Changed Environment 
Mt. Crested Butte (Colorado) and East River, showing that animal and 
plant life must be under almost constant readjustment to changed environ- 
mental conditions. 
A. In Summer. 
(See Chapter X.) THE LAWS OF LIFE 
PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTION, 
HEREDITY AND EUGENICS 
A Popular Presentation 
BY 
WILLIAM M. GOLDSMITH, A.M., Ph.D. 
Author, "Stones of* Life," etc. Formerly Professor of Biology, 
Colorado State Normal School; Professor of 
Biology, Southwestern College 
BOSTON 
RICHARD G. BADGER 
THE GORHAM PRESS Copyright, 1922, by Richard G. Badger 
All Rights Reserved 
Made in the United States of America 
The Gorham Press, Boston, U. S. A. This Volume is 
DEDICATED 
To 
the students of Colorado State Normal School and 
Southwestern College whose keen interest in Evolu- 
tion, Eugenics and Race Betterment in general has 
been a constant inspiration to the author. PREFACE 
Emerging half blinded from the mist of the dark ages, man 
began his untiring search for truth. Slowly but surely he has 
been freeing himself from the firm grasp of ignorance and 
superstition. Altho the fire of knowledge, kindled here and 
there, has spread in various directions, progress in the fields 
of experimental evolution and heredity have been compara- 
tively slow, biology having been, until recently, largely specu- 
lative and descriptive. Investigations into the hidden secrets 
of Heredity and Eugenics were practically unknown until the 
close of the nineteenth century. During the first decade of the 
twentieth century the knowledge which was acquired was 
largely technical. However, the experimental breedings of in- 
numerable plants and animals have been of inestimable value 
to the science of heredity. They have laid the foundation for 
the extensive field of genetics which has since been opened up 
for the practical workers of the decade just passed. All honor 
is due these untiring workers, for without their efforts having 
been made we could not tread to-day with any degree of as- 
surance. 
Since 1910, not only have these investigations been con- 
tinued, but the valuable results of the preceding years have 
found expression in many excellent books (see literature list 
at close of this volume), the subject matter of which might 
well be characterized by the following terms: environment, evo- 
lution, heredity, genetics, eugenics and euthenics. Among the 
thirty or forty valuable and authoritative texts dealing with 
these subjects, only a few were prepared for the non-technical 
reader. These books, as a rule, deal with the technical de- 
tails that are not adapted to the needs of the general public 
or the students in departments other than Biology. On 
7 Preface 
8 
the other hand, many of the elementary students that receive 
instruction in the biological sciences fall short of a complete 
understanding of the general scheme of things. Their trouble 
is that the attention is focused upon some particular phase, 
leaving the vision blurred and the image incomplete. Many 
of the books which may be comprehended by the more informed 
reader deal with very limited phases of the subject, the ma- 
terial being drawn largely from the authors' own specific fields 
of investigation. They thus not only become tiresome to the 
average reader, but also fail to give him a general comprehen- 
sion of the entire field of heredity and evolution in their true 
relationships. 
The absence of texts for the elementary reader is due, per- 
haps, to the fact that no writer has ventured to burden the 
public with the facts of a subject which was changing so rap- 
idly. It has been claimed that such works should be left in 
the hands of the technical investigators and the amateur who 
is preparing for this particular line of work. Altho cer- 
tain changes are still taking place, a sufficient number of de- 
pendable facts have been accumulated to be of lasting and 
practical value. New facts are being constantly brought for- 
ward and added to the old. Consequently the center of gravity 
of the subject is constantly shifting. The fundamental prin- 
ciples, however, must as a matter of necessity remain unal- 
tered. To a certain extent, then, we are sure of our ground. 
But down to the present, no text has been advanced that 
covers the entire ground with all the observed truisms. 
The master stroke in the way of a general text was struck 
in 1918 when Babcock and Clausen presented Genetics in Re- 
lation to Agriculture. Coulter and Coulter's Plant Genetics 
is, likewise, an authoritative text, but emphasizes only those 
features of the subject that deal with plants. Therefore, it 
is not truly general in its application, but is limited to a par- 
ticular line of observation. Both of these splendid treatises 
are well adapted to the needs of those who intend to make Preface 
9 
botany, zoology, or plant and animal breeding their profession. 
They are of value, as well, to those who are not as yet special- 
ists but have had training in the fundamentals of the sub- 
jects mentioned. The elementary and non-technical reader 
who desires reliable information on the subject in general must 
look elsewhere. As the matter stands at the present, such a 
reader is apt to meet with disappointment. He will find 
practically all such literature highly specialized and extremely 
technical. The few exceptions that may be noted are not as 
wholly general as they might be, and are, thus, not entirely 
suited to the needs. A broad view of the whole is of more value 
to the average reader than a narrow understanding of any 
particular system of details. 
The author contends, that the time is at hand when the 
public is entitled to the valuable information which, up to this 
time, has been confined to the specialist. The fact that gene- 
ral courses in heredity and evolution are required in many nor- 
mal schools and colleges is indicative that those in authority 
realize the importance of these subjects and that they hope 
ultimately to reach the public at large. Popular prejudice 
against evolution as a science and heredity as an application 
is slowly being overcome by the wholesome influence of such 
instruction. People, as a general rule, are slow to adopt that 
about which they are uninformed. These courses that are 
being offered in our schools are going a long way toward 
broadening the conceptions of the masses. 
In the preparation of the present volume, three groups of 
persons were held constantly in mind. First, it is hoped that 
the biology teachers in the American high schools will find this 
an appropriate supplementary text for the consideration of 
the "Laws of Life." Second, the author's experience in teach- 
ing heredity and evolution as a popular course to prospective 
teachers who possessed but little knowledge of even the funda- 
mentals of biology, should aid in the selection of material for 
such elementary courses in normal schools and colleges. The 10 
Preface 
demand for such a text is especially urgent in the smaller in- 
stitutions where the instructor in biology may not be devoting 
his time to this particular field of the work. In such cases, 
the text and reference book method, supplemented by lectures, 
is usually the most successful plan of presentation. Third, it 
is above all the sincere hope of the author that this work will 
be of some benefit to the reading public. The time has come 
when all men are vitally interested in the scientific development 
of plants and animals, not only from the standpoint of breed- 
ing, but also from that of production as well. Sociology has 
taught us that there is also much to be desired in the better- 
ment of the human family. In order to meet these conditions, 
a broad and workable knowledge of the elements involved is an 
imperative necessity. In view of these facts, an elementary 
consideration of these paramount issues of the day should re- 
ceive a hearty welcome. 
Those who have done some reading in recent books dealing 
with the subject of heredity and evolution will note that the 
author has not conformed to the usual method of procedure. 
He has taken the liberty to develop the subject in a new man- 
ner. Several chapters dealing with subjects not generally con- 
sidered in the texts for students of heredity and evolution 
have been added. Technical details have been simplified in so 
far as possible; yet the attempt has been made to retain their 
individuality and meaning. To an amateur student, such a 
simplified discussion of the more technical points is very essen- 
tial to a complete understanding of the problems confronted. 
Further, a comprehension of the general facts of geological 
history is indispensable to a thorough knowledge of the suc- 
cessive stages of evolutionary progress. The condition of the 
earth during the past ages, and how it became "fit" for the 
abode of plant and animal life, should be understood at least 
in a general way in order that a more expansive view' may be 
held of the entire process that Nature has executed. 
Then, a book having to do with a subject in such a healthy Preface 
11 
state of growth, as is heredity and evolution, will of necessity 
carry certain incoherent features, as our knowledge of the 
facts themselves is more or less incompletely developed. In- 
deed, the incoherence is of necessity greater because the sub- 
jects herein considered are viewed from an elementary stand- 
point, as technical details that might serve as connecting links 
cannot be presented. It is hoped that the chapter on "super- 
stition" will suggest to the readers, especially those who are 
not familiar with the other lines of facts included in this 
volume, the reluctance with which the intelligent public ac- 
cepts the "Laws of Life" as ascertained by the world's most 
painstaking investigators. With a realization of this fact and 
with a knowledge, tho perhaps superficial, of the basic prin- 
ciples of geologic and biologic evolution, the reader is better 
prepared to make an intelligent study of practical heredity, 
genetics, and eugenics. 
Altho the following gentlemen are in no wise responsible 
for the subject matter included in this book, they have pre- 
sented valuable comments upon certain sections of the manu- 
script: Dr. J. J. Galloway, Dept, of Geology, Columbia Uni- 
versity; Dr. Henry H. Goddard, Bureau of Juvenile Research, 
Columbus, Ohio; Dr. John C. Johnson, Dean and Professor 
of Biology, Colorado State Normal School; Rev. J. S. Ferris, 
Professor of Sociology, Colorado State Normal School, and 
Warren V. Shepard, Professor of English, Southwestern Col- 
lege. Grateful acknowledgements are also made to many of my 
former students, especially Mr. C. T. Hurst, as well as to the 
authors and publishers of numerous books and papers from 
which material and figures have been selected. 
April 1, 1922. W. M. G. CONTENTS 
PAGE 
Preface 7 
CHAPTER 
I. Superstition as a Retarding Factor 25 
Early Views of Creation-Influence of Aristotle-Imaginative 
, Pliny-1500 Years of Ecclesiastical Influence-Dogmatism of 
the Dark Ages-Physiologus-Enmity of the Church and Science 
-Columbus-Copernicu s-Alchemy-W itchcraft-Examples of 
Modern Superstitions-Medical Superstitions-Treatment of Dis- 
eases-Interpretation of Birthmarks-Evolution vs. Religion 
-Ideas of barwin and Milton Compared-Parental Falsehoods 
-Inheritance of Acquired Characters-Understanding of the 
Principles of Heredity and Evolution Necessary to the Solution 
of Many Social Problems. 
II. Consideration of Terms . 51 
Evolution-Current Conception vs. Fact-Mechanical Evolution 
-Geologic Evolution-Biologic Evolution-Heredity-Genetics 
-Eugenics and Euthenics-Importance of Extending the Sub- 
ject-The International Congress of Eugenics-Attitude of 
American Teachers-Our Responsibilities. 
HI. Some Interesting Theories 64 
Introduction-Early Speculations as to the Structure of the 
Universe-Greek Ideas-More Recent Views-Our Source of 
Knowledge of the History of the Earth-Study of the Solar 
System-Growth of the Earth-Bombardment by Meteorites- 
Compression-Atmosphere and Water-Inorganic Synthesis 
-Formation of Water and the Oceans-Appearance of Life- 
Origin of Life-Creation Theory-Origin of Cosmic Dust- 
Origin by Inorganic Synthesis-Absurd Ideas-Spontaneous 
Generation. 
IV. Men and Ages 82 
Signs of Ancient Life-Fossils-Stratification by Sedimentation 
-Periods of Earth's History-Archaeozoic-Proterozoic-Early 
• Paleozoic-Later Paleozoic-Mesozoic-Cenozoic-Development 
of Plant and Animal Life During Cenozoic Age-Evolution of 
Man-The Ape-Man-The Dawn-Man-Stone Age-Copper Age 
-Bronze Age-Iron Age-Coal Age-Electrical Age-Flying 
Age. 
V. Evidences of Evolution 114 
Time for Evolution-Paleontology-Comparative Anatomy- 
Haeckel's Law (Embryology)-Life History of Frog-Life His- 
tory of Chick-Rudimentary Organs-Relationship Proved by 
Blood Mixing Tests. 
13 14 
Contents 
CHAPTER PAOS 
VI. The Cycle of Life 128 
The Ups and Downs of Phylogenetic Life-Man, the All-dom- 
inating Power To-day-Who is the Imaginary Super-Man of 
To-morrow?-Shall Science or Religion Answer This Supreme 
Question? 
VII. Animal Relationships-The Unity of Life 132 
Introduction-The Cell and the Organ-Division of Labor-■ 
Kinds of Cells-Cells of Multicellular Animals-Cells That 
Can Perform All Functions-Primitive Forms-Phylum Pro- 
tozoa-Amoeba-Euglena-Paramecium. 
VIII. Animal Relationships-Continued-Connecting Links Be- 
tween Protozoa and Metazoa 144 
Introduction-Colonial Protozoa-Gonium-Volvox-Lower In- 
vertebrates-Porifera-Coelenterata-Hydra-Sexual and Asex- 
ual Generations-Sea Anemone-Ctenophora-Platyhelminthes 
-Advancing Complexity-Nemathelminthes-Invertebrates of 
Uncertain Classification-Coelomata-The Body Cavity-Higher 
Invertebrates-Echinode rmata -Annelida - Mollusca - Arthro- 
poda. 
IX. Animal Relationships-Continued-Higher Types of Animal 
Life 165 
Probable Connecting Links between the Invertebrates and Ver- 
tebrates-Primitive Chordata-Urochorda-Hemichorda-Ceph- 
alochorda-Lower Vertebrates-The Fishes-Exoskeleton-Endo- 
skeleton-True Vertebrates-Amphibia-Reptiles-Birds-Mam- 
mals-Primates-Man-Conclusion-Ancestral Tree. 
X. Environment 175 
Introduction-Factors of Environment-The Results of a 
Change of Environment-Temporary Change-Changes of 
Longer Duration-Animal and Plant Distribution in Relation 
to Environment-Struggle for Existence-Poetic View-Scien- 
tific View. 
XI. The Prodigality of Nature 184 
Rapidity of Multiplication of Plants and Animals-Ferns- 
Dandelions-Bacteria-Flies and Other Insects-Elephants- 
Horses-Man-Elimination of the Unfit-Variation, The Test 
of the Fit-Which Are Unfit-The Effect of the Elimination 
of the Unfit upon the Race. 
XII. Variation 194 
Variation-Dissimilarity of Plants and Animals-Darwinism 
Based upon Dissimilarity-Neo-Darwinism-Beneficial and 
Harmful Variations-Positive and Negative Variations-Normal 
and Abnormal Variations-Continuous Variations and Discon- 
tinuous Variations ("Sports")-Fluctuating ("Fluttering") 
Variations-Quetelet's Law-Quetelet's Curve. Contents 
15 
CHAPTER PAGE 
XIII. Mutation 201 
Theory of Evolution Based upon Facts of Variation-Darwin's 
"Origin of Species"-De Vries and the Mutation Theory- 
Evening Primrose-Examples of Mutations-Polled Herefords 
-Disease-resisting Cabbage-Purple Beech-Oak-like Walnut- 
Shirley Poppies-Ancon Sheep-Davenport's Fowls-Strawber- 
ries-Roses-Clover - Sunflower - Seedlessness - Taillessness- 
Progressive-Regressive-Degressive-Causes of Variation- 
Somatic Variation-Outside Influences-The Cell as a Basis. 
XIV. The Cell as a Carrier of Heritage 212 
Introduction-Facts about Heritage-Ontogeny and Phylogeny 
-The Cell Theory-Differentiation of the Germ Cells-A Typ- 
ical Animal Cell-The Method of Cell Division-The "Green" 
Germ Cells-The Ripening of the Female Cells-The Union of 
the Sperm and the Egg-Germ Cells of Birds-Germ Cells 
of Mammals-The Cell and Inheritance. 
XV. Causes of Variation 230 
Lamarck-Weismann-Chromosome Basis for Variation-Am- 
phimixis-Internal and External Influences upon Somatic Varia- 
tion. 
XVI. Hybridization 238 
Hybridized Plants-Hybrid Vigor-Hybridized Animals- 
"Grading"-Dairy Cows-The Zebu-Hereford Hybrid. 
XVII. Sterility in Hybrids 246 
One Explanation of Hybrid Sterility-The "Mule" as a Type- 
Noted Cases of Mules Reproducing-Bryant's Reproducing 
Mule-Contradictory Evidences-Extreme Diversity Means 
Sterility. 
XVIII. Fundamental Principles Underlying the Laws of Inher- 
itance 254 
Introduction-Mendels Experiments-Artificial Fertilization-■ 
Mono-hybrids-Heterozygotes-Homozygotes-Laws of Domi- 
nance-Principle of Presence and Absence of the Determiner 
of Characteristics-Law of Segregation-Unit Characters-Di- 
hybrids-Tri-hybrids. 
XIX. Factor Hypothesis 277 
Character vs. Determiner-Determiner vs. Chemical Element- 
Meaning of Factor-Complementary Factor-Reversion-Di- 
hybrid Ratio in Complementary Factors-Inhibitory and Modi- 
fying Factors. 
XX. Apparent Exceptions to the Laws of Inheritance .... 282 
The Chromosome Hypothesis-Experiments of Thomas Hunt 
Morgan and His Co-workers on the Fruit Fly-Four Groups of 
Hereditary Characters in Drosophila-Loci of Genes in Chromo- 
somes-Linkage of Factors-Crossing Over-Interference-Defi- 
ciency and Duplication-Non-disj unction. 16 
Contents 
CHAPTER PAGE 
XXI. Human Inheritance . 294 
Mendelism, a Practical Science-Berkeley Policemen See the 
Value in the Study of Human Inheritance-Absurd vs. Rea- 
sonable. 
XXII. Negro-White Crosses 302 
"Blended" Inheritance-Production of Pink Four O'clock--In- 
heritance of Color in Cattle-Mendelian Inheritance of Human 
Skin Color-The Problem Applied. 
XXIII. The Inheritance of Sex 308 
Erroneous Notions Regarding Sex Determination-Scientific 
View-Sex, A Problem of Heredity-Sex Production vs. En- 
vironment-Cause of Overproduction of One Sex 
XXIV. Inheritance of Feeble-Mindedness 314 
Goddard's Data-Types of Parents-Both Parents Feeble- 
minded-One Parent Feeble-minded, Other Normal-Both 
Parents "Carriers"-One Parent Feeble-minded, Other "Carrier" 
-One Parent "Carrier," Other Normal-Fate of the Children. 
XXV. Inheritance of Various Mental and Moral Traits . . . 326 
General Formula for Determining Characteristics of Offspring 
-So-called "Black-sheep"-Hereditary Diabetes-Marks of 
Beauty. 
XXVI. "Criss-Cross" Inheritance 338 
"Father to Daughter--Mother to Son" Inheritance-Color-blind 
Man Marries "Carrier" Woman-Color-blind Man Marries a Nor- 
mal Woman-"Carrier" Woman Marries a Normal Man-Both 
Parents Color-blind-Normal Man Marries a Color-blind Woman. 
XXVII. Supposed Inheritance of Diseases 345 
The Disease Germ-"Catching" Colds-Peary's Expedition- 
Epidemics-Contagious Diseases-Hereditary Induction-Tuber- 
culosis-Prenatal Infection-"Inheritance' of Venereal Diseases 
-Gonorrhoea-Syphilis--Miscarriage-Danger to the Innocents 
-Marriage Laws-Disadvantages of Children of Afflicted Par- 
ents. 
XXVIII. Prenatal Culture as Related to Human Progress . . 357 
Introduction-Totemism as Probable Basis for Present Anti- 
quated Views-Obsolete Views of Civilized Man-Examples of 
"Birthmarks"-Facts about the Birthmark--Cause of Birth- 
marks-Relation between the Embryo and the Mother-Fertiliza- 
tion and Implantation of Ovum-Conclusion. 
XXIX. Individual Conduct as Related to Racial Development . 376 
Simplicity of Racial Development through the Inheritance of 
Acquired Characteristics-Definition-Vitality of the Subject- 
Individual vs. Race-Triangle of Life-Pangenesis, Continuity 
of the Germ Plasm, and Modified Pangenesis-Use and Disuse 
-Environment, Adaptation and Natural Selection-Variation, 
Prodigality of Nature, Mutation, Amphimixis and Hybridiza- Contents 
17 
CHAPTER . PAGE 
tion-Induction-Mutilations-Supposed Inheritance of Ac- 
quired Characters-Germ Distinct from Soma-Experimental 
Proof-No Promiscuous Handing Down of Acquirements. 
XXX. Moulding the Super-Man 398 
Final "Evolution of Man"-A Broader View Necessary-Our 
Attitude-The Unfit Work an Injustice upon Society-Eugenic 
Responsibility-Human Inheritance-The Jukes-The Edwards 
-The Kallikaks-Relation of Degeneracy to the Community- 
Inequality of Men-Over-production of Inferior-Limiting the 
Unfit-Sterilization-Informing the Public-Public Opinion- 
Biologic Enlightenment-Human Responsibilities-Selection of 
Mates-Status of Marriage Relation-Production of Children- 
Quality vs. Quantity-Eugenics and Religion-Marriage, Birth, 
and Religion-Responsibility of Marriage-Religion Must Em- 
brace Eugenics-Relation of Science and Religion-Supreme 
Ruler of the Universe-Conclusion. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
Changed Environment, A. in Summer Frontispiece 
PAGE 
B. in Winter 24 
FIGURE 
1. Aristotle 27 
2. Pliny the Elder 28 
3. Superstition Regarding the Shape of the Earth 32 
4. An Alchemist's Laboratory 35 
5. An Advertisement of a Chinese Doctor 40 
6. Parental Falsities 45 
7. An Early Railroad Train 54 
8. A Sixteenth Century Nose 58 
9. A Spiral Nebula 70 
10. Francesco Redi 79 
11. A Typical Key to the Bygone Ages 82 
12. Archean North America 83 
13. Cretaceous North America 83 
14. Sedimentary Pond 84 
15. Trilobites which Swarmed the Ancient Seas 88 
16. Armored Fishes from the Lower Devonian of Europe .... 90 
17. One of the Larger Stegocephalia 91 
18. A Typical Pennsylvanian Swamp 92 
19. Fern Leaves Commonly Found in Rock Strata 93 
20. Strange Animals which Inhabited the Cretaceous Seas ... 95 
21. Skeletons of Prehistoric Reptiles 96 
22. Bone from an Animal which Once Inhabited the Marshy Coasts 
of the Kansas Sea 97 
23. Carnivorous Dinosaur 99 
24. Mammoth Elephant 101 
*5. Six Stages in the Evolution of the Horse 103 
19 20 
List of Illustrations 
FIGURE PAGE 
26. A Modern Lemur 104 
27. Pithecanthropus erectus 108 
28. Three Stages in Human Evolution 110 
29. Primitive Outlines of Animals from the Cavern Walls of Font- 
de-Gaume Ill 
30. Comparative Study of the Brains of Various Vertebrates . . . 118 
31. Comparative Study of the Arm and Leg Bones of Various 
Vertebrates 120 
32. Metamorphosis of the Frog 122 
33. Embryos of Various Vertebrates during Early Stages-Compared 124 
34. The Succession of Animal Life 129 
35. Muscular Tissue 136 
36. Epithelial Cells from Lining of Mouth 137 
37. Nerve Cells from Spinal Cord of Frog 137 
38. Amoeba proteus 139 
39. Euglena viridis 140 
40. Paramecium caudatum 141 
41. Gonium 145 
42. Volvox 146 
43. Longitudinal Section of Hydra 156 
44. Sea-anemone 158 
45. Transverse Section through Middle Region of Body of Earth 
Worm 161 
46. External Features of a Clam 163 
47. Lobster 163 
48. Balanoglossus 
49. Sea-squirt 166 
50. Amphioxus 
51. Perch 
52. Baby Orang-utan 
53. Gorilla 172 
54. Man and the Higher Apes 
55. Ancestral Tree 
56. Grouse-Adjustment to Environment 176 
57. Owl's Eyes-Adjustment to Environment 177 List of Illustrations 
21 
FIGUBE PAGE 
58. Potatoes Showing Adjustment to Environment 179 
59. Peaceful Nature 180 
60. Elks Struggling with "Civilized" Man's Instinct to Kill . . . 185 
61. Mountain Sheep 188 
62. A Living Double-headed Calf 197 
63. Quetelet's Curve . 199 
64. Diagram Illustrating Difference Between Fluctuating Variation 
and Mutation 200 
65. The Evening Primrose 203 
66. An Achondroplastic Dwarf 205 
67. An Achondroplastic Dwarf Can Perform Unusual Feats . . . 207 
68. Varieties of Cabbage Supposed to Have Arisen as Mutants from 
Wild Cliff Cabbage 209 
69. Maturation of the Germ Cells 216 
70. Chromosomes of the Tiger Beetle 219 
71. A Double-Kitten 231 
72. Radiograph of the Double-Kitten 232 
73. A Type of Identical Twins 234 
74. Results of Grading Scrub Dairy Cattle with Pure-bred Holstein 
Friesian Bulls 242 
75. A Gujarat Zebu Cow Imported from India 243 
76. Zebu-Hereford Heifer 244 
17. Abnormal Division of the Germ Cells of a Mule 247 
78. A Reproducing "Mule" 248 
79. A Mare Mule (?) with a Foal by a Percheron Stallion . . . 249 
80. Gregor Mendel 255 
81. Parts of Flower '. 258 
82. Prevention of Indiscriminate Fertilization 259 
83. Cross between Common and Sweet Corn 262 
84. Cross between Common Smooth Starchy Corn and Sweet Non- 
starchy Corn 266 
85. Cross between Round and Wrinkled Peas 267 
86. Behavior of Gametes in the Cross Between Round and Wrinkled 
Peas 269 22 
List of Illustrations 
FIGURE PAGE 
87. Genetic Constitution of Offspring Resulting from a Cross be- 
tween tall and dwarf peas 272 
88. Di-hybrids 274 
C?. Di-hybrid Ratio 280 
90. Chromosomes of the Drosophila 284 
91. Diagram Illustrating Linkage 285 
92. Diagram Illustrating Crossing-Over 286 
93. Diagram Illustrating "Double Crossing-Over" 287 
94. Diagram Illustrating Non-Dis junction 290 
95. The Giraffe-The Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics . . 298 
96. Comparison of Chinese and American Shoe 299 
97. Chinese Mother with Artificially Deformed Feet and Her Child 
with Normal Expanding Toes 300 
98. Cross between Red and White Flowered Four-o'clocks .... 303 
99. Diagram Explaining 1:15 Offspring Ratio of Mulatto Parents 304 
100. Mendelian Inheritance of Sex 310 
101. Predominance of One Sex from Same Parents 312 
102. The Selfishness of Man 315 
103. Normal Parents Produce Normal Offspring 316 
104. Feeble-Minded Parents Produce Feeble-Minded Offspring . . 317 
105. Diagram Illustrating Origin of Many Feeble-Minded and Other- 
wise Defective Children 318 
106. One Parent Normal and Other Feeble-Minded 320 
107. The Appearance of Feeble-Minded Children from Normal Parents 321 
108. One Parent Apparently Normal and Other Feeble-Minded . . 322 
109. One Parent Normal and Other "Carrier" 323 
110. Mattie Crying Out to Civilized Man 325 
111. A Study of Family Histories 327 
112. One Parent Normal and Other Physically Defective .... 328 
113. "Carriers" of Recessive Defects 329 
114. One Parent "Carrier" of Defect Other Purely Defective . . . 330 
115. Inheritance of Twinning 333 List of Illustrations 
23 
FIGURE PAGE 
116. Hypothetical Family Chart Showing Possibility of Child Appear- 
ing in Possession of Characteristics Foreign to Known Grand- 
Parents 335 
117. A Feeble-Minded Man with Syndactyl Hands and Feet . . . 336 
118. Normal Mother and Color-Blind Father 339 
119. "Carrier" Girl from Above Mating, Marries Normal Man . . 340 
120. Color-Blind Man Marries "Carrier" Woman 341 
121. Both Parents Color-Blind 342 
122. Color-Blind Woman Marries Normal Man 343 
123. Over-Production Among the Inferior 354 
124. Typical Dwarf in Company with Deaf-Mute Possessing Large 
Goiter. Eva, and Agnes Maude 358 
125. Section thru Uterus with Embryo Embedded in Uterine Mucosa 370 
126. Diagrammatic Section thru Pregnant Uterus 371 
127. The Triangle of Life-Old Idea 378 
128. The Triangle of Life-New Idea 379 
129. Theory of Pangenesis 382 
130. Continuity of Germ-plasm 384 
131. Heredity Overrules Environment 395 
132. Kansas State Training School (for Feeble-Minded) .... 401 
133. Mongolian Dwarfs 403 
134. Difference in Feeble-Mindedness and Insanity 406 
135. Bed Cases at Kansas State Training School 414 
136. Chart Showing the Value of Sterilization 415 
137. Forty-one Years of Living Death 418 THE LAWS OF LIFE B. In Winter. 
Same scene as frontispiece. 
(See Chapter X.) THE LAWS OF LIFE 
CHAPTER I 
SUPERSTITION AS A RETARDING FACTOR 
An Introductory Consideration 
Early Views of Creation-Influence of Aristotle-Imaginative 
Pliny-1500 Years of Ecclesiastical Influence-Dogmatism of the 
Dark Ages-Physiologus-Enmity of the Church and Science- 
Columbus-Copernicus-Alchemy-Witchcraft-Examples of Mod- 
ern Superstitions-Medical Superstitions-Treatment of Diseases 
-Interpretation of Birth Marks-Evolution vs. Religion-Ideas of 
Darwin and Milton Compared-Parental Falsehoods-Inheritance 
of Acquired Characters-Understanding of the Principles of He- 
redity and Evolution Necessary to the Solution of Many Social 
Problems. 
"Hitherto the development of our race has been unconscious, 
and we have been allowed no responsibility for its right course. 
Now in the fulness of time . . . we are treated as children no 
more, and the conscious fashioning of the human ra-ce is given into 
our hands. Let us put away childish things, stand up with open 
eyes, and face our responsibilities." 
-Whetham. 
Not more than 150 years ago some of the greatest thinkers 
of the day believed that during seven "days" the earth was 
moulded into its present condition, and that the plants and 
animals, and even men, were fashioned, and have always been 
practically as they are to-day. Such a supposition, in which 
progress is disputed and in which it is assumed that the Crea- 
tor has withdrawn his creative powers, has been one of the 
serious factors responsible for the retardation of human prog- 
25 26 
The Laws of Life 
ress. It is reasonable to presume that the most vital in- 
fluence that has conspired to bring about these conceptions, 
and thus retard the advance of civilization, is the mystic cloud 
of superstition that has been hanging over the human race 
from the time of the first existence of the most primitive type 
of intellect. Superstition, at best, is responsible for the dark 
stains upon the fundamental fabric of human society, and is 
fostered by gross ignorance and religious fanaticism. It is 
constantly aiming its blows at the very heart of all that is 
truly righteous in the march of human progress. It owes its 
very existence to a false interpretation of Nature and her many 
moods. Wrong impressions and fanatical ideas very easily 
degenerate into superstitious notions. 
As we study history with reference to the thoughts of men 
of ancient and medieval times, we are struck with amazement 
at their dense ignorance of almost naked truths, and we marvel 
at their fanciful, superstitious ideas. The peoples of past cen- 
turies entertained many beliefs and practices which, in this 
age, would be considered the mark of an unpardonable lack of 
knowledge, or, more likely, of a questionable degree of mental 
health. Many of these errors are so apparent that the aver- 
age grammar school child of today can scarcely imagine that 
such thoughts ever existed in the minds of civilized men, since 
the truth is now so evident. 
Aristotle (384-322 B. C.), the great Greek philosopher 
(Fig. 1), was the most noted teacher that the Ancient World 
produced. In him the philosophical side of Hellenic intellect 
reached its maximum. For nearly two thousand years, or un- 
til the time of Francis Bacon, Aristotle was the recognized 
authority upon philosophical thought in all its branches. 
Among his many valuable works, his three books, Historia 
Animalium, De Partibus, and De Generatione were zoological 
masterpieces for that age. In all probability, some of his bio- 
logical works that were lost during the Dark Ages were even 
superior to these. We must therefore give Aristotle the credit 
for having possessed a knowledge that was both masterful and Superstition as a Retarding Factor 
27 
complete, and, for his time, quite authoritative. But, on the 
other hand, his entertainment of such beliefs as that the brain 
was bloodless and that the arteries were air vessels carrying 
air instead of blood, suffices to show that his knowledge, how- 
ever far-reaching, was based largely upon misconceptions and 
misdirected observations. 
Fig. 1. Aristotle (384-322 B. C.), who, though a master for his day, 
possessed many misconceptions regarding some of the simple facts of 
nature. (From Locy's "Biology and Its Makers," by courtesy of Henry 
Holt and Co.) 
The inquiring minds for many centuries were afforded 
adequate satisfaction by the arguments and explanations ad- 
vanced by Aristotle. It is not difficult to see how such an un- 
warranted acceptance of the ancient teachings could easily 
have given rise to the hotbed of superstition, which, as we ob- 
serve, flourished during later ages. We cannot conceive the 
intricate network of falsities that must have been developed 
as an outgrowth of this system of philosophy. Knowing that 
our own fairly accurate knowledge of some of the natural 28 
The Laws of Life 
phenomena is due to an inquisitive attitude, which is tem- 
pered by a reluctance to accept any explanation that does not 
stand a test for veracity, we can in some measure understand 
how the ancient and medieval peoples fell into so much error. 
The first one thousand years of the Christian Era, an age 
that was ushered in by the imaginative Pliny (23-79 A. D., 
Fig. 2), was a period dominated by a crude and fanciful type 
Fig. 2. Pliny the Elder (A. D. 23-79) who ushered in the age of imagi- 
nation. (From Locy.) 
of religious influence. It was a time when the minds of the 
people were centered upon the spiritual, and when the sum 
total of the ecclesiastical teachings was to the effect that ob- 
servations into the workings of Nature were nothing more nor 
less than irreligious curiosity. During the Middle Ages, this 
feeling that observation of Nature was irreverent became so 
prevalent that simple things of every-day life were often de- 
scribed from ancient writings rather than from personal ex- 
perience, actual experimentation being out of the question. Superstition as a Retarding Factor 
29 
The application of this principle was rigidly observed and 
practiced. All ideas of original investigation were banished 
from the thoughts of men, and any attempt at such was re- 
garded as a serious breach of piety. Superstitious thoughts 
and practices were not only tolerated, but fostered as well. 
At one time the question arose as to the number of teeth in 
the mouth of the horse. This all-important query aroused 
the curiosity of the people and absorbed their attention to such 
an extent that many extended and heated debates were de- 
livered and published. In these debates, all the arguments 
were taken from ancient sources. No one seemed to think of 
the simple fact that a count would have settled the contro- 
versy in a moment. The truth of the matter was that no one 
dared to mention such a thing because of the doctrine of 
•'irreligious curiosity." 
Such a state of affairs could have brought about but one 
inevitable result. All intellectual life became so permeated 
with dogmatism that any attempt at rationality was looked 
upon as rank heresy. It is easy to realize how such conditions 
gave rise to a superstitious tendency. A mind that is open 
to dogmatism has to go but one step farther in mental stag- 
nation until the realm of black superstition opens before it. 
In the age of superstition that followed closely on the heels 
of this dogmatic application of the erroneous philosophy of 
the ancient thinkers, there arose a mystical yearning for some 
type of natural history. This desire found expression in a 
Sacred Natural History called Physiologus. In it, an attempt 
was made to symbolize every fact and fable with some religious 
teaching. This work exercised a profound influence upon the 
thoughts of men for a long time, and has not been without 
weight in comparatively modern years. The moral lessons 
which were taught in connection with contorted stories from 
nature may well be illustrated by the following story of the 
method of reproduction of the lion. The Physiologus teaches 
us that "The lioness giveth birth to cubs, which remain three 
days without life. Then cometh the lion, breatheth upon 30 
The Laws of Life 
them, and bringeth them to life. . . . Thus it was that 
Jesus Christ, during three days, was deprived of life. But 
God the Father raised him gloriously" (White). In view of the 
scores of such absurd nature stories that abounded in the lore 
of the past, which were designed to typify sacred facts, and 
which passed for solemn truths, we need no longer wonder 
why our forefathers of not so very many generations ago were 
so deeply steeped in ignorance and superstition. Even Mil- 
ton, although belonging to the modern period of history, was 
plainly influenced by medieval teachings. The following im- 
mortal lines quoted from Paradise Lost give expression to the 
primitive views regarding the origin and evolution of life: 
"The grassy clods now calved; now half appear'd 
The tawny lion, pawing to get free 
His hinder parts, then springs as broke from bonds, 
And rainpant shakes his brindled mane; the ounce, 
The libbard, and the tiger, as the mole 
Rising, the crumbled earth above them threw 
In hillocks; the swift stag from under ground 
Bore up his branching head; scarce from his mould 
Behemoth, biggest born of earth, upheaved 
His vastness: fleeced the flocks and bleating rose, 
As plants: ambiguous between sea and land 
The river horse and scaly crocodile." 
Beginning shortly before the close of the first one thousand 
years of the Christian Era and extending until about the 
Fifteenth Century, intellectual progress was largely in the 
hands of the Schoolmen or Scholastics as they were called. 
At first, the aim of these men was to define broadly every doc- 
trine of Christianity. They did not question the teachings 
of the Church, but merely sought in their reasoning to establish 
a sound basis for argument in order that they might counter- 
act skepticism. In the early part of the Thirteenth Century, 
the whole of Aristotle's philosophy became known to these 
Schoolmen through Latin translations. Prior to this time it 
was only his logic that was in their possession. This new ac- Superstition as a Retarding Factor 
31 
quisition furnished a great impetus to the Christian thinkers, 
not only along theological lines, but along the lines of physical 
science as well. The old religious ideas regarding Nature 
were beginning to be broken down and the study of her phe- 
nomena commenced to be carried out by direct personal ob- 
servation. This change came about very slowly, for the world 
was loath to accept any policy so radical, without qualifica- 
tions. Theology was bitterly jealous of science. For a while 
all scientific thought was held under control by the Church 
and made subservient to its own ends. Thus was marked the 
origin of an age-long struggle that has continued with but 
little abatement until within recent years. 
Those men of science who had the courage to carry on 
their work independently were the subjects of the hottest kind 
of persecution. It was not until well into the modern period 
that they succeeded in breaking away from the direct influence 
of the Church and pursuing their own course. This course, 
however, has never been an easy one, for theologians have 
been, until recently, strewing obstacles in the way at every 
opportunity. Opposition was constantly met with and, as 
constantly, overcome. The sway of superstition over science 
was gradually lessened and eventually degenerated so far that 
its prestige became fairly negligible. 
The discovery of the New World in 1492 opened up new 
fields for European civilization. It diverted thought from 
petty affairs and went a long way toward the development of 
those liberalizing factors that have meant much in the emanci- 
pation of truth from falsity. The moral courage of Columbus 
in the face of overwhelming opposition finally bore its fruits. 
His memorable voyages resulted in triumph for his ideas and 
shook several of the most firmly rooted of medieval super- 
stitions to their very foundations (Fig. 3). He conclusively 
proved, by his daring voyages across unknown seas, that the 
"Sea of Darkness" and its myriads of horrible monsters had 
no existence outside the realms of imagination. In 1519 Ma- 
gellan finished the work of demonstrating that the earth is The Laws of Life 
32 
spherical and not flat. The period of exploration and the 
later period of colonization marked an era of great progress. 
Men were becoming accustomed to the overthrow of old and 
established doctrines. There grew up a tendency to cease 
accepting the old teachings at their face value, and investiga- 
tors became prone to discount them in the light of observed 
facts. 
Fig. 3. People once held that the earth was square, having "four 
corners"; consequently they thought that Columbus would fall off the edge 
if he sailed very far out into the sea of darkness. 
The ancient Chaldean Theory, in its essential feature, held 
that the earth was the center of the universe. While Colum- 
bus and others were busy with their maritime expeditions, 
Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) was exploring the heavens 
and seeking out the true relationships of the various heavenly 
bodies. He discovered the true relation existing between the 
planets and the sun in our own solar system. Copernicus is 
rightly entitled to the distinction of being called the father of 
modern astronomical science. His theory, founded upon fact 
and not upon supposition, endowed astronomy with a firm Superstition as a Retarding Factor 
33 
footing. Copernicus had fully matured his theory by the 
year 1507, but, fearing the charge of heresy, did not publish 
it until thirty-six years later. When the theory was made 
public, both Protestants and Catholics severely denounced it 
as contrary to Scripture and did all in their power to nullify 
it. As a result of this opposition, it carried practically no 
weight in scientific thought during the Sixteenth Century. 
When the telescope of Galileo made further revelations of the 
truth, its acceptance was so hindered by the objections of the 
churchmen that it did not come into its own until the Eigh- 
teenth Century.1 
Any real progress in chemistry as a science during the 
Middle Ages was impeded by the very nature of its aims and 
the mystification with which it was practiced. Incidentally, 
however, important discoveries were made that paved the way 
for the art of the modern chemist. The alchemists believed 
in the existence of, and were constantly searching for, mys- 
terious agencies that would transmute the baser metals into 
gold, cure all manner of diseases, and prolong human life in- 
definitely. The idea of the transmutation of baser metals into 
gold was founded upon the old system of philosophy referred 
to earlier in this chapter. According to the alchemistic 
opinion, all metals possessed such an intrinsic relationship 
that they could be changed from one into the other by simply 
shifting their relative proportions of "sulphur" and "mer- 
cury," since the nature of any metal depended only upon the 
amount of the substances that entered into its composition-a 
suggestion of the transmutations which actually take place in 
the radio-active substances. The terms, "sulphur" and "mer- 
cury," denoted qualities and not the elements as we know 
them today. In order to "purify" the baser metals, such as 
iron, copper, lead, and tin, and thus convert them into silver 
or gold, it was necessary only to add certain "medicines"; 
namdly, "Magisterium," "Great Elixir," or "Philosopher's 
Stone." 
1 See Andrew D. White, "The Warfare of Science with Theology." 34 
The Laws of Life 
Although the Philosopher's Stone was purely a mythical 
substance, many alchemists professed to have handled it. 
Thorpe, in History of Chemistry, says: "It is usually described 
as a red powder. Paracelsus says that it was like a ruby, 
transparent and brittle as glass; Berigard de Pisa, that it was 
of the color of a wild poppy, with a smell of heated sea salt; 
Von Ilelmont, that it was like saffron, with the lustre of glass. 
Helvetius describes it as of the color of sulphur." Other 
writers claim that it may be of any color-yellow, red, sky- 
blue, green, or even white. The literature on the subject of 
the Philosopher's Stone abounds in directions for its manipu- 
lation and the amounts to be used in order to bring about the 
perfect transformation of a base metal into pure gold. How- 
ever, these accounts, and especially the "recipes," are as mys- 
tical as the wonderful stone itself. Is it possible that any 
chemist, however learned, could solve the following alchemistic 
riddle which is claimed to have been used by the philosophers 
of the Fifteen Century, when "the cult of alchemy attained to 
the dignity of a religion": "To fix quicksilver:-Of several 
things take 2, 3, and 3, 1; 1 to 3 is 4; 3, 2 and 1. Between 
4 and 3 there is 1; 3 from 4 is 1; then 1 and 1, 3 and 4; 1 
from 3 is 2. Between 2 and 3 there is 1, between 3 and 2 
there is 1. 1, 1, 1, and 1, 2, 2 and 1, 1 and 1 to 2. Then 1 
is 1. I have told you all" (Thorpe). Who could possibly 
understand this formula? The story is told of a learned pro- 
fessor of alchemy who, when one of his students failed to com- 
prehend his directions and asked for information, said that 
questions could not be permitted, but that perseverance alone 
could bring wisdom. 
The superstitious belief that the baser metals could be 
changed into gold was not only prevalent among the ignorant 
masses, but was championed by the greatest philosophers of 
the day. In order that the Philosopher's Stone might be 
found, so that their exhausted treasuries could be replenished, 
at one time nearly all the sovereigns of Europe were patrons 
of the science of alchemy and contributed liberally to its sup- Superstition as a Retarding Factor 
35 
port. Letters of patent were granted as conscientiously as 
patents are issued in America to-day. The following are a 
few of the men who have loaned their illustrious names to 
dignify this most spurious and superstitious art: Rudolph II 
of Germany; Frederick I, and Frederick II of Prussia; Chris- 
tian IV of Denmark; Charles XII of Sweden; Charles VII, 
and Charles IX of France; Henry VI, and Edward IV of 
England. Elizabeth Tudor-supporter of the notorious Dr. 
Fig. 4. An alchemist's laboratory, according to the painting of Teniers. 
(From McPherson and Henderson's "Elementary Study of Chemistry," 
Ginn & Co.) 
Dee-also loaned her name and influence, as well as financial 
aid, to this pseudo-science. 
Although the royal class was more interested in the power 
of the Philosopher's Stone to change base metals into gold, this 
mythical substance possessed other powers fully as wonderful. 
"As it ennobled metals, so it freed the heart from evil. It 
made men wise as Aristotle, sweetened adversity, banished vain 
glory, ambition, and vicious desires" (Thorpe). This same 
element, tho spoken of in this case as the Elixir of Life, 
had also the power of preserving health and prolonging life. 36 
The Laws of Life 
In view of the great services which this substance might 
render to humanity, it was vital that a thorough search be 
made for it. Chemical laboratories (Fig. 4) were established 
throughout Europe in order that it might be made, while ex- 
plorers searched every continent and sea for a supposed 
"Fountain of Youth" that contained the "Elixir of Life." 
The early Spanish explorers, notably Ponce de Leon, searched 
long and diligently for such a fountain, but for a very obvious 
reason failed to find it. These ideas of a supernatural agency 
were peculiar not only to the Middle Ages and the early mo- 
dern period, but were quite prevalent during other times. 
Even before the dawn of the Christian Era, the Arabs and 
other peoples were searching for it. A story is told of an 
Arab who was sure that he had found the "Elixir of Life" 
when he, for the first time, tasted an alcoholic liquor. Thus, 
we have a notable type of the imaginative and mystic specu- 
lations and superstitions that absorbed the "intelligent" minds 
of the past. 
During the last quarter of the Seventeenth Century belief 
in the existence of witches was almost universal in Massachu- 
setts. In Salem alone, nineteen persons were executed for their 
supposed witchcraft. Other colonies were not entirely free of 
the mania. Many of the countries of the Old World were the 
scenes of the condemnation and torture of innumerable unfor- 
tunates. In Great Britain thousands of women were put to 
death for fancied crimes. The parties responsible for these 
persecutions claimed Scriptural authority for their acts. 
Most certain it is that the laws of the land supported them. 
The close of the Seventeenth Century witnessed the last of 
religious persecutions and punishment for witchcraft in 
America. People woke up to the fact that such treatment as 
was accorded the supposed witches was nothing less than a 
pernicious example of rank injustice. In Great Britain, how- 
ever, it was not until 1736 that the obsolete laws aimed at 
such persons were repealed. Belief in the other manifestations 
of the supernatural did not die out very soon. Cotton Ma- Superstition as a Retarding Factor 
37 
ther's Wonders of the Invisible World gives us a very good in- 
sight into the character of the period. The old fantastic no- 
tions regarding Nature were not yet entirely extinct. As 
late as 1742 we note a book entitled Theology of Insects by 
Lesser, while only five years prior to this date Swammerdam's 
complete works were compiled under the significant title of 
Biblia Naturae (Bible of Nature). 
With the final divorcement from the State, the Church was 
divested of its temporal powers and its authority was restricted 
to its own individual province. Science was then left unham- 
pered by creed and free to fight out its own battles against 
prejudice and superstition. However, it required many years 
for a real spirit of investigation to supplant the superficial 
and "hearsay" information. The absurd nature stories of 
Jesse, written less than eighty years ago, are splendid exam- 
ples of the many non-authentic records which have recently 
been compiled as facts. 
After reviewing the situation as revealed by historical facts, 
we are forced to admit that the great struggle which has been 
fought for civilization has been one against a semi-ignorant 
type of superstition which is backed by the mandates of a 
credulous religious faith. But, the very moment we boast of 
the liberality of the present generation; boast of our mental 
independence; boast that we have been extricated from the 
bonds of ancient necromancy and are free to consider fact, 
not fancy; history, not mythology; truth, not error; at that 
moment the mirror of life is held up before us and we see in 
our thoughts and actions much that has been inherited from 
the past. Our posterity will perhaps regard us in the same 
light as we do our own ancestors. Superstition, although not 
nearly so rife as formerly, is still a shameful blot upon our 
vaunted enlightenment. Before we may truly cal] ourselves 
enlightened, in the widest sense of the word, we must throw off* 
completely all ties of superstition that have been fastened 
upon us by our childish credulity and the acceptance of the 
errors of our fathers. We must seek out the truth, of all 38 
The Laws of Life 
things and adopt nothing that bears the slightest stigina of 
mystery and enchantment. 
As we are enjoying a pleasant walk thru Nature's great 
laboratory, we are disturbed by an omen of "ill luck" presented 
to us in the form of a black cat crossing our path. Should 
we pass on the opposite side of a tree from our friend, we are 
bound to fall into the throes of misfortune. Should we by 
accident hear a hen try to crow, some member of our family 
will surely die before long. Upon our return to our cottage, 
Insert I. The magic charm of the horse-shoe. 
we are liberated from all these bondages of evil by making 
various magic signs, or by simply walking under the horseshoe 
which hangs over our door. Nevertheless, the great condem- 
nation hovers over us again should our child bring a garden 
hoe into the house, raise an umbrella in our room, or spin a 
chair on one leg. We are, of necessity, again compelled to 
rout the evil spirits by more mummery. If a piece of work 
is begun on Friday, it can never be completed. If you make 
any garment for your friend while she is ill she will surely die. 
If it rains on Monday there will be three other rainy days dur- 
ing the week. If it rains on the first day of any month there Superstition as a Retarding Factor 
39 
will be fifteen such days before its close. These things, and 
others fully as absurd, are believed at the present day by many 
people who have sufficient intelligence to overlook such childish 
fancies. 
A great number of us have been forced by our parents to 
wear a small bag of asafoetida suspended about our necks to 
promote general body development, and, perchance, added to 
this, a piece of lead to prevent nosebleed. There are thousands 
of men and women in America to-day who are wearing brace- 
lets of copper to ward off rheumatic pains. These bracelets 
are usually worn on the w rists. One lady in a certain Colorado 
village, not receiving the expected relief after following the 
usual method, conceived the idea of wearing one on the ankle, 
as well as one on the wrist. These bracelets were placed on 
opposite sides of the body in order that the "current" might 
pass diagonally from one side to the other. 
The practice of planting potatoes and other crops in the 
dark of the moon instead of seeking out the very best soil con- 
ditions is an excellent example of the superstitious ideas that 
are very materially delaying progress in agricultural science 
in this, the Twentieth Century. 
Far more surprising and even amazing are the notions and 
superstitions that men have held in the past regarding the 
curative powers of certain "medicines" (Fig. 5). Dr. John 
A. Foote in his article, Medicine Fakes and Fakers of All 
Ages, published in the January, 1919, issue of The National 
Geographic Magazine, has given a good resumie of these 
"fakes." The use of magic cure-alls, nostrums, and universal 
antidotes is as old as, and perhaps older than, civilization 
itself. Medicine and magic were closely allied throughout the 
ancient and medieval periods. The old Greek word Phar- 
makon may be translated either as "magic" or as "drugs." 
The classic fable of Mithridates the Great, King of Pontus, 
serves well to illustrate the imaginary powers of universal 
antidotes. He was reported to have been totally immune from 
poisons because of a magic potion that he prepared and took Fig. 5. "It looks like a modiste's cushion, but it really is an M.D.'s 
graphic advertisement. It demonstrates the number of spots he knows how 
to puncture you in. A jab with a needle lets out the devil that's kicking up 
the internal row. 
"These practitioners belong to the school of the old Chinese medicine, 
which by official proclamation, during an epidemic of diphtheria, advised the 
public to 'Use Women's Toe-Nails, Bamboo Pith and Bedbugs; Grind to a 
Powder and Sprinkle in the Throat.'" (From the World Outlook, August, 
1918. By courtesy of Christian Herald.) 
40 Superstition as a Retarding Factor 
41 
daily. When he was defeated by his Roman adversaries, and 
desired to commit suicide, no poison could be found that would 
bring about the desired result-one of his soldiers had to kill 
him with a spear. "The idea of a general antidote for poison 
was a very ancient and very generally accepted belief. Some 
of us probably remember the 'mad-stones' which not so very 
long ago were applied to mad-dog bites to 'draw out the 
poison.'* These mad-stones were unquestionably direct de- 
scendants of the bezoar stones of ancient days" (Foote). 
These bezoar stones of antiquity had a great range of uses. 
They were used as antidotes and applied externally to cure 
Insert II. An ancient Indian custom was beating human teeth for medicine, 
many diseases. The most "valuable" of these stones were 
obtained from the intestines of the Persian wild goat. They 
were formed as a kind of concretion of the digestive fluids about 
some small foreign body in the goat's alimentary canal. 
Among the many other popular remedies, dried mummy may 
be mentioned. At one time a flourishing trade in Egyptian 
mummies existed-much to the sorrow of the modern archae- 
ologist. 
During the Elizabethan Period, quackery flourished in 
England and was nourished by a liberal patronage. Many 
relics of this period survive in the "nostrums" and "patent 
medicines" that may be found in the British pharmacies today. 
Although America has been one of the most fertile fields of 42 
The Laws of Life 
patent medicine vending, the public is gradually being edu- 
cated to the uselessness, or worse than uselessness, of doping 
their systems with drugs of a questionable character. The 
medical profession, generally, has agreed to prescribe nothing 
but drugs of known standards and undisputed value. In this 
way, the habits and customs of many years may be largely 
counteracted. 
Although we consider ourselves a highly intelligent people, 
some of the thoughtless among us are still superstitious to a 
degree that is not only absurd and ridiculous, but disgraceful. 
In 1918, while the author was studying these problems in one 
of the southern states, a lady of no mean standing in her 
community informed him of many "infallible cures" that were 
still observed and practiced in that section of the country. 
According to her narrative, a sure cure for night sweats is to 
place a pan of cold water under the bed before retiring. Un- 
usual pains or cramps in the feet and legs may be remedied 
simply by turning the shoes upside down on the floor. If this 
treatment should fail, the ankles should be wrapped with eel 
skin and immediate relief may be expected. Numerous cures 
are in vogue for rheumatism. One of the most common of 
these is the application of rattlesnake grease to the affected 
parts. Should it be impossible to procure this oil, another 
and perhaps better remedy may be used. Angleworms, com- 
monly known in the South as "fishing worms," are placed in 
a bottle, set in the sun, and permitted to decay. The oil of 
putrefaction, which rises to the top, is applied to the aching 
member under the same directions as given for the rattlesnake 
oil. 
Many of the current stories of fake drugs and quack doc- 
tors are familiar to everyone. In response to a reply of the 
author to an advertisement in one of the large daily papers, a 
certain party in Idaho gave the following personal informa- 
tion (Dec. 2, 1918) : "This oil is guaranteed to be pure rattle- 
snake oil. It will stop ringing of the ears or head noises after 
using a few days, and effects a cure in about six weeks." Superstition as a Retarding Factor 
43 
Since the price of this oil was six dollars an ounce, the patient 
might at least be content in that he had used the best. 
We find traces of the old religious influences cropping out 
in our country in the form of popular superstitious beliefs. 
Among them may be mentioned the Biblical treatment for cer- 
tain ailments, notably bleeding. In this treatment the "physi- 
cian" places his right hand upon the head of the patient and 
reads or quotes Ezekiel 16-6: "And when I passed by thee, 
and saw thee polluted in thine own blood, I said unto thee 
when thou wast in thy blood, Live: yea, I said unto thee when 
thou wast in thy blood, Live." The author has seen this ad- 
ministered by persons who claimed no ecclesiastical connec- 
tions whatsoever. The Bible failed to accomplish the desired 
result in the case of a child whose nose was bleeding profusely, 
but the "doctor" was not deterred in the least. He said that 
he knew two other means of stopping the flow of blood. A 
roll of raw cotton containing the seeds was wrapped around 
one of the child's little fingers. This was also found to be in- 
adequate. As a last resort, in one case, a ball of dirty spider's 
web from the attic was forced up the nostril and, as a matter 
of course, the bleeding stopped. A wad of tissue paper or a 
cork would have accomplished the same end. The learned 
"doctor" was rather evasive in his answer when this fact was 
mentioned. 
Superstitious beliefs and practices of the character nar- 
rated are slowly passing away, but they are leaving a culture 
which makes it difficult for the geneticist and the eugenicist to 
root out the deceptive notions that are prevalent regarding 
the science of heredity. This phase of the subject touches 
upon the technical, and is even more dangerous to human prog- 
ress than the other, for it is overshadowed by hasty conclu- 
sions as well as by serious misconstructions of the principles 
involved. 
While considering modern conceptions of Biblical refer- 
ences in the face of observed facts, one is at first suspicious of 
a lack of harmony between the two fields. The spirit of cold 44 
The Laws of Life 
speculative skepticism, which pervaded the minds of the scien- 
tists of earlier days, has been transferred to the masses, and 
has made rapid inroads upon all classes of society. This mix- 
ture of truth and error is applicable to religion as well as to 
science. It has been said that the Evolutionists are atheists 
and are not willing to consider Biblical facts. This is not 
universally true, altho it may be somewhat true in isolated 
cases. The Evolutionists are even more willing to accept the 
catechisms than the masses are to accept the established prin- 
ciples of the sciences of heredity and evolution as proved by 
undeniable facts. The creation story, as told in Genesis, is 
more plausible to the eugcnicist, if viewed in a certain light, 
than the scientific explanation of birthmarks is to the aver- 
age mother (see Chapter XXVIII). 
After considering the evolutionary development of life 
from its earliest stages to its present complexity, Darwin ex- 
pressed his inner feelings thus: "There is a grandeur in this 
view of life, with its several powers having been originally 
breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one; and that, 
whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed 
law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most 
beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being 
evolved." Compare this complacent description with Milton's 
immortal stanza presented previously in this chapter. Would 
anyone dare to suggest that the latter is a more plausible in- 
terpretation of the creation story than the former? Milton's 
presentation is thoroughly unscientific and fallacious. The 
height of absurdity is reached when it is claimed that the all- 
wise Creator completed His work of creation and then placed 
Himself upon His great throne and played no further part in 
the workings of Nature. 
A vivid picture of a certain young man who was reared 
under the old school of religious faith presents itself. When 
a small child, the Santa Claus story was taught to him as a 
fact. After a few years his street friends informed him that Superstition as a Retarding Factor 
45 
the story was false. They pointed out the impossibility of a 
dozen reindeer coming down the chimney and also how impro- 
bable it was that one man could take presents to all the chil- 
dren in the world in the space of one night. A little later, 
when he became inquisitive as to his own origin, he was told 
that a great stork came one stormy night and dropped him 
Fig. 6. Parental falsities. Why should we live in a world of realities and 
teach only the fanciful? 
into the bed with his mother. Later, crude stories from the 
street established this as another great parental falsehood. 
He was further impressed with the idea that rabbits laid 
Easter eggs. Throughout his tender years he was taught, in 
school as well as at home, that the world was ruled by fairies 
and sprites rather than by real men and women. All manner 
of tales of goblins, gnomes, witches, and ghosts were told him 
by his teachers and his parents. Many American primary 46 
The Laws of Life 
teachers pride themselves in stating that such instruction is 
excellent "food for imagination." Perhaps so, but it occurs 
to the author that there is more than sufficient detail in such 
work as Nature Study, for instance, to supply all the "food 
for imagination" that is desired. Such instruction based upon 
fact would, without doubt, prove of more lasting value and 
would not leave so many things to be unlearned. Why should 
we live in this land of realities and teach only the fanciful 
(Fig. 6)? 
All this time the parents had been teaching their boy about 
an unknown and indeed imperceptible character called Jesus 
Christ. What effect would the other stories have upon the 
reception of this, the only one with any semblance of the truth? 
When the boy lost faith in Santa Claus, the fairies, and the 
truthfulness of his own parents, he would be likely to lose his 
faith in Christ. Mythical customs and false modesty are re- 
sponsible for far more of the infidelity of this world than is the 
truth as taught by the science of evolution. 
In connection with other Bible lessons, this boy was taught 
that all plants and animals were created at one time and that 
Noah took two of every living thing into the ark at the time 
of the flood and remained for months upon the waters. 
As he was an inquisitive youth, be began to compute the size 
of a boat that would be required to accommodate nearly a 
million individual living forms; he was told by his teacher 
that there had been described some six hundred thousand dis- 
tinct kinds of animals and almost as many plants. 
While in high school, this young man began to read of the 
mammoth elephants, the great snake-like animals which 
weighed thirty or forty tons, and thousands of others which 
have disappeared from the face of the earth. He sometimes 
wondered if Noah had representatives of each of these types 
in the ark along with the present species. If so, the ark must 
have been considerably larger than some of the smaller states 
in the American Union. Such a thing was highly improbable 
to a young mind that was yearning for perceivable facts. Superstition as a Retarding Factor 
47 
However, he did not allow himself to become prejudiced but 
waited until some substantial evidence to the contrary should 
be presented. When he entered upon his scientific work at a 
university and learned something of the facts of heredity and 
evolution, he was made to smile at the childish inclinations of 
the Christian's creed; for, in the course of his own experi- 
mental work he observed new forms of plants and animals 
making their appearance, for the first time. If we shut our 
eyes to the positive facts of evolution, our faith in the creation 
story and the story of Noah is nothing less than the blind 
crediting of a glaring mistake. Evolution could, in a measure, 
explain new types and forms, but all creation at one time 
completely refutes them. 
The young man readily concluded that since his own ob- 
servations proved to him that the animal story was as spurious 
as the myths that were taught him during his childhood, the 
story of Jesus Christ must likewise fall into the same category. 
Thus it is with hundreds of men whose early training was based 
upon error. The only hope in future years is to overthrow 
Twentieth Century superstition, Twentieth Century dogma- 
tism, and the Twentieth Century adherence to mythology by 
a study of scientific facts. Evolution is a science that deals 
with facts and nothing but facts. Evolution does not deny 
the existence of a Supreme Being, but it does grate harshly 
against the grain of some present-day interpretations of cer- 
tain Scriptural passages. 
Among the many other advantages to be gained from a 
study of the modern problems of heredity and evolution, an 
understanding of the relation which exists between heredity 
and environment seems very important. This is a subject 
about which there are many and varied ideas. Most of the 
people seem to hold the opinion that characters acquired by 
the parents are transmitted to the offspring. One of the argu- 
ments used by many lecturers against the use of intoxicating 
drinks is that the desire acquired by the father may be handed 
down to his children. A study of the elements of heredity and 48 
The Laws of Life 
eugenics will suggest a more accurate explanation for this per- 
plexing question. 
It is the custom of many charitable institutions to collect 
the street waifs, regardless of their low heritage, clean them 
up, and, after caring for them a few months, place them in 
the best of homes where they mingle with children of superior 
birth. Their theory is that environment will overshadow all 
hereditary taints. The true answer to such a supposition 
can be found only thru a close study of eugenics and euthenics. 
A mixed family of white and black children was pointed out 
to the author while he was visiting the slums of a certain city. 
The mother of this brood was said to have been a most vile 
prostitute and to have never been married. Those poor chil- 
dren, no doubt, had inherited the lowest strains of physical, 
mental, and moral constitutions. If some respectable family 
should be so unfortunate as to have the germ plasm of these 
illegitimates mixed with their own pure line, many wrecked 
homes could be pictured as the result of the matings of such 
unequal young people, altho they might be placed in an 
identical environment. We can never hope for the solution of 
such vital social problems until the principles of heredity, 
eugenics, and euthenics are better understood by everyone that 
is in the slightest degree concerned. 
As yet, the science of heredity has not penetrated so very 
far into the unknown, but it is treading on firm ground, and 
its attainment of certain ultimate goals is only a matter of 
time and patience. The time element depends, to a certain ex- 
tent, upon the attitude of the masses. The subject of plant, 
animal, and human development should be of sufficient general 
interest to be discussed at large and taught in our schools. 
However, the public is loath to discard its old ways and accept 
new facts, even tho these facts may be well established. 
Lyell said that it took almost 150 years to get even the learned 
men to believe that bones, teeth, and shells found in the earth 
were the remains of real animals, and another 150 years to 
persuade them that such remains were not "freaks of nature" Superstition as a Retarding Factor 
49 
or the remains of the animals that perished during the Mosaic 
Deluge. If the people of the present age are as slow to accept 
the recently compiled facts of evolution, heredity, and eugenics 
-many of which are more startling than the above-progress 
along these lines will continue to be extremely slow. CHAPTER II 
CONSIDERATION OF TERMS 
Evolution-Current Conception vs. Fact-Mechanical Evolu- 
tion-Geologic Evolution-Biologic Evolution-Heredity-Ge- 
netics-Eugenics and Euthenics-Importance of Extending the Sub- 
ject-The International Congress of Eugenics-Attitude of Ameri- 
can Teachers-Our Responsibilities. 
"In biology all roads lead to evolution." 
-Conklin, '20. 
"With regard to the fact of evolution there are now no dis- 
senters among thinking people" 
-Shull, '20. 
Evolution 
The term "evolution" has been employed so carelessly 
that one scarcely knows what shade of meaning is implied 
when the word is used. However, to many, it suggests a type 
of human development as related to the lower animals, espe- 
cially the monkeys. This fact was illustrated when a few years 
ago it was the author's privilege to offer the first course in 
Heredity and Evolution in a certain denominational college. 
The first day, without any preparation or preliminaries, every 
student was requested to write his own definition of evolution. 
Twelve out of a class of only thirty wrote the following: 
"Evolution is the theory that man came from monkey." Other 
definitions that were written conveyed the same idea. When 
we realize that a large proportion of the common people, 
and indeed many men and women of college standing, have no 
broader view of this subject than to consider it a study of the 
parallelisms between man and monkey, we do not wonder at the 
50 Consideration of Terms 
51 
lack of interest that is being shown in its several lines of de- 
velopment. 
Before considering the meaning of evolution, it may be 
well to emphasize the fact that it "neither eliminates God, nor 
does it teach that monkeys are the ancestors of man" 
Many of those who have a more accurate impression of 
evolution will state that it refers to the development of higher 
forms of life from simpler forms. It is not necessary, how- 
ever, to restrict the meaning to the plant and animal king- 
doms. As looked upon from a broader aspect, "evolution is 
an attempt to explain the present conditions of the world in 
terms of simpler pre'existimg conditions" (Castle). In other 
words, evolution is the theory that the various types of or- 
ganic life have gradually developed from other simpler pre- 
existing types, and that the inorganic world has in like manner 
come to its present state of complexity thru a continuous 
process of change. From this viewpoint, then, evolution re- 
fers to the process which all nature has undergone thruout 
the past ages; it unrolls the scroll of the past, and puts the 
key to the situation in our possession. In brief, it treats of 
the progressive changes which have taken place in both the or- 
ganic and inorganic world thru the course of time. "To in- 
sist, as some have done, that the theory of evolution has failed 
because it has not yet solved all of these problems is to under- 
estimate both the magnitude of the problems concerned and 
the progress which has been made toward their solution; to 
reject evolution, as others have done, because the problems 
are too great to be solved by the scientific method, is to re- 
nounce the slow and sure progress of science in favor of pure 
speculation and mysticism in which no progress at all is pos- 
sible."-Conklin. 
In order that a broad and clear understanding of the term 
under consideration may be gained, it is well to apply it not 
only to the works of Nature but also to the works of man. 
In this regard, the whole subject may be divided into three 
separate and distinct subdivisions; namely, (1) Mechanical 52 
The Laws of Life 
Evolution, (2) Geologic or Inorganic Evolution, and (3) Bio- 
logic or Organic Evolution. 
Mechanical Evolution.-The remarkable results that have 
been attained by man as a product of his skill and inventive 
genius have been the consequence of a long and tedious evolu- 
tionary progress. All that has been accomplished in every 
line of endeavor exhibits the marks of having undergone such 
changes in the course of their fashioning. We are reminded, 
while considering the remarkable perfection now reached in the 
purification of metals as well as in their uses, that countless 
ages ago some primitive man must have found, by accident, 
molten metal on his crude hearth. He later noted that this 
metal could be moulded into crude tools and weapons with 
which to prepare his food and to battle against his enemies. 
As ages passed and the minds of men became more highly de- 
veloped, primitive methods for the extraction and purification 
of metals were discovered and gradually introduced. This 
paved the way for a more specialized and a more durable type 
of weapons and implements. New and important discoveries 
that often had a direct bearing upon existing things were 
occasionally brought forward. In the case of weapons, for 
instance, not so many centuries ago, it was found that even the 
most perfectly constructed swords and daggers were inade- 
quate. Upon the introduction of gunpowder, different and 
more powerful weapons were required and devised in order to 
keep pace with the times. At first, these, too, were extremely 
crude, as an examination of the relics of former wars will 
show. However, by the addition of parts, piece by piece, 
from the skilled hands of many generations, the modem in- 
struments of warfare have become a reality. Thus, starting 
with a piece of molten metal in the fire of the savage, the pro- 
cess of mechanical evolution of weapons has proceeded to the 
production of the modern long range guns which startled even 
the military experts during the World War by sending 
death-dealing projectiles into the heart of Paris from a dis- 
tance of about seventy miles. 53 
Consideration of Terms 
Elias Howe has generally been given the credit for invent- 
ing the sewing machine, but investigations prove that it came 
through a series of evolutionary stages. Records seem to indi- 
cate that the first sewing machine was made by Thomas Saint 
in 1790. It was a very crude machine, made of wood. In- 
stead of having an eye, the needle had a small notch. It was 
necessary to punch a hole in the material being sewed in order 
that the needle and thread might pass through. Bartholemy 
Thimonier (1830) invented a machine in France which proved 
so successful that it was used by the French government to 
make clothing for the army. His first machine was constructed 
of wood, but later he made one of steel. Thimonier's machine 
did very slow work because the needle had to be passed back 
and forth twice to complete a stitch. In 1841, Newton and 
Archbold improved this machine by inventing a pointed needle 
with an eye which produced the lock stitch. It was not until 
1846 that Howe patented his machine, which was simply a 
combination of previous features. This machine of Howe's 
was further improved in 1849 and 1854 by John Bachelder. In 
1851, Isaac Singer effected many improvements, such as the 
vertical needle, the foot treadle, and the presser foot. The 
evolution of the sewing machine has proceeded at such a rapid 
pace that now it is possible to embroider, make buttonholes, 
hemstitch, shirr, tuck, darn, gather, and produce various other 
varieties of sewing by mechanical means. By this example we 
find that the modern sewing machine did not spring spon- 
taneously from the brain of one man, but that it was brought 
from a very simple and crude beginning to its present com- 
plex and improved form. There is no question but that this 
process of mechanical evolution will continue until we have a 
much more perfect machine than we have to-day. 
The evolution of the printing press and the art of printing 
is a story that is familiar to every student of history. Our 
modern presses that are capable of turning out thousands of 
complete newspapers in an hour are worthy descendants of the 
slow and clumsy presses of Gutenberg and Franklin. Applied 54 
The Laws of Life 
electricity is a field of science and mechanics that had its 
humble beginning hundreds of years ago when man first began 
to play with "statics" as a curious toy of no practical value. 
The most graphic illustration of progress is shown when we 
study the evolution of man's methods of transportation. The 
United States leads the world with regard to mileage of rail- 
roads. Less than a century ago there was not a single mile of 
railroad track in the entire country. Railroad equipment has 
more than kept up with the increase in mileage. Our modern 
trains with all their appliances to insure comfort, safety, and 
efficiency, are indeed many steps removed from the first 
Fig. 7. An early railroad train, from which has gradually been evolved the 
mammoth locomotive of to-day. 
"coach" drawn by Peter Cooper's diminutive locomotive that 
made the trip from Baltimore to Ellicott's Mills in 1830 
(Fig. 7). 
The best example of mechanical evolution along the line of 
methods of travel may be found in a study of the history of 
the steamboat. Regardless of the fact that history teaches us 
that Robert Fulton invented the steamboat in 1803, we find 
that over two hundred and fifty years before Fulton's time, a 
Spanish captain, Blasco de Garay, was reputed to have built 
a steamboat of his own contrivance. The next we hear of this 
kind of navigation is when Jonathan Hulls (1736) took out 
a patent for a towboat which was propelled by steam power. 
Many trials were made after this, but none were successful in 
any degree until 1782 when the Marquis de Jouffroy d'Arbans 
constructed a steamboat and navigated the Saone River. In Consideration of Terms 
55 
1786, Fitch and Rumsey constructed a paddle steamboat, but 
this was a failure because the boiler burst. After this, they 
lost enthusiasm. When Fulton built the "Clermont," as its 
period of success outlasted those of the other steamboats, he re- 
ceived all the honor for the invention. However, the steamboat 
had previously been quite successful and had passed thru 
a state of evolution of many years' duration. Man in the 
present day has so evolved his modes of travel that he no 
longer must confine his journeys to the surface of the land and 
the sea. He can navigate over the one with aeroplanes and 
dirigibles, and under the other with submarines. It should 
be quite conclusive from the above illustrations that evolution 
is active in the mechanical world. It is also possible to show 
that the same developmental principles are equally as effective 
in the geologic world. 
Geologic Evolution.-A study of the early formation of 
the earth and the tracing of the rising of the continents as 
carried out in geology are really problems of evolution. In 
like manner we often speak of the evolution of the stars and 
of the solar system. The term evolution, then, applies with 
equal force to the making of the universe in its entirety, as 
well as to its component parts. Since this phase of evolution 
is so far reaching, special chapters are reserved for a consid- 
eration of it. In this way it will be more convenient to con- 
sider the entire process of the preparation of the earth for the 
abode of life. 
Biologic Evolution.-The noted discoveries in the field of 
geology led naturally to the extension of the doctrine of evo- 
lution to the biological sciences. Evolution, as used in this 
more or less restricted sense, is usually spoken of as biologic 
or organic evolution. When looked at from this angle, the 
following definitions are quite applicable: 
"The theory of organic evolution relates to the history of animal 
and plant life. Evolution is the development of an organism; the 
gradual growth and unfolding of its parts and organs." The Laws of Life 
56 
"The evolution of an organism means its descent from preced- 
ing organisms with continuous adaptation to its environment." 
"Evolution is the history of the steps by which an organism 
has acquired the characters which distinguish it." Babcock and 
Clausen give a somewhat similar but more technical definition: 
"Evolution is the general name for the history of the steps by 
which any living being has derived the morphological and physiolo- 
gical characters which distinguish it." 
As biologic evolution implies a general relationship between 
all life, a comprehension of this profound subject cannot be 
gained until viewed from a broader aspect. (See Chapters 
VII, VIII, and IX.) 
Meaning of Heredity 
If we examine the characteristics peculiar to our family, 
we find that we are moulded like our parents in many respects. 
If one of our parents is irritable and inclined to be high tem- 
pered, we will likely possess the same characteristics. This re- 
lationship which exists between successive generations and 
which produces this resemblance is called heredity. It will 
be shown later that both mental and moral traits are inherited. 
A father who is a natural musician may transmit this desir- 
able quality to his child. The son of a man who possesses an 
inherent desire for intoxicating liquors will be much more 
likely to become a drunkard than the son of a man who does 
not possess such a desire. Heredity, then, is the transference 
to offspring of the parental characteristics. It will be noted 
That this applies to the very common characteristics as well 
as to those which are very exceptional. Too often we look 
upon heredity as something mystical, and, indeed, applicable 
only in rare instances. The facts that a robin's egg hatches a 
robin instead of a sparrow; that a boy "sprouts" a beard; 
that a dog's body is covered with hair; that a child can speak; 
and, that the mountain lion is ferocious are all examples of 
heredity. In truth, any physical traits which are character- 
istic of a species may be considered under the subject of he- Consideration of Terms 
57 
redity as appropriately as if they were family traits such as 
hereditary eye and hair color. These simple facts of heredity 
have been observed for over two thousand years, but the sig 
nificant and practical application of them has been delayed 
until since the opening of the Twentieth Century. Plato 
". . . warned his countrymen of the degradations in store for 
any nation which perpetuated the unfit by allowing its citizens 
to breed from enervated stock, and he sketched for them an 
imaginary republic in which no consideration of family ties 
or of pity, were permitted to stand in the way of the elimina- 
tion of the weak and the perfection of the race" (Warner). 
Herbert Spencer and others have presented an early word of 
warning regarding the danger of the prevalent custom of 
shielding people from their hereditary sins and defects. It 
will be shown in later chapters that the warning which was 
sounded by the early workers is now being heeded and that 
their advice is in general quite sound. 
Regardless of the fact that these, and many other writers, 
both early and recent, have optimistically viewed the im- 
provement of the race thru the application of the laws of 
eugenics and euthenics, it is quite surprising to find others who 
contend that there has been little improvement of the human 
race thru inheritance. Hayes in his Study of Sociology says, 
"But there now appears to be no scientific basis for the idea 
that the present rich complexity of human endowment will 
ever be materially exceeded. Neither is there any reason for 
supposing that the Chinaman of to-day is materially better 
born than was Confucius, or the Greek of to-day better born 
than were Aristotle and Pericles, or the Hebrew of to-day bet- 
ter born than were Moses and Abraham, or the Egyptian of to- 
day better born than were the builders of the pyramids, or the 
Mesopotamian of to-day better born than were the architects 
of the hanging gardens of Babylon, or the Germans and Ameri- 
cans of to-day better born than Germanicus, Agricola, and 
Caractacus, or the general population of half-naked savages 
that at the dawn of European history roamed thru northern 58 
The Laws of Life 
forests." If the above is true in its most restricted sense, the 
laws of species formation, which are so generally applicable 
to all plants and animals, certainly do not apply to man- 
"The nose, rough in outline and broad at the top, was common to 
Nordics in the sixteenth century, and by no means rare in the seventeenth. 
Here the upper eyelid is more like a modern, but the eye is by no means as 
deep set as is usual to-day. The portrait is that of Nathaniel Byfield, 1653- 
1733." This suggests that man is still undergoing evolutionary changes. 
(From Journal of Heredity (after Bolton), article by Frederick Adams 
Woods.) 
Fig. 8. A Sixteenth Century nose. 
which supposition is not substantiated by scientific investiga- 
tions. Although much credit must be given to social evolution 
and the improvement of the human race thru the change in 
environmental conditions, it seems too far-fetched to place the Consideration of Terms 
59 
hereditary standing of our enlightened race upon a par with 
the "half-naked savages" of the dawn age. Especially does 
this seem absurd when we are reminded that many physical 
changes have been wrought in man since that early time (see 
Chapter IV, also Fig. 8). If man has changed so materially 
in his physical make-up, why should he not likewise have 
changed in mental characteristics as well? 
