■ ; ■ ■ ' ■■ 
• " ' • ■■ ' v h ■ 1S12 AUSTIN FLINT, M.D. 1886 
THIS VOLUME HAS BEEN PURCHASED FOR 
THE LIBRARY OF 
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FROM THE PROCEEDS OF THE 
AUSTIN FLINT M.D. MEMORIAL LIBRARY FUND LIPPINCOTT'S 
NURSING MANUALS 
A TEXT-BOOK OF 
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 
FOR NURSES 
BY 
A. R. BLISS, Jr., Ph.G., Ph.Ch., A.M., Phm.D., M.D. 
Lecturer on Chemistry and Materia Medica, Grady Hospital Training 
School for Nurses, Atlanta; Professor of Pharmacology, Emory 
University, School of Medicine; Formerly Professor 
of Chemistry and Pharmacology, Graduate 
School of Medicine, University 
of Alabama 
AND 
A. A. OLIVE, A.B., A.M., Ph.Ch., Phm.D. 
Lecturer on Chemistry, Hillman Hospital Training School for Nurses, 
Birmingham; Professor of Physics and Chemistry, Howard 
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Graduate School of Medicine, University 
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NURSING MANUALS 
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A TEXT BOOK OF 
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 
FOR NURSES 
BY 
A. R. BLISS, Jr., Ph.G., Ph. Ch., A.M., Phm.D., M.D. 
LECTURER ON CHEMISTRY AND MATERIA MEDICA, GRADY HOSPITAL TRAINING SCHOOL FOR 
NURSES, ATLANTA; PROFESSOR OF PHARMACOLOGY, EMORY UNIVERSITY, SCHOOL OF 
MEDICINE; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AND PHARMACOLOGY, GRAD- 
UATE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA 
AND 
A. H. OLIVE, A. B., A. M., Ph.Ch., Phm.D. 
LECTURER ON CHEMISTRY, HILLMAN HOSPITAL TRAINING SCHOOL FOR NURSES, BIRMINGHAM; 
PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY, HOWARD COLLEGE; FORMERLY ASSO- 
CIATE PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, GRADUATE SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, 
UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA 
49 ILLUSTRATIONS 
SECOND EDITION REVISED 
PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON 
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 
Electrotyped and Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company 
The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A. PREFACE 
The authors of this text-book have endeavored to furnish the 
student of nursing in concise form a simple and clear presentation 
of those portions of the sciences-physics and chemistry-which 
are of special interest and importance to the student and the 
graduate nurse. 
The work is necessarily brief. The curricula of most schools 
of nursing call for but one year of instruction in physics and 
chemistry. The authors therefore decided to discuss only the 
amount of material which, in their opinion, could be intelligently 
digested by the average studious nurse in the time allotted to the 
subjects. 
The authors will welcome any suggestions looking to the 
improvement of the text-book. 
Thanks are due to the following authorities whose works were 
frequently consulted and proved of great value in the preparation 
of this book: Allen, Autenrieth, Barmwater, Bartley, Beal, 
Brundage, Bunge, Coblentz, Doremus, Everett, Glazebrook, 
Hill, Holland, Hoadley, Krafft, Lassar-Cohn, Leach, Long, 
Molinari, Morgan, Mason, Novy, Prudden, Remsen, Rottget, 
Remington, Sadtler, Simon, Stewart, Thoms, Tyrode, the United 
States Pharmacopoeia, Vaughan, Voit, Witthaus, and Wood; also 
to Miss Ellison, of the Cincinnati General Hospital, formerly 
Principal of the Hillman Hospital Training School for Nurses, 
and Miss Dugan, Principal of the Hillman Hospital Training 
School for Nurses, for valuable suggestions and criticisms. 
Thanks are especially due to Eimer and Amend, of New York 
City, for the use of their half-tones. 
Birmingham, Alabama, A. R. B., Jr. 
January, 1916. A. H. O. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
The printing of the second edition in a little over a year after 
the first appearance of this book has enabled the authors to make 
such corrections and changes as would enhance the value of the 
book, and to include the changes necessitated by the new revision 
of the United States Pharmacopoeia. 
The authors desire to emphasize the importance of giving the 
experimental part of the work, which has been so arranged as to 
require but a small stock of apparatus and reagents and such as 
are easily obtainable. The expense involved is very small. 
The favorable reception given this book has been most grati- 
fying, and the authors are especially grateful for the many 
valuable criticisms and suggestions which have been sent them. 
A. R. B„ Jr. 
A. H. O. 
Atlanta, Georgia, 
November, 1917. CONTENTS 
PART I 
ELEMENTARY PHYSICS 
CHAPTER I 
PAGE 
Matter and its Properties 3 
General Definitions: Matter-Science-Physics-Extension-Vol- 
ume - M ass-Divisibility-Atom-Molecule -Indestructibility- 
States of Matter - Impenetrability - Porosity - Compressibility - 
Elasticity-Force-Energy-Work-Gravitation-Weight-Specific 
Gravity-Hydrometers. 
Special Properties of Solids: Hardness-Brittleness-Tenacity 
-Malleability-Ductility-Crystals-Regular System-Tetragonal 
System-Rhombic System-Monoclinic System-Triclinic System- 
Hexagonal System. 
Special Properties of Liquids: Capillary Phenomena-Cohesion- 
Adhesion-Diffusion-Colloids-Crystalloids-Solution-Filtration 
-Maceration-Digestion-Infusion-Decoction-Percolation. 
Gases: Diffusion-Atmosphere-Barometer-Siphon. 
CHAPTER H 
Heat and Light 14 
Heat-Thermometer-Calorimetry-Fusion-Ignition-Calcina- 
tion -Deflagration-Incineration-Carbonization -Torrefaction- 
Vaporization-Evaporation-Distillation-Subli mation-Desicca- 
tion-Exsiccation. 
Light: Mirrors-Images-Refraction-Prism-Lenses-Color- 
Prismatic Spectrum-Camera-The Eye. 
CHAPTER HI 
Magnetism and Electricity 24 
Lodestone-Magnets-Mariner's Compass. 
Electricity: Frictional-Inductive-Chemical - Thermal - Gal- 
vanic Cell-Conductors-Non-conductors-Battery - Volt - Am- 
pere-Ohm-Watt-Thermal Electricity-Cathode Ray-X-rays 
-Rontgen Rays-Electric Arc-Incandescent Light. 
CHAPTER IV 
Acoustics 29 
Definition: Vibrations - Transmission - Echo - Resonance - 
Musical Sound-The Ear. VI 
CONTENTS 
PART n 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
CHAPTER V 
Chemical Philosophy 33 
Physical Changes-Chemical Changes-Mechanical Mixtures- 
Chemical Compounds-Reactions-Synthetic Reactions-Analytic 
Reactions-Chemical Affinity - Chemistry - Elements - Chemical 
Symbols-Table of Elements - Chemical Formula-Atomic 
Weight-Molecular Weight-Valence-Valence Table-Chemical 
Equations-Radical. 
Acids-Bases-Neutralization-Salts-Normal or Neutral Salts- 
Acid Salts - Double Salts - Basic Salts-Radicals-Ionization- 
Cations - Anions-Electrolysis - Chemical Nomenclature-Oxida- 
tion and Reduction. 
CHAPTER VI 
The Metals 47 
Definition-Sources-Extraction-Physical Properties-Chemical 
Properties-Effects of the Atmosphere-Chemical Combination- 
Uses-Alloys-Amalgams-Physiological Effects - Salts - Radium, 
etc. 
CHAPTER VH 
The Non-metals 51 
Hydrogen - Oxygen - Combustion - Oxidation - Ozone - The 
Halogens-Chlorine-Bromine-Iodine-Fluorine. 
Nitrogen - The Atmosphere - Sulphur - Phosphorus - Boron 
Silicon-Carbon-Graphite-Diamond-Coal. 
INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 
CHAPTER VIII 
Acids 62 
Definition-The Halogen Acids: Hydrochloric Acid-Hydro- 
bromic Acid-Hydriodic Acid-Hydrofluoric Acid. 
The Sulphur Acids: Sulphurous Acid-Sulphuric Acid-Hydrosul- 
phuric Acid. 
The Nitrogen Acids: Nitrous Acid-Nitric Acid-Nitrohydro- 
chloric Acid. 
The Phosphorus Acids: Phosphoric Acid-Hypophosphorous Acid. 
The Arsenic Acids: Arsenous Acid-Arsenic Acid. 
Hydrocyanic Acid. 
Carbonic Acid-Boric Acid. CONTENTS 
VII 
CHAPTER IX 
Bases 70 
Properties - Hydroxides - Alkalies - Potassium Hydroxide - 
Sodium Hydroxide-Ammonium Hydroxide-Calcium Hydroxide- 
Magnesium Hydroxide-Ferric Hydroxide. 
CHAPTER X 
Salts 74 
Definition-The Halogen Salts. Chlorides: Sodium Chloride- 
Potassium Chloride-Ammonium Chloride-Mercurous Chloride- 
Mercuric Chloride. Chlorates: Potassium Chlorate-Sodium Chlo- 
rate. Hypochlorites: Sodium Hypochlorite-Potassium Hypochlorite 
-Calcium Hypochlorite. Bromides: Sodium Bromide-Potassium 
Bromide-Ammonium Bromide-Calcium Bromide-Lithium Bro- 
mide-Strontium Bromide-Zinc Bromide-"Bromism." Iodides: 
Sodium Iodide-Potassium Iodide-Ammonium Iodide-Mercurous 
Iodide-Mercuric Iodide-Ferrous Iodide-Arsenous Iodide-Bis- 
muth Oxyiodide-Uses of the Iodides-"lodism." 
Sulpho-Salts: Sulphites: Sodium Sulphite, Sodium Bisulphite 
and Calcium Sulphite. Sulphates: Magnesium Sulphate-Sodium 
Sulphate-Ferrous Sulphate-Copper Sulphate-Aluminium Sul- 
phate-Potassium Aluminium Sulphate-Zinc Sulphate-Calcium 
Sulphate. Sulphides: Calcium Sulphide-Carbon Disulphide. Thio- 
sulphates: Sodium Thiosulphate. 
Nitro-Salts: Nitrates: Sodium Nitrate-Potassium Nitrate- 
Silver Nitrate-Bismuth Subnitrate-Mercuric Nitrate. Nitrites: 
Sodium Nitrite. 
Phospho-Salts: Phosphates: Sodium Phosphate-Calcium Phos- 
phate-Ferric Phosphate. Pyrophosphates: Ferric Pyrophosphate- 
Sodium Pyrophosphate. Hypophosphites: Sodium, Potassium, Fer- 
ric, Manganese, and Calcium Hypophosphites. 
Carbonates: Sodium Carbonate-Potassium Carbonate-Ammo- 
nium Carbonate-Ferrous Carbonate-Magnesium Carbonate- 
Lithium Carbonate-Calcium Carbonate-Zinc Carbonate. 
Bicarbonates: Sodium Bicarbonate-Potassium Bicarbonate. 
Borates: Sodium Borate. Arsenites and Arsenates: Potassium 
Arsenite-Sodium Arsenate-Paris Green-Scheele's Green. 
Permanganates: Potassium Permanganate. Cyanides: Sodium 
Cyanide. 
Oxides 
CHAPTER IX 
Non-met allic Oxides 91 
Oxides of Hydrogen-Water-Hardness-Water of Crystallization 
-Efflorescence - Hygroscopic Compounds - Deliquescence - Rain 
Water-Potable Water-Distilled Water-Mineral Water-Car- 
bonated Waters-Sulphur Waters-Alkaline Waters-Lithia Waters 
-Saline Waters-Chalybeate Waters-Sea-water-Hydrogen Di- 
oxide-Sulphur Dioxide-Nitrogen Monoxide-Carbon Monoxide- 
Carbon Dioxide. VIII 
CONTENTS 
CHAPTER XII 
Metallic Oxides 96 
Calcium Oxide-Lead Oxide-Magnesium Oxide-Mercuric Oxide- 
Yellow Mercuric Oxide-Red Mercuric Oxide-Zinc Oxide-Arsenic 
Trioxide. 
PART III 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
CHAPTER XIII 
The Compounds of Carbon 101 
The Terms "Organic" and "Inorganic"-Elements Contained in 
Organic Compounds-Test for Carbon-Test for Hydrogen-Test 
for Nitrogen-Test for Sulphur-Test for Phosphorus-"Chain 
Series"-"Open-chain Series"-"Closed Chain." 
CHAPTER XIV 
Hydrocarbons 104 
Definition-Classification. 
The Paraffins or Fatty Series-Methane-Petroleum-Benzin- 
Naphtha-Gasolene-Kerosene-Petrolatum-Paraffin. 
The Olefins and Acetylenes: The Terpenes. Volatile Oils: Oil of 
Turpentine-Rectified Oil of Turpentine-Other Oils Used in Medi- 
cine-Menthol-Thymol-Eucalyptol. 
The Benzenes: Benzene-Toluene-Xylene-Cumene-Naphthalene. 
CHAPTER XV 
Derivatives of the Hydrocarbons no 
Halogen Salts: Methyl Chloride-Ethyl Chloride-Chloroform- 
Ethyl Bromide-Bromoform-Iodoform. 
Alcohols: Definition - Classification - Methyl Alcohol - Ethyl 
Alcohol-Alcohol, U. S. P.-Absolute Alcohol, U. S. P.-Diluted 
Alcohol, U. S. P.-Denatured Alcohol-Whiskey-Brandy-Gin- 
White Wine - Red Wine-Sparkling Wines-Still Wines-Dry 
Wines-Sweet Wines-Glycerin. 
Ethers and Esters: Definitions-Ether-Ethyl Ether-Methyl 
Salicylate-Nitrous Ether-Nitroglycerin-Amyl Nitrite-Phenyl Sal- 
icylate-Fats and Oils-Vegetable Oils-Animal Oils-Animal Fats 
and Waxes-Oleomargarine and Butterine-Soaps. 
Aldehydes: Definition-Formaldehyde-Methyl Aldehyde-Paralde- 
hyde-Chloral-Chloral Hydrate-Benzaldehyde. 
Ketones: Definition-Acetone. CONTENTS 
IX 
CHAPTER XVI 
Derivatives of the Hydrocarbons {Continued) 122 
Organic Acids: Formic Acid-Acetic Acid-Trichloracetic Acid- 
Butyric Acid-Lactic Acid-Oxalic Acid-Tartaric Acid-Citric Acid 
-Benzoic Acid-Salicylic Acid-Tannic Acid-Gallic Acid-Acetyl- 
salicylic Acid. 
Organic Salts: Acetates: Potassium, Sodium, Lead, Zinc-Uses. 
Tartrates: Potassium Acid Tartrate-Potassium and Sodium Tar- 
trate-Antimony and Potassium Tartrate. Citrates: Potassium, 
Sodium, Lithium, Bismuth-Uses. Benzoates: Ammonium, Lith- 
ium, Sodium-Uses. Salicylates: Ammonium, Lithium, Sodium, 
Strontium, Bismuth (Sub-salicylate)-Mercury Salicylate (Basic)- 
Uses. 
Phenols: Definition-Phenol-Cresol-Creosote-Resorcinol. 
Sulphur Derivatives: Sulphonmethane-Sulphonethylmethane- 
Tetronal. 
Compounds Containing Nitrogen: Hexamethylenamine-Carba- 
mid-Diethyl-malonyl-urea. 
Derivatives of Benzene: Acetanilid-Acetphenetidin-Trinitro- 
phenol-Antipyrine - Paradiaminodihydroxyarsenobenzol Hydro- 
chloride. 
CHAPTER XVII 
Carbohydrates 135 
Definition-Classification-Monosaccharides or Simple Sugars- 
Disaccharides or Complex Sugars-Polysaccharides-Dextrose, Grape- 
sugar, Glucose-Sucrose, Cane-sugar-Saccharum-Lactose, Sugar 
of Milk-Starch-Cellulose-Parchment Paper-Mercerized Cotton 
-Absorbent Cotton-Medicated Cotton-Artificial Silk-Pyroxy- 
lin-Wood Silk-Celluloid-Collodion-Flexible, Styptic and Can- 
tharidal Collodions-Glycogen. 
Glucosides-Amygdalin, Absinthin, Digitalin, Indican, Glycyrrhizin, 
Frangulin, Jalapin-Myronic Acid-Salicin-Santonin-Saponin- 
Strophanthin. 
CHAPTER XVHI 
Alkaloids and Ptomaines 140 
Alkaloids: Definition - Pilocarpine - Nicotine - A tropine - Hy- 
oscyamine - Cocaine - Quinine - Cinchonine - Strychnine-Mor- 
phine-Opium-Codeine-Apomorphine Hydrochloride - Dionin- 
Heroin-Physostigmine-Aconitine-Veratrine-Hydrastine-Coniine 
-Sparteine- Caffeine. 
Ptomaines: Definition-Isoamylamine- Cadaverine-Neurine- 
Tetanine-Tyrotoxicon. Leukomaines: Definition-Epinephrine. 
PART IV 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
CHAPTER XIX 
Proteins 149 
Definition-Analyses-Classification. Tests: Heat Test-Heller's 
Test-Xanthoproteic Test-Biuret Test-Lieberman's Test. X 
CONTENTS 
CHAPTER XX 
Foodstuffs 151 
Classification-Foodstuff Table-Milk-Analysis of Woman's 
and Cow's Milk-Meat-Bread-The Cooking of Foodstuffs- 
Objects of Cooking-Green Vegetables-Table of Calorific Values. 
CHAPTER XXI 
Digestion 155 
Definition-Salivary Digestion-Saliva-Ptyalin-Gastric Diges- 
tion-Gastric Juice-Composition of Gastric Juice-Pepsin-Ren- 
nin-Peptones-Intestinal Digestion-Pancreatic Juice-Bile-Suc- 
cus Entericus-Absorption. 
CHAPTER XXII 
The Chemical Composition of the Human Body 157 
Elements in the Human Body-Table of Elements-The Com- 
pounds in the Human Body? Water-Hydrogen Dioxide-Carbon 
Dioxide-Hydrogen Sulphide-A mmonia-Methane- Chlorides- Cal- 
cium Fluoride- Phosphates - Carbonates - Sulphates - Silica-Dex- 
trose-Lactose-Glycogen-Inosit-Fat-Lecithin-Protagon - Cere- 
brin-Formic Acid-Acetic Acid-Diacetic Acid-Beta-oxybutyric Acid 
-Propionic Acid-Butyric Acid-Oxalic Acid-Isovaleric Acid- 
Capric Acid-Stearic, Oleic and Palmitic Acids-Lactic Acid-Sarco- 
lactic Acid-Uric Acid-Fellic Acid-Cholic and Choleic Acids- 
A cetone-Phenol-Indol-Skatol- Creatine-Creatinine - Tyrosine- 
Leucine - Glycocoll- Urea-• Choline - Neurine - Taurine - Choles- 
terin-Bilirubin-Biliverdin-Melanins. 
Experiments: Tests for the More Common Metals: Potassium- 
Sodium - Lithium'- Ammonium - Calcium - Magnesium-Iron- 
Manganese. 
Tests for the More Common Acids: Hydrochloric-Sulphuric- 
Phosphoric-Carbonic-Hydrosulphuric-Nitric-Oxalic-Hydrio- 
dic-Hydrobromic-Boric. 
Composition of Bone-Composition of Bone Earth-Tests on Bone. 
Saliva: Definition-Composition-Tests on Saliva. 
Blood-Sweat. 
CHAPTER XXIII 
Urine and Urinalysis 169 
Definition-Properties-Chemical Analysis-Collection of Urine 
-Examination-Examination for Inorganic Matter-Determina- 
tion of Urea-Test for Uric Acid. 
Abnormal Constituents: Albumin-Dextrose-Fehling's Solution 
-Fehling's Test-Acetone-Excessive Urea and Uric Acid- 
Excessive Indican-Blood-Bile. CONTENTS 
XI 
PART V 
FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS 
Disinfectants, Deodorants and Antiseptics 
CHAPTER XXIV 
Fermentation and Ferments 177 
Definitions: Fermentation-Enzymes. Making of Bread'. Dough 
-Gluten-Yeast-Black Bread-White Bread-Baking Powders- 
Juice of Grapes-Wine-Cider and Perry- Champagne. Beer: Defi- 
nition-Lager Beer-Bock Beer-Ale-Porter-Stout-Malting- 
Brewing-Diastase-Wort -Whiskey-Mash-Artificial Whiskey- 
Alcohol-Brandy-Rum-Gin-Koumis. 
Ferments: Classification: I. Unorganized Ferments or Enzymes- 
Classification of Enzymes. Vegetable Enzymes: Diastase-Lactase- 
Maltase - Cellulase-Inulase-Saccharase-Pectinase - Emulsin - 
Papain-Invertin-Bromelin-Zymase. Animal Enzymes Pepsin 
-Trypsin-Erepsin - Ptyalin- A mylopsin- Invertase - Pancreatin 
-Steapsin-Rennin-Chymase-Histozym. 
II. Organized or Living Ferments: Yeast-Dry Yeast-Top Yeast 
-Bottom Y east-Compressed Y east-Mycoderma A ceti-Bacilli Lacti 
-Bacilli Butyrici-Micrococci Urece-Mucor Mucedo-Oidium Albi- 
cans-Nitrifying Ferments-Pathogenic Microorganisms. 
CHAPTER XXV 
Disinfectants, Deodorants and Antiseptics 188 
Definitions-Disinfectant or Germicide-Deodorant-Antiseptic 
-Antizymotic. 
Heat-Moist and Dry Heat-Phenol-Mercuric Chloride-Mercuric 
Cyanide-Potassium Permanganate-Formaldehyde-Hydrogen Di- 
oxide-Silver Nitrate-Iodoform-Creosote-Cresol-Hexamethylenam- 
ine-Glycerin. The Halogens: Chlorine-Bromine-Iodine-Fluo- 
rine. Oxygen-Soap-Alcohol. Acids : Mineral Acids-Sulphurous 
Acid-Boric Acid-Acetic Acid-Benzoic Acid-Salicylic Acid- 
Lactic Acid-Tartaric and Citric Acids-Tannic Acid. Chloroform- 
Ether-Lime and Slaked Lime-Zinc Phenolsulphonate-Copper Sul- 
phate-Ferrous Sulphate-Chromium Trioxide-Volatile Oils and Stea- 
roptens - Quinine - Chloral Hydrate - A cetanilid-Resorcin-Petro- 
leum-Naphthalene. 
APPENDIX 
Weights and Measures 209 
Troy Weight-Apothecaries' Weight-Avoirdupois Weight- 
Apothecaries' or Wine Measure (U. S.)-Imperial Measure-Approx- 
imate Measures-The Metric System-Equivalents. 
Glossary 212 
Percentage Solution Table 224 
Index 225 ILLUSTRATIONS 
FIG. PAGE 
i.-Hydrometers 5 
2.-The Six Systems of Crystallization 7 
3.-Capillary Phenomena 8 
4.-Dialyzers 9 
5.-Hot-water Funnel 9 
6.-Berkefeld House Filter 9 
7.-Tincture Press 10 
8.-Percolators 10 
9.-'-A Barometer 12 
10.-Siphon Barometer 12 
11.-U. S. Signal Service Barometer 12 
12.-Siphon 13 
13.-Section of Atwater Calorimeter 16 
14.-Porcelain Crucible and Cover 16 
15.-Copper Water-baths 17 
16.-Parts of Distillation Apparatus 18 
17.-Stokes Automatic Water Still 18 
18.-Barnstead Home Still 18 
19.-Distilling Apparatus 19 
20.-Reflection of Light Rays by a Mirror 20 
21.-Refraction of a Light Ray by Water 21 
22.-Refraction of a Light Ray by a Prism 21 
23.-Lenses 21 
24.-Cross-section of the Eye 22 
25.-A Microscope 22 
26.-Prismatic Spectrum 23 
27.-Bar Magnet 24 
28.-Horseshoe Magnet 24 
29.-An Induction Coil 25 
30.-A Simple Galvanic Cell 26 
31.-"Bunsen's Cell" 26 
32.-"Grenet's Battery" or Bichromate Cell 26 
33.-Voltmeter for Measuring Strength of Electric Currents. . 27 
34.-A Crookes Tube, Showing Reflected "X-rays" 27 
35.-Sound Wave-motion 29 
36.-Apparatus for Generating Hydrogen 52 
37.-Apparatus for Generating Chlorine 55 
38.-Apparatus for Making Iodine 56 
XIII XIV 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
39--Doremus Ureometer 170 
40.-Doremus-Hinds Ureometer 170 
41.-Ruhemann's Uricometer 171 
42.-Esbach's Albuminometer 172 
43.-Einhorn's Fermentation Saccharometer 172 
44.-Sterns Urino-glucosometer 172 
45.-Steam Sterilizer 189 
46.-Formaldehyde Lamp (De Pree's) 194 
47.-Formaldehyde-sulphur Torch (Lee's) 194 
48.-Formaldehyde Sprayer 195 
49.-Figure Illustrating Metric System 211 PART I 
ELEMENTARY PHYSICS A TEXT-BOOK OF 
PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY 
FOR NURSES 
CHAPTER I 
MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES 
Matter is anything which has weight, or anything which has 
length, breadth and thickness, or anything which occupies space. 
Science treats of matter, the changes matter may undergo, 
and the laws governing the same. Science applied to living matter 
is called biology. 
Physics is that branch of science which treats of the forces 
and motion of matter, and its changes of form, state and place. 
It is not directly concerned with the changes in composition, 
which changes alter the identity of matter. 
Extension is that property of matter by virtue of which it 
occupies space. 
Volume is the amount of space occupied by a given portion 
of matter, and implies all three dimensions-length, breadth and 
thickness. Extension in one direction only is length; extension 
in two directions is called area. 
Mass is the amount of matter contained in a body. 
Divisibility is that property by virtue of which matter may 
be subdivided. There must be some limit to such subdivision. 
For example: We might take a piece of iron the size of a marble 
and break it up into very small pieces. These pieces in turn 
might be reduced to a very fine powder. The naked eye is unable 
to distinguish the minute particles that compose this powder, 
3 4 
ELEMENTARY PHYSICS 
but upon placing some of it under a microscope they become 
visible as separate and distinct pieces. If we imagine a con- 
tinuation of this subdivision, we will finally reach a point at 
which further subdivision is impossible, and this smallest, indi- 
visible particle of iron is called an atom of iron. An atom then is 
the smallest particle of an element1 which can exist. 
A group of two or more atoms is called a molecule. 
Indestructibility.-No particle of matter can be destroyed 
or created. This is sometimes called " Lavoisier's Law of the 
Indestructibility of Matter." 
States of Matter.-Three states are recognized, solid, liquid 
and gaseous. 
Impenetrability.-No two bodies can occupy the same space 
at the same time. 
Porosity.-Apparent exceptions to the foregoing statement 
exist, as when water is poured into a glass filled with sand, or 
when a nail is driven into a piece of wood. In these cases we must, 
however, take into consideration the fact that spaces, called 
" pores," exist between the particles composing matter. 
Compressibility.-This property of matter is dependent 
upon porosity. By exerting pressure upon a body, such as a 
sponge, the particles composing it are forced closer together, 
thereby causing it to occupy less space. 
Elasticity is that property by virtue of which a body, after 
undergoing compression, stretching, twisting or bending, tends 
to assume its original form. 
Force is that manifestation of energy which, acting upon 
matter, changes or tends to change its position or shape. 
Energy is capacity for work and is possessed by all matter 
because of its mass and rate of motion. 
Energy applied in overcoming resistance is known as work, 
as when some article is lifted from the ground. Energy may be 
potential or kinetic. Potential energy is energy of position. A 
stone held in the hand above the earth has power to do work as it 
will fall if released. This is potential energy. The same stone in 
1 See "Elements," page 35. MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES 
5 
falling, because of the withdrawal of the hand, possesses capacity 
for work due to its motion. This is kinetic or energy of motion. 
Energy of one kind may be con- 
verted into energy of the other kind. 
Thus: In the case of the stone, the 
potential energy due to position is 
converted to visible energy of mo- 
tion or kinetic energy without loss. 
In the steam engine the potential 
energy of coal is converted by com- 
bustion to heat energy, which in turn 
is converted to energy of motion. 
Gravitation.-Every particle of 
matter in the universe attracts 
every other particle, consequently 
all bodies attract each other. This 
mutual attraction is known as gravi- 
tation. A measurement of the mu- 
tual attraction between the earth 
and a body is known as weight. 
Various systems of weighing are 
used. That known as the Metric 
System is the one used for scientific 
purposes. 
The specific gravity or specific 
weight of a substance is its weight as 
compared with the weight of an equal 
volume of a standard substance 
taken as unity (i). The standard for 
liquids and solids is distilled water 
at 40 C.; for gases, hydrogen gas at 
o°C. Specific gravity is expressed 
by numbers which denote how many 
times as heavy the body is than the 
standard. The specific gravity (S/G) of mercury is 13.6, which 
means that it is 13.6 times as heavy as an equal volume of water. 
Fig. 1.-Hydrometers. 6 
ELEMENTARY PHYSICS 
Hydrometers are instruments used for determining the specific 
gravity of liquids. They are floated in the liquid under exami- 
nation, and the specific gravity is then read off from the graduated 
stem, the reading being made at the point to which the hydrom- 
eter sinks in the liquid (Fig. i). When used for some special 
liquid only, specific names are given the instruments, viz., for 
milk, " lactometer"; for urine, " urinometer," etc. 
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 
A solid is distinguished from a liquid or gas in that it 
possesses definite shape independent of a containing vessel. It 
therefore follows that solids possess certain distinctive properties, 
such as hardness, brittleness, tenacity, malleability and ductility. 
Hardness is resistance to friction, such as scratching. Brittle- 
ness is inability to withstand compression. Tenacity is resistance 
to pulling or stretching. Malleability is that property of solids 
whereby they may be hammered or rolled out into thin sheets. 
Ductility is that property by virtue of which solids may be drawn 
out into wires or threads. 
Crystals are solid substances bounded by plane faces and 
definite angles. Substances that have the power of assuming 
such form are known as crystalline, those that have not are known 
as amorphous. The process of assuming crystalline form is known 
as crystallization. According to the relative position, number, and 
size of the faces, crystals are classified into six systems. In the 
classification we make use of the term "axes," which designates 
imaginary lines intersecting at the centre of the crystal. The six 
systems follow: 
a. The Regular System (Fig. 2, a). All forms have three axes 
of equal length, intersecting at angles of 900. In this system we find 
Sodium Chloride, Potassium Iodide, Potassium Bromide, etc. 
b. The Tetragonal System (Fig. 2, b) has three axes intersecting 
at angles of 900, the lateral two being equal in length, and the 
principal axis either longer or shorter. In this system are found 
Nickel Sulphate, Potassium Ferrocyanide, Stannic Oxide, etc. 
c. The Rhombic System (Fig. 2, c) has three axes of unequal MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES 
7 
length intersecting at angles of 900. In this are found Citric Acid, 
Sulphur, Zinc Sulphate, etc. 
d. The Monoclinic System (Fig. 2, d) has three axes, all une- 
qual, two of which intersect at an oblique angle and are perpendic- 
ular to the third. In this system are found Tartaric Acid, Ferrous 
Sulphate, Sodium Sulphate, etc. 
e. The Triclinic System (Fig. 2, e) has three unequal axes, all 
oblique to one another. In this are found Copper Sulphate, Potas- 
sium Dichromate, etc. 
Fig. 2.-The six systems of crystallization. 
f. The Hexagonal System (Fig. 2,/) has four axes; the three 
lateral axes are of equal length, and intersect each other at angles 
of 6o° and the principal axis at angles of 900. In this we find 
Antimony, Bismuth, Thymol, etc. 
SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS 
A remarkable property of liquids is known as the capillary 
phenomena. It is easily illustrated by the following experiment: 
Experiment 1.-Place a fine glass tube in a vessel containing water, 
and another in a vessel containing mercury. The water rises in the glass 
tube and the mercury is depressed (Fig. 3). 8 
ELEMENTARY PHYSICS 
An explanation of the above phenomena is dependent upon 
the properties of matter known as cohesion and adhesion. Cohe- 
sion is the attraction existing between like particles, while adhesion 
is that existing between unlike particles. In the case of the water 
and the glass tube, the adhesion between the two is greater than 
the cohesion existing between the particles of water. Therefore the 
water rises. In the case of the mercury and the glass, the cohesion 
between the particles of the mercury is greater than the adhesion of 
the mercury and the glass. Therefore the mercury is depressed. 
Fig. 3.-Capillary phenomena, 
(water) •< >■ (mercury) 
The property of diffusion is closely connected with the capillary 
phenomena. If two liquids, that are capable of admixture, be 
placed in the same vessel one above the other so as to form two 
layers, they will begin to mix or diffuse without stirring or shaking, 
even though the upper liquid be lighter than the lower. This 
will also take place if the liquids are separated by a porous material, 
such as a piece of animal membrane. In the latter case the phe- 
nomenon is known as dialysis. All substances are not diffusible. 
Those which do not diffuse are called " colloids," those which do 
are termed " crystalloids." A piece of apparatus in which dialysis 
may be carried out is known as a dialyzer (Fig. 4). MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES 
9 
Solution.-When a solid, liquid or gas is brought in contact 
with a liquid and mixes with it, forming a clear, homogeneous 
fluid which does not separate upon standing, solution is said to 
be effected. The substance has " dissolved " in the liquid. The 
Fig. 4.-Dialyzers, 
liquid used to dissolve the substance is called the " solvent" 
while the homogeneous combination of liquid with solid, liquid 
or gas is called a " solution." If a substance is not dissolved by 
Fig. 6.-Berkef eld house filter. A = uw 
filtered water. B=filtered water. 
Fig. 5.-Hot-water funnel. 
a solvent, it is said to be " insoluble." A solution containing as 
much of a dissolved substance as is possible at that temperature 
is called a " saturated solution." 
Filtration is closely related to solution. It may be defined 10 
ELEMENTARY PHYSICS 
as a process of separating solid matter from liquids by passing 
through some porous medium (called a filter), which will permit 
the passage of the liquid only. The most common filter is "filter 
paper,"although sand, asbestos, glass wool, charcoal, etc., are also 
employed. Funnels made of glass, hard rubber, tinned iron, etc., 
are used to support filter papers. Special hot-water funnels (Fig. 5) 
are used for filtering fluids that are thick and viscid at ordinary 
room temperature. An efficient household filter for drinking water 
is the Berkefeld house filter (Fig. 6). 
In pharmacy solvents are used in the " extractive processes," 
i.e., those in which the soluble principles of vegetable drugs are 
Fig. 7.-Tincture press. 
Fig. 8.-Percolators. 
dissolved out and separated from the insoluble portions. The 
solvent in these processes is usually known as the menstruum. 
Maceration.-A process in which a powdered drug is soaked 
in the proper menstruum for a stated length of time, and the 
mixture of drug and liquid then filtered or expressed (expression 
is a process of forcibly separating liquids from solid matter by the 
use of straining cloths or presses) (see Fig. 7). 
Digestion.-Maceration at a moderate temperature. 
Infusion.-A process in which coarsely powdered drugs are 
treated with cold, hot, or boiling water in a closed vessel, allowed 
to stand for a time, and finally strained. MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES 
11 
Decoction.-A process similar to infusion, excepting that the 
drug and the water are boiled together. 
Percolation.-A process in which a powdered drug is deprived 
of its soluble constituents by packing it in a suitable vessel, known 
as a percolator (Fig. 8), and allowing the menstruum to gradually 
descend through it. 
GASES 
All gases expand indefinitely. This expansion takes place even 
in the presence of other gases, and is known as diffusion. It is 
very similar to the diffusion of liquids and will take place through 
membranes or parchment. 
All gases are compressible, the volume varying inversely as 
the pressure. Thus, if the pressure on a confined gas is doubled, 
its volume will be reduced one-half. The volume of a gas is also 
influenced by change in temperature. An increase in temperature 
causes an increase in volume and a corresponding decrease in the 
density of the gas. On this fact the principles of ventilation are 
based. Window ventilation for inhabited rooms may be accom- 
plished by leaving a window or windows open, or partly open, at 
both top and bottom. The warmer, expanded air of the room rises 
and escapes through the top opening of the windows, and the cooler, 
more dense air from the outside comes in through the bottom open- 
ings. Thus a constant replacement of the air in the room is insured. 
The atmosphere, the gaseous envelope of the earth, is matter, 
and therefore has weight, and consequently exerts pressure. The 
pressure of the atmosphere at sea-level is about fifteen pounds 
to the square inch, the equivalent of the weight of a column of 
mercury 760 millimetres or about 30 inches in height. This pres- 
sure is known as "one atmosphere." As we ascend, atmospheric 
pressure decreases. 
Experiment 2.-Completely fill a clean, dry glass tube of ordinary 
bore, closed at one end and about 80 cm. long, with mercury. Press the 
forefinger of the right hand firmly over the end of the filled tube and invert 
in a dish partly filled with mercury, taking care not to remove the finger from 
the end of the tube until it is well under the surface of the mercury in the dish. 
After the finger is removed, the mercury in the tube will fall a short distance 
from the top of the tube. The column of mercury in the tube will remain at 
a height of approximately 760 mm., and is supported by the atmosphere 
(Fig- 9)- 12 
ELEMENTARY PHYSICS 
Atmospheric pressure is measured by an instrument known as 
a barometer (Figs. 10 and 11). The simplest form of barometer is 
a tube filled with mercury inverted in a vessel containing 
mercury, suitably mounted in a frame. At sea-level the column 
Fig. 9.-A barometer. 
Fig. io.-Siphon 
barometer. 
Fig. ii.-U. S. Signal 
Service barometer. 
of mercury in the tube will be about 760 millimetres or 30 inches 
high. This is due to the fact that the atmosphere exerts pressure 
upon the surface of the mercury in the vessel and this pressure 
counterbalances the weight of the column of mercury in the tube. 
Hence the mercury column falls as atmospheric pressure decreases, 
and vice versa. MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES 
13 
The siphon is a tube bent at an acute angle, with arms of unequal 
length and ends open. If the siphon is filled with a liquid, the ends 
then closed with the thumbs, and 
the short arm dipped below the 
surface of a liquid contained in an 
open vessel, upon removing the 
thumbs, the liquid will flow through 
the siphon until the level of liquid 
in the vessel falls below the short 
arm. This flow is caused by the 
difference in pressure at the ends 
of the siphon. Considering Fig. 12, 
the pressure at C would be equal 
to the atmospheric pressure minus 
the weight of the column of liquid, 
C-D\ the pressure at B is atmos- 
pheric pressure minus the weight of the column of liquid A-B. 
This gives pressure at B less than the pressure at C, therefore 
the liquid is forced through siphon from C to B. 
Fig. 12.-Siphon. CHAPTER II 
HEAT AND LIGHT 
The molecules of which matter is composed are in a constant 
state of motion, striking against each other and so producing 
the forms of molecular energy known as heat, light, magnetism, 
and electricity. We may therefore say that heat is a manifestation 
of molecular motion. The term "cold " is purely relative and 
indicates a low degree of heat. The sources of heat are the sun, 
fixed stars, friction, percussion, and chemical changes. 
Heat may be transmitted by radiation, conduction and convec- 
tion. Heat is transmitted from the sun to the earth by radiation; 
that is, without raising the temperature of the intervening space. 
If a bar of iron is heated at one end, a rise in temperature is per- 
ceptible some distance from the heated point. The heat in this 
instance is transmitted from particle to particle, and is said to be 
transmitted by conduction. When heat is applied to the bottom 
of a vessel containing a liquid, the lower layer of liquid becomes 
heated and moves upward, and a current of cooler liquid moves 
downward until the liquid is uniformly heated. This is called 
transmission of heat by convection. 
Most substances expand upon heating and contract upon 
cooling. The most important exception to this is water, which 
contracts to 40 Centigrade and then expands upon further cooling, 
until at o° C. it becomes ice. Most liquids, such as mercury, mani- 
fest a constant expansion and contraction with change of intensity 
of heat. This property is made use of in the thermometer, an instru- 
ment used for measuring the degree of intensity of heat, i.e., the 
" temperature. " 
The ordinary thermometer consists of a glass tube of small bore 
with a bulb at one end. The bulb is filled with mercury and is 
then heated until the mercury rises to the very top of the tube. 
It is immediately sealed. Two fixed points are necessary for the 
14 HEAT AND LIGHT 
15 
graduation of the thermometer on any scale. One point is the 
freezing-point of distilled water, and the other its boiling-point. 
These are constant points. In this country two scales of gradua- 
tion are in common use; namely, the Centigrade or Celsius (C.) 
and the Fahrenheit (F.). On the Centigrade or Celsius scale the 
freezing-point of water is called "Zero" (o° C.), and the boiling- 
point 100 degrees (ioo° C.). On the Fahrenheit scale the freezing- 
point is labelled 32 degrees (320 F.) and the boiling-point 212 
degrees (212° F.). 
To convert Centigrade degrees to degrees Fahrenheit: Mul- 
tiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. Thus: 400 C.X94-5+32 = 
104° F. 
To convert Fahrenheit degrees to degrees Centigrade: Sub- 
tract 32, multiply by 5, and divide by 9. Thus: 1040 F.-32X5 
4-9 = 40° C. 
Another scale, the Reaumur, is rarely used. In this scale the 
freezing-point is o° and the boiling-point is 8o°. 
The clinical thermometer, employed for determining the tem- 
perature of the human body, is graduated from 33.30 C. (92° F.) 
to 43.3° C. (no° F.), and registers variations of one-fifth of a 
degree. A small thread of mercury, separated from the main 
column by a bubble of air, serves to register the maximum tem- 
perature, since the thread does not recede with the rest of the 
column. Before using, the thread of mercury should be shaken 
down by a sharp jerk of the thermometer. 
Calorimetry.-Substances are capable of giving off or absorbing 
heat. An instrument used for determining the amount of heat 
absorbed or given off by a substance is known as a calorimeter 
(Fig. 15). As a standard for measuring the quantity of heat we 
use the term calorie. This represents the quantity of heat re- 
quired to raise one gramme of water through one degree Centi- 
grade. 
Heat is employed in the following operations: 
Fusion.-A process of liquefying solids by the application of 
heat without the aid of a solvent. 
Ignition.-A process of strongly heating substances whereby 16 
ELEMENTARY PHYSICS 
all organic and volatile matter is removed, a solid residue remain- 
ing. In chemical analysis this process is usually carried out in 
cup-shaped vessels, made of platinum, porcelain, clay, etc., and 
known as " crucibles " (Fig. 14). 
Calcination.-A. process of separating volatile matter, such as 
water and carbon dioxide, from non-volatile inorganic substances 
by the application of heat, as in the 
manufacture of lime (calcium oxide) 
from limestone or marble (calcium 
carbonate). 
Deflagration.-A process in 
which an inorganic substance ca- 
pable of giving up oxygen is heated 
with another inorganic substance; 
decomposition takes place, usually 
accompanied by a violent com- 
bustion. 
Incineration.-A process of ap- 
Fig. 13.-Section of Atwater calorimeter. 
Fig. 14.-Porcelain crucible 
and cover. 
plying strong heat to organic substances with free access of air 
until all carbonaceous matter is consumed and an ash remains. 
Carbonization.-A process of heating organic substances with- 
out free access of air until all volatile matter is driven off and a 
black residue remains, as in the manufacture of wood charcoal. 
Torrefaction or Roasting.-A process of applying heat to 
organic substances, alteration in their constituents and properties 
resulting. A familiar example is the roasting of coffee. HEAT AND LIGHT 
17 
Vaporization.-Any process in which volatile substances are 
separated from non-volatile or less volatile substances by the aid 
of heat. 
Evaporation.-Vaporization employed to separate a volatile 
liquid from a less volatile liquid or solid matter in solution.1 If 
the object sought is the volatile liquid, the process is known as 
distillation, and the volatile liquid the distillate. 
Fractional distillation is a process of separating a mixture of 
liquids of different boiling-points by distilling the mixture and 
collecting the distillates at different temperatures. If a mixture 
of equal volumes of alcohol and water is distilled, a large portion 
of the alcohol will distil over at the boiling-point of alcohol (about 
78° C.), and, as the percentage of alcohol decreases, the boiling- 
Fig. 15.-Copper water-baths. 
point of the mixture rises and the distillates are collected at different 
temperatures. These fractions, in turn, are redistilled as above and 
all of the alcohol finally separated. 
Destructive distillation is a process of applying strong heat to 
organic solids contained in closed iron vessels whereby gases, liquids 
and thick, tarry products are obtained. A good example of this 
is the destructive distillation of coal. 
Evaporation is carried out in evaporating dishes, beakers, flasks, 
etc. For controlling the degree of heat, baths are used, the most 
common one being the water-bath (Fig. 15). 
1 The term Evaporation is sometimes confined to those operations in 
which vaporization takes place from the surface of the liquid only. Where 
evaporization takes place throughout the body of the liquid, the term Ebul- 
lition or Boiling is used. 18 
ELEMENTARY PHYSICS 
For distillation special apparatus is required, as shown in 
Fig. 16, the parts being the retort (A), condenser (C), receiver (D), 
and the connecting tubing, the adapters (B). The assembled 
apparatus is frequently called a still (Figs. 17, 18, and 19). 
Fig. 16. 
Fig. 17.-Stokes automatic 
water still. 
Fig. i 8.-Barnstead home still. 
Sublimation.-Vaporization applied to separate a volatile 
solid from other substances. The product of the process is known 
as the sublimate. The apparatus used is similar to that employed 
for distillation. HEAT AND LIGHT 
19 
Desiccation.-A process of depriving solid substances of mois- 
ture at a low temperature. Crude drugs are usually desiccated 
to aid in their preservation, to reduce their bulk, and to facilitate 
pulverization. Ovens and drying closets are usually employed. 
Fig. 19.-Distilling apparatus (still for water, spirits, etc.). 
Exsiccation.-A process of depriving crystalline substances of 
their water of crystallization by strongly heating them. The 
crystals crumble, leaving a powder. 
LIGHT 
Light is a form of energy which gives rise to the sensation of 
vision. The principal source of light is the sun. Light travels 
in waves and is transmitted by some elastic medium. The waves 
of light are too short to be recognized by human vision, and there- 
fore seem to travel in straight lines or rays. A luminous body 
is one which emits light. Transparent bodies are those which 
transmit light rays. Opaque bodies do not transmit light rays at 
all. Translucent bodies allow some light to pass through them. 
Light rays are capable of being reflected. Bodies with polished 
surfaces employed to show by reflection objects placed before 
them are known as mirrors (Fig. 20). The reflections of such 
objects are called images. 
Although a light ray travels in one plane through homogene- 
ous media, it is bent when passing from a denser to a rarer 
medium, or vice versa. This bending of the ray is known as 20 
ELEMENTARY PHYSICS 
refraction (Fig. 21). It is for this reason that a stick obliquely im- 
mersed in water appears broken at the surface. 
Experiment 3.-Place a coin in a tin basin and assume such a position 
that the coin is just out of the line of vision. Have some one carefully pour 
water into the basin in such a way as to avoid moving the coin. The coin 
will now become visible to the observer, since the rays from the coin are 
bent toward the eye in passing from the denser medium water to the rarer 
medium air. 
A prism is any transparent, refractive body the sides of which 
form acute angles with each other (Fig. 22). 
Lenses are prisms whose sides so curve as to cause rays to 
converge or diverge. According to form, there are six classes 
(Fig. 23): (A) Double convex, (B) 
plano-convex, (C) concavo-convex, 
(D} Rouble-concave, (E) plano-con- 
cave, (F) convexo-concave. 
Applications of these lenses 
are made in such instruments 
as the microscope, polariscope, 
spectroscope, eye-glasses, etc. 
(Fig. 25). 
Color.-White light is com- 
posed of rays which have differ- 
ent degrees of refraction. When a 
ray of white light falls on a prism, 
it does not come through as white 
light, but the constituent rays 
are refracted at different angles which give a band of light contain- 
ing the colors of the rainbow; i.e., red, orange, yellow, green, 
blue, indigo, violet. The red rays are refracted least, the violet 
most. Such a band of colors is called the prismatic spectrum 
(Fig. 26). 
The color of an object is determined by the absorption and 
reflection of the different rays of white light. A body appears red 
when the red rays are reflected and the others absorbed; a body 
looks white when all rays are reflected; and so on with the other 
colors. 
Fig. 20.-Reflection of light rays by a 
mirror. HEAT AND LIGHT 
21 
Camera.-A simple camera consists of a light-proof box, inside 
of which is fitted a convex lens. The opposite side or back serves 
Fig. 21.-Refraction of a light ray by water. 
Fig. 22.-Refraction of light ray by a prism. 
Fig. 23.-Lenses. 
as a screen on which images of the objects in front of the camera 
are formed. The images produced are inverted and are usually 
smaller than the object. In order to form a sharp image, it is 22 
ELEMENTARY PHYSICS 
necessary to move the lens either forward or backward until the 
image is clearly defined. This is called focussing. When light 
is shut out by placing a cap over 
the lens, and a plate-holder contain- 
ing a sensitized plate is inserted in 
the back, the slide removed from the 
plate-holder and the cap removed from 
the lens, the reflected rays of light from 
an object in front of the camera rapidly 
act on the sensitized plate. From the 
plate, after "developing," which now 
contains the image, a photograph may 
be produced. 
The Eye•-The eye may be com- 
pared to a camera, the image produced 
being communicated by the optic nerve 
to the brain. Fig. 24 represents a 
cross-section of the eye. The outer 
covering of the eyeball, the sclerotic 
covering B, or the white of the eye, 
constitutes the frame of the camera. 
The choroid, C, is inside of this, and 
gives the interior of the eye a black 
lining which is necessary for the ab- 
sorption of useless rays. In front is 
the transparent cornea, A, set like the 
crystal of a watch. Directly back of 
the cornea is the colorless and trans- 
parent aqueous humor, G, which fills 
the space between the cornea and the 
crystalline lens, F. Back of this is the 
jelly-like vitreous humor, H, which fills 
the whole remaining cavity. In front 
of the crystalline lens is the iris, i, i, 
a diaphragm with a circular opening, which by muscular effort 
can be contracted or widened at will, and which constitutes the 
pupil. Spread out over the rear of the cavity is the retina, D, 
Fig. 24.-Cross-section of the eye. 
Fig. 25.-A microscope. HEAT AND LIGHT 
23 
which is the sensitized plate of the camera, and, by its connection 
with the optic nerve, 0, conveys impressions to the brain. 
Like the camera, the eye must be focussed according to the 
distance to the object. This is accomplished mainly by changing 
the curvature of the front of the lens by the action of the muscles 
at either edge of the crystalline lens. For focussing near objects 
a greater curvature of the lens is required. This is accomplished 
by exerting strong pressure of the muscles mentioned above. For 
distant objects less curvature is required and is accomplished by 
relaxation of the same muscles. When an object is "in focus," 
a clearly-defined image of it is produced on the retina. When the 
Fig. 26.-Prismatic spectrum. 
object is not in focus, the image is thrown either in front or back 
of the retina, and an indistinct image may be formed. Near- 
sighted people can see distinctly only at a short distance, and far- 
sighted people only at a long distance. The usual cause of near- 
sightedness is too great convexity of the cornea or crystalline lens, 
causing the image to be formed at a point in front of the retina. 
This may be overcome by the use of diverging eye-glasses which 
will throw the image back on the retina. Far-sightedness is caused 
by an insufficient convergence of the lens of the eye, in consequence 
of which images are thrown back of the retina. The remedy for 
this is the use of converging glasses which throw the image exactly 
upon the retina. CHAPTER III 
MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY 
The native iron ore known as "lodestone" or magnetite 1 
has the power of attracting bits of steel or iron, and will point 
North and South when suspended by a thread. All bodies pos- 
sessing these properties are called magnets 
(Figs. 27 and 28). 
Any piece of iron or steel may be 
magnetized by drawing a magnet over 
it lengthwise. A magnet has two poles, 
a North Pole and a South Pole. The North Pole of a suspended 
magnet points North; the South Pole, South. If like 
poles of two magnets are brought in contact they 
will repel one another; unlike poles will attract. 
The mariner's compass illustrates the most im- 
portant application of the magnet. This instrument 
consists of a small magnetized needle mounted in 
such a way as to be free to swing under the influence 
of the earth's magnetic attraction. Calculations 
may be made from the reading of the compass show- 
ing the direction in which the ship is moving. 
ELECTRICITY 
Like matter and energy, electricity can neither be created nor 
destroyed. It is known to us only by its effects and manifestations. 
According to the manner of production, electricity is designated 
as frictional (" static "), inductive, chemical (" galvanic "), and 
thermal. 
Frictional electricity is of two kinds: positive and negative. 
That produced on a glass rod by rubbing it with a piece of silk 
is positive; that produced on hard rubber by rubbing with a piece 
of flannel is negative. The human body, when rubbed with silk, 
becomes negatively charged; with wool, positively charged. 
f g 2 b t 
Fig. 28.-Horse- 
shoe magnet. 
