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' K' i '" X ' z^ INFANT MORTALITY AND ITS RELATION TO 
WOMAN'S EMPLOYMENT: A STUDY OF 
MASSACHUSETTS STATISTICS 
BY 
EDWARD BUNNELL PHELPS, M.A., F.S.S. 
Editor, The American Underwriter, of New York City, and Author of 
A Statistical Study of Infant Mortality, A Statistical Survey of Infant 
Mortality's Urgent Call for Action, The World-Wide 
Effort to Diminish Infant Mortality-Its Present 
Status and Its Possibilities, etc., etc. 
Reprinted from the Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage-Earners in 
the United States, in 19 volumes prepared under the direction of Chas. P. Neill, Com- 
missioner of Labor, Volume XIII, Part I, published December, 1912 (61st Congress, 
2d Session, Senate Document No. 645). CONTENTS 
PAGES 
Introduction 11-19 
Importance of death rate under 1 year as compared with 
general death rate 11. 
Stability of death rate under 1 year 12 
Infant mortality rate defined 12 
Infant mortality rates in Massachusetts, 1856 to 1908 12-13 
Infant mortality rates in England and Wales, 1861 to 1909.. 13-14 
Wide range of infant mortality rates in different countries.. 14-16 
Relation of high infant mortality rates to rates at later 
ages 16-17 
Factors in infant mortality rate, as generally recognized.... 17 
Doctor Greenhow's conclusions as to relation of women's 
work to infant mortality 17-18 
Difficulty of determining effect of women's employment.... 18-19 
Infant mortality in New England States in 1880, 1890, and 1900. 19-26 
Relative importance of manufacturing, agricultural, and 
other employments 20-21 
Comparison of infant mortality and per cent foreign born, 
per cent living in towns, and per cent of women in 
gainful pursuits 21-23 
Per cent of married women in gainful pursuits 23-25 
Conclusions from New England statistics 25-26 
Infant mortality in Massachusetts cities 26-47 
Character of statistics available 26-28 
Comparison of infant mortality, per cent of population 
foreign born, and birth rate 28 
Decrease in infant mortality 29 
Per cent of women gainfully employed and per cent illiter- 
ate, married, and of child-bearing age 29-33 
Cities highest in per cent of women gainfully employed and 
in infant death rate 33-35 
Cities lowest in per cent of women gainfully employed and 
in infant death rate 36-38 
Comparison of cities high in percentage of women gainfully 
employed and with high and low infant mortality 38-43 
Earlier period, 1881 to 1890 40-42 
Later period, 1898 to 1907 42-43 
Comparison o'f textile cities and boot and shoe cities 43-47 
Textile cities of New England outside of Massachusetts.... 47-48 
Conclusion 48-56 PAGES 
Appendix 56-67 
Table I-Births, and deaths of children under 1 year of age, 
. in 32 Massachusetts cities, 1898 to 1907 56-58 
Table II-Female population 10 years of age and over 
employed in gainful occupations (domestic service not 
included), in 32 cities of Massachusetts, by occupations, 
1885 and 1905 59 
Table III-Summary of births and summary of deaths from 
specified causes of children under 1 and from 1 to 4 
years of age, inclusive, in 11 New England textile 
towns, 1900 to 1907 60-63 
Table IV-Summary of total deaths (all ages) from speci- 
fied causes, in 11 New England textile towns, 1900 to 
1907 64-67 PAKT I 
INFANT MORTALITY AND ITS RELATION TO 
WOMAN'S EMPLOYMENT: A STUDY OF 
MASSACHUSETTS STATISTICS. 
B¥ EDWARD BUNNELL PHELPS. 
9 INFANT MORTALITY AND ITS RELATION TO WOMAN'S EMPLOY- 
MENT: A STUDY OF MASSACHUSETTS STATISTICS. 
INTRODUCTION. 
IMPORTANCE OF DEATH RATE UNDER 1 YEAR AS COMPARED WITH 
GENERAL DEATH RATE. 
Infant mortality, or the deaths of children under 12 months of 
age, is generally recognized as one of the most complex social prob- 
lems of the present day. The first fact which entitles it to a place 
among our most serious social problems is its magnitude as com- 
pared with the general death rate. Despite the lack of mortality 
records for the whole United States, and the many and serious 
defects of those for many of the registration States, the registration 
area of the Twelfth Census was sufficiently large to produce in its 
figures an approximate index of the mortality of the country at large. 
Checked up as are these figures of mortality in various age groups 
by those of England and Wales, France, and various other foreign 
countries with established systems of registering vital statistics, they 
probably record with approximate accuracy the death rate under age 
1, as compared with the ratio of deaths at other ages. 
In a recent statistical study of this subject,0 it was shown (the 
figures being restricted to the registration States-and omitting the 
registration cities in nonregistration States in order to eliminate the 
abnormally high mortality of the colored population in the registra- 
tion cities of the South) that the rate of deaths per 1,000 living popu- 
lation under age 1, in the registration States in 1900, apparently was 
159.3, as contrasted with a death rate of only 14.1 per 1,000 popu- 
lation over age 1. In other words, the death rate of the census year 
1900, in the registration States, in the case of infants under 1 year 
of age was more than eleven times as high as at all other ages of child* 
hood and adult fife, as measured by the ratio of deaths to living 
population in both age groups. This comparison is probably approxi- 
mately correct, though the returns of all censuses of population 
under age 1 are somewhat unreliable owing to the carelessness of 
parents in reporting as "one-year-old" babies within a few months, 
under or over, that age. 
a Edward B. Phelps: A Statistical Study of Infant Mortality. Quarterly Publica- 
tions of the American Statistical Association, new series, No. 83 (September, 1908), 
pp. 266-268. 
11 12 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
STABILITY OF DEATH BATE UNDER 1 YEAR. 
The second fact concerning infant mortality which has attracted 
the attention of those who have investigated the subject is, that the 
infant death rate as compared with that at higher ages has shown 
so little improvement during a long period. It has not responded 
adequately to improvements in public sanitation and medical prac- 
tice. A recent English writer ° on the subject has commented on this 
aspect of the problem: "Whilst during the last half century, a time 
of marvellous growth of science and of preventive medicine, human 
Efe has been saved and prolonged, and death made more remote for 
the general population, infants still die every year much as they did 
in former times. Indeed, in many places it appears that they die 
in greater numbers, and more readily than in the past." 
In many cities and in some countries there apparently has been 
a decrease in the infant death rate of late years, but this decrease has 
not been sufficiently widespread or extended through a sufficiently 
long period of years to lessen the seriousness of the situation. 
INFANT MORTALITY RATE DEFINED. 
Before proceeding further, it is necessary to explain the method by 
which the infant mortality rate is usually computed, and the difference 
between that rate and an ordinary death rate. 
By the infantile mortality rate is meant "the proportion which the 
deaths of such infants bear to every 1,000 births. An ordinary 
death rate is the proportion which the total deaths of a community 
bear to 1,000 of the population in such a community. But it is 
clear that a more accurate death rate for infants is obtained if we 
compare the total number of infant deaths not to 1,000 of the general 
population, but to 1,000 births in the same year." 6 
In the presentation of infantile mortality rates, stillbirths are 
usually excluded, and this practice has been followed in the present 
case. The only exception in this study to the above method of 
expressing the infant death rate is in the statement above from the 
United States Census, in which the infant death rate for the registra- 
tion area for 1900 is stated as 159.3 per 1,000 living population under 
age 1. 
INFANT MORTALITY BATES IN MASSACHUSETTS, 1856 TO 1908. 
The State of Massachusetts early established a registration system, 
and for this reason is recognized as the most reHable index of American 
vital statistics. The following table, compiled from registration re- 
0 George Newman, M. D.: Infant Mortality-A Social Problem. London, 1906, p. 2. 
6 Newman: Infant Mortality, p. 1. 13 
INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
ports of that State and adapted from a statistical study a of infant 
mortality to which reference has already been made, clearly illus- 
trates the fact that the infant death rate, when considered through 
a long period of years, and in sufficiently long time intervals to remove 
superficial tendencies, can not as yet be said to show a marked decline: 
BIRTHS AND DEATHS UNDER 1 YEAR AND THEIR RATE PER 1,000 BIRTHS IN 
MASSACHUSETTS BY FIVE-YEAR PERIODS FOR THE FIFTY-THREE YEARS, 1856 TO 
1908, STILLBIRTHS EXCLUDED IN BOTH CASES. 
[Compiled from the Twenty-eighth Annual Report of the Massachusetts Board of Health, 1896, p. 750, and 
Sixty-seventh Registration Report of Massachusetts, 1908, p. 207.] 
Years. 
Living 
births. 
Deaths under 1 year. 
Number. 
Number. 
Rate per 
1,000 births. 
1856-1860 
175,729 
21,579 
122.8 
1861-1865 
158,732 
23j 490 
148.0 
1866-1870 
179,740 
26,457 
147.2 
1871-1875 
217,134 
37,498 
172.7 
1876-1880 
209,749 
32,277 
153.9 
1881-1885 
235,580 
37,709 
160.1 
1886-1890 
273,707 
43,962 
160.6 
1891-1895 
330,501 
53,288 
161.2 
1896-1900 
362,501 
55,560 
153.3 
1901-1905 
367,815 
50,807 
138.1 
1906 
80,237 
11,106 
138.4 
1907 
' 85,001 
IL 293 
132.9 
1908 
86,911 
11,606 
133.5 
INFANT MORTALITY RATES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 1861 TO 1909. 
This relatively slight decline in the infant death rate is by no means 
peculiar to Massachusetts. The statistics of births and deaths in 
England and Wales are known to be fairly reliable, and a recent 
table covering the period 1861 to 1908, prepared by Dr. Arthur 
Newsholme, medical officer to the Local Government Board, not only 
shows how relatively small has been the decline of infant mortality 
in that country, but presents in striking contrast the rapid decline 
during the same period in child mortality from the beginning of the 
second to the close of the fifth year of fife. This table, which is 
reproduced below, shows the average death rates per 1,000 at each 
age and the relative mortality figures, the death rates for the period 
1861 to 1865 being taken as the basis or 100. 
a Phelps: A Statistical Study of Infant Mortality. Quarterly Publications of the 
American Statistical Association, new series, No. 83 (September, 1908), p. 257. 14 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
DEATH RATES OF INFANTS UNDER 1 YEAR OF AGE AND FOR EACH OF THE NEXT 
FOUR YEARS OF LIFE, WITH RELATIVE MORTALITY FIGURES, FOR ENGLAND AND 
WALES, BY FIVE-YEAR PERIODS, 1861 TO 1909. 
[From the Thirty-ninth Annual Report of the Local Government Board, 1909-10, Supplement to the 
Report of the Board's Medical Officer, containing a Report by the Medical Officer on Infant and Child 
Mortality. London, 1910, p. 15.] 
Year. 
Average death rates per 1,000 at each age. 
Relative mortality figures, the death rate 
in 1861-1865 being stated as 100. 
0-1 
year. 
1-2 
years. 
2-3 
years. 
3-4 
years. 
4-5 
years. 
0-1 
year. 
1-2 
years. 
2-3 
years. 
3-4 
years. 
4-5 
years. 
1861-1865 
155 
69 
37 
25 
18 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
1866-1870 
157 
63 
32 
22 
16 
102 
92 
88 
88 
90 
1871-1875 
154 
59 
28 
19 
14 
100 
86 
77 
76 
81 
1876-1880 
145 
58 
27 
17 
13 
94 
85 
74 
68 
74 
1881-1885 
139 
53 
23 
15 
12 
90 
78 
64 
60 
69 
1886-1890 
144 
53 
22 
14 
10 
93 
78 
61 
56 
58 
1891-1895 
151 
52 
21 
14 
10 
98 
76 
58 
56 
58 
1896-1900 
156 
49 
19 
13 
9 
101 
72 
53 
52 
50 
1901-1905 
138 
41 
16 
11 
8 
90 
60 
44 
44 
46 
1906-1908 
124 
37 
15 
9 
7 
80 
53 
41 
36 
40 
1909 a 
109 
33 
14 
9 
7 
70 
48 
38 
36 
39 
a Figures for 1909 from Seventy-second Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and 
Marriages in England and Wales, 1911. 
From the above table it will be seen that the mortality rate under 
1 year has decreased from an average of 155 per 1,000 in the period 
1861-1865 to 124 per 1,000 in the years 1906-1908; or, expressed in 
the relative mortality figures, taking the first period as a basis, they 
have decreased from 100 to 80. It is only in the last period, how- 
ever, that so low a figure appears, no previous period having shown a 
relative mortality figure below 90, and in the five-year period 1896 
to 1900 the average was 101. It is scarcely safe to assume, there- 
fore, that the mortality figure of 80, which is shown for the last period, 
can be accepted as indicating a level showing permanently bettered 
conditions. When the relative mortality figures under 1 year are 
compared with those for the other ages under 5 years, it will be seen 
that a far greater gain has been made at the higher ages, the figures 
in 1909 at 4 to 5 years being 39 and at 3 to 4 years being 36. 
These facts might at first glance seem to indicate that the infant 
mortality rate is incapable of any considerable reduction. But there 
is ample evidence that a rate so high as that for Massachusetts, or as 
that for England and Wales, is an index of bad conditions, which can 
be mended. 
WIDE RANGE OF INFANT MORTALITY RATES IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 
The following table, from the latest report of the registrar-general 
of the United Kingdom, is of interest in this connection, as showing 
the wide range of infant mortality rates in various countries: INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
15 
BIRTH RATES, AND DEATH RATES UNDER 1 YEAR PER 1,000 BIRTHS (STILLBIRTHS 
EXCLUDED) FOR THE PRINCIPAL FOREIGN COUNTRIES, BY FIVE-YEAR PERIODS, 
1881 TO 1909. 
(From Seventy-second Annual Report of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages in Eng- 
land and Wales, 1909.] 
BIRTHS PER 1,000 POPULATION. 
Countries. 
1881- 
1885. 
1886- 
1890. 
1891- 
1895. 
1896- 
1900. 
1901- 
1905. 
1906. 
1907. 
1908. 
1909. 
Europe: 
Norway 
Ireland 
31.2 
30.8 
30.2 
30.1 
28.6 
26.7 
26.3 
26.2 
26.1 
23.9 
22.8 
23.0 
23.3 
23.2 
23.6 
23.2 
23.3 
23.5 
Sweden 
29.4 
28.8 
27.4 
26.9 
26.1 
25.7 
25.5 
25.7 
25.6 
Bulgaria 
37.2 
35.9 
37.5 
41.0 
40.6 
44.0 
43.6 
40.4 
(a) 
Scotland 
33.3 
31.4 
30.5 
30.0 
28.9 
27.9 
27.0 
27.2 
26.4 
Denmark 
32.4 
31.4 
30.4 
30.0 
29.0 
28.5 
28.3 
28.3 
28.0 
Finland 
35.5 
34.5 
31.8 
32.6 
31.3 
31.4 
31.3 
30.8 
31.3 
England and Wales. 
33.5 
31.4 
30.5 
29.3 
28.1 
27.1 
26.3 
26.5 
25.6 
Switzerland 
28.6 
27.5 
27.7 
28.5 
28.1 
27.4 
26.8 
27.1 
(a) 
Belgium 
30.7 
29.3 
28.9 
28.9 
27.7 
25.7 
25.3 
24.9 
(a) 
Servia 
46.3 
43.7 
43.3 
40.1 
38.7 
41.3 
40.0 
36.8 
36.5 
France 
24.7 
23.1 
22.3 
21.9 
21.2 
20.6 
19.7 
20.2 
19.6 
The Netherlands... 
34.8 
33.6 
32.9 
32.1 
31.5 
30.4 
30.0 
29.7 
29.1 
Italy 
38.0 
37.5 
36.0 
34.0 
32.6 
31.9 
31.5 
33.4 
32.4 
Spain 
36.4 
36.0 
35.3 
34.3 
35.0 
33.4 
32.9 
33.2 
32.6 
Prussia 
37.4 
37.3 
37.0 
36.5 
34.8 
33.8 
33.0 
32.8 
31.8 
Roumania 
41.8 
40.9 
41.0 
40.2 
39.4 
40.5 
41.7 
40.8 
41.7 
Austria 
38.2 
37.8 
37.4 
37.3 
35.6 
34.9 
33.8 
33.5 
(») 
Hungary 
44.6 
43.7 
41.7 
39.4 
37.2 
36.0 
36.0 
36.3 
37.0 
Russia fn Europe... 
49.1 
48.2 
48.2 
49.3 
(") 
(") 
(") 
(") 
(a) 
Australasia: 
New Zealand 
36.3 
31.2 
27.7 
25.7 
26.6 
27.1 
27.3 
27.4 
27.3 
Tasmania 
35.0 
34.1 
32.7 
28.2 
29.0 
29.5 
29.6 
30.8 
29.9 
South Australia.... 
38.5 
34.7 
32.0 
27.0 
24.5 
23.7 
23.9 
24.7 
24.7 
Queensland 
36.5 
37.4 
34.1 
29.1 
26.7 
26.3 
26.9 
26.7 
27.2 
New SouthWales... 
37.7 
36.4 
32.9 
28.0 
26.7 
27.0 
27.1 
26.8 
26.9 
Victoria 
30.8 
32.7 
30.9 
26.2 
25.0 
25.1 
25.2 
24.6 
24.6 
Western Australia.. 
34.5 
36.9 
30.7 
28.3 
30.3 
30.0 
29.2 
28.9 
27.7 
Other countries: 
Japan 
W 
28.5 
28.6 
31.1 
31.7 
28.9 
33.0 
33.9 
(") 
Ceylon 
(«) 
30.3 
31.7 
37.1 
38.8 
35.7 
32.8 
40.1 
36.7 
Jamaica 
(«) 
36.8 
38.6 
38.9 
39.0 
38.1 
35.0 
37.6 
37.8 
Chili 
39.1 
35.5 
37.0 
35.0 
36.1 
36.6 
38.6 
39.3 
38.8 
DEATHS UNDER 1 YEAR PER 1,000 BIRTHS. 
Europe: 
Norway 
99 
96 
98 
96 
81 
69 
67 
76 
(°) 
Ireland 
94 
95 
102 
106 
98 
93 
92 
97 
92 
Sweden 
116 
105 
103 
101 
91 
81 
77 
85 
(«) 
Bulgaria 
W 
(a) 
140 
143 
148 
154 
154 
170 
(a) 
Scotland 
117 
121 
126 
129 
120 
115 
110 
121 
(a) 
Denmark 
135 
136 
138 
132 
119 
109 
106 
123 
(a) 
Finland 
162 
144 
145 
139 
131 
119 
112 
125 
111 
England and Wales. 
139 
145 
151 
156 
138 
132 
118 
120 
109 
Switzerland 
171 
159 
155 
143 
134 
127 
121 
108 
(") 
Belgium 
' 156 
163 
164 
158 
148 
153 
132 
147 
(a) 
Servia 
157 
158 
172 
159 
149 
144 
147 
158 
(") 
France 
167 
166 
171 
159 
139 
143 
135 
(a) 
(a) 
TheN etherlands.... 
181 
175 
165 
151 
136 
127 
112 
125 
99 
Italy 
(") 
(") 
185 
168 
168 
160 
155 
153 
(a) 
Spain 
193 
W 
(a) 
(a) 
173 
173 
(") 
(a) 
(a) 
Prussia 
207 
208 
205 
201 
190 
177 
168 
173 
164 
Roumania 
179 
195 
219 
(a) 
(") 
(a) 
(a) 
(") 
(») 
Austria 
(") 
(a) 
(a) 
226 
215 
209 
204 
(a) 
(a) 
Hungary 
(") 
(") 
250 
219 
212 
205 
208 
199 
212 
Russia in Europe... 
Australasia: 
271 
264 
276 
261 
(") 
(») 
(») 
(") 
(a) 
New Zealand 
90 
84 
87 
80 
75 
62 
89 
68 
62 
Tasmania 
109 
103 
94 
98 
90 
91 
82 
75 
65 
South Australia.... 
(a) 
105 
99 
112 
87 
76 
66 
70 
61 
Queensland 
137 
119 
103 
103 
94 
75 
77 
70 
72 
New SouthWales... 
124 
115 
111 
113 
97 
75 
89 
76 
74 
Victoria 
122 
131 
111 
111 
96 
93 
73 
86 
71 
Western Australia.. 
Other countries: 
(») 
123 
130 
160 
126 
110 
98 
85 
78 
Japan 
W 
(") 
147 
153 
154 
153 
151 
157 
(a) 
Ceylon 
(«) 
158 
169 
168 
171 
198 
186 
183 
202 
Jamaica 
(a) 
170 
171 
175 
174 
197 
223 
175 
174 
Chili 
<«) 
264 
336 
333 
331 
328 
297 
320 
(") 
a Not reported. 16 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
It will be seen that for several countries the infant mortality rate 
through the entire period of twenty-nine years covered has been be- 
low or only slightly above 100 deaths per 1,000 births, namely, Nor- 
way, Ireland, Sweden, New Zealand, Tasmania, and South Australia. 
Various estimates have been made as to the proportion of infant 
deaths which are preventable, and considerable discussion, more or 
less academic, has taken this preventable proportion for its theme. 
It is clearly impracticable to attempt to determine an absolute infant 
mortality rate attainable by all countries; but it is reasonable to con- 
clude, even allowing for a considerable margin of error in the statis- 
tics of the subject, that if the countries named have through a long 
period of years enjoyed the degree of infantile health indicated by the 
above table the infantile mortality rate of Massachusetts and of the 
entire registration area of the United States is quite too high and 
demands attention. 
RELATION OF HIGH INFANT MORTALITY RATES TO RATES AT LATER 
AGES. 
It has frequently been argued that a high infant mortality has a 
selective influence; in other words, that it acts as a "weeding-out 
process," and hence tends to reduce mortality at later ages. This 
contention was ono of the main points recently investigated by the 
medical officer of the British Local Government Board, and the results 
of his inquiry are embodied in the recent report referred to above.a 
Doctor Newsholme, with the records of the registrar-general of births, 
deaths, and marriages as a basis, concludes as follows: "Infant mor- 
tality is the most sensitive index we possess of social welfare and of 
sanitary administration, especially under urban conditions. A heavy 
infant mortality implies a heavier death rate up to 5 years of age; 
and right up to adult life the districts suffering from a heavy child 
mortality have higher death rates than the districts whose infant 
mortality is low. A careful study of the death rate in England and 
Wales during the last fifty years, at each of the first five years of life, 
leaves it doubtful whether any appreciably greater selection or 
'weeding out' is exercised by a heavier than by a lighter infantile 
mortality. Any such effect, if it exists, is concealed behind the over- 
whelming influence exerted by the evil environment to which children 
are exposed in districts of high infant mortality. It is strictly correct, 
therefore, to say that a high infant mortality implies a high prevalence 
of the conditions which determine national inferiority." Thus in 
effective fashion he has summed up the s*econd grave circumstance 
which has made a high infant mortality a social problem. It is a 
a Great Britain, Local Government Board. 39th Annual Report. Supplement on 
Infant and Child Mortality, pp. 74, 75. INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
17 
problem, first, because of its magnitude. It is a needless sacrifice of 
human life. It is a problem, in the second place, because it is an index 
of the general environmental conditions which make for deterioration. 
