THE 
regressive 
Series 
REGENTS 
Question and Answer Boots 
Anatomy, Physiology 
and Hygiene 
QUESTIONS 
AND 
ANSWERS 
Hinds, Hayden & Eldredge, Inc. 
New York 
Philadelphia The 
Progressive Series 
Questions in Anatomy, 
Physiology and 
Hygiene 
for 
DRILL, TEST AND REVIEW 
ISAAC PRICE, A.M. 
FT > 
Washing ton Irving High School. 
New York Evening High School for Men. 
Author: 
"Direct Method of Teaching English to Foreigners," "Compre- 
hensive Question and Answer Book," "Outlines 
in American History." 
HINDS, HAYDEN & ELDREDGE, Inc. 
NEW YORK PHILADELPHIA Copyright, 1916, By 
HINDS, HAYDEN & ELDREDGE, INC. 
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. 
All rights reserved. PREFACE. 
A practical Question and Answer Book should be com- 
prehensive in scope without having too many and too de- 
tailed questions. It should furnish abundant material for 
drill, test, and review of the subject by means of well 
arranged and well graded questions, and should aim to 
cultivate in the student those qualities brought out in a 
good recitation by a skilled teacher. 
With these objects in mind this series of books has been 
written. The separate books are intended, not only 
for beginners, but also for students pursuing advanced 
and review work. Care has been taken to make each book 
complete. The papers given at civil service, college en- 
trance, and Regents examinations have been carefully 
culled for suitable questions, and thfe material arranged 
topically and logically to emphasize principles as well as 
essential facts. The answers are supported by the latest 
authorities and in consonance with the accepted texts for 
the be; lementary and secondary schools. To make the 
work jre helpful, diagrams, illustrations, maps, topical 
outline-, and glossaries have been included. 
Acknowledgment is due to the many experienced teach- 
ers who have freely offered suggestions and criticisms de- 
signed to make this a most helpful "text-book." The aim of the book is to present in brief, concise form the 
leading facts and principles in anatomy, physiology, and hygiene 
through the medium of questions selected from a very large num- 
ber of papers and answers based on reliable and authoritative 
sources. Technical terms have been very largely avoided, and a 
glossary following the questions supplies the large number of 
terms used in the leading texts. The main facts and principles 
and working rules of individual and public hygiene are presented 
in such a way that the teacher and student may enlarge on them. 
To my son 
LEONARD 
whose questions 
come from the mind 
and the heart 
this series is affectionately 
DEDICATED Questions in 
Anatomy, Physiology and 
Hygiene 
THE BODY. 
1. Define (a) anatomy, (b) physiology, and (c) 
hygiene. 
2. Discuss the importance of studying (a) physiology, 
(b) hygiene. 
3. What is the special value of hygiene to (a) the 
young, (b) the state? 
4. What is a cell? Give the nature and construction 
of a cell. 
5. Discuss the kinds of cells in the body. Where are 
they found? 
6. What is a tissue? Classify tissues. 
7. Define (a) organ, (b) systems, (c) How many 
systems in the body? 
8. What is the best way to keep well? 
FOODS. 
9. What is the proportion of (a) water, (b) solid 
matter, in the body? 
10. Name and classify the solid substances in the 
body, and tell the use and importance of each. 
11. How can the mineral matter in the body be shown? 
Describe an experiment. 
12. Name the five chief foodstuffs, or proximate prin- 
ciples. 
5 6 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
13. (a) Define proteid. (b) Name three kinds of pro- 
teids, and tell where each is found. 
14. State some facts about fat, its properties and uses. 
15. (a) What is an oil? (b) Define emulsion, (c) 
Tell how to make an emulsion. 
16. Of what use are carbohydrates? 
17. Why should more carbohydrates and fats be eaten 
in winter than in summer ? 
18. Should a teacher eat the same kind of foods as the 
laborer? Give a reason for your answer. 
19. Discuss the chemical composition of the body, nam- 
ing the more important chemical elements entering into 
the composition of the various parts. 
20. Why do we breathe faster when at hard work ? 
21. Why must one eat nitrogenous food? 
22. (a) What is meant by food? (b) Show the need 
of the body for food. 
23. Discuss the need of the body for (a) water and 
(b) mineral salts. 
24. Discuss the quantity of food required by a person. 
25. Give what you consider the ideal daily diet of an' 
adult. 
26. Assuming that the average weight of food con- 
sumed by a person during a day is about six and three- 
quarter pounds show what proportion of this amount 
should come from each of the three kingdoms. 
27. Discuss the need for a mixed diet instead of a 
uniform diet. 
28. Give a summary of diets and dietaries. 
29. Why is milk to be regarded as the most perfect 
food? 
30. Show the value of eggs as a food. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
7 
31. Show why meats form so important an article of 
diet. 
32. Discuss cooking in the preparation of food as an 
essential for proper digestion. 
33. What is the importance of fish as an article of food ? 
34. Discuss vegetable foods and their importance in a 
diet. 
35. Why do grains, or cereals, form the most im- 
portant article of food? Show that their ingredients are 
essential to life. 
36. For what reasons are vegetables considered valuable 
articles of food? 
37. Of what importance are fruits in a dietary? 
38. Name the most important fluids and beverages con- 
sumed by the body. 
39. Why is water essential to life? 
40. Discuss coffee as a food. 
41. Of what value is tea as a food? 
42. In what respects do chocolate and cocoa have more 
of food value than tea and coffee? 
43. (a) What is alcohol ? (b) Enumerate the qualities 
of alcohol and show that alcohol is not a food. 
44. Classify alcoholic drinks and beverages. 
45. What is the value of tobacco as a food? 
46. What is meant by ptomaine poisoning? 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
47. What is meant by digestion ? 
48. Name the parts of the digestive system, with their 
subdivisions. 
49. Name the organs of mastication and swallowing. 
50. What are (a) the mouth, (b) the palate? 8 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
51. (a) What is the tongue? Of what use is it? (b) 
How does the tongue indicate the general health of the 
individual ? 
52. Name the parts of a tooth. 
53. (a) How many teeth has an adult? (b) What is 
the difference between the milk teeth and the permanent 
teeth? 
54. Mention some facts regarding the appearing of the 
teeth. 
55. Give some points on the care of the teeth. 
56. Name the contents of the thorax or thoracic cavity. 
57. Name the organs located in the abdominal cavity. 
58. (a) What is the viscera? (b) What is the pleura? 
(c) What is the peritoneum? 
59. What are (a) the pharynx, (b) the esophagus? 
60. (a) What is a tonsil ? (b) Why is it necessary to 
remove the tonsils from some children? 
61. What is a gland? 
62. Name the glands assisting the process of digestion. 
63. (a) Locate and describe the salivary glands, and 
tell what work they do. (b) Discuss the importance of 
thorough mastication, (c) Describe the taste buds. 
64. (a) Locate the stomach, (b) Describe its func- 
tions fully. (c) Describe the movements of the 
stomach. 
65. Name the muscles aiding the stomach in its work. 
66. (a) Name and describe the glands found in the 
stomach, (b) Tell how the gastric juice is formed. 
67. Locate and describe the intestines. 
68. What is the vermiform appendix? 
69. What are the intestinal glands? 
70. (a) What is a ferment? (b) Where are the 
ferments produced ? Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
9 
71. Locate and describe the liver. 
72. (a) Locate and describe the pancreas, (b) What 
is pancreatic juice, and its importance? 
73. What are (a) chyme, (b) chyle? 
74. Of what use is bile? Where is it found? 
75. Why and how do the intestines move? 
76. How is food absorbed from the intestines? 
77. (a) What are the lacteals? What is their use? 
(b) What is the thoracic duct? 
78. Describe the portal system. 
79. Discuss the absorption or passing of food through 
the intestinal walls. 
80. Trace a mouthful of food through the complete 
process of digestion. 
81. Where does the absorption of nutriment take place 
(a) most, (b) least? 
82. What are the evil effects of overeating? 
. 83. Give a few points relating to the eating of food. 
84. Name three foods requiring (a) the shortest time, 
(b) the longest time for digestion. 
85. What are the evil effects of the chewing of gum 
and of tobacco as regards digestion? 
86. What are the evil effects of alcohol on the liver? 
87. What are the evil effects of tight clothing on 
digestion ? 
88. (a) What are the villi? (b) What do the epithelial 
cells and the villi do? 
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 
89. (a) What is blood? (b) Describe its composi- 
tion. 10 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
90. Describe fully (a) red corpuscles; (b) white 
corpuscles; (c) hemoglobin. Of what use is each? 
91. (a) Where are red corpuscles formed ? (b) How 
fast are they formed? (c) How are white corpuscles 
formed? 
92. What is the nature and use of blood plasma ? 
93. What are the chief functions of the blood? 
94. (a) Define coagulation, (b) To what is it due? 
(c) What is its importance? 
95. Mention the gases carried along by the blood in 
its course around the body. 
96. What are (a) blood serum, (b) fibrin? 
97. What is lymph? 
98. How much blood does the body contain? 
99. Define anemia, and tell its relation to health. 
100. (a) What is the difference between pure and im- 
pure blood? (b) How does arterial blood differ from 
venous blood? 
101. State some facts in reference to bacteria in the 
blood. 
102. (a) What is the spleen? (b) State the probable 
use of the spleen. 
103. (a) What is the thyroid gland? (b) What is 
the function of this gland? 
104. What is meant by the circulatory system? 
105. (a) What is the heart? (b) Describe its loca- 
tion. (c) What is its function? 
106. In what way do the cavities of the heart differ? 
Describe them. 
107. What are (a) the pulmonary veins, (b) the aorta, 
(c) the pulmonary artery? Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
11 
108. Describe fully the valves of the heart, naming 
them, and telling their function. 
109. Explain fully how the heart works. 
110. (a) What is meant by pulse? (b) How can the 
age of a person be partly told by the pulse? (c) What 
is the relation between illness and the pulse? 
111. Discuss the relation between the heart and 
exercise. 
112. Name four arteries and tell to what parts they 
lead the blood. 
113. Name (a) the largest vein, and (b) the largest 
artery in the body. 
114. Write a paragraph on the veins. 
115. Explain why the large arteries lie deeper than 
the veins. 
116. What is the connection between the heart and the 
lungs ? 
117. (a) What are capillaries? (b) What are their 
uses? 
118. How are the blood vessels named? 
119. (a) What are the lymphatics? (b) Describe the 
largest lymph vessel. 
120. What causes the flow of lymph? 
121. Describe the course of a drop of blood around the 
body. 
122. What is the rate at which blood flows? 
123. (a) What is a hemorrhage? (b) Tell how a 
hemorrhage may be stopped or checked. 
124. Discuss the relation between exercise and the 
circulation of blood. 
125. What is the effect of alcohol on the circulatory 
system? Discuss the question fully. 12 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
126. To whom do we owe the discovery of the circula- 
tion of blood? 
127. What are the evil effects of smoking on the heart? 
128. Briefly talk about heart disease. Give reasons 
why special care should be taken not to develop heart 
disease. 
THE BONES AND THE SKELETON. 
129. (a) What is bone? (b) Of what use are bones? 
130. Give the composition of bone, and mention an 
experiment to show this. 
131. Discuss the parts of a bone. 
132. From what are bones developed? 
133. (a) What is the skeleton? (b) What is the im- 
portance of the skeleton? 
134. Name the (three) parts of the skeleton and the 
number of bones in each. 
135. Give a table of the bones in the body. 
136. Give a classification of bones according to their 
shape or form. 
137. Explain why bones are hollow. 
138. Discuss the difference between the bones of an 
adult and those of a child of five years of age. 
139. Enumerate some properties of bone. 
140. Classify and discuss cartilage. 
141. Give a complete account of the development of 
bone. 
142. What are (a) a fracture, (b) compound fracture, 
(c) a dislocation, (d) a strain, (e) a sprain? 
143. Why should a heavy strain not be put upon the 
bones of the young? Show the relation of this to walk- 
ing, to carrying bundles, etc. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
13 
144. Discuss the diseases o£ bones. 
145. (a) What is the periosteum? (b) What is its 
purpose ? 
146. (a) What is the skull? (b) Name its parts. 
147. Account for the shape of the bones of the skull. 
148. What are the cranial sutures? 
149. Name the bones of the upper extremities, and their 
number. 
150. Name the parts of the lower extremities, and the 
number of bones in each. 
151. In what way does the arrangement of the bones 
of the leg differ from that of the bones in the arm? 
152. Name the bones of the trunk. 
153. (a) What is the axis or spinal column? (b) Tell 
its importance, (c) Explain the structural arrangement 
of the spinal column. 
154. (a) What are the dorsal bones? (b) How many 
in the spinal column? (c) What is their importance? 
155. Name some important facts about the ribs, giving 
their construction, their number, and their use. 
156. Describe fully the pelvic arch. 
157. Enumerate some causes of curvature of the spine. 
158. Explain the use of each of the following: (a) 
cartilage; (b) ligaments; (c) tendons, (d) What is the 
synovial membrane? 
159. (a) What is a joint? (b) What is the difference 
between the movable and the immovable joints? 
160. Name the four kinds of movable joints, telling 
where each may be found. 
161. What are the various movements allowed by the 
different kinds of joints? 
162. How should (a) a dislocation be treated? (b) a 
strain? (c) a fracture? (d) a sprain? 14 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
163. How do alcohol and narcotics affect bone growth 
and development? 
164. Suggest some rules for erect posture. 
165. Discuss the need of proper nourishment, rest, and 
exercise by the skeleton. 
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 
166. (a) What are muscles? (b) What is their im- 
portance? (c) What special property is possessed by 
muscles ? 
167. What is the difference between (a) voluntary and 
(b) involuntary muscles? 
168. Discuss the involuntary muscles. 
169. Discuss the characteristics of a voluntary muscle. 
170. Explain the meaning of (a) origin, (b) insertion, 
and (c) tendon, (d) What is the longest tendon? 
171. Discuss the arrangement of the muscles. How 
many muscles in the body? 
172. Name and describe the different kinds of muscles. 
173. Why does the expression of the face depend upon 
the muscles ? 
174. Explain why the muscles should be exercised. 
175. Name the principal muscles of the head. 
176. Name the principal muscles of the trunk. 
177. Enumerate those in the (a) upper and (b) lower 
extremities. 
178. Explain how the muscles should be exercised. 
179. Describe massaging, and its effects. 
180. Mention several causes of muscular contractility. 
181. What is the effect of tobacco on the muscles and 
muscular development? 
182. How does alcohol affect the muscles? Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
15 
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 
183. (a) Define respiration, (b) What is the object 
of respiration? 
184. Name the organs of respiration. 
185. Describe fully the nasal passages, and tell their 
functions. 
186. Describe the pharynx, telling of its special features. 
187. What are the chief features of the larynx? 
188. Describe the vocal cords. 
189. (a) How is voice produced? (b) On what do 
loudness and quality of voice depend? 
190. (a) Describe the trachea, (b) Explain how the 
air tubes end. 
191. Describe the lungs. 
192. Explain what is meant by the two kinds of 
respiration. 
193. What causes the air to rush in and out of the 
lungs. 
194. Explain how oxygen and carbonic acid gas ex- 
change places in the lungs. 
195. How is breathing regulated? 
196. Give a few facts concerning the capacity of the 
lungs. Tell how the lung capacity is measured. 
197. Name three diseases of the lung. 
198. How does clothing affect breathing? 
199. Define (a) sneezing (b) hiccoughing, (c) cough- 
ing, (d) whistling, (e) snoring. 
200. To what may shortness of breath be due? 
201. What is the connection between ventilation and 
good breathing? How much fresh air should be allowed 
to each person in a sleeping room? 16 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
202. Describe artificial breathing. Tell how it may 
be produced. 
203. Discuss the relation between exercise and the 
lungs. How may the lungs be exercised? 
204. Mention five facts concerning diseases of the 
respiratory system. 
205. Tell about the adenoids. 
206. How does alcohol affect the respiratory system ? 
207. In what way does tobacco harm the respiratory 
system ? 
208. Describe briefly some lung exercises. 
209. What is the composition of air? 
210. (a) What is the source of the air? (b) How 
can it be shown that plants give off oxygen? 
211. Discuss the impurities of the air. 
212. What is foul air? 
213. Write about night air. 
214. Write about mountain and seashore air. 
215. What is meant by ventilation ? 
216. Tell how a room should be ventilated. 
217. Discuss the subject of respired or exhaled air. 
218. By means of what experiment can it be shown 
that carbonic acid gas is exhaled from the body? 
219. Give the relative proportions of carbon dioxid 
in the air under different conditions. 
220. What are the evil effects of impure air? 
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM. 
221. What is meant by waste or excretions? 
222. What are the kidneys? 
223. Describe how the kidneys work. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
17 
224. Explain the effect of (a) water, (b) alcohol on 
the kidneys. 
225. Describe the structure of the skin. 
226. Wh^t are the uses of the skin? 
227. Discuss the skin as (a) a protection and (b) 
an organ of sensation. 
228. Discuss the skin as (a) an excretory organ, and 
(b) as regards the regulation of bodily temperature. 
229. Discuss the remaining functions of the skin. 
230. What senses reside in the skin? 
231. Write about injuries to the skin. 
232. Describe the sweat glands, and tell their special 
use. 
233. Describe the sebaceous, or oil glands. 
234. Describe the hair. 
235. What are (a) baldness, (b) dandruff? (c) Give 
some cure for dandruff and baldness. 
236. Tell what is meant by (a) the complexion, (b) 
its service as an indication of health, (c) how it may be 
improved. 
237. Tell about the nails and what they are. 
238. Discuss the merits of (a) the hot bath and (b) 
the cold bath. 
239. Discuss the use of cosmetics and dyes. 
240. Show the connection between clothing and health, 
particularly .as affecting the skin. 
241. Discuss the texture and color of clothing. 
242. Discuss the use of the various textiles for clothing. 
243. Show the relation of textile and color to absorp- 
tion of the sun's heat. 
244. What is the relation between health of the skin 
and alcohol? 18 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
245. What is the importance of the nervous system? 
246. Name the parts of the nervous system. 
247. What is the relation of the brain and the spinal 
cord to the rest of the body ? 
248. Describe the brain, naming its parts, its structure, 
and its importance. 
249. Describe the cerebrum. 
250. Describe the cerebellum. 
251. What is the medulla oblongata? 
252. What is the cortex of the brain? 
253. Discuss the connection between the brain and the 
formation of habits. 
254. (a) What part of a neuron composes the gray 
matter of the brain? (b) Explain axon, (c) What is 
a commissure? 
255. Give the size, construction, and location of the 
spinal cord. 
256. Define and discuss decussation. 
257. Name the kinds of nerves. How does a sensory 
nerve differ from a motor nerve? 
258. What are ganglia? 
259. Describe what is meant by reflex action. 
260. When are reflex actions noticed by the persons 
in whom they occur? 
261. Describe the sympathetic nerve system. 
262. What is the use of the sympathetic system? 
263. Discuss the reflex actions of the brain. 
264. Describe the functions of the cerebellum. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
19 
265. What is the importance of the cerebrum? 
266. Describe the functions of the spinal cord. 
267. Describe the direction of the fibers of the spinal 
cord. 
268. What are the uses of the nerve centers? 
269. Describe the spinal nerves. 
270. Name the cranial nerves. 
271. Explain fully how the brain acts. 
272. (a) What is paralysis? (b) How does apoplexy 
differ from paralysis? 
273. Tell how the uses of the brain have been deter- 
mined. 
274. Discuss the relation between brain weight and 
intellect. 
275. Does the brain need exercise? Why? What 
kind of exercise? 
276. Explain the relation between the nervous system 
and sleep. 
277. What is meant by unconscious cerebration? 
278. Discuss the harmful effects of tobacco on the 
nervous system. 
279. How do alcoholic liquors affect the nervous 
system ? 
280. How do narcotics affect the nervous system ? 
THE SENSES AND THEIR ORGANS. 
281. Name the two kinds of senses. 
282. Name the special senses and their organs. 
283. Discuss the senses of the skin. 
284. (a) Where is the sense of taste located? (b) In 
what form must foods be to arouse the sense of taste? 
285. Discuss the sense of smell, giving the location and 
formation of the organs. 20 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
286. (a) Give the location of the eye. (b) How is 
the eyeball moved? 
287. Describe the eye. Draw a diagram, and on it 
mark the various parts. 
288. How is the eye protected? 
289. Name the parts of the eyeball coats. 
290. (a) Describe the retina. What are the (b) blind 
spot, (c) yellow spot? 
291. Name the three humors. 
292. Explain the nature of light. 
293. With the aid of a diagram describe the process 
of seeing. 
294. What is meant by (a) myopia, (b) hypermetropia, 
(c) astigmatism? (d) What is an emmetropic eye? 
295. Explain fully how each of the above eye defects 
may be cured or remedied. 
296. Give a few suggestions as to taking care of the 
eyes. 
297. (a) What is color blindness? (b) Give a test 
for color blindness. 
298. What is (a) cataract of the eye, (b) trachoma? 
299. Explain how dirt or cinders may be removed from 
beneath the lid. 
300. What are (a) transparent and (b) opaque 
objects? 
301. What is the effect of narcotics and alcoholic 
liquors on the sense organs? 
302. What are Snelling's test letters? Explain their 
use in testing the eyesight. 
303. (a) What is the organ of the sense of hearing? 
(b) Name the three parts of ear. (c) Which is the 
most important? Why? Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
21 
304. Describe the (a) outer, (b) middle, aird (c) 
inner ear. 
305. Explain fully how sound is heard. 
306. Discuss the care of the ears. 
307. What is meant by deafness? Give its cause. 
308. How may the hearing be tested? 
DISEASES. 
309. What are (a) stimulants, (b) narcotics, (c) 
poisons ? 
310. Name the most frequently used narcotic drugs. 
311. Tell what you can about opium. 
312. Tell about morphine. 
313. Write about coca and cocain. 
314. Write about (a) chloroform and (b) ether. 
315. What are (a) microbes, (b) bacteria, (c) germs, 
(d) mold, (e) parasites, (f) saphrophytes ? 
316. Define (a) cocci, (b) bacilli, (c) spirilla. 
317. Explain how bacteria grow and multiply. 
318. Discuss the useful bacteria. 
319. What is the connection between bacteria and the 
preservation of foods? 
320. What is the relation between bacteria and disease ? 
321. What is meant by disease? 
322. What are (a) infectious, (b) contagious diseases? 
323. To whom are we indebted for the discovery that 
infectious diseases are the result of germs? 
324. Make a list of infectious diseases. 
325. Make a list of the common infectious diseases 
and their periods of incubation. 
326. What is the relation between milk and diseases? 
327. What is the connection. between alcoholism and 
diseases ? 22 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
328. What is meant by prophylaxis ? 
329. Discuss the general methods of preventing in- 
fectious diseases. 
330. Discuss the destroying of the causes of diseases as 
a means of prevention. 
331. Define (a) disinfectant, (b) antiseptic, (c) 
germicide, (d) bactericide, (e) fungicide, (f) deodorizer, 
(g) vaccination. 
332. Discuss disinfection and disinfectants. 
333. Discuss the isolation of the sick 
334. Tell some other steps taken to prevent the spread 
of disease. 
335. Tell some facts about the disposal of sewage as 
a problem of health departments. 
336. Tell something about the duties of the board of 
health. 
337. Discuss the spreading of diseases, and illustrate. 
338. What are (a) toxins, (b) antitoxins? 
339. What is tuberculosis? Discuss the care of 
tubercular and tuberculous persons. 
340. Discuss the relation between typhoid fever and 
the water supply. 
FIRST AID IN ACCIDENTS. 
341. Discuss and suggest the general and immediate 
treatment of accidents. 
342. What is meant by the term shock? 
343. Tell what can and should be done in cases of 
shock. 
344. To what is fainting due? 
345. What can be done to help recover consciousness 
in cases of faint. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
23 
346. What is vertigo ? 
347. Tell what should be done in cases of vertigo. 
348. What is the means of stopping the flow of blood 
in a hemorrhage? 
349. What is (a) a fracture? (b) a dislocation? 
350. What can be done in cases of fracture? 
351. What can be done in cases of dislocation? 
352. What is to be done in case of a sprain? 
353. State briefly what remedies are to be applied im- 
mediately in cases of burns and scalds. 
354. What is asphyxiation? 
355. Tell what should be done in cases of asphyxiation 
from or by illuminating gas. 
356. What should be done in cases of frost-bite? 
357. Tell what should be done in cases of sunstroke. 
358. What can be done to relieve cases of fits or con- 
vulsions ? 
359. Tell what should be done in cases of drowning. 
360. (a) What is a poison? 
(b) Give the steps in. all treatment of poisoning. 
TYPICAL EXAMINATION PAPERS. 
361. State the changes that take place in the compo- 
sition of the blood as it passes (a) through the muscles, 
(b) through the villi, (c) through the kidneys, (d) 
through the lungs. 
362. State the chief function (a) of arteries, (b) of 
capillaries. Show how each of these organs is adapted 
by structure to perform the function stated. How are 
red corpuscles fitted to perform their principal function? 
363. Show in what ways ill health may result from de- 
fective teeth. 24 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
364. State four precautions with regard to the care of 
the teeth and explain why it is necessary to observe each 
precaution in order to prevent the decay of the teeth. 
365. State the uses of each of five of the nutrients. 
366. Name five common foods and mention the nutri- 
ents that are abundant in each. 
367. Discuss the effects of alcohol on muscular activity. 
368. In what parts of the alimentary canal may proteid 
be digested? By what fluid is proteid digested in each of 
the parts mentioned ? 
369. Describe an experiment performed in the labora- 
tory to show the digestion of proteid. 
370. Name three of the most common causes of defec- 
tive vision. How may each of the defects referred to 
be remedied ? 
371. Describe an effective method of ventilating a sleep- 
ing room in cold weather and state the reason for each 
step of this method. 
372. What should the individual do to avoid contract- 
ing tuberculosis and to prevent its spread ? What should 
the community do to protect its members from tubercu- 
losis? 
373. (a) Describe the action of the ribs and of the dia- 
phragm in breathing and show why these movements 
make inhaling and exhaling possible, (b) State the use 
of oxygen in the body. 
374. Locate and describe the three principal divisions 
of the nervous system and state the chief function of each. 
375. Show by means of labeled drawings the internal 
and the external structure of the femur. Describe two 
adaptations to be found in this bone. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
25 
376. (a) Name and locate two glands found in the 
skin and state their respective functions, (b) Describe 
the layers of the skin and state the functions of each layer. 
377. (a) Describe the methods of determining the pres- 
ence of each of four of the nutrients, (b) How may it 
be proved that expired air contains carbon dioxide? 
378. Describe an experiment with an animal mem- 
brane to illustrate osmosis. Mention two examples of 
osmosis in the human body essential to the continuation 
of life. 
379. Discuss the necessity of a mixed diet. Make a list 
of food articles for a dinner that would insure a mixed 
diet, giving the nutritive value of each food mentioned. 
380. Make a drawing of the alimentary canal, indicat- 
ing each part. Give hygienic directions that should be 
observed in eating and give a reason for the observance of 
each. 
381. Give the number and the position of each of the 
different kinds of teeth in a full adult set. State the main 
cause of the decay of teeth and the best method of pre- 
serving teeth that are partially decayed. 
382. Name and locate the valves of the heart. Describe 
the action of one set of the valves of the heart. 
383. State the necessity of respiration. Describe an 
experiment you have observed to illustrate the normal 
action of the chest and the diaphragm in breathing. 
384. State the effect of the habitual use of alcoholic 
drink (a) on digestion, (b) on the nerves. 
