? Find out all you can about it. CHAPTER XXVII 
KEEPING THE BABY WELL 
The Care of the Baby.-In many families there can be 
no regular nurse, and much of the care of the baby must 
come on the older children. Girls, and sometimes boys too, 
may be very helpful in this work, and so it is particularly 
important that children should know how to keep the baby 
well. 
A baby is much more delicate than a grown person, and 
many serious illnesses of babies occur largely as a result of 
improper care. Most of this sickness is quite needless. 
Health is the normal condition for a baby, just as it is for 
a grown person. Little children become sick because they 
are given the wrong kind of food or because they are not 
given the right kind of clothing or airing-because people 
do not know how to care for them. 
The girls who act as little mothers to their small brothers 
and sisters, if they will learn how to take good care of 
babies, can be of great help in the national movement to 
save infants' lives. 
Feeding the Baby.-The most important factor in keep- 
ing the baby well is proper feeding; and there is only one 
thoroughly safe food for a baby under nine months old- 
mother's milk. Cow's milk is different from human milk. 
It contains more fat and protein and less sugar than the 
baby needs. Above all, it generally contains germs which 
poison the infant, whose delicate body is not yet ready to 
308 KEEPING THE BABY WELL 
309 
fight against them. A young baby is very sensitive to 
heat, and in summer the combination of heat and uncooked 
cow's milk is likely to lead to serious and perhaps fatal 
attacks of "summer complaint." Out of an equal number 
of babies fed on the bottle and on mother's milk, ten times 
as many of the bottle-fed babies die. 
When a baby cannot be given mother's milk, it should be 
fed, not on prepared baby foods, but on clean cow's milk, 
modified. Modified milk is cow's milk to which water, 
lime water, and sugar have been added according to the 
needs of the individual baby 
so that it will have the chem- 
ical composition the baby 
needs. The formula for mod- 
ifying the milk must be 
changed from month to 
month, according to direc- 
tions of the family physician 
or the doctor at the dis- 
pensary or Infant Welfare 
Station. 
The cow's milk used should 
be the best and cleanest milk 
obtainable. It should be modified and then put in nursing 
bottles, stoppered with clean cotton batting, and pas- 
teurized as described on page 253. On no account should 
milk be given to a child without pasteurization, for no one 
can tell when the cleanest, freshest milk may contain germs 
of tuberculosis from the cow, or germs of scarlet fever or 
sore throat from some unsuspected human carrier. 
After pasteurizing, the milk should be cooled at once by 
placing the bottles in cold water and then on ice. The 
Fig. 122.-Pasteurizing the baby's 
milk in an ordinary double- 
cooker. 310 
HEALTHY LIVING 
milk should, of course, be warmed again before it is given to 
the child. 
All patent "baby foods" should be avoided, unless 
ordered by the doctor for a baby in need of a special diet. 
They are expensive, and the 
babies fed on them are, as a 
rule, more likely to be ill than 
those fed on cow's milk. 
The baby should be fed 
only at regular times, as 
specified for each age by the 
doctor or the Board of Health, 
and should never be fed at 
other times merely because 
it cries. 
The baby needs water be- 
tween feedings. This water 
should always be boiled first 
to kill any germs in it, and 
then cooled. 
For the first nine months 
of its life, a baby should have 
no solid food. 
Clothing and Bathing the 
Baby.-The baby is very sen- 
sitive to both heat and cold. 
When it is taken out in cold 
weather, it should wear a warm woolen cap and a coat long 
•enough to turn up at the bottom and button, making a bag. 
When the baby is in the baby carriage, it should be covered 
with a blanket. 
In summer the baby's clothes should be as light as possi- 
Fig. 123.-A home-made ice box. 
Take a deep box about 18 inches 
square and put 3 inches of sawdust 
in the bottom. Stand a pail on the 
sawdust and fill up the box with 
sawdust around the pail. Place a 
second smaller pail inside the larger 
one and put the milk bottle, sur- 
Tounded by cracked ice, in this inner 
pail. Nail several thicknesses of 
newspaper on the under surface of 
the cover of the box. KEEPING THE BABY WELL 
311 
ble. Even in cold weather, overdressing is quite as dan- 
gerous as underdressing, since clothing that is too heavy 
weakens the vital resistance of the child and makes it liable 
Fig. 124.-The baby's bath. The temperature is 
being tested with a thermometer. 
to colds and pneumonia and other diseases of the lungs and 
throat. 
Every baby should be bathed at least once a day, care 
being taken that the water used is neither too hot nor too 
cold. Further information about clothing and bathing the 
baby may be obtained from the doctor or from special 
government bulletins. 312 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Fresh Air for the Baby.-After the baby is three months 
old, much of its time should be spent outdoors. A healthy 
baby should be kept in the open air at least four hours each 
day, even in winter (properly clothed), except when it is 
colder than 22°F. The baby's eyes should be carefully pro- 
tected from direct sunlight. Too often we see a child in its 
baby carriage blinking straight into the sun. 
The sleeping room for a young baby should be kept at 
about 65°. After the baby is three months old, the tempera- 
ture may be allowed to fall to 550, and during the second 
year to 450. In summer, the baby's room should be kept as 
cool as possible with awnings and shutters. The windows 
should be open day and night in summer, and in winter the 
room should be aired two or three times a day. Windows 
and doors should be screened against flies and other disease- 
carrying insects. If screens are not available, mosquito 
netting may be tacked on the outside of the windows. 
The surroundings of the home should be free from un- 
covered garbage and rubbish, which attract flies and other 
insects. 
Babies usually catch colds (which may be very serious 
with them) because they have been near some one who 
has a cold, or because they have been kept too warm 
and then suddenly taken into a cold room or placed in a 
draft. 
The Baby's Naps.-The baby needs more sleep than an 
older child. It should be trained to sleep at regular hours 
and should never be disturbed at these rest times. 
The baby should get two naps a day and at least twelve 
hours of sleep at night. It needs twenty hours of sleep out 
of every twenty-four in the first month, and not less than 
sixteen hours out of twenty-four up to the twelfth month. KEEPING THE BABY WELL 
313 
It should not sleep on a feather pillow, but in a bed or crib 
by itself-never in bed with its mother. If no crib is avail- 
able, a clothes basket or a large box is a good substitute. 
If the baby cries when it should be asleep, it is probably 
sick, overfed, or hungry; or it has been badly trained. 
Under no circumstances should soothing sirups be given 
to a baby. They contain opium or other drugs, and are 
dangerous. Pacifiers should not be used, as they injure the 
shape of the baby's jaw while its soft parts are forming. 
Gentleness with the Baby.-As the baby's muscles are 
weak, it should never be handled except with the greatest 
care. To lift a young baby, one hand should be slipped 
under the back beneath the shoulders, with the fingers 
spread so as to support the neck and head, while the other 
hand lifts the feet and legs. The baby should never be 
pulled about by the arms. 
The baby's nervous system is delicate. It should not 
be strained by rocking and jouncing, or by unnecessary 
handling. Remember that the baby is not a plaything. 
Summer Care of Babies.-The summer is a very trying 
time for babies, particularly for those who cannot get 
mother's milk. The combined effect of improper food (un- 
heated cow's milk) and high temperature is almost sure to 
cause digestive trouble. If cow's milk is given to babies at 
this season, it is particularly important that it should be 
carefully pasteurized. The baby's clothing should be made 
very light in summer. The infant should be kept out in the 
fresh air (not in the sun), and when indoors it should be 
kept in a well-ventilated room. If the baby is sick, if it 
vomits, if its skin is cold or flushed and hot from fever, if it is 
restless, nervous, and crying, or exhausted and limp, a doc- 
tor should be sent for at once. 314 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Protecting the Baby from Communicable Disease.-All 
communicable diseases are likely to be severe in a baby, and 
the greatest care should be taken to protect it from dangers 
of this sort. No one with a cold or cough or any other sign 
of sickness should come near the baby, if it can be helped. 
A little cold in a big person may cause a very big cold in a 
Fig. 125.-The Little Mothers' League learns how to give the baby its bath. 
little person. The baby should never be kissed on the 
mouth. It should never be allowed to crawl on a dirty 
floor or play with dirty toys. 
The Infant Welfare Station and Its Work.-The most 
important thing that can be done in any community to 
prevent the needless sickness of babies is to establish In- 
fant Welfare Stations. At these places, the mothers of 
young babies are taught how to take care of them. The KEEPING THE BABY WELL 
315 
babies are brought to the station once a week, to be weighed 
and examined by the doctor. Each mother is told just what 
her baby needs, and is shown just how it should be dressed 
and bathed and cared for. The nurse from the station visits 
the mother in the home, and helps her to carry out the direc- 
tions of the doctor. 
In New York City such infant welfare work reduced 
the death rate of babies .under one year of age from 144 
deaths for every 1000 births in 1907, to 94 deaths for every 
1000 births in 1914, which meant a saving of over 5000 
infants' lives a year. 
Little Mothers' Leagues.-In order to teach girls how to 
care for the babies in the household, Little Mothers' Leagues 
have been organized in the schools of many cities. By 
means of talks and demonstrations given by the school 
physician, school nurse, or teacher, the members of these 
leagues are taught the essentials of baby welfare. The 
girls have their own organization and elect their own 
officers. Each one agrees " to do some one thing each day to 
help a baby." 
There are few finer things that a school can do for its 
pupils than the organization of a Little Mothers' League.1 
i. What is meant by the Campaign for Better Babies? 
2. Do you think that it would be a good plan for the older 
brothers, as well as sisters, to learn how to take care of the 
baby? 
3. Why is the kind of food that is given to a baby important? 
1 Detailed information as to the care of babies and the organization 
of Little Mothers' Leagues can be obtained by writing to the Chil- 
dren's Bureau, Washington, D. C., and to your state or city Board of 
Health. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 316 
HEALTHY LIVING 
What danger is there in cow's milk? What have we learned 
about the care of milk? 
4. Why must we be careful to use clean nursing bottles and 
nipples for a baby? 
5. Should a baby be given food any time when it cries? 
6. Why should a baby's clothing vary according to the 
weather or the temperature of the room? What is the danger 
in too heavy clothing? In insufficient clothing? 
7. When a baby is bathed, should the water be hot or cold? 
When he is taken out of the water, he should be covered up 
at once while being dried. Why? Why do we dry a baby by 
patting rather than by rubbing, as we do for ourselves? 
8. If you saw a baby crying, with the sun in his eyes, how 
could you explain to the nurse or person in charge what -was 
wrong with the baby? Would you feel that it was your duty to 
say anything about it? 
9. Why should you be especially careful not to go near a 
baby when you have a bad cold? 
10. How many hours of the day should a baby sleep? 
11. How can you apply to the subject of the baby's training 
in sleeping, feeding, etc., the rules for habit formation which 
you learned in studying about the nervous system? 
12. Why are soothing sirups dangerous to babies? 
13. What is the proper way to lift a baby? 
14. Is rocking good for babies? Is it right to jump them up 
and down to keep them amused? Explain. 
15. Why is summer the most dangerous time for babies? Find 
out "why people always dread the baby's second summer. 
16. What things can you do to make a baby more com- 
fortable in summer? 
17. What is an Infant Welfare Station? 
18. Why do many cities form Little Mothers' Leagues among 
their school children? CHAPTER XXVIH 
MUNICIPAL SANITATION 
Community Health Work.-Most of the problems so far 
discussed in this book have been problems of individual con- 
duct. We can all of us do much to keep our bodies in 
vigorous health and to protect them against disease germs 
coming from outside. But there are other things necessary 
for good health that are beyond the control of the individual, 
particularly in the case of those who live crowded together 
in cities and towns. 
You must have pure water to drink; but in a place where 
many people live and where the soil is necessarily more or 
less polluted, you cannot get safe water by digging a well for 
yourself. You ought not to drink impure milk; but your 
father could hardly go every morning to the dairy to make 
sure that everything is clean and right. If your neighbor 
has scarlet fever, the members of the family should not be 
allowed to carry the disease to others, but you alone could 
hardly force your neighbor to take the proper precautions. 
This is where the community, the city, or the town steps in 
and does collectively the things which individuals could 
not do for themselves. 
Problems of Municipal Sanitation.-The special work of 
the Board of Health in controlling communicable disease, 
supervising food supplies, and educating the public in the 
principles of healthy living will be discussed in the next 
chapter. There is a group of health problems, however, 
which have to do with engineering rather than with med- 
317 318 
HEALTHY LIVING 
icine, and which are often grouped under the head of Muni- 
cipal Sanitation, though they must receive attention not 
only in cities but also in towns and in thickly settled villages. 
These are the problems of public water supply, sewage 
disposal, refuse disposal, and street cleaning. 
The Public Water Supply.-An ample supply of pure 
water is one of the first needs of any community, and in a 
large city the problem of obtaining such a supply is by no 
means a simple one. 
The amount of water used by American cities is enormous, 
much larger than it need be, because a great deal is wasted. 
A large part of this waste comes from taps which are left 
running, or from taps or flush tanks which are in bad repair 
so that they trickle all the time. The good citizen will see 
that this does not happen in his house, for all the water 
wasted costs the taxpayer money. 
Various Kinds of Water Supply.-All of our water supply 
comes first of all from the clouds, in the form of rain. 
Individual houses may collect rain directly as it falls on the 
roof and carry it by gutters to a cistern-a good arrange- 
ment if the cistern is kept clean. 
When the rain falls to the earth, part of it runs over the 
surface of the ground into small brooks, and thence into 
larger streams or ponds. Many cities get their drinking 
water from these streams and ponds, which are called sur- 
face supplies. Sometimes, if the stream or pond is high up 
in the hills, the water will flow down to the city by gravity 
(the attraction of the earth which causes water to flow from 
a higher to a lower level). All that need then be done is to 
build a large pipe or aqueduct which branches out into 
smaller and smaller pipes in the city streets, and finally 
into individual pipes running into each house. Where this MUNICIPAL SANITATION 
319 
kind of gravity supply cannot be obtained, surface water 
may be pumped up from a neighboring stream into the city 
pipes by great steam pumps. 
While much of the rain water runs off from the surface 
of the ground, some of it trickles down into the earth and 
becomes ground water. If men dig down far enough into 
Fig. 126.-Building the great aqueduct which supplies the City of New York 
with water from the Catskills. 
the earth anywhere, they will finally come to this ground 
water trickling along through the soil toward the ocean or 
the bed of some river or lake. In low places, the ground 
water is at the surface or very near the surface, while in 
other places it may be necessary to go down thousands of 
feet before striking water. 
If a hole is dug or a pipe is driven down to a point below 
the ground water level, the ground water will flow into the 320 
HEALTHY LIVING 
hole or pipe and make a well. Cities may get their supply 
of water by driving a series of such wells and pumping the 
water up from them. This forms what is called a ground 
wrater supply. 
Purification of Public Water Supplies.-The raindrop, as 
it first forms in the clouds, is pure water. In falling through 
the air, it picks up dust particles floating there and washes 
the air so as to give us the bright, clear days we have after a 
heavy rain. There are, however, practically no disease 
germs in the upper air, so that in this respect the rain water 
is still pure when it reaches the earth. 
As soon as the raindrop touches the ground, its pollution 
begins. You may have seen the swollen brooks just after a 
heavy rain, muddy with the dirt which the rain had washed 
from the surface of the earth. Along with the rest of the 
dirt, it is quite likely that human excretions have been 
washed into the brook. Many of the larger streams and 
ponds also receive a direct discharge from house drains and 
sewers. 
The danger from water supplies polluted in these ways 
has been pointed out in Chapter XXII. There is now no 
excuse for running any such risks, since we have simple and 
cheap methods of making water safe to drink. 
There are three principal ways of purifying polluted 
waters: by storage, filtration, and disinfection. 
Storage Reservoirs.-If the water of a polluted stream 
flows into a large lake or reservoir and passes very slowly 
through it, taking several weeks to go from one end to the 
other, practically all the disease germs will die out. This is 
called purification by storage. It is often an effective way 
of getting a good water supply. There is danger, however, 
that floods after a heavy rain or surface currents caused by MUNICIPAL SANITATION 
321 
the wind may carry water quickly across such a reservoir, 
so that the expected purification will not be secured. 
Filtering the Water Supply.-A. more certain way of 
getting a safe public water supply is by filtration. A city 
Fig. 127.-A reservoir for storing a part of the water supply of New York 
City. The great dam holds back the water and creates an artificial lake. 
water filter does its work more thoroughly than the little 
filters on the tap in the house, which take out sticks and 
large particles of dirt, but not bacteria. The city filters are 
great beds of sand, each bed sometimes an acre in area. As 
the water slowly trickles through these sand beds, the 
bacteria are caught on the surfaces of the sand grains. 
Such a filter will make even polluted river water clean, pure, 
and safe to drink. In some filters, chemicals are added to 322 
HEALTHY living 
the water; they make a deposit on the surface of the sand 
which helps to strain out the bacteria. 
Disinfecting the Water Supply.-Water supplies may also 
be purified by disinfection with certain chemicals, par- 
ticularly chlorine. Very minute amounts of these chemicals 
will destroy the disease germs and most of the other germs 
Fig. 128.-A municipal water filter at Lawrence, Mass., installed as a re- 
sult of the typhoid epidemic in the Merrimac River Valley in 1890-1891. 
in water, without harming it in any way. This is such a 
cheap way of making water safe that any city can afford it. 
Hard and Soft Waters.-Water which contains a large 
amount of certain mineral matters in solution is called 
hard water. A great deal of soap must be used to get a 
lather with hard water, and the mineral matter in such 
waters collects on the walls of steam boilers and injures 
them. The taste is also unpleasant unless one is used to it. MUNICIPAL SANITATION 
323 
In many parts of the country where hard waters are 
found, the city softens the water or takes out the sub- 
stances that cause hardness by special chemical treatment. 
Sewerage.-Some of the difficulties in disposing of wastes 
from houses in the country have been mentioned in Chap- 
ter XXII. In a thickly settled community, it is necessary to 
provide in some special way for the removal of such mate- 
rials. Just as clean water is brought to each house in the 
water pipes, so the soiled water from toilet, bath, and 
kitchen sink is carried away by another system of pipes, 
the sewers. It is a great advantage to have sewers under 
the streets to carry off all the liquid wastes from the houses. 
A sewerage system brings up a new problem for the city, 
however, for at the end of the big sewer, into which the little 
sewers empty, there is a river of sewage that must somehow 
be disposed of. 
Sewage Disposal.-The simplest thing to do with sewage 
is to discharge it into the nearest stream, lake, or harbor. 
If there are no bathing beaches or oyster beds near at hand, 
and if the stream or lake is large and the amount of sewage 
small, the sewage will disappear in the water without caus- 
ing any trouble. The sewage matter in such a case is de- 
stroyed and changed to an odorless liquid form by the 
action of certain bacteria which live upon it. These bac- 
teria need oxygen to carry on the work, and there must be 
plenty of oxygen in the water, in order that this kind of 
sewage disposal may succeed. If a large amount of sewage 
is put into a small stream or pond, the oxygen dissolved in 
the water may all be used up; and then another kind of 
bacteria, which live where there is no oxygen, begin to 
grow. These bacteria cause a different kind of change in 
the sewage, the change we call putrefaction, which produces 324 
HEALTHY LIVING 
foul odors. A body of water which has too much sewage 
discharged into it becomes ill-smelling and a nuisance to 
the whole neighborhood. 
In order to avoid this condition, cities that are not 
situated on very large bodies of water usually have to 
purify their sewage before they discharge it. Sometimes 
all that is necessary is to strain out the solid matter by 
passing the sewage through fine screens, or to let the solids 
Fig. 129.-A trickling filter for the purification of city sewage, at Columbus, 
Ohio. 
settle in tanks. Sometimes it is necessary to go farther 
and to purify the sewage by passing it through filters of 
sand or stone, 
These sewage filters are not intended to strain out bacte- 
ria (like the water filters described above) but to secure 
chemical changes in the organic matter of the sewage, so 
that it will not decay and produce bad smells. The filters 
in this case are really places where the useful kind of bacte- 
ria that destroy sewage matter can live and get a good 
chance to do their work. Such bacteria grow on the stones MUNICIPAL SANITATION 
325 
or sand grains of the filter in a jellylike mass. Plenty of air 
is supplied for their use, either by letting the sewage run on 
to the filter in small quantities at a time, or by making the 
filter so open that air can get freely through it. For in- 
stance, the filter shown in Fig. 129 is a bed of rough stones 
about two inches in diameter. The sewage is sprayed up 
into the air from little fountains all over the bed, and as it 
trickles down through the bed, the bacteria on the surface 
of the stones feed upon it and purify it. 
Disposal of Garbage and Refuse.-Besides the liquid 
wastes of the city which flow away in the sewers, there are 
solid wastes which must 
somehow be disposed 
of. There is the gar- 
bage or kitchen waste, 
the ash from fires of all 
sorts, and the rubbish, 
such as waste paper, 
sticks, tin cans, and 
bottles. The employ- 
ees of the city, or of 
some private contractor 
engaged by the city, 
should come at regular 
and frequent intervals 
to carry these things 
away. Garbage, espe- 
cially, decays and becomes offensive, if it is not promptly 
removed. 
The carts in which garbage is carried through the streets 
should be of metal so that they can be kept clean, and should 
have tight-fitting covers so that they may not be offensive 
Fig. 130.-The covered garbage pail. 326 
HEALTHY LIVING 
as they pass. The ash and rubbish carts should be covered 
sufficiently to keep the ashes and papers from blowing 
about. 
In small communities, the refuse may be dumped into 
some low open place, and the garbage may be taken to 
farms and fed to pigs. Refuse dumps are always likely, 
however, to be a nuisance. They smell bad and breed 
flies; dust blows from them, and they are often the sources 
of dangerous fires. 
In large cities, there must generally be some definite way 
of disposing of refuse. The clean ashes may be used for fill- 
ing low areas. The rubbish may be sorted, and the papers 
and cans sold to manufacturers. The garbage may be 
treated in a so-called reduction plant, where the grease and 
fertilizing substance which it contains are extracted and 
sold. Another way is to burn all the solid wastes together 
in a special kind of furnace called an incinerator. 
Keeping the City Clean.-Dirty streets and dirty back- 
yards are unsightly, and contribute indirectly to ill-health. 
Accumulations of organic filth breed flies, and flies may 
carry disease. We judge people largely by the conditions 
of their home; if the house is dirty and untidy, we think 
that it is not a pleasant place to be in, and that the family 
is slovenly. It is just so with a town; and we all want our 
town or city to be one that we may be proud of. 