FACTORS IN INFANT MORTALITY RATE, AS GENERALLY RECOGNIZED. 
Although the problem of effecting any material decrease in the 
infant death rate is yet to be solved, certain factors are now generally 
recognized as related to it. They fall naturally into two groups. 
The first group may be termed the general conditions of sanitation 
which affect the health of the entire community, but show an especial 
relation to the death rate of infants, namely, (1) urban or rural 
conditions of life, (2) domestic and municipal sanitation-that is to 
say, condition of the streets, methods of sewage removal, purity 
of the milk and water supply, and related matters-and (3) the housing 
of the wage-working population. 
The second group may be termed the social condition of the popu- 
lation as it shows itself in (1) the ignorance or intelligence of the 
people, but especially of the mothers, (2) the degree of economic 
well-being of the majority of the inhabitants of any region under 
consideration, (3) the prevalence or absence of extra-domestic em- 
ployment of married women, (4) whether or not the custom of very 
early marriage prevails with the female portion of the population, 
(5) the proportion of legitimate to illegitimate births, and (6) the size 
of the birth rate. 
DOCTOR GREENHOW'S CONCLUSIONS AS TO RELATION OF WOMEN'S WORK 
TO INFANT MORTALITY. 
In the absence of exact information, the many discussions of the 
subject during the last fifty years have assigned a varying importance 
to these different factors. Certain of them, however, have been 
accepted almost unanimously as being of great importance, and 
among these the extra-domestic employment of married women has 
been regarded as fundamental. This relation of women's work to 
infant mortality was apparently first formulated in an official docu- 
ment by Sir John Simon, in a public health report of Great Britain in 
June, 1858.° 
This factor was further emphasized by him in subsequent state- 
ments,6 and in 1861 Doctor Greenhow, medical officer of the privy 
a Great Britain. Public Health Reports, vol. 1, p. 460. 
6 English Sanitary Institutions, 1890, p. 298; Papers relating to the Sanitary State 
of the People of England, 1858, pp. xscxiv, 132; Fourth Report of the Medical Officer 
of the Privy Council, 1861, pp. 187-196. 18 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
council, after elaborate investigations in a number of industrial 
towns, stated his conclusions with regard to it as follows: 
1. The infantile death rate bears no definite relation to the general 
death rate, but their comparative proportions to each other vary in 
different districts. 
2. The infantile death rate bears the largest proportion to the 
general death rate in districts where the infantile population is 
especially exposed to unwholesome influences, as in Coventry, Not- 
tingham, and certain other manufacturing towns. 
3. The unwholesome influences to which infants are exposed in the 
manufacturing towns comprised in the present inquiry may be attrib- 
uted mainly to the industrial employment of the married women, 
which leads them to consign the tendance of their infants, at a very 
early age, to young children or strangers. 
4. That infants thus deprived of the mother's care are habitually 
fed on diet ill adapted to their digestive powers, and are very fre- 
quently drugged with opiates in order to allay the fractiousness arising 
from the illness induced by improper food. 
5. Thf^t infants in manufacturing towns where women are much 
engaged m factory labor are likewise exposed to other causes of sick- 
ness proceeding from the ignorance or carelessness of the mothers or 
nurses, such as deficiency of exercise and exposure to inclement 
weather.a 
Doctor Greenhow's statement since that day has been generally 
accepted as a satisfactory summary of an acknowledged fact, but 
very recently a more accurate statistical and medical knowledge 
has opened the entire question of infant mortality for a critical 
reconsideration. 
DIFFICULTY OF DETERMINING EFFECT OF WOMEN'S EMPLOYMENT. 
It is obvious that prolonged and exhaustive medical, statistical, 
and social research would be necessary before the relative importance 
of this and the many other enumerated factors related to the infant 
mortality problem could be accurately known. It would be possible 
to draw positive conclusions as to the relative importance of this 
particular factor only by point-to-point comparison of the infant 
mortality for a period of years in two large communities, or two 
classes of large communities, in which all the material conditions 
were substantially common, with the single important exception that 
in one a considerable proportion of the married female population of 
child-bearing age were at work outside of their homes and in the 
other community with which the comparison was made none of the 
women were so employed. 
To admit of entirely sound conclusions, it would be necessary that 
the populations-and especially the women-of both communities 
should be of like ages, races, and physical health, that their living 
« Fourth Report of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council, pp. 187-196. INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
19 
conditions should be practically identical, and that, in a general way, 
the child-bearing women should be of about the same grade of intelli- 
gence. Of course no such comparison ever has been or ever will be 
possible, for the reason that the one exception of the women's work 
would in various ways make the other conditions of the two com- 
munities radically dissimilar. In default of some such comparison 
on a broad scale of the mortality of the infants of working and non- 
working women of similar ages, races, intelligence, and living con- 
ditions, no one can determine accurately how many of the deaths of 
working women's infants are due to the mothers' work and how many 
to the other conditions of their lives and environment. 
The nearest approach to definite conclusions which seems to be 
practicable is that to be obtained by a tabulation of the experience 
for many years of large and representative communities in which 
widely varying percentages of married women of child-bearing age 
are employed in work taking them away from their homes, and by a 
comparison not only of the average infant death rates for these several 
communities but of all their social and economic conditions which 
admit of statistical expression. 
All that such a statistical presentation of the subject can accom- 
plish is to point out in the simplest fashion certain facts which may 
help to serve as guides in determining the part which the extra- 
domestic employment of married women plays in determining the 
infant death rate. With this purpose in view the best available facts 
in regard to American conditions have been brought together in the 
following pages of this study. 
INFANT MORTALITY IN NEW ENGLAND STATES IN 1880, 1890, AND 1900. 
In any study on a broad basis of the relation of women's work and 
infant mortality in the United States the six States of New England 
afford the largest practicable area of investigation. In the first 
place it would be impracticable to include any except registration 
States,- and no States outside of New England have registration 
records of births and infant deaths of real value for any considerable 
number of years. In the second place, in any comparison of vital 
statistics of the United States, the Negro factor must be eliminated, 
or at least practically eliminated. The colored death rate at all ages 
in the registration area of the country is about half again as high as 
the white death rate at all ages, and in the case of deaths under age 1 
the colored rate is more than twice as high as the white rate, as will 
be shown by this comparison of the white and colored death rates 
under age 1 per 1,000 births in the census year 1900, according to the 
Twelfth Census.® 
a Twelfth Census, Vital Statistics, 1900, Part I, pp. 286-288. 20 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
WHITE AND COLORED DEATH RATES UNDER 1 YEAR OF AGE PER 1,000 BIRTHS 
IN 1900. 
Race. 
Registra- 
tion 
record. 
Registra- 
tion cities. 
Registrar 
tion 
States. 
Cities in 
registration 
States. 
Rural part 
of registra- 
tion States. 
White 
143.4 
154.2 
142.0 
162.4 
107.5 
Colored 
297.0 
307.0 
282.4 
318.9 
190.3 
The above comparison makes obvious the impracticability of includ- 
ing in any tabulation of infant mortality rates for the United States 
any States, cities, or rural districts in which the colored population 
is of appreciable size. In the case of none of the New England States 
is the colored population proportionately large enough to act as a 
disturbing factor in the mortality statistics, the entire Negro popula- 
tion of New England at the time the Twelfth Census was taken aggre- 
gating less than 1 per cent of the total population. 
In addition to these qualifications as a basis for a broad generali- 
zation of the infant mortality experience of this country the compact 
area embraced in the New England States is a representative region 
in several particulars of importance in connection with this subject. 
It is a highly developed manufacturing district, and at least two of 
it a chief industries are those which employ women in large numbers. 
It thus becomes possible to show the available statistical facts con- 
cerning the employment of women in relation to the other statistical 
facts which have an important bearing upon the infant death rail's. 
It presents a similarity of geographical and climatic conditions, an 
essential basis of any fair comparison. It is a highly urbanized 
region. At the same time considerable rural areas are present, which 
make it possible partially to compare urban and rural conditions. It 
contains a heavy foreign-born population, thus presenting in that 
respect a condition typical of those which prevail in many of the 
industrial sections of the country at large. 
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF MANUFACTURING, AGRICULTURAL, AND 
OTHER EMPLOYMENTS. 
The relative importance of manufacturing, agricultural, and other 
employments in the various States may be seen from the following 
table. The table presents for each of the New England States the 
per cent of the total population 10 years of age and over employed in 
gainful occupations who were in each main occupation group at each 
of the last three censuses, 1880, 1890, and 1900. INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
21 
PER CENT OF TOTAL POPULATION 10 YEARS OF AGE AND OVER IN EACH OF THE 
MAIN OCCUPATION GROUPS FOR THE NEW ENGLAND STATES, 1880, 1890, AND 1900. 
[Figures for the several States are from Twelfth Census, Special Report on Occupations, p. xciv; figures for 
New England computed from same report, pp. Ixxxviii, Ixxxix.] 
State. 
Agriculture. 
Professions. 
Domestic 
and personal 
service. 
Trade and 
transportation. 
Manufactures 
and mechanical 
pursuits* 
1880. 
1890. 
1900. 
1880. 
1890. 
1900. 
1880. 
1890. 
1900. 
1880. 
1890. 
1900. 
1880. 
1890. 
1900. 
Maine 
36.0 
32.0 
27.8 
4.4 
4.8 
5.0 
15.5 
15.4 
19.8 
13.4 
14.4 
15.6 
30.7 
33.4 
31.8 
New Hampshire 
31.7 
25.7 
21.7 
4.6 
4.1 
4.3 
14.6 
13.9 
17.1 
8.9 
12.0 
14.4 
40.2 
44.3 
42.5 
Vermont 
46.9 
41.9 
36.9 
4.6 
4.9 
5.2 
18.7 
16.7 
17.1 
8.1 
11.3 
14.0 
21.7 
25.2 
26.8 
Massachusetts 
9.0 
7.1 
5.5 
3.8 
4.4 
5.0 
19.0 
18.2 
19.1 
17.0 
20.0 
23.5 
51.2 
50.3 
46.9 
Rhode Island 
9.4 
7.5 
5.7 
3.2 
3.5 
4.1 
17.2 
17.8 
18.2 
13.8 
17.5 
19.3 
56.4 
53.7 
52.7 
Connecticut 
18.3 
14.4 
11.6 
3.7 
3.9 
4.4 
17.3 
18.3 
19.5 
12.8 
15.6 
18.6 
47.9 
47.8 
45.9 
Total 
19.4 
15.2 
12.1 
4.0 
4.3 
4.8 
17.6 
17.4 
18.9 
14.2 
17.2 
20.2 
44.8 
45.9 
44.0 
It will be seen from the foregoing table that in three of the States- 
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut-approximately one- 
half of the wage-earners were engaged in manufacturing employments, 
the per cent so employed in New Hampshire being only slightly less, 
while in Maine and Vermont the per cent so employed was much 
smaller. In these two States the per cent in agriculture, on the 
other hand, was much larger than in the four other States. 
COMPARISON OF INFANT MORTALITY AND PER CENT FOREIGN-BORN, 
PER CENT LIVING IN TOWNS, AND PER CENT OF WOMEN IN GAINFUL 
PURSUITS. 
It is possible to make a comparison for these States of conditions as 
to the percentage of foreign-born in the total population, the per cent 
of the population be ing in cities or towns, and the per cent of women 
16 years of age and over who are at work as breadwinners. In the 
following table these facts are presented in comparison with the 
death rates of children under 1 year per 1,000 births. Before pre- 
senting this table it is necessary to make some explanation of the 
character of the data upon which the figures of the table are based. 
The infant death rates for 1900 in the table on page 22 have been 
compiled from the Twelfth Census, Vital Statistics, Part I, Table 19 
(pp. 285-555) in which for the first time in the vital statistics of the 
census stillbirths were excluded. The figures for 1890 and 1880 have 
been compiled from the tabular readjustment on that basis of the 
infant mortality statistics of the Eleventh and Tenth Censuses pre- 
sented in connection with the analysis of the "Relation of Age to 
Deaths" of the Eleventh Census, Report on Vital and Social Statis- 
tics, Part I, pages 24 and 25, In each case, therefore, stillbirths have 
been eliminated, and all of the returns in question reduced to a 
common basis. 
It should be borne in mind, however, that Massachusetts was the 
only one of the New England States whose registration returns were 22 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
used in the compilation of the Tenth Census (1880), and the registra- 
tion returns of Maine were not included in the making up of the 
Eleventh Census. The above infant mortality records of five of the 
New England States for the Census year 1880, and of Maine for the 
census year 1890, are therefore based on the census enumerators' 
returns, and not on local registration records, and, dating back 
nearly 30 years as do the earliest of those in question, the hastily 
gathered enumerators' returns are undoubtedly more or less defective 
as compared with the figures for 1900, all of which were taken from 
the local registration records of the six New England States. 
Making full allowance for the almost-certain incompleteness of all 
the 1880 figures in the above tabulation, with the exception of those 
for Massachusetts, and for the probable defects in the Maine returns 
for 1890, the figures in question are nevertheless comparable-at 
least with each other-having been collected in a uniform manner and 
presumably having approximately the same margin of error. 
The Special Report of the Bureau of the Census, issued in 1907 under 
the title of " Statistics of Women at Work," from which the figures below 
for women at work are cited is based on information derived from 
the schedules of the Twelfth Census, 1900. The term "breadwinners" 
has been applied to persons reported by the census as engaged in gain- 
ful occupations, and "applies to every person 10 years of age and over 
who is at work; that is, occupied in gainful labor during any part of 
the census year (June 1, 1899, to May 31, 1900, inclusive), or who is 
ordinarily occupied in remunerative work, but during the census year 
was unable to secure work of any kind." In the tabulation from 
which the above figures were quoted, all females between the ages of 
10 and 15, inclusive, had been eliminated. 
The table follows: 
PER CENT OF FOREIGN-BORN OF TOTAL POPULATION, PER CENT OF POPULATION 
LIVING IN TOWNS OF 4,000 AND MORE INHABITANTS, PER CENT OF FEMALE BREAD- 
WINNERS OF TOTAL FEMALE POPULATION OF 16 YEARS AND OVER, AND DEATHS 
UNDER 1 YEAR PER 1,000 BIRTHS, FOR THE SIX NEW ENGLAND STATES, 1880, 1890, 
AND 1900. 
[Population figures from Eleventh Census, Population, p. Ixxx, and Twelfth Census, Population, Part I, 
p. ciii.] 
State. 
Per cent of for- 
eign-born of to- 
tal population. 
Per cent of popu- 
lation living in 
towns of 4,000 
and more in- 
habitants. 
Per cent of women 
of 16 years and 
over who are 
breadwinners. 
Deaths under 1 year 
per 1,000 births. 
1880. 
1890. 
1900. 
1880. 
1890. 
1900. 
1880. 
1890. 
1900. 
1880. 
1890. 
1900. 
Maine 
9.1 
11.9 
13.4 
20.9 
34.2 
36.2 
14.3 
18.6 
20.5 
67.8 
95.6 
132.2 
New Hampshire 
13 3 
19.2 
21.4 
26.3 
37.6 
46.7 
22.2 
24.9 
26.6 
89.8 
153.7 
156.0 
Vermont 
12.3 
13.3 
13.0 
11.4 
12.1 
21.0 
13.4 
16.3 
18.4 
81.9 
103.3 
111.9 
Ma ssachuse tts 
24.9 
29.4 
30.2 
65.9 
83.0 
86.9 
25.2 
30.2 
30.8 
142.5 
182.6 
160.0 
Rhode Island 
26.8 
30.8 
31.4 
77.2 
89.8 
91.6 
27.0 
30.0 
31.4 
107.7 
192.7 
177.0 
Connecticut 
20.9 
24.6 
26.2 
53.9 
64.7 
65.5 
20.3 
24.9 
26.2 
100.3 
147.8 
142.5 
Total 
19.8 
24.3 
25.8 
49.6 
65.1 
70.5 
21.7 
26.4 
27.8 
113.3 
160.0 
152.3 INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
23 
An examination of the foregoing table indicates that some relation- 
ship exists between the various tabulated items. Ib will be noted 
that for the last two census years Rhode Island shows the highest 
rate of infant mortality of any State in the New England group. At 
the census of 1880 it showed the second highest rate. When its rank 
in respect to the proportion of females of 16 years and over gainfully 
employed is noted, it again is found to rank first in'the years 1880 
and 1900, and second in 1890. If we were to go no further, it would 
be easy to conclude that here is a causal relation. But it is seen that 
the State ranks first for all three census years in the proportion of 
foreign-born to total population. It also ranks first for all three 
census years in the proportion of its population living in cities of 
4,000 or more inhabitants, and in the natural correlative of this high 
degree of urbanization, namely, the proportion of its population 
engaged in manufactures. 
An examination of any of those States which rank low in regard to 
infant mortality shows the opposite situation. Vermont has the 
lowest rate for 1900, and ranks fifth in the two preceding censuses. 
In the census of 1900 it was sixth in respect to proportion of foreign- 
born, and fifth in 1890 and 1880. It is sixth for all three censuses 
in degree of urbanization of its population and in the proportion of 
women gainfully employed. It is, as would be expected from these 
factors, first as regards the proportion of its population employed in 
agriculture, and sixth in the proportion engaged in manufactures. 
Detailed comparisons for each State, while there are occasional 
variations and irregularities, show the same general relationship. 
It may be said that the most significant relationship is shown by the 
census of 1900, for the reason that that census was more comprehen- 
sive and reliable than the preceding censuses, and for the first time the 
registration records of all of the New England States were used in the 
Twelfth Census, though in the preceding census (1890), with the 
single exception of Maine, all of these States were recognized as 
registration States. 
It may be here noted that one factor of significance in relation to 
the infant death rate in these States has of necessity been omitted 
from consideration in this table, namely, the birth rate. Existing 
data, except as considered later for the State of Massachusetts alone, 
are so unsatisfactory as to be misleading. 
PER CENT OF MARRIED WOMEN IN GAINFUL PURSUITS. 
As regards the figures for women at work, the clearly significant 
thing is not simply the proportion of women at work in gainful pur- 
suits, but the proportion of married women between 15 and 45 years 
of age engaged in those occupations which take them out of their 
own homes. Indeed, perfect accuracy would demand that data for 24 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
mothers of children under 1 year only, occupied outside of their 
homes, should be considered. 
The detailed figures of ages and marital condition by States are 
not given, however, in the special report of the Bureau of the Census, 
with the single exception of the number of female breadwinners by 
States and age groups in 1900, which, by showing that 476,883 of the 
561,235 female breadwinners of New England were between ages 
16 and 44, thereby indicate that 85 per cent of all the females of 16 
years and over engaged in gainful occupations in New England in the 
census year 1900 were of child-bearing age. Presumably the age 
percentage in the case of women of 16 years and over employed in 
gainful occupations in the census years 1890 and 1880 was not materi- 
ally different from that of 1900, and the above tabular summary of 
working women in the three census years in question would therefore 
seem to be fairly comparable with a similar tabulation of the infant 
death rates in the States in question. But as to the vital issue, the 
extra-domestic employment of the mothers of families, these general 
figures for women breadwinners serve only as the crudest possible 
indication of the number so employed. All that it is possible to say 
is that probably, in the absence of prohibitive legislation, those 
States where women-employing industries prevail are likely to have 
a rather large proportion of married women at work. 
It can not be said, however, that even this probability is borne 
out by the meager statistics available on the subject. The Twelfth 
Census presents figures showing the number and per cent of married 
women gainfully employed in the census years 1890 and 1900, in 
comparison to the total number of married women in the population, 
but such figures are not available for the census of 1880. The figures 
for 1890 and 1900 are presented in the table following: 
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF MARRIED WOMEN ENGAGED IN GAINFUL PURSUITS, 
COMPARED TO TOTAL NUMBER OF MARRIED WOMEN IN THE POPULATION OF THE 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
Married women employed in gainful 
pursuits. 
State. 
Number. 
Per cent of total 
married women in 
population. 
1890. 
1900. 
1890. 
1900. 
Maine 
5,770 
5,941 
2,276 
27,145 
4,211 
5,690 
7,991 
7,783 
3,298 
38,555 
5,505 
4.2 
5.6 
New Hampshire 
7.6 
9.2 
Vermont. ~ 
3.3 
4.5 
Massachusetts 
6.4 
7.3 
Rhode Island 
6.5 
6.9 
Connecticut 
8i 686 
4.0 
5.0 
51,033 
71,818 
• 5.6 
6.7 
[From Twelfth Census, Special Report on Occupations, 1900, p. ccxxiii.] INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
25 
The above table shows that for New England as a whole, or even 
for single States, the per cent of married women who are gainfully 
employed is small, in 1900 being less than 7 per cent for all New 
England and only 6.9 and 7.3 per cent in Rhode Island and Massa- 
chusetts) respectively, the States which are most important indus- 
trially. These per cents, however, probably do not fully indicate 
the relative importance of the employment of married women of 
child-bearing age, as the proportion of women of child-bearing age 
would be greater among the wage-earning married women than in 
the nonwage-earning married women of the population.® 
But though the percentages of the foregoing table may fall short 
of representing the importance of the employment of married women 
of child-bearing age, they are misleading if taken as an accurate 
measure of the effect of such employment upon the infant mortality 
rate. Here, it will be obvious, the. point of real significance as 
directly affecting infant mortality is the extent of employment out- 
side the home of married women who are mothers of children under 
1 year? 
CONCLUSIONS FROM NEW ENGLAND STATISTICS. 
It will be seen at once that definite conclusions as to the effect of 
any single influence upon the infant mortality rate can not be drawn 
from the foregoing tables. If the infant mortality rates were com- 
pared with any one item, a causal relationship would almost certainly 
be assumed. There is a striking correspondence between that rate 
and each of the important items in the tables. It may be said that 
until quite recently the accuracy of the statement that infant mor- 
tality and the employment of married women are intimately related 
has usually been maintained upon the ground of such isolated com- 
parisons, and other data bearing upon the situation have been given 
but small consideration. 
a Out of 4,150 married, widowed, divorced, and separated women employed in the 
New England cotton mills investigated by the Bureau of Labor in 1908, whose ages 
were reported, 85.9 per cent were under 45 years of age; see Cotton Textile Industry, 
Vol. I of this report, page 637. 
& In Massachusetts, for example, of the 7,535 women 16 years of age and over em- 
ployed in 22 representative cotton mills studied by the agents of the Bureau of Labor 
29.6 per cent were married and 4 per cent widowed, divorced, or separated. Out of 
407 married, widowed, divorced, and separated women (including wage earners and 
nonwage earners) living in the Massachusetts cotton mill families visited in the course of 
the same investigation, only 101 were at work as wage earners at the time of the 
agents' visits, and of these only 13, or 12.9 per cent, were mothers of children under 3 
years of age. As compared with the total of 407 married, widowed, divorced, and 
separated women in this limited number of representative cotton mill families, this 
is only 3.2 per cent, and it may be fairly assumed that the per cent of women at 
work at any one time who were the mothers of children under 1 year would be less 
than one-third of this number, or not over 1 per cent, As compared with the total 
number of married, widowed, divorced, and separated women in the total population 
of the State the proportion would evidently be even smaller, 26 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
At best, however, comparisons of mortality statistics on any such 
broad basis as that of entire States are unsatisfactory and may be 
extremely misleading. There is certain to be a great variety of 
differential factors involved in thq case of the States whose rates are 
compared and the previous study of the apparent relationship of 
women's work, and infant mortality in the New England States in 
the last three census years, therefore, is valuable chiefly as a pre- 
liminary to a more detailed study. 
INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS CITIES. 
For the reasons already pointed out on a previous page, the State 
of Massachusetts offers by far the best field in the United States for 
a careful study of the subject of infant mortality and woman's 
employment. 
Aside from its comprehensive system of recording both vital and 
industrial statistics, its greatest industries are those which employ 
many women, namely, the manufacture of textiles, and of boots and 
shoes. It may also be said to be the best American example of a 
highly organized industrial district, and it therefore may be said to 
be not only representative of conditions for the industrial sections of 
the United States, but is an index of the conditions which are becom- 
ing increasingly predominant in this country. 
CHARACTER OF STATISTICS AVAILABLE. 
The main sources of statistical information on infantile mortality 
and its related factors for Massachusetts are the reports of births, 
marriages, and deaths in Massachusetts, which have been issued 
annually for about seventy years, the annual reports of the State 
board of health, and the State censuses, which are issued every five 
years by the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics. 
The Twenty-eighth Annual Report of the State Board of Health 
of Massachusetts, published in 1897, included a tabulation of 11 Infant 
mortality of cities, ten years, 1881-1890." This table stated the 
aggregate numbers of births and deaths under age 1 and the infant 
death rates for this ten-year period for each of the 32 cities in the 
State at the period in question. 
The fourth and sixth decennial state censuses supply detailed 
figures as to the nativity, conjugal condition, occupations, etc., of the 
populations for each of the 32 cities in question in the years 1885 
and 1905, and with this information it is possible to compile a com- 
parison for two ten-year periods of the infant death rates with the 
number of women employed and with the other important related 
factors which admit of statistical presentation in these cities. 
Certain points in this table which are fundamental to the discus- 
sion of the greater part of this study demand explanation. The 
table gives the birth rate per 1,000 total population for the two INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
27 
decades under consideration, namely, 1881-1890, and 1898-1907. 
The inaccuracy of this tabulated birth rate must be admitted. This 
arises from two main causes. In the first place, the registration of 
births, even in Massachusetts, is not complete, and was more defective 
in the earlier years, for which data are here presented. In the words 
of Dr. Francis A. Harris, who edited the sixty-seventh report of 
the births, marriages, and deaths in Massachusetts, for the year 
1908- 
Although the law applies to the registration of births, as well as to 
that of marriages and deaths, it is probable that the statistics of 
the births are less accurate than those of either of the other two 
classes. From the nature of things, marriages and deaths must 
be registered in order that the former may be solemnized or that 
interment be possible in case of deaths; but in the case of the births 
the inadequacy of penalty for neglect, ignorance of the law, as well 
as topographical conditions, tend to an incomplete registration. It 
is therefore likely that the number of births returned in Massachu- 
setts in 1908 was less than the actual number which occurred, hence 
a lower birth rate, and comparisons between births and deaths 
inaccurate. 
This inaccuracy was undoubtedly greater in the earlier years 
under consideration in this study. 
But there is a further difficulty in computing the birth rate. What 
is generally known as the crude annual birth rate of a community 
is found by dividing the total number of births in that community by 
its total population. This method of computation is somewhat 
unsatisfactory for purposes of comparison, owing to the differing 
composition of various populations; but this matter is beyond the 
province of this study. Assuming that the crude rate is a reasonably 
safe basis for the present comparison, in order to find the average 
crude birth rate for each of the 32 cities in the following table for a 
decade, the proper method would be to divide the sum of the births 
for the decade by the sum of the annual populations for the same 
decade. 
But no accurate figures are available as to the population of each 
city for each of the twenty years embraced in this study. The best 
that can be done is to divide the total number of births in each city 
during the two decades by the population of the city at the census 
year, which will afford the nearest approach to a mean population for 
each of the two decades. For this purpose the two Massachusetts 
censuses of 1885 and 1905 have been used. It is true that the census 
of 1905 does not fall at the middle of the decade for which it has been 
used as a basis of calculation, but no better population data were 
available, the Twelfth Census, 1900, being no better than that of 
Massachusetts for this purpose. The rate secured by this division, 
being divided by 10, gives some approximation to an average annual 
birth rate for each decade. The method being the same for all 32 28 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
cities, it does not interfere seriously with comparisons between them; 
and admitting a considerable margin of error in registration these 
birth rates have a certain comparative value. 
As a result of the incomplete registration of births, not only is the 
birth rate itself rendered inaccurate, but the infant mortality rate is 
also affected in some degree. As already explained (p. 12), the gen- 
erally accepted infant death rate is not the rate as measured by the 
living population under age 1, but is the ratio of infant deaths to 
births. 
COMPARISON OF INFANT MORTALITY, PER CENT OF POPULATION 
I'OREIGN-BORN, AND BIRTH RATE. 
The following table shows for the two periods the total population, 
the per cent of foreign-born in the population, the birth rate per 
1,000 of the total population, and the death rate under 1 year per 
1,000 births, for each of the 32 cities of the State: 
BIRTH RATE PER 1,000 OF TOTAL POPULATION, DEATH RATE UNDER 1 YEAR OF 
AGE PER 1,000 BIRTHS, AGGREGATE POPULATION, AND PER CENT OF FOREIGN 
BORN IN 32 MASSACHUSETTS CITIES, 1885 AND 1905. 
City. 
Total population. 
Per cent of foreign- 
born of total 
population. 
Births per 1,000 
total population. 
Deaths under 1 
year per 1,000 
births. 
1885.0 
1905.6 
1885.a 
1905.6 
1881- 
1890.c 
1898- 
1907.d 
1881- 
1890. 
1898- 
1907. 
Beverly 
9,186 
15,223 
14.73 
23.56 
19.8 
20.3 
118.9 
108.6 
Boston. 
390,393 
595,380 
34.14 
35.23 
30.1 
27.3 
188.2 
144.0 
Brockton 
20,783 
47,794 
19.40 
25.68 
23.6 
21.2 
146.9 
109.5 
Cambridge 
59,658 
97,434 
32.16 
32.70 
28.9 
26.5 
172.3 
130.1 
Chelsea 
25,709 
37,289 
25.60 
37.23 
25.1 
28.2 
166.9 
133.2 
Chicopee 
11,516 
20; 191 
39.79 
39.21 
31.1 
37.6 
r 176.1 
178.4 
Everett 
5^825 
29; 111 
20.86 
28.60 
33.6 
26.0 
131.9 
121.5 
Fall River 
56,870 
105,762 
49.16 
43.86 
32.6 
41.1 
239.7 
194.2 
Fitchburg 
15,375 
33; 021 
23.98 
34.82 
31.2 
29.6 
134.3 
137.4 
Gloucester 
21,703 
26; 011 
32.32 
32.93 
26.4 
23.7 
138.8 
135.2 
Haverhill 
21,795 
37; 830 
19.09 
23.42 
26.4 
23.6 
157.1 
121.1 
Holyoke 
27,895 
49,934 
49.79 
39.59 
42.1 
31.6 
168.1 
187.8 
Lawrence 
38,862 
70,050 
43.94 
46.08 
30.2 
30.1 
213.9 
181.2 
Lowell 
64,107 
94,889 
40.37 
41.73 
29.1 
26.9 
222.5 
208.2 
Lynn 
45i 867 
77; 042 
21.30 
28.52 
25.8 
21.8 
140.7 
133.0 
Malden 
16^ 407 
38; 037 
26.41 
28.91 
28.9 
22.1 
133.4 
129.3 
Marlboro 
10,941 
14,073 
26.17 
23.39 
30.7 
21.3 
154.6 
124.0 
Medford 
9,042 
19,686 
23.38 
22.75 
22.4 
22.1 
130.9 
101.5 
New Bedford 
33,393 
74,362 
30.71 
42.70 
28.9 
34.0 
177.7 
172.2 
Newburyport 
13; 716 
14,675 
19.00 
19.01 
22.9 
21.1 
152.7 
111.3 
Newton 
19,759 
36,827 
27.81 
29.07 
22.1 
21.2 
111.9 
112.8 
North Adams 
12; 540 
22,150 
27.04 
28.14 
42.3 
28.9 
115.1 
121.5 
Northampton 
12,896 
19,957 
26.01 
24.76 
23.4 
21.4 
135.7 
122.4 
Pittsfield* 
14,466 
25,001 
23.32 
20.46 
24.6 
22.7 
144.8 
108.5 
Quincy 
12,145 
28,076 
30.34 
34.26 
34.9 
27.3 
124.0 
111.9 
Salem* 
28i090 
37,627 
27.06 
29.56 
24.9 
27.1 
180.6 
166.5 
Somerville 
29,971 
69,272 
25.02 
27.92 
26.3 
23.7 
154.3 
107.2 
Springfield 
37,575 
73,540 
23.79 
25.21- 
27.3 
22.6 
157.3 
125.4 
Taunton 
23,674 
30,967 
27.75 
28.67 
27.8 
26.1 
140.5 
156.8 
Waltham 
14; 609 
26,282 
27.47 
28.23 
25.1 
19.5 
131.7 
103.1 
Woburn 
IL 750 
14,402 
30.00 
26.53 
32.1 
23.2 
127.0 
145.7 
Worcester 
68, 389 
128; 135 
29.51 
32.38 
31.0 
26.7 
155.6 
137.1 
Total 
1,184,907 
2,010,030 
32.02 
34.18 
29.2 
27.1 
174.9 
148.1 
The State 
1,942,141 
3,003,680 
27.13 
30.56 
26.2 
25.0 
160.4 
141.7 
a From Census of Massachusetts, 1885, Vol. I, Part 1. 
& From Census of Massachusetts, 1905, Vol. I. 
c Average annual birth rate computed by dividing total number of births, 1881-1890, by ten times 
population at Census of Massachusetts, 1885. 
d Average annual birth rate computed by dividing total number of births, 1898-1907, by ten times 
population at Census of Massachusetts, 1905. INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
29 
DECREASE IN INFANT MORTALITY. 
Probably the first feature of the foregoing table to attract attention 
will be the decided decrease in the infant mortality rates for the State of 
Massachusetts and its 32 cities, the decrease for the State having been 
from an infant death rate of 160.4 per 1,000 births in the former 
decade to one of 141.7 in the latter ten-year period, and a correspond- 
ing decline in the case of the 32 cities from 174.9 to 148.1. Against 
the State's decrease of 18.7 in the infant death rate per 1,000 births, 
the 32 cities scored an even more marked decrease of 26.8 infant 
deaths per 1,000 births. In the case of the cities the decrease 
amounted to 15.3 per cent; in the case of the State, to but 11.7 percent. 
Before accepting this decrease at its apparent face value, two facts 
must be borne in mind: First, that improved methods of registration 
of vital statistics tend to bring the annual registrations of births 
closer to the actual number of births, and secondly, the fact that it 
was not until 1880 that the general court of Massachusetts ordained 
that births should be reported by physicians and midwives. Up to 
that time, even in Massachusetts, there was no such statutory require- 
ment, and it is certain that as the years wore on the new law steadily 
came to be more generally observed. That would mean an increased 
percentage of birth registrations, and by the consequent increase of 
the divisor (the number of births) a slow but sure decrease in the 
quotient of the division (the rate of infant deaths per 1,000 births). 
That there has been a decrease in infant mortality in Massachusetts 
in the last twenty years, there can be little doubt; it is a question, 
however, how far the material improvement of late years in the 
registration of births is responsible for the seeming material decrease 
shown in the preceding table.® 
PER CENT OF WOMEN GAINFULLY EMPLOYED AND PER CENT ILLITER- 
ATE, MARRIED, AND OF CHILD-BEARING AGE. 
It would be desirable to classify by age groups the working female 
population of the places under investigation for the purpose of 
analyzing so far as possible the probable causes of their high or low 
infant mortality. In the case of the large number of cities included 
in the tables accompanying this article, however, and the great 
variety of occupations involved, the material for such a classification 
was not obtainable without an investigation for that especial purpose. 
A great variety of conditions may affect the percentage of married 
women and the average age of the female population in any city. 
The nature of the principal occupation of the female population in 
any industrial town is by no means the only factor. Thus 20.3 per 
a The number of births and deaths for each of the 32 cities studied, for each of 
the ten years embraced in the second decade considered in the foregoing table, will 
be found in the Appendix (p. 56 et seq,). 30 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
cent of the female cotton-mill operatives of 16 years and over in the 
United States in 1900 were married,0 thereby taking the lead of all 
factory employments in which large numbers of women are engaged. 
And yet, even in a city so preeminently a cotton-mill town as Fall 
River, in which nearly one-third the entire female population of 10 
years and over in 1905 was at work in the cotton mills, the percentage 
of married women in that year was considerably lower than in many 
other large manufacturing towns of Massachusetts. 
A comparison of the figures of the following table will show that in 
the main the percentages of married, widowed, and divorced women, 
and of women of child-bearing age held very uniform in 1885 and 1905 
in most of the Massachusetts cities. The general uniformity is shown 
by the fact that in the 32 cities in question the ratio of married, 
widowed, and divorced women to the total female population of 10 
yeai$ and over was 54.8 per cent in 1905, as compared with 54.9 per 
cent in 1885, and that the respective percentages for the State at 
large in these same years were 55.8 and 56.6. The same might be 
said of the ratios of women between ages 14 and 45, inclusive, the 
percentages for the 32 cities in 1905 and 1885, respectively, having 
been 55.7 and 56.6, and for the State at large 54.4 and 54.3. 
These figures, therefore, while presented along with the other data 
under consideration, have little comparative significance, especially 
in view of the fact that it is impossible to say what proportion of 
either class are industrially employed. 
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF FEMALES 10 YEARS OF AGE AND OVER IN 32 CITIES IN 
MASSACHUSETTS ENGAGED IN GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS AND NUMBER AND PER 
CENT OF ILLITERATES AND OF MARRIED, WIDOWED, OR DIVORCED WOMEN, WITH 
TOTAL FEMALE POPULATION AND NUMBER AND PER CENT OF FEMALES 14 TO 45 
YEARS OF AGE, INCLUSIVE, 1885 AND 1905. 
[Compiled from Census of Massachusetts, 1885 and 1905.] 
1885. 
Cities. 
Female population 10 years of age and over. 
Total 
female 
popula- 
tion. 
Women of 
ages 14 to 45, in- 
clusive. 
Total. 
Engaged in 
gainful occu- 
pations, do- 
mestic serv- 
ice not in- 
cluded. 
Illiterates. 
Married, 
widowed, or 
divorced. 
Num- 
ber. 
Per 
cent of 
total 
female 
popu- 
lation. 
Num- 
ber. 
Per 
cent. 
Num- 
ber. 
Per 
cent. 
Num- 
ber. 
Per 
cent. 
Beverly. 
4,094 
650 
15.9 
138 
3.37 
2,319 
56.6 
4.837 
2,640 
54.6 
Boston. 
168,975 
29,103 
17.2 
16,129 
9.55 
90,800 
53.7 
204,211 
117,960 
57.8 
Brockton 
8^459 
1,593 
18.8 
342 
4.04 
5,288 
62.6 
10,385 
6,059 
58.3 
Cambridge 
251049 
3,818 
15.2 
2,400 
9.58 
13,691 
54.7 
31,049 
17,121 
55.1 
Chelsea, 7 
11,200 
1,415 
12.6 
'339 
3.03 
6,499 
68.0 
13,570 
7,565 
55.7 
Chicopee 
5,080 
1,654 
32.5 
1,087 
21.37 
2,688 
52.9 
6,159 
3,415 
55.4 
Everett 
21411 
'226 
9.4 
60 
2.49 
1,494 
62.0 
2,944 
1,598 
54.3 
Fall River 
23,723 
8,776 
37.0 
5,915 
24.93 
12,631 
63.2 
30,063 
16,949 
56.4 
Fitchburg 
6,343 
11114 
17.6 
608 
9.59 
3,718 
58.6 
7,873 
4,248 
54.0 
Gloucester, 
7,890 
676 
8.6 
663 
7.14 
4,726 
59.9 
9,980 
6,291 
53.0 
Haverhill 
9,336 
2,161 
23.1 
673 
6.14 
5,697 
61.0 
11,340 
6,433 
66.7 
a Bureau of the Census, Statistics of Women at Work, p. 38. INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
31 
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF FEMALES 10 YEARS OF AGE AND OVER IN 32 CITIES IN 
MASSACHUSETTS ENGAGED IN GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS AND NUMBER AND PER 
CENT OF ILLITERATES AND OF MARRIED, WIDOWED, OR DIVORCED WOMEN, WITH 
TOTAL FEMALE POPULATION AND NUMBER AND PER CENT OF FEMALES 14 TO 45 
YEARS OF AGE, INCLUSIVE, 1885 AND 1905-Concluded. 
Cities. 
Female population 10 years of age and over. 
Total 
female 
popula- 
tion. 
W omen of 
ages 14 to 45, in- 
clusive. 
Total. 
Engaged in 
gainful occu- 
pations, do- 
mestic serv- 
ice not in- 
cluded. 
Illiterates. 
Married, 
widowed, or 
divorced. 
Num- 
ber. 
Per 
cent of 
total 
female 
popu- 
lation. 
Num- 
ber. 
Per 
cent. 
Num- 
ber. 
Per 
cent. 
Num- 
ber. 
Per 
cent. 
Holyoke 
11,598 
4,328 
37.3 
2,193 
18.91 
5,862 
50.5 
14,677 
8,694 
59.0 
Lawrence 
17,411 
6,045 
34.7 
2; 143 
12.31 
9,095 
52.2 
21', 156 
12;277 
58.2 
Lowell 
29^ 916 
1^275 
37.7 
3', 853 
12.88 
15,408 
51.5 
35; 590 
2E154 
59.4 
Lynn 
20,140 
4,982 
24.7 
1,076 
5.34 
Hi 866 
58.9 
24,115 
13; 976 
58.0 
Malden 
7,293 
1,288 
17.7 
'309 
4.24 
4,079 
55.9 
8,717 
5,052 
58.0 
Marlboro 
4,280 
' 944 
22.1 
571 
13.34 
2,407 
56.2 
5,374 
2; 900 
54.0 
Medford 
3,805 
433 
11.4 
212 
5.57 
2; 114 
55.6 
4^624 
2; 525 
54.6 
New Bedford 
14i 982 
3,409 
22.8 
2,164 
14.44 
8^ 692 
58.0 
17', 980 
9,815 
54.6 
Newburyport 
6J401 
E255 
19.6 
'693 
10.83 
3,631 
56.7 
7i 554 
3,728 
49.4 
Newton 
9,263 
996 
10.8 
677 
7.31 
4,438 
47.9 
11,018 
6,402 
58.1 
North Adams 
5,173 
1,158 
22.4 
501 
9.68 
2,897 
56.0 
6; 481 
3^617 
55.8 
Northampton 
5^977 
1,126 
18.8 
550 
9.20 
2,993 
50.1 
7,044 
3,941 
55.9 
Pittsfield 
6i 140 
E200 
19.5 
351 
5.72 
3,231 
52.6 
7,596 
4,100 
54.0 
Quincy 
4', 678 
'395 
8.4 
332 
7.10 
2,754 
58.9 
5', 953 
3; 154 
53.0 
Salem 
12,791 
2,468 
19.3 
1,185 
9.26 
6,748 
52.8 
15,315 
8,196 
53.5 
Somerville 
12', 754 
1,474 
11.6 
'754 
5.91 
7,407 
58.1 
15j781 
8,806 
55.1 
Springfield 
16i359 
2j 749 
16.8 
1,429 
8.74 
9,514 
58.2 
19; 698 
io; 996 
55.8 
Taunton 
10,099 
E873 
18.5 
913 
9.04 
5,708 
56.5 
12,146 
6,605 
54.4 
W altham 
6,639 
1,734 
26.1 
521 
7.85 
3,427 
51.6 
7,901 
4,607 
58.3 
Woburn 
4', 595 
'582 
12.7 
492 
10.71 
2,706 
58.9 
5', 848 
2', 963 
50.7 
Worcester 
27,794 
4,083 
14.7 
2,417 
8.70 
15,906 
57.2 
34,707 
19; 019 
54.8 
Total 
510,654 
104,983 
20.6 
51,490 
10.08 
280,434 
54.9 
621,686 
351,806 
56.6 
The State 
830,214 
152,161 
18.3 
76,713 
9.24 
470,206 
56.6 
1,009,257 
547,811 
54.3 
1885-Concluded. 
1905. 
Beverly . 
