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ULTIMATE PRINCIPLES
CHEMISTRY, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY,
mwioiom
DEDUCED FROM THE DISTRIBUTION OF MATTER INTO
          TWO CLASSES OR KINDS,
FROM OTHER SOURCES.
BY LABDNEB VAJSTUXEM.
      ---—£*T

       Part I.    /   'T  -u'■ J>^
      PHILADELPHIA:
PUBLISHED BY CAREY, LEA & CAKEY.
       J. HARDING, PniNTEK.
1827 
                          nnrtcK

                               QD


                                31








Eastern District of Pennsylvania, to wit:
  BK IT  »E.\:vMBKRF.», that  on the fifteenth day of December,
in t!.<- tit'tv-hcc-nd vear of the Independence of the United States of
Aineuca, A  I>. itiVT, Carev,  Lea & Carey, of the said District, have
deposited in this  .fine, the Title of a Book, the right whereof they
claim as Pi >pietors, in the words following, to wit.

"An  Essay on the Ultimate  Principles of Chemistry,  Natural Phi-
  losophy,  and Physiology, deduced from  the Distribution of Matter
  into two  Classes or Kinds, and from other Sources.  By Lurdner
  Vanuxem. Part I."

  In conformity to  the Act of the Congress of the United States, in-
titu'ed,  " An Act for the Encouragement of Learning,  by securing
the Copies of Maps,  Charts,  and  Books, to the  Authors and Proprie-
tors of such C»pi< s, during the times therein mentioned"—and also
to the Act, entitled, " An  Act supplementary to  an Act, entitled " An
Act for the Encouragement  of Learning, by securing the Copies of
Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors  and Proprietors of such
Copies, during the  times therein  mentioned," and extending the
benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching his-
torical and other prints."
                                          D. CALDWELL,
                      Clerk of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania
 
PREFACE.
  Having accepted the appointment of chief com-
missioner of some silver mines in Mexico, belonging
to the Tlalcotal Mining Company of Baltimore, and
my time of remaining here being very limited, I am
induced  to offer the following Essay (first  part) to
the public ;  though fully convinced it has been too
hastily written, not to contain more imperfections
than a work of its nature should possess.
  The subject, as its title intimates, is one the pub-
lication of which at the present moment, nothing
but the circumstances alluded to would justify;  not
only as the interests of science is concerned, but my
professional  character involved.
  As the principles contained in the Essay  are
susceptible  of an unlimited application, I intend,
when leisure moments will permit, (unless antici-
pated,) to complete this Essay;  showing in detail,
its application to those  sciences which I have  cul-
tivated;  particularly to Chemistry, as regards  the
real nature of our Elementary bodies—their atomic
weight—the cause of their combining in more than
one proportion with one another; and in short, all 
IV
that is required to make this  science a  matter of
calculation.
  This Essay commences with considering matter
as being of  two  classes, or  kinds—the  essential
attributes of the two classes, and the general con-
sequences arising from the reciprocal action of the
two classes,  &c.  and terminates with  the results
obtained from the  action  of chemical  elements,
electricity, light,  &c.  all which prove  that there
exists matter with a repellent attribute, and matter
with an  attractive attribute;  that  the  two  unite
together, but in inverse proportions to each other;
and the laws which govern the one, are the converse
of those which govern the other.
Philadelphia^ December 10, 1827. 
ESSAY.
  In the investigation of nature, man seems to take
for granted, that all phenomena depend on compli-
cated and recondite causes; and hence, what other-
wise would be obvious, is  overlooked, and  truth
                       •
generally is sought f$f, *hot where it is to be found,
but in recesses too obscure  to  admit of the least
discovery.  The  history of the progress of every
branch of science, is an illustration of this remark.
  Analysis, or the  analytical method, is the only
infallible  guide in the field of research: where it
terminates, synthesis, or classification, should take
its place.  In this way, the progress of knowledge
is certain; and with their aid, time alone is wanting,
to make  known to us all that nature can reveal.
  These  remarks are given, for the purpose  of
pointing out the  method which  has been pursued,
in investigating the subject of the following pages;
and  whatever merit they may possess, that  merit
is due to the method here mentioned.
   The  distribution of  matter into two  classes  or
kinds, now proposed, is founded upon the most ob-
vious, and the most important distinctive character-
istics exhibited by those particles, which have long 
0
 been known by the names of common, and ethereal
 matter.  The essential  characteristics of the  two
 classes of particles, being the disposition of the one
 to form concretions, aggregates, or  tangible bodies
 having weight; whilst the other class never forms
 concretions, aggregates,  or tangible  bodies; and its
 weight  is  wholly inappreciable  by  every means,
 which  human ingenuity  has  as yet devised for that
 purpose.  Gold, silver, sulphur, oxygen and hydro-
 gen, are examples of the^ concreting class ;  whilst
 caloric, light, electricity anH magnetism, supposing
 them to be distinct kinds of matter, constitute the
 nonconcreting class.*

  * By concretion, or aggregate, I mean a solid; for every
 species of common matter, either  by the abstraction of calo-
 ric directly or indirectly, (by combination,) can be made to
 assume the solid state, in which the properties of matter, as
given by philosophers, are made  manifest; as extensibility,
solidity,  impenetrability, &c; oxygen  and  hydrogen, for
example, when existing in the insulated or uncombined state,
are invisible, gaseous; but by combination, may be made to
assume the solid state, as in ice.
  It  may seem extraordinary and unphilosophical to assert,
or take for granted, that caloric, light, electricity, and  mag-
iietism, are  bodies, or different states of  the same kind of
matter, or in  other words, consist of material particles, either
of one, or of four different kinds.   My reply is this:—bodies
or matter are  known by their properties: now gold, for ex-
ample, has no known properties, (weight excepted) but those
which depend upon the aggregation of its particle,: all other
properties are owing, either  to the action of caloric, light, 
7
   This  classification, founded upon  differences  so
obvious, greatly  simplifies  the  study  of nature,
giving us a clearer  insight to the subject, and re-
moving  those impediments to the acquisition of real
knowledge, attendant upon  the old, and  common
metaphysical definitions of matter.   The objections
which may be urged to the  opinions entertained of
matter,  as given by metaphysicians and  philoso-
phers, is, that it is knowledge  inferred, not know-
ledge of fact; it is the result of the reasoning, from
the concreted, or aggregated state of the particles

&c. or to its combination with common matter.  Take from
gold the  concreting  attribute, and substitute  the repellent
power: what remains?  nothing but  its weight.  Is it then
surprising that caloric, and the other kinds of ethereal matter,
as they do not form  concretions,  from their particles being
eminently repulsive  of each  other, should have no known
properties belonging to them,  and should depend upon their
combination  with concreting  matter, for an acknowledged
existence?  With respect to their want of weight, the reply
of those who contend for their materiality is satisfactory and
unanswerable, namely: "that their  weight would  still be
inappreciable by our  imperfect means, if their relative levity
to hydrogen was not greater than that of hydrogen to platina.'*
  Besides,  is there  a greater difficulty in believing, that
matter exists in  which  repulsion resides, than that matter
exists which possesses attraction? Yet the latter belief is
obvious and  necessary, for it  is self evident; for a solid has
nothing but the particles which compose it; and what can keep
them together, but an inherent property, or cause? and what
can separate them, but matter with an opposing property? 
                        a

of matter, applied to the individual particles them-
selves.   Thus  the properties  of  impenetrability,
solidity, and extensibility, are known to us only as
the consequent of the concreted, or aggregated state
of the  particles  of matter, and not to any thing
which is known of the particles themselves; where-
as, the classification proposed is founded upon those
properties,  or  rather attributes of  matter, which
appertain to its primary,  elementary, or atomic
state, which alone are  obvious to common expe-
rience,  and  common  sense; being  in fact, the only
self evident knowledge we  have of the particles of
matter.*
  This arrangement  of matter into concreting and
non-concreting  particles,  as  a necessary conse-
quence, leads us to two of the most important attri-
butes of matter; and  hence, deservedly merits  the
consideration given to it.  As the  one class of par-
ticles is known by its tendency to form concretions,
or bodies, whose parts cohere together,  and  are
tangible, we have  attraction, or gravitation, as its
inherent principle, or attribute:  and as the other
class of particles, on  the contrary, exhibit  no con-

  * The writings of the late Abbe Haiiy, and Dr. Wollaston,
clearly show how little is the gain of knowledge, when  rea-
soning from the concreted state of the  particles of matter,
to the individual  particles themselves.   By the former  phi-
losopher, they are made  to be polyhedral, and by the latter,
globular. 
9
cretions, nothing  tangible,  we must conclude that
repulsion, the  antagonist power to  gravitation, or
attraction, is the inherent principle, or attribute of
the non-concreting class.*
   It is evident that the particles of ethereal matter
must be highly repulsive of each other, as they are
unknown in the concrete, or tangible state, and from
causing repulsion to take place amongst  the parti-
cles of the concreting class, as they  are resorted to
for the purpose of producing that effect, f  On the
contrary, the particles  of common  matter are at-
tractive of each other, as they always exist in the
solid state,  unless combined with  non-concreting
matter,J and are likewise attractive of the particles


  * It  is of no consequence whether the cause of the princi-
ples of  attraction and repulsion be known or unknown; what
to us is practically essential, is  the knowledge of the class
of bodies to which  these attributes  virtually belong, or in
which they reside.
  It is  in virtue of these two opposing principles, or attri-
butes,, by which  each class of particles is, as it were, held
in equipoise, or neutralization, when the two kinds of parti-
cles act upon each other, that the peculiar attributes belong-
ing to each kind of particles, are  enabled to come into action;
from whence result all the phenomena which constitute the
physical world.
  t Metals are expanded by heatj ice is converted to water,
and water to steam,  by the same agent.
  X Steam  exists as water  below 212° of Fahrenheit; and
water,  below 32° is solid, as in ice.
f> 
10
 of ethereal matter:*  so that the attractive princi-
 ple of the one class is not  only so of its own parti-
 cles, but is attractive of those of the other class; and
 the repulsive principle of the ethereal class is not
 only actively repulsive of its own  particles, but
 causes the particles of common matter to separate
 from each other.
   The  existence  of one class, or  kind of matter,
 possessing an attractive attribute,  and of  another
 class, possessing a repulsive  attribute, they acting
 upon each other, must produce simultaneously, at-
 tractive and repulsive effects.  This  result,  it  is
 hardly necessary to illustrate, for repulsion and at^
 traction are  exhibited in  all cases where  the  two
 classes or  kinds of particles act upon each  other;
 for every known fact of their reciprocal action,  is
 an evidence of it.f
   Moreover, when the two classes  of particles  act
 upon each other, the particles of the non-concreting
 class being brought together by the  attractive prin-
 ciple of concreting matter, a state must be exhibited
 by the non-concreting particles, different from  the