385. State the importance of getting rid of the wastes 
of the body. Mention three waste products of oxidation 
in the body and state how each is eliminated from the 
body. 26 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
386. Compare the structure and the method of control 
of the voluntary muscles with the structure and the 
method of control of the involuntary muscles. Mention 
two important voluntary muscles and two important in- 
voluntary muscles. 
387. Describe the proper treatment (a) of a burn, (b) 
of a fracture. 
388. State the dangers of dust. Describe proper meth- 
ods of sweeping and dusting. 
389. Give five practical suggestions for the care of the 
eyes. 
390. Describe adaptation of structure to function in 
each of the following: spinal column, shoulder joint. De- 
scribe the gross structure and state the chief function (a) 
of the brain, (b) of the spinal cord. 
391. Describe experiments you have observed to show 
the presence (a) of proteid, (b) of fat. 
392. Mention (a) two characteristics of hydrogen, (b) 
two characteristics of nitrogen. Name a compound pro- 
duced as a waste product in the body by the oxidation of 
fat and state by what organs most of this compound 
(waste product) is excreted. 
393. Mention three advantages to be derived from 
cooking meat. Give two methods of cooking meat and 
discuss the merits of each method given. 
394. Name a digestive fluid that acts on proteid; one 
that acts on starch; one that acts on fat. Mention the 
gland by which each fluid named is secreted. State why 
food must be digested. 
395. Trace the course of the blood from the time it 
leaves the left ventricle till it returns to the same cavity. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
27 
396. Describe an experiment to illustrate oxidation, 
stating (a) apparatus and material used, (b) method of 
performing the experiment, (c) results observed, (d) 
conclusion. 
397. State the effects of the excessive use of alcoholic 
drinks on the lining of the digestive tract; on the process 
of digestion. 
398. Describe proper emergency treatment in a case of 
apparent drowning; in a case of hemorrhage resulting 
from a cut of a large blood vessel. 
399. Describe bacteria as to size and method of repro- 
duction. Name two diseases due to the presence of bac- 
teria and state the best methods of preventing an attack 
of each disease named. Mention five chief duties of a 
board of health. 
400. Give two important reasons for cleanliness of per- 
son. State the advantage and the disadvantage of (a) 
a hot bath, (b) a cold bath. Mention the best time of 
day for each. 
401. Describe the gross structure of voluntary muscles. 
Mention four important voluntary muscles and state the 
function of each muscle mentioned. 
402. Describe two structural adaptations of the spinal 
column and state the value of each adaptation described. 
State fully the difference in composition between the 
skeleton of a child and the skeleton of an adult. 
403. Describe fully experiments to show the composi- 
tion of bone. 
404. Mention three characteristics of oxygen; three of 
nitrogen. Name a compound formed as a waste product 
in the body of the oxidation of nitrogenous substance and 
state by means of what organs this compound is largely 
excreted. 28 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
405. What nutrient (food principle), other than water, 
is present in considerable quantity in each of the follow- 
ing: peas, cheese, bacon, oatmeal, chicken, eggs? Men- 
tion two chief uses of food to the body. 
406. Describe fully the processes of digestion- and ab- 
sorption of starchy food. 
407. State the effect (a) on the heart of the habitual 
excessive use of tobacco, (b) on the arteries of the habit- 
ual excessive use of alcoholic drinks. 
408. Mention the blood vessels connected with the right 
chambers of the heart and state the function of each blood 
vessel mentioned. Describe the structure and the action 
of the tricuspid valve. 
409. Describe the structure of the lungs and state their 
function. Describe the adaptations of the trachea and 
the air sacs for their respective functions. 
410. Describe an experiment to show the growth of 
bacteria. Mention two ways in which the action of bac- 
teria is beneficial. 
411. Give directions for proper emergency treatment of 
(a) a fracture, (b) a deep cut, (c) a burn. 
412. Describe (a) the structural adaptations of a long 
bone, e. g. the femur, (b) the gross structure and the 
action of the shoulder joint. 
413. Locate and describe the three principal parts of 
the nervous system and state the function of each part 
described. 
414. Explain the necessity of good food, fresh air, 
exercise and rest for normal action of the muscles. 
415. Describe each layer of the skin. Mention three 
functions of the skin and state how the skin is well 
adapted to perform each function mentioned. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
29 
416. Describe an experiment to show the digestion of 
proteid food. State why proteid food must be digested 
and name the chief digestive fluid that acts on such food. 
417. Describe the process of oxidation in the body and 
state its purpose. By means of what organs are the ma- 
terials for this process introduced into the body. 
418. Mention four kinds of common foodstuffs that are 
sometimes adulterated and state in each case the nature 
of the adulteration. What national law has been enacted 
to prevent the adulteration of food? 
419. Describe an experiment to show the digestive ac- 
tion of gastric juice. 
420. Mention two functions of the lymph and state how 
these functions are performed. State the effect of vig- 
orous exercise on the blood. 
421. Describe fully the action of the ribs and the dia- 
phragm in breathing. 
422. State (a) the effect on the heart of the excessive 
use of alcoholic drink, (b) the effect on the digestion of 
the habitual use of narcotics. 
423. Mention the organs that communicate with the 
left chambers of the heart and state the function of each 
organ. Describe the action of the mitral valve. 
424. State what part of the respiratory system is most 
susceptible to each of the following: tuberculosis, catarrh, 
pneumonia, diphtheria. State the nature, the location and 
the effects of adenoids. 
425. Describe the minute structure of voluntary muscle 
tissue. Mention two organs of the body in which involun- 
tary muscle-tissue is found and state the function of each 
of these organs. 30 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
426. Describe the proper method of dressing a wound 
made by a rusty nail and give reasons for using the 
method described. 
427. Explain the adaptations of structure to function in 
each of the following: skull, elbow joint, long bone of 
the leg, molar teeth, lungs. 
428. State the position of the kidneys in the body and 
describe their structure. Mention the change in the blood 
that occurs in the kidneys and state the importance of this 
change. 
429. State the purpose of each of the following: vac- 
cination, quarantine, antitoxin, antiseptics, ventilation. 
430. State the law of osmosis. Mention two vital or- 
gans in which osmosis occurs and discuss its importance 
in each organ mentioned. 
431. State how to show experimentally the necessity of 
the digestion of starch for use in the body. Describe a 
chemical test for starch. 
432. Describe the structure and state the function of 
(a) arteries, (b) veins. 
433. Describe the structure of a white blood corpuscle. 
Mention two important functions of white blood cor- 
puscles. 
434. State the effect on the organs of circulation of the 
habitual use of the following: (a) drinks containing a 
small amount of alcohol, (b) drinks containing a large 
amount of alcohol. 
435. Describe the gross structure of the liver. Discuss 
the importance of each of two functions of the liver. 
436. Describe (a) the process of digestion of proteid 
food, (b) the process of absorption of proteid food. 
437. From what nutrient and by what process is urea 
formed in the body. By what organs is urea excreted? Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
31 
438. Describe the gross structure of a voluntary muscle. 
Make a label drawing, showing the minute structure of 
voluntary muscle. 
439. Describe the principal adaptations of structure to 
function in (a) the pelvic girdle, (b) the pectoral girdle. 
440. Name five principal parts of the eye and state the 
function of each part named. 
441. Discuss the importance to the household of (a) a 
pure water supply, (b) proper methods of sweeping and 
dusting. 
442. Answer both a and b; 
a Name five contagious diseases and mention a meth- 
od by which each may be transmitted. 
b Describe an efficient method of disinfecting a room 
in which a contagious disease has existed. 
443. What nutrient, other than water, is present in con- 
siderable quantity in each of the following: beans, pota- 
toes, lean meat, butter, apples? Of what general use to 
the body is each of two of the nutrients mentioned? 
444. Discuss the relative merits of the following meth- 
ods of preparing meat for the table: roasting, boiling, 
stewing, frying. 
445. Describe the process of the digestion of butter. 
446. State the location, shape, size and function of the 
adult hearts. Explain how the heart is well adapted by 
structure to perform its work. 
447. Describe a method of resuscitating a person who is 
unconscious from apparent drowning and state the pur- 
pose of each step in the method described. 
448. State the effects of alcoholic drinks on (a) the mu- 
cous membranes of the body, (b) the capillaries of the 
skin. 32 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
449. Give the position and the general structure of each 
part of the alimentary canal and state the function of each 
part. 
450. Describe each layer of the skin. Explain the 
importance of bathing. 
451. Explain how each of the following is adapted by 
structure to perform its function: long bone of the leg, 
molar tooth, nail, ribs. 
452. Make a labeled diagram to show the course of the 
circulation of the blood, omitting the portal circulation. 
453. Give five practical suggestions for the care of the 
eyes. 
454. State (a) three ways in which tuberculosis is 
spread, (b) two means by which a community may pro- 
tect its members from tuberculosis. 
455. Mention two characteristics of oxygen and two of 
carbon. Name the substances formed in the body as 
waste products by the oxidation of carbohydrates and 
mention the organs by which these waste products are 
largely excreted. 
456. State the necessity of a mixed diet. Name a com- 
bination of foods that would insure a mixed diet and give 
the most important nutriment in each food named. 
457. Trace the course of the blood in the pulmonary 
circulation. State the changes that occur in the blood dur- 
ing this circulation. 
458. Mention the danger of using patent medicines 
without the advice of a physician. State how the na- 
tional government endeavors to lessen the harm done by 
the use of patent medicines. Give the effect of alcoholic 
drinks on digestion. Describe bacteria as to size and 
form. Mention two diseases due to bacteria or other Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
33 
microorganisms and give an effective method of prevents 
ing an attack of each disease mentioned. 
459. Explain how the lungs are adapted by structure 
to perform their function. State the advantages of breath- 
ing through the nose. 
460. Mention the principal parts of the nervous system. 
Describe the external appearance of the spinal cord and 
state its chief function. 
461. Define five of the following: capillary, quarantine, 
lymph, retina, pericardium, ventricle, nucleus. 
462. Mention three structural adaptations of the spinal 
column and state the special use of each adaptation men- 
tioned. 
463. State the chief points of difference in structure 
and composition between the skeleton of a child and that 
of an adult. 
464. Why is a poor sewerage system dangerous to a 
community? Mention three chief duties of a board of 
health. 
465. Describe a chemical experiment to prove the pres- 
ence of grape sugar in honey or other food. 
466. Describe experiments to show the composition of 
bone. 
467. From what nutrients and by what process is car- 
bon dioxide formed in the body ? By what organs of the 
body is carbon dioxide excreted? 
468. State the chief function and describe the struc- 
tural adaptations of (a) arteries, (b) capillaries. 
469. Describe fully the process of digestion and of ab- 
sorption of the white part of an egg. 
470. Define narcotic, stimulant. Name two common 
: arcotics and give an argument against the use of each. 34 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
471. Describe the process of the clotting of blood and 
state the use of clotting in a wound. What emergency 
treatment should be given in case an artery is cut? in 
case a vein is cut? 
472. Mention two kinds of bacteria that are beneficial 
to man and state in what way each kind mentioned is 
beneficial. 
473. Mention three reasons why air should be breathed 
through the nose rather than through the mouth. State 
the effect of tight lacing on respiration. 
474. Give the number and the position of each kind of 
teeth in an adult. Describe the gross structure of a tooth. 
475. Mention changes in the blood that occur when it 
passes through (a) the lungs, (b) the kidneys. State the 
composition and the function of the lymph. 
476. Mention two principal uses of the skeleton. State 
how each of the following is adapted by structure for its 
work: elbow joint, hip joint, neck joint. 
477. Give the proper emergency treatment of (a) a 
fracture, (b) asphyxiation by coal gas. 
478. State the chief use of each of the five kinds of 
nutrients (food compounds) to the body. Name five 
common foods and mention a nutrient abundant in each 
food. 
479. Describe fully the process of digestion of lean 
meat. 
480. Describe the structural adaptations of the follow- 
ing for respiration: (a) the trachea, (b) the air sacs of 
the lungs. 
481. State the chief differences in structure between 
the arteries and the veins. Mention the principal func- 
tions of each of the following: white corpuscles, red cor- 
puscles, plasma. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
35 
482. Describe the external structure of (a) the cere- 
brum, (b) the cerebellum. State the chief function of 
each. 
483. Mention two organs of excretion and describe the 
structural adaptations of each. 
484. State the effect of the excessive use of alcoholic 
drinks on (a) the organs of circulation, (b) the alimen- 
tary canal. 
485. Define five of the following: femur, oxidation, 
pleura, antiseptic, villi, disinfectant, diaphragm. 
486. State (a) why food is usually heated before it is 
canned, (b) why cans are sealed. Mention two ways of 
preserving food, other than by canning, and state why 
each way is effective. 
487. Give directions for emergency treatment when (a) 
large blood vessel is cut, (b) a poisonous substance is 
swallowed. 
488. Discuss the importance to a city of (a) an abun- 
dant supply of pure water, (b) an efficient drainage sys- 
tem. 
489. Describe (a) an experiment to show the presence 
of starch in food, (b) an experiment to show the pres- 
ence of fat. 
490. Make a labeled diagram to show the course of the 
blood in its circulation through the heart, lungs and capil- 
laries. (Indicate by arrows the direction of the flow of 
blood.) 
491. Describe the digestion of fatty food and mention 
the channels by which this food reaches the blood after 
digestion. 
492. What nutrient (food principle), other than water 
is present in comparatively large per cent, in each of the 
following: eggs, lean meat, butter, white bread, apples? 36 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
493. State what part of the respiratory system is most 
often attacked by each of the following: tuberculosis, 
catarrh, pneumonia, diphtheria. State the nature, location 
and effect of adenoids. 
494. Mention two benefits to be gained by cooking 
meat to be used as food. Give two methods of cooking 
meat and state the merits of each method given. 
495. Mention four narcotics. Give the injurious effects 
that may result from the use of narcotics. State the 
benefits of the Pure Food and Drug Law. 
496. State the importance of getting rid of the waste 
of the body. Mention three waste products of the body 
and tell how each is excreted from the body. 
497. Describe experiments to show three characteristics 
of carbon. State the chief use of carbon in the body and 
mention the process by which it becomes useful to the 
body. 
498. Describe an experiment to illustrate the digestion 
of proteid food. State the necessity of the digestion of 
proteid and mention the chief use of such food to the 
body. 
499. Give (a) two structural adaptations of the femur, 
(b) the gross structure and the action of the hip joint. 
500. Define five of the following: osmosis, antitoxin, 
lacteal, assimilation, cornea, epidermis, reflex action. 
501. Describe an experiment you have observed to show 
the growth of a colony of bacteria. Give the characteris- 
tics of bacteria. 
502. Give practical suggestions for the care of the eyes. 
503. Mention three duties of a board of health and 
state the importance of each duty. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
37 
Abdomen. The largest cavity of the body, the belly, con- 
taining the liver, the stomach, the intestines, etc. 
Absorbents. The vessels which take part in the process of 
absorption. 
Absorption. The process of taking up the fluids by and into 
the blood by means of an animal membrane. 
Albumen, Albumin, or Albuminoid. An animal substance 
resembling the pure white of an egg. 
Albuminose. A soluble animal substance resulting in the 
stomach from the digestion of albuminoid substances. 
Alimentary Canal. A long tube in which the food is di- 
gested, or prepared for absorption into the system. 
Anaesthetics. Those medicinal agents which prevent the 
feeling of pain. Chloroform, ether, etc. 
Aorta. The largest artery and main trunk of all the arter- 
ies in the bcdy. It arises from the left ventricle of the heart. 
Aqueous Humor. A colorless, watery fluid occupying the 
space between the cornea and the crystalline lens of the eye. 
Arachnoid Membrane. A very thin, middle covering of the 
brain lying between the dura mater and the pia mater. 
Artery. The vessel by which the blood is conveyed away 
from the heart. 
Articulation. The joining, or movable union, of bones, etc. 
Arytenoid Cartilages. Two small cartilages of the larynx, 
resembling the mouth of a pitcher. 
Asphyxia. A state of suspended animation, or apparent 
death. 
Assimilation. The conversion of food into living tissue. 
Atlas. The first vertebra sustaining the head. 
Auditory Nerve. One of the cranial nerves; the special 
nerve of hearing. 
Auricle. A cavity of the heart. 
Axis. The second vertebra, on which the atlas rests and 
turns with the head. 
GLOSSARY. 
Belladonna. A vegetable narcotic poison. Tt has the spe- 
cial property of enlarging the pupil, and thus increasing the 
brilliancy of the eye. 
Bicuspids. The fourth and fifth teeth on each side of the 
jaws, so named because they have two prominent points. 
Bile. The gall secretion of the liver; a viscid, yellowish 
fluid, very bitter to the taste. 38 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
Bronchi. The first two branches of the trachea,, each of 
them entering a lung. 
Bronchial Tubes. The smaller branches of the trachea with- 
in the substance of the lungs, ending in the air-cells. 
Bronchitis. An inflammation of the lining membrane of the 
bronchial tubes; a "cold" affecting the lungs. 
Canal. Any tube or passage in the body or its organs. 
Cancer. A malignant disease, usually in the form of an 
ulcer or a tumor. 
Canine. The third tooth on each side of the jaw. The eye- 
tooth in the upper jaw. 
Capillary. An extremely fine blood-vessel which connects 
an artery with a vein. 
Carbon. One of the four great chemical elements, found 
everywhere in nature. 
Carbon Dioxid, Carbonic Acid Gas, CO2. The gas present 
in the air expelled from the lungs; a waste product of the 
animal kingdom, but a food of the vegetable kingdom. 
Cardiac. Pertaining to the heart. 
Carotid Artery. The large artery of the neck, supplying the 
head and brain. 
Cartilage. A white, elastic substance forming a part of the 
joints, nostrils, etc. 
Casein. The albuminoid substance of milk. 
Cerebellum. The little brain, situated beneath the posterior 
third of the cerebrum. 
Cerebrum. The brain proper, occupying the entire upper 
portion of the skull. 
Choroid. The middle coat of the eyeball, containing the 
pigment cells. 
Chyle. The milky fluid formed by the digestion of the fatty 
food in the intestines. 
Chymie. The pulpy mass formed by digestion within the 
stomach. 
Cilia. Minute, hair-like processes found upon the cells of 
the air-passages and other parts that are generally moist. 
Circulation. The course of the blood through the blood- 
vessels of the body, from the heart to the arteries, through the 
capillaries to the veins, and from the veins back to the heart. 
Cirrhosis. A disease of the liver which causes this organ to 
become hard and yellowish. 
Chloral. A sleep-producing drug. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
39 
Coagulation. The thickening of the blood into a solid mass. 
Cochlea. The spiral cavity in the internal ear. 
Colon. Part of the intestines. See illustration. 
Concha. The shell-shaped portion of the external ear. 
Conjunctiva. A thin layer of mucous membrane which lines 
the eyelids and covers the front of the eyeballs; inflammation 
of this membrane is called conjunctivitis, trachoma, or "pink 
eyes.'' 
Contractility. The property of muscle which enables it to 
draw its extremities closer together, or the power of shorten- 
ing and lengthening. 
Convolutions. The foldings of the external surface of the 
brain. 
Convulsion. A violent agitation of the limbs or the body. 
Coma. A state of unnatural sleep or stupor. 
Congestion. A great fulness of the vessels, canals, or ducts. 
Cornea. The transparent substance which covers the ante- 
rior part of the eyeball. 
Corpuscles (Red Blood). The small bi-concave bodies or 
discs in the blood which give to it the red color; the white 
corpuscles are globular and larger, and are found with the red 
corpuscles. 
Cranial. Pertaining to the skull. The cranial nerves are 
those arising from the brain. 
Cranium. The cavity which holds the brain. 
Cricoid. The cartilage of the larynx, resembling a seal-ring. 
Crystalline Lens. One of the transparent, double-convex 
humors of the eye. 
Cuticle. The outer skin, the epidermis, the scarf-skin. 
Cutis. The true skin, or dermis, lying beneath the cuticle. 
Daltonism. Color blindness. 
Decussation. The crossing of fibres from side to side. See 
answer 256. 
Diaphragm. A large, thin muscle separating the cavity of 
the chest from the abdomen; a muscle of respiration. 
Diastole. The expansion of the heart, which allows blood 
to rush into it. Opposite of Systole. 
Diffusion of Gases. The power of gases to become inti- 
mately mingled, without reference to the force of gravity. 
Duct. A narrow tube. 
Delirium Tremens. The disease resulting from the excess- 
ive use of alcoholic beverages. 40 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
Deltoid. The large, thick muscles covering the shoulder- 
joint. 
Dementia. Great feebleness of the mind. 
Dentine. The bone which forms the bulk of the tooth. 
Dipsomania. A disease which manifests itself by a craving 
for alcoholic drinks. 
Distillation. The process of separating pure alcohol from 
other substances. 
Duodenum. The first division of the small intestines. 
Dura Mater. The outermost tough membrane which covers 
the brain. 
Dyspepsia. Difficult or painful digestion, due to the dis- 
ordered condition of the stomach. 
Enamel. The smooth, dense material which covers the 
crowns of the tooth. 
Endocardium. The lining membrane of the heart. 
Energy, Specific. "When a nerve of special sense is excited, 
whatever may be the cause, the sensation experienced is that 
peculiar to the nerve; this is said to be the law of specific 
energy of the nerves." 
Epiglottis. The piece of cartilage which covers the top of 
the larynx. 
Esophagus. The tube leading from the throat to the 
stomach. The gullet. 
Eustachian Tube. A tube running from the drum of the 
ear to the throat. 
Excretion. The separation from the blood of the materials 
that cannot be used by the body. 
Exhalation. The vapor sent forth from the body. 
Expiration. The act of forcing or driving out the air from 
the lungs. 
Extension. The act of extending or restoring a limb to 
its natural position after it has been flexed. Opposed to 
Flexion. 
Fenestra Ovalis. The opening between the middle and the 
internal ears. 
Fermentation. The peculiar change which takes place when 
moist animal or vegetable matter is exposed to the air at 
ordinary temperatures. 
Fibrine. The albuminoid substance, made of delicate 
threads or filaments, found in the blood, which aids in coagu- 
lation. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
41 
Flexion. The act of bending a limb. Opposed to Exten- 
sion. 
Follicle. A little pouch or depression in a membrane, pos- 
sessing a secretory function. 
Filament. A small thread-like substance. 
Ganglion. A swelling in the course of a nerve making it 
a smaller nerve center. 
Gastric Juice. The principal digestive juice, secreted by the 
stomach. e 
Gland. An organ consisting of follicles and ducts, with 
numerous blood-vessels, whose function it is to separate some 
particular fluid from the blood for use in one or more of the 
necessary life processes. 
Glottis. The opening at the top of the larynx. 
Glossopharyngeal Nerve. The nerve of taste supplying the 
posterior third of the tongue and the throat. 
Gluten. The albuminoid substance of wheat. 
Gustation. The sense of taste. 
Gustatory Nerve. The nerve of taste supplying the front 
part of the tongue, forming a branch of the "fifth" pair. 
Hemorrhage. Bleeding, or loss of blood, from a cut or 
rupture. 
Hemiplegia. Paralysis, or loss of power, affecting one side 
of the body. 
Hemispheres. The halves of the cerebrum, or brain proper. 
Hepatic. Pertaining to the liver. 
Humor. Transparent substances or media of the eyeball. 
Hysteria. A nervous disease frequently occurring among 
women. 
Hydrophobia. A usually fatal disease caused by the bite of 
a rabid or mad dog, or other animal. The person so affected 
generally goes into convulsions at the sight of a glittering 
object or the sound of running water, and by almost any 
strong external impression. 
Incisors. The front teeth of both jaws, which have sharp 
cutting edges. 
Incus. The name of one of the three bones of the middle 
ear. 
Insalivation. The intermingling of the saliva with the food 
during mastication. 
Inspiration. The act of drawing the air into the lungs.. 42 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
Integument. The skin', or outer covering of the body. 
Intestines. The part of the alimentary canal which is con- 
tinuous with the lower end of the stomach; also called the 
bowels. 
Iris. The thin, muscular ring which lies between the cornea 
and the crystalline lens, giving to the eye its distinctive color. 
Jugular. The large veins which run along the front of the 
neck. 
Labyrinth. The cavity of the inner ear, comprising the 
vestibule, the semi-circular canals, and the cochlea. 
Lachrymal. Pertaining to the tears. 
Lacteals. The absorbent vessels of the small intestines. 
During digestion they are filled with the milky chyle. 
Larynx. The cartilaginous tube situated at the top of the 
windpipe, or trachea, and forming the organ of voice. 
Lens. A piece of transparent media or substance so shaped 
as to converge or disperse the rays of light. 
Ligament. A strong, elastic material binding bones or other 
solid parts together, thereby giving strength to the joints. 
Lymph. The colorless, watery fluid convened by the lymph- 
atics, a system of absorbent vessels. 
Malleus. One of the three small bones of the middle ear. 
Marrow. The soft, fatty substance contained in the cen- 
tral cavities of the bones. The spinal marrow is composed 
of the nerve tissue. 
Mastication. The act of cutting and grinding the food by 
means of the teeth, commonly called chewing, for the purpose 
of allowing the saliva to act on the food in the first step of 
digestion. 
Medulla Oblongata. The nerve cord, continuous with the 
spinal cord and the brains. 
Membrane Tympani. The delicate partition separating the 
outer from the middle ear. The drum of the ear. 
Membrane. A thin layer of tissue serving to cover some 
part of the body. 
Molar. The three back, grinding teeth on each side of the 
jaw. 
Motor. The name of those nerves which conduct to the 
muscles the stimuli which cause them to contract. 
Mucous Membrane. The thin tissue covering the cavities 
or passages which communicate with the external air. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
43 
Mucus. The fluid which is secreted by the mucous mem- 
branes and which serves to keep them continually moist. 
Melancholia. A disease characterized by sadness or depres- 
sion. 
Myopia. Near-sightedness. 
Nasal. Pertaining to the nose. The nasal cavities contain 
the special nerves of smell. 
Nerve. A glistening white cord of cylindrical shape, con- 
necting the brain or spinal cord with some other organ of 
the body. 
Nerve Cell. A minute, round, gray cell found in the brain 
and other nervous centers. 
Nerve Fibre. An exceedingly slender white thread of ner- 
vous tissue found in the various organs of the nervous systems, 
especially in the nerves. 
Narcotic. A substance which diminishes the activity of the 
nervous system. 
Neuralgia. A pain in the nerve or nerves, usually of the 
face. 
Nicotine. The active principle of tobacco. 
Nutrition. The processes by which the wastes of the body 
are replaced by substances essential for growth and repair. • 
Oesophagus. The tube leading from the throat to the 
stomach. The gullet. 
Oleaginous. Oily; fatty; pertaining to the fats. 
Olfactory. Pertaining to the sense of smell. 
Optic. Pertaining to the sense of sight. 
Orbit. The bony cavity in vHiich the eyeball is placed. 
Osmosis. The process by which liquids are impelled or 
forced through moist membranes. 
Osseous. Consisting of, or' pertaining to, bones. 
Palate. The roof of the mouth, consisting of the hard and 
the soft palates. 
Pancreas. A long, flat gland, situated near the stomach. 
The sweetbread in animals. 
Papillae. The tiny prominences in which terminate the 
fibers of the nerves of taste and touch. 
Paralysis. A nervous disease marked by the loss of the 
power to respond to stimuli. 
Parotid Gland. A salivary gland situated near the ear. 44 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
Paraplegia. A form of paralysis affecting the lower half of 
the body. 
Patella. The small bone forming the knee-cap, or knee-pan. 
Pectoral. Belonging to, or pertaining to, the chest or 
breast. 
Pelvis. The bony cavity forming the lower part of the 
trunk. 
Pepsin. The active organic principle of the gastric juice. 
Pericardium. The porous membrane enclosing the heart, 
and secreting the lubricating fluid that protects the heart. 