6,474 
1,156 
17.9 
138 
2.13 
3,781 
58.4 
7,673 
4,063 
53.0 
Boston 
252,157 
59^ 861 
23.7 
13,666 
5.42 
134,208 
53.2 
305,071 
173,874 
57.0 
Brockton 
20j 078 
5,376 
26.8 
591 
2.94 
12,202 
60.8 
24,220 
13,813 
57.0 
Cambridge 
41,141 
9,673 
23.5 
1,718 
4.18 
21,890 
53.2 
50^ 203 
27', 805 
55.4 
Chelsea 
14,909 
3417 
20.9 
896 
6.01 
8,677 
58.2 
18,740 
10,011 
53.4 
Chicopee 
7', 869 
2; 536 
32.2 
802 
10.19 
4,382 
55.7 
10,101 
5; 556 
55.0 
Everett 
12,037 
2,319 
19.3 
245 
2.04 
7,396 
61.4 
14,941 
8,172 
54.7 
Fall River 
43,586 
16,839 
38.6 
6,582 
15.10 
23^ 291 
53.4 
55^ 375 
30; 278 
54.7 
Fitchburg 
13,495 
3316 
25.3 
318 
5.32 
7', 521 
55.7 
16,791 
9.013 
53.7 
Gloucester 
10,059 
1,522 
15.1 
573 
5.70 
6,044 
60.1 
12^ 410 
6; 419 
51.8 
Haverhill 
16, 501 
4; 334 
26.3 
594 
3.60 
9,805 
59.4 
19^805 
10,716 
54.1 
Holyoke 
20i 913 
7326 
34.1 
1,847 
8.83 
10,506 
50.2 
26,165 
14,936 
57.1 
Lawrence 
28,933 
10' 665 
36.9 
3334 
10.49 
15', 716 
54.3 
35^ 986 
20,346 
56.5 
Lowell 
41,598 
15315 
36.6 
2,913 
7.00 
21' 721 
52.2 
50,019 
28,784 
57.5 
Lynn 
32,759 
9,384 
28.6 
'707 
2.16 
19,656 
60.0 
38; 916 
21,955 
56.4 
Malden 
16,930 
3,685 
21.8 
594 
3.51 
9330 
55.7 
20i 457 
11,281 
55.1 
Marlboro 
6,078 
1,694 
27.9 
245 
4. 03 
3399 
54.3 
7377 
3,899 
53.6 
Medford 
8,560 
1,412 
16.5 
130 
1. 52 
4,968 
58. 0 
10' 343 
4,670 
45. 2 
New Bedford 
31,426 
9343 
31.6 
3,888 
12.37 
17,944 
57.1 
38,631 
21', 398 
55. 4 
N e wbur vport 
6', 635 
1,498 
22.6 
292 
4.40 
3,775 
56.9 
7,793 
3,860 
49. 5 
Newton 
17,515 
2', 822 
16.1 
438 
2. 50 
8,466 
48.3 
20^658 
llj827 
57.3 
North Adams 
9,207 
2351 
27.7 
628 
6.82 
5,154 
56.0 
11,501 
6,266 
54. 5 
Northampton 
9,590 
2313 
23.1 
707 
7.37 
4,380 
45.7 
llj221 
6,570 
58.6 
Pittsfield 
10,840 
2396 
24.9 
420 
3.87 
5,826 
53.7 
12,926 
7; 268 
56. 2 
Quincy 
10,830 
1340 
15.1 
331 
3.06 
6,230 
57.5 
13,654 
7; 324 
53.6 
Salem 
16,154 
3,912 
24.2 
797 
4.93 
8,661 
53.6 
19,788 
10; 331 
52. 2 
Somerville 
30,083 
5,831 
19. 4 
750 
2.49 
17,862 
59. 4 
36,514 
19,875 
54. 4 
Springfield 
32,021 
7,294 
22.8 
1,438 
4. 49 
183 43 
56.7 
38; 202 
21,455 
56.2 
'faun ton 
13,066 
2,925 
22. 4 
1307 
7.71 
7372 
55.7 
15,922 
8; 303 
52.1 
Waltham 
12,264 
3360 
31.5 
'684 
5.58 
5,947 
48.5 
14,263 
8,394 
58.9 
W oburn 
5,927 
1,061 
17.9 
252 
4.25 
3,209 
54.1 
7,313 
3,714 
50. 8 
Worcester 
52,631 
11312 
21.7 
2,843 
5.40 
29,367 
55.8 
64; 493 
35; 387 
54.9 
Total 
852,266 
218,988 
25.7 
50,468 
5.92 
466,729 
54.8 
1,037,372 
577,563 
55.7 
The State 
1,272,110 
298,691 
23.5 
69,634 
5.47 
710,036 
55.8 
1,542,091 
838,771 
54.4 32 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
The omission is of little importance, however, in connection with 
this study. Precisely the same method of calculating the working 
female population having been applied to the 32 cities of Massa- 
chusetts for both 1885 and 1905, the figures for the two years are 
comparable. And, furthermore, as it is mainly with females engaged 
in manufacturing pursuits that any study of the relations of women's 
work and infant mortality has to deal, the method necessarily em- 
ployed fully serves its purpose. It has seemed proper to explain the 
basis of calculation in order that the table in question and those which 
follow might give rise to no misunderstanding of their exact meaning. 
The tables dealing with these same 32 Massachusetts cities which 
follow have all been worked out on the same basis.® 
Attention must again be called to the fact that while the foregoing 
table presents the number and per cent of women of 10 years and over 
industrially employed, that number is not the fact necessary for an 
entirely satisfactory basis for discussion. What is really needed is an 
accurate statement of the number of married, widowed, and divorced 
women between the ages of 14 and 45 who are employed outside of 
their homes. The figures in the table are at best but an uncertain 
indication of what is the true situation in this regard. 
In both tables all females of 10 years and over engaged in gainful 
occupations, other than "domestic service," are included. 
The difference in ages of those persons classified as " children at 
work" in the two decades is to be noted. In the census of 1885 their 
ages were given as 10 to 13 years, and for 1905 as from 10 to 15 years. 
In so far as this slight difference in ages is concerned, that discrepancy 
is apparent rather than real, those working females of ages 14 and 15 
not included under the classification of "children at work" in the 1885 
figures being otherwise listed in their several occupations in the Massa- 
chusetts census for that year, whereas in view of the revised laws of 
the Commonwealth in 1905 they were not then numbered among the 
women employed, but included in the number of "children at work" 
between ages 10 to 15 years. 
It will be seen that the illiteracy of the female population 10 years 
of age and over has been presented as indicative of the educational 
limitations of the population. While the female illiteracy is usually 
slightly higher than the illiteracy for the entire population, especially 
where there is a large per cent of foreign born, the difference is slight'. 
But when the intelligence of motherhood is in question, it would seem 
to be the more significant factor. 
An examination of the table discloses at once a situation practically 
parallel to that indicated for the larger area of the New England 
a A detailed table showing the general occupation groups included in the totals 
for women gainfully employed in the 32 cities studied, domestic service excluded, 
will be found in the Appendix (p. 59). 33 
INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
States, namely, there are present a number of interrelated significant 
factors, and it is not possible to select any one as dominant in the 
production of a high infant mortality rate or its opposite. 
CITIES HIGHEST IN PER CENT OF WOMEN GAINFULLY EMPLOYED AND 
IN INFANT DEATH RATE. 
In order to present the situation more clearly, the 10 cities which 
rank highest in respect to the two main factors under consideration, 
the per cent of women 10 years of age and over industrially employed 
and the infant death rate, have been presented in separate tables, 
which include the other chief factors under consideration in these 
Massachusetts towns, namely, the birth rate, the per cent of foreign 
born in the total population, and the per cent of illiteracy in the 
female population of 10 years and over. 
It will be noted that two items have been omitted from this more 
critical consideration, namely, the per cent of women 10 years of age 
and over who are married, widowed, or divorced, and the per cent of 
all women who are between the ages of 14 and 45. It will be found on 
examination of the preceding table that the last-named point has 
no significance. The proportion of women between the ages of 14 and 
45 is practically constant for each city at the two census periods, and 
even the variation between different cities is slight, with the exception 
of one or two residence towns of no importance in this discussion. 
Concerning the proportion of women 10 years of age and over who are 
married, widowed, or divorced, there are certain variations which will 
be noted later, but which do not appear to be of sufficient importance 
to necessitate its insertion in the tables below. 
INFANT MORTALITY, BIRTH RATE, FOREIGN BORN IN TOTAL POPULATION, AND 
FEMALE ILLITERACY IN TEN MASSACHUSETTS CITIES HAVING HIGHEST PER 
CENT OF FEMALES 10 YEARS AND OVER GAINFULLY EMPLOYED. 
Cities. 
Per cent 
of females 
10 years 
of age 
and over 
gainfully 
em- 
ployed, 
1885.a 
Deaths 
under 1 
year per 
1,000 
births, 
1881-1890. 
Births 
per 1,000 
popula- 
tion, 
1881-1890. 
Per cent 
of foreign 
born of 
total 
popula- 
tion, 
1885. 
Per cent 
of illiter- 
ates in 
female 
popula- 
tion 10 
years of 
age and 
over, 1885. 
1. Lowell 
37.7 
222.5 
29.1 
40.37 
12.88 
2. Holyoke 
37.3 
168.1 
42.1 
49.79 
18.91 
3. Fall River 
37.0 
239.7 
32.6 
49.16 
24.93 
4. Lawrence 
34.7 
213.9 
30.2 
43.99 
12.31 
5. Chicopee 
32.5 
176.1 
31.1 
39.79 
21.37 
6. Waltham 
26.1 
131.7 
25.1 
27.47 
7.85 
7. Lynn 
24.7 
140.7 
25.8 
21.30 
5.34 
8. Haverhill 
23.1 
157.1 
26.4 
19.09 
6.14 
9. New Bedford 
22.8 
177.7 
28.9 
30.71 
14. 44 
10. North Adams 
22.4 
115.1 
42.3 
27.04 
9.68 
1885. 34 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
INFANT MORTALITY, BIRTH RATE, FOREIGN BORN IN TOTAL POPULATION, AND 
FEMALE ILLITERACY IN TEN MASSACHUSETTS CITIES HAVING HIGHEST PER 
CENT OF FEMALES 10 YEARS AND OVER GAINFULLY EMPLOYED-Concluded. 
1905. 
Cities. 
Per cent 
of females 
10 years 
of age 
and over 
gainfully 
em- 
ployed, 
1905.® 
Deaths 
under 1 
year per 
1,000 
births, 
1898-1907. 
Births 
per 1,000 
popula- 
tion, 
1898-1907. 
Per cent 
of foreign 
born of 
total 
popula- 
tion, 
1905. 
Per cent 
of illiter- 
ates in 
female 
popula- 
tion 10 
years of 
age and 
over, 1905. 
1. Fall River 
38.6 
194.2 
41.1 
43.86 
15.10 
2. Lawrence 
36.9 
181.2 
30.1 
46.08 
10.49 
3. Lowell 
36.6 
208.2 
26.9 
41.73 
7.00 
4. Holyoke 
34.1 
187.8 
31.6 
39.59 
8.83 
5. Chicopee 
32.2 
178.4 
37. 6 
39.21 
10.19 
6. New Bedford 
31.6 
172.2 
34.0 
42.70 
12.37 
7. Waltham 
31.5 
103.1 
19.5 
28.23 
5.58 
8. Lynn 
28. 6 
133.0 
21.8 
28.52 
2.16 
9. Marlboro 
27.9 
124.0 
21.3 
23. 39 
4.03 
10. North Adams 
27.7 
121.5 
28.9 
28.14 
6.82 
BIRTH RATE, FOREIGN BORN IN TOTAL POPULATION, AND ILLITERACY AND 
EMPLOYMENT OF FEMALES IN TEN MASSACHUSETTS CITIES WITH HIGHEST 
INFANT MORTALITY RATES FOR TWO DECADES. 
» Domestic service excluded. 
1881-1890. 
Cities. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year per 
1,000 
births, 
1881-1890. 
Births 
per 
1,000 pop- 
ulation, 
1881-1890. 
Per cent 
of foreign- 
bom of 
total pop- 
ulation, 
1885. 
Per cent 
of illit- 
erates in 
female 
popula- 
tion 10 
years of 
age and 
over, 1885. 
Per cent 
of females 
10 years 
ana over 
engaged 
in gainful 
occupa- 
tions, 
1885. a 
1. Fall River 
239.7 
32.6 
49.16 
24.93 
37.0 
2. Lowell 
222.5 
29.1 
40.37 
12.88 
37.7 
3. Lawrence 
213.9 
30.2 
46.08 
12.31 
34.7 
4. Boston 
188.2 
30.1 
34.14 
9.55 
17.2 
5. Salem 
180.6 
24.9 
27.06 
9.26 
19.3 
6. New Bedford 
177.7 
28.9 
30.71 
14.44 
22.8 
7. Chicopee 
176.1 
31.1 
39.79 
■ 21.37 
32.5 
8. Cambridge 
172.3 
28.9 
32.16 
9.58 
15.2 
9. Holyoke 
168.1 
42.1 
49.79 
18.91 
37.3 
10. Chelsea 
166.9 
25.1 
25.60 
3.03 
12.6 
1898-1907. 
Cities. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year per 
1,000 
births, 
1898-1907. 
Births 
per 
l,000pop- 
ulation, 
1898-1907. 
Per cent 
of foreign- 
■born to 
total pop- 
ulation, 
1905. 
Per cent 
of illit- 
erates in 
female 
popula- 
tion 10 
years of 
age and 
over, 1905. 
Per cent 
of females 
10 vears 
and over 
engaged 
in gainful 
occupa- 
tions, 
19O5.a 
1. Lowell 
208.2 
26.9 
41.73 
7.00 
36.6 
2. Fall River 
194.2 
41.1 
43.86 
15.10 
38.6 
3. Holyoke 
187.8 
31.6 
39.59 
8.83 
34.1 
4. Lawrence 
181.2 
30.1 
46.08 
10.49 
36.9 
5. Chicopee 
178.4 
37.6 
39.21 
10.19 
32.2 
6. New Bedford 
172.2 
34.0 
42.70 
12.37 
31.6 
7. Salem 
166.5 
' 27.1 
29.56 
4.93 
24.2 
8. Taunton 
156.8 
26.1 
28.67 
7.71 
22.4 
9. Woburn 
145.7 
19.5 
26.53 
4.25 
17.9 
10. Boston 
144.0 
27.3 
35.23 
5.42 
23.7 
a Domestic service excluded. INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
35 
The exclusion of females employed in the group of occupations 
classed as "domestic service" was necessary in the foregoing table 
for the reason that the figures of the 1905 census by cities made no 
distinction between women who are doing their own housekeeping 
and those employed for compensation in any of the numerous occu- 
pations included under that general heading.' The Massachusetts 
census for 1885 did so differentiate. But no distinction on these lines 
being available in the case of the 1905 figures, in order to place the 
returns for both census years on a common basis it was necessary to 
omit from the table all females so employed. The Twelfth Census 
puts the total number of females of 10 years of age and over employed 
in gainful occupations in Massachusetts at 28.1 per cent of the total 
female population of that age. In the above table, from which these 
women engaged in "domestic service" have been excluded, the per- 
centage of females of that age employed in Massachusetts in 1905 
was 23.5 per cent of the female population of 10 years and over. 
There is, therefore, an apparent difference of only 4.6 per cent m the 
two methods. The inclusion of women employed in domestic service 
for compensation in 1905, therefore, would probably have increased 
the total of 218,988 women 10 years of age and over gainfully em- 
ployed in that year in the specified cities, as shown by the table, by 
from 4 to 5 per cent of the total population of 852,266 females of that 
age in those cities. 
It is at once seen by comparison of these tables that the 6 cities of 
Fall River, Lawrence, Lowell, New Bedford, Holyoke, and Chicopee 
are found among the 10 highest, both as regards infant mortality and 
the employment of women. Again, as in the case of the 6 New Eng- 
land States discussed on pages 22 and 23, if we were to go no further, 
the indication would be that the high infant mortality is a direct result 
of the industrial employment of women. But reference to the earlier 
tables (pp. 28, 30, and 31) at once discloses that these same 6 cities are 
also among the 10 highest in per cent of foreign-born of the total 
population and in the per cent of female illiteracy. Not quite the 
same uniformity is found in regard to the birth rate. It has already 
been noted that the figures for the birth rate are by no means accu- 
rate, especially for the earlier period. In that decennium only Fall 
River, Holyoke, and Chicopee appear among the 10 highest. In the 
later period, however, Fall River, Chicopee, New Bedford, Holyoke, 
and Lawrence are all found among the 10 highest in respect to the 
birth rate. 
The remaining 4 cities in the two tables show great irregularity, 
and the presence of other influential factors is evident. In other 
words, while there is a clear relationship between infant mortality 
and the other circumstances under consideration it is not an invariable 
relationship. 36 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
CITIES LOWEST IN PER CENT OF WOMEN GAINFULLY EMPLOYED AND 
IN INFANT DEATH RATE. 
The two following tables present the 15 cities which are lowest both 
for per cent of women gainfully employed and for infant mortality. 
It was desirable to consider 15 in this group rather than 10, as in 
the preceding tables,' because a large number of strictly residence 
cities inevitably fall into this group. Hence the group was made 
larger, so that several cities industrial in character, but with a com- 
paratively low mortality rate, might be included. 
INFANT MORTALITY BIRTH RATE, FOREIGN BORN IN TOTAL POPULATION, AND 
FEMALE ILLITERACY IN FIFTEEN MASSACHUSETTS CITIES HAVING LOWEST 
PER CENT OF FEMALES 10 YEARS AND OVER GAINFULLY EMPLOYED. 
Cities. 
Per cent 
of fe- 
males 10 
years of 
age and 
over 
gainfully 
em- 
ployed, 
1885.0 
Deaths 
under 1 
year per 
1,000 
births, 
1881- 
1890. 
Births 
per 1,000 
p»pu- 
ation, 
1881- 
1890. 
Per cent 
of 
foreign- 
born of 
total 
popula- 
tion, 
1885. 
Per cent 
of illiter- 
ates in 
female 
popula- 
tion 10 
years of 
age and 
over, 
1885. 
1. Quincy 
8.4 
124.0 
34.9 
30.34 
7. i0 
2. Gloucester 
8.6 
138.8 
26.4 
32.32 
7. .4 
3. Everett 
9.4 
131.9 
33.6 
20.86 
2.49 
4. Newton 
10.8 
111.9 
22.1 
27.81 
7.31 
5. Medford 
11.4 
130.9 
22.4 
23.38 
5.57 
6. Somerville 
11.6 
154.3 
26.3 
25.02 
5.91 
7. Chelsea 
12.6 
166.9 
25.1 
25.60 
3.03 
8. Woburn 
12.7 
127.0 
32.1 
30.00 
10.71 
9. Worcester 
14.7 
155.6 
31.0 
29.51 
8.70 
10. Cambridge 
15.2 
172.3 
28.9 
32.16 
9.58 
11. Beverly 
15.9 
118.9 
19.8 
14.73 
3.37 
1?. Snrinchcld 
16.8 
157.3 
27.3 
23.79 
8.74 
1 
17.2 
188.2 
30.1 
34.14 
9.55 
14 Fitchburg 
17.6 
134.3 
31.2 
23. 98 
9 59 
15. Malden. 
17.7 
133.4 
28.9 
26.41 
4.24 
1885. 
1905. 
Cities. 
Per cent 
of fe- 
males 10 
years of 
age and 
over 
gainfully 
em- 
ployed, 
19O5.a 
Deaths 
under 1 
year per 
1,000 
births, 
1898- 
1907. 
Births 
per 1,000 
popu- 
lation, 
1898- 
1907. 
Per cent 
of 
foreign- 
born of 
total 
popula- 
tion, 
1905. 
Per cent 
of illiter- 
ates in 
female 
popula- 
tion 10 
years of 
age and 
over, 
1905. 
1. Quincy 
15.1 
111.9 
27.3 
34.26 
3.06 
2. Gloucester 
15.1 
135.2 
23.7 
32.93 
5. 70 
3. Newton 
16.1 
112.8 
21.2 
29.07 
2.50 
4. Medford 
16.5 
101.5 
22.1 
22.75 
1.52 
5. Woburn 
17.9 
145.7 
23.2 
26. 53 
4.25 
6. Beverly 
17.9 
108.6 
20.3 
23.56 
2.13 
7. Everett 
19.3 
121.5 
26.0 
28.60 
2.04 
8. Somerville 
19.4 
107.2 
23.7 
27.92 
2.49 
9. Chelsea 
20.9 
133.2 
28.2 
37.23 
6.01 
10. Worcester.. 
21.7 
137.1 
26.7 
32.38 
5.40 
11. Malden 
21.8 
129.3 
22.1 
28.91 
3.51 
12. Taunton 
22.4 
156.8 
26.1 
28.67 
7.71 
13. Newburyport 
22.6 
111.3 
21.1 
19.01 
4.40 
14. Springfield 
22.8 
125.4 
22.6 
25.21 
4.49 
15. Northampton 
23.1 
122.4 
21.4 
24.76 
7.37 
o Domestic service excluded. 37 
INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
BIRTH RATE, FOREIGN BORN IN TOTAL POPULATION, AND ILLITERACY AND 
EMPLOYMENT OF FEMALES IN FIFTEEN MASSACHUSETTS CITIES HAVING LOW- 
EST INFANT MORTALITY RATES. 
1881 to 1890. 
Cities. 
Deaths 
under 1 
year per 
1,000 
births, 
1881- 
1890. 
Births 
per 1,000 
popu- 
lation, 
1881- 
1890. 
Per cent 
of 
foreign- 
born of 
total 
popu- 
lation, 
1885. 
Per cent 
of illiter- 
ates in 
female 
popula- 
tion 10 
years of 
age and 
over, 
1885. 
Per cent 
of fe- 
males 10 
years of 
age and 
over en- 
gaged in 
gainful 
occupa- 
tions, 
1885.a 
1. Newton 
111.9 
22.1 
27.81 
7.31 
10.8 
2. North Adams 
115.1 
42.3 
27 04 
9 68 
22 4 
3. Quincy 
124.0 
34 9 
30 34 
7 10 
8 4 
4. Woburn 
127.0 
32.1 
30.00 
10.71 
12 7 
5. Medford 
130.9 
22. 4 
23.38 
5 57 
11 4 
6. Waltham 
131.7 
25.1 
27.47 
7.85 
26.1 
7. Everett 
131.9 
33.6 
20.86 
2.49 
9.4 
8. Malden 
133.4 
28.9 
26.41 
4. 24 
17.7 
9. Fitchburg 
134.3 
31.2 
23.98 
9.59 
17 6 
10. Northampton 
135.7 
23.4 
26 01 
9.20 
18.8 
11. Gloucester.... 
138.8 
26.4 
32.32 
7.14 
8.6 
12. Taunton 
140.5 
27.8 
27. 75 
9.04 
18.5 
13. Lvnn 
140.7 
25.8 
21.30 
5.34 
24.7 
14. Pittsfield 
144.8 
24.6 
23.32 
5.72 
19.5 
15. Brockton 
146.9 
23.6 
19.40 
4.04 
18.8 
1898 to 1907. 
Cities. 
Deaths 
under 1 
year per 
1,000 
births, 
1898- 
1907. 
Births 
per 1,000 
popu- 
lation, 
1898- 
1907. 
Per cent 
of 
foreign- 
born of 
total 
popu- 
lation, 
1905. 
Per cent 
of illiter- 
ates in. 
female 
popula- 
tion 10 
years of 
age and 
over, 
1905. 
Per cent 
of fe- 
males 10 
years of 
age and 
over en- 
gaged in 
gainful 
occupa- 
tions, 
19O5.a 
1. Medford 
101.5 
22.1 
22.75 
1.52 
16.5 
2. Waltham 
103.1 
19.5 
28.23 
5.58 
31.5 
3. Somerville 
107.2 
23.7 
27.92 
2.49 
19.4 
4. Pittsfield 
108.5 
22.7 
20.46 
3.87 
24.9 
5. Beverly 
108.6 
20.3 
23.56 
2.13 
17.9 
6. Brockton 
109.5 
21.2 
25.68 
2.94 
26.8 
7. Newburyport 
111.3 
21.1 
19.01 
4.40 
22.6 
8. Quincy 
111.9 
27.3 
34.26 
3.06 
15.1 
9. Newton 
112.8 
21.2 
29.07 
2.50 
16.1 
10. Haverhill 
121.1 
23.6 
23.42 
3.60 
26.3 
11. North Adams 
121.5 
28.9 
28.14 
6.82 
27.7 
12. Everett 
121.5 
26.0 
28.60 
2.04 
19.3 
13. Northampton 
122.4 
21.4 
24.76 
7.37 
23.1 
14. Marlboro 
124.0 
21.3 
23.39 
4.03 
27.9 
15. Springfield 
125.4 
22.6 
25.21 
4.49 
22.8 
a Domestic service excluded. 
A study of these two groups of 15 cities shows, as might be antici- 
pated, much less regularity than the preceding groups in respect to 
the factors under consideration. The first two groups presented are 
practically all large industrial cities. The second two groups are 
widely varied in respect to industries and general character. 
Of the 15 cities with the lowest infant death rates in the earlier 
period, 7 appear among the 15 with the lowest percentage of fe- 38 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
males employed. In the later period, of the 15 cities with the lowest 
infant death rate, 9 appear among the 15 with the lowest percentage 
of females employed. In other words, a low percentage of women 
employed is not necessarily accompanied by a low infant death rate. 