1 Ferroso-ferric oxide, FesO#. 
24 MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY 
25 
Inductive electricity is that produced in another body by the 
mere proximity of an electrified object. Application of this is 
made in the electrostatic machine and the induction coils (Fig. 29). 
Chemical electricity is that form produced by chemical reactions. 
A galvanic cell (Figs. 30, 31, and 32) usually consists of a vessel 
containing an acid mixture in which are placed two plates (ordi- 
narily a zinc and a carbon), one of which is more susceptible to 
the action of the acid mixture than the other. The one which is 
acted upon more readily (zinc) is called the positive plate (+); the 
other (carbon), the negative (-). If these plates are connected 
Fig. 29.-An induction coil. 
at their terminals by means of copper wires, a passage of what is 
usually termed an " electric current " takes place through the wires. 
The copper wires, as well as all other materials which will convey 
an electric current, are known as conductors; those substances 
which will not are known as non-conductors. The ends of the 
wires leading from the plates are called poles or electrodes; the one 
connected with the zinc or positive (+) plate is called the cathode 
or negative (-) pole, while that connected with the carbon or 
negative ( -) plate is the anode or positive (+) pole. A battery 
is simply a combination of a number of these galvanic cells. 
The units of measurement of electricity are named after 
celebrated workers in this field of science. The volt is the unit of 26 
ELEMENTARY PHYSICS 
electromotive force ("E.M.F. ") of a current, and might be com- 
pared to the pressure of water (Fig. 33). The ampere is the quan- 
tity of electricity that passes through a standard conductor in a 
second of time. The ohm is the unit of resistance, and is equal 
to the resistance offered by a copper wire, 250 feet long and one- 
twentieth of an inch in diameter, to a current. The watt is the 
unit of work, and is the power exerted when the current has a 
strength of one ampere and an electromotive force of one volt. 
Fig 30.-A simple 
galvanic cell. 
Fig. 31.-"Bunsen's 
cell." 
Fig. 32.-"Grenet's battery" 
or bichromate cell. 
Thermal Electricity.-If two bars of dissimilar metals are 
soldered together and heated at their junction, electricity is pro- 
duced. This thermal electric current is usually very feeble, 
although it is steady and convenient under certain circumstances. 
The thermo-electric pile consists of forty-nine pairs of antimony 
and bismuth bars arranged in seven rows. Other piles are made 
of pairs of iron and type-metal. 
X-rays.-When a current from an induction coil is discharged 
through a gas, the gas is rendered luminous and we have an " elec- 
tric spark," which, under certain conditions, may exert chemical 
action. If the discharge of the current takes place in a suitably MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY 
27 
constructed glass tube (Crookes tube, Fig. 34) from which almost 
all the air has been exhausted, a pale purplish beam of light radiates 
from the negative pole or cathode, and is called the cathode ray. 
Fig. 33--Voltmeter for measuring strength of electric currents. 
Another kind of rays are also formed in one of these tubes during 
the generation of the cathode rays. The second kind of rays have 
Fig. 34.-A Crookes tube, showing reflected "X-rays, 
the peculiar properties of being able to readily pass through objects 
which are opaque to ordinary light, excite certain fluorescent sub- 
stances, affect photographic plates, and produce physiological 28 
ELEMENTARY PHYSICS 
effects upon the human body. They are called X-rays or " Rontgen 
rays" (after their discoverer). 
Electric energy is also transformed into heat energy and used 
for lighting purposes. The electric arc light is used for lighting 
large halls or more commonly for outdoor lighting. If two elec- 
trodes of carbon sticks are brought together and a current of proper 
dimensions is used, a brilliant white light is emitted. The arc light 
in common use has automatic provisions for keeping the carbon 
sticks the proper distance apart as they bum away. 
The incandescent light, the most common form of electric 
lighting, is made by interposing at some point in the circuit a 
substance of such high resistance as to change electric energy into 
heat energy. This heats the conductor to a temperature at which 
it emits light. The high-resistance conductors or filaments, such as 
carbon, tungsten, and some of the other rare metals, are usually 
placed in exhausted glass bulbs with proper metallic connections. CHAPTER IV 
ACOUSTICS 
Acoustics is that branch of science which treats of the laws 
of the generation, propagation, and comparison of sound. 
All sounding bodies vibrate, and their vibrations set up waves 
which are communicated to the ear. The length of a sound wave 
is the distance from one wave crest to the next crest (a to b in 
Fig- 35). This represents one to-and-fro movement of a vibrating 
body. The height of a sound wave or its amplitude is the distance 
from the middle point to the limit of vibration; i.e., a to e and b to 
/ in figure. For the transmission of sound an elastic medium is 
necessary, such as air, wood, metals, etc. An appreciable length 
Fig. 35.-Sound wave-motion. 
of time is required for the transmission of sound, as may be shown 
by the discharge of a distant gun, the report being heard after the 
flash is seen. 
Echo is reflected sound. If the distance to the reflecting surface 
is short, the sound is strengthened and gives rise to what is called 
resonance. When a tuning-fork is struck and held on an empty 
box, or near the open end of an empty box, the sound produced is 
much louder. The cause of this is that the air within the box 
vibrates sympathetically with the fork. This principle is em- 
ployed in the manufacture of violins, pianos, etc. 
A musical sound is one produced by a succession of vibrations 
at equal intervals and of sufficient rapidity, as illustrated by the 
tuning-fork. 
29 30 
ELEMENTARY PHYSICS 
The intensity or loudness of sound depends upon the amplitude 
of the vibrating body. For instance, if the string of a guitar or 
similar instrument be stretched a short distance and released, then 
stretched a greater distance and released, the sound in the latter 
case is much louder than in the former. This is due to the greater 
amplitude in the latter case. 
The ear, the organ of sound, is so constructed as to receive and 
transmit the sound-wave impressions. The shape of the outward 
ear, "auricle," is such as to receive sound waves over a compara- 
tively large area, and converge them to the small passage, the 
"auditory canal," leading to the ear-drum. The impact of the 
sound-wave particles upon the ear-drum causes it to vibrate. 
These vibrations reach the auditory nerves and the sensation of 
sound is produced. PART II 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY CHAPTER V 
CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY 
Observations show us that matter is constantly undergoing 
changes, and these changes may be of two distinctive classes; 
namely, physical and chemical. 
Physical Changes.-Changes of state or condition of matter 
without alteration of identity are physical; for example, the 
vaporization of ether, the dissolving of sugar or salt in water, the 
melting of ice. 
Chemical Changes.-Changes of composition whereby altera- 
tions or destruction of the individual properties and identity of the 
substances are brought about and some other substance or sub- 
stances formed in their places are chemical. Examples: the rusting 
of iron, the burning of wood or coal, the dissolving of a metal in 
an acid. 
Mechanical Mixtures are those in which the constituents retain 
their original properties, no chemical changes having taken place 
when the substances were brought together. They can be sepa- 
rated into their constituents by mechanical means. If some iron 
filings and powdered sulphur are thoroughly mixed together, a 
gray mixture results. This mixture represents a mechanical mix- 
ture, since we can remove the iron by passing a magnet through 
the mixture, or the sulphur may be removed from the iron by 
dissolving it out with carbon disulphide. 
Chemical Compounds are substances the constituents of which 
have lost their characteristic properties, and cannot be separated 
by mechanical means. If some of the mixture of iron filings and 
powdered sulphur, mentioned above, is heated in a test-tube, it 
begins to glow and, when cooled, is found to be a gray-black mass. 
Upon careful examination, striking changes are noticed. The 
magnet does not attract the iron, nor does carbon disulphide dis- 
solve the sulphur. A new substance must have been formed, 
which is the chemical compound called iron sulphide. 
33 34 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
Experiment 4.-(a) In a small mortar mix some iron filings and pow- 
dered sulphur until a uniform mixture is obtained. Examine some of the 
mixture with a magnifying glass or microscope. What can you distinguish? 
(&) Pass a small magnet through some of the mixture. What adheres 
to the magnet? 
(c) Treat some of the mixture with some carbon disulphide in a test- 
tube. Shake well and filter into a small evaporating dish. Allow the con- 
tents of the dish to stand until all the liquid has evaporated. What remains 
in the dish? What remains on the filter paper? 
(d) Heat some of the mixture of iron and sulphur in a dry test-tube over 
the open flame until the entire mass glows. When cool, remove the mass 
and examine closely. Are particles of iron and sulphur distinguishable? 
Treat some of the mass with carbon disulphide and filter as above. Allow 
the filtered liquid to evaporate. Is sulphur found in the dish? Are iron filings 
left on the filter paper? 
Why is the mixture of iron filings and sulphur, before heating, a mechani- 
cal mixture? What is formed when the mixture is heated? 
The chemical changes that we have referred to are known as 
reactions. They may be divided into two classes; namely, syn- 
thetic and analytic. 
Synthetic changes or reactions are those in which substances 
unite, producing new compounds with new properties, as sulphur 
and iron in the foregoing experiment. 
Analytic changes or reactions are those in which chemical 
compounds are resolved into their constituents. 
Experiment 5.-Heat a small quantity of ''Red precipitate" (a com- 
pound of mercury and oxygen known also as red mercuric oxide) in a test- 
tube over the open flame. After heating for some minutes, insert a splint, 
with a spark on the end of it, into the tube. What takes place? Allow the 
tube to cool, and examine the inside surface of the tube near the mouth. 
What is found? The explosion that took place when the spark was inserted 
was due to the union of a gas (oxygen), that was liberated from the ''Red 
precipitate " through the agency of the heat, with the carbon of the splint; while 
the silvery-white globules on the inside of the tube are globules of metallic 
mercury, the other constituent of ''Red precipitate." What kind of chemical 
change would you call this? 
In all of the reactions or changes that we have referred to, it 
must be seen that there is some agency which causes the union 
of substances when new compounds result, and that this agency 
must be overcome in order to resolve a chemical compound into 
its constituents. This agency or force is known as chemical 
affinity and may be defined as that force which causes substances 
to combine and which holds them together when combined. All 
substances possess this chemical affinity in a greater or less degree, CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY 
35 
and manifest it differently under varying conditions. Some sub- 
stances combine with comparative ease, while others require the 
agency of some other force to bring about chemical combination. 
Chemistry is that science which treats of the composition of 
matter and the changes in composition. 
Elements are substances which cannot be separated into simpler 
substances by any known means, as iron, sulphur, gold, mercury, 
oxygen. Chemical compounds are made up of elements, and in 
expressing the composition of such compounds it is necessary, for 
the sake of simplicity, to use abbreviations for the elements that 
compose it. Such abbreviations are known as chemical symbols, 
and are usually made up of the initial letter of the name of the 
element, or, in cases where the names of two or more elements 
begin with the same letter, the initial letter and one other letter 
of the name are used. Thus, the symbol for Sulphur is " S 
for Oxygen, "O"; for Carbon, " C"; for Calcium, " Ca"\ for 
Fluorine, "F"; for Iron, "Fe " (the Latin title for iron is 
" Ferrum "), etc. 
Table of the Elements 
Name. 
Symbol. 
Atomic weight, 
H=l. 
Valence. 
Aluminium 
Al 
26.9 
107.89 
39-6 
74-45 
196.7 
136.4 
9-03 
206.5 
10.9 
79-34 
111.5 
39-8 
11.9 
138.0 
132.7 
35-i8 
5i-7 
58.6 
93-7 
in 
Antimony (see Stibium) 
Argentum (Silver) 
Ag 
I 
Argon 
A 
Arsenic 
As 
III, V 
I, III 
II 
Aurum (Gold) 
Au 
Barium 
Ba 
Beryllium 
Be 
II 
Bismuth 
Bi 
HI 
Boron 
B 
III 
Bromine 
Br 
I, III, V, VII 
II 
Cadmium 
Cd 
Calcium 
Ca 
II 
Carbon 
c 
IV 
Cerium 
Ce 
III, IV 
I 
Cesium 
Cs 
Chlorine 
Cl 
I, III, V, VII 
II, III, VI 
II, III 
Chromium 
Cr 
Cobalt 
Co 
Columbium 
Cb 
V 
Copper (seeCuprum) 36 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
Table of the Elements-Continued 
Name. 
Symbol. 
Atomic weight, 
H = l. 
Valence. 
Coronium 
Cuprum {Copper) 
Cm ' 
Cu 
63.18 
I, II 
Erbium 
Er 
166.0 
III 
Ferrum {Iron) 
Fe 
55-88 
II, III 
Fluorine 
F 
19.0 
I 
Gadolinium 
Gd 
156.1 
III 
Gallium 
Ga 
69.9 
III 
Germanium 
Ge 
72.3 
II, IV 
Glucinum {see Beryllium) 
Gold {see Aurum) 
Helium 
He 
4.0 
Hydrargyrum {Mercury) 
Hg 
189.5 
I, II 
Hydrogen 
H 
1.0 
I 
Indium 
In 
113.6 
II 
Iodine 
I 
125.89 
I, III, v, VII 
Iridium 
Ir 
192-5 
II, IV, VI 
Iron {see Ferrum) 
Kalium {Potassium) 
K 
38.82 
I 
Krypton 
Kr 
81.2 
Lanthanum 
La 
138.2 
III 
Lead {see Plumbum) 
Lithium 
Li 
6-97 
I 
Magnesium 
Mg 
24.1 
II 
Manganese 
Mn 
54-6 
II, III, IV 
Masrium 
Ms 
228.0 
Mercury {see Hydrargyrum) 
Metargon 
40.0 
Molybdenum 
Mo 
95-9 
II, IV, VI 
Natrium {Sodium) 
Na 
22.88 
I 
Neodymium 
Nd 
140.5 
III, IV 
Neon 
Ne 
20.0 
• 
Nickel 
Ni 
58.6 
II, III 
Niobium {see Columbium) 
Nitrogen 
N 
13-93 
III, V 
Osmium 
Os 
I9O-3 
II, IV, VI, VIII 
Oxygen 
0 
15-88 
II 
Palladium 
Pd 
106.35 
III, IV 
Phosphorus 
P 
30-75 
III, V 
Platinum 
Pt 
194-3 
II, IV 
Plumbum {Lead) 
Pb 
205.36 
II, IV 
Potassium {see Kalium) 
Praseodymium 
Pr 
143-5 
II 
Radium 
Ra 
223.0 
II 
Rhodium 
Rh 
102.9 
III 
Rubidium 
Rb 
85-2 
I 
Ruthenium 
Ru 
101.4 
II, IV, VI, VIII 
Samarium 
Sm 
149.6 
III, V CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY 
37 
Name. 
Symbol. 
Atomic weights 
H=l. 
V alence 
Scandium 
Sc 
43-9 
III 
Selenium 
Se 
78.9 
II, IV, VI 
Silicon 
Si 
28.2 
IV 
Silver (see Argentum) 
Sodium (see Natrium) 
Stannum (Tin) 
Sn 
118.1 
II, IV 
Stibium (Antimony) 
Sb 
119.6 
III, V 
Strontium 
Sr 
86.95 
II, IV 
Sulphur 
S 
31-83 
II, IV, VI 
Tantalum 
Ta 
182.0 
III, V 
Tellurium 
Te 
125.O 
II, IV, VI 
Terbium 
Tb 
I59-I 
III 
Thallium 
T1 
203.7 
I, III 
Thorium 
Th 
230.8 
IV 
Thulium 
Tu 
170.7 
III 
Tin (see Stannum) 
Titanium 
Ti 
48.0 
II, IV 
Tungsten (see Wolfram) 
Uranium 
U 
239.5 
II, IV, VIII 
Vanadium 
V 
5i.i 
III, V 
Wolfram (Tungsten) 
W 
183.6 
II, IV, VI 
Xenon 
Xe 
128.0 
Ytterbium 
Yb 
172.6 
III 
Yttrium 
Yt 
88.9 
III 
Zinc 
Zn 
64.9 
II 
Zirconium 
Zr 
90 .4 
II, IV 
Table of the Elements-Continued 
When the symbols for elements are assembled to show the 
composition of a chemical compound, the arrangement of symbols 
is called a chemical formula. For example: H2O represents a 
compound whose molecule is made up of two atoms of hydrogen 
and one of oxygen. From this we see that the symbols have a 
quantitative significance. Each symbol represents an atom of the 
element. Thus, " O " - does not represent an indefinite quantity 
of oxygen, nor "H" an indefinite quantity of hydrogen; but, 
instead, they represent one atom of the elements in question; and, 
since atoms are matter, these atoms possess definite weight. 
Therefore a symbol represents a definite weight of an element, 
and this weight is known as the atomic weight. However, since 
an atom cannot be weighed directly, atomic weights are relative 
quantities. They are estimated by comparison with a standard 38 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
element. The oldest standard is hydrogen, which was chosen 
because it is the lightest of the known elements, and is assigned 
an atomic weight of unity, or i.oo. If we weigh equal volumes 
of hydrogen and oxygen gases under the same pressure and tem- 
perature, we will find that the volume of oxygen is 15.88 times as 
heavy as the hydrogen; therefore it follows that an atom of oxygen 
is 15.88 times as heavy as an atom of hydrogen, since equal volumes 
of gases contain the same number of molecules, and each molecule 
of oxygen and hydrogen consists of two atoms of these elements 
(Avogadro's law). We may say then that the atomic weight of 
an element is the relative weight of its atoms as compared to those 
of the standard. A later system of atomic weights has oxygen 
(0= 16) as the standard. The molecular weight of an element or 
a compound is the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms forming 
the molecule. Thus: H2, a molecule of hydrogen, consisting of 
two atoms of the element, has a molecular weight of 2; H2O, a 
molecule of water, consisting of two atoms of hydrogen and one 
of oxygen, has a molecular weight of 17.88 (H = 1; 0 = 15.88). 
A study of the formulae of various compounds shows that the 
elements differ among themselves in the number of atoms of other 
elements which they are able to hold in combination. This is 
illustrated in the formulae: 
HC1 
Hydrochloric acid 
H»O 
Water 
HsN 
Ammonia 
We notice that one atom of chlorine (Cl) combines with one 
atom of hydrogen, one atom of oxygen combines with two atoms 
of hydrogen, and that one atom of nitrogen (N) combines with 
three atoms of hydrogen. The number which expresses this 
combining ratio between atoms is a definite property of an ele- 
ment, and is called valence. Valence, then, is that property of 
an element which determines the number of atoms of another 
element which its atom can hold in combination. Valence is 
merely a numerical relation and is measured by comparison to 
a standard. It has been found that an atom of hydrogen is never 
able to hold in combination more than one atom of any other 
element, and for this reason has been chosen as the standard. CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY 
39 
Elements which unite with one atom of hydrogen are called 
univalent or monads; those which combine with two of hydrogen, 
divalent or diads; with three, trivalent or triads, etc. 
Many elements do not readily form compounds with hydrogen, 
and their valence is therefore not easily determined by comparing 
directly to the standard. These elements, however, combine with 
other univalent elements, such as chlorine, and their valence may 
be indirectly determined from the compound thus formed. For 
example: Sodium does not directly combine with hydrogen, but 
does combine with chlorine to form sodium chloride, NaCl. Since 
chlorine unites directly with hydrogen to form hydrochloric acid, 
HC1, it is univalent; therefore sodium is also univalent. 
The same element may possess a different valence in different 
compounds. In the compound hydrogen sulphide, H2S, sulphur 
is divalent, while in sulphur dioxide, SO2, it is tetravalent. The 
valence of the various elements will become familiar as the ele- 
ments and their compounds are studied in detail. 
If it is desired to indicate the valence of an element, a Roman 
numeral or strokes may be placed to the right above the symbol. 
For example: On, NnI, Sn, Ca11, Cl1, or O", N'", S", Ca", Cl'. 
In some instances it is desirable to indicate the valence by small 
lines, called " bonds," placed to the sides of the symbols, so as to 
show the linking of atoms to one another. Examples: 
Hydrochloric acid 
Valence Table 
Water 
Ammonia 
Usual valence More common elements (symbols) 
I H, Cl, Br, I, F, Ag, Hg(ous), Cu(owj), Na, K, Li 
II O, S, Hg(ic), Pb, Cu(ic), Cd, Co, Ni, Fe(ous}. 
Creus'), Mn(ous'), Sn^ous), Zn, Ca, Ba, Sr, Mg 
III N, P, Cl, B, Bi, Co, Fe(tc), Al, Cr, As, Sb, Au 
IV C, S, Si, Sn(tc), Pt 
V N, P, Cl, As, Br, I 
VI S, Cr, Mn 
VII N, Cl, Br, I 
VIII Os, Ru, U 40 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
Chemical Equations.-We have seen that the composition of 
substances can be expressed by symbols and formulas which show 
the kind of elements and their proportions present in them. A 
concise method of representing what takes place in a chemical 
change or reaction has been devised for simplicity. This is accom- 
plished by the use of " chemical equations." Such an equation 
is formed by writing the formulae of the substances that take 
part in the reaction on the left of the sign of equality ( = ), and 
connecting them by the plus sign (+); and the formulae of the 
products of the reaction on the right of the sign of equality, 
also connected by the plus sign. For example: 
AgNO3 
Silver nitrate 
+ HC1 = 
Hydrochloric acid 
. ASC1 . + 
Silver chloride 
HNO3 
Nitric acid 
The plus sign should be read " and," and the equality sign should 
be read " give." 
This, like all equations, conforms to the rule that when two 
or more reacting substances are brought together under proper con- 
ditions an interchange of elements takes place and new combina- 
tions are made. In the above, an atom of chlorine of the hydro- 
chloric acid, owing to its greater affinity, attaches itself to an atom 
of silver, displacing the group of atoms NO3 (called a "radical"1), 
and forming silver chloride. The radical NO 3 immediately attaches 
itself to an atom of hydrogen, forming nitric acid. The sum of the 
molecular weights of the products on the right of the equality 
sign must equal the sum of the molecular weights of substances 
on the left, according to the law of the indestructibility of matter. 
All elements which enter into the reaction as factors on the left 
of the equation must be accounted for on the right. 
In using numerals for symbols, formulae, and equations the 
usual laws of arithmetic are followed. A small numeral placed 
to the lower right side of a symbol or group of symbols in paren- 
theses multiplies that symbol or group within the parentheses 
only. Examples: K2 means 2 atoms (one molecule') of potassium; 
(NO3)2 = 2 atoms of nitrogen (N) and 6 (2X3) of oxygen. A large 
1 A radical is a theoretical group of atoms which deports itself in chemical 
reactions like a single atom. Examples: N(V, SO/1, PO/11, CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY 
41 
numeral placed to the left of a symbol or formula multiplies what 
follows. Examples: 2K=2 atoms of potassium; 2HNO3 (nitric 
acid) = two molecules of nitric acid, consisting of 2 atoms of hydro- 
gen, 2 of nitrogen, and 6 of oxygen. 
Acids.-An acid is a substance consisting of hydrogen and a 
non-metallic element or radical, which usually has a sour taste, 
turns litmus red, and is capable of reacting with a base to form a 
salt and water. The hydrogen of acids is replaceable by metals. 
Where an acid has only one hydrogen atom that is replaceable by 
a metallic atom, it is known as a monobasic acid; where it has two 
replaceable hydrogen atoms, a dibasic acid; three, tribasic, etc. 
Examples: HC1, hydrochloric acid; H2SO4, sulphuric acid; H3PO4, 
phosphoric acid. 
Bases.-A base is a compound in which a metallic element is 
linked to hydrogen by means of oxygen, turns litmus blue, and 
is capable of reacting with an acid, forming a salt and water. 
Bases are commonly known as " hydroxides," all of them having 
the common group of atoms OH (called " hydroxyl "). Where a 
base has but one OH group it is called mono-acid; two, di-acid; 
three, tri-acid. Examples: NaOH, sodium hydroxide; Ca(OH)2, 
calcium hydroxide; Bi (OH) 3, bismuth hydroxide. 
Neutralization is a term used to express interaction between 
acids and bases, with the result that both acid and basic properties 
disappear; i.e., the base and the acid are " neutralized." One of 
the products of such a reaction is a salt. 
Salts.-Salts are products of the interaction between acids and 
bases. Example: 
(Base) 
NaOH 
Sodium hydroxide 
(Acid) 
+ HC1 
Hydrochloric acid 
(Salt) 
= NaCl 
Sodium chloride 
+ H3O 
Water 
Salts may also be formed by the action of an acid on a metal. 
Example: 
(Metal) 
Zn 
Zinc 
(Acid) 
+ H2SO4 
Sulphuric acid 
(Salt) 
= ZnSO4 
Zinc sulphate 
+ H3 ' 
Hydrogen 
We may divide salts into four classes: (i) Normal or neutral, 
(2) acid, (3) double, (4) basic. 42 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
Normal or Neutral Salts.-These are formed by the replacement 
of all of the replaceable hydrogen of an acid by a metal. In the 
above equation zinc sulphate, ZnSO4, is a normal salt, since all 
of the hydrogen of the sulphuric acid, H2SO4, has been replaced 
by the metal zinc. 
Acid Salts.-These are formed by the partial replacement of 
the replaceable hydrogen of acids by a metal. They are called 
"acid," "bi-" or " hydrogen " salts. Examples: NaHSO4, 
sodium acid (bi- or hydrogen) sulphate; NaHCO3, sodium add 
(bi- or hydrogen) carbonate. 
Double salts are formed by the replacement of the hydrogen 
of an acid by more than one metal. Example: KNaSO4, potas- 
sium sodium sulphate. 
Basic salts are formed by the replacement of part of the 
hydroxyl groups (OH) of a base by acid radicals. They are com- 
monly called " oxy-" or " sub-" salts. Example: 
Bismuth hydroxide 
Bismuth subnitrate 
Experiment 6.-(a) Dilute some hydrochloric acid with five or six times 
as much water. Moisten a strip of blue and a strip of red litmus paper2 with 
some of the diluted solution. Which color is affected? This turning of blue 
litmus paper to a red color is known as "an acid reaction to litmus." 
(b) Repeat the same with some diluted solution of sodium hydroxide. 
Which color is affected? This color reaction-i.e., red to blue-is referred to 
as "an alkaline reaction to litmus." 
(c) Now add to the acid solution the solution of sodium hydroxide in 
very small quantities, stirring after each addition and testing with litmus 
paper, until a point is reached where the mixture produces no effect upon 
either the red or blue papers. The mixture is now said to be "neutral in 
reaction to litmus." Taste the solution. The reaction that has taken place is 
represented by the first equation under "Salts" above. 
2 Blue and red litmus paper is made by impregnating strips of unsized 
white paper with the blue solution that is obtained by properly extracting 
litmus, a lichen, with boiling alcohol, cold and finally with boiling water; or 
with this solution after just enough hydrochloric acid has been added to 
impart a distinct red tint. Substances, like litmus, which indicate by some 
striking phenomenon (such as a change in color, formation or cessation of a 
precipitate, etc.) the completion of a chemical reaction, are called "Indicators." CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY 
43 
Experiment 7.-Repeat the above experiment, using diluted solutions 
of potassium hydroxide (KOH) and nitric acid (HNOj). The reaction that 
takes place is represented by the following equation: 
(Base) 
KOH 
Potassium hydroxide 
(Acid) 
+ HNO3 
Nitric acid 
(Salt) 
= KNO3 
Potassium nitrate 
+ H2O 
Water 
Radicals (also called " Residues " or " Compound radicals ") 
have already been referred to as theoretical groups of atoms which 
deport themselves in chemical reactions like single atoms. These 
groups have no separate existence, but are " unsaturated i.e., 
they are capable of combining with more atoms, since their affini- 
ties are not satisfied. For example: In the compound water, 
H2O, the divalent oxygen combines with two atoms of the univalent 
hydrogen, forming a " saturated " compound, all affinities being 
satisfied. Now if we take from the molecule H2O one 
atom of hydrogen, the group of atoms /O, with one point of 
affinity "unsaturated," is left. This group, OH, enters intomany 
compounds; it is, for example, a constituent of all the hydroxides, 
such as sodium hydroxide, NaOH; potassium hydroxide, KOH; 
calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)3, etc. According to the number of 
unsaturated points of affinity in a radical, we have univalent, 
divalent, trivalent, and tetravalent radicals. Examples: OH', 
NO/, SO4", PO/", SO/', CO3", CIO/, P2O7"", etc. 
Ionization or Electrolytic Dissociation.-There are strong 
grounds for believing that when many compounds enter into solu- 
tion they undergo a peculiar form of disintegration, called "Ioniza- 
tion" or "Electrolytic dissociation." This is especially true in the 
cases of acids, bases, and salts. Using common salt (sodium 
chloride, NaCl) as an example: When we dissolve sodium 
chloride in water some of the molecules of the compound disinte- 
grate into two parts or particles, which are chemically sodium and 
chlorine, but which differ from ordinary elemental sodium and 
chlorine in that they possess electrical charges. These particles 
are called "ions." 
If the poles or electrodes of a battery are placed in such a solu- 
tion, it will be found that one kind of ions are attracted by the 44 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
anode or positive pole, while the other kind are attracted by the 
cathode or negative pole. In the case of the sodium chloride solu- 
tion, the sodium ions are attracted by the cathode, and are called 
"cations"; while the chlorine ions are attracted by the anode, and 
are called "anions." Such a process is known as electrolysis; and 
a solution or substance in the liquid condition, which will conduct 
an electric current while undergoing decomposition, is called an 
electrolyte. 
Whenever a molecule of a substance undergoes electrolytic dis- 
integration or dissociation, one part is charged positively, or is a 
cation; while the other is always charged negatively, or is an anion. 
It has been observed that liquids which contain no dissociated mole- 
cules (ions) do not conduct the electric current; while those which 
do are relatively ready conductors. It has been further noticed 
that many compounds are inactive chemically and physiologically 
unless they arc in the dissociated or ionized condition. Thus, mer- 
curic chloride (HgCb) when in the dry condition is inactive chemi- 
cally and as a disinfectant; while in aqueous solution it is active 
both chemically and as a disinfectant. Some compounds which 
ionize in water will not do so when dissolved in other liquids. Thus, 
phenol ("Carbolic acid"), an active disinfectant when in aqueous 
solution, has no disinfecting powers when dissolved in alcohol or 
oils. It therefore appears that with such compounds chemical 
reactions take place between their ions rather than the molecules. 
Chemical Nomenclature should systematically indicate the 
chemical composition of compounds. In writing the formulas 
for binary compounds,-i.e., those composed of two elements,- 
the electropositive element or cation is placed first, and is fol- 
lowed by the electronegative element or anion. Thus, the for- 
mula of potassium chloride is written KC1, and not C1K. In 
naming such compounds the same order is followed, the last 
syllable being ide; as potassium chloride, KC1; calcium sul- 
phide, CaS; zinc oxide, ZnO. Thus in all binary compounds the 
ending is ide, added to the stem of the electronegative element. 
Where two elements form two different compounds, the prod- 
ucts may be distinguished by terminating the name of the CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY 
45 
electropositive element or cation in ous or ic. The suffix ous 
indicates a lower percentage of the electronegative, and ic a 
higher percentage; as Hg2O, mercurous oxide, and HgO, mer- 
curic oxide. 
Where several compounds are formed by the two uniting 
elements the products may be distinguished by prefixing Greek 
numerals to the electronegative element. Thus, N2O, nitrogen 
monoxide ; N2O2, nitrogen dioxide; N2O3, nitrogen dioxide; 
N2O4, nitrogen teteoxide; N2O5, nitrogen, pentoxide. 
In the case of binary acids it has been the custom to employ 
the term " acid, " and to precede the name of the electronega- 
tive element ending in ic with the prefix "hydro"; as, HC1, 
hydrochloric acid instead of hydrogen chloride. The salts of 
these acids end in ide; as, KC1, potassium chloride. 
Where acids are composed of three elements they are called 
ternary or oxy-acids (since the third element is oxygen). Some 
elements form several oxy-acids which differ in the percentage 
of oxygen present. If there are only two, they are distin- 
guished by the suffixes ous and ic; as, HNO2, nitrous acid; 
HNO3, nitric acid ; H2SO3, sulphurous acid; H2SO4, sulphuric 
acid. Where there are more than two acids formed, the one 
containing the least percentage of oxygen is designated by the 
prefix hypo and the suffix ous; the one containing the next 
higher percentage of oxygen, by the suffix ous ; the next by the 
suffix ic; and the one containing the highest percentage of oxy- 
gen by the prefix per and the suffix ic. Thus: HC10, hypo- 
chlorousacid; HCIO2, chlorousacid; HC103, chloric acid; HCIO4, 
perchloric acid. 
Salts of the ous oxy-acids end in the suffix ite. Thus: 
NaN02, sodium nitri'te, a salt of nitrous acid ; K2SO3, potassium 
sulphite, a salt of sulphurous acid. Salts of the ic oxy-acids 
end in the suffix ate. Thus: NaNO3, sodium nitrate, a salt of 
nitric acid ; K2SO4, potassium sulphate, a salt of sulphuric acid. 
The following antiquated prefixes are used at times: proto, 
meaning the first of a series of compounds, as HgCl, proto- 
chloride of mercury; bi, bin, di, or deuto, referring to the num- 46 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
ber of atoms of the electronegative element in the molecule, as 
HgCh,-dzchloride of mercury; sub, meaning "below" or 
"under," referring to a lower'percentage of the electronegative 
element, as Hg20, sw&oxide of mercury; per, indicating that the 
compound has the highest possible percentage of the electroneg- 
ative element, as FeCl3, ^erchloride of iron; andsesqui, referring 
to a ratio of 2 atoms of the electropositive element to 3 atoms 
of the electronegative, as Fe2O3, sesquioxide of iron. 
Oxidation and Reduction.-Chemical reactions which result 
in an increase in the proportionate amount of the non-metallic 
ion are processes of oxidation. Thus: Ferrous chloride, FeCh, 
may be oxidixed to ferric chloride, FeCl3 (FeCh + Cl = FeCl3). 
Chemical reactions in which the reverse of the foregoing 
takes place,-that is, decrease in the proportionate amount of 
the non-metallic ion,-are called reduction processes. Thus: 
Ferric chloride, FeCl3, may be reduced to ferrous chloride, FeCh 
(FeCh + H = FeCl2 + HC1). CHAPTER VI 
THE METALS 
Metals are solid, elemental substances (except mercury), good 
conductors of heat and electricity, whose hydroxides are bases. 
Gold, silver, mercury, tin, copper, zinc, lead, and iron were 
known to the ancients. The symbols for all of these were derived 
from their Latin titles. The symbol for gold is Au, from Aurum; 
for silver, Ag, from Argentum; for mercury, Hg, from Hydrargy- 
rum; for tin, Sn, from Stannum; for copper, Cu, from Cuprum; 
for zinc, Zn, from Zincum; for lead, Pb, from Plumbum; for iron, 
Fe, from Ferrum. The remaining metals are of more recent dis- 
covery, and their names were derived from the name of the dis- 
coverer, the name of the native land of the discoverer, or from some 
peculiar or characteristic property of the element. 
Sources.-Some of the metals occur in the free condition, such 
as gold, platinum, silver, and mercury. Most of the others occur in 
chemical combination as sulphides, oxides, carbonates, and silicates. 
Extraction.-Nearly all of the metals can be extracted from 
their ores by heating processes in special furnaces. The details 
of such methods are too complicated for a text-book of this kind. 
The student is referred to advanced texts on chemistry and metal- 
lurgy for additional information. 
Physical Properties.-At ordinary temperatures all metals are 
solid except mercury. Mercury is a solid at about - 400 C., a liquid 
at temperatures up to about 360° C., at which point it is converted 
into a vapor. Metals are opaque, excepting when hammered out 
into very thin sheets. Those that occur in the free state are usually 
crystalline in structure. They all possess a metallic lustre, and 
are capable of taking on a high polish. Most of them are more 
or less white in color, with a blue or gray tinge. Gold is yellow, 
iron is white, bismuth (Bi) and cobalt (Co) have a pink tinge, 
copper is red, silver is white, lead, zinc, and tin are gray-white. 
47 48 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
mercury is a silvery-white liquid, sodium (Na) and potassium (K) 
are silver-white and of waxy consistence. 
The specific gravity of metals varies greatly. All the metals 
composing what is known as the alkali group (K, Na, and Li) 
are lighter than water; the others are heavier. Malleability, 
ductility, and hardness also vary greatly. 
Chemical Properties.-The heavier metals are generally less 
active than the lighter ones. Solubility: Nitric acid (HNO3) is 
the best general solvent for the metals. It dissolves all except 
gold, platinum, aluminium (Al), tin, and antimony (Sb). Hydro- 
chloric acid (HC1) dissolves all metals except mercury, bismuth, 
antimony, silver, gold, lead, platinum. Strong sulphuric acid 
(H2SO4) has very little effect upon the metals, but, if diluted, dis- 
solves all except aluminium, antimony, lead, gold, platinum, copper, 
and mercury. The mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids (82 
Cc. to 18 Cc.), known as " Aqua regia," dissolves gold and platinum. 
Strong bases dissolve such metals as zinc, aluminium, and tin. 
Effects of the Atmosphere.-Gold, platinum, silver, and mer- 
cury are not changed by exposure to pure air. The rest are affected 
by the constituents of the air, some becoming coated with a layer 
of oxide, sulphide, or carbonate, which coating prevents further 
and deeper reaction. An example of this is the tarnishing of silver 
in air containing some sulphide, the " tarnish " being a layer of 
silver sulphide (Ag2S). In the other metals the action of the atmos- 
phere is continuous, the metals crumbling into a powder, as iron, 
which " rusts " to oxide of iron (Fe2O3). 
Chemical Combination.-Chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine 
(I), fluorine (F), oxygen (O), and sulphur (S) unite directly with 
most metals; arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), and carbon (C) with 
many. The application of heat is necessary to bring about chemical 
union in many cases. 
Uses.-Iron is the most useful of all metals. It is used in the 
manufacture of innumerable things, such as steel structures, rails, 
tools, instruments, armor plate, cutlery, etc. Copper is used in 
the manufacture of electric wires, cartridges, money, alloys, etc. 
Tin is used principally for coating other metals, since it is not THE METALS 
49 
readily affected upon exposure to the air. Ordinary " sheet tin " 
is sheet iron coated with tin. Pins are brass or iron coated with 
tin. Pure tin foil is used as a dental filling. Aluminium is used 
in the manufacture of cooking utensils because of its lightness and 
because it is almost unaffected by the acids found in vegetables 
and fruits. It is also used in the manufacture of machinery parts. 
The powdered metal is used in paints. Zinc is used in great 
quantities in the manufacture of brass and for " galvanizing " 
iron (" Galvanized iron " is iron coated with zinc). It is also 
used in electric batteries and in the manufacture of dies. Lead 
is employed in the manufacture of lead-pipe, shot, solder, type- 
metal, and alloys. Gold is used for coinage, jewelry, for gilding, 
and as a dental filling. It is too soft for most purposes, and is 
therefore alloyed with silver or copper. Its fineness is designated 
by the term " karat." Twenty-four karat (" 24K") means or 
100 per cent, pure gold; fourteen karat (" 14K ") means 24 pure 
gold, etc. Silver is used for coinage, jewelry, useful articles, silver- 
plating, and dental alloys. Platinum is used for jewelry, and, 
because of its high melting-point and chemical inactivity, in the 
manufacture of crucibles, evaporating dishes, stills, flame-test 
wires and other chemical apparatus. Manganese, chromium, and 
nickel are used in the manufacture of steel; arsenic, in the manu- 
facture of pigments, fly-paper, and fireworks; cobalt, in the manu- 
facture of blue glass and pigments; bismuth and antimony, in 
alloys, such as type-metal and dental alloys; magnesium, in the 
manufacture of photographic flash-powders. Mercury is used in 
the manufacture of thermometers, barometers, amalgams, coatings 
for the backs of mirrors, and in the extraction of gold and silver 
from their ores. The rest of the metals have no commercial appli- 
cation in the metallic condition. 
Alloys.-Some metals, when melted together, thoroughly 
intermix and, on cooling, form a homogeneous, lustrous substance 
called an " alloy." In general, the melting-point of the alloy is 
below the average of the melting-points of its constituents. Ex- 
amples: Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc; solder, an alloy of 
tin and lead; type-metal, of tin, lead, and antimony; German 50 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
silver, of copper, zinc, and nickel; United States gold coin, of gold 
and copper; United States silver coin, of silver and copper. 
Amalgams.-Amalgams are alloys of mercury with some other 
metal. Examples: Mirror amalgam, mercury and tin; silver 
amalgam, mercury and silver; gold amalgam, mercury and gold. 
All metals form amalgams with mercury except iron and platinum. 
Physiological Effects.-The metals have little or no action on 
the body until they are converted into compounds by body juices. 
The most common metal employed in the metallic condition is 
mercury. This is used in the form of "Gray Powder" (the metal 
rubbed with chalk), "Mercurial Ointment," and "Blue Ointment" 
(the metal combined with fatty substances) and "Blue Mass" or 
"Blue Pill" (the metal mixed with licorice, marshmallow, honey 
of rose, and glycerine). 
Salts of lead, iron, zinc, aluminum, and copper are generally 
astringent. Magnesium salts are antacid and laxative; bismuth 
salts are used as mucous membrane sedatives because they form 
an insoluble protective coating; iron and arsenic salts are valuable 
alteratives and tonics; calcium salts, in general, are depressant to 
the central nervous system, stimulate and strengthen the heart at 
first, but then depress it; potassium, lithium, and strontium salts 
depress the central nervous and muscular systems and the heart; 
sodium salts are cathartics and antacids. 
Radium, thorium, actinium, and polonium are found in 
uranium ores in minute quantities. All of them are called "radio- 
active," since they emit luminous rays which will pass through 
opaque objects, affect photographic plates, produce electric 
effects, and which have a decided action on the human body. 
Minerals, such as pitch-blende, which contain uranium are more 
radio-active than uranium itself. CHAPTER VII 
THE NON-METALS 
This class of elements possesses physical properties that are 
the reverse of those of the metals, and they are acid forming in 
character. 
HYDROGEN 
Symbol, H. Atomic weight, 1. Valence, I. 
The elemental gas hydrogen, although it conducts itself in 
many respects like a metal, is usually classed with the non-metallic 
elements for convenience. In the free state it is found in traces 
in the atmosphere; also in volcanic and other natural gases. In 
the combined condition it is widely distributed, being a constituent 
of water, acids, bases, most fuels, starch, sugar, as well as all living 
organisms. About 9 per cent, of the human body is hydrogen. 
It may be prepared by the decomposition of water with the 
electric current. 
H2O 
Water 
4- Electric current 
= H2 
Hydrogen 
+ 0 
Oxygen 
The usual laboratory method for its preparation is treating 
granulated zinc with diluted sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. 
Zn + 
Zinc 
H2SO< 
Sulphuric acid 
= H2 
Hydrogen 
+ ZnSO4 
Zinc sulphate 
Zn 
Zinc 
+ 2HCI = 
Hydrochloric acid 
H2 
Hydrogen 
+ ZnCl2 
Zinc chloride 
Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas, and is the 
lightest and most diffusible substance known. It can be liquefied 
to a steel-blue liquid at a temperature of - 2050 C. It becomes 
solid at - 256° C. It dissolves in 50 parts of water. 
Under ordinary conditions hydrogen shows but little affinity 
for other substances. At high temperatures it is quite active with 
oxygen, burning with a pale-blue flame, forming water. If hydro- 
51 52 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
gen and oxygen gases are mixed and then ignited, they explode 
with the production of the same compound (water). It is neither 
noxious nor beneficial physiologically. It can be inhaled for a 
short time without injury, but produces a peculiar change in the 
voice. 
Hydrogen is used for filling balloons and as a chemical reagent. 
Fig. 36. 
Experiment 8.-Place about io grammes of granulated zinc in a flask 
fitted with a two-holed rubber stopper; through one hole pass a funnel-tube 
reaching nearly to the bottom of the flask; through the other hole in the 
stopper pass a glass tube bent at right angles and leading into a vessel of 
water as illustrated. Fill a wide-mouth bottle of 300 to 500 mils capacity 
with water, and invert it, still filled with the water, in the vessel of water. 
The bent tube from the flask should be placed under the mouth of the in- 
verted bottle (Fig. 36). With the apparatus in this condition, pour about 25 
mils of 10 per cent, sulphuric acid through the funnel-tube. Bubbles of hy- 
drogen gas will immediately rise in the flask and pass over into the bottle, 
replacing the water therein and filling it with gas. After the bottle has been 
filled with the gas, remove it, hold it top side up for a few moments, and 
drop a lighted match in it. An explosion will occur. What is formed? THE NON-METALS 
53 
OXYGEN 
Symbol, O. Atomic weight, 15.88. Valence, II. 
Oxygen is the most abundant of the elements, forming about 
one-half of the earth's crust, about one-fifth of the atmosphere, 
eight-ninths of water, and 72 per cent, of the human body. It 
is found in the free state in the atmosphere, and in combination 
in all plants and animals. The gas may be manufactured by 
strongly heating some potassium chlorate, KC103: 
KCIO3 
Potassium chlorate 
-p heat = 
KC1 
Potassium chloride 
+ 3O 
Oxygen 
Or, at a lower temperature, by heating a mixture of potassium 
chlorate and manganese dioxide, MnO2: 
2KCIO3 
Potassium 
chlorate 
-p MnOa 
Manganese 
dioxide 
= 2KCI 
Potassium 
chloride 
+ 3O2 
Oxygen 
■p Nt 11O2 
Manganese 
dioxide 
In the latter reaction the manganese dioxide is called a " cata- 
lytic agent i.e., an agent that favors or assists in a chemical 
reaction, but which does not appear as one of the new products 
formed. It remains unchanged. We might compare it to lubri- 
cating oil which favors or assists in the motion of machinery. 
Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. It may be lique- 
fied at a temperature of -1400 C. and a pressure of 300 atmos- 
pheres. It is a little more soluble in water than hydrogen. Aquatic 
animals and plants obtain oxygen necessary for their existence 
from that found dissolved in water. It is about sixteen times as 
heavy as hydrogen. 
Oxygen is very active, uniting with all elements except fluorine. 
When the union of oxygen with an element or compound is accom- 
panied by an evolution of light and heat, the process is known as 
combustion; if the reaction is less energetic, no light being evolved, 
it is called " slow combustion " or oxidation. Those substances 
which are easily oxidized are called " combustible." They are 
composed mainly of hydrogen and carbon, with which the oxygen 
unites, forming water and carbon dioxide, CO2. 54 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
Oxygen is essential to the life of plants and animals. An adult 
consumes about two pounds daily. Animals use more oxygen 
than plants. Plants give off more oxygen than they use. How- 
ever, animals exhale carbon dioxide, which is made use of by 
plants. The carbon dioxide and water given off by the lungs are 
produced by the oxidation of the tissues by means of the oxygen 
inhaled and carried throughout the body by the blood. 
The gas is extensively used as an inhalant for stimulating the 
action of the heart in diseases of the lungs, in dangerous chloro- 
form narcosis, and poisoning by coal gas. 
Experiment 9.-Mix well 5 grammes of potassium chlorate and man- 
ganese dioxide and evenly distribute the mixture on the side of a horizontal 
test-tube fitted with a one-hole stopper and glass tube as in the case of the 
hydrogen experiment. Collect a bottle of oxygen gas, place it right side up, 
covering the mouth of the bottle with a wet paper. Insert a dry, unlighted 
taper. No activity is noticed. Then insert a glowing stick and note the rapid 
burning which ensues. This illustrates the activity of oxygen at higher 
temperatures. 
OZONE 
Formula, O3. Molecular weight, 47.64. 
Ozone is a peculiar form of oxygen found in small quantities 
in the air, especially after thunder-storms, and in the region of 
electrical machinery. It is colorless, and has a peculiar odor. 
Its properties are practically the same as those of ordinary oxygen, 
but it is much more active chemically. 
THE HALOGENS 
This group is composed of the elements chlorine, bromine, 
iodine, and fluorine. They are known as " halogens " because 
of their salt-forming properties. They can be derived from sea- 
water and sea-plants. All members of the group have sharp, 
acrid tastes and characteristic odors. They are corrosive and are 
employed as bleaching and disinfecting agents, 
CHLORINE 
Symbol, Cl. Atomic weight, 35.18. Valence, I, III, V, VIL 
Chlorine never occurs in nature in the free state, but is widely 
distributed in combination as chlorides, common salt (sodium 
chloride, NaCl) being the most abundant. THE NON-METALS 
55 
A laboratory method for its preparation is the oxidation of 
hydrochloric acid: 
4HCI . + 
Hydrochloric 
acid 
MnOj 
Manganese 
dioxide 
= Ch 
Chlorine 
+ MnCh 
Manganese 
chloride 
+ 2H2O 
Water 
Chlorine is a gas having a greenish-yellow color, a penetrating, 
suffocating odor, and an acid taste. It is heavier than air, and 
dissolves readily in water. The solution of chlorine gas in water 
is known as " Chlorine Water." 
Chemically, chlorine is very active, especially with the metallic 
elements and hydrogen. In the pres- 
ence of water, chlorine is an active 
bleaching agent, because of the oxygen 
gas that is liberated through the de- 
composition of the water. For this 
reason it is also a good disinfectant. 
Experiment io.-Place io grammes of 
manganese dioxide in the flask used for the 
hydrogen experiment and lead the delivery 
tube into a dry bottle, right side up. Have 
the tube extend to the bottom of the bottle. 
Add 25 mils of hydrochloric acid to the man- 
ganese dioxide and warm (Fig. 37). Chlorine 
gas is liberated, and, since it is greenish-yellow, 
one may easily tell when the bottle is full of the 
gas. [Caution:-Do not breathe the gas, as it is 
very irritating to the mucous membranes of the 
nose and throat.} Place a red or other colored flower in the bottle and note the 
bleaching effect of the gas. Repeat with a small piece of damp, colored calico. 
BROMINE 
Symbol, Br. Atomic weight, 79.34. Valence, I, III, V, VII. 
Bromine does not occur in the free state in nature, but is 
found in combination, as bromides, along with the chlorides. 
The element may be liberated from its compounds, the bro- 
mides, by treating a solution of a bromide, like potassium bromide 
(KBr), with chlorine gas. The chlorine, because of its greater 
affinity for the metal, replaces the bromine, as shown in the follow- 
ing equation: 
Fig. 37. 
KBr 
Potassium bromide 
+ Cl 
Chlorine 
= KC1 
Potassium chloride 
+ Br 
Bromine 56 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
Bromine is a caustic, reddish-brown, fuming liquid, having an 
odor resembling that of chlorine. It is heavier than water, and 
dissolves in twenty-eight parts of the solvent, the solution being 
known as "Bromine Water." It is more soluble in chloroform, 
ether, and carbon disulphide. 
Although bromine is quite energetic, it is less active than 
chlorine, but is more active than the next member of the group, 
iodine. Its chemical properties are very similar to those of chlorine. 
The chief use of the element is in the manufacture of the 
bromides, although it is a disinfectant. 
IODINE 
Symbol, I. Atomic weight, 125.89. Valence, I, III, V, VII. 
Iodine occurs in combination in the ashes of sea-weed and in 
the mineral " Chili-saltpetre " (NaNO3), never in the free state. 
It may be liberated from its com- 
pounds the iodides. Example: 
KI ' + 
Potassium iodide 
Cl r= 
Chlorine 
KC1 + 
Potassium chloride 
I 
Iodine 
It comes in the form of bluish- 
black, volatile plates, with a metallic 
lustre, a characteristic odor, and a 
sharp, acrid taste. It is about five 
times as heavy as water. Upon heat- 
ing, it is converted to violet vapors. 
The element is slightly soluble in water, 
readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloro- 
form, carbon disulphide, and aqueous 
solution of potassium iodide. Tincture 
of Iodine is an alcoholic solution con- 
taining about 7 per cent, of iodine and 
5 per cent, of potassium iodide. 
Although it attacks some metals, it is the least energetic of 
this group. Solutions of iodine should not be handled in silver 
spoons, since it attacks this metal. It stains the skin brown. 
Starch paste is turned blue by free iodine. 
Fig. 38. THE NON-METALS 
57 
Its use in medicine is that of an antiseptic and disinfectant. 
Experiment 11.-Place about 3 grammes of potassium iodide, an equal 
quantity of manganese dioxide, and 15 mils of 50 per cent, sulphuric acid 
into a small Erlenmeyer flask and mix well. Fold a small filter paper as for a 
funnel, wet it with cold water and place it, point up, over the mouth of the 
flask (Fig. 38). Warm the flask gently. The iodine will be deposited on the 
inside surface of the filter paper as thin plates. Test its solubility in alcohol 
and water. 
FLUORINE 
Symbol, F. Atomic weight, 19.0. Valence, I. 
Fluorine occurs in combination in certain minerals, sea-water, 
mineral waters, bones, teeth, and milk. 
It is a yellowish gas with a penetrating odor, and is the most 
active of all known elements. It is prepared by electrolytic 
processes, and must be kept in vessels of gutta-percha, platinum, 
or gold. 
NITROGEN 
Symbol, N. Atomic weight, 13.93. Valence, III, V. 
In the free state nitrogen constitutes about four-fifths of the at- 
mosphere. It occurs in combination in many minerals, all animal 
substance, and forms a component of the products of animal decay. 
Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas, a little lighter 
than air. It is slightly soluble in water. Nitrogen does not bum 
or support combustion. It is chemically inert. Its compounds 
are unstable and, upon decomposition, often explode, as in nitro- 
glycerin. Some are essential to the growth of plants and animals. 
Many very poisonous compounds contain nitrogen, such as the 
cyanides. The gas itself is non-poisonous and simply acts as a 
diluent for the oxygen in the air, without which, oxidation 
processes in the body would be far too rapid. 
THE ATMOSPHERE 
The atmosphere is a mechanical mixture of gases and forms the 
aerial envelope of the earth. The average composition of dry 
air is as follows: 
Nitrogen 78.10 
Oxygen 21.00 
Argon 0.90 
Helium, neon, krypton, xenon, 
carbon dioxide, and hydrogen... traces 58 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
The nitrogen serves as a diluent for the life-sustaining oxygen. 
The oxygen supports life, combustion, and oxidation, and remains 
practically constant, due to liberation of oxygen from plants. 
Carbon dioxide is found in variable quantities, since it is a product 
of combustion, fermentation, decay, and respiration. It averages 
about 0.04 per cent., but is higher in cities. In living-rooms it 
should not rise above 0.1 per cent. Another variable constituent 
of the atmosphere is moisture. The rare gases helium, neon, 
krypton, and xenon, as well as hydrogen, occur only in traces. 
Air may be liquefied on a commercial scale by machinery. 
When in the liquid state it is faintly blue and begins to boil at 
- 190° C. It freezes metallic mercury. It has been used to a 
limited extent in medicine as a caustic and as a local anaesthetic. 
SULPHUR 
Symbol, S. Atomic weight, 31.83. Valence, II, IV, VI. 
Sulphur was one of the elements known to the ancients. It 
occurs in the free state in very large quantities, especially in the 
neighborhood of volcanoes. It also occurs in combination as 
sulphides and sulphates. 
It is extracted from native sulphur by fusion and subsequent 
sublimation. 
Sulphur is a lemon-yellow, brittle, crystalline solid, odorless 
and almost tasteless. Its specific gravity is 2.05. It is insoluble 
in water, but readily dissolves in carbon disulphide, turpentine, 
fixed oils, etc. It melts at 114.5° C. The melted liquid is first 
straw-yellow, but becomes dark red and viscid when heated to 
about 2 50° C.; then it becomes too thick to pour and almost 
black in color. When heated to the boiling-point, 448.4° C., it 
becomes thin again, but remains dark in color. It exists in an 
amorphous form and two different crystalline forms. 
Experiment 12.-Slowly heat some sulphur in a dry test-tube until it 
boils, noting the various changes already described. Then pour out the 
melted substance into a dish of cold water. Examine the mass in the dish. 
Also examine the remains in the test-tube. 
The commercial forms of sulphur are: (a) roll sulphur or 
brimstone, a crude, moulded form used for commercial purposes THE NON-METALS 
59 
only; (b) flowers of sulphur or sublimed sulphur ("Sulphur Subli- 
matum"), prepared by allowing the vapors of sulphur to cool in 
cold chambers; (c) washed sulphur ("Sulphur Lotum"), prepared 
by washing sublimed sulphur with a diluted solution of ammonia 
gas; (d) precipitated sulphur ("Sulphur Preecipitatum") or milk of 
sulphur, prepared by boiling together sulphur, slaked lime, and 
water, and then adding to this solution, hydrochloric acid, which 
precipitates the sulphur. 
Sulphur burns with a blue flame, giving off suffocating fumes 
of sulphur dioxide (SO2). It combines with most of the metals 
and non-metals. 
It is used for vulcanizing, in the manufacture of gunpowder 
and fireworks, and in medicine as a laxative and parasiticide. 
PHOSPHORUS 
Symbol, P. Atomic weight, 30.75. Valence, III, V. 
Phosphorus is never found in the free state in nature. Its 
principal occurrence is in combination as a phosphate in minerals 
and bones, from which it is prepared. 
It occurs in a number of different forms, the principal ones 
being those known as the red and the yellow varieties. 
Yellow phosphorus occurs in the form of a waxy, translucent 
solid with a garlic-like odor. Specific gravity, 1.83. It melts at 
440 C. It is insoluble in water, but is quite soluble in chloroform, 
carbon disulphide, and oils. It unites very readily with oxygen, 
and therefore must be kept under water to prevent combustion. 
The slow oxidation of phosphorus is accompanied by a glowing 
which is known as "phosphorescence." It unites directly with 
all elements except nitrogen and carbon. 
Red phosphorus, also known as " amorphous phosphorus," 
may be prepared from the yellow by heating to 3000 C. in air- 
tight vessels. Its specific gravity is 2.14. It is reconverted to 
ordinary yellow phosphorus by heating to 260° C. It is stable 
in air, does not phosphoresce, and is insoluble in carbon disulphide 
and other solvents. Red phosphorus is much more inert than the 
yellow variety. 60 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
The yellow variety is very poisonous, although the red is com- 
paratively non-toxic because of its insolubility. Yellow phosphorus 
is used in medicine for building up bony tissue in children. It 
is also used as a rat poison. The red variety is used in the manu- 
facture of matches. 
Experiment 13.-Place a small piece of phosphorus, a piece about the 
size of a pea, in a dry dish in a moderately warm room and watch the result 
after a few minutes. The burning of the phosphorus shows its great affinity 
for oxygen. The^white fumes given off consist of phosphorus pentoxide (P1O5). 
BORON 
Symbol, B. Atomic weight, 10.9. Valence, III. 
Boron does not occur in the free state, but is found natively 
as borax (Na2B4O7) and boric acid (H3BO3). 
It may exist as a brown or yellow, amorphous powder, or in 
the form of infusible crystals. The crystalline variety possesses a 
degree of hardness which stands next to that of the diamond. 
SILICON 
Symbol, Si. Atomic weight, 28.2. Valence, IV. 
Next to oxygen, silicon is the most abundant of the elements. 
It is never found free, but occurs combined in nearly all rocks and 
soil, as well as in plant and animal life. 
It is a dark, lustrous, hard solid, with a specific gravity of 2.5. 
It exists in both amorphous and crystalline forms. 
CARBON 
Symbol, C. Atomic weight, 11.9. Valence, IV. 
Carbon occurs abundantly both in the free and combined 
condition. In the free state it is found in three forms: (a) amor- 
phous, (b) graphite, (c) diamond. 
Amorphous carbon includes coke, wood charcoal, animal 
charcoal, and lampblack. Coke is the non-volatile residue left 
in the manufacture of illuminating gas from coal. It occurs as 
an irregular, brittle, porous, grayish, lustrous solid. Wood char- 
coal, usually called simply " charcoal," is obtained by burning 
wood with little air. It is a black, porous solid without odor or THE NON-METALS 
61 
taste. Animal charcoal or " bone-black " is prepared by the 
destructive distillation of bones. Lampblack is prepared through 
the ignition of compounds rich in carbon and yielding smoky 
flames, like resins. 
Graphite, called " plumbago " or " black lead," occurs as a 
native, crystalline variety, and is also made from amorphous 
carbon by means of the electric current. It occurs in the form of 
friable, black, metallic-like masses. When rubbed between the 
fingers a greasy feeling is experienced, and it leaves a black line 
when run over paper. 
Diamond is the hardest known substance. Its specific gravity 
is 3.5. It crystallizes in cubes. When diamonds are found they 
are covered with an opaque layer, which is removed when the gem 
is cut and polished. The brilliancy of the diamond depends upon 
the high_ refraction of light and the large number of reflecting 
surfaces. Microscopic diamonds are sometimes found in steel. 
At high temperatures all varieties of carbon unite with oxygen 
of the air to form carbon dioxide (CO2). Carbon is practically 
inactive with all other substances at ordinary temperature. 
Coke and charcoal are used as fuel. Lampblack is used as a 
paint pigment. Animal charcoal is used as a deodorizer and de- 
colorizer. Graphite is employed in the manufacture of lead pencils, 
anti-friction compounds, paint, glazing, and electrotyping. Dia- 
monds are worn as gems; small imperfect ones are used in glass- 
cutters and drills. 
Coal contains carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, mineral 
matter, and frequently sulphur. There are two kinds: Anthracite 
and Bituminous. The former is hard, and contains about 90 per 
cent, of carbon and very little sulphur. It bums with little flame 
and gives out an intense heat. There is but from 6 to 7 per cent, 
of volatile matter in it. The latter is softer and contains from 10 
to 30 per cent, of volatile matter. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS 
CHAPTER VIII 
ACIDS 
This class of compounds is usually strongly acid in reaction, 
reacts with metals and bases to form salts, has a sour taste, and 
contains hydrogen as one constituent. Some give off fumes at 
ordinary temperature, such as hydrochloric, nitric, and hydriodic 
acids (HC1, HNO3, HI). They owe their physiological action to 
the hydrogen atoms they contain. Upon coming in contact with 
organic tissue they abstract water, coagulate the proteids of the 
skin, and give rise to numbness and a stiff, puckery feeling. In 
fevers they are employed internally, in much diluted condition, 
to diminish thirst, because they stimulate the flow of saliva and 
other alkaline fluids. They are excreted from the body chiefly 
as ammonium salts. When administered in large doses or when 
in undiluted condition they are caustic protoplasmic poisons. 
THE HALOGEN ACIDS 
These are colorless gases with sharp, irritating odors and acid 
tastes. All are monobasic. 
HYDROCHLORIC ACID (HC1) 
"Muriatic Acid " 
This is the most important of the halogen acids. It is found 
free in the atmosphere about volcanoes, and in human gastric juice. 
It may be prepared by the action of sulphuric acid on sodium 
chloride: 
2NaCl + 
Sodium chloride 
H2SO< = 
Sulphuric acid 
2HCI + 
Hydrochloric acid 
NazSOi 
Sodium sulphate 
It is a colorless gas, with a sharp, irritating odor and acid 
taste. It is heavier than air and very soluble in water. One volume 
of water dissolves 505 volumes of the gas. This solution is com- 
62 ACIDS 
63 
mercially known as " Concentrated Hydrochloric Acid." The 
yellow color that some samples of this acid possess is due to the 
presence of iron. The official diluted hydrochloric acid should 
contain from 9.5 to 10.5 per cent, of the gas. 
With metals and bases it gives rise to the formation of a 
class of salts called " chlorides," such as sodium chloride, NaCl 
(common salt) ; potassium chloride, KC1; calcium chloride, Ca 
Cl2; ammonium chloride, NH4C1. 
Hydrochloric acid may be identified by the white fumes 
(ammonium chloride, NH4C1) that appear when a rod, moist- 
ened with ammonia water, is brought over the mouth of the 
bottle containing it. 
It is used in medicine to replace deficiency in the normal 
acidity of the stomach, and as an antiseptic to prevent certain 
forms of fermentation in the stomach. 
Experiment 14.-Place 10 grammes of sodium chloride in a flask fitted 
with a two-holed rubber stopper and carrying a funnel tube and a bent glass 
tube leading into a dry bottle. Through the funnel tube pour about 10 mils 
of sulphuric acid and warm the flask. Hydrochloric acid gas is liberated. 
Cautiously note the odor. Do not inhale the undiluted gas! The solubility of 
the gas may be easily shown by pouring a small quantity of water into the 
bottle, holding the palm of the hand firmly over its mouth, and shaking. The 
gas will be dissolved by the water, creating a suction on the palm of the hand. 
Hold a rod moistened with ammonia water over the bottle and note result. 
HYDROBROMIC ACID (HBr) 
Hydrobromic acid is a heavy, colorless gas with a sharp, 
irritating odor and an acid taste. It is very soluble in water (600 
to 1). The official diluted hydrobromic acid contains from 9.5 to 
10.5 per cent, of the acid. 
Chlorine decomposes the acid according to the following 
equation: 
HBr 
Hydrobromic acid 
+ Cl 
Chlorine 
= HC1 + 
Hydrochloric acid 
Br 
Bromine 
Its salts are known as " bromides," such as sodium bromide 
(NaBr). 
When heated with strong sulphuric acid, the acid gives off 
reddish fumes. 
It is used as a sedative like its salts the bromides. 64 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
HYDRIODIC ACID (HI) 
This is also a colorless, heavy gas, with a sharp, irritating odor 
and an acid taste. It is very soluble in water (425 to 1). The 
official diluted acid contains from 9.5 to 10.5 per cent, of the acid, 
and the syrup about 1 per cent. 
Chlorine decomposes it according to the following equation: 
HI 
Hydriodic acid 
+ C1. 
Chlorine 
= HC1 
Hydrochloric acid 
+ I 
Iodine 
Its salts are known as " iodides," such as potassium iodide (KI). 
The acid may be detected by adding some chlorine water and 
starch paste, when a blue color will appear. 
It is used in the treatment of asthma, syphilis, and some skin 
diseases. 
HYDROFLUORIC ACID (HF) 
Hydrofluoric acid is a colorless gas, which liquefies to a colorless 
liquid at 19.40 C. It reacts with glass, its effect being known as 
" etching." For this reason it must be kept in gutta-percha or 
wax bottles. It is very caustic, and, when brought in contact 
with the skin, produces slow-healing ulcers. 
Its salts are known as " fluorides," as sodium fluoride (NaF). 
Its principal use is in the etching of glassware. 
THE SULPHUR ACIDS 
SULPHUROUS ACID (H2SO,) 
This acid is not known in the free state, but occurs in solution 
in water. It may be manufactured by passing sulphur dioxide 
(SO2) into water. 
SO, 
Sulphur dioxide 
+ H2O = 
Water 
HjSOj 
Sulphurous acid 
It is dibasic. The acid is a colorless liquid with a sulphurous 
odor and an acid, sulphurous, astringent taste. It should contain 
6 per cent, of sulphur dioxide gas. 
Its salts are known as "sulphites," as sodium sulphite (Na2SO3). 
It is used as a bleaching agent, for removing fruit-juice stains 
from linen, and as a disinfectant. ACIDS 
65 
SULPHURIC ACID (H^SOi 
" Oil of Vitriol " 
Sulphuric acid is the most important and powerful of the 
mineral acids. It is found in springs and rivers that find their 
origin in volcanic regions. In combination it is found as sulphates. 
The acid is prepared by a process known as " The lead chamber 
process," and also by the more modem " Contact process," in 
which finely-divided metallic platinum is used as a " catalytic 
agent." 
The concentrated acid is a colorless, odorless, oily, very corro- 
sive liquid having a specific gravity of 1.84. The official diluted 
acid should contain 10 per cent, of the compound. It has a great 
attraction for water and breaks up organic matter containing 
hydrogen and oxygen, removing these elements in the form of 
water. The carbon of the compounds is left behind, giving the 
residue a black color. This is known as the " charring " action 
of this acid. 
The salts of this acid are known as " sulphates." Since the 
acid is dibasic, it may form acid and double as well as neutral salts. 
Examples: Na2SO4, sodium sulphate; NaHSO4, sodium acid 
(bi- or hydrogen) sulphate; NaKSO4, sodium potassium sulphate. 
It is used principally in chemical industry and manufacture. 
HYDROSULPHURIC ACID (H2S) 
Sulphuretted Hydrogen " " Hydrogen Sulphide ' ' 
This acid occurs in volcanic gases, mineral waters, and as a 
product of animal decomposition. 
The acid may be prepared by treating a sulphide with diluted 
sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. 
FeS 
Ferrous 
sulphide 
+ H2SO4 = 
Sulphuric 
acid 
H2S 
Hydrosulphuric 
acid 
+ FeSO< 
Ferrous 
sulphate 
It is a colorless gas, with an odor of rotten eggs and a sweetish 
taste. It is soluble in water, heavier than air, and bums with a 
pale-blue flame. If the gas is inhaled in the undiluted condition, 
it acts as a violent poison. Even in diluted condition it causes 
5 66 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
nausea, headache, and dizziness. It tarnishes silverware, forming 
a black layer of silver sulphide (Ag2S). Its salts are known as 
" sulphides," such as ferrous sulphide (FeS). It is used as a 
chemical reagent in the laboratory. 
THE NITROGEN ACIDS 
NITROUS ACID (HNO,) 
Nitrous acid is a very unstable, blue liquid, made by passing 
nitrogen trioxide (N2O3) into ice water. 
N2O3 
Nitrogen trioxide 
+ H2O 
Water 
= 2HNO2 
Nitrous acid 
Its salts are known as " nitrites," as sodium nitrite (NaNO2). 
NITRIC ACID (HNO3) 
"Aqua Fortis " 
This acid is not found in the free condition, but occurs in com- 
bination as nitrates. It may be prepared by treating a nitrate 
with sulphuric acid. 
2NaNO3 
Sodium nitrate 
+ H2SO4 
Sulphuric acid 
= 2HNO3 
Nitric acid 
-J- Na2SO4 
Sodium sulphate 
Nitric acid is a colorless, fuming, very corrosive liquid, having 
a specific gravity of 1.5. It is quite soluble in water. The official 
acid should contain from 67 to 69 per cent, of the acid. 
It readily yields up its oxygen, and is therefore known as a 
strong " oxidizing agent." When it comes in contact with organic 
tissue it stains it yellow. The reaction may be used as a test for 
the acid. Upon standing the acid becomes yellow because of 
decomposition. 
Its salts are known as " nitrates," such as potassium nitrate 
(KNO3). 
It is used externally as an irritant and caustic, and in metallurgy 
and the manufacture of explosives and dyes. 
Experiment 15.-Place 10 grammes of sodium nitrate in a flask fitted as for 
hydrochloric acid, and add some sulphuric acid. Warm the mixture. Nitric 
acid will be formed. Note its fuming property and its effect upon the skin. ACIDS 
67 
NITROHYDROCHLORIC ACID 
"Aqua Rega" 
This acid is also known as "nitromuriatic acid," and is pre- 
pared by mixing nitric and hydrochloric acids (18 mils to 82 mils). 
No chemical formula is assigned this mixture, since an indefinite 
chemical reaction takes place when the acids are mixed. It is a 
golden-yellow, fuming, very corrosive liquid, with a strong odor 
of chlorine. It readily dissolves gold and platinum. 
The diluted acid is used internally like hydrochloric. 
THE PHOSPHORUS ACIDS 
(ORTHO) PHOSPHORIC ACID (H,POO 
This acid does not occur in the free state in nature, but exists 
in combination as phosphates. It may be made by treating calcium 
phosphate with sulphuric acid. 
Caj(PO4)2 
Calcium phosphate 
+3 H2SO4 . - 
Sulphuric acid 
2HjPO4 
Phosphoric Acid 
+ . 3CaSO4 
Calcium sulphate 
It is a crystalline solid, but upon exposure to air it takes up 
water, forming a thick, syrupy liquid. It is tribasic. The official 
acid should contain from 85 to 88 per cent, of the acid, and the 
diluted variety, from 9.5 to 10.5 per cent. 
Its salts are known as "phosphates." Examples: Na3PO4, neu- 
tral or tri-sodium phosphates; Na2HPO4, acid or di-sodium phos- 
phate (the official salt) ; NaH2PO4, acid or mono-sodium phos- 
phate. 
It is used in medicine in the diluted form like diluted hydro- 
chloric acid. 
HYPOPHOSPHOROUS ACID (HPH2O2) 
This acid is a crystalline solid, which melts at 17.40 C. to a 
colorless, thick liquid having an acid taste and no odor. The 
official diluted hypophosphorous acid contains from 9.5 to 10.5 per 
cent, of the acid. It is monobasic. 
Its salts are known as " hypophosphites," as NaPH2O2, sodium 
hypophosphite, which have been much employed as nerve tonics. 68 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
THE ARSENIC ACIDS 
ARSENOUS ACID (H3AsO3) 
This acid is not known in the free state, for upon liberating it 
from its salts it breaks up into arsenic trioxide (As2O3) and water 
(H2O). It is tribasic. 
Its salts are known as " arsenites," as sodium acid arsenite 
(Na2HAsO3). 
ARSENIC ACID (H3AsO4) 
Arsenic acid is a white, deliquescent, crystalline solid, which 
corrodes and blisters the skin. It is tribasic. Its salts are known 
as " arsenates," as sodium acid arsenate (Na2HAsO4). 
It is used in manufacture, especially the manufacture of the 
arsenates. 
HYDROCYANIC ACID (HCN) 
" Prussic Acid " 
Hydrocyanic acid is produced by the action of the ferment 
" emulsin " on the glucoside " amygdalin " in the presence of 
water. These substances occur in peach kernels, bitter almonds, 
cherry laurel bark, wild cherry bark, etc. 
It is a colorless, volatile liquid, with an odor of peach blossoms. 
It is soluble in water. The official diluted acid contains from 1.9 
to 2.1 per cent, of the acid, and is given in very small doses. 
Its salts are known as "cyanides," as potassium cyanide (KCN). 
This acid is one of the most rapidly acting and deadly of all 
poisons! It quickly paralyzes the heart and respiration. In medi- 
cine it is used as an antispasmodic, analgesic, anti-emetic, and to 
relieve itching. Because of the rapidity of its action, antidotes 
are extremely unsatisfactory. 
' CARBONIC ACID (H2CO3) 
Carbonic acid is not known in the free state, since it readily 
breaks up with the formation of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water 
(H2O). It is dibasic. 
Its salts are known as " carbonates," such as sodium carbonate 
(Na2CO3), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), etc. ACIDS 
69 
BORIC ACID (H3BO3) 
" Boracic Acid " 
Boric acid occurs in the free state, especially in the region of 
volcanoes. It occurs in the form of transparent, colorless, pearly 
scales, or as a white powder with a soapy feeling when rubbed 
between the fingers. It has a faintly bitterish taste, but no odor. 
It is soluble in 18 parts of water. 
It is a non-toxic, non-irritating antiseptic, used especially as a 
wash for the nose, throat, mouth, rectum, vagina, ear, etc. Its 
antiseptic properties are rather mild, and the acid is more effective 
as a preservative than as a disinfectant. CHAPTER IX 
BASES 
These compounds are often called " hydroxides," and the more 
caustic ones are known as " alkalies," among which are potassium, 
sodium, calcium, and ammonium hydroxides (KOH, NaOH, 
Ca(OH)2, NH4OH). They are chiefly white, crystalline, deliques- 
cent solids (except ammonium hydroxide, which is a liquid), 
with a caustic, alkaline taste, turn red litmus blue, and form salts 
with acids. The alkali hydroxides dissolve proteins, soften the 
skin, remove the homy layers of epithelium, saponify fats, and 
render the blood and tissues more alkaline, aiding oxidation. 
Ammonium hydroxide, because of its being volatile, is more pene- 
trating, but is less caustic. When given internally in large doses 
or in the undiluted condition, they are intense, caustic poisons. 
POTASSIUM HYDROXIDE (KOH) 
" Caustic Potash " " Potassium Hydrate " 
Potassium hydroxide is prepared commercially by an electro- 
lytic method. When pure, it is a white, crystalline, brittle solid 
without odor, but having a sharp, caustic taste. It is very soluble 
in water and alcohol. Upon exposure to air it absorbs carbon 
dioxide and water. The official solution of potassium hydroxide 
should contain about 5 per cent, of the compound dissolved in 
water. The commercial compound is in the form of white, 
opaque, moulded sticks, and is from 75 to 90 per cent. pure. It 
should not be handled with the fingers, because of its caustic 
action on animal tissues, and should be kept in tightly-stoppered 
bottles. 
It is used externally as a caustic for removing warts, etc. It 
is also used in large quantities in the manufacture of soft soap. 
70 BASES 
71 
SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH) 
" Caustic Soda " " Sodium Hydrate " 
This compound is commercially prepared by a method similar 
to that used in the manufacture of potassium hydroxide. The 
commercial form, when pure, occurs as brittle, white, opaque, 
crystalline, odorless sticks, having a caustic taste. It is very 
soluble in both water and alcohol. Upon exposure, it absorbs 
water and carbon dioxide from the air. The official solution should 
contain about 5 per cent, of sodium hydroxide. Because of its 
caustic effect, it should not be handled with the fingers. The com- 
pound should be kept in tightly-stoppered bottles. 
It is used as a caustic and also in the manufacture of hard soaps. 
AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE (NH«OH) 
" Ammonia Water " 
Ammonium hydroxide is prepared by passing " ammonia" gas 
into water. Ammonia is a compound of hydrogen and nitrogen, 
and has the formula, NH3. It is a colorless gas with a sharp, 
burning taste and a pungent, penetrating odor. It turns red 
litmus paper blue and forms salts with acids. It is a product of 
vegetable and animal decay, and occurs in the air in minute 
quantities. The gas is used in refrigerating plants. 
When the gas is dissolved in water, ammonium hydroxide is 
formed, according to the following equation: 
NH3 
Ammonia 
+ H2O = 
Water 
NEhOH 
Ammonium hydroxide 
The radical, NH4, is called " ammonium," and conducts 
itself in chemical reactions like a metal. 
Aqueous solution of ammonia is official in two strengths: 
Ammonia Water, containing from 9.5 to 10.5 per cent, of the gas, 
and Stronger Ammonia Water, containing from 27 to 29 per 
cent. Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia, containing ammonia water, 
ammonium carbonate, alcohol, and oils of lemon, nutmeg, and 
lavender flowers, is also official. 72 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
Ammonia and its compounds are stimulant to both res- 
piration and circulation. When applied externally the gas is 
an irritant. 
CALCIUM HYDROXIDE (Ca(OH)j) 
" Slaked Lime " 
When lime (calcium oxide, CaO) is treated with water the sub- 
stances combine chemically with the liberation of much heat, 
forming calcium hydroxide. 
CaO 
Lime or calcium oxide 
+ H2O = 
Water 
Ca(OH)j 
Calcium hydroxide 
The product resulting from the above reaction is a fine, white, 
impalpable powder, slightly soluble in water. When the compound 
is mixed with water it forms what is commonly known as " milk 
of lime," which contains an excess of calcium hydroxide and, when 
shaken, has a milky appearance, due to the excess of undissolved, 
suspended hydroxide. 
A saturated solution of calcium hydroxide in water is known 
as " lime water," a colorless, odorless liquid with a feebly caustic, 
saline taste and alkaline reaction. On boiling it becomes turbid, 
owing to the lesser solubility of the compound in hot water. 
Lime water is used in medicine as an antacid, to furnish bone 
salts to the tissues, and as an astringent. It is frequently added 
to cow's milk to lessen its acidity, so as to prevent curdling and 
to assist in its ready digestion. Lime (CaO), internally, is a gastro- 
intestinal irritant. It is used as a disinfectant for cesspools, etc. 
MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE (Mg(OH),) 
This compound occurs in small quantities in nature. It may 
be prepared by heating a mixture of magnesium oxide, MgO 
("magnesia"), and water. It is a white, odorless, nearly insoluble 
powder. When mixed with water in the proportion of i to 15 it 
forms a white, gelatinous mixture, called " milk of magnesia" 
which is used in medicine as a mild laxative and antacid. BASES 
73 
FERRIC HYDROXIDE (Fe(OH)j) 
" Iron Hydroxide " " Iron Magma " 
Ferric hydroxide is a reddish-brown magma, and may be pre- 
pared by precipitation of ferric chloride (FeCl3) by ammonium 
hydroxide (NH4OH). 
FeCl3 
Ferric 
chloride 
+ 3NH4OH 
Ammonium 
hydroxide 
= Fe(OH)3 
Ferric 
hydroxide 
+ 3NH4CI 
Ammonium 
chloride 
It is frequently used, along with magnesium oxide, as an anti- 
dote in arsenical poisoning. CHAPTER X 
SALTS 
A salt has already been defined as a substance resulting from 
the action of an acid on a base or metal. They usually produce 
no change in litmus; i.e., are "neutral in reaction." Neutral, 
acid, double, and basic salts are used extensively in medicine. 
THE HALOGEN SALTS 
Most of the halogen salts are white in color, have a sharp, 
saline, bitter taste, do not affect litmus, are crystalline in structure, 
freely soluble in water (except the halogen salts of mercury (ous), 
silver, and lead), and less soluble in alcohol. 
CHLORIDES 
These compounds are salts of hydrochloric acid. 
SODIUM CHLORIDE (NaCl) 
"Common" or "Table Salt" 
This is the most abundant salt in nature, occurring in all 
waters and soils. It is obtained from salt-wells and sea-water. 
It occurs as a white, crystalline, odorless powder, with a saline 
taste. It is very soluble in water. An aqueous solution of sodium 
chloride containing 0.6 or 0.9 per cent, of the compound (same as in 
blood) is called " normal saline solution," and is used by injection 
under the skin, into the rectum, or into a vein in cases of hemor- 
rhage, shock, or collapse. Beside its medicinal uses, it is used as 
a condiment and preservative. 
POTASSIUM CHLORIDE (KC1) 
Potassium chloride is very similar to sodium chloride, and is 
used principally in the manufacture of fertilizers. 
74 SALTS 
75 
AMMONIUM CHLORIDE (NH4CI) 
" Sal Ammoniac " " Ammonium Muriate " 
This salt may be prepared by saturating ammonia water with 
hydrochloric acid and carefully evaporating the resulting mixture 
to dryness, avoiding excessive heat. 
NH<OH 
Ammonium hydroxide 
+ HC1 = 
Hydrochloric acid 
NHiCl 
Ammonium chloride 
4- H2O 
Water 
It occurs either in the form of long, fibrous crystals or as a 
white, crystalline powder. It is odorless, has a cooling, saline 
taste, and is quite soluble in water. 
In medicine it is used as a stimulating expectorant. It is 
also used in the arts in calico-printing, dyeing, soldering, and in 
refining gold, also in electric batteries. 
CHLORIDES OF MERCURY 
The halogens form two series of compounds with mercury, which 
has a valence of I and II. They are known respectively as mercu- 
rous compounds (valence I) and mercuric compounds (valence II). 
MERCUROUS CHLORIDE (HgCl) 
" Calomel " " Mild Chloride of Mercury " 
This is a white, odorless, tasteless, impalpable powder, insoluble 
in water and alcohol. 
It is used in medicine as a purgative and antisyphilitic. 
MERCURIC CHLORIDE (HgCh) 
** Corrosive Sublimate " " Corrosive Chloride of Mercury " 
" Bichloride of Mercury " " Bichloride " 
This salt occurs in the form of white crystals which are odorless, 
and have a sharp, metallic taste. It is soluble in 16 parts of cold 
water. 
The compound is extensively employed as an antiseptic, dis- 
infectant, and antisyphilitic. Internally it acts as a powerful 
poison, except in very small doses. The best antidote is the raw 
whites of eggs. (Avoid excess.) 
Test for Chlorides.-Silver nitrate (AgNO3) in the presence of 
nitric acid (HNO3) gives a white, curdy precipitate *of silver 
chloride (AgCl) upon the addition of hydrochloric acid. 76 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
CHLORATES 
Potassium Chlorate (KC103), " Chlorate of Potash " 
Sodium Chlorate (NaC103), " Chlorate of Soda " 
These salts occur as colorless, odorless, crystalline solids, with 
cooling, saline tastes. They are soluble in water, and should not 
be rubbed with sugar, sulphur, or organic substances, as violent 
explosions may occur, due to oxidation. 
Solutions of the salts are used as astringent mouth-washes and 
throat sprays. The salts are also used in the manufacture of 
matches, explosives, flash powders, and colored fires. 
Test for Chlorates.-The addition of hydrochloric acid (HC1) 
to a chlorate produces the liberation of chlorine gas, which may 
be recognized by its odor, color, and bleaching action. 
/ 
HYPOCHLORITES 
Sodium Hypochlorite (NaClO) Potassium Hypochlorite (KC10) 
Calcium Hypochlorite (Ca(C10)2) 
Sodium hypochlorite occurs only in solution as " solution of 
chlorinated soda " (" Labarraque's Solution "), which is used as 
a disinfecting and bleaching agent. 
Potassium hypochlorite occurs in a similar solution, known 
as "Javelle Water," and is used for the same purposes. 
Calcium hypochlorite, commercially known as " chlorinated 
lime " or " bleaching powder," contains some calcium chloride 
(CaCl2), and is used as a disinfectant and bleaching agent. 
All hypochlorites, upon exposure to the air or the addition of 
an acid, liberate chlorine gas. 
BROMIDES 
Salts of hydrobromic acid are called " bromides." 
SODIUM BROMIDE (NaBr) 
This salt occurs in the form of white, cubical crystals, or as a 
white, granular powder, odorless, and having a saline, bitterish 
taste. It is soluble in both water and alcohol. 
Sodium bromide is used as a sedative, anti-epileptic and 
hypnotic. SALTS 
77 
POTASSIUM BROMIDE (KBr) 
Potassium bromide (" bromide of potash ") occurs in the form 
of white, cubical crystals, or as a white, granular powder, without 
odor, and having a strongly saline taste. It is soluble in water, 
but not very soluble in alcohol. 
It is used like the sodium salt. 
AMMONIUM BROMIDE (NH4Br) 
The compound occurs in the form of colorless, transparent 
crystals, or as a white, crystalline powder. It is odorless, has a 
pungent, saline taste, and is soluble in both water and alcohol. 
Upon exposure to the air the salt undergoes slight decomposition, 
becoming yellowish in color. 
The salt is used like the sodium salt. 
CALCIUM BROMIDE (CaBr2) 
A white, granular, odorless, very deliquescent salt, having no 
odor, but a sharp, saline taste. It is very soluble in water and 
alcohol. 
The salt is used like sodium bromide. 
LITHIUM BROMIDE (LiBr) 
Lithium bromide is a white, crystalline powder, without odor 
and having a sharp, slightly bitter taste. It is very soluble in 
water and alcohol. 
It is less active than the other bromides, but is used for the 
same purposes in larger doses. 
STRONTIUM BROMIDE (SrBr2) 
The salt occurs as transparent, colorless crystals, odorless and 
having a bitter, saline taste. It is very deliquescent, and soluble 
in water and alcohol. 
The compound is used like the other bromides. 
ZINC BROMIDE (ZnBr2) 
Zinc bromide is a white, granular powder, odorless and having 
a sharp, saline, metallic taste. It is very deliquescent, and is 
soluble in water and alcohol. 
It is astringent as well as sedative. 78 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
" Bromism. "-If the bromides are given internally in too large 
doses or over too long a period of time, they give rise to poisoning, 
known as " bromism." 
Test for Bromides.-When a solution of a bromide is shaken 
with chlorine water and a little chloroform, bromine is liberated 
and dissolved out by the chloroform, which settles to the bottom 
as a red globule. 
IODIDES 
These are salts of hydriodic acid. 
SODIUM IODIDE (Nai) 
Sodium iodide occurs as colorless, cubical crystals, or as a 
white, crystalline powder, having a saline, slightly bitter taste 
and no odor. It is deliquescent and becomes brown upon standing. 
It is soluble in water. 
POTASSIUM IODIDE (KI) 
" Iodide of potash " occurs in the form of colorless, transparent 
or opaque, white, cubical crystals, or as a white, granular powder. 
It has a pungent, bitter taste and a faint odor. It is very soluble 
in water, and also in alcohol. Aqueous solutions, upon standing, 
undergo slight decomposition and become yellow. 
AMMONIUM IODIDE (NHJ) 
A white, granular powder, or minute, colorless crystals, having 
a sharp, saline taste and no odor. Soluble in water and alcohol. 
It is deliquescent. Upon standing it undergoes decomposition, 
becoming yellow to yellow-brown. 
MERCUROUS IODIDE (Hgl) 
" Yellow Mercurous Iodide " " Green Iodide of Mercury " 
" Protiodide of Mercury " 
This compound occurs as a heavy, bright yellow, amorphous, 
odorless, tasteless powder. It is insoluble in water and alcohol. 
Upon exposure to light it changes color, becoming greenish-gray. SALTS 
79 
MERCURIC IODIDE (HgL) 
" Red Mercuric Iodide " " Biniodide of Mercury " 
The mercuric iodide occurs as a scarlet-red, amorphous pow- 
der. It is odorless, tasteless, practically insoluble in water, but 
slightly soluble in alcohol. It dissolves in an aqueous solution of 
potassium iodide. 
FERROUS IODIDE (Feb) 
This salt may be prepared by warming a mixture of iodine 
and fine iron wire. 
Fe 
Iron 
+ I2 
Iodine 
= Fel2 
Ferrous iodide 
The compound is not very stable, therefore sugar is added to 
the greenish mixture resulting from the combination, to prevent 
oxidation. The mixture is then very carefully evaporated to 
dryness and powdered. Syrup of Ferrous Iodide (4.75 to 5.25 
per cent, of Fel2) and Pills of Ferrous Iodide {"Blanchard's 
Pills": each pill contains 1 grain of Fel2) are official. 
ARSENOUS IODIDE (Asis) 
An orange-red, stable, crystalline, inodorous powder. It is 
soluble, with partial decomposition, in water and alcohol. It is 
very toxic and is given only in very small doses. The official 
solution of arsenous and mercuric iodides (" Donovan's Solu- 
tion") contains about 1 per cent, of arsenous iodide and about 
1 per cent, of mercuric iodide. 
BISMUTH OXYIODIDE (BiOI) 
Bismuth oxyiodide, a very fine, crystalline, odorless, tasteless, 
insoluble powder, is sometimes used as a substitute for iodoform; 
i.e., as an external antiseptic. 
USES OF THE IODIDES 
The alkali iodides (K, Na, NH4) afford a convenient way 
for administering iodine internally. They are used as antisyphi- 
litics, antirheumatics, etc., and for poisoning by the heavy metals. 
The iodides of arsenic and mercury possess valuable tonic proper- 
ties. Zinc iodide (Znl2) is astringent. 80 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
" I odism."-When large doses are given, or when iodides are 
given over too long a period of time, poisonous symptoms develop, 
giving rise to the condition known as " iodism." 
Test for Iodides.-When a solution of an iodide is shaken 
with some chlorine water and chloroform, the iodine is liberated 
and dissolved out by the chloroform, which settles to the bottom 
as a violet globule. 
SULPHO-SALTS 
SULPHITES 
These are salts of the dibasic acid, sulphurous acid. Sodium 
sulphite (Na2SO3), sodium acid (bi-) sulphite (NaHSO3), and 
calcium sulphite (CaSO3) have been employed by manufacturers 
as food preservatives and bleaching agents. 
SULPHATES 
Sulphates are salts of the dibasic acid, sulphuric acid. 
MAGNESIUM SULPHATE (MgSO4) 
' ' Epsom Salt " " Bitter Salt ' ' 
Magnesium sulphate occurs natively in deposits and in mineral 
waters. It comes in the form of small, colorless, odorless, needle- 
shaped crystals, with a cooling, saline, bitter taste. It is very 
soluble in water and is efflorescent. 
Magnesium sulphate is employed in medicine as a saline 
purge and as a wet compress to reduce pain. 
SODIUM SULPHATE (Na2SOJ 
" Glauber's Salt" " Horse Salt " 
This salt occurs natively in deposits and in mineral waters. 
It comes in the form of granular crystals or as large, colorless, 
transparent prisms, having a saline, bitter taste and no odor. It 
is efflorescent and soluble in water. 
Sodium sulphate is a saline purge, but, because of its irritant 
effect, is used less than the magnesium salt. SALTS 
81 
FERROUS SULPHATE (FeSO^ 
"Copperas" "Green Vitriol" 
This forms large, pale, bluish-green crystals, without odor and 
having a saline, styptic taste. Upon exposure to air the crystals 
effloresce. It is very soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. 
Exsiccated and granular ferrous sulphate, as well as the crystalline 
variety, are official. 
It is employed in medicine as an astringent, styptic, and tonic. 
COPPER SULPHATE (CuSO4) 
"Blue Stone" "Blue Vitriol" 
Copper sulphate forms large, deep-blue, transparent crystals, 
which have a nauseous, metallic, astringent taste and no odor. 
It slowly effloresces upon exposure to dry air. It is soluble in 
water and slightly so in alcohol. 
It is employed in medicine as an astringent and emetic. 
•ALUMINIUM SULPHATE (A12(SO4)3) 
Aluminium sulphate is a white, crystalline powder, having a 
sweetish, astringent taste but no odor. It is soluble in water but 
insoluble in alcohol. 
In medicine it is useful as an astringent and antiseptic. 
POTASSIUM ALUMINIUM SULPHATE (KA1(SO<)2) 
"Alum " 
This double salt of sulphuric acid occurs in the form of large, 
colorless crystals or as a white, crystalline powder, having a 
strongly astringent, sweetish taste, but no odor. It is soluble in 
water and insoluble in alcohol. Exsiccated Alum ("Burnt" or 
"Dried Alum") is also official. 
It is employed as an astringent, styptic, and cauterant. 
ZINC SULPHATE (ZnSOJ 
"White Vitriol " 
Zinc sulphate occurs as white or colorless, transparent crystals, 
without odor, and having an astringent, metallic taste. It is 
efflorescent and soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. 82 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
The salt is a pronounced astringent and emetic, as well as an 
antiseptic and escharotic. Because of its close resemblance to 
magnesium sulphate it has been taken in mistake for the latter 
compound, poisoning resulting. Alkali carbonates (diluted), 
tannic acid, albumen, and demulcents may be given as antidotes. 
CALCIUM SULPHATE (CaSO4) 
"Gypsum" 
This salt occurs natively. It is a white, crystalline powder, 
without odor or taste. It is slightly soluble in water. 
The exsiccated variety, commonly known as " plaster of Paris," 
is prepared by applying heat to the native salt. It occurs as a fine, 
white, odorless, tasteless powder. When mixed with one-half its 
weight of water it forms a smooth, cohesive paste which hardens 
rapidly. Because of this property the compound is used for casts 
and splints by surgeons and for moulds by dentists. It is also used 
for giving a hard finish to walls and as a filling for writing-paper. 
Test for Sulphates.-A solution of barium chloride (BaCl2) added 
to a sulphate solution produces a white precipitate of barium sul- 
phate (BaSO4). 
SULPHIDES 
CALCIUM SULPHIDE (CaS) 
" Sulphurated Lime " 
" Sulphurated lime " is a mixture containing about 60 per 
cent, of calcium sulphide, and occurs as a pale, gray powder having 
a faint odor of hydrogen sulphide and a nauseous, alkaline taste. 
It is sparingly soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. 
It is employed as an escharotic for the removal of superfluous 
hair, and in the treatment of boils. 
CARBON DISULPHIDE (CS,) 
This compound is a colorless, volatile liquid with a fetid odor. 
It is miscible with alcohol, ether, chloroform, and oils, but is 
immiscible with water. The compound is very inflammable and 
acts as a depressant poison when inhaled. 
It is employed as a solvent for rubber, oils, sulphur, iodine, 
and phosphorus, and as an efficient insecticide. SALTS 
83 
THIOSULPHATES 
SODIUM THIOSULPHATE (Na2S2O,) 
" Sodium Hyposulphite " " Hypo " 
It occurs as large, colorless crystals, odorless, and with a cooling, 
saline, bitter taste. It is soluble in water. 
It is an antiseptic and germicide, and is used in the preparation 
of the solution known as " Colorless Tincture of Iodine.'' In the 
preparation of the latter it should be remembered that all of the 
iodine is converted to sodium iodide, according to the following 
equation: 
2Na2S20j + 
Sodium thiosulphate 
2l 
Iodine 
= 2NaI 
Sodium iodide 
+ Na2S4O« 
Sodium tetrathionate 
It is also used in photography, paper manufacture, in metallurgy, 
and as a disinfectant for drinking water. 
NITRO-SALTS 
NITRATES 
SODIUM NITRATE (NaNO,) 
"Chili Saltpetre " 
Sodium nitrate is found in deposits in the rainless portions of 
Chili. It occurs as colorless, transparent crystals, without odor, 
and having a cooling, saline, bitterish taste. It is soluble in water 
and slightly so in alcohol. 
The salt is rarely employed in medicine. 
POTASSIUM NITRATE (KNO») 
"Saltpetre'' 
This salt occurs as colorless, transparent crystals, or as a 
white, crystalline powder, without odor, and having a cooling, 
saline, pungent taste. It is soluble in water and sparingly soluble 
in alcohol. 
The salt is rarely used internally in medicine. However, it is 
employed in the manufacture of potassium nitrate paper, com- 84 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
pound powders, and cigarettes which are intended to be used by 
burning and inhaling the vapors to relieve asthmatic attacks. It 
is also used in the manufacture of gunpowder and fireworks. 
SILVER NITRATE (AgNOa) 
Silver nitrate occurs as colorless, transparent crystals, without 
odor, and having a bitter, caustic, metallic taste. It is very soluble 
in water. Upon exposure to light it becomes dark in color, and 
therefore should be kept in blue and amber bottles. 
Moulded Silver Nitrate, or " Lunar Caustic," is prepared by 
heating together silver nitrate and hydrochloric acid, and pouring 
the fused mass into moulds. It occurs in the form of white, 
opaque pencils. 
Mitigated Silver Nitrate, or " Mitigated Caustic," is prepared 
by fusing a mixture of silver nitrate and potassium nitrate and 
pouring the fused mass into moulds. It also occurs in the form of 
pencils or cones. This variety is no longer official. 
Silver nitrate is employed as an antiseptic irritant, stimulant, 
and escharotic. Internally its use is limited because of its caustic 
effect. If given internally over a long period of time, it causes 
" argyria"; i.e., deposits of the metal in the connective tissue of 
the various organs. 
BISMUTH SUBNITRATE (BiONOa) 
This is a heavy, white, odorless, tasteless, insoluble powder. 
It is employed as an anti-emetic and to check gastric and intestinal 
irritation. 
MERCURIC NITRATE (Hg(NO3)2) 
Mercuric nitrate, a white, deliquescent powder, is used in the 
form of Solution of Mercuric Nitrate {unofficial') and Ointment 
of Mercuric Nitrate, or " Citrine Ointment." It is antiseptic and 
antisyphilitic. 
Test for Nitrates.-A few drops of a solution of brucine in 
sulphuric acid added to a drop of a nitrate solution produce a 
deep red color at the point of contact. The color fades to yellow. SALTS 
85 
NITRITES 
SODIUM NITRITE (NaNOJ 
This official salt occurs as white, opaque fused masses or 
sticks, as colorless crystals, or as a granular powder; odorless, 
and having a mild saline taste. Upon exposure it deliquesces and 
is oxidized to sodium nitrate (NaNO3), and becomes unfit for 
medicinal use. It is soluble in water. 
It is used to dilate the arteries. 
PHOSPHO-SALTS 
PHOSPHATES (Ortho) 
SODIUM PHOSPHATE (Na2HPO4) 
"Phosphate of Soda" 
Large, colorless, odorless crystals, or a white, granular powder, 
having a cooling, saline taste. It effloresces in air, and is soluble 
in water. Exsiccated Sodium Phosphate and Effervescent 
Sodium Phosphate are also official. 
The salt is employed as a saline cathartic and laxative. 
CALCIUM PHOSPHATE (Ca3(PO4)2) 
Calcium phosphate is found natively and as a constituent of 
bones. The precipitated variety {unofficial') occurs as a white, 
amorphous, odorless, tasteless, almost insoluble powder. 
It is employed in cheap baking powders and in fertilizers. 
In medicine it is used as an antacid, to supply bone salt, and as a 
dusting powder. 
FERRIC PHOSPHATE (FePO4) 
This salt is official and occurs as thin, bright-green, trans- 
parent scales, having an acidulous, slightly saline taste and no odor. 
Soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. 
It is used in medicine as a tonic. 
PYROPHOSPHATES 
FERRIC PYROPHOSPHATE (Fe4(P2O,)3) 
This scale salt, known as " Soluble Ferric Pyrophosphate," 
occurs as apple-green, transparent scales, odorless, and having 
an acidulous, saline taste. It is soluble in water, but insoluble 
in alcohol. Upon exposure to light the salt is discolored. 
It is used as a tonic. 86 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
SODIUM PYROPHOSPHATE (Na2H2P2O?) 
This salt occurs as colorless, transparent crystals, or as a 
white, crystalline powder, odorless and having a cooling, saline, 
alkaline taste. It is soluble in water. 
This salt is used for the same purposes as is sodium phosphate. 
HYPOPHOSPHITES 
Sodium Hypophosphite Potassium Hypophosphite 
(NaPH2O2) (KPH2O2) 
Ferric Hypophosphite Manganese Hypophosphite 
(Fe(PH2O2)3) (Mn(PH2O2)2) 
Calcium Hypophosphite (Ca(PH2O2)2) 
The sodium, potassium, and calcium salts are constituents 
of the official Syrup of Hypophosphites. Since the salts are 
active reducing agents, they should not be rubbed with oxidizing 
agents for fear of violent explosion. 
CARBONATES 
SODIUM CARBONATE (Na2CO.) 
" Sal Soda " " Washing Soda " 
Sodium carbonate is a white, crystalline, odorless powder with 
a strongly alkaline taste and reaction. It is soluble in water, and 
is efflorescent. 
In large doses it is a caustic poison. It is rarely used internally. 
One per cent, solutions have been used as gargles, injections, nasal 
douches, and mouth-washes. It is also used in photography, in 
the manufacture of soaps, washing powders, glass, paper, dyes, 
for washing wool, etc. 
POTASSIUM CARBONATE (K2CO,) 
" Potash " " Salts of Tartar " " Pearl Ash" 
The salt is a white, granular, deliquescent, odorless powder 
with a strongly alkaline taste. It is soluble in water. 
It is a caustic poison like the sodium salt, and, if administered 
internally, should be well diluted. 
It is used like the sodium salt. SALTS 
87 
AMMONIUM CARBONATE (NH4HCOI.NH4NH1CO1) 
" Sal Volatile " 
From the formula given above it will be seen that the official 
ammonium carbonate is a mixture of ammonium bicarbonate and 
ammonium carbamate. It is a white, hard, translucent, striated 
mass, with a strong odor of ammonia and a sharp, saline taste. 
Upon exposure to the air it becomes opaque. It is soluble in 
water. 
Ammonium carbonate is a stimulant and expectorant. 
FERROUS CARBONATE (FeCO3) 
There are several official preparations that contain this salt. 
They are Saccharated Ferrous Carbonate, a greenish-brown 
powder containing, in addition to the iron salt, some sugar to 
prevent oxidation; Mass of Ferrous Carbonate, more commonly 
known as " Pallet's Mass," a soft, greenish mixture of pillular 
consistence; Pills of Ferrous Carbonate, known as "Bland's" 
or " Iron Pills," each pill containing about i grain of the salt. 
The preparations are used chiefly in the treatment of anaemia. 
MAGNESIUM CARBONATE ((MgCO^.MgCOH),) 
" Magnesia Alba " 
Magnesium carbonate is a white, loose, bulky powder without 
odor, but with an earthy taste. It is insoluble in water. 
In medicine it is used as an antacid, laxative, and purge. It 
is also employed in the manufacture of effervescing Solution of 
Magnesium Citrate. 
LITHIUM CARBONATE (Li2CO») 
A light, white, odorless powder with an alkaline taste. It is 
soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. 
It has been used as a uric acid solvent, also in the manufacture 
of mineral waters. 88 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
CALCIUM CARBONATE (CaCO,) 
Calcium carbonate occurs natively as limestone, marble, and 
chalk. Precipitated Calcium Carbonate is official. It is a fine 
white powder without odor or taste and slightly soluble in water. 
It is used in medicine as an antacid, mild astringent, and dusting 
powder. It is also used for the preparation of carbon dioxide 
gas (CO2). 
Another official variety of the salt is Prepared Chalk, an amor- 
phous, heavy, white, very fine powder, often moulded into cones, 
having no odor or taste, and being almost insoluble in water. 
In addition to its use as an antacid, mild astringent, and dusting 
powder, it is employed as an ingredient of tooth-powders because 
of its non-crystalline structure. 
" Whiting " and " Paris white " are commercial varieties of 
prepared chalk, but not as pure and white as the medicinal com- 
pound. They are used in polishing powders, building, etc. 
ZINC CARBONATE (ZnCO,) 
Precipitated Zinc Carbonate, which is really basic in structure, 
-i.e., 2ZnCO3+3Zn(OH)3,-is official, and occurs as a white, im- 
palpable, odorless, tasteless powder. It is insoluble in water and 
alcohol. " Calamine " is an impure variety and is employed as 
an astringent, absorbent, and dusting powder. 
BICARBONATES 
SODIUM BICARBONATE (NaHCO,) 
" Baking Soda " " Soda " 
This salt occurs as a white, opaque powder, odorless, and having 
a cooling, mildly alkaline taste. It is soluble in water. If its 
solutions are heated or vigorously shaken, the compound is con- 
verted to the neutral salt, Na2CO3. 
It is used as an antacid, in effervescing drinks, mixtures and 
salts, and as an ingredient of baking powders. It is also used 
as a soothing application for itching, insect-bites, burns, etc. SALTS 
89 
POTASSIUM BICARBONATE (KHCO,) 
Potassium bicarbonate occurs as colorless, transparent crystals 
or as a white, granular powder. It is odorless and has a saline, 
slightly alkaline taste. It is soluble in water. 
In medicine the salt is employed as an antacid and in making 
effervescing drinks. 
Test for Carbonates and Bicarbonates.-These salts effervesce 
with acids, giving off carbon dioxide gas (CO2), which, when passed 
into lime water (Ca(0H)2), produces a white turbidity. 