Genetics 
Genetics is almost equivalent to the term heredity. In 
fact, Shull, '20, says it is "the science of heredity, variation, 
sex determination, and related phenomena," and Conklin, '20, 
says that it "deals with the inherited characteristics of suc- 
cessive generations of individuals." From a technical stand- 
point, genetics is a much broader term than heredity. It in- 
cludes both heredity and environment. It is the study of the 
production, differentiation, and transformation of organisms. 
Such a broad consideration would involve all agencies both out- 
side and inside the organism that may either directly or in- 
directly affect it. Professor Castle states that: "Genetics is 
the science which deals with the coming into being of organ- 
isms." Herbert E. Walter gives us another clear conception 
of genetics in his statement of the geneticist's task: "To 
unravel the golden thread of inheritance which has bound us 
all together in the past, as well as to learn how to weave upon 
the loom of the future, not only those old patterns in plants 
and animals and men which have already proven worth while, 
but also to create new organic designs of an excellence hitherto 
impossible or undreamed of, is the inspiring task before the 
geneticist to-day." 
Eugenics and Euthenics 
If genetics deals with all factors which have to do with 
the betterment of the race of any given line of organisms, 
whether plants or animals, then eugenics and euthenics com- 
bined constitute the genetics of man; the former referring to 60 
The Laws of Life 
man's heredity and the latter to the improvement of the human 
race thru environment. According to Galton: "Eugenics 
is the science of being well born"; in other words "it is the study 
of agencies under social control that may improve or impair 
the racial qualities of future generations either physically or 
mentally." It is readily seen that this science deals entirely 
with the improvement of the human race by selecting better 
hereditary qualities with which to begin life. The destiny of 
the individuals now living is sealed, as it is impossible for us 
to be reborn under more favorable conditions. Eugenics, then, 
is designed only for the future generations. 
Eugenist or Eugenicist? 
"With the development of the science of eugenics, two prac- 
tically interchangeable words have come into use for indicating 
a person who studies eugenics. These words are 'eugenist' and 
'cugcnicist.' The present practice, however, seems to be to 
discard the term 'eugenist' in favor of the term 'eugenicist.' 
This preference is desirable because it is based upon sound ety- 
mological grounds. Literally, the word 'eugenist' means one 
who is well born, while the word 'eugenicist' means one who is 
versed in the science of eugenics. The syllable '-ic' or '-ics' in 
the latter term means 'the science of,' which meaning is en- 
tirely lacking in the shorter word. From the standpoint of 
euphony, the shorter word possibly has a small preference in its 
favor. But this shortness and euphony are clearly overbal- 
anced by the correct etymological content of the longer word. 
In the official correspondence of the Eugenics Research Asso- 
ciation, and in the editorial policy of the Eugenic An News, 
therefore, the term 'eugenicist' will, in the future, be used to the 
exclusion of the term 'eugenist,' to mean a person who is con- 
cerned with, or versed in, the science of eugenics." Feb., '22. 
The Development of Eugenics 
Ten years ago the subject of eugenics was practically un- 
known in America. The American people were too much ab- Consideration of Terms 
61 
sorbed in the commercial improvement of plants and domestic 
animals to think of the betterment of their own race. A drive 
for practical eugenics, however, was inaugurated in 1908 when 
the American Breeders Association appointed a eugenics com- 
mittee composed of David Starr Jordan, Luther Burbank, Bell, 
Castle, and others. From this time onward the improvement 
of the human race has been a supreme question in the minds 
of American thinkers. The workers from such an organization 
as the American Genetics Association (publishers of The Jour- 
nal of Heredity}, the Carnegie Institute, the Rockefeller 
Foundation, the National Committee for Mental Hygiene, the 
American Social Hygiene Association, and the American Fed- 
eration for Sex-Hygiene are stimulating an interest in eugenics 
as well as in other practical lines of heredity and euthenics. 
The founding of the Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring 
Harbor, Long Island, by Mrs. E. H. Harriman has stimulated 
much interest in family records. Popular interests are now so 
aroused in this new science that every section of the country 
is welcoming conferences, exhibits, press articles, as well as 
open discussions from the pulpit and in the Sunday Schools. 
Normal schools, colleges, and universities all over the country 
are introducing courses in heredity, eugenics, and euthenics, 
while many of the biology teachers in the American high 
schools are embodying eugenic principles in their regular 
courses. Two great international congresses have been held; 
the first in London in August, 1912, under the auspices of the 
Eugenics Education Society, and the second in New York 
City in September, 1921. "Since that first notable meeting 
in London, the World War has come and gone and the question 
in more than one country is whether the finest racial stocks 
have not been so depleted by it that they are in danger of ex- 
tinction, for more than any other this war has been destructive 
of the best. The war has left the economic, sociologic, and 
biologic conditions of the world greatly disturbed. Never 
before has the need of international cooperation and enlighten- 
ment been felt so keenly." The Second International Eugenics 62 
The Laws of Life 
Congress therefore came at a time of exceptional interest, when 
the need for some systematic methods of race improvement 
was felt by millions of thinking people throughout the earth. 
A study of family histories has revealed the fact that vari- 
ous physical, mental, and moral discrepancies are handed down 
from generation to generation and thus that radical social 
restrictions on hereditary influences are needed. Drastic 
measures for the prevention of social disease transmissions 
alone, are great factors in race preservation and improvement. 
A number of states have not only passed stringent marriage 
laws, but have caused to be put into effect many other precau- 
tionary measures. 
In face of the fact that the American teachers are aware 
of the social consequences of uncontrolled hereditary influ- 
ences, they continue to ignore the urgent demand to present 
a digest of the subject to their students. "It is amusing but 
sad to realize that our schools have expected the pupils to 
know the location of small islands in the South Pacific Ocean, 
the height of a mountain in Asia, the population of Honolulu, 
how many men fell in the battle of Marathon, to learn by 
heart 'The Charge of the Light Brigade' and 'Thanatopsis,' 
translate and scan Virgil, memorize verses of the New Testa- 
ment in Greek, and find the value of 'pi' in geometry, but not 
a word about eugenics. It is impossible to believe the ignor- 
ance of natural physiological laws which many of our children 
exhibit at the time of graduation from our high schools and 
colleges. The average mother has failed to teach her daugh- 
ters important truths, because she thought it was too delicate 
a subject to discuss with them." Rhodes, in his excellent book, 
The Next Generation, concludes the chapter on Eugenics thus: 
"A report of the Eugenic Section of the American Breeders' 
Association says: 'It is a pressing problem to know what 
to do to increase the birth rate of the superior stocks and 
keep down, proportionally at least, the contribution of the 
inferior stocks. Another great need is the simplification of 
the standards of living, for it is the inordinate desire for dis- Consideration of Terms 
63 
play that makes many persons hesitate and begrudge the ex- 
pense of children.' 
"A prominent eugenicist has recently said: 'The fact of the 
matter, which eugenics hopes to mitigate, is social, and its 
roots lie in social causes. It can be cured only by social reme- 
dies. Bracing up an individual here and there does not help; 
more are cast down in a day than are picked up in a year. 
Bringing about an occasional 'eugenic marriage' only serves 
the immediate individuals, and serves them only until they learn 
that artificial mating without love brings no more social health 
than when a king mates his daughter to a neighboring prince 
for political reasons. 
" 'Eugenics proposes its body of scientific facts as a vehicle 
for its social measures. We are all to blame for these anti-eu- 
genic things. There is a child condemned from birth to epi- 
lepsy or syphilis because of its father's sin; but we all helped 
and permitted that father to sin by neglecting to do our job 
in eliminating the brothel or the saloon. There is a brood of 
feeble-minded children born to misery and to be a social cancer; 
we are to blame in not demanding that the parents be segre- 
gated before they became parents-segregated as tho they 
had smallpox. There is a mother bringing a succession of un- 
der-nourished children into the world to be prostitutes and 
criminals; we are to blame for the slum where that mother 
grew and for the sweatshop where she played out her vitality 
before she married in desperation to escape it, or in the passion 
which was the natural result of her untrained parental in- 
stinct.' " 
"The thought of evolution now dominates all sciences-physical, 
biological, physiological and sociological." 
"It is manifest that sociology must depend upon biology, since 
biology is the general science of life, and human society is but 
part of the world of life."-Sociology and Modern Social Prob- 
lems. 
-Ellwood. CHAPTER III 
SOME INTERESTING THEORIES 
Introduction-Early Speculations as to the Structure of the Uni- 
verse-Greek Ideas-More Recent Views-Our Source of Knowl- 
edge of the History of the Earth-Study of the Solar System- 
Growth of the Earth-Bombardment by Meteorites-Compression- 
Atmosphere and Water-Inorganic Synthesis-Formation of 
Water and the Oceans-Appearance of Life-Origin of Life- 
Creation Theory-Origin of Cosmic Dust-Origin by Inorganic 
Synthesis-Absurd Ideas-Spontaneous Generation. 
"A fire-mist and a planet, 
A crystal and a cell, 
A jelly-fish and a saurian, 
And caves where the cave-men dwell; 
Then a sense of law and beauty 
A fa.ce turned from the clod,- 
Some call it Evolution, 
And others call it God." 
-W. II. Carruth. 
Introduction 
To perceive the rapid changes of nature at the present 
time, it is essential to investigate those of the past. If it is 
clearly seen that the earth has undergone evolutionary and 
at times seemingly revolutionary transformations, the pres- 
ent-day changes will be made much more obvious. When an 
impression of contemporaneous evolutionary agencies is ob- 
tained, it is then, and only then, that a perception can be 
gained of man's opportunity to direct the trend of affairs to 
his own advantage. It is here that the practical side of evolu- 
tion comes into play. Furthermore, it should be evident that 
64 Some Interesting Theories 
65 
these LAWS OF LIFE which are to-day being summoned to 
man's service have been operative thru all the geologic ages. 
A study of the progressions which have taken place from the 
beginning of time is, therefore, the basis of a knowledge of 
factors which are influencing plant and animal life to-day, and 
which are moulding the destiny of the human race. Such an 
inquiry may advantageously be extended back into the dim 
precincts of hypothesis. The origin of the earth and the 
origin of life itself may be speculated upon with profit. From 
this mist of hypothesis, step by step, we have passed down the 
ages in which geologic facts have given us an accurate con- 
ception of the actual conditions which existed, and thence, we 
follow the laws of progress into the present age which might 
fittingly be called the "Practical." 
The Origin and Evolution of the Earth 
Many and varied have been the notions entertained in the 
past regarding the shape and extent of the universe in general. 
Prior to the discovery of America, medieval men held the be- 
lief that the world was smaller than it really is and that it was 
in the form of a disc. 
Babylon was responsible for the formation and the promul- 
gation of the doctrine that the blue heaven was a solid, vaulted 
dome and that the stars were eternal fires supported in the 
substance of its structure. The earth was surrounded by a 
sea, and beyond the sea lay a mighty range of mountains upon 
which rested the superstructure of the vaulted heavens. The 
sun sped on its course in a vast arch under this dome by day, 
and returned to the east at night by a subterranean passage. 
Such were the ideas taught by the ancient Babylonian and 
Chaldean astronomers. Chaldea passed thru her five thou- 
sand years of existence without hitting upon any vestige of 
truth of the vastness of the universe. Egypt borrowed her 
astronomical science from Babylon. Some peoples, like the 
Hebrews and the Persians, who came under the influence of the 
Babylonian culture, refined these ideas of the universe with 66 
The Laws of Life 
new additions of their own. But everywhere, the earth was 
shut in by the solid vault of heaven. These ideas persisted even 
as late as the latter part of the Middle Ages, when telescopes 
of the pioneers of modern astronomy began to peer into the 
mysteries of the unknown and to seek out the true state of 
affairs. 
Ancient Greece, in her brightest days, developed some think- 
ers who introduced many new ideas that were remarkable for 
their nearness to the truth. Among these men may be men- 
tioned Pythagoras, who taught that the earth was a sphere 
and that it revolved on its axis once in twenty-four hours. Ue, 
however, still clung to the notion of a material heaven. He 
thought of it as a hollow sphere revolving with myriads of 
stars around a central fire. The earth also revolved around 
this central fire of which the sun was a mere reflection. Py- 
thagoras had but a small following and bis ideas soon fell into 
disrepute. 
With the decay of the Greek nation there came a dimin- 
ishing in the force of its culture. The teachings of the rational 
thinkers were rejected for the time being. Greek culture was 
transferred to Alexandria where it came into contact with the 
culture of the East. A heroic attempt was being made to 
gather tangible material regarding the system of the universe 
when the Dark Ages settled down over the earth like a vast, 
covering mantle, shutting out the guiding light in advance of 
knowledge. 
Remarkable as were the speculations of men of former 
times concerning the physical features of the universe, even 
more remarkable were their deductions regarding its origin. 
From the Very dawn of history we find authentic records of 
this spirit of theoretical inquiry. Each noted people of an- 
t iquity has left behind some record of its thoughts along such 
lines. Mythology, as handed down from generation to genera- 
tion, has carried the tale even farther into the dim prehistoric 
past. The ancient Greek priests explained that the 
heavens and the earth were formed from the body of a dis- Some Interesting Theories 
67 
reputable goddess. Her body had been split asunder. From 
one half, the god of light constructed the earth; and from the 
other half, he raised the vaulted dome of heaven. Another 
teaching was that the firmament was a goddess arched over the 
earth on her hands and feet, being forced by some successful 
adversary to assume and hold that position eternally. The 
Greeks had many different accounts of the beginning of the 
world. Homer tells us that a mighty flood, enveloping the 
land and sea like a serpent with its tail in its mouth, was the 
prelude of all. Other myths say that darkness was the first 
condition of nature. 
Democritus, a Greek of daring inspiration, approached the 
truth when he taught that the universe was composed of an 
innumerable host of minute particles which he called "atoms," 
and that they gradually settled into their massed forms from 
a chaotic state of confusion. His teachings, like those of 
Pythagoras and others, were cast aside as rubbish and buried 
beneath the debris of mythology during the Dark Ages. 
There were also many different traditions regarding the 
origin of man himself. The Greeks did not settle this question 
as easily as did the Hebrews. Some said that both gods and 
men were derived from "Mother Earth," others, that they were 
produced by the rivers or the sea, or that they grew out of 
trees and rocks. 
This character of conjecture was uppermost in the minds 
of men until after the Dark Ages. In the early days of the 
Christian Era, however, a certain impetus was given to system- 
atic thought along these lines. But all philosophical efforts 
were retarded during the decline and fall of the Roman Em- 
pire, and no further progress was made until after the Fif- 
teenth Century. This lack of scientific investigation into the 
origin of the earth and the origin of man was caused by the 
religious sentiments which were uppermost in the minds of the 
men of that time. 
Even as late as the Eighteenth Century the geologists con- 
tinued to be baffled over the significance of various layers of 68 
The Laws of Life 
rocks which constitute the outer crust of the earth and contain 
fossils which show a succession of life. They seemed to have 
thought that numerous life cataclysms had taken place. It 
was assumed that in each case all living forms had been ob- 
literated and then, following such universal destructions, re- 
creation had taken place. In each successive creation the new 
forms were assumed to be a higher type of life than the pre- 
existing forms. Such assumptions would account for the 
presence of the lower forms of life in the lower rock strata 
and the higher life near the surface. 
However, the later geologists have studied the diverse lay- 
ers of rock which constitute the outer crust of the earth and 
are able to read its history far back into the ages of geologic 
time. In the main, the upper layers carry a complete record 
so unmistakable that the geologists are enabled to read as 
from an open book. The lower layers are so distorted that 
little information can be obtained from them. Still lower the 
rocks are entirely inaccessible, and thus cannot be made to 
reveal any historical facts. The knowledge of the outer sur- 
face of the earth blends with the hypothesis of the interior. 
Even tho geologists, by studying the rock layers, have been 
able to construct a fairly accurate history of the evolution of 
the earth during the past few million years, they have been 
unable to find any definite data which would seem to point to 
the phenomenon of its origin. Here they are by necessity 
forced to speculate. They must form the hypothesis to fit the 
observed facts, or find facts to fit partially predetermined 
hypotheses. Should new observations, however, necessitate the 
framing of another hypothesis, the old one might be of great 
aid. The truth often lies midway. 
The Origin of the Solar System, Including the Earth 
Many theories have been proposed to cover the origin of 
the solar system, and, more especially, the earth. Since they 
possess many elements in common, a general consideration will 
be given rather than a detailed discussion of each theory. Be- Some Interesting Theories 
69 
fore an attempt is made to gain an understanding of the 
methods of stellar evolution, it is very necessary that the reader 
should conceive, insofai* as possible, the stupendousness of the 
universe. However, the inter-stellar distances are so great 
that the human mind is incapable of grasping their true pro- 
portions. We have no system of measurement that will rep- 
resent them in anything but almost meaningless numbers. 
As we marvel at the beauty of the milky way, little do we 
realize that the astronomers with their enormous telescopes of 
utmost delicate adjustment, together with their sensitive plates, 
have actually recorded over a hundred million stars in its path. 
Although our own sun has a diameter 865,000 miles and is 
93,000,000 miles distant from the earth, thousands of stars 
in the milky way are hundreds of millions, or even trillions of 
miles farther from the earth than is the sun. When we gaze 
upon the many stars of the heavens that are visible to the un- 
aided eye, we are unable to distinguish any marked differences 
in them other than differences in their apparent size and bril- 
liancy. The astronomers tell us that the spectroscope reveals 
the fact that they differ remarkably in temperature and struc- 
ture. There are thousands of shining bodies in the heavens, 
which the spectroscope shows to be nothing more than collec- 
tions of thin shining gas. These peculiar masses of incan- 
descent gas are called nebulae (Fig. 9). There are only two 
nebulae that can be observed with the unaided eye, namely, the 
middle "star" in the sword of Orion (the big hunter), and the 
nebula in the constellation of Andromeda. Moulton speaks of 
Orion as "the most wonderful and beautiful object in the 
heavens." He estimates its mass as 100,000,000,000,000 times 
that of the sun. When examined in detail, a nebula is seen to 
be made up of a central shining mass called the nucleus from 
which are given off two or more radiating arms twisted into the 
form of a spiral. These arms contain aggregations of lumi- 
nous masses of a "knotty" appearance. Throughout the en- 
tire nebula there seems to be a fleecy cloud-like consistency 
with here and there a hazy nucleus. The general appearance 70 
The Laws of Life 
of a nebula, as a whole, is highly suggestive of a common toy 
fire wheel. 
While many "stars" seem to be in this nebulous or gaseous 
Fig. 9. A spiral nebula. Photographed by Ritchey. (From Schuchert, by 
courtesy of John Wiley and Sons.) 
state, others seem to be partly condensed into a solid, and still 
others are seen to be in advanced stages of solidification, while 
little, if any gaseous matter is present. With these observa- Some Interesting Theories 
71 
tions as a basis, certain workers have suggested that these 
conditions represent different evolutionary stages in the de- 
velopment of a star. 
Beginning with a gas of inconceivable tenuity, we are able 
to follow the successive steps in the development of a star 
through its several evolutionary stages until it passes into a 
solid planet such as the earth. However, according to the 
planetesimal hypothesis as set forth by Chamberlin and Moul- 
ton, "the remote ancestor of the solar system was a more or 
less condensed and well-defined central sun, having slow rota- 
tion, surrounded by a vast swarm of somewhat irregularly 
scattered secondary bodies, or planetesimals (little planets) 
which all revolved- in elliptical orbits about the central mass in 
the same general direction. 
"According to the planetesimal hypothesis, our present sun 
developed from the central parent mass, and possibly some 
outlying parts which fell in upon it because they had small 
motions of translations. The revolving scattered material 
contained nuclei of various dimensions which, in their motions 
about the central sun, swept up the remaining scattered ma- 
terial and gradually grew into planets whose masses depend 
upon the original masses of the nuclei and the amount of mat- 
ter in the regions through which they passed." 
Moulton clearly pictures the origin of the planets thus:- 
"The parent of the solar system consisted of a central sun 
surrounded by a vast swarm of planetesimals which moved 
approximately in the same plane in essentially independent 
elliptic orbits. Among these planetesimals there were nuclei, 
or local centers of condensation, which, in their revolutions, 
swept up the smaller planetesimals and grew into planets." 
It will be noticed that according to this conception the 
central nucleus of one of these nebulae laid the foundation for 
our present sun, and that the various planets which revolve 
around the sun were formed from the nebular knots of vary- 
ing sizes. 
Although it is quite presumptuous to speculate upon the The Laws of Life 
72 
fate of the stars, it might be suggested that astronomers are 
quite agreed that after a certain stage in the cooling process 
the stars are no longer self-luminous. The temperature gradu- 
ally diminishes until they become cold and dark. 
Such "dead" stars would represent the culmination of the 
great process of stellar evolution. Since all the bodies of the 
shining heavens are presumed to be going through such stages, 
we might conclude that countless millions have been formed 
and have passed through the period of growth, adolescence, 
and senescence; thus, dotting the expanse of space with cold, 
dark bodies. We are not disappointed in our assumption, for 
the astronomers tell us that the existence of many invisible 
bodies has been conclusively demonstrated. 
Since the cold and dead stars are invisible, man has not 
been able to study them or even to prove their existence until 
within recent years. The existence of these invisible stars is 
best shown by certain eclipses of shining stars. One of the 
most illustrative examples of this peculiar stellar behavior has 
been recorded by Lowell. This is a certain star amid the 
polar constellations known as Algol-El Ghoul, or "The De- 
mon" as the Arabs called it. The name shows that they ob- 
served how it winked its eye. Lowell speaks of it in his 
Evolution of Worlds thus: "For once in two days and twenty 
hours its light fades to one-third of its usual amount, remains 
thus for about twenty minutes, and then slowly regains its 
brightness." Its loss of light is occasioned by a dark com- 
panion, of about its own size, passing in front of it while re- 
volving about it in a close elliptic orbit. 
It might be presumed that these "old" stars continue mov- 
ing in space until some great calamity befalls them. When 
it is known that millions of shining stars, and probably billions 
of "dead" ones, are shooting through the heavens with an 
average velocity of about one and a half million miles per day, 
we are not surprised to note that many astronomers consider 
collision one of the culminating processes of stellar evolution. 
"If two stars should collide, the energy of their motion would Some Interesti/ng Theories 
73 
largely be changed into heat, and the combined mass would be 
transformed into a gaseous nebula" (Moulton). Thus, the 
life cycle of any heavenly body would be expressed: Nebula, 
very bright and hot stars (losing heat very rapidly), cool 
and dim stars, cold and dark bodies, collision, intense heat, 
nebular dust (Fig. 9). 
Regardless of the specific method of planet formation, it 
seems conclusive that the earth was at one time in its infancy, 
and that conditions were not favorable for the abode of any 
form of life as we now know it. The small meteorites or 
planetesimals continued to bombard the earth until it became 
a globe of approximately the present diameter. This constant 
bombardment probably was one of the factors which caused 
an increase in temperature of the earth. The bombardment 
theory, to account for the heating of the earth, may well be 
illustrated by shooting a large number of bullets at a steel 
target. If the bombardment is kept up sufficiently long, the 
rise in the temperature of the target becomes very noticeable. 
However, such factors as self-compression caused by the enor- 
mous pull of gravity, and the liberation of subatomic energy 
in uranium, radium, and other elements, might have been more 
important in the production of heat than the factor just 
considered. This heat, however it might have been produced, 
became so intense that the rocks in the interior of the earth 
were reduced to a liquid. When the outer crust of the earth 
began to cool and solidify, the inner molten mass, because of 
being under very heavy pressure, perhaps burst through at 
certain points in violent volcanic action. Our modern vol- 
canoes are usually explained as a more gentle continuation of 
this same action. 
The Evolution of the Earth 
Origin of Water and Atmosphere 
In the age of violent volcanic action, vast amounts of vol- 
canic gases from the vaporized rocks passed into the 74 
The Laws of Life 
surrounding space, the temperature was reduced, and, as 
they became cooler, there was a tendency for them to again 
combine with each other. This recombination is synthesis. 
However, since they are under new conditions, they will unite 
in new and entirely different combinations. The formation 
of water is an example of inorganic synthesis with which every 
student of chemistry is familiar. If oxygen and hydro- 
gen are mixed, and should this collection of uncombined gases 
pass over the volcano in eruption, an explosion would take 
place in which the two gases would be chemically united into 
the compound of H2O-containing two parts of hydro- 
gen and one part of oxygen. By certain other chemical and 
physical recombinations or synthetic processes, the various 
gases of the atmosphere probably came into existence. 
The early bombardment was naturally greater' at certain 
points, and thus the earth's surface was left uneven. The 
newly formed water accumulated in these depressions. The 
shrinkage of the earth's crust and the internal pressure caused 
it to bulge and warp, thereby adding another cause to the 
many changes that the beds of the primitive oceans have un- 
dergone. The rising of the continents and the upheaving of 
the mountains were brought about largely by the same forces. 
Volcanic action, too, played a large part. 
With the formation of the atmosphere and the water, con- 
ditions became quite favorable for life, perhaps before the 
earth was fully matured. Indications show that life appeared 
long before the earth was full-grown, and while the average 
temperature was quite high-perhaps over 150 degrees Fahren- 
heit. For a long time it was considered impossible for life to 
exist at such a high temperature. Certain algae, fungi and 
bacteria have been observed in recent years to be able to live 
in water at a temperature of about 180 degrees Fahrenheit. No 
form of animal life within the knowledge of science could exist 
under such conditions. This suggested that plant life was the 
first to come into existence, since animal protoplasm has far 
less resistance to heat than has plant tissue. Chamberlin con- Some Interesting Theories 
75 
siders that animal life made its appearance upon the earth when 
the average temperature was probably 115 degrees Fahrenheit. 
There are two other factors which seem to indicate that 
plants appeared upon the earth long before animals. First, 
free oxygen, which is absolutely necessary to the support of 
animal life, was, for a long time, exceedingly scarce because 
it was continually being consumed in the synthesis of water, 
and it has been shown that plant life can exist in an atmos- 
phere containing but little oxygen. Second, present observa- 
tions clearly show that animals are either directly or indirectly 
dependent upon plants for food. Thereupon, it is logical, dis- 
regarding all other factors, to assume that plants appeared 
upon the earth before animals in order that food might be pre- 
pared for the higher forms of life. 
The Origin of Life 
"On the basis of established facts of Biology it can be said that 
we know nothing of a positive nature as to the origin of life. It is 
the greatest of the unsolved problems confronting man/" 
--Schubert. 
Many eminent scientists have held the belief that life was 
transferred to our earth from some other planet by meteors. 
From the standpoint of the origin of life, this view is wholly 
inadequate, for it does not give us an inkling of the beginning 
of the germ of life itself. It merely shifts the origin to an- 
other world and leaves it unexplained. Physically, such a 
transfer would seem impossible. The impact of the meteor 
would be so great that the heat involved would probably kill 
any living organism present. The idea of the origin of life 
that is generally accepted among the masses of people is the 
story as told in Genesis. Genesis teaches that in the begin- 
ning God created the heavens and the earth, all plant and all 
animal life. According to the interpretations of the populace, 
He snapped all life into full being, full grown, from nothing. 
Our knowledge of the history of the earth as revealed in its 76 
The Laws of Life 
rock strata, and our knowledge of the evolution of the organic 
world, refute this interpretation of "Creation." 
Broadly speaking, there is no real conflict between this 
theory of evolution and the theory of the "Creation." We 
know that the foundation of the universe rests upon countless 
billions of minute particles of matter called atoms. These 
atoms are fundamentally the same in both organic and inor- 
ganic matter. Whatever may have been the order of the for- 
mation of the universe, the old Greek, Democritus, may have 
been wholly right when he supposed the primitive state to be 
a chaotic confusion of these minute particles, and that they 
slowly settled into orderly arrangements. This cosmic dust 
strewn broadcast through space and destined to form future 
worlds, may have possessed within itself all the potentialities 
for the development of both organic and inorganic matter. 
This seems to be a plausible view, since the gap between the 
organic and inorganic chemistry is closing up. They now 
blend into each other. This brings protoplasm much nearer 
to the inorganic world and makes the problem much more 
simple. Since both organic and inorganic matter contain the 
same basic elements, it is not at all out of place to consider 
their origin together. Whence was the origin? We must look 
to the primitive cosmic dust for a solution to our problems. 
But whence came the Cosmic dust? Ah! no scientist has yet 
ventured a theory! Is it not probable that herein lies the true 
province of Divine Creation? 
Haeckel has said, "I assume that the first monera (lowest 
animal) owe their existence to the spontaneous creation out 
of so-called inorganic combinations, consisting of carbon, hy- 
drogen, oxygen and nitrogen." But whence came these ele- 
ments? This view is known as inorganic synthesis and is the 
credited explanation for the origin of life, but it only throws 
the query back into another realm. During the Archean Age 
(see next chapter) of geologic time, conditions were perhaps 
favorable for life to make its appearance and thrive. En- 
vironmental conditions, such as temperature and moisture, play Some Interesting Theories 
77 
a very great part in the chemical action. The same elements 
unite in entirely different compounds under varying influences. 
Probably in the Archean Age were formed the first albuminous 
compounds, whose chemical characteristics are peculiar to the 
living matter. This process took place by synthesizing carbon, 
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, etc. Therefore, according to this 
method, the origin of life may be explained upon practically 
the same basis as the origin of the atmosphere and the origin 
of water. It has been claimed by the supporters of the theory 
of inorganic synthesis that the process did not stop with the 
formation of protoplasm, but has since been evolved into a 
great variety of living creatures; but, on the other hand, it is 
claimed by some that the process of life making has continued 
even down to the present day, and that it is entirely over- 
shadowed by the forms that are descendant from it. However, 
Chamberlin suggests that the production of the protoplasm in 
nature might now be impossible owing to the destructive 
powers of bacteria. This difficulty would not have been con- 
fronted in the early days before bacteria appeared upon the 
earth. The fact that chemists have on several occasions been 
able to produce a protoplasm-like substance in the laboratory 
would seem to lend support to the view that man may some 
day produce this life substance. However, it must be borne 
in mind that no substance has been, as yet, produced, which 
possesses metabolic powers, or which is irritable in a living 
sense. Emil Fisher has succeeded in producing polypeptids 
(combination of Amino-acids), and Butler Burke has provided 
other links between living and non-living matter, but the actual 
production of living protoplasm in the chemical laboratory is, 
as yet, a human impossibility. If it should so happen that 
some synthetic process should be discovered by which active 
living protoplasm could be made, or even a higher form of life 
originated, man could not even then be called a creator; he 
would have become only a discoverer of another method of 
the Great Creator. Our religious convictions need be shaken 
no more by a biologist producing life in the laboratory than 78 
The Laws of Life 
by the chemist's solving some of the modern problems of elec- 
tro-chemistry. 
Others held that life was the original condition of matter. 
This seems untenable when we think of the method of the build- 
ing up of new worlds. Life cannot be associated with such 
mighty cataclysms as usher them in. In this connection, some 
may contend that life is without beginning, and is perhaps 
eternal, as Hutton, Playfair, and Lyell taught in their Doc- 
trine of Eternity and Uniformity in Geology. They taught 
the whole planetary system to be eternal and unchangeable. 
Lord Kelvin reminds us that Playfair "assumes that the sun 
is to go on shining forever and the earth is to go on revolving 
around it forever." From our knowledge of stellar evolution, 
we consider this to be unsound. 
A very absurd view regarding the origin of life is the one 
known as spontaneous generation. Observation without suffi- 
cient inquiry into facts is wholly responsible for the rise of this 
doctrine. When people saw frogs and toads emerge from their 
hibernating places in the mud, they naturally supposed that 
the mud was responsible for their spontaneous generation. 
Decayed flesh was a favorite place for flies to lay their eggs, 
and thus the notion was brought about that flies were gener- 
ated from the dead flesh of animals. The possibility of eggs 
being laid therein was entirely overlooked. During the Middle 
Ages barnacles were thought to grow on trees, probably be- 
cause they were found on driftwood. Barnacles were then sup- 
posed to change directly into geese; bees were generated from 
the carcasses of oxen; hair-worms arose from the hairs of 
horses' tails; insects came from the dew under the influence 
of the morning sun; worms were produced from the walls of 
the intestines of humans and of animals. These and many 
others were typical of the beliefs of that time, and some are 
current even to-day. The theory of spontaneous generation 
was completely overthrown by those notable experiments of 
Redi (1626-1694, Fig. 10), Pasteur (1864), and Tyndall 
(1876). They proved to the world that life not only came Some Interesting Theories 
79 
from life, but that like produces like with but little modi- 
fication. 
After all, we are forced to admit our ignorance regarding 
the exact origin of life, and to bow in reverence to the Unknown 
Fig. 10. Francesco Redi (1626-1697), who overthrew the theory of 
spontaneous origin of life by simply proving by experiments that maggots 
hatched from eggs of flies instead of being moulded from decaying meat. 
(From Locy, by courtesy of Henry Holt & Co.) 
Creator of the elements. The uncertainties of our theories are 
shown by Chamberlin's statement (Science-June 1899): 
''Mathematics and dynamics fail us when we contemplate the 
earth, fitted for life but lifeless, and try to imagine the com- 
mencement of life upon it. This certainly did not take place 
by any action of chemistry, or electricity, or crystalline 80 
The Laws of Life 
grouping of molecules under the influence of force, or by any 
possible kind of fortuitous concourse of atoms. We must 
pause, face to face with the mystery and miracle of the crea- 
tion of living creatures." 
"Some call it Evolution,- 
Others call it God." CHAPTER IV 
MEN AND AGES 
Signs of Ancient Life-Fossils-Stratification by Sedimentation 
-Periods of Earth's History-Archeozoic-Proterozoic-Early 
Paleozoic-Later Paleozoic-Mesozoic-Cenozoic-Development 
of Plant and Animal Life during Cenozoic Age-Evolution of Man 
-The Ape-Man-The Dawn Man-Stone Age-Copper Age- 
Bronze Age-Iron Age-Coal Age-Electrical Age-Flying Age. 
"Thus life by life, and love by love. 
We passed thru the cycles strange, 
And breath by breath, and death by death, 
We followed the chain of change, 
"Till there came a time in THE LAW OF LIFE 
When over the nursing sod 
The shadows broke, and the soul awoke 
In a strange, dim dream of God.'" 
-Langdon Smith. 
The inquisitive eye, aided by the microscope, finds that the 
stones, from which many of our houses are built, are nothing 
more than a conglomeration of the remains of microscopic 
animals, molded together and tightly cemented in a petrified 
condition (Fig. 11). How strange it is that the remains of 
these ancient creatures, which could live only in salt water, 
are found on the plains or on the mountain tops, hundreds of 
miles from the seashore. Fossil Mountain, in western Colo- 
rado, is an instance of such a place in which sea forms are 
found in abundance 13,000 feet above sea level and over a 
thousand miles from the nearest coast. These fossil remains 
are sufficient proof that much of our present land areas were 
once largely or entirely covered by the sea, and that these 
81 82 
The Lazos of Life 
waters were inhabited by a strange type of marine plants and 
animals. The accompanying small maps (Figs. 12 and 13) 
give an excellent idea of the extent of the North American 
Continent which was exposed above the level of the sea during 
Fig. 11. A typical key which unlocks the mysteries of bygone ages. Note 
the great variety of animal life entombed in the rock. 
those early times, and also of the process of its growth in 
subsequent ages. 
Many forms of plants and animals have been buried and 
preserved to tell the story of a. world that teemed with life, long 
before man made his appearance. The aquatic animals would, 
when dead, settle to the bottom and become a part of the Men and Ages 
83 
rapidly accumulating sediment. The rapidity of sedimenta- 
tion may be seen by observing the amount of mud laid down 
in the bottom of a small pond (Fig. 14) during a rainy season. 
If, within a few weeks, several inches of sediment accumulated 
upon the floor of the pond, what could be expected to be laid 
upon the floor of the sea throughout geologic time? It is 
estimated that within a single year the Mississippi River 
Fig. 12 (left). Archean North America, modified from Shailer and 
others. Black represents land area. 
Fig. 13 (right). Cretaceous North America, showing approximate area 
covered by the great Kansas Seas which formed a belt through the North 
American Continent. 
carries almost 500,000,000 tons of earth and soluble salts into 
the Gulf of Mexico. 
In the simple case of a pond's filling during a rainy sea- 
son it will be noted that, when the water evaporates, the sedi- 
ment of the next season will be distinctly separated from that 
of the first. Thus, one could readily determine by counting 
layers, or strata, the number of rainy seasons during which 
sediment had been deposited. In like manner, the different  The Laws of Life 
84 
sedimentary strata of the earth's crust, which have become 
stone, give us valuable facts regarding its past history. A 
million years come nearer the unit of time than an annual 
rainy season, when the geologic history of the earth is under 
consideration. The most common kinds of strata formed by 
a process of sedimentation are the shales, limestones, and 
sandstones. It is seen from the above discussion that the crust 
Fig. 14. Sedimentary pond (Colorado Rockies) in which various ani- 
mals and plants of to-day are buried. They will thus be preserved to tell 
the story of the 20th century life to the future races of men. 
of the earth is largely sedimentary rock, and that the layer 
nearest the surface was the last one formed-the oldest being 
found the deepest in the earth. In order that the geologists 
may speak intelligently of the various strata, they have divided 
the whole space of time into ages or eras. Each era is sub- 
divided into periods. 
The oldest systems of rocks in normal position are below all 
other strata. Various causes such as volcanic action, shrink- Men and Ages 
85 
age, and pressure may throw them out of their original loca- 
tion or distort them. The most primitive rocks known to 
geologic science are spoken of as the Archean rocks, and 
were formed in the Archeozoic Age (Primal Life). The 
lowest of these rocks were formed by volcanic action during 
many millions of years when the whole globe was pitted with 
the most gigantic volcanoes, when the oceans were seething 
with fiery lava, and when the land surfaces-as we know them 
--had not yet assumed the slightest resemblance to their pres- 
ent outlines (Fig. 12). Under such conditions one would 
not expect to find any forms of life upon the earth; and, as a 
matter of fact, no traces of life are found in the oldest of the 
Archean rocks. 
The Chart of the Ages (Chart I) will give the reader in- 
formation regarding these more general divisions of geologic 
time. The duration of each period as well as the facts per- 
taining to the life of each are approximated from the state- 
ments of various workers. The chart is reversed from the 
customary arrangement in order that a comparison with the 
scroll of animal life as outlined in the chart (II) accompanying 
Chapter VII may be facilitated. It will be noted that the 
successive appearance of the various animals is highly sug- 
gestive of the increasing complexity as set forth in the scroll 
of life. The fact that the oldest rocks, and those deepest in 
the earth, are charted first should not confuse the reader- 
indeed, this would seem to be the more natural order. 
The term Archean was given to the first age and Pro- 
terozoic (Primitive Life) to the second. This terminology 
was ascribed on the assumption that the former was absolutely 
devoid of life or any trace of living matter, and that the latter 
represented the time of the first appearance of the one-celled 
animals, the protozoa (See Chart II, Chapter VII). In that 
case, the former would have been the Age of Volcanoes and 
the latter the Age of One-celled Animals. This supposition, 
however, has been changed for the reason that the more man 
learns about the oldest parts of the earth, the farther is the 86 
The Laws of Life 
THE CHART 
ERAS 
PERIOD 
APPROXIMATE 
LENGTH IN 
YEARS 
DOMINANT LIFE 
Archeozoic 
Over 
50,000,000 
years 
Age of volcanoes. 
Age of one-celled life 
(Theoretical). 
Proterozoic 
Age of primitive marine inver- 
tebrates. 
First known fossils. 
Paleozoic 
Cambrian 
Ordovician 
8,000,000 
5,400,000 
Age of shelled invertebrates. 
Silurian 
5,000,000 
Age of fishes. 
Devonian 
8,000,000 
Carboniferous 
2,500,000 
Ige of amphibians. 
Mesozoic 
Triassic 
2,500,000 
Age of Reptiles. 
Jurassic 
3,600,000 
Cretaceous 
7,000,000 
Cenozoic 
Eocene 
5,000,000 
Age of mammals and modern 
plants. 
Age of grasses. 
Oligocene 
and 
Miocene 
Pliocene 
and 
Pleistocene 
500,000 
Psychozoic 
40,000 
Age of mind. 
Thickness of rock layers from Romanes. Other information adapted from various Men and Ages 
87 
OF THE AGES 
PLANT LIFE 
ANIMAL LIFE 
THICKNESS 
OF STRATA 
One-celled plants. Water life. No 
fossils. 
Primitive one-celled animals without 
skeleton. No fossils. 
No data. 
Cryptozoon (calcareous algae). Few 
fossils. 
Higher forms of protozoa, as radio- 
.aria, and foraminifera. 
No data. 
Low forms of non-woody plants, as 
sea-weeds. 
Sponges, jellyfish, worms, etc. Mol- 
luscs and blastids. Trilobites domi- 
nant. 
24,000 feet. 
Indications of primitive forms of 
land plants. First appearance of 
fungi. 
Corals, primitive armored fishes. 
33,000 feet. 
Delicate ferns with little woody 
structure. Upper: woody plants, 
primitive ferns, and evergreens, 
rushes, tall ground pines, horse tail, 
club mosses. 
Molluscs abundant. First crabs and 
first land shells (snails). Amphibians 
appeared. Cartilaginous and ganoid 
fishes abundant. Primitive sharks. 
18,000 feet. 
Coal forming plants (mostly seed- 
less) ; soft and spongy woody ever- 
greens, rushes, fern-like trees. Only 
traces of low order of flowering 
plants. 
First crayfishes, cockroaches, centi- 
pedes, spiders, lung fishes, amphibians 
dominant. Later: Earliest reptiles. 
31,000 feet. 
Reduction of coal measure plants, 
large rushes, tree ferns, many genera 
of cycads and conifers. 
Cuttie fishes appear. Bony fishes first 
appear. Rise of dinosaurs. First 
marsupial mammals. 
5,000 feet. 
Age of cycads. Continuation of 
Triassic flora. Rushes, modern tree 
ferns, and conifers, ginkgos. 
Ammonites, rise of primitive birds 
(especially terrestrial) and flying rep- 
tiles, insects, giant reptiles. Cuttie 
fishes. 
6,000 feet. 
Comanchian. Rise of flowering 
plants, grasses and oaks. Cycads 
disappearing. Magnolia, fig, sassa- 
fras, birch, walnut, maple, etc. In- 
troduction of angiosperms. 
Ammonites decline. Rise of toothed 
birds (especially aquatic), bird-like 
reptiles, snakes. Later: extinction of 
great reptiles. Small primitive mam- 
mals. 
12,000 feet. 
Increase and development of mod- 
ern plants. Prominence of grasses, 
Cretaceous palms become common 
throughout the world. 
Modern shell fish. Vanishing of primi- 
tive mammals. Land birds appear. 
Primitive forms of the modern car- 
nivora and herbivora. Whales. Le- 
murs. 
10,000 feet. 
Modern plants struggling with the 
elements of nature. 
Development of modern molluscs. Rise 
and culmination of the great mam- 
mals. Anthropoid apes. Horse and 
other modern vertebrates. Transfor- 
mation of man-ape into man. Pi- 
thecanthropus erectus. 
8,000 feet. 
4,000 feet. 
3,000 feet. 
Domesticated and hybridized mod- 
ern plants. 
Man. Rise of civilization and of 
"mental" life. Domesticated and hy- 
bridized modern animals. 
authorities as: Williams, McCabe, Lane, Thompson, Dana, Chamberlin, etc. 88 
The Laws of Life 
"origin of life" pushed back into the obscure mist of the fiery 
age. Although no fossil forms have been found in the rocks 
of the Archeozoic Age, there are many indications of sedi- 
mentary deposits. These show the presence and action of 
water, as well as conclusive proofs that a lowly type of life 
existed in those far-off fiery times. The presence of such for- 
mations as carbonaceous slates, which derived their carbon 
from organic sources, and limestones and cherts, which were 
originally formed from organic matter, imply the existence of 
Fig. 15. A type of trilobites which swarmed the ancient seas. 1. Head. 
2. Thorax and abdomen. 3. Eye. 4. Glabella. 5. Axial furrow. 7 Free 
cheek. 8. Fixed cheek. 9. Axis of thorax. 10. Pleura. 
life. Consequently, the various writers of recent years seem 
to be justified in placing the first-considered age in the "zoic" 
(Life) group and calling it, at least the latter part, the Age 
of One-celled Animals-the Archeozoic, rather than Archean. 
It was thought until quite recently that no fossil remains 
of plants and animals were to be found even in the rocks of 
the Proterozoic Era. Walcott, however, has recently brought 
forth some splendid specimens of radiolaria and foraminifera 
(Protozoa), and also some low forms of plant life (Algae) as 
well as traces of worms. 
Early Paleozoic.-It will be noted from the map (Fig. 12) 
that very little of North America projected above the vast ex- Men and Ages 
89 
panse of the seas in the early part of the Paleozoic (Ancient 
Life) Era. Even if there had been a high form of animal life 
in existence at that time, we should not expect to find the re- 
mains of that life distributed very extensively over the present 
continent. Those animals would of necessity have been con- 
fined to a relatively small land surface. The seas of the early 
Paleozoic Era swarmed with a great variety of life. The fact 
that many forms of Cambrian life were present in relatively 
complex organisms, shows clearly that life must have existed 
upon the earth millions of years before the formation of the 
oldest known fossiliferous rocks. The trilobites (Fig. 15), 
for example, which represented the dominant life, belong to 
one of the highest of the groups of invertebrate (non-back- 
boned) animals. Among the many other forms which in- 
habited the seas of early Paleozoic times, the sponges, corals, 
worms, and molluscs were especially abundant. 
The Ordovician and Silurian Periods of the Paleozoic Era 
(See Chart of Ages) are sometimes called the Age of Molluscs, 
because of the wide distribution of giant shelled animals com- 
ing under that group. Many of these shelled forms are 
generalized types of the ancestors of the present-day cham- 
bered nautilus, from a description of which Holmes sang the 
memorable stanza: 
"Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, 
As the swift seasons roll! 
Leave thy low-vaulted past! 
Let each new temple, nobler than the last, 
Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast, 
Till thou at length art free, 
Leaving thine outgrown shell by life's unresting sea!" 
Such early forms were very numerous in this age and were 
often of very great size. Specimens have been obtained which 
are ten inches in cross section and fifteen feet or more in their 
longest dimensions. These animals were the most aggressive 
tyrants of those primitive seas. 90 
The Laws of Life 
Later Paleozoic.-In addition to the profusion of inverte- 
brate life that swarmed the great seas, certain types of early 
vertebrates appeared about the middle of the Paleozoic Era, 
and immediately began to increase with remarkable rapidity. 
It will be observed in the summary of the animal kingdom re- 
ferred to above (See Scroll of Animal Life, Chart II, Chapter 
VII) that the earliest of the vertebrates were fishes and fish- 
Fig. 16. Armored fishes of the Lower Devonian of Europe. (From 
Koken.) 
like forms. The same scale is noted in the appearance of 
vertebrates upon the earth (See Chart of Ages), the earliest 
of them being certain queer armored fishes (Fig. 16), which 
were lower than the common fishes in the scale of organization. 
The characteristic primitive fishes were sharks, lungfishes, and 
gars. Those early fishes, spoken of as generalized forms, pos- 
sessed the characteristics of both amphibians and true fishes. 
Thru many transitions they finally gave rise to each of these Men and Ages 
91 
great groups of animals. So abundant were these lowly forms 
that the middle Paleozoic Era has rightly been named the Age 
of Fishes. 
Throughout the millions of years which elapsed during the 
middle and late Paleozoic Era remarkable changes took place 
in the scale of animal life, due to the ever-changing environ- 
ment. Animal life began to appear on the land in a very primi- 
tive form. Among these air breathers, spiders and scor- 
Fig. 17. A large Stegocephalia (above) 5 feet long, and a smaller form, 
Branchiosaurus, 6 inches long. The significant feature for our present 
consideration is the presence of a third (pineal) eye. (See text.) (From 
Schuchert.) 
pions preceded a great group of insects such as cockroaches, 
dragon flies, etc. The most advanced step up the scale of life 
is noted in the extension and further development of the am- 
phibians, which were the first true land vertebrates. These 
animals, which averaged six or seven feet in length, and in ap- 
pearance slightly suggested the common lizard of to-day, were 
small in comparison with the great giants which followed them. 
These primitive amphibians (Fig. 17) continued to deviate 
until they developed into a higher form of amphibian on the 92 
The Laws of Life 
one hand and into a generalized or lizard-like reptile on the 
other. 
While animal life was advancing so rapidly, the plants 
were also undergoing progressive steps in evolution. From 
the primitive forms represented by seaweeds and certain other 
non-woody plants of the early Paleozoic Era, came strange 
groups of woody plants. Luxuriant vegetation, composed of 
Fig. 18. A typical Pennsylvanian carboniferous swamp, as restored by 
Unger. (From Pirsson and Schuchert, "Text-Book of Geology," by courtesy 
of Professor Schuchert and John Wiley and Sons.) These great tree ferns 
of antiquity played a part in preparing fuel for civilized man of to-day. 
many kinds of early tropical plants, ranging from delicate 
ferns to gigantic fern-like trees over one hundred feet in 
height and three feet in diameter, covered practically the en- 
tire land surface. 
Knowing as we do that coal had its origin in these ancient 
plants, we experience a peculiar sensation when we are lowered 
into a coal mine for the first time. We are reminded of the 
vast forests of the Carboniferous Period and the wonderful 
transformation that took place when they were buried. In Men and Ages 
93 
picturing such a forest (Fig. 18), Schuchert says: "It was a 
forest of rapid growth, of soft and even spongy woods, in 
which evergreen trees with comparatively small, needle-like 
leaves were prominent. Associated with these were thickets 
of rushes, also of very rapid growth, which in habit resemble 
the living cane brakes and bamboo thickets. Here and there 
Fig. 19. Fern leaves as commonly found preserved in rock strata. Such 
rocks tell us the true story of the plant life of the past. 
stood majestic fern-like trees, while many smaller ferns and 
fern-like plants thrived in the shady places or climbed about 
the trees. Shades of green were the dominant colors, and the 
monotone of the verdure was nowhere enlivened by bright 
flowers. Such, however, were sparingly present, but in a low 
order, insignificant in size, and unattractive in color. At the 
time when the trees and ferns were liberating their spores the 94 
The Laws of Life 
entire forest was covered with a greenish-yellow or brown dust. 
The air was not scented with sweet odors, for there was no 
honey, but it is probable that resinous smells such as pervade 
living conifer forests were present" (Fig. 19). With an equal 
amount of interest, Shute appropriately reminds us: "As yet 
no snakes or turtles, no alligators or crocodiles ha.d come into 
existence. In spite of the fact that great advance in animal 
life was made during Carboniferous times, there was little of 
the life in those ancient woods that we associate with the 
forests of the present; they were gloomy wastes of shade, 
without the presence of bright flowers, no humming of the 
bees, no song of birds, and few sounds save the gurgling of 
running streams, the sighing of the wind thru the leaves, 
the splashing of waves upon the shore, and the bursting of the 
thunder clouds. The interest and importance of the Carbon- 
iferous Amphibians as the first land backboned animals is so 
great as to cause the Carboniferous Period to be spoken of as 
the Age of Amphibians." 
Mesozoic Era.-Among all the changes in various plant 
and animal groups which are recorded in the rocks, those be- 
tween the Paleozoic Era and the Mesozoic Era (Medieval 
Life) are the most interesting. Contrast, if you will, the ex- 
periences of a naturalist who might fancy he was visiting the 
strange lands pictured above, with his experiences should he 
visit those of the next succeeding era, the Mesozoic. Instead 
of crowding thru the most luxuriant thickets of ferns and 
horsetails, the naturalist would find, in the Mesozoic, a higher 
order of plants represented by fairly modern "trees," such as 
the cycads and conifers. The more or less desert-like climate 
that prevailed during the early Mesozoic Era served as a 
check upon the growth and propagation of such dense vege- 
tation as existed in the Carboniferous Period. In the districts 
that were swampy, however, the brakes of rushes were suffi- 
ciently dense as to be similar to our present southern cane 
brakes. Knowlton reminds us that the climate was warm and 
subtropical, which fact was shown by the absence of annual Men and, Ages 
95 
growth rings on the trees, indicating the lack of marked sea- 
sonal changes. As the age progressed, the cycads became so 
much more abundant than the other forms of vegetation that 
the middle Mesozoic Era (Jurassic) is known as the Age of 
Cycads (See Chart of Ages). The latter part of the Mesozoic 
Era (Cretaceous) marked a noted advance in the history of 
plants. The ordinary hardwood trees began to appear for 
the first time. It has been estimated that fully ninety per cent 
Fig. 20. Strange animals which inhabited the Cretaceous Seas (see 
Map, Fig. 13) of Kansas, millions of years before man appeared on earth. 
1. A wingless reptilian bird-Hesperornis. 2. A Plesiosauria, 50 feet long. 
3. Flying dragon-Pterosaurs. 4. A fish-lizard. 5. Winged reptilian birds. 
After Williston. (By courtesy of the University of Chicago Press.) 
of the plants existing at that time were of kinds (tho of 
different genera and species) known at the present time, such 
as the oak, hickory, maple, poplar, beech, etc. It must not 
be presumed by the reader that these trees were like the ones 
that are so familiar to us now. They were quite different in 
certain respects, although they were the forerunners of the 
present varieties. 
The most conspicuous group of animals in the different 
divisions of the Mesozoic Era, and the one which was indeed 96 
The Laws of Life 
the all-dominating master of the earth at that time, was that of 
the reptiles. Indeed, so masterful were these huge monsters 
that, from the standpoint of animal life, this entire age has 
been properly called the Age of Reptiles. Not content as 
Fig. 21. Three types of fossil reptiles which constituted the dominant 
life of the Mesozoic. A, Brontosaurus excclsus; B, Stegosaurus ungulatus; 
C, Ceratosaurus nasicornis. (By permission, from Hegner's "College 
Zoology," The Macmillan Co.) 
rulers of the land, they are known to have swarmed the seas 
and even the air (Fig. 20). How realistic would then* powers 
seem could man but step back a few ages and explore the tropi- 
cal lands of those bygone days. From one direction one Men and Ages 
97 
might see a gigantic monster some eighty feet long (Lull) and 
weighing many tons, sluggishly moving over the semi-marshy 
country; near the water's edge might appear a long, snake- 
like neck, 20 ft. long (2, Fig. 20) belonging to some hidden 
monster of the sea; overhead might be heard the snapping of 
Fig. 22. Bone from one of the animals which once inhabited the marshy 
coasts of the Kansas Sea. Remains of these monsters are not uncommon in 
Eastern Colorado, Kansas, and adjoining states. Note the size as shown 
by the ruler and in comparison with the human femur. 
the sharp teeth of one of those great reptile-like birds (3, Fig. 
20). Shute speaks of them thus: "Some walked on all fours; 
others were occasionally or usually bipedal, and walked up- 
right like birds, and had many structural features in common 
with the latter; some were herbivorous (Fig. 21, A and B), 98 
The Laws of Life 
feeding on plants and even reaching into the branches of the 
trees for their food; others were carnivorous (Fig. 21, C), 
feeding on their fellow-creatures. Huge reptiles (Ichthyo- 
sauria) swam about in the sea in great numbers. Immense bat- 
like forms (Pterosauria) sailed thru the air like birds, being 
literally flying dragons" (Fig. 20). 
The birds of the Mesozoic Era, especially of the latter 
part, were so much like the flying reptiles that a separate dis- 
cussion of them is scarcely necessary. In fact, the two groups 
were at first the same-the primitive reptile-like birds having 
separated from their monstrous ancestors a little later in the 
era. This is a fact of great significance in the process of evolu- 
tion, and it is well established by the abundance of fossils which 
clearly show the connecting links between the reptiles and the 
birds. With the fishes and shelled animals, the building of 
higher life still continued. The number of shelled animals of 
the earlier days were surpassed in this period by the cham- 
bered ammonites, and, in like manner, the ganoids and sharks 
were largely supplanted by the bony fishes. 
Perhaps the most momentous fact from the standpoint of 
the evolution of man was the appearance for the first time of 
mammals. Although they were of an extremely low order, 
many having distinct reptilian characteristics, and belonging 
to the generalized forms, such as the monotremes and marsu- 
pials, they were truly the ancestors of our higher animals and 
of man himself. Perhaps the nearest living relative to these 
extinct animals is the opossum. Chamberlin and Salisbury, 
in speaking of the mammalian life of the Mesozoic Era, said: 
"Of peculiar interest is the appearance of early forms of non- 
placental mammals. They were small, and so primitive in type 
that it is not altogether certain that they were mammals; but 
they are commonly regarded as such, with kinship to the mar- 
supials. Their appearance while reptiles were yet dominant 
suggests that mammals diverged from the primitive stock 
much earlier. In view of the mammalian dominance of later 
times, it is noteworthy that the non-placentals developed but Men and Ages 
99 
slowly and feebly during the Mesozoic Era. It is an open 
question whether placental mammals are the descendants of 
the Mesozoic non-placentals, or whether they had an inde- 
Fig. 23. Carnivorous Dinosaur, Ceratosaurus. These kangaroo-like 
animals, some 20 feet in length, were masters of the strange Comanchian 
forests. (By permission, from "Nebula to Man," by Henry R. Knipe, 
published by E. P. Dutton & Co.) 
pendent origin. . . . The marvelous development of aquatic 
and terrestrial reptiles and of birds makes the scanty record 
of the mammals all the more singular. Only a few jaw bones 
of the size of those of mice and rats have been found. These 100 
The Laws of Life 
low types are referred, without complete certainty, to marsu- 
pials. They appear to have been insectivorous." 
What hopes could be placed in a race of animals no larger 
than our smaller cats when they lived and moved in a land of 
giant reptiles? These small creatures probably served as 
food for their enemies, but a small remnant of them, thru 
persistent hiding and a later adjustment to a new and changed 
environment, carried their small amount of warm blood into 
the great mammals of the succeeding ages and contributed the 
vital fluid for the building up of a race of beings that assumed 
an upright position, and later walked this earth, mastered 
it, and blessed it with civilization. 
Cenozoic Era.-The plant life of the Cenozoic Era (Mo- 
dern Life) was substantially the same as that of the late 
Mesozoic, since the latter gave birth to the modern types of 
vegetation. The Cenozoic Era was characterized by the pre- 
dominance of land plants of various kinds, consisting chiefly 
of such flowering plants as "flowers," grasses, bushes, and trees 
(See Chart of Ages). Later, the low forms of flowering plants, 
such as the cycads and conifers, were less prominent than in the 
early Cenozoic and late Mesozoic. The non-flowering plants, 
such as the lichens and ferns, were so much less abundant than 
during earlier times that they might be said to be on the road 
to extinction. By far the most characteristic form of vegeta- 
tion of the early and middle Cenozoic, and the type which ren- 
dered the greatest influence upon animal life, was the grasses. 
The great open plains, which were so common, were matted 
with grasses which served as great pasturages for the developing 
of herbivorous animals. Altho, as it will be noted, the 
grasses made their appearance as early as the Cretaceous 
Period of the Mesozoic Era, they did not spread very rapidly 
until well into the Cenozoic Era. 
The prominence of grasses during the Cenozoic Era sug- 
gests not only a marked change in the environment but also a 
general change in the evolution of animal life. The insignifi- 
cant little mammals that found the lowlands of earlier days Men and Ages 
101 
so unfavorable, especially as they were continually harassed 
by the smaller "dragons" and trampled under foot by the 
great reptiles, struggled into the early Cenozoic with an in- 
creased hope for survival. This was especially true of the 
herbivorous mammals which appeared as an offshoot of the 
primitive generalized ones, since the grassy plains were more 
Fig. 24. The Great Mastodons (Americanus) roamed the valleys of 
America before the modern animals, as we know them, made their appear- 
ance. (From Chamberlin & Salisbury, "Geology," Henry Holt & Co., after 
a painting by Gleeson in the National Museum, Washington.) 
favorable for them and less favorable for their snake-like 
enemies which were beginning to lose their supremacy. Al- 
though actual combat probably was of little significance as 
a factor favoring extinction, the disadvantage of changed en- 
vironmental conditions might be illustrated by imagining one 
of these great reptiles in pursuit of a Cenozoic mammal. 
Should the race be in the marshes, the former, tho with 
four stubby legs, by gliding over the wet ground, would soon 102 
The Laws of Life 
overtake the latter, as he would be hampered by the mire; 
However, should the race be across the grassy prairie, the 
mammal could not only easily escape the reptile, but he might 
turn and become the pursuer. The hard ground would be 
favorable for a running animal and unfavorable for a "mud 
boat" animal. 
As a result of this changed environment, which presented 
more favorable conditions for the animals of the dry land and 
grassy plains, the ponderous reptiles gave way to mammoth 
elephants (Fig. 24), which are more familiar to us than the 
earlier and more peculiar forms of life. These early elephants 
differed from our modern variety principally in that they 
were much larger. On the other hand, the reptilian birds 
(Fig. 20) of the air surrendered their places to the modern 
birds; the "dragons of the deep" having disappeared, the 
modern fishes had more nearly an equal chance with the hard- 
shelled varieties, which were still active. In late Cenozoic times, 
the mammoth land animals surrendered their places to the 
smaller and more adaptable ones, such as the bison, wild cattle, 
and wild horses. In our own day these last mentioned animals 
have been largely replaced by domesticated species. In like 
manner, the birds of the forests of only a few years back seem 
to have been doomed and their places to have been taken by 
domestic fowls and "domestic birds," typically chickens, pi- 
geons, robins, and sparrows. 
The sea-dwelling animals were also changing rapidly. The 
first mammals to adapt themselves to an oceanic life did so 
in the early part of the Cenozoic Era in the form of a primi- 
tive, whale-like animal. Then appeared the sea-cows and still 
later the sea-lions, seals, and the true or modern whales. The 
changes in the invertebrate life were even more interesting, as 
a single illustration will suffice to show. Should it be possible 
for the American butchers to import oysters from the Cali- 
fornian seas of the middle Cenozoic Era (Miocene Period), 
their customers would not buy fresh oysters by the dozen or 
the quart but rather by the slice-they would call for it much Men and Ages 
103 
the same as we do for a pork steak to-day. These giant oysters 
were often more than a foot in length, eight inches in width, 
and six inches in thickness. It is interesting to note that one 
of these giants would be roughly equivalent to nearly three 
Fig. 25. Six stages in the Evolution of the Horse. 1. Eohippus, Lower 
Eocene, the primitive four-toed ancestor. 2. Orohippus, Middle Eocene. 
3. Mesohippus, Oligocene. 4. Merychippus, Miocene. 5. Pliohippus, Plio- 
cene. 6. Equus scotti, Pleistocene. (From Yale Alumni Weekly, by cour- 
tesy of Professor R. L. Lull.) 
gallons of fresh oysters as we know them, and would retail for 
about ten dollars. 
Another branch of the animal kingdom which began to 
appear out of the evolutionary mist of the Cenozoic Era has 
attracted more attention and caused more heated controversy 
than all others combined, because it marked the road of prog- 104 
The Laws of Life 
ress toward modern man. These animals, the lemurs (Fig. 
26), had skeletons somewhat similar to those of man. Prior 
to the Cenozoic Era, there is no indication whatever of any 
form so advanced in the scale of life. This one fact within 
Fig. 26. A modern Lemur whose geologic ancestor probably served as 
a link in the evolution of man. (From "Mammals," by Flower and Lydek- 
ker, by permission of A. & C. Black, Ltd., London, England.) 
itself should be sufficient to condemn the "seven day" notion. 
If God "created" man only a few hours after the lower ani- 
mals, such as the mussels, fishes, etc., why do we not find his 
remains in the rocks of those early ages together with those 
of the other animals? The texture of man's bony framework 
is fully as resistant as that of the remains which we do find. Men and Ages 
105 
This one fact conclusively shows that man's introduction upon 
this globe was brought about some forty or fifty millions of 
years after some of his lower ancestors. Further substantia- 
tion is furnished by the fact that none of the bones of the com- 
mon land animals of to-day-the bones of which have been the 
most likely to remain had they been in existence-are to be 
found in, any of the rocks prior to those of the Cenozoic Era. 
Is it not surprising that many really intelligent leaders still 
contend that the "seven days" as used in the Biblical creation 
story contained only twenty-four hours each? If the ortho- 
dox leaders expect the generations of to-morrow to accept the 
creation story, the "seven days" must be lengthened not only 
to seven million years but rather to considerably more than 
seven times seven million years. 
In the rocks of the early Cenozoic Era, the Eocene Period, 
remains are found of a primitive mammal which suggests the 
appearance of a higher race. From this primitive and gen- 
eralized type more nearly resembling the lemur (Fig. 26) than 
any other modern form, there were evolved many, if not all, of 
the present-day forms which have a more or less upright pos- 
ture, the primates. The following outline, which was com- 
piled from the statements of several authorities, gives the 
chronological order of the steps in the development of the pri- 
mates, and, tho condensed, graphically shows man's place 
in nature in so far as has been ascertained. 
1. Various invertebrates 
2. Balanoglossus, Amphioxus, and other lower Chordates 
3. Lamprey and hag-fishes 
4. Sharks 
5. Lungfishes 
6. Primitive amphibians 
7. Primitive reptiles 
a. Modern snakes 
b. Reptilian birds with teeth 
1. Modern birds 106 
The Laws of Life 
8. Reptilian mammals (Monotremes) 
9. Marsupials 
a. Modern quadruped mammals 
10. Insectivores (Moles, hedgehogs, and shrews) 
11. Generalized lemur-like animals (Eocene Period) 
a. Modern lemurs (Fig. 26) 
12. Generalized monkey-like forms (Oligocene Period) 
13. Generalized ape-like forms (Miocene Period) 
a. Modern gorilla 
b. Modern chimpanzee 
c. Modern gibbon 
. d. Modern orang-utan 
e. Extinct apes of Miocene Period 
14. Many unknown ancestors of man 
15. Pithecanthropus erectus (Ape-man of the Pleistocene- 
(Fig. 27) more than 500,000 years ago) 
16. Missing links 
17. Eoanthropus (The Dawn-man) 
18. Homo heidelbergensis (The Heidelberg Man-250,- 
000( ?) years ago) 
19. Big-headed savages (Neanderthal Men of the Old Stone 
Age. 60,000 to 150,000 years ago) (B. Fig. 28) 
20. Men of the Later Stone Age (Aurignacian Men), Origi- 
nators of the fine arts (Fig. 29). (50,000 (?) years 
ago) 
21. Men of the Late Stone Age (Magdalenian Men) 
22. Men of the Copper Age (5,000 or 10,000 years ago) 
23. Men of the Bronze Age (4,000 years ago) 
24. Men of the Iron Age (In Palestine 3,000 years ago) 
25. Men of the Coal Age (In England 500 years ago) 
26. Men of the Electrical Age (America. Latter part of 
Nineteenth Century) 
27. Men of the Flying Age (Middle of Twentieth Cen- 
tury) Men and Ages 
107 
It is to be noted that the primitive lemur-like animals (11 
in the outline) can boast of a long line of ancestors thru 
the ages, tho their heritage is at many places somewhat 
uncertain. Although these animals are used as the more defi- 
nite starting point in the history of man, it must not be con- 
cluded that man came from lemurs or even that man and 
lemurs developed along the same line with man in the advance. 
The more logical view is that they both branched from one 
common ancestral stalk. The primitive and generalized lemur- 
like animals, which gave rise to two distinct lines of heritage, 
the lemurs and a higher form of monkey-like animals, were 
perhaps derived from the insectivores (moles, shrews, etc.) 
since they show many affinities with this group. The geologic 
appearance of the insectivores suggests that they were derived 
from primitive marsupials (Opossum-like animals), which 
came from the primitive reptiles thru a peculiar reptilian 
mammal-like form (Monotreme). The primitive reptiles 
serve as another splendid example of how evolution follows two 
distinct lines. In addition to giving rise to the reptilian mam- 
mals and the higher forms, under consideration, they are the 
ancestors of the extinct "flying dragons" (Fig. 20) which are 
responsible for the appearance of the modern birds. The 
birds, therefore, are entirely out of the line of human evolu- 
tion. These primitive reptiles gave rise to a third branch 
which culminated in the modern snakes. Perhaps the best 
living exemplification of those primitive reptiles is the three- 
eyed lizards (Sphenodon) of New Zealand. It will be noted 
that the amphibians (Mailed frogs), fishes, and invertebrates 
are further back in the line of heritage. 
The above outline shows that the primitive monkey-like 
animals of the middle Cenozoic Era (Oligocene), which origi- 
nated from the ancestors of the lemurs, in time gave rise to a 
primitive animal which was the ancestor of the Miocene apes. 
These ape-like animals gave rise to two distinct types of ani- 
mal life: in one direction to the ancestors of man (14 in the Fig. 27. Pithecanthropus erectus (the monkey man walking erect). 
Extinct primate apparently intermediate between man and the anthropoid 
apes, the remains of which were discovered by the Dutch Naturalist, Dubois, 
in the Pleistocene beds of Java in 1891. (By permission, from "Nebula to 
Man," by Henry R. Knipe, published by E. P. Dutton & Co.) 
108 Men and Ages 
109 
outline) ; in another direction to such animals as the gorilla, 
the chimpanzee, the gibbon, the orang, and extinct animals of 
the Miocene Period. To this extent monkeys are the ancestors 
of men. The primitive form from which these two branches 
grew were neither monkeys, apes, nor men, but a generalized 
type which gave rise to the present forms. In other words, 
the present forms are "chips off the same block." Why should 
there be any controversy over this matter when both "chips" 
differed from the old "block" which lived in the dark mist of 
the ages millions of years ago? McCabe suggests that: "We 
may at least assume that the ancestors of man were on a 
level with the anthropoid ape in the Miocene Period." 
Altho we have no certain and indisputable records of 
man's early history on earth, the ape-man (Pithecanthropus 
erectus, Fig. 27) found in the Pleistocene beds of Java (1891) 
established the fact that his development was well under way 
in the late Cenozoic Era. The presence of certain disputed 
implements, "Eoliths," suggests that the evolution of intelli- 
gence had begun long before that time. 
Among the many other "missing links" which have been 
supplied within recent years, the one representing the oldest 
known human family in Europe, thus called the "Dawn-man," 
is worthy of mention. These remains, which were found in 
1913 in Sussex, England, show that this early race possessed a 
"snouty," animal-like face; tho they had a brain capacity 
only a few ounces below that of civilized man. Pirsson and 
Schuchert say of him: "The prognathous (snouty) face and 
powerful jaws, with their large teeth, especially the canines, 
show that Eoanthropus (Dawn-man) was a human brute, 
hunting and defending himself in the main with his fearful 
biting mouth. He was still a primitive slayer, tho keener than 
any of his animal associates, and was destined thru lithe 
manufacture of better implements to become a hunter of a 
higher order." A form most nearly related to the "Dawn- 
man" is the "Heidelberg-man" found at Mauer, near Heidel- 
berg, Germany, in 1907, 110 
The Laws of Life 
If certain other "missing links" are disregarded, the next 
in order of the ancestors of man were the men of the Old Stone 
Age. These men are spoken of as Neanderthal men, being 
so named from the valley in which their remains were found. 
They were big-headed savages. Since some fifteen or twenty 
skeletons of men, women, and children have been found in 
Belgium, France, Gibraltar, and Germany, quite definite facts 
are known about these strange people. As the picture (A, Fig. 
Fig. 28. Three stages in human evolution. Restorations to suggest 
the probable appearance of primitive types of human beings. From left 
to right, Pithecanthropus erectus (Java), Homo neandertalensis (Ger- 
many), and the "Man of Cro-Magnon," Homo sapiens (France). These 
photographs are from the figures moulded by Professor J. H. McGregor on 
the basis of fragments of primitive man discovered from time to time in 
various parts of the world. (From Gruenberg's "Elementary Biology," by 
courtesy of Ginn & Co.) 
28) shows, the men of the Old Stone Age had faces which 
were quite different from those of any civilized race. "The nose 
was of unusual size and width, the upper lip was very wide, and 
at the base of the forehead there was a very prominent and 
continuous brow-ridge that extended from temple to temple." 
One of the most pertinent facts as viewed from the standpoint 
of evolution is that these savages possessed a feeling of re- 
ligious instinct. This is clearly shown by the paintings, food, 
and stone implements which were found in their burial places. Men and Ages 
111 
These indicate that they had primitive burial customs. Al- 
though the Neanderthal race was much more highly developed 
than any of its predecessors, it could not cope with the 
Fig. 29. Outlines of Primitive paintings, by Aurignacian Men, of ani- 
mals from cavern walls of Font-de-Guame, Dordogne. The horse, ibex, 
cave-bear, wild cattle and reindeer are represented. (From Osborn, after 
Breuil.) 
mighty race, Homo sapiens (wise men, C, Fig. 28), that now 
began to appear. 
Since it is not the aim to give a lengthy consideration of 112 
The Laws of Life 
the later races of men, it will suffice to say that quite definite 
facts are known regarding man's history from his first ap- 
pearance as a savage, down to the present time. A mere ref- 
erence will be made to these later races. The Aurignacian 
men represented a much higher type than the last-mentioned 
people in that they could make and use better implements. 
They made shell and ivory ornaments, such as beads and brace- 
lets. It was these people who seem to have been the true 
originators of the fine arts, representative specimens of their 
paintings (Fig. 29) and sculpture having been found in many 
caves in France. The fact that they wore clothing and fol- 
lowed regular pursuits is shown in their colored paintings, in 
which "garmented women are seen herding cattle and men 
chasing wild animals." "Count Begowen and his three sons 
discovered in France, June 1918, on the walls of the subter- 
ranean galleries, some engravings estimated to be 30,000 years 
old, and in such quantity and variety that the extraor- 
dinary ensemble of prehistoric art work constitutes a verit- 
able museum. The animals figured in the cave are many, and 
include reindeer, bison, horses, isolated and in groups; bears, 
elephants, and rhinoceroses. The representations of felines 
are rare in prehistoric art. M. M. Begowen has photographed 
in their cave a genuine lion, executed in bas-relief. They have 
made out several birds, including swans, ducks, as well as three 
predatory night fliers. Human figures are likewise represented 
in the cave. ... a silhouette particularly remarkable, almost 
baffling. It represents a man in motion-a man of wonderful 
body, whose head and shoulders are joined by an enormous 
neck; whose upper and lower limbs and hands and feet are 
perfectly human, but whose vertebral column is prolonged in 
an exterior appendage resembling that of the anthropoids; a 
man at least, qui marche a quatre paties!" (Science, Dec. 20, 
1918). The later history of civilized man as outlined is too 
familiar to need discussion. The Copper, Bronze, Iron, and 
Coal Ages followed in consecutive order, marking the time 
when each was adapted to the needs of the growing civilization. Men and Ages 
113 
Since the adoption of electricity as a servant of general utility, 
and the approaching general application of flying machines 
to modern transportation mark probably as great epochs as 
did the introduction of coal, should not the "Electrical Age" 
and the "Flying Age" be added to the already long category 
of ages which mark the path from "Amoeba to Man"? CHAPTER V 
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION 
Time for Evolution-Paleontology-Comparative Anatomy- 
Haeckel's Law (Embryology)-Life History of Frog-Life His- 
tory of Chick-Rudimentary Organs-Relationship Proved by 
Blood Mixing Tests. 
"Evolution is not a force but a process; not a cause but a law." 
-Morley. 
"The best evidence of a-ny process is to witness its going on." 
-Shull. 
To those who are versed in the facts of evolution, the story 
of life as revealed in the rock strata is sufficient proof that 
all animals, including man, have been evolved from some lower 
form to the present state of advancement. Authoritative men 
of science no longer dispute this question. Rudolph Virchow 
was perhaps the last to dispute that man bore a distinct re- 
lationship to Anthropoid apes. 
Time for Evolution.-With the average elementary stu- 
dents, who perhaps are good representatives of the people at 
large, the greatest difficulty in accepting the evolution theory 
is in the fact that they still hold firmly to the belief that 
"The earth has not been in existence long enough for all 
changes to take place." The old idea of "beginning only a 
few thousand years ago" has had its influence. There is no 
question but that the present factors of evolution, such as 
environment, struggle for existence, natural selection, elimina- 
tion of the unfit, amphimixis, hereditary induction, and muta- 
tion have been in operation from the first origin of life. 
Granting this fact, most people are somewhat loath to agree 
114 Evidences of Evolution 
115 
that there has been sufficient time to make an "Edison out of 
an amoeba" as one student very aptly expressed it. 
Although it must be agreed that the most accurate of 
workers cannot fix exact dates to certain geologic events, the 
facts, as shown by various methods of estimating time, point 
to an earth much older than had ever been conceived. The 
best workers still agree with Chamberlin 1 that, while consider- 
ing geologic time, the use of such expressions as "certain 
truth," "one year after freezing," and "half hour after freez- 
ing" are out of place. It nevertheless remains true that suffi- 
cient knowledge has been accumulated to establish the fact that 
the earth is far advanced in adult life. According to the esti- 
mates compiled by McCabe, over fifty million years have 
elapsed since the beginning of the Paleozoic Era, when plant 
and animal life was very abundant and had reached a fair 
state of advancement. As more and more light is thrown upon 
the life of the pre-Cambrian seas, greater and greater become 
the estimates of the time since life first appeared upon the 
earth. Who knows but that the time from the origin of life 
down to the Cambrian Period was as long as, or longer than, 
from the Cambrian to the present? In that case man would 
have had about one hundred million years in which to reach 
his present state of advancement. Joly estimates 100,000,000 
years as being the time that has elapsed since the first forma- 
tion of water upon the hot crust of the earth. Baitwood esti- 
mates the age of certain rocks of Ceylon at from 246,000,000 
years to 1,320,000,000 years. Sir G. Darwin suggests 1,000- 
000,000 years as the age of the moon; and it is certain that the 
earth is older than the moon! In speaking of the length of 
time from the first shining of the sun until the time when it 
will become a cold and dark body (See Chapter III), Thomp- 
son says: "It seems, on the whole, most probable that the sun 
has not illuminated the earth for 100,000,000 years and al- 
most certain that he has not done so for 500,000,000 years. 