A good citizen will help the city government to keep the 
streets clean, by never scattering papers, banana skins, or 
other refuse. In many places, the young people of the 
town have formed themselves into a civic militia, and as 
Boy Scouts or School Sanitary Squads have done splendid 
service in keeping their neighborhoods clean and orderly. 
There is one man of whom we always like to think, in MUNICIPAL SANITATION 
327 
connection with this problem of municipal cleanness, 
Colonel George E. Waring (1833-1898). The election of 
1894 in New York City turned very largely on the dirty 
condition into which the city government had allowed the 
Fig. 131.-George E. Waring (1833-1898), the man 
who cleaned the City of New York. 
streets to fall. The new administration asked Colonel 
Waring to reform the whole business of street cleaning. 
His men were called Waring's White Wings, because they 
were dressed in white washable suits; and they did their 
work so thoroughly, under the system he worked out, that 328 
HEALTHY LIVING 
his reputation became world-wide as "the man who cleaned 
New York." When the United States took possession of 
Cuba in 1898, Colonel Waring was sent to clean up Havana, 
and he did it with the same success. 
i. Which do you think is more important in a community, 
the water supply or the sewerage system? 
2. Show by an example why it is necessary to have general 
laws of sanitation in a community rather than to trust to the 
hygienic habits of single families. 
3. Where does water come from primarily? Trace the his- 
tory of the glass of water that you drank at breakfast, from its 
source to your glass. 
4. What are surface supplies? Ground water supplies? 
Under which head would you class a lake? A river? A well? 
5. By what different means is water forced into our houses? 
6. How may water become polluted? 
7. What three ways have engineers and chemists found to 
purify water? Explain each of the three. 
8. If you live in a city or town where there is a public water 
supply, find out where the supply comes from and what steps 
are taken to make it safe. If you live in the country, where 
water is supplied by wells, study the well at home or on the 
school property, its location with reference to the closet or cess- 
pool and other sources of pollution, and the means taken for 
protecting it from surface wash. 
9. Why is there nowadays often more danger from water 
in the country than in the city? 
10. Why is hard water considered undesirable? How is it 
sometimes changed? 
11. What dangers are there in emptying sewers into a river 
or lake? 
12. Cite an instance in which typhoid fever was carried to 
several towns through discharge of sewage into a river. 
Questions for Discussion and Review MUNICIPAL SANITATION 
329 
13. Under what conditions may sewage be emptied into a 
river or lake with safety? 
14. What happens when sewage is discharged into a large 
body of water? Into a small one? 
15. Explain the method of sewage filtration. 
16. What advantages are there in having a clean city? Which 
do you think is better, to clean up a little every day or to have 
periodical Clean-up Days? 
17. How are household wastes and refuse disposed of in your 
town? 
18. How can boys and girls help the paid street cleaner? 
Have you cans for waste papers on the street corners in your 
town? Do you use them? 
19. Who was Colonel Waring and what did he do? CHAPTER XXIX 
THE HEALTH BOARD AND ITS WORK 
The Work of the Board of Health.-We have seen in 
earlier chapters that the various communicable diseases 
may be controlled, if proper steps are taken to prevent their 
spread. Good sanitary regulations, and their vigorous 
enforcement, are necessary in order that this may be ac- 
complished. The food that comes into the city or town, and 
the stores where it is handled and sold, must be inspected. 
The homes and factories where people live and work, and 
the streets, yards, and open places must be supervised to see 
that there are no conditions likely to cause disease. The 
public must be educated as to the causes of disease and 
taught how diseases of all kinds may be avoided. The 
statistics of births, deaths, and cases of communicable 
disease must be carefully kept and analyzed, so that the 
whole public health campaign may be properly directed. 
These things are the duties of the Board of Health of the 
city or town, and of the state, and of the United States 
Public Health Service at Washington. 
The Control of Communicable Diseases.-All cases of 
communicable disease should be promptly reported, so 
that the Board of Health may send an inspector to see that 
the case is properly isolated during its course, and that the 
necessary cleansing or disinfection is carried out afterward. 
In diphtheria, it is the business of the health authorities 
to see that the sick person and carriers in the family are 
given antitoxin; and in smallpox and typhoid fever, they 
330 THE HEALTH BOARD AND ITS WORK 
331 
must see that all persons who have been exposed are pro- 
tected by vaccination. 
Whenever there is an increase in the number of cases of 
any disease, the Board of Health attempts to discover the 
cause and takes the necessary steps to prevent the further 
spread of the germs, by purifying water or milk, by isolating 
Fig. 132.-Organization of the Health Department. Above, the five prin- 
cipal divisions, and below, the three divisions which are organized 
separately only in the larger cities. 
infected individuals, by destroying insect carriers, or by 
whatever other measures are required. When a serious epi- 
demic occurs, such as the influenza epidemic of 1918, the 
Board of Health may decrease the opportunities of infection 
by closing schools, churches, and places of public assembly. 
The Health Laboratory.-In order to carry on its work, 
the Board of Health must have not only trained medical 
experts, but also a properly equipped laboratory. 
In this laboratory, samples from the throat and samples 
of blood and other body fluids are examined to see w'hether 
suspected cases are really diphtheria, tuberculosis, malaria, 
typhoid fever, or whatever the disease may be. In the four 
diseases mentioned, and in many more, the bacteriologist, 
with his microscope and growths or cultures of bacteria, 
is the one to give final judgment as to the nature of 332 
HEALTHY LIVING 
a doubtful case. Diphtheria and typhoid carriers can be 
detected only in this way-by the fact that the bacte- 
riologist actually finds the disease germs in throat or dis- 
charges. In diphtheria, the end of the isolation period is 
Fig. 133.-A Board of Health laboratory. 
usually fixed by the disappearance of diphtheria germs from 
the throat, as shown by laboratory tests. 
In the larger city and state laboratories, various sera and 
vaccines are prepared for free distribution to the public. 
Diphtheria antitoxin, and smallpox and typhoid vaccines, 
with other preparations of the same sort, should be available 
for all, whether they are able to pay or not. The purity of 
these preparations should, moreover, be guaranteed by the 
Board of Health. 
It is also the duty of the Board of Health laboratory to 
examine samples of water, milk, foods, and drugs, so as to THE HEALTH BOARD AND ITS WORK 
333 
determine their quality by chemical and bacteriological 
tests. 
Supervision of Food Supplies.-The Board of Health 
must assure itself by inspections, as well as by laboratory 
examinations, of the purity of the public water supply and 
of the milk and food supplies of the city or town. 
Its representatives inspect the land near the river, lake, or 
reservoir from which the water supply comes, to make sure 
dhat there is no danger of pollution by sewage. They watch 
the operation of the filter or disinfecting plant by which the 
public water supply is purified, and see that it works 
efficiently. 
Another of their duties is the inspection of the dairies 
which supply milk, to see that the stables and milk houses 
are clean, that the cows and milkers are healthy, and that 
the milk is properly iced and cared for in transportation to 
the city. The inspectors carefully oversee the working of 
the pasteurizing plants, to make sure that all the milk is 
really heated as it should be. 
The representatives of the Board of Health inspect the 
stores, restaurants, and other places where food is handled, 
and assure themselves that conditions are cleanly, and that 
sick people are not employed in the preparation of the food. 
They inspect the food itself to see that no infected or spoiled 
food of any kind is sold, not only because it is unhealthful to 
eat such food, but because no dealer has the right to take 
people's money for food that is not clean and wholesome. 
In many cities and states, the Boards of Health also 
attend to the detection of food and drug frauds-adultera- 
tion, the use of misleading labels on foods, and the 
use of preservatives which may be injurious to health. 
It is particularly important that medicines should be of 334 
HEALTHY LIVING 
the right strength, for if they are too weak they will not 
give the effect the doctor wants, or if too strong they 
may do serious harm. The examination of foods for fraud 
is chiefly important to protect the pocketbook of the con- 
sumer and enable him, when purchasing food, to get as 
good quality as he pays for. 
Inspection of General Sanitary Conditions.-Another 
group of inspectors deals with the general sanitation of the 
city or town, with the conditions which may breed disease, 
or which create offensive nuisances. 
Much of the work of these sanitary inspectors has to do 
with the prevention of bad smells, from glue factories and 
other offensive industries, with the cleaning up of dirty 
backyards, and with the removal of conditions that are 
objectionable to the eye or to the nose. 
The most important activities of the sanitary inspectors 
are those which deal with the disposal of human wastes and 
with conditions that favor the breeding of insect carriers of 
disease. Carelessly-built outside toilets, overflowing cess- 
pools, and open drains are very real dangers, and whatever 
is done to remedy these conditions is an aid to public health. 
The treatment of mosquito-breeding pools, and the removal 
of filth in which flies may breed, may also directly and effec- 
tively prevent disease. 
The inspection of tenements to see that there is light and 
air for those who live in them, that fire escapes are provided 
and are kept clear, that toilet facilities are adequate, and 
that the building is decent and clean; the inspection of 
factories to see that machinery is safe, that the workers are 
protected against harmful dusts and poisons used in their 
work, and that the workrooms are properly ventilated and 
lighted-these are special types of inspection which must be THE HEALTH BOARD AND ITS WORK 
335 
carried out by some public authority. Sometimes they are 
under the care of the Board of Health, but more often, 
perhaps, there is a special department created for these 
purposes, such as a Tenement House Department or a 
Bureau of Labor. 
Educational Activities of the Board of Health.-Prob- 
ably the two most important health problems are infant 
mortality and tuberculosis. In dealing with these questions 
and with many others, the Board of Health must use educa- 
tional methods rather than legal force. 
We have seen in preceding chapters that tuberculosis can 
best be controlled by teaching people how to live healthy 
lives, so as to build up their vital resistance, and that 
infant mortality must be controlled chiefly by teaching 
mothers how to care for their babies. So the Board of 
Health provides clinics and dispensaries, where medical 
advice and treatment can be given to those suffering from 
tuberculosis, and sends nurses into the homes to find the 
early cases and to teach how to check the progress of the 
disease. It supports the Infant Welfare Stations, where 
the mothers may bring their babies to get instruction as 
to feeding and care. 
In many fields of work, the health authorities need the 
help of the individual citizen. Progressive health depart- 
ments, therefore, publish monthly or weekly bulletins, be- 
sides special circulars of information for the public. They 
supply the newspapers with carefully prepared news of the 
latest discoveries, and of the facts people ought to know in 
order to keep themselves and their families well. They 
prepare exhibits for the public, and send out lecturers 
to speak at schools and churches, and before various clubs 
and civic organizations. 336 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Health workers will not be satisfied until the whole com- 
munity is organized into a great united army for the pre- 
vention of preventable disease. 
The Public Health Nurse.-One of the most recent and 
most important of the activities of the Board of Health is 
Fig. 134.-The public health nurse explaining health laws to the 
mother. 
the employment of public health nurses, not to take care of 
the sick but to help people to keep well by teaching them 
the principles of hygiene. 
The first person to see what a future there was for such 
health nursing was the great Englishwoman, Florence 
Nightingale (1820-1910). It is said that, when a child, her THE HEALTH BOARD AND ITS WORK 
337 
favorite game was to bandage and nurse her dolls, and that 
her first living patient was an injured shepherd dog. When 
she grew up, she kept her love of animals and combined it 
with a passion for helping suffering men and women. She 
became a pioneer in organizing hospitals and in developing 
the work of nursing. Then came the Crimean War in 1854- 
1855. There was no 
proper preparation for 
caring for the wounded 
at the front. Florence 
Nightingale was called 
upon for help and went 
out to the Crimea, where 
she soon had 10,000 men 
in the hospitals under 
her care. She organized 
these hospitals so suc- 
cessfully that the death 
rate was cut to one 
twentieth part of what 
it was before. 
Florence Nightingale 
thought of nursing as 
including much more 
than the sick nursing 
done in a hospital. She saw, as few people did in those days, 
that fresh air, light, warmth, cleanliness, quiet, and diet 
were the chief factors in keeping health, as well as in re- 
covering from sickness. After the war was over, she urged, 
at every opportunity, the value of health nursing, or educa- 
tion by nurses in the principles of hygiene. The Infant 
Welfare nurse, the school nurse, and the tuberculosis nurse 
Fig. 135.-Florence Nightingale (1820- 
1910), founder of the profession of 
health nursing. 338 
HEALTHY LIVING 
are employed by the Board of Health to-day largely as an 
indirect result of the teachings of Florence Nightingale. 
Results of the Public Health Campaign.-The campaign 
against preventable disease really began only after the dis- 
coveries as to the relations between microbes and disease, 
made by Pasteur and his followers between 1880 and 1890. 
Fig. 136.-Results of the Public Health Campaign in New York City. 
The curve shows how the death rate of New York City fell from be- 
tween 25 and 30 deaths per 1000 population between 1870 and 1880 to 
less than 15 per 1000 in 1915. The principal reduction has been since 
1892, when active modern public health work began. 
Since that time, the results obtained in many cities and 
countries have given clear proof of the value and the im- 
portance of progressive sanitary measures. 
The success of public health work in any community is 
measured by its vital statistics, or the records of deaths and 
cases of disease, from various causes and at different ages, 
compared with the actual population. In this book we can 
consider only the simplest of all methods of measuring 
sanitary conditions-the general death rate. THE HEALTH BOARD AND ITS WORK 
339 
The general death rate is the ratio of the total number of 
deaths from all causes in a year to the number of people in 
the city, town, or state, reduced to a basis of 1000. For 
instance, if in a city of 10,000 people there are 150 deaths in 
a given year, the general death rate would be 15 per 1000. 
Fig. 136 shows what has happened to the general death 
rate in New York City since 1870. The death rate fell 
from 26 in 1888 to 14 in 1913, or, in other words, decreased 
by 46 per cent in twenty-five years. There are to-day about 
200 deaths every twenty-four hours in New York City. If 
the death rate of twenty-five years ago had continued, there 
would be 370. Similar reductions in the death rate have 
followed in many other cities and states where vigorous 
campaigns have been made against preventable disease. 
The health departments of New York City and of New 
York State have taken as their motto the statement: 
Public health is purchasable. Within natural limitations, 
a community can determine its own death rate. 
It is a bold saying but a true one. If you remember it as 
you grow up, you will do all you can to make your city and 
your state secure a low death rate by setting in operation all 
the machinery necessary for the prevention of preventable 
disease. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. What are some of the matters which come under the 
control of the Board of Health? 
2. How is the spread of communicable diseases prevented? 
What is the duty of the Board of Health when a case of 
communicable disease is reported? 
3. If a man were quarantined for a light attack of some 
disease, and decided to go out to business before the danger of 340 
HEALTHY LIVING 
infection was over, would he be a good citizen? Could he be 
punished? 
4. Where there is doubt as to whether a patient has diph- 
theria or only a sore throat, what does the Board of Health do 
in order to find out the truth? 
5. In a case of diphtheria, what precautions are taken with 
those who have been exposed? In typhoid fever? How is the 
isolation period for diphtheria determined? 
6. Why is it considered necessary to inspect all food 
supplies? 
7. How does the Board of Health supervise the water sup- 
ply? The milk supply? 
8. Why is it necessary to examine the milkers in dairies, as 
well as the cows? Why does the Board of Health oversee pas- 
teurizing plants? 
9. The Sanitary Code of New York City requires that all 
foods exposed for sale must be covered. Why? 
10. There has been a movement requiring medical inspection 
of cooks in restaurants. Explain. 
11. What would be the work of a government inspector in 
each of the following departments: (a) factory inspection, 
(b) tenement inspection, (c) general sanitary inspection? 
12. What did we find was the advantage in educating the 
public in the care and prevention of tuberculosis? 
13. How is the method of educating the public used to save 
the lives of babies? 
14. How does the visiting nurse help in carrying out this 
work? 
15. Have you a nurse in your school? What are her duties? 
16. Who was Florence Nightingale and why is she famous? 
17. Which is the finer kind of work, the nursing of the sick 
or the prevention of sickness? Defend your opinion. 
18. Why is the work of the Board of Health much more effec- 
tive now than it was before the days of Pasteur? 
19. How is the success of public health work measured? THE HEALTH BOARD AND ITS WORK 
341 
20. What is meant by the general death rate? Why has the 
death rate fallen in the past twenty-five years? 
21. Find out the death rate in your city or town. Is it a 
low rate? 
22. What is the health motto of New York City? Do you 
believe in it? What can each person do to help make it true? CHAPTER XXX 
ACCIDENTS AND FIRST AID 
What to Do When Some One is Hurt.-The two things 
to remember when some one is badly hurt are to keep cool 
and to send for the doctor. Often, however, before the 
doctor arrives, there are simple measures that may be taken 
to lessen the pain and perhaps prevent serious harm. Some 
of these simple first aids every one should know, so as to 
be able to do the right thing when the need arises. In bad 
accidents, prompt action of this kind may sometimes save 
a life. 
Foreign Bodies in the Eye, Ear, Nose, and Throat.- 
One of the commonest of the lesser accidents is getting a 
sharp bit of dust or cinder into the eye. When this hap- 
pens, the eye should not be rubbed, for rubbing only makes 
matters worse. If the particle can be seen on the eyeball, it 
maybe removed with the corner of a clean, soft handkerchief. 
A speck on the lower lid often becomes visible, so that it may 
be removed, if the lid is pulled down with the finger. Some 
times, if the eye is kept closed for a few minutes, the tears, 
which flow whenever the eye is hurt, will wash the speck 
out where it may be seen and removed. Blowing the nose 
may also help. Sometimes a particle on the upper fid may 
be removed by taking hold of the lashes of the upper lid, 
and pulling it down over the edge of the lower fid two or 
three times, while the patient looks downward. If this 
does not dislodge the speck, it must be looked for on the 
upper lid by taking hold of the eyelashes and rolling the 
342 ACCIDENTS AND FIRST AID 
343 
eyelid back over some small object, such as the small end 
of a penholder. The speck may then often be seen cling- 
ing to the under side of the lid. (See Fig. 137.) If the 
object cannot be removed in this way, a doctor should 
be consulted, for a sharp 
particle may in time 
work in and do serious 
harm. 
If anything gets into 
the ear, it is safest to 
send for the doctor at 
once, as an attempt to 
remove anything from 
the ear with pointed ob- 
jects may be dangerous. 
In the case of a live 
insect in the ear, a few 
drops of castor oil or sweet oil may be dropped in; this 
will usually wash the insect out. 
If anything sticks in a person's throat, nothing should 
be done until the doctor comes, unless the object can be 
seen on looking into the throat. If it can be seen and is 
not too firmly wedged in, it may be possible to remove the 
object. If the patient is trying to cough out the obstruc- 
tion, it sometimes helps to slap him on the back while he 
bends his body forward. 
Nosebleed.-Nosebleed may be due to some slight in- 
jury, or, as often happens with children, it may come on 
without any injury at all. It is usually not serious. Slight 
nosebleed does not require any treatment, but if it continues, 
the patient should be put in a chair with his head hanging 
back and his collar loosened, and a cloth wrung out in cold 
Fig. 137.-How to find a foreign body 
on the upper eyelid. 344 
HEALTHY LIVING 
water should be placed at the back of the neck. A plug of 
cotton inserted into the nostril affected will help to retard 
bleeding, and pinching the soft part of the nose is also 
effective in some cases. 
Cuts and Wounds.-The principal danger in a wound is 
that it may become infected with bacteria. In very serious 
cases, there is danger from the loss of blood. In most 
wounds, however, bleeding is a good thing, because it tends 
to wash out dirt and germs. 
Slight cuts and scratches should be washed free from dirt, 
then dried with clean gauze, and painted with tincture of 
iodine. More serious wounds should be dressed tempora- 
rily, until the doctor can attend to them, by covering them 
with surgeons' gauze fastened on with a bandage. A doctor 
should be consulted about even the slightest scratch if, 
after a few days, it is red, hot, or painful; and a deep wound, 
particularly if produced by a rusty nail or other dirty ob- 
ject, should always receive prompt medical attention. Any 
wound will heal without much pain or redness if there are 
no germs in it. Remember that germs get into a wound, 
not from the air, but from dirty things that touch it. A 
scratch or cut should never be touched with anything but 
sterilized surgeons' gauze, and above all should never be 
picked with the fingers. In connection with automobile 
accidents, it is well to remember that gasoline is a good 
disinfectant. 
If the blood comes from a wound in jets or spurts, an 
artery is bleeding, and the result may be serious if the 
flow is not checked. Fortunately, at most parts of the 
body the arteries are deeply buried in the flesh. A severed 
artery calls for prompt action. Put firm pressure close to 
the bleeding part, between the wound and the heart. In ACCIDENTS AND FIRST AID 
345 
case the wound is in the arm or the leg, the pressure is best 
applied by tying a knot in the center of a folded handker- 
chief, and laying this knot over the artery. Tie it loosely 
around the limb, but with a good knot. Place a stick 
under the bandage and twist it round and round until 
Fig. 138.-Tying a bandage on an arm to check bleeding 
from an artery. 
the bandage is tight enough to stop the bleeding (see 
Fig. 138). 
Bruises and Sprains.-The pain and swelling of an 
ordinary bruise will be much less, if something cold is placed 
on the bruise at once to drive the blood away. Ice in a 
cloth may be used for this purpose, or simply a cloth wrung 
out in cold water. 
If a joint has been sprained (which means that the liga- 
ments that hold the bones together have been strained or 
torn), the same treatment with cold cloths is very useful, 
and should be kept up at intervals for twelve hours. In 346 
HEALTHY LIVING 
old and enfeebled patients, hot wet cloths are better. The 
injured part should be placed as high as possible, so as to 
keep the blood out of it. One should never walk with a 
sprained knee or ankle unless the doctor advises it, as pres- 
sure may do harm. Sprains are often very troublesome, 
and if a sprain is at all bad, the doctor should be sent 
for. 
Broken Bones.-If a bone is broken, medical care is, of 
course, necessary. While waiting for the doctor, the only 
thing to do is to keep the broken limb in as comfortable a 
position as possible. Above all, do not let the limb bend at 
the place where the bone is broken, because that gets the 
splinters of bone out of place, and may drive them through 
the skin and lead to an infected wound. If you find it 
necessary to lift a broken limb, put one hand on each side 
of the break and lift with both hands at the same 
time. 