  * If doubts exist as to sensible caloric being in combina-
tion with  those bodies in which  it is found, none can exist
as regards latent heat in water, steam, or  in any other pon-
derable fluid matter.
  t  All phenomena connected either with caloric, electricity,
magnetism and light, prove this consequence, or establish
such a law. 
11
one which they present, when acting as a repellent
power; in the former they must manifest their pe-
culiar properties, being in a sensible state; whilst
in the latter,  they must be in a hidden, or latent
state.  That two different states exist for  the non-
concreting particles, will be made evident from the
following reasoning, as  well as from the knowledge
which we have of the properties of caloric.
   The two  classes of particles, in acting upon each
other, tend reciprocally to counteract each other's
inherent attributes.   Thus ethereal matter, by gra-
vitating matter, is brought to the sensible, from the
insensible, or quiescent, or cryptic state; whilst the
gravitating power of common matter, is diminished,
or suspended, by the repulsive power of  the ethe-
 real matter.
   If two different and opposing effects be produced,
 when one  or more members of  each  of the  two
 classes of particles act  upon each other, (supposing
 the ethereal class,  as  before-mentioned, to consist
 of more than one kind of matter) then the cause of
 these different effects  ought, as a necessary conse-
 quence, to exist in  two different states.  Thus, the
 concreting particles, acting upon the non-concreting
 particles, cause the latter to approach  each other,
 overcoming their repulsive  tendency by its attrac-
 tive attribute, and  exhibiting what is  called their
 sensible state:  the  non-concreting particles, acting
 upon the concreting particles, exhibit  their repul- 
12
sive power; we must conclude, that as in the for-
mer, the repulsive power being overcome, there is
a passive, or sensible state; so in the latter instance,
as the attractive principle is  suspended, or dimi-
nished, there must be an  active, or latent state.
Again—simultaneous opposing effects  must have
simultaneous opposing causes; we have at the same
time repulsion  produced amongst the  concreting
particles, whilst attraction is taking place  amongst
those  of the non-concreting kind.
  And finally, as there are attractive and repellent
effects produced at the  same time, how can these
opposing effects be explained, if we ascribe not to
each  class of particles,  or bodies, the attributes
which respectively belong to them?
  With  respect to caloric, no  fact in chemistry is
better established, than that of its combination with
common  matter; and it is equally well known, that
the effect of their reciprocal action is to cause  the
particles of common matter to recede from each
other, whilst at the same time the particles of calo-
ric  are brought together, so as to exhibit  the pro-
perties peculiar to itself.   It is likewise well known,
that the repellent power decreases as the attractive
matter increases, and the attractive power decreases
as the repellent matter increases.   From these facts
it follows as a necessary consequence, that in all
cases  where caloric and  common matter act upon
each  other, that the attractive  force  of common 
13
matter overcomes the  repulsive power of caloric,
and causes it to assume the sensible state, by bring-
ing its particles  nearer together; at the same time
as caloric diminishes the force of  common matter,
by causing its particles to recede from  each other,
caloric must exhibit its repulsive,  or latent state.
   That caloric  does manifest itself  in the manner
just mentioned, is well known; for all  solid bodies
which become fluid, and all fluids which become
gases, or vapours, exhibit, or  rather contain calo-
ric, in a sensible, as well as in a latent state.
   The following extracts,  with some alterations,
from an unpublished memoir read before the Acade-
my of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, July, 1826,
proves the truth  of  the repulsive power being
the latent state of the non-concreting particles of
matter, and that the repulsive power increases as
the quantity of common matter decreases, and de-
creases as the quantity of the same  kinds of matter
increases;  and  moreover,  that  repulsive matter
occupies and pervades all space.
   " It is asserted by writers  on chemistry and natu-
ral philosophy, that caloric,  meaning thereby calo-
ric of temperature, is the sole cause of the expansion
 of bodies, (common matter;) and  as a consequence,
 bodies without caloric must be solid.
    " Assuming these premises, it follows, that as the
 atmosphere diminishes in temperature as we recede
 from the surface of the earth, (upwards) there  must 
14
 be a point at which no caloric exists : consequently,
 the matter of the atmosphere there, must be of great
 density, if not absolutely in the solid state.  The
 absurdity of this conclusion is evident, from all our
 positive knowledge of the atmosphere;  the truth
 (incontestible) being, that  its rarity increases with
 its height, and  its  density in the inverse degree.
 The conclusion in question is therefore a paradox,
 and  clearly shows, that from these principles, we
 know nothing of the real cause of the expansion of
 gaseous bodies."
  "In  seeking  to  remove  this difficulty, I found
 that  if we supposed that latent caloric had the pro-
 perty of expanding gaseous bodies, or existed at-
 tached to  them, in  proportion to their  rarity, and
 that  caloric of temperature manifested itself in the
 same bodies, in the ratio of their density, then the
 phenomena  was  readily  explicable;  for  as  the
 density  of the atmosphere diminishes, the  caloric of
 temperature  diminishes, and the latent caloric in-
creases: on  the  contrary, when the density of the
atmosphere  increases, the caloric of temperature
 increases,  and the latent caloric decreases."
  " As  the  above explanation is founded upon an
 hypothesis, or gratuitous assumption,  its merit de-
 pending upon the facility with which  it explains an
 important phenomenon, I was led to  examine the
 condition in which the two kinds of caloric  existed
 in other bodies ; and a mere glance at well known 
15
established facts on this subject, shows that the ex-
planation given, is not the  result merely of an hy-
pothesis, but of theory.''
   "Thus ice, at 32° (of Fahrenheit's thermometer)
has the same temperature, or same degree of sensi-
ble heat, as water at 32°.  In  the one body,  how-
ever, the particles are so  fixed, so connected to-
gether, as to be incapable of motion: in the other, on
the contrary, they  are  mobile,  moving  with  the
slightest impulse.   As the sensible heat is the same
in the two bodies, what then can cause this differ-
ence?  Is it  not evident, that as water contains
140°  of latent heat more than is contained in ice,
the repulsion existing between the  particles  of
water,  giving rise to its mobility, is due to this
latent heat?  Again—steam at 212°, exhibits  the
same  degree of sensible heat, as water at 212°;  but
the former is a compressible fluid body, many  times
the bulk of the latter, weight for weight; whilst the
water is an incompressible* fluid  body.  Steam, or
water in vapour, has 927°f of latent heat, more than

  * Incompressible  in all ordinary cases, or experiments;
but not so, when subjected to the pressure used by Mr. Pet-
kins.
  t If the exact quantity of latent heat be 140°, which is
required to cause ice to  become water,  then the ratios ot
sensible to latent heat, will be as 1 to 4.375: (140-^32)  now
212, the temperature under ordinary pressure at which wa-
ter assumes the  vaporous state, multiplied by 4.375, will give 
16
water.  As the  material  difference  between  the
steam and  the water is but the difference of  the
latent caloric, this latter must  be the repulsive, or
the  vapour-making power.   Thus also, if atmo-
spheric, or any other air, or gas, be compressed.in
a suitable apparatus, sensible heat is  given out to
the surrounding bodies ; and on the contrary, when
the compressing  force  is removed, sensible heat is
absorbed from  the surrounding bodies.   In  the
compression,  or condensation of the air, what was
latent, was  made sensible; whilst in the rarefication
of the same air, what was sensible, was made latent.
This property, and well known experiment of air,
incontestibly proves, that latent heat increases with

927°: a number which is in accordance with  the mean of the
experiments made to determine the latent heat of steam.  It
is no doubt certain that the ratios of sensible and latent heat
are different  in different kinds of bodies, and increase with
the levity of  the atoms, and decrease with the weight of the
atoms, and is the cause of the discordant results which arise
when  different  kinds of bodies  are mixed together; which
gave rise  to the idea, that different bodies had different ca-
pacities for heat.  As yet, water is the only substance which
has been  subjected to the action of caloric,  for  the purpose
of ascertaining its latent caloric in its conversion to the
fluid,  and from the fluid, to the vaporous state.
  As the  quantity of latent heat is as the pressure, or the
boiling point of water, every variation of temperature  will
produce a difference  equal to 4.375 for each degree of Fah-
renheit's thermometer—a fact all important,  when the exact
quantity of latent heat is to be determined by experiment. 
17
the  rarity of a  body,  (gaseous) and  diminishes as
the density of the body increases; and sensible heat,
on the contrary, increases as the density of the same
gaseous  body increases, and diminishes as its rarity
increases.*
   "If the principle just established, namely, the

  * That sensible heat, or caloric, increases as the density
of the atmosphere increases, follows of course, and may ex-
plain the rise of temperature, when descending into the inte-
rior of the earth, when below  the point of no variation.
  This explanation was first given by Drl  Cooper.  Vide
Silliman's Journal, vol. iv. p. 243.
  A consequence of some importance in the  theory of the
atmosphere, of the sun, and of comets, follows from the in-
crease of the temperature of the atmosphere with its density.
Gay Lussac found, that atmospheric air, when condensed so
as to occupy about one-fifth of its volume, became luminous;
so that any globe, whose atmosphere is equal to the density
of the air in the experiment mentioned, will  be permanently
luminous; the degree of light increasing as the  density of the
atmosphere increased.  The relationship of gaseous, to fixed
matter, depends merely  upon the presence, or absence of
such fixed matter, as can combine with gaseous matter, and
not to any known planetary law.
   "Mr.  Watt found that the latent heat of  steam is less
when  it  is produced under greater pressure, or in a more
dense  state; and  greater,  when it is produced under a less
pressure, or in a less dense state.   Bertholet thinks this fact
so unaccountable, that he has been willing to discard it alto-
gether."   Ure's Chemical Dictionary, article Caloric—the
experiments of Mr. Watt are in  perfect  accordance with
theory and  experiments on atmospheric air.
                            3 
18
increase of latent  caloric, as the matter of the air
diminishes, be extended to its utmost limit, we find
that this property  of latent caloric leads to this re-
sult, that in proportion as we recede from the sur-
face of our earth, or any  sphere where gaseous
matter exists, latent caloric increases in quantity, or
degree; and finally, when we arrive at the point,
or place, where the matter of our air ceases, latent
caloric, as there is no limiting it, must take the place
of caloric of temperature, and  extend  itself to in-
finity."
   " As caloric in  our atmosphere, does not  exist
alone, but is accompanied concomitantly by every
species of non-concreting matter, or powers, which
doubtless  from their  concomitancy, exist, each in
similar opposing states, which  might be shown, if
we had the  same tangible means of subjecting them
to our manipulations,  we find that Newton's  idea
" that all space is filled with ether," is not a notion,
but a consequent truth."
   It must be evident, if all space be filled with the
non-concreting particles of matter, as has just been
shown, and possessing a highly repulsive power, as
proven by the principles of the classification adopt-
ed, that  when the two classes of particles are not
acting upon each other, (one being solid, the other
fluid,) the influence of the two classes are, as it were,
merely astronomic.  But when the two classes act
upon each other,  then a sensible and a latent state 
n
is made manifest.  This knowledge is all important
in chemistry, as  will subsequently be shown; for
the doctrine offbeat is involved in chaotic obscurity
in all those instances in which substances acting upon
each other, produce a greater degree of heat, whe-
ther sensible or latent, than can be proven to belong
to them.
  Besides the primary differences already men-
tioned of the two classes of  particles, they differ
from each other in other important respects.  The
one class, the concreting particles, cannot, so far as
our experience goes, be called, as it were, into ex-
istence, or made  quiescent; for if a disappearance
takes place, it is merely that change of state, which
is not obvious to sight:  they can only change their
form, their  presence can always be exhibited; we
are always certain of their identity, for we can make
them manifest to  us, either by weight, measure, or
otherwise.  The other class,  the  non-concreting
particles, seem in certain states of the action of the
concreting particles upon each other, to be called
into existence—a creation, as it were, from nothing;
for  no one  has been able to  say from  whence, or
from what source derived.  All of them, likewise,
have  the common  property  of  passing  from the
sensible, and latent, to the  quiescent, or cryptic
state.
  A few  examples of the mode of action of these
two classes of particles,  may be necessary, for those 
20
not familiar with the subject, to illustrate these im-
portant positions, or facts.
  Examples of a change of form, and apparent dis-
appearance of concreting matter, are  to be found
in all those instances, where  solids are made to as-
sume the aeriform state, as in ordinary combustion:
or where oxidation goes on, exposed to atmospheric
air.  Of this latter kind, the old calcination of mer-
cury furnishes a beautiful  and satisfactory illustra-
tion.   Thus, if a given portion of mercury is put
in contact with a given quantity of atmospheric air,
in a close vessel, suitably arranged, and  exposed to
a certain temperature, the metal  loses its silvery,
or metallic appearance, quits its fluid for the solid
state, changing first to a black, and finally to a red
colour.  As  these changes go on in the mercury,
the air is observed gradually to  diminish in bulk.
If the two bodies be  separately weighed, the mer-
cury will be found to have gained as much in weight
as was lost by the  air.  If they be again put toge-
ther, and a greater degree of heat be  applied  to
them,  the two bodies, the air and the mercury, will
resume the  state  in which  they were  originally;
neither having experienced a loss or gain of matter.
  The unexceptional instances in which  the non-
concreting particles are, as it were, called into ex-
istence, are exhibited by chemistry in the action of
dissimilar solid bodies upon each other ; for in such
bodies, neither caloric, light, nor electricity, can be 
21
proven to exist in them ;* nor as before mentioned,
has it been divined by what is known of these non-
concreting particles, how, and whence, and why it
is that they are thus  called forth.   A few instances
of the very many  known, will place this truth in
the clearest point  of view.   When potassium and
ice are put in contact with each other, the extrica-
tion of caloric and  light is very great; so also when
gunpowder is inflamed, or when sulphur, and cer-
tain metals unite together; and so likewise the ful-
minating  powders, when subjected to  the  causes
which elicit their detonating properties.!
   In  order to be  able  to conceive how it is, that
these apparent creations take place, it is necessary
to know the precise nature of the medium in which
the experiments  are made.   It is very certain, that
the extrication of heat and light, which attends the
action of the above solids upon each other, is inde-
pendent of the common material medium in which
these bodies are  placed ; for no change of tempera-
  * That is to say, they have no more heat, &c. than belongs
to the medium in which they may be placed.
  t Caloric, or heat produced by friction, or developed by
chemical combination in the manner just mentioned, has
given rise to  that class of philosophers who have contended
for its  immateriality; considering it as  the result of some
peculiar motion of  the  particles  of concreting  matter.
Whilst those who have  studied  caloric as it exhibits itself
in the  sensible and latent states conjointly, have,  on the
contrary, as strongly  urged its pretensions to materiality. 
22
 ture can be discovered in them :  and the experi
 ments are the same,  be they made in  vacuo, or
 exposed to the influence of the atmosphere.  Hence
 it is evident,  that the source of heat from whence
 these bodies obtain their caloric, is independent of
 the combined caloric of the surrounding bodies.
   From what has already been stated on  the attri-
 butes of the two classes of particles, and the reason-
 ing on the properties  of gaseous bodies, it must be
 evident, that  all  space is filled with the non-con-
 creting particles; and these particles must, from the
 attraction of the earth, increase  in numbers  and
 proximity  to  each  other, in proportion to their
 proximity to  the earth;  so  that the earth  is sur-
 rounded and imbued by them in all parts admitting
 of their passage.  These particles  are not in a state
 of combination with concreting matter, as is the case
 with  caloric  in water, and in the  air of our atmo-
 sphere, but in a state which, for  want of a better
 term, may be called astronomic, gravitating, radiat-
 ing, or planetary.
   The existence of such a state of caloric and light,
 the knowledge of their velocity,  as derived from
 the action of the sun  upon our earth, and  in  our
familiar experiments upon the radiation of heat, the
 property of radiant heat to permeate all bodies, and
the knowledge known to every chemist, that caloric
combines with all fluid bodies, but  in different pro
portions with different bodies, give us the conditions
required for the explanations in question. 
23
   As the Subject is an important one, the following
illustration may not be without its use.  The solid
part of our globe, like all solid matter, cannot be
proven to contain combined caloric, other than the
caloric of temperature, and a proportion of latent
caloric, to give the repulsive power existing in such
bodies; which, however,  cannot  be greater than
the amount of sensible caloric, or experiment would
long since have made the fact known to us.   This
is not the case with the common material fluids of
our globe, water and air;  the proportion of latent
to sensible caloric, being 4.375 to 1 in water, over
ice, and in steam, over water of the same tempera-
tures.   The relative  proportions of the two kinds,
or states of caloric in  air, must be greater, not only
from the prodigious quantity of sensible heat given
out when air is subjected to compression, but from
the experiments of Mr. Watt on steam—also, from
all our  experiments of the capacity of bodies for
caloric—from what  has  already been mentioned,
that latent  heat  increases  as the  rarity  of  a body
increases, and from its existence as  a permanently
elastic body.
   Every chemist is aware, that there is no difficulty
in conceiving a total abstraction of caloric from the
waters,  and  from the  air of our earth, by the com-
bination of their constituents, with such substances
as form  fixed, or solid bodies,  at the ordinary tem-
perature of  the surface.  Supposing such a state of 
24
things to take place, is it not certain that the caloric
which was sensible and latent, the caloric of fluidity,
in other words, would become quiescent; and would
not these particles be retained to the surface of the
earth, by the force of gravity,  as has already been
mentioned, being  material, and with particles re-
pulsive  of each  other? and would not  this same
caloric  return to its former  states of sensible and
latent heat, if the same solids were to  regain  their
former states of air and water?
  The explanatory exposition of the apparent crea-
tion of caloric just given, applies  equally to light,
electricity, and magnetism ; each  being called into
existence, or developed by the action of peculiar
particles, or peculiar bodies upon each other.  This
explanation harmonizes with the well known econo-
my of nature, for ample  is the store  of quiescent
repulsive matter, for  whatever changes the solid
parts of our globe may undergo ; and equally  capa-
cious is the  reservoir which  receives  whatever
caloric  common  matter may set free, in losing its
fluidity.
   If the believers of the material  nature of caloric
do  not admit the explanation which has been given,
they must necessarily be driven either to an acknow-
ledgment of  ignorance, and of the annihilation of,
caloric, since fluids becoming solids  cause  it  to
disappear; or of its creation from no thing, and of
its return to nothing. 
25
   Is the apparition of caloric, light, electricity, and
magnetism more extraordinary than their disappear-
ance? yet the facts relative to the latter-are equally
well known, and as numerous as  those of the for-
mer.
   The most unexceptionable instance in which calo-
ric passes from the sensible, and latent, to the quies-
cent state, is exhibited by the action of the sun upon
our earth; for as much caloric is lost as is annually
gained, which ought not to be  the case, unless  it
passed to the quiescent state, as the accumulation
is  constant.   So also with light, for the conversion
of sensible to quiescent light is  evidenced, when
the cause of  its apparition is  removed, as the ter-
mination of combustion, absence of the sun, &c.  So
also with electricity, when the  inner  and outward
sides of a charged  leyden jar are united, the two
electricities, or its two  states combine, and are in-
stantaneously  rendered quiescent;  or when the
charged conductor of an electrical machine is made
by means of a metallic rod, to  communicate with
the earth.   So likewise with magnetism;  if a mag-
netic needle be heated to a certain  temperature,
the two fluids, or the  two  states of the one  fluid
disappear; or when placed within the sphere of an
electric discharge, the same effect is produced.
   By the classification  likewise we are enabled to
acquire certain,  and well  defined  ideas  of. such
terms, as  the attributes, or  principles, the causes,
                        4 
26
and the properties of bodies ; terms so essential in
all reasonings connected with physical and meta-
physical knowledge.   Thus if the two  classes of
bodies were at rest, each under its  own respective
influence, and beyond the control of the other, there
would be solidity for the one class, and fluidity or
gaseability for the other class.  If a body  of  the
first, or concreting class, mercury for example, was
to be  acted upon by caloric of the second class, and
with different and extreme degrees, the first effect
or state would be merely the expansion of the solid
mercury, its expansibility; the second  would be its
liquidity,  and the third and last, its vapourability:
these  different effects  would be the  properties of
mercury; and caloric,  the cause of these  different
effects.   So also a positive idea  is  acquired,  of
matter, body,  or power; for it seems to me to  be
evident, that  whatever opposes the  principle  of
attraction in the concreting class, is matter, body,
or power, or a cause independent of that class; if
not the effect of a known or acknowledged body,
or bodies of  the non-concreting  class, a new one
must be introduced to explain the phenomenon.   So
also with the non-concreting class; whatever op-
poses  the repulsive principle of its members, making
them  sensible, or evident,  is something material,
which is independent of their class:  the cause is
gravitating matter, for without it,  from repulsion
being the  inherent attribute of the non-concreting 
27
class, nothing could be known of it, its  particles
would remain permanently separated  from each
other.
  The classification of the two kinds of particles of
matter, lead  to  the following  conclusions, which
conclusions will be found to be in  conformity with
facts presented by chemistry and natural philosophy.
   1st—That  there exist two classes,  or kinds of
particles of matter, one of which classes,  when not
acted upon by the other, is  always in the solid state,
and consequently it has attraction  for its inherent
attribute.  The other class  never exhibits itself in
the solid state, and is unknown, unless when acted
upon by  the class  whose  particles form solids.
This class has repulsion for its inherent attribute.
   2ndly—The two classes  of  particles  act upon
each other;  or in other words, have an affinity for
each other,  and this  reciprocal action counteracts
each other's inherent attributes.   Thus the attrac-
tion existing  between the particles of solid or con-
creting  matter,  is weakened or  destroyed by the
action of repulsive matter, and the particles of re-
pulsive matter are brought together by the attrac-
tive  power of solid matter.
   3dly—That common matter exists in three states,
is well known, as the solid, fluid, and  aeriform, or
gaseous: now repulsive, or ethereal matter exists in
three likewise, the sensible, latent, and the quies-
 cent.  The  sensible  and  latent states, being  the 
28
states wherein repulsive matter is united to common
matter, are  analogous  to the  fluid  and gaseous
states of common matter; and the quiescent state,
wherein there is no combination, resembling in this
respect the concrete, or solid state of common mat-
ter.
  4thly—That  the attraction  (meaning thereby
quantity) of repulsive matter for common matter, is
in proportion to the levity of  atoms, or quantity of
weight of common matter, and diminishes with the
weight of atoms, or quantity of weight of common
matter; or in other words, the attraction of the two
classes for each other, is  in inverse ratios to each
other.
  5thly—That there exists but one kind  of repul-
sive  matter, as will be shown, exhibiting four dif-
ferent states, convertible  into  each other, not only
accordingly  as it  is acted  upon  by particles, or
groups of particles forming masses, but according
to the kind of particles and masses.  These states
of repulsive matter are  caloric, light,  electricity,
and magnetism.
Essential characters of Caloric, Electricity, Mag-
             netism and Light.