1 Science, June 30, 1899, Chamberlin's reply to Lord Kelvin-"The Age 
of the Earth as an Abode fitted for Life." 116 
The Laws of Life 
As for the future, we may say with equal certainty that the 
inhabitants of the earth cannot continue to enjoy the light 
and heat essential to their life for many million years longer, 
unless new sources, now unknown to us, are prepared in the 
great storehouse of Creation." Regardless of the various esti- 
mates of the duration of geologic time, it is certain that suffi- 
cient time, whether fifty or a hundred million years, has elapsed 
for the Laws of Life to bring about the evolutionary changes 
of development from "Amoeba to Man." 
PdUontology 
"Whence we see spiders, flies, or ants entombed and preserved 
forever in amber, a more than royal tomb."-Bacon. 
The story of the geologic succession of animals of the 
lowest types in the Archeozoic Era to the present ones in the 
upper crust of the earth, should suffice to convince the average 
thinking person that animal life has spent these millions of 
years in a gradual upward trend. If the old superstitions and 
absurd views, namely, that fossils are "freaks of nature" or 
"nature trying to mimic God's creation," are discarded, could 
anyone, even the most skeptical, offer any other explanation 
for the story of fossils than that they are the remains of ani- 
mals which lived at the specific age in which the corresponding 
rocks were formed! This fact being accepted, it is then im- 
possible to refute the theory of relationship of all animal life, 
as the two doctrines are mutually inclusive. After being forced 
to the above logical conclusion regarding the kinship of all ani- 
mal life, the average person is apt to contend that man is not 
an animal, and thus that the facts of evolution apply only to 
the lower forms-man having been created in his present form, 
"in His own image." Coincident with this conclusion, these 
same people may contend that the men of the Iron Age, the 
Bronze Age, and the Copper Age are distinctly related to man 
in the present "Flying Age." Furthermore, they do not dis- 
pute that the men of the Old Stone Age bear this same re- Evidences of Evolution 
117 
lationship. Where shall we stop as we pass back thru the 
ages? We are now back to the big-headed savages and still 
find no trace of man's creation. Since the records are some- 
what obscure prior to the existence of these brute-like men, 
perhaps the skeptical would have him play the role of the first 
created man. Indeed a pretty compliment to the Maker to 
say that the big-headed, brute-like savage is "in His own 
image"! In fact, when the common conception of "creation" 
is carried to its logical conclusion, the accepted doctrine of a 
divine Ruler of the universe is somewhat weakened. It there- 
fore behooves the churchmen to base their interpretations of 
the Bible upon the established and dependable facts of evolu- 
tion, thus bringing their Biblical teachings within the range of 
possibility. To admit evolution does not mean the denial of a 
Supreme Creator and Ruler of the Universe. Quite the re- 
verse! Evolution connotes a system and condemns the idea of 
"a blind unliving force." No less eminent man than Lord Kel- 
vin said, "It is impossible to conceive either the beginning or 
the continuance of life without an overruling creative power. 
. . . Overpoweringly strong proofs of intelligent and benevolent 
design lie around us showing us, thru Nature, the influence 
of a free will, and teaching us that all living things depend on 
one everlasting Creator and Ruler." 
In view of the importance of the subject and for the pur- 
pose of further showing that man has indeed a part in the 
many phases of evolution, it seems worth while to consider a 
few additional evidences in support of these contentions. 
These further proofs are offered from the standpoint of com- 
parative anatomy, embryology, and certain blood tests. The 
author is mindful, in giving a brief reference to these subjects, 
that there is again grave danger of the less observant conclud- 
ing that man was derived from the lower animals as they know 
them, rather than being very distantly related to them. 
Comparative Anatomy.-If man came into being instantly 
thru divine creation and is in no wise related to the lower 
animals, it would be reasonable to expect to find no part of 118 
The Laws of Life 
his physical make-up to be in common with that of these ani- 
mals, except in very rare cases of coincidence. Although a 
first glance does seem to show much dissimilarity, a detailed 
Fig. 30. Comparative study of the brains of various vertebrates. 
(Redrawn from various authorities.) A. Brain of Salmon. B. Frog. 
C. Alligator. D. Pigeon. E. Rabbit. F. Human. 1. Olfactory lobes. 
2. Cerebral hemispheres. 3. Cerebellum. 4. Medulla Oblongata. 
comparison of homologous parts reveals the fact that the 
structure of man's body corresponds in too many respects with 
that of the animals' bodies to be explained on the basis of coin- 
cidence. Note, for example, the homology of the various parts 119 
Evidences of Evolution 
of the brains of several animals, including man (Fig. 30). As 
the illustration shows, the complexity of the brain is in direct 
relation to the stage of advancement of the animal-those with 
greater reasoning power having the larger brain, especially the 
cerebrum, in comparison with body size. Compare the small 
brain and the enormous body of the reptile-like dinosaurs 
(Fig. 21) with the four-pound brain and the one hundred and 
fifty-pound body of modern man. Their comparative intelli- 
gence shows as great a contrast. This would indicate a cor- 
responding ratio of intelligence between the two, and also that 
a correspondingly large gap exists between these giant reptiles 
and man. As evolution progressed, the difference between 
brain and body weight decreased. Perhaps there is no living 
animal of to-day that has so small a brain compared with body 
weight as had the dinosaurs. 
In like manner the limbs of various animals are quite com- 
parable with those of man (Fig. 31). The same general ad- 
vance in the animal scale is shown by this comparison. It is 
of moment to note that the differences in size and shape of the 
bones are accompanied by a corresponding difference in the 
life habits of the individual, or vice versa, as the case may be; 
however, the homologous bones remain more or less similar re- 
gardless of the adaptation to changed environment and habits. 
Although some use their limbs for burrowing, others for flying, 
still others for swimming, running, or grasping, they all pos- 
sess a single bone in the upper "arm," the humerus; two in the 
lower arm, the radius and ulna; a mass of small bones forming 
the wrist, the carpals; the long bones of the hand, the meta- 
carpals; and lastly the bones of the "fingers," the phalanges. 
Such domestic animals as the horse and the cow may seem to 
be marked exceptions to this rule but an examination will re- 
veal the fact that four "fingers" of the former and three of 
the latter have degenerated more or less completely. 
The above comparisons might be carried on to the other 
organs of the body and remain equally as striking. The mus- 
cular, digestive, excretory, circulatory and nervous systems, as 120 
The Laws of Life 
Fig. 31. Comparative study of the arm and leg bones of various 
vertebrates. If man is not related to the animals, why do the various 
parts of his body correspond so closely to those of the animals? A. Fore leg 
of frog. B. Wing of bird. C. Fore leg of tortoise. D. Human arm. 
E. Hind leg of frog. F. Leg and foot of bird. G. Hind leg of tortoise. 
H. Human leg. 1. Humerus. 2. Radius and ulna. 3. Carpals and meta- 
carpals. 4. Phalanges. 5. Femur. 6. Tibia and fibula. 1. Tarsals and 
metatarsals. 8. Phalanges. Evidences of Evolution 
121 
well as the organs of the special senses of man, exhibit many 
elements in common with those of the lower animals. Since the 
author has heard so much contention from the masses, as 
well as from college trained people not versed in biology, to the 
effect that evolution applies to animals only and not to man, he 
cannot refrain from calling attention to the absurdity of this 
belief, knowing, as he does, the revelations of comparative an- 
atomy. What must be the state of mind of any individual who 
would contend that the brains and the limbs (Figs. 30 and 31) 
of the animals represent evolutionary relationship, but that 
those of man typify a separate creation, having no relation to 
the former group? The absurdity of such an assumption is ap- 
parent from the illustrations. 
Embryology, or the Development of the Individual as Com- 
pared with the Development of the Race.-According to 
Haeckel's fundamental law of biogenesis, "ontogeny is a brief 
recapitulation of phylogeny"; that is, the life of the individual 
is a brief living over of the life of the race. It might be ad- 
mitted that this "law," after being almost unanimously ac- 
cepted for many years, is now questioned if carried to ex- 
tremes. None the less, it remains true that the facts con- 
nected with the development of an individual-whether it be a 
chick, a pig, or a man-before birth (Fig. 33), lend support to 
the doctrine of evolution. Conklin ('20) says, "Just as the 
earth rotates on its axis, revolves in its orbit, and the whole 
solar system moves thru space, so organisms undergo em- 
bryonic development, specific development and phyletic de- 
velopment, all being parts of one great process." 
One of the simplest illustrations of the changes that take 
place in the life of an individual and one which typifies cor- 
responding changes in the evolution of the race, is found in 
the development of the frog (Fig. 32). Almost everyone is 
more or less familiar with the life story of the frog. It is gen- 
erally known that the eggs of this amphibian are deposited in 
the water in early spring and that they undergo segmenta- 
tion, or cell division; that is, each egg which is a single cell 122 
The Laws of Life 
divides into two cells. These, in turn, divide into four cells, 
then into eight, then into sixteen, etc. In each case the cells 
still adhere after they have undergone complete division, thus 
suggesting the development of the Colonial Protozoa (Fig. 42). 
Fig. 32. Metamorphosis of the Frog. 1. Eggs. 2. Tadpoles just 
hatched. 3 and 4. Older tadpoles. 5. First indication of hind legs. 6. Older 
stage. 7. Both pairs of legs free. 8 and 9. Successive stages in the 
absorption of the tail. 10. Adult frog. 
The division continues until a mulberry-like ball with a central 
cavity is formed (Morula stage) giving a crude representation 
of certain early coelenterates. The spherical form now elon- 
gates into a worm-like tadpole, which by means of suckers at- 
taches itself to the weeds or leaves in the water. A mouth soon 
appears, and the tadpole begins to feed upon the one-celled Evidences of Evolution 
123 
animals and plants in the water. This method of feeding sug- 
gests a correspondence with that of certain animals in the 
various geologic ages. For a few days the tadpole breathes 
with external gills, but later these are replaced by a pair of 
inside gills which are covered by a fold of skin corresponding 
to the gill covers (operculum) of the fish (Fig. 51). This is 
a very typical "fish stage." Locomotion is accomplished by 
whip-like movements of the tail; the food is the same as that of 
small fishes; oxygen is taken from the water which enters the 
mouth, passes over the gills and thence out thru a hole on the 
left side of the body. 
The hind legs appear first in the form of small buds; in like 
manner, the foreleg buds grow out from the body. As the leg 
buds appear, the gills are gradually replaced by lungs, and the 
large tail is absorbed. The animal is now a "frog" and can no 
longer breathe water like a fish but must appear at the top of 
the water for air, suggesting the first appearance of air-breath- 
ing animals. Simultaneously with these changes, the horny 
jaws used in scraping algae from the plants under water are 
replaced by a set of tiny teeth and a typical tongue. Since it 
is no longer possible for the frog to feed upon the water forms, 
it becomes interested in the insects along the bank which it can 
capture with its slimy tongue. Thus, the frog becomes a typi- 
cal amphibian, using the water only as a hiding place and for 
the purpose of moistening its skin. This simple illustration 
should bear out the fact that "ontogeny" (life of the individ- 
ual) is, at least, a suggestion of "phylogeny" (life of the race). 
Although certain stages in the life history of the frog are 
suggestive of certain stages in the evolution of other lower 
forms, it becomes necessary to examine the embryo of higher 
forms in order to make the story more complete. If the 
small circular disc on the yolk of an egg which has been in the 
incubator a few hours be examined with the microscope, a dis- 
tinct streak (the future chick) will be seen. A little later, this 
granular streak divides into sections that are suggestive of the 
segmentations in the higher worms. By the close of the second 124 
The Laws of Life 
day, the beating of the tiny heart starts a primitive type of 
circulation connecting the embryo with the "blood ponds" of 
the yolk. Since space does not permit a detailed comparison 
of the changes in the circulation of the chick with those of the 
adults of certain other lower forms, it will suffice to say that 
the recapitulation theory is of especial application in this case. 
An elongated fish-like animal with a very prominent tail now 
Fig. 33. Embryos of Various Vertebrates showing a striking similarity 
during the early stages. "Ontogeny recapitulates Phylogeny." (From 
Romanes, after Haeckel.) 
lives in the egg for a number of hours when the foreleg buds 
and the hind leg buds of the chick make their appearance. The 
tail is absorbed as was the tail in the case of the tadpole. Be- 
fore this process is completed, the gill slits of the chick become 
quite conspicuous. Figure 33 shows the characteristic "fish" 
stage of various animals, the gills and tails being very clearly 
pictured. The appearance of the four leg buds may be noted 
in the figure. Is it not remarkable that the "foreleg" buds of Evidences of Evolution 
125 
embryos which are practically indistinguishable will develop 
into the hoofed forelegs of the calf and pig, forefeet of the rab- 
bit, legs of the tortoise, ting feet and legs of the salamander, 
fins of the fish, wings of the chick, and arms of the human child? 
Furthermore each organ of the human body also tells us 
something of the past. The liver, for example, which arises 
as an outgrowth from the intestine suggests the adult liver- 
like organ attached to the intestine of the amphioxus. As 
further development continues, suggestive duplications of the 
adult livers of forms between the lower fishes and man are ob- 
served. Thus, as part after part, and organ after organ, 
make their appearance, each tells the story of its evolution 
from a simpler and more primitive predecessor. Is it not 
logical to conclude that these peculiar facts indicate a certain 
relationship between all animal life? Does not the appearance 
of a tail, gill slits, primitive liver and kidneys, and blood cir- 
culation in the human embryo suggest that man as a race has 
passed thru the typical stages of animal life below him? 
Rudimentary Organs.-A further evidence for the above 
conclusion is shown very graphically by the presence of rudi- 
mentary or vestigial organs in man's body,-the vermiform 
appendix, perhaps, being the best known of these organs. In 
addition to the appendix, there are many other vestigial struc- 
tures in our bodies that point back to our pre-human ances- 
try. The human tail, for example, never entirely disappears 
but remains in adult life as a posterior projection of the spinal 
column. Many instances have been reported in which the tail 
remained quite conspicuous throughout adult life. 
The ear should also be classed as a pre-human relic. In 
the lower animals, the muscles of the ear are still active and 
can move the shell (pinna) in order to reflect the sound waves 
into the interior. With man, however, these muscles are so 
degenerate that the ear cannot be moved and thus it has prac- 
tically lost its function. In cases where the outer ear has been 
removed, it has been found that the sense of hearing was 
scarcely, if at all, affected. Could it not also be concluded that 126 
The Lazes of Life 
the hairs on the human body are a useless legacy handed down 
to us by our geologic ancestors? 
Among the many other interesting vestigial organs, the 
pineal body should have special mention. This is a rudimen- 
tary organ somewhat larger than a pea located in the center of 
the brain. As we trace this body thru the various animals 
down the scale, we find it becoming more and more conspicu- 
ous, until in many reptiles, notably the New Zealand three-eyed 
lizard (Fig. 17), it approaches a normal eye. Examination of 
the extinct forms of animals indicates that this third eye, which 
every human possesses in a rudimentary fashion, surely func- 
tioned as an organ of sight. Is it not possible that the mytho- 
logical stories of the three-eyed monsters and of the giants 
with an eye in their foreheads had their origin based upon a 
real middle eye? McCabe aptly concludes that: "The vestigial 
structures must be interpreted as we interpret the buttons on 
the back of a man's coat. They are useless reminiscences of 
an age in which they were useful." 
Proof of Relationship by Blood Mixing Experiments.- 
McCabe presents another evidence for the organic relationship 
of animals as shown by certain blood tests that have received 
considerable attention in recent years. He says: "The blood 
consists of cells, or minute disc-shaped corpuscles, floating in 
a watery fluid, or serum. It was found a few years ago, in the 
course of certain experiments in mixing the blood of animals, 
that the serum of one animal's blood sometimes destroyed the 
cells of the other animal's blood, and at other times did not. 
When the experiments were multiplied, it was found that the 
amount of destructive action exercised by one specimen of 
blood upon another depended on the nearness or remoteness of 
relationship between the animals. If the two are closely re- 
lated, there is no disturbance when their blood is mixed; when 
they are not closely related, the serum of one destroys the cells 
of the other, and the intensity of the action is in proportion to 
their remoteness from each other. Another and more elabo- 
rate form of the experiment was devised, and the law was con- Evidences of Evolution 
127 
firmed. On both tests it was found by experiment that the 
blood of man and of the anthropoid ape behaved in such a way 
as to prove that they were closely related. The blood of the 
monkey showed a less close relationship-a little more remote 
in the New World than in the Old World monkeys; and the 
blood of the lemur showed a faint and distant relationship." 
Regardless of the convincing evidences presented, it must 
be admitted that as Shull says "The best evidence of any proc- 
ess is to witness its going on." It will be shown in later chap- 
ters that the process of evolution can be and is being observed 
by numerous workers, and thus that the theoretical has clearly 
given way to the observational. CHAPTER VI 
THE CYCLE OF LIFE 
The "Ups and Downs" of Phylogenetic Life-Man, the All- 
dominating Power To-day-Who is the Imaginary Super-Man of 
To-morrow ?-Shall Science or Religion Answer this Supreme Ques- 
tion? 
"We of today stand midway in the stream of human progress 
. . . we know that our feet are set on a path of progress, and that 
it is for us to decide where that path shall lead. Driven from our 
paradise of primitive simplicity, we have the choice of good and 
evil, but no longer the option of deciding whether to choose." 
-Cockerell. 
A study of the innumerable fossils which are found en- 
tombed in the rock strata of the earth reveals many facts re- 
garding the history of life and the theory of evolution. Such a 
study, furthermore, presents a graphic story of the "ups and 
downs" of the various types of plants and animals that have 
inhabited the earth during the past ages. Altho many ani- 
mals which had their origin far back in geologic time still ex- 
ist in modified form, the day of their supremacy has long since 
passed, and they have become subservient to other and more 
powerful contemporaries. Those which could not withstand 
the vicissitudes of nature or could not combat or escape their 
new enemies vanished entirely, leaving their fossil remains to 
tell the story of their struggle for existence. Some of the 
shelled invertebrates, such as the clam, oyster, and mussel, ap- 
peared in a primitive form as far back as the early Paleozoic 
Era and have served as food for various higher animals during 
all of the ages, at last finding their greatest enemy in man. 
In like manner, when certain higher forms, such as fishes, made 
128 The accompanying diagram shows the type of animal life which dominated the Earth during various geologic ages. 
Beginning with the Age of Volcanoes (early archeozoic), animal life developed.step by step until civilized man became 
the dominating master. Although there were many minor fluctuations in the "ups and downs" of life's development, only 
eight outstanding types of animal forms characterized the evolutionary path from ' ' Amoeba to Man. " It is interesting 
to note that of these eight dominating forms the first four lived in the water and the last four lived on land, the link 
between the fishes and the amphibians representing the transition forms. 
The condition of man's evolution during the present or Psychozoic Age is quite problematical. Has man reached 
the limit of his possibilities, or has he just begun to ascend the scale of human perfection? If evolution continue in 
the future as it has in the past, what type of being may be expected when the present inhabitants of this earth have 
passed into oblivion? Such questions are permissible in the realms of both science and religion. 
Fig. 34. The Succession of Animal Life. 
129 130 
The Laws of Life 
their appearance, they, in turn, served as food for still higher 
forms that appeared later. Thus, it might be said, the food 
element has been one of the greatest factors in the struggle 
for existence, and in the ultimate survival of the fittest. From 
the standpoint of ages, this factor, together with changed 
climatic conditions, has caused entire races of animals which 
once swarmed the earth to disappear entirely or to become 
subdued by new ones more adaptable to their surroundings. 
The accompanying diagram (Fig. 34) illustrates the rise 
and fall of the great animal groups during the passing of the 
ages. The Laws of Life teach us that no one animal race can 
reign supreme forever, no more than can certain rulers or na- 
tions. Each dominating species increases in numbers and power 
until it reaches its zenith, then slowly but surely vanishes 
into insignificance or disappears entirely. The illustration 
shows that such a rise and fall of world dominance has taken 
place at least eight times since life appeared upon the earth, 
each time the masters being a higher form of life than their 
predecessors. Thus, each new generation of life has been the 
real master of the preceding race. 
At present man is the all-dominating power, having become 
master of the earth thru his intellectual ingenuity and superi- 
ority. What is man's place in this scale of animal progression? 
Has the whole process culminated in him? If the future is to 
be judged by the past, in which dominating species held su- 
preme rule for a few million years only to be supplanted by a 
more powerful race, man will eventually surrender his place 
on earth to some other more masterful being. What type of 
being this super-man will be, we cannot even surmise. If we 
assume that the Laws of Life continue and that man will reach 
the height of his supremacy and then pass into oblivion as 
have all other geologic masters, it is interesting to conjecture 
whether or not he has reached the height of his power. Since 
the dotted line in the figure indicates the road that the race of 
man is to travel, the completion of the chart is a very uncertain 
task. Should the dots begin before the summit is reached The Cycle of Life 
131 
showing that man is still developing upward, or should they 
begin at the top, or at some descending point? On the other 
extreme, could we not logically conclude that since man's power 
lies in his intellect, he is sure of mastery until the end of time? 
Such are the questions that confront us in this the Age of 
Mind, the Psychozoic. 
"Is man isolated in his splendid powers? Is his a voice crying 
in the wilderness, with no possibility of an answer? It is the func- 
tion of religion, rather than of science, to answer this insistent 
question." 
-Cockerell. CHAPTER VII 
ANIMAL RELATIONSHIPS-THE UNITY OF LIFE 
Introduction-The Cell and the Organ-Division of Labor- 
Kinds of Cells-Cells of Multicellular Animals-Cells that can 
Perform all Functions-Primitive Forms-Phylum Protozoa- 
Amoeba-Euglena-Paramecium. 
"Man is a part of a great whole, the Animal Kingdom, one form 
among the many thousand forms in which animal organization has 
found expression. . . . If we would, therefore, fully understand 
the structure of man, we must, as it were, look at it upon the back- 
ground which is formed by the other animals, and for this purpose 
we must investigate their conditions." 
-Hertwig. 
Introduction 
While considering the meaning of evolution as outlined in 
Chapter II, we found that it is possible to trace, step by step, 
the evolution of the many mechanical devices employed by 
man. Using this as a basis, an understanding of geologic and 
biologic evolution was more easily brought about. In the pre- 
ceding chapters, the general principles underlying the for- 
mation and the evolution of the earth and the various theories 
relative to the origin of life formed a foundation for a brief 
study of the early types of plant and animal life which in- 
habited the globe. The present and two subsequent chapters 
deal with the inter-relationships which exist between the sev- 
eral groups of the Animal Kingdom as we know it to-day. Such 
a consideration will give a better insight into the various tran- 
sitional changes of the past, as well as an understanding of the 
basic principles which are directing the course of evolution at 
the present time. 
When the early biologists wished to classify an animal, an 
132 Animal Relationships-The Unity of Life 
133 
external examination was made, and the specimen was grouped 
with those of the nearest external resemblance. Later, it be- 
came necessary to dissect and to study the internal structure 
in order to compare the anatomical parts as well as the general 
resemblance. The minute structure of the brain and the cir- 
culation of the blood were found to be as vital to a successful 
classification as the shape of the head and of the body. 
After the laws of evolution were better understood, even a 
knowledge of the comparative anatomy of living forms was 
found to be inadequate for a true classification. It was found 
that many living animals possessed characteristics of certain 
forms which have long since become extinct. It, therefore, be- 
came necessary to include all known forms, both living and 
extinct, in the realms of comparative anatomy. This gave 
quite an impetus to the study of fossils as they bridged the 
great chasm between many living groups. It was also neces- 
sary to know the facts regarding the early development of 
every animal to be classified. This study was gradually ex- 
tended backward thru the embryonic life to the first formation 
of the individual at the time of the union of the sperm and the 
egg in fertilization. The study of the animal before birth 
(embryology) was necessitated from the fact that many forms 
in the embryonic condition resemble the adults of animals lower 
in the scale of life. It is obvious that a knowledge of the de- 
tails of development will give a certain clew to the relation- 
ships with other forms. Our knowledge, as expressed in our 
present system of classification, is based upon a study of thou- 
sands of generations of both living and extinct forms. The 
extinct forms lived out their brief lives and then found a rest- 
ing place in the rocks where they have remained millions of 
years awaiting the coming of inquisitive man. It should be 
evident, then, that the whole scheme of classification as used 
to-day is, in reality, an expression of evolutionary facts. 
During the passing of the many geologic ages, which have 
presented millions of distinct kinds of animals, each form has 
had a general tendency to become more complex than the ear- 134 
The Laws of Life 
lier, and closely related one. As the environment changed, this 
tendency toward an increasing complexity continued. A study 
of the rocks shows that the complex forms followed the simpler 
in regular succession. The limit of this whole process is man. 
However, there is no indication that would point to the seem- 
ing fact that it has "culminated" with him. As the term evo- 
lution implies a continuous process of unfolding from simpler 
to more complex forms, there is no reason to doubt that animal 
life will reach a much higher state than is presented in the 
present so-called civilized man. As pointed out in Chapter 
VI, we cannot even surmise what this form may be. Whether 
this being will be a more perfect man possessing the general 
characteristics of the present human family, or whether he 
will be one of an entirely different order from the present, is 
purely a matter of conjecture. 
The question whether or not man should be considered in 
the general scale of animal life has been the cause of contro- 
versy for many years. He who wishes to decide this query for 
himself should first make a study of the general classification 
of the Animal Kingdom, giving special consideration to the 
structural variations, and to the relationships within each 
group. The questions would then naturally arise as to whether 
or not these variations and relationships are common in man, 
and, if so, whether or not they conform to the laws wrhich govern 
the lower animals. Such a study will reveal the fact that the 
natural development of man is parallel with the general trans- 
formations which both plants and animals are undergoing. It 
is with this phase of the subject that this and the following 
chapters deal. 
In order to understand the general relationships which 
exist between "man's living relatives," it is necessary to begin 
with the simplest form of living matter and proceed, step by 
step, up the scale of animal life. Altho the following dis- 
cussion of relationships is greatly abbreviated, it should give a 
fair suggestion of the intimate kinship which an extensive pre- 
sentation would more conclusively establish. As the many ani- Animal Relationships-The Unity of Life 
135 
mal groups, from the lowest to the highest, are presented, the 
reader should gain an impression of the increasing scale of 
complexity. He should also be able to see how the present- 
day forms, thru their geologic ancestors, are indeed mans rela- 
tives. 
The Cell and the Organ 
The Unit of Animal Structure.-Each subdivision of a liv- 
ing body is composed of minute particles of protoplasm called 
cells. This is true of plants as well as of animals. Just as a 
piece of sandstone is made up of tiny grains of sand, the body 
of a man, a frog, a worm, or a plant is composed of cells. No 
one knows the exact composition of protoplasm. Since it is 
the only substance that possesses life, the cell may be called 
the unit of structure of any living being. All the various tis- 
sues are built up of aggregations of these cells bound together 
in a compact form. Some animals are composed of but one 
cell, others of only a few, while still others have countless mil- 
lions of these units of structure in their make-up. Where the 
animal is multicellular-although each cell is in reality an in- 
dividual living thing within itself-all these units work in har- 
mony toward the common end. 
As a more detailed consideration of cells is reserved for 
Chapter XIV, a very elementary discussion is all that will be 
presented at this point. The word "cell," as used outside of 
biology, means a small cavity or an empty space. It is obvious, 
therefore, that the word is a misnomer, since a biologic cell 
would not come under that definition. Hooke, an Englishman, 
was the first to use the term "cell" when he observed them in a 
thin slice of cork. For a long time, the interest of the biologic 
investigators was centered upon the walls of the cells and not 
upon their contents, as they supposed the wall to be the es- 
sential feature. For that reason, then, the term came into 
general use. 
Instead of being an empty space, a biologic cell is com- 
posed of many parts. By definition, a cell is a mass of proto- 136 
The Laics of Life 
plasm containing a nucleus (Fig. 69). Outside the nucleus is 
a viscous substance called cytoplasm, while on the inside may 
be found many different structures which are so small that the 
most powerful microscope fails to reveal all of the secrets that 
are hidden therein. The cell, as a whole, is surrounded by a 
thin membrane, the cell-wall. Thus, it will be seen that a typi- 
cal cell is composed of many distinct parts with varying func- 
Fig. 35. Muscular tissue. 1. Nuclei. 2. Muscle fibers. 
tions. The cell-wall holds the cell in shape; the cytoplasm is 
largely concerned in the absorption and assimilation of food; 
the nucleus seems to control the process of reproduction, and 
thus the transference of parental characteristics to the off- 
spring. 
Organs.-When we consider the many processes necessary 
for the maintenance of life, we often wonder how our bodies 
can accomplish all of them at the same time. We then note that 
certain parts of the body have been set aside for their own Animal Relationships-The Unity of Life 
137 
particular tasks. While our food is being digested, our eyes 
direct us to our work, our ears warn us of approaching danger, 
and our nervous system supervises our thoughts as well as di- 
rects the muscles which move our bodies. Altho the work 
carried on by a living body is very complicated, it is made 
much more simple by a division of labor. Each division that 
has its own peculiar task is called an organ. Each organ is 
composed of tissues which, in turn, are composed of cells. 
Fig. 36 (left). Epithelial cells from the lining of the mouth. 
Fig. 37 (right). Nerve cells from the spinal cord of the frog. 1. 
Nucleolus. 2. Chromatin network. 3. Connective tissue fibrils. 4. Den- 
drites, shown at their beginning. 
The tissues and cells are not the same in each of our special- 
ized organs. The cells of our muscular tissue (Fig. 35) are 
more or less elongated and flattened. The muscle fibers, which 
can contract quickly and with great force, are composed of 
bundles of these muscle cells bound together with connective 
tissue. The cells of the connective and supporting tissue are 
irregular in shape and find their function in binding together 
the cells of other tissues. The epithelial cells (Fig. 36) form 
a soft covering for the body. They compose the lining of the 
nose, the mouth, and the cavities of the body as well. The 
most wonderful of the specialized cells are those which make 138 
The Laws of Life 
up the brain and the nervous system (Fig. 37). They are able 
to receive stimuli, and to transmit them to other cells. They 
stimulate the cells of the other tissues to action; they receive 
impressions from the outside world thru the sense organs, and 
carry them to the brain. The nerve cells are extremely irregu- 
lar in shape; but the general rule of cell structure applies to 
them, as it does in the case of other cells. Nerve cells are com- 
posed of a central mass with its nucleus, from which are given 
off many protoplasmic branches containing the nerve fibers. It 
is these fibers that compose the true "nerve." The cells which 
are set aside for reproduction are usually much more regular 
in shape than the other kinds of cells, and also, as a rule, much 
larger. 
No one cell of a multicellular animal can live, multiply and 
develop indefinitely if isolated. It forms an integral part of 
the tissue in which it is located, and must be associated with 
its fellows in order to carry out its life functions. There is, 
then, a real interdependence between all the tissues and organs 
of a complex living being. The organs of digestion, respira- 
tion, and circulation are dependent upon the nervous system to 
keep them in action. The cells of the muscles and bones are 
dependent upon the blood for food and oxygen. In spite of 
the very complicated processes necessary for the maintenance 
of life in a highly organized being, we find that practically all 
of them can be accomplished by a single cell. However, this 
wonderful cell must be that of a unicellular organism for there 
is not a single cell in the body of a higher animal that could 
master the feat of "life making" alone. The one-celled animals 
which can farry on these life processes are confined to only one 
great group-the Protozoa. 
Primitive Forms 
Phylum (Tribe) Protozoa (Gr. protos, first; zoon, life).- 
Since classification means the grouping of animals according 
to color, structure, habits, and other characteristics which 
are common to them, all one-celled animals have been placed Animal Relationships-The Unity of Life 
139 
under one Phylum, Protozoa. As a type of the lowest form of 
Protozoa, the amoeba (Fig. 38) will be considered. This 
simple bit of living protoplasm may be found on the decayed 
leaves and on the scum in pools of stagnant water. Upon ex- 
amining such water with the microscope, many forms of life 
may be seen racing to and fro; but, sluggishly creeping along 
Fig. 38. Amoeba proteus. One of the lowest forms of unicellular 
animals. 1. Pseudopodia (false feet). 2. Food vacuole. 3. Contractile 
vacuole. 4. Nucleus. 5. Endosarc. 6. Ectosarc. 
the bottom, may be seen the tiny amoeba. It crawls by con- 
stantly changing its form and by pushing out tiny projections 
of protoplasm called pseudopodia (false feet). The remainder 
of the protoplasm, including the nucleus, gradually flows into 
the foot-like projection until the entire animal has been moved. 
The food is also taken in by these movements. Pseudopodia 
are sent out around the particle of food, which is soon en- 
gulfed. The food is then digested by some mineral acid in the 140 
The Laws of Life 
protoplasm. Thereupon, the food is changed into new proto- 
plasm and thus becomes a part of the animal. Respiration is 
probably carried on by osmosis of the oxygen thru the deli- 
cate membrane or cell-wall; carbon dioxide is given up in re- 
turn. Waste products which are formed within the cell are 
passed out thru the contractile vacuole (3, Fig. 38). This 
Fig. 39. Euglena viridis. A unicellular animal showing a higher 
specialization of parts than exists in the amoeba. A, B. Free-swimming in 
different stages of contraction. C. Dividing. 1. Chlorophyll. 2, 6, 7, 8. 
Nucleus. 3. Pigment spots. 4, 5. Contractile vacuole. 
organ may be easily recognized by its pulsating movements. 
As the amoeba feeds, anabolism (the change of food material 
into protoplasm) exceeds katabolism (the breaking down of 
protoplasm), and, thus, the animal increases in size. This 
continues until the cell becomes so large that the surface of the 
cell-wall is not great enough to supply the greater volume of 
cytoplasm with food and oxygen. The division which then 
takes place is an example of the most primitive form of repro- Animal Relationships-The Unity of Life 
141 
duction. It is interesting to note that Kuhn (1915) contends 
that the amoeba divides mitotically (See Chapter XIV), and 
not by simple, or direct, cell division as is usually supposed. It 
may be clearly observed from this brief consideration that the 
one-celled organisms can perform practically all the activities 
that are carried on in a very complex animal. Since, in this 
case, a division of labor is an impossibility, the single cell must 
take in food, absorb oxygen, change food into protoplasm, ex- 
crete waste material and carry on the process of reproduction. 
Fig. 40. Paramecium caudatum. A type of more highly specialized 
protozoa. 1. Cuticle. 2. Nucleus. 3. Ectosarc. 4. Contractile vacuole. 
5. Food vacuole. 6. Endosarc. ,7. Oral groove. 8. Cilia. 
Altho the other common protozoa are composed of only 
one cell, many of them show more signs of specialization than 
does the amoeba. There is usually a definite portion of the 
cell set aside to perform certain functions. The euglena (Fig. 
39), for example, is of a more definite form than the amoeba. 
Although it has a funnel-shaped pharynx, it is questionable if 
it functions in the taking in of food-the food being manu- 
factured as in green plants, namely, by chlorophyll action. 
From this "mouth" extends a long hair-like fiber which, by its 
vibrations, pulls the animal thru the water. It is, furthermore, 
interesting to note that in the anterior end of the cell may be 
found a red spot that is sensitive to light. This is called the 
eye-spot and is considered one of the most primitive of spe- 
cialized organs of sight. However, it must not be thought that 
the euglena has a power of vision in the usual sense of the term, The Laws of Life 
142 
as the eye-spot is not sufficiently developed for distinct images 
to be formed. The eye-spot of the euglena is very significant 
from an evolutionary standpoint. It would be interesting to 
trace the development of the eye from this primitive type thru 
the animal scale up to the well developed eye of man. 
Certain organs of specialization may also be observed in 
the paramecia (Fig. 40), but with certain modifications. Loco- 
motion is accomplished by means of short cilia which cover the 
surface of the body and line the gullet. These cilia propel the 
paramecium thru the water by their waving movements and 
also drive the animal's prey into the gullet which enters the 
side of the body near the anterior end. The method of repro- 
duction of the paramecium is somewhat more complicated 
than that of the amoeba or euglena and is interesting in that 
it suggests sexual reproduction in higher forms. Under or- 
dinary conditions, a paramecium undergoes a process known 
as conjugation before division. In brief, the essential features 
of conjugation are as follows: When two individuals reach a 
certain size, they swim along together (as two boats locked 
side by side) and become completely united. Each paramecium 
possesses two nuclei, the macronucleus (the larger) and the 
micronucleus (the smaller). After the body walls of the two 
conjugants are fused and a protoplasmic bridge is formed be- 
tween them, the micronucleus of each paramecium (after going 
thru certain complicated changes) passes over and unites with 
the macronucleus of the other. The two individuals then sep- 
arate and after certain other processes take place, divide 
twice, transversely. Thus, each ex-con jugant forms four 
daughter paramecia. These young paramecia feed until they 
grow large, and then the above process is repeated. 
The significance of the conjugation of the paramecia and 
other unicellular forms has been the subject of much contro- 
versy. Maupas and others considered it a rejuvenating proc- 
ess. That is, it was claimed that the organisms which had 
been exhausted by a series of divisions regained their vitality 
thru conjugation, thus making it possible to continue their Animal Relationships-The Unity of Life 
143 
life and the life of the race. Examples are easily cited where 
conjugation is highly suggestive of sexual reproduction in 
higher forms, but the homology, if there be any, between the 
two processes cannot be definitely stated. The recent works 
of Jennings, Woodruff, and others conclusively show that con- 
jugation in the protozoa is not essential to the maintenance 
of the race. Whatever significance may be attached to the 
process of conjugation, it is, nevertheless, very suggestive of 
the beginning of a higher order in which reproduction is 
brought about by the mating of two individuals. CHAPTER VIII 
ANIMAL RELATIONSHIPS-{Continued)- CONNECT- 
ING LINKS BETWEEN PROTOZOA AND METAZOA 
Introduction-Colonial Protozoa-Gonium-Volvox-Lower In- 
vertebrates-Porifera-Coelenterata-Hydra-Sexual and Asexual 
Generations-Sea Anemone-Ctenophora-Platyhelminthes-Ad- 
vancing Complexity-Nemathelminthes-Invertebrates of Uncer- 
tain Classification-Coelomata-The Body Cavity-Higher Inver- 
tebrates-Echinodermata-Annelida-Mollusca-Arthropoda. 
"To be a good animal is the first requisite to success in life, and 
to be a nation of good animals is the first condition of national pros- 
perity." 
-Herbert Spencer. 
Introduction.-Attention has been called to animals possess- 
ing various specialized parts, thus presenting specific cases of 
physiological division of labor; it has also been noted that such 
a division is present in rudimentary forms even in the uni- 
cellular animals. This could be perfected to a greater extent 
had such animals many cells instead of one with which to per- 
form their functions. In like manner it would be impossible to 
have a division of labor among the citizens of any community 
unless a relatively large number of them were involved. In 
fact, the success of any specialized enterprise is, other factors 
being equal, in direct proportion to the density of the popula- 
tion in that vicinity. In the unicellular animal the division of 
labor is not a true division but, rather, much like the perform- 
ance of tasks by a single family-only a division within a unit. 
Many cells-like many people in a community-are necessary 
in order to perfect a system of true division of labor. 
144 Animal Relationships 
145 
Certain animals, which are usually considered to be unicel- 
lular forms, fail to separate wholly from each other at the 
time of cell division, thus forming collections of one-celled ani- 
mals which are bound together in a compact community. The 
cells of each of these groups or collections are held together 
Fig. 41. Gonium. A colonial form which serves as one of the con- 
necting links between the protozoa and the metazoa. A. Colony seen from 
above. B. Colony seen from the side. (From Jordan, Kellog and Heath, 
after Stein.) 
by a gelatinous substance. Such groups are called Colonial 
Protozoa. Biologists disagree as to the nature of these ani- 
mals. Some regard them as merely being colonies of one-celled 
animals with little or no interdependence. Since a definite di- 
vision of labor seems to be present in some of them, it seems 
not at all out of place to regard them as connecti/ng links be- 
tween the protozoa and the metazoa (many celled animals). 
Colonial Protozoa.-If the euglena (Fig. 39), which di- 
vides longitudinally, should remain attached at the posterior 146 
The Laws of Life 
end and then divide again so that the four animals thus formed 
would remain together, and should this process be continued 
thru several generations, a plate of animals would soon be 
formed. This plate-like group of animals is actually noted 
in the case of certain colonial forms, particularly Gonium 
(Fig. 41). 
Fig. 42. Volvox. The type of colonial protozoa possessing certain 
characteristics of the metazoa, therefore serving as a connecting link be- 
tween the unicellular and the multicellular animals. One of the earliest 
forms to present a marked difference between the male and the female 
germ cells. 1. Germ cells. 2. Somatic cells. 3. Flagella. 
Each cell of the colony possesses two long protoplasmic, 
whiplash-like hairs which assist in collecting food and also in 
forcing the colony through the water. Other colonial forms, 
the Fandorina for instance, are formed similarly to the Go- 
nium, but the cells are arranged in a spherical rather than a 
plate-like colony. This fact is significant in that it is sug- 
gestive of the mulberry, or morula, stage in the ontogeny of 
higher forms (See Development of Frog, Chapter V). Fan- 
dorina is of further evolutionary significance in that it seems to 
be the lowest form in which there is a size difference in the 
cells which unite to produce individuals. 
A still more interesting form which is found in fresh water, 
and which is figured in almost all elementary textbooks, is the Animal Relationships 
147 
Volvox (Fig. 42). This form is usually classed with the pro- 
tozoa under the class Flagellata; but, owing to the extreme 
specialization of certain cells of the colony, it seems almost im- 
possible for it to be a unicellular organism. The spherical 
colony is composed of many hundreds of cells, which are con- 
nected by protoplasmic material. Among this collection may 
be found both the somatic cells (body cells) and the germ cells 
(reproductive cells) which are set aside for the purpose of 
reproduction, as is common in the metazoa. There are two 
types of germ cells homologous to the sperms and eggs of the 
higher animals. The eggs are fertilized by the spermatozoa, 
and after a certain resting stage, the fertilized eggs develop 
into new colonies. In respect to its method of reproduction, 
the Volvox should be considered a metazoan. 
While considering the position of the Volvox in the animal 
scale, Jordan and Kellogg present the following suggestions: 
"There is a real interdependence among the thousands of cells 
of the colony. The function of reproduction rests with a few 
particular cells, and for the perpetuation of the species there 
is demanded a cooperation of two distinct kinds of reproduc- 
tive cells. The great majority of the cells take no part in 
reproduction. They can perform all the other life processes; 
they move the colony by lashing the water with their flagella; 
they take in food and assimilate it; they can feel. All the 
cells of the great colony, too, are intimately connected by 
means of protoplasmic threads. The protoplasm of one cell 
can mingle with that of another; food can go from cell to 
cell. The question whether the Volvox colony is a group of 
distinct organisms or is a single organism made up of cells 
among which there is a simple but obvious difference in struc- 
ture and function; in other words, whether Volvox is a colony 
of one-celled animals, of Protozoa, or is a multicellular animal, 
one of the Metazoa (for so all the many-celled animals are 
called), is a difficult one to decide." In view of the many inter- 
mediate forms the gap between the protozoa and the metazoa 
should be considered very small. 148 
The Laws of Life 
THE SCROLL OF 
Phyla 
Characteristics of the Phyla 
Classes 
1 Protozoa 
(Gr. protos, first; 
zoon, animal.) 
One cell. Usually microscopic. No 
tissues. Conjugating cells. Repro- 
duction by division of cell-sperms 
and eggs rarely present. In many 
cases colonial. 
I Rhizopoda 
(Gr. rhiza, a root; pous, foot.) 
II Flagellata 
III Ciliata 
IV Sporozoa 
H Porifera 
(Lat. porus, a pore; 
ferre. to bear.) 
Framework of spicules of horn- 
fibers which surrounds the little ani- 
mal. Usually salt water. Food 
taken in by small lateral pores, water 
passes out thru the large central 
opening (osculum). 
I Calcarea 
(Lat. calcarius, lime.) 
11 Hexactinellida 
(Gr. hex. six; aktin, ray.) 
Ill Demospongi® 
(Gr._ demos, people ; spongos, 
sponge.) 
Ill Coelenterata 
(Gr. koilos, hollow; 
enteron, intestine.) 
Usually sea forms. One cavity in 
body serves for both digestion and 
circulation. Two distinct layers 
(ectoderm and entoderm) and a 
jelly-like middle layer. Stinging 
cells. Usually radially symmetri- 
cal (4 or 6 antimeres, or multiples 
of these numbers). 
I Hydrozoa 
(Gr. hydra, a water serpent; 
zo8n, animal.) 
II Scyphozoa 
(Gr. skuphos, cup ; zo8n, ani- 
mal.) 
Ill Anthozoa 
(Gr, anthos, a flower; zoon, 
animal.) 
IV Ctenophora 
(Gr. ktenos, of a 
comb; phoreo, I bear.) 
Comb-like locomotor organs. Free 
swimming. Classification uncertain. 
Adhesive cells. Transparent. Bi- 
radially symmetrical. 
I Tentaculata 
II Nontentaculata 
V Platyhelminthes 
(Gr. platus, broad; 
helmins, an intestinal 
worm.) 
Worm-like. Elongated and flat- 
tened, primitive nervous system, 
and branching excretory" system. 
Usually parasitic. Hermaphroditic. 
I Turbellaria 
(Lat. turbo, I disturb.) 
II Trematoda 
(Gr. trema, a pore; eidos, 
resemblance.) 
Ill Cestoda 
(Gr. kestos, a girdle; eidos, 
resemblance.) 
VI Nemathelminthes 
(Gr. nema, thread; 
helmins, an intestinal 
worm.) 
Unsegmented round worms, mouth 
and anus. Usually unisexual. 
Nematoda. Digestive tract. 
Acanthoeephala. No digestive 
tract. 
Uncertain Classification: Nemertinea Nematomorpha 
(Gr. nemertes, true) (Gr. nema, thread ; morphe, form.) Animal Relationships 
149 
ANIMAL LIFE 
Characteristics of Each Class 
Examples 
(scientific name) (common name) 
Locomotion by pseudopodia (false 
feet). Membrane absent or incom- 
plete. 
Amoeba proteus 
Amoeba 
Definite form. Locomotion by fla- 
gella. Pseudopodia often present. 
Euglena viridis 
Euglena 
Mouth and arms usually present. 
Locomotion by cilia. 
Paramecium 
Paramecium 
Parasitic. Reproduces by spores. 
Food usually taken from a host. 
Non-motile-at least in adult con- 
dition. 
Plasmodium vivax 
Malaria parasite 
Skeleton of lime. Shallow water. 
Central cavity lined with collared 
cells. 
Grantia 
Simple spicules of silicon (sand) 
and with six rays. Deep sea. 
Euplectella aspergillum 
Venus' flower basket 
Deep sea forms with silicon spicules 
(not six-rayed) or of spongin or 
both. Highest type. Includes prac- 
tically all sponges. 
Euspongia 
Bath sponge 
Fresh water. Simple mouth part 
inconspicuous. No mesenteries. 
Reproduces both sexually and asexu- 
aLy (budding) and fission. 
Hydra 
Fresh water hydra 
Cup-like. Internally, four longi- 
tudinal folds. Large jellyfish. Eight 
notches in margin of umbrella. 
Aurelia 
Jellyfish 
Flower or tree-like. No jellyfish. 
Marine. Usually sessile and colonial. 
Shallow water. Reproduces both 
sexually and asexually (budding 
and fission). 
Metridium 
Astrangia 
Sea-anemone 
Coral 
Body spherical or cylindrical; with 
and without tentacles. 
Bolina 
Beroe 
Sea walnuts 
and 
Comb jellies 
Free-living. Ciliated ectoderm. 
Hermaphroditic-no body cavity. 
Planaria 
"Flat worms" 
Parasites. Suckers. Forked intes- 
tine with arms. Ecto- or endopara- 
sitic. 
Distomum hepaticum 
Liver fluke 
Parasites. No mouth or alimentary 
canal. Segmented. 
Taenia 
Tapeworms 
Digestive tract. 
No digestive tract. 
Ascaris 
Intestine worm 
Rotifera Bryozoa Brachiopoda 
(Lat. rota, wheel; ferro, I (Gr. bruon, moss; zoon, (Gr. Brachion, arm; pous, 
carry.) animal.) foot.) 150 
The Laws of Life 
THE SCROLL OF 
Phyla 
Characteristics of the Phyla 
Classes 
VII Echinodermata 
(Gr. echinos, a sea- 
hedgehog ; derma, skin.) 
✓ 
Sea forms. Spiny skeleton, radia] 
symmetry, usually five-radiate. Wa- 
ter-vascular system. Various colors 
-in some cases transparent. Gut 
distinct from body cavity. Sense 
organs usually poorly developed 
Usually possess tube feet. 
1 Asteroidea 
(Gr. aster, star; eidos, resem- 
blance. ) 
II Ophiuroidea 
(Gr. ophis, snake ; oura, tail; 
eidos, resemblance.) 
Ill Echinoidea 
(Gr. echinos, a sea-hedgehog; 
eidos, resemblance.) 
IV Holothuroidea 
(Gr. holos, whole; thourios, 
rushing; eidos, resemblance.) 
V Crinoidea 
(Gr. krinon, a lily; eidos, re- 
semblance.) 
VIII Annelida 
(Lat. annellus, a little 
ring.) 
Round, segmented worms. 
I Chaetopoda 
(Gr. chaite, bristle; pous, 
foot.) 
II Hirudinea 
(Lat. hirudo, leech.) 
IX Mollusca 
(Lat. mollis, soft.) 
No segments, shell usually present. 
Anus and ccelom. Nervous system 
composed of circumesophagal ring 
and ganglions. 
I Lamellibranchiata 
II Scaphopoda 
(Gr. skaphe, boot; pous, 
foot.) 
Ill Solenogastres 
IV Gastropoda 
(Gr. gaster, belly ; pous, foot.) 
V Cephalopoda 
(Gr. kephale, head; pous, 
foot.) 
X Arthropoda 
(Gr. arthron, a joint; 
pous, foot.) 
Series of segments. Alimentary 
canal. Anterior mouth opening, 
heart, nerve cord, and brain. Jointed 
appendages. Chitinous exoskeleton. 
I Crustacea 
(Lat. crusta, skin.) 
II Onychophora 
III Myriapoda 
IV Insecta 
ORDER OF INSECTS: I Aptera-Simplest insects. II Odonata-Dragon flies, 
hoppers, and katydids. V Hemiptera-True bugs, cicadas, aphids, scale insects, etc. 
winged flies. IX Lepidoptera-Moths and butterflies. X Hymenoptera-Ichneumons, Animal Relationships 
151 
ANIMAL LIFE-Continued 
Characteristics of Each Class 
Examples 
(scientific name) (common name) 
Five arms not distinctly marked off 
from the flat central disc. Possess 
spines. 
Asterias 
Starfish 
Five snake-like arms distinctly 
marked off. Arms used in loco- 
motion. Flattened body. No ambu- 
lacral grooves. Body not ciliated. 
Ophiuridea 
Brittle stars 
No arms or rays, but pentamerous 
markings. Skeleton made of cal- 
careous plates closely adjusted. 
Spines. Ambulacral appendages. 
Echinus 
Sea urchin 
Long ovoid leathery muscular body. 
Contractile tentacles around mouth. 
No spines. Sexes usually separate. 
Great power of regeneration. 
Cucumaria 
Sea cucumber 
Sea forms. Usually five branched 
arms. Resembles lily attached at 
base. 
Pentacrinus 
Sea lilies 
Bristles (setae) for locomotion. 
With or without parapodia. 
Lumbricus terrestris 
Angleworms 
Without bristles but with suckers. 
Hirudo Medicinalis 
Leeches 
Shell composed of two valves. Bi- 
laterally symmetrical. Without head. 
Hatchet foot for locomotion. 
Ostrea 
Mya 
Oyster 
Clam 
Tooth-shaped shell. No heart, eyes, 
or respiratory apparatus. 
Dentalium 
Elephant's tusk 
Worm-like. Devoid of shell and foot. 
Proneomenia 
Shell usually spirally coiled. Dis- 
tinct head and foot. Slugs with in- 
visible shell. 
Helix 
. Limax 
Snails 
Slugs 
Foot divided into, arms with suck- 
ers. Well developed nervous sys- 
tem, eyes and ears. Breathes by 
means of gills. 
Nautilus 
Loligo 
Octopus 
Nautilus 
Sea Squid 
Octopus 
Chitinous cuticle of carbonate and 
phosphate of lime. Aquatic or modi- 
fied for air-breathing. 
Cambarus 
Crayfish 
Excretory organs segmentally ar- 
ranged, stump-like legs, simple eyes. 
Connects segmented worms and in- 
sects. 
Peripatus 
Distinct head, one pair tentacles, 
and one pair mandibles. Body seg- 
ments, leg-like appendages, trachea, 
excretory organs. 
Chilopoda 
Millipedes 
knd 
Centipedes 
Head distinct. Pair of antenn® 
and mandibles. Two pair of max- 
illae. Labium. Trachea. Spiracles. 
See orders below ' 
See orders below 
damsel flies. Ill Isoptera-White ants. IV Orthoptera-Cockroaches, locusts, grass- 
VI Neuroptera-Nerve-winged insects. VII Coleoptera--Beetles. VIII Diptera-Two- 
gall-flies, wasps, bees, and ants. 152 
The Laws of Life 
THE SCROLL OF 
Phyla 
Characteristics of the Phyla 
Classes 
XI Chordata 
(Lat. chordatus, pos 
sessing a cord.) 
Skeletal axis or notochord, pairec 
gill slits, central nerve cord dorsal 
to alimentary canal. Neurocoele. 
I Urochorda 
( Tunica ta.) 
II Hemiehorda 
III Cephalochorda 
(Gr. kephale, head; chorde, 
cord.) 
IV Vertebrata 
(Lat. vertebratus, joints.) 
Sub-phylum Vertebrata. 
Internal segmentation. Vertebral 
column. Skin, many-layered epi- 
dermis. Gill slits in adult or em- 
bryonic condition. 
Class I 
Cyclostomata 
Class II 
Elasmobranchii 
Class III 
Pisces 
Class IV 
Amphibians 
Class V 
Reptiles 
Class VI 
Birds 
Class VII 
Mammals Animal Relationships 
153 
ANIMAL LIFE-Continued 
Characteristics of Each Class 
Examples 
(scientific name) (common name) 
Tunic of cellulose (CoHiqOb) ; man- 
tle and incurrent and excurrent 
opening. 
Molgula 
Salpa, etc. 
Sea-squirts 
Worm-like. Burrows in mud. Pro- 
boscis in collar-like acorn in its 
cup. Paired gill slits. 
Balanoglossus 
Acorn-tongue worm 
Fish-like body. Pointed at both 
ends. Atrial opening. No skull, ver- 
tebra, brain, or heart. Primitive 
kidneys (nephridia) and notochord 
present. 
Amphioxus lanceolatus 
Amphioxus 
(See below under characteristics of 
sub-phylum.) 
See classes below 
See classes below 
Eel-like. Without jaws and lateral 
paired fins, no vertebral column ex- 
cept cartilaginous ; circular rasping 
and sucking mouth. Straight in- 
testine. 
Bdellostoma 
Myxine 
Petromyzon 
Hagfish 
Lamprey eels 
Paired fins; gill arches; no mem- 
branous bones, air bladder or true 
scales; spiral valve. 
Squalus 
Raji 
Dogfish sharks 
Rays 
Vertebral column ; cranium and well 
developed skeleton. True scales 
usually present. 
See orders below 
Cold-blooded; scaleless skin; lung 
breathers in adult life; limbs usu- 
ally present. 
See orders below 
Cold-blooded ; lung breathers; usu- 
ally scaly (see characteristics of or- 
ders.) 
See orders below 
Warm-blooded ; normal temperature 
higher than that of any other group ; 
egg layers (oviparous) ; body cov- 
ered with feathers; anterior limbs 
appear as wings. 
See orders below 
Warm-blooded; usually bear young 
alive (viviparous); mammary 
glands; body covered with hair, 
but reduced in some forms. 
See orders below 
CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES 
Order I. The Ganoids. Once abundant, now almost extinct. Plate like scales. Ex- 
amples ; bow fin, sturgeons, gars. 
Order II., The Teleosts. The common food fishes, composing over 99% of all living 
fishes. Gills protected by an operculum. Examples: perch, trout, bass, codfish. 
Order III. The Dipnoi. Swim bladder used as lungs, thus commonly spoken of as lung 
fishes. Certain other amphibian characteristics. Inhabit marshes and lakes of 
Central Africa, South America and Australia. 
CLASSIFICATION OF AMPHIBIA 
Order I. Apoda. Limbless, wormlike forms inhabiting tropical and sub-tropical regions. 
Order II. Urodela. Tailed amphibians with rudimentary or poorly developed legs. Ex- 
amples: salamander, newt, mud puppy. 
Order III. Anura. Abundant, undergo metamorphosis, gills in larval stage, lungs in 
adult. Examples: frogs and toads. 154 
The Laws of Life 
Order I. Chelonia. Broad, flat, double-skeleton forms, toothless. Examples: turtles and 
tortoises. 
Order II. Lacertilia. A rough, scaly form which breathes by lungs. Well developed 
legs. Examples: lizards, horned toads, gila monsters. 
Order III. Ophidia. An elongated, limbless form covered with small scales. Examples: 
snakes of various kinds. 
Order IV. Crocodilia. Inhabit marshes. Body well-proportioned, four well-developed 
legs, long tail, heavy bony scales especially prominent on dorsal side. Examples: 
alligators and crocodiles. 
CLASSIFICATION OF REPTILES 
CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS 
Order I. Running Birds. Rudimentary or poorly developed wings. Examples: rheas, 
cassowary, ostrich. 
Order II. Passeres. Three toes in front, one behind adapted for perching. Examples: 
lark, swallow, thrush, sparrow. 
Order III. Gallina. Well distributed, feet adapted for scratching. Examples: jungle 
fowls from which the domestic fowls have developed, pheasants, quail. 
Order IV. Raptores. Hooked-bill, strong, well-developed claws adapted for grasping. 
Spoken of as birds of prey. Examples: hawk, owl, etc. 
Order V. Grallatores. Legs, neck and beak very long, adapted for wading and fishing. 
Examples: snipes, herons and cranes. 
Order VI. Natatores. Legs short, and toes webbed, adapted for swimming and diving. 
Examples: ducks, swans and albatross. 
Order VIL Columbinae. Characteristics familiar. Examples: doves and pigeons. 
Order VIII. Pici. Toes arranged for climbing and clinging to upright perch. Two toes 
pointed forward, two back. Example: woodpeckers. 
Order IX. Psittaci. Hooked beak, fleshy tongue and strong toes arranged for perching. 
Example: parrots. 
Order X. Coccyges. Powerful beak, toes arranged for climbing. Examples: cuckoo and 
kingfisher. 
Order XI. Macrochires. Long-pointed wings, very active. Examples: humming birds 
and swifts. 
CLASSIFICATION OF MAMMALS 
Order I. Edentata. Teeth without enamel and absent from anterior part of jaw. Very 
primitive form of mammal. Examples: armadillo, sloth and ant eaters. 
Order II. Rodentia. With one or in a few cases two pair of sharp chisel shape incisors 
in upper jaw. Examples: pocket gopher, guinea pig, mice, rabbits, porcupine, beavers 
and squirrel. 
Order III. Cetacea. Marine form. Examples: whale, porpoise. 
Order IV. Ungulata. Grinding teeth, hoofed animals, some with one (horse, rhinoceros), 
other with two toes (ox, pig, sheep and deer). 
Order V. Carnivora. Prominent claws, projecting canine teeth, incisors small, premolars 
adapted for cutting flesh. Examples: fox, skunk, dog, cat, bear, lion, sea lion, seal, 
walrus, etc. 
Order VI. Insectivora. Examples: mole and hedgehog. 
Order VII. Chiroptera. Teeth pointed, claws fairly well developed, four limbs modified 
for flight. Example: bat. 
Order VIII. Primates. More or less upright position, large brain, claws modified to 
nails, hands adapted for grasping. Examples: monkeys, apes and man. 
Classification of vertebrates modified from Hunter and others. 
The Lower Invertebrates 
Phylum Porifera (Lat. porus, a pore; ferre, to bear).- 
As this Phylum, together with the succeeding phyla of the 
Animal Kingdom, will be taken up very briefly-representative 
specimens only from each one being considered-the reader 
should make constant use of the Scroll of Animal Life (Chart 
II) in order to gain a more comprehensive knowledge. Animal Relationships 
155 
With the sponges, we pass one step higher up the scale of 
life. Although they possess many characteristics of the higher 
forms, many of their life functions are carried on in simple 
protozoan fashion. They are stationary animals and are 
without definite shape. The water bearing the food particles 
is taken in thru minute pores (hence the name, Porifera) in 
the body wall and passes into the central cavity and thence out 
thru the opening at the top, the osculum. The food is digested 
and absorbed by the same method as that employed by the 
colonial protozoa. In fact, it is quite probable that certain 
protozoa (Proterospongia) were the ancestors of the early 
forms of sponges. The sponge has no organs of digestion, but, 
as noted above, digestion is intercellular. Oxygen is obtained 
from the water by osmosis. The sponge shows more advance- 
ment than many of the earlier forms. The cells of the body are 
arranged in three layers, the ectoderm, or outer layer; the 
entoderm, or inner layer; and the mesoderm, or middle layer. 
From the cells of the mesoderm arise fine needles or spicules 
made of lime and silica, which represent a primitive form of 
skeletal structure. 
Reproduction in the sponge is accomplished by two meth- 
ods ; namely, by budding, and by the union of the sperm and 
the egg as considered in the case of the Volvox. The latter 
method is spoken of as sexual, while the former is the asexual 
method of reproduction. Both the male and the female germ 
cells are formed in the mesoderm, and, after uniting in the 
process of fertilization, develop into a ciliated larva. This 
new individual swims about, takes food, and lives a free and 
active life. This suggests the adult stage in certain protozoa. 
The young sponge later attaches itself to some object by its 
"mouth," and while it assumes a cylindrical shape, an opening 
-the future osculum-appears at the free end and the pores 
begin to open in its walls. Thus, the free-swimming colonial 
protozoan-like animal becomes a stationary adult sponge. In 
the asexual method of reproduction, buds are set free to later 
develop into complete adult sponges. Sometimes the buds 156 
The Laws of Life 
are retained attached to the parent sponge, thus forming an 
ensemblage of individuals on one parent stalk. 
Phylum Coelenterata (Gr. koilos, hollow; enteron, intes- 
tine).-Until the present discussion, no animal has been con- 
sidered which possesses a food tube and a body cavity. True, 
the sponge was found to have a central cavity but it merely 
Fig. 43. Longitudinal section of a hydra (semi-diagrammatic). 1. 
Ectoderm. 2. Entoderm. 3. Nematocysts (stinging cells). 4. Hypostome. 
5. Mouth. 6. Mesoglea. 1. Bud. 8. Gastro-vascular. 9. ^ntodermal cells. 
10. Flagella. 11. Male germ cells. 12. Ovary bearing a female germ cell. 
(13). 14. Cavity of tentacle. 
served as a passageway for outgoing currents of water and 
not as a digestive cavity. The cells themselves perform the 
functions of digestion and assimilation. In the hydta (Fig. 
43), one of the simplest of the coelenterates, there is found a 
mouth opening into a primitive digestive cavity. This cavity 
is lined with irregularly shaped cells, which have the power of 
sending out pseudopodia to grasp and ingest the partially Animal Relationships 
157 
digested food. The food then passes from cell to cell by os- 
mosis. With respect to the division of the body wall, the 
hydra seems to be less highly developed than the sponge. In 
place of the conspicuous middle layer (mesoderm) of the 
sponges, we find only a thin layer of non-cellular jelly-like 
substance, the mesoglea (6, Fig. 43). As for offense and de- 
fense, and the ability to capture food, the hydra far surpasses 
any of the earlier forms. In the first place, it is not perma- 
nently attached but can release itself from its base and move 
about on any submarine surface by a kind of somersault 
movement. Or, if it releases itself entirely, the currents in 
the water will carry it to some new location. Thus, the hydra 
is not forced to rely entirely upon one position for food. If 
the supply is inadequate, it can move to another environment, 
while a sponge would be forced to remain and perhaps starve. 
Around the mouth of the hydra are a number of arms (the 
tentacles) which are supplied with stinging cells (nematocysts). 
These cells are used in defense, and also in capturing certain 
prey. After this prey has been paralyzed or killed by the 
sting of the nematocysts, it is forced thru the primitive mouth- 
opening (5, Fig. 43) by means of the tentacles. 
In regard to sexual reproduction, the hydra resembles the 
sponges and the volvox; however, there is a considerable modi- 
fication. Asexually, the hydra reproduces by fission (division) 
as in certain protozoa, and by budding. The buds grow from 
the sides of the body wall (7, Fig. 43) and remain attached to 
the parent until the tentacles and the mouth are formed. The 
eggs and the spermatozoa are formed from the ectodermal 
cells and are shed into the surrounding water where fertiliza- 
tion takes place. 
Many splendid examples of specialization and division of 
labor might be collected from the higher Coelenterates, but a 
summary discussion of one of the more complex will suffice. 
The colonial sea form, the Obelia, will serve as the type. This 
plant-like animal possesses a basal stem from which are given 
off upright branches known as hydroid colonies. Upon these The Laws of Life 
158 
branches may be found flower-like buds called polyps. Some 
of these buds bear a striking resemblance to the adult hydra, 
and are employed entirely in obtaining food. Other polyps 
are set aside entirely for the purpose of reproduction. The 
buds which are given off from these polyps are called medusa- 
buds. They grow directly into a jellyfish-the medusa. This 
is known as the asexual generation. The jelly fish matures 
and produces sperms and eggs which unite to form a ciliated 
protozoan-like larva. This is known as the sexual generation. 
Fig. 44. Sea-anemone (diagrammatic). Dissected to show the single 
gastro-vascular cavity and the mesenteries. 1. Mouth. 2. Tentacle. 3. 
Gullet. 4. Longitudinal muscle. 5. Siphonoglyphe. 6. Gonads. 7. Parietal 
muscle. 8. Mesentery filaments. 9. Secondary mesentery. 10. Primary 
mesentery. 
This free-swimming larva, after passing thru certain stages of 
development, forms a new hydroid colony. The process is then 
repeated for each new generation. 'It is readily seen that dur- 
ing the life cycle the animal must pass thru two distinct gen- 
erations-asexual and sexual. This complete process is spoken 
of as the alternation of generations and is very common in 
the Coelenterates. 
The Coelenterates present a broad range of animal struc- 
ture. The increasing complexity might be followed, step by 
step, until fairly complex forms are reached. The sea-ane- 
mone (Fig. 44), for example, shows an increase in complexity Animal Relationships 
159 
of the internal structure. The gullet opens into a large space 
which extends radially between mesenteries (partitions). The 
cavity between the mesenteries into which the food passes 
possesses many subdivisions showing a marked increase in 
complexity. 
The Coelenterates possess no distinct alimentary canal sep- 
arate from the body cavity, the gastrovascular (digestive-cir- 
culatory) space serving alike for digestion and circulation. 
This cavity has only one opening, which serves both as mouth 
and anus. A definite nerve ganglion, excretory system, and 
circulatory system are lacking in this Phylum. 
Phylum Platyhelminthes (Gr. platus, broad; helmins, an 
intestinal worm).-The free-living flatworms (Planarian Type) 
possess an alimentary cavity, but in a very primitive condition. 
This cavity presents various branches (suggestive of certain 
Coelenterates), and has only one opening, the undigested ma- 
terial being ejected thru this mouth-like opening. The excre- 
tory system, however, shows a marked advance over that of the 
other forms we have considered. This system is composed of 
many ramifying tubules which connect with larger tubes and 
empty the waste products on the outside of the body. The small 
tubes terminate with a cell (flame cell) possessing a single flick- 
ering cilium which keeps the fluid contents of the tube in motion. 
The nervous system consists of a bi-lobcd ganglion at the an- 
terior end of the body, and two nerve cords extending one 
along each side. From the brain, nerve fibers pass to the 
primitive eyes and to the other parts of the anterior end of 
the body. Many of the worms are hermaphroditic; that is, 
each individual possesses both male and female organs,- 
which fact is significant from the standpoint of evolution. 
This fact, together with the fact that definitely specialized 
organs are present in these worms, indicates that the Platy- 
hehninthes mark a decided advance over the Coelenterata. 
Phylum Nemathelminthes (Gr. nema, thread; helmins, an 
intesti/nal worm).-Many of the other worms, particularly 
those of Phylum Nemathelminthes, have lost their evolutionary 160 
The Laws of Life 
significance thru their parasitic habits. This applies also, in 
part, to the Phylum Platyhelminthes, the flatworms (See the 
Scroll of Animal Life-Phyla V and VI). The worms that are 
classed under the Phylum Nemathelminthes are long and 
slender and usually rather cylindrical in cross section. The 
common vinegar eel is an excellent example of the Nemathel- 
minthes. Others of these worms are dangerous parasites, liv- 
ing in the intestines of man and various other animals. Some 
of them attain a length of nearly a foot. The disease called 
trichinosis is caused by minute Nemathelminthes, Trichinella 
spiralis, being embedded in the muscular tissues. Altho 
these worms have lost their evolutionary significance, one fact 
stands out as notable. In them, we find for the first time a 
definite division of sexes-male and female being separate in- 
dividuals. 
Invertebrates of Uncertain Classification.-There are sev- 
eral groups of lower invertebrates that most zoologists fail to 
agree upon regarding their definite classification. Most of 
these are marine types, while a few are found in fresh water. 
Some are parasitic. In view of the uncertainty of their classi- 
fication and relation to other forms, it is impractical to treat 
of them further in this brief discussion. 
Coelomata 
In the foregoing discussions we have traced-tho super- 
ficially-the development of structural complexity from the 
one-celled, organless animal to forms having a digestive tract 
(altho primitive), definite nervous and excretory systems, 
and rudiments of eyes. Space would not permit even a brief 
consideration of the developmental relationships between each 
group, but the increasing complexity should have been made 
evident. A constant use of the Scroll of Animal Life (Chart II) 
will fill in many of the gaps that occur in the text. 
The appearance of certain distinguishing characters are so 
significant that they warrant a brief consideration at this 
point. It will be remembered that the body wall of the sponges AnimdL Relationships 
161 
and the Coelenterates is composed of two layers separated by 
a jelly-like structure. Altho the term mesoderm is applied 
to this middle layer, it is composed in the two forms mentioned 
of only wandering cells from the ectoderm. However, its re- 
lationship to the true mesoderm of the higher animals is sug- 
Fig. 45. Transverse section through median region of the body of an 
earthworm (Lumbricus), showing well developed nervous, excretory and 
circulatory systems. 1. Dorsal vessel. 2. Cuticle. 3. Typhlosole. 4. Cir- 
cular muscle fibers. 5. Longitudinal muscles. 6. Nephridium. 7. Nephro- 
stome. 8. Chlorogogen cells. 9. Ventral vein. 10. Setae. 11. Nerve cord. 
12. Sub-neural vessel. 13. Coelom. 
gested from the fact that it gives rise to the skeleton in both 
the Porifera and the Coelenterata. In the higher forms, each 
of the three body layers plays a distinct part in the formation 
of the various organs of the body. It was further noted that 
the body of the Coelenterates (hydra as a type) possesses only 
one cavity-the digestive cavity (8, Fig. 43). A cross section 
of an earthworm, on the other hand, suggests a small tube in- 162 
The Laws of Life 
side a large one, thus showing two distinct cavities within the 
body wall of the animal (Fig. 45). This cavity within the in- 
testine is the digestive cavity; the one between the body wall 
and the inner tube is the body cavity, or ccelom. Technically, 
the terms coelom and body cavity are not always synonymous; 
but this should not be confusing. The coelom is found either 
in the embryo or adult stage in all forms of life from the 
earthworm to man, inclusive. Most zoologists consider the 
coelom of sufficient importance to be the basis upon which to 
divide all metazoa into two classes: acoelomata (without) and 
coelomata (with a coelom). It is, as yet, uncertain whether or 
not the Platyhelminthes (flatworms) and the Nemathelminthes 
(roundworms) possess a coelom. This places them as con- 
necting links between the acoelomata and coelomata. 
The coelom is usually defined as "A cavity in the mesoderm 
lined by an epithelium; into it the excretory organs open, and 
from its walls the reproductive cells originate." The presence 
of a coelom gives a better opportunity for the development of 
organs of nutrition, excretion, and reproduction. It, then, is 
really a dividing mark between the lower and the higher forms 
of life. 
Higher Invertebrates 
Phylum E chino d er mat a {Gr. echinos, a sea-hedgehog; 
derma, skin).-There are five kinds of echinodermata; namely, 
starfishes, brittlestars, sea-urchins, sea-cucumbers, and sea- 
lilies. The general structural features of these salt water 
forms show an advancement over the earlier forms. 
Phylum Annelida (Lat. annellus, a little ring).-While 
considering the earthworm (Fig. 45) as a type of a more 
highly developed animal, attention should be called to the fact 
that the nervous and the circulatory systems are fairly well 
developed, and that the digestive tract has a posterior opening 
for the discharge of body waste, and that the excretory sys- 
tem is developed into specific organs called nephridia (kid- 
neys) . Animal Relationships 
163 
Phylum Mollusca (Lat. mollis, soft).-The fact that the 
higher molluscs possess a well developed nervous system with a 
more centralized (tho primitive) brain, and (with few 
Fig. 46. External features of a clam (Anodonta). Possesses highly 
developed nervous and circulatory systems. 1. Dorsal siphon. 2. Ventral 
siphon. 3. Lines of growth. 4. Foot protruded. 5. Umbo. 
exceptions) a three chambered heart, should give this group 
a prominent place in the scale of animal life. The best known 
representatives of this group are the oysters and the clams 
(Fig. 46). 
Fig. 47. The North American lobster. 1. Antennule. 2. Rostrum. 
3. Cephalothorax. 4. Gill-cover. 5. Abdominal segments. 6. Antennae. 
7. Maxilliped. 8. First leg. 9. Abdomen. 10. Uropod. 
Phylum Arthropoda (Gr. arthron, a joint; pous, foot).- 
While considering the advancing complexity of the Phylum 
Arthropoda (See Scroll of Animal Life), Linville and Kelly 164 
The Laws of Life 
state: "Its advance over the Annulata (Annelida) consists in 
the tendency of somites (segments) to be fewer and more defi- 
nite in number. The somites are grouped in two or three re- 
gions ; in certain regions the somites are fused, an indication 
of still greater differentiation. All the appendages are seg- 
mented. The dorsal blood-vessel is more differentiated than 
other parts of the circulatory system, and in some classes it 
is a clearly defined one-chambered heart. Sense-organs, es- 
pecially eyes, reach a condition of great complexity in com- 
parison with that found in the lower phyla." The crayfishes, 
lobsters (Fig. 47), the centipedes, and the insects are members 
of the Phylum Arthropoda. CHAPTER IX 
ANIMAL RELATIONSHIPS-{Continued}- HIGHER 
TYPES OF ANIMAL LIFE 
Probable Connecting Links between the Invertebrates and Verte- 
brates-Primitive Chordata-Urochorda-Hemichorda-Cephalo- 
chorda-Lower Vertebrates-The Fishes-Exoskeleton-Endoskel- 
eton-True Vertebrates-Amphibia-Reptiles-'Birds-Mammals 
-Primates-Man-Conclusion-Ancestral Tree. 
"The nature of the universe is the nature of things that are. 
Now, things that are have kinship with things that are from the 
beginning. Further, this nature is styled Truth: and it is the first 
cause of all that is true." 
-Marcus Aurelius. 
The terms invertebrates and vertebrates are usually con- 
sidered sufficient to include every species of animal. Indeed, 
this was the idea of the early zoologists. In more recent years, 
however, animals have been found which possess characteristics 
of both groups and thus cannot be placed with either. In 
these forms, instead of the vertebral column, there is found an 
elastic gelatinous rod (the notochord). In order to include 
this group of animals, the term chordata was adopted. This 
group includes all animals that possess gill slits either in adult 
or embryonic stages, a nervous system dorsal to the intestine, 
and a notochord. One of the lowest forms of chordata is the 
marine acorn-tongue worm (Balanoglossus-Hemichorda) (Fig. 
48) which is distinctly worm-like in appearance, with a ventral 
as well as a dorsal nerve chord. The dorsal one, however, 
is somewhat better defined than the ventral-suggesting chor- 
date characteristics. This worm-like animal possesses a noto- 
chord-like structure and definite gill openings. 
165 166 
The Laws of Life 
Although the interesting creature shown in Figure 49 would 
never suggest a vertebrate, the zoologists consider it a valuable 
connecting link. The larva of the sea-squirt possesses the 
Fig. 48. Balanoglossus (left) acorn-tongue worm possessing certain 
characteristics which mark it as one of the connecting links between the 
vertebrates and the invertebrates. 1. Proboscis. 2. Collar. 3. Branchial 
region. 4. Genital ridge. 5. Hepatic prominences. 
Fig. 49. Sea-squirt (Molgula) (right). 1. Atriopore. 2. Neural gland. 
3. Dorsal lamina. 4. Hypophyseal duct. 5. Mouth. 6. Velum. 7. Sub- 
divided pharyngeal clefts. 8. Tunic. 9. Mantle. 10. Endostyle. 11. Heart. 
12. Intestine. 13. Gonad. 14. Stomach. 15. Atrial cavity. 16. Anus. 17. 
Duct of gonad. 18. Oesophagus. (Semi-diagrammatic from preserved 
specimen and Newman.) 
characteristic dorsal neural tube, gill slits, and notochord (See 
Urochorda-Scroll of Animal Life). 