Fainting.-Fainting, or growing dizzy and losing con- 
sciousness, is caused by a temporary failure of the circula- 
tion to send enough blood to the brain to keep it acting. 
People may faint from a great many causes, most of wThich, 
in the case of young people, do not indicate anything par- 
ticularly serious. Fainting is often caused by the hot, stuffy 
air of a badly ventilated room. The two things to be done 
for a person who has fainted are to get him into a hori- 
zontal position so that the blood may go back to his head, 
and to cool off the skin, which tends to send the blood in- 
ward. 
The person should, therefore, be placed in a current of 
air (outdoors, if possible) and laid on his back with his 
head flat, either on the ground or on a couch without a 
pillow. The clothing around the neck should be loosened. ACCIDENTS AND FIRST AID 
347 
It often helps to sprinkle a little water over the face. 
Nothing should ever be poured down the throat of an un- 
conscious person, except by a physician, as such an attempt 
by one who is unskilled may lead to choking. 
Sunstroke and Heat Prostration.-A person who has 
become faint and dizzy from the direct effect of strong 
sunlight shining on the head, should be placed in a seated 
position in the shade. His clothing should be loosened, and 
cold water poured on his head, or his body rubbed with bits 
of ice. Cool drinks should be given, if possible. 
Heat prostration due to excessive heat acting on the 
whole body, and not to the direct sun's rays, should be 
treated somewhat differently, on account of the fact that 
in such a case the blood vessels all over the surface ot the 
body will be dilated. The patient should be laid flat 
on his back in a cool place, his clothing loosened, and 
his hands and feet rubbed to restore the circulation. The 
face and body should be bathed in warm water and warm 
drinks should be given. 
Burning Clothing and the Treatment of Burns.-If the 
clothing catches fire, there is only one thing to do and it 
must be done quickly: smother the flame. Fire needs plenty 
of oxygen, and if a person whose clothing is on fire is quickly 
and closely wrapped in a coat, shawl, blanket, or rug, the 
fire will go out. It is important to remember to wrap the 
cloth from above down. If the wrapping is done from below, 
the flames may be driven up and inhaled into the lungs 
with very serious results. 
If your clothing catches fire when you are alone, do not 
run for help, but lie down flat and roll over and over on the 
floor or on the ground, to smother the flames. 
In the case of a slight burn which only reddens the skin 348 
HEALTHY LIVING 
without forming a blister, the pain will be lessened if the 
air is kept from the burned place. A paste of ordinary 
baking soda and water applied to the burn will do this, or 
carbolized vaseline or any grease, like lard, may be used 
instead. The burn should then be covered by tying a piece 
of cloth or bandage around it. If there is extensive blister- 
ing, the application of soda or vaseline may do harm; and 
severe burns should be treated like the open wounds dis- 
cussed on page 344. 
Frostbite.-If ears, nose, or fingers are frostbitten, the 
affected part should be rubbed with snow or very cold 
water until the blood has come back and the flesh begins to 
sting and burn. On no account should the person go into 
a warm room until this has been done, and until the frozen 
part has been gradually w'armed by rubbing. Even after 
the circulation has come back, the patient should not be 
brought into a very warm place too soon. 
Drowning and Suffocation.-When a person has been 
under water or in some suffocating gas for a long time, the 
breathing stops, and the patient becomes unconscious. If 
breathing can somehow be started again, recovery may 
follow. The starting of the breathing movements in a 
person who has ceased to make them for himself is called 
artificial respiration. 
Artificial respiration should be begun by laying the pa- 
tient face downward upon the ground. The feet should be 
raised to drain out any excess water from the air passages. 
Stretch the arms of the patient straight above his head and 
let them rest on the ground in that position. Turn his head 
a little to one side so that the air will not be impeded in 
entering the nose and mouth. Next stand astride of the 
patient, with your body directly over his hips and facing his ACCIDENTS AND FIRST AID 
349 
head. Put your hands on each side of his back, below the 
shoulder blades. Your hands now rest upon the patient's 
lower ribs. The fingers are spread out, pointed toward 
the head and away from the spine. 
Swing your body forward, keeping your arms straight and 
allowing your weight to rest on the patient's back; then 
swing back, taking all your weight off the patient. Do 
this fourteen to sixteen times per minute, to imitate the 
motions of breathing. When you put your weight on the 
patient, you press his chest together and force the air from 
the lungs; when you release the pressure, the chest springs 
back into place, and the lungs expand and draw air into them. 
Recovery may be very slow; keep up your work for at least 
two hours. While this process is going on, the patient's 
clothing should be removed. If necessary, he should be 
dried with a towel and then covered with a blanket. This 
work must not interfere with the operator who is carrying 
out the artificial respiration. Compel bystanders to stand 
back. The patient needs every bit of air he can get. 
When the patient begins to breathe,-but not before,- 
he should have his legs and arms rubbed toward the body. 
This should be done without removing the blanket. The 
patient will not breathe well all at once, and it will be nec- 
essary to help him at first by continuing the artificial respira- 
tion every little while. Of course, if breathing stops at any 
■ time, the artificial respiration must be renewed. 
After the patient is breathing well, put him to bed. Sur- 
round him with hot water bottles and cover him up well. 
As soon as he can swallow, give some hot coffee. Open the 
windows wide, and allow him to sleep quietly. 
Electric Shock.-Cases of electric shock (from contact 
with live wires, for example) and cases of gas poisoning re- 350 
HEALTHY LIVING 
quire the same treatment as drowning-artificial respira- 
tion-since the stoppage of respiration is the chief danger 
to be feared. 
The first thing to do in a case of electric shock, however, 
is to rescue the person from the action of the electric cur- 
rent, since the danger increases greatly with the length of 
exposure. If the current can be shut off, this is, of course, 
the simplest procedure. A live wire may be flipped off the 
patient with a dry board or stick, or it may be cut with an 
ax or hatchet with a dry wooden handle. Dry wood is 
essential, because water is a good conductor of electricity 
and wet wood or metal would transfer the current to the 
rescuer. 
If the injured person is to be removed from the wire, 
the greatest care must be taken to avoid the discharge of 
the current from the wire or from the body of the victim 
to that of the rescuer. In order to guard against this, the 
hands should be covered with a rubber cloth or with sev- 
eral thicknesses of ordinary dry cloth; silk is a good non- 
conductor. If possible, the rescuer should stand on a dry 
board or a thick piece of dry paper, or even a dry coat. 
The separation of the wire from the patient should be made 
with one motion, because rocking to and fro on the wire 
will increase shock and burn. 
Poisons.-If some poisonous drug has been taken, the 
first thing to do is usually to get it out of the body again as 
quickly as possible by causing vomiting. This may be 
done by running the finger down the throat, by drinking a 
large quantity of warm water, or by taking some substance 
which will cause vomiting, called an emetic. A teaspoonful 
of mustard or salt in a glass of lukewarm water will serve 
as an emetic. Promptness is more important than an exact ACCIDENTS AND FIRST AID 
351 
dose. After the emetic has been taken, large quantities of 
warm water should be drunk, to dilute the poison that re- 
mains. 
In the case of strongly corrosive poisons, such as strong 
acids (sulphuric, hydrochloric, nitric) and strong alkalies 
(caustic soda, potash, and lime), an emetic should not be 
given, but something should be used which will neutralize the 
poison. Plaster from the ceiling, magnesia, baking powder, 
or even soap may be used for this purpose, with acid poisons; 
and vinegar, lemon juice, or orange juice, with alkalies. To 
dilute such poisons and soothe the tissues, there should 
then be given large quantities of oil, such as olive, salad, 
sardine, castor, or cod liver oil, or milk and eggs beaten up. 
Finally, stimulants should be given, such as strong tea or 
coffee, ammonia, or alcohol. 
Carbolic acid, or phenol, acts in a different way from the 
strong mineral acids, and the antidotes used for them will 
not serve in the case of this poison. The effective antidote 
for carbolic acid is alcohol. It should be used as follows: 
For an infant under one year of age, y^ ounce alcohol 
in 2-3 ounces of water. 
For a child from one to seven years, 1-2 ounces to 3-4 
ounces of water. 
For a child from seven to sixteen years, 3-4 ounces of 
alcohol to 4-5 ounces of water. 
For a person over sixteen, 4 ounces of alcohol to 4 ounces 
of water. 
Immediately after the dose of alcohol, a tablespoonful of 
mustard in 6-7 ounces of water should be given as an 
emetic; and the dose of alcohol, followed by the emetic, 
should be repeated three or four times, or even six or seven 
times if the poisoning has been severe. After this treatment, 352 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Glauber's or Epsom salts should be given (2 teaspoonfuls 
to 2 tablespoonfuls in 4-8 ounces of water, according to 
age) followed by milk, white of egg, or thick gruel, to soothe 
the mucous membranes. 
For poisons that are irritant but not corrosive, such as 
tartar emetic, blue stone, Paris Green, lead, corrosive sub- 
limate, and arsenic, an emetic should be given, followed 
by water and then by oils or milk and eggs, as above, and 
by stimulants. 
For nerve poisons which produce sleep or nervous con- 
vulsions, such as opium, morphine, laudanum, paregoric, 
and soothing sirups, an emetic should be given promptly. 
If the patient is sleepy, every effort should be made to keep 
him awake by giving him strong coffee, shaking him, and 
slapping him with a wet towel. Artificial respiration may 
be necessary. 
Ivy Poisoning.-Some people are very sensitive to ivy 
poisoning, while others may come in contact with the plants 
without suffering at all. 
Ivy poison is in the form of tiny drops of oil, and if the 
first places affected are scratched, the infection may easily 
be carried to other parts of the body. One should, there- 
fore, avoid scratching. The itching parts may be soothed 
by a cloth moistened with alcohol, or washed off with a 
boracic acid solution, then dried gently and treated with 
carbolized vaseline. If the skin is washed thoroughly with 
soap and hot water after exposure to ivy poisoning, the 
danger from poisoning is often lessened. 
Snake Bites and Insect Stings.-Most of the snakes 
found in the United States are harmless, but there are 
three-the rattlesnake, the copperhead, and the water 
moccasin-which are very poisonous. If a person is bitten ACCIDENTS AND FIRST AID 
353 
by one of these snakes, a handkerchief should be tied be- 
tween the bitten part and the heart, and twisted tight by 
means of a stick, so as to compress the blood vessels and 
prevent the poison from being carried to the rest of the 
body. Then as much as possible of the poison should be 
sucked out of the wound. This may be done with safety, 
Fig. 139.-Foliage of the poison ivy. 
as the poison will not injure the mouth if it is spit out at 
once, unless one has cuts or scratches in the mouth. 
The stings of insects found in temperate climates rarely 
do any harm unless disease germs of some sort are carried 
with them. The pain of a bee sting may be relieved by 
applying some alkali, like soda or ammonia, and, to a con- 
siderable extent, by merely plastering a little wet mud on 
the place bitten. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. Why should every one try to keep calm after an accident? 
Why should a doctor be sent for at once? 354 
HEALTHY LIVING 
2. What danger is there in allowing a foreign sub- 
stance to stay in the eye? 
3. What is the best way to pick a particle of dust out of 
the eye, when it can be readily seen? 
4. If anything lodges in the ear, is it safe to poke after it 
with a pin, hairpin, or other sharp-pointed instrument? Ex- 
plain. 
5. What treatment may be given for nosebleed? 
6. Why is it a good plan to cleanse and disinfect even the 
smallest scratch? What danger is there in scratches and " skin- 
ning" which does not exist in bruises? 
7. In a Fourth of July accident, a boy's leg was badly torn 
by an explosion, and pieces of his stocking were carried into the 
wound. Was there danger of infection? Explain. 
8. Give an example of an accident in which the use of a 
bandage would be necessary. 
9. On a hike, a boy stepped into a hidden hole and turned 
his ankle. It began to swell at once. What would you have 
done for him? Should he have walked home, even if he could 
stand his weight on the ankle? Explain. 
10. Find out what splints are. Why are they used in case of 
a broken bone? 
11. If a person broke his leg when he was at some distance 
from medical aid, what would you do for his temporary relief? 
What means could you devise to carry him, without injuring 
the broken leg further? 
12. What causes fainting? Under what conditions might 
you expect to have accidents of this kind? How would you 
revive a fainting person? 
13. In case of fainting or accident, there is a tendency for 
crowds to gather. Why should this not be allowed? 
14. What is fire? Why do things bum? What do we do when 
we smother a flame? 
15. In wrapping a coat or rug around a person whose clothes 
are on fire, why should we begin at the top? ACCIDENTS AND FIRST AID 
355 
16. If your clothes were on fire, why should you not run for 
help? 
17. Two boys had their ears frosted while skating. One of 
them rubbed snow on his ears and the other went into the house 
to thaw out at the stove. Which probably had the more pain- 
ful time? Why? 
18. What do we mean by drowning? In what way does 
drowning differ from suffocation by gas? 
19. Explain in detail the method of artificial respiration. Il- 
lustrate with one of your fellow students. 
20. Why do you repeat the process at the rate of sixteen 
motions per minute? How long would you continue the process 
before giving up hope? 
21. Why should the patient be dried and covered with a 
blanket? Should this be done before the artificial respiration 
is started? 
22. In what other accidents do we use artificial respiration? 
23. What is a poison? What is meant by corrosive poisons? 
Irritant poisons? Nerve poisons? Explain what you would do 
for each and why. 
24. Is ivy poisoning common? How should it be treated? 
25. What danger is there in snake and insect bites? How 
are they treated? CHAPTER XXXI 
SAFETY FIRST 
Safety First.-Wherever one goes nowadays, one may 
see the signs Safety First-on railroad crossings, street 
cars, bridges, and wharves, and on the walls of machine 
shops and manufacturing plants. 
These signs are not put up by people who think that 
safety should always be the first concern. Nobody believes, 
of course, that personal safety should stand in the way of 
any one's doing whatever may be necessary to preserve the 
lives and well-being of others, or that it should keep any one 
from risking even his life for what he thinks is right. But 
a great many times lives are lost unnecessarily, by reason 
of carelessness or negligence. 
Safety First ought to teach three things. First, that 
lives should not be risked foolishly. Second, that in the 
running of great industries such as machine shops, railroads, 
or factories, safety is of more importance than economy or 
quickness, and that it is the duty of those who are respon- 
sible for the lives of others to take all possible precautions 
to ensure their safety. Third, that these precautions should 
be taken first, that is, before serious or fatal accidents have 
occurred. 
You have all heard the saying about locking the barn 
door after the horse has been stolen. It is a very good 
thing to know the principles of First Aid, so that when 
emergencies occur, one may be able to deal with them. 
But it is far more important and far wiser to form habits 
356 SAFETY FIRST 
357 
of avoiding dangers, in order that the emergencies may 
never occur. 
The "Rules for Prevention of Accidents" prepared by 
the National Council of Boy Scouts of America in coopera- 
tion with the National Safety Council1 begin with the 
following striking indictment of carelessness. 
Carelessness 
More powerful than, the combined armies of the universe. 
More destructive than all the wars of the world. 
More deadly than the mightiest of siege guns. 
Relentless everywhere: in the home, on the street, in the 
school and factory, at railroad crossings, on the sea. 
Lurking in unseen places, working silently. 
Scattering sickness, degradation, and death. 
Sparing none; rich or poor; young or old; strong or weak. 
Massacring thousands upon thousands of children and wage 
earners each year. 
Wasting over $300,000,000 annually in the United States. 
Safety in the Home.-"Safety begins at home." 
Pick up pins and needles; they cause the death of many 
babies. 
Be on the lookout for sharp knives, scissors, etc., and see 
that they are kept out of the reach of small children. 
Keep medicines out of the reach of small children. 
Do not leave anything on the stairs that may cause people 
to slip, trip, or fall. 
Keep rugs and carpets flat so that people will not trip over 
them. 
1 From the " Rules for Prevention of Accidents " many of the sug- 
gestions in this chapter have been taken, and to them the indebted- 
ness of the author is gratefully expressed. 358 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Keep the yard free from broken glass, rusty wires, and pro- 
jecting nails. 
Safety from Fires.-Great numbers of lives and millions 
of dollars' worth of property are lost each year as a result 
of fires, many of which are due to common acts of care- 
lessness. If you are a Boy Scout or a Campfire Girl, or 
if you believe in Safety First, you will do everything in 
Pig. 140.-Boy Scouts at work cleaning up a city. 
your power to prevent people from doing the careless 
things that may lead to fires. Among these things are: 
Leaving combustible rubbish in cellars or attics or near 
buildings. 
Leaving oily rags lying about loose or in wooden receptacles. 
Placing paper, cotton, or other flimsy materials near lights. 
Failing to fasten back any lace curtains which are near gas 
brackets. 
Hanging clothing near the stove or stovepipe. SAFETY FIRST 
359 
Leaving matches where children can reach them. 
Using any kind of matches except safety matches. 
Using rubber connections for gas stoves. 
Filling oil stoves or lamps when they are lighted or near 
other lights. 
Kindling fires in stoves with kerosene or gasoline. 
Using benzine or gasoline for cleansing in a closed room, or 
near a flame or a hot flatiron. 
Putting hot ashes into wooden receptacles. 
Using lighted candles on Christmas trees. 
Throwing away lighted matches, cigars, or cigarettes. 
Lighting matches in closets or attics where clothes are hung. 
Lighting matches in a room where gas is escaping. 
Firing pistols, firecrackers, or fireworks near inflammable 
material. 
Making bonfires near buildings. 
Burning leaves or rubbish on a windy day. 
Letting children make bonfires or play with fire. 
If you are ever in a school or theater or other public place 
when a cry of fire is started, keep cool. Do not scream or 
try to be the first one out of the building. Your life and 
the lives of others may depend upon your keeping your 
head. Often more damage is caused by panic than by the 
actual fire. 
Every child should learn how to send in a fire alarm, and 
should know the location of the fire alarms in the neighbor- 
hood. 
When you hear a fire alarm, keep on the sidewalk. 
Safety in the Street.-The street of a modern city, town, 
or even a country village, is no place to play in and no place 
to walk in carelessly or thoughtlessly. The automobile and 
the electric car are among the most useful servants of man- 360 
HEALTHY LIVING 
kind, but they claim thousands of victims every year, and 
will continue to do so as long as drivers, passengers, and 
pedestrians are careless. 
If you believe in Safety First: 
Keep to the right in walking and in entering doorways. 
Don't cross crowded city streets in the middle of the block 
or diagonally; use the cross walks at the intersection 
of the streets. 
Don't run across the street in front of a car, wagon, auto- 
mobile, or motorcycle, or just behind a vehicle (which 
may hide something coming in the opposite direction). 
It is better to be late for an appointment than to be 
carried to the hospital. 
Don't play in the street where cars, automobiles, motor- 
cycles, and wagons must run. Find playgrounds or 
open lots where play is safe. 
Don't steal rides on cars, wagons, or automobiles. 
Don't skate on roller skates in the street. Accidents due 
to hitching on wagons with roller skates are very 
common. 
Coast in an open field, not across a much-traveled highway 
or across car tracks. 
Don't touch any parts of automobiles that are standing in 
_ the street. 
When waiting for a car, stand on the curb, not in the street. 
Don't get on or off a car while it is moving. When you do 
get off, always face toward the front. Get on with the 
right hand and the left foot, get of with the left hand 
and the right foot. 
Don't stand on the crowded step of a car. A sudden jerk or 
jolt may knock you off. 
Don't put your head or arm out of the open window of a SAFETY FIRST 
361 
car. Many accidents are caused in this way, from 
collision with posts or passing vehicles. 
Watch for teams and automobiles when you get off a car. 
Look both ways. 
Don't throw banana peels or other things into the street for 
others to slip on or trip over. 
Fig. 141.-The right and the wrong way to get off a car. Which is which? 
Remember that sling shots, air guns, and "beebee" guns 
are dangerous, and that the throwing of sand or stones 
may cause serious injury. 
Keep away from excavations and open manholes. 
Let strange dogs alone. 
Safety from Wires.-To handle wires of any kind, hanging 
from poles or trees, or to tamper with them may cause a 
serious accident or death. They may be live wires; that is, 
an electric current may be passing through them. 
Report broken wires to the Police Department by telephone 
immediately. 
Do not flv a kite near wires. 362 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Do not throw stones or shoot at the glass insulators on the 
poles. 
Do not throw strings or wires over a trolley or other wire 
carrying an electric current. 
Safety on Railroad Tracks and in Railroad Yards.- 
It is dangerous to play along railroad tracks or on railroad 
bridges. Trains may be expected at any time. 
Keep out of railroad yards. 
Keep off the sidings and cars standing on tracks. 
When crossing railroad tracks, stop and listen; look in both 
directions. A bell ringing or a moving signal arm in- 
dicates that a train is approaching. 
Never crawl under or through a standing train. It may 
start when you least expect it. 
To walk around lowered gates or crawl under them is dan- 
gerous. 
Safety in the Factory or Shop.-Modern industry re- 
quires swiftly-moving machinery. It makes necessary the 
handling of heavy materials and the carrying out of dan- 
gerous processes. Many of the children now in school 
will soon be working in these factories, and if they re- 
member about Safety First, many sad accidents may be 
prevented. 
Remember that moving machinery of all kinds is dan- 
gerous. No one should go near such machinery until he has 
learned just what the special danger points are and how 
they can be avoided. All gears and other moving parts, 
unless covered by safety guards, are exceedingly dangerous. 
Remember that 
Shafting, belts, and pulleys are dangerous. Keep away from 
them. 
Elevators and elevator shafts are dangerous. SAFETY FIRST 
363 
Open holes and pits in the factory or elsewhere are dan- 
gerous. 
Slippery floors often cause severe falls. 
Carelessly-placed ladders may tip over and injure many 
people. 
Piled-up heavy material is dangerous. A piece may slip 
and cause the whole to topple over. 
Flying particles of steel and other bodies may cause blind- 
ness. 
Nails and splinters left about may stick into some one and 
cause blood poisoning. 
Safety from Firearms.-Firearms are always dangerous. 
They are made to kill, and children should never be allowed 
to play with them. A gun or a pistol should never be 
pointed at any one. You can never be sure that it is not 
loaded. 
Safety on the Water.-The best way to avoid the danger 
of drowning is to learn to swim. This is one of the things 
every child should know, for his own life and the lives of 
others may some time depend on it. 
A swimmer, however, should never be reckless. He 
should not swim out too far, or go in swimming without 
some help near by. Even the most expert swimmer may 
be taken with a cramp and need instant assistance. 