  Caloric is essentially characterized by a burning
sensation, produced when  a  red hot iron, for in- 
29
stance, is touched—by producing thermometric ef-
fects—and by its agency in bringing about chemical
combinations.  It does not diffuse itself over the
surface of bodies, but acts upon the particles of bo-
dies ;  nor does it manifest itself by induction.
  Electricity is characterized by its attractive and
repellent properties,  and by the shock which it
gives to  a body, on which it acts;  it diffuses itself
over the surface of bodies, and not amongst the par-
ticles of bodies; it acts as  a divellant power, and
manifests itself  by induction; that is  to say, when
united to common matter, it  has the  property of
causing  another  body to acquire a quantity equal
to itself.
  Magnetism differs  in nothing  essentially from
electricity,  but the property of adhering to steel, to
the black oxide of iron, to cobalt and nickel; mag-
netism also, manifests  itself by induction.
  Light, exhibits neither the heating effects of ca-
loric, nor the same repelling effects of electricity;
nor does it adhere to  iron, &c.  as is the case with
magnetism.  The  degree of  light increases in all
our operations,  as the degree of the repulsive force
increases, when acting upon  common  matter, until
it reaches a  certain point, when it decreases, and
finally disappears.  So also when the attractive and
repellent states  of electricity are united, light  is
always  produced, if the quantity of electricity be
considerable, &c. 
30
   As all our experiments prove that caloric, elec-
tricity, magnetism,  and light, are convertible one
into another, according to the relationships or quan-
tities of repellent and attractive matter, it seems to
me, that their existence as four distinct  fluids,  or
kinds of ethereal  matter, is inadmissible; for*this
conversion, or change of characters, is analogous to
what are called the'properties of bodies, and not to
the bodies themselves.
   The instances brought forward in the preceding
pages of this essay, to prove that sensible heat be-
comes a repellent (an electrical) power, losing all its
properties of heat, (sensible,) or when changed into
a repellent power, can again be returned to its for-
mer or heating state, are not more satisfactory, than
the instances  given,  of  the conversion of heat  to
light, and  electricity to  light.
   The cooling of heated bodies in the radiation of
heat, depends upon the conversion of sensible heat,
to the latent or repellent state; for in all cases what-
soever, if a heated body, or a body containing calo-
ric, be presented to a smooth surface,  that surface
will repel the caloric, for it is  converted into the
latent state;  but if caloric be presented to a  rough
body, that body will not repel nor reflect the calo-
ric, but will absorb it.   In  like manner, electricity
is  converted  into  heat, or caloric, when points or
particles, or a rough surface, is  presented to it, and
vice versa, caloric is converted into electricity, 
31
whenever the former is made to act upon a smooth
or polished surface.
   The explanation of Professor Leslie's experiments
of radiant heat, depends upon this conversion of ca-
loric to the latent state, or electricity, by surfaces
which are smooth,  and its retention by surfaces
that are rough.   The canisters which were smooth
upon the outside, caused the caloric of the water to
pass into the repellent  state,  and hence was with
difficulty conveyed  away, by the imperfectly  con-
ducting medium in which they were placed; whilst
the  rough,  or dark coloured  canister,  presenting
points, or matter in relief, caused caloric to pass off,
in consequence  of the medium,  (atmospheric  air,)
being a better conductor of heat  than of electricity.
   The conversion of heat to the  repellent state, in-
variably takes place when water is boiled in a  ves-
sel,  the surface  of  whose bottom  is very smooth;
thus, there are few glass retorts,  but cause water to
throw up large  bubbles  in boiling, and  sometimes
these bubbles are so great, as to  cover a  considera-
ble portion of the lower  surface of the water, and
 to cause great inconvenience.  In such retorts, as  is
 always the case, the greater the heat, the greater
 the repellent effect.  In order to prevent such bub-
 bling, small pieces of glass, platina, or any other ma-
 terial which has no action upon  the fluid, is made
 use of; when they  are present,  the boiling quietly
 goes on.   It has been suggested  from this property 
32
of particles, and not without some reason, that if
the whole surface  of a boiling vessel was covered
with points of needles, placed side by side, adher-
ing by their larger ends, no ebullition in that case
would take place,  the heat passing off, at the im-
perceptible points of the needles.
   In the subsequent part of this essay,  it will be
made evident, that the conversion of caloric into the
repellent state, by the action of a smooth surface,
and of electricity into the sensible or heating state,
by a rough surface, is owing to the quantity of mat-
ter which  is  presented  by such surfaces; for a
smooth surface presents but one side or surface  of
the particles which compose it, whilst a rough sur-
face exhibits its particles in relief: as the sensible
or calorific, and latent or repellent states of ethereal
matter, depend upon the  quantity of common mat-
ter presented  to it, a rough and a smooth  surface
ought necessarily to produce different effects.
Of the ratios of attraction and repulsion, from
                   experiment-.

  It has long been demonstrated that attraction is as
the weight of common matter: now repulsion, or the
antagonist force of attraction, as has already been
shown, being inherent to ethereal matter, its act ion 
33
or force must be in the ratio of the  levity of com-
mon matter.*   This being the case, it follows that
those particles of common matter  which are  heavi-
est, will have the least attraction, for example, (using
caloric  to represent  the class)  for caloric;  as af-
finity is counteracted by gravity  or the concreting
power, so on the contrary, those particles of matter
which are lightest, attraction of  gravitation  or  the
concreting force being less, will  have the greatest
affinity  for caloric; or  in  other words, the  two
forces  acting upon each other, the  action  of  the
non-concreting attribute will be greatest, where the
concreting attribute is feeblest, and feeblest, where
the concreting attribute  is greatest; or, using the
language of chemistry, the  capacity!  for   caloric
will diminish, as the weight of the atom increases,
and increase as the weight of the  atom decreases.
  * Attraction being as the reciprocal  weight of the parti-
cles which act upon each other, those dissimilar atoms which
make the  nearest approach to each other, should have the
greatest affinity for each other; hence, the smaller the atoms
of common matter, the greater should be their attraction for
ethereal matter, and vice versa; this will be proven by known
chemical combinations.
  f By  capacity for caloric, is meant that quantity of calo-
ric which a body takes up, in order to obtain the temperature
which the bodies surrounding  it possess.  This term is ob-
jectionable, for caloric so taken up may remain either in the
sensible state, or pass into the latent one in uniting to bo-
dies; for no fixed signification in  this respect is given  to it. 
34
  This law, which follows from the action of the two
classes upon each  other, giving it its  simplest ex
pression, namely, the forces being in inverse ratios
to each other, is  fully confirmed by  experiment;
and it is to  MM. Dulong and Petit, that we  owe
the important facts whose consequences, it appears,
were overlooked, or lost, in a conclusion as singular
as it was erroneous.  These gentlemen made a num-
ber of experiments with different  metals, for the
purpose of ascertaining their specific heats ; and to
use the language  of Dr. Ure, (Dictionary of Che-
mistry,  article caloric,) "their result has disclosed
a beautiful and unforeseen  relation, between the
specific heats  and primitive combining  ratios,  or
atoms of the metals;  namely, that the atoms of all
simple bodies have exactly the same  capacity for
heat.   Hence the specific  heat of a simple  sub-
stance, multiplied into the weight  of its atom  or
prime equivalent, ought to  give always  the same
product."
   In examining the  table  of Dulong  and Petit, I
found that no conclusion like the one given could be
deduced: that the relation stated, arose from  con-
founding the product of the specific heat and weight
of atoms, with the capacity of the atoms for heat.
Whereas, the true and self evident result of the ex-
periments in question, is one not only of great beau-
ty, but of the greatest importance iu science, and
confirmatory of the action of the two classes upon 
35
each other, as has already been mentioned.  The
conclusion being that the capacity of atoms for heat
increases in the ratio of their levity, and decreases
in the ratio of their density, and it is to this cause
solely that their product is a constant number.