Since the sea-squirt possesses the chordate characteristics 
only in the larval stage, and, since the adult acorn-tongue worm Animal Relationships 
167 
possesses these characteristics only in part, they are both 
classed below the amphioxus (Cephalochorda). As the illus- 
tration (Fig. 50) shows, the amphioxus, a fish-like animal which 
lives almost imbedded in the sand at the sea-bottom, possesses 
all the above characteristics in the adult stage. Investigation 
has revealed the fact that the amphioxus is unquestionably 
a direct ancestor of the vertebrates. If the relationships of 
the acom-tongue worm and the sea-squirt can be definitely as- 
certained, the lineal descent of the vertebrates will be fairly well 
established. This is especially true since the habits and struc- 
Fig. 50. Amphioxus. Unquestionably one of the ancestors of the 
vertebrates. 1. Nerve cord. 2. Notochord. 3. Dorsal fin. 4. Myotomes. 
5. Caudal fin. 6. Oral hood. 7. Metapleural fold. 8. Gonads. 9. Atriopore. 
10. Ventral fin rays. 11. Ventral fin. 12. Oral cirri. 
ture of the larva? show a close relationship with that of the 
starfishes. Thus, the remote ancestry of the vertebrates, in- 
cluding man, may be found back among the invertebrate ani- 
mals. 
The Lower Vertebrates 
The Fishes.-All the animals listed on the chart (See Scroll 
of Animal Life) before chordata are characterized by the fact 
that any skeleton or hard parts which they may possess are 
always on the outside of the body (exoskeleton). The follow- 
ing are some typical examples of animals having an exoskele- 
ton: corals, starfishes, mussels, oysters, snails, crayfishes, lob- 
sters, and beetles. On the other hand, it is a well-known fact 
that the skeletons of the higher animals are found in the in- 168 
The Laws of Life 
terior of the body (endoskeleton). A glance at a skeleton of 
the dog reminds us that those bones were once covered with 
layers of flesh, in contrast with the clam shell (Fig. 46) which 
once surrounded the animal. We may, therefore, conclude that 
in general (tho there are many exceptions) the higher ani- 
mals possess a bony endoskeleton and the lower ones an exo- 
skeleton. Then animals like the fishes, alligators, and turtles 
should be considered intermediate forms since they have an 
internal skeleton of bones and an external skeleton in the form 
of a hard covering of scales, or plates, much like the lower 
forms of life. 
Still lower than these intermediate double-skeleton forms, 
Fig. 51. Perch. 1. Pre-operculum. 2. Operculum. 4. Pelvic fin, 
5. Dorsal fin. 6. Caudal fin. 7. Anal fin. 8. Ctenoid scales. 
yet above the amphioxus, are certain fish-like animals which 
have a skeleton of cartilage. This would be expected, since 
the notochord of the amphioxus is composed of a gelatinous, 
almost cartilaginous material. The most lowly of these verte- 
brates are the hagfishes and the lamprey eels (See Scroll of 
Animal Life). These are principally sea-forms-their food 
being blood, flesh, and even the vitals of fishes to which they 
attach themselves with their rasping mouths. Although the 
cartilaginous skeleton is indicative of a very primitive form of 
life, the hags and lampreys possess other structures, such as 
nervous, circulatory, and respiratory systems which are more 
highly developed. Animal Relationships 
169 
The dogfish sharks show an advanced step over the forms 
considered above. The latter have no functional jaws or lat- 
eral fins; the former have fairly well developed skeletons 
(tho yet cartilaginous), distinct gill arches, lower jaws, and 
paired fins. The hags and lampreys have soft slimy skins, 
while the dogfish sharks are covered with placoid scales-a type 
found only on primitive fishes. From these primitive fishes, we 
could follow, if space permitted, the line of development thru 
the common bony fishes (Teleosts, Fig. 51), with a well de- 
veloped "fish" skeleton and a high type of scales (Ctenoid) to 
the animals like the frogs having typical bony skeletons and no 
hard outer covering-vertebrates in the truest sense of the 
word. 
Amphibians (Gr. amphibios, capable of living in both air 
and water).-When viewed from an elementary standpoint, the 
life history of the frog, as heretofore presented (See Chapter 
VI and Fig. 32), tells the story of his place in the scale of 
life. The fact that it sacrifices its long tail for functional legs 
with feet, exchanges gills for lungs, and leaves the water, 
clearly ranks the frog considerably above the fishes. It is 
quite significant, however, to note that the common frog is 
the highest type of amphibian-the salamander being in a 
lower class. Some species of salamanders retain the true am- 
phibian characters throughout adult life. That is, instead of 
the gills becoming non-functional and disappearing, they are 
retained; thus giving the animal the power to live for some 
time either in water or air. In other words, the adults of 
such forms correspond to a very young frog which still retains 
"tadpole" characteristics; namely, tail, gills, etc. As a sug- 
gestion of the relationships which exist between such low "am- 
phibious" salamanders and the highly developed frogs, it 
should be noted that there are adult intergrades between these 
two extremes. For example, the legs of various salamanders 
are developed in proportion to their stage of phylogenetic 
progress. Even in the higher forms, the legs are insufficiently 
strong to carry the body entirely free from the ground without 170 
The Laws of Life 
frequent rests. In the case of most salamanders, the body is 
pushed along the surface by the weak legs. 
Amniota 
The method of development of the eggs of reptiles, birds, 
and mammals is strikingly different from that of the am- 
phibians and lower forms. It has been noted that the entire 
frog egg is converted directly into the body of the tadpole. The 
eggs of the remaining three classes-reptiles, birds, and mam- 
mals-develop in a strikingly different manner. In these 
forms, a peculiar double hood-like covering develops from cer- 
tain parts of the egg, and, after completing certain charac- 
teristic stages of growth, completely surrounds and thus 
protects the developing embryo. This covering, which is con; 
sidered somewhat more in detail in Chapter XXVIII is called 
the amnion. Its importance is evinced from the fact that all 
the animals of the three higher classes (reptiles, birds, mam- 
mals) are called Amniota. In this connection, it will be noted 
that the amnion, and other embryonic structures, are cast off 
at birth-having completed the functions for which they were 
formed. 
Reptiles and Birds.-The developmental history, alone, 
shows that the reptiles and birds are worthy of a higher place 
in the tree of animal life than the amphibians. They not only 
possess an amnion, but at no time after the egg is hatched do 
they make the water their home or breathe with gills as do the 
larvae of the amphibians. The recapitulation law, stating that 
each individual lives over the life of the race, is well illustrated 
in this connection. Although the reptiles do not live an 
aquatic life after the egg is hatched, their life during the 
embryonic stage is clearly an aquatic one since they are sur- 
rounded by the amnion and float in the amniotic liquid. This 
statement not only applies to the developmental life of the rep- 
tiles but is more or less true of the birds and mammals. How- 
ever, a number of factors indicate that the reptiles should be 
ranked below the birds and mammals. Perhaps the most obvious Animal Relationships 
171 
of these, especially to the non-technical reader, is the fact that, 
although not truly aquatic, most of the reptiles accept a semi- 
aquatic life-spending a part of their time either in the 
water (alligators, turtles, etc.) or in damp places (most 
snakes). It is quite significant that, as a general rule, the less 
a class of animals uses a water environment as a habitat the 
higher they may be classed in the scale of life. Thereupon, 
the relative position of the fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and 
birds is shown by the fact that the fishes spend all their life 
in the water; the amphibians live in the water during their 
larval life and must have a damp environment during their 
adult life; the reptiles-although not truly aquatic-live a 
kind of semi-aquatic life; while the birds are, as a rule, entirely 
independent of water as a habitat, except, of course, while in 
the embryonic condition. 
Mammals.-The dominant characteristic of mammals is 
the method of nourishing the young with milk from the mam- 
mary glands of the mother-hence the name mammal. As- 
sociated with this is the habit of bearing the young alive, the 
egg being fertilized and undergoing development in the body 
of the female. The relationship between this, the highest group 
of animals, and the class below-the egg-layers-is shown by 
the method of reproduction of the lowest mammals-the mono- 
tremes. These primitive forms possess mammalian characteris- 
tics in general but still lay eggs as do the birds. 
As we ascend the scale of mammalian life (See Scroll of 
Life), a gradual increase is noted in the degree of perfection 
of the nervous system, especially in the brain and sense organ 
connections. Although most animals are undoubtedly 
governed by instinct, some of the nearer relatives of man ex- 
hibit considerable intelligence. "They possess the faculty of 
memory; they form ideas and draw conclusions; they exhibit 
anger, hatred, and self-sacrificing devotion for their com- 
panions and offspring that is different from that in man only 
in degree and not in kind" (Jordan and Heath). 
Primates.-As Metcalf says: "Naturally the subject of the 172 
The Laws of Life 
relation of humankind to evolution is one of particular interest 
to us. Study of human anatomy shows mankind to be pro- 
bably a single species, belonging to the Primates, a group of 
the Mammalia, including, besides man, the lemurs, and the apes 
and monkeys of the eastern and western hemispheres. Man is 
most nearly related to the Simiidce, the tailless apes of Asia 
and Africa, including the gibbon, the orang (Fig. 52), the 
chimpanzee, and the gorilla (Fig. 53). It is usual to place 
humankind in a distinct family of Primates, Hominida. . . . 
Fig. 52 (left). Baby orang-utan. 
Fig. 53 (right). Gorilla. (From "Animal Life," by Jordan, Kellog, 
& Heath, by courtesy of D. Appleton & Co.) 
As an illustration of some of the reasons for asserting that 
men are primates and are closely related to the Simiida, 
glance at the illustration of the skeletons of representatives of 
four genera of Simiida and of man. Part for part the skele- 
tons are the same in all fundamental regards. . . . But let 
us turn to structures other than the skeleton. . . . We 
think of the hairiness of the apes as distinguishing them rather 
sharply from man, but in reality the whole of the human body 
is covered with hair, save the palms of the hands, the soles of 
the feet, and the backs of the terminal joints of the fingers and Animal Relationships 
173 
toes; and these same portions are naked in the apes. Not only 
does hair clothe the whole human body, the slant of the hair 
in the several regions of the body is the same that we observe 
in the apes. Therefore, even to minute details, the apes and 
man can be compared as to the presence and slope of hair; the 
only considerable difference in the condition of the hair in the 
two being in the length and the coarseness of the individual 
hairs" (Fig. 54). 
Fig. 54. Man and the higher apes. The complete skeleton of man is 
quite comparable to that of the other primates, a. Orang-utan. b. Chim- 
panzee. c. Gorilla, d. Man. (From Cockerell, after Huxley.) 
Conclusion-Ancestral Tree (Fig. 55).-A very brief and 
superficial discussion has been given in which the principal 
groups of the animal kingdom have been taken into considera- 
tion. No discussion, in the space of as few pages, could pos- 
sibly give more than very elementary facts. However, the 
reader should gain some knowledge of the advancing complexity 
of the animal kingdom. He should also form a conception of 
the relationships which exist between all animal life. The 
Scroll of Life, presented in Chapter VIII, will give more of 
the details should they be desired. 
In conclusion, the ancestral tree, graphically showing the 
relationships of animals, is presented (Fig. 55). With the 
help of the Scroll of Life and the Chart of the Ages (Chapter 
IV), the reader should be able to form intelligent conclusions 
regarding the evolution of animal forms. 174 
The Laws of Life 
Fig. 55. The Ancestral Tree. A graphic representation of animal 
relationships in general. CHAPTER X 
ENVIRONMENT 
Introduction-Factors of Environment-The Results of a 
Change of Environment-Temporary Changes-Changes of Longer 
Duration-Animal and Plant Distribution in Relation to Environ- 
ment-Struggle for Existence-Poetic View-Scientific View. 
"Environment is what the individual has, for example: housing, 
food, friends and enemies, surrounding aids which may help him 
and obstacles which he must overcome. It is the particular world 
into which he comes, the measure of opportunity given to his par- 
ticular heritage." 
-Herbert E. Walter. 
The comparative value of heredity and environment has 
been a subject of dispute for many years. Galton expressed 
those two factors which control the destinies of both the indi- 
vidual and the race as "Nature" and "Nurture." The former 
refers to those characteristics which have been handed down 
from earlier generations through the parents, while the latter 
includes the sum total of the surroundings; the former is fixed 
and is beyond the power of any individual to change during 
his own life, the latter may be altered at any time; the former 
locks man securely to Nature, the latter links him temporarily 
with the elements and forces of Nature; the former is Heredity, 
the latter is ENVIRONMENT. 
Altering the Factors of Environment 
Such things as air, water, food, light, temperature, elec- 
tricity, plants, animals, and the soil are factors that are pres- 
ent in nearly all the many types of environments-some are 
present in all environments, others are sometimes lacking. 
175 The Laws of Life 
176 
The difference which marks one environmental condition from 
another is determined by the amount of variation of the sev- 
eral factors to which the individual is subjected. A change of 
environment, then, is simply an alteration of the degree or 
condition of the factors that determine it. This may be accom- 
plished by the individual's changing to new conditions in a 
new locality, or by changing the factors themselves. For ex- 
ample, if one lives in the north and desires a warmer climate, he 
may either go farther south or build a fire to heat his room. 
To this extent every practical-thinking individual may become 
Fig. 56. A certain species of grouse, probably. Lagopus albus spoken 
of in some localities as the "mountain quail," exchange the usual summer 
plumage for a glossy white winter coat. The snow-shoe rabbit and other 
mountain forms undergo corresponding seasonal changes. 
the master of his own environment. Herein it lies that man is 
on a \higher plane than the rest of the animal world. 
Nature has provided certain simple methods by which most 
plants and animals can adapt themselves to changed environ- 
ment (Fig. 56). Upon the approach of winter, those which 
cannot migrate either hibernate or neutralize the change by 
certain artificial means, such as living in dens, undergoing cer- 
tain physiological changes, or changing the covering of their 
bodies. In winter, the amount of hair or fur on most mammals 
usually changes both in degree and advantageous arrangement. 
We sometimes lament the fact that the horse is not so sleek Environment 
177 
and beautiful in winter as he is in summer. However, the 
shaggy and loose hair is a very poor conductor of heat. Thus 
Nature has planned this simple method of keeping the animal 
warm. Furthermore, the natural changes of the skin of our 
Fig. 57. The eyes of the western horned owl illustrate an adjustment 
to new environmental conditions. Although the entire body possesses 
mechanical and physiological power of adjustment, the eyes are especially 
sensitive. (Sketch from life under dilferent light intensities.) 
own bodies may be observed. Contrast, if you will, the loose 
and expanded feeling of the skin on some hot day with the 
"tight," shivering sensation felt during very cold weather. 
This is one example of the many natural responses that our 
bodies make to a change in their surroundings (Fig. 57). 
Changes of Longer Duration.-It is generally conceded 178 
The Laws of Life 
that such temporary changes as those considered above do not, 
as a rule, render a lasting influence upon the plants and animals 
which are subject to them. Such plants and animals will return 
to their former state when the normal environmental conditions 
are restored. However, if the change in any of the factors of 
the environment is of unusual duration, the corresponding 
change in the plant or animal structure may become more or less 
fixed. In passing from the plains to an altitude of nine or ten 
thousand feet, most people experience a certain discomfort due 
to the fact that the physiological internal pressure of the 
body is greater than the external atmospheric pressure. The 
ears may "ring," the eyes may turn red, the nose may bleed, 
or the person may experience a "heaviness" in the chest accom- 
panied by shortness of breath or palpitation of the heart. 
These symptoms disappear after a few days and, except in 
rare cases, are totally overcome. However, the lack of physi- 
cal endurance is quite noticeable for some considerable time. 
After a few months have elapsed, the individual seems to return 
to normal condition and the high altitude has no further per- 
ceptible effect upon the body. 
Is it not obvious that some readjustment was made in the 
structure of the body and that this change was lasting so long 
as the environment remained unaltered? Would it seem logical 
to conclude that should children be born and live at such a high 
altitude, a sturdy race of mountaineers would result from this 
readjustment; and, further, that this "sturdiness" and ability 
to live at such high altitudes would be transmitted from one 
generation to another? Such was the process of reasoning of 
the scientists of the Nineteenth Century. The pros and cons 
of this old, and still perplexing question will be considered in 
future chapters (See Chapter XXIX). 
Animal and Plant Distribution in Relation to Environment 
The power to respond to environmental changes determines 
largely whether an animal or a plant can live in certain 
localities. If, in the above illustration, the individual con- Environment 
179 
tinned being uncomfortable at a high altitude, with now and 
then an attack of "altitude fever," as is sometimes the case, 
he could not remain in that locality. Similar illustrations 
might be drawn from plant and animal life in general. If a 
large number of animals or plants were to be removed from 
their native haunts and taken to a colder climate, or vice- 
versa, some would die immediately. Others would live for a 
Fig. 58. Potatoes raised by the author under the same environmental 
conditions. "Both had the same parentage, but one lot was propagated 
from the largest tubers in the hill, and the other from the smallest. Simi- 
lar tubers are shown at the base of each bucket. Both lots were given the 
same treatment. The yield shown in the buckets was 25 and 27 pounds, 
respectively, showing po superiority in the product of the large tubers. Po- 
tatoes are reproduced vegetatively from the tubers without change in heredi- 
tary qualities, except in the rare case of bud and sport mutation. The 
experiment illustrates the non-inheritance of acquired characteristics. The 
little tubers are little because of differences in the time of development or 
position, broadly speaking of nutrition, and not because they have inherited 
different qualities. There are, however, other forms of the potato genus 
which have invariably small tubers, and these will produce nothing larger, 
being controlled by heredity." (From Cockerell's "Zoology." Copyright by 
World Book Company, Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York.) 
while and perhaps produce a few offspring; but, owing to their 
limited power of adaptation, they would finally perish. Still 
others would adapt themselves to the new conditions and would 
remain to inhabit the new locality. Such are the experiences 
of plants and animals, including man, in every place. The 
principal task is for the living to adjust themselves to the 
changes in their environment. The Laws of Life, therefore, 
become the law of the survival of the fittest. It is recognized 180 
The Laws of Life 
that the environment, and especially the power of adjustment 
to environment, determines the kind and character of living 
things in any locality (Fig. 58). One would not expect to 
find prairie sage brush in a tropical forest; nor would it be 
reasonable to expect banana trees to grow in the temperate 
zones. If an oak is found at high altitudes, it will invariably 
be the "scrub-oak," and not the large oak which is characteris- 
tic of the central states. 
Fig. 59. Peaceful nature. Many beauties of nature would vanish could 
man see the struggles which are going on at his feet. 
Struggle for Existence 
In the foregoing pages, examples have been cited in which 
the plant or animal was forced to undergo certain hardships 
and perhaps even physical suffering before the necessary read- 
justment to the new conditions could be made. After a certain 
more or less prolonged struggle, the necessary adaptation in 
the cases of the most sturdy was brought about and the plant 
or animal was enabled to live in its new environment. 
This same struggle, between the various forms of life and 
the elements of Nature, is being waged all around us con- 
tinually. Nevertheless, as we cross a beautiful meadow on a Environment 
181 
quiet summer afternoon, we receive the impression that Nature 
is doing her work in a calm, serene, and peaceful manner. 
The daisies show no signs of the great battles which they have 
fought; the butterflies flit here and there as tho they were 
free from all cares; the lambs gambol playfully; the grass, the 
weeds, and the bees, in turn, fail to speak of their woes (Fig. 
59). 
"Is this a time to be cloudy and sad. 
When our Mother Nature laughs around; 
When even the deep blue heavens look glad. 
And gladness breathes from the blossoming ground? 
''There are notes of joy from the hang-bird and wren, 
And the gossip of swallows thru all the sky; 
The ground squirrel gayly chirps by his den, 
And the wilding bee hums merrily by. 
"There's a dance of leaves in that aspen bower, 
There's a titter of winds in that beechen tree, 
There's a smile on the fruit, and a smile on the flower, 
And a laugh from the brook that runs to the sea." 
When we turn from this superficial and poetic view and 
study the facts in detail, we find that Nature is not so calm, 
orderly, peaceful, and happy; but that in reality there is a 
constant struggle for existence. Before a meadow is planted 
all the weeds possible are destroyed. Many, however, remain, 
and from the very beginning dispute the right of the clover. 
Since the latter outnumber the weeds the battle is won, for a 
few years at least. Soon the clover, after being constantly 
preyed upon, and being under certain other disadvantages, 
loses the fight and the field is entirely taken by weeds. In 
this case, the struggle would seem to be over, but such is not 
the case. Other wild plants are on the ground by this time 
to dispute the right of those victorious over the clover. Thus, 
the battle rages in the meadow, on the hillside, and in the 
dale. While studying such a problem as this, Darwin counted 182 
The Laws of Life 
twenty species of plants on a plot of ground whose area was 
about a square yard. A few weeks later, after some of the 
plants were grown, he found that the struggle for space had 
been so keen that nine species had entirely disappeared. 
This incessant combat of the plants is carried on not only 
among themselves but with the animals as well. As soon as the 
seeds are formed, the birds begin to feed upon them. After 
the seedlings have "struggled" with the soil for moisture, hun- 
dreds of insect larvae are ready to feed upon the tender root- 
lets. As soon as the little plant shows its head above the 
ground, the birds, and certain insects, begin to pick and nibble 
at its white leaves. If it evades these enemies and grows to a 
height of four or five inches, it becomes the food of cater- 
pillars and various herbivorous mammals such as the horse, the 
cow, and the rabbit. Or, perchance, the otherwise successful 
plant may be uprooted by such animals as the hog, the musk- 
rat, or the mole. 
The struggle for existence in the animal world is equally 
as strong as in the plant world. Animals fight not only among 
themselves and prey upon each other, but they must also com- 
bat the elements of Nature. In certain mountain districts of 
Colorado, the author has been interested in recording the 
struggles of the common rabbit. Since the rabbit is a vege- 
tarian it is forced to live in or near some grassy mountain 
ravine. There it has plenty of food and shelter, and it would 
seem that its life would be very easy. From a similar study 
of the other forms of animal life, a decidedly different opinion 
was reached, for such grassy plots are the hunting grounds of 
coyotes, weasels, skunks, hawks, owls, and men-all searching 
for the rabbit, with the intent to kill it and devour its tendei' 
flesh. 
This struggle of the rabbit was especially apparent in one 
particular ravine that has come to the notice of the author. 
It was such a plot as considered above, until, in the late sum- 
mer, the herdsmen drove a flock of some two thousand sheep 
into the little valley for grazing. Within two days the ground Environment 
183 
was as barren as if a devastating army of Huns had passed, 
except for here and there a solitary yucca plant. The rabbits, 
no longer having food and shelter, were forced to migrate to 
the neighboring foothills. There the struggle for food was 
unendurable, and the escape from their enemies almost impos- 
sible on account of the scanty vegetation. In turn, the other 
animals, including man, no longer had any occasion to visit the 
once popular hunting ground. The plant life of the place un- 
derwent a change; for, when the following spring came, more 
sturdy and hitherto less abundant plants had an equal chance 
with the descendants of those eaten by the sheep. Thus, under 
such conditions, it would happen that both plant and animal 
life would be entirely recast in a very brief space of time. 
Wallace reminds us that: "The introduction of goats into the 
island of St. Helena led to the entire destruction of the native 
forests, consisting of about a hundred distinct species of trees 
and shrubs, the young plants being devoured by the goats as 
fast as they grew up." 
In the case of the birds, the struggle continues from the 
time the eggs are produced until the death of the individual. 
In some cases the eggs are not fertilized; at other times they 
are eaten by other animals. It is a well known fact that young 
birds are the favorite food for certain birds, snakes, and other 
animals. If they escape these enemies, the climate may be 
too hot, too cold, too dry, or the food supply may be insuffi- 
cient. In such cases the struggle ends in failure-the birds 
perish. It is evident that those which escape their enemies 
through their early and adult life and produce offspring are 
rare exceptions. 
From the above discussion, the reader should reach the 
conclusion that the "struggle for existence" does not neces- 
sarily mean an actual struggle, in the sense of a physical com- 
bat of individual with individual, but rather a struggle to ob- 
tain food, shelter, light, air, and, in general, a chance to live- 
a battle with the factors of environment. CHAPTER XI 
THE PRODIGALITY OF NATURE 
Rapidity of Multiplication of Plants and Animals-Ferns- 
Dandelions-Bacteria-Flies and Other Insects-Elephants- 
Horses-Man-Elimination of the Unfit Variation-The Effect of 
the Elimination of the Unfit upon the Race. 
"Earth, that nourished thee, shall claim 
Thy growth, to be resolved to earth again, 
And, lost each human trace surrendering up 
Thine individual being, shalt thou go 
To mix forever with the elements, 
To be a brother to the insensible rock 
And to the sluggish clod, which the rude swain 
Turns with his share, and treads upon." 
-William Cullen Bryant. 
When we consider the fact that all living things are en- 
gaged in a lifelong and incessant struggle among themselves, 
with their enemies, as well as with the various forces of Nature 
(Fig. 60), it does not seem possible for life to continue multi- 
plying with the usual tremendous rapidity. However, in most 
species the death rate is balanced by the number of new indi- 
viduals that survive; usually the death rate is exceeded many 
times over by the birth rate. In this manner Nature is en- 
abled to keep the earth populated with the many species of 
plants and animals which inhabit it. 
Examples of the remarkable rate of reproduction of plants 
and animals may be found all about us. Let us consider a 
few of the most familiar of these instances of prodigality. It 
has been estimated that a common fern plant produces over 
fifty millions of spores, each of which is capable of producing 
184 The Prodigality of Nature 
185 
a new plant. At this rate, if every new plant could live and 
produce spores in the same way, the offspring of a single fern 
plant would cover eighty millions of square miles within a 
space of only two years. Such a state of affairs, of course, is 
impossible, for the many factors of environment are constantly 
at work to prevent anything more than a normal distribution 
and production of such plants. The variations in the condition 
Fig. 60. Elks struggling with so-called "civilized" man's brutal instinct 
to kill. 
of the soil, and the differences in temperature and moisture act 
as a check upon such abnormal conditions. 
When we inquire into the phenomenon of the reproduction 
of the common dandelion, we can easily account for the 
rapidity with which it spreads. The dandelion is a hardy 
plant, capable of crowding others for room in which to grow. 
Very often lawns are seen in which the grass is almost, if not 
entirely, displaced by dandelions. However, this factor of 
sturdiness is not the only one that is responsible for such a 
wide dissemination. One healthy dandelion plant will pro- 186 
The Laws of Life 
duce about sixty seed stalks each year, and each stalk will 
bear approximately two hundred winged seeds. Should each of 
these seeds mature into a similar plant, and should each of 
these plants produce productive seeds, the offspring, removed 
the fourth generation from the original plant, would (allowing 
one square foot to each) cover a land area of a little over 
245 times the size of the United States (Continental). The 
following tabulations will show graphically how this astound- 
ing result was obtained: 
Area of the United States (Continental) 3,026,789 sq. mi. 
1 sq. mi. contains 27,878,400 sq. ft. 
The United States contains 84,382,034,457,600 sq. ft. 
One dandelion will produce in the 
First generation 12,000 plants 
Second generation 144,000,000 plants 
Third generation 1,728,000,000,000 plants 
Fourth generation 20,736,000,000,000,000 plants 
20,736,000,000,000,000 -7- 84,382,034,457,600 = 245 plus. 
It is commonly observed that milk will sour within a very 
few hours, that bread will rise in thirty minutes, and that meat 
will become putrid overnight. Such sudden changes are due 
to the remarkable rate at which bacteria multiply. Metcalf 
has said: "Under favorable conditions a single bacterium might 
produce a million bacteria in a day. If this rate of increase 
should continue, we would have at the end of a week a million 
million million million million million million bacteria, all de- 
rived from the single individual with which we started." Bac- 
teria are the most prolific of all living creatures. As they are 
so exceedingly small, the struggle for space is not so keen with 
them. 
The rapidity with which Hies multiply is also amazing. 
Each female fly lays on an average of one hundred and twenty 
eggs. It takes these eggs from fifteen to twenty days to ma- 
ture into adult flies which are capable of starting new genera- 
tions. If one should start with one wintered-over fly in the 
middle of April and run to the tenth of September-disre- The Prodigality of Nature 
187 
garding the death rate, and counting all eggs as maturing- 
there would be over five trillion flies. These flies, placed end 
to end at the equator would circle 880 times around the earth. 
The great naturalist, Linnseus, has been given the credit for 
the startling statement that three common flies could devour 
a dead horse in less time than could a lion. He based his con- 
clusions on the assumption that each fly would produce 20,000 
larvas. 
Charles Darwin has said: "The elephant is reckoned the 
slowest breeder of all animals. It begins breeding when thirty 
years old and goes on breeding until ninety years old, bringing 
forth six young in the interval and surviving to be a hundred 
years old. If this be so, after about 800 years there would be 
19,000,000 elephants alive descended from the first pair." It 
would not take many more centuries to literally cover the 
earth with elephants if all adverse conditions could be brushed 
aside. "Even slow-breeding man," says Darwin, "has doubled 
in twenty-five years. At this rate in less than a thousand 
years there literally would be no standing room for his pro- 
geny." Although man lives largely under artificial conditions, 
the Lancs of Life, in many respects, apply to him as well as to 
the lower animals. Although the death rate with man is usually 
considered sufficiently high to prevent any serious overcrowd- 
ing, we must admit that the population does double in certain 
localities very often and that the problem is becoming a very 
serious one (See Chapter XXX). 
Although the above illustrations give us some conception 
of how an incessant struggle is possible without the entire 
elimination of the species, the suggestions offered are more or 
less abourd; and the height of absurdity is reached when we 
assume, as we have, that an animal or a plant could live in 
perfect harmony with its environment, thus presenting a negli- 
gible death rate. If it were possible to eliminate all competi- 
tion, save that within the species, warfare would continue be- 
tween individuals. At a certain proximity, each animal would 
dispute the right of food and territory with the members of 188 
The Laws of Life 
Fig. 61. Mountain sheep. Note his humble and subdued position in 
the halls of learning (A), into which he has fallen from his heights of 
dignity in God's Universe of Nature (B). 
its own family. If we could assume it to be possible for them 
to escape death by starvation, cold, heat, drought, storm, 
enemies, and disease, we should still find many victims as the 
result of civil strife. We may conclude, therefore, that Nature The Prodigality of Nature 
189 
is not calm, peaceful, and orderly, as would appear when we ob- 
serve with such great admiration "the birds singing in the 
trees, the insects hovering over the flowers, the squirrel climb- 
ing among the tree-tops, and all living things in the possession 
of health, and vigor, and in the enjoyment of a sunny exist- 
ence" (Wallace). On the other hand, it seems to be Nature's 
business to reproduce life.a million-fold in order that each form 
may prey upon other forms. Life is difficult and disappoint- 
ing, and of the millions of forms which are produced, those 
which succeed are the rare exceptions (Fig. 61). 
Elimination of the Unfit 
Variation.-Although the oft-quoted expression, "Like be- 
gets like," has come to be universally accepted, it is equally 
true that like begets unlike. A child may have eyes and hair 
like his mother, although he may be strikingly different from 
her in other respects. In fact, we are prone to note the resem- 
blances and disregard the differences. We often speak of a 
child as resembling his parents when he really differs in all re- 
spects save one or two. A study of any group of brothers will 
reveal a set of markedly different characteristics. One may be 
tall, another short; one may have dark hair, another light; 
one may be dull and stupid, another quite intelligent; one may 
be quick, another sluggish; and, thus, we might continue to 
find many differences. 
A brief comparison of the individuals of any one of the 
groups of lower animals will reveal the fact that many varia- 
tions exist between them. Our attention is called to a team of 
horses which are said to be "perfect mates." A mere glance, 
however, discloses many dissimilarities. They may both have 
a "blazed face," but the marks will have different shapes; they 
may both have white feet, but one will probably have more 
white than the other. 
Among the individuals of any of the wild species of animals, 
rabbits for example, some will be found that are at variance 
with the rest. One individual may be more fleet than the 190 
The Laws of Life 
other, another may be more cunning, another may have more 
endurance, while another may be bolder than its fellows. The 
character and the degree of these variations determine the 
fate of the individual in its struggle for existence. 
The Test of the Fit.-We have seen that the rate of repro- 
duction of all living things is enormous, and that, as a conse- 
quence, the struggle for existence must be very acute. What, 
then, is the test of the fit? What are the factors that deter- 
mine which individuals are to survive? The adult English 
sparrows present many striking differences. Some have 
broader breast markings than others; some are shy, some are 
bold; some are large, some are small; some become stronger 
and have greater endurance, some are weak; still others fly 
with greater swiftness than their fellows. David Starr Jordan 
has shown that, were no English sparrows to die except of old 
age, it would take only twenty years for them to multiply 
until there would be one sparrow to every square inch in the 
state of Indiana. In order to keep the sparrows from increas- 
ing-as Jordan's illustration goes-the death rate of these 
birds must be exceedingly great. The question arises, then, 
as to which of these birds will perish under the stress of the 
environment. If the food supply is not abundant, the bold, 
strong, and alert will force starvation upon the weak and shy; 
if pursued by an enemy those swift of wing and those with 
greater endurance will survive the weak; if the winter is unusu- 
ally severe, only the strong and those with the greater resistance 
will be permitted to live. Whatever the test of Nature may be, 
those individuals least fitted for life in a given environment 
will perish, leaving the stronger and better fitted to be the 
progenitors of the next generation. 
We have seen, therefore, that Nature produces a great 
many more plants and animals than could possibly live in a 
given community, and that she has caused them to be placed 
at great disadvantages and under strenuous competition. She 
has set up an actual warfare between them and their surround- 
ings in order that the best, the strongest, and the most fit may The Prodigality of Nature 
191 
be selected to become the parents of the next generations. 
Darwin and Wallace called this "Natural Selection" to dis- 
tinguish it from the artificial selection of the best plants and 
animals by the breeder. Herbert Spencer should be credited 
for designating this phenomenon as the "survival of the fit- 
test." "It will be readily seen, however, that the process in 
Nature is not so much a selection of the fittest, as a rejection 
of the unfit; the unfit are eliminated; while the fit survive." It 
has been suggested that "natural rejection" would be a better 
name than "natural selection." The whole process of Nature, 
therefore, seems to be devoted to one great task; namely, 
The Elimination of the Unfit 
Which Are the Unfit?-What specific interpretation should 
be placed upon the terms "fit" and "unfit"? If the unfit are 
to be eliminated, which individuals are to perish? The "unfit" 
are those plants and animals which are inferior in the charac- 
teristics upon which safety depends. With the lower animals, 
these qualities are usually those of physical ability-no moral 
obligations being involved. The mountain lion (Felix hip- 
polestes, which is still quite common in the Rockies), a very 
ferocious wild beast, can quickly and unhesitatingly deal his 
deadly blow upon the unsuspecting mountain sheep, deer, or 
even larger prey. The one which can make the surest leap 
from the ledge above, landing upon his prey instead of a sharp 
rock below; the one with the least respect for innocent lives, 
will generally survive the struggle for existence-he is the fit. 
Altho not generally so considered, animal intelligence may 
be one of the qualities of the fit. Experience seems to have 
taught the mountain lion that man is very dangerous prey. 
Thus, we no longer hear such stories as were formerly told of 
the combats between man and lion. He has even learned not 
to molest animal life when man is near. If the lion is not true 
to the intelligence of his race, he may perish, though fit in many 
other respects. 
An old miner of the Colorado Rockies tells a thrilling story 192 
The Laws of Life 
of a mountain lion which leaped from a cliff down upon one 
of his pack burros which was plodding along a mountain trail. 
The large pack upon the back of the animal caused the lion 
to miss his mark and to go tumbling down the rocky hillside 
into the gulch below. Being stunned by the fall, the lion was 
unable to escape the sure fire of the sturdy old miner's gun. 
Thus, one of the largest, strongest, and most ferocious of the 
"kings of the mountains" was eliminated as intellectually unfit, 
because he was deficient in that one special quality upon which 
his safety depended. Wallace summarizes the qualifications 
of the "fit" thus: "At one period of life, or to escape one kind 
of danger, concealment may be necessary; at another time, to 
escape another danger, swiftness; at another, intellect or cun- 
ning; at another, the power to endure rain, cold, or hunger; 
and those which possess all these faculties m the fullest per- 
fection would generally survive." 
77i^ Effect of the Elimination of the Unfit upon the Race. 
In the illustrations considered above, attention was called 
particularly to the effect upon the individual of the various 
factors mentioned, no note being given to the effect upon the 
race. Let us consider again the case of the mountain lions. 
Suppose that it were the characteristic of all such lions either 
to prey upon man or disregard him and attack his domestic 
animals in his presence. If this had been the case these ani- 
mals would have been eliminated from America long ago. 
Since this habit was a variation from the characteristics of the 
race, with only a few originally possessing it, man feared only 
the few. Since the advent of man into the Rockies, the lions 
which might have become the parents of a ferocious and dan- 
gerous race on account of their boldness have been killed off, 
generation after generation, until now such incidents as re- 
lated by the miner are practically, if not entirely, unknown. 
Should all the individuals of any one particular family of 
ferocious lions not be killed during one generation, their off- 
spring, possessing this characteristic, would be gradually The Prodigality of Nature 
193 
eliminated. The exceptional animals with these habits, the 
variants, which would appear in other families, would perish in 
like manner. The way in which these exceptional forms arise 
will be considered in future chapters. Probably by the above 
considered process of elimination, a race of mountain lions 
which fears man has been developed. 
In the case of rabbits which are subjected to extreme hard- 
ships, the results would be in the direction of an adaptation 
to the environment. Those with less endurance, the "unfit," 
would first fall prey to owls, weasels, and coyotes. Their num- 
ber thus being decreased, these enemies would begin a more 
spirited search until those rabbits of average keenness and 
swiftness, together with many of the strongest, would fall vic- 
tims. There would then be left only those which were by far 
the swiftest, the most alert, and those which could live longest 
under the most trying circumstances, such as extreme cold and 
starvation. These would be the ones which would propagate 
the race of rabbits in that particular locality. Thus, without 
considering at this time the method of the origin of the "fit," 
we may conclude that if this process should be continued for a 
number of years, there would remain only those best adapted 
to the new and strenuous environment-only the fit. "Thus 
Nature seized upon favorable variations and after a time, as 
the descendants of each of these individuals also tend to vary, 
a new species of plant and animal, fitted for the place it had 
to live in would be gradually evolved" (Hunter). CHAPTER XII 
VARIATION 
Variation-Dissimilarity of Plants and Animals-Darwinism 
Based upon Dissimilarity-Neo-Darwinism-Beneficial and Harm- 
ful Variations-Positive and Negative Variations-Normal and Ab- 
normal Variations-Continuous and Discontinuous Variations 
("Sports")-Fluctuating ("Fluttering") Variations-Quetelet's 
Law-Quetelet's Curve. 
"We command Nature only by obeying her laws." 
-Lyell. 
Dissimilarity in Nature.-Attention has been called to the 
fact that, although we tend to resemble our parents, we are 
usually quite different from them. Our hair may be a little 
lighter, or a little darker; we may be taller, or shorter; lighter, 
or heavier. The complexion is never just the same. Sometimes 
we are a little more excitable, or a little calmer than our 
parents. Dissimilarity is found throughout all nature. In 
fact, it has been said that nothing in Nature is constant except 
constant change. This same general fact is true in all the 
many species of living creatures. Variation is universal; it 
applies to plants and animals alike. 
These dissimilarities which exist in the plant and the ani- 
mal kingdoms have been noted for many centuries. During 
the Middle Ages, when writers were engaged in writing "de- 
scriptions" (Natural History), these external differences 
formed the bases for their work. A little later the general 
conditions which existed in Nature were studied to a certain 
extent, but no attempt was made to ascertain the factors 
which influence variation. Still later, however, these varia- 
tions, together with inheritance, formed the basis for Darwin's 
194 Variation 
195 
theory of organic evolution. However, Darwin was ignorant 
of some of the most important facts of variation. This sug- 
gests that we no longer accept Darwinism as presented by Dar- 
win, Wallace, and others. The term Neo-Darwinism has been 
applied to certain recent interpretations of these old prin- 
ciples. Although Darwin has undergone many revisions and 
additions, it is the original key which has unlocked many great 
secrets of Nature. This fact alone has made it possible for 
the Twentieth Century biologist to work out some of the Laws 
of Life. 
Types of Variation.-It so happened that a large propor- 
tion of the students of variation, especially in Darwin's time, 
were botanists. However, after the field was once -opened, 
many workers, zoologists as well as botanists, became inter- 
ested and began thoroughly to investigate the phenomena of 
the causes and results as applied to variation. Darwin was 
well aware of the fact that variations were not of equal im- 
portance. In some cases a variation of a certain type may be 
of direct benefit to the plant or animal possessing it, while 
other types of variation may be very harmful. The former 
may be illustrated by the case of the rabbits mentioned in Chap- 
ter X. A rabbit that tended to vary from its parents in that 
it possessed more speed on foot would be more likely to evade 
enemies. The possession of a variation in the form of a more 
protective coloration, such as a dull gray, would be a very 
useful one. On the other hand, a variation in the opposite 
direction would be not only harmful, but dangerous. If its 
color should vary so as to be extremely light, it would bear 
less resemblance to the vegetation and soil and, thus, would 
be more conspicuous to its enemies. We would conclude that 
a swift, gray rabbit is much more likely to live than a clumsy, 
white one. In all probability this, especially the coloration 
scheme, accounts for the comparative absence of white rabbits 
in the wild. Certain variations may be useful under some cir- 
cumstances and harmful under others. The dark gray color 
of rabbits which is so protective during the larger part of the 196 
The Laws of Life 
year becomes a very harmful variation in winter when the 
snow is on the ground. Fortunately, many animals are so 
adjusted that they change their color to meet new environ- 
mental conditions. Rabbits do this to a very great extent, the 
snowshoe changing almost completely. The grouse (Fig. 56) 
exchanges its dull feathers for those of a white color when the 
winter snows come to its habitat.1 The thornless rose is 
more likely to be eaten by cattle and other herbivorous animals 
than are roses with thorns. From this viewpoint, then, thorn- 
lessness is a harmful variation. However, since the thorn- 
less rose is more convenient to handle than those with thorns, 
the thornlessness becomes a useful variation in that roses of 
this type would be more likely to be cultivated and protected 
by man. This artificial protection, in this particular case, is 
more far-reaching than the natural protection by thorns. 
It will be noted that in the case of the thornless rose, one 
characteristic is entirely lacking; that is, something has been 
subtracted from the normal rose. This type of variation is 
spoken of as a minus, or negative, variation. Many other ex- 
amples of negative variations might be cited, such as tailless 
cats and dogs, white (albino) rabbits and mice in which pig- 
mentation is lacking, hornless cattle, and spineless cacti. In 
order to be a minus variation, the characteristic does not need 
to be entirely absent. A sheep with a tail only slightly shorter 
than the others, a man with small feet, or a cornstalk shorter 
than the average are all examples of negative, though perhaps 
slight, variations. The opposite kind, in which additions have 
been made to normal characteristics, are classed as plus, or 
positive, variations. Some of the extreme examples of this type 
are spine-covered holly leaves, Japanese cocks with tails eight 
to ten feet long, and giants of various kinds. 
It has perhaps occurred to the reader that many examples 
of variation are quite common and are to be expected at any 
time, while many others are very exceptional and could be 
1 For recent considerations of the problems of protective coloration, see 
the works of Reighard, Thayer, Roosevelt, Longley, '.Sumner, Mast, Young 
and others. V aria tion 
197 
expected to occur only at rare intervals. We are not sur- 
prised when we see a lady with feet smaller than the average, 
or with hair that is unusually red. Nor would we expect all the 
leaves of a tree to be exactly the same size. Such variations as 
these last are classed as normal variations. On the other hand, 
Fig. 62. A living double-headed calf. (An abnormal variation.) 
This calf eats through either mouth. It has two normal eyes and a double 
non-functional middle eye. (From Goldsmith, Journal of Heredity, Vol. 
XII, May, 1921.) 
such variations as in the case of a child with three legs, or six 
fingers on one hand, a calf with a double head (Fig. 62), etc., 
are actual occurrences, but fall far outside the realm of human 
expectations. They are, therefore, classed as abnormal vari- 
ations. These unusual and sudden, or discontinuous varia- 
tions were noted many times by Darwin, who spoke of them as 
"sports." Although he went so far as to suggest that these 198 
The Laws of Life 
extreme variations might sometimes give rise to new forms, 
he considered them of subordinate importance as a factor in 
evolution. On the other hand, he contended that the slight or 
continuous variations were of paramount importance in the 
process of evolution. These variations which hlend into each 
other without any perceptible steps (continuous variations) 
were so popular with the adherents of Darwin's principles that 
they came to be called Darwinian variations. It was these 
slight but ever-present variations that natural selection was 
supposed to call upon when making its choice of individuals in 
providing for the survival of the fittest. According to this 
early assumption, by selecting the fittest, generation after 
generation, these minor variations, by sliding along the scale 
in one certain direction, would culminate in a prominent 
change. A measurement of over three hundred cottonwood 
leaves, picked indiscriminately from the same tree, revealed the 
following facts regarding the variations in leaf length, and 
serves as an example of normal variation. 
Length of leaves in inches J4 I iJ4 1^2 i?4 2 2% 2j4 
Number of leaves (Frequencies, Fig. 63). 1 5 11 12 13 21 23 42 61 
Length of leaves in inches 3 3% 3/4 3^4 4 4/4 4% 4)4 
Number of leaves (Frequencies, Fig. 63). 57 27 18 10 8 6 3 1 
The first line represents the length of the leaves in inches, 
and the second the number of leaves found to have each par- 
ticular measurement. It is obvious that the length of the leaves 
varies around 2% inches as a standard. The same might be 
said of the width, the shape, and so on. A similar investiga- 
tion will reveal the fact that the ever-present continuous varia- 
tions of any form in nature will not vary in any one specific 
direction, but, rather, that they will vary around the average, 
or the mean. Under these conditions, the Darwinian varia- 
tions are said to be fluctuating about a mean, and, thus, the 
term "fluctuating variations" has been added to the category. 
While attempting to find a simple method of explaining 
fluctuating variations, the attention of the author was at- 
tracted to a sparrow which had entered his office thru a small Variation 
199 
space at the top of an open window, and was seeking a means 
of escape. The sparrow's fluttering actions were so varied as 
to suggest fluctuating variations in nature. In order to carry 
the illustration farther, one end of a coiled wire spring from 
a delicate balance was attached to one end of a stick and the 
other end of the spring was fastened to one of the sparrow's 
Fig. 63. Quetelet's Curve, illustrating fluctuating variation. It will be 
noted that the length of the leaves selected indiscriminately from one par- 
ticular tree fluctuates above and below 2% inches. 
feet. Using the stick as the central pivot, the bird was gently 
whirled around. Instead of whirling in a circular path, as a 
piece of lead would do, the sparrow fluttered here and there 
around the stick-the distance from the center being sometimes 
less, sometimes greater, but striking a general average. The 
actions of the sparrow clearly suggested the term "fluttering,, 
variations. This is illustrated diagrammatically in Figure 64. 
Quetelet's Law.-If any characteristic of any individual 
be considered, it will be found to fluctuate around a mean, as 200 
The Laws of Life 
shown in the accompanying diagram (Figure 64). In this and 
similar illustrations it will be noted that the less variations 
from the average (represented by the circle, A, Figure 64) the 
greater number of occurrences; and the greater variations 
from this mean, the less they are found to occur. In the words 
of Gager: "The more any given character departs from the 
Fig. 64. Diagram illustrating the difference between the fluctuating 
variation and mutation. The two circles of which A and B are centers 
represent the average (mean) around which any character may fluctuate, 
indicated by the irregular lines. Any marked change from this average, 
as from A to B, is a mutation. 
average of that character, the less frequent is its occurrence." 
This statement of the above considered facts is of sufficient 
general application to be called a law. Having first been sug- 
gested (1864) by a Belgian anthropologist named Quetelet, 
(Pronounced Ket-lay), the generalization is spoken of as 
Quetelet's Law. CHAPTER XIII 
MUTATION 
Theory of Evolution Based upon Facts of Variation-Darwin's 
"Origin of Species"-De Vries and the Mutation Theory-Evening 
Primrose-Examples of Mutations-Polled Herefords-Disease- 
resisting Cabbage-Purple Beech-Oak-like Walnut-Shirley Pop- 
pies-Ancon Sheep-Davenport's Fowls-Strawberries-Roses- 
Clover-Sunflowers-Seedlessness-Taillessness-Progressive, Re- 
gressive, and Degressive Mutations-Causes of Variation-Somatic 
Variations-Outside Influences-The Cell as a Basis. 
"The problem of the exact nature of factor mutations is only a 
phase of the general problem of the nature of living protoplasm, 
the solution of which is one of the ultimate aims of biology." 
-Babcock and Clausen. 
If, in the experiment with the sparrow (See last chapter), 
the stick which served as a pivot should be moved to some 
other position (B, Fig. 64), and the swinging continued, the 
action of the bird would be quite the same-except about a 
new center. This is suggestive of a discontinuous variation or 
a mutation. Since a well-known theory of evolution has been 
founded upon the observed facts of mutation, space should be 
given to a rather detailed consideration of this vital subject. 
Altho mutations, or the sudden appearance of a plant 
or animal with distinctly new characteristics which breeds true 
from the start and which fluctuates around its own new stand- 
ard (Fig. 64), were never observed as such until within the last 
few decades, cases of extreme variation had been noted even 
before Darwin's time. Since slight (fluctuating, continuous, or 
Darwinian) variations formed the basis for Darwin's theory 
of evolution, it would be natural to assume that he had the 
201 202 
The Laws of Life 
privilege of observing the more extreme types. As has been 
said before, he called these extremes "Sports" but failed to com- 
prehend their real significance as evolutionary factors. From 
the standpoint of our present knowledge, it seems remarkably 
strange that a mind such as Darwin's could not see the evo- 
lutionary value of such extreme types of plants and animals. 
However, it must be remembered that the situation was en- 
tirely different then. The theory of the spontaneous origin of 
life was still uppermost in the minds of men, and Darwin was 
laboring to overthrow this erroneous belief. Indeed, if it had 
been announced at that time that new plants and animals 
actually appeared suddenly (out of the sky, as it were), the 
supporters of this theory of special creation would have claimed 
them as exemplifications of their doctrine. Thus, Darwin's 
theory of evolution might have fallen by the weight of its own 
revelations. From this standpoint, then, it seems quite fortu- 
nate that Darwin was blind to the significance of these new 
forms. However, he did suggest that they might occasionally 
breed true. 
Darwin's announcement {Origin of Species 1859) to the 
effect that slight variations acted upon by natural selection 
were responsible for the formation of new species, drew out a 
great storm of criticism, and, thus, acted as a stimulus for the 
the most intensive kind of investigation. Almost immediately 
after the announcement of this theory, a great German zoolo- 
gist named Von Kolliker (1817-1905) suggested, in opposition 
to Darwin's theory, that species arose suddenly by mutation 
("saltation"). This new field was further exploited by Kor- 
schinsky, a Russian. It remained for Hugo de Vries, a Dutch 
botanist, to establish the Mutation Theory upon a sound ex- 
perimental basis. 
De Vries and the Mutation Theory of Evolution.-Hugo 
de Vries, director of the Botanical Garden in Amsterdam, ex- 
perimented with a number of plants, but his principal proof 
of discontinuity in variation (mutation) is based upon a 
twenty years' study of the evening primrose {Oenothera la- Mutation 
203 
marckiana, Fig. 65). This plant, which is cultivated in many of 
the parks in Europe for its showy yellow flowers, was supposed 
to have been imported from America-probably from Texas. 
De Vries' first observations seem to have been made upon plants 
Fig. 65. The evening primrose ((Enothera Lamarckiana, left, and 
O. gigas, right), which served as the experimental basis for the mutation 
theory. (From Babcock & Clausen, after de Vries.) 
of this species which had escaped from cultivation and were 
growing wild in an abandoned potato field at Hilversum in 
Holland. The evening primrose is a biennial plant which 
bears its flowers at the ends of its branches. In clear weather, 
the flowers open in the evening and remain open until the fol- 204 
The Laws of Life 
lowing morning. They may remain open much longer when 
the weather is cloudy. The flowers are pollinated by bees and 
other insects. 
While studying Lamarck's primrose, which was growing in 
this most notable potato field, De Vries noticed two other spe- 
cies of the plant, which seemed to have appeared suddenly. 
Since they were new forms, making it impossible for them to 
have been introduced from other cultures, it was quite evident 
that they had arisen as derivatives from the (Enothera la- 
marckiana. As this behavior suggested great possibilities in 
the plant, type species were removed to the Botanical Gardens 
of Amsterdam for more intensive study. 
CEnothera Lamarckian a and Its Mutants 
Generation 
Gigas 
Albida 
Oblonga 
Rubrinervis 
Lamarckiana 
Nanella 
Lata 
Scintillans 
No. 
Year 
VIII 
1899 
5 
1 
0 
1,700 
21 
1 
VII 
1898 
9 
0 
3,000 
11 
VI 
1897 
11 
29 
3 
1,800 
9 
5 
1 
V 
1896 
25 
135 
20 
8,000 
49 
142 
6 
IV 
1895 
1 
15 
176 
8 
14,000 
60 
73 
1 
III 
1890-91 
1 
10,000 
3 
3 
II 
1888-89 
15,000 
5 
5 
I 
1886-87 
9 
The above table shows that a number of new types were 
derived from the original plant during the indicated years of 
observation. At the top of the table may be noted the names 
of the mutations which appeared during the process of ex- 
perimentation-1886 to 1899. The numbers in the columns 
under each name represent the number of mutations of that 
particular "species" during the year indicated. A careful 
study of this table will show the following facts regarding the Mutation 
205 
mutations of the evening primrose; and, in addition, mutations 
in general: 
1. Each species has its characteristic mutants. In the 
case under consideration, at least one mutant (0. nanella) ap- 
peared every year. Others were quite common and appeared in 
relatively large numbers. This rule has later been found to be 
Fig. 66 (left). An achondroplastic dwarf (22 years old), showing 
stubby fingers which are oftentimes confused with brachydactylism (ab- 
sence of joints). Whether the man is a "sport" or a "mutant" can be 
determined only by his offspring, as his parents are normal. (Right.) The 
accompanying photograph shows the size of the dwarf in comparison with 
an eight-year-old boy. 
one of more or less general application. In the human race, for 
example, brachydactylism (short and stumpy fingers) is of 
common occurrence (Figs. 66 and 67). 
2. A species may "throw" a very rare type of mutant. The 
chart shows that in 1895, and at no other time, the mutant 0. 
gigas appeared. In truth, the examples of mutations which 
follow this summary will show that it is this exceptional type 206 
The Laws of Life 
of mutant which is the basic factor of plant and animal de- 
velopment. 
3. No definite numerical relationship exists between a species 
and its characteristic mutants. For example, in the year 1896 
there appeared 377 mutants and 8,000 of the original type 
(lamarckiana). In 1895, 14,000 lamarckiana were counted 
with only 334 mutants. In general, however, it might be said 
that the greater the number of plants and animals being 
raised, the more likely is it that there will be mutations. 
4. No relation seems to exist beween a mutant and the 
usual or normal variation. During the entire term of ex- 
perimentation, the parent plant, as well as the mutants de- 
rived from it, showed characteristic variations in size and 
shape of leaf, stalk, etc. The fluctuating variations were con- 
sidered in the first part of this chapter. 
5. These unusual variations, or mutations, breed true to 
the newly originated type. 
6. Identically the same mutant may appear in a great 
number of instances. 
7. Mutations may occur in both positive and negative 
directions. 
8. Natural selection weeds out all unfit mutants which 
arise in the wild, and perpetuates those which are adaptable 
to their environment. 
Examples of Mutation.-A clearer conception of these 
facts, as well as of the practical importance of mutations, will 
be gained by a study of some recorded instances. A number 
of cases in which marked changes have been wrought in plant 
and animal life, thru this one factor, have been placed on 
record. It is a well-known fact that some breeds of cattle 
have long horns, which, being undesirable, must be removed by 
dehorning. Other breeds of cattle never grow these weapons 
of offense and defense. The origin of this hornless type of 
cattle is recorded in at least one well known instance. In the 
year 1889, on a ranch near Atchison, Kansas, an animal was 
born which never produced horns. Clearly, this animal must Mutation 
207 
have been a mutant-a discontinuous variation-but, of 
course, it was not recognized as such at the time. By the suc- 
cessful breeding of this animal, the race of polled Herefords 
was established. 
Downing narrates the following instance of mutation-the 
origin of a disease-resisting cabbage: "The truck-garden re- 
Fig. 67. An achondroplastic dwarf can perform some unusual feats 
owing to the fact that the bones of the body have developed more normally 
than those of the limbs. 
gion about Chicago is the greatest cabbage growing area in 
the world. Many of the fanners of northwestern Indiana, 
northern Illinois, and southern Wisconsin have devoted them- 
selves exclusively to this one crop. Within a generation, how- 
ever, the region has been invaded by a very serious disease, the 
"yellows," that attacks the young plant, withering and killing 
it. Fields that formerly produced tons of cabbage now yield 
absolutely none, and the virus seems to remain persistently in 
the soil even after other crops have been grown for several 208 
The Laws of Life 
years. The plant pathologist of the University of Wisconsin 
was called in to help solve the trouble. The situation was 
studied for several years without avail. Then in the midst of 
a fifteen-acre field two lusty cabbage plants were found with 
well formed heads, although all of their companion plants had 
succumbed to the dread disease. It seemed to the farmer a 
pitifully small crop, but to the expert a very hopeful one- 
two plants, at least, that were disease-resisting. Seed reared 
from these produced similar healthy cabbages on farms that 
had been unable to get a crop with the ordinary cabbage for 
years. And now with this new disease-resistant variety the 
region is returning with assurance to its very profitable in- 
dustry." 
A characteristic mutant of the common beech is the purple 
beech. This is shown from the fact that the purple beech has 
appeared suddenly a number of times in widely separated lo- 
calities. Double flowers appear as mutants from almost any 
flowering plant, and then breed true to this double type. Such 
cases have been recorded with primroses, roses, carnations, 
petunias, and others. The oaklike walnut (Juglans calif or- 
nica var. quercina) is another splendid example of plant muta- 
tion. "Shirley poppies" originated from a type of single red 
poppy. The Shirley poppy is very large and has a wonderful 
range of color. 
The origin of the Ancon sheep was a mutation which oc- 
curred in Massachusetts. The progenitor of this entire race 
was a bow-legged, sagging-bodied, dachshund-like lamb which 
was born on the farm of Seth Wright in 1791. He had fore- 
seen the necessity for a breed of sheep which would be unable 
to jump fences, so he developed the Ancons from his "mutant." 
Davenport (1909) had the following to say regarding vari- 
ations (many of which were mutations) in poultry: "During 
the past four years I have handled and described over 10,000 
poultry of known ancestry. Of striking new characters I have 
observed many, some incompatible with normal existence; 
others in no way unfitting the individual for continued life. Mutation 
209 
In the egg unhatched I have obtained Siamese twins, pug jaws, 
and chicks with thigh bones absent. There have been reared 
chicks with toes grown together by a web, without toenails or 
with two toenails to a toe; with three, five, six, or seven toes; 
with one wing or both lacking; with two pairs of spurs; with- 
out oil-gland or tail; with neck devoid of feathers; with cere- 
bral hernia and a great crest; with feather shaft recurved, with 
barbs twisted and dichotomously (divided into two subordinate 
Fig. 68. Varieties of cabbage which are supposed to have arisen as 
mutants from the wild cliff cabbage (A). B. Broccoli (leaves, and flowers 
both used). C. Kale. D. Kohlrabi. E. Brussels sprouts (lateral buds 
used). F. Common cabbage (a highly developed terminal bud). G. Cauli- 
flower (flower buds used). (From Gager's "Fundamentals of Botany." 
Courtesy of P. Blakiston's Son & Co., Philadelphia.) 
parts) branched or lacking altogether. Of comb alone I have 
a score of forms. All of these characters have been offered to 
me without the least effort or conscious selection on my part, 
and each appeared in the first generation as well-developed 
peculiarities, and in so far as their inheritance was witnessed, 
each refused to blend when mated with a dissimilar form." 
In addition to the above examples, strawberry plants with- 
out runners; thornless roses; five-leaved, or nine-leaved clover; 
red sunflowers (Cockerell); seedless bananas; tailless cats, 
dogs, or fowls; varieties of cabbage (Fig. 68) and many other 
types of mutations, have come under our observation. 210 
The Laws of Life 
Kinds of Mutations.-Hugo de Vries classed mutations 
into three groups; namely, progressive, regressive, and de- 
gressive. Progressive mutations are distinguished by the fact 
that some new character has been added to the individual in 
addition to those already present. The possession of a sixth 
finger on the human hand is an example of a progressive mu- 
tation, providing, of course, that same is heritable. When a 
character that is usually present is wanting in the new in- 
dividual, that individual is a regressive mutant. The absence 
of horns in cattle, and the absence of hair in mice or dogs, 
places them in the regressive class. Degressive mutants are 
those in which some ancestral trait, long since dropped from 
the characteristics of the race, suddenly crops out. The 
muscles which control the movement of the human ear have 
degenerated to such an extent that they have entirely lost their 
original function. Occasionally, however, an individual is 
born who is able to move the shell of his ear. Such a person 
might be considered a degressive mutant in this one respect. 
Causes of Variation 
"Our ignorance of the laws of variation is profound." 
-Darwin. 
Altho the above statement was made almost three- 
quarters of a century ago, it is more or less true to-day. The 
investigations of the many workers in this field have revealed 
many facts regarding the operation of variation, and many 
hypotheses have been advanced regarding its causes; but, the 
facts still remain obscure. Since variations may appear at 
any time (they themselves varying in amount and intensity), 
and since they never seem to follow any set principle, a search 
for the causes-until more facts are known-is in reality "a 
search for some unknown force in the misty field of biology." 
Although progress along this line has been very slow, we 
have advanced beyond the interpretation of Darwin and the Mutation 
211 
other early workers. With them, the explanation that "varia- 
tion is the normal thing for an organism" was sufficient to ex- 
plain all cases. Many considered variation axiomatic-no ex- 
planation being necessary. Lamarck contended that the causes 
of the phenomena of variation might be traced directly to en- 
vironment. According to his view, a change in environment 
would condition a corresponding change of variation in any 
organism living in that environment. In other words, the en- 
vironment modified the cells of the body causing a dissimilarity 
between individuals, when, under exactly similar conditions in 
life, they would be indistinguishable. It was further contended 
that these variations in the body (somatic) cells became so 
fixed as to be transmissible to the next generation. 
The above conception of variation might be acceptable in 
a modified form if we eliminate the element which claims that 
these somatic changes are truly heritable. It is extremely un- 
likely that variations in offspring are produced in this manner. 
Outside influences in the environment may, however, affect the 
germ cells in such a way that variation may be the result 
(See Chapter XXIX). 
During the last few years, biologists have been looking to 
the cell as the basis for the explanation of variation and a 
great many of the other phenomena of heredity. An intelli- 
gent knowledge of the relationships which exist between the 
various processes of fertilization and the germ cell should be 
gained, after which the subject of causes of variation will be 
reconsidered. CHAPTER XIV 
THE CELL AS THE CARRIER OF HERITAGE 
Introduction-Facts about Heritage-Ontogeny and Phylogeny 
-The Cell Theory-Differentiation of the Germ Cells-A Typical 
Animal Cell-The Method of Cell Division-The "Green" Germ 
Cells-The Ripening of the Female Cells-The Union of the Sperm 
and the Egg-Germ Cells of Birds-Germ Cells of Mammals- 
The Cell and Inheritance. 
"The cell-theory must be placed beside the evolution-theory as 
one of the foundation stones of modern biology." 
"Heredity is a consequence of the genetic continuity of cells 
by division, and the germ cells form the vehicle of transmission 
from one generation to another." 
-E. B. Wilson. 
Introduction.-Resemblances between parent and offspring 
have been a master of common observation for centuries. The 
average child would be considered foolish were he even to 
speculate upon the probability of a hen's egg hatching into a 
duckling. It is further universally understood that the eggs 
from Plymouth Rock chickens will hatch Plymouth Rocks and 
not White Leghorn chicks. Until recent years, these simple 
facts were considered purely axiomatic. Some investigating 
mind noted the fact that the hen which hatched and cared for 
a brood did not influence the color and make-up of her chicks 
unless they were derived from her own eggs. The factors which 
determined the characters of the chicks were, therefore, located 
in the eggs from which they were hatched. The question then 
arose as to the nature and the location of this "something," 
since very minor, if any, differences could be observed between 
the eggs of distinctly different breeds of poultry. It was also 
212 The Cell as the Carrier of Heritage 
213 
observed that the eggs from a Plymouth Rock hen which had 
been mated with a male bird of some other breed did not give a 
pure breed of Plymouth Rock chickens. Since this indicated 
that the father also plays an important part in the role of 
heredity, some one began to search for the male cell which cor- 
responds to the eggs of the female. Such was, in all proba- 
bility, the general method of observation, and the reason 
which prompted the biologists to turn their microscopes upon 
the mysterious ''Carriers of the Heritage"-the reproductive 
cells. The problem was at first extremely puzzling as no one 
could conceive that microscopic cells, such as the sperms 1 and 
the eggs, could carry enough of that peculiar "something" to 
represent each of the many characteristics of the individual. 
An attempt to enumerate the different characteristics of any 
individual will show that the factors in the germ cells must be 
very numerous. For example, a different "something" or a 
combination of "somethings" in the human ovum or sperm 
was thought to stand for red hair, a long nose, large cheek 
bones, eye color, large feet, a high temper, low mentality, small 
stature, etc., etc. 
This type of investigation formed a basis for the study of 
several problems in the development and the life of the indi- 
vidual (Ontogeny). For years, men had concerned themselves 
only with the life and the development of the race (Phylogeny) 
and had considered ontogeny as being self-evident. It thus hap- 
pened that the knowledge of the practical laws of heredity, 
especially as applied to the human race, lagged far behind the 
other phases of biologic research. The advancement of the 
cell theory stimulated an interest in the laws pertaining to the 
development of the individual, and, when once begun, the 
knowledge gained was of sufficient interest and value to receive 
hearty support from all the leading biologists, as well as from 
a large percentage of the people in general. The present state 
of advancement of knowledge along the various lines of he- 
1For brevity the author prefers to follow custom by using the terms 
sperm and spermatozoon synonymously although technically the former 
refers to the seminal fluid and the latter to the germ cells. 214 
The Laws of Life 
redity, and especially along the lines of cytology, is due to the 
method of direct observation with the microscope, assisted by 
valuable experimentation and analysis of statistics. 
The Cell Theory.-The cell theory is the foundation upon 
which rest many of the explanations of biologic phenomena. 
In order to gain a clear idea of this theory, it becomes neces- 
sary, at this point, to trace the history of the cell. The 
cells, as the units of structure, their composition, varieties, 
the manner in which they were discovered, and how they ob- 
tained their name, have already J>een discussed in an elementary 
manner (Chapter VII). After the cell itself had been dis- 
covered, next came the discovery of the nucleus. Schleiden 
was responsible for the first statement that cells were the units 
of structure in all plants. But he held many erroneous ideas 
regarding cell functions which have since been cleared up. 
Schwann followed Schleiden in extending the cell theory to in- 
clude animal tissues. Both Schleiden and Schwann held that 
the cell-wall was the important part of the cell. Their theory 
was also weak from the standpoint of the origin and the growth 
of cells. Our knowledge of cells has been so greatly enlarged 
since the time of these two pioneer investigators, that we now 
know a great many facts about their functions and life his- 
tories. We are also beginning to peer into the mysteries of 
the cell as the carrier of the heritage as well. Our conceptions 
of the physiology of cells have been completely transformed 
since Schleiden and Schwann made their observations. We 
know that cells do not arise by any process such as that fol- 
lowed in the formation of inorganic crystals. Cells arise only 
from other and preexisting cells. The cell wall is not the all- 
important factor, since the seat of life has been proved to lie 
in the protoplasmic substance of the cell-body, particularly the 
nucleus. 
E. B. Wilson of Columbia University, one of the foremost 
cytologists of the country, said: "It was the cell-theory that 
first brought the structure of plants and animals under one 
point of view, by revealing their common plan of organization. The Cell as the Carrier of Heritage 
215 
. . . It was the cell-theory again which, in the hands of Good- 
sir, Virchow, and Max Schultze, inaugurated a new era in the 
history of physiology and pathology, by showing that all the 
various functions of the body, in health and in disease, are but 
the outward expressions of cell activities. And, at a still 
later day, it was through the cell-theory that Hertwig, Fol, 
Van Beneden, and Strasburger solved the long-standing riddle 
of the fertilization of the egg and the mechanism of hereditary 
transmission." 
Differentiation of the Germ Cells.-The maxim of Virchow 
(1855), "omnis cellula e cellula" (all cells come from cells), 
after being tested from all angles for more than three score 
years by the world's most painstaking investigators, has come 
to be universally accepted. Since, according to this theory, 
all the cells of the body must have originated from a single 
cell, and further, since this single cell can be traced back to the 
ovaries and testes of the parents, it is obvious that there are 
two types of cells. These are referred to as somatic cells and 
germ cells. The somatic cells are the cells which are found in 
our muscles, nerves, bones, and skin; the germ cells are found 
only in the ovaries and testes, and are those which perpetuate 
life. The former, which constitute the body tissues, live thru 
a life cycle and then die, while the latter live an immortal life. 
According to this conception, the individual is composed of 
millions of sub-branches from one single off-shoot of the germ 
cell. This might be illustrated by a vine which sends up an- 
nual shoots. The plants themselves die, but underneath the 
surface the roots continue to send up new sprouts each year. 
If a leaf on the plant or an arm of the individual be cut off, 
the race is not affected; but, sever the whole shoot before it 
reproduces and the race stops-in plants the underground 
root may or may not live. Thus each individual germ cell 
constitutes only a small link in the chain of life flowing from 
the ovaries of Eve to the final destruction of the human race. 
It is interesting, in this connection, to note that from the 
standpoint of somatic cells, the father is older than the son; Th ale 
Female 
"Green" Germ cells 
)?i^en<ny op "the 
Get Tn cells 
Socket 
DiffureSfye 
Promise 
a^tdlrayj 
CeYtCtosorne^ 
Spindle sil>ers- 
ChoTkatin. nucleolus 
Clxojntfin nAwork^ 
Um'n 'network 
llueletf Wall- 
Plasmosorne- 
Cell Wall 
| Cytopl^sin^ 
hucleuj^^ 
ripening 
division 
}Seeondrif>eni.yi^ 
yaevosome- 
Sfermg 
216 The Cell as the Carrier of Heritage 
217 
Fig. 69. Diagram Illustrating the Maturation of the Germ Cells. The 
small active cells at the top of the plate are known as spermatogonial (in 
the male) and oogonial (in the female) cells. They represent a few of the 
many divisions which must take place before a single germ cell of a tiny 
embryo can become the large reproducing testis or ovary of the adult. 
Fig. 1. A typical animal cell. 
Figs. 2 to 6, inclusive, and the corresponding figures to the right, show 
some of the more important steps in the growth periods of the ripening 
germ cells. 
Figs. 4 and 5 show the stages in which the germ cells of the mule and 
other hybrids first begin to show indications of abnormality which result in 
the final destruction of the cell. 
Fig. 7. First ripening division of the male germ cell. (First sperma- 
tocyte division.) 
Fig. 19. Corresponding division in the ovary. (First oocyte division.) 
Figs. 8 and 9. Second ripening division. (Second spermatocyte di- 
vision.) 
Fig. 18. Second oocyte. 
Fig. 10. Spermatids (first two with, and the second two without sex 
chromosomes). 
Fig. 11. Mature spermatozoa. 
Fig. 16. The single large mature egg. 
Fig. 17. The three small eggs (the polar bodies) which never mature. 
Figs. 12, 13, 14 and 15 represent the possibility of the single egg (Fig. 
16) being fertilized by any one of the four "brother" spermatozoa shown in 
Fig. 11. Since the first two contain the sex chromosome, a union of either of 
these with the egg would result in female offspring (Figs. 12 and 13), while 
the other two would produce males (Figs. 14 and 15). 
Figs. 12, 13, 14 and 15 also show that the reduced number of the chromo- 
somes brought in by each parent cell (Figs. 12 and 13) unite to form the 
normal number for the offspring (Fig. 15), and that the chromosomes from 
each parent (Fig. 13) are equally distributed in every offspring (Fig. 15). 
(From American Journal of Veterinary Medicine, by the author.) 218 
The Laws of Life 
but, if the continuity of the germ cells be considered, the son 
is one generation older than his father. The somatic cells in 
the hand of the father, for instance, are older than those of his 
son. On the other hand, the germ cells of the son which must 
have been derived from the father, are, as a consequence, one 
generation older. 
A Typical Animal Cell (1, Fig. 69).-The germ cells 
are usually much larger than the somatic cells and are 
thus used as a basis for general study. All cells are made up 
of a nucleus enveloped by a more or less viscous substance, the 
cytoplasm. The substance inside of the nucleus is spoken of 
as the nucleoplasm or karyoplasm. In the nucleus there is 
usually found a heavy network (chromatin-network) and a 
dense mass of chromatin, the chromatin-nucleolus. Since the 
hereditary factors are located in this chromatin material, it is 
important that we understand the behavior of this peculiar 
substance. Its function will be discussed later. There may 
also be found a finer network of achromatic substance (linin- 
network), and sometimes a spherical mass, the plasmosome, of 
the same material (Goldsmith, '16). The nucleus together 
with the cytoplasm constitutes the protoplasm. 
The Method of Cell Division.-After the cell has reached a 
certain stage of growth, the chromatin-network begins to con- 
dense at various points in the nucleus-usually near or in 
contact with the nuclear membrane (5, Fig. 69). These ag- 
gregations become more and more definite and individualized 
until they each assume a compact and characteristic form 
(prophase stage, 6). These newly formed bodies are called 
chromosomes and are uniformly characteristic of the species 
in which they are found (Fig. 70). They vary from two in 
a thread worm to 1600 in certain radiolaria. A small body 
(the centrosome, 7) from which radiate cytoplasmic lines 
(astral rays, 7), now appears on either side of the nucleus. 
The nuclear wall is then destroyed partly by the removal of 
the chromatin (Goldsmith, '16). Prominent fibers (spindle 
fibers, 7) now connect these two points as centers and force The Cell as the Carrier of Heritage 
219 
the chromosomes into a median position, thus presenting a 
typical spindle (metaphase condition, 7). The chromosomes 
now divide lengthwise and one-half of each passes to opposite 
poles of the spindle. While the chromosomes are on their way 
to the poles (anaphase stage, 8, Fig. 69), the entire cell be- 
gins to divide. This continues until after the chromosomes 
have reached the spindle (telophase, 9, Fig. 69), when the two 
Fig. 70. Chromosomes of the tiger beetle. The shape and size of the 
chromosomes (the bearers of heritage) vary from large and asymetrically 
armed V's (A in figure) to very small spherical bodies. This figure also 
shows that definite pairs of chromosomes are found in the cells of every 
individual. (From The Journal of Morphology, Vol. XXXII, by the 
author.) 
daughter cells are completely separated. The chromosomes 
of each daughter cell now reassume their early "woolly" ap- 
pearance and gradually pass into the network condition, while 
the nuclear membrane and the other parts of the cell are 
being reconstructed in preparation for the next division. 
The "Green" Germ Cells {Spermatogonia and Oogonia}. 
-The processes in cell division are essentially the same, 
whether somatic or germinal. However, since the former cells 
are smaller, the component parts are more compact and not so 220 
The Laws of Life 
readily differentiated. From a very early embryonic condition, 
until near the time the animal is capable of reproducing, the 
large cells which were set aside for this purpose gradually in- 
crease in number by the above method of cell division. (Fig. 
69, " 'Green' Germ Cells.") So long as the cells of the ovaries 
and testes continue the simple process of multiplication, no 
marked change is noted in the life of the child. On the other 
hand, when the germ cells begin to ripen; that is, begin 
the formation of mature sperms and ova, the entire individual 
begins to undergo marked changes. When the human race is 
under consideration, this period of transformation is spoken 
of as the "period of adolescence." It is interesting to note 
that many who Speak so glibly about the "period of ado- 
lescence" have no conception of the real biologic significance 
of this developmental phenomenon. 
When the animal is near maturity, a number of these cells 
seem to lose their division energy. They then enter a quiescent 
or rather a ripening stage in preparation for the great func- 
tion for which they were ordained; namely, that of reproduc- 
tion. This stage is spoken of as the growth, or maturation 
period of the germ cell. The author has investigated one form 
(the Tiger Beetles, Jour. Morph. N, 32) in which he is able to 
predict by the appearance of the cells those which have about 
lost their division energy and are ready to undergo maturation. 
This process might be compared to the ripening of an apple. 
The apple grows for a number of weeks until it reaches a cer- 
tain stage when it ceases to grow and begins to ripen. Al- 
though the size is not materially changed during the ripening 
process, internal physiological changes are taking place very 
rapidly. 
The Ripening of the Germ Cells (The Maturation Period} 
A. The Growth Stage: After an early germ cell has lost 
its division energy and is ready for ripening, the two daughter 
cells resulting from the last division fail to reconstruct as The Cell as the Carrier of Heritage 
221 
usual to form another division spindle. The nuclear wall is 
usually reformed but the nucleus itself is filled with a dense 
fibrillar, but somewhat granular network (2, Fig. 69). Among 
this homogeneous network, there are ofttimes found one or 
more compact bodies resembling the chromosomes (2 to 10 in- 
clusive). In fact, we have demonstrated conclusively that 
these bodies have persisted as distinct individuals from the 
chromosomes of the earlier divisions, all others having been 
spun out to make the new network. These dense bodies never 
break up as do the other chromosomes, but remain as inde- 
pendent elements while the cell is ripening. They are called 
'fsex-cthromosomes,"1 or better,* "female producing chromo- 
somes" since, as will be shown presently, they are, at least, as- 
sociated with sex-production. 