Never play in a rowboat or canoe. Don't rock it and do 
not try to stand up or change seats when a boat is in deep 
water. Do not lean over the side, or make sharp sudden 
movements. 
In case you are thrown into deep water by the turning 
over of a boat, or from any other cause, try to keep your 
presence of mind, even if you cannot swim. Remember 
that the water will almost support your weight. You can 364 
HEALTHY LIVING 
allow yourself to sink so that your nose is just above the 
water, and support yourself by a hand on the boat; or an 
oar under the chin will hold you up. If you are unable to 
catch hold of anything to help support you, lie flat on your 
Fig. 142.-The child who has learned to swim has formed an admirable 
hygienic habit, which may some day enable him to save his life or that 
of some one else. 
back with your arms stretched out. With light clothing, 
one may float almost indefinitely in this position, especially 
in salt water. Do not become excited if the water or spray 
rises momentarily over your face. Above all, do not at- 
tempt to throw up your head or, still worse, your arms or 
legs, as this will cause the body to sink. 
Questions for Discussion and Review 
i. Can you give an example of a person's risking his life reck- 
lessly, just to show that he is not afraid? 
2. What difference is there between the reckless endangering 
of life and the risking of life to save another or to serve a cause? 
To which does the modern slogan Safety First apply? SAFETY FIRST 
365 
3. What three things do we learn by this slogan? 
4. Do you recall any careless act of the past day or week 
that had ill consequences? Any act that might have had grave 
results? 
5. What are some of the things that you can do to make 
your own home safe? 
6. What are some of the habits that cause street accidents? 
7. How should you get on and off a street car? Explain. 
8. Sand fights are very popular among children at the sea- 
shore. Why are they not safe? 
9. During a cyclone in a western city, the lighting system 
was seriously damaged. People were obliged to carry lanterns, 
in going about the dark streets. The police were constantly 
warning them to look out for live wires. What did they mean? 
10. Why do railroads warn the public against trespassing on 
railroad property? 
11. What are some of the conditions that cause accidents in 
factories? 
12. If there is a factory in your town, try to find out what 
steps are taken to guard against injury to the workers. 
13. What is your opinion of a "safe and sane Fourth"? Sug- 
gest ways of celebrating the day more suitably than the old- 
fashioned way. 
14. What do you think of the rule that is in force in most 
summer camps for boys and girls,-that no one shall go on a 
canoe trip who cannot swim? 
15. In water accidents, sometimes the best and strongest 
swimmers are lost. How can you account for this? 
16. Give examples of how a cool head in an accident may 
avert disaster. CHAPTER XXXH 
SPORT AND HEALTH 
Walter Camp 
Health and Strength.-When we speak of a "red- 
blooded boy," the general interpretation of the phrase 
means a boy who is well and strong, who does his work 
and who enjoys his sport to the full. We have reason 
for this, for, as you have learned in this book, the blood 
which comes to the heart from the lungs, with its life- 
giving oxygen, is bright red. 
When we speak of a "thoroughbred" boy, again we 
know what is meant. We know that he is a boy who is like 
the thoroughbred horse, high-spirited, plucky, courageous, 
and strong. 
Every boy wants to be the type that is described by 
these expressions, and to keep fit he follows the precepts of 
health and morality. Every boy is anxious to stand well 
with his fellows, to be an aid to his team in sports, to be an 
individual champion, to play fair and to play well. These 
things are possible under a course of care and self-discipline, 
and are not difficult of attainment by anyone. 
Girls, too, want to be well and strong, and want to be 
thoroughbred. The boy's life is often more strenuous than 
the girl's, but her attention to health is, for this reason, 
even more important. 
Anyone who wishes to excel, soon finds that he has taken 
on a contract which involves patience, persistence, self- 
366 SPORT AND HEALTH 
367 
control, and hard work. No boy or girl ever became a 
leader in sports, or a leader in life, without doing a great 
deal of hard work, and work which sometimes seemed 
drudgery. No one ever comes to the top without making 
certain sacrifices, just as a team in training must give up 
some of the things they care about in order to accomplish 
the results they want. It is not an easy road, but it is an 
eminently satisfactory road and leads to the end desired. 
For this reason, I am giving something of the detail of the 
things one must do in order to reach this successful goal. 
The Care of the Body.-In the first place, we should 
remember that the care of the body is one of the most 
essential things, not only for future development as an 
athlete, but also for the preservation of general health 
and condition. The boy does not usually think of this 
latter part in ordinary times, nor does the girl; but our 
experience in the World War forced home upon us the 
necessity of having strong and well men and women. 
Boys know now that there were hundreds of their fellows, 
only a few years older, who desired in the most whole- 
souled way to get into the work of preserving their na- 
tion, but were rejected on account of their physical 
condition. 
The three great elements that, in addition to exercise, 
tend most strongly towards making a boy or girl fit are 
fresh air, water, and sunshine. Outdoor athletics are to be 
preferred to indoor; windows should be open in sleeping 
rooms; and water should be used freely, both externally 
and internally. Begin the day with a cold bath and rub- 
down, careful cleaning of the teeth, and a short modern 
set-up exercise to stretch and supple the muscles and to 
give a good carriage of the body. At the end of this chapter 368 
HEALTHY LIVING 
we print a "set-up" that has been used most successfully 
in naval stations and aviation fields and in many schools. 
Some Rules for Healthy Living.-After finishing the 
morning rubdown, take before dressing two glasses of 
water, not iced but of a temperature of about 60 to 
65 degrees, which is cold enough. A boy who is exercis- 
ing or who is in training should drink seven or eight 
glasses of water a day. On account of the fact that ice 
water is usually served at meals, it is well to drink three- 
quarters of this amount between meals, and not pour down 
a lot of iced liquid with the food. 
Breakfast should not be eaten in a rush, but a proper 
amount of time allowed for it. An athlete must never eat 
when tired and exhausted, but should first rest for a certain 
period. He should avoid violent exercise within an hour 
after a hearty meal. For the athlete, tobacco and alcohol 
are also forbidden. 
It is well lO dress lightly for exercise, but after exercising, 
while still warm, we should be careful about covering up, 
putting on a coat in order to escape a sudden chill. 
The shoes should be well fitting, for tight shoes or shoes 
that do not fit the feet make serious trouble. A good circu- 
lation is an essential for the athlete, and for health in gen- 
eral. Loose clothes and loose gloves give much more pro- 
tection from the cold than tight ones. Whenever there is 
pressure on the hand that impedes the circulation, it tends 
inevitably to cold hands and, under certain kinds of ex- 
posure, may mean frozen fingers. Tight collars not infre- 
quently produce headaches. Wearing tight shoes while 
sitting outdoors at football games in cold weather may 
very likely lead to a cold. 
Every boy and girl should get nine hours' sleep, and even SPORT AND HEALTH 
369 
ten will do no harm. Nature requires this sleep when the 
boy is at this age, not only for the purpose of repairing the 
waste-so that the boy may rest after he has done physical 
work or has exercised himself in play-but it is also needed 
to help his growth. Any young person deprived of sleep 
regularly will be affected in physical progress. 
It is worth while, also, to pay particular attention to the 
eyes. We know a great deal more about the eyes than we 
used to, and the oculist is now able to repair defects in 
vision, or to prevent their growing worse, if they are taken 
in time. Many an athlete has found that it was defective 
vision that interfered with his ability in sports. The eye 
is a very strong organ and will stand a great deal; but it 
has its limitations, and eyestrain is apt to result in head- 
aches and a poor general condition. 
Good Sportsmanship.-There are three attributes which 
a boy should most assiduously cultivate if he wishes 
to succeed in athletic sports. They are pluck, energy, 
and perseverance. He should be courageous and should 
not mind the occasional hurt. He should be able to 
go on, putting the pain behind him. As for energy, 
it is the dynamo in the human machine. It is this qual- 
ity that the coach is looking for in his pupils. Finally, 
perseverance is an absolute essential. Some boys learn 
more easily than others. It often happens, however, that 
the boy who learns too quickly and too easily has not 
the patience and persistence to go on improving, whereas 
the boy who has to work harder to get the first start has 
acquired a power of perseverance which makes him keep 
on improving. Such boys often make more successful 
athletes in the long run than those to whom the accomplish- 
ment comes more readily. 370 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Every boy should remember the great basis of the sports- 
man's code: "Fair play and no favor and may the best man 
win." He should do the best he can at all times. He should 
never lose courage. He should go through with the job. 
He should not whimper over a defeat, but rather let it 
stimulate him to more practice, more care, and more effort, 
in order to make victory possible the next tune. 
Importance of Training.-There are many ways by 
which a boy can improve himself physically. His sports 
and play have the effect of keeping him in good general 
condition, provided he follows the other principles al- 
ready laid down in this chapter. But there is something 
more that he can do and which will most assuredly count 
in the long run. 
Every boy knows that in football, baseball, and other 
sports there are certain parts that perhaps seem like drudg- 
ery. In football, for instance, falling on the ball, tackling 
the dummy, running around the field for exercise, and other 
similar things are like the scales which one must practice 
on the piano in order to become an accomplished musician. 
There are certain things that are simple in themselves but 
which gradually lead to the building up of the successful 
athlete. One of these is calisthenics. I do not mean the 
old-fashioned arm and leg work, but a more modern form 
which tends to make a boy supple, to produce crnick coor- 
dination between brain and muscle, to make it possible for 
a boy to work in different positions instead of being de- 
pendent upon only one fine, and, in general, to make every 
part of his body active and efficient. 
I would not urge a boy to go through the course that 
some of us went through in the way of "gym work," be- 
cause I realize fully that it is a bore and that a great deal SPORT AND HEALTH 
371 
of it at that time did no good. But what I am advocating; 
is a far simpler form that takes only ten or fifteen minutes 
daily and is intended to be directly related to athletic 
sports. Instead of interfering with a boy's athletics and 
taking the time which he would like to spend in play, this 
new form is merely an adjunct to his sports. It is intended 
to supplement them in exactly the way that is needed, so 
that he will be more available material for the coach and 
a more promising candidate for the team. At the same 
time, this new form of exercise will give him a better chance 
to continue to enjoy his sports and to gain benefit from 
them throughout his life. As a boy always likes to know 
"why," I am giving some of the reasons for this new form 
of daily "set-up" work. 
Principles of Modern Set-up Exercises.-We ought 
to have effective, short, and really modem setting-up 
exercises as a supplement to sports. The most vital 
point is that the setting-up exercises should not "take it 
out of the men." Because they exhausted energy, setting- 
up exercises used to be shirked, and the leaders were unable 
to detect the shirking. Boys went through the motions 
but slacked the real work. If we find a boy exhilarated and 
eager to work at the end of his setting-up exercises, we 
have accomplished far more than if we tired him, or ex- 
hausted any of his store of vitality, in a kind of work which 
should, after all, be merely preparatory. 
If, in addition to this, we can reduce the amount of time 
occupied in these setting-up exercises and still obtain re- 
sults, we have saved that much more time for other work 
and play. All the former systems tended to take a longer 
period of time than was necessary to accomplish the desired 
results, and over-developed certain muscles in the boys who 372 
HEALTHY LIVING 
practiced them. Bolin, the authority for years on Swedish 
movements, finally determined that certain of the exer- 
cises were almost a waste of time, because they gave ex- 
ercise to parts that were pretty thoroughly exercised in the 
ordinary daily work of the boys. 
Another point of equal importance is that the setting-up 
exercises should be made as simple as possible, not only for 
the boys, but also for the leader. To spend a considerable 
period of time in teaching the leader so that he can handle 
setting-up exercises, makes it difficult to secure a sufficient 
number of trained leaders. If, therefore, we can make this 
leadership so simple that a long course of instruction in it 
will not be necessary, and boys will be able to learn it 
easily, we can save a very material amount of time. 
Another reason for a simpler form of setting-up exercises 
is that the old systems made an extraordinarily wide varia- 
tion of effort between heavy and light boys. The light 
boys in some of these cases would get only a small amount 
of muscular effort, where a heavy boy would get, in the 
same length of time, under the same exercise, far more than 
he could comfortably stand. It has been found in sports 
and games that over-developed biceps, startling pectoral 
muscles, and tremendously muscled legs are a disadvantage 
rather than an advantage. The real essential is, after all, 
as a boy realizes about a motor car, the engine. It is the 
part under the hood, as it were-the lungs, heart and trunk 
-that are most important. 
Many trainers of athletes became convinced some time 
ago of the uselessness of the things that had been regarded 
as cardinal points in setting-up exercises. It was this that 
made the captains and coaches, as well as the boys them- 
selves, look with considerable suspicion upon the gym- SPORT AND HEALTH 
373 
nasium-made candidate with big biceps and large knots of 
muscles. It was found that, outside of weight lifting, im- 
moderate "chinning," or apparently great strength on the 
parallel bars, these boys were not so valuable as the less 
muscled, more supple boys. To put it briefly: it was found, 
in actual practice, that it was "what was under the ribs" 
rather than what lay over them that was of value. If we 
give a boy endurance and suppleness, he becomes more 
able in his sports, more available for his country in time of 
need, and, in the long run, a more healthy and more val- 
uable citizen. 
So I would urge, in giving this simple and modern form 
of "set-up," that every boy take his "Daily Dozen," either 
in a group or by himself. I can promise that it will aid 
him not only to be well and strong, but also to make of 
himself better material for all his sports and games. 
THE DAILY DOZEN SET-UP 
The ''Daily Dozen Set-up" consists of twelve exercises 
which, for ease in memorizing, are divided into four groups 
sf three exercises each. Each exercise or movement is 
given a name, and the names of all the movements of a 
group commence with the same letter, thus: 
I 
II 
HI 
IV 
i. HANDS 
4. GRIND 
7. CRAWL 
10. WAVE 
2. HIPS 
5. GRATE 
8. CURL 
11. WEAVE 
3. HEAD 
6. GRASP 
9. CROUCH 
12. WING 
These exercises are not difficult or exhausting, and do 
not demand great strength for proper execution. They 
are designed, both from a scientific and a practical point 
of view, to give exactly the right amount of exercise to 374 
HEALTHY LIVING 
every muscle of the body. They are intended to promote 
suppleness and especially to strengthen those muscles which 
are seldom brought into play in ordinary daily life. A con- 
scientious fifteen minutes a day with the "Daily Dozen Set- 
Up" will soon do more for a boy than any amount of skilful 
physical feats or "strong-man stunts." When one first prac- 
tices these movements, their effect will be felt on the little- 
used muscles of the neck, back, and stomach; yet they will 
not leave the pronounced muscular fatigue which follows 
the ordinary exercises, and which is of more harm than good. 
Any setting-up exercises should be preparatory; that is, 
they should make the boy ready for the serious work or 
play of his day, and in no way exhaust any portion of his 
vitality. This modern "short-hand" method of setting-up 
leaves boys in an exhilarated condition and, instead of tak- 
ing anything out of them, prepares the body for any kind 
of work that is required either of mind or of muscle. 
THE POSITION OF REST OR CROSS 
Each exercise starts from the position, of Rest or Cross. 
i. Heels on the same line, and about three inches apart. 
2. Feet pointing forward in nearly a straight line parallel to 
each other. 
3. Knees straight without stiffness. 
4. Body erect on hips, inclined a little forward; shoulders square 
and falling equally. 
5. Arms and hands hanging naturally, backs of the hands out- 
ward; thumbs along the seams of the trousers; elbows near 
the body. 
6. Head erect and straight to the front, chin slightly drawn in 
without constraint, eyes straight to the front. 
The leader takes a position facing the boys, who should SPORT AND HEALTH 
375 
be so placed as to give ample room for unhampered move- 
ment. 
Each movement should be executed in time with the 
orders or counting of the leader, which should (with the 
exception of the Speed Test) be slow and measured. These 
exercises do not depend upon snap for their effect upon 
steady, deliberate strain of the muscles. Any tendency to- 
wards hurried, careless execution should be immediately 
discouraged by the leader, who should, at all times, insist 
upon uniformity of movement. 
In the following instructions, the preparatory commands are 
in capitals, thus: Order. The commands of execution are in 
italics, thus: Hands. Explanation of each movement is given 
in parentheses. 
GROUP I 
Preliminary Exercises 
i. HANDS 
Hands: Ready: cross. (At cross, arms are extended later- 
ally and horizontally, palms down. See Fie. I.) 
Order: hands. (At 
hands, the arms are 
brought back to a 
position of Atten- 
tion close to the 
sides. See Fig. I. 
Especial care 
should be taken 
to see that when- 
ever, throughout 
the exercises, this 
position is taken 
-as at the completion of each exercise- 
full control is retained over the arms, and 
Fig. I. 376 
HEALTHY LIVING 
the hands should not be allowed to slap 
against the sides audibly.) 
Order: rest. (At rest, always return to the position 
of cross. In this case there would be no change). 
2. HIPS 
Hips: Ready: cross. 
Order: hips. (At hips, the hands are placed on 
the hips with shoulders, elbows, and thumbs well 
back. See Fig. II.) 
Order: rest. 
3. HEAD 
Head: Ready: cross. 
Order: head. (At head, the hands are placed be- 
hind the neck, index-fingertips just touching, and 
elbows forced back. See Fig. III.) 
Order: rest. 
Fig. II. 
Fig. III. 
This first group should have a leader. The other three 
groups are described so that the boy or girl may go through 
without a leader. 
These exercises should be executed but a few times each, 
being preparatory to the Speed Test. SPORT AND HEALTH 
377 
Speed Test 
In this test, the preparatory command, Order, is omitted 
and the leader gives the commands, Heads, hips, hands, 
etc., in sharp succession, varying them, and occasionally 
repeating a command in a manner calculated to catch the 
unwary napping. 
The length of time devoted to this movement is left to 
the discretion of the leader. 
SPEED TEST 
Speed Test (omitting the word "Order"): hands, hips, 
head, etc. 
Order: rest. 
GROUP II 
4. GRIND 
Raise arms sideways to horizontal position. Turn the palms 
upward and force the arms back as far as possible. While in 
this position, count slowly from one 
to ten, and at each count describe 
a complete circle about 12 inches in 
diameter, the arms remaining stiff, 
and pivoting from the shoulders. 
Then reverse the direction of the 
circle, and do another ten. See 
Fig. IV. 
5. GRATE 
Raise arms, as before, to hori- 
zontal. While taking a deep breath, 
raise the arms to an angle of 45 degrees, and also raise the 
heels until you are resting on the balls of the feet. Then, 
while you slowly let out the breath, come back to the original 
position, feet flat on the floor, arms horizontal. Be careful not 
Fig. IV. 378 
HEALTHY LIVING 
to raise the arms more than 45 degrees, or return them to below 
horizontal. Do this ten times. See Fig. V. 
6. GRASP 
Raise arms, as before, to horizontal. 
Place hands behind the head, index 
fingers touching, elbows forced back. 
While in this position, bend the body 
slowly forward from the waist as far 
as possible. Keep the head up, with 
the eyes on the leader. Return to up- 
right position, and bend backward a 
short distance only. Do not make these 
movements jerky and do not hurry 
through them. Repeat the whole move- 
ment five times, bending forward, then, 
straightening up, then bending backward. See Fig. VI. 
Fig. V. 
7. CRAWL 
GROUP III 
Raise arms to horizontal. Turn the left palm upward; then 
raise the left arm and lower the right, until the right is down 
close to the side, and the left is straight 
up overhead. Then slowly bend the body 
sideways to the right from the waist, the 
right arm slipping down the right leg to 
or below the knee, and the left arm bend- 
ing in half a circle downward over the 
head, until the fingers touch the right ear. 
Return to original position with arms hori- 
zontal, and go down the other way, the 
left arm slipping along the left leg, the 
right arm bending downward in half a 
circle over the left ear. Do this five times. See Fig. VIL- 
Fig. VI. SPORT AND HEALTH 
379 
8. CURL 
Exercise A. Raise arms, as before, to horizontal. Move the 
right foot sideways 12 inches from the left. Slowly close the 
fists and lower arms downward from the elbows. Then curl 
the fists upward into the armpits, bending the head backward 
meanwhile until you look upward at the ceiling. Take a deep 
breath as you bend the head back. Let the air begin to come 
out slowly, as you return to the original position, head erect, 
fists still in the armpits. See Fig. VIII A. 
Fig. VII. 
Fig. VIII A. 
Fig. VIII B. 
Exercise B. Then, without resting, still letting the breath 
come out, extend the arms straight forward from the shoulders, 
palms down. Let the arms begin to fall and the body to bend 
forward from the waist, head up, eyes to the front, until the 
body has reached the limit of motion, and the arms have 
passed the sides and been forced back and up as far as 
possible. A deep breath should again be taken slowly as 
you curl your arms, and exhaled as they come down once 
more. 
Do the whole exercises (A and B) five times. See Fig. 
VIII B. 380 
HEALTHY LIVING 
9. CROUCH 
Move the right foot sideways until the heels are about 12 
inches apart. Raise arms to horizontal. Rise on the ball of 
the foot. Bend the knees and, with the weight on the toes, 
lower the body almost to the heels, keeping the trunk as nearly 
erect as possible. Return to original position, knees straight, 
Fig. IX. 
Fig. X. 
and let the heels go down to the floor. Do this ten times. See 
Fig. IX. 
GROUP IV 
10. WAVE 
Raise arms as before to horizontal. Stretch the arms straight 
above the head, fingers interlocked, arms touching ears. Then, 
with the fingers still interlocked, describe a complete circle 
about 26 inches in diameter, the body bending only at the waist. 
Do this five times. 
Then repeat the movement five times, but in the opposite 
direction. Go through the entire movement slowly, and stead- 
ily, bending the body in its rotation chiefly from the hips. See 
Fig. X. SPORT AND HEALTH 
381 
11. WEAVE 
Exercise A. Move the right foot until the heels are 12 inches 
apart. Raise arms to horizontal and turn the body to the left 
from the hips, the arms remaining horizontal until the face is to 
the left, the right arm pointing straight forward, and the left 
arm straight backward. See Fig. XI A. 
Exercise B. While in this position, bend the body from the 
waist, so that the right arm goes down until the right fingers 
touch the floor midway between the feet, and the left arm 
Fig. XI A. 
Fig. XI B. 
goes up. The right knee must be slightly bent to accom- 
plish this. Return to the original position, body erect, arms 
horizontal. 
Reverse the movement, turning the body to the right this 
time until the left hand points straight forward. Then bend 
downward until the fingers of the left hand touch the floor. 