BORATES 
SODIUM BORATE (N^BA) 
" Borax " " Sodium Tetraborate " 
Borax occurs in nature in large quantities. It is a colorless, 
odorless, crystalline solid, or a white powder, with a sweetish, 
alkaline taste. It dissolves in water. 
The salt is used as a feeble antiseptic. It is also employed for 
soldering, welding, in the manufacture of soaps, as a food preserva- 
tive, and in the manufacture of certain glass and enamels. 
Test for Borax.-A mixture of borax, sulphuric acid and alcohol, 
when ignited, gives a green flame. 
ARSENITES AND ARSENATES 
Both classes of salts are very poisonous, and are given internally 
in very small doses. 
Potassium arsenite (KAsO2-Metarsenite) is found in the 
official Solution of Potassium Arsenite, commonly known as 
Fowler's Solution," which should contain the arsenical compound 
corresponding in amount to i per cent, of arsenic trioxide. 
Sodium arsenate (NaHAsO4) is the most important salt. It 
occurs as colorless crystals, odorless, but having a mild alkaline 
taste. It is soluble in water. The exsiccated variety is official,, 
as well as Solution of Sodium Arsenate (about I per cent.). 
" Paris green," a green pigment and insecticide, is copper 
aceto-arsenite. 90 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
" Scheele's green," another common green pigment, is copper 
arsenite. 
Arsenical compounds are usually irritant, caustic, and tonic. 
They are also employed in embalming fluids and in paints. 
Test for Arsenic.-Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) gives a yellow- 
precipitate with solutions of arsenical compounds. 
PERMANGANATES 
POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE (KMnO4) 
This salt occurs as dark purple, lustrous, odorless prisms with 
a sweetish, astringent taste. It is soluble in water. 
It is a powerful oxidizing agent, and is used as a disinfectant, 
deodorant, and antidote in alkaloidal poisoning. 
Test.-Solutions of permanganates are decolorized by oxalic 
acid. 
CYANIDES 
SODIUM CYANIDE (NaCN) 
" Prussiate of Soda " 
Sodium cyanide is a white, opaque, amorphous solid, or a 
white, granular powder, with no odor unless it is moist, and having 
a sharp, bitter, saline taste. It is very soluble in water, and is 
extremely poisonous. 
Potassium cyanide (KCN) used to be official and has been 
used in medicine in minute doses as a sedative. It is employed 
in metallurgy and photography. 
Hydrogen peroxide solution, chlorine water, solution of chlor- 
inated soda, ammonia, ferrous sulphate, emetics, artificial respira- 
tion, freshly-precipitated ferric hydroxide with sodium carbonate 
are used as antidotes in poisoning by this salt. OXIDES 
CHAPTER XI 
NON-METALLIC OXIDES 
OXIDES OF HYDROGEN 
Hydrogen and oxygen combine in two proportions: 
Hydrogen monoxide or water (H2O) 
Hydrogen dioxide (H2O2) 
WATER (H2O) 
Water is one of the most abundant compounds in nature. It 
constitutes about 68 per cent, of the human body, from 75 to 
95 per cent, of plant and animal life, and is found as " water of 
crystallization " in most minerals. It occurs naturally in the 
three physical states: solid below o° C., liquid between o° and 
ioo° C., and gaseous above ioo° C. 
Experiment 16.-Heat a piece of meat in a dry test-tube. Note the 
escape of steam from the mouth of the tube and the condensation of the vapor 
on the cooler portions of the tube. Repeat the same with a piece of "dry" 
wood. 
The simplest method for preparing water is to bum a jet of 
hydrogen under a dry, cool bell-jar. The inner surface of the bell- 
jar will become coated with a film of moisture. 
Pure water is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, transparent liquid. 
In deep layers it has a bluish-green color. The greatest density 
of water is at 40 C. Above and below this temperature it expands. 
It is the most common and useful solvent. 
When water contains much of the salts of calcium and mag- 
nesium it does not readily form a lather with soaps, because these 
salts form insoluble compounds with the soap, and is called 
" hard." The " hardness" of water may be of two kinds; i.e.: 
Temporary Hardness.-Due to calcium and magnesium bi- 
carbonates. This may be overcome by boiling, the bicarbonates 
decomposing and forming the insoluble neutral carbonates. 
91 92 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
Permanent Hardness.-Due to the presence of calcium and 
magnesium sulphates. This cannot be overcome by boiling, but 
the addition of sodium bicarbonate or carbonate will cause the 
precipitation of insoluble carbonates of the two metals. 
In assuming the crystalline form many chemical compounds 
unite with a certain amount of water, which is known as " water 
of crystallization." The crystalline form and, in many cases, the 
color are dependent upon the presence of the water. 
Experiment 17.-Apply moderate heat to some crystals of copper sulphate 
contained in a dry test-tube. Note the condensation of the water on the cool 
parts of the tube, the passage of steam from the mouth, and the crumbling 
of the blue crystals to a whitish powder. The heat drove off the water of 
crystallization. 
Efflorescence.-Many crystalline salts, when exposed to the 
atmosphere, gradually lose their water of crystallization, forming 
a powder. 
Experiment 18.-Allow some crystals of ferrous sulphate to stand in a dry, 
uncovered dish over night. Note the loss of color and crystalline form, a 
powder resulting. 
Hygroscopic compounds are such as absorb moisture from the 
atmosphere. 
Experiment 19.-Expose some " Argyrol" (an organic compound of silver) 
to the air for a short time. Note the moist condition of the compound even 
after but a few minutes of exposure. 
Deliquescence.-This term is applied to those compounds 
which absorb sufficient moisture from the air to dissolve them. 
Experiment 20.-Expose some pieces of fused calcium chloride to the air 
over night. Note the resulting solution. 
The purest form of natural water is rain water. Any water 
that is pure enough, from the chemical and sanitary standpoints, 
for domestic purposes is known as potable water. Distilled 
water is made by distilling iooo parts of natural water, discarding 
the first and last ioo parts. The first ioo parts of distillate con- 
tain the volatile impurities, while the last ioo contain the non- 
volatile ones. When water contains sufficient mineral or gaseous NON-METALLIC OXIDES 
93 
matter in solution to render it of some value for medicinal purposes 
it is called a mineral water. Carbonated waters are those which 
contain considerable carbon dioxide gas in solution. Sulphur 
waters contain hydrogen sulphide in solution. Alkaline waters 
are those which contain considerable quantities of sodium bicar- 
bonate and sodium and magnesium sulphate in solution. Lithia 
waters contain very small quantities of lithium chloride or car- 
bonate. Saline waters contain large amounts of magnesium and 
sodium sulphates and sodium chloride. Chalybeate waters con- 
tain iron compounds. Sea-water averages from 3 to 4 per cent, 
of inorganic salts, sodium chloride being the largest constituent, 
and the remainder consisting chiefly of magnesium chloride and 
sulphate and calcium sulphate. 
Water is more needed by the human system than solid food. 
It serves to assist in the processes of solution, secretion, excretion, 
circulation, and the regulation of heat by perspiration and evapo- 
ration. About six pints of water should be taken by an adult 
daily. 
HYDROGEN DIOXIDE (H2O2) 
" Peroxide " " Peroxide of Hydrogen " 
Hydrogen dioxide is a colorless, syrupy liquid with a tingling, 
metallic taste. It is very soluble in water and is usually prepared 
by the action of phosphoric acid on barium dioxide. 
3BaO2 
Barium dioxide 
4- 2H3PO4 
! Phosphoric acid 
- 3H2O2 
Hydrogen dioxide 
+ Ba3(POd2 
Barium phosphate 
The official Solution of Hydrogen Dioxide is an aqueous solu- 
tion containing about 3 per cent, of the compound. It readily 
decomposes upon exposure to sunlight with the formation of water 
and oxygen, and should, therefore, be kept in amber bottles in a 
cool place. Acetanilide is usually added to preserve the solution. 
The solution is employed for bleaching teeth, hair, and wool, 
for cleansing, and as an antiseptic and disinfectant. It is also 
used in hydrocyanic (" Prussic ") acid poisoning because of its 
oxidizing powers. It effervesces with pus, blood, saliva, and other 
organic substances. 94 
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO2) 
When sulphur is burned in the air it forms sulphur dioxide. 
S 
Sulphur 
+ O2 
Oxygen 
= SO2 
Sulphur dioxide 
It is found as a component of volcanic vapors, and in small 
quantities in the atmosphere of cities. It is a colorless gas with 
a suffocating odor, and is soluble in water. 
The gas is extensively used in bleaching, disinfecting, and the 
manufacture of sulphuric acid and sulphites. 
NITROGEN MONOXIDE (N2O) 
" Nitrous Oxide " " Laughing Gas " 
This compound may be prepared by carefully heating am- 
monium nitrate (NH4NO3). Decomposition takes place according 
to the following equation: 
NH4NO3 
Ammonium nitrate 
+ heat = 
N2O 
Nitrogen monoxide 
+ 2H2O 
Water 
It is a colorless gas with a faint, peculiar odor and a sweetish 
taste. It can be liquefied, and is usually kept, for convenience, in 
iron cylinders under pressure. It has received the name " laughing 
gas " because of the exhilarating effects it first produces when 
inhaled. It is now official. 
It is used as an anaesthetic, but must be mixed with air or 
oxygen. 
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) 
This compound is formed when coal is burned with an insuffi- 
cient supply of air. It is a colorless, almost odorless gas, and bums 
with a blue flame, forming carbon dioxide (CO2). 
When inhaled, carbon monoxide acts as a narcotic poison, 
giving rise to dizziness, headache, nausea, convulsions, and death. 
Five-tenths per cent, is fatal to animals. Death is not produced 
by simple suffocation, but is due to the union of the gas with the 
haemoglobin of the blood, which prevents the absorption of oxygen. NON-METALLIC OXIDES 
95 
Carbon monoxide is the essential poison in illuminating gas. 
" Choke-damp," in mines, is a mixture of carbon monoxide and 
carbon dioxide. 
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) 
" Carbonic Acid Gas " 
Carbon dioxide is found in small quantities in the atmosphere, 
especially in the neighborhood of cities. It is also a product of 
fermentation and combustion of organic matter. 
It is a colorless, odorless gas with a weak acid taste, and is 
soluble in one part of water. With increase of pressure the solu- 
bility uniformly increases. Thus, under a pressure of 5 atmos- 
pheres, 5 volumes of the gas are dissolved by 1 volume of water. 
This solution is known as " soda water." The gas does not support 
combustion. 
Carbon dioxide is not a poison in itself, but acts as one 
through the mechanical exclusion of oxygen when inhaled, suffo- 
cation taking place. Ventilated rooms contain from 5 to 6 parts 
of carbon dioxide per 10,000. Expired air contains from 4 to 5 
per cent, of the gas. More than 7 parts per 10,000 are oppressive 
and injurious. It is estimated that at least 2000 cubic feet of 
fresh air should be furnished an adult every hour. An ordinary 
lamp, in burning, sets free as much carbon dioxide as an adult; 
a gas-jet, two to four times as much. 
Internally the gas is an agreeable stimulant and is used in 
beverages. It is used in large quantities as " chemical fire-extin- 
guishers." Plants make use of large quantities in their growth. 
Experiment 21.-Place several pieces of limestone (CaCO3) in a flask 
fitted with a two-holed rubber stopper carrying a funnel-tube and a bent glass 
tube leading to a vessel of water. Fill a wide-mouth bottle with water and 
invert it in the vessel of water over the tube leading from the flask. Add 
hydrochloric acid gradually through the funnel-tube. Carbon dioxide will be 
evolved and collected in the bottle. Remove the bottle and insert a lighted 
taper into it. What happens? Allow the gas from the tube to bubble through 
some clear lime water and note the resulting milky turbidity, due to the 
formation of calcium carbonate, which is almost insoluble. 
CaCO3 + 2 HC1 = CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O CHAPTER XII 
METALLIC OXIDES 
CALCIUM OXIDE (CaO) 
" Lime " " Quicklime " " Calx " 
Lime or calcium oxide may be readily prepared by heating 
limestone or marble (CaCO3). 
CaCO3 
Limestone 
+ heat = 
CaO + 
Lime 
CO2 
Carbon dioxide 
It occurs in white, hard, amorphous masses, without odor, 
but having a sharp, caustic taste. It is slightly soluble in water, 
forming " slaked lime " (Ca(OH)2). 
It is used in the manufacture of mortars and cements. In 
medicine the solution " lime water " is employed. 
LEAD OXIDE (PbO) 
" Lead Monoxide " " Litharge " 
This occurs as a heavy, yellowish or reddish-yellow powder, 
without odor or taste. It is almost insoluble in water. 
Medicinally, it is employed only in the manufacture of Lead 
Plaster, Goulard's Extract (solution of lead subacetate), and Lead 
Water (diluted solution of lead subacetate). It is also used in the 
manufacture of flint glass and porcelain-ware. 
MAGNESIUM OXIDE (MgO) 
" Calcined Magnesia " " Magnesia " 
Two varieties of this compound are official: Light Magnesium 
Oxide and Heavy Magnesium Oxide. 
The light variety is a light, bulky, white powder, without 
odor, but with a saline taste. It is almost insoluble in water. 
When mixed with water it forms a white, gelatinous mass, known 
as " Milk of Magnesia." 
The heavy variety is a denser and finer powder, but in most 
other characteristics resembles the light variety. 
96 METALLIC OXIDES 
97 
In medicine the compound is used as an antacid and purge. 
It is also added to milk to increase the alkalinity and to act as a 
laxative. 
MERCURIC OXIDE (HgO) 
There are two varieties of mercuric oxide: Yellow and Red. 
Yellow Mercuric Oxide occurs as a light yellow, amorphous, 
impalpable, odorless powder, having a metallic taste. It is almost 
insoluble in water, and darkens upon exposure to light. 
Red Mercuric Oxide occurs as a heavy, orange-red, crystalline 
powder, without odor, but having a metallic taste. It is almost 
insoluble in water. 
Both varieties are used as antiseptics and antisyphilitics. The 
red oxide is more irritating to the skin than the yellow. In the 
preparation of ointments for the eyes the yellow variety should 
be employed because it is amorphous. 
ZINC OXIDE (ZnO) 
Zinc oxide is a white, soft, very fine, amorphous, inodorous, 
tasteless powder, insoluble in water. 
It is used in the manufacture of paints, cosmetics, ointments, 
glass, etc. In medicine it is employed as a mild astringent, ab- 
sorbent dusting powder, and antiseptic in the form of Ointment 
of Zinc Oxide ("Zinc Salve ") in "weeping" diseases. 
ARSENIC TRIOXIDE (As2O3) 
" Arsenous Oxide " " White Arsenic " " Arsenic " 
This oxide occurs as a heavy, odorless, tasteless solid, either 
as a white, opaque powder or an amorphous, semi-transparent, 
colorless, glassy mass. It is soluble with difficulty in water. 
The compound is a very active poison. Beginning with very 
small doses, the system establishes a toleration for large amounts. 
It is used in medicine as a caustic, tonic, and in certain skin diseases. 
It is also employed in embalming, taxidermy, in the manufacture 
of green pigments, and as an insecticide. In dentistry it is em- 
ployed as a devitalizing agent for " killing the nerves " of teeth. 
Solution of Arsenous Acid (about i per cent.) is official. PART III 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY CHAPTER XIII 
THE COMPOUNDS OF CARBON 
The term organic was originally applied to compounds derived 
directly or indirectly from living plants or animals; all others 
were termed inorganic. In 1828 this assumption was broken down 
by Wohler, who manufactured urea, a typical secretion of animal 
organisms, in his laboratory. The number of plant and animal 
secretions and principles that have been manufactured in the 
laboratory is so large that we no longer believe that the influence 
of the supposed " vital force " is essential for their formation. 
Therefore the division of chemistry into " inorganic " and " or- 
ganic, " which is still maintained in most chemical text-books, is 
mainly a matter of convenience. 
Organic compounds generally contain but a small number of 
different elements. These are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, 
and sometimes sulphur, phosphorus, and iron. All contain carbon, 
therefore organic chemistry is sometimes called the Chemistry of 
the Compounds of Carbon. Some organic compounds are solid, 
some liquid, and others gaseous. They differ widely in their 
properties. The combustible property of carbon and hydrogen 
is transferred to all organic compounds, every one of which will 
bum when heated sufficiently in air. 
Test for Carbon.-Carbon may be detected in many organic 
compounds by heating on a platinum foil or in a porcelain dish. 
Heat some sugar in a dish over the open flame until it chars. 
Continue heating strongly, and it will burn away completely unless 
some non-volatile, inorganic compound is present as an impurity. 
Test for Hydrogen.-Heat the suspected organic compound 
with oxide of copper in a dry test-tube. If hydrogen is present, 
water will condense on the upper, cooler parts of the tube. 
It is difficult to show by qualitative tests the presence of 
oxygen in an organic compound. 
101 102 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
Test for Nitrogen.-Heat the substance with soda-lime (a 
mixture of sodium hydroxide and calcium oxide) in a test-tube. 
If nitrogen is present, ammonia gas will be liberated. The am- 
monia may be easily recognized by its characteristic odor and 
reaction with hydrochloric acid gas. 
Test for Sulphur.-Ignite the substance with metallic sodium. 
If sulphur is present, sodium sulphide (Na2S) is formed, which 
may be dissolved out by treating the mixture with water. Now 
add sodium nitro-prusside. A purple coloration develops. 
Test for Phosphorus.-Oxidize the substance by heating with 
nitric acid. If phosphorus is present, phosphoric acid will be 
formed, which yields a yellow precipitate with ammonium molyb- 
date ((NH4)2MoO4). 
In studying and writing the formulas for organic compounds 
the student will be materially assisted by writing the structural 
or graphic formulae, which are intended to show the theoretical 
arrangements of the atoms within the molecule. In organic com- 
pounds where a series of carbon atoms are held together by 
one or more affinities the expression " Chain " or " Open-chain 
Series " is used to designate such theoretical arrangement. For 
example: 
CiH», Ethine, or H-C = C- H THE COMPOUNDS OF CARBON 
103 
Where the carbon atoms of the molecule are united alternately 
by single and double linkage we have what is known as the 
" Closed Chain " compounds or series. For example: 
sometimes simply written 
the carbon and hydrogen being 
understood, and the figure known as a " Benzol Ring." CHAPTER XIV 
HYDROCARBONS 
The hydrocarbons constitute a class of organic substances 
which are simply compounds of carbon with hydrogen. They are 
mostly vegetable products, being built up by plants from water 
and carbon dioxide from the air. Most of them are colorless, 
insoluble in water, soluble in ether and alcohol, neutral, stable, 
and volatile. 
They are usually divided into the following series: 
Prefixes. 
Series I. 
Paraffins 
(CnH2n 4 2) 
Series II. 
Olefins 
(CnH2n) 
Series III. 
Acetylenes 
(CnH2n-2) 
Series IV. 
Terpenes 
(CnH2n-() 
Series V. 
Benzenes 
(CnH2n-«) 
Meth- 
Eth- 
Prop- 
-ane : CH* 
-ane : C2H6 
-ane : C3Hs 
-ene or -ylene 
: C2H4 
-ene or -ylene 
:C3H6 
-ene or y-lene 
: C4H8 
-ine : C2H2 
-ine : C3H* 
-one : C3H2 
But- 
-ane : C4H10 
-ine : C4H8 
-one : C4H4 
-une : C4H2 
Pent- 
-ane : C5H12 
-ene or -ylene 
: C5H10 
-ine : CsHs 
-one : CsHg 
-une : C5H4 
Hex- 
-ane : C6Hi4 
to C40H82 
-ene or -ylene 
: C8Hi2 
-ine : CeHio 
-one : C6Hs 
-une : C6Hs 
In the above table the prefixes indicate the number of atoms 
of carbon in the molecule; thus, Meth, one atom of carbon; Eth, 
two; Prop, three, etc. The suffixes indicate the series, and are 
in the order of the vowels of the alphabet; i.e., a, e, i, o, u. The 
member of a series is two hydrogen atoms less than the correspond- 
ing member of the preceding series, as is indicated by the general 
formula under the name of each series. The compounds that 
will be studied in this text are principally members of the first 
and fifth series. 
104 HYDROCARBONS 
105 
THE PARAFFINS OR FATTY SERIES 
The first four members of this series-Methane (CH 4), Ethane 
(C2H6), Propane (C3H8), Butane (C4H10)-are gases; the next 
twelve members are oily liquids; the rest are fatty or waxy solids. 
METHANE (CH<) 
" Fire-damp " "Marsh-gas " 
This is a colorless, tasteless, odorless gas formed by the decom- 
position of vegetable matter under water. Natural gas contains 
from 90 to 95 per cent., and coal gas, 30 to 40 per cent. It is a 
combustible material which is found in mines and may give rise 
to explosion when ignited. 
Ethane, butane, and propane are also found in natural gas. 
PETROLEUM 
Petroleum is a natural mixture of paraffins up to C20H42. 
Crude petroleum is a thick, brown or yellow liquid obtained by 
boring wells. The following important products are obtained from 
petroleum: (a) benzin, (b) gasolene, (c) naphtha, (d) kerosene, 
(e) paraffin, (/) petrolatum. The foregoing substances have differ- 
ent boiling- and melting-points, and may, therefore, be separated 
by fractional distillation and purified by redistillation. 
BENZIN 
" Benzolin " . " Petroleum Ether " 
This is a mixture of pentane 106 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
and hexane 
It is a colorless liquid, having an ethereal odor and a specific grav- 
ity of 0.66. It is a good solvent for oils, fats, resins, and rubber. 
NAPHTHA 
" Safety Oil " 
There are three forms of naphtha, known as "A," " B," and 
" C." These have different boiling-points. Naphtha is a good 
solvent for oils, fats, resins, and rubber. 
GASOLENE 
This is a very volatile, colorless, and highly inflammable 
liquid. It is used for gasolene engines, stoves, automobiles, etc., 
and as a solvent. 
KEROSENE 
" Coal-oil " 
Kerosene is a colorless, volatile, highly inflammable, fluorescent 
liquid. Its chief uses are for fuel and lighting purposes. 
PETROLATUM 
" Petroleum Jelly " " Cosmoline " " Vaseline " 
Vaseline is chiefly a mixture of hydrocarbons of the paraffin 
series, obtained by distilling off the more volatile portions of 
natural petroleum, and purifying and decolorizing by passing 
through bone-black. 
It is a semi-solid mass, varying in color from yellowish to light 
amber, without odor or taste, insoluble in water, very slightly 
soluble in alcohol, easily soluble in ether, chloroform, and carbon 
disulphide. It melts between 450 and 48° C. 
It is soothing and protective to the skin and mucous membrane, 
but is not absorbed. Its chief use is as an ointment base. 
White vaseline is similar in properties, action, and uses to 
vaseline, excepting color. HYDROCARBONS 
107 
Liquid petrolatum ("liquid alboline," "liquid vaseline," or 
"glycoline") is a colorless or slightly yellowish, oily liquid, with- 
out odor and taste. It is insoluble in water, soluble in ether, chloro- 
form, and carbon disulphide. It is used as a protective and 
soothing agent for mucous membranes, and also serves as a vehicle 
for volatile oils, camphor, menthol, etc., intended for use by 
atomization. 
PARAFFIN 
" Paraffin Wax " 
This is the residue left after distilling off the above products 
from petroleum. It is a white, waxy, odorless, tasteless solid 
having a specific gravity of about 0.9. It is insoluble in water 
and alcohol, readily soluble in ether, petroleum benzin, carbon 
disulphide, volatile oils, and warm fixed oils. 
In medicine it is used simply to raise the melting-points of 
ointments and cerates. 
THE OLEFINS AND ACETYLENES 
These two series are comparatively unimportant so far as the 
purposes of this text are concerned. 
THE TERPENES 
The most important members of this series are volatile oils, cam- 
phor, menthol, thymol, eucalyptol, rubber, gutta-percha, and resins. 
VOLATILE OILS 
Volatile oils are liquid preparations usually obtained from 
flowers, fruits, seed, barks, and leaves by distillation. When sub- 
jected to low temperatures many of them separate into two layers; 
the top layer being known as " eleopten," and the lower layer, 
" stearopten." Usually they are readily soluble in alcohol, ether, 
chloroform, and carbon disulphide, but very sparingly so in water. 
OIL OF TURPENTINE 
" Spirit of Turpentine " 
This is a volatile oil obtained by distilling the juice of the pine. 
It is a thin, colorless liquid, with a characteristic taste and odor. 
It has a specific gravity of about 0.87 and is soluble in water. 108 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
The compound is a good solvent for resins, paints, sulphur, 
and phosphorus. It is used externally in medicine as an irritant, 
but should not be used internally. 
Rectified oil of turpentine is the variety that is used internally 
in medicine as an anthelmintic, antiseptic, and stimulant. It 
is prepared by purifying spirit of turpentine with a solution of 
sodium hydroxide. It is a clear, colorless, volatile, transparent 
liquid with a characteristic odor and taste, and is highly inflam- 
mable. It is soluble in alcohol. Locally the oil is used as an 
antiseptic and rubefacient. 
Other volatile oils used in medicine are: bitter almond, anise, 
orange-peel, birch, cade, cajuput, cloves, chenopodium, cinnamon, 
caraway, coriander, eucalyptus, fennel, wintergreen, pennyroyal, 
juniper, lavender flowers, lemon, peppermint, spearmint, nutmeg, 
tar, rose, rosemary, santal, sassafras, thyme, and volatile oil of 
mustard. 
All of the volatile oils are more or less antiseptic, stimulant, 
carminative, irritant, and expectorant. 
Menthol, thymol, and eucalyptol are derived from oil of pepper- 
mint, oil of thyme, and oil of eucalyptus. 
THE BENZENES 
Of the members of the fifth or last series, the benzenes, benzene 
is most important. This compound must not be confused with 
" benzin " of the paraffins or fatty series. 
BENZENE (C6H6) 
" Phene " " Benzol " HYDROCARBONS 
109 
This is a colorless, volatile, very inflammable liquid, with a 
peculiar odor. It is insoluble in water. It is obtained by distilla- 
tion from coal-tar. 
Benzene is a good solvent for iodine, sulphur, phosphorus, 
resins, oils and fats. Many dyes, antiseptics and antipyretics 
are derived from it. 
Other members of this series found in coal-tar are: 
Toluene: (CtHs), also known as Xylene (CsHio), also known as 
methyl benzene: dimethyl benzene: 
Cumene (C9H12), also called tri- Naphthalene (CioHs), or "Coal- 
methyl benzene: tar Camphor" or ''Tar Balls": CHAPTER XV 
' DERIVATIVES OF THE HYDROCARBONS 
HALOGEN SALTS 
Chlorine, bromine, and iodine have the power of replacing one 
or more of the hydrogen atoms of hydrocarbons forming salts. 
METHYL CHLORIDE 
CH3CI 
This is a colorless, combustible gas with an ethereal odor. It 
burns with a green flame. The gas can be readily liquefied, and 
in this form may be used as a refrigerant, local anaesthetic. 
ETHYL CHLORIDE 
C2H6C1 
A colorless, mobile liquid, slightly soluble in water, but easily 
soluble in alcohol. Its solution in alcohol is known as " chloric 
ether." It is used as a local anaesthetic. 
CHLOROFORM 
CHC1S 
This is a liquid, clear, heavy, colorless, very volatile, with an 
ethereal odor and a burning, sweet taste. Its specific gravity 
is about 1.5. It is slightly soluble in water, soluble in all pro- 
portions in alcohol, ether, etc. It is not inflammable like ether. 
In medicine it is used as a counter-irritant and general anaes- 
thetic. It is depressant to the circulation, respiration, and tem- 
110 DERIVATIVES OF THE HYDROCARBONS 
111 
perature. It is used also as a solvent for resins, camphor, alkaloids, 
rubber, phosphorus, iodine, and fats. 
ETHYL BROMIDE 
CaHsBr 
Ethyl bromide is a heavy, colorless liquid with a chloroform- 
like odor and a burning taste. It is insoluble in water. The 
compound has been used as a general anaesthetic. 
BROMOFORM 
CHBr3 
This compound is a heavy, colorless, volatile, transparent 
liquid with an ethereal odor and a sweet taste. It is slightly 
soluble in water, but is very soluble in alcohol, ether, etc. 
Bromoform is somewhat used in medicine in the treatment 
of whooping-cough. 
IODOFORM 
CHI3 
Iodoform comes in the form of lemon-yellow crystals with a 
peculiar, penetrating, persistent odor and an unpleasant, slightly 
sweetish taste. It is nearly insoluble in water, but is soluble in 
ether, chloroform, etc. 
It is used in medicine as an antiseptic, but is objectionable 
because of its odor. 
ALCOHOLS 
Alcohols are hydroxides of hydrocarbon radicals, and are 
distinguished by the ending -ol. According to the number of - OH 
groups, they are termed monatomic, diatomic, and triatomic. They 
are also classified as primary (group CH2OH1), secondary (group 112 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
CHOH11), and tertiary (group COHIn). The alcohols are readily 
oxidized. The primary may be oxidized to aldehydes and mono- 
basic acids; the secondary to ketones; and the tertiary to simpler 
compounds. 
METHYL ALCOHOL 
ch3oh 
" Wood Alcohol " " Wood Spirits " " Carbinol " 
This compound is prepared chiefly by the destructive distilla- 
tion of wood, and is a by-product in the manufacture of beet 
sugar. It is a colorless, volatile, inflammable liquid, having a 
disagreeable odor, a burning taste, and a specific gravity of 0.8. 
It boils at 66° C. It is miscible with water in all proportions, and 
burns with a non-luminous flame. 
Methyl alcohol readily dissolves fatty oils, camphors, resins, 
and fats. It is used also in the manufacture of varnishes and 
dyes and for heating purposes. It is one of the components of 
" denatured alcohol." " Wood alcohol " is a poison and must not 
be confused with "grain alcohol." When taken internally in 
poisonous quantities, its exhilarating effect is quickly followed by 
vertigo, nausea, vomiting, headache, dilated pupils, delirium, per- 
sistent coma, and death. Should the patient recover there is 
danger of partial or total blindness, due to atrophy of the optic 
nerve. In cases of poisoning, the stomach should be emptied, 
artificial respiration resorted to, and pilocarpine administered. 
ETHYL ALCOHOL 
C2H6OH 
" Alcohol " " Grain Alcohol " " Spirit of Wine " 
Ethyl alcohol is formed by the alcoholic fermentation of 
sugar and subsequent distillation. 
C6Hi2O6 
Sugar 
+ fermentation = 
2C2H5OH 
Ethyl alcohol 
+ 2CO2 _ 
Carbon dioxide DERIVATIVES OF THE HYDROCARBONS 
113 
It is a transparent, colorless, hygroscopic, volatile liquid with 
an agreeable odor and burning taste. Its specific gravity is about 
0.8 (92.3 per cent.). It burns with a pale blue, non-luminous 
flame, and boils at 78.5° C. It is miscible with water, ether, 
chloroform, etc., in all proportions. When alcohol and water are 
mixed there is a rise in temperature, and the resultant mixture is 
less in bulk than that of the two before mixing. 
Alcohol, U. S. P., should contain about 92.3 per cent, by 
weight or about 94.9 per cent, by volume of absolute ethyl 
alcohol. 
Dehydrated Alcohol, U. S. P., should contain not less than 99 
per cent, by weight of ethyl alcohol. 
Diluted Alcohol, U. S. P., should contain from 41 to 42 per 
cent, by weight, or 48.4 to 49.5 per cent, by volume of ethyl 
alcohol. 
Denatured alcohol is free from internal revenue tax, and is 
used in the arts and industries for fuel, light, and power, but is 
rendered unfit for beverages and internal medicinal purposes. 
Denatured alcohol may be prepared by mixing ethyl alcohol with 
methyl alcohol and benzin, or methyl alcohol and pyridine bases 
(pyridine (C5H5N) is a constituent of bone-oil). Hospitals are 
permitted to denature alcohol by adding such substances 'as 
camphor, thymol, boric acid, bichloride of mercury, etc., which 
render it unfit for a beverage, but not for external use. 
Whiskey ("Spiritus Frumenti"Ys an alcoholic liquid obtained 
by distilling the mash of fermented grain, and contains from 44 
to 55 per cent, of ethyl alcohol by volume. Whiskey, brandy and 
the wines are no longer official. 
Brandy (" Spiritus Vini Galli ci") is an alcoholic liquid ob- 
tained by the distillation of wines, and contains from 46 to 55 
per cent, of ethyl alcohol by volume. 
Gin is ordinary grain alcohol distilled and aromatized with 
juniper berries. It contains from 30 to 40 per cent, of alcohol. 
White wine (" Vinum Album") is an alcoholic liquid ob- 
tained by fermenting the juice of fresh grapes which have been 
deprived of their seed, skins, and stems. It contains from 8.5 to 
15 per cent, of alcohol by volume. 
8 114 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
Red Wine (" Vinum Rubrum ") is an alcoholic liquid obtained 
by fermenting the juice of fresh, red-colored grapes. The alco- 
holic percentage is the same as for white wine. 
Sparkling wines are those which are more or less heavily 
charged with carbon dioxide gas, either naturally or otherwise. 
Champagne is an example of this class of wine. 
Still wines are those in which there is but little or no carbon 
dioxide remaining, so that they do not effervesce. 
Dry wines are those in which the sugar has been exhausted 
by fermentation. 
Sweet wines are those which possess considerable amounts of 
unfermented sugar. 
Alcohol is a narcotic, a hypnotic, an antipyretic, as well as 
an antiseptic. Diluted with water, it is used as a lotion to reduce 
fevers, cleanse the skin, and to prevent and heal bed-sores. Be- 
cause of its solvent and preservative action, it is used in the manu- 
facture of spirits, fluidextracts, tinctures, etc. In the forms of 
wines, brandies, etc., it is used as a beverage. 
GLYCERIN 
C,B(OH), 
" Propenyl Hydroxide " " Glycerol " 
Glycerin is a liquid obtained by the decomposition of animal 
and vegetable fats or fixed oils, and should contain not less than 95 
per cent, of absolute glycerol, which is a triatomic alcohol. 
It is a colorless, syrupy, clear liquid, with no odor, but having 
a sweet taste. Its specific gravity is 1.25, and its boiling-point, 
2900 C. It is hygroscopic and mixes with water and alcohol in all 
proportions. It is insoluble in ether, chloroform, etc. 
When administered by mouth or rectum it acts as a laxative. 
It is of limited value as a medicine, but is one of the most useful 
solvents and preservatives, and is therefore employed in the manu- 
facture of a large number of medicinal preparations. It is of par- DERIVATIVES OF THE HYDROCARBONS 
115 
ticular value for increasing the solubility of phenol, tannic and 
boric acids. It is also employed in the manufacture of nitroglycerin, 
wines, beers, lubricants, elastic glues, and cements. 
ETHERS AND ESTERS 
Ethers are formed by the replacement of the hydrogen of the 
hydroxyl groups in alcohols by hydrocarbon radicals, or may be 
looked upon as hydrocarbon oxides; as (C2H5)2O, ethyl oxide. 
Esters or " ethereal salts " are formed by the replacement of 
the hydrogen of the hydroxyl or carboxyl (COOH) groups in 
acids by hydrocarbon radicals, and may be looked upon as salts; 
as C2H5NO2, ethyl nitrite. 
ETHYL ETHER 
(C2H6)sO 
" Ethyl Oxide " " Ether " " Sulphuric Ether " 
Ether is manufactured by heating a mixture of alcohol and 
sulphuric acid. It is a transparent, colorless, mobile, highly 
volatile and inflammable liquid, with a characteristic odor and a 
burning, sweetish taste. Its specific gravity is about 0.8, and its 
boiling-point, 350 C. The vapors explode violently when ignited. 
It is soluble in alcohol and chloroform, and dissolves in 10 volumes 
of water. It is a good solvent for resins, fats, many alkaloids, 
bromine, iodine, and phosphorus. 
Beside its use as a solvent, ether is used in medicine and surgery 
as an anaesthetic. It should be remembered that on account of the 
inflammability of its vapors ether should be handled carefully and 
cautiously in the presence of open fire or flame. 
Spirit of Ether, U. S. P., is a mixture of 325 parts of ether and 
675 parts of alcohol. 
Compound Spirit of Ether ("Hoffmann's Anodyne"'), a 
solution of ether, ethereal oil and alcohol is now unofficial. 116 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
METHYL SALICYLATE 
GIWHCOOCH, 
" Artificial Oil of Wintergreen " 
This is the principal constituent of oil of wintergreen and oil 
of betula. It is an ester that may be produced synthetically, and 
occurs as a colorless liquid, with an aromatic, wintergreen odor 
and a sweetish taste. It is sparingly soluble in water, soluble in 
alcohol and carbon disulphide. 
The compound is used in the treatment of rheumatism and 
as a flavoring agent. 
Spirit of Wintergreen contains 5 per cent, of oil of winter- 
green dissolved in alcohol. It is now unofficial. 
NITROUS ETHER 
CiHsNOj 
This compound (Ethyl Nitrite) may be prepared by distilling 
a mixture of ethyl alcohol, sulphuric acid, and sodium nitrite. 
Spirit of Nitrous Ether, U. S. P. ("Sweet Spirit of Nitre"), con- 
tains from 3.5 to 4.5 parts of this compound dissolved in alcohol. 
Nitrous ether is a diuretic and diaphoretic. 
NITROGLYCERIN 
CiH»(NO»)i 
" Pyroglycerin " " Glyceryl Trinitrate " 
Nitroglycerin is prepared from glycerin, nitric and sulphuric 
acids. It is a yellow, highly explosive liquid, soluble in alcohol. 
Spirit of Nitroglycerin, U.S.P. ("Spirit of Glonoin"), con- 
tains from i to 1.1 per cent, dissolved in alcohol. The solution DERIVATIVES OF THE HYDROCARBONS 
117 
has the odor and taste of alcohol. Extreme care should be observed 
in handling the preparation. If any of the liquid is spilled, some 
alcoholic solution of potassium or sodium hydroxide should be 
immediately poured upon it. The alkali solution causes the split- 
ting up of the explosive compound into harmless glycerin and 
potassium or sodium nitrate. 
C3H5(NO3)3 
Nitroglycerin 
+ 3K0H 
Potassium hydroxide 
= C3H6(OH)3 
Glycerin 
+ 3KNO3 
Potassium nitrate 
This compound dilates the blood-vessels, and acts as an anti- 
spasmodic. If full doses are given, it gives rise to violent headaches. 
When the compound is mixed with sawdust or infusorial earth it 
is sold under the name " dynamite." 
AMYL NITRITE 
CsHhNOj 
Amyl nitrite is a pale yellow liquid with a strong, ethereal odor 
and a pungent, aromatic taste. The official amyl nitrite contains 
about 80 per cent, of this compound. It is almost insoluble in 
water, but is miscible with alcohol and ether. It is also very 
volatile and inflammable. It usually comes in sealed glass bulbs, 
each containing a few drops of the liquid. 
In medicine it is given by inhalation and acts like nitroglycerin. 
PHENYL SALICYLATE 
CeHtOHCOOCgHj 
" Salol " 
Salol may be prepared by heating salicylic acid in an atmos- 
phere of carbon dioxide whereby it loses water and carbon dioxide. 
It occurs as a white, crystalline powder, with a faint, aromatic 
odor and a slight, characteristic taste. It is sparingly soluble 
in water, but is soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform. 118 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
The compound is employed in medicine as an intestinal and 
urethral antiseptic and as an antirheumatic. In pharmacy it is 
used for coating pills intended to act within the intestines. 
FATS AND OILS 
These compounds are esters of glycerol and the higher fatty 
acids, mainly oleic (C17H33COOH), palmitic (C15H31COOH), and 
stearic (C17H35COOH). 
All fats are lighter than water, cannot be distilled, and in the 
pure condition most of them are colorless, but upon aging become 
yellowish and develop a strong odor (i.e., become rancid). When 
a fat or oil becomes rancid, decomposition takes place spontane- 
ously, with the result that the fatty acid is set free. Upon exposure 
to air some fatty oils absorb oxygen, developing enough heat to 
set fire to wool and cotton tissue soaked with the oil. Such oils 
are known as " drying oils," and become thick and finally dry to a 
resinous mass, which makes them valuable for painting and 
varnishing. 
VEGETABLE OILS 
The following are the more important oils of vegetable origin: 
olive, almond, rape, mustard, cotton-seed, beech-nut, linseed, 
castor, croton, palm, cocoanut, palm-nut and cocoa butter, and 
Japan wax. 
ANIMAL OILS 
Of the oils of animal origin, the following are the more important: 
lard, neat's-foot, bone, tallow, whale, seal, cod-liver, and sperm. 
ANIMAL FATS AND WAXES 
Tallow, lard, bone and wool, butter fats, oleomargarine, 
stearine, spermaceti, beeswax, and Chinese wax. 
Oleomargarine and butterine are mixtures of pure fats which 
have been churned with some sweet milk, artificially colored, 
salted, and sold as butter substitutes. If properly prepared 
they are quite wholesome. DERIVATIVES OF THE HYDROCARBONS 
119 
SOAPS 
When fats and oils are treated with alkali hydroxides the 
glycerin is set free and a soap is formed. Such a process is called 
" saponification." 
Soaps may be divided into hard and soft soaps. Hard soaps 
are those in which sodium is the base; soft, those in which potassium 
is the base. Example: 
C3Hs (CisH33O2)3 
(Glyceryl oleate) 
Olive oil 
+ 3NaOH 
Sodium hydroxide 
= 3NaCi8H33O2 
(Sodium oleate) 
Hard or Castile soap 
+ C3H6(OH)3 
Glycerin 
Soaps are soluble in water and alcohol. Potassium or soft 
soaps are usually yellowish, but are frequently tinted green arti- 
ficially and called " green soap." Soaps are excellent cleansing 
agents, and are also more or less disinfectant. 
ALDEHYDES 
These compounds are formed by dehydrogenating alcohols, 
usually by oxidation. For example: Ethyl or acetic aldehyde. 
C2H5OH 
Ethyl alcohol 
+ O 
Oxygen 
= ch3coh 
Ethyl or acetic aldehyde 
+ H2O 
Water 
FORMALDEHYDE 
HCOH 
" Methyl Aldehyde " 
This compound is prepared by the oxidation of wood or methyl 
alcohol: 
CH3OH 
Methyl alcohol 
+ o 
Oxygen 
= HCOH 
Formaldehyde 
+ H2O 
Water 
It is a colorless gas with a pungent odor, soluble in water. A 40 
per cent, aqueous solution is known as " formalin." The official 120 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
solution of formaldehyde contains about 37 per cent, of the gas. 
It is an antiseptic of great power, a disinfectant, a preservative 
for foods and drinks, a deodorizer, and a cauterizing agent. It 
is also used in embalming fluids and as a preservative for specimens. 
PARALDEHYDE ((CH,COH)3) 
Paraldehyde is a colorless, transparent liquid with a strong, 
characteristic odor and a burning taste. It is soluble in water 
and miscible in all proportions with alcohol. 
In medicine it is used as a sedative and hypnotic. 
CHLORAL (CCI3COH) 
" Trichloraldehyde " 
Chloral is a colorless, oily liquid with a sharp odor and an 
acrid taste. 
Chloral Hydrate, U. S. P. (" Knock-out drops," " Chloral "), 
consists of chloral united with a molecule of water: CC13COH.H2O. 
It is a white, crystalline solid, having an aromatic odor and a 
bitter, caustic taste. It is slowly volatile, soluble in water, alcohol, 
and ether. Upon mixing with phenol, thymol, and camphor it 
forms a liquid. The compound is a valuable hypnotic. 
BENZALDEHYDE 
CeHsCOH 
" Oil of Bitter Almonds " 
Benzaldehyde is formed when the glucoside, amygdalin, and 
the ferment, emulsin, are brought together in the presence of 
water. It is a colorless liquid with the odor of bitter almond and 
a burning taste. It is sparingly soluble in water, but freely soluble 
in alcohol. The crude " oil " contains hydrocyanic (" prussic ") 
acid, which makes it poisonous. The purified product is non- 
poisonous. 
It is used as a flavoring agent and in the manufacture of dyes. DERIVATIVES OF THE HYDROCARBONS 
121 
KETONES 
These are oxidation products of secondary alcohols and are 
distinguished by the CO" radical. 
There is but one worthy of mention here. 
ACETONE 
(CHahCO 
" Dimethyl-ketone " 
This compound is prepared by the dry distillation of calcium 
acetate (Ca(C2H3O2)2). It is a colorless, transparent liquid with 
a pleasant, minty odor and a sharp taste. It is soluble in water, 
alcohol, and ether. 
Its principal use is as a solvent for resins in varnishes, and as 
a source of sulphonal and trional. CHAPTER XVI 
DERIVATIVES OF THE HYDROCARBONS 
ORGANIC ACIDS 
All organic acids contain the fundamental group COOH, 
known as " carboxyl." According to the number of carboxyl 
groups, they are monobasic, dibasic, or tribasic. By replacing 
the hydrogen of the carboxyl groups with metals, various salts 
are formed. The organic acids include both solids and liquids. 
Examples: 
or CH3COOH, Acetic acid 
or CjHsCOOH, Benzoic acid. 
FORMIC ACID (HCOOH) 
Formic acid occurs in red ants, fir cones, the bristles of stinging 
nettles, and the venom of bees and hornets. It may be prepared 
by the oxidation of methyl alcohol according to the following 
equation: 
CH3OH 
Methyl alcohol 
+ O2 = 
Oxygen 
HCOOH 
Formic acid 
+ H2O 
Water 
The acid is a colorless liquid with a penetrating odor and irritant 
action on the skin. It is soluble in water and alcohol. Its salts 
are known as " formates." An alcoholic solution of the acid is 
known as " Spiritus Formicarium." 
It acts as a caustic and powerful antiseptic. 
ACETIC ACID (CH3COOH) 
Acetic acid is found in some plant juices and is formed during 
vegetable decay. It may be manufactured by " acetic fermenta- 
tion " or the slow oxidation of weak alcoholic solutions. The 
122 DERIVATIVES OF THE HYDROCARBONS 
123 
product of either process is known as " vinegar," which contains 
from 3 to 10 per cent, of absolute acetic acid. 
CjILOH 
Ethyl alcohol 
+ O2 = 
Oxygen 
CH3COOH + 
Acetic acid 
H2O 
Water 
It is a clear, colorless liquid with a strong, vinegar-like odor 
and an acid taste. It is miscible with alcohol and water in all 
proportions. Upon application of heat it completely volatilizes. 
Its salts are known as " acetates." 
Acetic Acid, U. S. P., 36 to 37 per cent; Diluted Acetic 
Acid, U. S. P., 5.7 to 6.3 per cent.; and Glacial Acetic Acid, 
U. S. P., is 99 per cent. 
In medicine diluted acetic acid is used as a lotion for night- 
sweats and to control slight hemorrhages Glacial acetic acid is 
employed as an escharotic. Diluted acetic acid corresponds to 
commercial vinegar, which is used for domestic purposes. 
Test for Acetic Acid.-When the acid is neutralized with sodium 
hydroxide and a small amount of solution of ferric chloride added, 
a deep red color is produced. 
TRICHLORACETIC ACID (CCI3COOH) 
This comes in the form of white, deliquescent crystals with a 
characteristic odor. It is very soluble in water, alcohol, and 
ether. 
The acid is used as a cauterizing agent. 
BUTYRIC ACID (C3H7COOH) 
This is the characteristic acid of butter, where it exists in 
combination if the butter is fresh. The acid is set free when butter 
becomes rancid. Rancid butter may be " renovated " by adding 
sodium bicarbonate, which neutralizes the free butyric acid. 
LACTIC ACID (C2H4OHCOOH) 
Lactic acid occurs in opium, the gray matter of the brain, in 
the gastric juice, and in sauerkraut. It may be manufactured by 
" lactic fermentation " of sugar, and is therefore found in sour 
milk, koumiss, etc. 124 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
The official acid should contain from 75 to 90 per cent, of 
absolute acid. It occurs as a colorless, syrupy liquid, without 
odor and having an acid taste. It is slightly deliquescent, and is 
soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. 
The acid is rarely given internally, but is applied to tuber- 
culous ulcers of the throat. 
Test for Lactic Acid.-A few drops of the acid added to some 
very diluted solution of ferric chloride yield a yellow color. 
OXALIC ACID 
H2C2O4 or (COOH), 
Oxalic acid is found in many plants, such as dock, beets, toma- 
toes, and rhubarb, as salts. It may be prepared by the oxidation 
of starch or sugar with nitric acid. 
It is a white, crystalline solid with an acid taste and no 
odor. Water dissolves it readily. The compound is a violent 
■poison. It has been frequently mistaken for Epsom salt (mag- 
nesium sulphate), poisoning and sometimes death resulting. Cal- 
cium salts, such as plaster, or lime water may be used as antidotes; 
also magnesia. 
The acid is used in dyeing, to clean metallic utensils, as a clean- 
ing and bleaching agent by manufacturers of straw hats, to remove 
rust and ink stains, in tanning, and also to remove the stain of 
potassium permanganate from the hands. 
Test for Oxalic Acid.-The addition of a few drops of calcium 
chloride solution to a neutralized oxalic acid solution gives a 
white precipitate. 
TARTARIC ACID 
H2C4H4O6 or C2H2(OH)2(COOH)2 
Tartaric acid is found in the juice of grapes, both in the free 
and combined condition. It is usually manufactured from " ar- 
gols," a deposit in wine-casks, which contain potassium acid 
tartrate (KHC4H4O6). 
It occurs as colorless crystals or as a white, crystalline powder, 
having no odor, but with an acid taste. It is soluble in water 
and alcohol. DERIVATIVES OF THE HYDROCARBONS 
125 
Being dibasic, it forms three kinds of salts ("tartrates"): 
neutral (K2C4H4O6), acid (KHC4H4O6), and double (KNaC4H4O6). 
The acid is employed in making acidulous, refrigerant drinks. 
It is one of the constituents of " Seidlitz powders " and of effer- 
vescing salts. It is also used in the printing and dyeing industries, 
in the manufacture of baking powders, and by confectioners. 
Test for Tartaric Acid.-Upon neutralizing a solution of the 
acid and adding some solution of calcium chloride, a white pre- 
cipitate is produced, which, after being washed, will dissolve in a 
solution of potassium hydroxide. From the latter solution a 
precipitate is thrown out upon boiling. 
CITRIC ACID 
H3QILO7 or CsHiOHCCOOH). 
" Fruit Acid " 
Citric acid occurs in the juice of limes and lemons, from which 
it is prepared. It occurs as colorless, odorless crystals with an 
agreeable acid taste. It is soluble in both alcohol and water. 
Its salts are known as " citrates." 
It is used in medicine as a diuretic, refrigerant, and flavoring 
agent. It is frequently used in making " lemonade " and " fruit 
syrups." 
Test for Citric Acid.-Upon neutralizing a solution of the acid 
and adding some solution of calcium chloride, a white precipitate 
is produced which is insoluble in solution of potassium hydroxide. 
(Compare with Test for Tartaric Acid.) 
BENZOIC ACID 
HCtHsO, or CeHsCOOH 
This acid occurs in the free state in a number of resins and 
balsams. It comes in the form of white, lustrous scales or needles 
that are nearly odorless and have an acid, pungent taste. It is 
volatile and its vapors excite sneezing. It is slightly soluble in 
water, but is freely soluble in alcohol. 
Its salts are known as " benzoates." 126 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
It is used in medicine to overcome alkalinity of the urine, and 
as an antiseptic and expectorant. The acid and its salts are used 
as food preservatives. 
Test for Benzoic Acid.-If a solution of the acid is neutralized 
and some solution of ferric chloride added, a flesh-colored precipi- 
tate is formed. 
SALICYLIC ACID 
HC7H5O3 or CgHiOHCOOH 
" Oxy-Benzoic Acid " 
Salicylic acid is found in combination in the oils of wintergreen 
and birch. It is manufactured in large quantities from phenol. 
It occurs as light, white, fine needles, or as a bulky, white 
powder, without odor, but having a sweetish taste. It is slightly 
soluble in water, but readily soluble in alcohol. 
Its salts are known as " salicylates." 
It is used in medicine as an antiseptic and dusting powder, and 
for softening and removing homy layers of the skin. It is also 
used as a preservative for fruit, beer, wine, meat, etc. 
Test for Salicylic Acid.-The addition of some solution of 
ferric chloride to a solution of the acid gives a violet coloration. 
TANNIC ACID 
C13H9O7COOH 
" Digallic Acid " " Tannin " " Gallotannic Acid " 
This acid is found in nutgalls, sumach, tea, etc., from which 
it may be prepared. It is a light, yellowish, amorphous powder, 
or comes in the form of scales, without odor and having a strong, 
astringent taste. It is very soluble in water and alcohol. 
Its salts are known as " tannates." 
In medicine it is used as an astringent, styptic, haemostatic, 
and antiseptic. It is also used in tanning and in the manufacture 
of inks, dyes, and artificial horn and tortoise-shell. 