As the cell and nucleus continue to grow, some very in- 
teresting changes take place in the fibrillar network. Typi- 
cally, it forms into as many long strands as there were chromo- 
somes in the earlier stages, not considering the sex-chromosomes 
(3, Fig. 69). The ends of these dense threads are now mys- 
teriously drawn to one region, usually against the wall of the 
nucleus. Since they seem to be floating in a nuclear sap, the 
median parts of each thread swing out into the nucleus, form- 
ing a bundle of very clear loops (4, Fig. 69). The cytologist 
calls this the bouquet stage of the ripening cell. The female 
producing chromosome is usually in the thickest part of this 
bundle. As these loops decrease in size, presenting a very com- 
pact condition (synizesis), they are ofttimes observed to pair 
(synapsis). Since each loop represents a chromosome, the 
number of these bodies is now evidently reduced one-half, ex- 
cluding the mysterious sex-chromosome. This reduction in 
number is very significant, since it is necessary in order to keep 
the number constant for each species. It will readily be seen 
that when one-half the normal number of chromosomes of each 
parent unite in fertilization, the daughter cell will possess the 
normal number of the parents-the daughter the number of the 
mother, and the son the number of the father. Should this 222 
The Laws of Life 
fortunate process not happen, and the mother and father pass 
to the child their normal number instead of one-half, our cells 
would soon be bursting with chromosomes and, thus, future 
reproduction would be impossible. After the process of pair- 
ing has taken place, the chromatic fibers break up and are 
again faintly distributed throughout the nucleus (5, Fig. 69). 
As the cell still continues to grow, this faint chromatin mate- 
rial collects into as many aggregations as there were pairs of 
fibers (6, Fig. 69). These masses now condense and form the 
chromosomes for the first of the two ripening divisions (7, 8, 
and 9, Fig. 69). It must be remembered, however, that the 
number of chromosomes is now only one-half 1 the former num- 
ber exclusive of the sex-chromosomes. We express this as 
1/2w + x; that is, one-half the normal number plus the sex- 
chromosome. , 
B. The Two Ripening Divisions :2 The germ cells now un- 
dergo two divisions, differing somewhat from those discussed 
earlier. The number of chromosomes in these divisions is one- 
half plus the sex-chromosome which had no mate in the growth 
period. This female producing body still (in most forms and 
in all domestic animals) does not associate with the other 
chromosomes but takes its position at one side of the spindle 
and in advance of its neighbors (7 and 8, Fig. 69). All the 
autosomes (common chromosomes), divide as usual and the 
respective halves pass into the daughter cells. Since the sex- 
chromosome passes undivided to one cell, we have two different 
types of cells produced. It will be shown later how the one 
with the extra body (8, 10, and 11, Fig. 69) will produce a 
female, while the one without this important chromosome (9, 
etc., Fig. 69 and their derivatives) will give a male. In a 
few forms (not in domestic animals), the sex-chromosome di- 
vides in the first but passes bodily to the daughter cell in the 
second division, the resulting process being the same. 
These two types of cells now divide once more, all chromo- 
xThis statement does not apply to certain parthenogenetic forms. 
'For a consideration of Tetrads and Equational and Reductional divi- 
sion see more technical works. The Cell as the Carrier of Heritage 
223 
somes taking part in the process, and then pass into another 
state of reconstruction. These reconstructing cells are now 
called "spermatids" (10, Fig. 69) and are transformed directly 
into spermatozoa. This process of transformation is very 
complicated but has been worked out to the most minute de- 
tails. The most important point to consider here is the fact 
that all the chromosomes, except the female-producers, again 
pass into the fibrillar condition. In some forms, the sex-chro- 
mosomes can be followed step by step into the head of the ma- 
ture spermatozoon. (See Goldsmith, '19, Fig. 69.) The be- 
havior and fate of the female-producing chromosome should 
be clearly understood. Since, in our illustration (7, Fig. 69), 
this body has moved by the law of chance to the left side of 
the cell, the new cell formed from this part of the mother cell 
will possess it; the cell formed from the other side will be with- 
out it. Therefore, the first two spermatids shown (10, Fig. 
69) and the first two sperms (11, Fig. 69) will possess this 
female producing element; the last two spermatids and the 
last two sperms (same figures) will be without it, since they 
came from the cell represented (9, Fig. 69), and thus from 
the right-hand half of the cell shown in 7. 
A Typical Ripe Male Germ Cell.-A mature spermatozoon 
(Fig. 69, 11) consists of a head, neck or middle piece, and a 
tail. At the forward point of the head there is a small sharp 
body, the acrosome, by means of which the sperm bores its way 
into the egg (16, Fig. 69). The chromatin material is located 
in the more or less elongated head. The tail, which is sur- 
rounded by a thin membrane (tail envelope), is an organ of 
locomotion and is usually broken off as the sperm enters the 
egg (12, Fig. 69), its function having been completed. The 
structure and behavior of the spermatozoon is usually consid- 
ered as presented in this paragraph. However, the author is 
inclined to think that more extensive investigation into the 
metamorphosis of spermatids would reveal facts somewhat con- 
tradictory to the present belief. In the formation of the sper- 
matozoa of the tiger beetle (Goldsmith, '19), the chromatin 224 
The Laws of Life 
material seems to elongate to form a part of the tail of the 
sperm. 
The Ripening of the Female Germ Cell.-The development 
of the female cell differs only in minor details from that of the 
male. In ripening, however, each division produces daughter 
cells extremely different in size. The larger ones (16 and 18, 
Fig. 69) continue to mature and prepare for fertilization, 
while the smaller (the polar bodies, 17, Fig. 69) are absorbed. 
It is readily seen from the plate that three-fourths of all the 
eggs perish at this point, and that from the same number of 
"green" cells, four times as many sperms are produced as there 
are eggs. This is very fortunate as the sperms must undergo 
much more hazardous experiences, in reaching their destina- 
tion, and, thus, are more liable to destruction than the eggs. 
Union of the Sperm and the Egg.-After the sperm enters 
the egg (12 to 14, Fig. 69) the middle piece, which carries "the 
active center of cell division," the centrosome, turns in the di- 
rection of the egg nucleus (12, Fig. 69) and a joint spindle 
between the male and female cells is formed (13, 14, and 15, 
Fig. 69). The most important consideration in this process 
is the fact that the reduced number of chromosomes brought in 
by each parent cell now unite to form the normal number for 
the offspring (15, Fig. 69). Furthermore, the chromosomes 
from each parent are equally distributed in every daughter 
cell. Prof. Morgan introduces chapter three of his book, 
"Physical Basis of Heredity" (1919), with this decided state- 
ment : "One of the most secure generalizations of modern work 
on the cell is that every cell of the individual contains a con- 
stant number of self-perpetuating bodies (called chromosomes) 
half of which are traceable to the father and half to the mother 
of the individual." A study of the diagrammatic Figures 13, 
14, and 15 (Fig. 69) will make this point clear. Since the 
solid black chromosomes represent the haploid (reduced, or 
one-half the normal number) number of male chromosomes 
and the open face chromosomes the haploid female number, it 
is evident that both of the newly-formed cells (15, Fig. 69) The Cell as the Carrier of Heritage 
225 
are the recipients of an equal amount of father and mother 
chromatin material. Furthermore, since this chromatin ma- 
terial is the bearer of individual characteristics, the mother and 
the father have an equal part in supplying the child with 
hereditary traits. This line of microscopic investigation has 
proved to be the final deathblow to the old theory that the 
child inherits from the mother more characteristics than from 
the father. This, too, destroys all possibilities of so-called 
"birthmarks" and the whole category of such parental influ- 
ences. (See Chapter XXVIII.) 
Germ Cells of Birds.-The cells of the birds are very small, 
and the constituent parts are so crowded and irregular in 
shape, that a study of these forms is very laborious. Guyer, 
('16), for example, published the results of over ten years' 
study on the sperm formation in the common rooster. Here he 
finds, in addition to the mass of irregular chromosomes, a large 
curved sex-chromosome, which stands aloof from its neighbors 
while on the first maturation spindle. Since the early germ 
cells of the chicken have sixteen ordinary chromosomes plus 
this sex-element, and, since this element neither conjugates 
in the ripening process nor divides in the first ripening division, 
one daughter cell has eight ordinary chromosomes, while the 
other possesses, in addition to these, the large curved sex- 
element. The ordinary chromosomes of each daughter cell 
now pair and fuse, leaving four in one and four plus the sex 
determiner in the other. All chromosomes again divide in 
the second division, and thus it is brought about that two 
classes of cells are formed containing four and five chromo- 
somes respectively. 
In the hybrid pheasants, and hybrid guinea-chickens, the 
normal development continues up to synapsis when the chro- 
matin fibres are unable to unravel from the synaptic knot (See 
4 and 5, Fig. 69). The mass of chromatin remains attached 
to the nuclear wall and then either disintegrates, or abnormal 
spermatozoa are formed which are incapable of fertilization. 226 
The Laws of Life 
This clearly accounts for the fact that the breeding of such 
hybrid birds is an impossibility. (See Chapter XVII.) 
Germ Cells of Mammals.-One of the first mammals to be 
studied was man. The cells of man represent one of the most 
problematical cases of cell study. The number of somatic 
chromosomes has been variously counted from 24 to 38 (Flem- 
ing 24; Farner, Moore, Walker 32; Wieman 33 to 38), while 
the number in the testes are given as 47 by Winiwarter and 
as 22 by Guyer and Montgomery. Winiwarter obtained his 
data from a white man, while Guyer and Montgomery worked 
on negro material. In the case of Winiwarter's work on the 
germ cells of the white man, the numbers in the maturation di- 
visions are 23 and 24, while Guyer shows that the correspond- 
ing numbers in the negro are 10 and 12. If the works of the 
last two investigators stand the test of future research, we 
may have a very definite and substantial criterion by which 
to segregate the white and black races. Hoy (1916) suggests 
that the variations in the number of chromosomes in the differ- 
ent individuals studied might represent intermediate hybrids 
between the black and the white races. 
Furthermore, Guyer finds in man two sex-chromosomes 
which do not associate with the other elements on the first 
maturation spindle but pass bodily to one pole, thus giving 
10 chromosomes in one daughter cell and 12 in the other. The 
ten common chromosomes now unite, two by two, giving second 
division cells and thus mature sperms with 5 (5 double) and 
7 (5 double plus the two sex-chromosomes) chromosomes re- 
spectively. Assuming the woman (negro) to have 24 chromo- 
somes-that is 12 after they have been reduced for fertiliza- 
tion-we can readily predict the sex of the offspring of each 
cell. If the sperm carrying the twelve chromosomes (Fig. 69, 
11, first two sperms) should come into contact with the egg 
(16), a new cell (12 and 13), and later an embryo having 24 
chromosomes would be formed. This would of course be a 
female, since the male has only 22 chromosomes; the union 
of a sperm having only 10 chromosomes and an egg would The Cell as the Carrier of Heritage 
227 
result in an embryo of 22 chromosomes, a male. These facts 
might be presented thus: 
Chromosomes 
of 
Chromosomes of 
Chromosomes of 
father 
mother 
child 
10 
+ 
(10 + 2x) = 
(20 + 2x)=22 (Boy) 
(10 + 2x) 
+ 
(10-j-2x) = 
(20 + 4x)-24 (Girl) 
Wodsedalek (1913) has clearly demonstrated the presence 
of eighteen rod-shaped chromosomes in the male pig and 
twenty in the female. Two of these chromosomes in the male 
cells usually stand apart from the others. They remain very 
conspicuous throughout the ripening stages and in the first 
division stand quite aloof from their neighbors, passing undi- 
vided to the "female daughter cell." In the second ripening 
division, they divide as other chromosomes, giving eight for 
one cell and ten (8 common and 2 sex-chromosomes) for the 
other. The common chromosomes fuse at this point, as in man, 
to form half the number of double elements, but this has no 
effect upon the final result. If the cell with eight meets a 
female cell, all of which have 10 after ripening, the result would 
be a male pig, while if the cell with the two female producing 
chromosomes meets a female cell the result would be a pig 
with 20 chromosomes, which is to say, a female. 
Chromosomes 
male pig 
of 
Chromosomes of 
female pig 
Chromosomes of 
offspring 
8 
+ 
(8 2x) = 
(16 4~2X) -18 (Male) 
(8 4- 2x) 
+ 
(8 4-2x) = 
(16 -j- 4x)=20 (Female) 
It is interesting to note that in the pig and many other 
forms the mature spermatozoa are of two distinct sizes, repre- 
senting the two sexes-the female-producing being the larger, 
due to the presence of the two extra chromosomes. 
Except from the standpoint of the number of chromosomes, 
the method of sperm formation in the horse is almost identical 
with that of the pig. In the horse, there is only one female de- 
termining chromosome, which behaves as the two in the pig. 
The number in the green cells of the stallion is 37, representing 228 
The Laws of Life 
two types of sperms with 18 (9 double) and 19 (9 double, 1 
single) chromosomes respectively. According to these figures, 
the mare, whose germ cells have never been examined, should 
possess 38 chromosomes. This assumption is based upon the 
following fertilization formula: 
Chromosomes 
of 
Chromosomes of 
Chromosomes of 
stallion 
mare (assumed) 
colt 
18 
+ 
(18 + x) = 
(36 + x)=37 (Male) 
(18+ x) 
+ 
(18+ x) = 
(36 4" 2x)=38 (Female) 
Further consideration might be given to the general meth- 
ods of germ cell formation and fertilization in other animals 
but the above discussion will suffice to show the general proc- 
esses involved. 
The Cell and Inheritance.-The facts regarding the repro- 
ductive cells are becoming so important that very few subjects 
in the fields of evolution, heredity and eugenics can be con- 
sidered without a knowledge of them. Not many years back, 
the biologists never for a moment considered that the facts 
of the cell theory were as vital to an understanding of heredity, 
variation and mutation, as they really are. Neither the expert 
technical breeder of plants and animals nor the practical 
agriculturist considered the work of the cytologist of any 
value in their fields. In like manner, few euthenists, even at 
the present time, recognize the fact that the cell theory forms 
at least a secondary key to their success. Many are coming 
to realize that inheritance is a vital factor in dealing with vari- 
ous social problems, but it seldom occurs to them that the 
explanation of the facts of heredity may be based upon the 
knowledge of the cells. 
The above discussion of the maturation of germ cells and 
the part played by the chromosomes, in addition to familiariz- 
ing the reader with the cardinal points of cellular behavior, 
should suggest the importance of the cell in sex determination 
and in other problems pertaining to heredity. 
It was found in discussing the chromosomes as related to 
sex, that sex is not a matter of guess work, but rather a definite The Cell as the Carrier of Heritage 
229 
result following a definite cause-the behavior of the sex ele- 
ments. In general, the offspring which received the smaller 
number of chromosomes would be a male; the one which re- 
ceived the greater number would be a female. Since the chromo- 
somes play such an important part in the determination of 
sex, and since sex is a matter of heredity, is it not here that 
we may look for the explanation of all other hereditary phe- 
nomena? It is the chromosomes, then, which contain the mys- 
terious "something" which determines 1 the characteristics of 
the individual. 
1 Those who are directly interested in the technical side of this problem 
should familiarize themselves with the controversy regarding the importance 
of the cytoplasm in heredity and development. See works of Boveri, '01; 
Baltzer, '09; Schraxel, 'll; Herbst, '09; Conklin, TO and others. CHAPTER XV 
CAUSES OF VARIATION 
Lamarck-Weismann-Chromosome Basis for Variation-Am- 
phimixis-Internal and External Influences upon Somatic Varia- 
tion. 
"The fine art of the horticulturist is seen in the selection and 
fixing of the variations produced by crossing and hybridizaton. 
While most of the forms thus obtained are worthless, a few will 
show decided advances. Often as much progress may be made in 
a single cross or hybridization as in a dozen or even a hundred 
generations of pure selection." 
-Jordan and Kellogg. 
A few years ago, a consideration of the problems of vari- 
ation would have involved only a general discussion of observed 
facts together with various hypotheses regarding them. La- 
marck, for example, claimed that changes in plants and ani- 
mals depended entirely upon the direct influence which their 
environment had upon them. He assumed that should a plant 
or an animal be placed in a favorable environment, and be per- 
mitted to live there year after year, the favorable effect upon 
each individual would be transmitted to its offspring, and thus, 
a sturdy race would be produced. It has been noted that Dar- 
win himself considered the direct effect of environment as the 
principal cause of variation. The substance of this concep- 
tion might be summed up in the following statement: The 
somatic cells are modified by external conditions and in turn 
change the constitution of the germ cells. Since the germ cells 
give rise to the new individual, that individual will possess the 
parental modifications. In striking contrast to this belief, 
Weismann (1834-1914) set forth a new idea in which he as- 
230 Causes of Variation 
231 
sumed that the changes which caused individual as well as 
racial variation were first brought about in the germ cells and 
secondarily in the body cells. From this time onward, the bi- 
ologists have turned their attention to the cell for a solution 
of the puzzling problem of variation. 
Fig. 71. A double-kitten. This specimen shows a type of abnormal 
development of the egg during the early stages. Such double monsters may 
be found throughout the animal kingdom, showing that embryological de- 
velopment is uncertain. (Photographed from specimen-Southwestern 
College.) 
One of the most important considerations relative to cellu- 
lar behavior as a factor of variation might be presented by 
turning back to figure 69. During the process of maturation 
of the germ cell, it was shown that the number of chromosomes 
was reduced one-half before fertilization in order that the off- 
spring may not have twice the usual number. The father and 232 
The Laws of Life 
the mother each furnish one-half their number of chromosomes 
in order that the cell from which the future child is to be 
formed may possess the correct number. Should exactly the 
Fig. 72. Radiograph of the double-kitten shown on the preceding page. 
same chromosomes, carrying the same characters, unite during 
two successive processes in the formation of two individuals, 
these children would be identical in every imaginable respect. Causes of Variation 
233 
Since the number of characteristics is so great, this would be 
next to impossible. In very rare cases of "identical" twins, 
the two individuals receive an unusually large number of char- 
acters of the same constitution. However, it must be noted 
that identical twins are supposed to be formed from a single 
^gg-each half of the egg at the two-cell stage separating 
from the other and forming a distinct individual (Figs. 71, 72 
and 73). Common twins result from the fertilization of two 
separate eggs. This combination of maternal and paternal 
chromatin makes the possibility of identical children, thru 
chromosome combinations, even more remote. Just as the 
twenty-six letters of the English alphabet are capable of being 
combined into hundreds of thousands of words, the chromatin 
in the human egg and sperm may be united in countless com- 
binations of characteristics. A compound cell, one-half of 
which is paternal and the other half maternal, will naturally 
differ from either parent, because, in it, the characteristics 
of both are blended or stand out in combinations. This proc- 
ess of uniting two sets of hereditary factors of quite different 
origin is called amphimixis (Weismann) and is held to be one 
of the most effective means of producing variations and un- 
usual combinations of characteristics. 
According to the principle of amphimixis, the greater the 
differences in the two lines of germ plasm, the greater should 
be the variation of the offspring. Actual breeding establishes 
the truth of this assumption and lends strong support to Weis- 
mannism. However, attention should be called to the fact that 
the principles as set forth by Weismann have received some 
modification and much extension. Perhaps the most important 
line of development in this regard is the correlations that have 
been made between Weismannism and Mendelism. It seems 
quite conclusive from the great mass of growing evidence that 
these recombinations (amphimixis) conform strictly to the 
Mendelian Laws of inheritance, which are considered in the 
following chapter. This fact gives the breeder much more 
hope for progress, since it puts him in a better position to 234 
The Laws of Life 
make wise selections of known favorable material in both 
plants and animals. 
Our knowledge of amphimixis, or germinal recombinations 
(including extreme cases of hybrids), is growing by leaps and 
bounds. In fact, many cases which have been cited as mutants 
are now known to be hybrids or offspring from mixed races, 
Fig. 73. A type of identical twins. The fact that these specimens 
were nourished by the same umbilical cord shows that they are identical 
twins, having been formed in the same embryological membrane. It is sup- 
posed that identical twins are formed by a complete cleavage of the egg 
during early development. Such double-monsters were possibly formed by a 
less complete .division than is the case with the usual identical twins which 
are normal at birth. (Photographed from specimen-Southwestern College.) 
many of which can be explained on the basis of Mendelian 
segregation (See Chap. XVIII). One very striking example 
is found in the records of Darwin of a ''sport" (mutant) lamb 
which appeared from a merino mother (1826) and which 
gave rise to a breed of sheep whose fleece was much superior 
to that of the original breed. It was later shown that this 
lamb was a hybrid between two separate breeds. In view of Causes of Variation 
235 
recent investigations, it behooves us to be very cautious in 
order that we may not overstate the importance of mutation 
to the practical plant and animal breeder. Cases that ap- 
pear to be examples of mutation should be recorded as such 
only after the most rigorous scrutiny in order to ascertain 
whether or not it is a complicated example of amphimixis. 
Pearl himself suggested that his supposed "mutation" in egg 
production might come under the Mendelian Law. 
From the year that De Vries announced his results with 
the evening primrose, critics have assumed his original plant 
((Enothera lamarckiand) to be a mixed form. If this were 
the case, the various forms (See Chap. XIII) which he called 
"mutants" would merely have been new combinations, which 
perhaps would fall in line with Mendel's work. For some time, 
interest in this subject waned but a new group of opponents 
are now challenging these "mutations" of De Vries 
which form the basis for the mutation theory of evolution. 
Altho it seems to have been shown quite recently that two 
of these mutants arose as factor mutants and three by a de- 
parture from the usual number of chromosomes-which, of 
course, would be true mutations-data seem to be accumulat- 
ing to show that other forms arose by slight hybridization or 
amphimixis. Regardless of the final result of this line of in- 
vestigation, the mutation theory has given great impetus to 
the study of experimental evolution, the benefits of which have 
been far-reaching in scope. No human being, at least in the 
civilized countries, has been exempted from the benefits which 
have been derived from a study of the many types of varia- 
tion. Who has not profited by the improvements that have 
been made in cattle, hogs, sheep, grains, vegetables, and fruits? 
Moreover, these "impractical" and indeed theoretical prin- 
ciples are destined to develop into even a more profitable type 
of work in various phases of practical agriculture. 
Amphimixis may be presented in various stages of effec- 
tiveness, depending upon the diversity of the parents. Par- 
ents which are almost identical in their characteristics would 236 
The Laws of Life 
be the most likely to produce offspring similar to themselves; 
parents with somewhat different germ plasms will present cor- 
respondingly different offspring; those differing still more will 
produce sterile hybrids; and those of great diversity will not 
produce offspring at all. It is the production of hybrids thru 
the principle of amphimixis which forms the principal basis 
of Luther Burbank's works. 
In addition to the recombination of germinal material 
(amphimixis), individuals with new or changed characteristics 
undoubtedly appear suddenly without any perceptible cause. 
In other words, sudden germinal alterations (mutations) must 
take place. This is perhaps brought about by some environ- 
mental influence acting upon the germ cells more or less in ac- 
cordance with Weismann's views. Certain workers have called 
attention to the fact that the germ cells might be changed 
in this direct manner by variations in their nutrition, and by 
other similar means. It is known that the germ cells receive 
their nourishment in the same manner as do the body cells- 
thru the blood circulation. Therefore, since it is easily ob- 
served that the body cells are influenced by external factors 
acting thru the circulatory system, would it not seem logical 
to conclude that the germ cells may be acted upon in the 
same way? Metcalf suggests that "variations in animals might 
be due to the conditions of nutrition of the germ cells from 
which they come." 
In addition to nourishment, the blood may carry any poi- 
sons or other substances that may be in solution to the vari- 
ous tissues of the body, including the reproductive organs. 
By so doing, the germ cells might be acted upon thru "in- 
duction." This peculiar condition is given consideration in 
a later chapter (XXVII) in which the "Inheritance of Dis- 
eases" is discussed. In the way of a summary, it should be 
noted that of the two ways of altering the individual-somatic 
modifications and germinal alterations or recombinations- 
the former probably renders but little, if any, effect upon the 
moulding of the race. This will be more evident from the nu- Causes of Variation 
237 
merous illustrations which will be given in Chapter XXIX to 
show that somatic modifications are but transitory. 
It is a matter of common observation that plants vary in 
size and productiveness. These characters are often deter- 
mined in the offspring by the germinal qualities of the parents. 
But, it is a very obvious fact that environment and induction 
play a very large part in somatic variations in plants. A bed 
of radishes may be noted in which the plants are of varying 
sizes, and in different degrees of health and sturdiness. The 
seeds may have been uniformly fertile; they may have been 
planted at the same time, and under ideal conditions; the 
plants may have all sprouted at practically the same time. 
Subsequent differences in temperature, moisture, and soil con- 
ditions largely account for the variations in the maturing 
plants. If the seeds were sown thickly, and should the young 
plants remain unthinned, a process of "struggle for existence" 
would take place in which the "unfit" would be crowded out 
or forced to lead a stunted existence. 
The element of food must be a vital determiner of size and 
sturdiness in animals as well as in plants. In a favorable en- 
vironment, plants and animals will develop normally; but if 
the environment changes in an unfavorable direction, they will 
develop abnormally or not at all. A return to the original 
environment will be conducive to the original normal develop- 
ment of the plant or animal, provided the change would not 
be too radical. Identical environments and internal physio- 
logical conditions would tend to produce identical results from 
identical strains. CHAPTER XVI 
HYBRIDIZATION 
Hybridized Plants-Hybrid Vigor-Hybridized Animals- 
"Grading"-Dairy Cows-The Zebu-Hereford Hybrid. 
Hybridized Plants.-The fact that a plant with new char- 
acteristics can be produced by crossing two allied species or 
varieties has been known for many years. Altho Kolreuter 
(1776), Gartner and other workers of the Eighteenth and early 
Nineteenth Centuries observed a few facts regarding the re- 
sults of such crosses, it remained for Darwin to formulate some 
vital principles which attracted the attention of the botanists 
and the commercial plant breeders. Perhaps the most valuable 
result obtained from the uniting of two foreign strains of char- 
acteristics is in the increased vigor of the resulting hybrid. 
By hybridizing certain plants and animals, man is able not 
only to materially extend the field of his activity but also to in- 
crease the annual production of farm products to the extent 
of millions of dollars. Hunter suggested that the new variety 
of potatoes which Luther Burbank succeeded in growing a few 
years ago "has already enriched the farms of this country 
about $20,000,000." Another one of Burbank's hybrids which 
has become well known is the Climax Plum which was origi- 
nated by crossing the bitter Chinese plum and an edible Japa- 
nese variety. The "Plumcot," as the name might suggest, is 
a cross between the plum and the apricot. 
It must not be concluded, as seems to be the popular im- 
pression, that Burbank is responsible for the majority of the 
work in the field of plant hybridization. Although he is adding 
immense wealth to our country by his "trial and error" method, 
a number of other workers whose names are but little known 
238 Hybridization 
239 
outside of the scientific world are patiently carrying on sys- 
tematic experiments and are thus placing hybridization on a 
scientific basis. It is indeed the works of such investigators as 
East, Shull, Jones, Hayes, and scores of minor workers, which 
are laying the foundation for much more successful work in 
the future. The "hit and miss" method in which thousands 
of plants are destroyed before a single useful one is obtained 
is to be complimented only when supported by such a master- 
ful hand as Luther Burbank, but it lends little stimulation to 
future plant breeders. 
As in all other fields of investigation, the great need is a 
systematic knowledge of the laws and principles which are 
associated with and govern hybridization. These, so far as 
has been ascertained, are compiled most admirably in Plant 
Genetics (Coulter and Coulter, The University of Chicago 
Press) under the title of Hybrid Vigor. It seems quite 
pertinent to present a few of these principles. 
"Darwin . . . states that crossing hastens the time of 
flowering and maturing and increases the size of the individual. 
He adds the very important fact that it is not mere crossing 
that gives the stimulus, but crossing forms that differ in the 
constitution of their sex elements; in other words, crossing be- 
tween individual flowers on the same plant gives no advantage. 
. . . Shull's conclusions up to the year 1910 may be summar- 
ized as follows: His work was entirely with corn, and the 
conclusions contained some very significant points. 'The pro- 
geny of every self-fertilized corn plant is of inferior size, vigor, 
and productiveness, as compared with the progeny of a nor- 
mally cross-bred plant derived from the same source.' In gen- 
eral this conclusion would be admitted by everyone, but it 
raised one question. It was known that when two races have 
been inbred for many generations they frequently 'run out,' 
gradually losing their vigor. In such a case a cross between the 
two races tends to restore the original vigor. The remaining 
question, however, is whether the same thing may be effected 
by a cross between two inbred races which have not run out but 240 
The Laws of Life 
remain in normal vigor. Shull answers that hybrid vigor is ex- 
hibited when both parents are above the average condition as 
well as when they are below it. 
"Another question which naturally arises is as follows: 
When these crosses are made it is of course the Fx [first] 
generation that shows the hybrid vigor. If the Fx generation 
is inbred, what is the status of the F2 [second] generation 
with reference to vigor? Shull answers this question in the 
following general way. 'The decrease in size and vigor which 
accompanies self-fertilization is greatest in the first generation, 
and becomes less and less in each succeeding generation, until 
a condition is reached in which there is (presumably) no more 
loss of vigor.' ... 'A cross between sibs (sister and brother) 
within a self-fertilized family shows little or no improvement 
over self-fertilization in the same family.' ... 'A cross be- 
tween plants belonging to two self-fertilized families results 
in a progeny of as great vigor, size, and productiveness as are 
possessed by families which have never been self-fertilized.' The 
conclusion from this is that inbreeding results in no permanent 
loss of vigor. A race may 'run out' if inbred continuously, but 
when crossed with another race it immediately seems to regain 
all the original vigor. It is as tho all germ plasm con- 
tains the potentiality of developing vigorous individuals. This 
potentiality, however, cannot express itself until the proper 
combination of conditions arises, and this proper combina- 
tion seems to be connected with hybridizing. 
" 'Reciprocal crosses between two distinct self-fertilized 
families are equal in producing hybrid vigor. When reciprocal 
crosses are equal it immediately suggests Mendelian segrega- 
tion. Is it possible that hybrid vigor may be explained in 
terms of Mendelism?' ... In connection with this work East 
was undertaking to discover the nature of hybrid vigor. In 
what respects are such hybrids vigorous? In reply to this 
question East offers the following analysis of hybrid vigor. 
Primarily it is an increase and acceleration of cell division; 
in other words an increase in the power of assimilation. One Hybridization 
241 
can early observe a slight increase in the size of the cotyledons. 
The more rapid growth and earlier maturity of the seedlings 
is quite noticeable. Then one sees a distinct increase in the 
size of the roots. In the stem there is no increase in the num- 
ber of nodes, but the internodal development is striking. Usu- 
ally the stem growth is greater than the leaf growth, but the 
increase of the latter can be definitely traced. The size of the 
flower is usually not affected, nor is there any change in the 
size of small fruits, such as tobacco. In fleshy fruits, such as 
tomato and eggplant, there is a marked increase. On the indi- 
vidual plant there are distinctly more flowers and fruits, and 
in some cases separate inflorescences are longer, such as the 
ears of corn." 
It has been noted from the above quotations that hybridiza- 
tion does not render the same result in the case of all crosses. 
In one cross a very vigorous and markedly different plant may 
be produced while in another no noticeable difference is ob- 
tained. In the case of hybridized tobacco, the vigor is re- 
duced. This is due, in a measure, to the fact that this plant is 
a self-fertilizing species. It has been suggested by East and 
others that the differences in the results, obtained by certain 
crosses, are due to the dissimilarities in the genetic constitu- 
tion of the parents. That is, if the characteristics of the 
plants which are to be crossed are quite diverse, the hybrid 
will be more vigorous than if the parents are quite similar. 
Coulter and Coulter summarize East's conclusion regarding 
this point as follows: "Hybrid vigor is proportional to the 
number of factors in which parents differ." 
Hybridized Animals.-It is extremely interesting to note 
that the principles which underlie hybridization of plants do 
not seem to apply with equal force in the animal kingdom. 
Altho a number of cases are cited in which crosses between 
animals result in quite divergent forms with increased vigor, 
it is claimed by many zoologists that a loss of vigor is the gen- 
eral rule. This lack of agreement between the botanists and 
the zoologists may be due, to a certain extent, to the fact that Fig. 74. The result of grading scrub dairy cattle with pure-bred Hol- 
stein-Friesian bulls. A scrub cow from a point in Arkansas where no 
thoroughbred stock had been used was mated to a thoroughbred Holstein- 
Friesian bull and produced the grade cow B which showed most of the 
Holstein-Friesian characteristics except color markings. C was produced 
by crossing a thoroughbred Holstein-Friesian bull with the grade cow B. 
This calf would pass as a Holstein-Friesian. It will thus be seen that 
within only two or three generations the standard of a herd may be raised 
through grading. (From Babcock & Clausen, after Kildee & McCandlish, 
Iowa, A. E. S.) 
242 Hybridization 
243 
hybridization has progressed so much further in the plant 
kingdom than it has in the animal kingdom. Until the last 
few years, the animal breeders abhorred the admission of for- 
eign blood into their breeding pens. Their whole scheme of 
improvement was based upon the selection of the best ma- 
terial and breeding wholly from it. Their system is still to be 
complimented, but it must be remembered that other factors 
are as useful even in animal breeding. In truth, the selection 
Fig. 75. A Gujarat zebu cow. Imported from India and considered 
an unusually superior specimen of the breed. (By permission of the Jour- 
nal of Heredity.) 
principle-based largely upon the old theory of inheritance 
of acquired characteristics-has been carried to such an ex- 
treme that even the present-day breeding associations refuse 
Io recognize anything but registered stock whose pedigree 
must show conclusively that no crossing has been done. 
The first material advance over the above system was ex- 
emplified in a process known as grading (Fig. 74). "In prac- 
tical animal breeding, grading refers to the method of im- 
proving a herd of animals of indifferent blood by the use of 244 
The Laws of Life 
pure-bred sires." Practical use is made of grading in the 
Colorado Rockies where thoroughbred bulls range with scrub 
cows. There the herds spend the winter in the fertile valleys 
and in the spring journey up the mountain slopes to timber- 
line where they feast upon the luxuriant grass until driven 
down again in the fall by the early snows. All the time while 
they are on the range, these scrub cows are under the watchful 
care of both the cowboys and the sturdy thoroughbred bulls. 
If, perchance, a scrub bull should find his way into this herd, 
Fig. 76. An F Zebu-Hereford. The Hereford characteristics appear 
to be predominant. (By permission of the Journal of Heredity.) 
he would stand but little chance of mating, for he would soon 
be subdued and driven away by the great thoroughbred. Thus, 
year after year, the standards of these western herds are raised 
both by supplying them with standard bulls and by selling off 
the poorest cows. This procedure is extremely practical, 
as an unreasonable investment would be necessary in order to 
supplant the native cows with thoroughbreds. As an added 
factor, it would be a hazardous undertaking to subject the lat- 
ter to such a new and rigorous environment. 
If the use of only one standard parent renders such a 
marked effect upon the offspring, how much more might be Hybridization 
245 
expected if the excellent qualities of both parents could be 
combined in the offspring? In fact, cross-breeding itself has 
proved to be of practical value when practiced with a very defi- 
nite end in view. Thus, in crossing the zebu (Fig. 75) with 
Hereford cattle, hybrids (Fig. 76) are obtained which seem 
to have a very high resistance to the foot-and-mouth disease. 
This cross is very easily made, and the offspring thrive most 
admirably. On the - other hand, certain difficulties are con- 
fronted when the bison (Bison Americanus, the common Ameri- 
can buffalo) is crossed with domestic cows, for the hybrid pos- 
sesses such a bison-like hump that parturition is very diffi- 
cult-often causing the death of the mother. Since this cross 
results in the production of an animal possessing many of the 
admirable characters of both parents-especially vigor, size 
and superior coat-the above difficulty should not cause ex- 
perimentation to cease. By utilizing the hybrid females (the 
males seem to be sterile) in certain crosses, and by long con- 
tinued selection, it might be possible to obtain a breed which 
would prove of much value to American stock growers. CHAPTER XVII 
STERILITY IN HYBRIDS 
One Explanaton of Hybrid Sterility-The "mule" as a Type- 
Noted Cases of Mules Reproducing-Bryant's Reproducing Mule 
-Contradictory Evidences-Extreme Diversity means Sterility. 
The problem of sterility of Hybrids has attracted much 
attention and many forms have been studied, the causes of 
most of which seem to be traceable to one general explanation 
based upon the mechanism of Fertilization. In order to better 
understand these general principles of hybrid sterility, it seems 
wise to consider the subject from the standpoint of one par- 
ticular well known animal-the common mule. 
The Mule As a Type of Sterile Hybrid.-A study of the 
early cells of the testes of this animal shows normal cells with 
fifty ordinary chromosomes and one sex-determiner. It will 
be remembered that the horse has only thirty-six, plus the 
extra chromosome (Refer to Chap. XIV). "This suggests 
that the number in the ass is about sixty-five, thus making the 
difference of about twenty-eight chromosomes between the par- 
ent and the hybrid." With such a marked difference in the 
number of chromosomes in the parents, one would expect a 
catastrophe somewhere along the line of cellular development. 
Indeed the germ cells do meet with such a disaster while in the 
process of ripening (Fig. 69, 4 and 5). We have shown in 
other forms that the maternal and the paternal chromosomes 
are not directly associated in the somatic and early germ cells, 
but lie side by side, divide and carry on their other necessary 
functions independently thru the same cell. This clearly 
accounts for the real existence of the mule. Should these 
chromosomes not act independently, the conflict would occur at 
246 Sterility in Hybrids 
247 
fertilization and thus the mule would be an impossibility. This 
independent action further permits the existence of the desir- 
able characteristics of both the horse and the ass in one inter- 
mediatex individual, but it does not explain the impossibility of 
an offspring of this hybrid. 
It will be shown that when the germ-plasms from two indi- 
viduals are recombined in the offspring, the offspring exhibits 
a degree of sterility ranging from complete fertility to com- 
plete sterility, and as a general rule, the degree of fertility 
depends upon the diversity of the parents. Those parents 
Fig. 77. Abnormal division of the germ cells of the mule is due to the 
fact that the parents of this animal pass to the offspring a very unequal 
number of chromosomes. (After Wodsedalek.) 
which are only slightly dissimilar produce fertile offspring 
with but minor variations; those which are dissimilar in more 
marked respects produce partially sterile hybrids; if still 
more diverse, completely sterile hybrids and finally, if the 
forms noted are extremely diverse, no offspring will be pro- 
duced. 
While considering the typical ripening stage of cellular 
maturation, it was noted that there is a pairing of 
homologous chromosomes from father and mother. "In the 
case of the mule, however, because the ovum and the sperm 
contributed such unequal numbers of chromosomes, there are 248 
The Laws of Life 
many without a homologue with which to mate, and even in 
the case of homologues the physiological incompatibility of 
the two plasms renders the pairing difficult and incomplete, 
or prevents it entirely." This disturbance is sufficient to 
cause a destruction of the ripening germ cells. Wodsedalek 
(1916) insists that: "Most of the cells disintegrate during 
Fig. 78. A Reproducing "mule" (?). The large animal here shown is 
said to be the offspring of a half-blood Percheron stallion and a black 
Spanish jennet, and her twin foal (one of which lived only two days) is 
supposed to have been sired by a gray mammoth jack. The colts would 
therefore be three-fourths ass and one-fourth horse. (Journal of Heredity.) 
the prophase, especially during the period of synapsis. Others 
meet their fate in the metaphase or the early anaphase stage 
(7, Fig. 69). The remaining few that survive the anaphase 
succumb soon after, and no secondary spermatocytes nor 
spermatids and consequently no spermatozoa are formed and 
the hybrid remains sterile. Sterility in Hybrids 
249 
"There are no authentic cases on record showing fertility 
ever occurs in this hybrid." (Fig. 77.) 
Shortly after Wodsedalek uttered these sweeping conclu- 
sions, Lloyd-Jones of the Iowa State College cited {Journal of 
Heredity, Nov., 1916), a number of cases from literature in 
which female mules and "hinnies" were claimed to be the mothers 
of colts. The most "authentic" case cited was that of a hinny 
owned by Mr. J. M. Bryant of Quincy, Indiana. This hinny 
was reported as having been in foal three times. The first 
two colts were deformed and died, but the last pregnancy 
resulted in normal twins (Fig. 78; also see Fig. 79). Another 
Fig. 79. A mare mule (?) with a foal by a Percheron stallion. (From 
Babcock and Clausen, after Lloyd-Jones.) 
interesting case is reported by Dr. D. W. Sullivan of Weed, 
California. This animal is supposed to be out of a standard 
bred mare and a mammoth jack. She was put to a black 
Percheron stallion and produced a male "grade mule." 
Even tho common observation as well as cytological 
investigations (Wodsedalek, 1916; also see Goldsmith, 1917), 250 
The Lazos of Life 
seem to establish the fact that the production of offspring 
by the common mule is an impossibility, the above cases were, 
for a while, accepted as scientific facts. The investigations 
of the author (Am. Jour. Vet. Med., Sept. 1918), however, 
revealed the fact that these and similar cases should not be 
accepted until thoroughly investigated. Babcock and Clausen 
feel quite positive that the California animal reported by 
Lloyd-Jones is not a mule but rather a common mare which 
"exhibits mule-like characters." The following resume of the 
evidence regarding the non-authenticity of the Indiana case 
is clipped from the published records of the author. 
A visit to Quincy, Indiana, revealed some interesting facts re- 
garding the reproducing mule owned by J. M. Bryant. In the 
first place, the owner expressed great disappointment when I ap- 
peared at his farm without announcing my visit, as he stated that 
he would like to have had time to "trim the mule up a little." In 
fact, the first glance at the animal suggested that considerable 
"trimming" would be necessary before it would resemble the "mule" 
pictured in various journals and exhibited at the county fairs. 
When it was definitely established that the animal under con- 
sideration had produced offspring, her parentage was investigated. 
Lloyd-Jones states that "Some have doubted her breeding until 
they heard her voice, which resembles more the neigh of the horse." 
If the voice does resemble that of the horse, which the writer ques- 
tions, this fact certainly would not establish the parentage. Mr. 
Bryant claims that this animal is from a "black Spanish jennet 
by a dark chestnut half-blood Percheron stallion." It developed, 
however, that this was only a supposed accidental mating. Mr. 
Bryant states that the jennet (mother of the animal considered) 
was bred to a jack owned by G. Cradick, Gosport, Indiana, almost 
fourteen months before the animal under consideration was born 
(July 20, 1904). The owner claimed that it is impossible for a 
jennet to carry a colt that length of time, hence the father must 
have been a three-year-old pony which was in the pasture with the 
jennet after she was supposed to have been with foal. The owner 
seems to have stated to Lloyd-Jones that "about nine years ago he 
bred a dark chestnut half-blood Percheron stallion to a black Span- 
ish jennet" and obtained the above considered animal. 
If we assume that the above report is correct, and that the 
jennet was mated to the jack about fourteen months before a colt 
was born, the question then arises as to the possibility of a jennet 
"carrying a colt" almost two months longer than the normal period Sterility in Hybrids 
251 
of gestation, since this is the basis of Mr. Bryant's assumption that 
the stallion is the father of the above considered animal. 
In view of the investigations on deferred fertilization, this case 
would not be surprising. Summer (Biol. Bui., April, 1916), while 
breeding certain mice, found that in some the period from the last 
copulation to the date of birth was more than twice the normal 
period of gestation (22 days). In his record case No. 5, the last 
opportunity for copulation was May 17 and the birth of the litter 
did not occur until July 3-more than twice the period of gestation. 
In the face of such facts, we do not seem justified in concluding 
that it would be impossible for a jennet to give birth to a colt al- 
most fourteen months after copulation. 
Despite the claims of the owner to the contrary, Mr. Cradick 
states in writing that "Mr. Bryant never bred any jennet to the 
jack until July 20, 1906." If we are to accept the breeding records 
of Mr. Cradick, the date of birth was July, 1907-three years later 
than Mr. Bryant reported to the writer. However, according to 
the information given to Lloyd-Jones, the animal was about nine 
years old in 1916. By counting back it will be noted that the date 
of birth, according to this statement, was in 1907. Since Mr. 
Bryant associates July 20 with the birth, indications are that the 
exact date was July 20, 1907. The period of gestation would 
therefore be from July 20, 1906 (according to Cradick) to July 
20, 1907-exactly twelve months. According to this analysis of 
the conflicting statements, the animal which has attracted so much 
attention is a normal jennet-the father being the Gosport jack 
and the mother the Quincy jennet. The twins (Fig. 78) pictured 
by Lloyd-Jones and others would, therefore, be common jennet 
colts. The fact that the period of gestation of this mother is 
twelve months (July 7, 1914, to July 11, 1915, in the case of the 
above twins) further suggests that she is a normal jennet, as eleven 
months is the normal period for the horse. 
In the case of either statement of the owner to Lloyd-Jones or 
to the writer regarding the age of the animal, it seems quite con- 
clusive that the Indiana case of a "Mule That Breeds" is not a 
hinny mule but a common jennet and thus should be cancelled 
from the breeding and scientific records. 
The same should be concluded of the California case, and 
others, until substantial proof is presented. The principal object 
of many of these non-authentic reports is to deceive the people and 
thus to collect an admission fee at the county fairs. 
The writer has been informed of a number of other cases of 
reproducing "mules" but none of them have developed into authen- 
tic cases. As a type of these, the following, which was clipped 
from a large hand bill, will suffice to show the insincerity of the 
owners. 252 
The Laws of Life 
ONE OF 
THE 7 WONDERS 
OF THE WORLD 
KATE-The Mule That Gave Birth to a Horse Colt 
No Fake, Pronounced Genuine by Veterinarians and Scientists 
Every Investigation and Test Proves the Genuineness of This 
REAL FREAK OF NATURE 
NOW ON EXHIBITION 
At This Fair Ground 
Owned by Sam Edwards and Don Burgess of Caruthersville, 
Mo.-Exhibition in Charge of Pete Winters 
Mr. Q. C. Dobbins, veterinarian, at Bedford, Indiana, in a 
personal letter to the author reported another interesting case. 
"This mare mule of fine type aborted a colt in the Bourbon Stock 
Yards, Louisville, Kentucky. . . . This mule was bought by the 
Kentucky Agricultural College, for experimental purposes, I pre- 
sume. These are facts. Miles Standish of Bedford, Indiana, 
owned her and sold her to the Kentucky school." Certain com- 
munications to the parties concerned failed to bring a verification 
of this report. Sterility in Hybrids 
253 
Regardless of the controversy over the subject of the 
sterility of the common mule, it should be evident to the reader 
that the cause of sterility in the offspring of quite diverse 
parents may be traced back to the union of the sperm and 
the egg in fertilization. Such problems can, therefore, be 
said to be ones of variation through amphimixis and hybridi- 
zation. Such technical facts form the basis for an explanation 
of the practical results obtained by the breeder. The value 
of "technical" explanations is found to be in a definite and 
tangible method of investigation, as opposed to "trial and 
error." CHAPTER XVIII 
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE 
LAWS OF INHERITANCE 
Introduction-Mendel's Experiments-Artificial Fertilization 
-Mono-hybrids-Heterozygotes-Homozygotes-Laws of Domi- 
nance-Principle of Presence and Absence of the Determiner of 
Characteristics-Law of Segregation-Unit Characters-Di-hy- 
brids-Tri-hybrids. 
"We are, at last, on the first round of the ladder leading to an 
exact knowledge of the phenomena of heredity." 
"An exact determination of the laws of heredity will probably 
work more changes in man's outlook on the world, and in his power 
over nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can 
be clearly foreseen." 
Introduction.-During the middle and latter part of the 
Nineteenth Century, the entire thinking world was held spell- 
bound by the startling and epoch-making works of Charles 
Darwin and his few supporters. The publication of the 
Origin of Species (1859) marked the beginning of a period 
of almost two decades of seething controversy. The intro- 
duction of Darwinism was like the promulgation of a new 
religion, in which converts were won only thru the keenest 
kind of argumentation. 
It is not surprising that a new theory, advanced by a more 
or less obscure character, should be lost in the midst of these 
heated controversies. Such was the fate of the records of 
the now famous experiments with garden peas performed by 
the Austrian monk, Johann Gregor Mendel. Although his 
works were scarcely recognized by his former teacher, Karl 
Nageli, they are now considered the basis for the improvement 
254 Principles Underlying the Laws of Inheritance 
255 
of cattle, horses, grains, fruits, and even of the human race. 
Regardless of the fact that recent investigators have enlarged 
upon and formulated valuable explanations for the principles 
set forth by Mendel, they are still considered by both 
zoologists and botanists to be "models of genetic investiga- 
tion." Coulter says, "Mendel's law is the basis of all work in 
Fig. 80. Gregor Mendel, 1822-1884. (From Locy, after Bateson.) 
genetics and should be understood from its original state- 
ment to its somewhat complex development." In view of the 
great importance attached to the subject of Mendelism, it 
seems expedient to present a somewhat detailed consideration 
of its cardinal points. 
Mendel and His Experiments.-Gregor Mendel (Fig. 80) 
was the son of an Austrian peasant. After being educated 
in Augustinian Foundations, he was ordained as a priest. 256 
The Laws of Life 
"For two or three years lie studied Physics and Natural 
Science in Vienna, and refers to himself as a student of Kollar." 
He was for some time president of the Natural History Society 
of Brunn. Later in life, he was made abbot of his cloister. 
While serving as a monk in the monastery of Brunn, a small 
Austrian village, Mendel seems to have taken particular 
interest in the cultivation and study of various kinds of plants. 
Although he studied plants as a pastime, he was not satisfied 
with the usual casual observations. He delighted especially 
in raising plants which were pure in their type, and crossing 
these pedigreed forms with other pure types. 
Mendel's principal work was based upon the edible pea. In 
all probability, he selected the pea as a basis for his experi- 
ments because it possessed so many different and distinct 
characteristics, and because the flower could be easily pro- 
tected from foreign pollen. This was necessary, as the essen- 
tial features of his work were to cross two different forms, 
count the different kinds of offspring, plant the seed from 
these offspring and study the types from them for a number 
of generations. Mendel experimented with over twenty varieties 
of garden peas. Among the characteristics studied, the fol- 
lowing are the most important: color of the seed, color of the 
pod, position of the flower on the stem, length of the stem, 
and the form of the ripe seed. 
After working for about eight years, he presented his data, 
together with comments, to his former teacher, Karl Nageli, 
of the University of Vienna. Although a very noted worker 
in the field of biology, Nageli did not seem to recognize the 
importance of his former student's experiments, and permitted 
them to sink into oblivion. The only publicity given to them 
was by Mendel himself, who presented the data, with interpre- 
tations, to the members of the Natural History Society of 
Briinn. The paper appeared in the 1865 proceedings of this 
society (Verhandlungen naturf. Verein in Briinn. Abhandl. 
IV, 1865), under the title of "Experiments in Plant Hybridiza- 
tion." Owing to the fact that the minds of the scientists 257 
Principles Underlying the Laws of Inheritance 
were absorbed in the startling claims of Darwin, which they 
considered to be more vital problems, no more was known of 
Mendel's experiments until 1900. 
During these thirty-five years (1865-1900), Darwinism had 
received so many converts that the storm of controversy had 
about passed away. Indeed, long before 1900, the best scien- 
tists had accepted the once "radical" statements of Darwin 
as facts, and had turned their minds in pursuit of other phases 
of knowledge of the subject. However, a large amount of the 
investigation was influenced by Darwin. This is shown in the 
epoch-making discoveries of 1900; for, "this year marks the 
beginning of a new era in the study of inheritance." This 
year was, indeed, made memorable in the annals of science by 
the significant works of, particularly, three investigators rep- 
resenting as many nations; namely, Hugo de Vries of Holland, 
von Tschermak of Austria, and Correns of Germany. It is 
indeed remarkable that these three men, working independently 
and representing three different nations, should, in the same 
year, publish papers dealing with the same phase of heredity! 
At the same time, De Vries unearthed the old papers of Mendel 
and found them to contain essentially the same principles as 
were contained in his own and these other two papers of the 
new discoverers. These important principles of heredity were 
therefore called Mendelism, although neither of the three 
workers had profited by the faithful work which Mendel had 
done over thirty-five years before. Immediately following 
the publications by the above workers, Bateson in England, and 
Castle in America, issued monographs dealing with the same 
subject. So, as out of the sky, the cardinal principles of 
plant and animal breeding became known to the biologists 
thruout the civilized world. 
Since the Mendelian method of experimentation wfith the 
problems of inheritance was rediscovered in 1900, workers in 
this field have sprung up in every nation where biologists are 
in the least interested in the problems of evolution. The Men- 
delian principles were first found to apply to plants, but 258 
The Laws of Life 
Cuenot (1902) and Bateson soon established the fact that they 
apply to animals as well. Hundreds of amateur workers in 
the field of plant and animal breeding have taken delight in 
repeating the elementary experiments of Mendel and more 
recent workers. This repetition of the experiments of other 
men would naturally lead even the amateur workers to make 
crosses of plants or animals which had not been tried before. 
For example, the author has known high school boys who were 
attracted by Mendel's experiments to repeat them, using corn 
instead of peas. The Mendelian method of experimentation 
has, therefore, become so common that, in many instances, it is 
difficult to state positively who should be given credit for 
certain crosses. Several times the method has been so im- 
Fig. 81. Showing parts of a flower. 1. Stigma. 2. Stamens. 3. Style. 
4. Petals. 5. Ovary. 6. Sepals. 
proved by those who repeated the experiments that they 
deserve more credit than the worker who first attempted it. 
Altho the experiments considered in the following pages are 
all classed as "Mendelian experiments," many of them should 
be credited directly to present-day workers. 
Artificial Fertilization.-Before considering the Mendelian 
experiments, it becomes necessary to explain the method of 
fertilization in typical plants. Although Mendel's experi- 
ments were concerned primarily with garden peas, the work 
in recent years has assumed a much broader aspect so that 
it covers a study of a great number of plants with a view to 
improvement. 
In all experiments with plants it is necessary to protect the Principles Underlying the Laws of Inheritance 
259 
flower from the pollen of plants which are not desired in the 
cross. This is somewhat difficult to accomplish in plants such 
as the edible pea, which is commonly self-fertilized; that is, 
the pollen of one flower enters the stigmas of the same flower 
and thus the flower fertilizes itself. It is, therefore, essential 
to remove the stamens before the anthers begin to shed the 
ripe pollen. (See parts of a flower, Fig. 81.) After the 
stamens are removed, small paper bags are tied over the flower 
(Fig. 82) to prevent indiscriminate fertilization. As pollen 
might be brought from some other flower by the wind or by 
Fig. 82. Paper bags tied over peas showing how to prevent indiscriminate 
fertilization. 
insects, this method of protection must be practiced. When 
the mutilated flower is ripe, pollen from any flower with which 
a cross is desired is dusted upon the stigma of the flower from 
which the stamens have been removed. The pollen may be 
transferred from the anthers of one flower to the stigma of 
another by the use of a small camel's hair brush or by simply 
touching the parts with the tip of the finger. Since, with 
any species, pollen may be in the air, it is necessary to exercise 
the greatest precaution to prevent the admission of foreign 
pollen during the process of the experiment. For example, 260 
The Laws of Life 
among the many precautions, it is usually advisable to rinse 
the fingers and instruments in alcohol before each experiment. 
After the period of pollination is over, the sacks are removed 
and the plants are watched and the results recorded. The 
seeds produced from such a cross are said to be hybridized, 
and the plants produced from these seeds are hybrids. Such 
plants, of which a record of the ancestral characteristics is 
kept, are pedigreed-a term which is also used in animal 
breeding. 
Various methods are employed in the pollination of different 
plants, but space will be given for a brief consideration of only 
one of these which was (Ind. Acad, of Sci., 1917) devised by 
Weatherwax for the pollination of corn. An elongated enve- 
lope, open at both ends, reenforced at the bottom by a fold 
in the paper, and paraffined to make it waterproof, is slipped 
over the ear before the silks are receptive. Cotton is stuffed 
in from below to make the envelope tight and still give ventila- 
tion. Then the top is folded over and fastened with a paper 
clip. Pollen is collected in a paper sack which has been 
slipped over the tassels of the plant with which a cross is 
desired. In order to pollinate, the clip is removed from the 
paraffined bag and the pollen is emptied in over the silks. 
The clip is then replaced over the folded top to prevent the 
admission of foreign pollen. The whole is removed when ample 
time has been allowed for complete fertilization. 
Before attempting any experiment in Mendelian inheritance, 
it is necessary that the experimenter be familiar with three 
facts regarding the plant or animal with which he expects to 
work. First, certain distinct and differentiated characteristics 
must be recognized. It would be useless to cross two varieties 
of corn without being able to recognize the characteristics of 
each variety. The more distinct these characteristics are, the 
more likely will be the success of the experiments, especially 
for the beginner. The corn which results from a cross between 
a white and a red variety could be clearly recognized as red, 
white, or mixed; and if red and white grains are on the same Principles Underlying the Laws of Inheritance 
261 
ear, they can be counted. Second, the normal breeding habits 
must be understood. This applies particularly to plants. The 
location of the male (pollen) and female (stigma) parts of the 
plant, and the time and method of fertilization must be known. 
The experiments would be somewhat different if both peas and 
corn are to be considered, as the flowers and the methods 
of fertilization are not the same. Third, the fact must be fully 
established that neither of the forms to be crossed is mixed. 
That is, each must breed true to its type. If white and red 
corn should be crossed, and were it not known whether or not 
the red was mixed with some other form, the experiment would 
be useless. In such cases, both types should be planted sepa- 
rately for at least two years in order to see if the red produces 
only red and the white only white. After the above facts are 
understood, even the amateur can proceed successfully with 
the more simple Mendelian experiments. 
Mono-hybrids.-An offspring, produced from parents dif- 
fering in only one characteristic, is called a mono-hybrid, this 
being the simplest type of Mendelian crosses. Since the 
method of fertilization and the general appearance of corn is 
familiar to almost everyone, this plant will be of sufficient 
interest to be used as a type of a simple Mendelian cross. As 
the fertilization of corn is effected by the shedding of pollen 
from the tassels (representing the male part of the plant) 
upon the green silks (attached to the female part), it is a 
very simple matter to alter or control this normal process. 
The essential step lies in preventing the pollen from touching 
the silks until so desired by the experimenter. 
A cross which was originally worked out in detail by East 
and Hayes, the elements of which have been repeated even by 
novices, is one between the "common" white corn and the 
"sweet" corn. The former is spoken of as starchy to contrast 
it with the latter, which does not possess the ability to produce 
mature starch grains. Thus, sweet corn is very wrinkled when 
mature. This wrinkled condition renders it easily distinguish- 
able from the common smooth variety. 262 
The Laws of Life 
Fig. 83. Diagram illustrating the cross between common and sweet corn. Principles Underlying the Laws of Inheritance 
263 
After testing both the common and the sweet corn for two 
years to ascertain their purity (A and B, Fig. 83), the progeny 
(C) are then crossed. That is, the silks of the common corn 
are protected as suggested above. Pollen is collected from 
the tassels of the sweet corn and placed in the sack which 
surrounds and protects the silks of the common smooth variety; 
or, the reverse cross might be made. From this cross, one 
might expect ears bearing both common (starchy) and sweet 
(non-starchy) grains. The facts of the actual experiment, 
however, do not agree with our assumption; for, the cross 
between the sweet and common corn (C, Fig. 83) results in 
only the common starchy grains (D). From the appearance 
of this com (D) it seems as tho the sweet corn had no 
effect, as the ears could not be distinguished from those which 
would be produced by crossing two races of pure smooth corn. 
The matter is entirely different, however, when this corn is 
planted the next year. The plants will bear both common and 
sweet corn (E, Fig. 83). A count will reveal the fact that the 
number of starchy grains will be approximately three times 
the number of sweet grains. That is, suppose that 16,000 
grains are counted, theoretically 12,000 would be common 
smooth starchy ones and 4,000 would be the typical rough 
sweet corn. The results of the investigations of East and 
Hayes reveal the fact that these theoretical Mendelian expecta- 
tions conform very closely to experimental facts. The sum- 
mary of almost a score of different sets of experiments repre- 
senting crosses between many races of starchy and sweet corn 
shows that segregation took place in almost an exact 3:1 ratio. 
With a total of 31,378 grains, 23,531 were found to be starchy 
and 7,847 sweet. This gives a ratio of 2.9997:1.0003-indeed, 
only a very slight deviation from the expected 3:1 ratio. 
If these 4,000 sweet grains mentioned above (wrinkled grains 
in E, Fig. 83) are now planted, they will all produce sweet 
corn (I). The 12,000 starchy grains (E), however, will not 
all breed true, but will yield one-third pure starch producing 
plants (F), and two-thirds mixed starchy and sweet (G and 264 
The Laws of Life 
H). The results, then, of planting the 16,000 grains of the 
generation shown at E (Fig. 83) would be 4,000 plants 
possessing pure starchy characteristics (F), 8,000 mixed 
starchy and sweet (G and H), and 4,000 pure sweet (I). This 
clearly proves that one-fourth of the 16,000 grains possessed 
the ability to mature starch grains and thus would be pure 
starchy; ohe-half possessed factors for both the starchy and 
the non-starchy; and one-fourth carried only pure sweet 
factors. This gives the wonderful 1:2:1 Mendelian ratio 
which is characteristic of many similar crosses not only with 
plants but with animals as wrell. The common starchy ear 
(F) and the sweet corn (I) and their progeny will breed true 
so long as they are planted alone; the mixed ears (G and H) 
will produce the same ratio as did E; namely, one-half mixed, 
one-fourth pure starchy, and one-fourth pure sweet. These 
last mentioned pure grains will breed true, and the mixed ones 
will again breed the three kinds. This process will continue 
ad infinitum so long as the experiment is accurately conducted. 
Although the ear shown in D (Fig. 83) cannot be distin- 
guished from a pure starchy ear, it was produced by crossing 
the common and the sweet corn (C), and, in turn, it produced 
a mixed generation (E). It is therefore a hybrid and the 
process of crossing is known as hybridization. In this con- 
nection, it should be noted that offspring resulting from the 
union of individuals that are hereditarily dissimilar, with 
respect to a definite character, are called heterozygotes, while 
those resulting from crossing individuals which are hereditarily 
similar are spoken of as homozygotes. Although the ears "D" 
and "F" (Fig. 83) look alike, the former is heterozygous and 
the latter homozygous, with respect to the characters under 
consideration. 
Law of Dominance.-Since the hybrid "D" (Fig. 83) was 
produced from common and sweet corn and will, in turn, pro- 
duce a mixture of these two varieties, it is evident that it carries 
some invisible factor which stands for non-starchiness. There- 
fore, the hybrid "D" contained two factors, but one, the sweet, Principles Underlying the Laws of Inheritance 
265 
was suppressed to such an extent that it became invisible. 
Such characteristics which do not appear when two forms 
are crossed are said to be recessive, and those which appear 
to the seclusion of others are termed dominant. In the case 
of the corn considered above, starchiness is dominant and non- 
starchiness is recessive. 
Principle of Presence and Absence of the Determiner of 
Characteristics.-In opposition to the principle of dominance, 
Correns, Bateson, and others claimed that the recessive char- 
acter does not exist and that the non-appearance of any 
character is due to the absence of the determiner which would 
otherwise produce it. For example, the reason corn is sweet 
(non-starchy) is not because it has a determiner for sweet- 
ness but because the factor for the maturing of starch grains 
is absent. The reason hornless cattle are hornless is because 
the factor for the production of horns is absent, rather than 
that the factor for hornlessness is present. The old term, 
"recessive," therefore, is to be taken to signify the absence of 
a factor which produces the dominant character. 
According to the presence and absence hypothesis, "a deter- 
miner for any character is, or is not, present. When it is 
present in two parents, then the offspring receive a double, 
or duplex 'dose,' to use Bateson's word, of the determiner. 
When it is present in one parent only, then the offspring 
have a single, or simplex, 'dose' of the character. When it is 
present in neither parent, it follows that it will not appear 
in the offspring. In this case the offspring are said to be 
nulliplex with respect to the character in question. Take the 
case of tall and dwarf peas; the determiner for tallness, when 
present, produces tall peas, even if it comes from one parent 
only, but if this determiner for tallness is absent from both 
parents, the offspring are nulliplex, that is, the absence of 
tallness results and only dwarf peas are produced" (Walter). 
Such pairs of contrasted characters as the starchiness and 
non-starchiness in the case of the corn considered above are 
called allelomorphs; that is, factors which occur in the same 266 
The Laws of Life 
locus of homologous chromosomes. ( See Chapter XX.) Other 
allelomorphic characters which have been mentioned up to the 
present are: tallness and dwarfness, roundness and wrinkled- 
ness, greenness and yellowness, etc. Allelomorphs, then, are 
paired characteristics, one of which behaves as a dominant 
character and the other as a recessive. 
Law of Segregation.-In the above experiment it was noted 
Fig. 84. Diagrammatic representation of the cross between common 
smooth, starchy corn, C. The dominant character, and sweet, non-starchy 
corn, S. The recessive character. 
that those factors which stood for starchiness and non- 
starchincss first united in the hybrid (D, Fig. 83), and again 
separated in the next generations (See E to I). The separa- 
tion of the two factors which have been united in one individual 
is the operation of another important law of inheritance; 
namely, the Law of Segregation. This law, as well as the 
whole scheme of the experiment considered above, might be 
illustrated further by the graphic representation shown in Principles Underlying the Laws of Inheritance 
267 
figure 84, in which C stands for common, smooth, starchy 
corn and S for sweet. When such crosses are made, the first 
generation is spoken of as the first filial generation, and, for 
brevity, is always designated by Fv The second generation 
is designated by F2, the third by F3, and so on. The parents 
of the hybrid are spoken of as P15 the grandparents as P2, and 
the great-grandparents as P3, etc. The Mendelian notation 
for any hybrid explains the gametic constitution of that 
hybrid. For example, the Fj generation shown in the accom- 
panying figure (Fig. 84) is represented thus, C(S). The fact 
that two letters representing two distinct characteristics are 
Fig. 85. Unit characters illustrated by crossing round and wrinkled 
peas. Recessive characters shown in parenthesis. 
used implies that the plant under consideration is a hybrid 
and the parentheses around the & suggest that this character 
(sweetness, non-starchiness) is in the plant but in a latent form 
and is spoken of as recessive. The C outside the parentheses 
explains which of the parents the ear resembles, thus repre- 268 
The Laws of Life 
senting the dominant character. In F2, these characters segre- 
gate in definite proportions, the Mendelian ratio, and continue 
to do so on down the line of filial generations. 
Unit Characters.-The principle of dominance and segre- 
gation, as well as the entire scheme considered above, is based 
upon the assumption that every individual is made up of a 
number of distinct characters which, although they may be 
located in the same cell, do not blend with each other, so to 
speak, but behave under the present condition as independent 
units. For the convenience of illustration, the round and 
wrinkled peas (referring to the ripe seed) of Mendel will be 
used to demonstrate the point in hand (Fig. 85). It will 
be noted from the gametic constitution of the hybrid Fn 
R(W), that the character "wrinkled" is recessive since the 
W is placed within the parentheses. Thus, it should be evident 
that one-fourth of all the peas of the F2 generation which 
would result from planting those of the Fx generation would 
be pure round, one-half would be hybrids, and one-fourth would 
be pure wrinkled. The same 1:2:1 ratio may be obtained by 
simple algebraic multiplication of the factors involved. 
R + W 
R + W 
RR 4- RW 
RW + WW 
RR + 2RW + WW 
This problem suggests that a pure pedigreed round pea 
should be represented by HR rather than by R, and that a 
pure wrinkled pea should be represented by WW. This double 
unit constitution of the individual will be understood from 
an explanation of the accompanying chart (Fig. 86), which 
shows how the factors in the germ cells behave as units when 
certain crosses are made. 
P3, P2, and Pj represent two generations of breeding to Principles Underlying the Laws of Inheritance 
269 
Pure. Pound 'Zygote. 
Pure. Wrinkled Zygote, j 
Fig. 86. Diagram illustrating behavior of gametes in the cross between 
round and wrinkled peas. 270 
The Laws of Life 
test the purity of the parent peas which are to be crossed. 
Since the parents result from a union of male and female sex 
cells (in their reduced form), they are called zygotes (Gr. 
yoked). And since the peas (zygotes) which are represented 
at the top of the figure (P3, P2, and Pi) breed true to type, 
they are said to possess a double dose of roundness or 
wrinkledness, as the case may be. The round peas are repre- 
sented by large circles and their germ cells are represented 
by small circles inside the large ones; the wrinkled peas and 
their germ cells are represented by large and small irregular 
outlines. A glance will show that a pure pea will contain 
germ cells with outlines similar to the pea itself. The zygotes 
produce sperms and eggs in their reduced form (I, Fig. 86) 
which are spoken of as gametes (Gr. husband or wife; from 
Gr. to marry). If there is no cross between varieties or species, 
similar male and female gametes (I, Fig. 86) unite to produce 
a new zygote, P2. The same process is carried out for Pv 
However, if a male gamete (Right of III) from a pure wrinkled 
parent zygote (Right of Px) unites with a female gamete 
(Left of III) from a pure round parent zygote (Left of Pi), 
a hybrid (Fi) containing factors which stand for both round 
and wrinkled germ cells will be produced. As the illustration 
shows, all hybrids produced by such a cross will be round 
but, of course, will contain "wrinkled" germ cells. Exactly 
similar results would be obtained were an opposite cross made; 
that is, if a female gamete (Right of III) from a wrinkled pea 
(Right of Pi) unites with a male gamete (Left of III) from 
a round pea (Left of Pi), a round pea (Right of F) con- 
taining a germ cell from the wrinkled pea would be produced. 
The illustration shows that every pea (Fx) produced by the 
above cross forms two types of gametes (mature sperms and 
eggs), one carrying the factor for wrinkledness and the other 
the factor for roundness. Furthermore, both male and female 
gametes of each type are formed. If the "round" gamete "c" 
(Right of IV) should, perchance, meet the "round" gamete "a" 
(Left of IV), the pure "round" zygote A (Left of F2) would Principles Underlying the Laws of Inheritance 
271 
be formed. On the other hand, if this same "round" gamete 
"c" (Right of IV) should meet the "wrinkled" gamete "b" (Left 
of IV), a hybrid zygote C (Right of F2) containing both 
"round" and "wrinkled" germ cells would be produced. In 
like manner, if the "wrinkled" gamete "d" (Right of IV) and 
the "round" gamete "a" (Left of IV) would give hybrid B 
(Left of F2) while this same "wrinkled" gamete "D" would 
produce, when united with "B" (Left of IV) a zygote carrying 
a double dose of wrinkledness-thus a pure wrinkled pea. 
It is noted, therefore, that, when explained upon the basis 
of germ cells, one-fourth pure round, one-half hybrids, and 
one-fourth pure wrinkled is the result-the usual 1:2:1 ratio. 
The pure round and pure wrinkled peas as shown at the top 
of the figure again crop out when the germ cells of the hybrids 
(B and C, F2 generation) segregate to form the 1:2:1 ratio 
of pure bred and hybrid peas. This process of segregation 
in the production of pure lines and hybrids will continue so 
long as the experiment is kept up. Throughout the above con- 
sideration, the characters of roundness and wrinkledness be- 
haved as units. Regardless of the number of times they unite 
to form zygotes, they always segregate according to a definite 
law which applies to all unit characters. It must not be 
assumed, however, that every character behaves as unity under 
all conditions, as was the conception in the earlier days of 
Mendelism before the trend of thought was shifted to a con- 
sideration of the factor. Although the unit character concept 
is still known to accord with the results of the experimental 
breeder, especially when considered in connection with certain 
definite contrasts, it will be shown in the following chapter 
that such "unit" characters may, under other conditions, 
behave as compound characters. The discovery of this fact 
did not render useless, as is sometimes supposed, the working 
hypotheses of the earlier Mendelians, but rather it simply rep- 
resents one step further into the field of advanced genetics. 
The question often arises as to how a hybrid possessing 
latent (recessive) characteristics can be told from a pure line. 272 
The Laws of Life 
lor example, how is it possible to tell a pure round pea (RR) 
from an RW when both appear exactly alike? The only 
satisfactory answer that can be given is: ^'Plant them and 
see." In like manner, it is impossible to determine which of 
any two contrasted characters is dominant and which is reces- 
sive until a cross is made. 
Another very simple and general method of determining the 
result of crossing forms differing in one character is pre- 
sented in the following chart (Fig. 87) representing the crosses 
/ 
3| 4_ 
Fig. 87. Diagram showing genetic constitution of the offspring resulting 
from a cross between tall and dwarf peas. 
between hybrid tall and dwarf peas. The letters at the top of 
the figure represent the two types of sperms which are formed, 
while those at the side indicate that some eggs will carry the 
characteristic for tallness (T) and others for dwarfness (D). 
The sperm T meets the egg T and forms the zygote TT which, 
of course, will be a tall pea, since it has a double dose of 
tallness (square 1) ; the sperm D meets the egg T and forms 
the hybrid TD, giving a tall pea, since dwarfness is recessive 
(square 2). The. sperm T meets the egg I) and forms another 
tall hybrid TD (square 3); the sperm I) meets the egg D to 
produce a pea with a double dose of dwarfness, DD (square 4),. 
Since TT and DD represent pure lines, DT and TD, hybrids, Principles Underlying the Laws of Inheritance 
273 
another clear demonstration of the Mendelian 1:2:1 mono- 
hybrid ratio is given. 
All the Fi generation from the cross between polled and 
horned cattle appear to be polled; but, upon further breeding, 
the F2 generation exhibits the characteristic 1:2:1 ratio. Tne 
same is true when pure bred trotting and pacing horses are 
crossed. In the Fj generation the trotting characteristic is 
dominant, but in the F2 generation both characteristics appear 
in the offspring in the Mendelian ratio. How many present- 
day practical farmers would consider a pacing horse thorough- 
bred if both of its parents were trotters and one of its grand- 
parents was a trotter-only one grandparent being a pacer? 
The fact of the case is, however, that such an animal is as 
much a thoroughbred as if he were the last of a long line of 
thoroughbreds which were selected from generation to genera- 
tion. Our knowledge of the Mendelian behavior of such indi- 
viduals resulting from hybrid crosses warrants us in asserting 
that such a pacer would breed true, and, therefore, would be 
a thoroughbred. In like manner, thoroughbred horned cattle 
may be obtained even tho their immediate ancestors were 
polled. When the facts of Mendelism become well known, per- 
haps our whole system of pedigree writing will be revolution- 
ized. 
Kezer and Boyack (Colo. Ag. College, Bull. 249) have re- 
cently reported some interesting results in Mendelian inherit- 
ance which were obtained by crossing certain grains, notably 
wheat and barley. Crosses between Harvest King wheat (red 
chaff) and Fultz Mediterranean wheat (white chaff) resulted 
in an Fx generation in which all the progeny possessed red 
chaff. Evidently, in this cross, the red chaff was dominant 
over the white. When red and smooth chaff (Harvest King) 
was crossd with white and velvet (Fultz Mediterranean), the 
offspring in the generation all showed red and velvet char- 
acteristics. In this case two sets of characteristics are con- 
cerned. The F2 generation of such a cross will not segregate 
in the 1:2:1 ratio, but will produce a different ratio 274 
The Laws of Life 
in accordance with the di-hybrid principles considered 
below. 
Di-hybrids.-Altho the mono-hybrid condition is the 
simplest type of Mendelian inheritance, it must be remembered 
that every plant and animal is made up of many sets of con- 
trasted characters (allelomorphs). The greater the number 
of allelomorphs considered, the more complex becomes the 
problem. When two such pairs of contrasted characters are 
involved in a hybrid, the term di-hybrid is applicable. Altho 
the two pairs of factors are embodied in the same cell, they 
segregate independently of each other and otherwise behave 
as mono-hybrids. For example, Mendel and others have found 
Y R G R Y W GW 
yR YR YR YR YR 
YR GR YW GW 
£ £ 3_ ♦ 
qr GR GR GR GR 
YR GR YW GW 
£ £ Z £ 
YW YW YW YW YW 
YR GR YW GW 
9_ /o // /a 
&w GW GW GW GW 
YR GR YW GW 
/J I /* /6 
Fig. 88. Diagram illustrating di-hybrids. Cross between yellow-round, 
YR, and green-wrinkled, GW, peas, the green and wrinkled characters being 
recessive. 
that when a yellow-round (YR) pea and a green-wrinkled 
(GW) pea are crossed that a yellow-round hybrid is pro- 
duced. Since it was known that the green-w'rinkled character- 
istics must have been passed on to the offspring, the yellow- Principles V nderlying the Laws of Inheritance 
275 
round characters must have been dominant, giving YR (GW) 
as the genetic constitution of the hybrid of such a cross. This 
situation may be clearly visualized by a study of the accom- 
panying checkerboard scheme which was suggested by Conklin 
(Fig. 88). Four types of germ cells may be formed from the 
above hybrid. These may be ascertained by the following 
algebraic multiplication: 
Y + G 
R 4- W 
YR + GR + YW 4- GW 
In other words, when the germ cells mature there will be 
foui- types of sperms and four types of eggs formed; namely, 
yellow-round, green-round, yellow-wrinkled, and greea- 
wrinkled. In turn, when these gametes reunite during fertiliza- 
tion, the sixteen zygotes indicated on the checkerboard will 
be formed. The pea represented by the first square (YR YR) 
will be yellow-round since it receives a double dose of both 
yellowness and roundness; the second will be yellow-round as 
it has a double dose of R, and Y is dominant over G. For these 
and similar reasons, squares 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10 and 13 
represent yellow-round peas; squares 6, 8, and 14 green-round; 
squares 11, 12, and 15 yellow-wrinkled; and square 16 green- 
wrinkled. Thus, in the case of di-hybrids, the individuals of 
the F2 generation may be numerically represented by the fol- 
lowing relative numbers: 9 YR, 3 YW, 3 GR, and 1 GW. This, 
9:3:3:1, is the well-known di-hybrid ratio. 