Return to the original position. See Fig. XI B. 
After you have mastered the exercise, you can go through it 
(A and B) in one continuous motion. 
Repeat the whole exercise (A and B), first to the right, then 
to the left, ten times. 382 
HEALTHY LIVING 
12. WING 
Raise arms to horizontal, taking in a slow breath; then upward 
until they are straight overhead. Let them fall forward and 
downward, while the body bends forward from the 
waist, until the arms have passed the sides, and 
been forced upward and backward as far as pos- 
sible, just as in Exercise 8, Fig. VIII B. Re- 
member, as you bend forward, to keep the head 
up, and the eyes to the front and let the breath 
come out. 
Straighten the body upright again, with the 
arms overhead, drawing in the breath. Lower the 
arms to the horizontal position, with the palms 
turned downward, and the arms and shoulders 
forced hard back. Then bring the arms out to 
horizontal, and begin the movement again by 
raising them as before. 
Repeat this entire movement slowly five times, 
forcing the air out of the lungs as the body bends 
forward, and filling the lungs again as the body straightens. 
See Fig. XII. 
Fig. XII. APPENDIX 
WEIGHT AND ITS RELATION TO HEALTH 
The Child Health Organization of America, with the 
hearty approval of the Division of School Hygiene of the 
United States Bureau of Education, is carrying on a nation- 
wide campaign for the regular weighing of all school chil- 
dren as the basis for a systematic attempt to build up the 
health of those who are below normal. The aim of this 
movement is to get "a scale in every school" and to have 
all the children weighed once each month during the school 
year. The weights should be entered on a card hung in 
the classroom and reports sent home at the same time to 
the parents.1 Children who are much below the normal 
weights in the tables, pages 384, 385/ should be examined 
carefully by the school physician or the family physician. 
By medical treatment when necessary, but more often by 
improvements in diet or other measures of personal hygiene, 
they can be helped to reach an ideal standard of health and 
vigor. All of the millions of school children of America 
should be enlisted in this great game of building up the 
strength of the men and women of to-morrow. 
1 Record charts and literature may be obtained from the Department of 
Documents, Washington, D. C. 
2 Prepared by Dr. Thomas D. Wood; and Copyright, 1918, by Child 
Health Organization. 
383 HEIGHT AND WEIGHT TABLE FOR GIRLS 
Height 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 
Inches Yr. Yr.Yr.Yr. Yr.Yr.Yr. 
12 
Yr. 
13 
Yr. 
14 
Yr. 
15 
Yr. 
16 
Yr. 
i7 
Yr. 
18 
Yr. 
39 
40 
4i 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
5° 
5i 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 
65 
66 
67 
68 
69 
7o 
7i 
72 
34 35 
36 37 
38 39 
40 4i 
42 42 
44 45 
46 47 
48 48 
49 
5i 
53 
36 
38 
40 
42 
43 
45 
47 
49 
5° 
52 
54 
56 
59 
62 
43 
44 
46 
48.49 
50 5i 
5i S2 53 
53 54 55 
55 56 57 
57 58 59 
60 61 62 
63 64 65 
66 67 68 
68 69 70 
72 73 
76 77 
81 
85 
89 
56 
58 
60 
63 
66 
68 
7i 
74 
78 
82 
86 
90 
94 
99 
104 
109 
61 
64 
67 
69 
7< 
79 
83 
87 
91 
95 
101 
106 
in 
ii5 
117 
119 
70 
73 
76 
80 
84 
88 
93 
97 
102 
107 
112 
117 
119 
121 
124 
126 
129 
77 
81 
85 
89 
94 
99 
104 
109 
113 
118 
120 
122 
126 
128 
131 
134 
138 
86 
90 
95 
100 
106 
in 
115 
119 
122 
124 
127 
13° 
133 
136 
140 
145 
9i 
96 
102 
108 
113 
117 
120 
123 
126 
128 
132 
135 
138 
142 
147 
98 
104 
109 
114 
118 
121 
124 
127 
129 
133 
136 
139 
143 
148 
106 
in 
ii5 
119 
122 
I25 
128 
130 
i34 
i37 
140 
140 
149 
Age: 5 to 8 6 oz. 
8 to 11 8 oz. 
ii to 14 12 oz. 
About What a GIRL Should Gain Each Month 
14 to 16 8 oz. 
16 to 18 4 oz. HEIGHT AND WEIGHT TABLE FOR BOYS 
Height 
Inches 
5 
Yr. 
6 
Yr. 
7 
Yr. 
8 
Yr. 
9 
Yr. 
10 
Yr. 
11 
Yr. 
12 
Yr. 
13 
Yr. 
14 
Yr. 
15 
Yr. 
16 
Yr. 
17 
Yr. 
18 
Yr. 
39 
35 
36 
37 
• 
40 
37 
38 
39 
4i 
39 
40 
4i 
42 
41 
42 
43 
44 
43 
43 
44 
45 
46 
44 
45 
46 
46 
47 
45 
47 
47 
48 
48 
49 
46 
48 
49 
5° 
50 
5i 
47 
5i 
52 
52 
53 
54 
48 
53 
54 
55 
55 
56 
57 
49 
55 
56 
57 
58 
58 
59 
50 
58 
59 
60 
60 
61 
62 
5i 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 
65 
52 
62 
63 
64 
65 
67 
68 
53 
66 
67 
68 
69 
70 
71 
54 
69 
70 
7i 
72 
73 
74 
55 
77 
74 
75 
76 
77 
78 
56 
77 
78 
79 
80 
81 
82 
57 
81 
82 
83 
84 
85 
86 
58 
84 
85 
85 
87 
88 
90 
9i 
59 
87 
88 
89 
90 
92 
94 
96 
97 
60 
9i 
92 
93 
94 
97 
99 
101 
102 
61 
95 
97 
99 
102 
104 
106 
108 
IIO 
62 
100 
102 
104 
106 
109 
in 
113 
116 
63 
105 
107 
109 
in 
114 
US 
117 
119 
64 
113 
115 
117 
118 
119 
120 
122 
65 
120 
122 
123 
124 
125 
126 
66 
125 
126 
127 
128 
129 
13° 
67 
130 
130 
132 
133 
i34 
i35 
68 
134 
135 
136 
137 
138 
i39 
69 
138 
139 
140 
141 
142 
i43 
70 
142 
144 
145 
146 
i47 
7i 
147 
149 
15° 
151 
152 
72 
152 
154 
155 
j56 
T57 
About What a BOY Should Gain Each Month 
Age: 5 to 8 6 oz. 
8 to 12 8 oz. 
12 to 16 16 oz. 
16 to 18 8 oz. HOW TO MAKE A FLYTRAP 1 
The Size of the Trap.-The conical hoop trap consists 
essentially of a screen cylinder with a frame made of barrel 
hoops, in the bottom of which is inserted a screen cone. The 
height of the cylinder is 24 inches, the diameter 18 inches, 
and the cone is 22 inches high and 18 inches diameter at 
the base. 
Materials.-Material necessary for this trap consists of 
Four new or secondhand wooden barrel hoops. 
One barrel head. 
Four laths. 
10 feet of strips 1 to 1^ inches wide by inch thick 
(portions of old boxes will suffice). 
61 linear inches of 12 or 14 mesh galvanized screening 24 
inches wide for the sides of the trap, and 41 inches of 
screening 26 inches wide for the cone and the door. 
An ounce of carpet tacks. 
Two turn-buttons, which may be made of wood. 
The total cost of the material for this trap, if all is bought 
new at retail prices, is about 65 cents. In practically all 
cases, however, the barrel hoops, barrel head, lath, and 
strips can be obtained without expense. This would reduce 
the cost to that of the wire and tacks, which would be 45 
cents. If a larger number of traps are constructed at one 
time, the cost is considerably reduced. 
1 From Flytraps and their Operation, Farmers Bulletin 734, issued by the 
Department of Agriculture. 
386 HOW TO MAKE A FLYTRAP 
387 
Fig. 143.-Conical hoop flytrap. A. Hoops form- 
ing frame at bottom. B. Hoops forming frame 
at top. C. Top of trap made of barrel head. 
D. Strips around door. E. Door frame. F. 
Screen on door. G. Button holding door. H. 
Screen on outside of trap. I. Strip on side of 
trap between hoops. J. Tip of the strip pro- 
jecting to form leg. K. Cone. 
Construction of the Trap.-One of these traps is illus- 
trated in Fig. 143. In constructing the trap, two of the 
hoops are bent in a circle (18 inches in diameter on the 
inside), and nailed together, the ends being trimmed to 
give a close fit. These form the bottom of the frame, 388 
HEALTHY LIVING 
and the other two, prepared in a similar way, form the 
top. 
The top of the trap (Fig. 144) is made of an ordinary 
barrel head with the bevel edge sawed off sufficiently to 
cause the head to fit closely in the hoops and allow secure 
nailing. A square, 
10 inches on the 
side, is cut out of 
the center of the top 
to form a door. 
The portions of 
the top (barrel head) 
are held together by 
inch strips (D) placed 
around the opening 
^2 inch from the 
edge to form a jamb 
for the door. The 
door consists of a 
narrow frame (E) 
covered with screen 
(F), well fitted to the trap and held in place (not hinged) 
by buttons (G). 
The top is then nailed in the upper hoops, and the sides 
are formed by tacking screen wire closely on the outside 
of the hoops. Four laths (or light strips) are nailed to the 
hoops on the outside of the trap to act as supports between 
the hoops, and the ends are allowed to project 1 inch at 
the bottom to form legs. 
The cone is cut from the screen, and either sewed with 
fine wire or soldered where the edges meet. The apex of the 
cone is cut off to give an aperture 1 inch in diameter. The 
Fig. 144.-Top view of conical hoop flytrap. 
Letters designate parts, as in Fig. 143. HOW TO MAKE A FLYTRAP 
389 
cone is then inserted in the trap and closely tacked to the 
hoop around the base. 
Construction of the Cone.-The construction of a cone 
of given height or diameter is quite simple if the following 
method is followed. It is best to cut a pattern from a large 
piece of heavy paper, cardboard, or tin. Fig. 145 illustrates 
the method of laying out a cone of the proper dimensions 
for the above trap. 
An ordinary square is placed on the material from which 
the pattern is to be cut. A distance (22 inches) equal to 
the height of the cone is laid off on one leg of the square at 
A, and a distance (9 inches) equal to one half of the diameter 
of the base of the cone is laid off on the other leg at B. A 
line is then drawn between the points A and B. 
With the distance between these points as a radius and 
with the point A as a center, the portion of a circle C D is 
drawn. With a pair of dividers, the legs of which are set 
1 inch apart, or with the square, lay off as many inches on 
the arc C D, starting at C, as there are inches around the 
base of the cone-in this case about 56^ inches, reaching 
nearly to the point E. Then add inch for the lapping 
of the edges of the cone, and inch which is taken up when 
the cone is tacked in, thus making a total distance from 
C to E of 57^2 inches. Draw a line from A to C and another 
from A to E, and cut out the pattern on these lines and on 
the arc from C to E, as shown in Fig. 145. The edges A C 
and A E are then brought together, lapped ^2 inch, and 
sewed with wire or soldered. 
After the aperture of the cone is formed by cutting off the 
apex, as previously described, it is ready for insertion in the 
trap. 
In order to figure the distance around the base of a cone 390 
HEALTHY LIVING 
of any given diameter, multiply the diameter by 3.1416 
or $lr 
The height of the legs of the trap, the height of the cone, 
and the size of the aperture in the top of the cone, each are of 
importance in securing the greatest efficiency. 
The Bait for the Trap.-The trap may be baited with 
milk or a mixture of water and molasses that has been 
Fig. 145.-Method of laying out a pattern for the construction 
of a cone. Cut out on curved line C to E and on dotted Unes 
from A to C and A to E. 
allowed to ferment. Crushed overripe fruit is also effective, 
especially if combined with milk. The water and molasses 
mixture should not be used if there are honey bees near by, 
since it attracts them in great numbers. 
The bait should be placed in a shallow pan about four 
inches smaller in diameter than the bottom of the trap. 
The pan is set upon the ground under the cone; the flies 
rising from the bait pass through the hole at the top of the 
cone and into the trap. TABLE OF FOOD VALUES 1 
The weight (in ounces and rough measure) of a portion containing 100 
calories and the per cent of protein, fat, and carbohydrates in each food. 
Name of Food 
Portion Contain- 
ing ioo Calories 
Roughly 
Described 
Weight 
OF IOO 
Calories 
in 
Ounces 
Per Cent of 
Pro- 
tein 
Fat 
Car- 
bohy- 
drate 
Vegetables 
Asparagus, as pur- 
chased, average, 
canned 
19. 
33 
21 
5 
18 
62 
Beans, baked, canned . 
Small side dish. :. 
2.66 
6 r 
Beans, string, cooked . 
Cabbage, edible por- 
Five servings . . . 
16.66 
15 
48 
37 
tion 
i7- 
20 
8 
72 
Celery, edible portion, 
average 
ig. 
24 
5 
7i 
Corn, sweet, cooked . . 
Cucumbers, edible por- 
One side dish.... 
3-5 
13 
10 
77 
tion, average 
20. 
18 
72 
Lettuce, edible portion, 
average 
18. 
25 
14 
61 
Peas, green, cooked.. . 
One serving 
3- 
23 
27 
So 
Potatoes, boiled 
One large-sized. . 
3.62 
II 
88 
Tomatoes, fresh, as 
purchased, average.. 
Four average to- 
matoes 
15- 
15 
16 
69 
1 Based on Tables in Fisher and Fisk's How to Live; used by permission 
of the authors. 
391 392 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Name of Food 
Portion Contain- 
ing ioo Calories 
Roughly 
Described 
Weight 
OF IOO 
Calories 
in 
Ounces 
Per Cent of 
Pro- 
tein 
Fat 
Car- 
bohy- 
drate 
Fruits 
Apples, as purchased.. 
Bananas, yellow, edible 
portion, average.... 
Cantaloupe 
Two apples 
7-3 
3-5 
3 
5 
7 
5 
90 
90 
One large 
Half ordinary serv- 
ing 
8.6 
6 
94 
Cooked Meats 
Beef, round, boiled 
(lean) 
Large serving 
2.2 
9° 
IO 
00 
Lamb chops, boiled, 
edible portion, aver- 
age 
One small chop.. 
.96 
24 
76 
00 
Cake, Pastry, Pud- 
ding 
Cake, chocolate layer, 
as purchased 
Half ordinary 
square piece . . . 
Custard, caramel 
.98 
2-51 
1.3 
2.8 
7 
19 
5 
1 
22 
IO 
71 
71 
6? 
Pie, apple, as purchased 
One third ordinary 
piece 
32 
Pudding, apple tapioca 
Small serving 
I 
98 
Cereals 
Bread, corn (johnny- 
cake) as purchased, 
average 
Small square 
Ordinary thick 
slice 
1.3 
i-3 
.82 
12 
16 
72 
81 
Bread, white, home 
made, as purchased. 
13 
9 
6 
Crackers, graham, as 
purchased 
Two crackers 
20 
71 
Oatmeal, average, 
boiled 
One and a half 
serving 
56 
18 
7 
75 TABLE OF FOOD VALUES 
393 
Name of Food 
Portion Contain- 
ing ioo Calories 
Roughly 
Described 
Weight 
OF IOO 
Calories 
in 
Ounces 
Per Cent of 
Pro- 
tein 
Fat 
Car- 
bohy- 
drate 
Cereals 
Rice, boiled, average. . 
Ordinary cereal 
dish 
3-i 
10 
1 
89 
Rolls, Vienna, as pur- 
chased, average 
One large roll 
I . 2 
12 
7 
81 
Dairy Products 
Butter, as purchased.. 
Ordinary pat or 
ball 
• 44 
• 5 
99-5 
00 
Cheese, American, pale, 
as purchased 
One and a half cu- 
bic inch 
• 77 
25 
73 
2 
Milk, whole, as pur- 
chased 
Small glass 
4-9 
19 
52 
29 
Sweets, Nuts, Mis- 
CELLANEOUS 
Marmalade (orange 
peel) 
I. 
.5 
2.5 
97 
Peanuts, edible por- 
tion, average 
Thirteen double . . 
. 62 
20 
63 
Eggs, hen's, boiled.. .. 
One large egg 
2 . I 
32 
68 
00 
Omelet 
3 • 3 
34 
60 
6 
Soup, bean, as pur- 
chased, average 
Very large plate... 
5-4 
20 
20 
60 
Consomme, as pur- 
chased 
29. 
85 
00 
15 394 
HEALTHY LIVING 
ESTIMATED WHOLESALE COST OF THE RAW MATE- 
RIALS IN CERTAIN STANDARD FOODS. AMOUNTS 
NECESSARY TO YIELD 2500 CALORIES ARRANGED 
ACCORDING TO THEIR INCREASING COST 1 
Apple tapioca pudding $. 04 
Rice, boiled 04 
Bath buns 06 
Pie, apple 07 
Pie, rhubarb... 08 
Apple, baked 09 
Pie, strawberry .09 
Cocoa 09 
Crullers 10 
* Fish cakes with tomato sauce 13 
Muffins, com 13 
* Lamb croquette and mashed potatoes 14 
* Beans, Boston baked 15 
* Beef, corned 15 
Pie, lemon 15 
Chicken wings on toast 16 
Napoleon 16 
* Salad, potato 16 
Toast, buttered 16 
Cream roll 17 
* Beef, creamed, chipped on toast ,18 
Cakes, butter 19 
* Roast, Vienna, and spaghetti and potatoes 19 
Pudding, tapioca, creamed 20 
Sandwich, oyster 20 
*.Veal cutlet, breaded and tomato sauce 20 
* Beef, corned, hash browned in pan 21 
1 See note on page 376. COST OF STANDARD FOODS 
395 
* Liver and bacon $.21 
* Roast, Vienna, with French fried potatoes - 21 
* Stew, lamb 21 
* Beans, New York, baked 22 
Cakes, buckwheat, with maple cane sirup 22 
Coffee, cup of (contained cream and sugar) 22 
Pudding, bread, with vanilla sauce 24 
* Beef, corned, hashed, steamed 25 
Oatmeal, fresh cooked, with cream 25 
* Stew, beef... 25 
Pie, oyster v 26 
Potatoes, French fried, extra order 26 
* Sandwich, ham 26 
* Beef, creamed, chipped 27 
* Sandwich, corned beef 27 
* Beef, corned, hashed, steamed, with poached egg 28 
* Mackerel, broiled salt, with mashed potatoes 28 
Milk 29 
Pudding, rice, cold 29 
* Rice, hot, with poached egg 29 
Soup, bean, with croutons 29 
* Sandwich, minced chicken 30 
Cornstarch, chocolate, with cream 31 
Ice cream, strawberry 31 
* Omelet, ham 32 
Sandwich, cream cheese walnut 32 
* Omelet, plain 33 
Cornstarch, vanilla, with cream 34 
* Omelet, onion 34 
* Oyster fry, small 34 
*Eggs, fried 35 
* Sandwich, fried egg 35 
Sausage, country 35 
* Chicken croquette and French fried potatoes 36 
* Eggs, creamed, on toast 36 
* Omelet, parsley 37 
* Omelet, Spanish, with French fried potatoes 37 
* Sandwich, tomato 39 396 
HEALTHY LIVING 
* Eggs, scrambled $. 40 
* Lamb chops 40 
Sandwich, club 40 
* Salad, tuna fish 41 
Custard 43 
* Sandwich, chicken, sliced 43 
* Steak, tenderloin 43 
* Ham, fried 44 
* Sandwich, roast beef, hot 44 
Strawberries with cream 44 
Toast, milk 45 
* Eggs, boiled 47 
* Omelet, chicken 47 
* Sandwich, minced chicken with lettuce 49 
* Eggs, poached on toast 59 
* Shad, baked, and dressing 61 
From Fisher and Fiske's How to Live; used by permission of the authors 
and of Professor Graham Lusk who prepared the original tables. Items 
marked with an asterisk (*) include an order of bread and butter, which 
are figured in the food values. The prices are based on investigations made 
in 1915, and the costs would in many cases be quite different now. The 
relative values of the different foods would, however, remain practically 
the same. A WELL-BALANCED FOOD SUPPLY 
The following well-balanced and economical diet list for 
a typical family of five persons has been prepared by the 
Department of Public Health of the American Museum of 
Natural History. 
Note that grain products, such as bread and cereals, form 
the cheapest source of calories. Milk supplies calories, pro- 
teins, calcium, and vitamins. Vegetables and fruits furnish 
salts and vitamins. Meat, fish, and eggs contain valuable 
proteins. 
FOOD SUPPLY FOR A FAMILY OF FIVE FOR ONE WEEK 
Kind of Food 
Percentage of 
Amount Cost (Aug. 1919) Total Cost of Food 
Meats and fish 
6^ lb. 
$ 131 
10.9 
Eggs 
2/3 doz. 
•30 
2-5 
Milk 
21 qt. 
3.08 
25-7 
Cheese 
1 lb. 
•43 
3-5 
Fats 
3^2 lb. 
1.26 
10.5 
Sugar 
4 lb. 
•44 
3-3 
Grain products 
(bread, cereals, 
etc.) 
20 lb. 
1.85 
15-4 
Vegetables 
23 lb. 
1.65 
13.8 
Fruits 
8% lb. 
i-45 
12.1 
Nuts (including 
peanut butter) 
^lb. 
•14 
1.2 
Coffee 
.08 
0.7 
Total Cost 
Sii-99 
397 INDEX 
A star (*) after a page number indicates an illustration. 
Abdominal cavity, 18. 
Absorption, 52, 58-59. 
Accidents and First Aid, 342-355. 
Accommodation of eye, 191-192. 
Adenoids, 108*, 109*, no. 
Age and youth, 205. 
Agramonte, Aristides, 273. 
Air, and health, 130-133, 210; and 
the baby, 312; dust and poisons 
in, 134-135*; effect of cold, 132; 
good and bad, 129-130, 136; 
movement of, 132; stale, 131. 
Air passages, IO2*-IO3*, 108*. 
Air sacs, 103*. 
Alcohol, 91-99, 172-174; and ac- 
cidents, 176-177; and efficiency, 
172-187; and nervous disease, 
179; and tuberculosis, 302; and. 
vital resistance, 295; as a public 
health problem, 97-98; as food, 
93-94; cost of, 180-181; effects 
of, on circulation, 125-126, on 
digestive system, 94, on health, 
94-97, on kidneys and liver, 145, 
on muscles, 47-48; laboratory 
studies on, 174*-! 76; not a 
stimulant, 172-173. 