As-regards the other tabulated items, on comparison with the table 
on page 36, in the earlier period it will be found that of the 15 cities 
lowest in respect to infant mortality, 8 are found among the 15 lowest 
for the birth rate, 7 are found among the 15 lowest for per cent of 
foreign-born, 10 are found among the 15 lowest for per cent of female 
illiteracy In the later period, 12 are found among the 15 lowest for 
the birth rate, 13 are found among the 15 lowest for per cent of 
foreign-born, 11 are found among the 15 lowest for per cent of female 
illiteracy. 
These comparisons indicate, superficially at least, that a more 
direct relation exists between infant mortality and the birth rate, the 
per cent of foreign-born, and the per cent of female illiteracy than 
between infant mortality and the employment of women. 
It will be found on comparison of the tables immediately preceding 
with those on pages 33 and 34 that certain cities show notable irregu- 
larities. While in the earlier period the cities of Boston, Cambridge, 
and Chelsea appear among the 15 having the lowest per cents of 
women employed, they appear among the 10 highest with regard 
to infant mortality. In the later period the cities of Woburn and 
Taunton show a like situation. Of greater significance, however, 
are certain cities, which show a higher per cent of women industrially 
employed and a low infant death rate. In the earlier period the 
cities of Waltham, Lynn, and North Adams appear among the 10 
cities having the highest per cent of women employed but are among 
the 15 lowest as regards infant mortality. In the later period, 
Waltham, Marlboro, and North Adams are among the 10 with 
the highest per cent of women employed but are among the 15 with 
the lowest infant death rates. 
COMPARISON OF CITIES HIGH IN PERCENTAGE OF WOMEN GAINFULLY 
EMPLOYED AND WITH HIGH AND LOW INFANT MORTALITY. 
To make clear this significant irregularity, the first 14 cities for 
each decade, according to the number of women industrially em- 
ployed, were selected for presentation in a special table. 
In order that a basis for comparison may be secured, by which to 
group them further, an arbitrary definition of ''high" and "low" 
infant mortality has been set. For the earlier period, when the rate 
for the State of Massachusetts was 160.4 per 1,000 births, those cities 
with a rate over 165 per 1,000 have been considered as having a high 
rate, and those with a rate of 155 or less have been considered as INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
39 
having a low rate. For the later period when the rate for the State 
of Massachusetts was 141.7 per 1,000, those cities having an infant 
death rate of over 145 per 1,000 have been considered as having a 
high rate, and those with a rate of 135 or less as having a low rate. 
These 14 cities were then classified on this basis as having high or low 
infant mortality rates. Two in each decade were omitted from 
further consideration because their mortality rates fell within the 
range of 10 points, which were so near to the average as to be ex- 
cluded. The remaining 12 in each period are found to divide them- 
selves into groups of 6 each, in respect to their infant death rate, and 
are presented, together with all related factors statistically available, 
in the following tables: 
COMPARISON OF 12 INDUSTRIAL CITIES OF MASSACHUSETTS HAVING A HIGH PER 
CENT OF WOMEN AT WORK AS TO INFANT MORTALITY AND OTHER RELATED FAC- 
TORS, 1881 TO 1890. 
6 CITIES WITH HIGH INFANT MORTALITY (RATE OF OVER 165 PER 1,000 BIRTHS). 
Cities in order of per cent of females 10 
years of age and over gainfully em- 
ployed, 1885. 
Total 
population, 
1885. 
Per cent 
of fem ales 
10 years 
of age 
and over 
gainfully 
em- 
ploved 
1885. a 
Deaths 
under 
1 year 
per 1,000 
births, 
1881-1890. 
Births 
per 1,000 
of total 
popula- 
tion, 
1881-1890. 
b 
Per cent 
of foreign 
born of 
total 
popula- 
tion, 1885. 
Per cent 
of illiter- 
ates in 
female 
popula- 
tion 10 
years of 
age and 
over, 1885. 
1. Lowell 
64,107 
37. 7 
222.5 
29.1 
40.37 
12.88 
2. Holyoke 
27,895 
37.3 
168.1 
42.1 
49. 79 
18. 91 
3. Fall River 
56,870 
37. 0 
239. 7 
32.6 
49.16 
24.93 
4. Lawrence 
38,862 
34. 7 
213.9 
30.2 
43. 99 
12. 31 
5. Chicopee 
11,516 
32.5 
176.1 
31.1 
39.79 
21. 37 
6. New Bedford 
33,393 
22.8 
177.7 
28.9 
30.71 
14. 44 
Total 
232,643 
34.6 
208.8 
31.8 
42.83 
16.90 
The State 
1,942,141 
18.3 
160.4 
26.2 
27.13 
9.24 
a Domestic service is excluded. 
b Calculated on population of cities at Massachusetts census of 1885. 
6 CITIES WITH LOW INFANT MORTALITY (RATE OF LESS THAN 155 PER 1,000 
BIRTHS). 
Cities in order of per cent of females 10 
years of age and over gainfully em- 
ployed, 1885. 
Total 
population, 
1885. 
Per cent 
of females 
10 years 
of age 
and over 
gainfully 
em- 
ployed, 
1885. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year 
per 1,000 
births, 
1881-1890. 
Births 
per 1,000 
of total 
popula- 
tion, 
1881-1890. 
Per cent 
of foreign 
born of 
total 
popula- 
tion, 1885. 
Per cent 
of illiter- 
ates in 
female 
popula- 
tion 10 
years of 
age and 
over, 1885. 
1. Waltham 
14,609 
26.1 
131.7 
25.1 
27.47 
7.85 
2. Lynn 
45,867 
24.7 
140.7 
25.8 
21. 30 
5.34 
3. North Adams 
12,540 
22.8 
115.1 
42.3 
27.04 
9.68 
4. Marlboro 
10,941 
22.1 
154.6 
30.7 
26.17 
13. 34 
5. Pittsfield 
14,466 
19.5 
144.8 
24.6 
23.32 
5.72 
6. Brockton 
20,783 
18.8 
146.9 
23.6 
19.40 
4.04 
Total 
119,206 
22.8 
138.3 
27.4 
23. 01 
6.66 40 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
COMPARISON OF 12 INDUSTRIAL CITIES OF MASSACHUSETTS HAVING A HIGH PER 
CENT OF WOMEN AT WORK AS TO INFANT MORTALITY AND OTHER RELATED FAC- 
TORS, 1898 TO 1907. 
6 CITIES WITH HIGH INFANT MORTALITY (RATE OF OVER 145 PER 1,000 BIRTHS). 
Cities in order of per cent of females 10 
years of age and over gainfully em- 
ployed, 1905. 
Total 
population, 
1905. 
Per cent 
of females 
10 years 
of age 
and over 
gainfully 
em- 
ployed, 
1905. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year 
per 1,000 
births, 
1898-1907. 
Births 
per 1,000 
of total 
popula- 
tion, 
1898-19071 
Per cent 
of foreign 
born of 
total 
popula- 
tion, 1905. 
Per cent 
of illiter- 
ates in 
female 
popula- 
tion 10 
years of 
age and 
over, 1905. 
1. Fall River 
105,762 
38.6 
194.2 
41.1 
43.86 
15.10 
2. Lawrence 
70,050 
36.9 
181.2 
30.1 
46. 08 
10. 49 
3. Lowell 
94,889 
36. 6 
208. 2 
26.9 
41.73 
7. 00 
4. Holyoke 
49,934 
34.1 
187. 8 
31.6 
39. 59 
8. 83 
5. Chicopee 
20,191 
32.2 
178.4 
37. 6 
39. 21 
10.19 
6. New Bedford 
74,362 
31.6 
172.2 
34.0 
42.70 
12. 37 
Total 
415,188 
35.8 
189.2 
33.4 
42.81 
10.93 
The State 
3,003,680 
23.5 
141.7 
25.0 
30.56 
5.47 
6 CITIES WITH LOW INFANT MORTALITY (RATE OF LESS THAN 135 PER 1,000 
BIRTHS). 
Cities in order of per cent of females 10 
years of age and over gainfully em- 
ployed, 1905. 
Total 
population, 
1905. 
Per cent 
of females 
10 years 
of age 
and over 
gainfully 
em- 
ployed, 
1905. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year 
per 1,000 
birtns, 
1898-1907. 
Births 
per 1,000 
of total 
popula- 
tion, 
1898-1907. 
Per cent 
of foreign 
born of 
total 
popula- 
tion, 1905. 
Per cent 
of illiter- 
ates in 
female 
popula- 
tion 10 
years of 
age and 
over, 1905. 
1. Waltham 
26,282 
31.5 
103.1 
19.5 
28.23 
5. 58 
2. Lynn 
77 j 042 
28.6 
133.0 
21.8 
28.52 
2.16 
3. Marlboro 
14,073 
27.9 
124. 0 
21.3 
23.39 
4. 03 
4. North Adams 
22,150 
27. 7 
121.5 
28.9 
28.14 
6.82 
5. Brockton 
47,794 
26. 8 
109.5 
21.2 
25. 68 
2. 49 
6. Haverhill 
37,830 
26.3 
121.1 
23.6 
23.42 
3.60 
Total 
225,171 
28.1 
121.1 
22.4 
26.67 
3.56 
EARLIER period: 1881 TO 1890. 
INDUSTRIES. 
It will be seen at once that in the earlier period, 1881 to 1890, the 
high mortality group is the textile cities. The only notable excep- 
tion is Holyoke, which is also the leading paper city of the State, 
that industry employing more persons than the cotton mills. The 
remaining cities are predominantly cotton cities, excepting Lawrence, 
where the worsted manufactures predominate. 
As to the cities of the low mortality group, Waltham is the center 
of a great watch industry, but considerable cotton is manufactured. 
Lynn, Marlboro, and Brockton are distinctively shoe towns. North 
Adams manufactures both shoes and cotton. Pittsfield manu- 
factures woolen goods in considerable quantities, but shows widely 
varied industries, such as woodworking and various branches of the 
metal trades. INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
41 
POPULATION. 
The cities of the high mortality group are much larger than those 
of the low mortality group. Certain cities in the two groups are 
fairly comparable, i. e., Lynn and Lawrence, Fall River and New 
Bedford, Brockton and Holyoke, or Marlboro, North Adams, and 
Chicopee. But the aggregate population for the 6 high mortality 
cities is 232,643, while that for the 6 low mortality cities is only 
119,206, or almost exactly half that of the high mortality group. 
PER CENT OF WOMEN OF 10 YEARS AND OVER GAINFULLY EMPLOYED. 
Attention must again be called to the fact that the data presented 
under this heading are but a makeshift. The real essential is the 
number of actually employed mothers of children. In the absence 
of such data, all that can be done is to consider the figures for all 
women employed upon the assumption that the proportion of mar- 
ried women in that total is approximately proportionate to the 
number in the female population at large, a doubtful assumption to 
say the least. On that assumption, however, reference to the table on 
pages 30 and 31 indicates that out of the total of employed women in 
the group of low mortality cities a higher per cent of married women 
would be found than in the high mortality cities, for of the female 
population 10 years of age and over of Lynn, North Adams, Marl- 
boro, and Brockton, respectively, 58.9 per cent, 56 per cent, 56.2 per 
cent, and 62.5 per cent are married. Each of these cities is above 
the average for the 32 cities, and Lynn and Brockton are above the 
average for the entire State of Massachusetts. On the other hand, 
Lowell, Fall River, Holyoke, Lawrence, and Chicopee are all below 
the average for the 32 cities or for the State of Massachusetts, show- 
ing per cents of married women of 51.5, 53.2, 50.5, 52.2, and 52.9, 
respectively. 
All of the 12 cities are well above the average for the State as to 
the proportion of employed women. But ip the 6 high mortality 
cities, the proportion is much higher than in the 6 low mortality 
cities. 
BIRTH RATE. 
All the cities in the high mortality group have a birth rate much 
above that for the State at large. Of the low mortality cities, four 
have a birth rate below that for the State at large, but two have an 
extremely high rate, which brings the rate for the group very slightly 
above that for the State at large. 
INFANT DEATH RATE. 
The infant mortality of the high mortality group is very much 
above not only the arbitrary limit set for this discussion, namely, 165 
per 1,000, but is extreme in comparison to the infant mortality 42 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
rate for the 32 cities which embrace the major portion of the urban 
population of the State, 174.9 per 1,000 births. On the other hand, 
the rate for the low mortality group is not only low in comparison 
to the rate for the 32 cities, but is much below the rate for the State 
at large, 160.4 per 1,000, a rate in which the rural districts are in- 
cluded. The average rate for the 6 high mortality towns is indeed 
70.5 per 1,000 higher than for the low mortality towns, a respectable 
death rate in itself. 
FOREIGN BORN AND FEMALE ILLITERACY. 
The per cents of foreign born and of female illiteracy show striking 
similarity, as is to be expected. The per cent of both factors is 
extremely high for the high mortality towns, and exceptionally low 
for the low mortality towns, being lower not only than the average 
for the 32 cities of the State, but for the State at large. 
later period: 1898 to 1907. 
In the later period the relation of the two groups is practically 
the same. The only difference is the appearance of Haverhill in 
the low mortality group, in place of Pittsfield. 
The preceding comparison shows clearly the complexity of the 
problem, and the unwisdom of hasty conclusions. Indeed, all 
statistical comparisons on this subject, unaccompanied by full in- 
formation on many subjects not capable of statistical demonstration, 
must of necessity be inconclusive. A few observations, however, 
may not here be out of place. 
POPULATION. 
It seems that the size of towns exerts a certain influence. This is 
a view long held by students of the subject. Size alone, however, 
can not be determining, for when Holyoke with 49,934 people has 
an infant death rate of 187.8 per 1,000 births, while Brockton with 
47,794 people has an iitfant death rate of only 109.5 per 1,000 births, 
or when Lawrence with a population of 70,050 has a death rate of 
181.2 per 1,000 births, while Lynn with a population of 77,042 has 
an infant death rate of but .133 per 1,000 births, while Chicopee 
with only 20,191 people has a death rate of 178.4 per 1,000 births 
(later period), something else than the size of the town is the deter- 
mining factor. 
BIRTH RATE. 
The fact that the birth rate is known to have been inaccurate in 
the earlier period (1881-1890) has already been noted. The figures 
for 1898 to 1907, however, may be said to be of value, and the high 
birth rate of the high mortality group presents a striking contrast 
to the rate for the low mortality group, though North Adams pre- INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
43 
sents an exception. In this connection it should be noted that any 
error of understatement of the birth rate is likely to be considerably 
greater for the high than for the low mortality group, because the 
high mortality group of towns have a large foreign population and 
are to a considerable degree non-English speaking towns, while the 
low mortality towns have largely an American-born and English- 
speaking population. Hence complete registration would almost 
certainly serve to make the disparity between the two groups in this 
regard even greater than it is. 
The difference in the per cent of women employed in the two 
groups is not nearly great enough to account for the great difference 
in infant mortality. Indeed, we have a group of towns which are 
above the average in the per cent of women employed, and far below 
it in regard to infant mortality. A causal relation can not, there- 
fore, be said to be shown by this comparison. 
PER CENT OF WOMEN GAINFULLY EMPLOYED. 
The per cent of foreign-born and per cent of female illiteracy are 
clearly related, and may suggest a partial causal relation to infantile 
mortality. 
One fact stands out clearly, however, in considering the two groups 
of cities, namely, the high mortality group is in general the textile 
towns, while the low mortality group is in general the shoe towns of 
the State of Massachusetts. 
FOREIGN-BORN AND FEMALE ILLITERACY. 
COMPARISON OF TEXTILE CITIES AND BOOT AND SHOE CITIES. 
It is worth while, therefore, to examine in some detail the com- 
position of the groups of female cotton-mill and boot and shoe 
operatives of Massachusetts, since these two industries are virtually- 
contrasted in regard to the rate of infant mortality of the population 
which they employ. 
The following tables present the main facts for these two groups: 
NATIVITY AND PARENTAGE OF FEMALE COTTON-MILL OPERATIVES IN MASSA- 
CHUSETTS AND IN THE LEADING TEXTILE CITIES OF THAT STATE. 1905. 
[From unpublished data furnished by the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics, except the totals for the 
State, which are computed from the Census of Massachusetts, 1905, Vol. II, p. 69.] 
NUMBER. 
Female cotton-mill 
operatives. 
The 
State. 
Chico- 
pee. 
Fall 
River. 
Fitch- 
burg. 
Hol- 
yoke. 
Law- 
rence. 
Lowell. 
New 
Bedford. 
Taun- 
ton. 
Aggregate number 
44,217 
1,543 
12,966 
942 
1,768 
2,899 
5,524 
6,896 
1,213 
First generation: 
Native-born 
17,110 
418 
5,335 
306 
735 
1,183 
1,865 
2,084 
568 
Foreign-born. 
27,107 
1,125 
7,631 
636 
1,033 
1,716 
3,659 
4,812 
645 
Second generation: 
Native father 
3,606 
63 
836 
56 
137 
246 
476 
383 
131 
Foreign father 
40,611 
1,480 
12,130 
886 
1,631 
2,653 
5,048 
6,513 
1,082 44 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
NATIVITY AND PARENTAGE OF FEMALE COTTON-MILL OPERATIVES IN MASSA- 
CHUSETTS AND IN THE LEADING TEXTILE CITIES OF THAT STATE, 1905-Concl'd. 
Female cotton-mill 
The 
Chico- 
Fall 
Fitch- 
Hol- 
Law- 
Lowell. 
New 
Taun- 
operatives. 
State. 
pee. 
River. 
burg. 
yoke. 
rence. 
Bedford. 
ton. 
Third generation: 
Both grandparents na- 
tive 
1,778 
17 
256 
13 
65 
128 
250 
414 
43 
Both grandparents for- 
eign 
42,315 
1,520 
12,661 
927 
1,697 
2,760 
5,269 
6,475 
1,168 
Grandparents mixed or 
unknown 
124 
6 
49 
2 
6 
11 
5 
7 
2 
Place of birth of father: 
Native- 
Bom in Massachu- 
setts 
1,649 
24 
432 
14 
51 
99 
189 
195 
95 
Bom in other States 
1,957 
39 
404 
42 
86 
147 
287 
188 
36 
Foreign- 
346 
Ireland 
9,814 
2,960 
81 
488 
880 
2,018 
796 
317 
Canada, English.... 
595 
29 
86 
18 
39 
52 
175 
39 
29 
Canada, French.... 
13,317 
201 
4,005 
432 
564 
750 
1,493 
2,156 
335 
England 
6,111 
8 
3,099 
22 
38 
320 
364 
1,595 
69 
Germany 
857 
5 
27 
59 
68 
103 
8 
86 
22 
Scandinavia 
112 
18 
6 
5 
3 
23 
12 
4 
Italy 
186 
328 
57 
13 
21 
4 
14 
1 
Poland 
1,499 
71 
42 
63 
78 
38 
28 
Russia 
460 
6 
68 
186 
6 
33 
26 
36 
8 
Austria 
2,936 
546 
142 
8 
324 
136 
202 
311 
114 
Portugal 
2,962 
1,268 
70 
266 
1,207 
111 
Prince Edward 
Island 
36 
4 
12 
11 
2 
Newfoundland 
18 
1 
7 
2 
1 
Nova Scotia 
142 
1 
26 
2 
15 
35 
10 
2 
New Brunswick.... 
119 
9 
18 
1 
4 
25 
4 
7 
Scotland 
843 
2 
224 
36 
43 
94 
91 
133 
27 
Wales 
39 
18 
1 
2 
5 
6 
2 
France 
165 
7 
12 
3 
12 
27 
12 
31 
Other countries 
400 
29 
1 
1 
68 
210 
38 
4 
NUMBER-Concluded. 
PER CENT. 
Aggregate number 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
First generation: 
Native-born 
38.7 
27.1 
41.1 
32.5 
41.6 
40.8 
33.8 
30.2 
46.8 
Foreign-born 
61.3 
72.9 
58.9 
67.5 
58.4 
59.2 
66.2 
69.8 
53.2 
Second generation: 
Native father 
8.2 
4.1 
6.4 
5.9 
7.7 
8.5 
8.6 
5.6 
10.8 
Foreign father 
91.8 
95.9 
93.6 
94.1 
92.3 
91.5 
91.4 
94.4 
89.2 
Third generation: 
Both grandparents na- 
fl 
tive 
4.0 
2.0 
1.4 
3.7 
4.4 
4.5 
6.0 
3.5 
Both grandparents for- 
eign 
95.7 
98.5 
97.6 
98.4 
96.0 
95.2 
95.4 
93.9 
96.3 
Grandparents mixed or 
unknown 
.3 
.4 
.4 
.2 
.3 
.4 
.1 
.1 
.2 
Place of birth of father: 
Native- 
Bom in Massachu- 
setts 
3.7 
1.6 
3.4 
1.5 
2.9 
3.4 
3.4 
2.8 
7.8 
Bom in other States 
4.4 
2.5 
3.1 
4.5 
4.9 
5.1 
5.2 
2.7 
3.0 
Foreign- 
Ireland 
% 
22.2 
22.4 
22.8 
8.6 
27.6 
30.4 
36.5 
11.5 
26.1 
Canada, English.... 
1.4 
1.9 
.7 
1.9 
2.2 
1.8 
3.2 
.6 
2.4 
Canada, French.... 
30.1 
13.0 
30.9 
45.9 
31.9 
25.9 
27.0 
31.3 
27.6 
England 
13.8 
.5 
23.9 
2.3 
2.1 
11.0 
6.6 
23.1 
5.7 
Germany 
1.9 
.3 
.2 
6.3 
3.8 
3.6 
.1 
1.3 
1.8 
Scandinavia 
.3 
.1 
.6 
.3 
.1 
.4 
.2j 
.3 
Italy 
.4 
.4 
1.4 
2.4 
.7 
. 1 
.2 
. 1 
Poland 
3.4 
21.3 
.6 
19.8 
2.2 
1.4 
.6 
2.3 
Russia 
1.0 
.4 
. 5 
.3 
1.1 
.5 
.5 
.7 
Austria 
6.6 
35.4 
1.1 
.8 
18.3 
4.7 
3.7 
4.5 
9.4 
Portugal 
6.7 
9.8 
2.4 
4.8 
17.5 
9.1 
Prince Edward 
Island 
.1 
(a) 
.4 
.2 
.2 
Newfoundland 
.1 
.1 
.1 
(a) 
(a) 
.2 
Nova Scotia 
.3 
.1 
.2 
.2 
. 5 
.6 
.1 
New Brunswick.... 
.3 
.1 
1.9 
.1 
.1 
.5 
.1 
.6 
Scotland 
1.9 
.1 
1.7 
3.8 
2.4 
3.2 
1.7 
1.9 
2.2 
Wales 
.1 
.1 
.1 
.1 
. 1 
. 1 
.2 
France 
.4 
.4 
.1 
.3 
.7 
.9 
.2 
Other countries 
.9 
.2 
.1 
.1 
2.4 
3.8 
.6 
.3 
«Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
45 
NUMBER AND PER CENT OF FEMALE COTTON-MILL OPERATIVES IN SPECIFIED 
AGE GROUPS IN THE LEADING TEXTILE CITIES OF MASSACHUSETTS AND IN THE 
STATE, 1905. 
[From Cotton Textile Industry, Vol. I, of this report, p. 45. Figures furnished by the Massachusetts 
Bureau of Statistics from data hitherto unpublished.] 