Table  IV.—Of specific heats of some  solids,
       determined by Dulong and Petit.
	Specific heats, that of water being 1.	Weight of the atoms, that of oxy-gen being 1.	Product of Uieta two numbers.
Bismuth,	0.0288	13.300	0.3830
Lead,	0.0293	12.950	0.3794
Gold,	0.0298	12.430	0.3704
Platinum,	0.0314	11.160	0.3740
Tin,	0.0514	7.350	0.3779
Silver,	0.0557	6.750	0.3759
Zinc,	0.0927	4.030	0.3736
Tellurim,	0.0912	4.030	0.3675
Copper,	0.0949	3.957	0.-3755
Nickel,	0.1035	3.690	0.3819
Iron,	0.1100	3.392	0.3731
Cobalt,	0.1498	2.460	0.3685
Sulphur,	0.1880	2.011	0.3780
  The experiments of Berard and Delaroche on the
specific heats of gases, if more facts were wanting,
fully confirm the conclusion that common matter and
caloric  combine  in  inverse  proportions  to  each
other. 
36
                ■»|>rcifie lirat, that     W«*i>v|ils of flic
               of uatrr being- 1.0000.   atoms, oxygen l»>*-
                                 irt£ I.
      Oxygen,      0.02361       1.000
      Nitrogen,     0.02754
      Hydrogen,    0.32936       0.125.
  This law of the increase of the capacity of atoms
for heat, in the  ratio of their levity, and the de-
crease of the  capacity for heat in  the ratio of their
density, is all important for  the  determination of
the specific heats of atoms, when the weight of the
atoms are known; and  of the weight of the atoms,
when the specific heats are  known.   Thus,  the
mean of the  thirteen experiments of Dulong  and
Petit, makes  the product of the weight of the atom
and specific heat .3753; now this  number divided
by the weight of the atom will  give  the specific
heat, and #ra number ^ut&fnett for the speeiSc^teaft
divided- by .3TjW, will  give the weight of the atom.
Thus the specific heat  of hydrogen by calculation,
is 3.6024, a number which differs but  little, con-
sidering the difficulty of obtaining the precise weight
by experiment, from the one determined by Berard
and Delaroche.
  The annexed table contains the weights of atoms
as given by Dr. Thompson, in his First Principles
of Chemistry, also the specific heats, refraction, and
likewise the greatest known proportions in which
oxygen, sulphur, hydrogen, and  phosphorus, com-
bine with the other  simple atoms. 
37
  The atomic weights as given by Dr. Thompson,
though defective, make the nearest general approxi-
mation to the truth of  any heretofore calculated:
hut they are subject to an objection particularly,
which renders them of little value for the purpose
of accurate theoretical investigations; as for instance,
when the specific  heats are  to be deduced from
them.   Thus  Dr.  Thompson  makes the atomic
weight of many of the simple substances the same:
now all simple particles  or atoms whose weights are
similar, in uniting  together ought not  to  exhibit
chemical  properties, or properties different from
the  particles themselves, their union should pro-
duce cohesive attraction only;  for atoms which
have the same weights ought to belong to the same
kind of matter.   Atoms which  exhibit different
properties when they  unite  together,  may  have
weights which make a near approach to each other,
but they cannot have the same  weights, as has been
made evident  from theory—from the experiments
of Dulong and Petit on  the specific heat of atoms,
and from  the weight of atoms given by every other
philosopher.
   Heat being but another name for repellent matter,
a still more important  consideration than the one
mentioned arises from the experiments of Dulong
and Petit; namely, as  the  quantity of attractive
or common matter,  and  the quantity of repellent or
ethereal matter are in inverse ratios  to each other, 
38
 the same degree of force which  acts upon the par-
 ticles of common matter, producing attraction, must
 conversely act upon the particles of ethereal matter,
 producing repulsion; and as atoms of the same weight
 of common matter exhibit  attraction only,  (as  is
 exemplified in cohesive attraction,) atoms of differ-
 ent weights must  exhibit simultaneously attraction
 and repulsion : and when two  dissimilar atoms, for
 instance,  unite, the degree of attraction  will  be
 equal to  the weight of the  smaller atom, and the
 difference between the two will be repulsion.  Now
 in ethereal matter, atoms, or quantities of the same
 kind, must exhibit repulsion from its attribute:
 whilst atoms,  or quantities of different kinds, must
 exhibit repulsion, equal to the smaller atom,  or
 quantity; (for instance,  when  two atoms, or  quan-
 tities unite together,) and an attraction equal to the
 difference of the two atoms,  or quantities.
  Diagram of the action of the two  classes, from
Dulong and Petit's experiments.
Greatest weight
of common, or
attractive
matter.
          Ethereal, or non-concrtting matter.

Common, or concreting matter.
Greatest quan-
tity of repel-
lent matter.
  The laws, or ultimate principles deduced from the
experiments of Dulong and Petit, are better or more
clearly expressed numerically.   Thus  the first se-
ries of numbers below exhibit the series of ethereal
atoms, or quantities;  and the numbers  in converse
order, the atoms, or quantities of common matter. 
39
           iltoms of Ethereal matter.
       I.  2.  3.   4.   5.   6.  7.  8.  9.
           Atoms of Common matter.
       9.  8.  7.   6.   5.   4.  3.  2.  1.

  As ethereal and common matter are in  inverse
ratios to each other, being antagonist forces, atoms,
or quantities of the same kind of matter, from their
attributes respectively, exhibit attraction in the
atoms of common matter, and repulsion in those of
ethereal matter; but dissimilar atoms must exhibit
attraction and repulsion, as in common matter, and
repulsion and attraction, as in ethereal matter; and
the degree of either of these forces will be in the
ratio of the difference of their atoms.   Thus in the
atoms of common matter of the above series, between
atom 1 and atom 4, for example, the attraction will
be 1, and the degree of repulsion will be 3; for this
number is the amount of  repulsion  which atom 1
has over atom 4.   So  also if any other two atoms
be taken,  as 3 and 8, the amount of attraction will
be 3, the weight of the lightest atom, or smallest
quantity, and the repulsion will be 5, the excess of
repulsion which  atom 3 has over atom 8.
  As the converse of  this law  holds  for ethereal
matter; between atom  1 and atom  4 of this kind of
matter, the  repulsion will be 1,  and the attraction
will be 3, this number being the amount of attrac-
tion which 1 has over 1.  So also between atoms 3 
40
and 8;  the repulsion will be as the number 3, and
the attraction will be  5, for this will be  the  force
exerted by 8 over 3.  It must be obvious to every
one, that the laws of ethereal matter in  its  latent
state, are those which belong to the  planetary, or
astronomic system.
  These laws, or consequences,  are fully  shown by
electricity, and in the union, or combination of die
mical atoms with one another.  Thus oxygen, for
example, in combining with the other simple bodies,
the quantity of this element  required to saturate, or
neutralize their attractive  powers, increases  with
the levity of their atoms, and decreases  with the
weight of their  atoms ; for the  weight of atoms is
determined by the quantity, or weight of oxygen,
which neutralizes, or saturates the different simple
substances; and this difference of saturating weight,
can depend upon no other cause, than the affinities
of common,  (concreting)  and  repulsive matter,
(non-concreting,) being  in  inverse ratios to  each
other: the less the weight of common matter, the
greater  the affinity (quantity) of repulsive matter;
the greater the weight of common matter, the less
the affinity of repulsive matter; or taking  the effect
for the cause, the difference of weights produce, or
give rise to a repulsive,  or  non-attractive, or non-
combining power.*
  *  The  same law holds also with sulphur, hydrogen, and
phosphorus, as will be seen by the annexed table; and in
fact, it is universal in chemistry. 
41
  Under  the head of  Light in this essay,  I  shall  show
that ethereal matter enters  into combination  with common
matter, for all chemical compounds contain it, and is a con-
sequent of the result of Dulong and  Petit's experiments:  so
in treating of electricity, it will be seen that common matter
is combined in the gaseous state with ethereal matter, for  no
electricity can be accumulated unless air be present.
  At present, I  shall say nothing of the  real nature of che-
mical elements, for that canon of chemistry which regards  all
bodies simple, unless  proven experimentally to be otherwise,
should not be lost sight of.   But, in speaking  of  light, or  in
the second  part of this essay, I shall draw the conclusion
which the principles arrived  at clearly warrant.
6 
42
Table showing the weights of the simple atoms—that specific
  heat and refraction, and also oxygen, sulphur and phospho-
  rus, in combining with simple atoms, follow the, general luw
  of inverse proportions,  or ratios of the iveights of atoms.
	" ,		'— o		_»,		t S
Names of the simple	'5 2 i-° .	M V .3	'5 , •Is	2 ° «. o —	o =	0 = —<™ - . 2 a tct	p '" ♦- 3 c <*
substances.	I« J	g	t£ s	«•- ke£	ti'U !•?!-		.2 —-
	<£§			J a.O a 88.94	oi3.iioli2ol£§		
Hydrogen	0.125	3.2936	6.61436		94.176		94.04
Carbon	0.75		2.62909	72.64	84.23	26.05	
Boron	1.00			74.17			
Oxygen	1.00	0.2361	0.86161			11.06	43.97
Silicium	1.00			50.30			
Aluminium	1.25			46.71			
Lithium	1.25			43.90			
Magnesium	1.50			38.71			
Phosphorus	1.50			56.03		8.69	
Nitrogen	1.75	0.2754	1.03408	88.59		17.64	
Sulphur	2.00	0.1880		59.86		5.824	
Fluorine	2.25						
Glucinium	2.25			31.17			
Calcium	2.50			28.09			43.38
Sodium	3.00			34.02			
Cobalt	3.25	0.1498		28.89	35.36		
Nickel	3.25	0.1035		28.86	35.23		
Iron	3.50	0.1100		30.66	54.26		22.43
Chrome	3.50			46.71			
Manganese	3.50			35.99	36.12		
Titanium	4.00			30.89			
Copper	4.00	0.0949		20.17	20.27		
Tellurium	4.00	0.0927		19.87	33.28	2.99	
Yttrium	4.25			19.90			
Zinc	4.25			19.87	33.28		
Chlorine	4.50			52.30			
Arsenic	4.75			34.70	39.08	4.06	
Zirconium	5.00			33.95			
Selenium	5.00			28.74	44.79	2.44	
Potassium	5.00			37.98	29.11		28.59
Strontium	5.50			15.45			
Rhodium	5.50			16.67	28.69		
Antimony	5.50			23.66	27.23		
Molybdenum	6.00			33.45			
Cerium	6.25			20.70			
Cadmium	7.00			12.55	22.41		
Tin	7.25	0.0514		23.66	29.10		
Barium	8.75			31.17			18.36
Bismuth	9.00	0.0288		10.13	18.49		
Platinum	12 00	0.0314		14.13	24.87		
Lead	13.00	0.0293		13.38	13.45		
Silver	13.75	0.0557		9.99	12.95		
Iodine	15.50			13.64			
Tungsten	15.75			19.90	24.99		
Mercury	13.00			7.32	13.71		
Gold	25.00	0.0298		10.77	19.53		
Ur:*[i:..n-	26.00			8.70			
  !  lorinium, Columbium, Osmium, P->!!~c1:'im, and Iridium are little
known as to their combination?. 
43
  Chemical affinity, or that species of attraction or
power which causes particles  of different kinds of
common matter to unite together, is different in its
degrees or force in different kinds of matter, when
combined with  each other; some  yielding readily
to the action of ordinary agents, whilst others resist
the same agents, and require  complicated means to
effect their separation from each other.  The union
of such dissimilar particles gives  rise to products
with properties, different from the particles or sub-
stances which compose them,  and differ in this re-
spect from the aggregates of similar particles; these
latter having no new properties, with the exception
of those due to  cohesive attraction only.*
  The attributes of the two classes or kinds of mat-
ter, namely, that attraction which  causes  the par-
ticles of common matter  to  concrete  together,  and
the repulsion of ethereal particles, are the antago-
nist or opposing forces,  as is well known, of chemi-
cal  action.   As these forces  increase in opposite
ratios  to each other, the attractive power increas-
ing as the weight of the  atoms increase, and  the
  * If cohesive attraction or the attraction  of similar parti-
cles of common matter, either integrant or constituent, alone
existed,  neither caloric,  electricity,  magnetism,  light nor
life, would be developed or made manifest; for these powers
are dependent upon the action of dissimilar particles upon
each other, of dissimilar bodies or masses upon each other, and
of the combined or simultaneous action of dissimilar particles
and dissimilar bodies or masses. 
44
repellent power increasing as the weight of the atoms
decrease, it must be evident that those dissimilar
atoms having the greatest atomic weight, and great-
est attraction for ethereal matter, (all other circum-
stances being the same,) have the greatest affinity
or chemical attraction for each other, (the two forces
in such particles being nearly counterbalanced,) and
affinity must diminish as the atoms differ from each
other in weight, in consequence of the concreting
and  non-concreting attributes increasing with the
difference in the weight of atoms.
   Besides  the  two modifying  causes  of chemical
action just mentioned, and whose effects are in op-
posite ratios to each other, there exists another cause
whose laws are not so easy to investigate, and will
probably remain unknown) so long as the knowledge
of the ultimate or true nature of the simple bodies,
so called, remains undiscovered.  I allude to the
attraction of cohesion, or the attraction of similar
particles for each other.  This force in the simple
bodies seems  altogether  independent of  atomic
weight, and is seemingly analogous to the power or
force developed by organization.  Thus, the force
which unites the particles forming the diamond, is
greater than in any other known substance; sulphur,
which is nearly allied to carbon in atomic weight,
has  but  a feeble  hardness; and  mercury, whose
atomic weight is amongst the  heaviest of all  sub-
stances, is fluid, in almost every part of the globe. 
45
  It is useless to cite other instances of the anoma-
lous nature of cohesive attraction  in the simple bo-
dies, the facts are well known to every chemist and
philosopher.  With respect to  cohesive  attraction
in compounds of the simple atoms, the laws which
have been observed will be spoken of in their place:
these laws probably may throw light upon those bo-
dies which are now deemed elementary.
   The combined attraction of the concreting attri-
bute (atomic weight,) and cohesive  attraction, fur-
nish us with one  of  the most useful laws in the
practice of chemistry, and which long was consider-
ed as the type of the force  of chemical affinity:  1
 allude to the one-by which precipitates are produced,
 namely, that if  the  elements of  an insoluble  com-
 pound exist in solutions which are mixed together,
 a precipitate will  take place; being  the  insoluble
 salt whose elements were soluble  before the mixture
 was made.  This  effect or insolubility in a menstru-
 um, is very different from chemical affinity, as will
 be further shown; for substances which  unite toge-
 ther in small proportions,* and substances which
 are readily decomposed by those agents  which form
 solutions, are often insoluble.!
    * The sulphates of mercury, silver and lead, are insoluble;
 those of iron, cobalt, nickel, &c. are soluble.
    t Most of the  metallic carbonates  are insoluble, but  are
 decomposed by nitric acid, for  example, and form soluble
 salts.  Solubility or insolubility  depend altogether upon the
  menstruum. 
4G
  The want of accurately designating the really
opposing forces of the action of dissimilar particles.
lias made affinity to be one of the most difficult and
complicated branches of chemical science.
  Attraction in general, is  as the weight of atoms,
and the number  of atoms.  Chemical  affinity  is as
the weight of dissimilar' atoms and the number of
dissimilar atoms.  Those atoms which are nearest in
weight, are those which combine in  the greatest
proportion with each other; and those atoms which
combine  in  the  least  proportion with each other,
are those which are most dissimilar in  weight.
  This view of chemical affinity is the  only one
which admits of a general expression; for when it
was made to depend upon menstrua, as  water, acids,
caloric, &c, it was necessary to admit that  affinity
varied as the menstrua varied; or, in other  words,
chemical affinity was subjected to as  many modify-
ing causes, as there were menstrua or fluid agents.
  The number of dissimilar atoms is the modifying
cause of the affinity of atoms for one another; this
is the action of the mass of  Bertholet,  wherein the
united weights of many light atoms may cause atoms
which are individually heavier, to cede their place
to the former ones.