Alimentary canal, 52. 
Anaemia, 115. 
Animals and disease, 237. 
Anopheles mosquito, 268, 269*, 
270*. 
Anthrax, vaccination against, 292- 
293- 
Antitoxins, 289-290, 294. 
Aorta, 116*, 117. 
Appendix, vermiform, 52*, 62. 
Aqueous humor, 189*, 191. 
Arm, bones of, 28*, 30-32. 
Arteries, 112*, 113*; how to stop 
bleeding from, 344-345*; pul- 
monary, 116*, 117, 118*. 
Artificial respiration, 348-349. 
Astigmatism, 194, 195*. 
Auditory canal, 197*. 
Auricles, 116*, 117, 118*. 
Baby, care of, 308-316; and com- 
municable disease, 314; bathing, 
310-311*; clothing of, 310-311; 
food of, 308-310; fresh air for, 
312; sleep of, 312-313; summer 
care of, 313. 
Bacteria, 221-222*, 223*; in sew- 
age disposal, 324-325; study of, 
223-224*. (See Disease Germs, 
Germs, Microbes.} 
Bacteriologist, 223-224. 
Ball-and-socket joint, 28. 
Bandage, 345*. 
Bathing, 151-152; of baby, 310- 
311*. 
Benedict, F. G., 174-176. 
Beri-beri, 81. 
Bernard, Claude, 6o*-6x, 123. 
Biceps, 39*, 4o*~4i. 
Bicuspids, 66*, 67. 
Bile, 58, 144. 
Bile duct, 58*, 144. 
Bladder, gall, 144; urinary, 143*, 
144. 
Blood, 21, 113*, 114-115; cells of, 
114* (See Corpuscles}; circulation 
of, 117-118. 
Blood vessels, 21, 112*, 113-114, 
116*, 117*; regulation of, 120- 
123. 
Board of Health, 330-341; educa- 
399 400 
HEALTHY LIVING 
tional activities of, 335-336; 
laboratory of, 331-333. 332*J 
organizing of, 331; work of, 330. 
Body, as chemical laboratory, 14; 
as living machine, 9-10; cavi- 
ties of, 18-19; general plan of, 
18; organs of, 18*; posture of, 
32-33*; team work in, 15; tem- 
perature of, 122-125. 
Boils, 152. 
Bones, 19, 25-38; broken, 346; 
composition of, 25; how held 
together, 27-28; in childhood 
and age, 26; injuries to, 37; 
number of, 26-27; of arm and 
leg, 28*, 30; of wrist and hand, 
31*; shapes of, 26*-27. 
Bony system, 19, 20*, 25-38. 
Boy Scouts, rules for prevention of 
accidents, 357, 358*. 
Brain, 23, 158*, I59*-i6o. 
Breastbone, 30. 
Breathing, 105-107; movements, 
106*. 
Bright's disease, 145. 
Bronchi, 103*. 
Bronchitis, 104. 
Bruises and sprains, 345-346. 
Bubonic plague, 261-262*. 
Burns, 347-348. 
Callosity, 147-148. 
Calories, 7 8 *-79. 
Calorimeter, 79. 
Campaign against tuberculosis,305. 
Capillaries, 113*. 
Carbohydrates, 75. 
Carbolic acid poisoning, 351. 
Carbon dioxide, 21, 100-102, 112- 
113; in blood, 118. 
Carriers, human, 232-233; insect, 
261. 
Carroll, James, 273, 274. 
Cartilage, 25. 
Catarrh, 104. 
Cavities of body, 18-19. 
Cells, 10, 11*; how they work to- 
gether, 11-12, 113*. 
Cement of teeth, 67*. 
Cerebellum, 158*, 160. 
Cerebrum, 158*, 160. 
Chemical substances in air, 130. 
Chilling, dangers of, 132, 150. 
Choroid coat of eye, 189*, 190. 
Cigarette smoking, no. 
Cilia, 104*. 
Circulation, process of, 119-122. 
Circulatory system, 21, 112*-128; 
effect of alcohol on, 125-126; of 
tobacco on, 126-127; in illness, 
124-125; muscles of, 42; work 
of, 119-121. 
Clavicle, 20*, 30. 
Cleanliness, 239-246. 
Clot of blood, 115. 
Clothing, 148-151, 149*, 150*; 
effect of tight, 35; for baby, 310- 
311; hygiene of, 150-151. 
Coagulation, 114-115. 
Colds, 104, 149-150, 227-228. 
Communicable diseases, 217-218, 
227-228, 280-281, 282, 284; and 
the baby, 314; bedside care of, 
280*; control of, 330-331; dis- 
infection during, 283-284; early 
signs of, 284; incubation period 
of, 285; isolation of, 279-283; 
relative fatality of, 286*-287; 
relative importance of, 281*. 
Constipation, 63. 
Consumption. (See Tuberculosis.} 
Contact, germs spread by, 235. 
Contact cases of disease, 285. 
Cooking, methods of, 86-87*-88. 
Cornea, 189*, 190. 
Corns, 36-37. 
Corpuscles, red, 114*; white, 114*, 
115, 227, 290*. 
Cranium, 20*, 30. 
Crown of tooth, 67*. 
Culex mosquito, 269*, 270*. 
Cuspids, 66*, 67. 
Cuts, care of, 344-345. 
Death rate, 339; and alcohol, 95*- 
98. 
Decomposition, 221. 
Defects, of eye, 193-196; physical, 
213-214. 
Deformities, due to posture, 34-35. 
Dental caries, 67. 
Dentine, 67*. 
Diaphragm, 18*, 19, 105-106*. 
Diarrhea, 63; infant, 265. INDEX 
401 
Diet, 82-84; accessories and stimu- 
lants, 88-89; in illness, 84. 
Digestion, 52. 
Digestive juices, 20, 53, 55; action 
of, 57*; in small intestine, 58. 
Digestive system, 20-21, 51-65; 
effect of alcohol on, 94; muscles 
of, 42; organs of, 52*~53- 
Diphtheria, 282-283; 285-286; 
treatment by antitoxin, 294. 
Dirt, 239-240. 
Disease germs, how spread, 234- 
235; human carriers of, 232-233; 
outside of body, 233-235; source 
of, 231-232. (SeeBacteria,Germs, 
Microbes.) 
Diseases, intestinal, 242; tropical, 
272-274. (See Communicable.) 
Disinfection, 280-281, 283-284; of 
water supply, 322. 
Dislocation of joints, 37. 
Distillation, 93. 
Drinking glass, individual, 249- 
250*. 
Drowning, 348-349. 
Drugs, 91; and stimulants, 212- 
213; effects of, 172; habit-form- 
ing, 92. 
Dust, 134-135*; and tuberculosis, 
301-302; germs in, 240. 
Ear, 196-198; drum, 197*; func- 
tion of, 196^-197; foreign bodies 
in, 343; structure of, I97*-I98. 
Eating, 54-55; good habits of, 61. 
Electric shock, 349-350. 
Emetic, 350. 
Enamel of teeth, 67*, 68. 
Energy, 12-13; of food,77-78**79; 
source of, 51. 
Enzymes (ferments), 53, 223. 
Epiglottis, 102**103. 
Ergograph, 48. 
Esophagus, 20, 52*-s6, 58*, 102*. 
Eustachian tube, 197*, 198. 
Excretory system, 21, 142-145; 
organs of, 22, 143**145. 
Exercise, 43-47; and circulation, 
121-122; and health, 210-211*; 
setting-up, 371-382. 
Expiration, 106. 
Eye, 189-796; accommodation of, 
191-192; defects of, 193-196; 
foreign bodies in, 342-343*; how 
protected, 192; strain of, 196; 
structure of, i89*-i9i; tests of, 
194*, 195*. 
Eyeglasses, 193-196. 
Factory, inspection, 334-335; safe* 
ty in, 362-363. 
Fainting, 346-347. 
Far-sightedness, 193. 
Fats in food, 75. 
Feet, hygiene of, 35*-37. 
Femur, 20*, 31, 28*. 
Fermentation, 93, 221. 
Fever, 125. 
Fibers. (See Muscle, Nerve, etc.) 
Fibula, 20*, 28*, 31. 
Filter, 322*. 
Filtration of water, 321-322. 
"Fingers, food, and flies," 235. 
Firearms, and safety, 363. 
Fireless cooker, 88. 
Fires, safety from, 358-359. 
First Aid, 342-355. 
Flies, 236, 263-264*-267; and dis- 
ease, 264-265*; fight against, 
265-267; foot of, 264*; traps 
for, 266-267, 386-390. 
Food poisoning, 257. 
Foods, 13, 73^90; and health, 209- 
210; classification of, 76-77; 
clean and pure, 84-85; decay of, 
85; germs spread by, 235-236; 
in store and home, 256**257; 
kinds of, 74-76; poisoning by, 
257; preservation of, 257-258; 
source of, 73-74; storage in body, 
59-60; supervision of, 333-334; 
uncooked, 255-256; uses of, 51; 
values, 77~78*-79, 80*, 391-397; 
variety of, 79-81. 
Foot, 35*; blood vessels in, 117*; 
hygiene of, 35-36. 
Foreign bodies in eye, ear, nose, 
and throat, 342-343. 
Frostbite, 348. 
Fumigation, 283. 
Gall bladder, 58*, 144. 
Ganglia, 158. 
Garbage and refuse, 325*~326. 
Gas, leaks, 135-136; poisoning, 
349-350. 402 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Gases, in respiration, 100-102. 
Gastric juice, 56-57. 
Germs, 320-321; in dust, 240-241; 
in ice, 250; spread by mouth 
spray, 241 *-242. (See Bacteria, 
Disease Germs, Microbes.) 
Glands, 53; lachrymal, 192-193; 
salivary, 53; of stomach, 58; 
sweat, 145; thyroid, 54. 
Gliding joint, 28. 
Glycogen, 60. 
Gorgas, W. C., 276*. 
Gray matter in brain, 159*. 
Growth and development, 13, 203- 
207; curve of, 204*. 
Gymnasium, 46*~47. 
Habit-forming drugs, 92. 
Habits, 162-163, 165*, i66*-i67; 
of eating, 61-62; of health, 208- 
216. 
Hair, 152; follicle, 147*, 152. 
Hand, bones of, 31 *. 
Harvey, William, 119-120*. 
Havana, yellow fever in, 273-274. 
Health and air, 210; and exercise, 
210-211; and food, 209-210; and 
rest, 211-212; defined, 16; habits 
of, 208-216; rules of, 214-215. 
Health, Board of, 330-331. 
Health Leagues, 270-272. 
Health nursing, 336-338. 
Hearing, 188. (See Ear.) 
Heart, 18*, 112*, ii6*-ii7; valves 
•of, 118*; work of, 121-122. 
Heat prostration, 347. 
Heating, and ventilation, 136-139; 
direct and indirect, 136. 
Height and Weight Table, 384, 385. 
Hellsten, on fatigue, 48. 
Hemoglobin, 114. 
Hinge joint, 28. 
Hookworm disease, 243. 
Humerus, 20*, 28*, 30-31. 
Humidity, 133. 
Hygiene, definition, 17; of cloth- 
ing, 150-151; of foot, 35-36; of 
mouth, 212; of nervous system, 
167-170; of youth and age, 206. 
Ice, 250. 
Ice box, home-made, 310*. 
Illness and diet, 84; circulation in, 
124-125. 
Immunity, 227, 281, 289-296; 
natural and artificial, 289-290. 
Incinerator (garbage), 326. 
Incisors, 66*, 67. 
Incubation, period of, 285. 
Infant Welfare Station, 314-315. 
Inflammation, 226. 
Influenza, 217, 218, 282, 287, 331. 
Inhibitions, 163. 
Insects, and disease, 203, 236*-237, 
261-278; life cycle of, 203*; 
stings, 352-353- 
Inspection, sanitary, 334-335. 
Instincts, 164. 
Insurance companies, statistics in 
regard to alcohol, 95-97. 
Intestinal juices, 58. 
Intestines, 18*; absorption in, 58- 
59; hygiene of, 62-63; large, 52*, 
53, 62; small, 52*, 53, 57-58; 
wall of, 59*; wastes from, 142. 
Involuntary, actions, 163-164; 
muscles, 42-43. 
Iris, 189*, 190-191. 
Iron, in blood, 114. 
Isolation, 279-288; defined, 279; 
of contact cases, 285; period of, 
282-283. 
Ivy poisoning, 352. 
Jenner, Edward, 290-291*. 
Joints, 27-28. 
Kidneys, I43*-I44; and alcohol, 
145- 
Kissinger, inoculated with yellow 
fever, 274. 
Koch, Robert, 220. 
Laboratory, health, 331-333. 
Lachrymal gland, 192-193. 
Larva, 203*, 263; of mosquito, 
268-269*. 
Larynx, 102*, 103*, 104-105. 
Lazear, J. W., 273, 274. 
Leg, bones of, 28*, 30-32. 
Lens of eye, 189*. 
Ligaments, 27. 
Lister, Joseph, 220. 
Little Mothers' Leagues, 314*, 315. INDEX 
403 
Liver, 18*, 53, 58*, 144. 
Lungs, 18*, 21, 103*. 
Lymph, 113*, 115-116. 
Lymphatics, 116. 
Machine, 9-10; body as, 9-10; 
fuel for, 12; care of, 16; normal 
working of, 16. 
Maggot. (See Larva.) 
Malaria, 267-268. 
Marrow, 25. 
Measles, 284, 286-287. 
Medicines, patent, 91, 183-184*; 
self-doctoring, 208-209. 
Medulla, 158*, 160. 
Membranes, mucous, 53, 103-104; 
and warm atmosphere, 131-132. 
Microbes, 62-63; 220-221, 223*; 
activities of, 221-222; and dis- 
ease, 226-227; colonies of, 224, 
225*; good and bad, 224-225*; 
226; on skin, 152. (See Bacteria, 
Disease Germs, Germs.) 
Milk, composition of, 75*; danger 
from, 251-252; for the baby, 
308-310; pasteurization of, 252- 
?54*-255, 309*- 
Mistletoe, 220*. 
Molars, 66*, 67. 
Moran, inoculated with yellow 
fever, 274. 
Mosquitoes, 267-269*, 270; con- 
trol of, 269-270. 
Motor fibers, 158. 
Mouth, 53-55; digestive juices in, 
55; guarding against germs, 243- 
245; hygiene of, 212; spray, 
241-242. 
Mucous membrane, 53, 103-104; 
cells of, 104*; of nose and throat, 
103-104. 
Municipal sanitation, 317-329. 
Muscle fibers, 39. 
Muscles, 19-20, 22*, 39*; an- 
tagonistic action of, 41; con- 
traction of, 40-41; effect of 
alcohol on, 47-48; exercise of, 
43*-47; of arm, 40-41; of cir- 
culatory system, 42; of digestive 
system, 42; voluntary and in- 
voluntary, 42-43; work of, 41- 
42. 
Nails, 153. 
Narcotics, 173. 
Near-sightedness, 193-194. 
Nerves, 23, 157-158; nerve cells, 
158, 159*; nerve fibers, 158. 
Nervous system, 22*, 23, 155-171; 
central, 156; function of, 155- 
156; hygiene of, 167-168; re- 
lation of alcohol to, 180. 
New York City, reduction in 
death rate, 338-339. 
New York State Commission on 
Ventilation, experiments of, 131. 
New York water supply, 319*, 
321*. 
Nicotine, 184. 
Nightingale, Florence, 336, 337*, 
338. 
Nosebleed, 343-344. 
Nucleus, 10. 
Nurse, public health, 336*-338. 
Old age, 205. 
Open-air schoolroom, 305*. 
Optic nerve, 189*, 190. 
Organs, of body, 10, 18*; of speech, 
104-105; systems of, 10. 
Outdoor life, 129*, 139. 
Over-exercise, danger of, 47. 
Overheating, effects of, 131-132, 
151- 
Oxidation, 100. 
Oxygen, 14, 21, 100-102; in blood, 
118. 
Oysters, disease spread by, 255*. 
Pack, F. J., studies on smoking, 
126-127, 185. 
Pain, 156. 
Palate, 54. 
Panama Canal, 275-277. 
Pancreas, 53, 58*. 
Pancreatic juice, 58. 
Parasites, 220*, 221. 
Pasteur, Louis, 2i8-2i9*-220, 292- 
293- 
Pasteurization, 252-255, 254*, 
309*. 
Patent medicines, 91, 183-184*. 
Pelvis, 20*, 30. 
Pellagra, 81. 
Pepsin, 56. 404 
HEALTHY LIVING 
Perspiration, 123-124, 144-145. 
Pettenkofer, experiments of, 79. 
Pharynx, 52*, 53, 55, 102*. 
Physiology, definition of, 17. 
Pimples, 152. 
Plagues, 261-263. 
Plasma, 114, 115. 
Pneumonia, 104, 295. 
Poison ivy, 352-353*- 
Poisons, 350-352; in air, 135; in 
food, 85-86. 
Posture, 32-33*, 34*; causes of 
faulty, 34-35. 
Protein, 11, 74-75, 83. 
Protoplasm, 11. 
Ptomaine poisoning, 257. 
Public health campaign, results of, 
338*-339- 
Pulmonary artery, 116*, 117. 
Pulp of teeth, 67*. 
Pulse, 121. 
Pure Food Law, 84. 
Pupa, 203*, 263, 269. 
Pupil of eye, 191. 
Putrefaction, 323-324. 
Pyorrhea, 67. 
Quarantine, 279. 
Rabies, 237. 
Radius, 20*, 28*, 31. 
Railroads and safety, 362. 
Reaction, 151-152. 
Recreation, 168-169. 
Reduction plant, 326. 
Reed, Walter, 273*-274. 
Reflex actions, i6i-i62*-i63. 
Repair of the body, 13. 
Reservoirs, 320-321*. 
Resistance. (See Vital Resistance.) 
Respiratory system, 21, 100-in; 
diseases of, 104. 
Rest and health, 211-212; and 
play, 168-169. 
Retina, 189*-! 90. 
Ribs, 18*, 20*, 29-30; movements 
of, 105-106*. 
Ricketts, H. T., 275. 
Safety, 356-365; from firearms, 
363; from fires, 358-359; from 
wires, 361-362; in the factory, 
362-363; in the home, 357~358; 
in the street, 359-361; on rail- 
road tracks, 362; on the water, 
363-364. 
Safety First, 356-365. 
Salivary glands, 53. 
Salts, 76, 80. 
Sanitary inspection, 334 - 335; 
squads, 270-271. 
Sanitation, 17, 217; municipal, 
3I7-329. 
Scapula, 20*, 30. 
Scarf skin, 147. 
School seats, effect on posture, 
34*-35- 
Sclerotic coat of eye, 189*, 190. 
Scurvy, 81. 
Seaver, studies on tobacco, 206-207. 
Secretions, internal, 54. 
Self-doctoring, 208-209. 
Semi-circular canal, 197*. 
Sense organs, 23, 188; heat and 
cold, 199-200. 
Sensory fibers, 158. 
Septic sore throat, 251-252*. 
Sera, 289-290. 
Setting-up Exercises, 371-382. 
Sewage disposal, 323~324*-325. 
Shock, electric, 349-350. 
Shoes, 36*, 368. 
Sight, 188. 
Silkworm disease, 218-220. 
Skeleton, 20*, 25; bones of, 26-27. 
Skin, 22-23, 147-154; as organ of 
excretion, 144-145; functions of, 
148; microbes on, 152; struc- 
ture of, 147*. 
Skull, 30. 
Sleep, 169-170; baby's, 312-313. 
Sleeping porch, 139 *-140. 
Smallpox, vaccination against, 290- 
292. 
Smell, 188; organs of, 199. 
Smoking. (See Tobacco.) 
Snake bites, 352-353- 
Speech, organs of, 104-105. 
Spinal column, 20*, 28-29. 
Spinal cord, 29, 158*, 160; nerves 
of, 160. 
Sprains, 37, 345-346. 
Sterilization, 283. 
Sternum (breastbone), 20*, 30. INDEX 
405 
Stimulants, 88-89. 
Stockard, C. R., experiments on 
alcohol, 95. 
Stomach, 18*, 52*, 53; and glands, 
58*; digestion in, 56-58. 
Storage of water, 320-321. 
Stove, jacketed, 138*. 
Suffocation, 348-349. 
Sunstroke, 347. 
Sweat glands, 145, 147*. 
Sympathetic nervous system, 160- 
161. 
Tartar, 70-71. 
Taste, 188; organs of, 198-199; 
taste buds, 198. 
Teeth, 54-55, 66-72; care of, 68- 
71; decay, 67-68; kinds of, 66- 
67; structure of, 67*; temporary 
and permanent, 66*. 
Telephone, nervous system com- 
pared to, 157*, 188-189. 
Temperature, control of, 122-124; 
in illness, 124-125. 
Tendons, 39*-4O*. 
Tenements, inspection of, 334-335. 
Thermometer, 133, 134*. 
Thoracic cavity, 18, 105. 
Throat, foreign bodies in, 343. 
Thyroid glands, 54. 
Tibia, 20*, 31. 
Tissues, 10. 
Tobacco, no, 184-185; effect on 
circulation, 126-127; on growth, 
206-207. 
Tonsils, 54, io8*-no. 
Toothbrush, 70; drill, 69*. 
Touch, sense of, 188, 199. 
Toxins, 226. 
Trachea, 102, 103*. 
Triceps, 41. 
Trichinosis, 256. 
Tubercles, 297. 
Tuberculin test, 252. 
Tuberculosis, 297-307; alcohol and, 
302; bacillus of, 222*; cam- 
paign against, 305; cause of, 
297; control of, 298; cure of, 
302-304; industrial, 301-302; 
spread of, 298; symptoms of, 
297; treatment of, 304; vital 
resistance and, 299-301. 
Typhoid, epidemics, 247* - 248, 
255*, 264-265; germs, 223*, 
234*; vaccination, 293. 
Typhoid Mary, 233. 
Typhus fever, 262-263*. 
Ulna, 20*, 28*, 31. 
Urine, 144. 
Uvula, 54, 102*. 
Vaccination, smallpox, 290-292; 
typhoid, 293. 
Vaccines, 289-290, 292-293. 
Valves of heart, ii8*-H9. 