By a similar method of analysis, the offspring of tri-hybrids 
(plants or animals possessing three sets of contrasted char- 
acters) will be found to appear in the following ratio: 
27:9:9:9:3:3:3:1. When four sets of characters are involved 
there will be 256 possible types of offspring, (3 -f- l)4. When 
it is realized that every higher plant and animal is made up of 
a large number of characters, it is evident that the possible 
kinds of offspring are very great. In case only a dozen sets 276 
The Laws of Life 
of characters are involved, the possible types of progeny will 
reach the enormous number of (3 -f- I)12 or 16,697,216. 
Altho such increasing possibilities render it impractical, 
from the standpoint of breeding, to deal with more than one 
or two characters at a time, the advantages lie in the great 
choice of individuals which differ in salient features and which 
conform to the most variant desires of man. CHAPTER XIX 
FACTOR HYPOTHESIS 
Character vs. Determiner-Determiner vs. Chemical Element- 
Meaning of Factor-Complementary Factor-Reversion-Di-hy- 
brid Ratio in Complementary Factors-Inhibitory and Modifying 
Factors. 
Thruout the foregoing chapter single letters were used 
to represent single characteristics-indicating that every 
character is represented in the germ cell by a distinct deter- 
miner. According to this conception, the determiners in the 
germ cells would be numbered by impossible thousands, since 
every individual possesses countless characteristics. Although 
we do not consider this situation to be the case, we are forced 
to use the old notation, as our knowledge regarding the 
"make-up" of inheritance has not yet advanced sufficiently 
far to enable us to use other methods. Suppose, for the sake 
of comparison, that the chemist should follow the method 
of the biologists and attempt to represent each of the 
thousands of compounds by separate symbol. This arrange- 
ment would be very impractical, for the various compounds 
are made up of a relatively small number of elements. Is it 
not possible, as has been suggested by a number of biologists, 
that there are a comparatively small number of determiners, 
which by their different combinations make up the various 
characteristics in somewhat the same sense as the 86 or more 
elements make up the chemical compounds ? 
As a proof that this conception actually has a substantial 
working basis, it should be noted that a number of instances 
have been cited, in which two or more factors are necessary 
in the production of certain characters, a situation analogous 
277 278 
The Laws of Life 
to the combination of two or more elements to produce a 
certain chemical compound. It is, therefore, no longer to be 
considered that there is always a single "something" which 
acts as a determiner, but rather that various combinations 
of "somethings" called factors, when acting under certain con- 
ditions of combination, produce specific characteristics such 
as hair, skin, or eye color, a certain disposition, etc. This 
consideration of "factors" rather than "determiners" is the 
basis for the factorial hypothesis, which is one of the first steps 
toward the light in the advance of present-day genetics. It 
must not be understood that the idea of factors is intended 
entirely to supplant the determiner concept. In truth, in the 
simple cases of Mendelian inheritance in which a character is 
determined by only one factor, the terms determiner and factor 
are synonymous. In such cases the term determiner should be 
retained. 
The most common examples wherein more than one factor 
is involved in the production of a single characteristic, are 
found in color development in many plants and animals (Com- 
plementary factors). A few of these puzzling cases might be 
mentioned. By crossing red and white corn, East found that 
red was dominant in the Fx generation. According to the 
principle of segregation, set forth in the preceding chapter, one 
would expect the second year's planting of these red hybrids 
to yield the 3:1 ratio-three red to one white. Instead of this 
ratio appearing, the experimenter found 9 red grains to every 
7 that were white. This same unusual 9:7 ratio has been found 
to result from the mating of certain colored rabbits and mice, 
as well as guinea-pigs. 
As a simple explanation of the interaction of the comple- 
mentary factors to produce this 9:7 ratio, Bateson's experi- 
ments with white peas will be considered. The two varieties 
which were crossed were indistinguishable except in the shape 
of the pollen grains which, indeed, should have no direct bear- 
ing on the color of the flower. Each of these varieties was 
found to breed true to the white color, and, thus, one would Factor Hypothesis 
279 
expect the progeny which resulted from a cross between the 
two to be "pure" white. However, such was not the case; for, 
instead, all the hybrids were purple. Since these hybrids 
resembled the wild Sicilian pea, the phenomenon was thought, 
for a time, to be a simple case of so-called reversion to a 
primitive ancestral type. Future plantings, however, revealed 
the fact that the "reversion" was nothing more than a strict 
conformity to a newly discovered phase of the Mendelian prin- 
ciples of inheritance. These purple hybrids produced colored 
and white flowers in the proportion of 9:7. The following 
interesting conclusions were developed from these experiments: 
1. Two factors are involved in the production of color. 
2. Each of the original parents possessed one of these 
factors. 
3. A plant will remain "pure" white so long as it possesses 
only one of these factors. 
4. The union of these two complementary factors will 
produce a colored hybrid. 
Di-hybrid Ratio in Complementary Factors.-Since two 
factors are involved in the production of color, the explanation 
for such unusual cases as the peas considered above can be based 
upon the principles of di-hybrids considered in Chapter XVIII. 
In this case, in order to construct a diagrammatic representa- 
tion, capital P might represent the pigment factor, and small p 
the absence of this factor; capital D might stand for the color 
developer, and small d for the absence of this factor. The four 
types of sperms and ova would, thus, be derived in the same 
manner by algebraic multiplication. 
D + d 
P+p 
PD 4- Pd + pD + pd 
The genetic constitution of the types of individuals pro- 
duced by the unions of these sperms and ova are developed as 280 
Tine Laws of Life 
represented in Fig. 89. Since both the Capital P and the 
capital I) must be present before a colored flower is produced, 
it will be noted that the squares numbered 6, 8, 11, 12, 14, 15, 
and 16 present a genetic constitution which will produce peas 
with white flowers, while all others will be colored. The ratio, 
therefore, is 9:7. 
It will be noted that if only the above two factors are in- 
PDl pal p d I pal 
a pd pa pD pa 
PD PD PD PD 
PA pp pp p# 
, Pd Pd Pd Pd 
~ pd pa pD pa 
TO D 9 Jo 1 4' I 4^ 
' * pD pD pD pD 
i pd pa pD pa 
p a 43 J 4 I /O' I ^6 
• * pa pa pa pa 
pal 
Fig. 89. Diagram illustrating the 9:7 di-hybrid ratio in complementary 
factors, using Bateson's experiments with white peas as a basis. (See text.) 
volved, the flower is not colored even though it might possess 
a double dose of either the pigment factor or the colored 
developer. Even though the pea represented by square 6 
possesses a double dose of the pigment factor, P, it is necessary 
for the developer, D, to be present before a color appears. 
Conversely, the double dose of developer, D, in square 11 can 
produce no effect so long as there is no pigment to be developed. 
It should be mentioned, however, that in many cases, other 
factors than those which enter into the above combinations Factor Hypothesis 
281 
are present, making the problem much more complex. Indeed, 
in this very illustration the color form is of six different 
types. In the production of coat color in the rabbits, Castle 
finds that eight different factors enter into the combinations. 
The development of further knowledge concerning the laws 
of inheritance is revealing many other factors which play vital 
parts in the formation of various characteristics of the indi- 
viduals. East and others have found that many plants and 
animals possess inhibitory factors which prevent the develop- 
ment of certain other factors. Such a factor would thus have 
an opposite effect from the "developer" considered above. 
Other factors act as modifiers (supplementary factors). That 
is, the association of a supplementary factor with some other 
dissimilar factor causes that factor to express itself differ- 
ently than it would otherwise. CHAPTER XX 
APPARENT EXCEPTIONS TO THE LAWS OF 
INHERITANCE 
The Chromosome Hypothesis-Experiments of Thomas Hunt 
Morgan and his Co-workers on the Fruit Fly-Four Groups of 
Hereditary Characters in Drosophila-Loci of Genes in Chromo- 
somes-Linkage of Factors-Crossing Over-Interference-De- 
ficiency and Duplication-Non-disjunction. 
"That the fundamental aspects of heredity should ha-ve turned 
out to be so extraordinarily simple supports us in the hope that 
nature, may, after all, be entirely approachable." 
-Thomas Hunt Morgan. 
No specific statement has been made regarding the direct 
relation which exists between the chromosomes and the indi- 
vidual characteristics. However, it has been suggested that 
the whole scheme of inheritance is based upon the chromosome 
hypothesis. The more the facts of heredity become known, the 
more does this seem to be the true situation. Mendelism, as 
such, is entirely explicable on the basis of chromosome be- 
havior. All the apparently exceptional cases which have been 
studied thru to a solution bear out the fact that the chro- 
mosomes do behave in the expected manner. This alone would 
seem to indicate that the chromosome mechanism is the funda- 
mental element in hereditary transmissions. 
The most conclusive demonstration of the above fact has 
been presented by Thomas Hunt Morgan of Columbia Uni- 
versity, his co-workers, and students. In their work on the 
vinegar fly, Drosophila, they found that the hereditary char- 
acters of this insect fall into four great linked groups cor- 
responding to the four pairs of chromosomes. Even the size 
282 Apparent Exceptions to the Laws of Inheritance 
283 
relation between these hereditary groups and their correspond- 
ing chromosomes holds good; there are three groups of char- 
acters corresponding to the three large pairs of chromosomes 
and one small group of characters corresponding to the one 
small pair of chromosomes (Fig. 90). 
I 
Yellow, Spot 
White, Cherry, 
Eosin 
Abnormal 
Bifid 
Lethal II 
Lethal sb 
Club 
Lethal Illa 
Lethal sa 
Lethal III 
Vermilion 
Miniature 
Furrowed 
Sable 
Rudimentary 
Bar 
Fused 
Lethal sc 
II 
Streak 
Dachs 
Black 
Jaunty 
Purple 
Vestigial 
Curved 
Arc 
Speck 
Morula 
III 
Sepia 
Pink, Peach 
Kidney 
Ebony, Sooty 
Beaded 
Rough 
Rose 
Scarlet 
IV 
Bent 
Eyeless 
The actual numbers of characters as recorded in these four 
groups bear a very close mathematical relationship to the 
actual sizes of the chromosomes in question. This work has 
been so extended that it is now firmly established that the genes 
(factors) which are responsible for corresponding characters 
are not only located in definite chromosomes but at definite 
points in the chromosomes. Inductive and deductive reasoning 
both lend support to the contention that the genes have linear 
loci in the chromosomes. The application of this fact will be 
made clear when crossing over is taken up for discussion. 
In the chromosomes of the Drosophila, the respective groups 
of characters are inclined to remain together in passing from 284 
The Laws of Life 
one generation to another. Furthermore, the members of each 
group are transmitted independently of those of other groups. 
This is one of the most extreme variations of the earlier Men- 
delian principles and one which, indeed, has played a great 
part in causing "Mendelism" to be greatly extended. This 
type of inheritance in which factors tend to pass along together 
is spoken of as linkage. This term applies to certain cases 
Fig. 90. Chromosomes of Drosophila. A. Female, B. Male, showing 
the four pairs of chromosomes with which the four groups of characters 
correspond. Note that the number of characters in each group correspond 
with the comparative size of the pairs of chromosomes. C. Chromosomes of 
a female, in which, thru non-disinjunction, a "male" chromosome has been 
added. (From Morgan, et al.) 
wherein the characters in question tend to keep together instead 
of segregating in accordance with the usual Mendelian prin- 
ciples. 
There are two extremes between which all degrees of linkage 
may be found. On the one hand, the characters in question 
tend to hold together absolutely, while on the other extreme, 
linkage may be of very unusual occurrence. Many cases of Apparent Exceptions to the Laws of Inheritance 
285 
linkage have been described in which the given characters show 
only a slight tendency to stick together. In this case, the 
usual assortative mingling of characters is the rule and linkage 
the rare exception. For a given set of characters, however, 
linkage has a very definite mathematical ratio. This last holds 
true whatever may be the degree of linkage involved. A well 
known case of linkage is considered in Chapter XXVI, under 
the title of Criss Cross Inheritance. It will be shown there 
that the factor for color-blindness is located in the sex- 
chromosome and is consequently sex-linked. 
Fig. 91. Diagram Illustrating Linkage. (See text.) 
Complete linkage of characters might be illustrated by the 
following (Fig. 91). In crossing a fly, Drosophila, with a 
black body color and with short (vestigial) wings with one 
of wild-type, or gray body color and long wings, the offspring 
(Ft generation) will all possess the normal characteristics of 
the species; e.g., gray body color and long wings. Of course 
this result will take place only if the parents are homozygous 
with respect to their particular characters, that is, if the 
allelomorphs are the same in each chromosome pair. If now, 
one of the males of the Fx generation obtained as outlined 
above should be crossed with a black vestigial-winged female, 
the F2 offspring would exhibit two different sets of characters 
identical with those shown by the parents in the Ft generation. 
These offspring would appear in the definite ratio of 1:1. Here 286 
The Laws of Life 
it will be seen that characters which went in together with 
the original cross have come out together. In other words, 
they have remained linked. Another interesting exception to 
the earlier Mendelian concepts is a peculiar phenomenon called 
crossing over. In this case allelomorphic genes, or groups of 
genes, exchange places in their respective chromosomes. This 
"hereditary" peculiarity has also been worked out most ex- 
tensively in the fruit fly, but much work is now being done with 
other forms in order that the principles involved may be 
Fig. 92. Diagram Illustrating crossing-over. (See text.) 
more firmly established and their universal application demon- 
strated. (See works of White, 17, Emerson, and others.) 
In order that the reader may gain an idea of the manner in 
which crossing over manifests itself, the following illustration 
of this phenomenon is presented. We will presume that an 
generation has been produced by the crossing of the black 
vestigial-winged fly with a normal gray body-colored fly with 
long wings. This Fx generation will all possess gray body- 
color and long wings. So far, it will be seen that the experi- 
ment parallels the one given under linkage (Fig. 91). How- 
ever, in this case, instead of using a male for the next cross, a 
female will be used (Fig. 92). If this wild-type (gray) female 
of the Fx generation is crossed with the black vestigial-winged 
male there are four kinds of offspring produced instead of two Apparent Exceptions to the Laws of Inheritance 
287 
as appeared in the other experiment. In this case, the two 
original kinds represented in the 1\ (Fig. 92) generation 
reappeared together with two new combinations of the same 
characters; viz., wild-type color and vestigial wings, and black 
body color and long wings. These last two types are known 
as the cross over types. In order for them to be produced, 
there must be an exchange of genes of the allelomorphs affected; 
otherwise, the characters would remain truly linked and thus 
Fig. 93. Diagram illustrating how crossing over may occur. In this 
case "double-crossing over" is illustrated since the two chromatin fibers 
cross twice, at x and y. 
this variation known as the crossing over would not take place. 
In the experiment given first under linkage, a male was used 
for the cross to produce F2 generation; in the one just given, 
a female was used. The significance of this lies in the fact 
that there is no crossing over in the male of this species, while 
such does take place in the chromosomes of the female. This 
mechanism of crossing over, from the standpoint of the 
chromosomes themselves, is the next phase of the subject which 
will be discussed. 
An elementary conception of how crossing over might occur 288 
The Laws of Life 
may be gained from a consideration of the accompanying dia- 
gram (Fig. 93). For a better understanding of this figure, the 
reader should refer to the discussion of the maturation of 
germ cells (Fig. 69). It will be remembered that during this 
process the chromatin fibers are found to be in a tangled con- 
dition-sometimes one thread will be twisted about another. 
Certain breeding experiments indicate that these chromatin 
fibers actually exchange parts when in this entangled condi- 
tion. Consider the two chromosomes A B C and a b c (Fig. 
93). Suppose them to be twisted about each other as shown 
in the middle drawing of the figure. If each of the chromosomes 
in question should break at the points x and y, where they 
come into contact with each other, and if the pieces should 
then reunite, the results would be as indicated. In this case, 
instead of the two chromosomes being made up of normal parts 
ABC and a b c, they would be made up of parts A b C and 
a B c. It will be noted that if this factor (gene) or a group 
of linked factors is located in the middle part of the chromo- 
some, and the allelomorphic factor, or group of factors, in 
the one with which it pairs, there will be an exchange or a 
crossing over. That is to say, the chromosome which once 
possessed the genes or groups of genes ABC now has the new 
set A b C. 
In the above outlined case of crossing over, it will be noted 
that the points A C and a c remain unchanged throughout the 
process. If these two allelomorphic factors or groups of 
factors were the only ones being considered in the experiment, 
crossing over would not be detected. In order for crossing 
over to be detected, enough factors must be selected to cover 
all possible cases. It is herein that is presented one of the 
most convincing proofs that the genes have a linear arrange- 
ment in the chromosomes. For crossing over to take the place 
as it does in definite mathematical relations implies that the 
genes must have definite loci, otherwise no amount of intel- 
ligent experimenting could reduce the data to anything more 
than a hopeless jumble of unrelated facts. A detailed study Apparent Exceptions to the Laws of Inheritance 
289 
of cross-overs reveals the fact that they do "give numerical 
results in constancy." In fact, it is questionable if any funda- 
mental principle of heredity will prove more valuable in the 
solution of the many puzzling problems of inheritance than 
will the theory of crossing over and the many other principles 
which are related to it. 
An interesting phenomenon associated with crossing over 
and one which has added much support to the theory that the 
factors are definitely arranged in a linear series in the chromo- 
somes is that of "interference." An explanation of inter- 
ference is based upon the fact mentioned above, that crossing 
over is caused by the twisting of the chromatin fibers during 
certain maturation stages of the germ cells. When they twist 
so as to touch and "cross over" at certain points, the cross 
at this particular point interferes with other crossings which 
might have otherwise occurred on either side of such points. 
For example, it should be clear that the regions on either side 
of x and y (Fig. 93) are less likely to be affected by further 
crossing over than if the distance between the two points had 
been greater. The relation which this principle bears to 
crossing over and its application to heredity are quite sig- 
nificant. 
It is surprising to note that certain crosses establish the 
fact that at times the chromosomes may actually lose pieces 
and thus genes or groups of genes may be dropped out entirely. 
If, on the other hand, pieces may be added to the chromosome, 
the individual will possess more factors than it would other- 
wise have possessed. The dropping out of pieces from a normal 
chromosome has been termed "deficiency," and the addition of 
factors "duplication." 
The last unusual behavior of the chromosomes, as revealed 
in the Drosophila, to be mentioned in this connection is "non- 
disjunction." This term refers to a peculiar mishap in the 
chromosome mechanism which occurs in the reduction division 
(Fig. 69) in which homologous chromosomes fail to disjoin, 
but pass on to the same gamete. The general principle herein 290 
The Laws of Life 
involved will be seen by considering the way in which the 
gametes are shown in Fig. 94. Under normal conditions, the 
two gametes from the female (A) would be alike, x and x. 
But in rare cases, the twro x's may fail to separate, or disjoin, 
in the reduction division of the maturation of the germ cells 
and thus one gamete would contain two x's and the other none. 
When such eggs (gametes) are fertilized by normal sperms, 
interesting offspring are produced. If the x sperm (Fig. 
94) meets the xx egg, a xxx (a), rather than a normal xx 
individual will be produced. If the x sperm meets the egg with 
no x, an x offspring (c) is produced. If the y sperm meets 
Fig. 94. Diagram illustrating the behavior of gametes in case of non- 
disjunction. 
these two types of eggs, xxy (b) and y (d) individuals are 
formed. These offspring would, of course, possess character- 
istics quite different from what might be expected under normal 
conditions. In fact, such marked exceptions were first noted 
during experimentation with Drosophila and they seemed at 
first to be weighty evidence against the chromosome hypo- 
thesis. However, this seemingly contradictory evidence was 
the strongest proof that characters do follow definite chromo- 
somes; for, when the cells of these exceptional individuals that 
possessed the additional characteristics were examined under 
the microscope, they were found to contain an extra chromo- 
some which corresponded exactly with what was expected. Apparent Exceptions to the Laws of Inheritance 
291 
In figure 90, may be seen the chromosome group of a normal 
female, together with the chromosomes C of one of these excep- 
tional females. It will be noted that thru non-dis junction 
the y which, in this particular case, should be in the male cells 
has passed into the female. The above and many other prin- 
ciples which have been worked out by the Morgan schools, in- 
volve too many technicalities to be presented here in detail. 
A reference is made to them in order that those interested may 
gain a knowledge, altho superficial, of the basic facts. 
Those who are interested in going deeper into the facts which 
underlie the future study of heredity have ample opportunity 
to do so. The many experts who are at work in this field are 
constantly publishing the results of their researches. The 
list is growing by leaps and bounds. At the present time it 
contains the contributions of many of the greatest workers 
in the field. 292 Plate I. The accompanying plate presents an unusual type of human 
inheritance. The central character under consideration is indicated by a 
white cross in the family chart, Generation IV. The skiographs (C and E^ 
at the top of the plate show clearly that this lady has a large opening in 
each of the parietal bones. The white arrows between C and D are intended 
to show that she inherited this remarkable abnormality from her father 
whose photograph is shown at D. The family chart at the bottom of the 
plate shows the striking fact that the "Catlin Mark" is inherited thru at least 
five generations. The Eugenicists are concerned with such cases only as far 
as it establishes the fact that family traits are inherited. The members of 
the Catlin family are no more inconvenienced, or need be no more humiliated 
by this unusual condition than by a pug nose, a freckled face, or "cat eyes." 
It is only thru the admirable cooperation of such families as this that the 
science of Eugenics can be advanced and thus placed upon a more practical 
basis. In many cases there comes a feeling of resentment when the family 
history is to be investigated, the members claiming that "it is nobody's 
business what kind of a family they have." (From a display by the author.) 
The Catlin Mark 
293 CHAPTER XXI 
HUMAN INHERITANCE 
Mendelism, a Practical Science-Berkeley Policemen see the 
Value in the Study of Human Inheritance-Absurd vs. Reasonable. 
"Genetics is the science which seeks to account for the resem- 
blances and the differences which are exhibited among organisms 
related by descent." 
"Eugenics is the study of agencies under social control that 
may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations, 
ether physically or mentally." 
"An exact determination of the Laws of Heredity will probably 
work more change in mans outlook on the world, and in his power 
over nature, than any other advance in natural knowledge that can 
be clearly foreseen. 
"To Gain This Knowledge is the object of the science of ge- 
netics, which proceeds in practice, largely by means of plant breed- 
ing and animal breeding for the reason that heredity is less com- 
plicated in these organisms than in man, and its operation can be 
more easily made out. The knowledge so gained finds its applica- 
tion in methods for the improvement of cultivated plants and domes- 
ticated animals and, most important of all, in the improvement of 
the human race, through the science of eugenics." 
The Value of Mendelism.-For many years the Mendelian 
Theory was considered a mass of impractical, technical assump- 
tions. After the facts of the experiments were established, it 
was still thought to be impossible to make a direct application 
of the principles involved. However, this view is rapidly chang- 
ing, and Mendelism is not only coming into practical use, but 
it is serving as an incentive for a study of other practical 
principles of heredity. 
294 Human Inheritance 
295 
Mendelian inheritance has been worked out in such detail, 
with plants and animals, that now the problems confronted 
are comparatively simple. With man, however, progress has 
been quite slow and difficult. It is impossible to test for a 
"pure line," if there be any such thing, as experimental breed- 
ing is entirely out of the question. We are forced to rely 
on statistics compiled by tracing the histories of families. This 
method of procedure is extremely slow, as man is a very slow 
breeder and produces so few offspring. If the rate of produc- 
tion be thirty years for each generation, there have been only 
about fourteen generations since America was discovered. 
When the Mendelian laws were rediscovered, it was recog- 
nized that there would be great advancement could we realize 
that they apply to man. From that time on, the interest on 
the part of the common people has grown as knowledge of the 
facts has been constantly accumulated by the scientific workers. 
To-day the progressive leaders on every hand are striving to 
master all the known facts of inheritance in order that they 
may go about their tasks more systematically. Reformers, 
teachers, ministers, and officers of the law are beginning to 
recognize that their success depends in a great measure upon 
a knowledge of the theory and application of these principles 
of inheritance. In the Illustrated World (Vol. 24) may be 
found an interesting account of how the practical problems 
of Mendelism were applied in police service. Chief Vallmer, of 
the Berkeley Police Department, thought that these "imprac- 
tical" principles of heredity were of sufficient importance to 
be given as a course of study to his men. He observed that 
a working knowledge of the facts of Mendelism made his police- 
men more competent in handling criminals and degenerates, in 
making arrests, and in checking the prevalent tendencies of 
crime among the people under their supervision. The Men- 
delian laws of heredity and transmission of characteristics, 
together with the influence of environment, were discussed by 
these officers at frequent intervals. One of Vallmer's men 
expressed himself in one of his weekly reports thus: "The 296 
The Laws of Life 
question arises as to what ought to be done with the moral 
imbecile, not with the professional criminal to whom wrong 
is a business. The first thing to be done is to recognize him; 
and all these problems are enormously simplified if we can 
discover these traits at the beginning. We can, then, treat 
them as we treat all mental defectives." An officer was sitting 
in the station, when a pickpocket who had been arrested at a 
football game, passed by. "Look at that man," said the 
officer, "he is in this class" (pointing to one of the pictures 
in the chart he was studying). "He is mentally weak and 
should not be allowed to marry if the Mendelian theory of 
heredity is correct. It is the breeding of this type of indi- 
viduals that causes much of our crime." This ability to recog- 
nize the degenerate and subnormal side of character in men 
is of great value in police work. In all large cities, the experi- 
ences of many years have brought out the principle that in 
the degenerate is to be found the solution to nearly all the 
problems involving crime. This principle, until now, has been 
ignored entirely too much. If a murder, an assault, or a 
robbery has been committed in a community, the first move 
in locating the perpetrator would be to account for the actions 
of all the degenerate and subnormal persons in that vicinity. 
The Absurd Versus the Reasonable.-Regardless of the fact 
that the thinking class on every hand is recognizing the prac- 
ticability of the underlying principles governing human inher- 
itance, we are still confronted with a few non-progressive indi- 
viduals who are continually strewing their antiquated prin- 
ciples in the path of human progress. However absurd it 
may seem, the following startling remarks were written in the 
latter part of 1918, and published in American periodicals 
which are supposed to be reliable. 
1. "Weismann palmed it (the germ plasm theory) 
off on an unsophisticated public as something new in science'' 
2. "Our biologists and eugenists carefully avoid reference Human Inheritance 
297 
to Providence and evil spirits, but they teach a doctrine having 
the same superstitious foundation." 
2. "The eugenist is a fatalist. He also subscribes to the 
old theological doctrine of eternal damnation." 
4. "The eugenists are largely absurd." 
5. "Eugenics is abortive both as a science and an art." 
6. "The eugenic doctrine based upon current teaching is 
a dismal and futile science." 
1. "The race is improved by improving the individual." 
8. "The child inherits what the parents have at the time of 
reproduction, and not what the parents had at some earlier 
time." 
9. "The parent may cause his child to be born better oi 
inferior to himself according to the extent to which he has 
developed his own powers by exercise before the child was con- 
ceived." 
10. "The Jukes became feeble-minded as a family by reason 
of using immature-minded (rather than feeble-minded) persons 
as fathers and mothers for several generations in succession. 
The same result will inevitably follow from continued repro- 
duction by youthful parents, no matter what the original stock 
may be." 
To the trained biologist, and, indeed, to the more intelligent 
public, such sayings as the above would be taken as appropriate 
utterances of one of the earlier students of Lamarck (1744- 
1829). If the words of such alarmists are to be relied upon, 
the substantial works of all the biologists, from Weismann to 
the most recent investigator, should be relegated to the world 
of oblivion, and the race should start again more than a hundred 
years back with the meager knowledge that Lamarck and his 
co-workers possessed. To say that the doctrines of biology 
and eugenics are founded upon superstition, that the child 
inherits the physical acquirements of the parents, that feeble- 
mindedness is the direct result of early marriages, and that 
the eugenicists are "absurd" and are "fatalists" and that their 298 
The Laws of Life 
doctrine is "abortive" and a "dismal and futile science"; to 
make these dogmatic statements without presenting substantial 
proof is entirely too revolutionary for even the greatest of 
living scientists. 
Fig. 95. Is the giraffe's neck long because he picks the foliage off the 
high limbs, or does he reach the high limbs because he possesses a long neck? 
(See Chapter XXIX.) (From Jordan, Kellogg and Heath, by permission 
of D. Appleton & Co.) Human Inheritance 
299 
Even though there are a number of writers promulgating 
their antiquated views at the present day, the consensus of 
opinion is to the effect that great hope can be placed in the 
eugenic doctrine. In a later chapter an attempt will be 
made to show the futility of any writers suggesting at this 
stage of development of our knowledge of inheritance that the 
giraffe's neck (Fig. 95) was made long thru stretching in an 
attempt to reach the foliage of the trees, that the kangaroo's 
Fig. 96. After years of Christian agitation against foot-binding, Chinese 
leaders themselves undertook this reform. (From World Outlook, August, 
1918, by courtesy of Christian Herald.) 
forelegs disappeared thru non-use, or that the mole rubbed 
his ears off' while passing thru his burrows. As a preliminary 
thought, it might be asked, if these are facts, why are the 
Chinese children not boro with deformed feet (Figs. 96 and 97), 
since the binding of the feet of Chinese women has been prac- 
ticed for thousands of years? If "the race is improved by 
improving the individual" thru "exercise before the child was 
conceived," then the Alpine guides are sturdy because their 
fathers were mountain climbers before them, and the arm of 
the blacksmith's child will be large because his father developed 300 
The Laws of Life 
a muscular arm. How simple the whole process of race devel- 
opment would be if "the child inherits what the parents have 
at the time of reproduction, and not what the parents had at 
some earlier time." Were this true, the children of the athletes, 
blacksmiths, and mountain climbers would propagate a sturdy 
Fig. 97. Although the parents and early ancestors of this Chinese child, 
for thousands of years back, practiced foot binding, it was born with plump 
feet with expanding toes. (From World Outlook, 1918, by courtesy of 
Christian Herald.} 
race, while the progeny of the banker, the office clerk, and the 
teacher would be doomed to live as weaklings. Do observations 
of the facts substantiate these absurd assumptions? How 
would it be possible for the enlargement of a muscle, say of 
the forearm, to upset the germ cell mechanism, and thus cause Human Inheritance 
301 
the unconceived child to have strong arms? The absurdity 
is more obvious when we are reminded that the determiner for 
arm size is tucked away, not only in the germ cell, but in a 
definite chromosome which is delicately suspended in the karyo- 
plasm of the nucleus. 
To say that our defectives are produced thru the mating 
of youthful parents, indeed, is to dub one's self as a "revolu- 
tionist." Such utterances can never be supported by a system- 
atic investigation of facts. How could it be possible for such 
things to be true if we accept the Mendelian ratios, which have 
long since proved to be the final death blow to Lamarckism? 
Is it not contradictory to say that certain characters arise by 
these haphazard methods, and then to state that they are inher- 
ited in a definite ratio? If the latter is true, the former must 
be false. In fact, an analysis of the vital elements of human 
inheritance will suffice to overthrow any such preconceived 
views. This method of constructive argument, as presented 
in the following chapters, is especially convincing when the 
relation between human inheritance and the Mendelian ratios 
is kept in mind. CHAPTER XXII 
N EGRO-WHITE CROSSES 
"Blended" Inheritance-Production of Pink Four O'clock-In- 
heritance of Color in Cattle-Mendelian Inheritance of Human 
Skin Color-The Problem Applied. 
'After all there is but one race-humanity." 
-Moore. 
Although a few eases of inheritance have been worked out 
which depart from the Mendelian ratio, they usually follow 
some fixed system. The haphazard method of handing down 
characteristics to the offspring is, therefore, almost unknown 
in the realms of heredity. As more and more knowledge is 
accumulated regarding the facts of Mendelian inheritance, 
many doubtful cases are brought under the law, or the prin- 
ciples themselves are extended and satisfactory explanations 
found for the supposed exceptions. One of the most common 
and indeed the first observed of these apparent exceptions to 
the Mendelian principle is classed under the head of "Blended" 
Inheritance or Incomplete Dominance. For example, when the 
red four o'clock (Fig. 98) is crossed with a white one of the 
same species, pink offspring rather than the expected red or 
white will be produced. The pink flowers are the usual hybrids 
resulting from such a cross and will produce when planted, the 
expected Mendelian ratio-one-fourth pure red, one-half 
hybrid pink, and one-fourth pure white (Fig. 98). In like 
manner, when red and white cattle are crossed the offspring 
are usually roans. The fact that roans are the intermediate 
blended hybrids permits the expected segregation into the 
ratio of 1:2:1-red, hybrid roans, and white. 
302 Negro-White Crosses 
303 
Many cases of "blending" are now explained on the basis 
of the multiple factor hypothesis; that is, it is found that 
more than one set of factors are involved in the production of 
certain characteristics. In the above cases of incomplete domi- 
nance the characteristics of each parent which blended in the 
Fig. 98. Diagram illustrating the results of crossing white and red 
four-o'clocks. (Modified diagrammatically from Morgan.) If one should 
compare the four-o'clocks with a corresponding cross between the white and 
the black race (Fig. 99), the pink four-o'clock (F) would be com- 
parable to a mulatto. However, the Mendelian 1:2:1 segregation does not 
take place when mulattos produce children. This shows that other factors 
are involved in the production of human skin color. 
first generation separated in the second generation in the 
usual 1:2:1 ratio. We would very naturally conclude from 
this that the children of mulatto parents (Negro-White 
hybrids) would be one-fourth black, one-half mulatto, and one- 
fourth white. However, certain investigation into negro-white 
crosses which were carried out by Davenport have revealed the 304 
The Laws of Life 
fact that such is not the case. The children of mulattos appear 
in the ratio of one white and one black child out of sixteen-the 
remaining fourteen being mixed white and black. The fact that 
there is a definite ratio in the progeny of black and white par- 
ents indicates that the solution of the inheritance of human 
skin color may eventually be solved on the basis of Mendelian 
principles. This particular ratio (1:15) further shows that 
more than one factor is involved in black skin pigmentation. 
AB A B 
ar AB A B AB 
AB AB AB 
y z j ± 
A A AA AB A 
AB 
£ Z £ 
o B 
AB AB BB B 
2 yo // 
AB A B 
/J /» /£ 
Fig. 99. Diagram explaining the 1:15 ratio obtained when mulattos 
reproduce. Since a double dose of both factors A and B is essential to the 
production of a pure black race, only one (square 1) out of every sixteen 
children will be full-blooded African type. The same proportion of white 
children will be produced since only one square (16) has neither of the 
factors for skin pigmentation. The remaining fourteen children (squares 
2 to 15, inclusive) will be intergrades between black and white. 
In fact, Davenport concluded that "there are two factors (A 
and B) for black pigmentation in the full-blooded negro of the 
west coast of Africa, and these are separately inheritable." 
All indications seem to point to the fact that skin color segre- 
gates in accordance with Mendelian principles, rather than Negro-White Crosses 
305 
blending in all generations as is usually thought to be the case. 
The eggs 01* sperms of a mulatto may contain A and B, A, B, 
or neither of the two. There are only sixteen possible crosses 
between these various types of germ cells (Fig. 99). Of these, 
only one will be a full-blooded African negro-AABB (square 
1). In no other case will an individual possess a double dose 
of both factors, A and B, which are essential to the production 
of the pure black type. On the other hand, only one (square 
16) out of every sixteen offspring has neither the A nor B 
factor. These, of course, would be pure white. The remaining 
fourteen would represent various blends. 
Davenport suggests in substance the following interest- 
ing facts: Skin color and woolly hair are not linked factors 
but are closely associated in an accidental way. They may 
segregate, and thus a person with woolly hair may be part 
negro although possessing white skin and passing for white. 
His veins may contain more negro blood than those of some 
other person who has been ostracized from "white" society. 
The low state of mentality of the black race has caused a cer- 
tain resentment of their intrusion into our society. Separate 
schools, passenger cars, etc., which are usually inferior in 
quality, are assigned to these black people. Many negroes 
may possess the mental strength and pure talent that are often 
exhibited by superior white people, but their black skin places 
them in an inferior class. Many whites may possess low 
"black" intellect but are still members of our intelligent "white" 
society. Some white people who would consider it a disgrace 
to sit beside a colored person of most superior ability would 
not hesitate a moment to move into the company of a person 
of the most vile character provided -his skin be white. Too 
bad we let skin color, rather than character and ability, de- 
termine the make-up of our society ! 
The germ plasms of the white race and the black race are 
intermingled in a large percentage of the ten millions of col- 
ored people who make America their home. Humphrey says: 
"Nature decrees that the Aryan shall pay dearly for his forci- 306 
The Laws of Life 
ble crossings with inferior peoples. That decree is written 
upon the vanishing ruins of every dead civilization. And so 
now in America, a tenth of our population is of Negro blood 
in some degree, grafted upon us by the unbreakable ties of 
blood infusion. Why talk of deporting to their African home 
a people whom no one can separate into White and Black? 
Why talk of the Negro-White as either Negro or White?" 
Davenport has given us the following interesting facts with 
regard to crosses between negroes and whites: "Every student 
of the negro-white crosses at Bermuda and Jamaica soon hears 
of the 'fixed white.' One of the most prominent Jamaicans 
thus defined the term: Fixed whites are those who not only 
'pass for white' but also breed all pure whites; and he esti- 
mates that five or six generations at least are necessary for 
this. 'Pass for white' is used to indicate those who appear 
white, but some of these may have had darker children. In 
Jamaica, as indeed in some of our Southern States, after a 
certain dilution with white blood the descendant of an African 
becomes white by law. Thus in Florida a white man may not 
legally marry a mulatto (intermarriage of pure white and pure 
negro), a quadroon (intermarriage between a pure white and 
a mulatto), or an octoroon (intermarriage of pure white and 
quadroon), but may marry the daughter of a white man and 
an octoroon. 
"Now, what biological basis have these social distinctions? 
It follows from our studies that persons of African descent 
whose skin color contains 10 per cent or less of black pig- 
ment will, if mated with a like person, produce only white 
skinned children-i.e., with less than 12 per cent of black in 
the skin. Such persons constitute 'fixed whites.' Many per- 
sons of African descent who have between 10 and 15 per cent 
black in skin color are really hardly darker than dark brun- 
ettes or Spaniards; they may 'pass for whites,' but two such 
may have a medium-colored child. The outcome of such a 
marriage would, then, satisfy the definition of 'pass for white' 
and justify the appellation of the term in this case. As for Negro-White Crosses 
307 
the 'less than one-eighth blood/ it appears from our study 
that a mulatto has two units of black, a quadroon one unit, 
and an octoroon no unit for negro black pigmentation. Cer- 
tainly the offspring of such an octoroon and a white person 
will, so far as skin color goes, be a 'white person.' Our studies, 
then, justify the legal limitation, so far as skin color goes. 
Indeed, a person of one-eighth blood is, so far as skin color 
goes, completely 'across the line'; married to white there is 
no exception of dark-skinned offspring, tho the hair may be 
curly and the lips thick. 
"This brings us to a matter of great social moment to 
hundreds of our citizens; namely, the possibility of a reversion 
in the offspring of a white-skinned descendant of a negro to 
the brown skin color. There is even a current opinion that 
such an extracted white, married to a pure-bred white, may 
have a 'black' child. This tradition has been used to create 
dramatic situations in novels and in newspaper 'stories'; and 
the dread of this tradition hangs over many a marriage that 
would otherwise be quite happy. In our studies no clear case 
of this sort has been found, and our fundamental hypothesis 
leads us not to expect it." CHAPTER XXIII 
THE INHERITANCE OF SEX 
Erroneous Notions Regarding Sex Determination-Scientific 
View-Sex, a Problem of Heredity-Sex Production vs. Environ- 
ment-Cause of Overproduction of One Sex. 
A child is expected in the home. The mother, in one case, 
prepares the layette in blue, because her sole desire is for the 
newcomer to be a girl; but, all materials are inappropriate 
when a boy makes his appearance. In another instance, the 
reverse might be the experience. Then comes the expression, 
"Isn't it too bad that we had no way of knowing?" Perchance 
the extremist might scorn the scientist for not working out 
some method by which the desired sex could be produced at 
will; but, on the other hand, it is well that such has not been 
done. To be able to do this, however, would be of great value 
to the breeders of certain animals, where one sex is more 
desirable than the other. The poultry raiser, for example, 
would at times be pleased to raise all hens rather than only fifty 
per cent, of the total number of fowls. 
Many ideas have been held in the past regarding the deter- 
mination of sex. Most of these are popular notions and are 
nothing more nor less than superstitions. To some, it is 
enough to say that "God made male and female." However, 
many are unwilling to accept any such statement as a com- 
plete explanation. A typical example of popular ideas regard- 
ing sex determination is attributed by a certain author to the 
common people of Servia. There it is believed that if a father 
has a stye on his upper eyelid the child will be a male, if on 
the lower lid the child will be a female. At one time it was 
suggested that the right ovary was the seat of one sex and 
308 The Inheritance of Sex 
309 
the left ovary the seat of the other. Several plausible explana- 
tions for influencing the sex of the future individual have been 
advanced by scientific men. These fall into two classes; 
namely, environmental and hereditary. The former of these 
two classes has for its basis the supposition that sex is deter- 
mined by influences at work in the various environmental 
factors; the other attributes sex to purely internal causes that 
are entirely beyond the reach of external conditions. 
The internal causes for sex refer to those agencies within 
the germ cell itself which have no dependence upon outside 
agencies or are not influenced by external factors. The chro- 
mosome theory for sex determination falls under this class. 
The majority of present-day biologists look to this theory for 
a real explanation of sex. They are, moreover, able to see that 
the Mendelian principles are involved in the production of 
sex as well as the other usual characteristics of the individual. 
Had the laws of Mendelian inheritance been known by the 
early workers, groundless hypotheses and absurd speculations 
regarding sex determination, as well as many other "biological 
principles," would never have been advanced. The parents 
might discuss the probability of the expected child's inheriting 
dark hair, or blue eyes; but it is not realized by them that the 
puzzling problem of sex may be solved by the same principles 
of Mendelian heredity. 
A reconsideration of the chromosome theory (Chapter 
XIV) will assist in solving this query of sex from the Men- 
delian standpoint. It will be remembered that the male and 
the female chromosomes are alike if the sex-producing chromo- 
some be left out of consideration. A reference to the equations 
on pages 227 and 228 will show that the female has twice as 
many (or as much, if considered quantitatively instead of 
numerically) sex-chromosomes as the male; in other words, the 
female has a double dose (is homozygous with respect to sex) 
of that something which determines sex while the male has 
only a single dose (is heterozygous). This suggests that a 
double dose of sex is necessary in order to bring out the domi- 310 
The Laws of Life 
nant characteristics with reference to sex. In this respect, 
fcmalencss might be considered dominant over maleness since 
it takes a double dose of sex determiner to produce a female 
and only a single dose to produce a male. It will be remem- 
bered that in the case illustrated in Chapter XIV, one-half 
of the mature spermatozoa contained one sex-chromosome and 
the other half contained none. 
X I Qi 
X XX XO 
X XX XO 
Fig. 100. Mendelian Inheritance of Sex-the relation between maleness 
and femaleness. Since the father contributes either an X or an O, and the 
mother always sends to her offspring an X, one-half of all children will con- 
tain an XX in their cells and the other half XO. The former will be girls 
and the latter boys. 
Representing the male germ cell which contains a sex ele- 
ment by X and the one in which this element is absent by O, 
and representing the female gametes by X, since all eggs con- 
tain the sex-chromosome, the scheme illustrated in Figure 100 
should show the Mendelian relationship between maleness and 
femaleness. Since the female has two sex-chromosomes, and the 
male only one, all the squares which contain XX will represent 
females and those with XO will represent males, giving an 
equal number of each. That is, when considered from the 
standpoint of gametes, the Mendelian ratio between the num- 
ber of males and the number of females is 1:1. The cases 
considered in Chapter XIV in which there is more than one 
sex-chromosome can be represented by this same diagram. In The Inheritance of Sex 
311 
cases where there are two sex elements, twice the number of 
X's will appear in each place. However, the resulting ratio 
will remain the same as in the case of a single sex-chromosome. 
It must not be concluded that the so-called "sex-chromo- 
some" is the absolute producer of sex. It should rather be 
thought of as the chromosome which carries the determiner of 
sex. Conklin suggests that sex is the "result of the interaction 
of many intrinsic and extrinsic causes." The X-chromosome 
is, however, in all probability the greatest factor in sex deter- 
mination, as it is the carrier of the sex determiner. Since 
sex is inherited in the 1:1 Mendelian ratio, it seems impossible 
to influence the sex of higher animals in any way. 
The environmental theory for sex determination includes 
all agencies outside of the germ cell (not necessarily outside 
of the body) which may influence sex. As the germ cells 
receive their nutrition from the blood, the same as do the 
somatic cells, some biologists hold the opinion that this factor 
has much to do with the determination of the character of 
that cell, not only from the standpoint of cellular health but 
also from the standpoint of its potentialities for sex. 
A number of workers have reported experiments with cer- 
tain lower forms in which the sex ratio was affected. Chief 
among these are Hertwig, and Miss King. The former caused 
frogs' eggs to develop into 100 per cent males by allowing them 
to absorb water in the process of ripening before fertilization; 
the latter, using toads' eggs, performed the opposite of Hert- 
wig's experiments and obtained the expected opposite result 
-90 per cent females. 
Riddle, working with pigeons, has gone very much into 
detail regarding the physiological conditions within the cells 
of both male and female. He has found that they differ in 
very striking ways, the male cells possessing a high percentage 
of water, low percentage of fat and phosphorus, and high 
metabolism, the reverse of this condition representing the 
physiological make-up of the female. According to this con- 
ception, any environmental factors that would alter the physio- 312 
The Laws of Life 
logical make-up of the germ cells would in turn influence the 
sex of the next generation. These results were obtained by 
forcing abnormal conditions upon the eggs. Normally, the 
ratio of the sexes would have remained substantially unaltered 
and the production of almost an equal number of males and 
females would have taken place. This is especially true of 
the higher animals and man. 
The question might arise: If sex is inherited in a definite 
1:1 ratio, why do we sometimes find families in which all or 
Fig. 101. Predominance of one sex from the same parents. Sex is ex- 
plained on the basis of the chromosome behavior. By chance only the 
spermatozoa bearing the female producing element were used in producing 
this family of ten daughters. 
a majority of the children are of one sex? In this connection, 
it should be remembered that all the laws of inheritance not 
only apply to every ova and sperm that is formed, but they 
assume the complete development of all. In the human, for 
example, it has been estimated that over 300 billions of sper- 
matozoa are formed in a lifetime. From this vast number, 
perhaps only four may be used to fertilize ova and develop 
into children. One could easily perceive how, by the law of 
chance, all of the four sperms which were used might acci- 
dentally have come from the 150 billion spermatozoa that 
carried the determiner for femaleness and thus all the children The Inheritance of Sex 
313 
be girls. Such is, in all probability, a common occurrence not 
only in sex production but in heredity in general. The author 
is personally acquainted with one family in which all of the 
ten children are of the same sex-girls (Fig. 101). Unques- 
tionably, one-half of all the sperms produced lacked the sex- 
chromosome which carried the determiner for femaleness, but, 
according to the law of chance, none of these were used to 
fertilize an ovum. But, in the face of this fact, we find families 
with many sons, but without a single daughter. In such cases, 
it probably so happened that all the children were produced 
from the sperms which did not contain this sex element. The 
law of sex inheritance certainly will not hold good if the chil- 
dren from any one particular family are considered alone. 
But if the children from a large number of parents are con- 
sidered, it will be found that the number of boys and girls will 
be practically equal. Such is the case with any particular 
character. Before any definite conclusion can be reached, a 
very large number of individuals must be taken into con- 
sideration. CHAPTER XXIV 
INHERITANCE OF FEEBLE MINDEDNESS 
Goddard's Data-Types of Parents-Both Parents Feeble- 
minded--One Parent Feeble-minded, Other Normal-Both Par- 
ents "Carriers"--One Parent Feeble-minded, Other "Carrier"- 
One Parent "Carrier," Other Normal-Fate of the Children. 
"Babylon in all its desolation is a sight not so awful as that of 
the human mind in ruins." 
■-Davies. 
"Mental and moral features of different races are equally fixed 
by heredity. The dogged determination of one race, the emotion- 
alism and idealism of another, the arrogance, the love of gain, the 
irresponsibility, the deception, the sturdy honesty of other races, 
are all inherited traits." 
-Shull. 
Feeble-Mindedness (Fig. 102).-The more there is known 
about families having feeble-minded members, the more sub- 
stantial is the proof that the inheritance of this defect falls 
into direct line with the Mendelian law. The extensive works 
of Goddard, especially, reveal this fact. The accompanying 
chart gives the actual data of five types of mating (indicated 
in the first column) where fceble-mindedness was involved. 
FF indicates a double dose of feeble-mindedness, NN indicates 
a double dose of normality. NF indicates a single dose of each. 
The first type of mating (FF\FF) would thus read: A feeble- 
minded man marries a feeble-minded wrnman, or the reverse. 
The fourth type (FF\NF) means that one parent was pure 
feeble-minded wdiile the other carried only a single factor for 
the defect. 
314 Inheritance of Feeble-Mindedness 
315 
Fig. 102. How selfish is so-called civilized man! He establishes insti- 
tutions to care for the defectives in order that they may be out of his way, 
but seldom attempts to prevent the. next generation of defectives from 
crowding his children. 316 
The Laws of Life 
Type of 
mating 
Number of 
individuals 
studied 
Feeble-minded 
offspring 
Normal offspring 
Actual 
Find- 
ing 
Theoretical 
Mendelian 
expectations 
Actual 
Find- 
ing 
Theoretical 
Mendelian 
expectations 
I 
FFXFF 
482 
476 
482 
6 
0 
II 
FFXNN 
34 
0 
0 
34 
34 
III 
NFXNF 
146 
39 
36% 
107 
109% 
IV 
FFXNF 
371 
193 
185% 
178 
185% 
V 
NFXNN 
23 
0 
0 
23 
23 
(Chart modified from data collected by Goddard) 
A sixth type which might have been tabulated would be 
expressed thus: NN X NN; that is, both father and mothei* 
are from a pure line of normal parentage. In other words, 
they both possess a double dose of normality. When both 
parents are purely normal, the children are, with rare excep- 
Fig. 103. If the father and mother are both normal, the children should 
be normal, except in rare instances of some embryological disturbance. No 
child was ever made deformed or feeble-minded by prenatal impressions, 
birth-marks and the like. 
tions, also normal. These rare exceptions might be due to 
injury, or possibly to extreme variation such as mutations or 
"sports." This type of mating might be graphically repre- 
sented as shown in Figure 103. In this figure the squares 
represent males, and the circles females; no significance is to 
be given to the sex of the offspring, as feeble-mindedness is 
just as likely to appear in a boy as in a girl. Feeble-minded- Inheritance of Feeble-Mindedness 
317 
ness is not a sex-linked characteristic, as is color-blindness 
(See Chapter XXVI). In each of the cases cited below the 
four offspring indicated are to be considered on a theoretical 
percentage basis; that is, if one is marked F and the other 
three N, one-fourth of all the children are feeble-minded, and 
three-fourths are normal. 
Case I. FF (Feeble-minded) Father X FF (Feeble- 
minded) Mother (Fig. 104).-The first type of mating con- 
sidered on the chart (Goddard's data), indicated FF X FF, 
includes parents both of whom are feeble-minded; that is, 
X Fl Fl 
F FF FF 
F FF FF 
Fig. 104. In case both parents are feeble-minded, neither can transmit 
to their children factors for normality. All offspring will therefore possess 
a double dose of feeble-mindedness. 
they both possess a double dose of the determiner for feeble- 
mindedness. To the reader who is not well-versed in Men- 
delian calculations, the column headed "theoretical Mendelian 
expectations" might be somewhat puzzling. In the type of 
mating under consideration, the meaning should be evident, 
since nothing but feeble-minded children would be expected 
from parents both of whom possess a double dose of that 
defects Other cases will be more fully explained as they pre- 
sent themselves. The method of explaining the whole problem 
of inheritance on the basis of the union of the sperm and the 
egg should also apply to the inheritance of feeble-mindedness 318 
The Laws of Life 
as well as it does to certain characteristics in garden peas, or 
any other plant or animal, since the factors which determine 
that defect in offspring certainly must be located in the germ 
cells of the parents. Since each parent is from a feeble-minded 
family, every sperm and every ovum (egg) carries that factor 
which stands for feeble-mindedness; or, to express it on the 
ACTUAL PEDIGREE OF FAMILY REPRESENTED IN THE 
SKILLHRNM STRTE VILLHGE FOR EPILEPTICS. 
F/RST STUDY OF INHERITANCE 
IN EPILEPSY.- 
Fig. 105. Diagram illustrating the origin of many feeble-minded and 
otherwise defective children. Note that the daughter of a feeble-minded 
mother, without having been married, produced six illegitimate offspring 
from six different men, one a negro. Two of these children died in infancy 
(characteristic of feeble-minded people), two were feeble-minded, and one 
epileptic. Would it not have been a blessing to humanity had this mother 
been confined in an institution or sterilized when a girl? (From Eugenic 
Record Office, after Davenport and Weeks.) 
basis of the presence and absence hypothesis, the character 
which causes the individual to be normal is absent from al] 
spermatozoa and eggs, or gametes. Therefore, as shown in 
the accompanying diagram (Fig. 104), all zygotes (offspring) 
will carry a double dose of feeble-mindedness (FF). The 
theoretical expectation, therefore, should be equal to the num- 
ber of children whose mentality was determined and who are 
produced by such parents. With reference to the first type of Inheritance of F eeble-Mindedness 
319 
mating indicated on the chart, it will be noted that in the 
words of Goddard: "Of 482 children, of parents both of whom 
were feeble-minded, all were feeble-minded, with the exception 
of six. The exceptions are so few as to be hardly worth 
consideration. It is very probable, moreover, that some of 
these are to be explained by a possible error in judgment. 
These six may not be as normal as they appear. Further 
experience with them might show that they are below the 
level." 
A further explanation for the variations from the law 
might be found in the fact that the supposed parent was not 
the real parent. Sexual immorality often accompanies feeble- 
mindedness (Fig. 105). Goddard calls our attention to the 
fact that Dr. Emerick of Columbus, Ohio, has traced the 
records of an interesting family composed of a feeble-minded 
father, a feeble-minded mother, and twelve children, ten of 
whom were feeble-minded. The two normal children were 
colored. If the two normal children had been white, this 
family might have been cited to prove that feeble-mindedness 
does not conform to the Mendelian law. However, under the 
existing circumstances, it is evident that the feeble-minded 
man was not the father of the two normal boys. Therefore, 
according to the law of Mendelian inheritance, which seems to 
be substantiated by observed and tabulated facts, we seem 
justified in concluding that all children, excepting accident 
and variation, from normal parents will be normal; and all 
children from feeble-minded parents will be afflicted. 
Case II. FF Father X NN (Normal) Mother (Or the 
Reverse) (Fig. 106).-It is strikingly interesting to note the 
result of a marriage when one of the parents is feeble-minded 
and the other normal. (See Chart, Type II Mating.) By 
referring to the Mendelian table, we can see the fate of every 
child decreed by the living germ cells. Suppose the fathei' 
to be the unfortunate one and the mother to be a normal 
woman. The arrows on the figure 106 indicate that every 
paternal gamete shall be an F and that every maternal one 320 
The Laws of Life 
shall be an N. Consequently the germ cells of every child 
shall be branded "NF." How can a child be both normal and 
feeble-minded? In terms of Mendelism, they are hybrids. It 
is very fortunate for them that the factor which stands for 
normality is dominant and that the one which stands for 
feeble-mindedness is recessive. They should, therefore, all be 
normal children; that is, the theoretical number should be the 
same as the number studied. A glance at the chart will show 
that of the thirty-four individuals studied, having one feeble- 
N NF NF 
N NF NF 
Fig. 106. When one parent is normal (NN) and the other feeble- 
minded (FF) all children should be apparently normal (Carriers, NF), but 
carry feeble-mindedness to their children. 
minded parent, all were normal. Very unfortunate,'however, 
for the human race that these children were destined to be 
NF instead of NN. True, so far as their individual success 
is concerned, there will be no difference. But, NN means a 
pure germ cell and NF means one which is polluted with that 
undesirable something which causes feeble-mindedness to crop 
out in later generations. 
Case III. NF Father X NF Mother (Fig. 107).-In this 
type, both parents are normal but they carry a factor for 
feeble-mindedness in their germ cells (NF); that is to say, 
they are "carriers." When the gametes are separated, each 
parent will contribute either an N or an F and no power can Inheritance of F eeble-Mindedness 
321 
choose which it will be. It must be left to the law of chance. 
Again, the figure answers the fate of the children (Fig. 107). 
The offspring indicated by the first square (NN) will be purely 
normal, since the dominant characters of both parents are 
here united, giving a double dose of normality. The children 
indicated by the second square (NF) receive a factor for 
N NN NF 
-> 
r Nr rr 
Fig. 107. The figure suggests at least one explanation for the production 
of a feeble-minded child by two "Normal" parents. A woman or man of 
even superior mental ability might be a "carrier" of feeble-mindedness. 
(See text.) 
feeble-mindedness from the father and a factor for normality 
from the mother, while the reverse is true of the third square, 
the end result, however, remaining the same. The unfortunates 
indicated by the fourth square possess a double dose of feeble- 
mindedness, since each parent contributes an F gamete. Can 
it be true that apparently normal people will produce children 
with such different characteristics; one-fourth NN, one-half 
NF, and one-fourth FF? Here in our dealings with the 
human race, we find our old friend, the 1:2:1 ratio. It is 
evident that the one-fourth marked NN is the beginning of a 
new untainted line of normal people, and that those branded 
NF are normal in outward appearance but possess tainted 
germ plasms. Is it true that the FF children are to be feeble- 
minded even tho their parents were apparently normal? This 322 
The Laws of Life 
is so unbelievable that it seems wise to apply the mathe- 
matical check method used in dealing with other Mendelian 
factors. 
N + F 
N + F 
NN + NF 
NF + FF 
NN + 2NF + FF 
Three-fourths of the children from parents who appear normal 
but "carry" impure germ cells will be normal, tho part 
hybrids, and the other one-fourth will be feeble-minded. Of 
the one hundred forty-six individuals studied by Goddard 
(Chart, Type III), thirty-six and one-half (one-fourth) 
should have been feeble-minded, and one hundred nine and one- 
half should have been normal. The actual finding was thirty- 
nine of the former and one hundred seven of the latter-a 
non-considerable difference. Is this not a strange mixture of 
mathematics and biology? 
Case IV. FF Father X NF Mother (or the Reverse) 
(Fig. 108).-What an unfortunate group of children is pro- 
duced from parents one of whom is purely feeble-minded 
(FF) and the other normal in all appearances but carrying 
in the germ cells a factor for feeble-mindedness. It is a verita- 
ble Arabian Night story how our Mendelian theoretical chart 
can inform us on the beautiful wedding day as to the fate of 
the poor unfortunates which will result from such a mating. 
Since one parent carries no determiner for normality and the 
other only one, one-half of all children will be FF and the 
other half hybrids (NF). The former will all be afflicted, while 
the latter will be normal but will produce feeble-minded off- 
spring in the proportion shown in Case III. A reference to 
Goddard's chart will show that the theoretical results of the 
type differed but little from the actual facts as he found 
them. Inheritance of FeebU-Mindedness 
323 
X n Fl 
JJ NF NF 
F FF. FF 
-► 
Fig. 108. In case one parent is normal, but is a carrier of feeble- 
mindedness, and the other parent is truly feeble-minded, one-half of the 
children will appear normal but will possess "impure" germ cells, while the 
other half will be feeble-minded. 
Case V. NN Father X NF Mother (Or the Reverse) 
(Fig. 109).-The marriage of a normal (NN) man to a 
hybrid ("Carrier," NF) woman who carries tainted germ cells 
VNl Nl 
N NN NN 
-> 
F NF NF 
-► 
Fig. 109. When one parent is normal and the other a "carrier" one-half 
of the children will be normal and the other half "carriers." 
is less deplorable but equally as interesting. Figure 109 
shows that the normal gamete from the woman will meet the 
N gametes of the man in half of the squares, thus producing 
fifty per cent of purely normal children. The F gamete, on 324 
The Laws of Life 
the other hand, will, when united with the male gamete, pro- 
duce NF zygotes which will cause the other half of the chil- 
dren to appear normal (since N is dominant over F) but to 
carrv to their children in a later generation that dreaded 
determiner for feeble-mindedness. Every child would from all 
outward appearances be absolutely normal, and the facts as 
found by Goddard agree exactly with our expectations. 
Summary.-A review of the small figures given above will 
show that both the Mendelian laws and the actual facts of 
the cases studied justify the following conclusions: Normal 
parents produce only normal children and feeble-minded par- 
ents produce only feeble-minded children. When one parent 
is normal (NN) and the other afflicted (FF), all the children 
appear normal, but in reality possess the power to transmit 
(if they marry their kind) feeble-mindedness to one-fourth 
of their children and normality to the other three-fourths 
(two-thirds of this three-fourths, however, will be like their 
parents; that is, normal themselves but possessing the quality 
to transmit feeble-mindedness to their own children). When 
one parent is feeble-minded (FF) and the other normal but 
carrying impure germ cells (NF), one-half of all their chil- 
dren will be feeble-minded (FF) and the other half normal 
(NF) with the power to transmit the defect. And, lastly, 
when one parent is normal (NN) and the other normal (NF), 
but with the F in the germ cells, all the children will be normal 
but one-half of them will carry the affliction to the next gen- 
eration. 
The relation between the Mendelian laws of inheritance 
and actual observed facts is further emphasized in the words 
of Goddard: "In the totals of all these matings, the expecta- 
tions would be: feeble-minded 704, the actual 708; normal 
expectation 352, actual 348. Such results are difficult to 
account for on any other basis than that feeble-mindedness is 
transmitted in accordance with the Mendelian formula. 
"Since our figures agree so closely with Mendelian expecta- 
tion, and since there are few, if any, cases where the Mendelian Inheritance of F eeble-Mindedness 
325 
formula does not fit the fact, the hypothesis seems to stand, 
viz.: Normal-mindedness is, or at least behaves like a unit char- 
acter, is dominant, and is transmitted in accordance with the 
Mendelian law of inheritance" (Fig. 110). 
Fig. 110. Mattie, crying out to "civilized" man in her "devilish cackle," 
"Why did you not refuse me birth since you could not let me be well born?" 
Mattie, aged 28, has two brothers in the same state institution, one being a 
bed case. Her mother and many other relatives are mental defectives. 
Legislation should limit itself for the present to those char- 
acters which are of the greatest social importance and whose he- 
redity is best known. Feeble-mindedness is such a characteristic, 
and radical steps looking toward its eradication would be justified 
even in the present state of knowledge. 
-Shull, '20. CHAPTER XXV 
INHERITANCE OF VARIOUS MENTAL 
AND MORAL TRAITS 
General Formula for Determining Characteristics of Offspring 
-So-called "Black Sheep"-Hereditary Diabetes-Marks of 
Beauty. 
"Everything seems to indicate that alcoholism itself is only a 
symptom, that it for the most part occurs in families where there 
is some form of neurotic taint, especially feeble-mindedness. The 
percentage of our alcoholics that are feeble-minded is very great. 
Indeed, one may say without fear of dispute that more people are 
alcoholic because they are feeble-minded than vice versa." 
-Goddard. 
Other Defects.-If insanity, in its many and varied forms 
of appearance, is only an extreme type of feeble-mindedness; 
and, further, if the cause of criminality, sexuality, pauperism, 
and alcoholism is traceable to feeble-mindedness (Fig. Ill), 
as seems to be the case, we would logically conclude that these 
characters are recessive to the normal condition. Reference 
to the reports (especially those of Rosanoff, Davenport, and 
Plate) of those who have made a study of family histories 
shows that this assumption is correct so far as facts have been 
ascertained. Galton was one of the earliest workers to estab- 
lish the fact that exceptional mental qualities are inherited. 
Pearson and his supporters have shown that the principles of 
inheritance should include even such characters as popularity, 
temper, vivacity, conscientiousness, etc. When the laws which 
govern the inheritance of the various mental and tempera- 
mental attributes are worked out in detail, the problem of race 
improvement will be greatly simplified. 
326 PEDIGREE OF THE W- IFAMILY OF- INDIANA 
FGHT-FIGHTER 
SX - SEX OFFENDER 
0 - GAMBLER 
TH • THIEF 
BROTHER A SISTERS 
LEGEND 
□male. O female 
MARRIAGE 
W-WANDERLUST 
A-ALCOHOLIC 
P-FEEBLEMINDED 
Fig. 111. A study of such family histories as indicated by the accom- 
panying chart will establish the fact that various mental and moral qualities 
are handed down from one generation to another. Although similar en- 
vironment is a vital factor in the further production of such defectives, the 
basic explanation lies in the realms of heredity. It is interesting to note 
that one individual (III, 12) was sterilized under the sterilization laws of 
Indiana. America would have a less number of inmates in state institutions 
had the four individuals indicated in the first generation been sterilized. 
(Pedigree chart, courtesy of Eugenic Record Office.) 
327 328 
The Laws of Life 
When a few facts of one's family history are known, we 
are in a position to predict fairly accurately the type of chil- 
dren that will be produced. This method of prediction will 
be the same as that used in the theoretical tests for feeble- 
mindedness. If the letters which stand for the other recessive 
characters, I (insanity), C (criminality), S (sexuality), P 
(pauperism), and A (alcoholism), are substituted for F 
(feeble-mindedness), the discussion would apply to the respec- 
tive cases in hand. However, it must be understood that since 
no complete data has been collected, as in the case of God- 
Fig. 112. A general diagram showing that when a normal parent is 
mated with a parent carrying certain defects, the children will appear 
normal but will possess the innate capacity to transmit the defect. 
dard's data on feeble-mindedness, this application is largely 
theoretical. But facts, when collected, will probably substan- 
tiate the theory. Since it is vitally important that these 
principles be clearly understood, the application will be car- 
ried further by means of general figures which will show the 
results of each of the five types of matings when any of the 
characters mentioned above are under consideration. 
General Figure for Type I.-It will be remembered that 
under feeble-mindedness the first considered type of mating 
(Case I) assumed that both of the parents were afflicted. In 
order to determine the hereditary tendency of any one of the 
defects associated with feeble-mindedness in such a mating, it 
will only be necessary to substitute the letter for the character Inheritance of Various Mental and Moral Traits 
329 
under consideration for F (feeble-mindedness). When any 
one defect is possessed by both the parents, all the children 
will, in like manner, be affected. 
General Figure for Type II (Fig. 112).-If one parent is 
a "pure" subnormal with respect to any of the characters con- 
sidered, and the other is a "pure" normal, all children will be 
normal but will transmit the defect to their offspring. This 
fact is shown by the accompanying figure (Fig. 112). The 
recessive characters are indicated by being placed in paren- 
theses. For example, if the reader is interested in the nature 
Fig. 113. When "carriers" of any recessive defect marry, they may 
expect one-fourth of their children to be pure normal, one-half "carriers" 
like themselves, and one-fourth defective. This accounts for many so-called 
"black-sheep" in the family. 
of the children from parents one of whom carries a hereditary 
tendency for crime (C) and the other normal, strike out all 
letters on the figure except the C and the N. By so doing, 
one parent would be indicated C (criminality), and the other 
N (normal). All the children [N(C)] would be normal in all 
external appearances but would carry in their germs cells 
certain factors for criminality. 
General Figure for Type HI.-The children from the last- 
considered parents are all normal but carry defective germ 
plasms. By striking out all letters except the one standing 
for the character which is being examined, the figure (Fig. 
113) shows that if such children intermarry with families 330 
The Laws of Life 
like them, one-fourth of the offspring will be pure normal 
(NN), one-half after their kind [N(C), N(S), N(P), N(A), 
or N(I)], and one-fourth will be pure defectives (CC, SS, 
PP, AA, or II). However, it has been clearly shown that 
since N is dominant over all other characters, the one-half 
cannot be distinguished from the one-fourth that is pure normal 
until they marry and produce insane or sexually immoral 
children, criminals, paupers, or drunkards. 
General Figure for Type IV.-Consider for a moment the 
nature of the offspring when one parent is a pure defective 
Fig. 114. If either parent is a "carrier" of a recessive defect and the 
other is purely defective in the same regard, one-half of the children will be 
defectives and the other half carriers. 
and the other appears to be normal but possesses any one of 
the above defects in the germ cells. After applying the usual 
method of elimination, it should be clear (Fig. 114) that one- 
half of the children will be defectives and that the other half 
will be normal, but carrying the defective character in their 
germ cells to transmit to their children. 
General Figure for Type F.-A similar generalization 
might be drawn from the fifth type of mating in which one 
parent is normal and the other is a hybrid-normal but with 
defective germ plasm. In this last case, suppose we desire to 
know the type of children that will be produced by the daugh- Inheritance of Various Mental and Moral Traits 
331 
ter of an inherent drunkard-assuming her married to a man 
from a family which possesses no inherent tendencies for 
strong drink. The girl may not have the least desire for 
alcoholic beverages but still she will pass the factor on to 
one-half of her unfortunate children as she is a hybrid 
[N(A)] in this regard. Since N is dominant, these children 
will not be likely to be drunkards but they will hand the defect 
down to their children as their mother handed it down to 
them. So long as these children marry those who are purely 
normal with respect to this defect, there will be no drunkards, so 
far as a hereditary tendency is concerned. But as soon as 
either a man or a woman of this mixed impure blood marries 
one of his kind, the problem will be reduced to Case III in 
which one-fourth of the children will be drunkards if great 
environmental pressure is not brought to bear upon them. 
This clearly shows how a drunkard might appear (as is often 
the case) in a seemingly pure family of total abstainers. In 
like manner, a thief or a sexually immoral character might 
suddenly appear in a family whose history has been perfect 
for hundreds of years. Is it not possible that this is the 
explanation for the appearance of the "black sheep" in many 
respectable families? 
It will be noted from the following chart that, as a general 
rule, Normality is dominant over defects. However, many 
family histories have been traced in which abnormal conditions 
have been dominant. 
If the question arises as to the number of children bearing 
these defects which would be produced as a result of certain 
marriages, a solution will be found from the figure under that 
particular type of mating. This will be seen by substituting 
the symbol for the defects of this last mentioned group for 
the N (as these characters are dominant). Specifically, par- 
ents of Mating Type I would have all children afflicted with 
these defects; from Type II, in like manner all children would 
be defective; from Type III, three-fourths defective; from Human Characteristics Inherited in Mendelian Fashion 
Dominant 
Recessive 
Hereditary Diabetes 
Normality 
Hereditary Blisters 
Normality 
Hereditary Cataract 
Normality 
Hereditary Night Blindness 
Normality 
Normality 
Hereditary Epilepsy 
Normality 
Hereditary Feeble-mindedness 
Normality 
Hereditary Insanity 
Normality 
Hereditary Alcoholism 
Normality 
Hereditary Criminality 
Normality 
Hereditary Hysteria 
Normality 
Saint Vitus Dance 
Average Intelligence 
Very Great 
Average Intelligence 
Very Small 
Nervous Temperament 
Phlegmatic 
Normality 
Deaf-mutism 
Normality 
Dwarfism 
Brachydactylism 
(Absence of one joint in 
toe or finger) 
Normality 
l 
Polydactylism 
(Extra digits on hands 
and feet) 
Normality 
Syndactylism (Fig. 117) 
(Digits are fused side 
by side) 
Normality 
Normal Pigmentation 
Dark hair 
Albinism 
Light hair 
Curly hair 
Straight hair 
Black hair 
Red hair 
Dark skin 
Light skin 
Brown or Black eyes 
Blue or Gray eyes 
332 Fig. 115. The Inheritance of Twinning-the Blankenship Family. Among the scores of human characteristics which are 
inherited that of twinning is probably one of the last to be definitely established. The chart shows that the ability to produce 
twins (black squares and circles) is inherited thru five known generations. All individuals who were not twins or not direct 
ancestors of twins were omitted from the chart. Although data was not sufficient for a definite conclusion, the ability to pro- 
duce twins seems to be a Mendelian recessive character in this Kansas family. (Investigation made by the author and Glen 
Martin, a student.) 
Parents ofTwins 
Twins 
Carrie r 
333 334 
The Laws of Life 
Type IV, one-half defective; and from Type V, all would be 
defective. 
Still other cases of Mendelian dominance and recessiveness 
are extremely interesting. Were you to apply for a position 
of great trust, your employer-to-be would not be very likely 
to consider, while judging your qualifications, the color of 
your hair or eyes or whether your skin was light or dark. 
However, the hair, eyes, and skin, as well as other marks of 
beauty, are used as the basis for individual description. 
Every person has set his own standards of beauty on this 
basis. Some admire dark hair and brown eyes, while others 
prefer light hair and blue eyes. This personal admiration has 
gone to such an extreme that heated debates are held in many 
homes on the origin of certain eye, hair, or skin color of 
certain children. Both parents may be very dark with brown 
eyes and black hair but a certain son is very light with blue 
eyes and red hair. How strange and puzzling is this combina- 
tion of parents and son. Such cases have been known to be 
the basis for disputes between husband and wife and ultimately 
the cause for divorce. Since such a case was beyond expecta- 
tion and even, to the parents, beyond possibility, the wife 
might have been accused of presenting an illegitimate child. 
The unusual child might present an almost exact resemblance 
to some man of the community who had already been accused 
of "too much attention." The author calls to mind one 
instance when the worthless husband claimed that his son was 
birth marked for a neighbor man. As his explanation for this 
absurd statement, he claimed that his wife so greatly admired 
the other man that his own, child, when born, resembled his 
supposed rival. 
Even tho hair, eye, and skin color is extremely per- 
plexing to those who base their judgment on broad guesses 
and wild assumptions, the problem is very simple when viewed 
from the standpoint of Mendelism. As a working basis, it 
should be stated that investigations have revealed the fact 
that brown eyes are dominant over blue, dark hair dominant Inheritance of Various Mental and Moral Traits 
335 
over light (including red), curly hair over straight, and dark 
skin is dominant over light skin. Having accepted these 
facts, let us seek a Mendelian explanation for the extreme case 
cited in which a son with red hair, blue eyes, and a very light 
complexion was born to parents both of whom were, seemingly, 
"pure" for dark skin, brown eyes, and black hair (Fig. 116). 
Let us assume that the unknown great-grandparents (Pm) 
Fig. 116. Hypothetical family chart showing the possibility of a child 
possessing characteristics which are foreign to any of the known grand- 
parents. 
on both sides came under Mating Type II; that is, one had 
dark skin, brown eyes, and black hair (DD), while the other 
was light with blue eyes and light or red hair (LL). Since 
the dark complexion is dominant over the light, all children 
(grandparents of above boy) will be dark but will carry in 
their germ cells the determiners for blue eyes, light hair and 
skin. They will thus be indicated D(L). (See figure under 
Type II.) The grandparents, all of whom are known to be 
dark, marry those who are pure dark (DD). This mating 336 
The Laws of Life 
falls under Type V, since it involves the mating of one indi- 
vidual with pure germ cells (DD) to another who is a carrier 
[D(L)]. The figure under Type V shows us that all the 
Fig. 117. Syndactylism-fused fingers and toes-is a Mendelian domi- 
nant. Physical and mental defects ofttimes run hand in hand. 
children from the above known dark grandparents will be 
dark, but one-half of them will carry factors for light. 
Now it so happens (under our assumption) that indi- 
viduals bearing this type [D(L)] of "impure" germ cells 
from their two families marry. That is to say, both the 
father and the mother of the boy are dark but they carry Inheritance of Various Mental and Moral Traits 
337 
determiners for light skin, blue eyes, and light hair. This 
mating may be referred to Type III (Fig. 116), which tells 
us that one-fourth of all offspring would be light and have 
blue eyes and light, if not red, hair. Thus, the mysterious boy 
whose parents and grandparents were all, dark appears in 
fulfillment of the natural Mendelian laws and expectations. 
Although the three characters (eye, hair, and skin color) often 
run hand in hand, as considered in this hypothetical case, each 
might be more or less independent of the other. 
As time progresses, more of the characters of the human 
race will be studied and added to the remarkable Mendelian 
category. All honor is due to that Austrian wizard, Mendel, 
for his enchanting game with the peas, and to the three patient 
and substantial laborers of 1900-that memorable year which 
marks one of the greatest advances in human progress. 
"No one doubts for a moment that defective mental conditions 
are transmitted from parent to child as surely as the physical de- 
fects and deformities. Every one knows that it is common for 
defectives to be attracted to each other and marry, and that the 
defects of both parents are liable to be transmitted to the children. 
It is also true that there are more children born in such families; 
and for that reason the percentage of defectives is continually on 
the increase. The report of the state of Illinois shows the in- 
crease to be alarming, and many other states are no better. It is 
absolutely wicked that the persons suffering from periodical in- 
sanity should be allowed to return to their homes to propagate and 
scatter their children about the state as dependents." 
-Gorst. CHAPTER XXVI 
"CRISS-CROSS" INHERITANCE 
"Father to Daughter-Mother to Son" Inheritance-Color 
blind Man Marries "Carrier" Woman-Color-blind Man Marries 
Normal Woman-"Carrier" Woman Marries Normal Man-Both 
Parents Color-blind-Normal Man Marries a Color-blind Woman. 
For a long time, the type of inheritance which comes up 
for consideration was so puzzling that no correlation could 
be seen between it and any of the Mendelian principles. Some 
defects and characteristics were known to be handed down 
from father to daughter and from mother to son. This 
peculiar behavior is known as "criss-cross" inheritance and has 
been worked out in detail. Many cases of it have been solved 
and found to fall under definite laws. Of these, a general con- 
sideration of but one case will suffice for the present explana- 
tion. 