Test for Tannic Acid.-The addition of a solution of ferric 
chloride produces an inky-black coloration. The acid will coagulate 
a solution of albumin. DERIVATIVES OF THE HYDROCARBONS 
127 
GALLIC ACID 
HCjILOs or C6H2(OH)3COOH 
Gallic acid is found in nutgalls, tea, sumach, etc., from which 
it may be prepared. It occurs in the form of fawn-colored or 
nearly white, silky needles, without odor and having an astringent, 
slightly acid taste. It is soluble in water and alcohol. 
Its salts are known as "gallates." 
It is used as a haemostatic, antiseptic, and astringent. 
Test for Gallic Acid.-The addition of a solution of ferric 
chloride produces a blue-black coloration. The acid does not 
coagulate albumin. (Compare with Test for Tannic Acid.) 
ACETYL-SALICYLIC ACID (C6H4O(CH3CO)COOH) 
" Aspirin " 
This comes in the form of colorless needles, which have no 
odor but an acidulous taste. It is soluble in 100 parts of water, 
and freely soluble in alcohol and ether. 
It is used as an antipyretic and antirheumatic. 
ORGANIC SALTS 
ACETATES 
Potassium acetate (KC2H3O2): a white, deliquescent salt, 
without odor, having a saline taste, and soluble in water and 
alcohol. 
Sodium acetate (NaC2H3O2): colorless, odorless crystals having 
a saline taste. It is efflorescent, soluble in water and less soluble 
in alcohol. 
Lead acetate (Pb(C2H3O2)2), commonly called "Sugar of lead": 
colorless, shiny crystals having a faint acetous odor and a sweetish, 
astringent taste. It is efflorescent and soluble in water and alcohol. 
Zinc acetate (Zn(C2H3O2)2): soft, white, pearly plates, having 
a faint, acetous odor and an astringent, metallic taste. The salt 
is efflorescent and soluble in both water and alcohol. 
Uses.-The sodium and potassium salts are alkaline diuretics. 
Lead and zinc acetates are astringent and styptic. The zinc 
-salt is also used as an emetic and antiseptic. The sodium 128 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
and zinc compounds are used in dyeing and the manufacture of 
pigments. Zinc acetate is also used for preserving wood and to 
produce a glaze on porcelains. 
TARTRATES 
Potassium acid tartrate (KHC4H4O6), potassium bitartrate or 
" Cream of Tartar small, colorless, odorless crystals, or a white 
powder, having an acid taste. The compound is sparingly soluble 
in water and alcohol. This is the most important tartrate and is 
used in large quantities in the manufacture of baking powders. 
It is used in medicine as a diuretic and laxative. 
Potassium and sodium tartrate (KNaC4H4O6), known as 
" Rochelle Salt" and "Sal Seignette ": this double salt forms 
large, colorless, odorless crystals which have a cool, saline taste. 
The salt is slightly efflorescent, and is soluble in water and alcohol. 
It is one of the ingredients of Seidlitz powders. 
Antimony and potassium tartrate (K(SbO)C4H4O6), " Tartar 
Emetic ": this salt usually comes in the form of a white, odorless, 
crystalline powder having a sweet, disagreeable, metallic taste. 
It is soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol. The salt is an active 
poison in large doses. It is used in medicine as an emetic and 
expectorant. 
CITRATES 
Potassium citrate (K3C6H5O7): this forms colorless, odorless 
crystals, or comes in the form of a white, granular powder, with a 
saline, cooling taste. It is soluble in water and sparingly so in 
alcohol. 
Sodium citrate (NasCeHsCh): a white, granular, odorless 
powder having a cooling, saline taste. It is soluble in water, but 
sparingly soluble in alcohol. 
Lithium citrate (Li3C6H5O7): colorless, odorless crystals, or a 
white, odorless powder, having an alkaline taste. It is deliquescent, 
soluble in water, and insoluble in alcohol. 
Bismuth citrate (BiC6H5O7): a white, odorless, tasteless, 
amorphous powder. It is insoluble in water and alcohol. DERIVATIVES OF THE HYDROCARBONS 
129 
Uses.-The first three citrates are used as alkaline diuretics, 
antipyretics, and refrigerants. The bismuth salt is a stomachic 
and astringent. 
BENZOATES 
Ammonium benzoate (NH4C7H5O2) : a white, odorless, crys- 
talline powder having a saline taste. It is soluble in water and 
alcohol. 
Lithium benzoate (LiC7H5O2) : a white, odorless, light pow- 
der with a sweetish taste. It is soluble in water and alcohol. 
Sodium benzoate (NaC7H5O2) : a white, odorless, crystalline, 
or amorphous powder with a sweetish, astringent taste. It is 
soluble in water. 
Uses.-The ammonium salt is chiefly diuretic. The lithium 
and sodium salts are antirheumatic and diuretic. 
SALICYLATES 
Ammonium salicylate (NH4C7H5O3): a white, odorless, 
crystalline powder with a saline, bitter taste. It is soluble in alco- 
hol and water. 
Lithium salicylate (LiC7H5O3) : a white or grayish, odorless 
powder with a sweet taste. The salt is deliquescent and dissolves 
in water and alcohol. 
Sodium salicylate (NaC7H5O3) : a white or pinkish, odorless 
powder with a sweetish taste. It is soluble in water and alcohol. 
Strontium salicylate (Sr(C7H5O3)2: a white, odorless, crys- 
talline powder with a sweetish, saline taste. It is soluble in water 
and alcohol. 
Bismuth sub-salicylate: this salt is of variable chemical com- 
position. It occurs as a whitish, amprphous or crystalline, odor- 
less, tasteless powder. It is almost insoluble in water. 
Mercury salicylate (basic) (HgC7H4O2) : a white powder, 
insoluble in water and alcohol. The compound is used especially 
in the treatment of syphilis, being injected in suspension. 
Uses.-The salicylates are used as antiseptics, antirheumatics, 
and in gout. The ammonium salt is also expectorant, while the 
bismuth salt is also astringent and antiseptic. 
9 130 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
PHENOLS 
Phenols are compounds in which one or more atoms of hydrogen 
of benzene (CeH6) are replaced by hydroxyl (OH). Example: 
Phenol, C«H6OH or 
PHENOL (C6HsOH) 
" Carbolic Acid " 
This compound is manufactured from coal-tar by fractional dis- 
tillation. It appears as colorless crystals, with a characteristic odor 
and a sweetish, burning taste. It cauterizes and whitens the skin. 
Phenol is soluble in about 20 parts of water. Glycerin increases the 
solubility in water. It is volatile and its vapors are inflammable. 
Upon the addition of 8 per cent, of water it readily liquefies. When 
triturated with camphor, menthol, thymol, resorcinol, acetanilid, 
etc., a liquid mixture results. It coagulates albumin and collodion. 
Phenol is a violent, caustic protoplasmic poison, destructive 
to animal and vegetable life. In the treatment of poisoning by 
this compound alcohol, whiskey, zinc sulphate, white of egg, milk 
of lime, olive and castor oils with magnesia in suspension are 
given as antidotes. 
It is used in medicine as a disinfectant, antiseptic, and caustic. 
The official Liquefied Phenol contains 86.4 per cent., and the 
official Ointment (" carbolated salve " or " carbolated vaseline ") 
contains 3 per cent, of phenol. 
CRESOL 
" Kresol " " Cresylic Acid " 
C7H7OH or C6H4CH3OH 
Cresol is obtained from coal-tar by fractional distillation at a 
temperature higher than that used for the distillation of phenol. 
It is a straw-colored liquid, with a phenol-like odor, and becomes 
brown upon exposure to light. It is soluble in 60 parts of water. 
Alkaline solutions increase the solubility. DERIVATIVES OF THE HYDROCARBONS 
131 
The compound is used as an antiseptic and disinfectant. It is 
less caustic than phenol and is less rapidly absorbed. Compound 
Solution of Cresol is official. 
CREOSOTE 
" Kreosote " " Wood Creosote " " Oil of Smoke " 
This is a mixture of phenols obtained by fractional distillation 
from wood-tar. It is a yellow, oily liquid, with a smoky odor and 
a burning taste. It is slightly soluble in water. 
In medicine the compound is used as an expectorant, antiseptic, 
and antituberculitic. Creosote Water, containing io per cent, of 
creosote, is official. 
This creosote should not be confused with the " coal-tar creo- 
sote " obtained from coal-tar and used for technical and external 
purposes. Wood creosote, in small doses, is harmless, while coal- 
tar creosote is decidedly poisonous. 
RESORCINOL (C6H4(OH)2) 
" Resorcin " 
Resorcinol occurs in the form of white crystals having a faint 
odor and sweetish taste. It is soluble in water and alcohol. Upon 
exposure to light it becomes pinkish. 
The compound is slightly poisonous. It is used in medicine 
as an antiseptic. It is also used in the manufacture of dyes. 
SULPHUR DERIVATIVES 
SULPHONMETHANE 
" Sulphonal " " Diethylsulphon-dimethylmethane " 
(CH3)2C(C2H6SO2)2 or 
This is a white, crystalline, odorless, tasteless compound, 
manufactured from acetone. It is soluble in 15 parts of hot and 
360 parts of cold water, and dissolves with difficulty in alcohol. 
In medicine it is used as a hypnotic and sedative. 132 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
SULPHONETHYLMETHANE 
Trional " " Diethylsulphon-methylethylmethane ' 
(CH,)(C2H6)C(C2H6SO2)2 or 
This compound occurs as colorless, odorless, tasteless, lustrous 
crystals, soluble in hot water, alcohol and ether. 
It is used in medicine as a hypnotic and sedative. 
DIETHYLSULPHON-DIETHYLMETHANE 
" Tetronal " 
(C2H6)2C(C2H6SO2)2 or 
" Tetronal " also occurs as colorless, lustrous crystals, soluble 
in hot water, alcohol and ether. It is used for the same purposes 
as " sulphonal " and " trional." 
COMPOUNDS CONTAINING NITROGEN 
HEXAMETHYLENAMINE 
" Urotropin " " Hexamethylene Tetramine " "Formin " 
(CH2)eN4 
This compound is formed by the action of ammonia on formal- 
dehyde as follows: 
6HC0H 
Formaldehyde 
+ 4NHs 
Ammonia 
= (CH2)6N4 
Hexamethylenamine 
+ 6H2O 
Water 
It comes in the form of colorless, odorless crystals, soluble in 
1.5 parts of water. In the presence of acid secretions it is decom- 
posed into formaldehyde and ammonia. 
In medicine it is used as a genito-urinary antiseptic. 
CARBAMID (NH2)2CO 
" Urea " 
Urea is most likely the first organic compound prepared syn- 
thetically. It occurs in the urine and blood of all mammals. It 
comes in the form of colorless, rhombic prisms, easily soluble in 
water and alcohol. 
It is used as a diuretic. DERIVATIVES OF THE HYDROCARBONS 
133 
DIETHYL-MALONYL-UREA 
" Veronal" 
(C2H6)2C(CO-NH)2CO or 
" Veronal " occurs as a white, odorless, crystalline powder 
with a faintly bitter taste. It dissolves in 12 parts of boiling and 
145 parts of cold water, and is readily soluble in warm alcohol. 
The compound is a valuable hypnotic. 
DERIVATIVES OF BENZENE 
ACETANILID 
" Antifebrin " " Phenylacetamid " 
C6H6NH(CH3CO) or 
Acetanilid occurs as white, odorless, lustrous crystals, or as a 
white, crystalline powder, having a greasy feeling. It is soluble 
in hot water, slightly so in cold water, and readily soluble in alcohol 
and ether. 
In medicine it is used as a local antiseptic and antipyretic. 
It is a component of numerous headache powders and wafers. 
ACETPHENETIDIN 
" Phenacetine " 
CeH4O(C2H6)NH(C2H3O) 
This compound occurs as a colorless, odorless, tasteless powder, 
sparingly soluble in water and readily soluble in alcohol. 
It is used as an antipyretic, antirheumatic, and analgesic. The 
compound is found in many migraine and headache powders. Both 
Acetanilid and Phenacetine are found in many patent "headache 
powders." In consequence of the long-continued use of such 
powders many cases of chronic poisoning and habit have been 
observed. In such cases failure to take the ' ' powder ' ' is followed by 
distress and headache. Loss of appetite, gastro-intestinal disturb- 
ances, anaemia, special weakness of heart, and cyanotic lips and 134 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
face characterize chronic poisoning by these drugs. The cya- 
nosis is caused in part by changes in the blood-coloring matter, 
and the ansemia by the destruction of red blood-corpuscles. 
TRINITRO-PHENOL 
" Picric Acid " " Carb azotic Acid " 
CeH2(NO2)3OH 
This compound is formed by the action of nitric acid on silk, 
wool, indigo, etc., but is usually manufactured on a large scale 
by slowly adding phenol to fuming nitric acid. 
It forms yellow, odorless, bitter crystals which are slightly 
soluble in water. The compound is very poisonous. 
Trinitro-phenol is used for dyeing silk and wool, as a precipitant 
for alkaloids and albumin, and in the manufacture of explosives. 
It is also employed in the treatment of burns. It is now official. 
ANTIPYRINE 
" Phenyl-dimethyl-isopyrazolon " 
C11H12N2O or 
Antipyrine is a white, odorless, crystalline powder having a 
slightly bitter taste. It is soluble in less than one part of water, 
also in alcohol, chloroform, and ether. 
It is employed in medicine as an antipyretic and styptic. It 
is another common, harmful ingredient of patent "headache 
cures." 
PARADIAMINODIHYDROXYARSENOBENZOL HYDRO- 
CHLORIDE 
" Salvarsan " " 606 " 
HC1.NH2.OH.C8H3.As : As.C8H3.OH.NH2.HC1 
This compound is a lemon-yellow, fine powder, which comes in 
sealed tubes. It is soluble in water and used as a specific for 
syphilis. 
Neo-salvarsan (sodium - diamino - dihydroxy-arseno-benzol- 
methanal sulphoxylate) is neutral and more easily given. CHAPTER XVII 
CARBOHYDRATES 
Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and 
oxygen, the latter two elements in the same proportion as in water 
(H2O), and the carbon in six or some multiple of six. Example: 
Dextrose, C6Hi2O6. They make up the bulk of vegetable tissue, 
and are also found in animal life, such as sugar in milk, bee's 
honey, etc. All carbohydrates are fermentable or can be converted 
into substances that are fermentable. They are non-volatile, but 
are decomposed when heated. They are neutral in reaction, 
being neither basic nor acid. Most of them are white solids, and 
with few exceptions are soluble in water. The exact composition 
of all carbohydrates is not fully understood, although the structure 
of others is well known. 
Carbohydrates may be divided into the following three groups: 
i. MONOSACCHARIDES OR SIMPLE SUGARS (C«Hi3O,) 
Dextrose (grape-sugar, starch-sugar or glucose). 
Levulose (fructose, or fruit-sugar). 
Galactose. 
Inosit (muscle-sugar). 
2. DISACCHARIDES OR COMPLEX SUGARS (CuHaOn) 
Sucrose (cane, beet, sorghum, maple, palm, sweet fruits). 
Lactose (milk-sugar). 
Maltose (malt-sugar). 
Isomaltose (sweet extracts). 
3. POLYSACCHARIDES (C«H10O6)n 
These compounds do not resemble sugars, have no sweet 
tastes, but can be reduced to sugars. 
135 136 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
Cellulose (cellulin). 
Lignin (wood). 
Tunicin (animal cellulose). 
Starch (amylum or glucosin) 
Dextrins (British gum). 
Inulin (levulin). 
Glycogen (liver-starch). 
Raffinose and lactosin. 
Gums. 
DEXTROSE, GRAPE-SUGAR, OR GLUCOSE (C6H12O6) 
This substance is found in large quantities in the juices of 
many fruits, as grapes, strawberries, etc. Dextrose is found in 
honey, in small amounts in normal blood, and traces in normal 
urine, but in diseased conditions as high as 5 per cent. The 
compound is produced from starch by plants, and may be pro- 
duced artificially from starch by heating with an excess of diluted 
acids, like sulphuric, removing the excess of acid with chalk, 
filtering and evaporating to a syrup. Commercially it occurs as a 
■thick syrup, which crystallizes with difficulty, giving crystals that 
resemble those of cane-sugar. It is soluble in water and is less 
sweet than cane-sugar. 
SUCROSE, CANE-SUGAR, OR SACCHARUM (C„HMOU) 
Cane-sugar is found in the juices of many plants, such as the 
sugar-cane, beets, maple-sap, etc. The plant parts are crushed 
between rollers, pressing out the juices, which are then heated 
with milk of lime to precipitate the albuminous substances present. 
The mixture is then filtered, evaporated to a thin syrup and allowed 
to crystallize. The product is finally purified by recrystallization. 
Cane-sugar occurs as white, hard, small crystals, which are 
odorless and have a purely sweet taste. It is soluble in water and 
much less so in alcohol. When heated to about 2100 C. it is con- 
verted to a black, almost tasteless, odorless, porous mass known 
as " caramel," which is used as a coloring agent. When heated 
to 1600 C. it fuses, and the liquid upon cooling forms an amorphous, 
transparent mass, known as " barley sugar." CARBOHYDRATES 
137 
Sugar is employed in the manufacture of syrups, masses, con- 
fections, troches, etc. It possesses a high nutritive value, but, since 
it contains no nitrogen, is incapable alone of sustaining life. 
LACTOSE, SUGAR OF MILK (ChHkOh.IW) 
" Saccharum Lactis " 
This compound is found almost exclusively in the milk of 
animals. It is prepared by freeing the milk from fat and casein, 
evaporating the remaining liquid (the " whey ") to small bulk, 
and allowing the milk-sugar to crystallize out. It occurs as a 
white, crystalline, gritty, hard powder or mass, having a faintly 
sweet taste, but no odor. It is soluble in water and insoluble in 
alcohol. 
Sugar of milk is a food and a diuretic. It is extensively em- 
ployed in preparing modified milk for bottle-fed infants. 
STARCH (CaHioOs)n 
" Amylum " 
Starch is found very widely distributed in the vegetable'king- 
dom, chiefly in seed of cereals, roots and stems. It is prepared 
from wheat, rice, potatoes, beans, sago, arrow-root, etc. The 
vegetable matter is ground up into a fine powder in order to break 
up the cells containing the starch grains. The powdered mixture 
is then steeped in water until soft, and is then washed on a sieve 
under a current of water. The water washes out the starch, leaving 
the fibrous matter behind. The starch deposits from the wash 
water and is then purified by further washing. 
Starch occurs as a fine, white, amorphous powder, which is 
slippery to the touch, tasteless, and insoluble in cold water and 
alcohol. When boiled with water it yields a white jelly, which 
gives a blue color with iodine. 
In medicine starch is used as a demulcent, dusting powder, 
a diet for invalids and convalescents, and as an antidote in iodine 
poisoning. It is also used in large quantities for making paste, 
starching fabrics, etc. 138 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
CELLULOSE (C6H10Os)n 
" Plant Fibre " 
The largest portions of the solid parts of plants are cellulose. 
It is very well fitted for the cellular membrane of plants because 
it is insoluble in most solvents, is not affected by alkaline or acid 
liquids, and is tough and flexible. Cotton, filter-paper, hemp, flax, 
etc., are nearly pure cellulose. 
Pure cellulose is a white, translucent, insoluble mass, and 
does not give a blue color with iodine. If treated with sulphuric 
acid it swells up and finally dissolves. 
Unsized paper (which is chiefly cellulose) dipped into a mixture 
of sulphuric acid and water, washed and dried, forms what is 
known as " parchment paper." 
" Mercerized cotton " is prepared by placing the material in a 
strong solution of sodium hydroxide and then washing with water. 
" Absorbent cotton " (official purified cotton) is nearly pure 
cellulose. It is prepared from raw cotton by boiling in a weak 
alkali solution to remove the fat, then bleaching with chlorinated 
lime, and finally washing with water and drying. 
" Medicated cotton " is prepared by impregnating absorbent 
cotton with a glycerin-alcoholic solution of the medicinal agent 
and drying. The alcohol is volatilized, but the glycerin remains 
and serves as an adhesive for retaining the medicinal agent on 
the cotton fibre. 
"Artificial silk" is made from " viscose," which is mercer- 
ized cellulose dissolved in carbon disulphide. 
Pyroxylin ^'soluble gun-cotton," "nitro-cellulose") is chiefly 
tetra-nitro-cellulose (Ci2Hi6O6(NO3)4). It is prepared by treating 
cellulose (cotton) with concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids. 
The sulphuric acid takes no part in the reaction, but simply 
absorbs the water formed. The reaction may be represented by 
the following equation: 
(CgHioOsh 
Cellulose 
+ 4HNO3 = 
Nitric acid 
C12Hi6O6(NO3)4 + 
Tetra-nitro-cellulose 
4H2O 
Water 
Di-, tri-, penta- and hexa-nitro-celluloses may also be manu- 
factured in the same manner by allowing the reactions to proceed CARBOHYDRATES 
139 
for different lengths of time. The penta-nitro-cellulose (C12H15O5 
(NO3)s) and the hexa-nitro-cellulose (Ci2Hi4O4(NO3)6) form the 
highly explosive gun-cotton. 
Wood silk is a mixture of cellulose and nitro-cellulose. 
Celluloid is prepared by dissolving soluble gun-cotton in 
molten camphor and cooling to hardness. 
Collodion is a solution of soluble gun-cotton in a mixture of 
alcohol and ether. 
Flexible collodion is a mixture of collodion, castor oil and 
Canada balsam. 
Styptic collodion is flexible collodion containing tannic acid. 
Cantharidal collodion (" blistering collodion ") contains the 
soluble principles of cantharides and possesses blistering properties. 
Collodions should be kept in a cool place away from fire. 
GLYCOGEN (CeH10O6)n 
" Liver-star ch " " Liver-dextrin " 
This compound is found mainly in animals. It is present in 
the liver, white blood-corpuscles, embryonic tissues, and muscular 
tissue. When pure, it is a white, tasteless, starch-like, amorphous 
substance and is insoluble in alcohol. With water it forms an 
opalescent solution. It gives a red color with iodine and may be 
converted into glucose. 
GLUCOSIDES 
This term is applied to a group of organic compounds which, 
under the influence of ferments, diluted acids or diluted alkalies, 
take up water and decompose with the formation of glucose and 
other products. The more important members of this group are: 
amygdalin (from bitter almond, cherry-laurel, etc.), absinthin 
(from wormwood), digitalin, (from digitalis), indican (a coloring 
principle), glycyrrhizin (from licorice), frangulin (from cascara 
bark), jalapin (from jalap and scammony-resin), myronic acid 
(from black mustard), salicin (from willow bark and leaves), 
santonin (from wormseed), saponin (from soap-bark, senega, 
sarsaparilla, etc.), and strophanthin (from strophanthus seed). CHAPTER XVIII 
ALKALOIDS AND PTOMAINES 
Alkaloids are found in the leaves, stems, roots, barks, and 
seeds of various plants. The term " Alkaloid " means alkali-like; 
i.e., alkaline or basic in reaction. They combine with acids to 
form salts. The volatile alkaloids have a disagreeable odor. 
Most of them are insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol. The 
solid alkaloids are white, crystalline solids and have a strong, 
bitter taste. All alkaloids have a very energetic physiological 
action. Most are precipitated by tannic and picric acids, and give 
color reactions with oxidizing agents, such as nitric acid, potassium 
dichromate, ferric chloride, etc. 
PILOCARPINE 
Found in the leaves of the plant Pilocarpus. It is a colorless 
to yellow, syrupy liquid, soluble in alcohol, water, and chloroform. 
The hydrochloride and hydrobromide are usually employed. 
The alkaloid and its salts are used in medicine as myotics, 
expectorants, and in hair tonics. 
With fuming nitric acid it gives a green color. 
NICOTINE 
Found in the tobacco plant, from 2 to 8 per cent, occurs in the 
leaves. It is a colorless to yellowish, oily liquid, turning brown on 
exposure to the air, has a pungent, disagreeable odor {old pipe) 
and a burning taste. It is soluble in water. 
It gives a violet color with hydrochloric acid. 
ATROPINE 
Found in the leaves and root of the plant Atropa Belladonna. 
It is a white, crystalline powder with a bitter taste and no odor. 
It is slightly soluble in water, but easily soluble in alcohol and 
chloroform. The sulphate and hydrobromide are usually em- 
ployed. Atropine dilates the pupil and diminishes secretions. 
140 ALKALOIDS AND PTOMAINES 
141 
With sulphuric acid, atropine yields a colorless solution, which, 
upon prolonged contact with potassium dichromate, yields a green 
solution. If this green solution is diluted with water and boiled, 
a pleasant odor, resembling that of roses and orange-flowers, is 
developed. 
HYOSCYAMINE 
Found with hyoscine in hyoscyamus (" henbane "). It re- 
sembles atropine in physical, chemical, and physiological prop- 
erties. The hydrobromide is official. 
COCAINE 
Found in the leaves of the South American shrub, Erythroxylon 
Coca. It occurs as a white, crystalline powder, slightly soluble in 
water, but easily soluble in alcohol. Particles placed on the 
tongue cause numbness and loss of sense of taste. The hydro- 
chloride is official and is usually employed. 
The compound is a local anaesthetic. 
QUININE 
Found in Cinchona bark. It is a white, crystalline solid with 
an extremely bitter taste. It is almost insoluble in water, but 
dissolves in alcohol. The sulphate, bisulphate, hydrobromide, 
hydrochloride, tannate and salicylate are the official salts. 
The alkaloid and its salts are used as antiperiodics, antipyretics, 
antiseptics, and tonics. 
A solution of quinine in diluted sulphuric acid displays a vivid, 
blue fluorescence. 
CINCHONINE 
Found in Cinchona bark. It is a white, crystalline solid having 
a bitter taste. It is insoluble in water, but easily soluble in alcohol. 
The sulphate is official. 
It is used like quinine. 
STRYCHNINE 
Usually obtained from Nux Vomica. It is a white, crystalline 
powder having an extremely bitter taste. It is almost insoluble 142 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
in water, but dissolves in alcohol and chloroform. The sulphate 
and nitrate are official salts. 
Strychnine is a bitter tonic, respiratory and spinal stimulant. 
Potassium dichromate added to a solution of strychnine in 
sulphuric acid gives a deep blue color, which rapidly changes to 
violet, then to cherry-red, and finally fades to yellow. 
MORPHINE 
A white, crystalline solid, odorless, and having a bitter taste. 
Soluble in 300 parts of alcohol, 5000 parts of water, and 100 parts 
of lime water. The acetate, hydrochloride, and sulphate are official. 
Opium is a concrete, milky exudation obtained from the unripe 
capsules of the poppy. It contains a large number of alkaloids, 
the most important being morphine and codeine. It is a con- 
stituent of " Paregoric " and " Laudanum." 
Morphine is a hypnotic, sedative, and narcotic. 
Nitric acid first reddens morphine and then turns it yellow. 
CODEINE 
White prisms or a crystalline powder, odorless, and having a 
faintly bitter taste. Soluble in 120 parts of water and 1.6 parts 
of alcohol. The phosphate and sulphate are official. 
Its action is similar to morphine. 
APOMORPHINE HYDROCHLORIDE 
This is a salt of an artificial alkaloid obtained from morphine, 
and comes in the form of a grayish-white, crystalline solid, which 
turns green on exposure, has a faintly bitter taste, and is soluble 
in water and alcohol. 
It is an emetic. 
DIONIN 
" Ethylmorphine Hydrochloride " 
This compound is the hydrochloride of the ethyl ester of mor- 
phine. It comes as a white powder, having a slightly bitter taste 
and no odor. It is soluble in water and alcohol. 
It is used as an ocular analgesic; also to check cough. ALKALOIDS AND PTOMAINES 
143 
HEROIN 
" Diacetyl-morphine " 
This is obtained by heating morphine and acetyl chloride. It 
occurs as a white powder, having a bitter taste. It is almost 
insoluble in water, but readily dissolves in hot alcohol. The 
hydrochloride is usually employed. 
It is a cough-sedative and hypnotic. 
PHYSOSTIGMINE 
" Eserine " 
Found in the seeds of the Calabar bean. It occurs as an odor- 
less, tasteless, white powder, which turns pink upon exposure. 
It is soluble in water and alcohol. The sulphate is official. 
It is used as a cathartic and an antagonist of atropine. 
ACONITINE 
Found in the tuberous root of the plant Aconite or " Monks- 
hood." It occurs as a white, crystalline powder with a feebly 
bitter taste. It is soluble in alcohol, chloroform, and ether, and 
is intensely poisonous. Highly-diluted solutions produce a tingling 
sensation on the tongue, but solutions should not be tasted. 
VERATRINE 
This is officially defined as an alkaloid or mixture of alkaloids 
obtained from the seeds of the plant Asagroea officinalis. It occurs 
as a white, amorphous, or crystalline powder, having a disagree- 
able, acrid taste. It is slightly soluble in water, but readily soluble 
in alcohol and chloroform. 
It is used as a local anaesthetic over neuralgic nerves. 
With sulphuric acid it gives a yellow color, turning scarlet and, 
finally, violet-red. 
HYDRASTINE 
Found in the roots of Hydrastis or " Golden Seal." It comes 
in the form of white prisms, soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloro- 
form, and slightly soluble in water. 
It is used to arrest hemorrhage from the uterus and to decrease 
profuse menstruation. 144 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 
CONIINE 
Found in the plant Conium or " Poison hemlock." It occurs 
as a colorless, oily liquid, having a mousy odor. It is soluble in 
alcohol, ether, and chloroform. The hydrobromide is usually 
employed. 
SPARTEINE 
This alkaloid is found in the plant Scoparius or " Broom." 
It is a colorless, oily liquid, turning brown on exposure to air 
and light. It has an aniline-like odor, and is soluble in water, 
alcohol, chloroform, and ether. The salts, chiefly the sulphate, 
are used. 
It is used as a cardiac sedative and in spasmodic asthma. 
CAFFEINE 
Found in tea, coffee, and parts of other plants. It occurs as 
soft, colorless, flexible, long, silky crystals, having no odor, but 
a bitter taste. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and chloroform. The 
citrate is official. 
It is a diuretic and stimulant. 
PTOMAINES, sometimes called "Animal alkaloids'' are the 
products of putrefaction of organic substances, especially animal 
matter. This decomposition or putrefaction is brought about by 
bacterial action, so we might say that ptomaines are the products 
of the action of bacteria on organic matter. In many ways they 
resemble alkaloids-so much so that it is difficult for the toxi- 
cologist to identify alkaloids in the presence of ptomaines. Pto- 
maines are poisonous and non-poisonous. 
ISOAMYLAMINE 
A colorless, alkaline liquid which is found in putrefying yeast 
and cod-liver oil. It is strongly poisonous, producing rigor, con- 
vulsions, and death. It is also found in ergot. 
CADAVERINE 
A syrupy liquid of unpleasant odor, found in decomposing 
animal tissue. It is not very poisonous, but produces severe 
inflammation. ALKALOIDS AND PTOMAINES 
145 
NEURINE 
Frequently occurs in decomposing meat. It is exceedingly 
poisonous even in small doses. Atropine readily counteracts it. 
TETANINE 
This compound may be obtained from the limb of a tetanus 
patient. It produces symptoms very similar to those of tetanus. 
TYROTOXICON 
This is a very highly poisonous ptomaine formed at times in 
milk, ice-cream, cheese, etc. 
LEUCOM AINES are alkaloidal products formed by the 
body-cells; that is, are products of metabolism or tissue-change, 
for example Epinephrine or "Adrenaline" which is obtained 
from the suprarenal glands. It is employed locally in medicine 
to shrink mucous membranes and to arrest hemorrhage; and 
internally as a circulatory stimulant in shock or collapse, and in 
the treatment of bronchial asthma. 
Some of the alkaloids and ptomaines are produced in both 
animals and plants, so that the dividing-line is rather artificial. PART IV 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY CHAPTER XIX 
PROTEINS 
Proteins are highly complex compounds of carbon, hydrogen, 
oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur; a few contain iron and phos- 
phorus. They occur as viscous solids or in solution in most parts 
of the body. They are an essential constituent of all normal diets, 
and have their sources as foods in both animal and vegetable 
substances. 
The analyses of a number of proteins give the following for 
an average percentage composition: 
Carbon 52.00 per cent. 
Hydrogen 7.00 per cent. 
Nitrogen 16.00 per cent. 
Oxygen 23.00 per cent. 
Sulphur 2.00 per cent. 
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS 
I. Simple proteins: as albumins, globulins, histones, etc. 
II. Conjugated proteins: as nucleoproteins, phosphoproteins, 
haemoglobins, etc. 
III. Derived proteins: as metaproteins, peptones, proteoses, 
peptids, etc. 
The white of egg is a familiar example of protein matter, being 
composed largely of albumin, with a small amount of globulin. 
Tests for Proteins.-Use a solution of about io parts of a 
2 per cent, sodium chloride solution (aqueous) and i part of the 
white of egg. 
i. Heat Test.-To 5 mils of protein solution add a few drops 
of acetic acid and heat. The protein is coagulated as a white, 
gelatinous mass. 
2. Heller's Test.-To 5 mils of protein solution add a few 
drops of nitric acid. The protein is coagulated as with heat. 
149 150 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
3. Xanthoproteic Test.-(Use dry protein.) Heat a small 
quantity of the protein with concentrated nitric acid. The protein 
turns yellow. Cool and neutralize with ammonium hydroxide. 
The color changes to orange. 
4. Biuret Test.-Boil a small portion of protein solution with 
5 mils of a 10 per cent, solution of sodium hydroxide and cool. 
Add one or two drops of a dilute solution of copper sulphate. 
A violet to pink coloration will result. Sometimes it is necessary 
to apply heat after adding the copper sulphate solution to obtain 
the color. 
5. Lieberman's Test.-To some dry protein add 5 mils of 
concentrated hydrochloric acid and warm. A deep blue to violet 
color develops. Upon standing the color disappears. CHAPTER XX 
FOODSTUFFS 
The following is the classification of foodstuffs generally used: 
i. Proteins: as lean meat, white of egg, etc. 
2. Carbohydrates: as sugar, starch, etc. 
3. Fats: as butter, lard, fat meat, etc. 
4. Water. 
5. Inorganic salts: as common salt, calcium phosphate, etc. 
The proteins are used largely for their nitrogen, the carbohy- 
drates for their carbon, the fats as heat producers, the water as a 
carrier and heat regulator, the inorganic salts for the construction 
of bones, and liberation of hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice. 
A well-balanced diet must contain a definite ratio, or approxi- 
mately so, of each of the above classes of food, according to climate, 
age, and the amount of work done by the individual. A large 
number of suggested ratios are in existence. Voit suggests the 
following for twenty-four hours: 
Protein 118 grammes, or 3.9 ounces 
Fat 100 grammes, or 3.3 ounces 
Carbohydrates 333 grammes, or 11.1 ounces 
This, as well as similar tables, is based on experiments which 
show the amount of food actually assimilated and cast off as waste 
products. The nutritive value of food depends largely on the 
amount of readily digestible carbon and nitrogen it contains. The 
oxygen used in nutrition is oxidized into carbon dioxide and exhaled 
by the lungs. A man doing ordinary work will give off daily 250 
to 280 grammes of carbon from the lungs in the form of carbon 
dioxide. The amount increases with an increase of labor. The 
nitrogen used in nutrition is broken up to form urea, mainly, and 
is eliminated by the kidneys in the urine. A man on normal diet 
eliminates 15 to 18 grammes of nitrogen daily in the form of urea. 
An increase in labor produces little or no change in the amount of 
151 152 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
urea excreted. By comparing the ratio of carbon and nitrogen 
used and eliminated we have carbon 250 or 280 grammes is 
to nitrogen 15 or 18 grammes; or about 16 parts of carbon to 1 
part of nitrogen. 
All foods that contain nitrogen usually contain available carbon 
also, so in selecting an ideal diet it is essential to know the available 
nutritive constituents of the food. G. N. Stewart recommends 
the following as a typical daily diet for a man doing normal work: 
Foodstuff 
Quantity 
Grammes of 
Grammes 
Ounces 
Nitrogen 
Carbon 
Proteins 
Carbohy- 
drates 
Fats 
Salts 
Lean meat.... 
250 
9 
8 
33 
55 
O 
8-5 
4-0 
Bread 
500 
18 
6 
112 
40 
241? 
7.S 
6.C 
Milk 
500 
% pint 
3 
35 
20 
25 
20.0 
3-5 
Butter 
30 
1 
0 
20 
0 
0 
27.0 
o.s 
Fat with meat 
30 
1 
0 
22 
0 
0 
300 
0.0 
Potatoes 
450 
16 
1.5 
47 
IO 
OC 
0.0 
Oatmeal 
75 
3 
1-7 
30 
IO 
48 
4.0 
2.0 
MILK 
Milk is often referred to as the " perfect food." This depends 
on the kind of milk and the individual for whom it is intended. 
For adults milk would have to be taken in very large quantities, 
and, besides, it is relatively too rich in protein and fat, and contains 
too little iron. The following comparison from Bunge is inter- 
esting : 
Woman's milk 
Cow's milk 
Per cent. 
Per cent. 
Proteins (chiefly caseinogen) .. 
^7 
3-5 
Butter (fat) 
3.4 
3.7 
Lactose (sugar) 
6.2 
4.9 
Salts 
0.2 
0-7 
It may be seen from this that cow's milk is too rich in protein 
and too poor in lactose for infants. This fault in cow's milk may 
be partially corrected by diluting it and adding sugar (lactose). FOODSTUFFS 
153 
MEAT 
Meat (lean) is the most concentrated and most easily assimi- 
lated of all nitrogenous foods. There is always a small amount of 
fat in all lean meat. The arrangement of the fat in the cell tissue 
causes some meat to be more easily digested than others. Lean 
pork is more difficult to digest than beef because the fat is so dis- 
tributed in the pork as to hinder the activity of the gastric and 
pancreatic juices. 
BREAD 
Bread is a representative type of carbohydrate food. It is 
composed of from 50 to 75 per cent, of starch. 
THE COOKING OF FOODSTUFFS 
The ideas of cooking foods have developed with the develop- 
ment of nations and individuals. Much cooking is unscientific 
and at times is largely a matter of personal taste and cultivation. 
Objects of Cooking 
1. To Destroy Bacteria.-Many raw foods are infected with 
harmful bacteria which may be destroyed by thorough cooking. 
2. To Render Starch Digestible.-Raw starch is surrounded by 
an insoluble capsule, which is not penetrated by digestive juices. 
Thorough cooking breaks down the walls of these capsules and 
allows the juices to digest the starch. 
3. To Render Meat Digestible.-The meat cells are joined 
together by an insoluble connective tissue called " collagen." 
Thorough cooking changes the insoluble collagen to soluble 
gelatine. By thus loosening the connective tissue, the muscular 
part of the meat, the important food element, is rendered accessible 
to the digestive juices. 
GREEN VEGETABLES 
The nutritive value of green vegetables is very small. They 
are taken rather as a palatable adjunct than as food. The per- 
centage of proteins in cabbage, turnips, etc., is from 1 to 2 per cent.. 154 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
and of carbohydrates, 2 to 4 per cent. Very large quantities have 
to be eaten to get much material of real food value. They, however, 
contain valuable mineral salts and act beneficially as diluents. 
TABLE OF CALORIFIC VALUES 
(After Frankland and Jurgensen) 
Calorific Value of 100 Grammes in Calories 
Apples 66.00 
Arrowroot 391.20 
Asparagus 18.50 
Bean-soup 193.00 
Beef, Raw 118.95 
Beef, Boiled 209.00 
Beef, Broiled 213.60 
Beef, Lean 156.70 
Beef-fat 906.90 
Bread-crumb 223.10 
Bread, Wheat 281.00 
Bread, Wheat, Toasted 258.80 
Butter 814.00 
Buttermilk 41.56 
Cabbage 43-40 
Cakes 374-00 
Carp 93-00 
Carrots 41.00 
Chicken-breast 106.40 
Cheese, Cheshire 464.70 
Cod-liver Oil 91 o. 70 
Cream 214.70 
Egg, Hard-boiled 238.30 
Egg, White of 67.10 
Egg, Yelk of 342-30 
Flour 393-6o 
Flounder 100.60 
Macaroni 352.60 
Mackerel 178.90 
Milk 66.20 
Milk, Skim 39.61 
Oatmeal 400.40 
Omelet 236.70 
Pea-meal 393.60 
Peas, Green 318.00 
Pigeon 99-70 
Potatoes 101.30 
Rice, Ground 318.30 
Salmon 133-30 
Sugar, Cane 334-8o 
Trout 106.40 
Veal Cutlets, Raw 142.45 
Veal Cutlets, Broiled 230.50 
Whiting 90.40 
Zwieback.; 357.80 CHAPTER XXI 
DIGESTION 
Digestion is the process of preparing the food for assimilation 
into the body tissue. It is both mechanical and chemical. In the 
mechanical process the food is disintegrated and propelled along 
the alimentary canal. Most of the food consumed has to undergo 
chemical change before assimilation takes place. These chemical 
changes are brought about by ferments or enzymes, for the most 
part, each ferment bringing about a specific chemical reaction. 
For convenience of study we classify digestion as: 
I. Salivary Digestion.-Salivary digestion takes place chiefly 
in the mouth. Here the mechanical digestion is greater than the 
chemical. Grinding the food and thoroughly mixing with the 
saliva are important. The saliva is secreted by glands leading into 
the mouth. It is a frothy, colorless, odorless, tasteless liquid, 
usually alkaline in reaction. The quantity secreted in a day 
varies from 600 to 1500 cubic centimetres. Its chemical composi- 
tion is given on page 166. 
Ptyalin is the active enzyme of saliva. Its function is to con- 
vert starch to maltose. Since this is the first action and the period 
of time is short, only a part of the starch undergoes this change. 
II. Gastric Digestion.-The food, after mastication, passes 
from the oesophagus into the stomach. The mechanical process 
here is one of kneading the mass and mixing it with the gastric 
juice. The gastric juice is a colorless liquid, having a sour taste 
and an acid reaction, due principally to the presence of hydro- 
chloric acid. Its composition is as follows: 
Per cent. 
Water 99.26 
Pepsin 0.30 
Hydrochloric acid (free) 0.22 
Salts 0.22 
The active enzymes of gastric juice are pepsin and rennin. 
Proteins are acted upon by pepsin, which changes them to pro- 
teoses and peptones. 
155 156 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
Rennin curdles milk. The hydrochloric acid gives the food the 
necessary acid reaction and promotes the solution of calcium and 
magnesium salts which are required for the growth of bone. 
HI. Intestinal Digestion.-Intestinal digestion is rather com- 
plex, several different secreted fluids being active: (a) pancreatic 
juice, (b) bile, (c) succus entericus or intestinal juice. 
Pancreatic juice varies too greatly in composition to give its 
analysis. It is a clear, thick, strongly alkaline fluid containing 
about io per cent, of solid constituents. Its alkalinity is due chiefly 
to sodium carbonate. Among its important constituents are: 
(a) amylopsin, which converts starch to maltose; (b) trypsin, 
which converts proteins to globulins, proteoses and peptones, the 
final products of the last being, however, antipeptones and leucin, 
tyrosin and other products; (c) steapsin, which changes the fats 
into fatty acids and glycerin; (d) a milk-curdling enzyme which 
has not been named. 
Bile is a yellow-brown to greenish-blue liquid, having a bitter 
taste and an alkaline reaction. It is highly complex in composition. 
It contains the " bile salts " sodium glycocholate and sodium tauro- 
cholate, which precipitate peptones in the small intestine, thus 
aiding in their absorption. It also contains cholesterin, lecithin, 
mucus, fat and two normal pigments: bilirubin, reddish-yellow, 
and biliverdin, green. The bile has but little chemical action on the 
food. It exerts an accentuating influence on the enzymes or fer- 
ments of the pancreatic juice, whose actions are doubled or even 
trebled, increases peristalsis and retards putrefaction. 
Succus entericus is the viscid, light-yellow, opalescent, strongly 
alkaline secretion of the lower intestines, and contains enzymes 
(maltase, invertase, eropsin, etc.) which are active to some degree 
on all classes of food. Its alkalinity aids in neutralizing the acid 
from the stomach, although it serves as an excellent medium for 
bacterial action. 
Absorption of the digested food takes place principally in the 
large and small intestines. Just how this absorption takes place 
is not definitely agreed upon. CHAPTER XXII 
THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE HUMAN BODY 
Twenty-one elements are normally found in the human body, 
and seventeen of these are constantly present. The following 
table gives the percentages of the elements: 
Element 
Percentage 
Oxygen 
72.00 
Carbon 
13-50 
Hydrogen 
9-00 
Nitrogen 
2.50 
Calcium 
i-3O 
Phosphorus 
I-I5 
Sulphur 
O-I43 
Sodium 
0.10 
Fluorine 
0.084 
Chlorine 
0.084 
Potassium 
0.025 
Magnesium 
0.0125 
Iron 
0.01 
Silicon 
0.002 
Manganese 
0.0005 
Iodine 
trace 
Arsenic 
trace 
Bromine 
trace 
Aluminium 
trace 
Lead 
trace 
Copper 
trace 
Note.-The first seventeen are those constantly present. 
The foregoing elements occur chiefly in combination, but 
oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen are also found in the free state, 
the oxygen and nitrogen being inhaled and swallowed, and the 
hydrogen being a product of putrefaction. Appreciable traces of 
iodine are found in the thyroid. Traces of manganese, arsenic, 
bromine, aluminium, lead and copper are occasionally found in the 
liver, which organ acts as a protector from poisons for the rest of 
the organism. Arsenic is found in the thyroid, thymus, brain, 
157 158 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
hair, and skin. Iron is the coloring matter of the blood, bile, hair, 
and skin pigments. It is present in organic combination as 
ferratin and hepatin in the liver. 
The ashes left after cremation (25000 C. for about 60 minutes) 
weigh from 4 to 6 pounds. The final products of decomposition 
of the body after death are simple compounds, such as water 
(H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S), ammonia 
(NH3), metallic chlorides, phosphates, and sulphates. Cadaveric 
alkaloids or ptomaines are intermediate products. 
The solid constituents of the body consist of about 17 per cent, 
inorganic and 83 per cent, organic matter. 
Water (H2O) is the most abundant of the compounds found 
in the body, constituting about 67.7 per cent, by weight. It acts 
as the solvent for absorption, secretion, and excretion, makes 
the tissues soft and elastic, and regulates body heat by evaporation. 
Hydrogen dioxide (H2O2) has been found in sweat and other 
body fluids. It is most likely formed by cell-decomposition, in 
which nascent hydrogen is liberated and unites with oxygen, 
producing hydrogen dioxide. The compound readily breaks down 
into water and nascent oxygen. 
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is formed in living cells by oxidation, 
and in the alimentary tract as a product of fermentation. It 
exists in the blood in combination with sodium. 
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is found in the intestines as a product 
of the putrefaction of proteins. It is also found in abscess 
cavities. 
Ammonia (NH3) is formed in the tissues by the union of 
hydrogen and nitrogen. It combines with carbon dioxide to form 
ammonium carbamate (NH4NH2CO2), which is decomposed into 
urea ((NH2)2CO) and water (H2O) in the liver. 
Methane (CH4), the only hydrocarbon found in the body, 
occurs as a product of the fermentation of cellulose, the putrefac- 
tion of proteins, and the decomposition of acetates. It is one of 
the gases that give rise to flatulence and colic. 
Of the chlorides, sodium chloride (NaCl) is present in all the 
fluids of the body and in all tissues except enamel, potassium CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HUMAN BODY 
159 
chloride (KC1) occurs in the blood-corpuscles and muscles prin- 
cipally, and calcium chloride (CaCl2) is one of the necessary 
constituents of the blood. 
Calcium fluoride (CaF2) is found chiefly in the teeth and bones. 
Sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium phosphates are 
found in almost every fluid and tissue. The acidity of the urine 
is largely due to the presence of monosodium-dihydrogen ortho- 
phosphate (NaH2PO4), while the alkalinity of the blood is partly 
due to disodium-monohydrogen orthophosphate (Na2HPO4). 
Ferric phosphate (FePO4) is a constituent of the gastric and intes- 
tinal juices, the pigment of the epithelium and hair, and of the bile. 
Sodium and potassium carbonates (Na2CO3 and K2CO3) are 
found in the blood, which they assist in making alkaline. They 
readily react with carbon dioxide, forming the bicarbonates. 
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is present in the teeth and bones, 
and forms the otoliths of the internal ear. 
Ammonium carbonate ((NH4)2CO3) is found only in traces 
in the blood. 
Small quantities of sodium, potassium and calcium sulphates 
(Na2SO4, K2SO4, and CaSO4O) are found in most parts of the body. 
Silica (SiO2) is present in very small amounts in the blood, 
urine, bones, and hair. 
Dextrose (C6Hi2O6) is the principal sugar of the blood and the 
muscles. It is derived mainly from starch and cane-sugar. 
Lactose (Ci2H220n) is the principal ingredient of woman's milk. 
When the milk-flow is obstructed, it may be found in the urine 
and blood. 
Glycogen, or " liver-starch " (C6Hi0O5)n, is present in the 
muscles and liver, as well as in tumors. Muscular work, hunger, 
and cold draw upon the supply of this compound that is stored up. 
Inosit, or " muscle-sugar " (CcH12O6), is present in the cardiac 
muscle, brain, kidneys and other organs. 
The fat of the body is in fluid condition, occurring as an emul- 
sion in the circulating fluids, as drops in special {adipose) cells, 
and in the interior of tissue cells. It is the product of the storage 
of food fats, as well as a derivative of carbohydrates and proteins. 160 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
The wrinkles of old age are caused by the loss of subcutaneous fat. 
Lecithin (C44H90NPO9) is a waxy, phosphorized fat found 
especially in the brain and nerves, as well as in milk and in every 
living cell. Protagon is a compound present in the brain, and 
contains lecithin and cerebrin (C17H33NO3). 
Formic acid (HCOOH) is found in sweat. Its salts (for- 
mates') are found in the blood and urine. 
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) is frequently found in the faeces. 
In certain diseases, like diabetes, it is found in the blood, urine, 
and sweat. 
Diacetic acid (CH2CH3COCOOH) and beta-oxybutyric acid 
(CH3CHOHCH2COOH) are probably products of fat-metab- 
olism, and are increased in diabetes and in other states associated 
with acidosis (excessive acid products in the blood or urine). 
Propionic acid (C2H6COOH) is found in the sweat, and, at 
times, in the stomach. 
Butyric acid (C3H7COOH) is found in faeces, and in the 
stomach contents in hypochlorhydria. This acid is frequently the 
cause of bad taste in the mouth. 
Oxalic acid ((COOH)2) is a product of the metabolism of 
nucleins and gelatines. 
Isovaleric acid (C4H9COOH) is found in the sweat of feet, 
and, in certain diseases, in the urine. It is foul-smelling. 
Capric or rutic acid (CH3(CH2)8COOH) and caprylic acid 
(CH3(CH2)6COOH) are found in milk-fat and perspiration. 
Stearic acid (C17H35COOH), oleic acid (C17H33COOH), and 
palmitic acid (C15H31COOH) are found in milk-fat, adipose tis- 
sue, and bile. 
Lactic acid (C2H4OHCOOH) is frequently found in the 
stomach and also in the faeces of infants. It is a product of 
fermented milk. 
Sarcolactic acid (CH2OH.CH2.COOH) is found in the blood, 
blood-glands, and muscles. When in excess it produces fatigue. 
Uric acid (C5H4N4O3) is excreted in the urine in daily amounts 
(normally) of from 0.2 to 0.8 gramme. Coffee, tea, cocoa, meat 
extracts, and the flesh of young animals increase the amount of 
uric acid. When the alkalinity of the blood is reduced, uric acid CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HUMAN BODY 
161 
is thrown out of solution and collects in the spleen, joints, and liver, 
the more acid tissues. This would take place normally during the 
winter, when meat is eaten freely. In the spring, when sweating 
is more profuse, the alkalinity increasing because of the excretion 
of fatty acids, the deposits of uric acid in the parts mentioned are 
swept out in the blood current, causing irritation of the nerves and 
producing what is popularly known as " that tired feeling." Uric 
acid is normally destroyed by oxidation to urea ((NH2)2CO) in the 
kidneys, liver, muscles, spleen, and blood. In gout the underlying 
factor is deficient oxidation of this acid. The pure acid comes in 
the form of white, tasteless, odorless crystals, soluble in 1900 parts 
of boiling and 15,000 parts of cold water, and almost insoluble in 
alcohol and ether. This latter property (comparative insolu- 
bility) is the cause of its separating out in solid state in the bladder 
and tissues. The acid is also found in the excrements of birds, 
mollusks, insects, and serpents, and in Peruvian guano. 
Fellic acid (C^HssCb), cholic acid (C-^H^Os), and choleic acid 
(C24H40O2) are protein derivatives, and have the power of forming 
salts, which dissolve the more insoluble fatty acids and soaps. 
Acetone ((CH3)2CO) is found in the blood and urine. In 
certain diseases, such as diabetes, the amount of this compound is 
increased. 