Veins, 112*, 113*, 116*, 118*. 
Ventilation, 136; methods of, 136- 
137*-138*-139; of bedroom, 
I39*-I4°; of schoolroom, 137*. 
Ventricles, 116*, 117, 118*. 
Vertebrae, 29*. 
Villi, 59*. 
Vision, defects of, 193-196. 
Vital resistance, 227; 289; and 
alcohol, 295; and tuberculosis, 
299-301. 
Vital statistics, 338. 
Vitamins, 76, 80. 
Vitreous humor, 189*, 191. 
Vocal cords, 102*, 104-105. 
Voluntary, actions, 164-165; mus- 
cles, 42. 
Waring, George E., 327*~328. 
Wastes, of the body, 14, 112-113; 
142-146; removal of, 212. 
Water, 74; disinfection of, 322; 
filtration, 321-322; ground, 319; 
hard and soft, 322; in foods, 74; 
surface, 318; storage of, 320-321. 
Water supply, 318-323; and health, 
247-248; kinds of, 318-320; 
purification of, 248, 320. 
Weight and Health, 205, 383-385. 
Wells, 248-249*. 
Whooping cough, 286-287. 
Windpipe, 102-103. 
Wires, safety from, 361-362. 
Work and worry, 167-168. 
Wounds, care of, 245, 344-345. 
Yeast, 93*. 
Yellow fever, 272-274, 276-277. 
Youth and age, 205-206. SUPPLEMENT 
Oscar Dowling, M.D. 
President of the Louisiana State Board of Health and Professor of 
Public Health, Tulane University 
CHAPTER I 
HYGIENE AND SANITATION IN RURAL LIFE 
Public Health.-That " the country is more healthful 
than the city" we have accepted without comment. 
Undoubtedly there are advantages in the rural life, because 
of fresh air, sunshine, and the comparatively small number 
of persons to a given area. Recently, however, the death 
rate in the cities has fallen more rapidly than in the rural 
districts. A table compiled by the United States Census 
Bureau of what is known as the "Registration Area" 
shows the death rate from malaria, influenza, and typhoid 
fever to be less in the cities than in the country. For in- 
stance, the average death rate for these diseases per 10,000 
for the five years ending in 1918 was as follows: 
Typhoid fever 11.5 in the city 15.7 in rural communities 
Malaria 1.5 " " " 4.1 " " 
Influenza 64.8 " " " 79.1 " " " 
These figures mean that out of every 10,000 people 
living in the city, about n died every year of typhoid 
1 2 
HEALTHY LIVING: BOOK TWO 
fever. Out of the same number of people in the country, 
about 16 died of this disease. 
This condition of affairs is largely due to a lack of proper 
sanitation. Poorly heated and poorly ventilated dwellings, 
inconvenient school buildings, lack of medical attention, 
and danger from polluted soil and water are conditions in 
the rural communities which need strict sanitary regula- 
tions. 
While regulations are necessary, the education of the 
people generally is of equal importance. The funda- 
mental principles of hygienic cleanliness, the cause of 
disease, and the way in which it is spread, must be made a 
part of the education of the children before homes can 
become hygienic, or habits formed which will mean care of 
health. 
The Need of Health Laws in Rural Districts.- 
The responsibility of the farmer is very great. Without 
his active cooperation, the inhabitants of any land would 
be quickly brought to the verge of starvation, for the vast 
city population and the great industries are directly or 
indirectly dependent upon the products of the soil. The 
farmer exercises a control over the means of subsistence of 
all his fellow men, and thus over the health and well-being 
of millions. 
The man who lives in the city submits to the regulation 
of his life and habits. He and his neighbor have developed 
a mutual understanding concerning the relationship of 
neighbor to neighbor. That each has a responsibility for 
the welfare of the other is taken for granted. In the coun- 
try districts, this is not true. Probably the country doc- 
tor is the only person who knows how the farmer and his 
family live. The individual whose home is remote from HYGIENE AND SANITATION IN RURAL LIFE 
3 
others thinks he may do as he pleases with his well, his 
stable, his pig pen, or his sick child, but the practices of 
his home may cause great inconvenience, even sickness 
and death to others. Hence, no family can be a law unto 
itself. This has been proved more clearly, perhaps, by 
our increased knowledge of how disease is spread than by 
anything else. 
Unsanitary conditions in the rural districts are not only 
sources of danger to the rural population itself, but may be 
sources of contagious diseases to the thickly populated 
centers. Foodstuffs may transmit certain infections. 
Typhoid fever, septic sore throat, or diphtheria, for exam- 
ple, may be carried by contaminated milk. Diseases from 
parasites in meat may be traced to lack of care on the part 
of the farmer. That scarlet fever and measles spread 
from one farmhouse to another is well known. Therefore, 
the sanitation of the farmhouse is of importance to the 
farmer himself, his family, the town or city to which his 
product goes, and even to the whole country. For these 
reasons there should be supervision of the methods by 
which the farmer prepares the food commodities which he 
offers for sale. A Sanitary Code which affects the farmers 
is a public benefit. 
It is often difficult for the farmer to realize his respon- 
sibility toward public health, because he leads an inde- 
pendent life far from other people, and because health 
conditions on the farm have been ignored by the author- 
ities. The present lack of laws regarding the sanitation of 
farm homes is due to the fact that state health authorities 
have been occupied with what they considered the more 
urgent problems of city conditions. When the farmer 
realizes how important a factor he is in the health of the 4 
HEALTHY LIVING: BOOK TWO 
country, he is glad to cooperate with the health authorities 
in enforcing laws which will improve conditions on the farm 
and throughout the country. 
Location of the House on a Farm.-The experience 
of years has taught man to build his house upon elevated 
ground where the soil will remain comparatively dry. In 
deciding on the location of a new house, it is well to remem- 
ber that sand and gravel are the best subsoils and clay is the 
worst. The house should have a maximum amount of 
sunlight throughout the year and adequate protection 
against the winds during the cold season. In most South- 
ern states the southeast exposure is the best, as this gives 
the greatest amount of sunlight in the rooms. The out- 
look from the windows should be pleasing. A room having 
openings looking into the barnyard or to the side of another 
building is, of course, undesirable. 
The Foundation.-After the location for the house has 
been chosen, the ground should be thoroughly drained to a 
depth of at least four feet before the foundation is laid. 
This may be accomplished by making trenches, partly 
filled with broken rock and covered with earth. These 
will prevent the water from collecting beneath the house or 
in the yard. These trenches should be drained by a ditch 
slanting downward so that the water is carried away from 
the house. 
The foundation below the level of the ground should 
be built of concrete. It is highly desirable to have a 
layer of tar or slate between the foundation and the wall 
of the house in order that the moisture from the ground 
may not be drawn up into the walls. 
Every house should be made rat-proof. This is very 
simple if the foundation is properly built. It means that HYGIENE AND SANITATION IN RURAL LIFE 
5 
no opening shall be left through which rats may make 
entrance. 
The Roof.-Slate makes the best roofing, though tin and 
wooden shingles are also good. A tin roof makes the house 
very hot in summer. Tin roofs must be painted to prevent 
leaks. Slate is the best roof from which to collect cistern 
water. 
The Cellar.-A cellar is a great convenience, provided 
it can be kept dry. The main considerations in construct- 
ing the cellar are the exclusion of damp ground air, mice, 
and rats. The cellar should have plenty of light and plenty 
of air. The window openings should be at least 2 feet 
above the grade. All openings about water pipes should 
be covered with cement to prevent the entrance of vermin. 
In the flat lands near the Gulf, it is usually impossible to 
get sufficient drainage to make cellars practicable. 
The Rooms.-In the warm climate of the Southern 
states a rooms hould not be smaller than 12 feet wide by 
12 feet long. Window space should not be less than one 
fifth of the floor space. Windows that extend to the 
ceiling give the best ventilation. 
Ventilation.-Fresh air is very important. An abun- 
dance of fresh, clean air is always necessary for health 
and comfort. About 1800 cubic feet of air per hour is con- 
sidered the minimum for each adult. This is 30 cubic feet 
per minute. In order that the air in the house may be 
clean and pure, there should be a constant interchange 
between it and the outer air. This change of air should 
be secured without draughts. If the air space is suf- 
ficient, it is possible to effect this exchange simply by 
opening a window. 
The elaborate devices found in city dwellings cannot be 6 
HEALTHY LIVING: BOOK TWO 
installed with economy in the ordinary farmhouses. Open 
fireplaces aid in ventilating because they draw air from the 
room. This change, however, affects only the air near 
the floor. The stale air near the ceiling remains unchanged 
unless a window is opened from the top. 
A stove provided with a drum, or jacket, may be used 
for heating and ventilating a room. The stove is enclosed 
in an iron drum with an a?^ space of from 6 to 12 inches 
around the stove. The top of the drum is left open, while 
the bottom is connected with the open air by means of pipes 
which must run as straight as possible. These pipes should 
never open in the cellar or on a level with the ground, where 
the air may be impure. The cold fresh air is drawn in from 
outside. It is then heated by the stove body, and the 
fresh warm air is given off into the room from the top of 
the drum. (For a picture of such a stove, see page 138.) 
Windows of sleeping rooms should be open at night. 
Plenty of fresh air during sleep is essential to health. 
The Screening of Farmhouses.-Proper screening of 
the houses, whether in town or country, especially in the 
Southern states, is of the greatest importance. While 
malaria does not exist so widely throughout the South 
as is generally believed, it is well to take every pre- 
caution against the bite of the malaria-carrying mosquito. 
Screens give protection not only against these mosquitoes 
but also against the disease-carrying house fly and other 
insects. 
Mosquitoes vary in size, so that wire netting with 16 to 
18 meshes to the inch is usually necessary to prevent the 
smaller insects from entering. The best kind of wire net- 
ting is made of bronze or copper wire. It is not affected 
by the action of the weather. Galvanized wire screen HYGIENE AND SANITATION IN RURAL LIFE 
7 
wears out much more quickly, and the painted screen is 
worthless after a year or two. The bronze or copper screen 
costs more at first, but is cheaper in the end because it can 
be used longer. The frames of the screens should fit 
closely. It may even be necessary to construct double 
screen doors. This was done in the Canal Zone, where the 
malaria mosquitoes were very numerous. 
Water Supply.-Water for domestic uses in rural dis- 
tricts is generally obtained from dug wells, springs, rain- 
water cisterns, rivers, lakes, ponds, and occasionally from 
bored or artesian wells. 
Wells.-A good well is one that is on a higher level 
than the barnyard and outside toilet, and has a properly 
cemented curbing with a cemented coping and a solid 
platform around the top. The cover should fit tightly, 
and the water should be raised by a pump. A trough 
should be arranged to catch the waste water, which should 
not be permitted to collect in pools on the covering or 
around the coping. A trough or pipe will serve to convey 
the water to the barnyard, and a fence around the well will 
protect it from animals and chickens. 
Ground water, the source of the water in the well, is 
that part of the rain water which has soaked into the soil 
and has been collected in a layer of porous sand and gravel. 
In sinking a well, one should look for soil in which this po- 
rous layer is separated from the surface by a layer of clay 
or slate. The water which is collected there will be pure, 
provided the requirements of constructing the well have 
been met and it is not near sources of contamination. If 
the water, in its passage into or through the soil, passes 
outhouses, cesspools, or other sources of pollution, the 
contamination may be carried to the well. 8 
HEALTHY LIVING: BOOK TWO 
The shallow dug well, which is the source of supply on 
many farms, is often badly situated, and the water is fre- 
quently contaminated. The location of the farmhouse is 
usually on an elevation, with the barn and outhouses as 
near as possible. The well, unfortunately, is usually put 
on a lower level than that of the buildings. Hence, it 
receives the seepage from the barn and other outhouses. 
In many cases the well is located in the barnyard or chicken 
yard, and often it has no curbing or tight-fitting cover. 
Too often the bucket and pulley with a dirty rope are the 
means by which the water is raised. In India the well 
bucket has been found to be the means of spreading cholera. 
It is hardly to be doubted that it plays a part in the spread 
of typhoid in this country. 
Springs.-Springs are frequently used for domestic water 
supply in rural districts. They are supposed to furnish 
pure water. Spring water is pure, provided the washings 
of the surrounding territory do not gain access to the 
water. Sometimes spring water is allowed to flow into a 
pap, pot, or barrel sunk into the ground. The water is 
dipped out and may be contaminated by the buckets and 
the hands of those who come to draw the water. The 
spring should be curbed or properly covered. The curbing 
should be lined with cement and should extend several 
feet above the surface. A pipe should be passed through 
the wall and should carry the water several feet from the 
spring and up at such a height that a bucket may be placed 
under the outlet. Springs are frequently found in low 
places, and under conditions permitting their pollution by 
washings from the soil. 
Collecting Rain Water.-Another source of water 
supply on the farm, especially in climates with moderate HYGIENE AND SANITATION IN RURAL LIFE 
9 
temperature is rain water, collected and stored in cisterns, 
or tanks, either above or below the ground. The quan- 
tity of water to be stored depends upon the conditions 
under which it is to be used and the size of the family. 
Fifty gallons per person per day will usually suffice for all 
purposes. The size of the cistern will also depend upon the 
amount of rainfall and its distribution through the seasons. 
An underground cistern should be water-tight, built of 
brick and thoroughly lined with cement, or made of con- 
crete. The location of the underground cistern should be 
as far as possible from the barnyard, outhouses, and cess- 
pools. As the roof from which a cistern derives its supply 
of rain water is never free from dust and dirt, the first water 
of a rainfall should be allowed to run off in order that the 
water collected may come from a clean roof. 
As a rule, water stored in a cistern above ground is less 
likely to be impure. A tank constructed in the garret will 
serve the purpose very well, and if properly constructed and 
connected, will supply running water all over the house. 
Other Sources of Water Supply.-Artesian wells 
usually furnish pure water, although in a limestone region 
one may easily tap water supplies which come from pol- 
luted surfaces. Rivers, lakes, and ponds are peculiarly 
liable to contamination from refuse thrown into them or 
from sewage. There are many cases where a single out- 
side toilet, located on or near the banks of a lake or a river, 
has caused widespread epidemics of typhoid fever. The 
dumping of sewage into a river is a menace to the health of 
any community using the water, unless the water has been 
sand filtered or treated with chlorine gas or some other 
purifying agent. The only way to be certain that water 
from a river, lake, or pond is safe is to boil it before using. 10 
HEALTHY LIVING: BOOK TWO 
Outside Toilets.-Every one is more or less familiar 
with the average outside toilet of the average farmhouse. 
It is offensive because of odor, and is a prolific source of 
pollution of wells, cisterns, and springs. When placed 
over running water, it becomes especially dangerous. 
Flies feed and breed in these places and find their way 
sooner or later to food in kitchen, dining room, or milk 
room. If there is sickness in the household, disease germs 
are almost sure to be carried to the neighbors' homes by 
flies. These disease germs will be deposited by the flies 
in food, with the result that cases of the disease are likely to 
develop among the members of the family or among the 
neighbors. In view of the very great number of deaths 
from such diseases as dysentery and typhoid in the rural 
districts of the United States, the open-back toilet in the 
yard cannot be too strongly condemned. From the 
standpoints of both health and decency it should not be 
tolerated. 
Since the modern, sanitary watercloset is not prac- 
ticable unless there is an ample supply of water for flushing, 
the outside toilet must be used in most rural districts. The 
greatest possible precautions, however, should be taken in 
its construction, to insure safety. The pit privy is sanitary 
if properly located and built. The pit should be 4 feet 
deep, 4 feet long by 2 feet wide, and the housing over it so 
built as to exclude flies. The earth should be graded and 
piled up around the outside so as to shed the water. The 
seats should be provided with covers. The darker the 
interior, the fewer the flies, as flies do not seek darkness. 
Outside toilets should be situated as far away from the 
source of water supply as possible. 
Another system for the disposal of this form of waste is a HYGIENE AND SANITATION IN RURAL LIFE n 
house constructed so that pails or containers may be used. 
These fit tightly under the seats, which should have covers. 
The back of the building should have a solid shutter door 
or a shutter door of wire netting. The pails are made of 
galvanized iron, zinc, or wood. They should be disin- 
fected or washed with milk of lime each time they are 
emptied. The contents should be buried. 
No stronger argument can be made for properly con- 
structed outhouses than that their universal construction 
would eliminate hookworm. It is not many years since 
the discovery was made that the larvae of the hookworm 
live in polluted soil and get into the skin through the feet, 
this affection being commonly known as "ground itch." 
The disease prevails widely in the warmer portions of the 
Southern states and is directly due to the lack of sanitary 
conveniences and to the open-back variety of toilet. 
Clothing.-In the Southern states where the mercury 
drop is often 300 to 400 in twenty-four hours and where 
the air along the coast is saturated with moisture, clothing 
is an important factor in health. 
The function of clothing is to protect against the weather 
-cold, heat, and dampness. In protecting the body against 
cold, clothing prevents radiation of heat. Silk and cotton 
are equally warm where the thickness of the layer is the 
same. The most rational clothing in cold weather is that 
which holds the heat of the body with the least weight of 
material. Flannel is the lightest and warmest. Clothing 
should not only be light, but should absorb moisture readily 
and dry out quickly. For this reason the clothing worn 
next to the body should be porous. The degree of porosity 
is a very important feature of summer clothing in that it 
permits evaporation, which draws heat from the body. The 12 
HEALTHY LIVING: BOOK TWO 
color of summer clothing is also important. Dark clothing 
absorbs heat and is, therefore, warmer than white or light 
fabrics. 
Damp clothing is injurious because it is liable to produce 
a chill, and also prevents the free evaporation of heat and 
moisture from the body. Keeping the clothing dry in 
damp weather is especially important in the prevention of 
disease. 
The amount of clothing worn should vary with the 
season and with the individual. One person may require 
more than another. The country dweller, on account of 
his outdoor life, will ordinarily need less clothing than 
the person who is living in the city and who is confined to 
the house for the greater part of the day. We used to 
•say that the country man was "hardened," but there is no 
such thing as "hardening" to temperature. One may 
be "inured" or "used" to weather changes. In the rural 
districts experience is usually a good guide as to the amount 
of clothing required. 
Woolen underclothing for those who work out of doors in 
the country and whose houses are not sufficiently warmed 
is the only kind that will adequately protect the body. 
It is a matter of importance for bodily health and com- 
fort that the bed covering at night should be warm and light. 
Many persons use the same amount of bed covering, no 
matter what the temperature may be. It is unwise and 
unsafe to "sleep cold." 
Cleanliness of both body and clothing is imperative to 
health. The excretions of the body through the skin are 
absorbed by the clothing. These fill the pores of the 
clothing and make it impossible for the air to pass through 
the meshes. CHAPTER II 
HYGIENE AND SANITATION IN THE SMALL 
COMMUNITY 
Conditions in the Small Village.-Health conditions 
in the small village present a problem different from those 
of the city or farm. The village has many of the dangers 
of larger community life without the strict sanitary regula- 
tions enforced in the city. At the same time, the man who 
lives in the village cannot always control his own sanitary 
conditions as he could on the farm. The farmer, for 
instance, can see that his water supply is not contaminated 
by improper sewage removal. The man in the village may 
use the greatest care in the disposal of sewage on his own 
property, but he cannot guard against the pollution of his 
source of water supply by unsanitary conditions in the 
home of his next-door neighbor. The people in the village 
must learn to cooperate in making and enforcing health 
regulations for their community. 
Homes with plenty of light and air, an adequate supply 
of pure water, clean streets, playgrounds and recreation 
centers, all count for much in making the people of any 
community well and happy. Every citizen should do his 
best toward this end. 
The health of a village community depends chiefly upon 
these factors: 
13 14 
HEALTHY LIVING: BOOK TWO 
The dwellings 
Education 
Care of the sick 
The water supply 
Proper removal of refuse and drainage 
What has been said of the dwellings on a farm applies 
equally to the house in a village. Such things as location, 
foundation, light, and air should always be considered 
in building a house. 
Education has about the same relative value for the 
man on the farm and the man in the village; in fact the 
farmer sends his children to the village school. Playgrounds 
and recreation centers play a large part in community 
health and happiness and should be a matter of com- 
munity concern. 
The care of the sick is receiving more and more con- 
sideration as a health measure to prevent the spread of dis- 
ease. In many places County Hospitals have been estab- 
lished in the hope that isolation and care of the sick would 
reduce both sickness and death rates. Although quaran- 
tine laws may not be enforced in a small village, every 
family in whose home there is a contagious disease should 
feel responsible for the health of the community and 
should observe the strictest quarantine. 
The two most necessary things, however, in safeguarding 
the health of a community are a supply of pure water and 
proper methods of sewage removal. The water supply is of 
great importance in the village, because of the dangers 
arising when a large number of people are dependent upon a 
poor water supply from a small source. For the same 
reason the removal of sewage and refuse is important. In SANITATION IN THE SMALL' COMMUNITY 
15 
regard to these two things the inhabitants of the village 
must work in cooperation. 
Sources of Water Supply.-The water supply of a 
rural community is usually the shallow dug well or an 
artesian well. Sometimes a number of families get their 
water supply from the same well. Sometimes a small 
pumping station on the outskirts of a village supplies water 
from a pond, lake, or river. Often the inhabitants collect 
rain water in cisterns. What has been said in Chapter I 
about these sources, as they are used by the farmer in 
rural districts, applies equally to the village. 
Dangers to the Water Supply.-In the village, where 
the houses are nearer one another than in the farm districts, 
there is even more danger that the water supply from wells 
will be polluted from outside toilets. These buildings 
must therefore be properly constructed and kept clean, if 
epidemic diseases are to be prevented. 
The ponds or lakes from which water is pumped to 
supply the village do not always furnish pure water. One 
town used for all purposes water from a reservoir situated in 
a depression surrounded by small hills. Every rain washed 
the filth of the homes on the surrounding hills into the 
reservoir; yet it was difficult to convince people that this 
water supply was not clean and wholesome and was the 
cause of typhoid fever and other intestinal troubles. 
It is quite possible for a person who has a mild attack 
of dysentery or who is a carrier of typhoid to pollute either 
the water or the banks of a pond. If the water is used 
by milk dealers for washing their cans, typhoid bacteria are 
quite certain to multiply in the milk within a few hours, 
provided the weather is warm. The Chicago epidemic of 
1893 is an example of an epidemic spread in this way. All 16 
HEALTHY LIVING: BOOK TWO 
communities are peculiarly liable to epidemics of typhoid 
caused by impure water during the summer and fall 
months. 