Laws of chemical action, or  the action of atoms
                upon each  ohter.
  First.—Bodies or substances, the atomic weight. 
47
of whose particles are the same, are  attractive  of
each other, and exhibit no repulsive property;  for
the concrete state of  common matter is dependent
upon this property, and this state is destroyed only
by the action of the repulsive power.
  Second.—Two  bodies  acting upon each  other,
whose  particles are different, have an attraction for
each other equal  to the weight of the  smallest par-
ticle.   The repulsion being the difference between
the weights of the two particles acting upon each
other; the greater the difference, the greater their
repulsive power.   Thus, oxygen and silicium com-
bine in nearly equal proportions, and so also do the
bases of the other earths with oxygen: these oxides
are the most difficult  of the  known compounds to
decompose;  oxygen,  and hydrogen, or water,  are
decomposed by the greater  number  of  the other
simple bodies, and the oxides of gold, silver, platina,
&c. are reduced to the metallic state by  the action
of heat alone.
   Third.—Two  bodies, whose particles are differ-
ent, being united together, any third body whose
particles are heavier than those of the lightest one,
will take the place  of the  lightest particles, or in
other  words, will decompose the compound, and
unite  with the heaviest particles:  the  affinity of
bodies being as  the  weight  of  their atoms; (the
quantity of matter  present being in saturating  or
equivalent proportions; for mass modifies affinity.) 
48
  Fourth.—Bodies or  substances  whose  atomic
weight is different, their combination will be oppos-
ed by  the  concreting force when solids act upon
each other;  and by the repulsive or divellent force,
when fluids act upon each  other: or by the  two
forces conjoined, when the two forces exist in the
substances acting.   As repulsion is an  antagonist
power  to  combination, atoms  or  particles cannot
unite or keep together, if the weight of  the repul-
sive, or in other  words  the permanently gaseous
matter, be  greater than  the fixed  matter.   This
being the case, Berzelius' proportion of oxygen in
silex, cannot be correct, for it  is  greater than the
weight of fixed matter (silicium.)   This law is ex-
emplified by every other known chemical combina-
tion, for when atoms are  lighter than the atom of
oxygen, this latter is in  excess  as regards weight:
and when atoms are heavier than that of oxygen,
the former  are in excess.  (See table.)
  Fifth.—Two kinds of dissimilar particles uniting
together, one of them being fluid under ordinary
circumstances: a fluid will be the result if the num-
ber and weight of the atoms of  the latter
     for fluidity is  in proportion  to the weight of
the atoms which have the greatest attraction for re-
pulsive matter.  But should the number and weight
of the fluid atoms be less in number or  in weight,
the solid state will  be that of their product; for the
converse of the fluid state is in proportion to the 
40
predominance of those atoms, which have  the least
a (Unity for repulsive matter.   The same applies to
solubility in water, or any other menstruum.
   Sixth.—All metallic oxides, whose metals do not
decompose water,  either when cold or hot, are  de-
composed by  hydrogen: for  if the affinity of  the
metal for oxygen,  be not so great as  the affinity of
oxygen and hydrogen for each other, oxygen when
combined with such metals, must quit them to unite
to hydrogen—to this law there may be one or  two
exceptions, arising from the  forces being  counter-
balanced ?
   Seventh.—Metals which are united to oxygen in
less proportion than required  to saturate them, form
oxides or alkalies, and can combine with  acids  or
bodies containing oxygen in excess: on the contrary,
metals which contain more oxygen than can combine
with acids, do not unite to acids, but unite to oxides.
As all metallic combinations with oxygen do  not
unite to acids, and the atomic weight being deter-
mined by the  neutral combination of acids, and  ox-
ides, a difficulty is created as regards the atomic
weight of metals so combining: for if the acid com-
bines in a lower proportion than a certain degree of
oxygenation, its result is a hydrate; if in a still less
proportion, an insoluble salt;  and if in an  interme-
drate proportion, a soluble one.   The difficulty of
determining the neutral state of the different simple
bodies when united together,  is one of the principal
                       7 
.r)0
eauses of the errors, and of the differences of atomic
weight given by different chemists.*
                   Electricity.

  The  following facts  constitute  the  science of
electricity; and whatever principle will explain the
whole of these facts, that principle will be its theory:
or in  other words, upon it the phenomena of electri-
city will depend.
  Electricity is produced by the contact of dissimi-
lar  particles or bodies—by the friction or rubbing of
dissimilar bodies upon each other—by the  fusion of
inflammable bodies—by evaporation—by the disen-
gagement  of gaseous matter—by evaporation—by
the disruption of solids—by a  change  of tempera-
ture—by crystallization—and in fact, in all cases of
the action or motion of dissimilar particles, or groups
of particles, forming bodies acting upon each other,
whether the action be a chemical or a mechanical
one.

  * It will be seen by the table of the atomic weight, that
the atom of nitrogen is too great: for its specific heat, its re-
fractivepower, and its combination with oxygen and hydrogen,
place  it  between carbon and boron.  I have not Dr. Thom-
son's  " First Principles" by me, and consequently cannot
say from which of the oxides of nitrogen the atomic weight
was deduced. 
51
  Experiment proves that certain bodies, by fric-
tion, or other means, exhibit or retain electricity;
and that other bodies not only do not exhibit it, but
conduct it away from those bodies on which it has
been accumulated.   Hence some bodies are called
electrics, or non-conductors of electricity, and other
bodies are  called non-electrics,  or conductors of
electricity.
  If, however, the conducting bodies be insulated
from all other bodies by means of the non-conduct-
ing bodies, then by using the means which develop
electricity in an electric, the non-conducting bodies
become electrics also.  So  that  all bodies are in
reality electrics, but not so under ordinary circum-
stances.
  Experiment proves that such bodies  as sulphur,
diamond, glass, resinous bodies, and some of the me-
tallic  oxides, &c. are electrics or  non-conductors,
whilst the metals, charcoal, &c. are conductors of
electricity.
  Experiment proves that  bodies  when  rubbed,
whose composition is the same, but whose surface is
different as to polish, exhibit  different  degrees or
kinds (using theoretical language) of electricity; as
a glass tube in its ordinary state,  and a  part of the
same depolished or roughened.
  Experiment proves that electricity diffuses itself
over  the  surface of bodies which  accumulate it,
and not amongst the particles which compose such 
52
bodies:  that it is retained upon the surface of such
bodies by the pressure of the atmosphere; for the
greater the pressure, the greater the quantity which
can be accumulated, and  the less  the pressure, the
less the quantity which can be accumulated.   In the
vacuum  of  an  air  pump  bodies do  not retain
electricity.
  Experiment proves that when two different kinds
of bodies are rubbed together, which produce elec-
tricity under ordinary circumstances, the two bo-
dies receive each  the same quantity or degree  of
electricity:  for  they can mutually  saturate each
other or return  to the quiescent state.   Such bo-
dies, when electrified, have  an attraction for each
other.
  Experiment proves that if two bodies like the
last mentioned,  be rubbed,  and then presented to
the former bodies whilst under electrical excitation,
and according to their nature or kinds, that they will
repel each other;  but if they be presented to their
opposite kinds they will attract each other, for simi-
lar bodies when  electrified, repel each other.
  Experiment proves when electricity is developed
in a body, that  body has the property of causing
any other body presented to it, to acquire or re-
ceive electricity likewise.  The fluid obtained un-
der such circumstances is called induced electricitv,
the electricity by influence  of  the French electri-
cians.   The quantity of electricity received  in this 
53
manner is always equal to the quantity in the body
which induced it; as they unite together they arc
considered to be different electricities.  It is on the
principle of induction that the electrophorus is con-
structed and the Leyden jar is charged.
   Finally, all electrical phenomena are phenomena
of attraction and repulsion; the first effects being
invariably those of attraction, the second, those of
repulsion; that if the quantity be small which is ac-
cumulated, there is attraction only; but if the quan-
tity be considerable,  attraction  and repulsion arc
exhibited.   Electricity is  essentially characterized
by its  attractive and repellent  properties, and by
the shock (the consequent of repulsion,)  which it
gives to bodies on which it acts.
   Electricity is that  state  of ethereal  matter,
which, when united to common matter, manifests
the greatest degree of repulsion.  It may be called
the latent state of ethereal  matter.
   The theory, or rather exposition of electrical phe-
nomena, is,  that there exists ethereal or repellent
matter, in a quiescent or uncombined state through-
out nature; that this state is disturbed by whatever
changes dissimilar particles, or dissimilar masses may
undergo; for such changes cause combinatioMS more
or less permanent to  take place between particles
of ethereal or repellent matter,  and common  or at-
tractive matter, (as has been fully shown in the pre-
ceding part  of this  essay;) that the attraction of 
54
ethereal for common matter, is in the inverse ratio
of the atoms of common matter, and the particles of
ethereal  matter have a repulsion for each other the
converse of the attraction of the particles of common
matter for each other.
   All electrical phenomena  must depend  upon the
principles deduced from the combination of ethereal
and common matter in inverse ratios to each other:
these principles,  to repeat them again, are first,
that atoms, or quantities of the  same kind, repel
each other; and atoms,  or  quantities of  different
kinds, attract  each other—the degree of repulsion
being equal to  the weight of the smallest  atom, or
quantity, and  the difference being the attraction
belonging to  common  matter.  These principles
explain all the facts which constitute the science of
electricity, as  given at the commencement of this
article, and the application of them to the following
all-important and fundamental facts, will afford  ex-
amples of its power and truth.
   The attraction of common and repellent matter
for each other being in  the ratio of the levity of the
atoms of  common matter, is the reason why those
atoms which are lightest, are those which produce,
or retain electricity when rubbed, &c. as the dia-
mond, sulphur, &c.  The same applies to compound
light atoms which present smooth surfaces, as glass,
resin, &c, in  fact, all substances which are formed
of, or  contain light atoms, if their  surfaces  be 
35
polished, as  the oxides of the alkaline and earthy
metals, and  their  combinations  with one another
forming salts.   Whereas, such atoms as are heavy,
as the  metals,  are  non-electrics,  or conductors of
electricity.  The metals, however, when united to
an excess of the non-metallic substances, become
electrics also.*
   The attraction of  common  matter for ethereal
matter being different in different bodies, varying
as the weights of the  atoms of common matter, dif-
ferent  bodies  must receive or retain different de-
grees, or quantities of repellent matter.
   Bodies whose particles are  composed of the same
kind of atoms, should alike receive the same degree,
or quantity of repellent matter,  as their attractive
and repellent powers are the  same; therefore, such
bodies, when they receive an accumulation  of re-
pellent matter, should repel each other: hence the
cause of similar bodies when electrified, repelling
each other.
   As the quantity of electricity or repellent matter
which is accumulated by the  friction of two  bodies
 follows the  converse  law which  governs the parti-

   *  It will no doubt be discovered, that all bodies which
 contain ethereal or repellent matter in excess over attractive
 or common matter, are electrics, or non-conductors of elec-
 tricity; and on the contrary, all bodies which contain com-
 mon or attractive matter in excess, over ethereal matter, are
 non-electrics, or  conductors of electricity. 
5G
cles of common matter, the degree, or quantitx of
repellent matter being as the weight of the lightest
atom, or body composed of the lightest atoms, thti
difference  between  the atoms of the  two bodies
being  attraction;  therefore, bodies  whose  parti-
cles  are  composed of atoms  different from  each
other,  as they receive different quantities of repel-
lent  matter,  must attract  each  other: hence the
reason  why  dissimilar  bodies,  when  electrified,
attract each other.
  Similar bodies, when electrified, repel each other,
and dissimilar bodies, when electrified, attract each
other.   A body being electrified as it attracts other
bodies, and then repels them likewise, if they be
relatively small, the same relationships must exist
between ethereal and common matter in the bodies
attracted, and the body which attracts in this in-
stance, as  exists  between  dissimilar  bodies  when
rubbed upon each other; namely, the repulsion will
be as the weight or quantity of the smallest  atoms
of the bodies, and the difference between the  atoms
or quantities, will be attraction. Such bodies, when
ethereal  matter is accumulated upon them in the
manner just  mentioned, if they be insulated, will
be electrified bodies also.  This is the theory of
induction, or electricity produced by influence. 
57
   Of the. decomposition of light by the prism.