Phenol (C6H5OH), indol (C8H7N), and skatol (C8H5CH3NH) 
are formed in the intestines by the putrefaction of proteins. 
Creatine, a crystallizable alkaloid, C4H9N3O2, obtained from 
muscles, is excreted in the urine as creatinine; i.e., creatine minus 
water: C4H7N3O. It is a product of compound proteins. 
Tyrosin (C6H4OHC2H3(NH2)COOH) and leucin (amido- 
caproic acid) (C5H10NH2COOH) are products of tryptic diges- 
tion of peptones. They are oxidized to urea in the liver. 
Glycocoll, or amido-acetic acid (CH2NH2COOH), is another 
normal decomposition product of proteins. It exists in the bile 
as glycocholic acid (C26H43NO6) and in the urine with benzoic 
acid and hippuric acid (C9H9NO3). 
Urea ((NH2)2CO) normally occurs in the blood, muscles, and 
viscera (0.08 to 0.16 per cent.), and in the kidneys (0.67 per cent.). 162 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
Its principal site of origin is in the liver, where it is produced by 
the decomposition of ammonium carbamate ('NH4NH2CO2- 
H2O = (NH2)2CO), leucin, and glycocoll. It is the chief product 
of nitrogenous metabolism. 
Choline, or trimethyl-oxyethyl-ammonhydroxide ( NC2H4OH- 
(CH3)3OH), and neurine (choline minus water) are produced in 
the intestines by the action of bacteria on proteins. 
Taurin (NH2C2H4SO3H) is present in the muscles, spleen, 
bile, and suprarenal capsule as sodium taurocholate. 
Cholesterin (C27H45OH) is a product of nerve metabolism, 
as well as a product of the hydrolysis of carbohydrates by the 
gall-bladder and bile-passages epithelium. If more is formed 
than can be dissolved by the bile-salts, it crystallizes out, forming 
gall-stones. 
Bilirubin (C16H18N2O3) and biliverdin (Ci6Hi8N2O4) are the two 
normal bile-pigments. 
Melanins are brown and black sulphur-containing pigments 
found in the hair, the skin of negroes, and in some forms of tumors. 
EXPERIMENTS 
I. Tests for the More Common Metals 
(22) Test for Potassium. (Flame Test.)-Clean a platinum wire by- 
heating in the Bunsen flame until no color is imparted to the flame. Then 
dip the wire, avoiding contact with any other material or the fingers, into a 
solution of a potassium salt and heat again. A violet color will be imparted to 
the flame. 
(23) Test for Sodium. (Flame Test.)-Repeat as above, using a solution 
of a sodium salt. An intense yellow color will be imparted to the flame. 
(24) To Identify Potassium and Sodium when Occurring Together.- 
Sodium, because of the intense yellow color it imparts, will entirely cover the 
violet color that potassium imparts to the flame. Dip a clean wire in a solu- 
tion containing a sodium and a potassium salt, hold in the flame, and examine 
the flame by placing a blue glass before the eyes. The blue glass will "absorb 
the yellow rays and allow the passage of the violet only. 
(25) Test for Lithium. (Flame Test.)-Dip a clean wire in a solution of 
a lithium salt and hold in the flame. A carmine color will be imparted to 
the flame. 
(26) Test for Ammonium.-(a) Heat a solution of an ammonium salt, 
with enough potassium or sodium hydroxide to make it alkaline, in a test- 
tube, keeping the thumb over the mouth of the tube. Upon removing the 
thumb, the odor of ammonia gas can be easily perceived; or moistened red 
litmus paper held over the mouth of the tube (avoiding contact with the sides 
and contents) will become blue. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HUMAN BODY 
163 
(b) Nessler's Test for Ammonium.-An aqueous solution of red iodide 
of mercury (Hgl2) made alkaline with potassium hydroxide, when added to a 
colorless solution of an ammonium salt, gives a yellow color or precipitate. 
(27) Test for Calcium.-(a) Flame Test.-Calcium salts impart a 
yellow-red color to the colorless flame of the Bunsen burner. 
(b) Precipitation Test.-Add some solution of ammonium oxalate 
((N^^Ch) to a solution of a calcium salt. A white, crystalline precipitate 
of calcium oxalate (CaC2O4) will appear. The flame test may be carried out 
on the precipitate. 
(28) Test for Magnesium.-To a solution of a magnesium salt add enough 
ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) to make alkaline, then ammonium chloride 
(NH4CI) solution until clear, and, finally, some solution of sodium phosphate 
(Na2HPO4). A white, crystalline precipitate of magnesium ammonium 
phosphate (MgNH4PO4) will appear. 
(29) Test for Iron.-Iron salts may be ferrous or ferric. Ferric salts 
give a blood-red color with potassium thiocyanate (KSCN). Ferrous salts 
(if free from ferric) give no color. 
The Test.-If the salt under examination is a ferrous compound, add to 
its solution a few drops of nitric acid (HNO3), and boil so as to oxidize it to 
the ferric condition. Add some solution of potassium thiocyanate and note 
the formation of a blood-red color. 
(30) Test for Manganese.-To some solution of a manganese salt (use 
the sulphate) add a large excess of concentrated nitric acid (HNO3), heat 
nearly to boiling, and add some "red lead" (Pb3O4). Allow the mixture to 
stand. A purple-colored solution will result, due to the formation of per- 
manganic acid (HMnO4). 
II. Tests for the More Common Acids 
(31) Test for Hydrochloric Acid and Soluble Chlorides.-Make the solu- 
tion acid with diluted nitric acid (HNO3), and add some solution of silver 
nitrate (AgNOs). A white, curdy precipitate, blackening upon exposure to 
light, will form. The white precipitate is silver chloride (AgCl). 
(32) Test for Sulphuric Acid and Soluble Sulphates.-Make the solution 
acid with diluted hydrochloric acid (HC1), and add some barium chloride 
(BaCl2) solution. A heavy, white, crystalline precipitate of barium sulphate 
(BaSCh) will appear. 
(33) Test for Phosphoric Acid and Soluble Phosphates.-Add some 
solution of ammonium molybdate ((NH4)2MoO4), and warm. A yellow, 
crystalline precipitate will appear. , (Arsenic and silicic acid interfere with 
this reaction.) 
(34) Test for Carbonic Acid and Carbonates.-Add to the solution or 
the solid substance diluted hydrochloric acid (HC1). A colorless, odorless 
gas is given off, which is carbon dioxide (CO2). If the gas is passed into some 
clear lime water (Ca(OH)2), it will become turbid, due to the formation of 
calcium carbonate (CaCO3). 
(35) Test for Hydrosulphuric Acid and Sulphides.-Add to the substance 
some diluted sulphuric acid (H2SO4). A gas, having a strong, disagreeable 
odor, and which will blacken paper moistened with a solution of lead acetate 
(Pb(C2H3O2)2), is liberated. The gas is hydrogen sulphide (H2S). 
(36) Test for Nitric Acid and Soluble Nitrates.-Add some solution of 
ferrous sulphate (FeSO4) to the nitrate solution, and then pour in some con- 
centrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4) so as to form a separate layer. (Pour the 
acid slowly and carefully down the side of the tube.) A brown zone or ring 
will be formed at the junction of the two layers of liquid. 164 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
(37) Test for Oxalic Acid and Soluble Oxalates.-Add some solution of 
calcium chloride (CaCl2) to the oxalate solution. A white, crystalline pre- 
cipitate of calcium oxalate (CaQCh) will be formed. This precipitate is 
soluble in diluted hydrochloric acid (HC1), but is insoluble in acetic acid 
(CH3COOH). 
(38) Test for Hydriodic Acid and Soluble Iodides.-Make the solution of 
the iodide acid with hydrochloric acid (HC1), add some chloroform (CHC13), 
and then add chlorine water, drop by drop, and shake. The chloroformic 
layer will settle to the bottom of the tube as a violet layer, the color being due 
to the liberated iodine. 
(39) Test for Hydrobromic Acid and Soluble Bromides.-Make this 
test in the same manner as for hydriodic acid. In this case the chloroformic 
layer will be reddish-yellow, due to the liberation of bromine. 
(40) Test for Boric Acid and Soluble Borates.-Make the solution of the 
borate acid with concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4), add some alcohol 
(C2H5OH), and apply a flame to the liquid. The mixture will bum with a 
green flame. 
COMPOSITION OF BONE 
Water 50.00 
Fat 15.75 
Ossein 11.40 
Bone earth or mineral 22.85 
Composition of Bone Earth or Mineral 
Tri-calcium phosphate (Ca3 (PC>4)2) 85.80 
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) 8.50 
Calcium fluoride (CaF2) 3.20 
Magnesium phosphate (Mg3 (PO4)2) 1.50 
Sodium chloride (NaCl) I 
Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)J 
The following experiments may be carried out on bone: 
(41) Test for Water.-Heat some bone in a dry test-tube and notice if 
water vapor condenses on the sides of the tube and escapes from the 
mouth. , 
(42) Test for Ammonia.-Test the gases evolved from the heated bone 
with moistened red litmus paper. The paper will become blue, and the odor 
of ammonia gas will be recognized. 
(43) Oils and Tar.-No chemical test will be used. Simply notice the 
odor, color, reaction, etc., of the material in the tube after the ammonia test 
is carried out. 
(44) Tests for Metals and Acids.-Heat some pieces of bone in a dry test- 
tube until a black, solid mass is left ("bone black"). Place the black residue 
in a crucible and continue heating until the carbon is burned away and "bone 
ash" is left. Use this ash for the following tests: 
I. Dissolve some of the bone ash in diluted nitric acid (HNO3). Use the 
resulting solution for the following: 
II. Divide the acid solution obtained above (I) into four portions: 
a. Test one portion for sodium by means of the flame test described 
above (23). CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HUMAN BODY 
165 
b. To another portion add ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) until 
alkaline, and then add acetic acid (CH3COOH) until acid in 
reaction. Now add some ammonium oxalate ((NH4)2C2O4) 
solution in excess. Heat the mixture and filter. A white, 
crystalline precipitate proves the presence of calcium. The 
precipitate is calcium oxalate (CaCzCh). Save the filtrate and 
cool. 
bl. To the cooled filtrate obtained above (5) add a few drops of 
ammonium oxalate solution to insure the precipitation of 
all the calcium. Then add some sodium phosphate (Na2- 
HPO4) solution and make alkaline with ammonium hy- 
droxide (NH4OH). A fine, white, crystalline precipitate 
of magnesium ammonium phosphate (MgNH4PO4) will 
appear, proving the presence of magnesium. 
c. Test a third portion of the acid solution for hydrochloric acid as 
described under "Tests for the More Common Acids" (31). 
d. Test a fourth portion for phosphoric acid as described above 
under the acid tests (33). 
III. Test some of the bone ash for carbonic acid in the manner described 
above, (34). 
(45) Test for Sulphur.-Fuse some pieces of bone with some sodium car- 
bonate (Na2CO3) and some sodium nitrate (NaNO) in a test-tube. Then 
cool and add some distilled water to the mass; warm and filter if necessary. 
To the liquid add some diluted hydrochloric acid (HC1) to make acid, and then 
some solution of barium chloride (BaCl2). A white, crystalline precipitate of 
barium sulphate (BaSO4) will appear and indicates sulphur. 
(46) Test for Fat.-Shake a piece of bone with some ether ((C2H6)2O) in a 
test-tube; pour off the ethereal layer and allow it to evaporate in a dish. 
Heat the residue left over the open flame. A strong, pungent odor (of acrolein) 
indicates fat. 
(47) Test for Ossein.-Place a rather long, narrow bone in some diluted 
hydrochloric acid (HC1) (1 part of HC1 to 20 of H2O), and allow the mixture 
of bone, acid, and water to stand a day or two. Remove the bone. It will be 
noticed that the shape and size of the bone are retained, but that it can be 
tied into a knot. The acid has dissolved out the inorganic salts, leaving the 
ossein, which is a mixture of collagen and elastin.' 
SALIVA 
Saliva is a mixture of secretions from the parotid, submaxillary, 
and sublingual glands and mucous glands of the oral cavity. It 
is normally an opalescent, odorless, tasteless, colorless liquid, 
slightly alkaline to litmus, but acid to phenolphthalein, owing to 
carbon dioxide. It is acid (lactic) in the morning before break- 
fast, and sometimes after much talking. It may be constantly 
acid from oral fermentation, mercurial salivation, in rheumatism, 
diabetes, fevers, and indigestion. It is intensely alkaline in ulcera- 
tive stomatitis. There is some mucus mixed with it. The specific 
gravity varies from 1.002 to 1.009. 166 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
Composition 
Water 994.00 
Solids 6.00 
When allowed to stand, a sediment collects in the bottom of 
the vessel. This sediment consists of epithelial cells, corpuscles, 
etc. An examination of the sediment of mixed saliva shows the 
following: 
Epithelium and mucus 2.18 
Fat.. 0.07 
Mucin 1.45 
Ammonium thiocyanate 0.01 
Sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium phosphate 2.29 
To Collect Saliva.-First wash out the mouth with water to 
remove foreign substances; then collect saliva. To increase the 
flow, a piece of clean rubber may be chewed. Carry out the 
following tests on the collected saliva: 
EXPERIMENTS 
(48) Note the color, odor, appearance, sediment, reaction, specific gravity. 
(49) Test for Albumin.-Heat some clear saliva (filter first if necessary). 
A turbidity or cloudiness at the upper part of the test-tube indicates albumin. 
(50) Test for Thiocyanates.-Put some saliva into a test-tube, add a few 
drops of diluted hydrochloric acid (HC1), shake, and add a few drops of ferric 
chloride (FeCl3) solution. A blood-red color indicates thiocyanates. The 
color is due to Fe(SCN)3, ferric thiocyanate. 
(51) Test for Ptyalin (Starch Ferment).-(I) Ptyalin may be'precipitated 
from saliva by adding alcohol (C2H5OH). 
(II) Add some starch paste to some saliva and heat on a water-bath at 
a temperature of about 400 C. for several minutes. Make sure that the saliva 
is slightly alkaline. Divide the heated mixture into two parts and examine 
as follows: 
a. Test one portion for starch by adding a little diluted solution of 
iodine. If any starch is present, a blue color will develop. 
b. Test the second portion for dextrose, using "Fehling's test" as 
described on page 171. 
(52) Test for Carbonates.-Shake some saliva with some clear lime water 
and filter the mixture. Add to the precipitate on the filter-paper some diluted 
hydrochloric acid (HC1). Note the effervescence, which indicates carbonates. 
(53) Test for Metals and Bases.-Make some saliva alkaline with am- 
monium hydroxide (NH<OH), warm, filter, and dissolve the precipitate on the 
paper in diluted nitric acid (HNO3). Divide this acid solution into one small 
(H) and one large (%) portion. 
a. Use the smaller portion for tests for potassium, sodium, sul- 
phates, chlorides, and phosphates as described under "Tests 
for the More Common Metals" and "Tests for the More Com- 
mon Acids," pages 162, 163, and 164. 
b. Use the larger portion for tests for calcium and magnesium as 
described under "Bone." CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HUMAN BODY 
167 
(54) Test for Uric Acid and Urates.-Sometimes it is well to test for 
uric acid and urates. The " Murexid Test" described on page 171, is usually 
employed. 
(55) Test for Mercury.-Collect an abundant supply of saliva, place it 
in a dish, add diluted hydrochloric acid (HC1), heat on a water-bath for some 
time, and then filter. Save both filtrate and insoluble residue. 
a. Residue.-Transfer the residue to a beaker, add diluted hydro- 
chloric acid (HC1) and heat to boiling, adding some crystals of 
potassium chlorate (KC103). Heat again until the odor of 
chlorine disappears. Filter the mixture and add to the filtrate 
some stannous chloride (SnCh) solution. A white precipitate 
(HgCl), which becomes black upon the further addition of 
stannous chloride, indicates mercury. 
b. Filtrate.-Place in the filtrate a piece of clean, bright copper foil, 
and allow to stand. Remove the foil after a time. If a grayish 
deposit has formed on it, mercury is indicated. 
BLOOD 
The blood is essentially a yellow solution called plasma, with 
suspended bodies or platelets called red corpuscles and white cor- 
puscles. Blood which has been removed from the blood-vessels 
and exposed to the atmosphere under ordinary conditions coagu- 
lates. The coagulation is due to the formation of fibrin, a web-like 
substance which holds in its meshes the red and white corpuscles 
and separates them from the remaining liquid substance, which is 
called serum. The specific gravity is about 1.055. Blood is 
alkaline in reaction. 
The coagulation of blood may be hindered or prevented by the 
addition of certain compounds. Among these may be mentioned 
sodium sulphate (Na2SO4), magnesium sulphate (MgSO4), and the 
oxalates. The action of the oxalates is due to the precipitation of 
the calcium salts which are present in blood and are necessary for 
the formation of fibrin. 
The following is the composition of plasma: 
Water 90.29 
Solids 9.71 
Proteins (to yield fibrin) 0.40 
Proteins (other) 7.86 
Extractive fats 0.566 
Inorganic salts 0.884 
The white corpuscles, or, as they are sometimes called, leuco- 
cytes, are typical animal cells. The red corpuscles are made up 
largely of water and haemoglobin (the coloring matter) and are 
the oxygen-carrying constituents of the blood. 168 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
SWEAT 
Sweat is secreted by the sweat-glands, and the volatile portions 
pass off as vapor or are deposited as drops on the skin. It is a 
turbid, salty fluid, with a characteristic odor due to certain volatile, 
fatty acids. Its reaction is usually slightly acid, due to the pres- 
ence of acid salts; but in profuse sweating it may be neutral or 
alkaline. 
Composition of Sweat 
Water 98.88 
Solids 1.12 
Salts 0.57 
Sodium chloride 0.32 
Other salts 0.25 
Fats 0.30 
Epithelium 0.17 
Urea 0.08 
The amount of sweat secreted by a man varies from one and a 
half to four pounds daily. The quantity varies with the tempera- 
ture and the amount of exercise taken. 
One of the functions of the skin is to regulate the temperature 
of the body. When a liquid passes into the vaporous condition, 
heat is absorbed. If the finger is dipped in ether and removed, a 
cool sensation follows, due to the evaporation of ether and absorp- 
tion of heat from the finger. In like manner the body temperature 
is lowered when liquid sweat evaporates on the skin, because of the 
absorption of heat from the body. Some drugs, like the iodides, 
bromides, antipyrine, etc., are excreted in small amounts by the 
sweat. CHAPTER XXIII 
URINE AND URINALYSIS 
Urine is a fluid secreted by the kidneys. The average amount 
of urine for an adult daily ranges from 1000 to 1500 Cc. Of this 
amount about 2.8 per cent, is urea, 95 per cent, water, and the 
remaining 2.2 per cent, is made up of inorganic and organic salts, 
the larger portion being sodium chloride. Normal urine is a trans- 
parent, pale yellow or amber fluid, usually acid in reaction, and 
having a characteristic odor. The average specific gravity is 1.020, 
when passed in quantity of 1500 Cc. in twenty-four hours. The 
color varies with the season, the amount of liquid taken into the 
body, etc. The acid reaction is due to sodium phosphate 
(NaH2PO4) principally, although acetic, uric, and hippuric acid 
salts are also present. 
Chemical Analysts 
Water 950.00 
Urea 28.00 
Uric acid 0.60 
Hippuric acid 0.35 
Creatinine 0.60 
Extractives 8.50 
Sodium chloride 7.50 
Phosphoric acid 2.00 
Sulphuric acid 1.25 
Lime (CaO) 0.25 
Magnesia (MgO) 0.35 
Potash and soda 0.60 
Pathological urine has a varying composition, depending on 
the abnormal condition which gave rise to it. The analysis of 
urine often lends aid in diagnosis. In selecting a specimen of 
urine for examination it should be a part of the whole twenty-four 
hours' urine, otherwise the specific gravity, color, reaction, and 
other properties may vary. Sugar and albumin are more com- 
monly excreted after a meal, and may be found then, yet not be 
present in the night's urine. 
169 170 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
The color, odor, general appearance (whether clear, smoky, 
cloudy, turbid, etc.), reaction (acid, alkaline, neutral), quantity 
passed in twenty-four hours, and the specific gravity are first noted. 
As already stated, the average specific gravity is 1.020. A 
low specific gravity (1.010) indicates some pathological condition 
like nephritis, etc., while a high specific gravity (1.030) indicates 
diabetes (dextrose). 
EXAMINATION FOR INORGANIC MATTER 
Evaporate some urine to dryness on a water-bath, ignite the 
brown residue over the open flame to destroy the organic matter, 
dissolve the residue in some distilled water with the aid of a small 
amount of diluted nitric acid, and test parts of the resulting solu- 
tion for potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron, hydrochloric 
acid, sulphuric acid, and phosphoric acid as with saliva (pages 166 
and 167). Test also for ammonium compounds, using lime water 
(Ca(0H)2) in the place of potassium hydroxide. 
DETERMINATION OF UREA ((NH2)2CO) 
Urea is usually determined quantitatively with an instrument 
called a " Ureometer " (see Figs. 39 and 40). Fill the ureometer 
with the hypobromite solution, 
then slowly introduce with the 
special pipette one cubic cen- 
timetre of the urine, allowing 
the gas that is liberated to 
collect in the longer arm of the 
tube. Read off the number 
of divisions of the ureometer 
occupied by the gas. Each 
division represents 1 milli- 
gramme of urea for the quan- 
tity of urine used (1 Cc.). 
The weight of the urine can be calculated from its specific gravity, 
and the percentage of urea can be determined from this weight 
and the weight of urea found in one cubic centimetre. 
Fig.39 - Doremus 
ureometer. 
Fig. 40.-Doremus- 
Hinds ureometer. URINE 
171 
TEST FOR URIC ACID 
Make some urine acid with hydrochloric acid and allow it to 
stand for some time. The uric acid will be set free and crystallize 
out in the bottom of the vessel as hard grains, somewhat resembling 
sand. The Murexid test may then be carried out on these crystals, 
which can be removed by filtration or decantation. Place some 
of the crystals in a dish, add one or two drops of concentrated 
Fig. 41.-Ruhemann's uricometer. 
nitric acid, and evaporate to dryness on a water-bath. Cool and 
add one drop of ammonium hydroxide. A bright purple color 
(due to ammonium purpurate) indicates uric acid. 
A rapid quantitative determination of uric acid may be made 
by using Ruhemann's uricometer (Fig. 41). 
ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS 
Of the abnormal constituents of urine, the following are more 
commonly determined: 
1. Albumin 
Carry out the heat and Heller's tests, as described under 
proteins (page 149), on portions of urine. 
An albuminometer (Fig. 42) may be employed for a quanti- 
tative determination. 
2. Dextrose 
The reagent known as "Fehling's solution " is usually employed 
to show the presence of dextrose. It consists of two separate parts. 
Make Fehling's solution as follows: 
Solution 1.-Dissolve 34.67 grammes of pure copper sulphate 
in enough distilled water to make 500 mils. Place in bottle. 
Solution 2.-Dissolve 173 grammes of crystalline potassium and 
sodium tartrate (" Rochelle salt ") and 75 grammes of potassium 
hydroxide in enough water to make 500 mils. Place in rubber- 
stoppered bottle. 172 
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 
Equal volumes of Solutions i and 2 are well mixed and used 
for the test. 
Fehling's Test.-Take 5 mils each of Solutions 1 and 2 in a test-tube and 
boil. Then add a few drops at a time of the urine under examination and boil 
again. Allow the mixture to stand, and note if there is any red or yellow pre- 
cipitate (CU2O), which indicates the presence of dextrose. It may be necessary 
to add urine several times and to boil after each addition before any precipitate 
appears, especially if the amount of dextrose is very small. 
The saccharometer (Fig. 43) and the urine 
glucosometer (Fig. 44) may be employed for quai 
titative estimations. 
3. Acetone 
"Legal's test" may be carried out as follow 
To a quarter test-tube full of urine add a fe 
drops of a fresh, 
concentrated solu- 
Fig. 42.-Esbach's 
albuminometer. 
Fig. 43.-Einhorn's fermenta- 
tion saccharometer. 
tion of sodium nitroprusside (Na2Fe(CN)5NO) and a few drops 
of acetic acid (to prevent a reaction with creatinine), and then 
make the mixture alkaline with ammonium hydroxide. The 
gradual development of a red color, deepening to purple-red, 
indicates acetone. 
4. Excessive Urea and Uric Acid 
Excessive amounts of urea and uric acid would be determined 
by means of the ureometer and uricometer (Figs. 39, 40, and 41). URINE 
173 
Indican (indoxyl-potassium sulphate, CsH6NO.SO2OK) is nor- 
mally found in urine in daily amounts of about 6.6 milligrammes. 
Pathogenic conditions give rise to excessive amounts of the com- 
pounds. The following test may be carried out. Add to one-eighth 
test-tube full of urine one-quarter as much hydrochloric acid and a 
few small crystals of potassium nitrate. Boil the mixture, allow it to 
cool, and shake with 2 mils of chloroform. Allow the chloroform 
to settle. If indican is normal in amount, the chloroformic layer 
will be colorless. If indican is in excess, the chloroformic layer 
will be colored from a light blue to a deep purple. (Iodides, taken 
internally, interfere with this test, since they will color the chloro- 
formic layer blue; however, in the case of the blue color being 
due to iodides, sodium thiosulphate solution (Na2S2O3) will 
decolorize the mixture.) 
6. Blood 
Blood in the urine usually manifests itself by imparting a 
blood-red or brownish color with a bluish, greenish, or smoky 
tint, unless present in but slight amounts. It may be detected 
by making the sample alkaline with sodium hydroxide and boiling. 
In the presence of blood the precipitated phosphates are colored red. 
Bile-pigments and other coloring matters may interfere; in such 
cases, filter off the precipitate, wash, and dissolve it in acetic acid. 
In the presence of blood-pigment the resulting solution becomes 
red, but the color gradually disappears upon exposure to light. 
7. Bile 
Bile may be tested for by mixing the urine, contained in a 
test-tube, with a concentrated solution of sodium nitrate, and 
carefully pouring down the side of the tube concentrated sulphuric 
acid in such a manner as to form a distinct layer. At the point 
of contact of the two layers of liquid a play of color is seen, the 
colors changing from green to blue, violet-red, and yellow-green. 
Although the appearance of all the colors mentioned is not essen- 
tial for the establishment of the presence of bile, it is indispensable 
that the green color appear first to prove its presence. 
5. Excessive Indican PART V 
FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS 
DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND 
ANTISEPTICS CHAPTER XXIV 
FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS 
The term 11 fermentation " is used to designate the chemical 
decomposition which takes place in organic substances due to the 
presence of microorganisms or to " enzymes " (i.e., certain excre- 
tions of microorganisms or secretions of living tissue). The agents 
that produce such chemical decomposition are known as "fer- 
ments." (They were so named because of the effervescence 
resulting from the treatment of weak sugar solutions with yeast.) 
Ferments are probably present in every cell, and take part in 
the vital changes. The liver contains eleven ferments. The 
spontaneous decomposition of bodies (autolysis) is due to the 
action of normal ferments in dead tissue. 
When flour is mixed with water a tough " dough " is obtained, 
because of the presence of gluten, a protein, in the flour. (Gluten 
derived its name from the fact that it becomes glue-like in consist- 
ence when moistened with water.) If such dough is baked without 
further treatment, a hard mass is obtained. However, if the dough 
is allowed to stand exposed to the air, it undergoes changes due 
to the presence of yeast-cells and lactic acid bacilli that fall in from 
the air. These organisms grow and multiply, the lactic acid bacilli 
acting on the starch of the flour and converting it to glucose, and 
the yeast-cells causing the conversion of the glucose to alcohol 
and carbon dioxide. 
The conversion of glucose to alcohol and carbon dioxide may 
be represented by the following equation: 
CgHnOe 
Glucose 
= 2C2H6OH + 
Alcohol 
2CO2 
Carbon dioxide 
This process, then, is a " fermentation process," and the 
agents causing the fermentation are ferments. 
The carbon dioxide gas produced in the dough cannot escape 
from the pasty mass, and causes the dough to rise-, that is, to 
12 177 
177 178 
FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS 
swell up in bubbles, in its efforts to escape. When the dough is 
baked the heat (1) causes the evaporation of the alcohol, (2) makes 
the bread spongy, (3) breaks up those starch grains that have not 
been affected by the ferment, and (4) causes the conversion of 
some of the starch of the outer portions (which have become much 
hotter than the inner portions) into dextrine, which is pasty in 
consistence and adheres to starch grains and other constituents 
of the bread forming the crust. 
" Black bread " is made by allowing bread dough to stand in 
the air for some time to sour, the souring being caused by the 
formation of lactic and other organic acids. Fresh yeast is usually 
employed for making " white bread." 
As substitutes for yeast " baking powders " are used. These 
powders contain ingredients which, in the presence of water, react 
and liberate carbon dioxide gas, which permeates the dough and 
causes it to rise. Some baking powders consist of a mixture of 
sodium bicarbonate, calcium acid phosphate, and starch. When 
this mixture is kneaded into the dough, the water present brings 
on a reaction between the sodium and calcium salts with the pro- 
duction of carbon dioxide gas in such amounts that the dough 
becomes spongy and ready for baking. The starch in a baking 
powder takes no part in the reaction, but simply gives bulk to the 
mixture. Other powders contain tartaric acid and sodium bicar- 
bonate, potassium bitartrate (" cream of tartar ") and sodium 
bicarbonate, or " burnt alum " and sodium bicarbonate. The 
equations illustrating the reactions that take place with the 
powders follow: 
CaH4(PO4)2 + 
Calcium 
acid 
phosphate 
2NaHCO3 
Sodium 
bicarbonate 
= CaHPO4 
Calcium 
monohydrogen 
phosphate 
+ Na2HPO4 
Disodium 
phosphate 
+ 2CO2 
Carbon 
dioxide 
+ 2H2O 
Water 
H2C4H4O6 
Tartaric 
* acid 
+ 2NaHCO3 
Sodium 
bicarbonate 
- Na2C4H4O3 
Sodium 
tartrate 
+ 2CO2 + 
Carbon 
dioxide 
2H2O 
Water 
KHC4H4O6 4- 
Potassium 
bitartrate 
NaHCO3 
Sodium 
bicarbonate 
= KNaC4H4O6 
Potassium 
and 
sodium 
tartrate 
+ C02 
Carbon 
dioxide 
+ h2o 
Water FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS 
179 
2KA1(SO4)2 
"Burnt alum'' 
+ 6NaHCO3 
Sodium 
bicarbo- 
nate 
= 2A1(OH)3 
Aluminum 
hydroxide 
+ 3Na2SO4 
Sodium 
sulphate 
+ K2SO4 + 
Potas- 
sium 
sulphate 
6CO2 
Carbon 
dioxide 
Of course, the process described in this paragraph would not be 
called fermentation, since the decomposition was not effected by 
microorganisms or enzymes. 
If liquids that contain small amounts of fermentable sugars1 
are exposed to the air, they undergo decided changes in properties 
and composition. (Very concentrated solutions of sugar are not 
readily affected by such treatment, but instead possess preserva- 
tive properties.) The change produced is caused by the yeast 
organism (Saccharomyces cerevisice). The products of the change 
are alcohol and carbon dioxide. 
The juice of fresh grapes is the most easily fermentable liquid. 
It contains grape-sugar (C6Hi2O6), and, in addition, those sub- 
stances required for the growth of the yeast organism. The 
product of the fermentation of grape juice is called wine. The 
quantity of grape-sugar in the juice of different kinds of grapes 
varies, therefore the quantity of alcohol in wines also varies. There 
is a limit to the natural alcoholic percentage of a wine, for, when 
the fermenting liquid reaches about 16 per cent, by volume of 
alcohol, the yeast organisms die. Those wines which contain more 
than this percentage of alcohol by volume have been " fortified 
i.e., alcohol has been added. Fortification is usually carried out 
to make the wine keep better. The aroma which develops as the 
wine ages is due to the formation of certain organic compounds 
produced through the agency of bacteria. Small quantities of bac- 
teria have been found in bottled wines thirty and forty years old. 
Cider and perry are the alcoholic liquids obtained by the fer- 
mentation of the juices of apples and pears. Since the juices of 
these fruits contain only very small quantities of sugar, the product 
of their fermentation would be very poor in alcohol; therefore 
sugar is added to the juice before fermenting. 
1 Not all sugars are directly fermentable. Cane- and milk-sugar cannot 
be fermented directly. However, if fermentation is begun in a mixture con- 
taining either of these sugars, they are converted into fermentable sugars. 180 
FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS 
Champagne (from the name of the district where this wine was 
prepared since the seventeenth century) is prepared by allowing 
the juice of grapes to ferment and pouring the fermenting juice, 
after the first energetic fermentation is over, into bottles, which 
are immediately corked tightly. More carbon dioxide gas is 
generated as the " after-fermentation " proceeds in the bottle, 
and the wine becomes highly charged with carbon dioxide. (This 
excess of gas causes the popping sound when the bottles are 
opened.) The bottled wine is kept for some time before marketing. 
Champagne contains from 8 to xo per cent, of alcohol and is high 
in sugar content. Cheap " champagnes " can be purchased, but 
these are made by simply charging sweetened, light white wines 
with carbon dioxide gas in the same manner as in making " soda 
water." The product is immediately placed on the market. 
Beer is the product of fermentation of an infusion of farina- 
ceous grains with various bitter materials, or we may say that it 
is the alcoholic beverage resulting from the fermentation of malted 
barley and hops. Lager beer is the name applied to any beer that 
has been stored several months. Bock beer is an extra strong 
beer brewed for spring use and made in limited quantities, not 
being intended for storage. Ale is really the English name for 
beer. It is usually lighter in color and contains a higher percentage 
of sugar than lager beer. Porter is a dark ale, the deep color of 
which is due to the use of brown malt dried at a high temperature. 
Stout is an extra strong porter, containing a high percentage of 
alcohol. The percentage of alcohol in beer varies from about 
3 to 7. 
In the manufacture of beer two distinct processes are involved, 
viz., " malting " and " brewing." Malt is made by steeping 
barley in water and then placing it in cellars, where the temperature 
is not too low, until it sprouts. During the sprouting the ferment 
diastase, which has the power of converting starch to sugar, is 
formed. When the sprouts have reached a certain length, the 
barley is spread out in layers and dried by heat. This dried product 
is malt. The object of malting is the production of diastase. The 
malt contains much more of the ferment than is necessary to FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS 
181 
convert the starch contained therein to the complex sugar maltose 
(C12H22O11), and is capable of acting on the starch of a large 
quantity of grain mixed with it. 
Brewing is carried out by first crushing the malt or mixture 
of malt and grain, and stirring it with water in tubs at a tempera- 
ture of from 500 to 700 C. (1200 to 1700 F.). The starch is con- 
verted to maltose and dextrine during this process, and the result- 
ing liquor is known as " wort." 
SfCsHioOj) 
Starch 
+ H2O 
Water 
= C12H22O11 
Maltose 
+ CgHioOs 
Dextrine 
The clear wort is drawn off and boiled to sterilize and concen- 
trate it. Then hops are added and the boiling is continued. Hops 
impart some of the resins, bitter principles, tannic acid, and volatile 
oil they contain to the wort. The boiled mixture is allowed to 
cool, and the clear liquid portion is run into fermentation-vats, 
where yeast is added and fermentation allowed to proceed. At 
the proper stage the beer is drawn off from the yeast, that separates 
out at the bottom or rises to the top, depending upon the tempera- 
ture at which fermentation is allowed to take place, and is run 
into casks, where after-fermentation takes place. Finally, the 
beer is clarified with beech chips or shavings or with gelatine, to 
which the yeast organisms, as well as other solid impurities, attach 
themselves. It is then stored in barrels coated with pitch, or is 
pasteurized at 6o° C. and bottled. 
Whiskey is the liquor resulting from the distillation of fer- 
mented infusions of potatoes and grains, substances rich in starch. 
The potatoes, barley, rye, corn, rice, or oats, mixed with malt, 
are steeped in water. This is known as the " mash." The process 
used is similar to the one employed in the manufacture of beer, 
excepting that saccharous fermentation is allowed to proceed 
further, so as to obtain a maximum yield of maltose. Yeast is 
then added and alcoholic fermentation is allowed to take place. 
The fermented wort is distilled and redistilled, and placed in casks 
to " age " for a number of years. The " aging process " serves 
to soften and refine the flavor. At the same time, more or less 
color and flavor are extracted from the oak casks in which the 182 
FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS 
whiskey is stored. Another factor influencing flavor is the kind 
of grain used. Whiskey contains from about 30 to 55 per cent, 
by weight of alcohol. 
Artificial whiskey is made by diluting alcohol with water, 
coloring with caramel or aniline dyes, adding prune juice as a 
" body," and flavoring with volatile oils or artificial fruit essences. 
Alcohol, as we can see from the above, is a product of the fer- 
mentation and subsequent distillation of substances containing 
starch or sugar. Thus, any of the materials used in the manu- 
facture of whiskey, wines, etc., can be used for the manufacture 
of alcohol. In the case of fruits, sugar already exists in their 
juices, which almost immediately, on exposure to the air, after 
expression, begin to undergo spontaneous, alcoholic fermentation. 
In the case of grains, saccharous fermentation must first take place; 
i.e., the conversion of starch to sugar. As already stated, alcoholic 
fermentation is usually accomplished by the addition of yeast. 
After alcoholic fermentation is allowed to proceed, the mixture is 
distilled, as in the case of whiskey, and the distillate is subjected 
to repeated redistillation until an alcohol of the desired percentage 
strength is obtained. The product is not subjected to aging, etc., 
but is freed from fermentation by-products by the repeated redis- 
tillation. Alcohol, U. S. P., is 94.9 per cent, by volume; Diluted 
Alcohol, U. S. P., 48.4 to 49.5 by volume, and Dehydrated 
Alcohol, U. S. P., 99 per cent, by weight. 
Brandy is the product of the distillation of the fermented juice 
of grapes (wine). It contains from about 20 to 50 per cent, by 
weight of alcohol. 
Rum is the liquor distilled from fermented molasses or cane- 
juice. It contains from about 25 to 40 per cent, by weight of 
alcohol. 
Gin is an alcoholic liquor flavored with the volatile oil of juniper, 
and sometimes with the volatile oils of fennel, anise, coriander, 
cardamom, and orange-peel. It contains from 30 to 40 per cent, 
by weight of alcohol. 
Koumis is a stimulating beverage prepared by allowing milk 
to undergo alcoholic, lactic, and proteolytic fermentations. Only FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS 
183 
a small amount of the koumis on the market is made from mare's 
milk, most of it being made from cow's milk. 
FERMENTS may be divided into two classes: (I) unorganized 
ferments or enzymes, and (II) organized or living ferments. 
They may also be classified as (i) proteolytic, those which break 
proteins up into simpler products; (2) amylolytic, those which 
change starches to sugars; (3) steatolytic, those which split up 
fats; (4) glycolytic, those which break up complex sugars into 
simpler sugars; and (5) coagulant, those which curdle or clot. 
I. Unorganized ferments or enzymes have already been defined 
as certain excretions of microorganisms or secretions of living 
tissue. In animal tissue they exist in an inactive, complex state, 
and only become active when exposed to the action of alkalies, 
acids, or air. For example, pepsin exists as pepsinogen. They 
are soluble in water and glycerin, but are insoluble in alcohol. 
They usually act best at about the temperature of the human 
body. Cold inhibits their action, and temperatures much above 
450 coagulate them. 
The enzymes may be divided into (a) vegetable and (6) animal. 
(a) The most important vegetable enzymes are diastase, 
cellulase, inulase, saccharase, pectinase, emulsin, papain, invertin 
and bromelin. 
Diastase is the most important of the foregoing. It is derived 
from the gluten of sprouting cereals, like barley, and is capable of 
converting 3000 parts of starch to maltose. 
Cellulase converts cellulose to sugar. 
Inulase converts inulin to fructose. 
Saccharase converts cane-sugar to dextrose and levulose. 
Pectinase converts pectin to reducing sugar. 
Emulsin converts amygdalin to dextrose and prussic acid 
(HCN). 
Papain, found in the milky juice of the paw-paw tree, is a 
proteolytic ferment occurring as a white, granular powder. It is 
peculiar in that it will act in feebly acid, alkaline, or neutral media. 
It curdles milk. 
Invertin changes cane-sugar to dextrose (glucose) and 
levulose. 
Bromelin is a proteolytic ferment found in pineapples. 184 
FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS 
(&) Of the animal enzymes, lactase, maltase, pepsin, trypsin, 
and erepsin {proteolytic}, ptyalin and amylopsin {amylolytic}, 
invertase {glycolytic}, pancreatin (a mixture of ferments), steap- 
sin {steatolytic}, rennin {'milk-curdling}, and chymase are the 
more important. 
Lactase, found in the small intestines, converts lactose into 
dextrose and galactose. 
Maltase, found in saliva and pancreatic juice, converts 
maltose into dextrose. 
Pepsin is secreted as pepsinogen by the glands of the stomach 
and requires hydrochloric acid to render it active. It converts 
proteins into proteoses and peptones. The United States Pharma- 
copoeia requires that pepsin be capable of digesting 3000 parts 
of freshly-precipitated egg albumin in six hours. 
Trypsin, found in pancreatic juice, requires a slightly alkaline 
or neutral medium and converts simple proteins to globulins, 
proteoses, and peptones, and the latter to antipeptones and hemi- 
peptones (the hemipeptones to leucin, tyrosin and other products). 
Erepsin, found in all organs of the body, converts peptones 
and albumoses into amido-acids. 
Ptyalin, found in the saliva, acts best on starch that has been 
boiled, since boiling ruptures the walls of the starch grains. 
Amylopsin, present in the pancreatic juice, acts in a manner 
similar to diastase, converting starch to maltose (or, at times, 
glucose). Its action is favored by the presence of bile. 
Invertase is the active ferment of the intestinal juice. It is 
capable of converting 200,000 parts of sugar to dextrose and levu- 
lose. There are similar ferments in the pancreatic juice, saliva, 
blood, and other tissues. 
Pancreatin is a mixture of ferments usually obtained from the 
fresh pancreas of the hog. It is a cream-colored, amorphous 
powder consisting chiefly of the ferments amylopsin, steapsin, 
trypsin, and myopsin, and should be capable of converting at 
least twenty-five parts of starch into soluble compounds. 
Steapsin is found in the pancreatic juice and also in the bile. 
It splits fats and oils into glycerin and fatty acids. The fatty acids FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS 
185 
are saponified by the sodium carbonate present, and the resulting 
soaps emulsify any remaining fats. 
Rennin is found in the stomach and pancreas, curdles milk, 
and acts best in acid media. Excess of acid, as well as alkalies, 
destroys it. 
Chymase, a specific ferment of the gastric juice, stimulates 
the action of pancreatic ferments. 
Histozyme, another animal ferment, is found in the kidneys. 
It converts benzoic acid into hippuric acid and glycocoll. 
It has been claimed by some that the enzymes excite the 
formation of " antibodies," which, when injected into new animals, 
bring about the formation of still other antibodies. 
II. The organized or living ferments are low forms of vegetable 
life, mostly bacteria. They produce proteolytic, amylolytic, 
steatolytic, and glycolytic, as well as pathogenic fermentations 
in the organism. One striking difference between them and 
enzymes is that antiseptics inhibit their growth. They are killed 
at a temperature of ioo°, excepting a few spores. Moisture is 
essential to their action. They contain cellulose, albumin, fat, 
and inorganic salts. Their action is due to the unorganized ferments 
(enzymes) they secrete. 
The yeast plant is a fungus, appearing in oval budding forms 
of several varieties, widely distributed through the vegetable king- 
dom and in the air. It grows very rapidly by the multiplication 
of its cells if a favorable medium, like malt wort, is present and 
the temperature, etc., are also favorable. Under such favorable 
conditions it forms a viscous, yellowish, frothy substance. Its chief 
uses are (x) in the production of alcohol and alcoholic beverages 
and (2) in bread-making. Yeast is capable of decomposing 95 
per cent, of glucose to alcohol, but, as already stated, it is killed 
when the alcoholic percentage reaches about 16 per cent. The 
yeast-cells produce the enzyme invertase, which converts cane- 
sugar into levulose and dextrose (glucose), in turn converted to 
alcohol and carbon dioxide by the Zymase, the alcohol ferment. 
The yeast most commonly employed in bread-making is "com- 
pressed yeast," which is a product of distilleries where malt and 186 
FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS 
grains are fermented in the manufacture of " spirits." Most of 
it comes from whiskey wort. In the manufacture of compressed 
yeast, the yeast that floats on the top of the wort is skimmed off 
and is known as "top yeast," while that which settles to the bottom 
is removed by running the wort into settling trays and is known 
as " bottom yeast." Top yeast is considered more desirable for 
bread-making. The yeast is then washed through sieves, to remove 
the coarse particles of solid matter, into barrels of fresh water, 
and is allowed to settle. The water is drawn off and the yeast 
is agitated with fresh water several successive times. The last 
wash water is drawn off and the yeast dried by pressure, cut into 
cakes, wrapped in tin-foil, and kept in cold storage until distributed. 
Some manufacturers mix starch with the yeast. Only fresh yeast 
should be used. When fresh, yeast has a creamy white color, 
is uniform throughout, has a fine, even texture, is not acid to the 
taste, and is moist but not slimy. Its odor resembles that of an 
apple. When stale it possesses a cheesy odor and is acid in taste. 
" Dry yeast " is made by mixing fresh yeast with meal or 
starch to form a dough, which is carefully dried, cut into cakes, 
and wrapped in packages. It will keep almost indefinitely. 
The natural fermentation of grapes is due to two varieties of 
yeast-fungus that grow upon the fruit. 
Mycoderma aceti (" mother of vinegar ") consists of aerobic 
streptococci which oxidize alcohol to acetic acid. 
Bacilli lacti and Bacilli butyrici produce lactic and butyric 
acid fermentations, respectively, of proteins, sugars, and mucus. 
Intestinal colic is frequently due to the gaseous by-products. 
Micrococci urese are the most common factors in ammoniacal 
fermentation of urine. 
Mucor mucedo, a mould, causes alcoholic fermentation. 
The mould oidium albicans collects in the mouths of under- 
nourished persons and forms in part the tartar on the teeth. 
Nitrifying ferments are oxidizing agents, and are capable of 
converting ammonia gas and albuminoids into nitric and nitrous 
acids. These acids, coming in contact with the mineral matter 
of surface waters or the soil, form nitrates and nitrites, which are FERMENTATION AND FERMENTS 
187 
compounds essential to the growth of plants. The rootlet nodules 
of most of the Leguminosas, like the pea, bean, etc., contain millions 
of these bacteria, which enable the plant to utilize the nitrogenous 
materials of the soil and air. 
The ferments of putrefaction found in the intestines act on 
proteins principally, forming gaseous hydrogen and fatty acids, 
then ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, and phosphine 
gases, phenol compounds, etc., and, finally, peptones, toxalbumins, 
and ptomaines. 
The pathogenic microorganisms of specific infections produce 
their ill effects principally by means of the toxines they form. 
Cleanliness, cooking or freezing and sealing in air-tight vessels 
will prevent putrefaction and fermentation of foods. CHAPTER XXV 
DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
The terms " disinfectant " and " disinfection," " deodorant " 
and " deodorization," and " antiseptic " and " antisepsis " 
(" asepsis ") have been used in such a variety of ways that much 
confusion has arisen as to the correct meaning of the words. 
A disinfectant or germicide is a substance that is capable of 
destroying germs which act injuriously on higher forms of animal 
life. It should also destroy the spores of pathogenic organisms, 
which are usually more resistant than the organisms themselves, 
and should not have any marked action upon higher forms of 
life. Before the germ theory was generally accepted, the word 
" disinfection " was employed to designate the destruction of 
infectious material and the removal of any offensive odors from 
the same. The simple removal or disguising of odors was looked 
upon as disinfection. There are a number of organisms which 
do not produce ill-smelling gases, but which do form poisonous 
compounds (" ptomaines ") that may possess an aromatic odor. 
However, there are substances which will absorb or disguise un- 
pleasant odors arising from organic matter without killing the 
germs producing the putrefaction or decay. Charcoal is a good 
example of such a substance. The use of perfumes is very likely 
a relic of the attempts of primitive man to destroy noxious odors. 
A true disinfectant must not only destroy offensive odors, but 
must kill the organisms that give rise to them. 
A deodorant is a substance that absorbs or oxidizes foul odors. 
Many disinfectants are also good deodorants. Simple deodorants 
are rarely germicidal. 
An antiseptic is a substance which prevents or arrests the 
growth of microorganisms. Antiseptics may or may not be 
germicidal. 
An antizymotic is a substance that prevents fermentation or 
putrefaction. 
An adjunct to the proper action of these agents is the removal 
of all dirt and filth. 
188 DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
189 
HEAT 
The most efficient disinfectant is moist heat. At the tempera- 
ture of boiling water (ioo° C. or 2120 F.) all pathogenic organisms 
Fig. 45.-Steam sterilizer. 
and their spores are destroyed within from five to ten minutes. 
Dry heat is less effective. When necessary to resort to the dry 190 
DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
method, the heat should be applied at about 300° F. fractionally; 
i.e., the material should be exposed to this temperature for a 
short period of time on successive days in order that the spores 
which have resisted the first application and which have developed 
into full-grown organisms may be killed by subsequent exposures. 
Usually three successive exposures, twenty-four hours apart, are 
sufficient. Disinfectants and antiseptics act more powerfully in 
warm water than in cold. Ten minutes are required to kill the 
tubercle bacilli in water heated to 700; boiling water kills them 
in five minutes. They resist dry heat at ioo° for several hours. 
The typhoid organism has been known to retain its vitality for 
months in ice. 
For sterilizing instruments for an operation, the best method 
is to boil them for at least five minutes in pure water containing 
about 2 per cent, of sodium carbonate (" washing soda," Na2CO3). 
The sodium salt prevents rusting, and at the same time removes 
any adhering fat or grease. Gauze, dressings, etc., should be 
sterilized by steam heat immediately before using. Clothing, 
bedding, etc., should be sterilized by steam heat in the special 
apparatus provided for such materials (Fig. 45). Unfortunately, 
boiling decomposes a number of the compounds used hypodermi- 
cally, such as atropine, cocaine, etc. 
PHENOL 
The disinfectant efficiency of phenol (" carbolic acid," C6H5OH) 
is well known. A 5 per cent, solution of the compound in water 
is most generally employed, and is a fairly reliable antiseptic for 
general purposes, although certain bacteria and spores resist the 
action of the compound in any strength. This strength solution 
(5 per cent.) is used to sterilize such instruments as would be 
injured by heat. The five as well as the two per cent, solution 
is used as a wash. For disinfecting faeces and cloths a solution 
of six ounces of phenol to one gallon of water is very efficient. 
" Carbolized soap solution " is prepared by dissolving 3 per cent, 
of soft soap and 5 per cent, of commercial phenol in water. Phenol 
is active in the presence of oily and sebaceous materials. It DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
191 
coagulates albumin. Beside its disinfectant property, phenol is 
also a local anaesthetic. 
The chief objections to phenol are: (i) it may cause systemic 
poisoning, (2) it dulls instruments, (3) it benumbs and corrodes 
the hands of the operator. 
Since phenol is soluble in about twenty parts of water at ordi- 
nary room temperature, an aqueous solution of not more than 5 per 
cent, should be used. If a stronger solution is attempted, the 
excess of phenol will separate out at the bottom of the bottle. 
Glycerin increases its solubility, and should be added in sufficient 
amounts to insure the solution of the phenol where more than 5 
per cent, solutions are called for. Weak solutions of phenol have 
caused gangrene. They should not be employed upon children. 
Alkaloidal solutions may be preserved by adding a few drops 
of phenol to each ounce of solution, although some question the 
advisability of such procedure. 
MERCURIC CHLORIDE 
Mercuric chloride (HgCl2) ("corrosive sublimate," "bichlor- 
ide," etc.) has become very popular as a disinfectant, although 
authorities disagree as to its relative activity in diluted solutions. 
Generally speaking, a 1 to 1000 solution is used for non-spore-bearing 
organisms, and a 1 to 500 for spore-bearers. Solutions as weak as 
1 to 15,000 are said to possess general germicidal properties. 
The addition of citric and tartaric acid to solutions of mercuric 
chloride assists in the penetrating of the compound into the tissues. 
The addition of sodium chloride to a mercuric chloride solution 
diminishes the disinfecting power of the latter. The compound 
combines with albumin, forming an insoluble compound (albumi- 
nate of mercury). 
The objections to this compound are: (1) It is very corrosive 
to metallic instruments. (2) Strong solutions roughen the hands. 
(3) It is quite irritating to the tissues. (4) If a grain or more is 
absorbed, toxic symptoms are produced. (5) It is inactive in the 
presence of soap and fat. (6) Upon standing, aqueous solutions 
tend to become reduced to mercurous chloride (" calomel "). 192 
DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
The compressed tablets, each of which usually contains 
7.3 grains of mercuric chloride mixed with citric acid, tartaric 
acid, or ammonium chloride, and colored blue or green, are 
employed in very large quantities. They should be of angular 
shape, each stamped with the word " POISON " and the skull 
and cross bones. Many fatal accidents have resulted from the 
careless handling of these harmless-looking, highly poisonous 
tablets. Bottles containing them should be labelled " POISON." 