Peristalsis, Peristaltic Movement. The wave-like, project- 
ing movement of the intestines and the stomach. 
Peritoneum. The covering membrane of the stomach, intes- 
tines, and other abdominal organs. 
Perspiration. The sweat. 
Pharynx. The cavity between the back of the mouth and 
the esophagus. 
Pia Mater. The innermost and most tender of the three 
coverings of the brain. 
Phthisis, Consumption, Tuberculosis. A destructive disease 
of the lungs, due to infection by the tubercle bacillus. 
« Plasma. The colorless liquid part of the blood. 
Pleurae. The membranes covering the lungs and the lining 
of the chest. 
Pleurisy. An inflammation affecting the pleura. 
Pneumogastric. The name of the nerve distributed to the 
lungs and to the stomach. It is the principal nerve of res- 
piration. 
Pneumonia. An inflammaticyi of the air-cells of the lungs. 
Pons Varolii. A mass of nerve fibres at the base of the 
brains, joining together the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and 
the medulla. 
Presbyopia. The far-sightedness of adults and aged per- 
sons, due to the hardening of the crystalline lens. 
Process. A method of doing or functioning. A projection 
from a surface. 
Ptyalin. The peculiar organic ingredient in the saliva. 
Pulmonary. Pertaining to the lungs. 
Pulp. A soft substance in the teeth. 
Pulse. The striking of an artery against the finger as the 
blood courses through it, occasioned by the contraction of the 
heart, and felt principally at the wrist. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
45 
PupiL The central, round opening or hole in the iris, 
through which the light must pass to reach the retina. 
Pylorus; Pyloric Orifice. The lower opening of the stom- 
ach, at the beginning of the small intestine, the cardiac orifice 
being at the other end, near the heart. 
Reflex Action. An involuntary action of the nervous sys- 
tem by which an external sensation is converted into a motor 
impulse without the interposition or knowledge of the brain. 
Respiration. The function of breathing, consisting of the 
inspiration, or breathing in, and the expiration, or breathing 
out. 
Retina. The innermost of the three coats of the eyeball, 
being an expansion of the optic nerve. 
Saliva. The fluid of the mouth, secreted by the three sali- 
vary glands, and necessary for the first step of digestion. 
Sclerotic. The tough, fibrous outer coat of the eyeball. 
Sebaceous. The oily secretion which keeps the skin and 
the hair oily, flexible and soft. 
Secretion. The process of separating from the blood some 
fluid essential to one or more of the life processes. The 
substance so taken out is also called a secretion. 
Semicircular Canals. In the internal ear. 
Sensation. The perception of an external impression by the 
nervous system. 
Sensibility, General. The power possessed by almost all 
parts of the human body of recognizing the presence of a 
foreign object in contact with them. 
Serum. The watery constituent of the blood, which sepa- 
rates from a clot during coagulation. 
Skeleton. The bony framework of an animal, showing the 
various parts in their proper relative position. 
Stapes. One of the small bones of the tympanum, or 
middle ear. 
Stimulant. A substance that has the power to excite or 
increase the force of the nervous system. 
Sympathetic Nerve System. The double chain of nerve 
ganglia connected and joined by numerous small nerves, situ- 
ated on both sides and in front of the spinal column. 
Synovia. The white lubricating fluid of the joints. 
Systole. The contraction of the heart, by which the blood 
is ejected from that organ. Opposite of Diastole. 46 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
Tactile. Relating to the sense of touch. 
Temporal. Pertaining to the temples. 
Tendon. The white, fibrous cord or band by which a muscle 
is attached to a bone. 
Tetanus. A disease marked by the persistent contraction of 
some voluntary muscles. When those of the jaw are affected, 
it is called lockjaw; usually fatal. 
Thorax. The upper cavity of the body (lower, the abdo- 
men), containing the lungs, heart, etc. The chest. 
Thoracic Duct. The duct which receives nutritious matter 
from the lacteals and pours it into the blood. 
Thyroid. The largest of the cartilages of the larynx. The 
projection in the front of the neck is called "Adam's apple." 
Tincture. A solution of any drug or medicinal substance in 
alcohol. 
Trachea. The windpipe, composed in part of rings of car- 
tilage. 
Transfusion. The operation of injecting blood or other 
fluids or solutions taken from one person into the veins of 
another. 
Tympanum. The cavity of the middle ear, enclosed by two 
membranes. 
Urea. A waste substance, due to the oxidation of nitrogen- 
ous substances, secreted from the blood by the kidneys. 
Uvula. The small hanging body attached to the back part 
of the palate. 
Vascular. Pertaining to, or containing, blood-vessels. 
Vasomotor Nerves. Nerves which go to blood-vessels. 
Venous. Pertaining to, or contained in, a vein. 
Ventilation. The introduction of fresh air into a room or 
building in such a way as to keep the air within in pure con- 
dition. 
Ventricles. The two largest cavities in the heart. 
Vertebral Column. The backbone, consisting of twenty-six 
vertebrae firmly joined together. Also called the spine, the 
spinal column. 
Vestibule. A portion of the internal ear, communicating 
with the semicircular canals and the cochlea. 
Villi. Minute projections found on the internal surface of 
the intestines. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
47 
Vitreous Humor. The humor occupying the largest portion 
of the eyeball. 
Vivisection. The practice of operating upon living animals 
for the purpose of studying the functioning of some organ, 
or the effect of the introduction of some substance into the 
body of the animal. 
Vocal Cords. Two elastic bands situated in the larynx, the 
vibrations of which produce voice. 
Viscera. The large organs contained in the cavities of the 
body. See illustrations. The 
Progressive Series 
Answers in Anatomy, 
Physiology and 
Hygiene 
for 
DRILL, TEST AND REVIEW 
By 
ISAAC PRICE, A.M. 
Washington Irving High School. 
New York Evening High School for Men. 
Author: 
"Direct Method of Teaching English to Foreigners," "Compre- 
hensive Question and Answer Book," "Outlines 
in American History." 
HINDS, HAYDEN & ELDREDGE, Inc. 
NEW YORK PHILADELPHIA Copyright, 1916, by 
HINDS, HAYDEN & ELDREDGE, INC. 
Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. 
All rights reserved. PREFACE. 
A practical Question and Answer Book should be com- 
prehensive in scope without having too many and too de- 
tailed questions. It should furnish abundant material for 
drill, test, and review of the subject by means of well 
arranged and well graded questions, and should aim to 
cultivate in the student those qualities brought out in a 
good recitation by a skilled teacher. 
With these objects in mind this series of books has been 
written. The separate books are intended, not only 
for beginners, but also for students pursuing advanced 
and review work. Care has been taken to make each book 
complete. The papers given at civil service, college en- 
trance, and Regents examinations have been carefully 
culled for suitable questions, and the material arranged 
topically and logically to emphasize principles as well as 
essential facts. The answers are supported by the latest 
authorities and in consonance with the accepted texts for 
the best elementary and secondary schools. To make the 
work more helpful, diagrams, illustrations, maps, topical 
outlines, and glossaries have been included. 
Acknowledgment is due to the many experienced teach- 
ers who have freely offered suggestions and criticisms de- 
signed to make this a most helpful "text-book." The aim of the book is to present in brief, concise form the 
leading facts and principles in anatomy, physiology, and hygiene 
through the medium of questions selected from a very large num- 
ber of papers and answers based on reliable and authoritative 
sources. Technical terms have been very largely avoided, and a 
glossary following the questions supplies the large number of 
terms used in the leading texts. The main facts and principles 
and working rules of individual and public hygiene are presented 
in such a way that the teacher and student may enlarge on them. 
To my son 
LEONARD - 
whose questions 
come from the mind 
and the heart 
this series is affectionately 
DEDICATED Answers in 
Anatomy, Physiology and 
Hygiene 
THE BODY. 
1. (a) The science of anatomy describes the parts and struc- 
ture of the body. It teaches the locations of the many organs of 
the body, (b) Physiology tells us of the functions or uses of the 
various parts of the body and their organs. It describes the 
foods and their utilization in the building up of the muscles, 
bones, and brains; how the heart, the nerves and the blood, as 
well as all other parts of the human machine, perform their duties. 
It shows the need of good, wholesome foods, and the urgency for 
rest and exercise, (c) Hygiene discusses the preservation and 
improvement of the individual's health, and takes up the preven- 
tion of disease. 
2. (a) A knowledge of the actions and functions of the various 
organs enables us to know the causes of ailments and the kind 
of remedy to be applied to effect a cure. It is an aid to hygiene 
(b) which, by showing us how to live rightly and well, helps us 
to avoid illness. A knowledge of both physiology and hygiene will 
aid in the saving of lives and the economic loss due to sickness. 
3. Health is the basis of success, and is essential to the forma- 
tion of the rightful habits that are a part of the education of 
youth. The instruction which helps the boy and the girl to un- 
derstand the workings and care of his body, the value of good, 
wholesome food, of fresh air, plenty of exercise and sufficient 
rest, will add much to the physical development and upbuilding 
of the body and bring about a decrease in sickness. Sickness will 
not be so terrible and costly; the industries will not be inter- 
rupted and such enormous losses caused. It has been estimated 
that between four and eight millions of cases of serious illness 
can be averted by hygienic living, and hundreds of millions of 
dollars annually saved to the wealth of the nation. 
53 54 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
4. A cell is the smallest unit of matter capable of independent 
existence. It is a microscopic mass of protoplasm, containing a 
nucleus, and enclosed in a cell wall. The tissues of the body are 
composed of innumerable cells. 
5. There are as many kinds of cells as there are different kinds 
of tissues, each of these cells and tissues having a different duty 
to perform. Muscle cells, fat cells, nerve cells, epithelium cells, 
bone cells, blood cells, etc., are some of those found. See an- 
swer 6. 
6. (a) A tissue is a combination or union of like cells, having a 
certain, definite work to perform, (b) The various tissues in the 
body may be classified as connective tissues and active tissues, 
the latter, muscles, nerves, etc., being those by which the activi- 
ties of the body are performed. The chief function of the con- 
nective tissues is that of support; they connect and hold in place 
the various organs of the body, besides forming a fine delicate 
covering over these organs. Professor Ford classifies the tissues 
as follows: 
1. Osseous-Bones and teeth. 
2. Cartilaginous-Pure cartilage and fibro-cartilage. 
3. Fibrous-White and yellow, i.e., the firm and strong, to 
bind parts together, and the elastic to afford elasticity and 
freedom of movement. 
4. Muscular-Striated or voluntary muscles, and non-striated 
or involuntary. 
5. Adipose-Fat cells and enclosed fat. 
6. Epithelial-Epithelium, epidermis, hair, and nails. 
7. Nervous-Cerebro-spinal and sympathetic. 
7. (a) An organ is a group of tissues which combined have a 
special use or function; e.g., the heart, the liver, the lungs, (b) 
A system is composed of many organs, each having the like func- 
tions, and each contributing to the general process of the entire 
system. (c) The muscular system, the nervous system, the 
respiratory system, the digestive system, the circulatory system, 
the excretory system, the osseous system or bones. These 
systems must work together in harmonious relations, as a de- 
rangement in any one system has an unsalutary effect on the 
others, and may cause illness. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
55 
8. Fresh air, plenty of good, wholesome food, sufficient exercise, 
recreation, and rest, temperate habits, these are all essential to 
"a sound mind in a sound body." 
FOODS. 
9. (a) Water, two-thirds; (b) solid matter, one-third. 
10. The solid matter consists of (a) mineral matter, such as 
lime, soda, salt, iron; (b) proteids or albumen, like the white 
of an egg; (c) fats, such as tallow, lard, oils, and (d) carbo- 
hydrates, or sugar and starch. The mineral matters are im- 
portant in the building up of the bones, the proteids in the tissue 
building, the fats and the carbohydrates for their heat-giving 
qualities. 
11. By the burning of a bone. The residuum is the ashes, com- 
posed entirely of mineral matter. 
12. The five chief food stuffs, or proximate principles, are 
mineral salts, water, proteids, fats, and carbohydrates. 
13. (a) Proteids, or albumens, are a substance making up about 
four-fifths of the solid part of muscles, and are present in all 
tissues. They form the essential part of the protoplasm, and 
are made up of the four essential gases, carbon, hydrogen, 
oxygen, and nitrogen, in various compounds, (b) The principal 
albuminoid constituents are: albumen found in flesh, blood, milk, 
seeds, and grains, and in its purest form in the albumen, or white 
of the egg; fibrin, found in the blood, lymph? and chyle, in some 
of the semi-solid animal tissues, in the gelatine extracted from 
bones, and in some of the vegetable juices, gluten, in the cereals, 
in varying quantities; casein, in milk, and in coagulated form in 
cheese, in peas, beans, etc. 
14. Fats are found in all parts of the body and constitute varying 
proportions of the different organs; the brain is one-tenth fat; the 
nerves, one-fifth; and the adipose tissues, four-fifths. Beneath the 
skin is a layer of fat varying from one-tenth to one-fifth of an inch 
in thickness. The fat in this layer is being constantly converted 
into carbon dioxid and water by the bodily processes. This con- 
version causes the bodily heat. Moreover, as in the case of the 
bear, the fat can be used as a food by the body when the person is 
unable to secure food externally. This utilization of the internal 56 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
fat causes the change from fatness to slimness. Fats are kept in a 
liquid state in the living body by the bodily heat. 
15. (a) An oil is a fatty substance in liquid state, (b) An emul- 
sion is a mixture of oil and water united by a mucilaginous 
element. Without some emulsifying substance, such as ammonia, 
fat and water do not form a lasting mixture; but the addition of 
ammonia to the other ingredients causes the division of the fatty 
substance into minute, white globules, thus transforming the oil 
and water into an emulsion, which is permanent, (c) To make 
an emulsion, add to fat and water a few drops of ammonia, shak- 
ing the mixture well. 
16. Carbohydrates, or starches and sugars, due to the conver- 
sion by means of living cells, are changed into carbon dioxid, 
gas and water, and thereby give off heat. They help to keep the 
body warm. Sugar occurs in the juices of many plants, and may 
be formed from the starch in ripe fruits. 
17. See answers 14 and 16. 
18. Owing to the differences in the occupations between the 
teacher and the laborer, the foods are necessarily to be different, 
not in substance, but rather in amount of each consumed. The 
laborer who performs manual or physical labor consumes a 
greater amount of fats and carbohydrates, while the teacher, who 
exercises his brain power, his nerve power, to a greater extent, 
and whose occupation is more or less sedentary and indoors, 
requires more of the proteids. 
19. The elements -most abundant in living bodies are carbon, 
oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen (Cohn). Carbon is plentiful in 
all foods that are eaten, and makes up more than half of lean 
meat. It is the chief solid element in muscles, fats, starches, 
and sugar. Hydrogen is present in nearly all foods, and forms 
two-thirds of the volume of water. Oxygen is another gas form- 
ing one-third of the volume of water, and makes up about one- 
fifth of the solid portion of all living things. It is the most im- 
portant of all essential elements, being absolutely necessary for 
life. The carbon and the oxygen in the body form the carbon 
dioxid that is exhaled. Without oxidation, or the combining of 
the oxygen gas with any other substance, the life processes can- 
not go on and the being dies. The nitrogen is an elementary Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
57 
essential in the tissues, being in many of them the most im- 
portant of the ingredients. It is the chief element in the food 
of plants and animals. This gas forms four-fifths of the air. 
20. The oxygen of the inhaled air, passing through the nose 
and the windpipe is carried on by the blood throughout the 
body where, by admixture with the various substances, it causes, 
through the oxidation process, bodily heat and energy. This 
makes the muscles move and the organs do their allotted work. 
The greater the work done in amount or quality, the greater 
the energy consumed. Consequently, when we are hard at work 
we consume a greater amount of energy, and therefore require a 
greater supply of oxygen; and as we need this, we must breathe 
faster, in order to inhale the oxygen. 
21. See answer 19. The nitrogen is the chief essential in the 
structure of tissues. 
22. (a) Food is any substance taken by the body and con- 
sumed by it for the purpose of repairing and rebuilding the 
parts of the body, and for supplying heat and energy, (b) The 
waste processes of a living body are always going on; at some 
part or other the tissues are dying. It is necessary to replace 
these dying parts. Proteids do this work; they nourish the 
dying parts. Moreover, the body is always at work, in some 
form or another. Cons quently, heat and energy are being given 
off and consumed. The carbohydrates and fats supply suf- 
ficient heat and energy to replace the expended heat and energy. 
23. (a) Water is the carrier of the food throughout the body, 
and forms an integral part of the various tissues and organs of 
the body. Food cannot be digested unless it is in liquid form, 
and water forms a large part of the digestive juices, (b) The 
mineral salts are absolutely essential for the proper nourish- 
ment of the body. Salts of various minerals, lime, potash, soda, 
iron, are needed for the building up of the various tissues, 
iron for the red blood corpuscles, lime for the bones, etc. 
24. The quantity of food required varies greatly, according to 
the individual and his mode of life. Those living in the open 
and leading active lives require more food than the old and 
the persons leading sedentary lives. The inhabitants of the cold 
regions require more food than the dwellers in the warmer 
regions. Some are habituated to eat three hearty meals a day, 58 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
while others thrive on three light meals; some favor a large 
amount of liquid food, while others consume a greater amount of 
solid food. 
25. The average daily diet for an adult, in good health, weigh- 
ing about 154 pounds, and measuring about 5 feet 8 inches in 
height, simply to maintain his weight, is the following: 
Food Substances. 
Per Centum. Weight, 
lbs. oz. 
grs. 
Water 
81.5 5 8 
320 
Albuminoids 
3.9 4 
110 
Starch, sugar, etc 
10.6 11 
178 
Fat 
3.0 3 
337 
Common salt 
.7 
325 
Phosphates, potash, salts, etc. 
.3 
170 
100. 6 13 
128 
It will be seen that this amount is about one-twenty-fourth of 
his entire weight, so that in twenty-four days the adult renews 
his body weight once. 
26. The proportion of proximate principles from the various 
kingdoms that furnish the adult with food, the adult being in 
good health and leading a fairly active life, is as follows: the 
mineral kingdom furnishes three and one-half pounds, including 
water and salt; the vegetable kingdom, one and three-quarters 
pounds, particularly, bread, vegetables, and fruits; the animal 
kingdom, one and a half pounds, consisting of eggs, butter, meat, 
milk, etc. 
27. A mixed diet is necessary for the individual because there 
is no one food (excepting milk for the infant) that comprises 
all the necessary principles of food, and that the continuous use 
of any one diet, in whatever condition it may be, leads to defec- 
tive nutrition and the resulting diseases. Likewise, the absence 
of any necessary principle of food is followed by illness; as, the 
scurvy that is so much dreaded by sailors. The important 
thing to consider in the diet of any individual or people, is 
whether the chemical principles enter into the composition of 
the food, and whether these are in sufficient quantity to accord 
with the habits of the individual or the people. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
59 
28. A summary concerning diet. "The food ofi which the 
man who would be healthy should be selected so as to insure a 
variety without excess. Animal food should not be taken oftener 
than twice daily. The amount of animal and vegetable food 
combined should not exceed 30 ounces in the 24 hours; and for 
the majority of persons an average of 24 ounces of mixed solid 
food, a third only of which should be animal, is sufficient. All 
animal foods should be eaten while they are fresh, and after 
they have been well cooked. The habit of eating underdone 
flesh is an almost certain cause of parasitic disease. The amount 
of fluid taken, in any form, should not exceed the average of 24 
ounces daily. Water is the only natural beverage." 
29. Milk is the earliest nutriment of the human race, and may 
be regarded as a model food, because it can sustain life longer 
than any other article of the diet. Cow's milk contains the 
proteid casein, a fatty principle; sugar of milk, water and salts, 
all of which are.easily digestible. 
30. Eggs contain the proteid in the form of pure albumen, 
plenty of fat, about two-thirds water; but they lack in the sugar 
principle, and should, therefore, be eaten with bread or vegetables 
that contain the starch or sugar. Soft-boiled eggs are preferable 
to hard-boiled or fried eggs. 
31. Meats are the muscular parts of various animals,-the cow, 
the goat, the sheep, the horse, the reindeer, and others-contain- 
ing large quantities of albuminoid substances, with a varying 
amount of fat, they are the most important article of diet for 
adults. The beef eaters are, and always have been, the most 
progressive people in the world. The flesh of the young is more 
tender and more digestible than the flesh of the older animals. 
When exposed or not preserved, meats tend to become putrid, 
that is, the fats and the albuminoids tend to decompose; it is 
necessary to preserve them by smoking, by freezing, by salting 
in brine, etc. 
32. Cooking is essential in the preparation of food for proper 
digestion because it softens the food, develops the flavor, and 
raises the temperature of the food. The objects to be obtained 
by cooking meat are: 1. To coagulate the albumen and blood of 
the tissues, so as to render the meat agreeable to the sight. 60 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
2. To develop flavors, and to make the tissue crisp, as well as 
tender, and therefore more easy of mastication and digestion. 
3. To secure a certain temperature, and thus to be a means of 
conveying warmth to the system. 4. To kill parasites in the 
tissue of the meat. 
The action of heat should not be continued after these objects 
are accomplished, as the meat will thereby be rendered in- 
digestible. 
33. Fish, while it closely resembles the meats in composition, 
is more watery and is ill fitted to strengthen the mind and the 
body. If made the chief article of diet, it produces a great 
variety of skin diseases. The salmon, trout, cod, and halibut 
are among the easily digestible fish, while the shell-fish in 
general lead to digestive troubles. 
34. The list of vegetable foods is very large and varied. Many 
of them are most nourishing, without them man being unable to 
continue his existence, while others are positively destructive, as 
they contain virulent poisons. Many of them require little or no 
preparation to make them edible, while others must undergo 
many preparatory steps before they can be served as food. Some 
are depressing in their effect, while others are stimulating; some 
are important builders of tissue, while others are positively 
harmful. 
35. Cereals, or grains, are many in number, and are used for 
the making of bread, which forms "the staff of life." Good or 
bad, bread in some form must be had. Bread made from wheat 
flour is the most nourishing, because it contains a greater pro- 
portion of starch and less gluten than the breads made from 
the darker flours, like the rye, corn, etc. In order to make the 
bread more digestible, it is rendered leavened or porous by a 
mixture of yeast or some other method of spreading the carbonic 
acid gas. Wheaten bread contains all the proximate principles 
with the exception of fat, which absence is remedied by the 
addition of butter, making bread and butter an almost perfect 
food. 
36. Vegetables contain so many important mineral and other 
compounds that they form a most important element in food 
products. There is no people, no country, where vegetables, in 
one variety or another, do not form a most important article Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
61 
of diet. Its importance is so far recognized as a food, and as 
a digesting aid, that no large meal is had without vegetables. 
The potato, probably the most common of the vegetables, forms 
the chief article of food in Ireland, in Germany, and among the 
poorer classes in the other European countries. It contains 
more than two-thirds water, the remainder being composed of 
starch and a little albumen. 
37. Fruits are composed chiefly of water, in many of them the 
percentage going up as high as eighty-two. The fruits contain 
large amounts of starch, which during the process of ripening, 
is changed into sugar. Besides the fruits contain acids in 
smaller or greater quantities that aid in digestion. They form 
a most welcome change from the usual food dietary. The vege- 
tables and fruits contain the valuable acids, malic, citric, tar- 
taric, etc., which, combining with lime, soda, and potassa, form 
the malate salts, so essential to the furnishing of the alkalis to 
the blood and other fluids. 
38. Water, milk, coffee, tea, chocolate, cocoa, alcoholic bever- 
ages. 
39. Water is recognized as the most important liquid. Without 
it we could not live. It forms a comprehensible portion of our 
body weight and is a necessity. No person can exist without 
drinking water. It is important that the water that is drunk 
should be pure. It should be clear and colorless, with little taste 
or smell, and free from foreign ingredients. We seldom drink 
chemically pure water; it usually occurs with some mineral ele- 
ments dissolved in it, giving it usually a saline taste. Impure 
water spreads disease, and so important is this that large cities 
go to enormous expense to keep their water supply free from im- 
purities. 
40. Coffee is recognized as a gentle stimulant, and not as a 
food that helps to build up the body. Moderate use is urged; 
too much is harmful, because it diminishes the waste of tissues, 
and consequently permits the performance of excessive labor on 
an economical and inadequate diet. Its excessive use leads to 
nervousness and impaired digestion. 
41. Tea contains a principle called theine, similar to the caf- 
feine in coffee. It is a mild and gentle stimulant, and should be 
used in moderation. Like coffee, its excessive use causes ner- 62 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
vous prostration. The black tea is not so strong as the green 
tea. Tea and coffee, taken in too large quantities, become nerve 
depressants. 
42. Chocolate and cocoa contain fatty matter (also albuminous 
and starchy materials) and therefore are more valuable as 
foods. They also contain a substance similar to the theine and 
caffeine, theobromine, which is not so stimulating as the stimu- 
lating principles in tea and coffee. 
43. (a) Alcohol is a clear, colorless, volatile, and inflammable 
liquid of penetrating odor and burning taste. It is lighter than 
water, and is frozen only at a very low temperature, (b) It 
is a temporary stimulant to the body, provided it is taken in 
small quantities, and not regularly. In larger amounts, in spite 
of all claims to the contrary, it is positively harmful and dan- 
gerous for its deleterious effects on the various systems in the 
body, particularly on the nervous system. It deadens sensibility, 
induces irregular muscular and heart action, in other words, it 
intoxicates. Without it there would be less illness and disease, 
and a greater amount of sustained regular work. The country 
would be economically richer without the sale and use of alco- 
holic drinks. It does not supply a steady amount of heat, it does 
not relieve the thirst. Its only proper use is as a stimulating 
agent under the prescription of a physician; that is, solely as a 
medicine. 
44. Alcoholic drinks are classified as -follows: (a) malt 
liquors, ales, beer, porter, and stout; (b) wines, (c) spirits, or 
whiskey, rum, gin, and brandy; (d) cordials, (e) milder alco- 
holic drinks, as cider, root beer, etc. These beverages have dif- 
ferent percentages of alcohol in them, varying from less than 
ten per cent, in the cider and root beers to 54 per cent, in the 
brandies. 
45. Tobacco is another substance that is sometimes claimed 
to be a food, but its use along that direction is more questionable 
than alcohol. Its temperate use may not apparently affect adults 
unpleasantly; it may act as a very mild sedative. But under 
no circumstances should the young be permitted to indulge in it. 
It is liable to produce an irritable condition of the heart and 
brain, to destroy the appetite and seriously affect the digestion Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
63 
processes. It is known to produce "headache, confusion of in- 
tellect, loss of memory, impaired power of attention, lassitude, 
indisposition to muscular effort, nausea, want of appetite, 
dyspepsia, palpitation, tremulousness, disturbed sleep, impaired 
vision, etc." 
46. Ptomaine poisoning results from the bacteria that were 
not killed in the cooking of the foods, meats or vegetables, 
before or after being put into the cans. These bacteria generate 
a ptomaine poison, which is not affected by later cooking. Fruits 
and vegetables, meats, etc., that are canned should be put into 
jars or cans and then cooked with the covers screwed on 
lightly for ten minutes until all the spores have been killed. 
Food should never be left in a metal can which has been opened. 
M. The process of so dissolving and chemically changing the 
foods taken in by the body that they can be assimilated by the 
blood and the nutriment furnished to the body. The separation 
of the nutriment from the waste in the foods taken into the 
body. The preparation of the foods taken in by the body into 
chyme. 
48. (a) The alimentary canal, the divisions of which are the 
mouth, the pharynx, the oesophagus, the stomach, and the in- 
testines. (b) The assisting glands are the salivary glands, the 
liver and the pancreas. Figs. 3, 7. 