  Light, when made to pass through a triangular
prism, is decomposed,  and  exhibits a  series  of
colours  arranged in a  determinate  order; these
colours and the order of their arrangement, are as
follows:  red, orange, yellow, green,  blue, indigo
and violet.  The  red is found  to be nearest the
point where the rays of light would have gone, had
they not been  subjected to  the prism, and the vio-
let colour is farthest from that point.  Light, from
exhibiting these different colours, is supposed to be
a compound body, having particles of different size
or weight,  the largest of which produce the colour
of the red end of the spectrum, and the smallest the
violet end.   The former are said to be the least  re-
frangible, and the latter  the most refrangible.  Be-
sides colour, light so decomposed exhibits properties
or powers  important in  chemistry and natural phi-
losophy: these powers  are  heating  or  combining
effects—decomposing or divellent effects—illumi-
nating and magnetic effects.  It is found that the
greatest heating effects are near the red  end of the
spectrum, and that they diminish as they approach
to the violet end: that  :th these heating effects are
attractive or combinii    Tects; for substances which
readily combine with    'gen, when  presented to
the red end, unite w...«  u.   The violet  end has no
                       8 
58
property of this kind: on the contrary, it exhibits
a divellent  power, decreasing as it approaches  to
the red end: it decomposes muriate of silver, (chlo-
ride of silver,) and deprives many substances either
of a portion or the whole of their oxygen.   The
quantity of light, or, in other words, the illuminat-
ing power presented by light so  decomposed, like
heat and the divellent power, has  a particular loca-
tion :  it is found to be in the yellow colour, nearest
the green rays.   The magnetic effects are greatest
in the blue rays.
  These properties, exhibited by the solar spectrum,
are in harmony with the principles  deduced from
the classification—from the relationships of concret-
ing atoms, as  to their  capacity,for caloric; or,  in
other words, the nonconcreting attribute.
  Chlorine and  hydrogen, according to  sir Hum-
phrey Davy,  act  more rapidly upon each other
when exposed to  the red ray, than when placed
in the violet,  and the combination is without ex-
plosion. Gay Lussac, and Thenard, found that when
chlorine and hydrogen were exposed to  the violet
rays,  they immediately exploded.
  These effects are readily explicable; as the heat-
ing effects decrease from the red end to the violet,
and the divellent effects fr   the violet to  the red
end,  combinations should    e place without ex-
plosion at the  red end, -       the divellent power 
59
is feeble; and explosion should be the  effect at the
violet end,  where this power is greatest.
  Sir Humphrey Davy found that a  solution  of
chlorine in water became a solution of muriatic acid,
most rapidly, when  placed in the most refrangible
rays in the spectrum.   The  rationale of this  ex-
periment is very obvious,  as  there was common
matter for  the hydrogen and oxygen of the water
to unite with, being also in contact with caloric of
fluidity;  a divellent force  was  alone  wanting to
separate them from  each other, in  order  to unite
with chlorine to form other compounds.
  The same chemist found that oxide of mercury
from calomel and water of potash (the  black oxide)
was not changed in the most refrangible, but became
red in the least refrangible rays.  In these experi-
ments the violet end could not decompose the oxide
of mercury, nor  cause  oxygen to unite to it from
its divellent nature, but as mercury could take up
more oxygen, it combined with another portion of
it when exposed to the red end of the  spectrum.
  The red oxide of mercury, moistened with water,
and acted upon by the  violet rays, was in part de-
composed;  the same effect was  produced upon it
as is produced by hydrogen gas.   Thus the  violet
rays have  the property of reducing the red oxide
to the black or protoxide, and confirming the expla-
nation of the last mentioned experiment.
  "Berard,  by concentrating the  rays from  the 
61)
green to the extreme boundary of the violet, and
the rays (by another lens) of the other  half, found
the focus of a white light  so brilliant that the eye
could not endure it:  yet in two hours it produced
no sensible change on muriate of  silver.   On the
contrary, the focus of the other half, whose light
and heat were far less intense, blackened the muriate
in ten minutes.   This experiment  proves that light
depends for its greatest powers of exhibition  on
particles whose atoms correspond with those which
are to be found within the range of the red and the
green rays;  and the greatest repellent powers, as
before mentioned, are from the green rays, towards
the violet end of the spectrum."
  " Sir Humphrey Davy says that the maximum of
heat is at the positive pole* where the power of com-
bining with oxygen  is given to  bodies, and the
agency of rendering bodies inflammable is excited
at the opposite  surface, and similar chemical effects
are produced by negative  electricity, and by the
most refrangible rays  of the solar beam."

  * Positive pole here means the zine  end of the galvanic
battery; the attractive and not the repellent or the divellent
pole. 
61
New toil's scale of the solar spectrum divided  into three hun-
                 dred and sixty parts.
Greatest calorific effects, at the fa rthest extremity of the red rays.		Greatest illuminat-ing powers.		Magnetic powers.		Greatest divellent powers as regards chloride of silver & certain oxides is at the farthest extre-mity of the violet rays.
Red 45	Orange 27	Yellow 48	Green 60	Blue 60	Indigo 40	•Violet 80
 Greatest illuminating: powers when all  Greatest divellent powers when concen-
the rays at this end of the spectrum are trated.
concentrated.
  The Newtonian theory of light, which makes the
different effects to arise from light being composed
of particles different as to size, is objectionable, from
the complex composition which it gives to this im-
portant fluid.  By this theory, light  is  not only
composed  of as many  different kinds of particles as
there are colours presented by the solar  spectrum,
but there  are different kinds of particles also for
heating effects, for magnetic effects, and for repel-
lent or electrical effects.
   All the different phenomena which light presents,
can readily be explained by  the supposition of one
kind  of repellent,  imponderable, light, elastic fluid
particles,  namely, the ethereal matter of the classi-
fication, this  matter acting upon common matter, in
non-saturating, or in  saturating  proportions.   This
supposition is supported, not only by the means used
to effect what is called the decomposition of light, 
62
but by all the phenomena of colorization" which the
atoms of common matter present, in combining che-
mically with one another, when colour is produced,
as well as by the action of the two classes of matter
upon each other, (colour and magnetism excepted,)
as has already been spoken of.
   The decomposition of light is effected by means
of a triangular prism of glass, (or  any other trans-
parent substance of that form,) composed, as in com-
mon glass, of silicium, potassium, or sodium, and
oxygen; and in the case of flint glass, of  silicium,
lead, potassium, and oxygen; so  that the  kind  of
particles which forms the decomposing medium is
not the cause of the effects produced, but these ef-
fects are owing to the peculiar manner in which the
particles are placed, as regards  quantity in this me-
dium, they forming a series from  the smallest to the
greatest relative quantities  of matter.  The parti-
cles which constitute glass are so arranged as to form
a homogeneous body.
   Ethereal or repellent matter  in the state of light,
when a triangular prism is  presented to it, finds it-
self in contact with every degree of relative attract-
ive force which common matter possesses, from the
least, as before mentioned, to the greatest; for a body
of that form or figure presents every degree of force.
from the extreme of the infinitely small, to the ex-
treme of the infinitely great.
   As the two forces or attributes of the two classes 
63
of matter, namely, attraction and  repulsion, are in
inverse ratios to each other; the repellent or latent
state of ethereal matter must be greatest where the
attractive force is least, and hence must be greatest
at that part of the prism where there is the least mat-
ter, and the repellent force must diminish as the at-
tractive force increases, or in other words, in pro-
portion to the quantity of matter of the prism acting
upon it, (the attraction being as the  weight and
number of the atoms forming the prism,)  and con-
versely, the quantity of  ethereal  matter  attracted
must be greatest where the attractive force is great-
est, and must diminish as the attractive force dimi-
nishes.    Hence, caloric or the heating effects, the
sensible state  in other words  of  ethereal matter,
must be greatest at the point of the greatest quantity
of matter, and must be least where there is the least
quantity of matter.*

  * This action of light is the resulfof the general law, men-
tioned in the preceding part of this essay, namely, "that the
repulsive state increases with the levity of matter, and de-
creases with the density of matter; and the sensible state of
repulsive matter increases with the density or weight of mat-
ter, and decreases with the levity of matter."  Thus the ac-
tion of light—the  action of the two classes upon each other—
the reasoning upon atmospheric air, and the conclusion from
the experiments of Dulong and Petit, all harmonize with each
other. 
64
Diagram showing ethereal matter in its latent state,
  when acted upon by the  least quantity of common
  matter, and the same in its sensible stale when acted
  upon by the greatest quantity of  common matter.
Greatest heating
   effects.
Greatest repellent
   effects.
  Colour produced by the solar spectrum, is owing
evidently to the two forces of attractive and repel-
lent matter not counterbalancing, neutralizing, or
saturating each other; for experiment proves that
the greatest repellent or divellent effects are without
the spectrum  at the  violet coloured end, and  the
greatest  heating  or attractive effects,  are  without
the spectrum at the red coloured end; moreover,
these forces decrease as  they advance  toward each
other, or recede from the point where  these forces
are greatest.   So colours being  within the range
of attractive and repellent matter, the different co-
lours  are owing to the different degrees or quanti-
ties of the two kinds of  matter combined or acting
together.  Thus the greatest quantity or  propor-
tion of attractive or common  matter, with the least 
quantity or one proportion of ethereal matter, form
the red rays or colour, and the greatest quantity or
proportion  of ethereal matter  with one proportion
of common  matter, constitute the violet rays or co-
lour.   All the other colours are owing to an increase
of ethereal matter over attractive matter going from
the red  to the violet end  of the spectrum, and an
increase of common matter over the repellent state
of matter, going from the violet to the red end of the
same spectrum.*
   Light  by the Newtonian theory, is supposed  to
be owing to the union of the different colours of the
solar spectrum; for when a ray of light is decom
posed by one prism, these colours can be re-united
(so as to  form white light) if  a second prism be so
connected with the former prism as  to form a rec-
tangular figure, for when two triangular prisms are
so united, the  attractive  and repellent powers are
neutralized or counterbalanced.
   As colour is caused by  the combination of ethe-
real matter with common  matter, in  non-saturating

   « It is shown by chemistry, that when substances whose
atoms are light, and consequently have the greatest  attrac-
tion  for ethereal  matter, unite to  heavy atoms, the colours
presented, if they combine in  various proportions, follow the
order of the spectrum going from the red coloured end; on
the contrary, when a compound body loses li»,ht atoms, the
change of colour  is from  the violet to the red coloured end
of the spectrum. 
66
 proportions, light (meaning white  light) which,
 according to Newton, depended upon the union or
 combination of the different coloured rays, must be
 the effect, not of an unequal, or non-saturating pro-
 portion, but of  equal  mutual attractive, or saturat-
 ing,  neutralizing proportions.   This consequence
 of light,  being  the result of the union of common
 and etherial matter, wherein attraction and  repul-
 sion mutually counterbalance each other, is proven
 by  the union of the two triangular prisms,—by the
 greatest  illuminating  power being in the yellow
 coloured  ray, which is the lightest in colour, and
 which experiment proves to possess the greatest
 illuminating power; and is further proven by most
 of the neutral chemical compounds, for such com-
 pounds, as is well known, are white.*
  The theory of light here given, namely, that all
 its  phenomena depend upon the action of the two
 classes of matter upon each other in different degrees
 or proportions, is confirmed by chemical phenomena,
 or the action of the  particles  of  common matter
 upon  each other.  Thus iron, in the metallic state,
 is white; a certain quantity of oxygen, or non-
 metallic matter, makes it black ; a greater quantity

  *  I have no doubt that  all neutral compounds are white,
that is to say, attraction and repulsion  counterbalancing
each other, must produce this effect  according to the view
given of chemical affinity.  This I shall further show in the
second part of this  essay. 
67
changes it to a  red.  Combining it with  water,

adding to  it in this way a greater proportion of non-

metallic matter,  its colour  is yellow; and a still

greater quantity of non-metallic matter, as carbonic

acid, produces white ; whilst a greater  quantity, as

of prussic acid, produces a blue colour.   It must be

remembered  that the  quantity of ethereal matter

increases  as  the  levity of  the atoms  of  common

matter increases.


  Quantity of Non-Metallic  Matter combined with

                  Iron in 100 parts.


           oxygen,       28.21  black.
            do.         30.61  red.
           {oxygen
             and        39.00  yellow.
           hydrogen,
 .,  .     f carbon
 Carbonic 1  a()d         52<63  white<
   acid   1
         ioxygen,
           prussic acid "J       f white, changing rapidly to
           and oxygen, "l-q-r-J a green, ami  thenbecom-
           the protox-  [       J ing blue, by an increase of
           ide,        J       L oxygen.
           prussic acid "j
           and oxygen, V 77.90 blue.
           the peroxide J


   Quantity of Non-Metallic Matter combined with

                Mercury in 100 parts.


           Protoxide,          *.«0  black.
           I.)«uluxid.\          r.»'>M  raj. 
(»S
       "J oxygen   ~)
Tnrpeth [and sal-   \_
mineral, j phur com- f
       J bined,    J
Chloride,

   The same law which holds in the combination of
iron and mercury? also  exists when copper com-
bines with non-metallic  matter or light atoms.