In treating poisoning by corrosive sublimate the stomach 
should be evacuated if vomiting has not already occurred. Milk, 
magnesia, flour mixed with water, and white of egg may be em- 
ployed. If white of egg is used an excess must be avoided, as the 
albuminate of mercury formed becomes soluble in excess of the 
egg-albumin. The white of one egg may be given for every four 
grains of the corrosive sublimate taken. The heart, circulation, 
and respiration should be stimulated, artificial heat employed, 
and opium or morphine given to relieve pain and nervous irrita- 
bility. 
MERCURIC CYANIDE 
This compound (Hg(CN)2) is less germicidal than the 
bichloride. 
POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE 
Potassium permanganate (" permanganate of potash," 
KMnO4) is an efficient disinfectant. All organisms, excepting the 
tubercle bacillus, are killed by a 5 per cent, solution. 
The compound is used for disinfecting the surgeon's hands as 
follows: The nails, hands, and arms are first thoroughly scrubbed 
with soap and hot water; they are then immersed in a saturated 
solution of potassium permanganate, and finally immersed in a 
saturated solution of oxalic acid to remove the purple stain of the 
permanganate. The last step may give rise to itching, but this 
may be overcome by immersing in sterilized lime water. 
The disadvantages of this compound are: (1) It is not adapted 
to internal administration (except in very dilute solution), because 
it is irritating to the stomach. (2) It leaves a brown stain on fabrics 
and, if strong, corrodes them. (3) Before attacking organisms, it DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
193 
first oxidizes hydrogen sulphide, ferrous salts, nitrites, and most 
organic materials. (4) It is non-volatile, and, therefore, can act 
locally only. (5) It may explode in the presence of readily com- 
bustible substances. 
A 1 to 200 solution is used as a mouth-wash, and solutions of 
from 0.5 to 5 per cent, as injections and washes. 
FORMALDEHYDE 
Formaldehyde (" formic aldehyde," " formalin," HCOH) has 
become very widely used as a disinfectant, and has proved itself 
to be one of the most efficient. A 1 per cent, solution kills almost 
all forms of microorganisms in about thirty minutes. Although 
vapors of the compound have not the penetrating powers that 
other disinfectants possess, it disinfects surfaces completely and 
rapidly when the atmosphere is charged with from X t° 2 Per cent, 
of the vapors and even under the ordinary conditions of tempera- 
ture and moisture found in living-rooms. The vapors do penetrate, 
to some extent, into loose fabrics, especially when these are dry. 
The colors of most textile materials are not materially affected, 
and the articles and rooms exposed can be readily cleared by 
sufficient aeration. With the exception of iron and steel, the 
metallic elements are not affected. 
For the disinfection of rooms the vapors are usually produced 
by: (1) heating paraformaldehyde (HCOH)3, which breaks up 
into three molecules of formaldehyde (3HCOH); (2) passing the 
vapors of methyl alcohol (CH3OH) through heated metallic coils, 
whereby the alcohol is oxidized to formaldehyde according to the 
equation: CH3OH-|-O = HCOH-|-H2O; (3) heating the 40 per 
cent, aqueous solution, known as " formalin," with some glycerin 
(about 10 per cent) or some calcium chloride, either of which will 
dehydrate the gas; (4) hanging sheets which have been dipped in a 
diluted solution of formalin on lines in the rooms; (5) spraying 
the walls, ceilings, floors, etc., with a solution of formaldehyde, 
usually 1 to 1000.-. 
One of the most rapid and effective ways to liberate formalde- 
hyde is to mix one part of crystalline potassium permanganate 194 
DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
with two parts of formalin in an asbestos-lined vessel. All 
windows, doors, cracks, etc., must be kept sealed for eight or 
ten hours. When the room is opened the irritating vapors of the 
gas may be overcome by warming some ammonia water in the 
room. Floors should be scrubbed thoroughly with some antiseptic 
solution, as well as the walls and articles of furniture. Clothing 
and bedding should be boiled. 
Some boards of health provide formaldehyde lamps or formal- 
dehyde-sulphur torches for room disinfection. The upper compart- 
ment of the lamp shown in Fig. 46 contains paraformaldehyde, 
Fig. 46.-Formaldehyde lamp. (De Pree's.) Fig. 47- Formaldehyde-sulphur torch. (Lee's.) 
while the lower contains a wick embedded in wax. In the case of 
the formaldehyde-sulphur torch (Fig. 47) the flask contains a 
solution of formaldehyde mixed with some dehydrating agent like 
glycerin, and the tray some sulphur in which are embedded two 
wicks. By burning, the sulphur is converted into sulphur dioxide 
(SO2), a disinfectant gas, and the heat generated is sufficient to 
cause the liberation of the formaldehyde gas from the solution. 
For general use, solutions of from to 2 per cent, are used; 
for surgery, from % to X per cent.; for sterilizing catgut, a 4 per 
cent. Pastilles of paraformaldehyde are used for sterilizing 
catheters, etc., by keeping some of the pastilles in a closed box 
with the instruments. The clinical thermometer may be sterilized DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
195 
by placing a few drops of formalin in the case. For general daily 
purposes in the school-room, office, theatre, etc., a formaldehyde 
spray is frequently employed. The " Spray Ozone Sprayer " is 
the most efficient of sprays for daily disinfecting purposes that 
have been examined by the authors. (See Fig. 48.) 
Fig. 48.-Formaldehyde sprayer. 
HYDROGEN DIOXIDE 
Hydrogen dioxide (H2O2) is an oxidizing disinfectant which 
liberates free oxygen in the presence of all organic matter. It has 
a special affinity for pus, with which it effervesces. The compound, 
in the dilution usually employed (3 per cent.), is entirely non- 
poisonous. The principal disadvantages of the compound are: 
(1) its corrosive action on the metals; (2) its instability; (3) the 
likelihood of explosion when heating the confined solution. 
SILVER NITRATE 
Silver nitrate (AgNOs) and its modifications, " lunar caustic " 
and " mitigated caustic," have been extensively used in most 
inflammatory and ulcerative conditions of the mucous membrane. 
Some have placed this compound next in antiseptic value to mer- 
curic chloride. The disadvantages of silver nitrate are: (1) it 
discolors the tissue; (2) it is precipitated by the sodium chloride 
in the secretions; (3) when used internally over a long period of 
time it produces " argyria." 
A number of excellent organic silver compounds are on the 
market and afford fair substitutes for the nitrate. Among them 
are "Argyrol," "Protargol," "Albargin," etc. 
Silver nitrate is used as an injection and irrigation in from 
0.2 per cent, to 5 per cent, solution; Argyrol, from X to 1000 to 
50 per cent.; Protargol, from 0.1 to 10 per cent.; Albargin, from 
0.5 to 20 per cent. The nitrate is also used as a caustic for ulcers, 
wounds, etc. 196 
DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
IODOFORM 
Although authorities disagree as to the antiseptic value of this 
compound, its action is most likely due to (x) the fact that it 
acts as a desiccant, thereby starving the organisms because of the 
absorption of the secretions upon which they depend; and (2) 
the fact that it produces chemical changes in the toxic products 
thrown off by the bacteria. However, experiments have shown 
that there are some microorganisms which will grow in iodoform. 
Because of this, it is best to sterilize the compound by heat before 
using. 
Iodoform is used in the form of ointment, solution, emulsion, 
gauze, and as a dusting powder. The compound should be applied 
with caution to fresh wounds. Large amounts should be avoided, 
since alarming symptoms of poisoning have followed the immoder- 
ate application of the compound to wounds, especially in children 
and old people. A dose of thirty grains by mouth has caused 
death. The principal objection to iodoform is its odor. A num- 
ber of iodoform substitutes are on the market which have not a 
disagreeable odor, as " Aristol " (Thymol Iodide). 
CREOSOTE 
" Beechwood creosote " is widely employed to stimulate diges- 
tion and prevent intestinal fermentation, especially in tuberculous 
patients. The chief objection to its use is its irritating properties, 
which result in serious digestive disturbances in many patients. 
If used in too large amounts it produces symptoms of poisoning 
that closely resemble those of phenol poisoning. Some investi- 
gators claim that a 1 per cent, solution fails to kill the bacillus 
of tuberculosis in 24 hours. "Wood creosote" should not be 
confused with " coal-tar creosote." The latter is very poisonous 
and is not employed in medicine. 
CRESOL 
Cresol (" cresylic acid ") is a more effective germicide than 
phenol, and is less poisonous and corrosive. Its solubility in water 
is increased by the presence of an alkali. In alkaline solution it 
readily penetrates albuminous materials. "Lysol," "Creolin," 
"Solutol," etc., are proprietary preparations containing cresols. DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
197 
HEXAMETHYLENAMINE 
Hexamethylenamine ("Urotropin," "Formin," etc.) is probably 
the most valuable general internal antiseptic. It is of special 
value as a genito-urinary antiseptic. In the urinary passages it 
liberates formaldehyde only when the urine is acid. It is given 
internally in doses of from 5 to 2 5 grains diluted with much water. 
GLYCERIN 
Glycerin, when present in sufficient amounts, is a good anti- 
septic. Its principal application as such is in the manufacture 
of vaccine. It has no effect on the tetanus organism. 
THE HALOGENS 
CHLORINE 
Soon after the discovery of this element, its disinfectant 
properties were recognized. The usual method for its derivation 
as a disinfectant is the treatment of chlorinated lime (" chloride 
of lime " or " bleaching powder ") with a diluted acid. Chlorin- 
ated lime is used in large quantities for the disinfection and de- 
odorization of sinks, water-closets, drains, evacuations, discharges, 
sputum, etc. The compound should always be placed in the vessel 
before the matter to be disinfected is deposited therein. 
The disinfectant action of this halogen is dependent upon: (1) 
Its property of replacing the hydrogen in organic substances. This 
action, however, would not occur except in the presence of sunlight. 
(2) Its property of decomposing offensive gases; for example: 
H2S 
Hydrogen sulphide 
+ Cl2 
Chlorine 
= 2HCI 
Hydrochloric acid 
+ S 
Sulphur 
8NH3 
Ammonia 
+ 3CI2 = 
Chlorine 
6NH4CI + 
Ammonium chloride 
N2 
Nitrogen 
(3) Its most important and common property of liberating nascent 
oxygen, a powerful germicide, from water: 
H2O 
Water 
+ Cl2 
Chlorine 
= 2HCI 
Hydrochloric acid 
+ O 
Oxygen 
Chlorine gas, as a disinfectant, is similar to potassium perman- 
ganate, in that it does not affect the germs until present in excess;  DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
198 
i.e., until any chemical reactions with other materials present are 
completed. Therefore, in disinfecting with chlorine, it follows 
that in order to obtain good results there must be a persistent 
odor of chlorine for some time. 
Its compounds, the chlorides, such as sodium and zinc chlorides, 
are more or less disinfectant and antiseptic. 
BROMINE 
Bromine is a powerful deodorizer and disinfectant. Its chemical 
action is similar to that of chlorine, which, however, is more active 
than bromine. The halogen cannot be used in the sick-room or 
operating-room because of the very irritating and corrosive fumes 
it gives off. Its salts, the bromides, are somewhat antiseptic. 
IODINE 
The third member of the halogen group, although a more 
feeble oxidizer than either chlorine or bromine, combines more 
readily with the protoplasm of microorganisms, when in dilute 
solution, and poisons them. It is also more portable and conveni- 
ent to use because of its solid nature. Since it is only slightly 
soluble in water (i to about 5000), in surgery an alcohol solution 
is used; i.e., the tincture of iodine (about 7 per cent.), or the 
tincture diluted with an equal volume of alcohol. The chief dis- 
advantage of this halogen is the fact that it leaves brown stains 
on organic material. It is used as an irrigation in from 1: 2000 to 
1: 10,000. 
FLUORINE 
The fourth member of the halogen group, because of the 
intensity of its action and the difficulty with which it is prepared, 
is not a practical disinfecting agent. 
OXYGEN 
Excepting in the case of anaerobic bacteria, molecular oxygen 
is not germicidal. However, nascent oxygen (i.e., freshly liberated, 
atomic oxygen) is a very powerful germicide. Ozone (O3) owes its 
disinfectant properties to the nascent oxygen it breaks up into. 
08 
Ozone 
= 02 
Molecular oxygen 
+ O 
Nascent oxygen DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
199 
SOAP 
Ordinary soap possesses decided disinfectant properties. Many 
are of the opinion that soaps containing small quantities of dis- 
infectants possess but little value over ordinary soap. 
ALCOHOL 
Alcohol in solutions above 50 per cent, is reliable. The anti- 
septic action of alcohol is due to (1) its coagulating effect on 
albumin, and (2) its dehydrating effect, by which microorganisms 
are deprived of the moisture necessary to their growth. It is 
used for washing open wounds, cavities, etc., for preserving solu- 
tions, anatomical specimens, etc. 
ACIDS 
MINERAL ACIDS 
Hydrochloric, sulphuric, and nitric acids, as well as acids in 
general, are all slightly antiseptic, since most bacteria thrive best 
in neutral or alkaline media. Hydrochloric and nitrohydrochloric 
acids are now largely used in place of lactic acid in stomachic 
indigestion. 
SULPHUROUS ACID 
Sulphur has been employed as a disinfectant from the earliest 
times. It is used by burning the element in air, the gas sulphur 
dioxide (SO2, sulphurous anhydride) being produced. This gas, 
in turn, combines with water vapor to form the excellent disin- 
fectant sulphurous acid (H2SO3). 
S 
Sulphur 
+ O2 = 
Oxygen 
SO2 
Sulphur dioxide 
SO2 + 
Sulphur dioxide 
H2O = 
Water 
H2SO3 
Sulphurous acid 
Dry sulphur dioxide gas is not a disinfectant, therefore it is 
necessary to insure the presence of water vapor in the rooms and 
on the articles to be disinfected by placing vessels of water in the 
rooms and spraying objects with an atomizer before burning the 
sulphur. For fumigating with sulphur, the rooms should first be 200 
DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
thoroughly sealed, three pounds of sulphur should be burned for 
every 1000 cubic feet of room space, and the process should be 
allowed to proceed for at least twelve hours. 
This agent acts in a fourfold manner: (1) It absorbs ammonia 
gas and organic bases, such as the ptomaines and the products of 
microorganic growth. (2) It decomposes hydrogen sulphide: 
2H2S 
Hydrogen sulphide 
+ SO2 
Sulphur dioxide 
= 2H2O 
Water 
+ 3S 
Sulphur 
(3) It reduces or combines with organic matter, in most cases 
forming inert compounds. (4) It acts, in the presence of water, 
as a germicide. 
The disadvantages of the compound are: (a) It is irrespirable, 
causing, when inhaled, violent coughing and suffocation. (6) It 
bleaches colored fabrics, (c) It corrodes metals. 
Liquid sulphur dioxide is sold in steel cylinders for disinfectant 
and refrigerant purposes. 
BORIC ACID 
Boric acid ('' boracic acid, ' ' H3BO3) is not a disinfectant, but does 
possess antiseptic powers, a 1 to 140 solution arresting the activity 
of most microorganisms. It has been used in large quantities as a 
preservative for meats, vegetables, and milk. The saturated solu- 
tion deodorizes fetid perspiration, and is frequently employed 
for washing the eye, nose, mouth, and throat. Powdered boric 
acid is used by insufflations into the ear in treating diseases of 
that organ, and as a surgical dressing. Poisoning may result 
from the free use of the compound for the latter purpose. The acid 
is added to solutions of some alkaloids to prevent decomposition. 
Borax (sodium tetraborate, Na2B4O7) is also slightly antiseptic, 
and is used for the same purposes as boric acid. 
ACETIC ACID 
Diluted acetic acid or " vinegar " (CH3COOH), scented with 
spices, was used in the Middle Ages, under the title " Aromatic 
vinegar," to drive away plague. It has been found by experimen- 
tation that a 3 per cent, solution of this acid will kill the typhoid DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
201 
organism within six hours. A 7 per cent, solution is said to be as 
powerful an antiseptic as a 1 to 1000 solution of bichloride of 
mercury. Very diluted acetic acid has been used to bathe typhoid 
fever and scarlatina patients. It acts as a cooling tonic to the 
skin, assists desquamation, and covers offensive odors. Its salts, 
the acetates, are not antiseptic. 
BENZOIC ACID 
Although benzoic acid (CgHsCOOH) is not a germicide, it 
possesses sufficient antiseptic properties to prevent decomposition 
in meats, fats, milk, foods, etc. It forms one of the ingredients 
of most antiseptic mixtures. In medicine the acid has been given 
as an internal antiseptic in cystitis in doses of from 10 to 30 grains. 
Its salt, sodium benzoate, is also largely used as an antiseptic 
in foods, catsup, milk, antiseptic mixtures and solutions. 
SALICYLIC ACID 
Salicylic acid is another one of the antiseptic, non-corrosive, 
organic acids. It has been used as a preservative for foods by 
manufacturers. Because of the irritant properties of this acid, 
its salts, the salicylates, are generally employed because they are 
less disturbing to digestion. The acid and its salts are decomposed 
into phenol and carbonic acid in the intestines. The artificial acid, 
made from phenol, has frequently produced symptoms of poisoning. 
Oil of wintergreen (methyl salicylate), salol (phenyl salicylate), 
and sodium salicylate are also used as antiseptics. 
LACTIC ACID 
Lactic acid is one of the products of alimentary fermentation. 
If present in sufficient amounts, it prevents fermentation. 
TARTARIC AND CITRIC ACIDS 
These acids have the general power of inhibiting the growth of 
those organisms which prefer neutral or alkaline media. It is 
said that a citric acid solution of 1 to 200 will kill the cholera 
spirilla, therefore the instructions to drink lemonade in times of 
cholera, typhoid, and other water-borne infections. 202 
DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
TANNIC ACID 
Tannic acid precipitates both albumin and gelatin. Because 
of the latter property it is used to make skins imputrescible in the 
manufacture of leather. Beside its valuable astringent property, 
it is somewhat antiseptic. 
CHLOROFORM 
Beside its anaesthetic properties, chloroform possesses anti- 
septic properties. In medicine chloroform water and spirit of 
chloroform are of value in treating disturbances that are attended 
with flatulence and fermentation. The compound is used to 
preserve alkaloidal solutions and urine. 
ETHER 
The chief use of ether in medicine is for anaesthesia. The 
compound, if undiluted, is a germicide. 
LIME AND SLAKED LIME 
Lime (" quicklime," calcium oxide, CaO) and slaked lime 
(calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2) are both used as disinfectants, 
although their disinfectant properties are matters of doubt. 
Fresh lime, it is true, does destroy organic matter by its dehydrat- 
ing action, and, since but few microorganisms can remain active 
any length of time in a dry state, the desired end is accomplished. 
Lime is used principally for disinfecting manure-heaps. The use 
of lime water for preserving eggs depends upon the deposition of 
calcium carbonate in the pores of the shell, thereby rendering it 
impervious, and also to the coagulation of the albuminous envelope 
of the egg. 
ZINC PHENOLSULPHONATE 
Zinc phenolsulphonate (zinc sulphocarbolate) is strongly anti- 
septic as well as astringent. It is odorless and non-irritating. 
COPPER SULPHATE 
Copper sulphate (" blue stone," " blue vitriol," CuSO4) is a 
strong disinfectant, being disinfectant in i to 120 solution, and 
antiseptic in 1 to 1000 solution. It coagulates albumin and absorbs 
ammonia and hydrogen sulphide. DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
203 
FERROUS SULPHATE 
Ferrous sulphate (" green vitriol," " copperas," FeSO4) is 
moderately antiseptic, but is not a disinfectant. It is a deodorant, 
absorbing hydrogen sulphide and ammonia. 
CHROMIUM TRIOXIDE 
Chromium trioxide (" chromic acid," CrO3) is a powerful, 
oxidizing germicide and antiseptic. It coagulates albumin in- 
stantly, combines with a large number of organic compounds, 
and gives a yellow or brown stain. It is very corrosive and irritat- 
ing, death resulting from too free application of the compound. 
VOLATILE OILS AND STEAROPTENS 
The ancients were familiar with the antiseptic and insecticidal 
properties of such classes of compounds as the volatile oils, cam- 
phors or stearoptens, etc. The precious woods were those that 
contained volatile oils, like cedar and sandal-wood. These woods 
were used for making boxes and other containers intended for the 
reception of valuable documents and other articles that were to 
be preserved. The woods were also burnt for fumigating, were 
carried about the person to keep away disease, and were added to 
water and wines. The use of condiments may be explained on the 
assumption that they are more or less antiseptic and arrest fermen- 
tation in the alimentary canal. The volatile oils of bergamot, 
birch, cajuput, chamomile, caraway, juniper, lemon, nutmeg, 
savin, sassafras, anise, sandal-wood, coriander, thyme, cloves, 
cedar, cubeb, cinnamon, wintergreen, mustard, lemon, orange, 
and turpentine all possess antiseptic properties. 
Of the foregoing oils, turpentine is perhaps most frequently 
employed. However, it is too irritating for surgical application. 
For ringworm, turpentine, in conjunction with tincture of iodine, 
is frequently employed. Terpin hydrate, a turpentine derivative, 
is also an antiseptic agent, and is employed internally in diseases 
of the lungs and kidneys. 
Of the stearoptens or camphors, menthol, from oil of pepper- 
mint; thymol, from oil of thyme, and eucalyptol, from oil of 
eucalyptus, are of greater importance and are useful antiseptics. 204 
DISINFECTANTS, DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
Menthol arrests fermentation, and, according to A. Macdonald, 
is about twice as powerful as phenol. 
Thymol is strongly antiseptic, having one-fourth the potency 
of phenol. It is specific against hookworm. It is one of the usual 
ingredients of antiseptic solutions, used in respiratory affections 
in the form of sprays and inhalations. Externally it is useful in 
scaly skin diseases in the form of ointment. 
Eucalyptol is also a strong antiseptic, credited with one-fourth 
the antiseptic powers of phenol. It is a common ingredient of 
antiseptic solutions and mixtures. In medicine it is used inter- 
nally in the treatment of atonic ulcers, gangrene, chronic urinary 
diseases, etc. It is also used in the form of sprays and inhalations 
in respiratory affections. 
QUININE 
The alkaloid quinine and its salts are specially destructive to 
the Plasmodium malarias, even in a solution of i in 20,000. The 
sulphate, hydrochloride and hydrobromide are usually employed. 
CHLORAL HYDRATE 
Chloral hydrate, in the form of lotions or washes, is used in 
the treatment of parasitic diseases of the skin and of foul ulcers. 
It is also used as a urine deodorant. 
ACETANILID 
Powdered acetanilid is extensively used as an external anti- 
septic for wounds, ulcers, chancroids, etc. However, poisonous 
symptoms may follow its too free application. 
RESORCIN 
Resorcin (" resorcinol ") is highly antiseptic if in proper 
strength (1 to 2 per cent.). Large doses produce symptoms 
similar to those of phenol poisoning, although the compound is far 
less poisonous than phenol. It is useful as a gastro-intestinal 
antiseptic, in the treatment of parasitic and scaly skin diseases, 
and as an ingredient of antiseptic soaps. DEODORANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 
205 
PETROLEUM 
Crude petroleum and kerosene are extensively used to destroy 
the larvae of mosquitoes by spreading on the surface of pools, 
ponds, etc., that are infested with the insects. 
NAPHTHALENE 
Naphthalene, more popularly known as "tar balls," "moth 
balls," or "coal-tar camphor," is used as a prophylactic against 
moths. APPENDIX WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
Troy Weight 
(Used by goldsmiths and jewellers) 
Pound 
Ounces 
Penny- 
weights 
Grains 
lb. I 
= 12 = 
240 = 
5760 
OZ. I = 
20 = 
480 
pwt. I = 
gr. 24 
Apothecaries' Weight 
Pound 
Ounces 
Drachms 
Scruples 
Grains 
lb. i 
= 
12 
= 
96 = 
288 
= 
5760 
5 I 
= 
8 = 
24 
= 
480 
5 1 
3 
= 
60 
9 I 
= 
gr. 20 
Avoirdupois Weight 
(Used for commercial purposes) 
Pound 
Ounces 
Grains 
lb. I 
= 16 - 
7OOO 
OZ. I = 
gr- 437-5 
Apothecaries' or Wine Measure (United States) 
Gallon 
Pints 
Fluidounces 
Flui drachms 
Minims 
Cong. I = 
8 
= 128 = 
IO24 
= 61,440 
O i 
= l6 = 
128 
= 7,680 
f3 1 
8 
= 480 
f3 I 
= 15 60 
Imperial Measure (British) 
Gallon 
Pints 
Fluidounces 
Fluidrachms 
Minims 
C. i 
= 8 
0 i 
= 160 = 
= 20 = 
fl. OZ. I = 
1,280 = 
160 = 
8 = 
fl. dr. 1 = 
76.8OO 
9,600 
480 
min. 60 
APPROXIMATE MEASURES 
The physician, in apportioning doses for the patient, is usually forced to 
order the liquid medicine to be administered in certain quantities that have 
been established by custom. It should be remembered that the measures 
given below are approximate. The authors have found that the measures 
used contain from fifteen to twenty-five per cent, more than their theoretical 
209 210 
APPENDIX 
equivalent. Physicians, pharmacists, and nurses should insist upon the use 
of the graduated medicine-glass, which can be purchased at any drug store 
for a very small sum. 
I tumblerful = approximately f§ viii 
I teacupful = approximately fg iv 
i wineglassful = approximately fg ii 
I tablespoonful = approximately fy iv 
i dessertspoonful = approximately f5 ii 
I teaspoonful = approximately f3 i 
I drop, through popular error, is considered the equivalent of i 
minim. 
THE METRIC SYSTEM 
This system was originated in France in 1790, and is now the legal stand- 
ard in most countries. The system is based upon the unit of length, the 
metre, which is 1/40,000,000 part of the earth's polar circumference. The 
unit of capacity, the litre, which is the cube of 1/10 part of a metre, and the unit 
of weight, the gramme, which is the weight of that quantity of distilled water 
at 40 C. which will fill a cube of 1/100 part of a metre, were derived from this 
unit of length. The system is also known as the "Decimal System" because 
in obtaining the multiples and subdivisions the number 10 (Latin, decern) is 
used. The prefixes, indicating multiplication (Deka, 10; Hecto, 100; and Kilo, 
1000), are of Greek origin; while those indicating division (deci, 1/10; centi, 
1/100; and milli, 1/1000) are of Latin origin. 
The following table gives the student a general view of the system: 
IOOO Kilometre, Km. 1000 Kilolitre, KI. 1000 Kilogramme, Kg. 
100 Hectometre, Hm. 100 Hectolitre, Hl. 100 Hectogramme, Hg. 
10 Dekametre, Dm. 10 Dekalitre, DI. 10 Dekagramme, Dg. 
1 metre, M. 1 litre, L. 1 gramme, Gm. 
.1 decimetre, dm. .1 decilitre, dl. .1 decigramme, dg. 
.01 centimetre, cm. .01 centilitre, cl. .01 centigramme, eg. 
.001 millimetre, mm. 001 millilitre, ml.1 .001 milligramme, mg. 
Unit of length = metre:-One side of the diagram (Fig. 49) measures 1 
decimetre. It is graduated into tenths or centimetres, and these tenths into 
tenths or millimetres. 
Unit of capacity = litre:-A hollow cube having each side the same size 
as the square would hold a litre. (1000 Cc.) 
Unit of weight = gramme:-The weight of distilled water at 4°C. contained 
in a cube the size of the one shown at the lower left-hand comer (1/1000 of a 
litre or 1 cubic centimetre) equals a gramme. 
EQUIVALENTS 
I centimetre = 1/100 metre =0.3937 inch. 
1 cubic centimetre1 = 1/1000 litre =16.23 minims, and weighs 1 gramme at 
4° C. (water). 
1 cubic foot = 1728 cubic inches = 28316.085 mils.1 
1 cubic inch = 266 minims = 16.38716 mils.1 
1 cubic metre =1000 litres = 35.315 cubic feet. 
1 Apothecary drachm = 60 grains = 3.888 grammes. 
1 fluidrachm = 60 minims = 3.696 mils.1 
1 Note.-The millilitre or " mil " is now employed in place of the cubic 
centimetre, or Cc., in the U. S. Pharmacopoeia. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
211 
1 fluidounce (U. S.) =8 drachms = 48o minims = 29.57 mils, and weighs, 
if water (250), 454-6 grains or 29.57 grammes. 
1 foot =12 inches = 0.30479 metre. 
1 gallon (U. S.) = 8 pints = 3.785 litres. 
. Fig. 49--Each side of the square measures i decimetre, each decimetre is divided 
into tenths (centimetres), and each centimetre into tenths (millimetres). The dimensions 
or the cube then are r decimetre by r decimetre by I decimetre, or I cubic decimetre (1000 
cubic centimetres). A hollow cube of these dimensions would hold a litre (rooo cubic centi- 
metres). The small cube at the lower left-hand corner is a cubic centimetre (i/iooo of a 
cubic decimetre). The weight of distilled water at 40 C. contained in such a cube (i cubic 
centimetre) is equal to a gramme. 
I grain = 0.0648 gramme. 
I gramme = 15.432 grains. 
1 inch =2.54 centimetres. 
I kilogramme = 1000 grammes = 2.2046 Avoirdupois pounds. 212 
APPENDIX 
1 litre = 1 cubic decimetre = 1000 cubic centimetres' = 33.8 fluidounces. 
1 metre = 3.28086 feet 
1 millimetre = 1000 micromillimetres = 1/1000 metre = 0.0393 inch. 
1 minim = 0.0616 cubic centimetre,2 and weighs, if water, 0.95 grain. 
1 Apothecary ounce = 480 grains = 31.1 grammes. 
1 Avoirdupois ounce = 437.5 grains = 28.35 grammes. 
1 pint (U. S.) = 16 fluidounces = 473.179 cubic centimetres.2 
1 pound (Apothecary) =12 ounces = 5760 grains = 0.37324 Kilogramme. 
1 pound (Avoirdupois) = 16 ounces = 7000 grains = 0.45359 Kilogramme. 
1 quart (U. S.) =32 fluidounces = 0.9436 litre. 
1 ton (Avoirdupois) = 2000 pounds = 907.2 Kilogrammes. 
1 yard = 3 feet = 36 inches = 0.9144 metre. 
1 grain of water measures 0.0647 mil, or 1.0517 minims. 
GLOSSARY 
Abercrombie's Lotion: Infusion of tobacco, 1 : 200. 
A. C. E.: Anaesthetic mixture of 1 of absolute alcohol, 2 of chloroform, and 3 
of ether, all by volume. 
Acid of Sugar: Oxalic acid. 
After-damp: Carbon dioxide in mines following fire-damp explosions. 
Alabastrine or Albocarbon: Naphthalene. 
Algaroth Powder: Antimony oxychloride, SbOCl. 
Alum: Potassium aluminium sulphate. 
Amidon: Starch. 
Ammonia Liniment: Mixture of cotton-seed oil and ammonia water. 
Antifebrin: Acetanilid. 
Apple-Oil: Amyl valerianate, CsHuCsHjOj. 
Aqua Fortis: Nitric acid. 
Aqua Phagedaenica: Yellow lotion or wash. 
Aqua Regia: Nitrohydrochloric acid. 
Aqua Sedativa: Ammonia water, 2 ounces; spirit of camphor, xX drachms; 
sodium chloride, 1 ounce; water enough to make 1 pint. 
Aqua Vitas: Brandy. 
Aquila Alba: An old name for calomel. 
Argentum Vivum: Native mercury. 
Argols: Deposits in wine casks containing cream of tartar. 
Arsenic: As2O3. 
Art Metal: An alloy of copper, tin, and lead. 
Aspirin: Acetyl-salicylic acid. 
Astral Oil: Kerosene. 
Azote: The French title for nitrogen. 
Azotic Acid: Nitric acid. 
Baking Soda: Sodium bicarbonate. 
Baldwin's Phosphorus: Calcium nitrate, when heated and exposed to sun- 
light, becomes luminous in the dark. 
Balsam of Soap: Soap Liniment. 
Barilla: Ashes of sea-plants. 
Basham's Mixture: Mixture of Iron and Ammonium Acetate. 
Basilicon Ointment: Resin Ointment. 
Battley's Solution: Liquor Opii Sedativus (50 per cent, laudanum). 
Bay Rum: Spirit of Myrcia. 
Bell Metal: An alloy of copper and tin. 
2 See note, page 210. GLOSSARY 
213 
Bengal Fires: Red:-Shellac, strontium nitrate, and powdered magnesium; 
Green:-Shellac, barium nitrate, and powdered magnesium. 
Benzol: Benzene, CeH6. 
Benzolin: Benzine, a petroleum product, mixture of C5H12 and C#Hu. 
Berthollet's Salt: Potassium chlorate. 
Bestuchuf's Tincture: An ethereal solution of ferric chloride. 
Bibron's Antidote: (for rattlesnake poison) A solution of mercuric chloride, 
potassium iodide, bromine, alcohol, and water. 
Bitter Earth: Magnesia. 
Bitter Salts: Magnesium sulphate. 
Bittern: The liquid remaining after the evaporation and crystallization of sea- 
water in the manufacture of sodium chloride. 
Black Antimony: Antimony trisulphide, Sb2S3. 
Black Draught: Compound Infusion of Senna. 
Black Drop: Vinegar of Opium. 
Black Lead: Graphite.. 
Black Wash: A mixture of calomel and lime water. Mercurous oxide, Hg2O, 
is formed. 
Blancard's Pills: Pills of Ferrous Iodide. 
Blaud's Pills: Pills of Ferrous Carbonate. 
Bleaching Powder: A mixture of calcium hypochlorite and calcium chloride. 
Blondine: Hydrogen dioxide, used for bleaching the hair. 
Blue Mass: Mass of Mercury. 
Blue Ointment: Mercurial ointment diluted with vaseline. 
Blue Pill: Mass of Mercury. 
Blue Stone: Copper sulphate. 
Blue Vitriol: Copper sulphate. 
Bone Black: Mixture of carbon and calcium phosphate. 
Bone Phosphate: Tricalcium phosphate. 
Boracic Acid: Boric acid. 
Borax: Sodium tetraborate 
Brandy: Spiritus Vini Gallici. 
Brass: An alloy of copper and zinc. 
Brimstone: Roll sulphur. 
British Gum: Dextrin manufactured by heating, under pressure, starch and 
water. 
Brown Mixture: Compound Mixture of Glycyrrhiza (licorice). 
Burnett's Disinfecting Fluid: A solution of zinc chloride. 
Burrow's Solution: An aqueous solution of lead acetate, alum, and sodium 
sulphate. 
Butter of Antimony: Antimony trichloride, SbCla. 
Butter of Paraffin: Petrolatum or vaseline. 
Butter of Zinc: Zinc chloride. 
Calamine: Impure zinc carbonate. 
Calcimine: A mixture for walls and ceilings, consisting of whiting, glue and 
water. 
Calcined Magnesia: Magnesium oxide. 
Calomel: Mercurous or Mild Chloride of Mercury. 
Calx: Lime, CaO. 
Camphene: Oil of turpentine. 
Canquoin's Paste: A mixture of zinc chloride, native calcium sulphate and water. 
Caramel: Burnt sugar. 
Carbinol: Methyl alcohol. 214 
APPENDIX 
Carbonic Acid Gas: Carbon dioxide. 
Canon Oil: Lime liniment. 
Caustic Potash: Potassium hydroxide. 
Caustic Soda: Sodium hydroxide. 
Chalk: Calcium carbonate. 
Chalk Mixture: A mixture of chalk, sugar, acacia and cinnamon water. 
Chameleon Mineral: Potassium permanganate or manganate. 
Chili Saltpetre: Sodium nitrate. 
Chloric Ether: An alcoholic solution of ethyl chloride, C2H6C1. 
Choke-damp: A mixture of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in mines. 
Churchill's Tincture of Iodine: Compound Tincture of Iodine, N. F. 
Citrine Ointment: Ointment of Mercuric Nitrate. 
Clemens's Solution: A solution of potassium bromide and arsenate. 
Club Moss: Lycopodium. 
Coal Oil: Kerosene. 
Coal-Tar Camphor: Naphthalene. 
Cologne Spirit: Ethyl alcohol. 
Colonial Spirit: Methyl or wood alcohol. 
Colophony: Rosin. 
Colothar: Rouge, Fe2Os. 
Columbian Spirit: Methyl alcohol. 
Common Salt: Sodium chloride. 
Compound Jalap Powder: Mixture of jalap and cream of tartar. 
Concentrated Lye: An impure mixture of sodium carbonate and hydroxide. 
Condy's Solution: A solution of sodium permanganate. 
Copperas: Ferrous sulphate. 
Corrosive Sublimate: Mercuric chloride. 
Cosmoline: Vaseline. 
Coster's Paste: Contains two drachms of iodine to an ounce of tar. 
Court Plaster: Isinglass dissolved in water, alcohol and glycerin and spread 
on taffeta. 
Cream of Tartar: Potassium bitartrate. 
Crede's Ointment: Colloidal silver, water, white wax and benzoinated lard. 
Crystals of Venus: Cupric acetate, Cu(C2H3O2)2. 
Cubic Nitre: Sodium nitrate. 
Deshler's Salve: Compound resin cerate. 
De Valangin's Arsenical Solution: Liquor Arsenici Hydrochloridi, AsCls. 
Dewees's Carminative: Mixture of Magnesia, Opium and Asafoetida. 
Diachylon Plaster: Emplastrum Plumbi. 
Dobell's Solution: Compound Solution of Sodium Borate, N. F. 
Donovan's Solution: Solution of Arsenous and Mercuric Iodides. 
Dover's Powder: Powder of ipecac and opium. 
Dutch Liquid: Ethene dichloride, C2H<C12. 
Dutch Metal: An alloy of copper and zinc. 
Dutch White: Impure white lead. 
Eagle Spirit: Deodorized methyl alcohol. 
Earth Wax: Ozokerite, hard paraffin, fossil wax. 
Eau de Javelle: Solution of potassium hypochlorite. 
Ehrlich's 606: Paradiamidodioxyarsenobenzol hydrochloride. 
Elixir of Vitriol: Aromatic Sulphuric Acid. 
Embalming Fluids: Contain: Arsenic, formalin, zinc chloride, hydrogen di- 
oxide or sodium sulphite and usually glycerin. GLOSSARY 
215 
Emerald Green: Copper arsenite, CuHAsO3. 
Emery: A very hard variety of corundum (aluminium silicate). 
English Salts: Magnesium sulphate. 
Epsom Salt: Magnesium sulphate. 
Eserine: Physostigmine. 
Essence of Vinegar: Concentrated acetic acid. 
Ethiops Mineral: Black mercurous sulphide, HgjS. 
Ferrier's Snuff: Compound bismuth powder. 
Fire-damp: Methane, CH4. 
Fixed Air: Choke-damp, COj and CO. 
Fixed Nitre: Potassium carbonate. 
Flake White: Pure lead carbonate. 
Flowers of Antimony: Antimonous oxide, SbjOj. 
Flowers of Arsenic: Arsenous oxide, As2O3. 
Flowers of Benzoin: Benzoic acid. 
Flowers of Bismuth: Bismuth oxide, Bi2O3. 
Flowers of Sulphur: Sublimed sulphur. 
Flowers of Zinc: Zinc oxide. 
Fly Stone: Cobalt glance, a mixture of cobalt and arsenic. 
Foliated Earth of Tartar: Potassium acetate. 
Fool's Gold: Iron pyrites, FeS2. 
Fowler's Solution: Solution of Potassium Arsenite (1 per cent.). 
Freezine: Formaldehyde, used by dairymen as a milk preservative. 
French Chalk: Talc, chiefly magnesium silicate. 
Friar's Balsam: Compound Tincture of Benzoin. 
Fruit Acid: Citric acid. 
Fuming Liquor of Libarius: A solution of stannic chloride, SnCl4. 
Fusel Oil: Amyl alcohol, CgHuOH. 
German Silver: An alloy of copper, nickel, and zinc. 
Glass of Antimony: Fused antimony trisulphide, SbjSj. 
Glauber's Salt: Sodium sulphate. 
Glonoin: Glyceryl trinitrate. 
Glycoline: Liquid vaseline. 
Goddard's Drops: Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia. 
Goulard's Cerate: Cerate of Lead Subacetate. 
Goulard's Extract: Solution of Lead Subacetate. 
Grain Alcohol: Ethyl alcohol. 
Graphine: Gas-carbon. 
Gray Oil: Calomel suspended in olive oil and lanolin. 
Gray Powder: Mercury with chalk (38 per cent, of mercury mixed with chalk 
and honey). 
Green Precipitate: Copper subacetate. 
Green Vitriol: Ferrous sulphate. 
Gregory's Powder: Compound Rhubarb Powder. 
Gregory's Salt: Double chloride of codeine and morphine. 
Griffith's Mixture: Compound Iron Mixture. 
Gum Arabic: Acacia. 
Gypsum: Native calcium sulphate. 
Hard Salt: Powdered alum. 
Harle's Solution: Solution of Sodium Arsenite. 
Hartshorn: Ammonia. 216 
APPENDIX 
Heavy Carburetted Hydrogen: Ethene, C2H4. 
Heavy Earth: Baryta or barium oxide, BaO. 
Heberden's Ink: Aromatic iron mixture. 
Hiera Piera or " Hickery Pickery" : Aloes and Canella Powder. 
Hive Syrup: Compound Syrup of Squill. 
Hoffmann's Anodyne: Compound Spirit of Ether. 
Holy Wood: Guaiacum. 
Honey Dew: A mixture of cane-sugar, dextrin and invert sugar, exuded by a 
plant-sucker (Aphis). 
Horse Salt: Sodium sulphate. 
Huxham's Tincture: Compound Tincture of Cinchona. 
Hypo: Sodium thiosulphate. 
Ice Vinegar: Glacial acetic acid. 
Iceland Moss: Cetraria. 
Ignis Fatuus: "Will-o'-the-wisp," spontaneous combustion of phosphine, 
PH3, generated in marshy places. 
India or Chinese Ink: Lamp-black mixed with gelatin and water and flavored 
with camphor and musk. 
Indian Salt: Cane-sugar. 
Insect Flowers: The flowers of Persian Pellitory. 
Irish Moss: Chondrus. 
Iron Magma: Ferric hydroxide. 
Iron Pyrites: Native sulphide of iron, FeSj. 
Italian Juice: Licorice or glycyrrhiza. 
Itch Ointment: Compound Sulphur Ointment. 
Ivory Black: Bone-black or animal charcoal. 
Jackson's Ammonia Lozenges: Lozenges containing ammonium chloride, 
morphine hydrochloride, mucilages, flavor and sugar. 
Jackson's Bathing Spirit: An alcoholic solution of soap, camphor, and oil of 
rosemary and thyme. 
Jackson's Pectoral Lozenges: Lozenges containing sulphurated antimony, 
powdered ipecac, morphine hydrochloride, mucilages, flavor and sugar. 
Jackson's Pectoral Syrup: A syrup containing morphine hydrochloride, tolu 
and oil of sassafras. 
James's Powder: Antimonial powder (Oxide of antimony and calcium phos- 
phate). 
Japan Black: A varnish consisting of asphalt, umber, turpentine and linseed oil. 
Javelle Salt: Potassium hypochlorite. 
Javelle Water: Solution of potassium hypochlorite. 
Jesuit's Powder: Powdered cinchona bark. 
Judkin's Ointment: An ointment containing lead acetate, lead oxide, sodium 
borate, oils of turpentine, olive and linseed. 
Kalk: Calcium oxide. 
Kaolin: Native aluminum silicate. 
Kelp: Ashes of sea-weed used in manufacture of iodine and sodium carbonate. 
Kermes Mineral: Sulphurated antimony, a mixture of antimony trisulphide, 
SbjSs, and trioxide, Sb2O3. 
King's Yellow: Orpiment, arsenic trisulphide, AsjSj. 
Kitchener's Pills: Rhubarb Pills. 
Knight's Pills: Pills of Aloes, Scammony and Gamboge. 
Konseals: Rice flour capsules. 
Kyan's Disinfectant: A solution of mercuric chloride. GLOSSARY 
217 
Labarraque's Solution: Solution of Sodium Hypochlorite. 
Lac Sulphuris: Precipitated sulphur. 
Lactin: Lactose. 
Lady Webster's Pills: Pills of Aloes and Mastic. 
La Fayette Mixture: A mixture containing copaiba, spirit of nitrous ether, 
fluidextract of glycyrrhiza and solution of potassium hydroxide. 
Lana Philosophica: Zinc oxide. 
Lapis Divinus: A mixture of alum, saltpetre, copper sulphate and camphor. 
Lapis Inf emalis: Lunar caustic. 
Lapis Lazuli: Native ultramarine, a dark-blue pigment. 
Latour's Chloride of Zinc Paste: A paste made of zinc chloride, zinc nitrate 
and water. 
Laudanum: Tincture of Opium. 
Laughing Gas: Nitrous oxide, N20. 
Laveran's Solution: A solution intended for injection, containing quinine 
hydrochloride, antipyrine and water. 
Laville's Gout Mixture: A mixture containing quinine sulphate, cinchonine 
sulphate, extract of colocynth, diluted alcohol and red wine. 
Lead Water: Diluted Solution of Lead Subacetate. 
Ledoyen's Disinfectant: A mixture containing lead nitrate. 
Light Carburetted Hydrogen: Methane, CH4. 
Lightning Powder: Lycopodium. 
Lime: Calcium oxide. 
Lime Liniment: A mixture of cotton-seed oil and lime water. 
Limestone: Calcium carbonate. 
Liquid Alboline: Liquid petrolatum or liquid vaseline. 
Lisle's Fever Powder: Antimonial powder. 
Litharge: Lead oxide, PbO. 
Liver of Sulphur: A mixture of sulphides of potassium. 
Lodestone: Native magnetic oxide of iron, Fe3O4. 
London Paste: A depilatory consisting of lime and sodium hydroxide made 
into a paste with water. 
Lovi's Beads: Glass beads used for determining the specific gravity of liquids. 
Lugol's Solution: Compound solution of iodine (5 per cent, of iodine). 
Lima: Ancient title for silver. 
Lunar Caustic: Silver nitrate fused with potassium nitrate and moulded into 
pencils. 
Macquer's Salt: Potassium arsenate. 
Magendie's Ethereal Tincture of Iodine: A solution of iodine in ether. 
Magendie's Solution: An aqueous solution containing 16 grains of morphine 
sulphate to the ounce. 
Magistery of Bismuth: Bismuth subnitrate. 
Magnesia: Magnesium oxide. 
Magnesia Alba: Magnesium carbonate. 
Manhattan Spirit: Methyl alcohol. 
Marble: Calcium carbonate. 
Marguerite's Salt: A mixture of potassium and sodium carbonates. 
Marine Acid: Hydrochloric acid. 
Marsden's Paste: A paste containing acacia, arsenic trioxide and water. 
Marsh Gas: Methane, CH4. 
Methylene Blue: Methylthionine hydrochloride, Ci6Hi8N3SC1. 
Michel's Paste: A mixture of asbestos and concentrated sulphuric acid. 
Microcosmic Salt: Sodium ammonium phosphate, NaNH4HPO4, found in 
the residue of evaporated stale urine of man. 218 
APPENDIX 
Milk of Asafoetida: Emulsion of Asafoetida. 
Milk of Bismuth: A suspension of bismuth subnitrate in water. 
Milk of Lime: An aqueous mixture containing an excess of calcium hydroxide. 
Milk of Magnesia: Magnesium hydroxide suspended in water. 
Milk of Sulphur: Precipitated sulphur. 
Mineral Blue: Prussian blue, Fe4(Fe(CN)#)3. 
Mineral Pitch: Asphalt. 
Minium: Red lead, Pb3O4. 
Mitigated Caustic: Mitigated Silver Nitrate. 
Monsel's Solution: Solution of Ferric Subsulphate. 
Mosaic Gold: Stannic sulphide, SnS2. 
Moth Balls: Naphthalene. 
Mountain Blue: Azurite, a native basic carbonate of copper. 
Mountain Green: Malachite, a native basic carbonate of copper. 
Muriatic Acid: Hydrochloric acid. 
Music Metal: An alloy of tin and antimony. 
Natron: Native sodium carbonate. 
Neutral Mixture: Solution of potassium citrate. 
Nitre: Saltpetre, KNOj. 
Oil of Smoke: Creosote. 
Oil of Sulphur: Sulphuric acid. 
Oil of Vitriol: Sulphuric acid. 
Olefiant Gas: Ethene, C2H4. 
Opodeldoc: Camphorated Soap Liniment. 
Oreide or French Gold: An alloy of copper, zinc, and tin. 
Orpiment: Arsenic trisulphide, As2S3. 
Oxidized Silver: Silver coated with a thin layer of silver sulphide. This is 
usually accomplished by heating the silver with a solution of potassium 
sulphide. 
Ozonized Ether: A solution of hydrogen dioxide in ether. 
Ozonized Water: An aqueous solution of hydrogen dioxide. 
Packfong: German silver. 
Palmer's Lotion: A solution containing alum and mercuric chloride. 
Palsy Drops: Compound Tincture of Lavender. 
Paradise Gas: Nitrous oxide, N2O. 
Paraffin Wax: Paraffin. 
Paregoric: Camphorated Tincture of Opium. 
Paris Black: Finely pulverized animal charcoal. 
Paris Green: Copper acetoarsenite, Cu(C2H3O2)2.3Cu(AsO2)2. 
Paris White: Impure precipitated chalk. 
Paris Yellow: Lead chromate, PbCrO4. 
Pearl Ash: Crude potassium carbonate. 
Pearl Ointment: Ointment of zinc oxide. 
Pearl Powder or Pearl White: Bismuth subnitrate or chloride, or zinc oxide. 
Pearson's Salt: Sodium arsenate, Na3AsO4. 
Pectoral Powder: Compound Licorice Powder. 
Peroxide: Hydrogen dioxide. 
Petrolatum: Vaseline. 
Petroleum Ether: Benzine (from Petroleum), a mixture of C6Hn and C6Hu. 
Petroleum Jelly: Vaseline. 
Pewter: An alloy of tin and lead and sometimes antimony. GLOSSARY 
219 
Phenacetin: Acetphenetidin. 
Phene: Benzene, C8H8. 
Phlogiston: Hydrogen. 
Phosgene Gas: Carbonyl chloride, COC12. 
Phosphine: PH3. 
Picric Acid: Trinitro-phenol, C8H2(NO2)3OH. 
Pink Salt: A mixture of stannic chloride and ammonium chloride, 
Plasma: Glycerite of Starch. 
Plaster of Paris: Exsiccated calcium sulphate. 
Platinum Sponge: Finely divided metallic platinum. 
Plumbago: Graphite, a native form of carbon. 
Plummer's Pills: Pills of Sulphurated Antimony and Calomel. 
Poison Nut: Nux Vomica. 
Potash: Impure potassium carbonate. 
Potassa: Potassium hydroxide. 
Potato Oil: Crude amyl alcohol. 
Pot Metal: An alloy of lead and copper. 
Precipitatum per se: Oxide of mercury, HgO. 
Preservaline: A mixture of boric acid and borax. 
Preserving Salts: Sodium sulphite used by wholesale butchers to preserve 
meats. 
Preston Salts: The U. S. P. ammonium carbonate. 
Prince's Powder: Red mercuric oxide. 
Printer's Ink: A boiled linseed oil varnish containing a small amount of soap 
and lamp-black or other color. 
Proof Spirit: An old name applied to dilute alcohol, 50.8 per cent, by weight. 
Proprietary Drops: Compound Tincture of Aloes or of Myrrh. 
Prussian Alkali: Potassium ferrocyanide, K<Fe(CN)8. 
Prussian Blue: Ferric ferrocyanide, Fe4(Fe(CN)8)3. 
Prussian Brown: Copper ferrocyanide, Cu2Fe(CN)8. 
Prussiate of Potash (Red): Potassium ferricyanide, K3Fe(CN)8. 
Prussiate of Potash (Yellow): Potassium ferrocyanide, K<Fe(CN)8. 
Prussic Acid: Hydrocyanic acid, HCN. 
Pulvis Albus Romanis: Magnesium carbonate. 
Pul vis Purgans: Compound Jalap Powder. 
Punk: Made by steeping a fungus in a solution of saltpetre and then drying. 
Purgative Mineral Water: Solution of Magnesium Citrate. 
Putty: A mixture of whiting and linseed oil. 
Putty Powder: A mixture of stannic oxide, SnO2, and lead oxide, PbO. 
Pyroglycerin: Glyceryl trinitrate, C3H5(NO3)3. 
Pyroxilic Spirit: Methyl alcohol. 
Pyroxylin: Tetranitro-cellulose, Ci2Hi8O8(NOj)4. 
Queen's Metal: An alloy of tin, antimony, copper and zinc. 
Quicklime: Calcium oxide. 
Quicksilver: Metallic mercury. 
Radical Vinegar: Glacial acetic acid. 