49. The tongue and the teeth. 
50. (a) The mouth is a large opening at the head of the 
alimentary canal and contains the organs of mastication and 
swallowing, (b) The roof of the mouth, consisting of the hard 
and the soft palates. Fig. 4. 
51. (a) The tongue is composed of several muscles covered 
with mucous membrane and is essential in speaking and for the 
moving of the food in mastication or chewing, (b) When the 
person is in good health the tongue is clear, when in ill health, 
the tongue is coated with a white filmy stuff, a "furred tongue." 
52. The crown is the part above the gum; the root is the part 
below it; the constricted portion between the crown and the 
fang is the neck; the enamel is the hard part covering the crown; 
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 64 
.Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
Fig. 2. 
Fig. 3. 
Cavities of the Body. 
Alimentary Canal. 
Palate 
•Tongue 
Gullet 
■Windplpen 
Fig. 4. 
Fig. 5. 
Section of Mouth, Nose 
and Throat. 
Section of a Tooth: a, Enamel; 
b. Cavity; c. Roots; d, Body. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
65 
the dentine is the hard interior part; the surface layer of the 
fang or root is the cement; the pulp fills the small cavity within 
the tooth, in which are the blood vessels, nerves and a fatty 
substance. 
53. (a) Thirty-two teeth in an adult, eight in each half of 
each jaw. (b) The milk teeth are the temporary teeth, twenty 
in number, and begin to drop out when the child is from five to 
seven years of age. They are forced out by the permanent teeth, 
the roots of the milk teeth being absorbed by the permanent 
teeth. 
54. The two middle incisors of the lower jaw are the first to 
appear in the child; the wisdom teeth are the last to break 
through, between the seventeenth and the twenty-fifth birthdays. 
The first permanent teeth appear behind the posterior milk 
molars, before any of the milk teeth are shed; viz., at six 
years, so that a child of six has twenty-four teeth,-twenty 
temporary and four permanent. The permanent teeth usually 
appear as folows :- 
The first molars at the 6th year, sometimes called the "six 
year" molars. 
The central incisors at the 7th year. 
The lateral incisors at the 8th year. 
The anterior bicuspids at the 9th year, replacing first milk 
molars. 
The posterior bicuspids at the 10th year, replacing posterior 
molars. 
The canines at the 11th to 12th year. 
The second molars at the 12th to 13th year, sometimes called 
"twelve year" molars. 
The third molars at the 17th to 25th year. 
55. The teeth should be brushed at least twice daily, before 
breakfast and after the evening meal; the teeth should be 
brushed up and down, as well as from side to side; the brush 
should be of good bristle; warm water and a tooth paste or 
powder should be used; if this is done, it may not be necessary 
to use any wooden toothpicks or strong thread to remove the 
particles that may lodge between the teeth; the teeth are not 
in the class of nutcrackers, and should not be so used; be 
careful not to alternate hot and cold substances too near the 66 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
teeth, as the differences in temperature may cause a cracking in 
the enamel; twice or three times a year the dentist should be 
visited to remove the tartar, who will then discover any cavities 
in the teeth and fill them. 
56. In the thorax or thoracic cavity we find the heart, the 
lungs, the oesophagus, and the larger blood vessels. Figs. 1, 2, 
3, 7. 
57. The abdomen contains the stomach, liver, the spleen, the 
pancreas, the kidneys, the bladder, the intestines, the many large 
blood vessels. Figs. 1, 2, 3, 7. 
58. (a) The viscera comprises all the organs in the body 
cavity, these organs being enveloped by a semitransparent mem- 
brane made from the serum of the blood, (b) The pleura is 
the serous membrane of the thoracic cavity, and (c) the 
peritoneum is the serous membrane of the abdomen. 
59. (a) The cavity back of the mouth and the throat region, 
(b) The pharynx narrows into the oesophagus just back of the 
larynx; is nine inches long, and one-half irfch in diameter. Its 
function is to aid the movement of the food into the stomach. 
Figs. 3, 4. 
60. (a) The tonsil is an oval body a half inch long and buried 
in the mucous membrane on either side of the root of the 
tongue, (b) Tonsilitis is infectious and may be spread from 
child to child by means of the common drinking cup, etc. The 
use of the tonsils is unknown. 
61. Situated in all parts of the body are certain organs, called 
glands, which aid the work of nutrition in its various stages. 
Each gland consists of many active cells, all alike in general 
structure and function. The cells take the "raw material,'' as 
it comes to them through the blood and lymph, separate it, and 
excrete on their free surface the finished product. This general 
process is called secretion. 
It is evident that if much material is to be secreted by a gland, 
many working cells are necessary. In order that many cells 
may be brought into as small a space as is possible, they are 
arranged on the surface of a tube or sack. Glands are of two 
types, tubular and racemose. If the general plan of arrange- 
ment is that of a tube, either simple or compound, the gland 
is called a tubular gland. The perspiratory glands are good ex- Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
67 
amples of this type. If the cells are arranged along a sur- 
face which swells out at its upper end, like a sack, the gland 
is called sacular or racemose. The sebaceous glands are racemose. 
Either type may be simple or compound. 
62. The glands of digestion are the salivary glands, the gastric 
glands, the intestinal glands, the liver and the pancreas. 
63. (a) The salivary glands are three in number: the parotid, 
just below the ear; the submaxillary, between the lower jaw and 
the base of the tongue; and the sublingual, under the tongue. 
The juice of these glands, about a pint being secreted each 
day, contains the important ferment which acts upon the 
starches in the foods and changes it into sugar. It keeps the 
mouth moist and enables us to speak in comfort, dissolves salt, 
etc., and enables us to taste the substances and, in a way, to 
determine whether they are good or bad for the body. 
(b) First, the chewing of the food breaks up the solid 
parts into much smaller pieces and enables the saliva to do its 
work much more effectively, so that every part of the starch 
may be reached by the ferments. The more thoroughly the food is 
masticated the more pleasant the food becomes to the taste, and 
the greater the working of the salivary glands, as well as the 
other glands of digestion. 
(c) The taste buds or the organs of taste lie chiefly on the 
upper surface and edges of the tongue. The food which excites 
these end organs that are connected with nerve fibers to the 
brain, must be in solution,-another reason why the saliva should 
be given every opportunity to help dissolve the foods. Foods 
pleasant to the taste excite the other digestive juices, and there- 
fore, the need for giving pleasant tasting foods. 
64. A curved, conical bag, lying just below the diaphragm, 
being the enlargement of the alimentary canal. It is very elastic, 
and is thus able to hold food for long periods, from one to five 
hours, while the secreted juices act on it. At the upper end is 
the oesophagus opening, or cardiac opening, while at the lower 
end is the pyloric orifice leading to the small intestine. The in- 
voluntary muscles forming its muscular coat, arranged in three 
layers, keep the food in motion while the juices perform their 
work. It can hold from three pints to two quarts of food. Fig 6. 
The inner coating of the stomach is the mucous membrane, 68 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
Fig. 6. 
The Muscles o£ the Stomach, 
Fig. 8. 
A Gastric Gland. 
The various organs con- 
cerned in the conversion 
of food into blood.- 
1. Mouth and salivary 
glands; 2, the oesopha- 
gus; 3, the stomach; 4, 
a portion of the small 
intestine; 5, the pan- 
creas; 6, the liver; 7, 
mesentery with lacteals; 
8, receptacle of chyle; 9, 
the thoracic duct empty- 
ing its contents into the 
left subclavian vein; 10, 
branches of portal vein 
leading to liver; 11, an 
hepatic vein leading 
from the liver to the 
large ascending vein; 
12, the large ascending 
vein cut off at its junc- 
tion with the heart; 13, 
the large descending 
vein cut off in like man- 
ner. 
Fig. 7. 
Two Intestinal Villi x 100: a, b, C> 
Lacteals; d. Blood Vessels. 
Fig. 9. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
69 
which, as we have seen, furnishes the gastric juice. Next 
to this coating lies another, called the muscular coat, composed 
of involuntary muscular fibres, some of which run circularly, 
and others in a longitudinal direction. These expand to accom- 
modate the food as it is introduced, and contract as it passes 
out. In addition, these fibres are in continual motion while food 
remains in the stomach, and they act in such manner that the 
contents are gently turned round from side to side, or from one 
end of it to the other. 
By these incessant movements of the stomach, called the 
peristaltic movements, the gastric juice comes in contact with all 
parts of the food. We are, however, not conscious that these 
movements take place, nor have we the power to control them. 
When such portions of the food as are sufficiently digested ap- 
proach the pylorus, it expands to allow them to pass out and it 
closes again to confine the residue for further preparation. 
65. The rectus abdominalis, the obliquus externus and internus, 
and the transversalis. 
66. (a) The gastric glands line the mucous membrane of the 
stomach. They yield pepsin, rennin, and hydrochloric acid, which 
dissolved in the watery fluid also exuding from the glands form 
the gastric juice, not less than three or four pints being secreted 
at each meal. Fig. 8. (b) Gastric juice is formed from the 
blood by something like five million microscopic tubelike glands 
completely covering the inside of the stomach. These glands 
are set off either by the presence of food in the stomach or by 
the taste and odor of food. Soups and meats increase the 
amount of the secretion of this juice and are, therefore, better 
foods at the beginning of a meal than at the end. 
67. The intestines are composed of the small intestine and the 
large intestine. The small intestine is a very much coiled tube 
about twenty-five feet in length, and more than an inch in 
diameter. The food is moved along by the two layers of in- 
voluntary muscle that form its muscular coat. The opening 
into the large intestine at the lower right side of the abdominal 
cavity is by means of a valve. The colon and the rectum are the 
main parts of the large intestine. Figs. 1, 3, 7. 
68. The appendix or vermiform appendix is a closed tube or 
sac projecting from the large intestine, from one to five inches 70 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
in length and about one-third of an inch in diameter. The 
interior of the tube is almost solid, the opening being no wider 
than a pin head. Appendicitis is the result of the inflammation 
of the appendix when food or any other substance clogs up this 
fine opening. 
69. The intestinal glands are simple, tubelike in shape, standing 
side by side, with their mouths opening at the bases of the villi 
which stick out into the cavity of the intestine. These glands 
secrete about three quarts of a watery fluid containing sub- 
stances that are of great importance in digestion, and without 
which indigestion results. 
70. (a) A ferment is a substance formed by living cells and 
capable of acting on other foods without any changes being made 
or taking place in the ferment itself, (b) In the glands. 
71. The liver, the largest gland in, the body, lies immediately 
under the diaphragm. It is brownish red in color, and is about 
one half of the head in size. The five lobes contain thousands 
of lobules made up of cells that manufacture the bile. This 
escapes from the liver into the small intestine through the 
hepatic duct. The excess of bile is carried into the gall bladder 
for storage. The bile acts upon the fats and makes the 
emulsions. 
72. (a) The pancreas or sweetbread, is a pinkish white gland, 
about half the size of the hand. It extends from the stomach 
end of the small intestine across the body back of the stomach. 
The pancreatic duct, composed of several smaller ducts, conveys 
the pancreatic juice into the small intestine. (b) The 
juice secreted by the pancreas, containing the most important 
of all ferments of digestion. One changes the starch into sugar, 
another changes the proteids into peptones, a third breaks up the 
acids into the fatty acids and glycerin for the soaps that are 
formed by the action of the bile. The pancreatic juice completes 
the digestive process as far as it relates to the digestive juices. 
73. (a) Chyme is the partly digested food in liquid form that 
has been ejected by the stomach into the small intestine, (b) 
which when acted upon by the ferments of the pancreatic juices 
becomes a dark liquid mass of food material, composed of Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
71 
peptones, soap, and sugar, and is now ready for absorption. This 
mass is called chyle. 
74. A yellowish greenish liquid, secreted by the liver at the 
rate of more than a pint a day. The excess over the quantity 
used is secreted in the gall bladder, and when the bile duct be- 
come clogged and the bile escapes into the blood, jaundice re- 
sults. The bile has no digestive power in itself, but it hastens 
the action of the other digestive agents. It also contains some 
of the waste matter of the body. 
75. The peristalsis or peristaltic movement, a wavy contrac- 
tion of the circular muscle, presses down the food. The other 
movement is the swinging to and fro of the several folds of the 
intestines by a rythmical contraction of the circular and longi- 
tudinal muscles. The motions are a projecting and a mixing 
one, and serve to complete digestion and to aid in the carrying 
off of the waste matter. 
76. Food remains in the small intestine for a period of from five 
to fifteen hours, during which time the nutritious part is absorbed 
into the blood. The waste passes into the large intestine from 
which it is ejected. Failure to do so causes constipation. See 
answer 79. 
77. (a) The lacteals consist of millions of minute vessels 
beginning in the villi and other parts of the intestine and unite 
into many threadlike tubes which meet to enter into the 
left thoracic duct, (b) The thoracic duct is a tube which leads 
into a large vein in the neck, and returns to the veins in the 
neck by means of the lacteals, that portion of the blood which 
is constantly oozing out of the capillaries throughout the body. 
78. The portal system consists of the large portal vein with 
its tributaries beginning in the capillaries of the intestines, the 
stomach, and other abdominal organs, and its capillaries in the 
liver. All foods except the fats are carried from the villi to 
the liver. • 
79. The three processes by which the food after it has been 
acted upon by all the digestive juices, that is, the chyle, is 
absorbed into the body so that it can be utilized by the 
tissues are (a) osmosis, (b) nitration, and (c) imbibition. 
Osmosis is the tendency of two liquids of different density and 
separated by a thin membrane to mix. Filtration is the passing 72 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
of liquids through a membrane by pressure. Imbibition is the 
drinking in of a liquid by a cell. 
80. The food is taken into the mouth, where it is masticated 
and the saliva from the salivary glands converts the starches 
into sugar. From there it passes into the oesophagus and then 
into the stomach, where the gastric juice, acting upon the albu- 
mins, forms peptones. The chyme then passes through the pyloric 
valve into the small intestine where the pancreatic juice and the 
bile perform their work, the latter emulsifying the fats, and 
allowing their absorption into the body. The villi and the 
lacteals then complete the work and the nutritious portions of 
the foods are absorbed into the body, while the waste passes 
into the large intestine and then out of the body. 
81. (a) In the small intestine, and (b) in the large intestine. 
82. The amount of gastric juices secreted is naturally limited 
and it can act upon a limited quantity of food in the stomach 
effectively. Moreover, the muscles, etc., do not get necessary 
rest, with the result that the food is undigested, and since the 
pyloric valve will not allow any undigested food to enter 
the small intestine, the stomach is overloaded. Headaches, 
nausea, and vomiting may follow. Besides these, the effect on 
the nerves is such that serious results may follow. 
83. Very hot or very cold liquids or fluids should, at no time, 
be taken into the system, because they decrease the flow of the 
gastric juice. Too much water, more than one glass during a 
meal, tends to dilute the juices and causes a deterioration in 
quality. With but few exceptions no person has had his diges- 
tion increased or improved by the aid of alcoholic drinks; on 
the contrary, the effect has certainly been difficult and painful 
digestion, usually chronic. 
84. (a) Boiled rice, raw eggs, potatoes, legumes, and boiled 
beef, (b) Hard boiled eggs, white bread, stewed oysters, and 
boiled cabbage. 
85. The chewing of gum and tobacco causes an unnecessary use 
of the saliva, so that when the food is eaten, the quantity of 
saliva for real use is lessened. The taste of the tobacco is 
unpleasant and the habit is uncleanly and unhealthful because it 
lessens the natural appetite for food and the power of digestion. 
86. The alcohol that is taken into the stomach is absorbed, and Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
73 
taken by the portal vein directly into the liver, where the blood 
is over-stimulated, and over-action results. The bad effect of this 
is that a healthy supply of bile is not secreted. In addition to 
this, organic changes are made in the liver. 
The disorders (in the stomach) due to the drinking of 
alcoholic beverages are both functional and organic. The lining 
of the stomach is affected, the digestive action impaired; it may 
be checked, or it may even be completely arrested, with vomiting 
following. 
87. Tight clothing, or tight lacing, by constricting the body, 
prevents the proper flow of blood and the expansion of the 
digestive organs when the food is projected into them. Indiges- 
tion, or delayed digestion, results. 
88. (a) The small intestine is lined with villi (Fig. 9), more 
than twenty thousand to the square inch. Each of these villi 
consists of a layer of cylindrical cells covering a network of 
blood capillaries surrounding a single lacteal, (b) The epithelial 
cells take up the food, the lacteal vessels take up the fats, the 
blood capillaries of the portal system leading to the liver take 
up the remainder of the food. 
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 
89. (a) Blood is the fluid circulating round the body by means 
of the heart and through the veins and the arteries, (b) It is 
composed of a colorless liquid called the plasma, in which float 
millions of white and red corpuscles. 
90. (a) The red corpuscles form the greater part of the weight 
of the blood, there being about twenty-five millions of these cor- 
puscles to a drop of healthy blood. The red color is given to it 
by the (c) hemoglobin which contains the iron, and thus enables 
the blood to carry the oxygen to all regions of the body, and to 
carry for exhalation about half of the carbon dioxid. (b) The 
white corpuscles are considerably less in number, there being 
only one white cell to about five hundred red ones. They vary 
in size from one-half to twice the size of the red corpuscles, and 
change their shape very readily. The white cells may be seen in 
the pus of blisters, etc. The white corpuscles have three important 
uses: they help to protect the body from harmful germs by 
taking them up, they aid the villi in the absorption of the food 74 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
from the intestine, and their composition aids in the clotting of 
the blood. 
91. (a) The red corpuscles are formed in the red marrow con- 
tained in the ends of all long bones, these bones being numerous 
and found all over the body, and abundant throughout the interior 
of the other bones, (b) At the rate of several thousand a minute, 
(c) The small white corpuscles are the result of the division of 
cells in the numerous lymph glands throughout the body. 
92. The plasma is the colorless part of the blood filtering out 
of the capillaries for the purpose of supplying the tissues with 
food. It supplies them with nourishment and at the same time 
carries with it the waste materials which form the greater part 
of the solids in the urine. 
93. The work of the blood is as follows: (a) It carries the 
necessary and important oxygen to the tissues; (b) it regulates 
the temperature of the body; (c) it transports the food to the 
various regions of the body; and (d) it carries all waste matters 
to the organs that eject them. 
94. Blood, which is entirely liquid, on escaping from a blood 
vessel, becomes somewhat of a solid. This is due to the proteid 
fibrin, composed of the white corpuscles. This hardening is 
called clotting or coagulation and prevents the flow of blood from 
the vessels. 
95. Oxygen to the tissues, and carbonic acid gas, or carbon 
dioxid, for exhalation. 
96. (a) Serum is the clear, light-yellow watery liquid that sepa- 
rates from the fibrin in the coagulation or clotting of the blood, 
(b) The fibrin is the proteid substance, in very fine fibres, which 
hardens in coagulation, and thus forms the protective covering 
of the cut. 
97. The lymph is the blood plasma filtered and diffused from 
the capillaries, and is found in all spaces in the body cavity and 
in the crevices between the tissues. It is transparent, colorless, 
and contains many white blood cells. It is conveyed by the 
lymphatic vessels towards the heart, and is poured into the venous 
system by the thoracic and right lymphatic ducts. 
98. An adult of normal size and weight has about six quarts of 
blood in his body, half of which may be lost without causing Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
75 
The Heart and Its Blood 
Vessels. 
Fig. 11. 
Cross-section of a Lobule of the Liver, 
with Capillary Network. 
Fig. 13. 
Cross Section of the Heart, Show- 
ing Ils Cavities, and the Blood 
Vessels. Arrows Indicate Di- 
rection of the Flow of Blood. 
Fig. 12. 
Fig. 14. 
Lymphatics of tAe 
Hand. 76 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
death. In cases where there is this loss of blood, a saline solu- 
tion can be injected to remedy the loss of blood. 
99. Anemia is the deficiency of blood or of red corpuscles 
in * the blood. Since the red corpuscles in the blood of a 
normal person approximate one-half of the volume of weight 
of the blood, and the hemoglobin in the red corpuscles en- 
ables the blood to carry the essential oxygen from the lungs 
to supply the tissues throughout the body, and the red corpuscles 
transport about half of the carbon dioxid from the tissues to 
the lungs to be exhaled, it is very evident then that in the absence 
of these all-important and essential red blood corpuscles the 
body is short of something that tends to purify and cleanse the 
system, and the person so conditioned cannot be in normal 
health. The thing to do is to consult a physician, who, in all 
probability, will prescribe a tonic containing iron in some form, 
in addition to a good, wholesome diet. 
100. Arterial blood is the blood carried in the arteries, excepting 
the artery leading to the lungs, and is called pure, because it con- 
tains no carbon dioxid. Due to the oxygen it carries, it is rich red 
in color. Venous blood, on the other hand, is of a bluish hue, 
and can be seen through the veins in the wrist. The venous blood 
contains the carbon dioxid that is to be expelled from the body. 
Venous Blood. 
Arterial Blood. 
Color 
.. Dark blue. 
Scarlet. 
Oxygen 
, .8 per cent. 
18 per cent. 
Carbonic Acid Gas. , 
.. 15 to 20 per cent. 
6 per cent., or less. 
Water 
. .More. 
Less. 
101. A healthy body has no germs in its blood, excepting after 
a meal, when some germs are taken in with the food. With the 
proper digestion, these germs are ejected from the body in the 
waste materials. Eating an abundance of food that contains 
disease germs, as the tuberculosis germs in impure milk or cream, 
butter, etc., may cause a superabundance of these germs to find 
lodgment in the body, and cause bacterial disease. 
102. (a) A dark red body, oval in shape, about an inch thick, 
and four inches broad by five inches long, partly covered by the 
ribs on the left side of the abdominal cavity, and behind the 
stomach, (b) Its actual and real function or functions have not 
been determined, but it has been found that it becomes enlarged a Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
77 
few hours after digestion. It has been supposed that its function 
is the manufacture of ferments that pass directly into the blood, 
since it has no ducts or vessels leading to any organ. 
103. (a) The thyroid is a flat two-lobed body, lying in front of 
the trachea just below the Adam's apple. That it is necessary is 
evidenced by the fact that animals from which it has been removed 
live but a very short time. The thyroids, or an extract from the 
thyroids, of the calf, or pig, are invaluable to those from whom 
the glands have been removed, (b) It is supposed that it 
manufactures a secretion that passes directly into the blood and 
has an important influence on the general growth and develop- 
ment of the mind and body. 
104. The circulatory system consists of the heart, the lungs, the 
arteries, the capillaries, the veins, and the lymphatics. Fig. 10. 
105. (a) The heart is an involuntary muscle, oval shaped, about 
the size of the clenched fist, with its apex directed downward and 
toward the left of the body. It is surrounded by a tough mem- 
brane, the pericardium, with a fluid, the serum, surrounding it 
in order to prevent injury to the heart. The interior of the 
heart is lined with a smooth, serous membrane, the endocardium. 
Figs. 11, 12. (b) It lies to the left of the body, between the lungs 
and almost in the center of the thorax, and is held in place by 
the great blood vessels attached to its various parts and by the 
fibrous tissue connecting the pericardium with the breastbone, 
(c) To pump the blood around the body. 
106. The heart is divided into four cavities, two upper and 
two lower. The upper cavities are smaller than the lower and 
are called the auricles, while the two larger lower ones are called 
the ventricles. The auricles are thin-walled sacs which receive the 
blood and send it into the thicker-walled ventricles, which pump 
it out to the tissues. The auricles and ventricles are named 
according to their position, left and right. There are two open- 
ings into the right auricle, the ascending and the descending vena 
cava. There is no opening between the auricles, but valves between 
the auricles and the ventricles allow the passing of the blood 
between each auricle and the ventricle below it. Figs. 11, 12. 
107. (a) There are four pulmonary veins which open into the 
left auricle and pass the pure blood from the lungs, (b) The 
aorta is a large artery leading from the left ventricle, and carry- 78 
Anatomy, Physiology and PIygiene. 
Circulatory System-Heart, Lungs, Arteries and Veins. 
(Note the relative position of the organs in the body.) 
Fig. 10. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
79 
ing the blood to all parts of the body except the lungs, (c) The 
pulmonary artery extends from the right ventricle to the lungs. 
Figs. 11, 12. 
108. The blood, in passing from one sac to another in the 
heart, must pass in one direction only. This is due to the valves 
of the heart. The tricuspid valve between the right auricle and 
the right ventricle, consists of three membranes kept in place by 
tough cords extending to the walls of the ventricles. The mitral, 
or bicuspid valve is between the left auricle and the left ventricle, 
and consists of only two membranes, protected and kept in place 
in the same manner as above. There is a set of semilunar valves 
in the mouth of each artery leading from each ventricle to pre- 
vent the backward flow of the blood. 
109. The action of the heart is a pumping one, contraction and 
pushing and then expanding. The auricles are filled with blood 
at the same time, they contract and push the blood into the 
ventricles, which immediately contract to push the blood into the 
arteries. A half second pause follows during which time the 
heart is filling for its next operation. The contraction is called 
the systole, and the pushing is called the diastole. The heart 
beat is the contraction and expansion of the walls of the heart. 
110. (a) The pulse is the wave of blood produced by the 
alternate contraction and expansion of the heart in its pumping 
process, (b) In the adult the pulse or number of heart beats 
is about 75 per minute, while in the infant it is almost twice as 
much, 140 a minute, (c) In illness the pulse increases and the 
doctor gains valuable information from it. The strength and 
frequency of the pulse or heart beat in disease are affected by 
the poisons affecting the heart and the nerves controlling it. 
111. A moderate amount of exercise is needed by all healthy 
individuals. The more one exercises, the greater is the need 
for a fresh supply of oxygen, and consequently the heart works 
the harder. Rest should follow exercise, in order to allow the 
heart to reduce its exertions to normal. Prolonged and severe 
exercise, if persisted in, causes the severer working of the heart 
to become chronic and enlargement of the heart follows. 
112. The pulmonary artery leads from the right ventricle to 
the lungs; it is the only artery transporting venous blood. The 
aorta is the chief artery passing down the back of the heart and 80 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
branches off into many arteries to supply the internal organs. 
The carotid is a branch leading to the head and brain; the right 
iliac and the left iliac supply the right and the left legs, respec- 
tively, with blood. 
113. (a) The largest artery is the aorta, and (b) the largest 
vein is the pulmonary vein. 
114. The veins, like the arteries, contain three coats, the inner, 
middle, and outer coats. They are composed of more condensed 
connective tissue than the arteries, and are therefore more 
compressible, but less elastic and contractile. They are more 
numerous than the arteries, and communicate with each other 
freely in their course by interlacing branches. 
115. The arteries carry the pure blood from the heart to the 
various organs and tissues that require nourishment and strength- 
ening, while the veins carry the impure blood with its carbon 
dioxid for exhalation. 
116. The lungs are connected with the heart by means of the 
pulmonary veins which bring the pure blood into the left auricle 
from the lungs. The pulmonary artery extends from the right 
ventricle to the lungs. The lungs form the purifying agents 
of the blood pumped by the heart around the body, and loaded 
with the carbon dioxid, after which the heart receives the purified 
blood, again to be pumped around the body. 
117. (a) The very fine, hairlike blood vessels that connect the 
arteries with the veins, and thus enable the blood to make a 
complete circulation. They are the finest branches of each 
terminal artery, and form a fine network all over the body. The 
walls of these are so thin that the oxygen and nutriment easily 
pass through while the waste passes into the blood and is carried 
along for ejection by the proper organs, (b) The functions of 
the capillaries are: (1) to connect the veins with the arteries; 
(2) to allow the oxygen and the chyle to pass through to the 
tissues; (3) to permit some plasma to escape to keep the supply 
of serum sufficient; and (4) to allow the white corpuscles to 
escape and help kill the germs and carry along the waste matter 
from the tissues. 