NUMBER. 
Age. 
The 
State. 
Chico- 
pee. 
Fall 
River. 
Fitch- 
burg. 
Hol- 
yoke. 
Law- 
rence. 
Lowell. 
New 
Bedford. 
Taun- 
ton. 
Under 16 years 
2,794 
73 
832 
79 
169 
152 
232 
411 
65 
16 to 24 years 
22,265 
839 
6,167 
569 
1,032 
1,283 
2,219 
3,542 
696 
25 to 44 vears 
16' 430 
562 
5j 122 
270 
'506 
h 199 
2^496 
2,634 
403 
45 to 64 years 
2,657 
68 
'828 
24 
60 
'256 
' 560 
'304 
48 
65 years" and over and un- 
known 
71 
1 
17 
1 
9 
17 
5 
1 
Total , 
44,217 
1,543 
12,966 
942 
1,768 
2,899 
5,524 
6,896 
1,213 
PER CENT. 
Under 16 years 
6.3 
4.7 
6.4 
8.4 
9.5 
5.2 
4.2 
5.9 
5.4 
16 to 24 years 
50.3 
54.4 
47.6 
60.4 
58.4 
44.3 
40.2 
51.4 
57.4 
25 to 44 years 
37.2 
36.4 
39.5 
28.7 
28.6 
41.4 
45.2 
38.2 
33.2 
45 to 64 years 
6.0 
4.4 
6.4 
2.5 
3.4 
8.8 
10.1 
4.4 
3.9 
65 years' and over and un- 
known 
.2 
.1 
.1 
.1 
.3 
.3 
.1 
.1 
Total 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
CONJUGAL CONDITION OF FEMALE COTTON-MILL OPERATIVES IN THE LEADING 
TEXTILE CITIES OF MASSACHUSETTS, 1905. 
[From unpublished data furnished by the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics, except the total for the 
State, which is from the Census of Massachusetts, 1905, Vol. II, p. 69.] 
City. 
Number. 
Per cent. 
Single 
and 
unknown. 
Married. 
Widowed 
and 
divorced. 
Total. 
Single 
and 
unknown. 
Married. 
Widowed 
and 
divorced. 
Total. 
The State 
31,253 
10,863 
2,101 
44,217 
70.7 
24.6 
4.7 
100.0 
Chicopee 
1,067 
406 
70 
1,543 
69.2 
2613 
4.5 
100.0 
Fall River 
8^751 
3,615 
600 
12,966 
67.5 
27.9 
4.6 
100.0 
Fitchburg. 
778 
133 
31 
942 
82.6 
14.1 
3.3 
100.0 
Holyoke. 
1,482 
235 
51 
1,768 
83.8 
13.3 
2.9 
100.0 
Lawrence 
2,045 
660 
194 
2,899 
70.5 
22.8 
6.7 
100.0 
Lowell 
3i 560 
1,531 
433 
5,524 
64.5 
27.7 
7.8 
100.0 
New Bedford 
4,737 
1,879 
280 
6,896 
68.7 
27.2 
4.1 
100.0 
Taunton 
1,000 
' 177 
36 
1,213 
82.4 
14.6 
3.0 
100.0 
ILLITERACY OF FEMALE COTTON-MILL OPERATIVES IN THE LEADING TEXTILE 
CITIES OF MASSACHUSETTS, 1905. 
[From unpublished data furnished by the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics, except the total for the 
State, which is from the Census of Massachusetts, 1905, Vol. II, p. 69.] 
City. 
Total 
number of 
female op- 
eratives. 
Number of illiterate female 
operatives. 
Per cent of illiterate 
female operatives. 
Per cent of 
illiterate 
female op- 
eratives 
to total 
female op- 
eratives. 
Unable 
to read. 
Unable 
to write. 
Unable 
to read 
or write. 
Total. 
Unable 
to read. 
Unable 
to write. 
Unable 
to read 
or write. 
The State 
44,217 
2 
495 
5,193 
5,690 
(°) 
8,7 
91.3 
12.9 
Chicopee 
1,543 
75 
211 
286 
0.1 
26.2 
73.8 
18.5 
Fall River 
12,966 
1 
140 
1,606 
1,747 
8.0 
91.9 
13.5 
Fitchburg 
942 
9 
27 
36 
25.0 
75.0 
3.8 
Holyoke 
1,768 
6 
312 
318 
1.9 
98.1 
18.0 
Lawrence 
2,899 
25 
322 
347 
7.2 
92.8 
12.0 
Lowell 
5,524 
6,896 
63 
621 
684 
9.2 
90.8 
12.4 
New Bedford 
13 
891 
904 
1.4 
98.6 
13.1 
Taunton 
1,213 
1 
14 
137 
152 
.7 
9.2 
90.1 
12.5 
a Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. 46 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
NATIVITY AND PARENTAGE OF FEMALE BOOT AND SHOE OPERATIVES OF MASSA- 
CHUSETTS, 1905. 
Num- 
ber. 
Per 
cent. 
Num- 
ber. 
Per 
cent. 
Aggregate number 
21,224 
100.0 
Place of birth of father-Concluded. 
Foreign-Concluded. 
First generation: 
Canada French 
2,157 
10.2 
Native-born 
16,734 
78.8 
England 
'755 
3.6 
Foreign-born 
4,490 
21.2 
Germany 
324 
1.5 
Second generation: 
Scandinavia 
396 
1.9 
Native father 
8,027 
37.8 
Italy 
265 
1.2 
Foreign father 
13,197 
62.2 
Poland 
103 
.5 
Third generation: 
Russia 
291 
1.4 
Both grandparents native.... 
6,192 
29.2 
Austria 
46 
.2 
Both grandparents foreign.... 
14,835 
69.9 
Portugal 
77 
.3 
Grandparents mixed or un- 
Prince Edward Island.... 
123 
.6 
knowii 
197 
.9 
Newfoundland 
105 
.5 
Place of birth of father: 
Nova Scotia 
970 
4.6 
Native-born- 
New Brunswick 
338 
1.6 
Massachusetts 
4,710 
22.2 
Scotland 
262 
1.2 
Other States 
3,317 
15.6 
W ales 
16 
.1 
Foreign- 
France 
45 
.2 
Ireland 
6,235 
29.4 
Other countries 
90 
.4 
Canada English 
599 
2.8 
[From Census of Massachusetts, 1905, Vol. II, p. 55.] 
CONJUGAL CONDITION, AGE DISTRIBUTION, AND DEGREES OF ILLITERACY OF THE 
FEMALE BOOT AND SHOE OPERATIVES OF MASSACHUSETTS, 1905. 
Number. 
Per cent. 
Number. 
Per cent. 
Aggregate number 
21,224 
100.0 
Age periods-Concluded. 
25 to 44 years 
9,321 
1,894 
67 
20 
172 
43.9 
8.9 
.3 
10.4 
89.6 
Conjugal condition: 
Single and unknown 
Married 
15,613 
4,050 
1,561 
633 
9,309 
73.6 
19.1 
7.3 
3.0 
43.9 
45 to 64 vears 
65 and over and unknown. 
Degree of illiteracy: 
Can not write 
Widowed and divorced... 
Age periods: 
Can neither read nor write. 
Total... 
16 to 24 years......... 
192 
.9 
[From Census of Massachusetts, 1905, Vol. II, p. 55.] 
The contrast between these two working forces is best emphasized 
by the fact that while in 1905, of the female cotton-mill operatives 
of the State, only 38.7 per cent were native-born, 78.8 per cent of 
the female shoe operatives were native-born. A marked difference 
in nativity of fathers also is shown. Of the shoe operatives, 37.8 
per cent had native-born fathers, but of the cotton operatives only 8.2 
per cent had native-born fathers. 
The proportion of married women employed in the two industries 
does not differ very widely. The cotton industry shows 29.3 per 
cent of married, widowed, or divorced women employed, while of 
the boot and shoe operatives 26.4 per cent are married, widowed, or 
divorced. 
The age distribution of the two industries, however, shows a con- 
siderable difference. If the number of operatives 16 to 44 years of 
age was considered, it would appear that the two working forces were 
practically identical in age composition, since of the boot and shoe 
operatives 87.8 per cent are of those ages, while of the cotton oper- 47 
INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
atives 87.5 fall in the same age group. But it will be found that 
while of the shoe operatives 43.9 per cent are 25 to 44 years of age, 
of the cotton operatives 37.2 per cent are of those ages. In other 
words, the shoe industry employs older women than the cotton 
industry. This is only to be expected, in view of the longer training 
required and the higher wages paid. 
The greatest difference, however, is in the per cent of illiteracy of 
the two groups of women workers. The shoe operatives are prac- 
tically a literate population, only 192, or 0.90 per cent, of the female 
shoe operatives of the State being reported as in any degree illiterate. 
Of the female cotton operatives, on the other hand, 5,690, or 12.9 
per cent, were reported as illiterate. In other words, to each illiterate 
female shoe employee about 30 illiterate female cotton employees 
are found. 
The difference between the economic condition of the two indus- 
tries is emphasized by the difference in wages. In Bulletin 77, 
United States Bureau of Labor, pages 163-165, the wages of female 
closers-on for the State of Massachusetts in 1907 are shown as 19.4 
cents per hour for a week averaging 52.69 hours, or a little over $10 
per full week, while female vampers are reported as averaging 26.01 
cents per hour for an average week of 55.05 hours, or a little over 
$14 for a full week. These occupations embrace the greater part 
of the female shoe operatives, though not all. 
These wages serve to emphasize the well-known fact that the shoe 
trade is a highly paid industry. On the other hand, in the report on 
the cotton textile industry, issued also by the Bureau of Labor, it 
is shown that the largest number of female cotton-mill operatives 
in 46 representative factories in New England 78.5 per cent earned 
less than $9 per week, while 55.5 per cent earned less than $7 per 
week.® Thus to the wide contrast between these groups of cities 
as to race, birth rate, and literacy is added a contrast quite as great 
in the wage-earning power of the people. 
TEXTILE CITIES OF NEW ENGLAND OUTSIDE OF MASSACHUSETTS. 
The following table, which exhibits the situation for a group of 
textile towns of New England outside of Massachusetts, giving the 
same data as have been presented for that State, so far as available, 
shows that the conditions in the Massachusetts textile towns are in 
no wise exceptional. 
a See Cotton Textile Industry, Vol. I of this report, p. 305. 48 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
DEATH RATE UNDER 1 YEAR FOR 1900 TO 1907, INCLUSIVE, IN FIVE NEW ENGLAND 
TEXTILE CITIES OUTSIDE OF MASSACHUSETTS, COMPARED TO THE NUMBER OF 
WOMEN OF 16 YEARS AND OVER, EMPLOYED IN MANUFACTURES, TOGETHER WITH 
TOTAL POPULATION, PROPORTION OF FOREIGN-BORN, AND BIRTH RATE. 
State and city. 
Total 
popula- 
tion, 
1900.a 
Per 
cent of 
foreign - 
born 
of total 
popula- 
tion, 
1900.6 
Total 
female 
popula- 
tion of 
16 years 
and 
over, 
1900. 
Females 16 
years of age 
and over 
employed in 
manufacturing 
in 1900. 
Fe- 
males 
16 years 
of age 
and 
over at 
work in 
cotton 
mills, 
1900. 
Total births, 
1900-1907. 
Total deaths 
under 1 year, 
1900-1907. 
Num- 
ber. 
Per 
cent. 
Num- 
ber. 
Aver- 
age 
annual 
rate pei 
1,000 of 
total 
popula- 
tion. c 
Num- 
ber. 
Death 
rafe per 
1,000 
births. 
Maine: 
Biddeford 
16,145 
44.28 
d 5,651 
1,927 
34.1 
«1,500 
4,289 
37.95 
829 
193.3 
Lewiston 
23,761 
39.20 
d8,316 
3,164 
38.5 
2,585 
71,054 
122.18 
7275 
7 260.9 
New Hampshire: 
Manchester 
56,987 
42.56 
21,547 
8,236 
38.2 
5,578 
12,539 
31.43 
2,774 
221.2 
Rhode Island: 
Pawtucket 
39,231 
33.36 
14,187 
4,343 
30.6 
1.933 
8,216 
8,228 
29.92 
1,323 
1,287 
161.0 
W oonsocket 
28,204 
44.38 
9,508 
2,635 
27.7 
1,092 
41.68 
156.4 
a Twelfth Census, 1900, Population, Part I, Table 8. 
t Computed from Twelfth Census, 1900, Population, Part I, Table 24. 
c Rate computed on population at Twelfth Census, 1900. 
d The reports of the Twelfth Census do not classify by ages the population of cities of less than 25,000, 
and there being no official age returns for the female population of Biddeford, Lewiston, Chicopee, and 
Burlington, the number of females 16 years of age and over in each of those cities has been estimated an 
the basis of 35 per cent of the total population in 1900, that having been, roughly speaking, the average 
ratio of females of 16 years of age and over to the total population of the New England States in 1900. 
e In default of United States Census returns regarding the number of women of 16 years of age and over 
employed in the cotton mills of this city in 1900, the numbers in question have been roughly estimated 
on the basis of the most reliable local information obtainable. 
7 Figures are restricted to years 1906 and 1907, as prior to 1906 deaths for Lewiston were not separately 
reported. 
In addition, at the close of this article will be found a detailed 
tabulation of the infant deaths and the deaths of children aged 1 to 4 
years for the 13 New England cities studied by specific causes, as 
reported in the mortality returns of the United States Census Office 
for 1900 to 1908, inclusive. 
CONCLUSION. 
As noted at the beginning of this study, it has often been customary, 
in approaching statistically the subject of the employment of married 
women in its relation to infant mortality, to ignore the many other 
complex social and economic factors having a bearing upon the 
problem. The preceding tables show clearly that in the cities of New 
England certain of these factors which in the past have been ignored 
in the consideration of the problem are with fair uniformity coex- 
istent with a high infant mortality rate; these being (1) a high pro- 
portion of foreign born, (2) a high female illiteracy, and (3) a high 
birth rate. These factors operate with equal force over large or small 
areas-that is, the results when the six New England States are re- 
garded as units are not different than when individual cities of the INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
49 
State of Massachusetts are studied as units, the degree of urbaniza- 
tion of the population taking the place of the size of towns, and 
accompanying the infant death rate with almost perfect regularity 
through the last three census periods. 
The two other factors considered in this study relate themselves 
with less regularity to the infant death rate. The first of these is 
the size of cities. Large towns, in general, have rather higher rates 
than small towns, although, as already noted, this relationship is 
found not to be invariable. For example, in the decade 1898-1907 
the city of Lynn, with a population of 77,042, had an infant death 
rate of but 133 per 1,000 births, while Lawrence, with a population 
of 70,050, had a death rate of 181.2 per 1,000; Brockton, with a 
population of 47,794, of only 109.5 per 1,000 births, while Chicopee, 
with a population of only 20,191, had an infant death rate of 178.4 
per 1,000 births. 
The second factor which is found, statistically speaking, associated 
very uncertainly, to say the least, with the infant death rate, is the 
subject of this study-the proportion of women engaged in extra- 
domestic occupations. 
It is true that the six cities of Massachusetts having an extremely 
high infant death rate, have also a high proportion of women employed 
in extra-domestic occupations (see tables pp. 39 and 40). It is 
likewise true that these six cities with abnormal infant death rates 
have a considerably higher proportion of women so employed than 
the six industrial cities with low infant mortality rates presented 
with them for purposes of comparison. But the fact must not be 
lost sight of that, while the six cities with low infant death rates do 
show a smaller proportion of women industrially employed than the 
six high mortality cities, the per cent of women so employed in the six 
low mortality cities is a little higher than the per cent for the 32 cities 
shown on pages 30 and 31 and considerably higher than the per cent 
for the State of Massachusetts as a whole, while the infant mortality 
rate is not only lower than the rate for the 32 cities but is 19 per 
1,000 less than the rate for the State at large, in which rural districts 
have been included. It will be seen that this result clearly disproves 
the contention that the extra-domestic employment of women is the 
dominant factor in determining the infant death rate so far as the 
Massachusetts cities are concerned. 
It is desirable for a moment to revert to the real question of prime 
importance in the relation of women's work to infant mortality, 
namely, how many mothers of young children return to industrial 
employment outside of their homes before their infants have attained 
to the age of 1 year? Little accurate information is available, 
but the Report on the Condition of Woman and Child Wage-Earners 50 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
in the Cotton Textile Industry, to which previous reference has been 
made, shows that only 23, or 14.1 per cent, out of 163 married women 
working in cotton mills who were scheduled in New England had 
children under 3 years of age.° The distribution of these 23 children 
by ages in detail is not shown; but it is obvious that the proportion of 
women working in the cotton mills who have infants (children under 
1 year) at home must be very small at any particular time, and in no 
wise sufficient to account for the excessive infant mortality rate of 
the textile cities. The fact that the employment of mothers is not 
the chief factor in its determination is indicated conclusively by the 
detailed study of the infant mortality of Fall River during 1908, pre- 
sented as Part II of this volume. 
It has been noted repeatedly that the proportion which the number 
of foreign-born bears to the total population, the degree of urbaniza- 
tion, or size of cities, the birth rate, and the per cent of female illiter- 
acy, bear, with few exceptions, a constant and striking relation to the 
infant death rate. 
But it must not be inferred that these, any more than the extra- 
domestic employment of women, are the real causes which determine 
that death rate. All the factors discussed in this study are rather the 
indices of the true causes of high or low infant death rates, the causes 
themselves lying deep in the social and economic structure of the 
different population units under consideration. 
These true causes have already received study abroad, and to a 
less degree have been investigated in the United States more recently, 
and a brief summary of the findings in the case will best serve to cor- 
relate the statistical facts presented in this paper with the conditions 
of whose presence they are the outward sign. 
It is well again to emphasize the fundamental proposition, effec- 
tively stated by Doctor Newman, that "the causes of infant mortality 
are composite. It has been well said that every effect has an ancestry 
of causes. Preeminently is this the case in regard to infant mortality, 
which is due to a combination of factors closely interrelated."6 Ue 
a The Report on the Condition of Woman and Child Wage-Earners in the Cotton 
Textile Industry (Vol. I of this report, pp. 1010 and 1032), to which previous refer- 
ence has been made, shows that out of 407 married women living in the Massachusetts 
cotton-mill families visited in the course of the investigation of the Bureau of -Labor 
only 101 married women were at work as wage-earners at the time of the visits, and 
that only 13, or 12.9 per cent, of these were mothers of children under 3 years of age. 
Out of 806 married women living in the New England families included in the same 
investigation 175 married women were at work, and only 23, or 14.1 per cent, had 
children under 3 years of age. Compare Men's Ready-Made Clothing, Volume II of 
this report, showing that only 9.9 per cent of the married women at work (not includ- 
ing home finishers) had children under 3 years of age; Glass Industry, Volume III, 
with 14.1 per cent; and Silk Industry, with 17.3 per cent. 
& Newman: Infant Mortality, p. 60. 51 
INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
further observes concerning the facts which seem to him to be indi- 
cated by a detailed examination of England's infant mortality statis- 
tics through many years: 
1. Nearly one-half (about 48 per cent) of the infant deaths in 
towns occur in the first three months of life; 
2. The chief fatality in these first three months is caused by pre- 
maturity and immaturity; 
3. By far the greatest fatality in the remainder of the first year of 
life is due to inflammatory conditions of the lungs and to epidemic 
diarrhea; and 
4. Infant mortality is not declining owing to the fact that while 
certain diseases have enormously decreased, prematurity, pneu- 
monia, and epidemic diarrhea have, in spite of all advance in science, 
steadily increased, particularly in the towns and where the lamp of 
social life burns low. 
Doctor Newsholme's observations, made in a recent official report, a 
are, generally speaking, in agreement with Doctor Newman's 'state- 
ment of the salient facts, with the exception that Doctor Newsholme 
does not consider that there has been an absolute increase in England 
and Wales in deaths from prematurity. lie states his conclusion 
thus: "There does not appear to be sufficient foundation for the 
statement that prematurity to an increasing extent is a cause of 
mortality in the English experience. There has probably been 
much transference of certification between different vague (related) 
causes of death, and it is safer to consider all these vague conditions 
together under a common heading. When this is done, evidence of 
increased death rate disappears."6 
Two additional observations by Doctor Newsholme should be 
added to the conclusions of Doctor Newman: 
1. A high infant death rate in a given community implies in general 
a high death rate in the next four years of life, while low death rates 
at both age periods are similarly associated/ 
2. It is clear that the counties having high infant mortalities 
continue in general to suffer somewhat excessively throughout the 
first twenty years of human life, and that counties having low 
infantile mortalities continue to have relatively low death rates in 
the first twenty years of life, though the superiority is not so great 
at the later as at the earlier ages.d 
With these fundamental facts in mind it is possible to pass to a 
consideration of the true factors which influence infant mortality. 
The following statement of Doctor Newsholme, while referring to 
° Great Britain, Local Government Board, Supplement to Thirty-ninth. Annual 
Report. 
b Ibid., p. 35. 
cibid., p. 13. 
Ibid., p. 17. 52 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
English conditions, is apparently almost equally applicable to the 
conditions prevalent in Massachusetts: 
These [influences! may be classified into prenatal, acting through 
the mother and dependent on her health; natal, and still in large 
measure due to the condition of the mother, e. g., causes of difficult 
parturition, though the skill of the doctor or midwife is also largely 
concerned; and postnatal, which arise from environmental 
conditions. 
It has been already seen that in the counties of England and Wales 
showing excessive or low infant mortality these different causes of 
high or low mortality are acting together to such an extent as to be 
almost inextricable. I prefer, therefore, for the present, to accept 
the tangle and to discuss the factors of infant mortality apart from 
any such attempt at separation. 
Among the influences affecting infant mortality are the following. 
They are not given in order of importance. 
1. The proportion of male to female births. 
2. The proportion of legitimate to illegitimate births. 
3. The magnitude of the birth rate, which may for the present 
purpose be otherwise put as the size of the family. 
4. The number of stillbirths. 
5. The quality of the help given at birth. 
6. The age of the wife at marriage. 
7. Poverty and social conditions. 
8. The extra-domestic employment of married women. 
9. Urban or rural conditions of life. 
10. Domestic and municipal sanitation. 
11. Conditions of housing. 
12. Ignorance and fecklessness of mothers. 
Obviously the above list is incomplete, and still more obviously the 
different factors overlap at various points. 
It is beyond the province of this study to discuss in detail this 
complicated list of factors; but because of the bearing of certain of 
them upon the relation of the extra-domestic employment of married 
women to the infant death rate, these must be separately considered. 
It will be recalled that those factors statistically presented with the 
two just named were the proportion of foreign-born in the total 
population, the degree of urbanization of the population, the birth 
rate, and female illiteracy. 
It may at first appear that two of these four factors, which were 
found to show an almost invariable statistical relation to the infant 
death rate of Massachusetts and of New England, namely, the pro- 
portion of foreign born and of female illiteracy, are unrelated to the 
determining influences listed by Doctor Newsholme. But a moment's 
observation will show that these two factors are but another expres- 
sion of some of the most important factors named by him. 