Ratsbane: Arsenic, phosphorus, nux vomica. 
Red Blister: Ointment of Red Iodide of Mercury. 
Red Borax: Ferric oxide. 
Red Cerate: Calamine Cerate. 
Red Crocus: Ferric oxide. 
Red Fire: Shellac or sugar, potassium chlorate and strontium nitrate. 220 
APPENDIX 
Red Lead: Pb3O4. 
Red Precipitate: Red mercuric oxide. 
Red Tartar: Argols. 
Regulus of Antimony: Metallic antimony. 
Rex Magnus: A mixture of boric acid and borax, used as a preservative. 
Rex Metallorum: Gold. 
Ricord's Paste: A caustic mixture of concentrated sulphuric acid and pow- 
dered carbon. 
Rochdale Salt: Sodium tartrate. 
Rochelle Salt: Potassium and sodium tartrate. 
Rock Oil: Petroleum. 
Roll Turpentine: A mixture of resin, yellow wax and lard. 
Roman Vitriol: Copper sulphate. 
Ros: Honey. 
Rose Pink: Whiting colored with a decoction of Brazil wood and alum. 
Rouge (Animal): Carmine and chalk. 
Rouge (Mineral): Finely powdered ferric oxide. 
Rouge (Vegetable): Carthamine and chalk. 
Rufus Pills: Pills of Aloes and Myrrh. 
Rust: Ferric oxide (also some hydroxide). 
Sacred Bark: Cascara Sagrada bark. 
Sacred Elixir: Compound Tincture of Rhubarb. 
Safety Oil: Naphtha. 
Sal Absinthii: Potassium carbonate. 
Sal Alembroth: "Salt of Wisdom," a double chloride of mercury and the group 
NH2 NH2HgCl. 
Sal Ammoniac: Ammonium chloride. 
Sal Antihystericum: Potassium acetate. 
Sal Catharticum: Magnesium sulphate. 
Sal Chalybis: Ferrous sulphate. 
Sal de Duobus: Potassium sulphate. 
Sal Diurecticus: Potassium acetate. 
Sal Enixum: Potassium bisulphate. 
Sal Febrifugum: Potassium acetate. 
Sal Fossile: Sodium chloride. 
Sal Marinum: Sodium chloride. 
Sal Mirabile: Sodium sulphate. 
Sal Perlatum: Sodium phosphate. 
Sal Polychrest: Potassium sulphate. 
Sal Prunelie: Fused saltpetre, moulded into small balls for cattle. 
Sal Seignette: Potassium and sodium tartrate. 
Sal Soda: Impure sodium carbonate. 
Sal Vegetabile: Potassium tartrate. 
Sal Volatile: Ammonium carbonate. 
Saleratus: Potassium bicarbonate. 
Salol: Phenyl salicylate. 
Salt: Sodium chloride. 
Salt Cake: Sodium sulphate. 
Salt of Lemon: Potassium binoxalate, KHC20i, chiefly. 
Salt of Magnus: PtCl2.2NH3. 
Salt of Mars: Ferrous sulphate. 
Salt of Phosphorus: Microcosmic salt. 
Salt of Saturn: Lead acetate. GLOSSARY 
221 
Salt of Sorrel: Same as salt of lemon. 
Salt of Steel: Ferrous sulphate. 
Salt of Tartar: Potassium carbonate. 
Salt of Wisdom: NH2HgCl. 
Saltpetre: Potassium nitrate. 
Salts of Hartshorn: Ammonium carbonate. 
Saturn's Drops: Solution of Lead Subacetate. 
Scarlet Spirits: A solution of stannous nitrate. 
Scheele's Acid: Diluted hydrocyanic acid. 
Scheele's Green: Copper arsenite, CuHAsO3. 
Schleich's Solution for General Anaesthesia: A mixture of chloroform (30), 
ether (80), and benzine (15). 
Schleich's Solution (No. 2) for Infiltration Anaesthesia: Cocaine hydrochloride 
{1% gr.), morphine hydrochloride (% gr.), sodium chloride (3 gr.), 
distilled water (3% oz.). 
Schlippe's Salt: Sodium sulphantimoniate, Na3SbS<. 
Schweinfurth Green: Same as Paris green. 
Scotch Magnesia: Magnesium carbonate. 
Scotch Soda: Impure sodium carbonate. 
Sedative Salt: Boric acid. 
Seidlitz Powder: Compound Effervescing Powder: In white paper-tartaric 
acid, 35 gr.; in blue paper-Rochelle salt, 120 gr., and sodium bicarbonate, 
40 gr- 
Seignette Salt: Rochelle salt. 
Shepherd's Stone: Bichloride of mercury. 
Shoe Blackening: A mixture of ivory black, molasses and sulphuric acid. 
Shoemaker's Black: Ferrous sulphate. 
Silent Spirit: Diluted rectified alcohol. 
Silphine: Asafoetida. 
Sleeked Lime: Calcium hydroxide, produced by adding water to lime. 
Smalt: Powdered glass colored blue with cobalt oxide. 
Smelling Salts: Chiefly ammonium carbonate. 
Soda: Sodium carbonate. 
Soda Ash: Crude sodium carbonate. 
Soda Saltpetre: Sodium nitrate. 
Soda Water: Water charged with 5 volumes of carbon dioxide under pressure. 
Soldier's Ointment: Ointment of mild chloride of mercury. 
Soluble Glass: Sodium silicate, Na^iiOg. 
Soluble Gun-cotton: Pyroxylin. 
Soluble Tartar: Potassium tartrate. 
Sore Throat Balls: Balls of potassium nitrate. 
Sory Black: Ferrous sulphate. 
Speculum Metal: An alloy of copper and tin. 
Spelter: An alloy of zinc and copper, or commercial zinc. 
Spirit of Bones: An impure ammonium carbonate. 
Spirit of Chloric Ether: Spirit of chloroform. 
Spirit of Glonoin: Spirit of Nitroglycerin. 
Spirit of Hartshorn: Alcoholic solution of ammonia; i.e., spirit of ammonia. 
Spirit of Mindererus: Solution of Ammonium Acetate. 
Spirit of Nitre: Nitric acid. 
Spirit of Salt: Hydrochloric acid. 
Spirit of Tartar: Tartaric acid. 
Spirit of Tin: Stannic chloride, SnCL. 
Spirit of Turpentine: Oil of turpentine. 222 
APPENDIX 
Spirit of Vinegar: Diluted acetic acid. 
Spirit of Wine: Rectified alcohol. 
Spiritus Formicarium: An alcoholic solution of formic acid. 
Spodium Steatite: Zinc oxide. 
Spunk: Same as Punk. 
Squibb's Mixture: One ounce each of tincture of opium, tincture of capsicum 
and spirit of camphor, three drachms of chloroform, and alcohol to make 
five ounces. 
Steel Drops: Tincture of Ferric Chloride. 
Steel Fat: Ointment of calomel used to prevent rusting. 
Steel Powder: Ferrous carbonate. 
Steel Wine: Wine of iron. 
Stomachic Tincture: Compound Tincture of Cardamom. 
Stone Black: Animal charcoal. 
Stone Mercury: Mercuric chloride. 
Strike: Ammonia water. 
Stucco: Calcium sulphate. 
Sugar of Lead: Lead acetate. 
Sulphonal: Sulphonmethane, (CHj)2C(C2H6SO2)j. 
Sulphurated Antimony: A mixture of antimony trisulphide and trioxide used 
in vulcanizing rubber. 
Sulphurated Lime: Calcium sulphide. 
Sulphuretted Hydrogen: Hydrogen sulphide. 
Sulphuric Ether: Ether, (C2H6)2O. 
Surfeit Water: Solution of ammonium acetate. 
Swedish Cholera Drops: Compound Mixture of Opium and Ipecac. 
Swedish Green: Copper arsenite, CuHAsOj. 
Sweet Precipitate: Mercuric chloride. 
Sweet Spirit of Nitre: Spirit of nitrous ether. 
Table Salt: Sodium chloride. 
Tar Balls: Naphthalene. 
Tar Spirit: Benzene, CeH«. 
Tartar Emetic: Potassium antimony tartrate, K(SbO)C4H4O*. 
Tasteless Purging Salt: Sodium phosphate. 
Tennant's Bleaching Powder: Chlorinated lime. 
Terra Alba: Kaolin. 
Tetronal: (C2H5)2C(C2H6SO2)2. 
Thenard's Blue: A compound of the oxides of cobalt and aluminium. 
Thieves' Vinegar: Aromatic acetic acid. 
Tin Liquor: A solution of stannic chloride. 
Tin Salt: Stannous chloride, SnCl2. 
Tincal: Native borax. 
Toothache Crystal: Chloral hydrate. 
Toothache Ice: Phenol and collodion. 
Toothache Powders: Consist chiefly of prepared chalk. 
Torrington's Drops: Compound tincture of benzoin. 
Trional: Sulphonethylmethane, (CH3)(C2H6)C(C2H6SO2)2. 
Trona: Native sodium carbonate, NaiCOj. 
Trooper's Ointment: Calomel ointment. 
Tully's Powder: Compound Morphine Powder. 
Turnbull's Blue: Ferrous ferricyanide, Fe3(Fe(CN)e)». 
Turner's Cerate: Calamine ointment. 
Tumsol: Litmus. GLOSSARY 
223 
Turpeth Mineral: Subsulphate of mercury, HgSO4.2HgO. 
Tutenag: Zinc. 
Tutty: Impure zinc oxide. 
Ultramarine: A blue pigment composed of sodium sulphide and aluminum 
sodium silicate. 
Unction: Calomel ointment. 
Urotropin: (CH2)«N4, hexamethylenamine. 
Usquebaugh: Distilled and sweetened tinctures of mace, saffron, orange and 
citron peels. 
Valangin's Solution: Solution of arsenic trioxide with hydrochloric acid. 
Vallet's Mass: Mass of Ferrous Carbonate. 
Van Swieten's Liquor: Solution of bichloride of mercury. 
Vareel: Ash of sea-weeds. 
Vegetable Alkali: Potassium hydroxide. 
Vegetable Black: Finely pulverized wood charcoal. 
Vegetable Sulphur: Lycopodium. 
Venetian Sublimate: Mercuric chloride. 
Venua: Ancient name for copper. 
Verdigris: A mixture of basic copper acetates. 
Vermilion: Artificial mercuric sulphide. 
Veronal: (C2H6)2C(CO-NH)2CO. 
Vienna Green: Same as Schweinfurth green. 
Vienna Paste: Potassium hydroxide with lime. 
Vinegar: Diluted acetic acid. 
Vinegar Essence: Concentrated acetic acid. 
Vinegar of Lead: Solution of Lead Subacetate. 
Violet Powder: Starch scented with orris root. 
Virgin Oil: Olive oil. 
Virgin's Milk: Solution of benzoin. 
Vitellus: Yelk of egg. 
Vitrifiable Earth: Silica. 
Vitriolic Acid: Sulphuric acid. 
Volatile Alkali: Ammonia. 
Volatile Liver of Sulphur: Ammonium sulphide. 
Volatile Salt of Urine: Ammonium carbonate. 
Volatile Salt of Vipers: Ammonium carbonate. 
Vomiting Salt: Zinc sulphate. 
Wade's Drops: Compound Tincture of Benzoin. 
Warburg's Tincture: Tinctura Antiperiodica. 
Ward's Paste: Confection of Black Pepper. 
Warming Plaster: Cantharidated tar plaster. 
Washing Blue: Artificial ultramarine, or starch and indigo. 
Washing Soda: Sodium carbonate. 
Water Glass: Sodium silicate, Na2Si40j. 
Whiskey: Spiritus Frumenti. 
White Acid: A mixture of hydrofluoric acid and ammonium fluoride. 
White Arsenic: Arsenic trioxide, As2O3. 
White Lead: Basic lead carbonate, (PbCO3)2Pb(OH)2. 
White Precipitate: Ammoniated mercury, NH2HgCl. 
White Tartar: Potassium bitartrate. 
White Vitriol: Zinc sulphate. 224 
APPENDIX 
Whiting: Impure precipitated chalk. 
Wine Stone: Argols. 
Wonderful Salt: Sodium phosphate. 
Wood Alcohol: Methyl alcohol. 
Wood Creosote: Creosote obtained from wood. 
Wood Spirit: Methyl alcohol. 
Wood Vinegar: Impure acetic acid. 
Wool Fat: Lanolin. 
Yellow Ointment: Ointment of Mercuric Nitrate. 
Yellow Metal: Brass. 
Yellow Wash: Made by adding mercuric chloride to lime water, mercuric 
oxide being formed. 
Zimmermann's Decoction: A decoction of rhubarb, barley, and cream of tartar. 
Zinc Blende: Native sulphide of zinc. 
Zinc Salve: Ointment of Zinc Oxide. 
Zinc White: Zinc Oxide. 
Zittmann's Decoction: Compound Decoction of Sarsaparilla. 
PERCENTAGE SOLUTION TABLE 
To prepare an aqueous solution of any desired percentage strength take 
Grains of the substance to make a solution containing 
Of water 
I in 
5000 
I in 
3000 
I in 
1000 
I in 
500 
iper 
cent. 
i per 
cent. 
3 per 
cent. 
5 per 
cent. 
10 per 
cent. 
20 per 
cent. 
25 per 
cent. 
50 per 
cent. 
Fluid- 
ounces. 
0.046 
0.091 
0.182 
0.547 
0.729 
1.460 
0.076 
0.152 
0.304 
0.912 
I.22O 
2.430 
0.228 
0.456 
0.912 
2.740 
3.650 
7.300 
0.457 
0.913 
1.830 
5.480 
7.310 
14.620 
1.14 
2.29 
4-58 
13-75 
18.32 
36.64 
2.3 
4.6 
9.2 
27.6 
36.8 
73-6 
7-o 
14.1 
28.2 
84.6 
112.8 
225.6 
12. 
24. 
48. 
I44. 
192. 
384- 
25.3 
50.6 
101.3 
303.9 
405.2 
810.4 
57. 
114. 
228. 
684. 
912. 
1824. 
76. 
152. 
3O4. 
912. 
I2l6. 
2430. 
228 
456 
912 
2736 
3648 
7296 
X 
I 
2 
6 
8 
16 
Note.-In using the above table it should be remembered that the full 
quantity of water designated must be taken. Example: 2 fluidounces of a 
3 per cent, solution of silver nitrate are desired. Take 2 fluidounces of water 
and dissolve 28.2 grains of silver nitrate in it. INDEX 
A 
Absinthin, 139 
Absorption, 156 
Acetanilid, 133, 204 
Acetates, 127 
Acetic acid, 122, 160, 200 
diluted and glacial, 123 
test, 123 
trichloracetic acid, 123 ] 
Acetic ether, 115 
Acetone, 121, 161 
Acetphenetidin, 133 
Acetylenes, 107 
Acetyl-salicylic acid, 127 
Acid salts, 42 
Acidity of bases, 41, 42 
Acids, 41, 62, 199 
tests for common, 163, 164 
Aconitine, 143 
Acoustics, 29 
Actinium, 50 
Action of air on metals, 48 
Adapters, 18 
Adhesion, 8 
Adrenaline, 145 
Affinity, 34 
Air, 11, 57 
Albargin, 195 
Alboline, 107 
Albumin, 171 
tests for, 166 
Albuminometer, 171 
Albumins, 149, 171 
Alcohol, 113, 182, 199 
absolute, 113, 182 
denatured, 112, 113 
diluted, 113, 114, 182 
ethyl, 112 
grain, 112 
methyl, 112 
wood, 112 
Alcohols, in 
Aldehyde, acetic, 119 
ethyl, 119 
methyl, 119 
Aldehydes, 112, 119 
Ale, 180 
Alkali group of metals, 48 
Alkaline waters, 93 
Alkalinity of blood, 167 
Alkalies, 183 
Alkaloids, 140 
animal, 144 
Alloys, 49, 50 
Alum, 81 
burnt, 81 
dried, 81 
exsiccated, 81 
Aluminium, 49 
Aluminium sulphate, 81 
Amalgams, 50 
Ammonia, 71, 158 
aromatic spirit of, 71 
spirit of, 71 
stronger water, 71 
test, 162, 164 
water, 71 
Ammonium, 71 
benzoate, 129 
bromide, 77 
carbamate, 87 
carbonate, 87 
chloride, 75 
compounds, 72 
hydroxide, 71 
iodide, 78 
muriate, 75 
salicylate, 129 
test, 80, 162, 163 
Ampere, 26 
Amygdalin, 120, 139 
Amyl nitrite, 117 
Amylopsin, 156, 184 
Amylum, 137 
Animal cellulose, 136 
charcoal, 60 
fats, 118 
ferments, 187 
oils, 118 
waxes, 118 
Anode, 25 
Antibodies, 185 
Antifebrin, 133 
Antimony, 49 
225 226 
INDEX 
Antimony and potassium tartrate, 128 
Antipyrine, 134 
Antiseptics, 188 
Antizymotic, 188 
Apomorphine hydrochloride, 142 
Apothecaries' measure, 209 
weight, 209 
Approximate measures, 209 
Aqua fortis, 48 
regia, 48, 67 
Arabinose, 136 
Area, 3 
Argols, 124 
Argon, 57 
Argyria, 84 
Argyrol, 195 
Aristol, 196 
Arsenates, 68, 89 
Arsenic, 49, 97, 157 
acids, 68 
group, 89 
poisoning, 97 
test, 90 
trioxide, 97 
white, 97 
Arsenites, 68, 89 
Arsenous acids, 68 
iodide, 79 
oxide, 97 
Artificial silk, 138 
oil of wintergreen, 116 
Asbestos 
Asepsis, 188 
Aspirin, 127 
Atmosphere, 11, 57 
Atmospheric pressure, 12 
Atom, 4, 37 
Atomic weight, 37, 38 
Atropine, 140 
Auditory canal, 30 
Autolysis, 155 
Avogadro's law, 38 
Avoirdupois weight, 209 
B 
Baking powders, 178 
soda, 88 
Barium, 82, 163, 165 
test, 82 
Barley sugar, 136 
Barnstead still, 18 
Barometer, 12 
Bases, 41, 70 
tests, 166 
Basic salts, 42 
Basicity of acids, 41 
Baths, 17 
Battery, 25 
Beakers, 17 
Beechwood creosote, 196 
Beer, 180 
bock, 180 
lager, 180 
Beet-sugar, 135 
Benzaldehyde, 120 
Benzene, 108 
derivatives of, 133 
Benzenes, 108 
Benzin, 105 
Benzoates, 129 
Benzoic acid, 125, 201 
test, 126 
Benzol, 108 
Benzolin, 105 
Beta-oxybutyric acid, 160 
Bicarbonates, 89 
test, 89 
Bichloride, 75 
of mercury, 75 
Bile, 156, 173 
pigments, 156 
salts, 156 
Bilirubin, 162 
Biliverdin, 162 
Biniodide of mercury, 79 
Biology, 3 
Bismuth, 49 
citrate, 128 
oxyiodide, 79 
subnitrate, 84 
subsalicylate, 129 
Bitter almonds, oil of, 120 
salt, 80 
Biuret test, 167 
Black bread, 178 
lead, 61 
Blaud's pills, 87 
Bleaching powder, 197 
Blood, 167, 173 
Blue mass, 50 
ointment, 50 
pill. 50 
stone, 81, 202 
vitriol, 81, 202 
Boiling point 
Bone black, 61 
Bone earth or mineral, 164 
composition of, 164 INDEX 
227 
Bone, 164 
tests on, 165 
Boracic acid, 69 
Borates, 89 
test, 89 
Borax, 89 
test, 89 
Boric acid, 69, 200 
test, 164 
Boron, 60 
Brandy, 113, 182 
Brass, 49 
Bread, 153 
Brewing, 181 
Brimstone, 58 
British gum, 136 
Brittleness, 6 
Bromelin, 184 
Bromides, 76, 77, 78 
test, 78 
Bromine, 55, 198 
Bromism, 78 
Bromoform, in 
Butane, 105 
Butter fats, 118 
Butterine, 118 
Butyric acid, 123, 160 
C 
Cadaverine, 144 
Caffeine, 144 
Calabar bean, 143 
Calamine, 88 
Calcination, 16 
Calcined magnesia, 96 
Calcium: 
bromide, 77 
carbonate, 88, 159 
fluoride, 159 
hydroxide, 72 
hypochlorite, 76 
hypophosphite, 86 
oxide, 96 
phosphate, 85 
sulphate, 82, 159 
sulphide, 82 
test, 163 
Calomel, 75 
Calorie, 15 
Calorific value table, 154 
Calorimeter, calorimetry, 15 
Atwater, 16 
Calx, 96 
Camera, 21 
Camphor, 203 
Cane-sugar, 135, 136 
Capillary phenomena, 8 
Caramel, 136 
Capric acid, 160 
Caprylic acid, 160 
Carbamid, 132 
Carbazotic acid, 134 
Carbinol, 112 
Carbohydrates, 135, 151 
Carbolated salve, 130 
Carbolic acid, 44, 130, 190 
Carbon, 60 
compounds, 60, 61, 101 
dioxide, 61, 95, 158 
disulphide, 82 
monoxide, 94 
*poisoning, 94 
test, 101 
Carbonated waters, 93 
Carbonates, 86 
test, 89, 163, 166 
Carbonic acid, 68 
test, 163 
Carbonic acid gas, 95 
Carbonization, 16 
Carboxyl, 122 
Cathode, 25 
Caustic potash, 70 
soda, 71 
Cells, galvanic, 25, 26 
Cellulase, 183 
Cellulin, 136 
Celluloid, 139 
Cellulose, 136, 138 
Cerebrin, 160 
Chain series, 102 
Chalk, 88 
precipitated, 88 
prepared, 88 
Chalybeate waters, 93 
Champagne, 180 
artificial, 180 
Changes, chemical, 3 
physical, 33 
Charcoal: 
animal, 60I 
wood, 60 
Chemical affinity, 34 
changes, 33, 34 
combinations, 48 
composition of human body, 157 
Chemical compounds, 33 
elements, 35, 36 INDEX 
228 
Chemical equations, 40 
formulae, 37 
nomenclature, 44, 45 
philosophy, 33 
reactions, 46 
symbols, 40 
Chemistry, 35 
inorganic, 31-46, 101 
organic, 99-103 
physiological, 147 
Chili saltpetre, 83 
Chloral, 120 
hydrate, 120, 204 
Chlorate of potash, 76 
soda, 76 
Chlorates, 76 
test 
Chloride of lime, 197 
Chlorides, 74 
test, 75 
of mercury, 75 
Chlorinated lime, 197 
soda, 54 
Chlorine, 54, 197 
Chloroform, no, 202 
Choke-damp, 95 
Choleic acid, 161 
Cholesterin, 156, 162 
Cholic acid, 161 
Choline, 162 
Chromium, 49 
trioxide, 203 
Chymase, 185 
Cider, 179 
Cinchonine, 141 
Citrates, 128 
Citric acid, 125, 201 
test, 125 
Citrine ointment, 84 
Cleaning oil, 107 
Closed-chain series, 103 
Cloves, oil of, 203 
Coal, 61 
Coal oil, 106 
Coal-gas poisoning, 94, 95 
Coal-tar creosote, 131, 196 
Cobalt, 49 
Cocaine, 141 
Cocoa butter, 118 
Codeine, 142 
Cohesion, 8 
Coke, 61 
Cold, 14 
Collagen, 153 
Collodion, 139 
cantharidal, 139 
flexible, 139 
styptic, 139 
Colloids, 8 
Color, 20 
of metals, 47 
of urine, 169 
of water, 91 
Combustion, 15, 16 
Compass, 24 
Compounds containing nitrogen, 
132 
of carbon, 60, 61 
Composition of bone, 164. 
of bone earth or mineral, 164 
of gastric juice, 155 
of human body, 157-168 
of milk, 152 
of proteins, 149 
of saliva, 165 
of urine, 169 
Compressibility, 4 
Condensers, 18 
Conduction of electricity, 25 
Conductors, 25 
Coniine, 144 
Conjugated proteins, 149 
Cooking of foods, 153 
Copper, 48 
sulphate, 81, 202 
Copperas, 81 
Corpuscles, 167 
Corrosive chloride of mercury, 75 
sublimate, 75, 191 
Cosmoline, 106 
Cotton, 138 
absorbent, 138 
medicated, 138 
mercerized, 138 
Cream of tartar, 128 
Creatine, 161 
Creatinine, 161 
Cremation, 158 
Creolin, 196 
Creosote, 131, 196 
beech wood, 196 
coal-tar, 131, 196 
water, 131 
wood, 131, 196 
Cresol, 130, 196 
compound solution of, 131 
Cresylic acid, 130, 196 
Crookes tube, 27 INDEX 
229 
Crucibles, 16 
Crystallization, 6 
six systems of, 7 
Crystalloids, 8 
Crystals, 6 
various systems, 6, 7 
Cumene, 109 
Cyanide of potassium, 90 
of. mercury, 192 
poisoning, 192; of Sodium, 90 
Cyanides, 90 
Cymogen, 105 
D 
Decoction, 11 
Deflagration, 16 
Deliquescence, 92 
Denatured alcohol, 112, 113 
Deodorants, 188 
Desiccation, 19 
Dextrins, 136 
Dextrose, 13, 135, 159, 171 
Diabetin, 135 
Diacetic acid, 160 
Diace tyl-morphine, 143 
Diads, 39 
Dialysis, 8 
Dialyzer, 8, 9 
Diamond, 61 
Diastase, 183 
Diethyl-malonyl-urea, 133 
Diethylsulphon-dimethylmethane, 
131 
-methylethylmethane, 132 
Diffusion, 8 
of gases, 9, 11 
of liquids, 8 
Digallic acid, 126 
Digestion, 10, 153, 155 
gastric, 155 
intestinal, 156 
salivary, 155 
Digitalin, 139 
Dimethyl-ketone, 121 
Dionin, 142 
Disaccharides, 135 
Disinfectants, 188 
Distillation, 17, 181 
destructive, 17 
fractional, 17 
Distilled water, 92 
Distilling apparatus, 19 
Divisibility, 3 
Double salt, 81 
Dry cell, 26 
Drying oils, 118 
Ductility, 6 
Dynamite, 117 
E 
Ear, 30 
Echo, 29 
Effervescence, 95, 180 
Effervescent sodium phosphate, 85 
Efflorescence, 92 
Elasticity, 4 
Electric arc, 28 
current, 24-26 
energy, 28 
units, 25, 26 
Electricity, 24-28 
chemical, 24, 25 
frictional, 24 
galvanic, 24 
inductive, 24, 25 
static, 24 
thermal, 24, 26 
Electrodes, 25 
Electrolytic dissociation, 43, 44 
Electromotive force, 26 
Elements, 35 
in human body, 157 
table of chemical, 35, 36 
Eleopten, 107 
Emulsin, 120, 183 
Energy, 4 
kinetic, 4 
potential, 4 ' 
Enzymes, 156, 183 
animal, 183 
vegetable, 183 
Epinephrine, 145 
Epsom salt, 80 
Equations, chemical, 40 
Equivalents, 210 
Erepsin, 184 
Eserine, 143 
Esters, 115 
Ethane, 105 
Ether, 115, 202 
acetic, 115 
nitrous, 116 
sulphuric, 115 
Ethereal salts, 115 
Ethers, 115 
Ethyl alcohol, 112 
bromide, in 
Ethyl chloride, no 
ether, 115 230 
INDEX 
Ethyl nitrite, 116 
oxide, 115 
Ethylmorphine hydrochloride, 142 
Eucalyptol, 108, 203, 204 
Evaporating dishes, 16 
Evaporation, 17 
Expression, 40 
Exsiccated sodium phosphate, 85 
Exsiccation, 19 
Extension, 3 
Extraction of metals, 47 
Extractive processes, 10 
Eye, 22, 23 
F 
Fat, 118 
Fats and oils, 118 
animal, 118, 151 
body, 159 
Fatty series, 105 
Fehling's solution, 172 
test, 172 
Fellic acid, 161 
Fermentation, 177-187 
Ferments, 177-187 
amylolytic, 183 
coagulant, 183 
glycolytic, 183 
nitrifying, 186 
organized, 183 
proteolytic, 183 
of putrefaction, 187 
steatolytic, 183 
unorganized, 183 
Ferric hydroxide, 73 
hypophosphite, 86 
phosphate, 85 
pyrophosphate, 85 
Ferrous carbonate, 87 
iodide, 79 
sulphate, 81, 203 
Fibrin, 167 
Filter, Berkefeld, 9, 10 
papers, 10 
Filters, 9 
Filtration, 9, 10 
Fire-damp, 105 
Flasks, 17 
Fluorides, 64 
Fluorine, 57, 198 
Foodstuffs, 151 
calorific values, 154 
classification of, 151 
Foodstuffs, cooking of, 153 
Force, 4 
Formaldehyde, 119, 193, 194 
Formalin, 193, 194 
Formates, 160 
Formic acids, 122, 160 
Formin, 132 
Formose, 135 
Fortification, 179 
Formulae, graphic, 37 
Fowler's solution, 89 
Frangulin, 139 
Frictional electricity, 24 
Fructose, 135 
Fruit acid, 125 
Funnels, 9,10 
hot-water, 9 
Fusion, 15 
G 
Galactose, 135 
Gallates, 127 
Gallic acid, 127 
test, 127 
Gallotannic acid, 126 
Galvanic cells, 25 
electricity, 24 
Gas, illuminating poisoning, 94, 95 
Gases, 11 
of human body, 157 
Gasolene, 105, 106 
Gastric digestion, 155 
juice, 155 
composition of, 155,156 
German silver, 49, 50 
Germicide, 188 
Gin, 113, 182 
Glauber's salt, 80 
Globulins, 149 
Glossary, 212 
Glucose, 135, 136 
Glucosides, 139 
Gluten, 177 
Glycerin, 114, 197 
Glycyrrhizin, 139 
Glycerol, 114 
Glyceryl trinitrate, 116 
Glycocholic acid, 161 
Glycocoll, 161 
Glycogen, 136, 139, 159 
Glycoline, 107 
Gold, 49 
Goulard's extract, 96 INDEX 
231 
Grain alcohol, 112 
fermentation of, 181, 182 
Grape-sugar, 135, 136 
Graphite, 61 
Gravitation, 5 
Gray powder, 50 
Green, Paris, 89 
iodide of mercury, 78 
Scheele's, 90 
soap,119 
vegetables, 153 
vitriol, 81 
Griffith's mixture, 87 
Group, alkali, 48 
alkaline earths, 48 
Gums, 136 
Gun-cotton, 139 
soluble, 138 
Gutta-percha 
Gypsum, 82 
H 
Haemoglobins, 167 
Halogen acids, 62 
salts, 74, no 
Halogens, 54, 197 
Hardness, 6 
of water, 91, 92 
Heat, 14, 189 
dry, 189, 190 
moist, 189 
sources of, 14 
Helium, 36 
Heller's test, 149 
Heroin, 143 
Hexamethylenamine, 132, 197 
Hexamethylene tetramine, 132 
Hexane, 106 
Hippuric acid, 169 
Histozym, 185 
Hoffmann's anodyne, 115 
Homatropin, 141 
Horse salt, 80 
Human body, chemical composition 
of, 157 
Hydrargyrum, 75 
Hydrastine, 143 
Hydriodic acid, 64 
test, 164 
Hydrobromic acid, 63 
test, 164 
Hydrocarbons, 104 
derivatives of no, 122 
Hydrochloric acid, 62 
test, 163 
Hydrocyanic acid, 68 
poisoning, 68 
Hydrogen, 51 
dioxide, 91, 93, 158, 195 
monoxide, 91 
sulphide, 65, 158 
test, 101 
Hydrometer, 5, 6 
Hydrofluoric acid, 64 
Hydrosulphuric acid, 65 
test, 163 
Hydroxides, 71, 72 
Hydroxyl, 71 
Hygroscopic compounds, 92 
Hyoscyamine, 141 
Hypo, 83 
Hypochlorites, 76 
Hypophosphites, 86 
Hypophosphorus acid, 67 
I 
Ice, 15 
Ignition, 15 
Images, 19 
Impenetrability, 4 
Imperial measure, 209 
Incandescent light, 28 
Incineration, 16 
Indestructibility, 3 
Indican, 139, 173 
test, 173 
Indicators, 39 
Indol, 161 
Induction, 24 
coil, 25 
Inductive electricity, 24 
Infusion, 10 
Inorganic acids, 62 
chemistry, 31-46, 101 
compounds, 62 
salts, 151 
Inosit, 135, 159 . 
Intestinal digestion, 156 
Inulase, 183 
Inulin, 136 
Invertase, 184 
Invertin, 184 
Iodides, 78 
test, 80 
uses, 79 
Iodine, 56, 198 
lodism, 80 INDEX 
232 
Iodoform, in, 196 
Ionization, 43 
Iron, 48 
hydroxide, 73 
magma, 73 
pills, 87 
test, 163 
Isoamylamine, 144 
Isomaltose, 135 
Isovaleric acid, 160 
J 
Jalapin, 139 
Javelle water, 76 
K 
Kalium, 36 
Kerosene, 105, 106 
Ketones, 112, 121 
Kinetic energy, 5 
Knockout drops, 120 
Koumis, 182 
Kreosote, 131 
Kresol, 130 
Krypton, 36 
L 
Lactase, 184 
Lactic acid, 123, 160, 201 
bacilli, 201 
test, 124 
Lactometer, 6 
Lactose, 135, 137, 159 
Lactosin, 136 
Lampblack, 61 
Laudanum, 142 
Laughing gas, 94 
Lead, 49 
acetate, 127 
black, 61 
monoxide, 96 
oxide, 96 
plaster, 96 
sugar of, 127 
water, 96 
Lecithin, 156, 160 
Lenses, 20, 21 
Leucin, 161 
Leucocytes, 167 
Leucomaines, 145 
Levulin, 136 
Levulose, 135 
Lieberman's test, 150 
Light, 19 
Light, electric arc, 28 
incandescent, 28 
petroleum, 106 
Lignin, 136 
Ligroin, 105 
Lime, 96, 202 
milk of, 136 
quicklime, 96 
slaked, 72, 96, 202 
stone, 88 
sulphurated, 82 
water, 96 
Liquid measure, 209 
Liquids, 7 
Litharge, 96 
Lithia waters, 93 
Lithium, 129 
benzoate, 129 
bromide, 77 
carbonate, 87 
citrate, 128 
salicylate, 129 
test, 162 
Litmus paper, 71, 162 
Liver-dextrin, 139 
Liver-starch, 136, 139 
Lunar caustic, 84 
Luminosity, 19 
Lysol, 196 
M 
Maceration, 10 
Magnesia, 96 
alba, 87 
calcined, 96 
milk of, 96 
Magnesium, 49 
carbonate, 87 
citrate, 87 
effervescing solution of, 87 
hydroxide, 72 
oxide, 96 
sulphate, 80 
test, 82, 163 
Magnetic poles, 24 
Magnetism, 24 
Magnets, 241 
Malleability, 6 
Malt, 180 
Maltase, 184 
Malting, I <50 
Maltose, 135 
Malt-sugar, 135 
Manganese, 49 INDEX 
233 
Manganese, hypophosphite, 86 
test, 163 
Maple sugar, 135 
Marble, 88 
Mariner's compass, 24 
Marsh gas, 105 
Mash, 181 
Mass, 3 
of ferrous carbonate, 87 
Matter, 3 
conservation of, 3 
indestructibility of, 4 
states of, 4 
Measures, 209 
Meat, 153 
proteins, 151 
Mechanical mixtures, 33 
Melanins, 162 
Menstruum, 10 
Menthol, 108, 203, 204 
Mercerized cotton, 138 
Mercurial ointment, 97 
Mercuric compounds, 75 
cyanide, 192 
chloride, 75, 191 
iodide, 79 
nitrate, 84 
ointment of, 84 
solution of, 84 
oxide, 97 
test, 84 
Mercurous compounds: 
iodide, 78 
chloride, 75 
Mercury: 
chloride, 75 
corrosive, 75 
mild, 75 
iodide, 78 
green, 78 
mercuric, 75 
mercurous, 75 
red, 79 
yellow, 78 
oxide: 
red, 97 
yellow, 97 
salicylate, 129 
test, 167 
Metallic oxides, 96 
Metals, 47 
alloys, 49, 50 
amalgams, 50 
atmospheric effects, 48 
Metals, chemical properties, 48 
extraction, 47 
physical properties, 47 
physiological effects, 50 
sources, 47 
specific gravity, 48 
tests, 48, 162, 163, 166 
uses, 48, 49 
Metarsenite, 89 
Methane, 105, 158 
Methyl alcohol, 112 
chloride, no 
salicylate, 116 
Metric system, 210 
Microscope, 20, 22 
Mild chloride of mercury, 75 
Milk, 152 
fat, 152 
cow's, 152 
proteins, 152 
sugar, 135 
woman's 159 
Mineral acids, 199 
waters, 93 
sperm oil, 118 
Mirrors, 19 
Mitigated caustic, 84, 195 
silver nitrate, 84, 195 
Molecular weight, 38 
Molecules, 14 
Monads, 39 
Monkshood, 143 
Monobasic acids, 112 
Monosaccharides, 135 
Morphine, 142 
Moth balls, 205 
Mother of vinegar, 186 
Moulds, 186' 
Mucor mucedo, 180 
Murexid tests, 171 
Muriatic acid, 62 
Muscle-sugar, 135, 159 
Musical sound, 29, 30 
Mycoderma aceti, 186 
Myopsin, 156 
Myronic acid, 139 
N 
Naphtha, 105, 106 
Naphthalene, 109, 205 
Neon, 11 
Neo-Salvarsan, 134 
Neurine, 145, 162 
Neutralization, 41 234 
INDEX 
Neutral salt, 42 
Nickel, 49 
Nicotine, 140 
Nitrates, 84 
test, 84, 163 
Nitric acid, 48, 66 
test, 163 
Nitrifying ferments, 186 
Nitrite, amyl, 117 
Nitrites, 85, 186 
Nitro-salts, 83 
Nitrocellulose, 138 
Nitrogen, 57 
acids, 66 
monoxide, 94 
test, 102 
Nitroglycerin, 116 
Nitrohydrochloric acid, 67 
Nitrous acid, 66 
ether, 116 
oxide, 94 
Nomenclature, chemical, 44, 45 
Non-conductors, 25 
Non-metallic oxides, 91 
Non-metals, 51 
Normal saline solution, 74 
salt, 42 
Nucleoproteins, 149 
Nux vomica, 141 
O 
Ohm, 26 
Oidium albicans, 186 
Oil of bergamot, 203 
of birch, 203 
bitter almonds, 120 
of smoke, 131 
of turpentine, 107 
rectified, 108 
of vitriol, 65 
of wintergreen, 203 
Oils, animal, 118 
drying, 118 
test, 164 
vegetable, 118 
volatile, 203 
Ointment of zinc oxide, 97 
of mercuric nitrate, 84 
Olefins, 107 
Oleic acids, 160 
Oleomargarine, 118 
Open-chain series, 102 
Opium, 142 
Organic acids, 122 
chemistry, 99-103 
salts, 127 
Orthophosphoric acid, 67 
Ossein, 165 
test, 165 
Ovens, 16 
Oxalic acid, 124, 160 
test, 124, 164 
Oxidation, 46, 53 
Oxides, 91, 96, 97 
metallic, 96 
non-metallic, 97 
of hydrogen, 91 
of mercury, 97 
Oxybenzoic acid 
Oxygen, 63,188 
Ozone, 54 
P 
Palm sugar, 135 
Palmitic acid, 160 
Pancreatic juice, 156 
composition of, 156 
Pancreatin, 184 
Papain, 183 
Paper, parchment, 138 
Paraffin, 105, 107 
wax, 107 
Paraffins, 105 
Paraformaldehyde, 119 
Paraldehyde, 119 
Parchment paper, 138 
Paregoric, 142 
Paris green, 89 
white, 88 
Pectin-sugar, 183 
Pearl ash, 86 
Pectinase, 183 
Pepsin, 184 
Pepsinogen, 184 
Peptids, 155 
Peptones, 155 
Percentage solution table, 224 
Percolation, n 
Percolators, 10 
Permanganate of potash, 90, 192 
Permanganates, 90 
test, 90 
Peroxide of hydrogen, 93 
Perry, 179 
Petrolatum, 105, 106, 107 
Petroleum, 105, 205 INDEX 
235 
Petroleum, crude, 105 
ether, 105 
jelly, 106 
pitch, 205 
Phenacetine, 133 
Phenol, 130, 161, 190 
liquefied, 130 
ointment, 130 
Phenols, 130 
Phene, 108 
Phenyl salicylate, 117 
Phenylacetamid, 133 
Phosphate of soda, 85 
Phosphates, 85 
test, 163 
Phosphoproteins, 149 
Phosphorescence, 59 
Phosphoric acid, 67 
test, 102, 163 
Phosphorus, 59 
acids, 67 
red, 59 
yellow, 59 
Phospho-salts, 85 
Physical changes, 33 
properties of metals, 47 
Physics, 3 
Physiological effects of metals, 50 
Physostigmine, 143 
Picric acid, 134 
Pigments of bile, 173 
Piles, electric, 26 
Pills of ferrous carbonate, 87 
Pilocarpine, 140 
Plant fibre, 138 
Plasma, 167 
Plaster of Paris, 82 
Platinum, 49 
Plumbago, 61 
Polariscope, 20 
Poles, magnetic, 24 
Polonium, 50 
Polysaccharides, 135 
Pores, 168 
Porosity, 4 
Porter, 180 
Potable water, 92 
Potash, 86 
prussiate of, 90 
Potassium: 
acetate, 127 
acid tartrate, 128 
aluminium sulphate, 81 
arsenite, 89 
Potassium arsenite, solution of, 89 
bicarbonate, 89 
bitartrate, 128 
bromide, 77 
carbonate, 86, 159 
chlorate, 76 
chloride, 74, 158 
citrate, 128 
cyanide, 90 
hydrate, 70 
hydroxide, 70 
hypochlorite, 76 
hypophosphite, 86 
iodide, 78 
nitrate, 83 
permanganate, 90, 192 
phosphate, 86 
sodium tartrate, 128 
sulphate, 159 
test, 89 
Precipitated calcium carbonate, 88 
zinc carbonate, 88 
Pressure of atmosphere, n, 12 
Prism, 20 
Prismatic spectrum, 23 
Propane, 105 
Propenyl hydroxide, 114 
Properties of gases, 11 
of liquids, 7 
of solids, 6 
Propionic acid, 160 
Propyl hydroxide, 70 
Protagon, 160 
Protargol, 195 
Proteins, 149 
analyses of, 149 
classification of, 149 
conjugated, 149 
derived, 149 
simple, 149 
tests for, 149, 150, 162 
Proteoses, 149 
Protiodide of mercury, 78 
Prussiate of potash, 90 
red, 90 
yellow, 90 
Prussic acid, 68, 93 
poisoning, 93 
Ptomaines, 140, 144, 188 
Ptyalin, 155, 184 
test, 166 
Putrefying ferments, 158 
Pyroglycerin, 116 236 
INDEX 
Pyrophosphates, 85 
Pyroxylin, 138 
Q 
Quantity of urine, 169 
Quicklime, 96 
Quinine, 141, 204 
R 
Radicals, 4 
Radio-active metals, 50 
Radium, 50 
Raffinose, 136 
Rain water, 92 
Rays, 19 
Reactions, 34 
analytic, 34 
chemical, 34 
synthetic, 34 
Receivers, 18 
Red mercuric iodide, 79 
Reduction, 46 
Reflection, 20 
Refraction, 20, 21 
Rennin, 185 
Residues, 16 
Resins, 61, 121 
Resonance, 29 
Resorcin, 131, 204 
Resorcinol, 131 
Retina, 23 
Retorts, 18 
Roasting, 16 
Rochelle salt, 128 
Rontgen rays, 27 
Rubber, 166 
Rum, 182 
Rusting, 48 
Rutic acid, 160 
S 
Saccharase, 183 
Saccharated ferrous carbonate, 87 
Saccharometer, 172 
Saccharum lactis, 137 
Safety oil, 106 
Sal ammoniac, 75 
Salicin, 139 
Salicylates, 129 
Salicylic acid, 126, 201 
test, 126 
Saliva, 155, 165, 166 
composition of, 166 
examination of, 166 
Salivary digestion, 155 
Salol, 117 
Sal seignette, 128 
soda, 86 
volatile, 87 
Salt, acid, 74 
basic, 42, 74 
common, 74 
double, 42, 81 
Epsom, 80 
Glauber's, 80 
horse, 80 
neutral, 42 
normal, 42 
solution, 74 
Rochelle, 128 
table, 74 
Saltpetre, 83 
Chili, 83 
Salts, 41, 50, 74 
acid, 41 
basic, 41 
double, 41 
ethereal, 115 
halogen, 74, no 
inorganic 
normal or neutral, 41, 42 
of tartar, 86 
organic 
Salvarsan, 134 
Salve, carbolated, 130 
zinc, 197 
Santonin, 139 
Saponification, 119 
Saponin, 139 
Sarcolactic acid, 160 
Scheele's green, 90 
Science, 3 
Sea-water, 93 
Serum, 167 
Signal Service barometer, 12 
Silica, 159 
Silicon, 60 
Silver, 49 
nitrate, 84, 195 
mitigated, 195 
moulded, 195 
Simple sugars, 135 
Siphon, 13 
barometer, 12 
Skatol, 161 
Slaked lime, 72 
Soap: 
carbolated solution, 190 
green, 119 INDEX 
237 
Soap, hard, 119 
soft, 119 
Soaps, 119, 199 
Soda, baking, 88 
washing, 86 
water, 95 
Sodium acetate, 127 
acid sulphite, 80 
arsenate, 89 
dried, 89 
exsiccated, 89 
solution of, 89 
benzoate, 129 
bicarbonate, 88 
bisulphite, 80 
borate, 89 
bromide, 76 
carbonate, 86, 159 
chlorate, 76 
chloride, 74, 158 
citrate, 128 
cyanide, 90 
hydrate, 71 
hydroxide, 71 
hypochlorite, 76 
hypophosphite, 86 
hyposulphite, 83 
iodide, 78 
nitrate, 83 
nitrite, 85 
phosphate, 85 
pyrophosphate, 86 
sulphate, 80, 159 
salicylate, 129 
tetraborate, 89 
thiosulphate, 83 
test, 162 
Solder, 49 
Solids, properties of, 6 
Soluble ferric phosphate, 58 
pyrophosphate, 85 
Solution, 9 
percentage (table), 224 
saturated, 9 
normal salt, 42 
Solutol, 196 
Solvents, 9 
Sorghum, 135 
Sound, 29 
musical, 29 
wave-motion, 29 
Sources of heat, 14 
of metals, 47 
Sparteine, 144 
Specific gravity, 5 
Specific gravity of metals, 48 
of urine, 169 
weight, 5 
Spectroscope, 20 
Spectrum, prismatic, 20, 23 
Spirit of ether, 115 
compound, 115 
of glonoin, 116 
of nitroglycerin, 116 
of nitrous ether, 116 
of turpentine, 107 
of wine, 112 
of wintergreen, 116 
Spiritus formicarium, 122 
frumenti, 113 
vini gallici, 113 
Sprays, 204 
Starch, 136, 137 
liver, 159 
sugar, 135 
States of matter, 4 
Static electricity, 24 
Steapsin, 156, 184 
Stearic acid, 160 
Stearopten, 107, 203 
Sterilization, 189, 190, 194 
Stills, 18, 19 
Stout, 180 
Strontium: 
bromide, 77 
salicylate, 129 
test, 78 
Strophan thin, 139 
Strychnine, 141 
Sublimate, 18 
corrosive, 75, 191 
Sublimation, 18 
Succus entericus, 156 
Sucrose, 135, 136 
Sugar, 135 
barley, 136 
beet, 135 
cane, 135, 136 
dextrose, 135, 136 
formose, 135 
fructose, 135 
galactose, 135 
glucose, 135 
grape, 135, 136 
in urine 
inosit, 135 
lactose, 135 
levulose, 135 
malt, 135 
milk, 135, 137 238 
Sugar, maple, 135 
muscle, 135, 155 
of lead, 127 
palm, 135 
pectin, 183 
saccharum, 136 
sorghum, 135 
starch, 135 
sucrose, 136 
wood, 136 
Sugars, 135 
complex, 135 
simple, 135 
Sulphates, 80 
test, 82 
Sulphides, 82 
Sulphites, 80 
Sulphonal, 131 
Sulphonethylmethane, 132 
Sulphonmethane, 131 
Sulpho-salts, 80 
Sulphur, 58 
acids, 64 
derivatives, 131 
dioxide, 94 
precipitated, 59 
rolled, 58 
sublimed, 59 
test, 165 
washed, 59 
Sulphurated lime, 82 
Sulphuretted hydrogen, 65 
Sulphur waters, 93 
Sulphuric acid, 65 
test, 102, 163 
ether, 115 
Sulphurous acid, 64, 199 
Sweat, 168 
Sweet spirit of nitre, 116 
Symbols, 35-37 
T 
Tannic acid, 126, 202 
test, 126 
Tannin, 126 
Tar, test, 164 
Tartar emetic, 128 
Tartaric acid, 124, 201 
test, 125 
Tartrates, 128 
Taurin, 162 
Temperature, measurement of, 15 
Tenacity, 6 
Terpenes, 107 
Terpin hydrate, 203 
INDEX 
Tests for common acids, 163, 164, 165 
for common metals, 162, 163 
Tetanine, 145 
Tetronal, 132 
Thermal electricity, 26 
units, 25, 26 
Thermometers, 14, 15 
Centigrade, 15 
Celsius, 15 
clinical, 15 
Fahrenheit, 15 
Reaumur, 15 
Thiosulphates, 83 
Thorium, 50 
Thymol, 108, 203, 204 
Tin, 48, 49 
Tincture of iodine, 56 
press, 10 
Toluene, 109 
Torrefaction, 16 
Translucent bodies, 19 
Triads, 39 
Triatomic alcohol, 114 
Trichloracetic acid, 123 
Trichloraldehyde, 120 
Trinitro-phenol, 133 
Trional, 132 
Troy weight, 205 
Trypsin, 156, 184 
Tunicin, 136 
Timing fork, 29 
Turpentine, 107, 108 
oil of, 107, 203 
rectified oil of, 108 
spirit of, 107 
Type-metal, 49 
Tyrosin, 161 
Tyrotoxicon, 145 
U 
Urea, 101, 132, 161, 162, 170 
diethyl-malonyl, 133 
Ureometer, 170 
Urotropine, 132 
Uric acid, 160 
tests, 167 
Uricometer, 171 
Urine, 169 
analysis of, 169 
examination of, 170 
specific gravity of, 169 
Uses of metals, 48, 49 
V 
Valence, 38, 39 
Vallet's mass, 87 INDEX 
239 
Vapor, 17 
Vaporization, 17 
Vaseline, 106 
carbolated, 130 
liquid, 107 
white, 106 
Vegetable oils, 118 
green, 153 
Ventilation, 11 
Veratrine, 143 
Veronal, 133 
Vinegar, 123 
aromatic, 200 
mother of, 186 
Vinum album, 113 
rubum, 114 
Viscose, 138 
Vision, 22, 23 
Vital force, 101 
Volatile oils, 107, 203 
Volt, 25 
Voltmeter, 27 
Volume, 3 
W 
Washing soda, 86 
Water, 91, 151, 158 
alkaline, 93 
baths, 17 
carbonated, 93 
chalybeate, 92 
distilled, 92 
filtered, 9 
hardness of, 91 
permanent, 92 
temporary, 91 
lead, 96 
lithia, 93 
mineral, 93 
of crystallization, 91, 92 
potable, 92 
rain, 92 
saline, 93 
sea, 92 
sulphur, 93 
test, 164 
unfiltered, 9 
vapor, 17 
Watt, 26 
Waxes, animal, 118 
Weight, 37, 38 
apothecaries', 209 
atomic, 37, 38 
avoirdupois, 209 
Weight, metric, 210 
molecular, 38 
Troy, 209 
Weights and measures, 209 
Whiskey, 113, 181 
artificial, 182 
White arsenic, 97 
lead, 
of egg, 75, 149, 151, 154, 192 
Paris, 88 
vitriol, 81 
wine, 113 
Whiting, 88 
Wine, 114, 179 
red, 114 
white, 113 
Wines, 114 
dry, 114 
sparkling, 114 
still, 114 
sweet, 114 
Wintergreen, artificial oil of, 116 
Wood alcohol, 112 
charcoal, 60 
creosote, 131, 196 
silk, 139 
spirits, 112 
sugar, 136 
Work, muscular, 159 
X 
Xanthoproteic test, 150 
X-rays, 27 
Xenon 
Xylene, 109 
Xylose, 138 
Y 
Yeast, 185, 186 
Yellow mercurous iodide, 78 
Z 
Zinc, 49 
acetate, 127 
bromide, 77 
carbonate, 88 
chloride, 
oxide, 97 
ointment, 97 
salve, 97 
phenolsulphonate, 202 
poisoning, 82 
sulphate, 81 
Zymase, 185