118. The blood vessels are named according to their location 
and function: e. g., the hepatic are those of the liver, the renal, 
those of the kidneys, the cardiac, those of the heart, the radial, Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
81 
those along the radius, and the mesenteric, those of the intestines. 
119. (a) The lymphatics are minute vessels forming, in many 
parts of the body, a thick network, and uniting to form larger 
trunks and ducts. These vessels are found in the many spaces 
that exist among the tissues and organs. The work of the 
lymphatics is to return to the veins sufficient blood to make up 
for the quantity lost by the oozing from the capillaries. Any 
substance injected beneath the skin is taken up by the lymphatics 
and spread rapidly through the system. This is the reason for 
the quick working of the vaccine germs, hypodermic injections 
and the poisons of the snake family. Fig. 14. 
(b) The thoracic duct. See answer 77. 
120. Pressure on the lymphatics due to the forcing of the blood 
in the capillaries, the flexion of muscles, the rubbing of parts, 
any exercise or massage, will cause the lymphatics to push along 
their contents. 
121. Course of the blood: Right auricle, right ventricle, pul- 
monary arteries, lungs (capillary system), pulmonary veins, left 
auricle (Pulmonary Circulation) ; left ventricle, aorta, capillary 
networks in all parts, venae cavae, right auricle (Systemic Circula- 
tion) ; capillaries of spleen, pancreas, stomach, intestines, portal 
vein, capillaries of liver, hepatic vein, inferior vena cava, right 
auricle (Portal Circulation). 
122. The blood circulates through the larger arteries ten times 
as rapidly as through the very small ones; in the capillaries the 
flow is less than one-five-hundredth as fast as in the large aorta. 
This of course is estimated in the person who does a normal 
amount of work and exercise. With greater energy the flow is 
increased because of the greater consumption of oxygen. 
123. (a) A hemorrhage is the flow of blood caused by the 
bursting or breaking of some blood vessels, (b) By means 
of a ligature or a tourniquet. Usually if the bursting is of a 
small vessel, the fibrin in the blood will cause a clotting, but 
where the wound is larger, mechanical means must be adopted. 
A pressure of the finger will often cause the flow to stop; if 
not that, then the members or region near the hemorrhage must 
be constricted so that the blood vessel must be closed and the 
blood will be prevented from continuing its flow. 
124. It is evident that good health depends upon the con- 82 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
tinuous normal flow of the blood and the functioning of this 
important fluid. If then, any tight clothing is worn, there will 
be a compression of the blood vessels and the circulation will 
not be normal. Tight corsets, tight garters, tight hat bands, 
all of these prevent the normal flow of the blood. Then too, a 
moderate amount of exercise should be indulged in in order 
to make sure that the blood will flow normally. It is a good 
thing to quicken the flow of the blood by some rapid, fairly 
strenuous exercise, as this will in a large measure keep the 
lymphatics clear. 
125. The arteries of the skin become enlarged, and the face 
becomes red due to the large amount of blood that is sent to the 
surface. Then too, the body may become colder, because the 
heat of the blood near the surface is carried off so quickly, when 
it should be conserved. As a result we find that alcoholics do not 
and cannot stand the cold weather. Fatty degeneration of the 
heart, apoplexy, paralysis, considerably reduced vitality to fight 
the infectious diseases, result. 
126. William Harvey, in 1619. 
127. Tobacco both quickens and enfeebles the heart. In 
habitual users, it gives rise to undue palpitation of the heart, 
this palpitation being so extremely rapid at times. In other 
cases, the effect is a weakening and depressing of the heart 
action. 
128. Heart disease is an ailment that should be prevented by 
all means. Overindulgence in exercise, overstimulation by means 
of liquors and narcotics, etc., should be avoided, lest fatty degen- 
eration of the heart, valvular diseases, etc., may result. Care 
should be taken not to indulge in the so-called heart disease cures 
that are advertised by patent medicine venders. Owing to the 
gradual weakening of the system due to increasing old age, some 
form of heart disease is prevalent among persons of sixty years 
or over, but it should be carefully avoided in the younger aged. 
Intense application to business is a frequent cause among those 
between thirty and fifty years of age. A moderate amount of 
food, plenty of rest, and the care of a physician are the requisites 
in all cases. Not only is there considerable loss of life each year 
as a result of cardiac diseases, but the economic loss to the 
nation is considerable. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
83 
129. (a) Bone is a hard dense tissue composed of calcium 
salts and organic materials, forming the principal portion of the 
human skeleton, (b) Protection of the internal organs, support 
of the body, and allowing of bodily movement. The red blood 
corpuscles are manufactured in the red marrow of the long 
bones and others. Fig. 19. 
130. Bone is composed of both animal, or organic, mattter 
and mineral matter, the latter chiefly carbonate and phosphate 
of calcium or lime. The mineral matter may be shown by 
burning a bone for a time in a hot fire, when the animal 
matter will be consumed and nothing but the mineral ashes will 
remain. By placing a bone in strong acetic, nitric or hydro- 
chloric acid diluted, the mineral matter will disappear in solu- 
tion while the spongy animal matter will remain. 
131. Bone consists of two parts, the outer compact or hard 
bone, and the interior spongy cancellous bone. The whole 
bone is covered with a tough membrane called the periosteum, 
which allows of the attachment of the muscles and tendons, 
and renews the portions of bones that are removed as a re- 
sult of operation. In the middle of the shaft of the bone is 
the medullary canal which is filled with white fatty marrow. 
A cross section of a bone will show, when magnified, numer- 
ous small holes called Haversian canals, through which the fine 
blood vessels and nerves run. The canals are surrounded by 
lacunae which are filled with cells nourished by the blood that 
escapes from the Haversian canals. Fig. 19. 
132. Cartilage, or gristle, is a tough white substance, the 
forerunner of bones, and is gradually changed into bone as 
the child grows older. The cartilage also serves to connect the 
ends of bones to their shaft until about the seventeenth or 
eighteenth years. 
133. (a) The skeleton is the bony and ligamentous frame- 
work of the body. (b) It gives firmness and strength to 
the body and provides for the covering by means of the 
muscles and the skin. Fig. 15. 
134. The three parts of the skeleton are: (a) the skull, 
or bones of the head, numbering 28; (b) the trunk with its 
THE BONES AND THE SKELETON. 84 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
FLAT BONES OF THE SKULL 
-THE CRANIUM 
NASAL BONES' 
-SUPERIOR MAXILLARY BONES 
■MALAR (CH EEK) BONE 
•INFERIOR MAXILLARY BONE 
-SPINAL COLUMN.CERVICAL ntCIOH. 
■clavicle(collar bone) 
SHOULDER BLADE 
■HUMERUS 
-SPINAL COLUMN LUMBAR RE3I0N 
■SACRUM 
''META- 
CARPUS 
-FEMUR 
metatarsus 
Fig. 15. 
Bones of the Skeleton. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
85 
54 bones; and (c) the limbs, the upper extremities, 64 bones, 
and the lower extremities, 60 bones. 
135. The Bones of the Skeleton. 
I-The Head (28 bones). 
1-The Skull (8 bones). 
1 frontal (forehead). 
1 occipital (back of head). 
2 parietals (side of head). 
2 temporals (temples). 
1 sphenoid (wedge shaped). 
1 ethmoid (through which the branches of the 
olfactory nerve pass to the nose). 
2-The Face (14 bones). 
2 nasal (the bridge of the nose). 
2 malar (check bones). 
2 lachrymal (forming a part of the orbit). 
2 palate. 
2 turbinated (one on each side of the outer wall 
of the nasal cavities). 
2 upper maxillary (jaw). 
1 lower maxillary. 
1 vomer (separating the nostrils). 
3-The Ears (6 bones). 
Malleus (mallet). 
Incus (anvil). 
Stapes (stirrup). 
II-The Trunk (54 bones). • 
1-The Spinal Column (26 bones). 
7 cervical (neck) vertebrae. 
12 dorsal (back) vertebrae. 
5 lumbar (small of the back, or loin) vertebrae 
Sacrum. 
Coccyx. 
2-The Ribs (24 bones). 
12 on each side; the upper seven being the "true" 
ribs, and the lower five, the "false" ribs. 
3-The Hyoid (supports the base of the tongue). 
4-The Sternum (breast). 
5-The hip bones (2). 86 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
Ill-The Limbs (124 bones). 
1-The upper limbs (64 bones) 32 in each of the 
upper limbs). 
2 clavicle (collar). 
2 scapula (shoulder-blade). 
2 humerus (arm). 
2 ulna (forearm). 
2 radius (forearm). 
16 carpals (wrist). 
10 metacarpals (palm). 
28 phalanges (3 in each finger, 2 in the thumb). 
2-The Lower Limbs (60 bones, 30 in each of the 
limbs). 
2 femur (thigh). 
2 patella (knee-pan). 
2 tibia (leg). 
2 fibula (leg). 
14 tarsals (instep). 
10 metatarsals. 
28 phalanges (2 in the great tde, 3 in each of the 
others.) 
136. Bones are divided, according to shape,-into five classes: 
(a) flat bones, as the ribs, the shoulder blades; (b) the long 
bones, as those in the legs and the arms; (c) the short bones 
found in the wrist and the ankles; (d) the irregular bones, 
including the sphenoid, and the vertebrae; and (e) the sesamoid 
bofies, like the patella, formed in the region of joints by fric- 
tion or pressure. 
137. Hollow bones are stronger than solid bones and do not 
buckle or bend, thus giving added strength to the skeleton. 
138. The bones of the child of five are composed largely of 
gristle, and therefore, when the child falls, it does not sustain 
any fractures; while the bones of the adult are made of 
calcareous matter, and a hard blow against them will cause a 
fracture. 
139. "The power of bone to resist decay is remarkable. . . . 
The teeth resemble bone in their structure, but resist decay 
longer. . . . The bones differ at different ages, and under dif- Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
87 
ferent social conditions. In the disease called 'rickets,' quite 
common among the ill-fed children of the poor in Europe, there 
is an inadequate deposit of the mineral substance, rendering 
the bones so flexible that they may be bent, almost like wax. In 
females and weak men the bones are light and thin, while in a 
powerful frame they are dense and heavy. Exercise is as neces- 
sary to the strength of bone as to the strength of muscle; if a 
limb be disused, from paralysis or long sickness, the bones lose 
weight and in strength as well as the soft parts. Bone is said to 
be twice as strong as oak, and, to crush a cubic inch of it, a 
pressure equal to 5,000 pounds is requisite." 
140. Cartilage, or gristle, consists of round or oval cells, 
imbedded in a matrix, which varies in the three forms of 
cartilage found in the body. They are (a) hyaline, found on 
the articular ends of bones, and the cartilages of the nose and 
the larynx; (b) white fibro-cartilage, found in the disks be- 
tween the vertebrae; and (c) yellow fibro-cartilage, which 
differs from the other two in structure, and which is found 
chiefly in the external ear. 
141. Bones increase first in length by ossification, the cartilage 
growing in advance of the ossifying process; and second in cir- 
cumference by deposition of new bone from the deeper layer of 
the periosteum. 
142. (a) A fracture is a break in a bone, (b) A compound 
fracture is one in which the ends of the broken bone protrude 
through the skin, (c) A dislocation is the forcing out of place, 
forward, backward, or to a side, of a bone, (d) A strain re- 
sults from the stretching or tearing of the ligaments of a bone, 
(e) The sprain differs from the strain only in its severity. 
143. Because of the fact that they are not bone, but gristle, 
and easily bend or assume different shapes, the load carried by 
children should be very light. Infants should not be permitted 
to walk until they are about eighteen months or two years of 
age, and sufficient bone has developed in their legs and thighs 
to sustain the weight of their bodies. 
144. Tuberculosis of the bones is caused by the tuberculosis 
germ finding lodgment in the bone and multiplying rapidly. 
Curvature of the spine and hunchback may be the result of the 
consumption of bone. Rickets is found in children whose diet 88 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
has consisted almost entirely of milk, so that but little calcareous 
matter has been deposited in the body. 
145. See answer 131. 
146. See answer 135. 
147. It is very important that the contents of the skull be 
protected as much as possible, since it contains the most im- 
portant organs in the body, the brains, the seat of all intelli- 
gence. Therefore, it should have the greatest protection. This 
is afforded by the rounded shape of the skull, the round bones 
forming the skull being much stronger than flat bones. The 
rounded skull can bear hard blows much better than can flat 
bones. The joining, the suturing, also adds strength. 
148. The bones of the skull are dove-tailed together by what 
are called sutures, such suturing making the bones fixed with 
relation to one another. 
149. See answer 135. 
150. See answer 135. 
151. See answer 135 and Fig. 15. 
152. See answer 135. 
153. The spinal column, or "backbone," or axis, consists of 
twenty-four small bones, called vertebrae. These unite below 
with the sacrum, which forms the base of the pelvis, and upon 
which the weight of the body rests; joined to the lower end 
of the sacrum is the coccyx, also a small bone. The vertebrae 
are divided into three classes; the first is the neck, and contains 
the seven cervical vertebrae, another the dorsal twelve vertebrae, 
to which the ribs are attached, and the third five lumbar verte- 
brae, forming the "small of the back." Figs. 16, 20. 
154. (a) The dorsal bones are those vertebrae to which the 
ribs are attached, (b) Twelve, numbered from top downward, 
(c) The first seven pairs of ribs are joined to the breast bone, 
the sternum, by pieces of costal cartilage, thus forming the 
body arch. The eighth, ninth, and tenth pairs are each joined 
by cartilage to the cartilage of the rib preceding, and the last 
two pairs are free in front, thus giving that peculiar shape, 
open bottom, of the rib cavity. 
155. The ribs are twenty-four in number, arranged in twelve 
pairs, though there is sometimes a thirteenth pair, and some- 
times only eleven pairs. For the joining of the ribs to the Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
89 
Fig. 18. 
The Bones of the Foot. 
Bones of the Trunk and the Spinal 
Column (side view). 
Fig. 16. 
End of a Long Bone, cut 
Lengthwise. 
Fig. 19. 
Fig. 17. 
The Skull Bones: 
1, Frontal 2, Parietal; 3, Tempo- 
ral; 4, Sphenoid; 5, Malar; 6, 
Lachrymal; 7, Nasal; 8, Upper 
Maxillary; 9, Lower Maxillary. 
Fig. 20. 
A Vertebra. 
Section of Skin. 
Fig. 21. 90 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
sternum see the preceding answer. The last five pairs are 
sometimes called the false ribs; the last two pairs being called 
floating ribs because of the absence of joining. All the ribs 
are articulated to the spinal column, and have considerable 
freedom of motion, rising and falling in breathing. They in- 
crease the chest cavity when they rise, because they are brought 
more nearly at right angles to the backbone. Tight lacing 
makes the ribs more curved and shorter, thus lessening the 
size of the thoracic cavity and allowing of less chest expansion. 
The ribs with the muscles covering them form a valuable pro- 
tection for the important organs of the viscera. 
156. The pelvic arch is the arch surrounding the pelvis, or 
pelvic cavity. The pelvis consists of the sacrum, the coccyx, 
and the two innominata bones. The sacrum, so called because 
it was the sacred bone used in sacrifices, consists of five solidly 
united and modified vertebrae. The coccyx consists of four 
loosely joined vertebrae, modified in form. In early life the 
innominata are composed of three bones, the ischium, or seat- 
bone, the pubes, and the ilium, or hip-bone. The place where 
these three unite is in the form of a deep cup which makes a 
socket for the head of the femur. 
157. Horse-riding by young ladies, the oblique position in 
writing, the use of the sewing-machine, the certain attitude 
required in many of the games and sports, the use of high- 
heeled boots and shoes by young women and children, because 
they throw the body too far forward; the "forward 
attentive" position and attitude of children in the schoolroom, 
the carrying of heavy packages, and of too many school-books, 
because they all tend to throw the body out of the natural 
poise. 
158. (a) Cartilage, or gristle, is that whitish substance seen 
at the ends of the bone when a fresh joint is opened. All bones 
are at an early stage cartilage, but the kind of cartilage seen 
in the joints and some other parts of the body never changes 
into bone, and is, therefore, called permanent cartilage. The 
cartilage at the ends of the bones renders the movements of the 
joint very easy, and acts as a cushion, (b) The ligaments 
are bundles or bands of fibrous tissue, pliable, elastic, very 
strong, connecting the bones at the joints in a manner similar Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
91 
to the hinges on a door. They vary from the very thin and 
ribbon-like to the thick heavy bands, or cords. Some pass from 
one bone to another, while others surround the joint as with 
a cap. They are unyielding, so that, when violence is brought 
to bear in the vicinity of a joint, the bone may be broken, while 
the ligaments is uninjured. When the material is strained or 
lacerated by an accident, a sprain results, very often as seri- 
ous as the fracture of the bone, (c) Tendons are fibrous bands 
or cords by which muscles are usually attached to the bones, 
or other muscular attachments. Tendons may be distinguished 
from nerves, which they resemble so much, by their pearly white 
glistening appearance and their strength. (d) The synovial 
membrane is a thin membrane making a compressed closed sac, 
moistened by a colorless liquid, similar to the white of an egg, 
and called the synovial fluid. 
159. (a) A joint is the point of union of two or more bones. 
It is also called an articulation, (b) The joints of the cranial 
bones, the cranial sutures, are immovable, that is the bones 
joining there cannot be moved; while the movable joints are 
found mostly in the limbs where the greatest freedom of motion 
is required. The most completely movable joint is the ball and 
socket joint, as illustrated in the hip and in the shoulder. In the 
mixed joints the motion is produced not by the gliding or the 
turning of one bone on the other, but by'both bones being 
fastened to a very strong cartilage, which, in yielding, permits 
of motion. These mixed joints are found in the vertebrae. 
160. The ball and socket joint, found in the shoulder and in 
the hip; the gliding joint, seen in the wrist and in the ankle; 
the hinge joint, in the elbow and in the knee, and the pivot 
joint, the joining of the atlas and the axis. It is to be noticed 
particularly that where the greatest freedom of motion is re- 
quired, we have the ball and socket joint, and that the joint 
is suited in all cases to the kind of movement necessary. 
161. See answer 160. 
162. See answers 349, 350, 351, and 352. 
163.'"It is probable that alcoholic drinks and narcotics do not 
affect bone growth and development directly, but since they in- 
terfere with the proper nourishment of all parts of the body, 
it is a natural consequence that the bones will suffer from this 92 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
deficiency in nourishment. It is a known fact that the use of 
alcohol or of drugs arrests the development of the body. 
164. Hold the head erect with the chin somewhat near the 
neck; expand the chest in front; throw the shoulders back, 
keeping them the same height on both sides; maintain the 
natural curves of the spine. Do not get into the habit of 
lounging or slouching while sitting. Watch your posture in 
writing, in reading, in sitting in a chair or on a bench with or 
without a back. 
165. The bone is a living tissue, it is a growing part of the 
body, and needs proper nourishment, rest, and exercise like 
all the other organs and tissue of the body. Good food, fresh 
air, proper exercise, not lifting too many or too heavy weights, 
all of these will aid in the development of a good, strong 
skeleton. 
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 
166. (a) The muscles are organs composed of contractile tis- 
sue or lean meat, (b) Through their contraction locomotion 
is afforded; they give shape to the body, and they protect the 
internal organs, (c) Their contractility, that is they may be- 
come shorter in length and thicker at the same time. 
167. (a) Voluntary muscles are those that will act as a result of 
an act of the will, (b) The involuntary muscles are those that 
cannot be controlled by the will, but which act as the result 
of some internal stimulus. 
168. The involuntary muscles are often called striated or plain 
muscles, because of the shape and appearance of their cells. 
They are found in all the internal organs and in the skin, where 
they are beyond the control of the will and perform their work 
when they have the right stimulus. They are reddish pink 
in color, surrounded by a transparent membrane attached to the 
adjacent muscles. The fibers, which are the important con- 
stituent of the muscles, have the shape of long rods, varying in 
length from about an eighth of an inch to about two inches, 
and are so fine that a dozen would not be as thick as a black 
hair. Between these fibers are the arteries, capillaries and veins 
for the purpose of supplying oxygen and food. Fig. 25. 
169. Voluntary muscles, those that act as an expression of the Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
93 
will, are connected with the bones, and also with cartilages, liga- 
ments, skin, and other structures. This connection is made 
either by muscular tissue or by means of white, firm tendons, 
or sinews. The voluntary muscles are made up of bundles of 
fibers, each fiber tightly enclosed in a structureless membrane 
called sarcolemna, very elastic and allowing of the free move- 
ment of the fiber. The several bundles of fibers are surrounded, 
as is also the entire muscle, by connective tissue, holding all the 
fibers and bundles together in one muscle. A muscle fiber of 
a voluntary muscle, under the microscope, is shown to have alter- 
nate dark and light cross stripes; voluntary muscle is, therefore, 
also known as striped, or striated muscle. Fig. 24. 
170. (a) The part of the skeleton or bone to which the inner 
end of the muscles is attached is the origin, while (b) the inser- 
tion is that to which the outer end is fixed, (c) Tendons, or 
sinews, are the extremities of muscles, and are firmly fastened 
upon the bone. They are very strong, and of a silvery whiteness. 
They may be felt just beneath the skin, in certain parts of the 
body, when the muscles are being used, as at the bend of the 
elbow or knee, (d) Tendon of Achilles. 
171. Muscles occur in one, two, and even three layers over 
the bones. They are attached to bones, either directly or by 
means of a tendon or white cord which runs along the entire 
muscle. There are about 400 voluntary muscles in the human 
body. 
172. Muscles are divided, according to their function and 
action, as follows: (a) flexors, as on the palm side of the hand 
and the arm, the back of the leg, which bend the limb; (b) the 
extensors which have the opposite kind of action and, therefore, 
lie on the opposite side; (c) the abductors, which pull a limb or 
parts outward, and (d) adductors, which perform an action 
opposite to that of the abductors, seen in the breast muscles; 
(e) the sphincters, which are round muscles around the mouth 
and the eyes. 
173. One's appearance and countenance depend upon the action 
of the various features of the face. These depend upon the 
actions of the muscles that control the eyes, the mouth, the 
nose, etc. Frowning, pouting, crying, or any other act indulged 
in often, trains the muscles that cause a certain expression, and 94 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
Fig. 22. 
Fig. 23. 
Posterior View. 
Muscles of the Body (superficial layer). 
Front and Side View. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
95 
Fig. 22 
E, extensors of the hand. 
B, biceps muscle, flexor of arm and forearm. 
D, deltoid, raises the arm and moves it backwards and forwards. 
TRA, trapezius, draws back and raises shoulder. 
TRI, triceps, extensor of forearm. 
LD, latissimus dorsi, assists in respiration by moving the ribs. 
GM, gluteus maximus, moves the thigh backward and outwards. 
VE, vastus externus, extends the leg. 
B, biceps of thigh, flexor of leg. 
G, gastrocnemius, extends the foot. 
F, flexors of the foot. 
TA, Tendo Achillis. 
E, extensors of the hand. 
F, flexors of the hand. 
B, biceps, etc. 
D, deltoid, etc. 
PM, pectoralis major, draws the arm forwards and inwards. 
P, pronator, rotates forearm inwards. 
SM, serratus magnus, assists in respiration. 
RA, rectus abdominis, that makes tense the abdominal walls. 
TF, tensor femoris. that makes tense the connective tissue of thigh, and 
moves the thign outwards. 
S, sartorius, flexes the leg. 
AD, adductor group of thigh muscles. 
RF, rectus femoris, one of the group of extensor muscles of thigh. 
TA, tibialis anticus, moves foot forward. 
ET, extensors of the toes. 
Fig. 23 96 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
these muscles become habituated to perform these actions on 
the slightest stimulus. Fig. 26. 
174. Exercise strengthens the muscles, reduces the amount of 
fat, makes them strong and well developed, and gives fine shape 
to the body. The action of the muscles generates energy, causing 
the oxygen to be used up and requiring replenishment of oxygen, 
and, therefore, a good circulation of the blood. 
175. Occipito-frontalis, temporals, masseters, buccinators, orbi- 
tals. Sterno-cleido mastoid and trapezius. Figs. 23, 26. 
176. The chest muscles (pectoralis major and minor), the 
broad of the back (latissimus dorsi), the rib muscles (the inter- 
costals), the diaphragm, the abdomen (rectus abdominalis), 
obliquus externus and internus, transversalis, the loins (lum- 
burum), the vertebral (erector spince). Fig. 23. 
177. (a) The shoulder (deltoid), the arms and forearms (biceps 
and triceps), the hand and fingers (flexors and extensors), pro- 
nators, and supinators. Fig. 23. 
(b) Glutei, iliac, psoas, rectus, vastus externus and internus, 
sartorius biceps, gastrocnemius, tibialis. Fig. 23. 
178. Pushing and punching the bag, pushing the ball, raising 
weights, pulling weights, bending the body till the floor is 
touched, rising on tip toes, stretching the arms upward, bending 
the knees, lying on the back, swinging the arms in a circle, etc. 
179. Massaging consists of pinching, squeezing, pressing the 
muscles, kneading the muscles in such ways as to cause a greater 
and freer circulation of the lymph and the blood. The circula- 
tion is stimulated, greater amount of oxygen consumed, more 
oxygen required, and a healthier flush appears. 
180. The will, drugs, electricity, mechanical means. 
181. The nicotine in the tobacco causes the involuntary muscles 
of the small blood vessels to contract, thus shutting off the nour- 
ishment intended for the growth and development of the muscles. 
182. Alcohol changes the muscles into fat, making them flat 
and flabby, and not chemically strong enough to perform their 
usual functions. 
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. 
183. (a) Breathing is the process of inhaling the air into the 
lungs and expelling it after it has made the circuit around the Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
97 
body. Those processes, collectively, by which the system receives 
oxygen, and expels from the system the carbon dioxid due to the 
chemical changes going on in the body, (b) The carrying of 
the oxygen to the various regions of the body and the expulsion 
of the poisonous carbon dioxid. 
184. The nasal passages, the pharynx, the larynx, the trachea, 
and the lungs. Figs. 27, 28, 29, 30. 
185. The nasal passages are the two channels within the nose, 
separated by means of the nasal septum; they open behind at 
the upper and back part of the mouth. These channels are lined 
with a mucous membrane in which are glands that secrete 
the mucus. The mucus, with the small hairs that line the nos- 
trils, serves for the purpose of purifying the air that is inhaled 
through the nostrils, so that none but clear air is inhaled through 
the windpipe. Nerves of smell lead to the special cells in the 
membrane, making the nose the special organ of smell. The 
nasal duct permits the tears to escape without running down the 
cheek after having performed the function of bathing the eye-ball. 
186. Back of the tongue, and formed by the union of the nasal 
passages and the mouth, is a large cavity, called the pharynx. 
The pharynx is connected with the middle ear by means of the 
eustachian tube. The a?sophagus and the larynx open from the 
lower part. The tonsils are found there on either side of the 
root of the tongue. The soft palate and the hard palate are in 
the back of the mouth, just in front of the pharynx, from the 
former of which hangs the uvula into the pharynx. Fig. 30. 
187. The larynx is formed of two large pieces of cartilage and 
several small ones, just top of the windpipe. The thyroid, form- 
ing the Adam's apple, projects from the large cartilage. Within 
the pharynx are numerous cells with slight projecting cilia, whose 
work is to restrain the germs and dust from passing down into 
the windpipe. The glottis is a narrow slitlike opening from the 
pharynx into the larynx, with the epiglottis attached in front of 
it. Fig. 30. 
188. The vocal cords are the folds of lining membrane of the 
larynx opening of the glottis, these cords being rendered more 
or less taut by muscles. 
189. (a) Voice is caused by the stretching and contraction of 
the vocal cords and the passing of the air through the orifice 98 
Anatomy Physiology and Hygiene. 
Fig. 25. 