   Quantity of Non-Metallic Matter combined with
               Copper in 100 parts.

Protoxide,                   11.22  black.
Deutoxide,                   20.17  red.
Protochloride,                35.80  light yellow colour.
Green   ("carbonic acid, 19.85"1
carbon- -j oxygen,      18.02 Ug.IO  green.
ate,     L water,        8.05 J
Blue    f carbonic acid, 25.43 ")
carbon- < oxygen,      17.65 J. 48.28  blue.
ate,     i water,        5.20 J

   These instances are but a few of the  innumera-
ble  examples  of the  accordance of the theory of
 light and of chemical action, Which, from the prin-
 ciples deduced from the experiments of Dulong and
 Petit, is neither more nor less than the union of the
 two classes of matter, since different atoms generate,
 for  instance, a repulsive force in common matter
 equal to  the difference  of  its atoms  or quantities,
 and an attractive force in ethereal  matter equal to
 the difference between its atoms and quantities.
16.60  yellow.

26.47   white. 
69
  The same exhibition of prismatic colours, by the
change  of  ethereal  matter  which  takes  place  in
inorganic matter, is likewise presented by the ve-
getable kingdom ; thus the leaves of a tree at the
approach of winter, when its life begins to diminish,
lose their green colour, assume that of a greenish
yellow—then yellow—orange—red—brownish,—
and finally, when life has completely departed, all
colour  is lost, for then they are  black.   Similar
changes are presented by the animal kingdom, but
not so varied.
                  Magnetism.

  It has been  mentioned that magnetism differs in
nothing essentially from electricity, with the excep-
tion of its  retention by steel, and by certain other
metallic substances, which, under ordinary circum-
stances, are conductors of electricity.
  It having been  shown  that caloric, light,  and
electricity are merely different states  of  ethereal
matter, dependent  upon its union with  common
matter in different  proportions, it would be  neces-
sary to show that magnetism results from the same
ethereal matter, in union with the  same  common
matter, were  it not for the opinion  which now pre-
vails, that electricity and magnetism depend upon 
70
one common principle, the former being convertible
into the latter, whenever electricity, developed by
ordinary means, or by galvanism, is made  to  act
upon certain metallic substances; for upon this con-
version the science of electro-magnetism is founded.
  That magnetism and electricity differ a little from
each other, might be inferred from the decomposi-
tion of light by the prism, the blue rays being those
which  produce magnetic effects; these rays having
greater attractive powers than those  which exhibit
electricity only, and  less attractive  powers than
those which produce light.
  In looking over the table of the weights of atoms,
I found that those metals were magnetic which had
the greatest atomic weight joined to the greatest
specific heat, proving  that  the degree of attraction
of ethereal matter, which produces magnetism, was
not only as the specific heat, but as the weight of
the atom.
  It has  been supposed that magnetism was con-
nected with the interior of the earth: this opinion
has been proven to be erroneous; for Col. Gibbes
found that oxydule of  iron, taken fresh from  below
the surface, where it was not exposed to atmospheric
influence, exhibited no polarity or magnetic effects,
whilst the same kind of ore, found on the surface,
possessed polarity, or exhibited magnetism.
  According to M. J.  B. Biot (Traite de Physique,
t. II. p. 75,) '• The magnetic anion of the terrestrial 
71
globe is not limited to its interior or  its surface: it
extends into space, as M.  Gay Lussac  and myself
have proved, in an aerostatic ascension.   It even
seems from our observations, that the intensity of
this action decreases  slowly  in  proportion to  the
distance from the terrestrial surface; for we found
no  sensible diminution of it at the height to which
we  were elevated." (20,000 feet.)
  I have long thought that terrestrial magnetism was
owing to the centrifugal force of the earth, motion
producing those changes in the commpn matter of
the atmosphere which cause combinations more or
less permanent to take place between its particles
and those of ethereal matter.   This opinion is found-
ed  upon  the decrease of magnetism in advancing
towards the poles from  certain latitudes, and its
absence or loss where the action of the centripetal
force prevails.  Secondly, from  the observations of
Col. Gibbes, which  prove that magnetism is not
connected with the interior of the earth, but with
its  surface: thirdly, and  lastly, the observations of
MM. Gay Lussac and  Biot, showing  that it does
not diminish in ascending into the atmosphere, so
far as they ascended.*

  * Whilst in the college at Columbia, S. C. I tried to prove
by experiment that magnetism depended upon the centrifugal
force, by subjecting a magnetic needle to great pressure, but
my  apparatus was insufficient for the purpose. 
72
   If terrestrial magnetism, as it is called, depends
 upon the centrifugal force giving motion  to the
 atmosphere, will not the  three  magnetic equators
 be owing to the expansion produced  by the action
 of the sun being  different in different places at
 different periods of the year, and remaining ex-
 panded at the different  places or points for certain
 periods?  Thus, when  the sun is at Capricorn, the
 greatest volume or height of the atmosphere will
 be at that point;  when, on  the contrary, it  is at
 cancer, its greatest volume is thrown from the north
 to the south; and when  at the equator, its greatest
 expansion will be at that point. The extreme points
 of the earth, upon which  the sun  periodically ex-
 erts its greatest influence, being forty-seven degrees,
 great effects ought necessarily to result, since the
 diurnal motion of  the earth  alone, as regards the
 action  of the sun, and  other comparatively feeble
 actions, are known to produce appreciable effects.
   If terrestrial magnetism be really caused by the
 motion of the earth, may not the aurora borealis owe
 its existence to the changes which the two states of
 the atmosphere must necessarily experience ; since
 one being more dense  than  the other, any  cause
which will reduce  any portion of the centrifugal at-
mosphere, to the polar  or centripetal atmosphere,
will produce light; for light is always a concomitant
or product of  the  condensation of gaseous matter.
So also the  atmosphere exhibiting two  states,  as 
73
regards density,  it becomes an electrified body by
motion; andi any cause which will unite the two
must  exhibit light,  if  the  accumulation be con-
siderable.*
  The fact that the aurora  borealis can be seen in
lower latitudes in the winter than in  the summer
season, is  in accordance with the cause assigned;
for  in mid-winter the atmospheric equator is  re-
moved 47° from the point which it occupies in the
summer season.
                  Galvanism.

  Galvanism differs from electricity not only in its
powers of decomposing  compound substances, but
in the mode in which  its  powers  are elicited or
developed.  In all electrical machines, and in every
way in which  electricity is made manifest, it is by
the action of dissimilar substances, or bodies rubbed,
or otherwise made to act  upon each other.   It is
always the action of bodies or masses.  Galvanism,
on  the contrary, depends for its development not
only upon the action of bodies and masses upon each
other, but also  of particles acting simultaneously

  * This effect is often seen between  clouds, and between
the  clouds and the earth.
                       10 
74
with the action oi  bodies or masses':  Every gal
vanic battery, or instrument, consists of dissimilar
masses, (plates  of zinc and copper for  example,)
and a menstruum capable of acting chemically upon
the particles, which  compose  one of the masses.
Thus electrical effects, and calorific effects, are the
concomitant  results of the  galvanic battery when
in action,—for, as before mentioned, electrical  ef-
fects are the result of the action of dissimilar masses,
as is proven by natural philosophy;  and all chemi-
cal phenomena  show, that  the action, of ultimate
dissimilar particles produce heat or caloric.
   According to the  manner  in which the  plates
composing a galvanic  battery are arranged, so are
the effects  produced; these effects prove the real
nature  of this important instrument, as has already
been mentioned.
   If the plates  be few, the menstruum  used pro-
ducing a strong  chemical action, heat alone is the
result,  for a battery of this kind will neither decom-
pose water, nor produce shocks.   On the contrary,
if the  plates be many, the chemical action  feeble,
electrical effects are the product; and the greatest
calorific, and the greatest  electrical  effects, result
from the joint  action or combination of the two
modes  of arrangement, or means used.
   Considering galvanism as simultaneously eliciting
caloric, the sensible state of the nonconcreting par-
ticles, and electricity, the latent state of the same 
75
particles, conjoined with the affinity or attraction
which the nonconcreting and the concreting parti-
cles have for each other, and the knowledge also
that their attraction for each other is inversely as
the weight of the atoms of concreting matter, every
experiment with this agent meets with a ready ex-
plana ti on.

    Of the decomposition of Water by Galvanism.

   Caloric will  not decompose water unless  aided
 by  a  substance capable of uniting  with  oxygen.
 This  is no  doubt owing  to the  ratio of latent to
 sensible  heat being extremely great in   the  two
 gases  which  compose water.  Sensible caloric, the
 state  in  which it is  considered  in  this  instance,
 combines with the constituents of water, but has not
 the divellent power which is necessary to cause its
 hydrogen and oxygen to separate from each  other.
    Electricity will not  decompose water, unless by
 Wollaston's method,  wherein by extremely minute
 points, it is  brought  in contact with the  particles
 of water.  In ordinary cases it acts upon the water
 as a mass;  repelling it as a whole, and  diffusing
 itself over its surface.   It is a divellent power only.
    Water, when  presented to galvanic action meets
 with an attractive and  a divellent force: its consti-
 tuents, hydrogen and oxygen, unite to caloric, the
 sensible state of the nonconcreting matter ; and the 
76
latent, or  repellent state,  acting  conjointly  with
the sensible  state, causes them  to separate  from
each other; the hydrogen going to the copper end,
where atoms have the least attractive power; and
the oxygen to the zinc end of the battery, which
produces the chemical action.  Ethereal matter, or
caloric, sensible and latent, is a powerful divellent
to the attraction  or combination of hydrogen and
oxygen, for it exists in them, in their gaseous state,
.in the ratio of 3.2936 for hydrogen, and 0.2361
for oxygen,  and  explains the easy decomposition
of water, when subjected to galvanism and other
chemical agents, which elicit a combining or attrac-
tive, and a divellent or repellent power.
   I  am persuaded,  that when decompositions are
effected by the agency of galvanism,  that as the
affinities of common matter are reversed, the laws
of ethereal matter in its latent state, common matter
being in the fluid or gaseous state, take the  place
of the laws of common matter, subjected to ethereal
matter in its sensible state.  Against this opinion, is
the atomic  weight of copper, as given by all che-
mists, who make it greater than that of zinc.
   The laws of ethereal matter in  the latent state,
 explain all the mysteries connected with the de-
composition of neutral salts, &c. either as to the
 distance their constituents traverse,  or  the  more
 mysterious  passage  of the acids of  neutral  salts, 
77
through alkaline liquors ; or their alkalies, through
acid liquors.
  The difficulty of conceiving the modus operandi
of galvanic action, and the transfer, or passage of
gaseous matter from one  pole to another, has often
been  mentioned to me ;  and I have  always been
satisfied with the following explanation :
  Attraction and repulsion are the products of the
action of the masses,  and  of  the  particles which
compose a galvanic battery, as before mentioned; or
in other  words ethereal matter, by the simulta-
neous action of bodies and particles, is exhibited in
its two states.  These  two forces, if they be equal
to each other, decompositions must take place, not
at the extremities of the  two wires  as is generally
supposed, but where the  two forces meet; namely,
at equal distances from the wires.*  The point of
the union of the two forces is the point where the
constituents of compounds of common matter sepa-
rate from each  other,  and  unite with  ethereal
matter.  Thus in the  case of  water; oxygen and
hydrogen combine with ethereal matter in its sen-
sible  state, and are repelled from each other, and
carried to their respective poles, or wires, by ethe-
real matter in its latent state.

  * If the forces be equal, the distance from the wires is
equal: if  unequal, the distance will be  so likewise: the
greater the attraction, the nearer to the attractive pole, &c. 
78
  The galvanic action  of  the  passage of common
matter through space which is appreciable, cannot
be a chemical action, for all chemical actions  take
place at insensible or inappreciable distances only:
but if it be admitted that the particles are subjected
to ethereal matter in its  latent  state, then there is
no limit to the distance at which the latent state of
ethereal matter can act, but the absence of common
matter.   The power of ethereal matter in the latent
state being as the quantity accumulated, it is not
surprising that acids and alkalies should be carried
through opposing menstrua.
  If the laws of ethereal matter in its latent  state
arc  the true cause of the passage or transfer of com-
mon matter by galvanic action, then the lightest
atoms will go to the pole, composed of the heaviest
atoms; as repulsion is as  the weight of the lightest
atom, and attraction as the  difference of  the  two.
But if chemical or ethereal matter in its sensible
state be the true cause, the heaviest atoms must go
to the pole, or to that metal composed of the heaviest
atoms.
  The analogy between the effects of galvanism and
the  effects of animal life, have long been remarked;
and the conclusion likewise, that many of  the phe-
nomena  of animal life and galvanism were more or
less identical, is equally well known; but, no  one,
so far as I have read, has pointed out resemblances 
79
other than those which  their phenomena or their
effects presented.
  Galvanic action, as before mentioned, consists in
the action of dissimilar masses, and of dissimilar par-
ticles, simultaneously producing, the one repellent,
or divellent, the other,  calorific or  attractive ef-
fects.
  All organized bodies  are composed of  dissimilar
parts, and dissimilar parts acting upon each other
produce repellent or electrical effects.  As all or-
ganized bodies depend for their growth, sustenance,
or continuance of life, upon nutriment,  or matter
taken into their interior from without, which nu-
triment giving rise to the action of particles, there-
by producing heating, or calorific effects, it  is not
without reason, that galvanic action and vital action,
or the effects of the cause of organization, should be
compared with each other.
  As the higher classes of animals show  that the
organs wherein digestion, secretion, &c. carry on
their operations, are connected  with the brain, (a
mass of parts,) by means of nerves, in form like the
wires or conductors of a galvanic battery, the ana-
logy is still further extended, for in  each organ si-
multaneously, electrical, or divellent, and  heating,
or combining effects take place.
   As the action of particles predominate,  so heat-
ing, attractive, and combining effects predominate:
on   the contrary, when the  action of  the  brain 
80
 predominates, repellent, divellent, and non-combiii
 ing effects predominate.*
   The action of two states of ethereal matter, or of
 two agents in the operations of life, is the  reason
 why inorganic chemistry, or the chemistry of the
 laboratory, has so little  subserved the purposes  of
 the physician.   In the laboratory, heat alone is the
 state in which ethereal matter  is made to act upon
 common matter; but if common matter had been sub-
jected to galvanic action, its elements so arranged
 that the two opposing  states  of ethereal matter
 would be elicited or  developed in the same relative
 proportions in which the  different organs, both  in
 the healthy and diseased states of an organized body
 exhibit them, then  analogous  results would have
 been presented,  and  organic affinities, or the affini-
 ties of common  matter in relation  to the sensible
 and latent states of ethereal matter, would have given
 an organic, physiological, or medical chemistry.
  The reciprocal action of the  two classes or kinds
 of matter upon each  other, namely,  the concreting
 or common matter, and the non-concreting or ethe-