Human color-blindness (inability to distinguish a color 
from its compliment, as red from green) is extremely inter- 
esting from the standpoint of inheritance. It is perhaps the 
best known and most commonly observed instance of "criss- 
cross" inheritance. It is a significant fact that it requires a 
double dose of color-blindness to produce a color-blind woman, 
while only a single dose is required to affect the male. This is 
very suggestive of the requirements for the production of fe- 
maleness and maleness (See Chapter XXIII). As a result of 
this similarity of behavior it has been suggested that the factors 
which determine color-blindness are, when present, located in the 
sex-chromosomes. Color-blindness is, therefore, a type of sex- 
linked inheritance. There are five possible matings between 
color-blind, "carrier" and normal people in which color-blind- 
338 "Criss-Cross'* Inheritance 
339 
ness will either appear in the progeny as a characteristic or in 
his germ cells as a determiner of unborn generations. They are 
considered in the following pages. 
Case I. Color-blind Man Marries a Normal Woman (Fig. 
118).-It has been known for some time that should a color- 
blind man marry a normal woman none of the children result- 
ing from the union would be color-blind. But, on the other 
hand, all the daughters from such a mating would transmit the 
defect to certain of their sons, depending upon the type of 
father (see cases II and III below). The daughters would, 
is I o I 
x, XX XO 
x, XX XO 
Fig. 118. When a color-blind man marries a normal woman, all the 
daughters will be carriers (XX) and all of the sons will be pure normal. 
therefore, be "carriers" although not color-blind themselves. 
Such a puzzling case could never have been solved had it not 
been for the chromosomial explanation of the Mendelian ratios. 
Since color-blindness is linked with the sex-chromosomes, the 
common chromosomes are not considered in the figures here- 
with presented, as they play no part whatsoever in the 
mechanics under consideration. 
Since, in our assumption (Fig. 118), we are mating a color- 
blind man with a normal woman, only the sex-chromosome 
which is brought in by the male will be "tainted." The 
affected chromosome which carries the factor for color-blind- 
ness is indicated by an X with a line placed beneath it. The 340 
The Laws of Life 
O stands for the male cell (gamete which has no sex-chromo- 
some. Therefore, the first and the third squares (Fig. 118) 
will receive the affected X from the male and the normal X 
from the female and, thus, will produce individuals who will 
possess the factor for color-blindness but who will not be 
color-blind themselves. Since these individuals have a double 
dose of sex (XX), they will obviously be females; however, 
since it takes a double dose of color-blindness (XX) to cause 
X I O I 
x XX XO 
x XX XO 
Fig. 119. When one of the carrier girls, produced from the mating 
indicated in Fig. 118, marries a normal man, half of her daughters will be 
normal and the other half carriers. One-half of her sons will be normal 
and the other half color-blind. It should be noted that the carrier sisters 
of the color-blind boys will contain in their cells as much of the color-blind 
factor as was possessed by the boys. However, since it requires a double- 
dose of color-blindness to produce a color-blind female and only a single 
dose to produce a color-blind male, the former will not, and the latter will, 
be color-blind. 
them to be color-blind, they will be apparently normal girls. 
In other words, they are girls because they have a double dose 
of sex (XX) but not color-blind because they have only a 
single dose of that defect (X). Since the marked X shows that 
these girls carry the undesirable determiner for color-blindness 
in their germ cells they are "carriers" and will taint their chil- 
dren with this characteristic. The second and fourth squares 
represent the males. Since they received no sex determiner 
from the father and only one from the mother, as the figure 
shows, the boys are all normal and in no way tainted because "Criss-Cross" Inheritance 
341 
they have no sex-chromosomes which contain the factor for 
color-blindness. Therefore, when considered from the stand- 
point of the union of the germ cells of the father and the 
mother, it is clearly seen that the mating of a normal woman 
and a color-blind man will result in the production of normal 
boys and "carrier" girls. 
Case II. "Carrier" Marries a Normal Man (Fig. 119).- 
Should one of the girls ("Carriers") considered above (Case 
I) marry a normal man, an interesting group of children would 
X j 0 4 
X XX xo 
i XX xo 
Fig. 120. A color-blind man marries a carrier woman and produces the 
following offspring: one-half of all sons and one-half of all daughters will 
be color-blind (since the former possess a double and the latter a single dose 
of the defect). The remaining daughters will be carriers and the remaining 
sons will be normal. 
result. A reference to the figure (Fig. 119) will show that 
one-half of the girls (first square, XX) would be normal while 
the other half would be "carriers" (third square, XX). One- 
half of the boys would be normal (second square, XO) and the 
other half would be color-blind (fourth square, XO)-since 
only a single dose is necessary to produce color-blind boys. 
Case III. Color-blind Man marries a "Carrier" Woman (Fig. 
120).-Suppose now that this color-blind man (XO, Case 
II) should marry a "carrier"; that is, a girl whose germ cells 
contained the determiner for color-blindness, equally as inter- 
esting a group of children would result, One-half of the girls 342 
The Laws of Life 
(Fig. 120) would receive an affected X from their father and 
a normal X from their mother and, thus, they would be "car- 
riers" (first square, XX). The other girls would receive an 
affected X from both parents; and, as this would be a double 
dose of the determiner, they would be color-blind (third 
square, XX). As one-half of the boys would receive no sex- 
chromosome from their father and, consequently, no determiner 
for color-blindness, and also an unaffected chromosome from 
their mother, they will be normal with respect to their sight 
(second square, XO). The other half of the boys will receive 
X1 0 1 
X XX xo 
x XX xo 
Fig. 121. When both parents are color-blind all the children will be 
color-blind. 
an affected X from their mother and none from their father, 
and, as a result, they will be color-blind (fourth square, XO). 
Case IV. Color-blind Man Marries a Color-blind Woman 
(Fig. 121).-Should two individuals such as the woman repre- 
sented by the third square in Case III (XX) and the man 
represented by the fourth square (XO) marry, the figure 
(Fig. 121) which is constructed to show the nature of their 
progeny very clearly indicates that all such children will be 
color-blind. In the first square (XX) and the third square 
(XX), an affected sex-chromosome is brought in by both the 
father and the mother. As a result, the children will be color- "Criss-Cross" Inheritance 
343 
blind girls because they have a double dose of both sex and the 
determiner for color-blindness. In the second square (XO) 
and the fourth square (XO) an affected sex-chromosome is 
received from the mother and none from the father. Since it 
requires only a single dose of sex to produce boys, and since 
it requires only a single dose of the determiner for color-blind- 
ness to produce that defect in boys, the children represented 
by these two squares will be color-blind boys. 
Case V. Normal Man Marries a Color-blind Woman (Fig. 
122).-If the father is normal and the mother color-blind, all 
X i O 1 
X XX XO 
x XX XO 
Fig. 122. A color-blind woman and a normal man will produce carrier 
daughters and color-blind sons. 
the sons will be color-blind and all the daughters will be "car- 
riers." This is true because all the children will receive a 
single dose of the determiner for color-blindness. Figure 122 
is a representation of these conditions. The affected X of the 
mother meets the unaffected X of the father in the first and 
third squares. These squares (XX), then, represent the 
"carrier" daughters. In the second and fourth squares, the 
affected X of the mother carries the only determiners for both 
sex and color-blindness, these children are color-blind boys. 
From the facts presented in these figures (Figs. 118 to 
122), we may conclude that: The children from a color-blind 344 
The Laws of Life 
father and a normal mother will all be normal in appearance, 
but the girls will be "carriers"-capable of transmitting color- 
blindness to their own children (Case I). When the mother is 
a "carrier" and the father normal, one-half of the daughters 
will be normal and the other half will be "carriers," one-half 
of the sons will be normal and the other half color-blind 
,(C.ase II). Should a man who is color-blind marry a "car- 
rier" woman, one-half of the boys will be normal and one-half 
color-blind, while one-half of the girls will be color-blind and 
the other half "carriers." When both parents are color-blind 
all their children will have the same defect (Case IV). If 
the father is normal and the mother is color-blind, all of the 
sons will be color-blind and all of the daughters will be "car- 
riers" (Case V). CHAPTER XXVII 
SUPPOSED INHERITANCE OF DISEASES 
The Disease Germ-"Catching" Colds-Peary's Expedition- 
Epidemics-Contagious Diseases-Hereditary Induction-Tuber- 
culosis-Prenatal Infection-"Inheritance" of Venereal Diseases 
■ s 
-Gonorrhoea-Syphilis-Miscarriage-Danger to Innocents- 
Marriage Laws-Disadvantages of Children of Afflicted Parents. 
"The highest duty, the one essential duty, is the perpetuation of 
the family life based upon the mutual love and respect of the'one 
man and the one woman and upon their purpose to rear healthy 
and high-souled children." 
-Theodore Roosevelt. 
The Disease Germ.--The germ theory of disease within 
itself constitutes a flat contradiction of the idea that diseases 
are transmitted by heredity. When we say that we have 
"caught" a cold, we eliminate all possibility of its inheritance. 
This statement is, indeed, very true, for we do actually 
"catch" colds; we do not inherit them. This fact was con- 
clusively established by the experiences of Peary's party while 
exploring the Arctic regions. Colds were unknown after they 
left their ships and began their march thru the snow and ice 
of the far north. They were warm, dry, and comfortable 
while on board ship, but after they left it they often slept with 
their clothing saturated with moisture even when the thermom- 
eter registered many degrees below zero. While on board the 
ship, they breathed the germ-laden dust which floated in the 
impure air of their close quarters, and, as a result, they fre- 
quently suffered from colds. When they penetrated into the 
far wastes of the Arctics, where no man had been before them 
345 346 
The Laws of Life 
to leave the germs which produce colds, they had no fear of 
taking cold. 
Attention should be called to the fact that when two or 
three children in a school become infected with colds, a gen- 
eral epidemic usually breaks out and includes practically every 
child within its reach. While Principal of a certain high school, 
the author collected considerable data on this subject. At 
one time, school had been in session for more than three months 
without a single case of a cold being recorded when, on a 
certain Monday morning, one girl appeared in the study hall 
with a severe attack. At the end of three weeks, the records 
showed that fully ninety per cent of the student body and the 
faculty had suffered from the epidemic. Such examples as 
these prove that common colds and bronchitis are caused by 
disease germs which are taken into the system from external 
sources and not from impure germ plasms; that is, thru 
heredity. It is, therefore, within the power of man to reduce 
the millions of annual cases of such infection. 
It seems to be universally accepted that such diseases as 
diphtheria, typhoid fever and smallpox are caused only by 
their respective typical germs and that they may be prevented 
by the proper precautionary measures; while, if they were capa- 
ble of being inherited, they would be practically beyond human 
control. 
Hereditary Induction.-While people in general consider 
such diseases as being purely contagious, the opposite view is 
often held with reference to tuberculosis. This is evinced in 
such popular expressions as: "I am not surprised that this 
man has consumption for his father died of it," or, "That 
child inherited tuberculosis from his parents." Let those who 
still hold the belief that this plague is handed down from 
father to son consider the fact that tuberculosis recurs in 
the same locality, and in the same house, year after year. The 
fact that this recurrence continues in the same houses, regard- 
less of the fact that the inhabitants change, shows that the 
houses are infected rather than that the disease is inherited. Supposed Inheritance of Diseases 
347 
The more popular becomes this view, the more successful will 
be the attempts to sweep this great white plague from the 
face of the earth. The bacteria of tuberculosis kill almost 
150,000 people each year, but the death rate is decreasing most 
remarkably since the germ theory of this disease has become 
so well known. The success or failure of the battle against this 
most dreaded disease depends upon the acceptance or rejec- 
tion of the principle of disease transmission which is in- 
volved. 
Even in this supposedly enlightened day, there are thou- 
sands who question the real existence of disease. If this back- 
ward movement continues, and should it grow, the "so-called" 
disease germs will play havoc with the human race within a 
very few generations. Is it not time for such non-progressive 
citizens to face about and consider facts and not mere fancy 
and, by so doing, assist in the solution of the present-day 
problems? What a strange mythical conception it is to claim 
that diseases are only a condition of the "mortal mind" caused 
by certain sins of the individual concerned! One faithful 
"practitioner" informed the author that the Spanish Influenza 
epidemic (1918-1919) was traceable to "mind" and "sin." 
Whereupon the informant was reminded that it was indeed 
deplorable that the adherents of this "faith" did not withhold 
their sinning and remain well so that they could care for their 
neighbors until they should recover from the disease. 
In view of the facts regarding the transmission of tuber- 
culosis, the question naturally arises as to the relation between 
the child and the infected parents; and also, regarding the 
tubercular child and the family which is free from this disease. 
It has been said that the child whose parents have died of the 
disease is put to no more disadvantage than if its parents 
had never been infected-assuming, of course, that the child 
had been left when quite young and reared under favorable 
conditions. This view, however, is too extreme if presented 
without modifications. It assumes that the prolonged suffer- 
ing of the parents and consequent degeneration of the cells- 348 
The Laws of Life 
which thus poisons the whole system-has had no effect upon 
the germ cells. Since the germ cells are nourished thru the 
blood circulation the same as are the body cells, it is obvious 
that they receive the same poisoned food. Thus, they would be 
poorly nourished and otherwise injured. It does not seem 
probable that they would be normal under such adverse condi- 
tions. In fact, there seems to be no room to doubt that heredi- 
tary induction does take place under such circumstances. 
It was noted in the last chapter that alcoholism was 
"inherited" even unto the third and fourth generations. 
Although this conclusion was reached as a result of certain 
experimentations with lower animals, it seems probable that 
the same principle of "induction" would apply in the case of 
man. It has been noted by some experimenters that certain 
mutilations of the spinal cords of guinea-pigs caused epilepsy 
which recurred in the offspring for two or three generations. 
Woltereck, who first suggested the term "induction" for this 
phenomenon, found that when a minute water flea (Daphnia) 
was exposed to certain conditions of low temperature, the after 
effect upon the offspring was noted for two generations. In all 
the cases investigated up to the present time, the normal con- 
dition has returned after a few generations. This shows that, 
although poisoned or otherwise affected and consequently modi- 
fied, the germ cells have undergone only temporary changes. 
Thus, hereditary induction is not a true type of heredity. Is 
it not probable that the germ cells of a man or a woman who 
is in the last stages of a lingering type of pulmonary tuber- 
culosis would be affected more vitally than those of a guinea- 
pig which had breathed air saturated with alcohol, or those 
of a water flea which had suffered certain inconveniences thru 
reduced temperature? Thru this process of reasoning, we 
would conclude that tubercular parents would have an 
inductive effect upon their children; that is, a child whose 
father died of tuberculosis would be more likely to be defective 
than it would had the father not been so afflicted. This defect, 
however, may or may not be susceptibility to the tuberculosis Supposed Inheritance of Diseases 
349 
bacilli. The child is just as likely to be defective in some other 
way. 
A certain fallacy should be noted in the above conclusion. 
In order that induction may be effective, the germ cells must 
suffer the temporary alteration before the one which is to 
form the future child is used in the process of fertilization. 
That is to say, the parent must have been seriously affected 
before the child was conceived; otherwise the germ cell would 
not have been altered, and, thus, the child would be normal. 
It is easily observed, therefore, that this type of "inherit- 
ance" is of minor consideration, for very few children are begot- 
ten after the parent has reached an advanced stage of the 
disease. The mother is often accused of being more responsible 
for the transmission of such diseases than the father-at least 
from the standpoint of germinal induction. This is not true. 
The father may leave progeny only a few days before he dies 
of lingering pulmonary tuberculosis which has poisoned his 
whole system to such an extent that every cell of his body has 
become completely saturated with the poisons and reduced 
almost to a state of "living death." In the case of a woman, 
this type of induction is less likely to occur as the ovum must 
be fertilized and cease to be a part of the mother almost nine 
months before the birth of the child. The mother might suffer 
from the disease the entire time and give birth to a child only 
a few hours before her death without affecting the child in the 
least so far as a change in the constitution of the germ cells 
is concerned. However, the baby might be a "weakling" on 
account of a lack of nutrition before birth, or it may "catch" 
the disease by being infected thru actual contact with the 
mother during or immediately following birth. 
Much emphasis is sometimes placed upon pre-natal infection. 
It is shown in another chapter that the child, before birth, is 
nothing more than a parasite on the wall of the uterus of the 
mother-the circulation of the child being entirely distinct 
from that of the mother. The food, in solution, flows with the 
blood thru the capillaries of the mother to the placenta, and 350 
The Laws of Life 
passes by osmosis to the capillaries which unite to form the 
umbilical artery, and thence to the child; the child floats 
in a liquid (amniotic fluid) which is sealed off from the ma- 
ternal tissues. Under such protection, it would seem improb- 
able that disease germs which do not have a particular affinity 
for the sex organs could cross the bridge from the mother to 
the child. Pearson has found that there is a marked correla- 
tion between tubercular parents and tubercular children, but 
there is very little evidence that the child is ever infected be- 
fore birth. 
In addition to the inductive effect of .poisoning the germ 
cells, many present-day writers are emphasizing a more direct 
method by which a diseased and otherwise injured mother might 
transmit subnormal conditions to her unborn child. It is 
claimed that the poisons which might be in the mother's sys- 
tem can be transferred to that of the child thru the process of 
osmosis which is continuous between the circulations of the two. 
Dr. F. J. Laase, associate surgeon of St. Mark's Hospital, 
New York City, has reported an interesting case which seems 
to touch upon this point. This case seems to show that a 
habit acquired by the mother was transmitted to her child. 
The mother was an opium addict and had been such for ap- 
proximately two years. The child was born seemingly nor- 
mal in all respects but was extremely restless from the moment 
of birth. Dr. Laase interpreted this condition to an opiate 
need due to an insufficient amount being taken by the mother 
shortly previous to confinement. The restlessness of the in- 
fant increased within a short space of time and it exhibited 
all the symptoms of a drug addict; its face became pinched 
and wan, it drew up its legs as if it had cramps, and it cried 
lustily. The pupils of its eyes became dilated, its chin trembled, 
and it finally showed signs of a complete collapse. No means 
could be found to cause a subsidence of these symptoms until 
a drop of paregoric was given, and then they disappeared in 
direct ratio to the amount of the drug administered. The 
mother did not desire to continue giving the child the opiate Supposed Inheritance of Diseases 
351 
and delayed each dose as long as possible. The child de- 
veloped the symptoms in varying degrees according to the 
length of time between administrations of the drug. The 
necessity for the use of the paregoric came to an end when 
lactation was brought about; the baby must have obtained its 
supply of the narcotic thru the milk of the mother. Before 
each period of nursing, the child would show a restlessness 
quite unlike that of any other normal child, but it would 
cease after its appetite was satisfied. The restlessness of the 
child increased when the mother took the drug at longer inter- 
vals. Very evidently the child must have acquired this need 
for a narcotic before birth. Such a condition could easily be 
brought about, as the drug could enter the embryonic circula- 
tion thru the placenta by osmosis and, thus, it would not be 
a truly inherited "acquired character." 
"Inheritance" of Venereal Diseases.-The conclusion re- 
garding the improbability of the prenatal transmission of 
tuberculosis and other diseases which do not directly attack 
the sex organs does not seem to hold true with the various 
venereal diseases. While it is improbable that the disease 
germs enter the mature sperm, or the egg, and cross over the 
hereditary bridge which spans the mechanism of fertilization, 
it does seem quite certain that the child may "catch" the dis- 
ease from its mother many months before its birth. Since 
gonorrhoea, syphilis, and the like, have a special affinity for 
the sex organs, the germs seem to be much more likely to pene- 
trate the embryonic membranes and thus affect the unborn 
child, than the contagious and infectious diseases of other 
types. 
This prenatal infection is playing havoc with the human 
race. During the first stages of pregnancy, the normal ten- 
dency is for the uterine lining to expel the tiny parasite, the 
child, from its walls. This tendency is so great that mis- 
carriage seems to be the normal process under such circum- 
stances. If the uterine walls and even the tiny embryo are 
infected, how much greater must be the chance for miscarriage. 352 
The Laws of Life 
It may be a cruel thought, but it occurs to the author that 
the ease by which miscarriage is incited is a great factor in 
favor of both social and evolutionary progress. Were it not 
for this simple process, the countless millions of feeble-minded, 
epileptic, deformed, and insane children, which are brought 
without welcome into a miserable existence, would be many 
times multiplied. Sexual sin has become so prevalent that the 
most innocent are always in immediate danger lest they come 
into contact with the germs that the guilty and the vile are 
constantly scattering throughout the world. So readily in- 
fectious are these diseases that the innocent might fall victim 
by the use of an unclean towel, public toilet, public drinking 
cup, or by any other simple means. One young man, whose in- 
nocence never would be questioned, was reported to have fallen 
a victim to syphilis. After much investigation, his family 
physician established the fact that he was infected when acci- 
dentally struck in the corner of the mouth by the end of a 
whip which a "rotten" hackman had been in the habit of chew- 
ing. Unquestionably, a large percentage of the "dead at birth" 
are traceable directly to prenatal infection. The same might 
be said of many early deaths, as well as many cases of feeble- 
mindedness, insanity, granulated sore eyes, and various defects 
of the sense organs. 
Although there is no question but that the total of "in- 
heritance" of the various venereal diseases can be summed up 
in the two words prenatal infection, we are in grave danger of 
attributing too many cases to this one cause. It must be re- 
membered that the child comes into direct contact with the 
sex organs in the process of being born, thus rendering it 
practically impossible for an infected mother to give birth 
to a child without infecting it. The eyes are especially sus- 
ceptible under these circumstances. If the child escapes the 
disease until after birth, it is still in danger of being infected 
during early childhood. In all probability, the infection of 
children from towels, handkerchiefs, or other toilet articles 
used bv a careless mother, father, or other member of the Supposed Inheritance of Diseases 
353 
family, will account for many instances of supposed prenatal 
infection; this throws some of the responsibility upon the other 
members of the family rather than forcing the mother to bear 
the whole burden. The author does not agree with the popular 
custom of thrusting the entire burden of sexual impurity upon 
the male members of the household, although, of course, it must 
be remembered that many innocent women are infected by their 
husbands. Later, they give birth to sore-eyed, syphilitic chil- 
dren and are forced to endure the insulting remarks of the 
public to the effect that they had syphilis and gave it to their 
children before they were born. For many years, women and 
children have been the victims of various diseases. Sometimes, 
and indeed more often, they were entirely ignorant of the 
fact that they were afflicted. Young wives and mothers who 
had been healthy have been severely mutilated by surgical oper- 
ations ; some of them have lost their health entirely, some have 
become incapable of bearing children, and still others have 
died as a result of this terrible disease. Many babies have been 
born hopelessly defective, others have been blinded a few 
hours after birth, and others have died, solely because of their 
parents' sins. 
Downing summarized the influences which venereal diseases 
have upon society as follows: "It is probably safe to say that 
these diseases are the cause of more misery than all the other 
diseases put together. It is difficult to make a cautious state- 
ment of their results. Even conservative physicians in writ- 
ing of their effects are prone to make assertions that read like 
those of the alarmist. They are undoubtedly spread chiefly 
by sexual impurity. So appalling are their results that many 
extreme measures have been advocated to check their havoc. 
Some states now prescribe that before a marriage can be legally 
performed both the contracting parties must furnish to the 
proper authorities a certificate that they are free from venereal 
diseases. Some states, recognizing the correlation between 
these diseases and crime, insanity, imbecility, and pauperism, 
provide for the segregation of such people and their confine- 
ment under conditions which will make the bearing of children 1893 189S 18% 1303 1304 190S 1307 1303 1303 1310 1311 1912 1913 
Fig. 123. Over-production among the inferior. (From Davenport, Journal of Heredity, November, 1919-dates of births 
added from Davenport's text.) The above chart shows that a certain defective woman of Cleveland has been married three 
times and produced forty-one offspring, eighteen males and twenty-three females, among which there 'were no single births. Of 
these forty-one children, only ten reached the teen age, typical of the over-productiveness of those with "mental limitations"; 
such people, being governed by instinct rather than reason, produce large numbers of abnormal children, the most of which are 
dead at birth, die in early childhood, or perchance are thrown upon the mercies of the public. As indicated by the chart, there 
were born to this woman (3) by her first husband, one set of twins. After the death of this man she married again and 
produced three sets of twins and one set of triplets. Of these nine children born during five years, five died young. The off- 
spring by the third husband showed even a lower percentage of normality. Three sets of twins, four sets of triplets, and 
three sets of quadruplets, gave a total of twenty-nine children in ten years-an average of almost three per year. Of these 
twenty-nine children, only four seemed to have reached maturity. 
354 Supposed Inheritance of Diseases 
355 
impossible. In some states it is incumbent upon the authori- 
ties in charge of persons in insane asylums, penitentiaries, and 
institutions for the feeble-minded to sterilize such as are ad- 
judged to be hopeless cases. But probably the most effective 
method of dealing with the situation is to bring to young peo- 
ple a realization of the prevalence of such diseases, even among 
men of the better social classes." 
It was suggested above that miscarriage, especially when 
due to venereal diseases and other abnormalities, might be 
classed as one of the vital factors which promote evolutionary 
progress (Fig. 123). This principle might be applied to the 
lower animals as well as to man in whom natural selection 
and survival of the fittest play their part even before birth. 
The abnormal-the "unfit"--are aborted rather than being 
permitted to be born and later leave a race of unfit individuals. 
While thinking of the lower animals, this principle does not 
excite any particular grief. It does seem deplorable, how- 
ever, that Nature must give the emergency call to two of 
her most faithful servants, "struggle for existence," and "sur- 
vival of the fittest," to redeem man from the cursed sins of his 
own making. The most pitiful fact associated with the elimi- 
nation of the unfit by miscarriage is that the woman is called 
upon to pay the whole price in suffering. 
One does not realize to what extent "born dead" is a relief 
to human society until a study is made of certain families 
permeated with insanity, feeble-mindedness, epilepsy, alco- 
holism, and sexuality. The Jukes and Kallikak families are 
examples of such which will be considered later. These cases 
clearly show that with many, the bringing into the world of 
children is nothing more than a blind obeying of the dictates of 
an uncontrolled brutal passion. The only reason more children 
are not produced is because the period of pregnancy is nine 
months rather than twenty-two days as is the case of certain 
mice. What a blessing it would be to human society could some 
scientist discover a method of extending this period, in the 
case of the class of people cited above, to nearly two years, 356 
The Laws of Life 
as in the case of the elephant. Then, the number of the unfit 
would be materially reduced. 
The above illustrations and discussions show that it is im- 
possible for disease germs to be inherited thru the germ plasm 
and also suggest some of the consequences of prenatal infection 
as well as induction. So far as actually inheriting the germ 
itself is concerned, the child of the diseased parent is no more 
handicapped than if the disease were unknown. However, the 
children of parents infected with tuberculosis or other pro- 
longed diseases-sexual diseases excepted-suffer from at least 
four standpoints; namely: (1) Induction, (2) Inheritance of 
a weak constitution, (3) Insufficient nutrition and perhaps 
poisoning before birth, and (4) Living in an atmosphere which 
is saturated with germs. Therefore, under few conditions is it 
correct to say that the child of a diseased or alcoholic family 
has an equal chance with those from a normal home. It is 
fortunate that his success or failure lies largely in his own 
hands. With proper hygienic precautions, he may be able to 
resist the disease germs even though he may have inherited a low 
resisting power. With the child from a family of alcoholics, 
he may, by a determination born of an iron will, resist the 
temptation and by proper conduct, live above his social en- 
vironment. 
The young men or young women, knowing as they should 
the facts regarding the sexual diseases, should have, with 
rare exceptions, the power and determination to evade them. 
Is it not time, then, for the progressive young people of 
America to awaken to their responsibilities and lend a hand in 
the making of a purer race? CHAPTER XXVIII 
PRENATAL CULTURE AS RELATED TO HUMAN 
PROGRESS 
Introduction-Totemism as Probable Basis for Present Anti- 
quated Views-Obsolete Views of Civilized Man-Examples of 
"Birthmarks"-Facts about * the Birthmarks-Cause of Birth- 
marks-Relation between the Embryo and the Mother-Fertiliza- 
tion and Implantation of the Ovum-Conclusion. 
"I know not what may be the cost to both of us to rid me of that 
fatal birthmark . . . which was laid upon me before I came into 
the world. . . . Life is a burden which I would fling down with 
joy. . . . Either remove this dreadful hand or take my wretched 
life." 
-Georgiana in "The Birthmark," 
Taken From 
"MOSSES FROM AN OLD MANSE" 
by Hawthorne. 
Introduction.-From the time of the nomadic tribes of 
distant prehistoric periods to the second decade of the Twen- 
tieth Century, even in many of the supposedly enlightened com- 
munities, fantastic ideas regarding prenatal influences have 
remained practically unchanged. The most common of these 
influences have found expression in the prevalent explanations 
for the so-called birthmarks. During this expanse of time, 
millions of expectant mothers have undergone untold mental 
agonies, extreme physical inconveniences, and, indeed, torture 
on account of the popular belief that some accidental occur- 
rences might affect their own mental conditions, and thus cause 
their children to be born defective in some physical or mental 
characteristic (Fig. 124). Many children have been ushered 
357 Fig. 124. The picture at the top of the page shows a typical dwarf in 
company with a deaf-mute who possesses an unusually large goiter. (Bot- 
tom) Eva, Agnes, Maude. Were these children "birthmarked, or was their 
pitiful condition caused by alcoholism, venereal diseases, or heredity? It is 
the function of the Science of Eugenics to search the truth in such cases. 
The American people are spending millions of dollars every year in caring 
for the defectives, but comparatively nothing is being invested in "cause and 
prevention." 
358 Prenatal Culture as Related to Human Progress 
359 
into this world as weak, degenerate beings unable to cope with 
the vicissitudes of life solely because of improper prenatal 
care-the mothers failing to take proper exercise and whole- 
some nourishment for fear that some unpleasant experience 
connected therewith would blight the life of their children- 
to-be. 
The present popular notion of birthmarks was so prevalent 
in the "Old Testament" days that the conception was extended 
into the animal world. If a certain type of cattle was de- 
sired, the cows were forced to look upon certain objects, and 
thus the calves would be "birthmarked" in some specific man- 
ner. As a result of certain agreements between Jacob and 
Laban (Gen. 30), the former was entitled to all the striped 
and spotted cattle which might be born, the latter taking all 
that should be of solid color. In the absence of Laban, Jacob 
devised the following scheme by which his share of the cattle 
might become the greater. 
"And Jacob took- him rods of green poplar, and of the 
hazel and chestnut tree; and pilled white strakes in them, and 
made the white appear which was in the rods. And he set the 
rods which he had pilled before the flocks in the gutters in the 
watering troughs when the flocks came to drink, that they 
should conceive when they came to drink. And the flocks con- 
ceived before the rods, and brought forth cattle ring straked, 
speckled, and spotted." 
Although Jacob, by this method, soon found himself the 
owner of a large percentage of the herd, he was not as yet satis- 
fied but proceeded to mark the best for himself and leave the 
"scrubs" for his partner. 
"And it came to pass whensoever the stronger cattle did 
conceive that Jacob laid the rods before the eyes of the cattle 
in the gutters, that they might conceive among the rods. But 
when the cattle were feeble, he put them not in: so the feebler 
were Laban's and the stronger Jacob's." 
Totemism as Probable Basis for Present Antiquated Views. 
-The fact that the modem conception of the various prenatal 360 
The Laws of Life 
influences was handed down from the earliest tribes of prehis- 
toric times, is demonstrated by a study of similar ideas held by 
the semi-civilized races which are still in existence. Practically 
all such tribes are strong adherents to the principle of totem- 
ism, a type of superstition which bears a close relationship to 
the subject under consideration. Indeed, it can be said with a 
great degree of assurance that many of the present-day er- 
roneous beliefs are derived from primitive customs of savage 
races. According to Frazer, "totemism is an intimate rela- 
tion which is supposed to exist between a group of kindred 
people on the one side and a species of natural or artificial 
objects on the other side, which objects are called the totems 
of the human group." In like manner, each individual of the 
group has his own specific totem. Usually the person took 
the name of his totem for his own, such as "Crab," "Deer," 
"Sitting Bull," etc. 
These people, not being able to understand the origin and 
early development of the unborn child, conceived the idea of 
the child being a spirit with which certain women were endowed. 
Since the child was not considered to be in existence until the 
mother became conscious of its presence-perhaps by the char- 
acteristic sensation produced by the child's first movements-a 
direct relation was held to exist between this physical realiza- 
tion and the visual images which the mother may have had at 
that moment; that is, the cause of the supposed spontaneous 
appearance of the child was attributed to the material some- 
thing which perchance attracted the attention of the mother 
at the crucial time. As Frazer says: "It might be a kangaroo 
that hopped before her and disappeared in a thicket; it might 
be a gay butterfly flitting past in the sunshine with the metal- 
lic brilliancy of its glittering wings." Regardless of the ob- 
ject that the mother saw at this particular psychological 
moment, the child would bear, when born, a direct resemblance 
to the thing, whatever it may be. In many cases, he would also 
take his name from it. Often- this resemblance would find Prenatal Culture as Helated to Human Progress 
361 
expression in certain markings on the child's body-birth- 
marks. 
Obsolete Views of Civilized Man.-Although civilized man 
no longer adheres to the old principles of totemism as such, 
he still looks with favor upon some of the antiquated views 
handed down as a legacy by this primitive creed. All thru 
medieval and recent history and literature we find examples 
of the most ridiculous types of birthmarks which show that 
these views have been supported continuously from the earliest 
ages of "intelligent" man. In the trial (1743-45) to ascertain 
the legal heir to the Annesley title and estate, the vital ques- 
tion to be decided was whether the claimant was the son of 
Lord and Lady Altham or the son of their kitchen wench, 
Joan Laundy. During the course of the trial, one witness 
claimed to have conclusive proof that the child was the natural 
son of the kitchen wench rather than that of Lady Altham. 
The witness stated that she was present when the cook, quarrel- 
ing with Joan, struck her with a hare which she was preparing 
for the oven, and, as she did so, cried out, "I will mark your 
brat for you!" According to the witness, the child, when 
born, bore the mark of the hare. Again (1746) we find that 
Lady Cromarty's baby bore the mark of an axe because her 
mind had been so disturbed over the probability of her hus- 
band's being executed by Prince Charles. 
One might readily surmise that the present notion regarding 
prenatal culture was prevalent in Hawthorne's time, since he 
pictures Georgiana (in Mosses from an Old Manse) as having 
the mark of a hand on her cheek. This mark, though greatly 
admired in her youth, came to be a "symbol of imperfection," 
especially to her husband, Aylmer. After Aylmer speaks 
out in his dreams, "It is in her heart now; we must have it out," 
Georgiana expressed her feeling thus: "I know not what may 
be the cost to both of us to rid me of this fatal birthmark. 
Perhaps its removal may cause careless deformity. Or it may 
be the stain goes as deep as life itself. Again, do we know that 362 
The Laws of Life 
there is a possibility, on any terms, of unclasping the firm grip 
of this little hand which was laid upon me before I came i/nto 
the world? . . . Life is a burden which I would fling down 
with joy. Either remove this dreadful hand or take my 
wretched life." After many vain attempts, Aylmer was able, 
by giving Georgiana a draught of a sparkling liquid which he 
had prepared, to cause the crimson mark to fade; but, as 
the mysterious hand faded, so passed the life of its pos- 
sessor. 
Lucy, one of the characters in The Ordeal of Richard 
Feverel, was a prospective mother who desired her unborn 
child to become a great historian. In order to bring about this 
desire for the child, she had a gentleman come to her home each 
evening and read and discuss history with her. 
Numerous quotations such afe "So many spots like nasvus 
[birthmark] our Venus soil" from Dryden's Death of Lord 
Hastings; "It reappears once more as a birthmark on the 
forehead," from Longfellow's Golden Legend II; "The blem- 
ish that will never be forgot," and "Worse than a slavish wipe 
or birth hour's blot," from Shakespeare's Rape of Lucrece, 
are further proofs that the greatest of human minds have been 
steeped in this yet prevalent type of ignorance. 
The almost universal prevalence at the present day of an 
erroneous belief in various prenatal influences will be demon- 
strated by questioning the mothers of nearly any community. 
As a result of such investigations, hundreds of "authentic" 
cases have been recorded. The "so-called" birthmarks tabu- 
lated below together with their attributed causes were nar- 
rated as "facts" by the members of one class in Heredity and 
Evolution-some of them being exemplified in the students 
themselves. . They are typical of the hundreds of dangers 
which the average mother thinks she must evade in order that 
she may produce a perfect child. Prenatal Culture as Related to Human Progress 
363 
Birthmark 
1. Girl had half a strawberry 
on knee. Seeds visible. 
Attributed Cause 
1. Before birth of baby, mother 
craved strawberries and sent 
a child to get some. Child 
brought one and demanded 
half. Mother cut berry on 
knee. 
2. Snake coiled around man's 
leg, tail at ankle and head 
at thigh. 
2. Short time before birth of 
child, mother stepped into 
rattler's den and one coiled 
around her limb. 
3. Blackberry on thumb. 
3. Month before giving birth to 
baby, mother was invited out 
to dinner where blackberries 
were served. Did not get 
enough at the table to satisfy 
her, so while eating some af- 
terwards she dropped one on 
her thumb. 
4. Boy had patch of hog's 
bristle on leg. 
4. Mother chased by hog before 
boy's birth. 
5. Woman with raspberry on 
back of neck. In raspberry 
season clearer with white 
sores resembling seeds. 
5. Children broke a jar of 
freshly canned raspberries. 
Mother-to-be became angry 
and scratched the back of 
her neck. 
6. Young lady with brown spot 
resembling beefsteak on neck. 
6. Mother-to-be craved beef- 
steak and was unable to get 
it. 
7. "Mouse's skin" on shoulder. 
7. Mother frightened by a 
mouse while child was in em- 
bryonic stage. 
8. "Mashed strawberries" on 
neck. 
8. Mother saw mashed straw- 
berries on a paper blowing 
across the street, and threw 
hand on neck with exclama- 
tion. 
f). "Cucumber" at waist line. 
9. Mother put hands on hips 
while having a craving for 
cucumbers. 364 
The Laws of Life 
Birthmark 
10. Child had "wings" on shoul- 
der. 
Attributed Cause 
10. While pregnant, mother 
cared for a crippled hen. 
11. Girl's feet turned in and 
hands drawn back against 
wrists. 
11. A few days before child's 
birth, mother doctored a 
dog that had its feet cut off. 
12. "Snake" on head. 
12. Mother saw husband kill 
snake which fought. She 
put her hands on her head. 
13. Spot on jaw. 
13. Mother saw father shot in 
head night before birth of 
child. 
14. Red spot covering cheeky 
part of nose, and chin. 
14. Pregnant mother poured 
grease in fire. It blazed up 
and she put hand to face. 
15. "Piece of cake" above knee 
of child. 
15. Mother, while compliment- 
ing some lady on her cake- 
making, slapped herself on 
this spot. 
16. "Head of horned cow" be- 
low shoulder blade. 
16. Mother chased by cow a few 
months before child's birth. 
17. Red spots on arm. 
17. Mother took care of a child 
that had been burned and 
her child had the same num- 
ber of spots. 
18. Mark on each hip resem- 
bling coffin. 
18. Mother looked at son's 
corpse which had been 
brought home in a coffin. 
19. "Bird" in flight on throat. 
19. Cat killed pet bird. Preg- 
nant mother saw it and put 
hand to throat. 
20. Strip of yellow "dog's hair" 
on hip. 
20. Mother saw dog fight and 
rubbed hand on hip. 
21. One hand with mere buds 
for fingers. 
21. Mother saw boy with fin- 
gers shot off. 
22. Side of head, body, and 
limbs purple. 
22. Drunken father threw wine 
on side of pregnant mother. Prenatal Culture as Related to Human Progress 
365 
Birthmark 
23. Individual thru life afraid 
if even a finger is pointed 
toward him. 
Attributed Cause 
23. His father shot at his 
mother and grazed her 
cheek, frightening her. 
24. Club-footed and hands off 
above wrists. 
24. Mother had made fun of 
club-footed girl whose 
hands had been amputated. 
25. Child born with insane look 
and eyes crossed. 
25. Mother helped husband as 
door keeper in asylum. She 
encountered an insane man, 
and he frightened her with 
an awful stare. 
26. Lady born with a death- 
like pallor. 
26. Mother saw corpse of her 
father. 
27. Child disliked onions and 
punished its enemies by rub- 
bing onions in face and 
eyes. 
27. Mother ate too many on- 
ions before the birth of the 
child. 
28. Child's face marked with 
long red streaks. 
28. Mother, who was trained 
nurse, assisted in an opera- 
tion. 
29. Child with ten fingers and 
two thumbs. 
29- Mother witnessed sleight- 
of-hand performance. 
30. Child with staring eyes, 
queerly shaped hand, and 
one foot which was dark on 
bottom. 
30. Expectant mother, during 
early development of em- 
bryo, saw, within a week, a 
cub bear, a frightened 
turtle with bulging eyes, and 
an Indian with one foot off. 
31. Girl with double joints. 
31. Mother saw a dog with front 
feet cut, making it look as 
if it had double joints. 
32. Child born with sore eyes, 
which continued weak 
throughout life. 
32. Mother petted family dog, 
which had sore eyes. 
33. Woman afraid of worms. 
33. Husband had frightened 
mother with worms. 
34. Dislike for bean soup. 
34. Mother ate too much dur- 
ing pregnancy. 366 
The Laws of Life 
Birthmark 
35. Musical talent. 
Attributed Cause 
35. Mother studied music dur- 
ing pregnancy. 
36. Fondness for reading. 
36. Mother spent much time 
during pregnancy in read- 
ing- 
37. Child nervous. 
37. Mother saw husband killed 
in runaway. 
38. "Slice of ham" on boy's 
thigh. 
38. Ham fell from its place on 
nail to floor. Mother fright- 
ened and put hand on hip. 
39. One-armed child. 
39. Pregnant mother excited by 
the sight of one-armed man. 
40. Birth of girl. 
40. Mother wished, so strongly 
for a girl that it caused the 
child to be a girl. 
41. Birth of boy. 
41. Mother thought too much 
about the war and the boys 
"over there." 
42. Man who reels like a drunk- 
ard when he walks. . 
42. Mother was frightened by 
a drunken man before her 
child was born. 
43. Child cries all the time. 
43. Mother saw her son run 
over by a wagon and his legs 
crushed. She grieved and 
cried so much that when the 
child was born it cried all 
the time. 
44. Woman with mouse, tail, 
and four legs on her arm. 
44. Mother was frightened by a 
mouse crawling up her 
sleeve. 
Facts about Birthmarks.-It will be noted from the fore- 
going records that many variations, and indeed, some normal 
conditions might be considered as a direct result of certain 
prenatal happenings, and that a cause which satisfies the 
populace is attributed to each. The absurdity of the popular 
notion regarding the causes of such variations is especially ap- Prenatal Culture as Related to Human Progress 
367 
parent when a large number are considered. However, if one 
case is considered alone-as a mulberry on a child's back- 
no particular mystery is attached thereto. 
Birthmarks, sometimes spoken of as "mother's marks" or 
"birth-hour blots," are known to the physician as navi (Lat., 
a spot, mole, or wart). They include any unusual markings 
of the skin. The ordinary form of navus, known as navus 
vasculosus, may be present at birth or may appear immedi- 
ately thereafter. These markings usually present themselves 
as red stains ("port-wine stains," "fire marks," "wine stains," 
etc.) of very irregular contour and usually somewhat elevated 
above the surrounding surface of the skin. They may be mere 
spots, as a common mole; or they may cover the side of the 
face, neck, and even one shoulder. Since a naevus ("birth- 
mark") is a kind of vascular tumor of connective tissue con- 
taining blood in its spongy meshes, its color will vary from 
light brown to purple--depending upon the amount of blood 
in the meshes and also upon the amount of skin pigmentation. 
The more common "fire marks" are caused by excessive dila- 
tion of the superficial skin capillaries. Since the color of these 
markings is more or less in proportion to the amount of blood 
contained in the abnormal spongy and fibrous surface tis- 
sues, it is obvious that the color will change when the amount 
of blood contained varies, as in the case when the person is 
under excitement such as crying, laughing, or blushing, or 
when in fear, or anger. The author has had the opportunity 
to make a close study of this special peculiarity of so-called 
birthmarks, since his own daughter has such a mark on the 
back of her neck. Although the marking is ordinarily prac- 
tically invisible, an outburst of tears or laughter will bring it 
into prominence. Upon these facts are based the erroneous 
beliefs that some such marks are more conspicuous during 
certain seasons. There is no question, for example, but that 
the strawberry on the knee of the girl mentioned in case eight 
above, or the cucumber in case nine, will change color during 
strawberry or cucumber season-particularly if the person is 368 
The Laws of Life 
in the field and becomes very warm, thus causing a vascular 
dilation of the surface blood vessels and allowing a large 
amount of blood to come to the skin. 
The capillaries of the skin and the underlying tissues are, 
in many navi, so greatly enlarged that they connect with each 
other and also with the outer surface, thus producing abundant 
secretions whose odors are sometimes very disagreeable. Rey- 
nolds (1888) reported to the American Medical Association 
an interesting case of a ten year old boy who had a dark pur- 
ple naevus on the left thigh and hip, almost encircling the limb. 
The constant discharge from this "birthmark" was so profuse 
and so offensive that the lad was deemed to be unfit to be in 
company with other children. A similar case has come to the 
personal knowledge of the author. A lady teacher bore such 
a mark on her cheek which discharged a bloody secretion at 
intervals. The bleeding continued for several hours and in 
sufficient quantity to saturate a number of handkerchiefs. The 
fact that excitement produced the usual marked effect upon 
this elevated congenital varicose naevus was demonstrated when 
the teacher became angry and attempted to punish a mischiev- 
ous boy. As her face flushed with anger, the "mother's mark" 
began to bleed so profusely that the task of punishing the 
little urchin had to be temporarily abandoned. 
Cause of Birthmarks.-As has been shown by the foregoing 
examples, birthmarks are popularly thought to be due to cer- 
tain prenatal impressions in the way of a longing, a fright, 
or an aversion to particular objects or things; or, as shown by 
the examples, any accident or occurrence which in any way 
affects the mental condition of the mother during pregnancy 
may cause physical disarrangement of certain parts of the 
child's body. Although cases are often cited which seem to 
possess a considerable degree of plausibility, unquestionably 
the principle of coincidence is the basis, for the true explana- 
tion. The experiences of the mother are so varied during the 
nine months preceding the birth of the child, and the causes 
of each type of marking so numerous, that any mother can Prenatal Culture as Related to Human Progress 
369 
readily think of a cause that will serve as a more or less ra- 
tional explanation for any abnormality which might appear. 
Take, for example, case eight in which a young lady was 
marked by a "mashed strawberry" on the neck. Unquestion- 
ably the mother could have thought of a dozen causes which 
would have served even better than the absurd one she gave. 
Relation between the Embryo and the Mother.-The preva- 
lent notion regarding prenatal influences is founded upon 
the erroneous idea that the child, before birth, is part of the 
mother almost in the same sense that the organs of her body 
are part of her. To one who understands the relation between 
the mother and her unborn child, the idea of prenatal influence 
is ridiculously absurd. Who would dare to suggest that the 
thoughts of any individual would amputate a limb or affect the 
nervous mechanism of a tick which was feeding upon fiis or 
her arm? Would this not be plausible if the mother's thoughts 
and actions render corresponding effects upon the unborn 
child? The two cases are more or less parallel, for the embryo 
is nothing more than a parasite on the walls of the mother's 
uterus. In other words, the tick is an external parasite while 
the child is an internal parasite. They both draw their nu- 
trition from the host. 
Since this internal parasitic existence is so different from 
the free living habit, it is necessary that special organs be 
developed by which the processes of anabolism and katabolism 
may be carried on. A brief reference to these embryonic or- 
gans, and a consideration of the relation between the mother 
and the unborn child should suffice to show that prenatal in- 
fluences are impossible except from the standpoint of nutrition 
and direct mechanical injury. 
Fertilization and Implantation of the Ovum (Fig. 125).- 
Since the subject of fertilization was considered in connection 
with the history of the chromosomes, it remains now to show 
how the fertilized egg attaches itself in a parasitic manner to 
the wall of the uterus. After the fertilized ovum undergoes a 
number of divisions, it burrows into the spongy uterine mucosa, 370 
The Laws of Life 
causing a breaking down of the neighboring tissues and permit- 
ting the blood plasma to extravasate. This process is condu- 
cive to the growing up of the uterine tissues around the em- 
bedded human parasite. It will now be noted that the tiny 
parasitic embryo is protected on one side by the inner layers 
of the uterine membrane (the future decidua basalis, B, Fig. 
125) and on the other by a thin layer of the uterine mucosa 
(the future decidua capsularis, C) which by continued stretch- 
ing remains as the protecting membrane for the embryo until 
about the close of the fifth month, when this membrane becomes 
so extended that it comes into contact with the lower walls of 
Fig. 125. Section thru uterus with embryo embedded in uterine mucosa. 
B. Decidua basalis. C. Decidua capsularis. D. Chorionic villi. X. Uterine 
cavity. 1. Decidua vera. 2. Fallopian tubes. 
the uterus (the decidua ver a. Fig. 126), thus obliterating the 
entire uterine cavity (X, Fig. 125). 
As is the case with many parasites, root-like projections 
(chorionic villi, D, Fig. 125) grow out from all sides in order 
to absorb nourishment from the liquid of the surrounding space. 
Many of these villi continue to grow until they cross this space 
and begin to penetrate the tissues of the uterus. Since the 
greatest supply of nourishment is obtained from the inner 
layers (decidua basalis, B, Figs. 125 and 126), the rootlets 
in this vicinity undergo a very rapid growth, while those on 
the opposite side-being unable to obtain sufficient nourish- 
ment-eventually disintegrate. The embryo is now completely 
surrounded by a thin, capsule-like membrane (C, Fig. 126, Prenatal Culture as Related to Human Progress 
371 
decidua capsularis} and is connected on one side to the uter- 
ine wall by fixation villi (B, Fig. 126). 
As the embryo enlarges and requires more nourishment, 
these villi continue to grow and erode the substance of the 
decidua basalis, and thus gain a greater absorbing surface. 
This organ, which forms the connection between the mother 
and the embryo, and which is vital to the nutritive, respiratory, 
and excretory functions of the embryo, is called the placenta. 
Fig. 126. Diagrammatic section thru pregnant uterus. B. Decidua 
basalis. C. Decidua capsularis. D. Chorionic basalis. X. Uterine cavity. 
Am. Amnionic cavity. Um. Umbilical cord. 1. Decidua vera. 2. Fallopian 
tubes. 
Since this connection is more or less insecure, the splitting of 
the placenta thru the regions of the intervillous space is quite 
common. In this case the embryo, being released from the 
walls of the uterus, is free to be discharged. This abnormal 
occurrence is spoken of in the human race as miscarriage, and 
in the other mammals as abortion. Various diseased conditions 
of the placenta might be the cause of this mishap. With cattle, 
a certain type of abortion has been found to be contagious, 
being caused by a typical germ known as bacillus abortive 
equinno, "slip-bug." These germs infect the placenta, de- 372 
The Laws of Life 
stroy it, and the embryo slips out, seemingly with but little 
harm to the mother. 
It should be concluded from the above consideration that 
the blood of the unborn child receives nourishment from the 
maternal blood by osmosis thru the villous capillaries-the 
two blood streams at no time coming into direct communica- 
tion. It is further important, from the standpoint of the 
present line of thought, to call attention to the fact that the 
cavity (AM, Fig. 126) which has formed around the embryo 
is filled with a liquid (liquor amnii). The embryo is now 
suspended by the umbilical cord (UM) and floating freely in 
this fluid. The umbilical cord connects the embryo with the 
placenta and is the sole avenue of nourishment. The liquor 
amnii varies considerably in amount at different times and with 
different cases. Under normal conditions, however, it seldom 
exceeds three pints-the greatest quantity appearing about the 
latter part of the eighth month. On the other hand, abnormal 
conditions may arise when the amount would decrease to such 
an extent that the embryonic membrane may come into contact 
with the embryo itself, and, by certain irritations, or even 
adhesions, produce various embryonic scars ("birthmarks"} 
on the unborn child. McMurrich has said: "Occasionally, 
also, bands of fibrous character traverse the amniotic cavity, 
and, tightening upon the embryo during its growth, may pro- 
duce various malformations, such as scars, splitting of the 
eyelids or lips, or even amputation of a limb" 
To the thoughtful reader, these simple facts should suffice 
to explain the cause of the ordinary so-called "birthmarks." 
However, many more technical malformations may occur. It 
must be remembered that the child was once nothing more than 
a mass of protoplasm, seemingly no more organized than 
a globule of jelly. From this homogeneous mass must come 
within only a few days the rudiments of the arms, the legs, 
the skin, the eyes, the ears, and various internal organs. 
Who would expect even Nature herself to formulate such intri- Prenatal Culture as Related to Human Progress 
373 
cate systems and organs from so small a beginning without a 
mishap? Is it not true that the absolutely perfect child is 
the extreme exception and that scars, blemishes, and various 
other markings are the rule? While the blood system is form- 
ing, many opportunities are presented for irregular pigmenta- 
tion and the formation of moles and other types of blem- 
ishes. 
Conclusion.-The foregoing considerations should not only 
establish the fact that the ordinary "birthmarks" in the form 
of physical defects are absurd scientific impossibilities, but 
that the whole category of prenatal influences are in like man- 
ner beyond the scope of scientific possibility. In view of the 
non-relation between mother and child and the absence of any 
form of nerve connection, how are the masses to support their 
argument that the child is to be moulded into a poet, a musician, 
a novelist, or an athlete, according to the life of the mother 
during pregnancy? Is it not strange that such statements 
as the following may still be read in American journals and 
recent books? 
"Society has long ignored the power of prenatal influence." 
"Post-natal has a great deal of influence in the moulding 
of the child's character, but postnatal is not to be compared 
with the influence of prenatal." 
"The law whereby latent physical, mental, and moral char- 
acteristics of the parents-particularly those that are most 
active for some time prior to the initial of life, at the time 
of conception, and in the mother during gestation-are trans- 
mitted to the offspring." 
"If a mother would transmit her special talents, she must 
exercise them during gestation." 
"The brain is most easily moulded during embryonic de- 
velopment. When the brain areas are forming it is possible 
for the mother by assiduous exercise of mental powers to greatly 
modify the hereditary tendencies and to improve the mental 
tendencies and mentality of her child." 374 
The Laws of Life 
"By systematic methods parents may mould the tendencies 
of offspring before birth." 
"It is during the prenatal period of a life that education, 
home influence, and the grace of God do their most effectual 
work in the formation of character." 
One of the most ardent believers in prenatal culture dedi- 
cated his book as follows: "To my Father and Mother who, 
by their Religious Devotion during my Prenatal Development 
made the Desire to follow Christ in a Labor of Love for the 
Good of Mankind the Ruling Passion of my life, This Book 
is affectionately Dedicated." (Heredity and Prenatal Culture 
-Riddel. 
To the reader who has fully perceived the relationship be- 
tween mother and child as presented in these pages, the above 
quotations are quite absurd. If "it is during the prenatal 
period of a life that education, home influence, and the Grace 
of God do their most effectual work in the formation of char- 
acter," then those who are deficient in any of these character- 
istics must ask their mothers to be totally responsible for such 
failures as may occur in life. What a strange character it 
would be who believed that the "special talents" of the mother 
could be transmitted from her brain to the uterine tissues with- 
out a single nerve connection, thence along the umbilical cord 
into the abdomen of the child and then into its brain! 
How simple the whole process of race development would be 
if it were "possible for the mother by assiduous exercise of men- 
tal powers to greatly modify the hereditary tendencies and to 
improve the mental tendencies and the mentality of her child." 
How soothing this theory should be to the daughter of the 
author, since the authorities of one of the leading Universities 
conferred a degree upon her mother only five months before she 
was born. Discouraging as it may seem, my dear child, you 
must burn the "midnight oil" the same as do some of your class- 
mates whose mothers were deprived of even a common school 
education! Were this theory a fact, every mother could choose 
the career for her child before its birth-she could look at Prenatal Culture as Related to Human Progress 
375 
beautiful pictures and produce a fairy princess; in brief, she 
could at her will present to the world a saint or a devil! Do 
observations of the facts substantiate these absurd assump- 
tions? How would it be possible for a "beautiful thought" to 
upset the germ cell mechanism and thus cause the unborn child 
to be beautiful? CHAPTER XXIX 
INDIVIDUAL CONDUCT AS RELATED TO RACIAL 
DEVELOPMENT 
• Simplicity of Racial Development thru the Inheritance of Ac- 
quired Characteristics-Vitality of the Subject-Individual vs. 
Race-Triangle of Life-Pangenesis, Continuity of the Germ 
Plasm, and Modified Pangenesis-Use and Disuse-Environment, 
Adaptation and Natural Selection-Variation, Prodigality of Na- 
ture, Mutation, Amphimixis, and Hybridization-Induction-Muti- 
lations-Supposed Inheritance of Acquired Characters-Germ Dis- 
tinct from Soma-Experimental Proof-No Promiscuous Handing 
Down of Acquirements. 
"A right answer to the question whether acquired characters 
are or are not inherited underlies right beliefs, not only in Biology 
and Psychology, but also in Education, Ethics, and Politics." 
-Herbert Spencer. 
"I will speak what I believe to-day, even if it contradicts 
everything that I said yesterday." 
-Gladstone. 
The relation between the every-day experiences of the 
individual and the evolution of the race is or should be more 
than a technical problem to be considered only by the trained 
biologists. Whether or not these daily experiences which so 
materially affect the individual are transmitted to posterity 
should be a live question for us all. What person would not 
be pleased to devote some thought to a consideration of whether 
the personal accumulations of a lifetime are capable of being 
handed down to his children? While considering whether or 
not such acquired characters are transmissible to the next 
376 Individual Conduct as Related to Racial Development 
377 
generation, the eminent Herbert Spencer said, "A grave re- 
sponsibility rests on the biologists in respect to the general 
question, since wrong answers lead, among the other effects, 
to wrong belief about social affairs and to disastrous social 
actions." 
The breeder's success depends not on the improvement of 
the animals or plants which he now possesses, but on the im- 
provement of the race or breed. Is the breeder of hogs, for 
example, to obtain a race of fat porkers solely by seeing that 
all his hogs are well fed? In brief, what effect will the ac- 
quirements of the parents have upon the next generation? It 
should be clear that such a problem is directly related to the 
theory of organic evolution. If the individual actions and 
acquirements can render a direct effect upon the race, then 
man can mould evolution at his will. The moulding of any 
race of beings, be it what it may, would be a very simple proc- 
ess should all acquirements be capable of transmission. Man 
could weed out those individuals who do not present acquire- 
ments suitable to his purpose, and thus perpetuate those desir- 
able individuals who would produce the ideal race. The world 
is crowded with well-meaning people who wish to improve the 
race, but who, in their zeal, wholly overlook the germ plasm. 
They are adherents to the old belief that should they be able 
to change the somatoplasm in the desired direction, some unac- 
countable mechanism will perpetuate the acquirement into the 
next generation. 
The characters of all individuals will fall under two heads. 
They are either germinal or acquired; that is, they were either 
inherited from a preceding generation or were acquired inde- 
pendent of heritage. It is often extremely difficult to determine 
under which of these heads a character should be classed. For 
example, a family of white people accustomed to a temperate 
climate has moved to a tropical environment. The parents and 
children will very likely become tanned as a result of the new 
conditions. Subsequent children will also exhibit the same skin 
color. Is this due to the transmission of an acquired character, 378 
rThe Laws of Life 
or is it due to the fact that these children, too, are subjected to 
the same environment as their parents, brothers, and sisters? 
Many casual thinkers would be quick in attributing this change 
to the inheritance of acquired characters, while, in all proba- 
bility, the germ plasm has not been altered. Too often is it 
the case that a sharp line cannot be drawn between germinal 
characters and characters which are acquired independently 
of heritage. Many acquired characters pass for germinal 
characters when such should not be the case. In gen- 
eral, germinal characters are definite traits which are repre- 
Fig. 127. The Triangle of Life-The Old Idea. According to this idea, 
environment is the determining factor in our lives. 
sented by factors in the reproductive cells and which normally 
pass on to the next generation; acquired characters are those 
which come thru somatic modifications which are in no way 
connected with the germ cell mechanism, and their possession 
is wholly a matter of chance or circumstance. 
The Triangle of Life.-Since the whole problem of acquired 
characteristics needs very careful scrutiny, it seems wise to 
review briefly a few of the most fundamental principles before 
considering the subject in detail. This is especially necessary 
since much of the matter presented in the preceding chapters 
is essential to an understanding of the problem in hand. 
The development of the characteristics of the individual Individual Conduct as Related to Racial Development 
379 
depends wholly upon three factors: heritage, environment, 
and training. The relative importance of these factors has 
been a subject of debate for many decades. The earlier work- 
ers laid little stress upon heritage, but claimed that the en- 
vironment was the dominant factor in the life of every indi- 
vidual. According to this idea, the base of life's triangle was 
environment, and heritage was a subordinate consideration 
along with training. Around this substantial base (Fig. 127) 
would swing the other two factors. Upon the old conception 
Fig. 128. The Triangle of Life-The New Idea. According to this 
conception, what we are (heritage) is far more important than what we do 
(training) or what we have (environment). 
were founded many of the codes of reform which are the work- 
ing basis for our social institutions of to-day. Many reformists 
will still contend that a child will act in response to his environ- 
ment no matter how low his heritage may be. 
Recent investigations have revealed the fact that the old 
notion of the triangle of life is not the correct one. The domi- 
nant factor in the life of the individual as well as of the race 
is heritage (Fig. 128) rather than either environment or train- 
ing. Heritage expresses the inborn nature of the individual. 
Instinctive tendencies, for instance, are part of the inborn 
equipment with which each and every individual is endowed, 
and which are due to heritage. Environment and training, 380 
The Laws of Life 
although subsidiary, are by no means inconsiderable. It is 
a truism of our every-day life that the environment renders a 
marked effect upon the individual. Compare the bleached skin 
of the bank clerk with the brown and leathery face of the 
farmer. As boys, they may have been almost identical. Ob- 
viously, the sun's rays and the wind affect the color and com- 
position of the skin. Who would dispute that the environment 
in the form of use has caused the blacksmith to develop a 
strong, muscular arm? Whether or not these environmental 
changes will be inherited by the next generation is a question 
of fundamental importance in the evolution of the race. 
Biologists maintain that what a man is has a greater sig- 
nificance than what he has or does. Training and environment 
may better the present generation but a good heritage is the 
only salvation of the generations unborn. No amount of edu- 
cation can extinguish the outcroppings of an undesirable heri- 
tage. Heredity is branded in the germ plasm and cannot be 
eradicated by any force of nature. Proper environment and 
training may serve as a check on hereditary tendencies in the 
individual but to remove them from the germ cells and prevent 
their transmission is an impossibility. To trace the stream 
of heredity that has been flowing onward in the past bearing 
us upon its bosom, to chart its shoals and reefs, to divine its 
future course, and to direct its flow into new and better chan- 
nels so that it may go on unobstructed to its final goal, is the 
all-absorbing problem that confronts the modern geneticist. 
Pangenesis, Continuity of the Germ, and Modified Pan- 
genesis.-AW forms of life existing upon the earth at the pres- 
ent time have arisen from previous and simpler forms. This, in 
substance, is Darwin's theory of descent. According to this 
theory, all animal life has sprung from a few primitive types. 
This theory of evolution, then, amounts to the practical as- 
sertion that all animal life is more or less related. From one 
or more unicellular forms have arisen the great number of 
multicellular forms that now exist-man included. In the 
popular mind, Darwin's theory of descent is supposed to be Individual Conduct as Related to Racial Development 
381 
that man sprang from the apes. Strictly speaking, this is a 
misconception of the grossest sort. Darwin's theory does not 
put forth the idea that man sprang from any particular species 
of apes, but rather that man and the apes have both come 
from a common stock. (See Chapter IV.) It is equally true, 
according to the same theory, that man and many other of 
the lower animals have a common origin in the remote past. 
Essentially, then, this theory is not a theory of the descent 
of man from any particular species but a theory of the relation- 
ship of all animals thru their common ancestry. 
By what process has this development taken place? How 
has it been possible for the simple to develop into the more 
complex and thus form a more or less connected chain from 
"amoeba to man"? Was Lamarck correct when he stated the 
fundamental principle of the philosophy of evolution as fol- 
lows : "All that has been acquired, begun, or changed in the 
structure of individuals in their life time, is preserved in repro- 
duction and transmitted to the new individuals which spring 
from those which have inherited the change" (Lamarck's 
Zoological Philosophy} ? Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather 
of Charles Darwin, was a strong supporter of this view that 
evolutionary development was simply an accumulation of the 
reflected daily experiences of the individual which were handed 
on to the next generation. Even Charles Darwin and Herbert 
Spencer accepted this theory as one of the main factors in the 
development of the race. 
Darwin put forth the theory that all parts of the body 
were constantly sending contributions to the germ cells in the 
form of "gemmules." These hypothetical units then recon- 
structed the whole individual, including his modifications in 
the germ cells. This theory readily allows for the transmission 
of acquirements. There is, as a matter of fact, no tangible 
basis upon which to rest this hypothesis. This theory of Dar- 
win, the theory of pangenesis, is in direct contradiction to 
the theory of the continuity of the germ plasm which is the 
present-day accepted view. Pangenesis, essentially, holds that 382 
The Laws of Life 
the soma gives rise to the germ and that the germ, in turn, gives 
rise to the soma of the next generation. According to this 
erroneous conception, the hen produces the egg and the egg, 
in turn, produces the hen. This process of interchanging from 
germ to soma and from soma to germ is repeated in each suc- 
ceeding generation. Figure 129 will help to visualize this proc- 
ess. It is almost a self-evident fact that this theory of pan- 
genesis cannot be a true one. Under it, the transmission of 
parental modifications should reach a plane of almost infalli- 
bility-a condition which very evidently does not exist. 
Germ 
So m a 
Germ 
Goma 
Etc. 
Fig. 129. The Theory of Pangenesis. The earlier biologists held the 
erroneous conception that the hen produced the egg and the egg in turn 
produced the chick. 
Weismann was the first to deny flatly all transmissions of 
acquired modifications. Since it was impossible for him to 
conceive of any mechanism whereby any particular acquired 
character could be handed down to the next generation, he 
began to cast about for a more plausible explanation. Al- 
though Weismann was quite destructive in his claims, his logi- 
cal constructive arguments gained popularity at once. He 
attempted the substitution of a plausible theory for the one 
which had no established foundation. His principal arguments 
were intended to destroy the theory of Darwin. In opposition 
to Darwin's views, Weismann objected that no known mechan- 
ism existed for the transfer of characters from the soma to the 
germ. In his own words, his claims are that: "No such modi- 
fications of the soma (effected by environment or use and dis- Individual Conduct as Related to Racial Development 
383 
use) can be transmitted to the germ cells from which the next 
generation springs. They are, therefore, of no account in the 
transformation of species. Characters can only be inherited 
in so far as their rudiments are already given in the germ 
plasm. Modifications which are wrought upon the formed body 
in consequence of external influences must remain limited to 
the organism in which they arose." 
It is obvious from Weismann's own statement that he con- 
sidered the germ cells absolutely distinct from the somatic 
cells of the body. According to this conception, it would be 
impossible for the long neck of the giraffe (Fig. 95) to have 
been caused from stretching in order to reach the foliage on 
the trees. According to Lamarck's view of this case, each suc- 
ceeding generation of giraffes inherited the stretched neck of 
the previous generation until the race acquired its present neck 
length. When we remember that the determiner for neck length 
is tucked away not only in the germ cell but in a definite chromo- 
some, it is difficult, indeed, to conceive a possible way for it 
to be influenced by somatic changes. How absurd it is to even 
suspect that the stretching of the neck could "stretch" this 
tiny determiner which is so small that it cannot be observed 
even by the aid of the most powerful microscope. If the 
soma affects the germ cells, as Darwin considered, why are 
not such effects more commonly seen? We can excuse the 
earlier workers for their erroneous theories, because in their 
day scientific knowledge had not advanced sufficiently for the 
truth to become evident. Mendelism, and the chromosome 
theory, at that time yet remained to be formulated. The old 
hypotheses, however, have not been without value, for they 
have served as a stimulus to investigations into the facts. 
The theory that Weismann advanced in opposition to 
pangenesis is known as the theory of the continuity of the germ 
plasm. According to this theory, the germ plasm flows onward 
from generation to generation in one continuous stream (Fig. 
ISO). The somatoplasm is in no wise the originator of the 
germ; but, rather, is itself derived from the germ plasm. This 384 
The Laws of Life 
plausible theory holds that the egg not only produces the hen 
but also the germ cells, and thus the future eggs of that hen. 
This conception, which claims that the egg produces the indi- 
vidual but that the individual does not produce the egg, holds 
true with all the higher animal forms. This theory does not 
allow for the modification of the germinal characters thru 
acquired somatic characters. The fact that very early in 
the development of the individual definite cells are set aside to 
Germ 
Soma 
Germ 
Soma 
Germ 
Soma 
Germ 
Soma 
Etc. 
Fig. 130. Continuity of the Germ-plasm. According to Weismann's 
views the egg produces both the hen and the egg of the next generation. 
become the future functioning reproductive cells of that indi- 
vidual would lend support to Weismann's views. 
Another interesting theory has been advanced in which 
both the pangenetic theory and the theory of the continuity 
of the germ plasm are combined into one. In this theory it 
is supposed that the germ plasm is continuous from generation 
to generation in the same way as Weismann thought, but that 
somatic modifications would occasionally become fixed in the 
germ and be heritable (Fig. 130). This theory, which is 
known as the theory of modified pangenesis, would seem, at Individual Conduct as Related to Racial Development 
385 
first glance, to be a very plausible one; in fact, there is some 
experimental evidence which seems to support it. According 
to Kamnnerer, certain artificially striped salamanders, whose 
stripes were obtained by keeping the animal (when young) on 
a yellow background, produced striped offspring. The experi- 
menter then crossed spotted salamanders with natural striped 
ones and obtained spotted offspring, showing that "spot" is 
dominant over "natural striped." However, upon crossing 
spot with artificial stripe he was surprised to find offspring 
with broken stripes or, rather, spots in rows-another clear- 
cut case of the acquired character's affecting the germinal con- 
stitution of the individual. With these facts established, 
ovaries of one type were transplanted into the body of another, 
somewhat as Castle (Fig. 131) did with the black and white 
guinea-pigs. Ovaries from a naturally striped individual were 
grafted into the body wall of a spotted female and a cross be- 
tween this individual and a natural striped male gave all striped 
offspring. Similar results were obtained when ovaries from an 
artificially striped female were used. Similarly a natural 
striped female containing "spotted" ovaries crossed with either 
a spotted or natural striped male produced spotted offspring. 
This would be expected, since "spot" is dominant. 
However, most unusual results were obtained when arti- 
ficially striped females whose ovaries had been supplanted by 
those from a spotted individual were crossed with either of 
the three types of males. When such a female was crossed 
with a spotted male one would expect all offspring to be 
spotted, since this is equivalent to mating two spotted indi- 
viduals. However, only 19 out of 79 offspring conformed with 
expectations, as the remaining 60 had spots in rows. When 
the artificially striped female containing "spotted" ovaries 
was crossed with a natural striped male, all offspring should 
have been spotted if the somatic cells had no influence over the 
germ. This, however, was far from the case. In like manner 
the somatic cells seemed to have had inductive effect upon the 
"spotted" ovaries when the above considered type of female 386 
The Lazes of Life 
was crossed with an artificially striped male, as the 209 off- 
spring from four different females were all striped instead of 
having spots in rows as in the case of the preliminary crosses. 
If it is true that the implanted ovaries were changed by 
the body cells of the females in which they were implanted; if 
"hereditary induction" did take place so accurately that the 
spots of the parents were reflected, so to speak, through the 
specific "spot" determiner on the body of the baby salamander, 
if all this is actually true, as the results seem to indicate, why 
then did not the same thing happen when the corresponding 
crosses were made with females with natural stripes? How 
is it possible for such precise induction to take place in an 
artificially striped female when nothing of the kind occurs 
in those bearing natural stripes? Were it not for such unan- 
swered questions, Kamnnerer's experiments would lend very 
strong support to the theory of inheritance of acquired char- 
acteristics. It should be said, in general, that of the many 
experiments designed to establish this theory as a fact, certain 
fallacies are, in each case, quite obvious. 
Use and Disuse.--It is believed by those who hold the 
affirmative of the question of the transmissibility of acquire- 
ments, that the long hind legs of the jumping animals (such 
as rabbits and kangaroos) and the long front legs of the climb- 
ing animals (such as monkeys) were acquired thru constant 
use. 
The fundamental questions to be asked in this connection 
are: Do the rabbits and the kangaroos have well developed 
hind legs because they have used them, or do they use them 
because they have them? Do the monkeys have long forelegs 
because they have used them, or do they use them because they 
have them? 
Similar questions may be framed for all cases in which 
there seem to have been inheritances of parental modifications. 
In the light of our present knowledge, we arc justified in con- 
cluding in all such cases that the second proposition-the one 
opposed to the inheritance of acquired characteristics-is the Individual Conduct as Related to Racial Development 
387 
accepted one. What, then, have been the agents by which 
evolutionary progress has been fostered? This question can 
be answered thru a reference to the causes which have already 
been considered more or less in the preceding chapters. These 
were environment, adaptation, natural selection, variation, 
prodigality of nature, mutation, amphimixis, and hybridiza- 
tion. 
Environment, Adaptation, and Natural Selection.-In 
order to survive, all living things must be adapted or be capable 
of adapting themselves to their surroundings. In a stable 
environment, animals and plants become so well adjusted that 
they remain unchanged or they undergo comparatively little 
modification. Evolution is most rapid where the environment 
is unstable. 
For an illustration of environmental change, consider the 
time when all animal life was aquatic, when the water of the 
sea was comparatively fresh. Thru a process of inorganic 
evolution, the present continents appeared above the water. 
This new condition caused the water of the seas to gain 
greatly in its percentage of mineral matter in solution-par- 
ticularly calcium and sodium salts. This was probably 
brought about largely by the work of the rivers in bringing 
down the minerals which had been dissolved thru a process of 
erosion. The animal life met a new situation since their 
physiological make-up was not in harmony with their environ- 
ment. A readjustment had to be made. Any one of three 
possible courses was open to them. They must either adapt 
themselves to the new environment, modify their systems to 
throw off the excessive mineral matter, or leave the water 
entirely. Not all met the situation by any one of these 
means. Some did adapt themselves by undergoing physiologi- 
cal changes, others modified themselves and became the ances- 
tors of such forms as the modern corals and shell-bearing 
fishes. Others were unable either to adapt or modify them- 
selves but were forced to migrate to the land. Of the vast 
number of individuals that attempted to meet the situation in 388 
The Laws of Life 
this manner, perhaps only a very few were able to meet the 
rigid requirements of their new environment. This select num- 
ber of individuals laid the foundation for all animal life upon 
the land. Granted the fact that the above situation was true, 
how was it possible for the adaptations and modifications to 
take place? Was it thru the inheritance of gradual parental 
modifications in the desired direction, or by natural selection 
acting upon those which had a variation or a degree of adapta- 
bility of a favorable nature? 
It is almost a tradition with the populace that the cave 
fishes are blind because they are in the dark caves and have 
no use for eyes. This answer is especially satisfactory since, 
in most cases, the blind species are plainly derived from the 
fishes of the surrounding regions which have normal, well 
developed eyes. In response to the question as to the origin 
of the blind fishes, the author generally asks his students this 
question: Are blind fishes blind because they are in the cave, 
or are they in the cave because they are blind? This suggests 
the probability of their being blind before they entered the 
cave. 
What proof have we that the fish's eyes disappeared be- 
cause "it lived in a dark cave and had no use for them"? How 
many years does it take for a family of fishes with normal eyes 
to undergo such a physiological change as to be left without 
eyes, save small rudimentary and functionless ones? How 
many generations? (Payne reared flies in the dark for 58 
generations without appreciable effect.) We have repeatedly 
referred to the fact that the determiners for heritable char- 
acters are located in the chromosomes in the nucleus of the 
germ cell. This holds true in the case of the fishes as well as 
in other forms. Here, then, we have an interesting situation. 
The absence of light sets up a nervous stimulus which passes 
to the brain, thence into the abdominal cavity to the gonads 
(sex cells), and by some mysterious process removes from the 
chromosomes the determiner which stands for normal eyes. 
In other words, a nothing removes a something. Individual Conduct as Related to Racial Development 
389 
Let us go back in our assumption to the early history of 
the cave. At one time, the cave lake was in most cases con- 
tinuous with the water on the outside-making it possible for 
the fish to play in and out the mouth of the cave. Suppose 
a fish should have been born without eyes; that is to say, a 
mutant. Since it had no eyes with which to see the approach- 
ing enemy, its struggle for existence was greatly intensified. 
If, perchance, it should have found its way into the cave, its 
pursuers would have been very much inconvenienced because 
their normal eyes would have been useless in the dark. The 
blind fish would have the advantage because of its other senses 
being especially well developed, since it depended upon them 
and not upon sight. Under these conditions, the normal fish 
may have become the prey of the blind ones. The latter, 
finding the dark environment favorable for a quiet and undis- 
turbed existence, adopted the cave waters as its home. After 
the outside waters were disconnected, these fish were cut 
off and remained blind cave dwellers. Thus, it appears 
that the blind fish "are in the cave because they are 
blind." 
Many investigators have commented upon the fact that 
immigrants very often change in such a way that they seem 
to acquire the racial characteristics of the people among whom 
they have settled. Commenting upon this point, Popenoe and 
Johnson have said: "The many instances quoted by histori- 
ans, where races have changed after immigration, are to be 
explained in most cases by natural selection under new con- 
ditions, or by interbreeding with the natives, and not as the 
direct result of climate. Ellsworth Huntington, the most 
recent and careful student of the effect of climate on man, 
finds that climate has a great deal of influence on man's energy, 
but as far as inherited traits in general are concerned, he is 
constantly led to remark how little heredity is capable of 
being changed." Furthermore, Jordan and Kellogg say: 
"Influences of climate, of heat, and of cold are not inherited 
so far as experiments show, nor has it been made clear that 390 
The Laws of Life 
extrinsic influence exerted on the individual really modifies the 
forces of heredity." 