Water from a running stream is sometimes impure. 
Within the territory from which water flows into the stream, 
there may be any number of isolated farmhouses with 
unsanitary and improperly constructed toilets. Streams 
from mountain districts are most likely to furnish pure 
water, but even these are not always free from pollution. 
Methods of Securing Pure Water.-Ponds, lakes, or 
reservoirs should be protected from contamination. A 
wall or a fence should be built around the area in which the 
pond is located and all persons excluded. No toilets 
should be located in the neighborhood and no sewage 
should gain entrance to the pond. 
There is practically no sure means of providing a pure 
water supply without some form of preliminary treatment, 
with alum, lime, and iron sulphate, with sand filtration, 
or, best of all, with chlorine gas in addition to one of these 
treatments. Duplicate reservoirs which allow the water to 
stand for some days or weeks before being used also give a 
large measure of protection by allowing time for the 
destruction of bacteria by natural means. 
Sewage Disposal.-Proper methods of sewage removal 
in a village are necessary, to secure a pure water supply 
and to prevent the spread of disease. The methods ol 
sewage disposal must vary with local conditions, and it is 
impossible to recommend any one system. Toilets and 
cesspools, the water carriage system, septic tanks, the dry 
earth and pail system, all have their appropriate places. 
Outdoor toilets with pits dug in the ground, or the pail 
system, are commonly found in the small town. In fact, SANITATION IN THE SMALL COMMUNITY 
17 
where running water and a sewerage system have not been 
installed, these are the only means by which the necessities 
of the community can be met. There should be, however, 
regulations regarding their location and sanitary condition. 
Cesspools are merely enlarged pits into which sewage is 
run through pipes from closets some distance away, usually 
closets situated within the house. The pits are bricked-up 
excavations, sometimes lined with cement. If they are 
not cemented, the sewage seeps out and may find access 
to wells in the vicinity. If bricked and cemented, they 
have to be emptied at frequent intervals, which means 
pollution of the ground and for a time a disagreeable odor, 
or the overflow may be disposed of by filtration through 
the soil from tile laid about 18 inches below the ground 
surface. The cholera epidemic in London in 1854 was 
caused by a leaking cesspool situated not far distant from a 
well. In those days no modern system of water distribu- 
tion existed. The well was the source of supply for a large 
number of families, with the result that 700 deaths occurred 
within seventeen weeks in the parish in which that well was 
situated. 
A water carriage sewerage system presupposes running 
water and modern plumbing. By this system the sewage 
is carried in pipes and eventually discharged, usually into 
a water course. The danger is the same as that which 
occurs when any body of water is polluted. Yet in many 
instances there is no choice, and modern methods of sewage 
treatment can greatly minimize the danger and nuisance. 
Several of the large cities along the Mississippi River get 
their water supply from that muddy river, but the process 
of treatment and filtration renders the water both palatable 
and harmless. CHAPTER III 
RURAL SCHOOL HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
Our School System.-From the time when our public 
school system was established, it has been the right of 
every American child to learn to read, to write, and to 
think. We have recently added the right to develop 
physically as well as mentally. The child should be trained 
to keep himself well and to realize his responsibility in 
protecting the health of others. 
Conditions in the Rural Schools.-The rural schools 
have not always played their part in making healthy citi- 
zens for the future. In a recent book, Health Education 
in Rural Schools, there is a summary of sanitary defects 
in some of the rural schools. The charges are: "The 
lighting is usually bad; the seats and desks are non-ad- 
justable; the school buildings are poorly heated; the 
water is obtained from shallow wells and springs which are 
often polluted; the open bucket and common drinking cup 
are used; the doors and windows are seldom screened; and 
the toilet facilities are exceedingly bad. The rural schools 
are also deficient in medical inspection; dental clinics; 
eye, ear, nose, and throat clinics; public health nurses; 
open-air classes; and facilities for warm luncheons, ath- 
letics, and recreation." Although the rural schools are 
better than they used to be, the conditions which still 
18 RURAL SCHOOL HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
19 
exist make for discomfort and inconvenience, and arc 
often a menace to health. 
The Consolidated School.-One step in improving 
rural school conditions is the movement towards con- 
solidating the schools of several districts. A larger, more 
completely equipped building can be provided to meet 
the need of several districts without additional expense. 
Transportation facilities can be provided for the children 
who live at a distance. 
In the consolidated school there is opportunity to have a 
heating plant, indoor toilets, clean, ventilated lockers, 
good light, sanitary fountains, well-equipped playgrounds, 
and other things which add to the comfort and welfare of 
the children. It is hoped, with the coming of good roads, 
that the one-room or two-room rural school will disappear. 
Location of School Buildings.-The ideal rural school 
building should be placed in a sanitary environment. If 
it is in a town or village, the school building should be 
located on a wide street as far as possible from other build- 
ings. If it is in the country, a grove on an elevation should 
be selected. A north light is considered the best for the 
eyes, but a south light is almost as good, and this exposure 
will give the greatest amount of sunlight in every room. 
The structure should be plain but pleasing. 
School Grounds.-The soil on which the schoolhouse 
and grounds are situated cannot always be a matter of 
choice. It may, however, be improved by proper care 
and grading and by carting earth, sand, and gravel from 
other places. There should be trees and shrubs and, if 
possible, a garden. Playgrounds should be level, about 
30 square feet for each pupil being necessary to give room 
for play. Fields for baseball and basket-ball should 20 
HEALTHY LIVING: BOOK TWO 
be provided. There should be a sand pile for the primary 
grades, and such equipment as will help the children enjoy 
recreation hours. 
Disposal of Sewage.-Lavatories and sanitary toilets 
should be provided. The sewerage system should be kept 
in the best possible working order. In districts where hook- 
worm disease prevails, the well and the outside toilets 
should be placed as far apart as possible, and every pro- 
vision made for keeping the latter clean and the refuse 
properly disposed of. Where water can be piped into a 
building, septic tanks and sub-surface drainage are the 
most practical arrangements. Pollution of the soil of 
the playground with the larvae of the hookworm will have 
disastrous results. 
Lighting.-Light should enter the schoolroom directly 
and not by indirect reflection. The windows should not be 
less than one fourth of the floor space. It is best to place 
the windows at the back and on one side, the object being 
to have the light come from the rear and over the left shoul- 
der. The sills of the windows should be 5 feet above the 
floor and the windows should extend to the ceiling. Inside 
blinds or shades should be provided and kept in proper 
working order. The desks should not be more distant 
from the window than one or one and a half times the length 
of the window. It has been found that rooms 30 or 40 
feet in length and 13 feet high are most satisfactory. 
Light gray or light green tints are preferable to other 
colors for walls. Blackboards made of slate, olive or deep 
black in color, are the best, and the surfaces should not be 
shiny. 
Ventilation.-Thirty cubic feet of air are needed for 
each pupil and should be renewed once a minute. In the RURAL SCHOOL HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
21 
South, during the spring and fall when the windows are 
kept open, this is possible. In the winter, if the ventilators 
are provided, a fairly adequate supply of air may be 
obtained. 
The air of a schoolroom should not be too dry. A 
hygrometer, an instrument for measuring the amount of 
moisture in the air, should be installed and watched care- 
fully. With a temperature of 68° Fahrenheit, the moisture 
should be about 55 per cent. 
Heating.-Heating is a matter of importance. Stoves 
use up a great deal of oxygen, and therefore some provision 
should be made to supply air from an outside source. A 
jacketed stove, which is described on page 138, will furnish 
heat and aid greatly in ventilation. 
Cleaning.-Dry sweeping or dusting with a feather duster 
should be absolutely prohibited. If the floors are not 
regularly oiled, wet paper may be scattered about the 
room before sweeping, to keep down the dust. The dusting 
should be done with a damp or oiled cloth. A real old- 
fashioned scrubbing with plenty of lye and hot water is the 
best method of cleaning. 
Water Supply.-It goes without saying that the water 
supply should be adequate and safe. Too often a surface 
well is the source of supply or, in many states, a cistern 
which is not cleaned as often as it should be. Sometimes a 
spring is used, where there is danger of the water being 
polluted from the washings of the surrounding area. Chil- 
dren should take a drink of water many times a day, and 
the supply should be carefully safeguarded. Wherever 
practicable, a sanitary fountain should be provided. 
Cloak Rooms.-Cloak rooms should be as large as pos- 
sible, provided with lockers, and well ventilated. 22 
HEALTHY LIVING: BOOK TWO 
School Lunches.-Cold food is not nearly so easily 
digested as warm food. The immature digestive organs 
of the school child are even less adapted to cold food than 
those of an adult. Most of the lunches that the children 
consume during the noon hour are put up in tin boxes or 
papier mache lunch boxes or are simply wrapped in paper. 
The receptacles are often not properly cleaned and there 
remains an odor of staleness. 
Many schools have introduced the serving of hot lunches. 
A good meal at noon insures better work during the remain- 
ing hours of the school day. It also means fewer under- 
nourished children. 
A School Health Committee.-There are many 
things which children can do to insure better health con- 
ditions in the rural school. A committee may be appointed 
each week to see to matters of health and sanitation. 
Some of the things this committee should take care of are 
these: 
If there is no bubbler fountain in the school, each child 
should have his individual cup, or should make one of paper. 
Individual cups must be kept clean and should not be lent 
to any one else. 
Every child should wash his hands before eating. If 
paper towels and liquid soap are not provided, every one 
must have his own towel and soap. 
The thermometer should be carefully watched to see 
that the room is not too hot or too cold. The best tempera- 
ture for the schoolroom is about 68°. 
No water in which mosquitoes may breed should be 
allowed to collect around the school yard. 
Orange peel, banana skins, and other refuse from lunch 
should be put into the ash cans and should be burned. RURAL SCHOOL HYGIENE AND SANITATION 
23 
The schoolroom and grounds should be kept as neat and 
clean as possible. 
Medical Supervision.-Medical supervision is a neces- 
sary part of every efficient school system. It is a wise 
measure of prevention. Examination of the pupils will 
reveal physical and mental defects, many of which may be 
cured before they become permanent. If nervous diseases, 
malformation of the spine in its early stages, skin diseases, 
adenoids, and other defects are made known to the parents 
through the school examination, the parents in most cases 
will see that the children receive medical attention. 
There is no reason why medical inspection should not be 
carried out in the rural districts as well as in the cities 
and large towns. Unless there is a medical inspector, 
the teacher can accomplish very little. Even if she recog- 
nizes that the child's condition is not normal, the best 
she can do is to send him home with the recommendation 
for medical attention. It is not to be supposed that the 
teacher will be able to recognize all communicable dis- 
eases. Scabies or itch, ringworm, and head lice are easily 
noted. Such symptoms as running nose and watery 
eyes may indicate the beginning of a contagious disease. 
Defective hearing is too often thought of as inattention. 
Measles, whooping cough, scarlet fever, chickenpox, diph- 
theria, and mumps are the most common diseases among 
children. Prevention of these depends on early recog- 
nition of the symptoms and isolation of the patient. 
Health Examinations.-Health examinations are not 
so widely in effect as medical inspections. By health exam- 
ination is meant having the children weighed at regular 
intervals and examined for defects which can be remedied. 
The village may also establish clinics or .places where the 24 
HEALTHY LIVING: BOOK TWO 
children can receive free'treatment. When the people of a 
community realize what can be done to make their chil- 
dren healthier and happier, this system of health protec- 
tion will be established in every community. CHAPTER IV 
DISEASES COMMON IN THE SOUTHERN 
STATES 
Children's Diseases.-Among the diseases common to 
children everywhere are whooping cough, measles, mumps, 
chickenpox, scarlet fever, and diphtheria. In addition to 
these, in the Southern states the children often suffer from 
hookworm and malaria. Trachoma exists more or less in 
certain sections, and pellagra in others. Chickenpox 
appears every winter, and sometimes smallpox. 
Whooping Cough.-Whooping cough is very contagious 
and is one of the most fatal diseases of childhood. (See 
diagram on page 286.) The first signs of whooping cough 
are those of an ordinary cold, with violent coughing. A 
child who has whooping cough should be placed under the 
care of a physician and kept away from other children. 
Pneumonia.-Pneumonia is one of the most prevalent 
and most deadly of diseases. The disease is spread by 
means of germs discharged from the nose and mouth in 
sneezing and coughing. It occurs in all months but is most 
frequent in the colder months. It is as common in the 
South as in the North. 
The more easily detected symptoms of pneumonia are 
pain in the side, fever, and a cough. A physician should be 
called at once if the disease is suspected. 
25 26 
HEALTHY LIVING: BOOK TWO 
Colds.-Colds are commonly contracted from persons 
who have them and often occur in epidemic form. All 
members of the household or the school may be attacked. 
Colds are never fatal, but they are often followed by dis- 
eases which may be fatal. The prevention of a cold con- 
sists in avoiding contact with infected persons, especially 
in schools, street cars, offices, and poorly ventilated rooms. 
Parents do the proper thing when they keep a child home 
from school if he is sick with a cold. Not only may more 
serious illness of the child himself be avoided in this way, 
but the infection of other children may be prevented. 
Influenza.-In spite of the fact that influenza has been 
prevalent in this country since 1869, and that a serious 
epidemic occurred in 1918, there is little certain knowledge 
about this deadly disease. It is assumed that it is spread 
from one person to another by droplets which are coughed 
or sneezed into the air or given off by the breath during 
speech or laughing. 
The disease can be avoided only by keeping away from 
persons suffering from influenza or convalescing from it. 
To prevent the spread of the disease, every one should be 
sure to use a handkerchief when he coughs or sneezes. 
During an epidemic of influenza, there should be no gath- 
erings of people. 
Diphtheria.-The diphtheria germ almost always enters 
the body by the mouth or nose. It may be transmitted 
directly from one person to another, as by kissing or by 
exposure to droplet infection in coughing, speaking, and 
sneezing. It may also be conveyed indirectly in a great 
number of ways, the most common among children being 
by toys, slate pencils, food, fingers, and handkerchiefs. 
Carriers of diphtheria are largely responsible for the spread DISEASES COMMON IN SOUTHERN STATES 
27 
of the infection. Milk and other food may become infected 
and transmit the disease. 
Antitoxin is a certain remedy; it should be given only by 
a physician, who should be summoned immediately. 
Measles.-Many mothers take no steps to protect their 
children from measles, believing that "they might as well 
have it over with." This is entirely wrong and causes 
much unnecessary sickness-not only from measles but 
from other so-called children's diseases-and many unneces- 
sary deaths. (See page 286.) 
Measles is dangerous, not only in itself but because of 
the severe after-effects. In some cases children are ren- 
dered deaf from inflammation of the ear following measles, 
and in many cases tuberculosis or pneumonia develops. 
Measles is contagious from the day of the first symptoms,, 
which are those of a hard cold, until after the rash has dis- 
appeared and the skin has become natural. (See page 
284.) During the first days, when the child seems only to 
have a cold, it is more than likely that he will attend school. 
An epidemic is almost sure to follow. Prevention consists 
in strict quarantine. 
Scarlet Fever.-Scarlet fever and scarlatina are names for 
the same disease. It is one of the most serious of children's 
diseases. Scarlet fever begins suddenly with vomiting and 
high fever, and in young children convulsions are quite 
common. The eruption, which appears first on the neck 
and chest, comes out about thirty-six hours after the first 
symptoms have commenced. The case is contagious 
as long as there is any peeling of the skin or discharge from 
the nose, mouth, and ears. It can be transmitted through 
milk, clothing, toys, furniture, bedding, cats, and 
dogs. 28 
HEALTHY LIVING: BOOK TWO 
Prevention is the same as for measles, but quarantine 
should be even more strictly enforced. 
Smallpox.-Before the discovery of the prevention of 
smallpox by vaccination by Dr. Edward Jenner in 1798, 
this disease used to sweep over a country like a plague, 
killing people by thousands. Now the disease exists only 
when vaccination has been neglected. (See page 290.) 
Malaria.-Malaria is a disease which is very common in 
all the Southern states. The disease can be carried from 
an infected person to a well person only by the anopheles 
mosquito. (See page 267.) This mosquito is usually 
brown or yellowish-brown in color with spotted wings 
and a straight proboscis. The larvae, or wigglers, are 
found in pools of clean water or comparatively still water. 
Rain barrels furnish especially good places for breeding 
mosquitoes. The wigglers are small and rest with the 
body parallel with the surface of the water. These mos- 
quitoes do not fly far. Those found in the house are bred 
around it or in its immediate neighborhood. They are 
most active from just before sunset until shortly before 
daylight. Between dark and daylight they often make an 
effort to get through the screen windows or doors. It is a 
good time to kill them. During the day, they stay in the 
thick foliage and in the dark corners of the room. 
To prevent malaria, it is necessary for the farmer or 
rural house owner to adopt certain precautions. There 
•should be no uncovered water about his premises in which 
mosquitoes can breed. This means water in cesspools, 
rain barrels, tin cans, or old bottles. Mosquitoes have 
been known to breed in the water pitcher on the wash- 
stand in the guest room. The breeding and growth of the 
mosquito can be prevented by putting oil on the water, DISEASES COMMON IN SOUTHERN STATES 
29 
i ounce of oil to 15 square feet being sufficient. It is a 
very simple matter to keep cisterns oiled. The reason oil 
on the surface of water exterminates mosquitoes is that the 
wigglers must come to the surface to breathe. They 
breathe through their tails, projecting them just through 
the water surface. As they cannot get their tails through 
the oil, they die from suffocation. Drainage of stagnant 
pools is better than oiling. Screening of the house with 
wire, 18 or 19 strands to the inch, should not be 
forgotten. 
No mosquito can become infected, and hence transmit 
malaria, without first having bitten a malarial patient. 
In order to prevent the spread of the disease, people who 
have malaria should be protected from the bite of the 
mosquito until cured. Treatment of patients with quinine 
and the draining of certain malarial sections of land have 
been tried and proved a success in the eradication of the 
disease. Both processes should go hand in hand; pre- 
ventive measures and the treatment by quinine. 
Typhoid Fever.-Typhoid fever is one of the prevent- 
able diseases which has caused many deaths in this country 
for many years. This disease is transmitted through 
water, milk, and other foods, and also by direct contact 
with infected clothing and utensils. People who seem well 
and strong may be carriers of the disease and spread infec- 
tion wherever they go. (See page 232.) Oysters or other 
shell fish fattened near the outflows of sewers have been 
found infected. 
Prevention consists of destroying the germs as soon 
as they leave the body of the sick person or the person who 
is a carrier. If this were done in every case, the disease 
would soon die out; and every effort should be made to 30 
HEALTHY LIVING: BOOK TWO 
train people into the right habits of caring for the sick and 
caring for themselves so as to prevent infection to 
others. 
Destroying the breeding places of the flies, trapping 
them, and screening the house against them are also pre- 
ventive measures against typhoid. 
Hydrophobia.-Hydrophobia, or rabies, is conveyed 
to people by the bite of an animal suffering from the dis- 
ease. Dogs are most commonly subject to hydrophobia, 
but the bite of a cat, calf, or monkey may also cause the 
disease. Rabies prevails at all seasons and is about as 
frequent in winter as in summer. The time which elapses 
between the bite and the beginning of symptoms varies 
from fourteen days to a year, the average being about 
forty days. The wound during this time will, of course, 
heal. Cauterizing or cutting the wound does not prevent 
the disease, and has to a large extent been abandoned. 
Not every dog that is infected runs wild foaming at the 
mouth, for in not a few instances the animal shows only 
slight evidence of sickness. These cases are especially 
dangerous to the owners and children who may caress 
the pet animal. A dog that is sick should be closely 
watched, and a dog that has bitten a person should be shut 
up at once in a cage or pen. If the dog is not dead within 
four days, there is no danger of hydrophobia. If the dog 
dies, its head should be packed in ice and sent to the 
department of health in the nearest large city. If an 
examination shows that the dog had rabies, there is no 
alternative but the Pasteur treatment. Wounds received 
through clothing are far less likely to be infected than those 
on the bare skin where no protection is afforded. 
There are only two sure measures for preventing this DISEASES COMMON IN SOUTHERN STATES 
31 
dread disease. These are destroying all dogs caught run- 
ning loose, and the enforcement of a muzzle law. There is 
no excuse for allowing stray dogs to run loose throughout 
a town or a city. Every child should be taught to keep 
away from strange dogs. 
Hookworm.-Hookworm disease is caused by small 
round worms which enter the body usually through the 
skin. Children who run about with bare feet often have 
what is known as ground itch. This is caused by the hook- 
worm entering the skin. The worms work their way 
through the blood and live in the intestines. A person 
suffering from hookworm disease becomes tired very 
easily, and is usually pale and thin. 
The disease may be prevented by proper methods of 
sewage removal which keep the soil from being polluted. 
Children should not be allowed to go with bare feet or to 
play in dirt that is likely to be infected. A simple and 
certain cure for the disease is a drug called thymol, which 
should be given by a physician. 
Pellagra.-There are said to be between fifty and 
sixty thousand cases of pellagra in the United States, the 
majority of which have been detected since the disease 
was first noticed in 1906. As the ultimate effects are 
usually insanity, a great many cases are to be found within 
the walls of asylums. The rural districts, especially the 
poverty-stricken ones, yield a large share of the cases, but 
the population of the spinning towns of the Southern 
states are probably most severely infected. Usually these 
occur among those whose diet is of insufficient or non- 
nutritious character. Patients are relieved by protection 
from the sun's rays, and by a very liberal diet of milk and 
meat, that is, a diet which contains much protein. 32 
HEALTHY LIVING: BOOK TWO 
Trachoma.-Granulated eyelids, or trachoma, flourish in 
unsanitary surroundings. Dirty towels, rags, and fingers 
cause it to spread. When once established, the disease 
is very hard to cure. A child in the country school who has 
trachoma is a dangerous source of infection. He should be 
treated by a physician, and the utmost care should be 
taken to keep him from touching anything used by other 
children. 
Importance of Health Education.-When we have 
summed up the whole problem of disease, we must con- 
clude that it is wiser and far more saving to prevent people 
from getting sick than it is to cure them after they are 
already diseased. To do this, it is absolutely necessary 
that the people in general, and especially the children, 
should know how to keep well. The children of the 
present day are goinv to be men and women in a few 
years, so it follows that the future grown-up people will 
have an immense advantage in knowing how to keep well. 
This means a better city, a better state, and a more glorious 
United States of America.