  * In proportion to the action of particles, so is the heat
 produced, and in proportion to the action of the brain, so are
 the repellent effects produced: these, however, are convert-
 ible one into another; for if particles containing caloric act
 upon surfaces, repellent  effects are produced; and when sur-
 faces, over which repellent matter is spread, act upon parti-
 cles, heating effects are produced. 
81
real matter, give rise to the sciences of chemistry,
natural philosophy and physiology.
  Chemistry  is  the science of  common matter,
wherein ethereal matter is in the  sensible or calo-
rific state.  It is the simultaneous action of dissimi-
lar  atoms or  quantities upon each other,  and of
similar atoms or quantities acting upon each other.
When similar atoms or  quantities  unite, attraction
alone is exhibited; the union of such particles, under
certain circumstances produce inorganic  forms, or
homogeneous bodies, or crystals, the cause or action
of which is crystallization. *   Dissimilar atoms when
they unite, exhibit not only attraction, but repul-
sion likewise; and the laws which govern  their
combinations  with one another, are that the attrac-
tion is  as the weight of the smallest  atom, when
two atoms combine together; and  the difference be-
tween the weight of the two atoms, is repulsion.
   Natural  philosophy  is  the  science of ethereal
matter in its latent  state, wherein  common matter is
in the fluid or gaseous state; for  electricity in the
latent state does not exist where fluid gaseous mat-
ter  does not  exist; for  the action of electricity or
the quantity  which can be accumulated, is as the

   *  Chemistry is generally considered as treating of the ac-
tion of dissimilar atoms or  particles only of common matter
 upon each other, so that the action of similar particles which
produce crystals, &c. would seem to belong neither to natu-
ral philosophy nor chemistry.
                        11 
82
density or  pressure  of the atmosphere.   As che-
mistry is the science of similar atoms or quantities,
and of dissimilar atoms or quantities, natural philo-
sophy, likewise, considers similar  quantities anrLj
dissimilar quantities of electricity. As similar quan-
tities of electricity are repellent of each other, dis-
similar quantities  are repellent and attractive of
each other—the repulsion is as the smallest quanti-
ty when two quantities act upon each other, and
the attraction is as the difference of the two quanti-
ties acting upon each other.
   Physiology is the science of life, or that power
which organizes matter, so as to  produce bodies or
beings possessed of the powers of attraction and re-
pulsion, and with the property of producing others
similar to themselves.
   No principle is better established, than that where
attraction alone exists between particles of common
matter, either simple or compound, crystals or ho-
mogeneous bodies alone are the result; so that where
attraction and repulsion exist, heterogeneous bodies,
either of simple or compound particles, must be the
result.*

   * The polyhedral forms belong to all inorganic matter, for
such are the forms of crystals.   It is worthy of remark,
that when substances  crystallize they become brittle, whilst
in the uncrystallized state they are more or less tough.  Thus,
pure iron is extremely tough, and exhibits no crystalline ap-
pearance; but, if it bt« combined with a small portion of car- 
83
   As attraction and  repulsion,  the  attributes  of
common and ethereal matter, are essential charac-

bon, phosphorus, sulphur, silver, &c. it loses its toughness,
and  acquires  a crystalline or lamellar fracture.   Silver,
when suddenly congealed, is a brittle metal, for it is then .in
the crystalline state; but when melted, if it be slowly cooled,
it loses its crystalline state and becomes tough.  Zinc is ex
tremely brittle at the  ordinary temperature  of  the atmo-
sphere,' and is highly crystalline in its fracture, but if heated
to a certain degree, it becomes a malleable metal.
  The fibrous state of minerals appears to be a semi-crystal
lized state, for the fibrous varieties of  the same  species ot
minerals are more tough than those varieties which are crys-
tals, or present a higher degree of crystallization than the
fibrous state.
  These facts, and others equally well known, make it cer-
tain, that malleability is  owing to combined heat: for the
toughness which inorganic matter  acquires by its  combina-
tion with heat, can arise only from the tendency which heat
has to produce the globular form, or state; for that  state, as
it causes particles to present a greater surface to one another
when struck, from the flattening produced, must  have their
attractive powers increased: whilst in  polyhedral forms,  no
property of this kind can exist.
  These facts, and others equally well known, of the effects
of heat upon inorganic matter, confirm the opinion advanced
by some  physiologists, namely, that the elementary particle*
of organic matter were globular; and accounts for the great-
er toughness  of organic  matter,  compared with  inorganic
matter; as well as for the opinions entertained of the forms
of matter; for we find tliat particles of common matter, un-
combined with ethereal matter, are polyhedral;  but when
• ombined with ethereal  matter are "lobular. 
84
teristics of all organized bodies, so these two opposing
kinds of matter must form the material of organiza-
tion.   As the tendency of the one kind  of matter
is to assimilate or accrete, so  the tendency of the
other kind is to de-assimilate or de-accrete; as these
opposing powers, or their substrata,  are ethereal
matter  in  its  sensible and in its latent  state, and
common matter in its fluid and its solid state, so the
ultimate laws or principles of  physiology are the
ultimate laws or principles of chemistry and natural
philosophy.*
                  CONCLUSION.

  From what has  preceded,  it  is  evident  that
organized  beings are compounded  of  dissimilar
atoms  or quantities of common matter,  and dis-
similar quantities of ethereal matter; the two states of
ethereal matter being very different in the different
beings which form nature's chain of  living matter.
  Upon these principles  the following diagram is
constructed, wherein the relative proportions of the

  * Attraction and repulsion resulting from the union of
dissimilar particles or  bodies, if the two forces  counterba-
lance each other, there  will be neither gain nor loss: if, how-
ever, the attractive powers predominate, the body increases,
but if repulsion predominates the body decreases. 
85
two  forces are exhibited, by the various classes of
organized bodies which constitute what  is called
natural history.
  It  must be remembered that  the quantity of
ethereal matter, in the  latent state, is as the levity
of the atoms of common matter;  and the sensible,
or heating state of ethereal matter, as the quantity
of ethereal  and quantity of common matter; for
less the quantity of common matter, and greater the
quantity of ethereal  matter, the greater the degree
of repellent force, and less the degree of heat; the
greater the quantity of common matter, and  less
the  quantity of ethereal matter, the greater the
attractive force, and less the degree of heat: whilst
the  greater the quantity of ethereal matter,  and
quantity of common  matter, the greater the degree
of heat.
  Those  atoms  which are lightest, using common
language, are more  combustible  than those  atoms
which are heaviest.   Plants are  combustible, i. e.
composed principally  of  carbon and hydrogen;
whilst the substance called fat, the composition of
which is nearly all carbon and hydrogen, is confined
to birds, mammalia,  reptilia, and fish ; for the lower
orders of organization  contain none, and present
but an appreciable quantity of combustible matter. 
Zonnhvtes. Testacex.  Crustacea?.  Fish. -Jleptilia.  Mammalia.
   1  •                                    ,        MAN. "
00
Birds..      Insects.
Plants.
Matter.
 Greatest g
• repellent! ~
    force, —
Matter. 
87
  This scale of organization shows that there arc
two species or kinds of elementary organic atoms,
or monads,—one wherein  there is but one atom or
quantity of common matter united to many atoms of
ethereal  matter in the latent  state—the  other
wherein there is one atom of ethereal matter in the
latent state united to many atoms of  common mat-
ter.   The former may be called  ethereal or atmo-
spheric monads, from the predominance of ethereal
matter, whilst the  latter  may be termed common,
or aquatic monads, from  their density,  requiring
water  or  aqueous  matter for  their existence or
development.
   The causes which  generate miasma favour the
idea of atmospheric monads, for these causes are all
essential  conditions of organization, to wit: heat,
moisture, vegetable or animal  matter in  decompo-
sition, and oxygen.
   These monads, by combining one with another,
in  different proportions, produce all  the infinite
variety of organized beings which form the vegeta-
ble and animal kingdoms of nature.
                Of Plants.

Plants are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
ygcn, with a minute quantity of iron, manganese. 
S8
silex, and Mme;  at least these latter  substances are
always found in plants, but the quantity is so small
that chemists consider the three former substances
as alone composing them.   As analysis shows that
plants essentially contain none but the lighter atoms,
almost the whole  of  their  material being  highly
inflammable and resolving itself into gaseous matter,
they must consequently contain the greatest  pro-
portion of ethereal  matter,  or retain the greatest
quantity of ethereal  matter in the repellent state.
Hence they rise into  the air, opposing by so doing
the laws of gravity.  Plants are  without locomo-
tion, which appears to be the case with all  organ-
ized beings  formed either of an excess of ethereal
matter, or of an excess of common  matter, as the
zoophytes.
  It seems to me that the  greatest  analogy exists
between plants and zoophytes.  The woody parts
of the one corresponding with the stony parts of the
other, and those parts of plants which contain the
sexual organs, analogous to  the  animal  parts of
zoophytes.   It will no doubt  be  discovered  that
nitrogen is just as essential to the composition of the
efflorescence of plants as it is to the production of
animal matter ; and if so, plants and zoophytes will
present  analogies as strong  as exist, for  example,
between insects and Crustacea.
  It is worthy of remark, that all our common and
most powerful stimulants, are taken from the vege- 
89
table  kingdom, for with the  exception of  certain
insects and the red blood of animals, none other is
to be  found excepting in the production  of che-
mistry, either of organic or inorganic matter.
   Insects are next to plants in the order of the scale
advancing to the point where the two attributes or
kinds of matter counterbalance each other; they are
less inflammable than  plants, but more so than the
organized beings to their left on the scale; for they
leave but a small residue when burnt; they are all
locomotive, and the greater part of them can  rise
against gravity, or in other words, fly.   The great-
est known degree  of  organic force is to be  found
amongst insects,  if we except the force exhibited by
certain plants in their growth.
   Birds, from their organization, are placed between
insects and the  mammalia.   In their native state,
nearly all rise against gravity, but by domestication
their weight is increased, which renders it difficult
 for them to obtain any great elevation.  The  cir-
 cumstance of birds flying shows that a repellent force
 is generated in them greater than is to  be found in
 the series of animals  to their left in the same scale.
 It is worthy of remark, that those birds which feed
 on flesh alone, are most rapid in their flight, attain
 the greatest elevation, and  are rarely  fat; whilst
 those which feed on grain, grass, and other vegeta-
 ble productions, are less rapid in their flight, seek
 less elevated situations, and possess the most fat.
                         12 
90
  Of all organized beings, the mammalia are those
which  seem to possess the  two powers in  nearly
equal degrees; and of its species, man is as it were
the centre or pivot of the scale:  if other animals
exhibit individual faculties more highly developed
than his own, his advantage is, in possessing  the
whole or the means of obtaining the same result, and
to a degree greater, collectively, than is to be found
in any other species.   All the mammalia are warm
blooded animals, but of less temperature than birds,
particularly those of the carnivorous kind.
  The  reptilia exhibit less heat; like  birds they
bring forth their  young by eggs; many of them are
amphibious, requiring a denser fluid than atmosphe-
ric air for their well being, and consequently prov-
ing that the force of gravity is greater in them than
in any of the organized beings spoken of. By a natu-
ral  gradation the  reptilia pass into  fish, which  live
alone in water, but possessed of  locomotive powers,
and by the same  gradation,  that is, a diminution of
ethereal matter and increase of common matter, the
crustacean succeed fish; these are succeeded by the
testacese, and finally the zoophytes  terminate the
scale above given.
   To those who have pursued natural history in de-
tail, the analogies of the organic beings of the one
end of the scale and those of the other, are but too
obvious.  Thus plants and zoophytes are alike, from
the arborescent structure of many of their  produc- 
91
tions, both rising against gravity; but one in a rare
medium, the other in a dense medium, neither hav-
ing locomotive powers.
  Insects and the crustacean are analogous to each
other, and so are some of the birds with fish.  These
are but a few of the most prominent in their resem-
blances, and no doubt, the analogies extend to every
part of their conformation;  but the  want of accu-
rate knowledge of their nature, in detail, and the
want of time at present, prevents  me from further
pursuing  the subject.
END OF PART 1. 
ERRATA.
Page 7, first line of the note, " for combination with common matter,"
         read, for combination with other common matter.
Page 10, last line but one of the page, for "and light," read, or light.
Page 11, fourth line from the bottom, for " overcoming their repulsive
         tendency by its attractive attribute," read, the attractive attri-
         bute of the former overcoming their repulsive tendency, &c.
Page 13, beginning of the line at the middle of the page,  " proves"
         should be prove.
Page 16, fourth  line  above the note, for " rarefication," read, rare-
         faction.
Page 61, sixth line from the bottom, omit the word " light."
Page 72, last line of the first paragraph, after "appreciable," insert
         magnetic. 
 
 
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