Involuntary Muscle (fibres sepa- 
rated to show structure and 
form). 
Fig. 24. 
Voluntary Muscles. . 
Fig. 27. 
Muscles of Expression or Muscles of Face. 
Fig. 26. 
Organs of -the Chest: 
A. The Lungs; B. the Heart; D, the 
Pulmonary Artery; E, the Trachea. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
99 
made by these vocal cords, causing them to vibrate. When the 
vocal cords are stretched the opening is very small. The longer 
the cords, the less frequently they vibrate when the air rushes 
out between them, and the lower the voice. For this reason 
women have shriller, higher voice. The pitch of the voice 
depends upon the number of vibrations per minute, measuring 
from 144 in a bass voice to 1,980 per second in the highest note, 
five and a half octaves above, (b) The loudness of the voice 
depends upon the force with which the air is expelled through 
the larynx. In whispering the opening is so wide that there is 
almost no vibration of the cords. The quality of the voice 
depends not only upon the force of the expulsion of the air, but 
also upon the shape of the mouth, pharynx and larynx. 
190. (a) The trachea, or windpipe, is a tube about four inches 
long and one inch in diameter, extending from the larynx to near 
the center of the chest. Here it divides itself into two parts, 
called the bronchi, which branch out and help form the lungs. 
Figs. 27, 28. 
191. The lungs are two spongy masses, formed from the bron- 
chi and their tubular branches, there being two of them, the 
right being slightly larger than the other. The apices of the 
lungs lie just back of the collar bone, their bases resting on the 
diaphragm. The pleura is a thin membraneous covering of the 
lungs. The bronchial tubes, or the branches of the bronchi, end 
in groups of air spaces or air sacs. Figs. 27, 28, 29. 
192. The act of breathing has two parts, (a) the inspiration, 
or taking into the lungs the fresh and purer air, and (b) the 
expiration, or breathing out of the impure air. In the former, 
the chest extends in its length, breadth, and height. The down- 
ward motion is caused by the pushing out of the internal dia- 
phragm. With every inspiration the diaphragm contracts, and 
becomes almost level, thus enlarging the capacity of the chest. 
193. The air enters the lungs through the nose or the mouth, 
by atmospheric pressure caused by the enlargement of the cav- 
ity of the chest, either by the descent of the diaphragm or be- 
cause of the elevation of the ribs, which, in the former case 
makes the chest wider, and the chest deeper in the latter case. 
The lungs expand with the chest and the air rushes through 
the trachea, filling the enlarged lungs. In the expiration the 100 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
diaphragm returns to its former position, the elastic walls of 
the thorax recoil, the elastic lungs recoil, the intercostals con- 
tract, and the ribs become depressed, thereby causing the chest 
to become narrower and shallower. The abdominal muscles con- 
tract, and the abdominal organs press on the under side of the 
diaphragm, and the air is forced out through the trachea. 
194. The inspired air and the blood are not in contact, as they 
are separated from each other by the walls of the air-cells and 
the blood-vessels. The interchange takes place because of the 
property of the moist animal membranes, which enables them to 
transmit gases through their substances. This is known as gas- 
eous diffusion. The walls of the cells and vessels offer no obstacle 
to this process. 
195. Breathing consists of the inhalation, or breathing in, and 
the exhalation, or breathing out. Breathing is at the rate of 
about fifteen times per minute. Exercise increases the rate, the 
more violent and strenuous the exercise the greater the rate; 
while in sleep the breathing is much slower. The breathing, of 
course, depends upon the consumption of oxygen by the tissues 
and organs, the consumption being considerably less during sleep 
and rest than during exercise and work. 
196. (a) During ordinary calm respiration, we breathe eighteen 
times per minute, allowing the passage of twenty cubic inches of 
air to pass in and out of the lungs with every breath. In other 
words, more than ten pints of air is taken in each minute. This 
is equivalent to about thirteen cubic feet, or seventy-eight gallons, 
per hour, (b) The lung capacity is the difference between the chest 
measurement after the deepest exhalation and the chest circum- 
ference after the deepest and most forced inhalation. A more 
accurate measurement may be made by filling a two-gallon jar 
with water, turned bottom upward, and breathing into the water 
filled jar and displacing the water with the exhaled air. The 
amount of water displaced from the jar will accurately measure 
the amount of lung capacity; that is, after the deepest inhalation 
after following the deepest exhalation. 
197. The three diseases which more commonly affect the lungs, 
as the result of exposure, are pneumonia, or inflammation of the 
lungs, affecting, principally, the air-cells; bronchitis, an inflam- Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
101 
Section of the Air-Cells. 
Fig. 29. 
Larynx, Trachea and Bronchial 
Tubes. 
Fig. 28. 
Fig. 32 (Leidy). 
Mode of branching of nerves.- 
1, 2, two bundles of nerve fibres; 
3, a branch of three fibres; 4, 
branch of two fibres; 5, 6, 
branches of single fibres; 7, de- 
cussation between two nerves. 
See Answer 256. 
Fig. 30. 
A, Tongue; B, Uvula; C, Vocal 
Cord; E, Epiglottis; L, Larynx; 
N, Trachea; O, Oesophagus. 
Nerve cells from spinal cord. 
Fig. 33 (Gray). 102 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
mation of the large bronchial tubes; and pleurisy, an inflamma- 
tion of the pleura, or outside wrapping of the lungs. Among 
the young, an inflammation of the trachea takes place, known 
as croup. 
198. As in the circulation of the blood, tight clothing will com- 
press the blood vessels and thus cause a constriction and hinder 
the free respiration. The compressing of the abdomen by means 
of corsets, etc., results in the reduction of the air space in the 
abdomen. 
199. (a) Sneezing is the forced expiration through the nos- 
trils. (b) Hiccoughing is the sudden inspiration due to the sud- 
den contraction of the diaphragm, (c) Coughing is a forced 
exhalation in which the larynx is opened wide, (d) Whistling 
is due to the puckering of the lips as to cause a vibration of the 
air within the mouth, (e) Snoring is due to the vibration of the 
soft palate and the tongue, the air passing partly through the 
mouth and partly through the nostrils. 
200. Shortness of breath may be due to heart disease or to the 
diseased condition of the lungs. 
201. Good breathing implies the presence of sufficient pure 
air. Good breathing is opposed to taking into the lungs the air 
which has just come from them or from the lungs of someone 
else. The amount of air in bedrooms during the night should 
never be less than the amount required during the day time, 
about 2,000 cubic feet of fresh air per person per hour. If this 
amount is provided per person during the sleeping hours, there 
would be fewer cases of colds, pneumonia, and especially con- 
sumption. 
202. Schaefer's method of artificial respiration consists of pull- 
ing the tongue forward in order to favor the passage ef the air 
along the base of the tongue into the windpipe and then drawing 
the arms away from the sides of the body and upward, so as to 
meet over the head, by means of which the ribs are raised (ex- 
pansion of the chest) by the chest muscles running from them to 
the arms near the shoulder. A vacuum is thus created in the 
lungs, and the air rushes in; the blood is then purified by the 
passage of the impure gases in the blood vessels to the air, and 
by the giving up by the air of a portion of the oxygen to the 
blood. The arms are now brought down to their original posi- Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
103 
tion near the sides, and the elbows made almost to meet over the 
"pit of the stomach." This produces the contraction of the chest 
walls and the expulsion of the impure air from the lungs. These 
two movements cause one act of respiration, and should be per- 
sisted in, without interruption, at the rate of about sixteen per 
minute. The tongue may be held forward by means of a handker- 
chief or dry cloth. This may continue for as long as an hour 
and thirty minutes in order to bring on normal and natural 
breathing. 
203. That the lungs should be exercised is self-evident. This 
may consist of inhalation and exhalation made deliberately, with 
gradual and slow light beating of the chest with the hands or 
the fists. The chest should be thrown out and the shoulders 
back during the exercises. 
204. The various diseases of the respiratory system should be 
carefully guarded against, as their results may be fatal. The 
mouth should be kept closed in cold weather or in the face of a 
wind, the air that is breathed in should be clean; that is, breath- 
ing should be, as far as possible, through the nostrils. Inflamma- 
tion of the membranes of the organs of the respiratory systems 
should be taken in hand at once, as the various germs find ready 
lodgment there and multiply most rapidly. The usual and com- 
mon diseases of the respiratory system are pleurisy, pneumonia, 
catarrh, influenza, croup, diphtheria, bronchitis, and tuberculosis. 
See answer 197. 
205. Adenoids are spongy growths frequently occurring in the 
back of the nasal cavities of children, interfering with the cir- 
culation of the blood to the brains, and causing mouth breathing 
and indistinct speech. A number of the common ailments and 
much poor work of school children are attributed to these, and 
the best thing that can be done is to remove them. The symptoms 
of the presence of adenoids are open mouth, prominent eyeballs, 
nasal speech. 
206. Alcohol first causes an increased warmth on the surface 
of the body because the capillaries are dilated and the stimula- 
tion causes more blood to flow to the surface. The lungs and the 
mucous membranes become affected in like manner, and respira- 
tion is increased, causing the quick heavy breathing of the 
alcoholic drinker. The reaction, however, soon takes place, and 104 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
the surfaces lose their heat by radiation and the respiratory or- 
gans cannot keep up their usual work, with the result that gen- 
eral depression occurs. The capillaries of the lungs are en- 
larged with this condition, and respiration cannot be normal. 
207. The heat and gases resulting from smoking dry the mu- 
cous membranes and irritate the throat, nasal passages and 
larynx. Frequently indistinct speech, due to the chronic husky 
voice, is the result 
208. See answer 203. 
209. One-fifth oxygen, four-fifths nitrogen, with varying pro- 
portions of carbon dioxid, vapor of water, nitric acid and organic 
matter. 
210. (a) The plants and vegetables are the great oxygen pro- 
ducers. They absorb the carbon dioxid that is breathed out, 
and with the aid of the sun they produce oxygen in great excess 
of what they themselves need. The excess is the source of the 
oxygen for mankind. 
211. The air is full of dust and germs. After a rain, these are 
absent for about an hour. The air over the mountains and the 
ocean is almost pure. 
212. Decayed foods or other matter give off gases that cause 
bad odors and are the breeding places for germs of great harm. 
These odors are foul. Foul air in cellars or mines contains more 
carbon dioxid than the body can inhale and suffocation is the 
result. Foul air arising from cesspools or sewers does not contain 
germs, as a general rule, but it does have a suffocating and very 
harmful gas. In mines, carbonic acid gas forms the fateful 
choke-damp, while carburetted hydrogen is the fire-damp. 
213. Night air is far purer than the day air because of the 
purification due to the settling of the dust on the surface of the 
earth. However, the air is considerably cooler than the day air, 
and the body should be kept warmer if one is to sleep in open 
air or to have night air pouring into the room. Sleeping in 
night air is one of the aids in the cure of tuberculosis. 
214. Mountain air is purer than air nearer the surface of the 
earth because of the absence of germs and dust. Moreover, there 
is a greater amount of vegetation on the mountains than in the 
lowlands, comparatively, and there is consequently a greater pro- 
duction of free oxygen. The air on the mountains is rare, and Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
105 
the lungs have to exert themselves more as a result in order to 
furnish a sufficient supply to the body. 
Seashore air has a certain tang to it, whether because of the 
greater percentage of ozone in the air or because of some free 
elements that are found in the seaweed and other marine vegeta- 
tion, is not known; but certain it is that the air is exhilarating. 
Hay fever and bone tuberculosis are relieved at the seashore. 
215. Ventilation is the arrangement of providing for the pass- 
age out of the impure respired air and the intaking of the 
fresher pure air. 
216. Ventilation should always be provided for, at all seasons, 
and in all climates. The air in a room should at no time be both 
dry and too hot or too cold. If the air is too cold, then cold may 
follow. If the air is too warm, the body becomes too warm and 
cold or the grip may be the result on leaving the room. The 
temperature in a room should be between 65 and 68. During the 
winter months the air should be slightly warmed when taken in, 
if that is possible, but it should be seen that the air in the room 
so taken in is not absolutely dry, as this condition may cause a 
drying of the mucous membranes of the nose and the throat, with 
consequent irritations. Cold air being heavier than warm air, 
the cold air that is taken in near the floor or at the bottom of the 
window opening should be deflected toward a heater without 
causing a draft. Two or three windows in a room, pulled down 
from the top to allow of the egress of the warmed respired air, 
and raised a few inches at the bottom to permit of the ingress 
of the fresh air, afford excellent ventilation. A slanting board 
close to the sill and slanting upward and inward, deflecting 
thereby the current of incoming air inward and upward, will 
prevent drafts. 
217. Besides carbon dioxid, the respired or exhaled air con- 
tains ammonia gas, from the oxidation of the nitrogenous sub- 
stances within the body, and considerable organic matter, giv- 
ing the foul odor to respired air when confined. 
Air that has been breathed out by a person contains about 
eighty parts nitrogen, sixteen parts of oxygen and four parts of 
carbon dioxid, which have displaced four parts of oxygen taken 
by the blood. There is also a small amount of solid matter 
which, when decomposing in a room that is not ventilated, causes 106 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
the odors of an unventilated room. The air that is exhaled is 
also warm and moist, showing that the body has lost some heat. 
The heat in a room that is crowded and not ventilated is caused 
by the heat in the respired air. 
218. Breathe into a glass tube containing lime water. The lime 
water will become cloudier with each breathing, showing that the 
carbon dioxid acts upon the lime, causing the formation of car- 
bonate of lime. 
219. Proportion of carbon dioxid in 1,000 parts of air: 
Country air 4 
City air 5 
Fairly ventilated school air 1.2-2.5 
Air in court-houses, factories, etc 4.0-40.0 
In closed bedroom 5.0 
Aired bedroom 1.5 
Occasionally breathed, causing discomfort 3.0 
Occasionally breathed, distressing 10.0 
Exhaled air 40.0 
Absolutely poisonous 100.0 
220. The evil effects of impure air are: dullness and drowsi- 
ness, faintness, heaviness, oppressed nervous state, all due to the 
impoverished condition of the blood. Certain diseases of the 
lungs, as consumption, or tuberculosis, asthma, etc., are the direct 
result of impure air breathed in almost continuously. 
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM. 
221. Wastes are those substances that are given off by the body 
in its various processes as being of no further value to it. Car- 
bonic acid gas, urine, perspiration or sweat, are some of the 
waste products. 
222. The kidneys are the organs that give off the waste urine. 
They are two small, round organs, lying against the posterior 
surface of the abdominal cavity, one on either side of the spinal 
column, just below the diaphragm. The renal artery, coming 
direct from the aorta, divides into thousands of branches and 
branchlets, each of which ends in a very tiny ball of capillaries. 
These carry the urine to the inner edge of the kidney, from which 
organ it goes to the pelvis and then to the ureter. The ureter is Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
107 
a tube connecting the kidneys with the bladder, a sac slightly 
larger than the fist. 
See Fig. 10. 
223. In the blood coming to the kidneys there is much water, 
mineral matter, and waste flesh, called urea. Due to the pressure 
of the blood, the water, salts, waste, are passed into the kidney 
tubes, and from there to the pelvis, ureter, and bladder. The 
cells of the kidney prevent any nutriment from passing through 
them, allowing only the harmful waste to continue on the jour- 
ney. No errors are made in the selective work of the kidneys, 
unless they are overworked or affected by disease. 
224. (a) The more water one drinks the more the kidneys 
excrete, and therefore, the more waste urea is passed out of the 
system. Water acts as a carrier and flushes the kidneys. In 
rheumatic troubles, in constipation, or in clogging of the lower 
bowels, the water has the most effective and beneficial results. A 
person should drink at least a quart of water daily, (b) Bright's 
disease is an inflammation of the kidneys due to the escape of 
some of the albumen from the blood into the urine. It is some- 
times caused by alcoholic drinking. 
225. The skin is made up of two layers, the outer, epidermis, 
cuticle, or scarf-skin, and the inner, cutis, or true-skin. The two 
layers are closely united, but in a burn, they may be seen apart. 
The cuticle is the thinner in most parts of the body, and has the 
appearance of a whitish membrane. It is tough and elastic, has 
no feeling, and does not bleed when cut. It is composed of min- 
ute flat cells, closely compacted, and arranged layer upon layer. 
This skin is pierced by a hundred or more tubes to the square 
inch, the tubes leading from the sweat glands. The epidermis is 
constantly worn out, and falls from the body in scales, these 
being dead cells; and in the scalp, they form the dandruff. It is 
constantly renovated from below, the new cells forcing the older 
cells to the surface. The cutis lies beneath the epidermis, and is 
its origin and support. It is very sensitive, firm, and elastic, and 
is freely supplied with blood-vessels and nerve-endings, these 
being located in the ridge-like papillae. See Fig. 21. 
226. The functions and uses of the skin are six in number: (a) 
it is a covering and protector for the external surface of the 
body; (b) it is an organ of sensation; (c) it is an organ of 108 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
excretion; (d) it helps to regulate the temperature of the body; 
(e) it is an organ of absorption; and (f) it is an accessory 
organ of breathing. 
227. (a) As a protective covering, the skin is thick and strong 
on those parts of the body most subject to pressure and fric- 
tion, as in the palms of the hand, the feet, etc., and thinner 
in the armpits, under the knees, etc., where motion or greater 
elasticity is required. When covered with hair, it forms an espe- 
cially strong protection. (b) Being abundantly supplied with 
blood-vessels, and nerve-endings, it is the seat of the sensations 
of touch and temperature. The sensibility of the skin is greatest 
on the pulp of the fingers and the front of the body, and least on 
the back and in the middle of the limbs. The value of this sen- 
sitiveness is seen in the many different occupations. 
228. (a) As an organ of excretion it is of the greatest help. 
During illness, where the kidneys will do little or no work, the 
effort is made to excrete by means of the perspiration. The 
wastes in perspiration are water, carbon dioxid, fatty acids, 
ammonia salts, etc. (b) The bodily heat is due to the activities 
of the various organs, making the internal general temperature of 
the body 98 4-5 degrees F. Loss of heat is due to contact of the 
body with anything cold, by radiation, and through the excre- 
tions ; but the due regulation of the bodily temperature depends, 
in part, upon the elimination of the watery vapors by the lungs, 
but mainly upon the perspiratory functions of the skin. The con- 
stant evaporation through the skin tends to keep the body in 
equilibrium as regards the temperature. 
229. (a) The skin takes up and passes through it into the 
lymphatics and capillaries, certain substances with which it may 
come into contact. Certain drugs that are injected by means of 
the skin, the rubbing in of oily and other medical preparations, all 
of these prove the efficacy of the skin as an absorbing medium. The 
evil effects of some of the occupations are seen in the absorption 
by the skin of the poisonous materials used in these occupations, 
(b) The skin absorbs a small quantity of oxygen, and gives out a 
larger amount of carbonic acid gas, doing about one-fortieth to 
one-fiftieth of the respiratory work. 
230. Senses of touch and temperature. 
231. Pressure or friction of the skin continued in for a long 
time results in the thickening of the epidermis. A blister or a Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
109 
corn will be produced. A blister may also be due to the irrita- 
tion of the skin by means of a mustard plaster or any other irri- 
tating substance. A corn is the result of the continued thicken- 
ing of the epidermis until it reaches down and presses on the 
cutis. 
232. There are about two million sweat glands distributed in 
the lowest layers of the cutis, being most profuse in the fore- 
head, the palms of the hand, and the soles of the feet. These 
coiled tubes lead to the pores in the skin, and give forth the per- 
spiration, or sweat, about a quart being excreted by an adult in a 
day under ordinary circumstances. During the warmer weather 
the amount of sweat excreted is greater; heat and work will also 
increase the amount. For the composition of sweat, see answer 
to 228 (a). The sweat serves to regulate the temperature of the 
body, affords a means of excretion accessory to the excretory 
work of the lungs and the kidneys. 
233. The sebaceous, or oil glands are present wherever hair 
occurs. Each gland opens by a duct near the top of the sac 
inclosing the root of the hair. Its secretion is an oily fluid 
which keeps the hair soft, and the skin pliable. Gentle massag- 
ing, rubbing, or pinching will increase the flow from these min- 
ute glands. 
234. The hair is a modified form of the cuticle. It is found, of 
greater or less length, on almost all parts of the skin, except 
the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. The bulb, or 
root, of the hair is lodged in a tiny sac or follicle of the skin. 
The shaft is the part that grows above the skin. Its growth is 
in one direction, in length alone. The outer part of the hair is 
quite firm, while its interior is softer, and supplies the nutriment 
by which it grows. In health, the hair is more glossy than at 
times of illness. The color of the hair is due to the pigment, or 
coloring matter, secreted in the central portion of the hair. 
235. (a) Baldness is due to the falling out of the hair, (b) 
Dandruff is the dry, dead cell matter, which is loosened from the 
skin, (c) Washing the scalp thoroughly with soap and soft 
water, drying it thoroughly after the washing, rubbing the scalp 
well with a fairly hard bristle brush to keep the blood in circula- 
tion, application of a good, reliable hair tonic in moderate 
amounts and not too often, all of these will tend to preserve the 110 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
hair. The advertisements that state that baldness will and can be 
cured are fraudulent, as no substance or method will cause the 
hair to grow. 
236. (a) In the deeper cells of the cuticle lies a pigment, or 
coloring matter. It is on this that the complexion of the person 
depends. Its presence, in greater or less quantity, in one color, 
hue, or shade, causes the differences in complexion that exist 
among peoples and races. Freckles are due to the irregular 
increase of this coloring matter. The sun has a marked effect on 
the pigment of the skin, (b) The complexion is an index to the 
health of the person in a great many cases. The yellow com- 
plexion tells us that the bile flows into the blood, instead of being 
secreted. The pasty complexion tells us that there is an irregular 
condition in the stomach or some other organ. Redness in the 
face is a marked index of the too frequent use of alcoholic bev- 
erages. (c) Wash the skin with soap and water frequently, keep 
the pores of the skin open, exercise actively to cause the steady 
circulation of the blood, massages, etc., drinking water and 
lemonade and avoidance of alcoholic drinks, etc. 
237. The nails are modifications of the epidermis, identical in 
formation, but peculiar in appearance and manner of growth. 
The nail rests in a "matrix," which is a fold of the dermis, par- 
ticularly rich in papillae, from which the nail cells are produced. 
When nails are destroyed, new ones will be formed if the matrix 
is uninjured. Nails are a support and a defence to the ends of 
the fingers and toes, and assist in the picking up of small objects, 
and, if healthy and in good condition, add comeliness to the parts 
to which they are attached. The health of the nails is affected 
by local or general diseases. 
238. The main value of the hot bath is its cleansing property, 
while the cold bath is tonic in effect. The hot bath should be 
taken twice a week, and the body thoroughly and cleanly washed. 
The proper time for a hot bath is at night, just before retiring, 
as the heat draws away the blood from the head, and makes the 
brains less active and is apt to induce sleep. The bath should 
not be taken after a meal, as the digestive process requires all 
the help from the blood. The cold bath should be from about 
sixty-eight to seventy-eight degrees. The most favorable time 
for this cold bath is immediately after arising in the morning or Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
111 
after exercise. It should not last more than a minute or two, 
and should be followed by a brisk rubbing down. Sea bathing is 
even more invigorating and tonic in effect, because of the immer- 
sion of the body into the salt water, and the activity required. 
The sun bath should not be indulged in too long or too often, 
or in the too strong rays of the summer sun. 
239. The extensive use of cosmetics for the complexion is a 
fertile source of disease. The use of hair-dyes that contain poi- 
sonous or filthy and otherwise harmful ingredients should be 
avoided, as they rob the hair of its vitality. Soap and water are 
the best agents for the complexion and the scalp. 
240. The chief use of the clothing is to maintain a regular tem- 
perature on the surface of the body, and thus, to prevent sickness. 
The essential requirements of clothing are lightness, proper ven- 
tilation, and warmth. These three qualities of clothing will 
necessarily depend upon the person, as some are warmer 
blooded than others, and do not require such heavy clothing; 
while others are cold-blooded and cannot tolerate light clothing. 
The question of wearing too much or too little clothing is one for 
the individual himself to answer. The practice of exposing the 
limbs and necks of children is questionable and in many cases 
extremely hazardous. Clothing should be changed before retir- 
ing and on awakening. The day clothes should be aired during 
the night, and the night clothes and bedding aired during the 
day. Wet clothes should, under no circumstances, be worn any 
longer than is absolutely necessary. 
241. Clothing that is often worn requires a texture that will 
permit the air to circulate through it, or should be so arranged 
that air will pass beneath it. Tightly-woven and close-fitting 
clothing and impervious rubber outer garments do not permit the 
circulation of the air. Color in dress is no unimportant con- 
sideration, besides being a matter of taste. Dark colors, black, 
blue, etc., are considered the best for cold weather, while the 
lighter colors, white, gray, lavender, etc., are desirable in warm 
summer days. Care must be taken in the dyeing of the textiles, 
as many of the dyes contain or require for their fastening on the 
textiles poisonous materials. 
242. Woolens are the best textiles as far as warmth is con- 
cerned, because they retain the heat and the moisture longer, 112 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
thereby preventing the sudden cooling of the body from rapid 
evaporation. Hence, flannels and merino are the best woolen 
garments. Silk is the next most suitable material, especially for 
undergarments. Cotton, and then linen, come next in order. 
243. Of cloth of different material exposed to the sun's rays- 
White Cotton received 100° F. of heat. 
" Linen received 98° F. of heat. 
" Flannel received 102° F. of heat. 
" Silk received 108° F. of heat. 
Of shirtings of different colors so exposed- 
White received 100° F. 
Pale straw color received 102° F. 
Dark yellow received 140° F. 
Light green received 155° F. 
Dark green received 168° F. 
Turkish red received 165° F. 
Light blue received 198° F. 
Black received 208° F. 
244. Alcohol enlarges the arteries and capillaries of the skin, 
makes the face red, and in cold weather the increased amount of 
heat on the surface of the body is rapidly radiated, leaving the 
body cool. The skin gets a rough, blotched, ruddy appearance. 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
245. A perfect nervous system allows the harmonious co-opera- 
tion of the bodily organs and systems; a disordered nervous sys- 
tem causes a derangement of the various systems, and, conse- 
quently, does not permit perfect control and the proper combina- 
tion of the various organs for the working toward a definite end. 
246. That part of the general nervous system concerned with 
the animal functions is called the cerebrospinal, or central nerv- 
ous system, because it comprises the brain, the spinal cord, and 
the nerves emanating from it. The other, the sympathetic nerve 
system, regulates the vegetative functions. Fig. 31. 
247. The brain and spinal cord are the managers and directors 
of the actions and deeds of the human body, that is, the willed 
acts and deeds. They direct the other organs as to the amount 
of the work to be done, and the time to do it. Fig. 31. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
113 
248. The brain is a pulpy-looking mass loosely filling the skull, 
the outside of which is folded and wrinkled. The two parts are 
the cerebrum, or brain proper, and the cerebellum, or little brain, 
lying just back of and beneath, the cerebrum. The brain is 
securely fastened in the skull and protected by three membranes, 
the outermost one, the tough dura mater, the middle arachnoid, 
and the innermost tender pia mater. The pia mater carries the 
blood vessels, and dips down into all the crevices and fissures. 
By means of nerves, the brain is in direct communication with 
all parts of the body. Figs. 31, 34, 35, 36. 
249. The cerebrum is the most important part of the brain, 
and is divided incompletely by longitudinal fissure into two equal 
parts called hemispheres. The exterior of these hemispheres is 
gray in color, consisting chiefly of nerve-cells, arranged so as to 
form a layer of gray matter one-fifth of an inch in thickness, and 
is abundantly supplied with blood-vessels. The interior of the 
brain, however, is composed almost wholly of white substance, or 
nerve-fibers. The surface of the cerebrum is divided by a consid- 
erable number of winding and irregular furrows, about an inch 
deep. The sections are connected at the base and with the other 
parts of the brain. Each hemisphere is divided into five lobes. 