The newly arrived immigrant, especially if he be of a non-English 
speaking race, must usually begin at the bottom of the industrial 
ladder and, therefore, is usually poor. He crowds into cities, thus 53 
INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
rapidly increasing the degree of urbanization and the size of the 
cities. Owing to his ignorance, his poverty, and his low standard of 
life he is often found under the worst housing conditions which 
our cities afford. More than that, he not only lives in the worst 
houses, but in the worst districts of our cities, speaking from the 
sanitary viewpoint, and as if this is not enough, coupled with the 
unfair treatment which his adopted city gives him in the form of 
wretched housing and squalid streets, his wife, unused to the living 
conditions into which she finds herself thrust, is likely to be none too 
successful in her efforts to cope with the situation, and her house- 
keeping is often far from sanitary according to the standard necessary 
for urban health. 
More than this, there is a distinct tendency to early marriage and 
large families among the foreign born, thus accentuating poverty, and 
owing to the custom among them of employing midwives, the quality 
of help given at birth is frequently far from good. 
The proportion of foreign born in a given population also would 
serve in the absence of other data as an index of the ignorance of 
mothers, but in this case we have the high per cent of female illiteracy 
in the high mortality towns, a rough but valuable index of what 
Doctor Newsholme calls the "ignorance and fecklessness of mothers." 
In other words, a high proportion of foreign born in a city, with its 
correlative, the per cent of female illiteracy, indicates with reasonable 
assurance that in that city- 
(a) A large proportion of its population will live in poverty. 
(6) A large proportion will live under the worst conditions as to, 
housing, domestic and municipal sanitation. This is likely to involve, 
it will be remembered, a bad milk supply and all the conditions of 
filth which are the powerful causes of epidemic diarrhea in infants. 
(c) In such a city, with the preponderance of foreign traditions and 
standards, a large proportion of its women will marry young and bear 
large families. 
(d) At birth too often the care given will be that of an ignorant 
midwife. 
(e) After birth the mother, hampered by poverty and ignorance, 
often will have little idea how to care for her child. 
It would seem, therefore, that at least some of Doctor Newsholme's 
conclusions as to the significance of these influences would be appli- 
cable equally to England or to Massachusetts. He finds that- 
1. "Large families evidently do not necessarily imply a tendency 
to high infant mortality. The connection often observed between a 
high birth rate and a high rate of infant mortality probably is due in 
great part to the fact that large families are common among the poorest 
classes, and these classes are specially exposed to the degrading 54 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
influences producing excessive infant mortality."0 Expressed in 
another form and applied to Massachusetts, the high birth rate of the 
Massachusetts cities having also a high death rate means that a large 
number of infants are born into conditions under which they can not 
survive. 
2. As to the quality of help given at birth "there is muchprima 
facie evidence pointing to negligent and careless attendance in child 
birth and to consequently excessive mortality not only of mothers 
but also of infants in early infancy."6 
3. "Early motherhood is associated to a minor extent with a rela- 
tively high infant mortality." 
4. "Infant mortality is higher among the poor than among the 
well-to-do, although natural feeding of infants is probably more 
general among the former." 
5. "Infant mortality is always highest in crowded centers of popu- 
lation; but a high infant mortality can (by proper measures as to 
sanitation and housing) be avoided even under conditions of dense 
aggregation of population." c 
6. "Infant mortality is highest in those counties where, under 
urban conditions of life, filthy privies are permitted, where scavenging 
is neglected, and where the streets and yards are to a large extent 
not 'made up ' or ' paved.' " d 
"Diarrhea is most prevalent where municipal sanitation is bad. It 
can not *be entirely removed unless infants' food is prepared under 
absolutely cleanly conditions." 
7. Doctor Newsholme quotes with approval in regard to the 
ignorance of mothers the following statement by Doctor Reid, county 
medical officer for Staffordshire: 
" Of course there are many contributory causes of excessive infant 
mortality, most of which are preventable, but there is one which far 
exceeds all others in potency, namely, the prevailing ignorance among 
mothers as to the proper feeding of infants." e 
An American authority on the diseases of children has recently 
reiterated this conclusion of Doctor Reid: "It is generally agreed 
that fully one-half of these infant deaths could be prevented by 
adequate measures of relief. In proof of this are two incontrovertible 
facts: First, the death rate among exclusively breast-fed babies is 
comparatively small. Second, the death rate among artificially fed 
babies, properly cared for and given the best artificial diet, is like- 
a Great Britain, Local Government Board, Supplement to Thirty-ninth Annual 
Report, p. 49. 
$ Ibid., p. 52. 
cIbid., p. 75. 
dlbid., p. 76. 
«Ibid., p. 101, INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
55 
wise small. Ignorance on the part of the mother is perhaps the 
greatest single factor in this annual slaughter of the innocents." a 
It seems only reasonable to conclude that the presence of the con- 
ditions indicated above as productive of a high infant mortality are 
amply sufficient to account for the high mortality of the textile 
cities of Massachusetts, and that their absence in the great shoe 
cities, as indicated by the fact that the proportion of foreign-born is 
low, the illiteracy of the female population insignificant, and the 
wages in the dominant industry high, accounts for the relatively low 
infant mortality rates of those cities. That these factors are true 
indices of generally good conditions in the latter group is clearly 
shown by their general death rates. Brockton, with a general death 
rate of only 13.20 in 1900, was by far the healthiest city of its size in 
the entire East, and but 27 of all the 343 registration cities in the 
United States had a rate equally low. Lynn also had a compara- 
tively low general death rate, and Haverhill, Marlboro, North Adams, 
and Waltham have all been well below the average general death 
rate of registration cities for many years.6 
The point now to be considered is the English experience in regard 
to the employment of married women in extra-domestic occupations. 
It has been repeatedly emphasized that for the cities of Massachu- 
setts accurate figures are not available, and in lieu of them the pro- 
portion of women of 10 years and over industrially employed has 
been taken as an index of the significance of this factor. 
It was clearly shown that the statistics for the 32 cities of Massa- 
chusetts considered in detail in the preceding pages in no wise bear 
out the frequent assumption that the employment of married women 
is a major factor in determining the infant death rate. A detailed 
study of the infant mortality in Fall River, to which reference has 
been made,c likewise fails to support this contention. 
In Great Britain the statement of Sir John Simon, already quoted, 
of that assumed relationship has been generally accepted without 
question until of late years. The interdepartmental committee on 
physical deterioration, however, which reported in 1904, although it 
cited much evidence which maintained its accuracy was, on the 
whole, rather noncommittal in its report, which stated that " though 
the facts seem to point to a strong presumption that it [excessive 
infant mortality] is also connected with the employment of mothers, 
the information is not so complete as might be desired.d In 1908, 
a J. H. Mason Knox, jr., In Journal of the American Public Health Association, 
January, 1911, p. 44. 
b See Massachusetts State Board of Health, Report for 1908, p. 812, and Twelfth 
Census, Vol. Ill, Part I, pp. 292-554. 
cSee Part II of this volume. 
d Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on Physical Deterioration, Vol. I, 
p. 45. 56 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
in commenting upon Doctor Simon's statements, Doctor Newman 
qualified them slightly: "We can not now, with the new facts and 
experience of half a century behind us, wholly subscribe to these 
conclusions."0 He admitted also that certain towns with a high 
infant mortality showed a low proportion of occupied women, and 
pointed out the complexity of the supposed relationship: 
But the mere fact of extensive employment of women, and par- 
ticularly of mothers in factories, can not be regarded as significant 
of itself. To gauge the effect of such employment on the children of 
such women, reference must be made to some of the following factors 
which play a part in the problem, namely, (a) the character and con- 
dition of the work, (6) the length of hours, (c) employment before 
and after childbirth, and (d) the sanitation of factories and workshops. 
To these also should be added the variations in the birth rate preva- 
lent in different trades, the effect of certain industries upon maternity 
in the way of raising (if such be possible) or reducing the standard 
and practice of mothers as to the care of infants, and, lastly, the 
causes of the mothers' employment. 
Doctor Newsholme, in a detailed analysis of the infant mortality 
statistics of England and Wales, has found that a study of the indus- 
tries involved confirms the conclusion that the employment of mar- 
ried women is not a dominant factor, but reaches the reasonable 
conclusion that because it is not the greatest cause it does not follow 
that it is to be ignored. 
It will thus be seen that this study, in indicating that the employ- 
ment of women is not a controlling factor in determining the infant 
death rates of the cities of Massachusetts, is in exact agreement with 
the results of a careful analysis of English statistics through a long 
period. 
APPENDIX. 
Table I.-BIRTHS, AND DEATHS OF CHILDREN UNDER 1 YEAR OF AGE, IN 32 
MASSACHUSETTS CITIES, 1898 TO 1907. 
[Compiled by the Bureau of the Census.] 
Year. 
Beverly. 
Boston. 
Brockton. 
Cambridge. 
Chelsea. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
1898 
291 
36 
16,577 
2,569 
871 
118 
2,594 
416 
915 
149 
1899 
266 
40 
16,151 
2,401 
915 
100 
2,508 
377 
855 
119 
1900 
322 
34 
16,328 
2,400 
945 
115 
2,648 
364 
929 
140 
1901 
277 
24 
15,561 
2,289 
902 
102 
2,525 
344 
944 
108 
1902 
293 
28 
15,516 
2,269 
934 
80 
2,476 
308 
939 
146 
1903 
283 
40 
15,664 
2,181 
918 
88 
2,528 
322 
962 
143 
1904 
300 
26 
15,730 
2,219 
992 
113 
2,528 
292 
1,056 
128 
1905 
308 
33 
15,661 
2,266 
1,119 
109 
2,453 
305 
1,225 
159 
1906 
359 
45 
17,062 
2,450 
1,171 
129 
2,768 
323 
1,251 
155 
1907 
386 
29 
18,229 
2,351 
1,354 
154 
2,826 
312 
1,439 
154 
Total 
3,085 
335 
162,479 
23,395 
10,121 
1,108 
25,854 
3,363 
10,515 
1,401 
aNewman, Infant Mortality, p. 98. INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
57 
Table I.-BIRTHS, AND DEATHS OF CHILDREN UNDER 1 YEAR OF AGE, IN 32 
MASSACHUSETTS CITIES, 1898 TO 1907-Continued. 
Chicopee. 
Everett. 
Fall River. 
Fitchburg. 
Gloucester. 
Year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
1898 
738 
146 
708 
93 
4,726 
3,987 
4,327 
4,054 
4,341 
4,448 
4,514 
4,092 
4,333 
4,622 
780 
940 
142 
651 
105 
1899 
700 
126 
654 
91 
869 
914 
119 
582 
82 
1900 
752 
157 
781 
103 
885 
1,013 
1,007 
937 
157 
667 
78 
1901 
729 
120 
725 
101 
728 
126 
643 
77 
1902 
787 
144 
747 
101 
893 
135 
635 
90 
1903 
755 
136 
780 
89 
864 
974 
127 
646 
81 
1904 
766 
111 
756 
78 
806 
968 
112 
601 
86 
1905 
726 
124 
764 
96 
846 
953 
126 
594 
89 
1906 
805 
137 
789 
82 
812 
986 
163 
598 
80 
1907 
836 
154 
875 
87 
899 
1,075 
135 
557 
67 
Total 
7,594 
1,355 
7,579 
921 
43,444 
8,382 
9,767 
1,342 
6,174 
835 
Haverhill. 
Holyoke. 
Lawrence. 
Lowell. 
Lynn. 
Year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
1898 
889 
119 
1,633 
1,692 
323 
1,958 
1,786 
365 
2,413 
2,415 
2,596 
2,794 
2,493 
2,519 
2,519 
2,500 
2,547 
2,704 
520 
1,500 
1,533 
223 
1899 
892 
104 
257 
404 
555 
189 
1900 
915 
105 
1,663 
1,634 
307 
2,102 
401 
524 
1,563 
231 
1901 
819 
86 
292 
1,921 
1,958 
354 
547 
1, 567 
1,477 
1,559 
1,724 
1,698 
2,065 
196 
1902 
802 
114 
1,500 
1,512 
251 
353 
524 
184 
1903 
877 
101 
326 
2,045 
2,047 
2,089 
361 
562 
204 
1904 
912 
105 
1,463 
287 
321 
501 
234. 
1905 
834 
106 
1,514 
1,570 
1,610 
268 
413 
494 
256 
1906 
1,012 
977 
140 
320 
2,409 
432 
544 
255 
1907 
101 
334 
2,761 
414 
537 
2^110 
262 
Total 
8,929 
1,081 
15,791 
2,965 
21,076 
3,818 
25,500 
5,308 
16,801 
2,234 
Malden. 
Marlboro. 
Medford. 
New Bedford. 
Newburyport. 
Year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
1898 
848 
128 
336 
32 
365 
53 
2,048 
2,065 
387 
282 
34 
1899 
768 
100 
306 
52 
437 
43 
362 
282 
36 
1900 
764 
118 
279 
59 
446 
59 
2,230 
2,440 
2,437 
2,469 
2,620 
2,765 
2,949 
3,272 
439 
314 
39 
1901 
827 
115 
265 
28 
459 
44 
361 
312 
39 
1902 
800 
96 
289 
35 
416 
44 
446 
350 
54 
1903 
794 
107 
319 
38 
450 
41 
457 
315 
33 
1904 
820 
91 
282 
28 
433 
44 
448 
328 
26 
1905 
859 
100 
303 
33 
427 
42 
421 
305 
37 
1906 
883 
120 
321 
39 
454 
35 
462 
299 
31 
1907 
1,033 
111 
299 
28 
469 
37 
570 
304 
15 
Total 
8,396 
1,086 
2,999 
372 
4,356 
442 
25,295 
4,356 
3,091 
344 58 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
Table I.-BIRTHS, AND DEATHS OF CHILDREN UNDER 1 YEAR OF AGE, IN 32 
MASSACHUSETTS CITIES, 1898 TO 1907-Concluded. 
Year. 
Newton. 
North Adams. 
Northampton. 
Pittsfield. 
Quincy. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
1898 
808 
767 
796 
752 
786 
766 
753 
749 
782 
841 
126 
95 
111 
89 
81 
71 
58 
93 
78 
78 
731 
612 
726 
674 
680 
654 
639 
584 
552 
545 
86 
84 
98 
94 
75 
72 
88 
65 
54 
61 
390 
387 
428 
399 
426 
447 
435 
453 
446 
452 
62 
31 
75 
50 
■ 44 
47 
63 
57 
44 
49 
530 
495 
476 
502 
556 
562 
605 
598 
654 
700 
68 
59 
77 
60 
'42 
60 
56 
59 
52 
83 
776 
707 
752 
709 
745 
773 
765 
767 
850 
832 
82 
108 
81 
65 
96 
76 
77 
82 
96 
94 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
Total 
7,800 
880 
6,397 
777 
4,263 
522 
5,678 
616 
7,676 
857 
Year. 
Salem. 
Somerville. 
Springfield. 
Taunton. 
W altham. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
1898 
954 
932 
994 
953 
937 
997 
1,076 
1,094 
1,128 
1,127 
128 
198 
191 
148 
136 
161 
171 
198 
179 
187 
1,570 
1,595 
1,570 
1,606 
1,583 
1,670 
1,625 
1,637 
1,769 
1,805 
196 
171 
224 
160 
160 
170 
168 
165 
185 
163 
1,584 
1,512 
1,560 
1,449 
1,592 
1,647 
1,624 
1,810 
1,816 
2,019 
221 
177 
258 
165 
194 
199 
213 
202 
220 
234 
772 
728 
788 
835 
756 
779 
811 
810 
885 
909 
109 
133 
161 
103 
93 
118 
126 
162 
142 
129 
500 
474 
516 
486 
512 
516 
535 
481 
551 
562 
59 
56 
64 
56 
44 
56 
47 
39 
55 
53 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
Total 
10,192 
1,697 
16,430 
1,762 
16,613 
2,083 
8,073 
1,266 
5,133 
529 
Year. 
. Woburn. ' 
W orcester. 
Total for 32 cities. 
The State. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
Births. 
Deaths 
under 
1 year. 
1898 
362 
363 
379 
292 
352 
330 
309 
312 
303 
334 
59 
54 
55 
44 
54 
40 
43 
35 
51 
51 
3,080 
3,070 
3,131 
3,291 
3,349 
3,501 
3,540 
3,510 
3,743 
3,998 
442 
422 
518 
419 
434 
474 
418 
503 
526 
535 
53,345 
51,350 
53,700 
52,353 
52,401 
53,459 
54,076 
53,994 
58,110 
61,862 
8,376 
8,014 
8,615 
7,552 
7,745 
7,872 
7.570 
7,967 
8,439 
8,514 
73,110 
70,457 
73,386 
71,976 
72,219 
73,584 
75,014 
75,022 
80,237 
85,001 
11,012 
10,532 
11,500 
9,952 
10,075 
10,269 
9,992 
10,519 
11,106 
11,293 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
Total 
3,336 
486 
34,213 
4,691 
544,650 
80,644 
750,006 
106,250 INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
59 
Table II.-FEMALE POPULATION 10 YEARS OF AGE AND OVER EMPLOYED IN GAIN- 
FUL OCCUPATIONS (DOMESTIC SERVICE NOT INCLUDED) IN 32 CITIES OF MASSA- 
CHUSETTS, BY OCCUPATIONS, 1885 AND 1905. 
Number of females 10 years of age and over in each occupation or industry. 
Chil- 
City and year. 
Gov- 
Profes- 
Per- 
Trans- 
Agri- 
The 
Manu- 
La- 
Ap- 
dren at 
Total. 
ern- 
sional 
sonal 
Trade. 
porta- 
cul- 
fish- 
fac- 
bor- 
pren- 
ment. 
service. 
service. 
tion. 
ture. 
eries. 
tures. 
ers. 
tices. 
15 
years). 
1885. 
Beverly 
1 
64 
37 
32 
1 
514 
1 
650 
Boston 
457 
2,899 
4,060 
5,204 
51 
9 
16,048 
4 
223 
148 
29,103 
Brockton 
4 
116 
72 
117 
1 
1 
1,269 
1 
4 
8 
1,593 
Cambridge 
32 
441 
460 
487 
26 
7 
2,325 
27 
13 
3^ 818 
Chelsea 
6 
172 
140 
272 
3 
818 
4 
1315 
Chicopee 
58 
44 
30 
1,509 
4 
9 
1'654 
"Everett 
1 
36 
10 
39 
2 
137 
1 
226 
Fall "River 
3 
264 
238 
141 
1 
7,982 
1 
12 
134 
8,776 
Fitch bu rg 
9 
101 
32 
69 
894 
3 
6 
1,114 
Gloucester 
8 
141 
76 
80 
7 
354 
4 
6 
'676 
Haverhill 
1 
156 
106 
143 
1,739 
1 
8 
7 
2,161 
Holyoke 
148 
84 
90 
6 
3,973 
2 
25 
4', 328 
"Lawrence 
10 
200 
159 
229 
3 
3 
5,392 
8 
14 
27 
6,045 
Lowell 
14 
391 
284 
388 
1 
1 
10,076 
1 
8 
111 
Hi 275 
Lynn 
17 
280 
230 
384 
4 
1 
4,055 
3 
8 
4382 
Malden 
14 
148 
146 
120 
'852 
2 
6 
1,288 
Marlboro 
2 
61 
29 
30 
1 
812 
5 
4 
944 
Medford 
6 
60 
35 
76 
1 
253 
2 
433 
New Bedford 
io1 
217 
184 
187 
2 
2,739 
5 
7 
58 
3,409 
^Newburyport 
2 
115 
72 
84 
'972 
10 
1', 255 
Newton 
14 
228 
95 
75 
4 
1 
563 
1 
6 
9 
'996 
North Adams 
55 
23 
27 
2 
1,040 
11 
1,158 
Northampton.. 
47 
114 
29 
47 
2 
4 
'877 
2 
4 
1,126 
Pittsfield 
3 
104 
44 
78 
7 
953 
2 
9 
1,200 
Quincy 
4 
90 
40 
61 
1 
193 
5 
1 
395 
Salem 
23 
226 
212 
252 
5 
1,713 
6 
31 
2,468 
Somerville 
7 
202 
194 
303 
5 
740 
16 
7 
1,474 
Springfield 
15 
282 
259 
258 
1 
1,905 
14 
15 
2,749 
'Taunton 
55 
110 
61 
97 
1,515 
1 
8 
26 
1,873 
AVfifth am 
5 
82 
41 
92 
3 
1 
1,495 
2 
13 
1,734 
W obnrn 
4 
90 
25 
42 
1 
418 
2 
582 
Worcester 
127 
496 
261 
385 
7 
2,772 
1 
25 
9 
4,083 
The State.. 
1,311 
14,250 
9,788 
11,837 
143 
404 
7 
112,762 
31 
495 
1,133 
152,161 
1905. 
Beverly 
12 
143 
218 
218 
5 
1 
542 
4 
13 
1,156 
Boston. 
909 
5,727 
13,310 
14,756 
175 
14 
1 
23,170 
81 
222 
1,496 
59,861 
Brockton 
29 
311 
505 
759 
5 
2 
3,660 
13 
92 
5,376 
Cambridge 
103 
1 023 
2,188 
1,785 
27 
3 
4,267 
3 
48 
226 
9,673 
Chelsea 
32 
*269 
437 
'692 
19 
1 
1,573 
3 
91 
3,117 
Chicopee 
11 
117 
97 
184 
1 
2,006 
4 
116 
2,536 
Everett 
15 
244 
448 
645 
5 
1 
914 
10 
37 
2,319 
Foil Pivpr 
34 
724 
697 
826 
5 
5 
13,552 
50 
946 
16,839 
J? dll xvl Vul ..... 
Fitchburg 
25 
304 
333 
379 
5 
5 
2', 201 
4 
160 
3,416 
Gloucester 
14 
214 
314 
307 
7 
4 
627 
1 
5 
29 
1,522 
Haverhill 
31 
328 
403 
586 
4 
3 
2,914 
10 
55 
4,334 
Holyoke 
17 
443 
458 
471 
3 
2 
5,344 
20 
368 
7,126 
Lawrpnop 
33 
407 
445 
839 
4 
2 
8,356 
24 
555 
10,665 
T jOwpII 
44 
696 
894 
1,334 
21 
11,641 
18 
567 
15,215 
40 
555 
1,034 
1,339 
24 
6 
6,189 
26 
171 
9,384 
Malden 
38 
397 
'621 
'735 
11 
1 
1,827 
13 
42 
3,685 
M arlboro 
5 
131 
94 
169 
2 
5 
1,218 
5 
65. 
1,694 
Mp.dford 
16 
199 
267 
406 
7 
1 
495 
3 
18 
1,412 
40 
697 
707 
7 
7,445 
40 
551 
9,943 
INcVT OuvllUl Cl _ _. 
Newburyport.. 
6 
144 
225 
176 
1 
1 
2 
922 
2 
19 
1,498 
Newton 
47 
503 
787 
414 
10 
5 
990 
5 
7 
54 
2,822 
North Adams.. 
12 
184 
241 
198 
2 
2 
1,775 
16 
121 
2,551 
85 
282 
385 
208 
1 
1,178 
10 
64 
2,213 
Northampton.. 
Pittsfield 
12 
198 
391 
333 
5 
1,650 
15 
92 
2,696 
Quincy...... 