Environment, adaptation, ard natural selection are three 
of the most important factors in the evolutionary process. 
Survival is a matter of adaptation to environment. Natural 
selection eliminates the unfit. In the examples cited above, 
these three factors play an important role in the perpetuation 
of the race fitted to live in its own particular environment. It 
now becomes necessary to review briefly the means that nature 
has devised in order to furnish material for these three factors 
to work upon. 
Variation, Prodigality of Nature, Mutation, Amphimixis, 
and Hybridization.-It will be unnecessary to give more than 
passing notice to these factors since all have received more or 
less attention in previous chapters. Variation is a universal 
law of nature. The members of a species are not all exactly 
alike. Natural selection is given an opportunity to act upon 
the variants in order to weed out those which do not har- 
monize with their environment. The prodigality with which 
Nature reproduces a species affords ample latitude in this 
process of the elimination of the unfit and the preservation of 
the fit. Nature is very prodigal. She does not limit the num- 
ber of individuals in any species. Their propagation is 
determined by the factors of environment, adaptation, and 
natural selection. It is the factor of variation that forms one 
of the most fundamental principles upon which evolution finds 
a foundation. The prodigality of nature affords an excellent 
chance for the occurrence of wide variation, mutations, and the 
intermixing of species. Amphimixis and hybridization are 
phenomena of the intermixing of two distinct lines of germ 
plasms. It is evident that under such conditions a new hybrid 
type would be produced. Again, natural selection would come 
into play in the elimination of the unfit and the perpetuation 
of the fit. 
Induction.-Experimental evidence shows that the germ 
cells of the individual may be affected inductively, and, thus, Individual Conduct as Related to Racial Development 
391 
individual conduct may in a measure have a direct influence- 
although not truly hereditary-upon the offspring. The 
phenomenon of induction may be defined as a temporary de- 
rangement of the germ cell mechanism which is brought about 
thru improper nutrition or "poisoning." 
The germinal constitution of the guinea-pigs which Stock- 
ard exposed to air saturated with alcohol seemed to have been 
affected inductively. Many of the young died or were born 
dead, others were deformed and epileptic. Even the third gen- 
eration was affected by the action of the drug upon the germ 
cells of their grandparents. However, this effect is transitory 
-it gradually disappears under normal conditions. Similarly, 
Sumner found that tail length in mice was affected by tempera- 
ture and that the modification was passed to the next genera- 
tion. While considering such cases as those just cited, 
Conklin concluded: "Probably environmental stimuli acting 
upon germ cells at an early stage in their development may 
rarely cause changes in their hereditary constitution; but 
changes produced in somatic cells do not cause corresponding 
changes in the hereditary constitution of the germ cells. Germ 
cells like somatic cells may undergo modifications which are 
not hereditary; they may be stained with fat stains and the 
generation to which they give rise be similarly stained; they 
may be poisoned with alcohol or modified by temperature and 
such influences be carried over to the next generation without 
becoming hereditary. All such cases are known as induction 
and many instances of the supposed inheritance of acquired 
characters come under this category." 
We cannot conclude that induction is universal and infalli- 
ble in all cases where the germ cells are laid liable to certain 
effects. These cells are so carefully guarded that it is nearly 
impossible to reach them to do them harm; nevertheless, such 
does seem to occasionally happen. However, many experi- 
ments have been performed that have given results which seem 
to contradict those of Stockard and Sumner. Among these 
may be mentioned the experiments of Pearl, who treated 19 392 
The Laws of Life 
fowls with alcohol with but slight effect upon general health 
and none upon egg production. Commenting upon the work 
of Pearl, Popenoe and Johnson say: "From their eggs 234 
chicks were produced; the average percentage of fertility of 
the eggs was diminished but the average percentage of hatcha- 
bility of fertile eggs was increased. The infant mortality of 
these chicks was smaller than normal, the chicks were heavier 
when hatched and grew more rapidly than normal afterwards. 
No deformities were found. 'Out of 12 different characters for 
which we have exact quantitative data, the offspring of treated 
parents taken as a group are superior to the offspring of 
untreated parents in 8 characters,' in two characters they are 
inferior and in the remaining two there is no discernible dif- 
ference. As far as reported, it shows that what is true for 
guinea-pigs may not be true for other animals, and that the 
amount of dosage probably also makes a difference. Dr. 
Pearl explains his result by the hypothesis that the alcohol 
eliminated the weaker germs in the parents, and allowed only 
the stronger germs to be used for reproduction." 
In the case of man, it is very likely that the body can 
absorb a certain amount of such poisons as alcohol without 
any perceptible effect upon the germ cells. When the limit 
is passed, those cells which are weaker than the others will 
be the first to suffer. When a point of saturation is reached, 
the stronger cells may be affected inductively. If we are to 
judge from the results of Stockard's experiments, the children 
thus affected are likely to be defective in various ways-low 
vitality, degenerate, paralytic, deformed, and otherwise defec- 
tive, while Pearl's results seem to suggest a kind of elimination 
of the "Unfit" germ cells. In all cases the preponderance of 
evidence is against the use of any such poisonous substance as 
alcohol, tobacco and opiates. , 
Mutilations.-Many attempts have been made to prove to 
the biologists and to the public in general that acquired char- 
acters such as mutilations are handed down to later genera- 
tions. The most notable of the experiments along this line Individual Conduct as Related to Racial Development 
393 
were those of Brown-Sequard on guinea-pigs. The sciatic nerve 
was cut or certain other injuries were made to the spinal 
nerve which caused pronounced epilepsy. This experiment was 
tried upon thousands of guinea-pigs and in a few cases the 
offspring from these mutilated parents were epileptic and 
showed morbid conditions of the nerves the same as did their 
parents. Altho the experiments of Brown-Sequard are 
somewhat convincing, they are not confirmed by those of 
later workers. Thompson suggests that "the probable inter- 
pretation is that the artificially induced epilepsy liberated a 
toxin which affected the germ-cells in some cases, the germ- 
cells and foetus in other cases." 
Many examples may be cited which directly prove that 
mutilations are not handed down in the slightest degree. It 
is the custom in many localities to cut off the tails of the pigs 
when they are very small, but still tailless pigs are not born 
into these families of animals. In like manner, hornless cattle 
are not born because of the custom of "dehorning" the par- 
ents. The "Flathead" Indians admire a head which slopes 
from the tip of the nose to the crown. In order to bring this 
about, a board is fastened to the forehead of the baby while 
the skull is yet plastic. Although heads have been flattened 
for unknown generations, no children have been born into this 
tribe with natural flat heads. Neither is there recorded an 
instance of a Chinese girl (Fig. 96) being born with abnor- 
mally small and deformed feet (other than club feet, which 
deformity is quite common among all races), even tho the bind- 
ing of the feet of women has been practiced in China for 
unknown ages-at least 6,000 years. It has been said that 
the reason that modern man has a degenerate little toe is 
because he has acquired that character thru the modifications 
of many generations of shoe wearers. The mummies of the 
ancient Egyptians show the same characteristic with regard 
to the little toe. Certainly, they cannot be accused of wearing 
tight shoes! 
"Mutilations of any sort are not inherited. The tails of 394 
The Laws of Life 
sheep have been cut off' foi* countless generations. Yet each 
lamb is born with a tail. This law holds good for docked tails, 
docked ears, pierced cars, and the many mutilations to which 
domestic animals and men have been subject since the begin- 
ning of civilization" (Jordan and Kellogg). A lady of no 
mean distinction, who was a graduate of a leading university, 
assured the author that her son had caused the production of 
a race of tailless dogs by amputating the tails of the parents 
for several generations. The story within itself is absurd 
enough, but the very height of absurdity was reached when it 
was claimed that the producer of such animals was a mere 
high school boy. Thousands of generations of de-tailed dogs 
would not give rise to a race of tailless ones. If we could alter 
nature by such a rapid process, all living things would soon 
conform to man's ideals! Humphrey very aptly said: "If we 
make a jack-o'-lantern out of a pumpkin, and afterward plant 
the seeds, we do not expect a crop of jack-o'-lanterns. Repeat 
the cutting and plant the seeds thru fifty generations of pump- 
kins; not a jack-o'-lantern will be grown. The inheritance is 
from the seed, not from the pumpkin." 
Supposed Inheritance of Acquired Characters.-Any num- 
ber of examples might be cited in which the environment to- 
gether with use and disuse seem to have rendered direct effect 
upon the race. In certain parts of the Alps, families have 
been guides for tourists for many generations. It is needless 
to say that the mountaineers are a large and sturdy race of 
people. Is this due to the fact that the children have inherited 
the sturdiness acquired by their parents, or is it due to the 
direct effect of the healthful climate and the outdooi' life? 
In other words, would not the son of a decrepit shoemaker 
be equally as sturdy were he adopted by the Alpine parents 
when a babe and reared under that environment? On the 
other hand, would not the Alpine child develop into a scrawny 
weakling were he to live the life of such a shoemaker? 
When certain lowland plants are reared at high altitudes, 
they become dwarfed and sometimes covered with hairs. The Individual Conduct as Related to Racial Development 
395 
flowers of such plants are also much more brilliant under the 
new conditions. The "scrub oak" which is so common in the 
Rockies is thought to be derived directly from the giant oaks 
of lower altitudes, the difference being due to the inheritance 
of acquired characters produced by adaptation. It is a well 
known fact that the northern varieties of corn (notably the 
Peep o' Day) mature in a much shorter time than do the 
varieties grown in the southern states. Since all forms of 
corn were supposed to have originated from a tropical plant, 
and, further, since the northern varieties continue to mature 
Fig. 131. Heredity overrules environment. A diagrammatic representa- 
tion of the transplantation experiment performed by Castle and Phillips. 
As the illustration shows, the ovaries of a white guinea-pig were removed 
and those of a black individual grafted in their place. The white female 
upon being mated to a normal white male, produced three litters of black 
pigs. This clearly shows that the somatic cells of the white female, which 
possessed "black" ovaries, had no influence upon the germ cells. 
quickly if planted in the south, it is claimed by many that the 
characters acquired thru adaptation to the environment have 
been inherited^ The above cases are fair samples of a whole 
class which appear-if not carefully scrutinized-to be sub- 
stantial and convincing proofs that acquired characters are 
inherited. To this list might be added many others. The 
explanation for such cases as the scrub oak and the corn is 
that natural selection has been acting upon mutants, varia- 
tions, or the products of amphimixis or hybridization. 
Natural selection eliminated the unfit and perpetuated the fit. 396 
The Laws of Life 
Germ Distinct from Soma.-Experiments show that the 
somatic or body cells render little, if any, influence upon the 
hereditary potentialities of the offspring. One of the most 
conclusive of these experiments was that of Castle and Phillips. 
The guinea-pigs pictured in Figure 131 show the results of one 
of their most successful investigations. The ovaries were re- 
moved from the black female and grafted into the body 
of the white female guinea-pig in place of her own ovaries, 
which had been removed. Thus, the animal is white but 
possesses the ovaries of a black guinea-pig. Three times she 
was successfully bred to a white male. The three litters are 
illustrated. All were black. The first litter was composed 
of two black pigs (A and B), the second of one (C), and 
the third of three (D, E, and F). The fact that the mother 
died before the last three were born and that they were re- 
moved by operation does not detract from the results. It is 
noted that the results were exactly the same as if the black 
female had produced the litters rather than the white 
female. In fact, the black female was the true mother 
as her germ cells produced the young, while the white female 
served only as an incubator. Since black is dominant over 
white, all the progeny should have been and were black. The 
fact that the somatic cells of the white guinea-pig did not 
change the hereditary constitution of the "black" germ cells 
-tho in the body of and nourished by the white animal-shows 
that the normal hereditary tendencies persist regardless of 
environmental changes. 
Conclusion.-Throughout the above consideration, the 
original view of Weismann that the germ plasm is distinctly 
independent of the body cells has been the basic principle. It 
must be conceded that Weismannism has undergone certain 
modifications and that the germ cells may be altered. How- 
ever, this concession does not weaken the arguments against 
the inheritance of acquired characters. In cases where germi- 
nal modifications have been known to take place, the germ cells 
have been changed directly rather than thru the soma. The Individual Conduct as Related to Racial Development 
397 
pangenetic theory has become obsolete for all time. Will the 
son be a drunkard because the father was? If the pangenetic 
theory of acquirements held true, we should become a race of 
"beer kegs" before many generations. A man acquires the 
taste for strong drink; he does not inherit it. The son of a 
drunkard may inherit the physical and mental debility of his 
father and thus be more susceptible to temptation and the 
acquirement of an appetite for strong drink. However, we 
cannot be assured that alcohol does not have an inductive effect 
upon the children even to the "third and fourth generation." 
After reviewing the situation as presented in this chapter, we 
are forced to admit that the inheritance of parental modifica- 
tions does not play any part in the progress of the race. That 
"wooden heads are inherited and wooden legs are not" is a 
truism. 
Nature is very wise. She has ordained that there shall be 
no promiscuous handing down from generation to generation 
of the various parental modifications or acquirements. By 
this all-seeing measure, she has prevented a hopeless struggle 
for survival between the good and the bad qualities of our race. 
Rather, the energies of existence are bent toward a more per- 
fect adaptation in order that the race may be lifted to a still 
higher plane and be perpetuated to the utmost limits before 
it shall have completed its life cycle. Progress is effected by 
the various creative factors of evolution such as variation, 
mutation, etc. The formative factors acting upon these are 
the instruments of determining which characters shall be per- 
petuated. The accomplishment of the aims is found in the 
inviolable continuity of the germ plasm which renders a worthy 
character permanent rather than temporary. CHAPTER XXX 
MOULDING THE SUPER-MAN 
Find "Evolution of Man"-A Broader View Necessary-Our 
Attitude-The Unfit Work an Injustice upon Society-Eugenic Re- 
sponsibility-Human Inheritance-The Jukes-The Edwards- 
The KalEkaks-Relation of Degeneracy to the Community-In- 
equality of Men-Overproduction of Inferior-Limiting the Unfit 
-Sterilization-Informing the Public-Public Opinion-Biologic 
Enlightenment-Human Responsibilities-Selection of Mates- 
Status of Marriage Relation-Production of Children-Quality vs. 
Quantity-Eugenics and Religion-Marriage, Birth, and Religion 
- Responsibility of Marriage-Religion Must Embrace Eugenics- 
Relation of Science and Religion-Supreme Ruler of the Universe 
-Conclusion. 
"Virtue does not come in life until reason is developed. 
We have long since emerged from the heroic childhood of our 
race, when good and evil could be met with the same frolic welcome. 
... It remains for us to throw aside the youthful over-confidence. 
. . . We are grown men and must play the man." 
-Huxley. 
A study of the various inhabitants of this earth prior to 
the advent of man (See "Cycle of Life," Chapter VI) suggests 
the possibility of the appearance in the future of some type 
of being which will be much superior to the present all-dominat- 
ing master-man. It was suggested that this superior being 
may appear as an entirely new type of life or as a new race 
possessing the physical make-up of man as he is known to-day 
but with a superior intellect. The "Cycle of Life" indicated 
further that some five million years has been the average time 
for any one species to dominate the earth. Supposing that 
398 Moulding the Super-Man 
399 
man, as such, has been in existence the maximum length of 
time assigned to him by the most conservative calculator- 
namely, less than a million years-indications are that over 
four million years remain for him to dominate the earth. If 
intellectuality be considered, his time might be extended indefi- 
nitely ; it may be extended to the time when the changing of the 
earth's condition will make it impossible for him to live. 
Even tho the geologic succession of ages has been domi- 
nated by first one species and then another in a cycle of 
supremacy, man has reached a plane from which he will prob- 
ably not descend. The brutes which have held sway in the 
past gained their ascendancy either thru physical powers or 
thru changed environmental conditions. They were creatures 
of circumstance; they held the supremacy, for the time being, 
because their environment was such that their own peculiar 
natures fitted them for their positions of power. They were 
powerless to act against circumstance. When the environ- 
ment changed, presenting new problems of existence, these 
creatures were unable to meet the vicissitudes of life and gave 
way to others that before may have been oppressed and barely 
able to keep up in the struggle for existence but which were 
then able to assume the mastery. Not so with man. He has 
reached his place in the world thru the exercise of intelligence 
-a factor which he holds in common with a majority of his 
fellow-beings, but to a far greater degree. Environment has 
no terrors for man; he moulds it to suit his ends. It has been 
truly said that man carries his environment with him. The 
question, then, is not what species shall succeed man but to 
what plane shall man, thru his endowment of intellect, rise in 
the years of the distant future. 
Since it is an indisputable fact that man is playing a great 
part in the moulding of plant and animal life, it should be 
logical to conclude that he is a co-worker with nature in the 
moulding of the so-called super-man. If each generation 
should cooperate with the natural forces in the ushering in 
of the generation unborn, man might be developed to such an 400 
The Laws of Life 
extent that he would indeed be only "a little lower than the 
angels" and "crowned with glory and honor." Man is but a 
savage with a coat of veneer. Even the most polished of us 
are savages at the core. Much of the evolutionary lumber 
which was at one time a useful part of our existence is still 
carried on as a part of human nature. Human nature has 
evolved out of the jungle into the open, but a great deal of 
the past still clings to it. 
In fact the cause of feeble-mindedness and various other 
defects might be explained in terms of evolution. Davenport 
so says: "If hereditary feeble-mindedness depends upon the 
defects in the chromosomes, such defects may well have per- 
sisted in the germ plasm for many generations. Although we 
must concede the probability that mutations are commonly 
occurring in the nervous mechanism as they do in other bodily 
organs, still it is probable that many existing cases of mental 
defect can be traced back to the remote past. In the most 
extensive pedigrees of the feeble-minded that have been made 
in this country, like that of the Jukes and of the Kallikak 
family, the mental defect has been traced for nine or more 
generations. If it can thus be traced back 200 years, there 
is little doubt that in some cases it might be traced, where 
there are sufficient records, thru 2,000 years or even more. 
There is good reason for believing that the normal man of the 
old Stone Age in Europe would be considered to-day a moron, 
if not an imbecile of a high grade. To-day there exist in Aus- 
tralia remnants of a native race, the normal individuals of 
which are characterized by distinctly lower capacity of mental 
development than the normal European. In this race there- 
fore, practically 100 per cent are morons to-day. It is prob- 
able that in out-of-the-way places in Europe there persist 
groups of individuals who inherit the mental insufficiency of 
the old Stone Age. Representatives of such groups have 
come to America. They have been segregated thru the 
pressure of social environment; they have married each other 
and their descendants persist among us to this time. It is not Moulding the Super-Man 
401 
improbable, accordingly, that certain of our feeble-minded 
families have not become such through a secondary loss of the 
capacity for full mental development but are the survivors 
among us of a low state of mental development such as char- 
acterized the ancestors of all of us." 
In order to bring about a marked evolution of man; in 
order to change him from a brutal twentieth-century warrior 
into a perfect being moulded "in His own image," it will be 
Fig. 132. Kansas State Training School (for Feeble-minded). Ap- 
proximate investment of three-quarters of a million dollars. Expenditures 
for 1921 were $157,028. During the year the amount for each defective was 
$201.68. One feeble-minded woman has been in this institution for forty 
years. At this rate, this woman has been quite a burden to the wheat grow- 
ers. In 1919 this institution had 644 inmates; in 1920, 667; in 1921, 729. 
The Eugenicists feel that it is time to think of the unborn. 
necessary to broaden our vision from a narrow view of the 
present generation to that of the unborn. Walter was correct 
when he said, "The lives of the unborn do not force themselves 
upon the average man or woman with the same insistency as the 
lives already begun." After all, it is the unborn that give 
us the key to the future-the living are beyond eugenic 
reach. 
Regardless of the fact that we are still more or less circum- 
scribed in our racial conceptions, marked transformations may 
be observed. It may be noted, for example, that the doctor's 402 
The Laws of Life 
sole business not so very many years ago was to administer 
treatment to the sick; now the medical world is concerned more 
with disease prevention than disease cure. In like manner, 
the policeman's duty has changed from that of crushing the 
skull of the "drunken brute" to the sacred duty of crime pre- 
vention. Out of the latter has grown the science of crimi- 
nology which has as its true function the recognition of crim- 
inal types and their treatment in such a way as to prevent 
the logical outcome. Far behind these two great systems of 
human improvement, we find the social reformers with their 
delicately woven nets of orphanages, insane asylums, homes 
for the feeble-minded (Figs. 132-133), reform schools, poor 
farms, and various local charitable institutions to care for 
the social outcasts of tlie present generation. Few plans are 
provided for the unborn save possible drives for increased 
endowments in order that the reformers may be in a position 
to care for the almost unrestricted increase. It is this unre- 
stricted increase which presents the most serious problem which 
the modern eugenicist who has hopes for the future of the race 
has to face. 
If seriously considered, it seems quite an injustice for the 
average citizen to be burdened by taxation or by subscriptions 
in order to maintain a modern "poor house" in which are to 
be housed many of the country's lowest human trash who never 
before had so much as seen inside of a respectable home. 
"Some achieve greatness" but these most certainly have 
"greatness thrust upon them." The writer does not advocate 
the elimination of the charitable i stitutions but he does con- 
tend that the progressive citizens of every community should 
be made to feel their eugenic responsibility. One writer has 
very aptly said, "The greatest foe of eugenics, next to indif- 
ference, is ignorance. Science is just beginning to feel its 
way in the field while the people have yet to unlearn many pre- 
judices." It is a truism that but fewT of the races of mankind 
arc progressive. And, further, it is true that only a few indi- 
viduals of these so-called enlightened races are progressive. Fig. 133. These typical Mongolian dwarfs (ages, left to right, 34, 27 
and 38) shown in comparison with the average sized man. (The man in 
straight jacket is a monomaniac for tearing his clothes.) The lower figures 
show the usual facial expression of the Mongolian imbeciles when they are 
not molested. Herrman (17), after a thorough study, concluded that 
Mongolian imbecility is a recessive Mendelian trait, the parent usually 
showing a decided neurotic condition. 
403 404 
The Laws of Life 
Man, in general, is subject to inertia. He clings to the habits 
and thought of the past. Ideas and prejudices which were 
formed in days gone by, still persist. The mass of us must cast 
these old views aside and face the facts in their true aspects, 
even tho the facts might seem discouraging. The unfor- 
tunate aspects of human society can be discussed without the 
least amount of pessimism. Henry Fairfield Osborn says that 
"a pessimist is one who will not face the facts" while "an opti- 
mist is one who faces the facts but is never discouraged by 
them. The optimist in science is the one who delves afresh into 
nature to restore disordered and shattered society . . . To 
know the worst as well as the best in heredity; to preserve and 
select the best-these are the most essential forces in the 
future evolution of human society" (Science-Oct. 7, 1921). 
The value of knowing the worst as well as the best will be 
understood only thru proper eugenic education. 
Fundamental to an eugenic education is a realization that 
the principles of heredity are applicable to the human race 
as well as to plants and animals. Man is as truly an animal 
as an oak is a plant. Man, from the standpoint of both 
physical and psychic existence, has come to be what he is 
thru evolution, and, evolution has its basis in heredity. In 
substantiation of the various contentions that have already been 
made to the effect that heredity applies to man, it should 
be noted that in the case of the well-known Jukes family the 
children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren of Belle 
were predominantly sexually immoral; those of Ada were crim- 
inals ; those of the third sister, Effie, were largely paupers. It 
might be said, in general, that when the details of almost any 
family history are known, it immediately becomes obvious that 
individual physical, mental, and moral traits appear in accord- 
ance with established laws. This fact alone shifts the final 
solution of social problems to the unborn. 
That superior and inferior family traits are inherited is 
convincingly shown by contrasting such families as the 
Edwards and the Jukes. It is not at all probable that environ- Moulding the Super-Man 
405 
mental differences would account for the divergencies shown 
in the following chart. 
Juices 
Edwards 
Original stock: 
"Max Jukes/' intemperate, 
shiftless, and illiterate. 
Original stock: 
Jonathan Edwards, eminent 
divine. 
2094 persons traced. 
1394 persons traced. 
Not one had a common school 
education. 
295 college graduates; 13 presi- 
dents of colleges; 60 physicians; 
100 clergymen and missiona- 
ries; 60 prominent authors and 
writers; 100 lawyers; 30 judges; 
1 Vice-President of the United 
States; 3 United States Sena- 
tors; several governors; framers 
of state constitutions; mayors of 
cities; ministers to foreign 
courts; 1 president of the Pa- 
cific Mail Steamship Company. 
15 railroads, large industrial en- 
terprises, banks and insurance 
companies have been benefited by 
their management. 
140 convicted criminals. 
7 murderers. 
Not one ever convicted of a 
crime. 
300 immoral women. 
Every woman above reproach. 
310 paupers. 
Every individual progressive 
and thrifty. 
600 feeble-minded or epileptic. 
All normal or above. 
Only 20 learned a trade, 10 of 
these in prison. 
Family permeated with success- 
ful professional men and trades- 
men. 
Not a soldier of high rank among 
them. 
75 officers in army and navy. 
Family cost society $2,500,000. 
"Almost if not every department 
of social progress and of public 
weal has felt the Impulse of this 
healthy long-lived family." 
-Winship. 406 
The Laws of Life 
A still more convincing case showing the effect of good or 
bad blood on the children may be found in the progeny of 
Martin Kallikak. While "sowing his wild oats," Martin took 
advantage of a feeble-minded girl, and, as a result of this 
illegitimate mati g, a child was born whose descendants were 
more or less comparable to those of the Jukes. As is typical 
Fig. 134. A photograph suggesting the difference between insanity and 
feeble-mindedness. Altho feeble-mindedness and insanity are closely 
related, one can readily recognize the presence of an insane individual in a 
group of feeble-minded people, 'lie young lady (age 21) whose face 
appears twice in the picture was seemingly normal until 17 years old when 
she became insane. Her father is very nervous and her mother died when 
insane. The colored wonm, as well as the one to the right of her, present 
splendid examples of magocephalic feeble-mindedness. 
of the average young man of to-day, Martin passed thru his 
wayward career, won the heart of a well-respected woman, 
and settled down. As a result of this "happy" union, a long 
line of offspring of normal and superior type was produced. 
With reference to the two families having the same father but 
different mothers, Goddard concludes: "The fact that de- 
scendants of both the normal and feeble-mindeded mother have Moulding the Super-Man 
407 
been traced and studied in every conceivable environment and 
that the respective strains have always been true to type, tends 
to confirm the belief that heredity has been the determining 
factor in the formatio i of their respective characters." 
When we come into a full realization of the fact that such 
degenerate families, many members of which may be closely 
or distantly related by illegitimate matings to the highest 
ranked citizens of the community; when we can count the cost 
in human suffering of the so-called "wild oats"; when we can 
feel the hopelessness of the struggling of the unfit, we will 
heed the magic pleading of the unborn: "Refuse to give me 
birth or else let me be well born" (Fig. 110, Ch. XXIV). 
Regardless of the fact that we now recognize marked con- 
trasts in all family differences, our forefathers expressed the 
inner feelings of the times by embodying in the Declaration of 
Independence, "All men are created equal," and that "life, 
liberty, and happiness" were the "inalienable rights" of every 
human being. How soothing this principle of human equality 
must be to the dreamer who hopes to reform mankind by his 
Utopian plans. When we look about us and see the depths to 
which some family strains have fallen we are prone to conclude 
that some men are born with terrible handicaps and that for 
them "the pursuit of happiness" is but a mere phantom (Fig. 
134). If all men were created equal, the hopes of the eugen- 
icists in the breeding of a superior race would come to naught. 
But since observations of such family histories as noted above 
do not support such antiquated views, we must face the facts 
and conclude that the success or failure of the future race 
depends largely upon whether or not the superior surpasses 
the inferior of the present race in productiveness. The prob- 
lem confronted is twofold. In the first place the great prolific- 
ness of the socially undesirable classes must be overcome. This 
cannot be done by increasing the offspring of the superior. 
The latter is, within itself, a problem of great magnitude. The 
productiveness of the unfit must be curbed or there is grave 
danger of the future society being engulfed by degeneracy. 408 
The Laws of Life 
The problem, then, is one of eliminating the unfit by refusing 
them birth. In the second place the reproduction of the fit 
must be encouraged. The problem is not alone biologic in its 
aspect-it has its economic side as well. The fit may degen- 
erate thru adverse economic conditions to the lowest level 
in the dregs of society. The biologist and the economist must 
work together in harmony if any lasting good is to be accom- 
plished. 
The present trend of social conditions is still somewhat 
discouraging-especially if viewed from a biologic standpoint. 
In our early considerations of the prodigality of nature 
(Chapter XI), it was found that superior numbers were a 
great factor in the perpetuation of any type of plant or 
animal life. In the case of the human race, it is well known 
that the inferior stock are reproducing their kind in much 
greater numbers than are the superior. This is largely due to 
the fact that the latter are attempting to conform to the econo- 
mic demands of the present day while the former are prone to 
ignore these needs and be governed by their elemental instincts 
and emotions rather than by reason. The ambitious indi- 
vidual must spend years in preparation for whatever profes- 
sion he hopes to enter. In this way, the offspring of the 
superior stock is reduced by late marriages. In many such 
cases the period of reproductiveness of the woman is so near 
an end that nature, forbids more than one child. This fact 
suggests the desirability of the woman's being a number of 
years younger than her husband in order to more nearly 
equalize the period of reproductiveness of the two. 
It is a deplorable fact that a large percentage of the most 
intellectual and superior women never marry. This is due, 
in part, perhaps, to the fact that the task of life preparation 
has displaced matrimony so long that the one great incentive 
-motherhood-is gone. Leonard Darwin, in an address to 
the International Eugenics Congress (Sept., 1921), emphasized 
the fact that "it is normally wrong to limit unduly the size of 
the family when parents are up to 'standard' in all respects." Moulding the Super-Man 
409 
Contrast, if you will, the low rate of reproduction of the 
superior classes in America with the overproduction of chil- 
dren by the inferior classes whose mental and moral standing 
arc often nearer that of the brute than that of civilized man. 
These feeble-minded, vicious, and diseased individuals are com- 
peting with intellectual man for supremacy in the perpetua- 
tion of human characteristics. The ascent of man to the 
higher plane made possible by his superior intelligence may 
be entirely prevented by these degenerating influences. At the 
least, they present a handicap of no mean proportions. 
The condition of society a few generations hence will deter- 
mine which of the two, the good oi' the bad, will survive. 
However, at present, it seems as tho the inferior are by far 
surpassing the superior. For, it must be emphasized that 
society is so organized in America that those classes which pull 
down the standards of the human race have considerable 
advantages in reproduction over the intellectual classes. The 
"ne'er-do-wells" rush headlong into a passionate type of mat- 
ing at an early age and proceed to degrade civilization with 
three or four times the number of children that are produced 
by the better classes. Kellicott reminds us that "one-fourth 
of the married population of the present generation produces 
one-half of the next generation," and, unfortunately, a large 
percentage of this one-fourth is of the lowest human type. 
In view of the above facts, it must be concluded that a 
grave responsibility rests upon the eugenicists. If the race is 
to improve, some changes must be brought about by which 
the superior will be perpetuated to the exclusion of the in- 
ferior, or, at least, a more equal birth rate must be established 
between the two. This could be brought about largely by 
checking the birth rate in the inferior families and by encourag- 
ing earlier marriages among the superior in order to increase 
the number of healthy and normal children. The formulation 
of even a few theoretical suggestions relative to either of these 
methods is a very hazardous task, as the former class contends 
that the production of children is "a God-given right," the 410 
The Laws of Life 
number to be limited only by chance. Many of the superior 
class feel that they are in a better position to judge the 
number of their offspring than the greatest eugenicist of the 
day-and rightly. When we are reminded that every country 
of the earth is rapidly becoming overpopulated, we are apt 
to direct the heaviest eugenic artillery upon the overproduction 
of children by the inferior classes and content ourselves with 
the present numerical limitations of superior children-the 
present need being deemed human quality rather than human 
quantity. If quality is made the first consideration, quantity 
will take care of itself. 
Few citizens realize the seriousness of the growing com- 
plexity of human society. Neither do the masses care to be 
reminded that the earth is becoming so densely populated that 
human catastrophes are inevitable if the present progress 
continues. This fact was brought directly to the author's 
attention when the editor of a certain church journal returned 
an article upon population with his regrets. Nevertheless, the 
time is not far distant when America will be overpopulated as 
are Europe, China, Japan and India. When the dark hour 
comes, the economic, social and moral conditions, unless 
properly directed now, will be no better than exist in these 
overpopulated countries of to-day. Americans, accustomed to 
extravagance and wasteful living, favored by Nature and 
provided with one of the richest garden-spots of the world, 
will find it humiliating, to say the least, when they are 
forced to a lower standard of living by the grim hand of 
necessity. 
This fact can be more fully appreciated after reviewing the 
earth's population as a whole. Europe has little to offer as a 
relief for the suffering neighbors. During the war, Germany 
and Austria were able to survive without much outside relief, and 
it is no doubt true that with the strictest economy Europe can 
support herself. England was threatened with starvation when 
her foreign commerce was endangered by the submarine war- Moulding the Super-Man 
411 
fare. She is almost wholly dependent upon the outside world 
for subsistence. The peoples of Asia, being already crowded, 
are struggling for an existence. China, with one-fifth the 
population of the earth, has long since reached the limit of 
her capacity, and the annual death from starvation often- 
times reaches into the millions. India, with one-fifth the popu- 
lation of the earth, is but next door to starvation. Japan is 
struggling for an outlet for her thrifty, ambitious sons who 
are to-day cooped up on a few small islands, over sixty-five 
million on one hundred and seventy-five thousand square miles 
of territory, only a small part of which is tillable. The state 
of Texas contains two hundred sixty-five thousand, eight 
hundred ninety-six square miles,-nearly twice the area of 
Japan. Our greatest hopes must be placed in South America 
and Africa, although certain sections of these countries are 
already crowded. 
If the population of South America and Africa increases 
as fast as that of North America, their citizens will be looking 
for an outlet before our grandchildren are gray. And the 
possibilities are that they will increase more rapidly than this, 
since there are now many more centers of emigration than 
there were during the days of our Pilgrim Fathers. Even to-day 
we marvel at the tremendous task Mother Earth faces when 
she undertakes to feed, clothe and shelter her 1,700 million 
(East) children. What hope have we for the future when every 
year adds 25 million more people to this great mass of strug- 
gling humanity. While we are rushing food, money, and 
clothing to the suffering famine-stricken Chinese, we are little 
mindful that almost 3,000 more names are added every hour 
to the birth registry of mankind than are erased by the hand 
of death. 
East says, "have we realized, can we realize, that two Bel- 
giums are added to the world's population each year and all 
must be fed, tho perhaps some need not be clothed." 
Pearl has shown by various mathematical problems that 
the internal resources of the United States are inadequate to 412 
The Laws of Life 
support twice as many citizens as we have to-day; and that 
the capacity will be reached in 180 years. When that time 
comes, the struggle for existence will be much keener than it 
is at present. Millions of the less fortunate will be forced to 
live a very simple life. Citizens with inadequate food, cloth- 
ing, and shelter will be the rule rather than the exception as it 
is to-day. The ultimate end will be the elimination by famine 
and starvation of the less fortunate,-those who are now find- 
ing it difficult to provide for the necessities of life. 
One who believes that only the fittest survive might become 
very optimistic and conclude that this intense struggle for 
existence will be a means by which the lower classes of man- 
kind will be eliminated. In fact this would probably be the 
inevitable result were the various human agencies eliminated. 
But the intellectuality of man makes it impossible for this 
Biologic Principle of animal improvement to render much effect 
upon mankind. 
With man, the scarcity of food is one of the principal 
factors in the reduction of the birth rate. On the other hand, 
the domestic animals mate and produce abundance of young 
regardless of whether the master's barns are full or empty. 
With man the possibilities of food, shelter and clothing do 
affect the number of the offspring. 
However, this reduction of the birth rate does not come 
equally with all classes. The superior, being more prone to 
solve their problems by logical reasoning processes, are the 
first to reduce the family, while the inferior continue their 
usual rate of production regardless of any unfavorable cir- 
cumstances that might arise. Unless conditions change, this 
factor will probably more than counterbalance the elimination 
of the unfit by starvation. So the net result would be the 
elimination of the fit and the perpetuation of the unfit. 
Regardless of the fact that the earth is rapidly becoming 
overpopulated, and, moreover, that this crowded condition is. 
tending toward a degenerated stock, we find the birth extremist 
pleading for the unborn. The following is a typical case: Moulding the Super-Man 
413 
"While the war was still raging, someone remarked: 'This 
•world is no place for babies.' How horribly true this remark! In 
Belgium the number of births fell off 350,000; in Serbia, 760,000; 
in Great Britain, 1,000,000; in France, 1,500,000; in Italy 1,500,- 
000. It is estimated that more than 20 million babies, who under 
normal conditions would have been born in Europe, were denied 
existence. 
"A generation hence, if not before then, the world will suffer 
by reason of those 20 million empty cradles." 
A visit to the homes of some of the hereditary degenerate 
races of any community will convince one that there are thou- 
sands of American homes in which there is "no place for 
babies." In other words, every progressive social worker, 
biologist, or minister has long since been forced to admit that 
millions of children are coming into the world who should have 
remained unborn. Every intellectual man or woman who will 
become versed in the eugenic literature of the day will accept 
this statement as an axiomatic truth. 
As for the world's suffering because 20 million children 
were not born, it would probably be of interest to note the 
position of the authoritative men of the U. S. on the subject 
of population. Pearl {Harper's, May, 1921) admits that 
"the proportion of deaths to births increased as long as the 
war continued;" however, this noted biometrician continues, 
"in spite of all of the havoc of war England's net population 
went right on increasing ... In the U. S. the death-rate 
ratio was not affected at all by the war." 
Even tho 9,829,000 1 men were actually killed and per- 
haps many more died as an indirect result of the war, the net 
population of the world was but little affected. East says, 
"The tide of population is not kept back by the flimsy barrier 
of war, it is but baffled for the moment." 
In view of the present complexity of the human society, it 
does not seem very pitiful that 20 million children were not 
1 Estimate of the Danish Research Society on the Social Results of 
the War. Fig. 135. Four interesting bed cases, upper (age 10), microcephalic 
and a case of congenital syphilis (father paralytic). Hydrocephalic (age 
8 and 11) middle; hydrocephalic (age 5) lower. "Happy" (center right) is 
the only one of the group that is responsive to any stimulus other than what 
we call extreme pain. Little does "Happy" realize that his mother is 
troubled with chronic chorea and delusional insanity. The head of the child 
in the lower picture measures 31 inches in circumference; body length 13 
inches. The child is shown in its normal position, the distance between the 
back of the head and the hip being only three inches. All such bed cases 
must be fed either with a spoon or a tube. A number of cases are recorded 
which live in this pitiful condition for fifty or sixty years. Question: If you 
were one of these people, and should come to the realization of your condi- 
tion for only ten minutes, what would you say to careless "civilized" man? 
414 Moulding the Super-Man 
415 
born. It is deplorable, however, that another 20 million which 
were born during the war, are now starving and filling the 
world's institutions for the physical and mental defectives. If 
it is true, as I have stated above, that the birth-rate decline 
first expresses itself with the superior human stock, then inves- 
tigations will reveal the fact that the larger per cent of the 
20 million children whose birth the war prevented would have 
been superior stock; and that the relative percentage of the 
births from the inferior stock is not materially reduced. To 
Fig. 136. The periodically insane man (the patient) married a feeble- 
minded woman and produced nine offspring within eleven years, only one of 
whom showed any indication of normality. The sterilization of the father 
in 1912 prevented continuance of this low grade strain. (From Eugenic 
Record Office.) 
this extent, only, will the "world suffer by reason of those 
twenty million empty cradles." 
Among the many methods which have been advanced with 
a view to reducing the birth rate of the inferior, colonization, 
segregation, sterilization, and restriction of marriage laws 
have all had an abundance of supporters. Each one of these 
is very effective indeed, but only to a limited extent. To cite 
such a race of degenerates as the Cretins of northern Italy 
should suffice to establish the impracticability of colonizing 
the degenerates, as the custom of breeding inter se unites the 
inferior qualities of each individual into a more degenerate off- 
spring. The level of the entire colony is lowered more and 416 
The Laws of Life 
more until it is thrown entirely upon the mercy of the state 
for sustenance. Under the most restricted rules of segrega- 
tion, even when the two sexes are separated, there still remains 
the possibility of degenerate illegitimate children appearing. 
One sane method by which offspring may be prevented is 
that of sterilization-at present a very simple and harmless 
procedure (Fig. 136). Many states have already provided 
for a competent board of examiners composed of physicians, 
psychologists, and eugenicists who are duly authorized to render 
sterile those inmates of asylums, penitentiaries, and other 
institutions, who are deemed unfit to leave offspring. Unfor- 
tunately, public opinion, even in those states where adequate 
laws have been passed, opposes this procedure to such an 
extent that the sterilization boards are not free to perform 
their full duty. No great results can be hoped for until the 
public is in greater harmony with this particular method of 
race improvement. Even then, sterilization will solve only a 
minor part of the problem, as only the extreme cases can be 
reached. No one will be willing to condemn the questionable 
cases. Attention has been called (Chapter XXIV) to that 
great group of individuals w7ho are apparently normal but 
who possess "impure" germ cells and thus produce a part or 
all defective offspring, depending upon the type of individual 
with which they mate. Since these people, in many cases, are 
the leaders of the community, they need never fear the sterili- 
zation laws even though their children may be, under certain 
conditions of mating, as low as those of the lowest degenerates 
in the charitable institutions (Fig. 137). 
Informing the Public.-After considering various methods 
of race improvement, we readily realize that none are effective 
unless in accord with public opinion. An eugenic education 
for the public at large is, therefore, the main issue of the 
day. This method of race improvement has been very slow, 
but, with the assistance of the intellectual classes and with 
the present awakening, considerable progress should be made 
within the next few years. In our economic world, we slum- Moulding the Super-Man 
417 
bered hundreds of years before we became dissatisfied with 
the old methods of doing things. Then, we were content to 
travel over the great prairies in oxcarts. Now, the journey 
is made in the air within a few hours. Then, nation com- 
municated with nation by means of slow-going sailboats. Now, 
messages are flashed by wireless. In like manner, let us hope 
that within a very few years it can be said that the American 
people, who once slumbered in eugenic indifference and who 
were unconscious of the cries of the unborn, are now awakened 
to their human responsibilities. If such optimistic dreams 
could be realized, the selection of a mate and the business of 
reproduction might come to be considered as seriously as 
is stock breeding at the present time. "Love at first sight," 
without a consideration of the family from which the indi- 
vidual came, would then be a thing of the past. 
After a life mate had been selected, children would be 
brought into the world in accordance with definite plans rather 
than by mere chance, if such things as noted above could be 
brought about. At present, even with the mediocre, definite 
plans are made for the purchase of a horse or the movement 
to a new location, and these plans are altered in accordance 
with various unexpected circumstances. However, in the mat- 
ter of reproduction there is no thought of the future-no plans 
are made. The production of children only through obedience 
to the animal instinct to mate has not only populated the 
land with hordes of unfit individuals but it has filled the ceme- 
teries with the graves of the victims of infant mortality. It 
has also caused millions of miscarriages, stillbirths, and a large 
proportion of the misery of mankind. This situation will 
become apparent by asking a few grandmothers, who boast of 
the large number of children which they have produced, how 
many died before the age of six. It is very common to find 
that from thirty to fifty per cent of the children of such fam- 
ilies did not survive in the struggle for existence. The writer 
overheard one grandmother lamenting the fact that one of 
her daughters was falling short of her "sacred duty" by pro- 418 
The Laws of Life 
ducing only two children. When this lady was reminded that 
another member of the family was the mother of only three 
children she replied that it was not this young mother's fault 
as she had given birth to six children but that three had died 
at birth or within a few weeks thereafter. It was upon such 
a record that the grandmother herself felt excused, as she was 
Fig. 137. Living Death. For forty-one years this strange knot of flesh 
has been under constant parental and State care. With little response to 
external conditions she lies for hours in this knotted position, with her head 
suspended above the pillow. This is a very pitiful case of so-called "birth- 
mark." The mother, by worrying over certain home conditions is supposed 
to have "marked" the mentality of her child. What place has Eugenics in 
America as long as such superstitions are held ? 
the mother of thirteen children-six having died in infancy. 
The question then arose, would it not be better to produce 
from two to three or four children in accordance with syste- 
matic plans, making provision for the future of each, rather 
than to do your not "sacred duty" but "passionate duty" and 
give to the world six or eight unfortunates and allow half of 
them to die in infancy through lack of proper care. The Moulding the Super-Man 
419 
answer to such vital questions may be found through a com- 
parison with the plant and animal world. A good breed of 
cattle or of hogs, well planned and cared for, is a safer invest- 
ment than is twice or three times the same number of scrubs. 
With all progressive agriculturists, extensive farming has long 
since been replaced by intensive methods. Why then can we 
not conclude that it is quality and not quantity that counts. 
If the human race is to continue its march of progress to the 
final goal, it is extremely vital that the fit shall become the 
progenitors of the characteristics of mankind to the utter 
exclusion of the unfit. 
Large families have many disadvantages. This is true 
from the biologic as well as from the economic standpoint. The 
economic disadvantage alone should be a deciding factor with 
those who are not really in a position to afford a large family. 
However, it is not so. It is the very class which can least 
afford large families that most often have them. Children are 
brought into the world and allowed to grow up like weeds. 
These same families could be a credit to themselves and to the 
community if they contained fewer members better cared for 
and better raised. Moreover, where a large number of chil- 
dren are produced, there is more likelihood of abnormal char- 
acteristics appearing. In most cases, these characteristics 
tend away from the normal in the negative direction. Not 
only the hereditary side of the question but also the environ- 
mental side must be considered. Conditions are more favor- 
able in large families than in small ones, especially when the 
economic pressure is heavy, for children to became wayward 
and develop abnormal traits. Thus we find that a large pro- 
portion of our criminal class, our paupers, and degenerates in 
general, have come to be such through improper paternal care 
and supervision. 
Eugenics and Religion.-The above line of thought is 
presented with due regard for the old notion that a certain 
relation exists between marriage, birth, and religion. Al- 
though many creeds still contend that "marriages are made in 420 
The Laws of Life 
heaven," we have long since learned that the children must be 
reared here on earth. And, furthermore, an eugenic study of 
some of these so-called "heavenly" marriages indicates every- 
thing but a divine mating. Indeed, every marriage should be 
considered sacred sufficiently to cause those involved to have a 
feeling of responsibility. Without a feeling of responsibility, 
marriage becomes a farce and the production of children the 
outcome of irresponsible indulgence. It is easily seen that such 
conditions do not tend to nurture the best standards of child 
care. The production of children should be so much involved 
in religious principles that the minimum number of unfit will 
be produced; for what need has the state, the church, or the 
home for the poor unfortunate, degenerate, feeble-minded, or 
syphilitic child? Each of these great institutions-state, 
church, and home, is evolving to meet the changing economic 
needs. Indeed, "religion itself evolves, and any religion which 
does not embrace eugenics will embrace death." 
Religion should not only embrace eugenics but it should 
involve the entire realm of human knowledge including evolu- 
tion and genetics as a whole. Only a few years back, evolution 
and religion stood far apart as extreme and bitter antagonists, 
but to-day we find that the underlying principles of each have 
been so broadened that they are now not only tangent but so 
interlaced that the one acts as a strong support for the 
other. Yesterday, the ministers of every civilized land viewed 
evolution as a bitter foe while the scientists were thought to 
be atheists. To-day, the most learned religious leaders are 
seeing religion reflected in evolution, and the evolutionists, 
through their interpretation of the natural laws, are becoming 
more ardent believers in a Superior Ruler of the Universe. As 
science and religion progress the two will be more firmly 
rooted together. 
"We must prove that we are under the guidance of a noble 
ideal. We of this generation are responsible for the produc- 
tion of the next generation and, therefore, of all mankind in 
the future; and all in whom this sense of racial responsibility Moulding the Super-Man 
421 
acts as a deep-seated sentiment, greatly affecting their action 
and their policy, are in truth guided by the eugenic ideal. 
The belief that man has been slowly developed from some ape- 
like progenitor came towards the close of the last century to 
be nearly universally held by thoughtful persons; this belief 
gave rise to a new hope that this upward march of mankind 
might be continued in the future; and out of this new hope 
sprang the eugenic ideal. This growing understanding of the 
past history of the world led us to see that, if we are to imitate 
Nature in her methods, we must be content to advance by means 
of a long succession of small steps; just as the rain falling 
in drops has slowly carved out mighty valleys in the hardest 
rocks. Without constructing wild Utopias, we must be content 
if some little racial progress can be assured as each generation 
succeeds another; for to work in this spirit is to work in har- 
mony with the knowledge which gave birth to the eugenic 
ideal. Progress on eugenic lines will make mankind become 
continually nobler, happier and healthier; whilst those who 
imagine that our sole aim is to make man a stronger animal 
or a better beast of burden are utterly ignorant of the mean- 
ing of the eugenic ideal" (Leonard Darwin, Science, Oct. 7, 
1921). 
The idea of religious principles being involved in evolution 
has been accepted by some of the world's greatest scientific 
workers. Dana, an authority on geologic evolution, says, 
"The intervention of a Power above nature was at the basis 
of man's development." He believed that "nature exists 
through the will and ever exacting power of the Divine Being 
and that all its great truths, its beauties and its harmonies are 
manifestations of His wisdom and power." Wallace, the great- 
est exponent of Darwinian Evolution, states his religious 
convictions thus: "We find that Darwinism does not oppose 
but lends a decided support to religion, it teaches us that we 
possess intellectual and moral faculties which could not have 
been developed but for an unseen Universe of Spirit." Such 
present-day writers as Popenoe and Johnson are fully con- 422 
The Laws of Life 
vinced that "Alan is the only animal with a religion." The 
distinguished American biologist, David Starr Jordan, accepts 
the saying of the old Chinese sage, "He cannot be concealed: 
He will appear without showing Himself, effect renovation 
without moving, and create perfection without acting. It is a 
law of heaven and earth, whose way is solid, substantial, vast 
and unchanging." After years of investigations into the prin- 
ciples of evolution and considering the convictions of the great- 
est scientific leaders, the writer is convinced that "evolution in 
a last analysis is the shilling into Finite forms of Infinite 
Lights 
When the entire human race has arisen to the call of nature 
and her Director, when man realizes the possibilities of 
eugenics, when the Laws of Life are properly directed, when 
evolution and religion have swept on and on hand in hand for 
a million years, the Afaker of the Universe can truly look upon 
a race "moulded in His own image." Then and only then will 
the "super-man" exist outside the realms of present childish 
human dreams. Then and only then will the optimistic song 
of the poet become a reality. 
"What a piece of work is man ! 
How noble in reason! 
How infinite in faculty! 
In form and moving how express and admirable! 
In action how like an angel! 
In apprehension how like a God!" 
THE LAST LECTURE 
"Our course is run, our harvest garnered in, 
And taking stock of what we have, we note how life, 
This strange, mysterious life which nojv we hold and now eludes 
our grasp, 
Is governed still by natural law, and its events 
Tread on each other's heels, each one compelled to follow where 
the first has led. Moulding the Super-Man 
423 
Noting all this, and judging by the past. 
We form our plans, until we know at last 
The treasure in the future's lap. 
"The man, the plant, the beast, must all obey this law, 
Since in the early dawn of this old world 
The law was given, and the stuff was made 
Which still alone can hold the breath of life: 
Whereby we know that grass and man are kin, 
The bond a common substance which within 
Controls their growth. 
"Can we know all? Nay, but the major part 
Of all that is must still elude our grasp, 
For life transcends itself, and slowly noting what it is, 
Gathers but fragments from the stream of time. 
Thus what we teach is only partly true. 
Not knowing all, we act as if we knew, 
Compelled to act or die. 
"Yet as we grow in wisdom and in skill 
The upward path is steeper and each step 
Comes nigher unto heaven, piercing the clouds 
Which heretofore have hid the stars from view. 
The new-gained knowledge seems to fill the air, 
It seems to us the soul of truth is there. 
Our quest is won. 
"Bold climber, all that thou hast won* 
Lies still in shadow of the peaks above; 
Yet in the morning hours the sun 
Rewards thy work of love, 
Resting a. moment on thy lesser height, 
Piercing the vault with rays too bright to face, 
Strengthens thy soul and gives thee ample might 
To serve thy human race." 
From Cockerell's Zoology. Copyright 1920 by World Book Company, 
Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York. By Courtesy of Author and Publisher. PUBLICATIONS IN THE FIELD OF EVOLUTION 
EUGENICS AND GENETICS 
Adami, John G. Medical Contributions of the Study of Evolution. 
Macmillan Co., N. Y., 1918. 
Arrhenius, Sv'ante A. Destinies of the Stars. Putnam, N. Y., 1918. 
Babcock & Clausen. Genetics in Relation to Agriculture. McGraw-Hill, 
N. Y., 1918. 
Bateson, Wm. Mendel's Principles of Heredity. Cambridge University 
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Eugenics; The Science of Improving the Racial Characteristics of 
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Keller, Albert. Eugenics; the science of rearing human thoroughbreds. 
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Kellogg, J. G. Needed-A New Human Race. First National Congress 
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Morgan, Sturtevant. The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity. Henry Holt 
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LIST OF JOURNALS 
Archiv fiir Rassen und Gesellschafts Biologie, A. Ploetz, Editor, published 
by B. G. Tuebner, Leipsic and Berlin, Germany. 
The Eugenics Review, a quarterly journal, Eugenics Education Society, 
Hon. Secy. Mre. A. C. Gotto, London. 
Journal of Heredity, a monthly journal, Paul B. Popenoe, Editor, Ameri- 
can Genetic Association, Washington, D. C. 
Eugenical News, published by the Eugenics Research Association, Cold 
Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. Eugenic Societies and Institutions 
433 
SOCIETIES 
American Genetic Association, David Fairchild, Pres. Research Dep't. for 
Plants, Animals and Eugenics, Washington D. C. 
Eugenics Education Society, Leonard Darwin, Pres., London (several 
branches). 
Eugenics Research Association, James McKean Cattell, Pres., N. Y. 
Society Franchise d'Eugenique, Edmund Perrier, Pres., Paris. 
Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Rassen-Hygiene, Munich, Germany. 
Zentralstelle fiir deutsche Personen und Familiengeschichte, Leipsic, Ger- 
many. 
The Eugenic Committees of the Hungarian Sociological Societies. (Magyar 
Tarsadalomtudomanyi Egyesulet) Budapest, Hungary. 
Deutsch-Oesterreichische Beratungsstelle fiir Volkswohlfahrt, Vienna, 
Austria. 
The Eugenic Committee of the Roman Society of Anthropology, Rome, 
Italy. 
Schwedische Gesellschaft fiir Rassenhygiene, Upsala, Sweden. 
Russian Eugenics Society, Dr. N. K. Koltzov, Pres., Moscow, Russia. 
Indian Eugenics Society, Prof. Gopalji Ahluwalia, Organizer and General 
Secretary, Imperial Hotel, Lahore, India. 
Eugenics Society of San Paulo, Dr. Renato Kehl, Pres., Rua do Rosario 
174, Rio de Janero, Brazil. 
Eugenics Society of Tcheko-Slovakia, Prof. Ladislav Haskovec, Pres., 
Prague II, Mezibranska 3, Tcheko-Slovakia. 
INSTITUTIONS 
Galton Laboratory for National Eugenics, Karl Pearson, Director, Uni- 
versity of London, Publication for sale by Dulau & Co., Ltd., London. 
Race Betterment Foundation, J. H. Kellogg, Pres., Battle Creek, Mich. 
Eugenics Record Office, C. B. Davenport, Resident Director; Bulletins, 
Memoirs, Reports, Family History Schedules, etc., Cold Spring Harbor, 
Long Island, N. Y. INDEX 
Numbers in bold-faced type refer to pages bearing illustrations. 
Abnormal development, kitten, 231 
Acquired characteristics, 298, 300 
desire for alcoholic drinks, 47, 48 
Acquired characters, inherited, 376- 
397, 394 
Acrosome, 223 
Adaptation, of animals to land, 387 
to change of environment, 387 
Adolescence as related to cell divi- 
sion, 220 
Amniota, 170 
Ancestral tree, 174 
Autosomes, 222 
Age, Bronze, 106, 116 
Electrical, 106 
Coal, 106 
Copper, 106, 116 
Flying, 116 
Iron, 106, 116 
of amphibians, 86, 91, 94 
of cycads, 95 
of fishes, 86, 91 
of grasses, 86 
of invertebrates, 86 
of mammals, 86 
of mind, 86 
of reptiles, 86 
of volcanoes, 85, 86, 87 
Stone, 106, 116 
Ages, Dark, 7 
Chart of, 85, 86, 87 
Agriculture in relation to genetics, 
8 
Alchemistic beliefs, 33 
aid of rulers, 35 
Alcoholism, inheritance of, 328 
Allelomorphs, 265 
America, North in Archean Age, 83 
American, continent, evolution of, 
828 
Federation for Sex Hygiene, 61 
Genetics Association, 61 
Social Hygiene Association, 61 
Amoeba, 139 
Amphibians, classification of, 152, 
153 
position of, 169 
Amphimixis, 235, 236, 390, 395 
Amphioxus, 167 
Andromeda, 69 
Animal relationships, 132-164 
Apes, anthropoid, 87 
Archean Age, life appeared in, 76, 
77, 83, 85 
Archeozoic, 86, 88 
Aristotle, 26 
Arthropoda, 163 
Astronomy, Copernicus, 32 
Atmosphere, origin of, 73 
Babcock, and Clausen, 8 
quoted, 201 
Babylonian conception of the uni- 
verse, 65 
Balanoglossus, 166 
Bateson, on Mendelism, 257-258 
Berigard de Pisa, 34 
Biblia Naturae, 37 
Biologic evolution, 55 
Biology, speculative, 7 
teachers, 9 
Birds, germ cells of, 225 
Birth control, 355-356-409 
Birthmarks, 225, 334, 357-375, 358 
cause of, 368 
erroneous beliefs regarding, 373 
examples of, 361-366 
facts about, 366 
impossibility of, 374 
recorded in Bible, 359 
"Black Sheep," origin of, 331 
Blended Inheritance, 302 
Bund fish, origin of, 388 
Blisters, inheritance of, 332 
Brachydactylism, inheritance of, 332 
Breeding, experimental, 7 
Brown-Sequard, experiments with 
guinea-pigs, 393 
Brunn, Natural History Society of, 
256 
Buffalo, crossed with cow, 245 
Burbank, Luther, 61 
on hybrids, 238 
Cambrian, 86, 89 
Carboniferous, 86, 92, 94 
Carriers of color-blindness, 339-343 
Carruth, quoted, 64 
435 436 
Index 
Castle, quoted, 51, 59 
on Mendelism, 257 
transplantation, 385, 395 
Cataclysms, 68 
Catlin, Mark, 292 
Cell, carrier of heritage, 212-229, 216, 
219 
definition of, 135 
epithelial, 137 
germ, 215, 216 
inheritance, 228 
nerve, 137 
somatic, 215 
theory of, 214 
unit of animal structure, 135 
Cells, somatic, modifications of, 230 
Cenozoic, 100 
Chaldean, theory, 32 
astronomes, 65 
Chamberlin, and Moulton, quoted, 71 
production of protoplasm, 77 
quoted, 79 
Salisbury, quoted, 98 
Chance, law of, in sex production, 
312 
Character vs. determiner, 278 
Characteristics, determiner of, 263 
human inheritance of, 332 
latent or recessive, 271 
Characters, inheritance of acquired, 
394 
unit, 268 
Chart of ages, 85-87 
Chinese women, feet binding of, 299, 
300, 393 
Chordata, 165 
Chromosomes, inheritance of sex, 
309-310 
of drosophila, 282, 284 
of horse, 228 
of pig, 227 
of sex, 221, 222 
of Tiger Beetles, 219 
reduction in, 221, 224 
sex, 338 
Classification, expression of evolu- 
' tionary facts, 133 
Clausen and Babcock, 8 
Coal Age, 106 
Cockerell, quoted, 128, 131, 423 
Coelenterata, 156 
Coelomata, 160 
College, courses in heredity and evo- 
lution, 9 
Color-blindness, carriers of, 339, 343 
inheritance of, 338 
Columbus, 31 
Comparative anatomy, proof for 
r evolution, 117, 120, 118 
Complementary factors, 279, 280 
Conjugation, significance of, 142 
Conklin, problems of induction, 391 
quoted, 50, 51, 59 
Continuity of germ, 380 
Copernicus, 32 
Copper age, 106 
Corn, hybridizing, 261, 262 
Mendelian ratio, 263, 266 
Correns, on Mendelism, 257 
Cosmic dust, 76 
Coulter and Coulter, 8 
quoted, 240 
Creation, absurdity of current con- 
ception of, 104, 116 
early views of, 25-26 
genesis of, 75 
mystery and miracle of, 80 
storehouse of, 116 
story of, 44 
Cretaceous, 86 
Cretins, of Italy, 415 
"Criss-cross" Inheritance, 338- 
344 
Crosses, negro-white, 302-307 
Cytologist, 228 
Dana, recognizes Power above Na- 
ture, 421 
Dark Ages, 66 
Darwin, quoted, 44, 421, 238 
acquired characters, 381 
origin of species, 254 
Pangenesis, 381, 382 
Darwinism, supports religion, 421 
varying with discoveries, 195 
Davenport, on origin of feeble-mind- 
edness, 400 
Dawn-Man, 106, 109 
Deficiency, 289 
Determiner, of characteristics, 265 
vs. character, 278 
vs. chemical elements, 278 
of sex, 311 
Democritus, theories of, 67, 76 
Devonian, armored fishes of, 90 
De Vries, mutations of, 235 
on Mendelism, 257 
Diabetes, inheritance of, 332 
Di-hybrid, 274 
ration in complementary factors, 
279 
Dinosaurs, 99 
bones of, 97 
Diseases, inheritance of, 236, 332, 
345-356 
venereal, 351 
playing havoc with human race, 
351-355 
Dis-junction, non, 289, 290 
Dogmatism, 29 Index 
437 
Dominance, incomplete, 302 
laws of, 264, 267, 269 
Dragons, flying, 95 
Drosophila, 282 
chromosomes of, 284 
crossing over in, 283-286 
groups of characters in, 283 
linkage in, 285 
Duplication, 289 
Duplex, 265 
Dwarf, human, 205, 207 
Mongolian, 403 
peas, 272 
Earth, origin and evolution of, 65- 
68 
over-population of, 410-412 
worms, 161 
Echinodermata, 162 
Edwards, compared with the Jukes, 
405 
Egyptians, astronomers, 65 
Electrical Age, 106 
Elements, creator of, 79 
Elimination of the human fit, 412 
Elimination of unfit, 189, 191 
Elixir of Life, 35 
Ellwood, quoted, 63 
Embryo, attached to mother, 370, 
371 
Embryology, proof for evolution, 
121-125, 120, 124 
Energy, liberation of subatomic, 73 
Environment, 7, 175-183 
adaptation to changed, 176, 177, 
387 
battles with factors of, 183 
triangle of life, 379, 387 
Eoanthropus, the dawn-man, 106, 109 
Eocene, 86 
Eugenics, defined, 59-60 
development of, 60 
hidden secrets of, 7 
inauguration of, 61 
journals of, 432 
record office, 61 
responsibilities of, 63 
Second International Congress of, 
61 
Eugenic, marriages, 60 
Educational Society, 61 
institutions, 433 
measures, 416 
publications, 425-432 
religion, 419-423 
societies, 433 
Eugenicist, defined, 60 
Eugenist, defined, 60 
Euglena, 140 
Euthenics, defined, 59-60 
Evening Primrose, 203, 204 
mutations of, 204, 235 
Evolution, agents of, 64 
and atheism, 44 
and heredity, 7 
biologic, 55 
defined, 51, 52 
defined in terms of religion, 422 
does not el'minate God, 51 
evidence for, 114-127 
geologic, 55 
inorganic, 387 
misconceptions of, 51 
mechanical, 52 
modern human, 58 
moulding of, 377 
publications, 425-432 
of earth, 65, 73 
of firearms, 52 
of locomotives, 54 
of North America, 82, 83 
of sewing machines, 53 
of steam boats, 55 
organic, 55 
social, 58 
time for, 114, 115 
types of, 52 
Factor, hypothesis, 277-281 
inhibitory, 281 
Fairy tales, 45-46 
Family, large, 354 
Feeble-minded, illustrations, 403 
Kansas State Training School for, 
401 
types of parents, 316-322 
Feeble-mindedness, vs. insanity, 406 
data from Goddard, 316 
legislation against, 325 
Fertilization, artificial, 258, 259 
Firearms, evolution of, 52 
Fisher, Emil, 77 
Fishes, classification of, 153 
evolutionary position of, 168 
origin of blind, 388 
Fit, test of the, 190 
Fittest, survival of the, 179 
Flowers, parts of, 258 
Flying Age, 106 
Foote, John H., 39 
Fossil mountain, Colorado, 81 
Fossils, 81 
Fountain, of youth, 36 
Frog, metamorphosis, 122 
Gametes, 269, 270 
Gartner, 238 
Gene, 288 
Genesis, Creation story of, 73-75 438 
Index 
Genetics, Coulter & Coulter on plant, 
239 
defined, 59 
journals, 432 
publications, 425-432 
societies, 433 
Germ cells, 215 
continuity of, 380 
differentiation of, 215-216 
distinct from Soma, 396 
Goddard, data on feeble-mindedness, 
366 
quoted, 326 
Goiter, 358 
Goldsmith, human inheritance dis- 
play by, 292 
quoted, 249-251 
on tiger beetle cells, 219, 220 
Gorilla, 172 
Grading, 242, 243 
Greek, culture, 66 
theories of universe, 66 
Guinea-pigs, transplanting of ova- 
ries, 395 
Haeckel, quoted, 76 
Harriman, Mrs. E. H., 61 
Hayes, quoted, 57 
Helvetius, 34 
Hereditary induction, 346 
examples of, 348 
Heredity, base of life's triangle, 378, 
379 
branded in germ plasm, 380 
definition of, 56 
The Journal of, 61 
relation to environment, 175 
Heritage, cell carriers of, 212-229 
Hertwig, quoted, 132 
Homo heidelbergensis, 106, 109 
HomOzygotes and Heterozygotes, 
264 
Horse, chromosomes of, 227 
evolution of, 103 
Human dwarfs, 205, 207 
Human inheritance, 291, 292 
absurd views regarding, 297 
Hunter, quoted, 238 
Hutton, philosophy of, 78 
Hybrid, corn, 262, 266 
di-, 274 
human, 302-307 
mono-, 261, 274 
mule as type of, 246-253 
peas, 267 
plants, 260 
sterility of, 246 
tri-, 275 
vigor, 239 
wheat, 273 
Ideas, fanatical and superstitious, 26 
Imbecility, a recessive Mendelian 
trait, 403 
Incomplete dominance, 302 
Individual conduct vs. racial develop- 
ment, 376-397 
Induction, definition of, 391 
germinal, 349 
hereditary, 237, 346, 348 
Infection, prenatal, 349-352 
Inferior, overproduction of, 354 
Inheritance, apparent exceptions to 
laws of, 282-291 
blended, 302, 303 
"criss-cross," 338-344 
human, 292, 294-301 
of abnormal fingers and toes, 332, 
336 
of acquired characteristics, 376-397 
of alcoholism, 328 
of color-blindness, 338 
of criminality, 328 
of diseases, 332, 345-356 
of feeble-mindedness, 314 
of insanity, 328 
of pauperism, 328 
of sex, 308, 313, 328 
of twinning, 333 
of various mental and moral traits, 
326-337 
of venereal diseases, 351 
types of, 327, 337 
sex-linked, 338 
laws of, 254-276 
Inhibitory factors, 281 
Inorganic evolution, 387 
Insanity, inheritance of, 328 
vs. feeble-mindedness, 406 
Institutions, eugenic, 433 
Interference, 289 
Intelligence, evolution of, 109, 110, 
111 
Invertebrates, 154-164 
Investigators, technical, 8 
Iron Age, 106 
Jesse, nature stories of, 37 
Jordan, David Starr, 61 
recognizes Superior Being, 422 
Journals, Genetics and Eugenics, 
432 
Jukes, compared with the Edwards, 
405 
Jurassic, 86 
Kamnnerer, salamander, 385 
Kansas Seas, 83, 95 
Kelvin, philosophy of, 78 
Kblliker, opposed Darwinism, 202 
Kolreuter, 238 Index 
439 
Lamarck, zoological philosophy, 
quoted, 381 
Laws of, chance in sex production, 
312 
dominance, 264 
inheritance, 254-276 
apparent exceptions to, 282, 291 
segregation, 266 
Legislation against feeble-minded- 
ness, 325 
Lemurs, 104, 106 
Lesser, theology of insects, 37 
Life, cycle of, 128 
laws of, 81 
origin of, 75-78 
scroll of, 148-154 
succession of, 129 
triangle of, 378, 379 
Linkage in Drosophila, 285 
Linnaeus, naturalist, 187 
Literature list, 425 
Locomotives, evolution of, 54 
Lowell, quoted, 72 
Lyell, 48 
philosophy of, 77 
Magellan, 31 
Mammals, classification of, 154 
first marsupian, 87 
germ cells of, 226 
position of, 171 
small primitive, 87 
Mammoth elephants, 101, 102 
Man, chromosomes of, 226 
evolution of, 98, 100, 107, 109, 110 
and higher apes, 173 
origin of, 67 
place in nature, 105, 106, 174 
related to lower animals, 134, 174 
related to monkeys, 109, 174 
Marsupials, 98 
Mastodons, 101 
Mather, Cotton, 36, 37 
Maturation of germ cells, 216, 220 
McCabe, quoted, 109, 126 
Mendel, Gregor, 255 
life and works, 255 
works lost, 256 
works rediscovered, 257 
Mendelian, inheritance of disease, 
332 
inheritance of human traits, 332 
ratio in corn, 262, 266 
ratio in peas, 267, 269 
Mendelism, 257 
Bateson, Castle, Correns, De Vries 
and Von Tschermak, 257 
Mental traits, inheritance of, 326-337 
Mesozoic, 86, 94, 95, 100 
Metazoic, 147 
Metamorphosis, of frog, 122 
of spermatids, 223 
Meteorites, bombardment theory of, 
73 
Microcephalic, 414 
Milky Way, 69 
Milton, quoted, 30 
Mind, age of, 131 
Mississippi River, 83 
Modifiers, 281 
Molgula, 166 
Mollusca, 163 
Mongolian dwarfs, facial expressions 
of, 403 
Mono-hybrids, 261, 274 
Monotremes, 98 
Moral traits, inheritance of, 326-337 
Morgan, quoted, 282 
Morley, quoted, 114 
Moulding the Super-man, 398-423 
Moulton, quoted, 71, 73 
Mulattos, production of, 304 
Mules, cells of, 247 
reproducing, 248, 249 
sterility of, 246, 253 
Mutation, causes of, 210, 211 
definition of, 201 
examples of, 208, 209, 235 
facts regarding, 205, 206 
kinds of, 210 
problem of variation in, 210, 390 
theory of, 202 
vs. variation, 200, 201, 211 
Nageli, Mendel's teacher, 254 
Natural selection, 387 
Nature, dissimilarity in, 194 
peaceful, 180 
prodigality of, 184-193, 390 
vs. nurture, 175 
Neanderthal men of Old Stone Age, 
106 
Nebulae, 69 
andromeda, 69 
orion, 69 
spiral, 70 
Nebular, hypothesis, 69-72 
knots, 71 
Negro, chromosomes of, 226 
Negro-white crosses, 302-307 
Nemathelminthes, 159 
Neo-Darwinism, 195 
Non-disjunction, 290, 289 
Nulliplex, 265 
Oenothera lamarckiana, 235 
Obgonia, 219 
Opossum, 98 
Orang-utan, 172 
Ordovician, 86, 89 440 
Index 
Organic evolution, defined, 56 
Organs, rudimentary, 125, 136 
Origin and evolution of, atmosphere, 
73 
earth, 65-68 
elements, 79 
life, 75, 78 
protoplasm, 77 
solar system, 68 
water, 73 
Orion, 69 
Osborn, Henry Fairfield, quoted, 404 
Overpopulation of earth, 410, 412 
Overproduction of inferior children, 
354 
Oysters, of cenozoic era, 102, 103 
Painting, primitive, 111, 112 
Paleontology, proof for evolution, 
116 
Paleozoic, 86-88, 90, 92 
Pangenesis, theory of, 380, 382 
modification of, 380, 384 
Paracelsus, 34 
Paradise Lost, 30 
Paramecium, 141 
Pasteur, 78 
Patent medicines, 41-42 
Pauperism, inheritance of, 328 
Pearl, experiments on fowls, 392 
Peas, cross between tall and dwarf, 
272 
Mendelian ratio, 267, 269 
Pennsylvanian swamps, 92 
Philosopher, Aristotle, 26 
Bacon, 26 
Plato, 57 
Pliny, 28 
Schoolmen or scholastics, 30 
Philosopher's Stone, 34 
Physiologus, 29 
Pig, chromosomes of, 227 
Pigmentation, inheritance in human, 
304 
Pithecanthropus, erectus, 87, 106, 108 
Placenta, 349 
Planetesimal hypothesis, 71 
Plato, early eugenicist, 57 
Platyhelminthes, 159 
Playfair, philosophy of, 78 
Pleistocene, 86 
Pliny, 28 
Pliocene, 86 
Pollination, 260 
Polydactylism, inheritance of, 332 
Porifera, 154 
Prenatal culture, 357-375 
overthrown by cell theory, 225 
Prenatal infection, 349, 352 
Presence and absence hypothesis, 265 
Primitive life, Archean, 85 
Prodigality of nature, 184-193 
Proterozoic, 86 
Protoplasm, origin of, 77 
Protozoa, 138-142 
colonial, 145, 146 
Psychozoic, 86 
Publications, evolution, eugenics and 
genetics, 425-432 
Pythagoras, shape of earth, 66 
Quetelet's Curve and Law, 199 
Racial development vs. individual 
conduct, 376-397 
Redi, Francesco, 79 
Reduction in chromosomes, 221 
Religion, and Eugenics, 419, 423 
and evolution, 80, 81 
of Christian era, 28 
old ideas of, 31 
Protestant and Catholic, 33 
teaching of, 46-47 
supported by Darwinism, 421 
Reptiles, age of, 86, 96 
classification of, 154 
reptilian birds, 100, 102 
skeleton of prehistoric, 96 
Reversion, 279 
Roman Empire, fall of, 67 
Roosevelt, quoted, 345 
Sacred Natural History or Physiolo 
gus, 29 
Salamanders, inherited acquired 
characters, 385 
Santa Claus stories, 44, 45 
Schleiden & Schwann, cell theory, 214 
Schuchert, quoted, 93 
Science, of astronomy 32, 
of chemistry, 33 
Scientific development of plants and 
animals, 10 
Sea-anemone, 158 
Sedimentation, 83, 84 
Selection, natural, 387 
Segregation, laws of, 266 
Sewing machines, evolution of, 53 
Sex, chromosomes, 221, 222, 310, 338 
determiner, 227, 311 
inheritance of, 308-313, 338 
linked, 285 
predominance of one, 312 
Shull, quoted, 50, 59, 114, 314, 325 
Shute, quoted, 94 
Silurian, 89 
Simplex, 265 
Societies, Genetics and Eugenics, 433 
Sociology, study of, 10, 57 
Solar system, origin of, 68 Index 
441 
Soma, distinct from germ, 396 
Spermatogonia, 219, 223 
Spontaneous generation, examples 
of, 78 
Sport, 234 
Stars, dead, 72 
Steam boats, evolution of, 55 
Sterilization, effects of, 415 
Stone Age, 106 
men of, 110 
Struggle, for existence, 180, 237 
Super-man, 130 
moulding of, 398, 423 
Superstition, 25-49 
and belief in witchery, 36 
and ignorance, 7 
as a retarding factor, 25, 49 
Superior families, limit offsprings, 
408-409 
Survival of fittest, 179 
Swammerdam's Biblia Naturael, 
37 
Synapsis, 221 
Syndactylism, inheritance of, 332-336 
Synizesis, 221 
Thorpe, quoted, 34, 35 
Tiger beetles, chromosomes of, 219, 
223 
Tobacco, hybridized, 241 
Training, triangle of life, 378, 379 
Traits, origin of unusual, 331, 335 
Transplantation, of guinea-pig ova- 
ries, 395 
Triangle of Life, 378, 379 
Triassic, 86 
Tri-hybrids, 275 
Trilobites, 88, 89 
Triplets, production of, 354 
Truth, search for, 7 
Twinning, inheritance of, 333, 354 
Tyndall, 78 
Unfit, elimination of, 189, 191 
Unit characters, 268 
Unusual traits, origin of, 331, 335 
Use and disuse, 386 
Variation, 189, 194-200. 
cause of, 230-237 
examples of, 197, 198 
somatic, 237 
types of, 195 
universal law of nature, 390 
Venereal diseases, inheritance of, 351 
playing havoc with human race, 
351-356 
Vertebrates, 167-174 
Vestigial, 285 
Vol vox, 146 
Vries de, mutation theory, 202 
Wallace, Darwinism supports reli- 
gion, 421 
Walter, Herbert E., quoted 59, 175, 
265 
Warner, quoted, 57 
Water, origin of, 73 
Weatherwax, experiments of, on 
corn, 260 
Weismann, 236 
cause of variation, 230 
denies inheritance of acquired 
characters, 382, 383, 384 
Weismannism, modifications of, 396 
Wheat, cross between Harvest King 
and Fultz Mediterranean, 273 
Whetham, quoted, 25 
White, quoted, 30 
Wilson, E. B., quoted, 212, 214 
Witchcraft, 36 
Woods, Frederick Adams, quoted, 58 
Zebu, cow, 243 
-Hereford, 244 
Zygote, 269, 270