The two other fissures are the fissure of the Sylvius, above the 
ear, and the fissure of Rolando, extending from the crown 
obliquely forward and downward. Figs. 31, 34, 35, 36. 
250. The cerebellum is almost as large as a fist, and lies back 
of and above the medulla. Its surface is deepened by cuts or 
sulci. The surface of the cerebellum is composed of gray mat- 
ter, and its interior chiefly white matter. It has, however, no 
convolutions, but is subdivided by many parallel ridges, which, 
sending down gray matter deeply into the white, central portion, 
give the latter a somewhat branched appearance. In size, this 
cerebellum, or "little brain,'' is less than one-eighth of the cere- 
brum. Several bands of nerve fibers connect it with the spinal 
cord and the other parts of the brain. The pons Varolii is the 
middle part of one of these, and appears flat on the lower side 
of the brain. The cerebellum is the seat of co-ordination. When 
it is injured co-ordinated actions cannot take place. Figs. 31, 
34, 35, 36. 
251. The medulla oblongata is a stem or bulby stem joining the 114 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
A Back View of the Brain and of the Spinal Cord and its Branches. 
Fig. 31. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
115 
higher parts of the brain with the spinal cord. The medulla 
oblongata gives rise to all the cranial nerves, except the nerves 
of smell and of sight, besides conducting the sensory and motor 
influences. A portion of the medulla presides over the impor- 
tant function of respiration, and from it arises the pneumogastric 
nerve, whose branches serve both the lung and the stomach. 
Figs. 34, 35. 
252. The outer layer of the brain is composed of the gray mat- 
ter, called the cortex, and near the center are other masses of 
gray matter, while the rest of the brain is composed of white 
matter consisting of fibers of spherical cells. 
253. When a person has once performed an action a certain 
path has been made on his brain surface. Certain cells have been 
called into play. When that is repeated, the same set of cells are 
called into play, and the groove or channel of cerebral energy is 
deepened. Finally, this groove becomes so deepened that the 
person, as soon as the impulse arises, cannot do otherwise than 
perform the same action, because the set of nerve cells is ready 
to send out the nerve energy. This is habit. 
254. (a) The neuron is the true nerve cell, from which extend 
long processes called axones. (b) Some of the axones extend to 
the spinal cord and are nearly two feet in length. Ne'rve Ubers is 
another name for these axones. (c) The nerve fibers which 
cross from one side of the brain to another and connect parts of 
the same name are called commissures. The corpus callosum 
and the pons Varolii are two of the most important. Figs. 32, 33. 
255. The important spinal cord is well protected in the verte- 
bral column, being about the thickness of the small finger, and 
covered by several membranes similar to those of the brain. The 
spinal cord is divided into two halves practically by the anterior 
and the posterior fissures, which divide the cord incompletely. 
The interior of the cord is composed of the gray matter, while 
the exterior is composed of the white fiber matter. The gray 
matter is composed of the cell bodies, from which extend to the 
various sections of the body long axones that aid the nerves of 
the various regions. Figs. 31, 39. 
256. "If one lateral half of the spinal cord be cut, or injured, a 
very singular fact is observed. All voluntary power over the 
muscles of the corresponding half of the body is lost but the sen- 116 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
Fig. 34. 
Upper Surface of the Cerebrum. 
A, Longitudinal Fissure. B, The 
Hemispheres. 
.Fig. 36. 
The Base of the Brain. 
Fig. 35. 
Superficial Branches of the Seventh 
and the Fifth Pair of Cranial 
Nerves. 
Fig. 37. 
View of the Left Half of the 
Brain. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
117 
sibility of that side remains undiminished. This result shows 
that the motor fibers of the cord pursue a direct course, while its 
sensory fibers are bent from their course. And this has been 
proved to be the fact; for immediately after the posterior roots 
-the conductors of sensory impressions-join the posterior col- 
umns, they enter the gray matter of the cord, and passing over, 
ascend to the brain on the opposite side. Accordingly, the sen- 
sory fibers from the right and left sides interlace each other in the 
gray matter; this arrangement has been termed the decussation, 
or crossing of these fibers. This condition serves to explain how 
a disease or injury of the cord may cause a paralysis of motion 
in one leg, and a loss of sensation in the other. 
"The direction of the anterior, or motor columns of the cord, 
is downward from the brain. In the cord itself, the course of 
the motor fibers is for the most part a direct one; but in the 
medulla oblongata, or upper extremity of the cord, and therefore 
early in their career, these fibers cross from side to side in a 
mass, and not separately, as in the case of the posterior fibers 
just mentioned. This arrangement is termed the decussation of 
the anterior columns of the medulla. 
"From this double interlacing of fibers results a ckoss action 
between the original and terminal extremity of all nerve-fibers 
which pass through the medulla-namely, those of all the spinal 
nerves. Consequently, if the right hand be hurt, the left side of 
the brain feels the pain; and if the left foot move, it is the right 
hemisphere which dictates its movement. For the same reason, 
when a loss of sensation and power of motion affecting the right 
side of the body alone is observed, the physiologist understands 
that the brain has been invaded by disease upon its left side. 
This affection is termed hemiplegia, or the 'half-stroke.' The 
full-stroke, which often follows the rupture of a blood-vessel in 
the brain, is commonly called paralysis." 
257. The two great classes of nerves are (a) motor or efferent 
nerves, which convey the will messages of the brain outward to 
the peripheral organs and cause the organs to act, and the (b) 
sensory or afferent nerves, which carry the messages and warn- 
ings or sensations to the spinal cord and the brain. Both of these 
nerves are often found bound together, but each performs its 
separate duties. 118 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
Section (front view) of Spin-al 
Cord, with Roots of Spinal 
Nerves. 
Fig. 39. 
Fig. 40. 
Front View of the Right Eye. 
1. The Lachrymal, or tear gland, 
lying beneath the upper eyelid. 
2. The Nasal Duct is shown by 
the dotted line. The * marks the 
orifice in the lower lid. 
The central black spot is the 
pupil; surrounding It is the iris; 
and the triangular white spaces 
are the visible portions of the 
sclerotic. 
Diagram of pneumogastric nerve, 
with its principal branches.- 
1, pharyngeal branch; 2, supe- 
rior laryngeal; 3, inferior laryn- 
geal; 4. pulmonary branches; 5, 
stomach; 6, liver. 
Fig. 38. 
C, The Cornea 
A, The Aqueous Humor 
I, The Iris 
P, The Pupil 
L, The Crystalline Pens 
H, The Ligament of the Lens 
B, The Ciliary Process 
V, The Cavity containing the Vit- 
reous Humor 
S, The Sclerotic 
Vertical Section of the Eye. 
Fig. 41. 
Ch, The Choroid 
R, The Retina 
N, The Optic Nerve 
DD, The Eyelids 
X, The Levator Muscle of the Up- 
per Lid 
Y, The Upper Straight Muscle of 
the Eye 
Z, The Lower Straight Muscle. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
119 
258. A ganglion is an aggregation, or group, of nerve cells. 
Each ganglion is, in some respects, a little brain. The spinal 
ganglia receive a sensory impulse and send out a motor dispatch 
without calling upon the brain at all. This is called reflex action. 
259. The spinal cord not only conveys sensations to the brain 
and receives from it the motor impulses, but it also arrests cer- 
tain other sensations and originates motor impulses; it reflects 
them into movement by its own power. This is what is called 
reflex action. This is noticed by the person only after the action 
or deed has been performed. For example, if the foot of a per- 
son soundly asleep be tickled or pinched, it will be quickly with- 
drawn from the irritation. The raising of the arm to ward off 
a blow is another illustration of reflex action. The reflexes are 
of the greatest importance to our self-protection. 
260. Only after they have occurred. 
261. The sympathetic nerve system consists of a double chain 
of ganglia on the sides of the spinal column and scattered gan- 
glia in the head, neck, chest, and abdomen. These ganglia are 
connected with each other by filaments, and with the central 
nervous system by motor and sensitive fibers. From these gan- 
glia numerous delicate fibers are distributed, chiefly to the ali- 
mentary canal and its appendages, the heart, blood vessels, and 
other organs whose actions do not depend upon the will. At vari- 
ous points of the system are plexuses, formed by the meeting of 
many of these fibers. The solar plexus, in the abdomen, is one 
of the most important. Shock or concussion of the sympathetic 
system causes death. 
262. The sympathetic nervous system controls, for the most 
part, the vegetative functions, circulation, digestion, respiration, 
so that ordinarily we have no conscious knowledge of the work- 
ings of these important organs. Yet there may be some slight 
disturbances of the system because of the connection between the 
two nerve systems. Emotional disturbances, unpleasant odors, 
sounds, may have a disastrous effect on the sympathetic system. 
263. These are very important and active. They protect the 
body by involuntary movements, regulating the so-called vege- 
tative acts, and take the place of the volition in the control of the 
voluntary muscles when the attention is turned to other matters. 
Speech, intimately connected with the act of respiration, cough- 120 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
ing, sneezing, winking, laughing, walking, sitting, other acts of 
daily life, are all the results of automatized reflexes, resulting 
from their habitual performance. Thus the mind is released 
from the charge of the ordinary mechanical acts of life, so that 
it may devote itself to nobler faculties. 
264. The function of the cerebellum is the direction of the 
movements of the voluntary muscles. Injury to any part of it 
leads to failure in executing orderly and regular acts, the person 
appearing to be in a state of confusion and intoxication. 
265. The cerebrum is the office or seat of the mind. All the 
other organs are subordinate to it. It is the seat of the willing, 
and the nerves are the messengers of its volitions. All the highest 
and loftiest actions of the mind, as well as the lowest, are the 
result of its volitions. 
266. The anterior roots of the spinal cord are concerned in the 
production of motion, while the posterior roots are concerned 
with sensation; in other words, the anterior are efferent, while 
the posterior are afferent. 
267. Some nerve-fibers convey power of motion, others of 
general sensation, others special sensations, and still others have 
the power of causing secretion; but with all this difference of 
function, there is no difference of structure or composition. 
268. The function of the nerve centers is to receive nerve 
impulses, to originate and impart nerve impulses, and to transmit 
these impulses from one center to another. 
269. There are thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves, consisting of 
both sensory and motor nerves. Each of these nerves is con- 
nected to the spinal cord by a dorsal root and a front ventral 
root. The dorsal root is the means of supplying the feeling, while 
the ventral root conveys the motion. 
270. The cranial nerves originate in the medulla oblongata, are 
twelve pairs in number and go to the various parts of the 
cranium. These nerves are round cords of glistening white 
appearance, and lie so well protected from injury. They are: 
(a) The olfactory nerves (sense of smell), the optic nerves (sense 
of sight), the oculomotorius (move the eyeballs), the pathc- 
ticus (controls the action of the superior oblique muscle of the 
eye), the trigeminus (great sensitive nerve of the face), the 
abducens (controls the external straight muscle of the eyeball), Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
121 
the facial nerves (motor nerves for superficial or expression 
muscles of the face), the auditory nerves (to the internal ear 
only), the glossopharyngeal (control sense of taste and the act 
of deglutition), the pneumogastric (go to the pharynx, oesopha- 
gus, stomach, liver, intestines, the larynx, trachea, lungs, and 
heart; control respiration and digestion), the spinal accessory 
nerves (supply control over the vocal cords, muscles of neck 
and the chest), and the hypoglossal nerves (control the motions 
of the tongue). 
271. "A nervous fiber which ends in the skin forms, as far as 
its union with the brain or cord is concerned, one long, fine, 
unbroken thread. The fibers, thus ending in the skin, very soon 
join to form small branches, and finally in thick nerve trunks, 
but in no case do two nerve fibers coalesce so as to lose their 
identity. Every part of the skin has its own separate connections 
with the center of the nervous systems, which unite there just as 
telegraph wires unite at a terminus. The brain is the terminus 
of these lines of nerves, and, as it were, receives and explains 
the messages sent to it. It distinguishes very clearly by what 
particular fiber such a message has come, and just as the clerk in 
a telegraph office, where a great many wires meet from all sides, 
knows by experience from what direction each wird brings its 
message, so the brain also knows by experience what part of the 
skin is involved when a sensation reaches it along a certain nerve 
fiber. It is probable that the brain, by its imaginative faculty,' 
has formed a complete picture of the surface of the body-a kind 
of chart slowly made, and always being more highly perfected, 
by means of which, with each impression from without, there 
arises in the brain a picture of the spot upon the skin where the 
irritation has taken place. Now, if an irritation were to pass 
from one nerve fiber to another, it is very plain, the brain could 
not tell the place from which it came, and could not localize 
impressions received from the world about us." 
272. (a) Paralysis is the inability of a portion or region of the 
body to perform action due to injury to the cell bodies or the 
fibers, (b) Apoplexy is quick paralysis, usually due to the burst- 
ing of a blood vessel in the brain, or the formation of a blood clot. 
273. By observation on diseased persons, by observations on 122 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
diseased portions of the brain, by experimentation on persons and 
on animals. 
274. The brain is smaller in women than in men, because of 
the differences in the size of the bodies. The average weight of 
the male brain is fifty ounces, while that of the female averages 
44 ounces. The good mind, the active, big brain is usually big. 
However, the intellect does not depend so much upon the size of 
the brain as upon the development of the brain, that is by the 
number of convolutions, the gray matter surface. 
275. Just as a muscle or any organ becomes atrophied from 
non-use, and becomes stronger and has greater development with 
proper use, so with the brain. Thinking causes the blood to bring 
a greater amount of nourishment to the brain, because the brain 
then requires more blood. The more the brain is properly exer- 
cised, the greater is its development, and the stronger does it 
become, and the better fitted to continue with deeper thinking. 
276. The person that does considerable thinking, that consumes 
a great amount of nerve energy in his work requires the proper 
amount of sleep. The rest period allows the nervous system to 
recuperate its nervous energy. Adults should make it a point to 
sleep at least eight hours a day, the time of retirement being 
regular, and the same each night. One should not take drugs 
without the advice and consent of physicians. 
277. It frequently happens that on retiring a person thinks of 
a problem the solution of which is important to him. During 
the sleep the mind continues working without his consciousness 
and, on awakening, the person finds that the problem has been 
solved. That is, the cerebrum performs its work during his 
period of unconsciousness. This is called unconscious cerebration. 
278. Some of the evil effects of the smoking of tobacco on the 
nervous system are: nausea, vomiting, vertigo, weakness, and 
general debility. 
279. The habitual use of alcoholic drinks makes marked changes 
in the structure of the brain. It becomes harder and tougher 
than is natural, its cell elements waste away, a watery fluid fills 
the cavities caused by the shrinking of the substance, and the 
blood vessels show a weakened condition. As to the effects on 
the mind, the perceptions are bewildered, there is sleeplessness, 
loss of memory, weakened judgment and reasoning powers, and Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
123 
a benumbed and clouded moral sense. The most important ill 
effect is the loss of self-control, and, finally, insanity may be 
the end. 
280. The use of narcotics, such as opium, chloral hydrate, 
chloroform, or any other habit breeding drug is so generally 
harmful and disastrous in its effects that laws have been passed 
by the various State legislatures forbidding their sale without a 
doctor's prescription. The weakening of the system in general, 
the destruction of the fine nervous sensibilities, the craving for 
drugs and their habitual use, the gradual but certain self-poison- 
ing are the results. 
281. The internal or general senses which tell the individual of 
the condition of his body, as those of hunger, thirst, etc. The 
special or external senses, which result from sensations of the 
external, or special organs, are those of hearing, taste, sight, 
smelling, pain, temperature, touch. 
282. Sight, the eyes; hearing, the ears; touch, the skin; smell, 
the nose; taste, the taste buds; pain, the skin; temperature, the 
skin. 
283. The senses of the skin, often called touch, are those of 
pain, temperature, and pressure, and result from the stimulation 
of certain nerves ending in the skin. They are often called the 
cutaneous senses. 
284. (a) The sense of taste is located in the taste buds found 
in the mucous membranes of the tongue, soft palate, and other 
regions of the throat. These taste buds are connected by means 
of nerve fiber with the brain, (b) The sense of taste is aroused 
only when the stimulation comes from a liquid, that is when the 
substance is in the form of a liquid. Solids must be chewed so 
that the saliva will convert or help convert the food into liquid 
form. 
285. The sense of smell resides in the mucous membrane lining 
the upper nasal cavity. The organs consist of hundreds of col- 
umnar cells on each of which are six or eight hairlike processes. 
Every object that is smelt gives off tiny particles. The impinge- 
ment of these particles on these hairlike processes causes the 
stimulation to be conveyed by the olfactory nerves to the brain, 
which, interpreted, gives us the sense of smell. The closing of 
THE SENSES AND THEIR ORGANS. 124 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
the nostrils due to cold or other means will result in the tem- 
porary absence of smell. Odors to be recognized, must be pre- 
sented in gaseous or vaporous forms to the mucous membrane 
in the nostrils. 
286. (a) The eye is located in the front of the head or skull, in 
the orbital cavities, (b) The eyeball is held in place by means 
of four straight, recti, and two oblique muscles, the contraction of 
any one of which causes the eyeball to move. A contraction of 
the inner one causes the eyeball to be moved toward the nose, 
the movement of the outer one giving the opposite motion. The 
remaining four muscles give to it the other movements from top 
to bottom, side to side, etc. 
287. See Fig. 41. 
288. The eyebrows prevent the perspiration from running into 
the eyeball; the eyelashes prevent the dust from getting into the 
eyeball; the deep setting of the eyeballs and the overshadowing 
of the orbital bones are protection against the too strong rays of 
the light, against heavy blows, etc. 
289. The wall of the eyeball is composed of three coats, the 
outer or tough sclerotic coat, the middle or choroid coat, and 
the third inner coat, or retina. The cornea is the front portion 
of the sclerotic coat, the iris is the continuation of the choroid 
coat. 
290. (a) The retina is a very thin coat, as thin as tissue paper, 
very tender and pinkish white in color. It is composed of con- 
nective tissue and nerve matter, and is the outspreading of the 
delicate optic nerve, (b) The point of entrance of the optic nerve 
is insensible to light, and is therefore called the "blind spot," 
while from one-twelfth to one-eighth of an inch outwardly from 
this point in each eye is an oval spot (c) called the "yellow spot," 
or fovea, which is the most sensitive part of the retina. This 
spot is directly in the line of distinct vision. 
291. There are three humors or transparent media. The in- 
terior of the eyeball is divided into two parts or chambers by 
the most solid of the humors, the crystalline lens. The forward 
part, or anterior chamber between the lens and the cornea, con- 
tains the watery aqueous humor, while the jellylike vitreous 
humor fills the posterior chamber of the eyeball. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
125 
292. Light is the result of the rapid and numerous vibrations 
of the substance called ether, in waves. These waves give the 
various colors according to the rapidity and number of vibrations 
of ether aroused by the sun or any other natural or artificial 
luminous body make the impressions on the retina, which are 
conveyed by the fibers to the optic nerve, which conveys the sen- 
sation to the brain, where it is interpreted. Dark or non- 
luminous objects are seen only when they are able to reflect from 
many or all points on the exterior numerous rays of light which 
impinge on the retina. 
293. Light travels in straight lines that can be deflected out of 
their course by means of curved lenses. A double concave or 
double convex lens, that is the same curvature on each side of 
the glass or other crystalline object, will cause the rays of light to 
become so deflected that they will meet in a point, called the 
focal point, or focus. This is what happens when the straight 
rays of light from each point on an object seen by the eye, enter 
the eye. They are converged by means .of the crystalline lens 
and the vitreous humor, and made to meet all in the focus, the 
fovea, or point of acute vision on the retina. Fig. 42. 
294. (a) Myopia, or nearsightedness, is due to the fact that the 
rays of light are brought to a focus at a point nearer than the 
retina. Sometimes the eye is longer than normal from before 
backward, sometimes the lens or cornea is too convex. It may 
be remedied by wearing double concave glasses, (b) Hyper- 
metropia, or farsightedness, is exceedingly common among those 
over 45 years of age. It may be a result of the eye being shorter 
than normal from before backward, or the outer surface of the 
cornea or lens may be too straight. Convex glasses will help 
remedy this defect, (c) Astigmatism occurs when the eyes do 
not see all lines, or parts, of the object in the same plane, and 
the lines or parts become slightly blurred. It is due to the un- 
equal curvature of the cornea or lenses. It can be remedied only 
by an optician, who must test the eyes in order to prescribe glasses 
of the correct curvature. (Fig. 43.) (d) An eye perfectly formed, 
i. e., one in which the rays of light are made to converge to a 
focus directly upon the retina, is called an emmetropic eye. 
295. See answer 294. 
296. The eyes should always be kept clean and clear; they 126 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
should be washed frequently in plain cold water, or in a boracic 
acid solution, even though they are in good condition; young 
children, and even older people, should never read books that are 
printed in type smaller than 10 point Roman; the books or paper 
should be held at a distance of 12 inches from the eyes; fine 
print should be avoided; the light should always come from be- 
hind the left shoulder, never from in front; people should be wary 
of reading in rapidly moving vehicles; never read in a strong 
sunlight; always rest the eyes after a period of reading. When 
anything is wrong with the eyes, do not go to a quack, but go to 
a registered optician or oculist. 
297. (a) Color blindness is the inability of the person to dis- 
tinguish colors, particularly the colors red and green. Its cause 
is unknown, and it, therefore, cannot be cured. It may be due to 
the inability of the eye to absorb or allow to pass through the 
immense number of rapid ethereal waves in the colors red 
and green, (b) It consists in providing a large pile of worsteds 
of different colors, and requiring the person examined to select 
the skeins which resemble the sample shown by the examiners. 
This method is simple, rapid, and scientific, and requires no 
naming of colors, which is a frequent source of fallacy and con- 
fusion. Even the normal-eyed are often at variance about color 
nomenclature. By this method a hundred persons may be accu- 
rately examined in an hour, and without error. 
298. (a) Cataract of the eyes is due to the crystalline lens be- 
coming opaque, and unless taken in hand quickly, it may result in 
total blindness. The doctor should be the only one to prescribe 
in a case of this kind, (b) Trachoma is an imported foreign 
disease of the eyes, infectious in nature, and due to dirt. It is 
also called conjunctivitis, because it inflames the conjunctiva, and 
also as pink eyes. Persons afflicted with this disease should be 
placed under the charge of physicians, and should be compelled 
to use individual towels; these should not be washed with the 
towels of other persons. If neglected blindness may result. 
299. Lay your finger on the cheek, and draw the lower lid 
gently down, while the person looks as much upward as possible, 
and you will see about the whole extent of the lower portion of 
the conjunctiva. Thus, if any foreign substance is there, it 
will be readily detected, and easily wiped away with a folded soft Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
127 
rag or handkerchief. Both lids have a piece of cartilage in them 
to stiffen them, like pasteboard, and keep them fitting close to 
the eyeball. The upper portion of this conjunctival sac can only 
be seen by turning over the upper lid. The way to do this is to 
let the person look down with the eyes closed. Taking hold of 
the lashes with one hand, and applying a pencil, or some small, 
round, smooth object, over the lid above the globe, lift the 
lashes out and up, warning the person to still keep looking down. 
The lid will suddenly turn over with a little spring from the 
bending of the cartilage. In this way nearly the whole of the 
conjunctival sac will be exposed, and any foreign body wiped 
away, as above described. But suppose no friend or oculist is 
by us to do this. The next best thing is to take hold of the 
lashes of the upper lid, and draw it forward and downward over 
the lower one, blowing the nose violently with the other hand at 
the same time. 
If the foreign substance is on the cornea, take a strip of paper 
not stiffer than ordinary writing-paper, about a quarter of an 
inch wide, and roll it up as if you were going to make a candle- 
lighter. Look at the lower end, and you will see it comes to a 
point. With this point now you may safely attempt to remove 
any foreign substance from the cornea. The tears which will 
flow soften the paper, and prevent injury to the delicate covering 
membrane of the cornea. 
300. Light travels in straight lines at the rate of 186,000 miles 
per second. Each of these straight lines is a ray. Substances 
which permit the light to pass through them are transparent, 
while objects which absorb the light or reflect it without allow- 
ing any to pass through, are called opaque. 
301. They dull the senses and make changes in the sense organs 
themselves. They often injure the ears by inflaming the throat; 
they also affect the sight by causing a partial paralysis of the 
optic nerve, or an inflammation of the eyes and the lining of the 
lids. 
302. See Fig. 44. Certain letters of certain size are selected, 
these letters being clearly seen by the normal eye at the distance 
indicated by the figures over the letters. 
303. (a) The ears, (b) The external, the middle, and the 
internal ears, (c) The internal ear, because it contains the sacs 128 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
Fig. 42. 
The Retinal Image. 
Fig. 45. 
The Organs of Hearing. 
1, auricle; 2, opening of ear, show- 
ing orifices of sebaceous glands; 
3, external auditory canal; 4, 
semi-circular canals; 5, auditory 
nerve, with facial nerve; 6, mem- 
brana tympani, with the elastic 
fibrous membrane which forms 
its border; 7, tympanic cavity; 
8, tensor muscle of the tympa- 
num, the tendon being attached 
to the upper portion of the han- 
dle of the malleus; 9, upper por- 
tion of Eustachian tube. 
Fig. 43. 
A, parallel rays of light; E, em- 
metropic or normal eye, rays fo- 
cussing at proper point; H, long- 
sighted eye; M, short-sighted eye. 
Dr. Snelling's Test Types. - In order that read- 
ers may ascertain whether they have normal vision, a (partial) list of 
Professor Snellin's test types is subjoined. The figures over the letters 
indicate the number of feet at which the letters should be distinctly 
tegible^ 
1 ft. 8% In. 
2 ft. 6. in. 
ULHOEOTSFG 
8 ft 3^ In. 
FOECHSUTDL 
4 ft. 6 tn. 
ECLSTUFDOH 
8 ft. 1% in. 
St-FDCEUHTO 
t n. 
DFSEOLUHCT 
TCHDFSEULO 
Eustachian Tube, Showing the In- 
ternal Mechanism of the Ear 
(greatly enlarged). 
Fig. 46. 
Fig. 44. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
129 
that contain the terminals of the nerves of hearing. Figs. 45, 46. 
304. (a) The external ear is composed of the pinna, or lobe, 
and the inch long auditory canal, extending inward. Across the 
inner end of this canal is the tympanic membrane, (b) The 
cavity of the middle ear, or tympanum, or ear drum, contains air, 
which may pass in and out through the Eustachian tube leading 
to the throat. The three bones, the malleus, or hammer, the 
incus, or anvil, and the stapes, or stirrup, form a chain stretching 
from the tympanic membrane to another membrane closing an 
oval opening into the internal ear. (c) The internal ear, the 
labyrinth, consists of irregular cavities in the temporal bone con- 
taining membraneous sacs in which terminate the nerve endings. 
The three parts of the internal ear are the vestibule, the cochlea, 
and the three semicircular canals. The bony cavities are filled 
with a lymphatic fluid. The semicircular canals have nothing at 
all to do with the hearing, but they enable the body to maintain 
a balance and know its position, even with the eyes shut. The 
cochlea is a coiled tube in which is located the sense organ of 
hearing. Figs. 45, 46. 
305. The moving of an object, the striking of a hard object, 
the shooting of a gun, disturbs the air and causes it to move in 
waves. The movements of these waves of air cause the vibra- 
tions of particles of air which strike against the tympanum 
and the carrying of these vibrations by means of the chain of the 
three bones to the lymph of the inner ear. The waves in the 
lymph beat on the delicate part of the cochlea, and are conveyed 
through the hairlike processes to the auditory nerve, by which 
the stimulus or sensation is conveyed to the brain and the sound 
is interpreted. 
306. The ear should always be kept clean and clear. The 
waxy secretion for the purpose of keeping out insects and dirt 
may become too large, and should then be washed out, rather 
than removed by means of a hairpin, toothpick, or any other aid 
which may cause irreparable injury to the tympanic membrane. 
Hard objects such as pencils, sticks, etc., should for the same 
reason never be put into the ear. Avoid loud noises and extreme 
heat or cold. The ears of children should never be boxed. See 
307. 
307. Deafness is the result of the inability of the cochlea of the 130 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
inner ear to transmit to the brains the sounds which may be 
gathered by the pinna and the auditory canal, and the consequent 
inability of the brains to distinguish and interpret the sounds. It 
may result from a frequency of too loud sounds, from diseases of 
the ear, from a ruptured or torn membrane in the tympanum, 
from a cold in the head (temporary deafness), from inflamma- 
tions, chronic or temporary, from a box on the ear, etc. 
308. The best known and recognized test for deafness is by the 
use of a watch. Place a ticking watch at varying distances, 
where it cannot be seen by the persons taking the tests. Ask 
them to tell when they hear the ticking loudest and when it is 
lowest and least distinct. 
DISEASES. 
309. (a) Stimulants are those agents which increase or in- 
tensify the forces of the systems, particularly of the nervous 
system, (b) Narcotics are those agents which paralyze or depress 
the forces of the body, (c) A poison is any substance which 
taken into the system, by inhalation or otherwise, tends to de- 
stroy the vital force. The effects of stimulation and narcoticism 
may be produced by the same substance. The small quantity 
will usually exhilarate, while, if taken in larger quantities and 
with great frequency it will have the effect of a narcotic. If a 
narcotic is taken in very large quantity or with too great fre- 
quency, the narcotic becomes a poison. 
310. Opium, laudanum, morphine, codeine, coca, cocaine, chlor- 
oform, ether, and extracts from weeds or other plants. 
311. Opium is one of the most valuable drugs when in the 
hands of a physician, but one of the greatest curses when used 
by anyone else. It is one of the most seductive and dangerous 
of habit-breeding drugs. It is derived from the poppy flower, 
grown principally in India, Persia, and Turkey, and is bitter 
and disagreeable to the taste. It is either chewed or smoked in 
a pipe. Its tincture is known as laudanum. The first effect is 
a pleasurable, comfortable exhilaration of the system and is 
then followed by a period of stupor and depression. Sleep comes 
on with the most extravagant of dreams. On awakening the 
body is weak, the head aches, and the victim is nervous, irri- 
table, and not fit for any mental activity. Its use is one of the Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
131 
most despicable habits, and the most difficult to break away 
from. Each subsequent dose must be increased to produce the 
desired effect. With the continual use, the system is thoroughly 
undermined, and the habitue is a total wreck, physically, men- 
tally, and morally. 
312. Morphine is an extract of opium, in concentrated form. 
Its action is more powerful and much quicker. It is usually 
injected by means of the hypodermic syringe. Its use is just as 
vicious as the use of the opium, except when on prescription of a 
reputable physician. 
313. Coca, with its derivative, cocaine,-not to be confounded 
with the cocoa from which chocolate and cocoa are derived- 
possesses high narcotic qualities. It is derived from the leaves 
of a bush six or eight feet in height, from the leaves of which 
a tea is made. Its effects are not so serious as the opiates, but 
the use inculcates a habit that is particularly vicious. 
314. The use of chloroform and ether should be confined to the 
operating room or surgery. These narcotics or anaesthetics should 
not be found in the possession of the layman. Their discovery 
marked a wonderful advance in modern surgery, for they enable 
the surgeon to operate on his patient without any fear of inter- 
ruption through movement, or otherwise. The patient inhales 
the liquid vapors and then passes into a sound sleep, the effects 
of which pass off in a short time after the operation has been 
performed. But there is a growing tendency among certain 
classes of people to use these for the deadening of every slight 
ache or pain, and this induces a habit that is vicious. 
315. (a) Bacteria are the smallest one-celled plants. They are 
also called (b)microbes, and (c) germs. Minute one-celled ani- 
mals, invisible to the naked eye, are also called microbes and 
germs, (d) The mold is much larger, usually in threads, and 
does not divide in the middle to produce new plants. They 
vary in shape, being spiral, round, oval, rodlike, and likewise 
vary in size from 1/10000 of an inch to about 1/1000 of an inch 
in length. They exist solely on organic matter, which they help 
to destroy while getting their nourishment from it. The parasites 
feed on living organic matter, while the saprophytes live on dead 
organic matter. The action of the latter results in decomposition, 
putrefaction, or fermentation, while the former's activities result 132 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
in disease. The activities of the saprophytes is, in the main, 
beneficial, since the chemical compounds resulting from their 
work may enter into the composition of vegetable food. 
316. The three general forms in the more than one thousand 
kinds of bacteria now known, are (a) cocci, the spherical bac- 
teria, (b) bacilli, rodlike bacteria, and (c) spirilla, or curved 
bacteria. The bacilli are the commonest form, the spirilla, the 
largest. 
317. The favorable elements tending to produce bacteria are 
warmth, moisture, and food. The method of growth and de- 
velopment is to lengthen out slightly, and then to divide into 
two equal parts. The germs can divide so rapidly that in one 
day millions may be produced. Some of them can live for 
months in a dry state. 
318. Not all bacteria are injurious. Many of them are valuable 
in the conversion of one food into another. The souring of cream 
for churning, the flavoring of cheeses, the fertilizing of the soil, 
the making of vinegars, are the result of the work of microbes 
or bacteria. This process is called fermentation. Bacteria like- 
wise cause the decay of animal and vegetable matters necessary 
before the decayed matter can form a part of the soil. 
319. To prevent foods from spoiling or decaying they should 
either be put into a cold place or refrigerator, or should be 
boiled to overflowing and then covered with a substance like 
paraffine that will keep out the air. Substances or foods that 
have been canned should be taken out of their containers im- 
mediately on being opened in order to prevent ptomaine poison- 
ing. 
320. Infectious diseases, or diseases caused by germs, are the 
result of bacteria which make their way into the body and thrive 
unless they are driven out of the body, or destroyed by the white 
blood cells or the tissues of the body. Many of the bacteria are 
breathed in, others are taken into the system through food; many 
find lodgment in the body when it is weakened as a result of 
excesses. A break in the skin may permit bacteria to find lodg- 
ment. The microbes injure the body in two ways: they consume 
the living tissue, and they generate and give off poisons. 
321. Bacteria are the sole cause of disease. They thrive on 
living organic matter, and increase rapidly in number, and there- Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
133 
by cause the more rapid deterioriation of the living organism 
on which they feed. 
322. (a) Infectious diseases are those that are caused by germs 
or microbes, (b) Contagious diseases are infectious diseases 
contracted through the breathing in of the myriads of germs 
floating in the air in the vicinity of persons afflicted with these 
diseases. 
323. Louis Pasteur, who in 1876, made sure of the fact that 
each infectious disease is caused by a separate and distinct 
germ. 
324. 
Non-contagious: 
Appendicitis 
Blood Poisoning, 
Dysentery 
Hydrophobia, 
Lockj aw, 
Malaria, 
Peritonitis, 
Sleeping Sickness, 
Trichinosis, 
Yellow Fever. 
Contagious: 
Bubonic Plague, 
Chicken Pox, 
Cholera, 
Diphtheria, 
Grippe, Influenza, 
Infantile Paralysis, 
Leprosy, 
Measles, 
Mumps, 
Pneumonia, 
Scarlet Fever, 
Smallpox, 
Tuberculosis, Consumption 
Typhoid Fever, 
Typhus Fever, 
Whooping Cough. 
325. Time of Development and Duration of Infection. 
Name 
of 
Disease. 
Period 
of 
Incubation 
Eruption 
Appears. 
Duration 
of 
Infection. 
Small-Pox. .. 
, 12-14 days. 
2-3 day on face 
4-8 weeks or 
till scabs dis- 
appear. 
Chicken-Pox 
7-14 days. 
1-4 day 
3-4 weeks or 
till scabs dis- 
appear. 134 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
Name 
of 
Disease 
P^j^ Eruption 
Incubation Appears 
Duration 
of 
Infection 
Measles 
10-14 days. On forehead 
Av'ge 14 days, on 4th day of 
fever. 
From 3 days 
before eruption 
till scurviness 
is gone. 
Scarlatina. . 
1-7 days On trunk 2d 
day of fever. 
Till scurf is 
gone and 
throat well. 
Diphtheria . 
Membranous 
Croup. 
2-10 days. No eruption. 
Av'ge 2-5 days. 
From begin- 
ning till 3 weeks 
after throat is 
well. 
Whooping 
Cough 
2-10 days. No eruption. 
Av'ge 7 days. 
Till the 
"whoop" is 
gone. 
Mumps. 
15 days. No eruption. 
24 hours be- 
fore the swell- 
ing and for 30 
days after. 
Enteric 
(Typhoid) 
Fever. 
1-28 days. If any, spots on 
Av'ge 12 days, abdomen 
5-8 day of fever 
From begin- 
ning of disease 
till fever dis- 
appears and 
diarrhoea stops 
Typhus Fever. 
1-28 days. 5-8 day of fever 
From begin- 
ning and while 
fever lasts. 
Erysipelas. 
4-7 days. 
Av'ge 4th day. 
From begin- 
ning of redness 
till skin is 
clear. Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
135 
The "period of incubation'' is the time from exposure to 
disease to the appearance of its symptoms. The "duration of 
infection" is the time during which the disease is liable to be 
communicated to others. 
326. Milk is one of the most valuable and important of foods. 
It is the most perfect food, particularly for children. It is, there- 
fore, necessary that the milk supply be protected. If the milk 
is adulterated too much, if the milk is from cows that live on 
dirt and filth, if the food of the cows is unwholesome, if the 
dairies are in an unsanitary condition, then it is only too evident 
that the milk will be contaminated and illnesses of the most 
virulent types will follow. Cholera infantum and other intestinal 
and diarrhoeal diseases will result, with the usual fatal effects. 
327. The evil effects of alcoholism are so well known that 
they need barely be mentioned. Its effects on the various systems 
and organs of the body result in a decay in the tissue, in the 
functioning of the organs, in a general breakdown of the 
body. The body loses its vitality and is thus rendered incapable 
of fighting against the inhaled germs, until it finally succumbs 
to the ravages of the disease. Diseases of the liver, kidneys, 
blood vessels, heart, and nervous system result from the too 
frequent indulgence in beer, whiskey, or other alcoholic drink. 
The offspring of habitual drinkers of alcoholic beverages have 
weakened powers of resistance to bacteria disease. 
328. Prophylaxis is the prevention of disease. 
329. The three general methods of preventing infectious dis- 
eases are: (a) the destruction of the cause of the diseases; (b) 
the prevention of the spread of the disease germs; and (c) the 
developing in the body of some substance powerful enough to 
resist the attacks and ravages of the disease germs. 
330. If the causes of the diseases are removed or destroyed, 
then no diseases can follow. It is only a matter of about thirty 
years since the importance of the destruction of the causes of 
diseases became a matter of importance to the various health 
boards. With the aid of the national and state boards of health, 
and of the various departments that have in charge the removal 
of garbage, sewage, etc., with the powerful aid of the newspapers 
and magazines, the number of cases of diseases has been con- 136 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
siderably reduced due to the prophylactic steps taken to destroy 
the causes of infectious diseases. 
331. (a) A disinfectant is a substance which prevents infec- 
tion, that is, a substance which destroys germs, bacteria, or 
microbes, micro-organisms, (b) An antiseptic is a substance 
which prevents or checks decomposition or putrefaction, that is, 
a substance which prevents the multiplication of micro-organisms, 
(c) A germicide is a substance which kills or destroys germs, 
(d) A bactericide is a substance which kills or destroys bacteria, 
(e) A fungicide is a substance which destroys fungi or fungus 
growths, parasitic growths, (f) A deodoriser is a substance 
which by its own powerful odor, destroys foul, bad, or unhealth- 
ful odors, (g) Vaccination is the inoculation with modified 
virus-the agent for communicating an infectious disease-to 
produce a mild form of it and so prevent a virulent attack; 
specifically and originally, inoculation with cowpox as a pre- 
ventive of smallpox. 
332. Sunlight and fresh air are the great natural disinfectants. 
The decay and filth of the dark, damp cellar, are rendered harm- 
less when brought to the light and air. 
Thorough cleansing and proper disinfection of refuse are 
matters of great importance. But where infectious matter has 
accumulated, or when disease is in the neighborhood, rapid and 
thorough action is necessary. 
The most thorough disinfectant is fire. Fire destroys both 
the infection and the infected material. 
Boiling water and steam under pressure are both thorough 
and effective disinfectants. 
Milk of lime is a cheap and useful disinfectant where applic- 
able. It is made as follows: Take best quicklime in lumps, put 
in a pail, pour on one-third as much of water, cover closely and 
let stand until it is a fine powder or creamy fluid; one part of 
this to three of water will make a saturated solution. Add water 
in that proportion to the mixture, stir well and then pour on 
half tea cup of kerosene, which will protect it from the air and 
preserve its strength. Use the clear solution as needed, and the 
semi-solid matter can be made into whitewash, or thrown into 
privy, cess-pool or garbage barrel. 
Soap, especially soft soap, with hot water, is a cheap and very Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
137 
ready disinfectant, useful in cleaning floors, furniture, etc. Sul- 
phur fumigation is the only practical method of disinfecting a 
room and its contents. 
333. Hospitals and sanatoria have been established at private 
and public cost to aid the ill. Cases of contagious diseases are, 
in most instances, quarantined. The hospitals and reception 
places have large airy rooms absolutely clean with every modern 
aid for the cure of disease at hand. Unnecessary furnishings, 
etc., are removed, and only the doctor and the nurses are al- 
lowed near the patients. 
334. Immigrants are examined carefully so as to prevent the 
introduction of foreign diseases. Cities and municipalities are 
spending millions in order to remove garbage, and the latest 
and most modern methods of sewage disposal have been adopted. 
A steady and sufficient supply of pure water is insured for all 
large cities at the cost of millions of dollars. Propaganda have 
been carried on to educate the masses. 
335. With the co-operation of the various agencies that have 
the disposal of garbage and sewage in charge the health depart- 
ments have reduced enormously the number of cases of disease. 
The officials have made sure that cellars and other places where 
diseases are bred, are kept clean. They have had laws passed 
to make sure that the sewage, etc., is disposed of in places where 
there is little or no danger of infection. They have caused the 
latest methods of incineration of garbage and sewage to be 
utilized. 
336. The health board is found in every community. It is 
usually composed of professional people, people that have made 
hygiene the subject of study. It is the duty of the health board 
to see that the garbage is disposed of without danger to the com- 
munity, either through burning or dumping, to see that food is 
not adulterated, to prevent the sale of unhealthful foods and to 
assure a plentiful supply of pure water, to make sure that there 
are sufficient hospitals. 
337. These diseases are spread by means of minute bodies 
called germs, passing from person to person directly; or by 
means of discharges, called secretions or excretions. 
Particles given off from the body of a diseased person may be 
passed from infected persons to furniture and clothing, or find 138 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
their way out into water, food and air, and may be introduced 
into the system by breathing, eating and drinking or through 
the skin. 
As certain parts of the body are the breeding places of these 
contagious germs discharges from these parts give them off in 
greatest amount. 
Small-Pox.-From the pustules: the contagion is very diffu- 
sive and continues for a long time in the scab of the pustules. 
Scarlet Fever.-From the mouth, from the saliva, breath, 
throat, nose, and the skin. 
Diphtheria.-From discharges from the mouth, throat and 
nose. The spittle, wet or dry, is very dangerous, as particles of 
the membrane may be carried and impart the disease at great 
distances. 
Measles.-From the mouth, throat, nose and skin. Very com- 
municable from the breath when laden with infective particles 
expelled in coughing. 
Whooping Cough.-From the sputa or spittle, infectious par- 
ticles in the phlegm are expelled by coughing, and carried through 
the air. 
Typhoid Fever.-Discharges from the bowels, and other secre- 
tions or excretions of the patient. Water, milk and food absorb 
and convey these discharges. 
Consumption.-By means of the spittle, which is readily con- 
veyable when dried. 
Typhus Fever.-Conveyable directly through breath and erup- 
tion. 
Yellow Fever.-Conveyable through clothing, utensils, etc. 
• Cholera.-From discharges from the bowels or stomach. 
Sore Throat.-Several form of sore throat are conveyed by 
contact and inhalation of the breath. 
Mumps.-Conveyable at short distances through spittle. 
Skin Diseases.-Many forms are conveyed through contact 
of towels, combs and brushes, etc. 
Sore Eyes.-From discharges conveyed through towels, etc. 
Pneumonia.-This disease is said to be conveyable through the 
spittle. 
338. (a) Toxins and ptomaines are the poisons that result from 
the activities of the parasites on the human organisms, and it is Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
139 
to these that diseases are attributed, (b) Antitoxins are the 
products resulting in the blood from the activities of the para- 
sites which have the effect of making the blood and tissues im- 
mune from the diseases of these parasites. 
339. By far the most destructive of infectious diseases is tuber- 
culosis or consumption. It is the disease caused by the tubercle 
bacillus, which enters through the respiratory tract and finds 
lodgment generally in the lungs, sometimes in the throat, and at 
other times in the tissues of bones. The germs may lie in the 
body for many years without propagating. The sputum of the 
consumptive contains many millions of these germs, and may be 
spread by any means. Often the tubercle bacilli are introduced 
into the body in the milk from the tuberculous cattle. Tubercu- 
losis may be cured. Plenty of dry fresh air, sunshine, good 
wholesome food, rest, no worry, are the main items. It may 
take time, but many consumptives have been permanently cured. 
340. Typhoid fever is another of those virulent diseases that 
can and should be prevented. The germs enter by means of 
either polluted water or food. It generally results from the in- 
troduction of the typhoid fever germ by means of the water that 
has absorbed the filth and dirt from or near the lavatories, 
waste piles, etc. Once it has found lodgment in a community, 
an epidemic may follow, the results of which may be serious. 
Care should be taken to wash and clean thoroughly such food 
as are found to flourish near places reached by human excreta, 
as raw oysters, celery, lettuce, etc. 
341. The person should be placed flat on his back, with the 
head, neck, and shoulders slightly raised. The limbs should be 
straightened out so that the heart may act with as little dis- 
advantage as possible and with-the greatest freedom. Every- 
thing that is likely to impede circulation, as the collar, clothing, 
should be removed or loosened. A sip of cold water, brandy, 
or aromatic spirits of ammonia, should be administered in order 
to secure a reaction. The patient should have plenty of breathing 
space and the air should be set in motion. A doctor should be 
sent for at once. 
342. The term shock is applied to a more or less severe con- 
dition of nervous prostration due to some injury, accident, or 
fright. The entire body is generally affected, and may, or may 140 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
not, be accompanied by loss of consciousness. The lighter forms 
of shock generally pass away without serious results, but the 
more serious cases may result in death though no evidence of 
injury shows itself. Different persons are affected in different 
ways. A person suffering from shock will usually be found to 
be completely prostrated, unable to stand, his body limp, face 
pale and anxious, with a heavy and cold perspiration, feeble re- 
spiration, almost imperceptible pulse, with or without loss of 
consciousness. 
343. The great source of danger from shock is the cessation of 
heart action, hence, everything should be done before medical 
aid arrives to promote its normal action. The sufferer should 
be placed on his back, with the head low, the clothing loosened, 
and a stimulant in the form of hot water, brandy, or whiskey 
be given in small doses at intervals of fifteen minutes, the body 
surrounded by hot applications or hot water bottles, to insure 
warm perspiration, and the patient, above all, be kept quiet. 
344. To a loss or deficiency of blood in the brain. 
345. The person affected should be placed flat on his back 
with the head low to insure the flow of blood to the brain; 
the clothing loosened about the neck or the chest, fresh air be in- 
duced by the opening of a window, and the face sprinkled with 
cold water. A stimulant of a few drops of brandy or whiskey 
in a teaspoonful of water may be given at short intervals in order 
to stimulate heart action. The legs and the body may also be 
raised so as to insure the flow of blood into the head. 
346. Vertigo is "a rush of blood to the brain." The body 
should be placed in a sitting posture, with the head erect, so as 
to draw the blood down. It may result from the rupture or 
bursting of a blood vessel in the brain itself, which may or may 
not be accompanied by apoplexy, shown by the helpless condi- 
tion of an arm or a leg. The doctor should be called as soon as 
possible. 
347. The treatment in all hemorrhages is: (a) stop the bleed- 
ing; (b) clean the wound in order to prevent infection; (c) dress 
the wound so that the tissues can grow together; (d) relieve the 
other symptoms. 
348. Nature stops the bleeding by causing the blood to co- 
agulate, due to the protein in the blood. This coagulation occurs Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
141 
first in the capillaries, next in the veins, and last of all in the 
arteries. Bleeding from the capillaries may be stopped by firm 
pressure applied directly to the wound. If that does not suf- 
fice, then application of hot water, or a piece of ice, will tend 
to prevent the flow of blood due to the contraction of the vessel. 
If the bleeding is from a vein, then the pressure applied should 
be much stronger and for a little time. A handkerchief rolled 
up, wet thoroughly, and bound firmly over the wound will tend 
to prevent the flow of blood until the blood, of its own accord, 
will clot sufficiently. If the artery from which the blood is 
pouring is a small one, the pressure applied as above will usually 
suffice; but in the cases of larger arteries, where the blood is 
being pumped through by the heart, various other measures 
must be taken. The beating of the heart must, of course, not 
be retarded. Pressure should be applied by means of the tourni- 
quet or "Spanish windlass," which will effectively cut off the 
flow of blood. If an artery in the scalp is cut, then firm pres- 
sure over and around the wound will always control it. 
349. A broken bone is called a fracture; a bone out of its 
joint is called a dislocation. When, in addition to the fracture, 
the broken end of a bone protrudes through the latter, we speak 
of it as a compound fracture. The symptoms of a fracture are: 
pain and inability to move the affected limb; if the leg be broken 
at any point the patient will be unable to stand upon it. 
The symptoms of a dislocation are: altered shape of the limb; 
inability to move it; great pain in and about the joint upon the 
slightest attempt at motion. 
350. A person with a fracture may, without suffering harm, 
wait several hours and even a day for the "setting" of the bone. 
Rest and support of the injured member are the two things 
needed. First remove all clothing from the arm or leg, best by 
slitting the garments open, and not by pulling them off; then 
firmly tie a strip of wood on either side of the limb, protecting 
the skin by padding the wood well with anything soft, cotton 
or pieces of clothing. A pillow tied firmly around the arm or 
leg is a good support. Should some hours have to elapse be- 
fore the surgeon arrives, the limb should be inspected from time 
to time to see that the cords are not tied too tightly. 
351. Aid in dislocation lies chiefly in the proper support of 142 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
the limb in the position in which it is found. After the patient 
is at rest, place it in the position which proves the most com- 
fortable for the sufferer, supporting it on either side. Cold 
water compresses to the joint will feel most restful. 
352. A sprain is a severe straining or tearing of the liga- 
ments surrounding a joint. In the milder forms these are only 
greatly stretched, but in the more severe cases they are torn 
entire or in part. See 142. 
The best immediate relief that can be given is to place the 
joint in hot water, as hot as can be borne, and keep it there 
for several hours, or until the doctor arrives, changing the water 
as it cools. Should medical aid not be obtainable, then take 
the limb out of the hot water after two hours, and bandage it 
firmly, well below and above the joints, so as to give the great- 
est support and prevent all motion. 
353. The secret of the best treatment of these injuries is to 
exclude the air from the wounded surfaces. When they are 
slight, and the skin is merely blistered, prevent the displace- 
ment of the skin as much as possible. Let the blisters be punc- 
tured, if necessary, to let out the liquid, and then keep the skin 
in place by cotton cloth or lint, wet with a solution of one tea- 
spoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water, or a strong solu- 
tion of baking soda. The cloth should be kept wet constantly, 
but do not irritate the wound by taking off the dressing too 
often. 
Extensive burns are much worse than deep burns. In the 
former case, the outlook is grave, and the patient will probably 
require the best aid, both medical and surgical. 
354. (a) Asphyxia signifies an absence of pulse due to the non- 
conversion into arterial blood of the venous blood. The supply 
of fresh air to the lungs being cut off by some cause the neces- 
sary purification does not take place, and death may occur 
immediately. In other words, an asphyxiated person dies be- 
cause the blood is not purified, (b) The several varieties of 
asphyxiation are: (1) as in drowning; (2) in strangulation; (3) 
in suffocation; (4) in toxic poisoning. 
355. Illuminating gas is dangerous in two ways. If it escapes 
into a tightly closed room in sufficient quantities, it may cause 
the death of the inmates by suffocation. If not too late, remove Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
143 
the patient into fresh air, undo the clothing, dash cold water on 
the face and neck, and employ artificial respiration. If gas es- 
capes freely into an apartment, it forms an explosive compound 
by mixing with the air. If then a light is unguardedly taken into 
the place, an explosion that may be destructive to life will re- 
sult. Always thoroughly air any room that has the odor of 
escaping gas before a light is taken in. 
356. Keep away from the fire and in a cool room. Rub the 
nose, or other part that has been "bitten," with snow or ice- 
water until the blood is warmed again and circulating in the 
part. 
357. Sunstroke is seldom produced in this climate in persons 
who have not labored too hard, or indulged in alcoholic drinks. 
On very hot days avoid fatigue and open-air labor as much as 
possible. Keep the head cool. If any unusual, dizzy feeling 
comes on, apply cold water to the head and neck. If a person 
falls unsciousness, and the skin is decidedly hot and dry, he 
should be taken to a cool place. If the face and head are red 
and hot, apply cloths wet with iced water. If pale, give stimu- 
lants gradually, and use cold water sparingly. 
358. If the patient is a young woman, the attack is probably 
hysterical, and a sprinkle of cold water will bring relief. If the 
patient struggles and there is bloody froth on the lips, it is a 
case of epilepsy. Meanwhile, protect the head from injury by 
putting a pillow or some soft article beneath it; a handkerchief 
introduced between the teeth will prevent the biting of the 
tongue. Prevent the person from falling or injuring himself, but 
do not attempt to forcibly hold him quiet. 
In children, apply cloths dipped in water to the head; disturb 
the child as little as possible; do not use a warm bath until 
directed by the doctor. 
359. As soon as the body is recovered from the water, turn it 
over, face and head downward for a moment, and thrust a finger 
backward into the mouth in order to depress the tongue forward. 
This is done in order to give a clear passage for the air to the 
lungs. The body should be stripped, if possible, and wrapped 
in blankets or some other dry coverings, and the body extremi- 
ties and other regions warmed by patting or warm applications. 
Resort to artificial breathing by either the Sylvester or the 144 
Anatomy, Physiology and Hygiene. 
Marshall Hall method. Marshall Hall Method: The patient is 
placed flat on his face; gentle pressure is then applied to the back, 
the pressure removed, and the body turned on the side. The body 
is again turned on the face; gentle pressure is again applied 
to the back, and the body again turned on the side. This should 
be done about sixteen times a minute. 
360. (a) A poison is "any substance which, when introduced 
into the system, or applied externally injures health, or destroys 
life irrespective of mechanical means, or direct thermal changes." 
(b) Whatever the poison may be, the treatment is: (1) To get 
the poison out of the body by inducing vomiting; (2) To 
neutralize, by means of antidotes, what cannot be removed. (3) 
To combat any dangerous symptoms that have arisen, and to 
neutralize their effects by means of stimulants, artificial respira- 
tion, and exciting the action of the skin, kidneys, and bowels.