16 
250 
317 
351 
6 
662 
13 
25 
1,640 
Salem 
55 
375 
565 
596 
10 
1 
2,146 
12 
152 
3,912 
Somerville..... 
Q? 
645 
1,138 
1,605 
46 
2 
2,169 
33 
101 
5,831 
71 
750 
1 374 
1,386 
13 
2 
3,453 
36 
200 
7,294 
Springfield..... 
T aunton....... 
140 
216 
327 
280 
5 
1,852 
7 
98 
2,925 
Waltham 
110 
311 
467 
369 
13 
6 
2,547 
1 
7 
29 
3,860 
Woburn 
10 
151 
211 
193 
6 
4 
463 
5 
2 
16 
1,061 
Worcester 
426 
1,226 
1,713 
1,993 
8 
3 
5,670 
1 
50 
322 
11,412 
The State.. 
3,981 
27,011 
41,896 
43,183 
652 
895 
3 
170,729 
156 
938 
9,247 
298,691 
[Compiled from Census of Massachusetts, 1885 and 1905.] INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
Table HL-SUMMARY OF BIRTHS AND SUMMARY OF DEATHS FROM SPECIFIED 2™ StO^ ' INCLUSIVE 
IN 11 NEW ENGLAND TEXTILE 
„ of the Census.] 
[Compiled by the Bureau 
INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
Locality and year. 
Births. 
Deaths from all 
causes. 
Disease of early 
infancy and con- 
genital mal- 
formation. 
Diarrhea, en- 
teritis, and 
gastritis. 
Convulsions. 
Nontuberculous 
meningitis- 
Pneumonia, 
bronchitis, and 
laryngitis, a 
Tuberculosis 
(all forms). 
Whooping 
cough 
Measles. 
All other causes. 
Under 1 
year. 
1 to 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year. 
1 to 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year. 
1 to 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year. 
1 to 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year. 
1 to 4 
years 
Under 1 
year. 
1 to 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year. 
1 to 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year. 
Ito 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year. 
1 to 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year. 
1 to 4 
years. 
Biddeford, Me.: 
121 
5 
7 
8 
8 
1 
1 
2 
22 
14 
1900 
534 
38 
38 
40 
7 
5 
1 
5 
2 
13 
5 
1 
32 
21 
17 
16 
14 
11 
13 
9 
15 
11 
10 
14 
10 
12 
1901 
553 
116 
20 
19 
44 
2 
3 
1 
8 
10 
15 
15 
1 
1 
1 
1902 
532 
115 
51 
25 
39 
5 
5 
4 
6 
9 
9 
2 
9 
2 
6 
1903 
526 
98 
37 
31 
18 
2 
4 
1 
8 
4 
11 
7 
4 
1904 
516 
98 
29 
42 
16 
3 
3 
1 
5 
11 
8 
5 
9 
4 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1905 
531 
89 
27 
34 
19 
1 
5 
2 
9 
14 
14 
16 
4 
3 
1 
1 
2 
2 
1906 
551 
102 
43 
26 
32 
4 
2 
2 
3 
1907 
546 
90 
35 
25 
21 
1 
4 
2 
95 
Total 
4,289 
829 
280 
240 
229 
25 
31 
14 
60 
58 
65 
11 
11 
14 
9 
3 
3 
146 
95 
Lewiston, Me.: 
1900 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(») 
(b) 
(6) 
(b) 
w 
(b) 
w 
w 
(«-) 
c6) 
W 
w 
W 
w 
(") 
w 
(b) 
(b) 
1901 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(°) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
<b) 
■ (b) 
(b) 
(b) 
1902 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(6) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
1903 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(6) 
(b) 
1904 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
9 
3 
(b) 
w 
(6) 
(b) 
(b) 
(6) 
(b) 
(b) 
(b) 
1905 
(0) 
w 
w 
(b) 
w 
(b) 
(b) 
8 
9 
(b) 
5 
7 
(b) 
10 
8 
(®) 
1 
2 
(b) 
1 
1 
(b) 
(b) 
6 
(b) 
10 
(b) 
50 
28 
(b) 
24 
18 
1906 
569 
146 
62 
29 
39 
12 
3 
i 
6 
1907 
485 
129 
38 
24 
50 
6 
3 
2 
Total 
1,054 
100 
17 
12 
18 
12 
6 
3 
2 
6 
10 
78 
42 
275 
53 
89 
18 
6 
3 
Chicopee, Mass.: 
752 
159 
13 
7 
27 
14 
2 
6 
2 
1 
23 
12 
1900 
55 
32 
1 
52 
13 
8 
1 
14 
16 
8 
10 
2 
10 
4 
6 
5 
6 
6 
4 
5 
6 
8 
12 
6 
8 
9 
2 
7 
9 
10 
1 
1 
1 
1 
3 
3 
1 
4 
1 
1 
3 
3 
3 
1 
3 
1 
1 
7 
1 
6 
20 
30 
17 
33 
1901 
729 
120 
44 
41 
1 
22 
4 
11 
2 
1 
1902 
787 
143 
66 
39 
2 
38 
14 
6 
1 
1 
1 
1903 
755 
137 
69 
35 
34 
7 
5 
5 
12 
10 
10 
19 
31 
21 
32 
20 
24 
38 
12 
15 
15 
38 
1904 
766 
109 
31 
25 
32 
7 
6 
1 
2 
1 
5 
1905 
726 
124 
42 
25 
39 
10 
12 
1 
2 
1 
1906 
805 
138 
40 
38 
40 
7 
10 
1 
1907 
836 
155 
81 
49 
2 
42 
14 
13 
3 
2 
201 
Total 
6,156 
1,085 
428 
284 
6 
299 
76 
71 
13 
77 
45 
117 
65 
13 
20 
19 
11 
4 
12 
180 
Fall River, Mass.: 
1900 
4,327 
885 
280 
244 
296 
47 
48 
22 
27 
26 
28 
25 
93 
46 
63 
35 
9 
8 
15 
6 
8 
5 
6 
1 
10 
1 
154 
132 
184 
141 
90 
70 
1901 
4,054 
4,341 
4,448 
4,514 
4,092 
728 
191 
218 
266 
42 
31 
12 
1902 
893 
344 
250 
266 
57 
41 
11 
25 
70 
7 
9 
15 
9 
5 
18 
144 
1903 
864 
293 
266 
1 
287 
49 
35 
14 
22 
19 
90 
34 
11 
9 
1 
2 
3 
8 
128 
1904 
806 
175 
267 
270 
28 
42 
9 
23 
19 
74 
115 
6 
9 
7 
7 
1 
1 
6 
122 
126 
71 
1905 
846 
271 
202 
312 
54 
37 
11 
16 
14 
12 
7 
23 
72 
1906 
4; 333 
812 
249 
205 
1 
292 
57 
35 
8 
21 
7 
11 
10 
4 
7 
143 
90 
1907 
395 
4,622 
899 
316 
213 
1 
78 
30 
10 
Total 
34,731 
6,733 
2,119 
1,865 
3 
2,384 
412 
299 
97 
178 
175 
706 
449 
63 
86 
68 
44 
27 
89 
1,143 
764 
Holyoke, Mass.: 
1900 
1,663 
296 
171 
51 
117 
21 
5 
2 
24 
25 
15 
13 
5 
28 
23 
18 
17 
3 
4 
6 
1 
8 
1 
11 
7 
15 
60 
76 
95 
40 
1901 
1,634 
1,500 
1,512 
1,463 
286 
100 
65 
80 
11 
9 
2 
1902 
247 
1903 
312 
106 
85 
1 
109 
8 
5 
3 
10 
12 
35 
18 
5 
10 
9 
2 
8 
8 
46 
44 
1904 
6 
30 
7 
6 
2 
3 
26 
16 
1905 
L514 
1,570 
1,610 
259 
91 
68 
72 
10 
5 
1 
14 
21 
9 
5 
6 
4 
1 
1 
5 
69 
43 
1906 
314 
102 
12 
2 
9 
26 
8 
3 
37 
1907 
327 
129 
102 
18 
12 
20 
20 
2 
2 
3 
3 
77 
1 
87 
14 
6 
131 
183 
Total 
12,466 
2,321 
829 
622 
3 
732 
100 
44 
16 
91 
108 
29 
48 
55 
26 
21 
35 
504 
402 
Lawrence, Mass.: 
1900 
2,102 
1,921 
1,958 
2,045 
2,047 
2,089 
2,409 
2,761 
400 
138 
83 
1 
159 
121 
99 
31 
18 
1 
15 
8 
31 
21 
4 
3 
3 
3 
8 
12 
79 
58 
1901... . 
346 
95 
68 
18 
23 
6 
25 
13 
34 
16 
4 
7 
2 
1 
1 
68 
34 
1902 
351 
148 
64 
1 
20 
19 
7 
31 
6 
53 
34 
3 
10 
10 
8 
3 
11 
69 
51 
1903 
348 
119 
58 
1 
134 
18 
13 
2 
23 
6 
29 
16 
7 
7 
8 
3 
3 
6 
73 
60 
1904 
320 
413 
429 
104 
167 
182 
2 
16 
33 
13 
15 
2 
6 
11 
13 
15 
38 
24 
7 
5 
4 
1 
1 
60 
39 
1905 
83 
170 
159 
158 
19 
20 
34 
31 
3 
7 
1 
8 
15 
81 
54 
1906 
87 
2 
22 
23 
11 
24 
48 
29 
6 
7 
19 
13 
1 
11 
75 
63 
1907 
405 
151 
72 
1 
29 
19 
1 
16 
11 
36 
21 
4 
6 
6 
2 
4 
8 
90 
72 
153 
Total 
17,332 
3,012 
1,104 
588 
8 
1, 111 
187 
143 
36 
103 
303 
192 
38 
52 
52 
32 
29 
63 
595 
431 
a Not including broncho-pneumonia. 
b Not separately reported. INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
Table III.-SUMMARY OF BIRTHS AND SUMMARY OF DEATHS FROM SPECIFIED CAUSES OF CHILDREN UNDER 1 AND FROM 1 TO 4 YEARS OF AGE, INCLUSIVE, 
IN 11 NEW ENGLAND TEXTILE TOWNS, 1900 TO 1907-Concluded. 
Locality and year. 
Births. 
Deaths from all 
causes. 
Disease of early 
infancy and con- 
genital mal- 
formation. 
Diarrhea, en- 
teritis, and 
gastritis. 
Convulsions. 
Nontuberculous 
meningitis. 
Pneumonia, 
bronchitis, and 
laryngitis. 
Tuberculosis 
(all forms). 
Whooping 
cough. 
Measles. 
All other causes 
Under 1 
year. 
Ito 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year. 
1 to 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year. 
1 to 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year. 
Ito 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year. 
1 to 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year. 
Ito 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year 
Ito 4 
years 
Under 1 
year. 
Ito 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year. 
1 to 4 
years. 
Under 1 
year. 
1 to 4 
years. 
Lowell, Mass.: 
1900 
2,596 
2,794 
525 
166 
140 
2 
178 
26 
26 
14 
21 
21 
69 
48 
7 
6 
1 
1 
83 
4? 
1901 
544 
261 
155 
1 
164 
26 
33 
7 
29 
22 
51 
42 
6 
6 
9 
6 
2 
17 
95 
134 
1902 
2,493 
2,519 
2,519 
2,500 
2,547 
2,704 
523 
219 
160 
170 
18 
29 
6 
26 
28 
57 
39 
5 
7 
2 
5 
3 
6 
71 
11C 
1903 
557 
182 
143 
219 
26 
23 
4 
24 
25 
46 
44 
2 
6 
11 
5 
1 
89 
71 
1004 
499 
175 
143 
190 
34 
10 
7 
19 
25 
59 
41 
14 
7 
3 
9 
10 
52 
51 
1905 
496 
194 
119 
220 
39 
21 
10 
16 
33 
45 
33 
12 
21 
10 
7 
3 
5 
50 
4f 
1906 
208 
124 
215 
34 
20 
8 
16 
25 
79 
55 
6 
6 
4 
4 
5 
13 
76 
63 
1907 
535 
163 
151 
1 
211 
29 
20 
2 
6 
14 
63 
33 
8 
4 
8 
6 
1 
5 
67 
62 
Total 
20,672 
4,224 
1,568 
1,135 
4 
1,567 
232 
182 
58 
157 
193 
469 
335 
60 
63 
47 
34 
24 
57 
583 
592 
New Bedford, Mass.: 
1900 
2,230 
2,440 
2,437 
435 
138 
131 
162 
21 
23 
7 
18 
17 
34 
33 
4 
6 
4 
10 
7 
5 
52 
31 
1901 
362 
131 
108 
127 
8 
16 
8 
12 
17 
41 
37 
6 
12 
1 
3 
1 
49 
4' 
1902 
446 
154 
126 
1 
151 
5 
16 
16 
51 
34 
5 
7 
12 
4 
3 
65 
71 
1903 
2,469 
448 
280 
117 
2 
162 
24 
15 
14 
17 
21 
50 
40 
4 
14 
12 
5 
2 
8 
69 
152 
1904 
2,620 
2,765 
2,949 
3,272 
440 
111 
125 
169 
17 
25 
7 
9 
13 
31 
16 
5 
7 
5 
4 
2 
71 
45 
1905 
417 
115 
125 
1 
136 
19 
21 
7 
10 
10 
37 
19 
5 
9 
3 
5 
1 
79 
45 
1906 
461 
154 
145 
176 
17 
24 
7 
10 
22 
39 
24 
2 
24 
6 
5 
2 
3 
57 
52 
1907 
538 
125 
128 
218 
19 
v 26 
5 
17 
15 
62 
25 
6 
11 
2 
8 
1 
3 
78 
31 
Total 
21,182 
3,547 
1,208 
1,005 
4 
1,301 
139 
170 
60 
109 
131 
345 
228 
37 
90 
44 
42 
16 
25 
520 
482 
Manchester, N. II.: 
1900 
1,655 
1,359 
1,565 
1,457 
1,434 
1,577 
1,711 
1,781 
360 
133 
92 
134 
20 
24 
t 
6 
20 
15 
24 
31 
8 
9 
1 
2 
57 
5C 
1901 
331 
100 
46 
129 
14 
11 
4 
26 
12 
27 
17 
9 
8 
11 
1 
72 
44 
1902 
360 
135 
50 
115 
11 
14 
9 
25 
11 
66 
33 
8 
6 
3 
2 
2 
2 
77 
61 
1903 
307 
142 
49 
117 
26 
14 
8 
10 
17 
39 
29 
7 
4 
12 
6 
1 
58 
52 
1904 
298 
82 
74 
99 
13 
9 
2 
17 
6 
33 
18 
6 
7 
4 
3 
56 
3i 
1905 
356 
190 
89 
132 
19 
6 
8 
33 
56 
22 
17 
8 
9 
2 
3 
2 
9 
62 
62 
1906 
364 
139 
123 
97 
10 
7 
2 
26 
22 
31 
22 
6 
• 6 
12 
9 
62 
68 
1907 
398 
117 
141 
102 
9 
15 
3 
14 
15 
30 
21 
7 
6 
13 
10 
2 
6 
74 
47 
Total 
12,539 
2,774 
1,038 
664 
925 
122 
100 
42 
171 
154 
272 
188 
59 
55 
58 
36 
7 
17 
518 
424 
Pawtucket, R. I.: 
1900 
1,025 
1,019 
959 
188 
86 
30 
61 
11 
3 
11 
9 
17 
10 
9 
8 
1 
2 
2 
7 
54 
39 
1901 
147 
175 
45 
38 
49 
3 
3 
12 
6 
K 
6 
2 
1 
33 
27 
1902 
61 
24 
44 
10 
2 
3 
20 
7 
24 
14 
5 
3 
6 
3 
3 
50 
18 
1903 
1,034 
1,064 
1,110 
157 
66 
36 
2 
49 
17 
3 
2 
10 
8 
18 
9 
2 
3 
5 
4 
2 
1 
32 
2C 
1904 
156 
45 
33 
35 
10 
5 
8 
3 
20 
7 
6 
2 
1 
49 
22 
1905 
164 
57 
35 
54 
6 
2 
2 
4 
14 
10 
6 
4 
3 
3 
1 
3 
47 
27 
1906 
1,058 
947 
155 
62 
35 
47 
12 
2 
7 
8 
18 
8 
2 
7 
5 
1 
3 
38 
2- 
1907 
181 
61 
37 
63 
11 
3 
I 
3 
1 
20 
12 
9 
8 
1 
2 
1 
45 
25 
Total 
8,216 
1,323 
483 
268 
2 
402 
80 
23 
6 
73 
46 
143 
76 
39 
37 
21 
14 
6 
20 
348 
202 
Woonsocket, R. I.: 
1900 
960 
210 
73 
29 
1 
107 
18 
5 
3 
11 
5 
13 
10 
9 
1 
5 
1 
31 
34 
1901 
988 
160 
66 
47 
74 
11 
2 
1 
2 
10 
8 
8 
6 
6 
1 
3 
20 
27 
1909 
1,006 
1,006 
1,035 
1,058 
179 
73 
39 
66 
9 
1 
3 
5 
7 
21 
14 
7 
3 
1 
1 
39 
3fi 
1903 
136 
70 
30 
45 
13 
1 
1 
3 
21 
9 
2 
2 
8 
5 
28 
38 
1904 
125 
39 
29 
1 
41 
4 
2 
1 
5 
6 
14 
11 
6 
1 
2 
1 
2 
24 
14 
1905 
150 
68 
33 
73 
13 
1 
3 
2 
10 
14 
5 
9 
2 
1 
3 
2 
20 
27 
1906 
1,093 
1,082 
188 
57 
44 
78 
10 
4 
2 
4 
26 
10 
4 
3 
2 
2 
1 
27 
28 
1907 
139 
43 
28 
75 
6 
3 
1 
1 
2 
8 
6 
1 
4 
3 
1 
20 
2; 
Total 
8,228 
1,287 
489 
279 
2 
559 
84 
19 
9 
30 
39 
121 
82 
40 
29 
24 
10 
6 
7 
209 
227 INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
Table IV.-SUMMARY OF TOTAL DEATHS (ALL AGES) FROM SPECIFIED CAUSES IN 11 NEW ENGLAND TEXTILE TOWNS 1900 TO 1907. 
[Compiled by the Bureau tlie Census-1 
Locality and year. 
All 
causes. 
Diseases of early infancy and 
congenital malformations. 
Diarrhea, enteritis, and 
gastritis. 
Convul- 
sions, 
N on- 
tubercu- 
lous 
menin- 
gitis. 
Pneu- 
monia. 
Bronchitis and laryngitis. 
Tuber- 
culosis 
(all 
forms). 
Whoop- 
ing 
cough. 
Measles. 
All other 
causes. 
Bron- 
chitis. 
Laryn- 
gitis. 
Total. 
Diseases 
of early 
infancy. 
Congeni- 
tal mal- 
forma- 
tions. 
Total. 
Diarrhea 
and 
enteritis. 
Gastritis. 
Total 
MAINE. 
Biddeford: 
1900 
366 
327 
340 
306 
330 
284 
332 
344 
37 
18 
26 
29 
39 
33 
24 
23 
1 
1 
38 
19 
26 
31 
41 
34 
26 
25 
44 
50 
44 
20 
21 
23 
36 
22 
5 
3 
49 
53 
44 
21 
23 
24 
40 
23 
6 
4 
9 
5 
4 
7 
4 
7 
17 
13 
22 
17 
14 
12 
23 
41 
36 
17 
34 
24 
27 
27 
40 
33 
5 
10 
8 
10 
11 
6 
5 
3 
2 
2 
6 
1 
7 
12 
14 
11 
11 
6 
5 
3 
30 
39 
37 
37 
36 
29 
37 
38 
2 
1 
181 
169 
152 
145 
172 
144 
152 
173 
1901 
2 
1902 
15 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1903 
2 
2 
1 
2 
2 
1 
2 
1 
4 
1 
1904 
1905 
4 
1906 
1907 u 
Total..... 
2,629 
229 
11 
240 
260 
17 
277 
46 
159 
238 
58 
11 
69 
283 
23 
6 
1,288 
Lewiston: 
1900 
(") 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
W 
555 
486 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
24 
24 
(•) 
(") 
(») 
(") 
(") 
(») 
5 
(«) 
(«) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
29 
24 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(") 
53 
59 
(a) 
(aj 
(") 
(") 
(a) 
W 2 
(a) 
(a) 
(") 
(a) 
(a) 
(») 
55 
59 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(") 
4 
6 
W 
(a) 
(") 
(a) 
(") 
(a) 
16 
35 
(a) 
(") 
(°) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
31 
26 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(") 
io 
6 
(a) 
(<*) 
(a) 
(") 
(a) 
(a) * 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(") 
Wn 
6 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
51 
56 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) * 
1 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(") 
(a) 
W 
19 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
(a) 
338 
273 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
Total 
1,041 
48 
5 
53 
112 
2 
114 
10 
51 
57 
16 
1 
17 
107 
2 
19 
611 
MASSACHUSETTS. 
Chicopee: 
1900 
405 
340 
398 
404 
339 
356 
340 
416 
31 
40 
38 
34 
23 
22 
32 
45 
1 
3 
3 
1 
2 
4 
5 
5 
32 
43 
41 
35 
25 
26 
37 
50 
71 
29 
54 
43 
40 
48 
51 
58 
71 
31 
56 
49 
44 
54 
53 
62 
9 
11 
8 
9 
7 
* 13 
11 
16 
24 
20 
25 
16 
20 
12 
19 
11 
40 
25 
25 
31 
18 
25 
28 
45 
25 
10 
13 
11 
11 
6 
6 
12 
25 
10 
13 
12 
11 
6 
8 
12 
47 
32 
23 
34 
43 
42 
35 
39 
1 
9 
1 
5 
1 
1 
9 
2 
2 
154 
159 
204 
210 
169 
175 
139 
172 
1901 . 
2 
2 
6 
4 
6 
2 
4 
2 
3 
1 
2 
1 
7 
1902 
1 
1903 . 
1904 
1905 
2 
1906 
1907 
Total 
2,998 
265 
24 
289 
394 
26 
420 
84 
147 
237 
94 
3 
97 
295 
29 
18 
1,382 
Fall River: 
1900 
73 
47 
53 
55 
53 
50 
44 
42 
68 
62 
64 
61 
50 
52 
51 
59 
163 
107 
151 
201 
142 
194 
158 
180 
114 
60 
111 
98 
83 
89 
71 
86 
5 
11 
2 
4 
4 
5 
4 
2 
119 
71 
113 
102 
87 
94 
75 
88 
216 
173 
196 
214 
236 
180 
166 
207 
13 
17 
2 
23 
13 
7 
33 
12 
17 
1,005 
969 
982 
1,044 
894 
888 
964 
1,045 
2,286 
1,979 
2,206 
2,342 
2,074 
2,109 
2,089 
2,384 
233 
211 
244 
254 
254 
190 
194 
192 
11 
8 
7 
13 
13 
12 
12 
22 
244 
219 
251 
267 
267 
202 
206 
214 
362 
322 
331 
352 
318 
373 
364 
489 
6 
7 
18 
20 
18 
17 
28 
28 
368 
329 
349 
372 
336 
390 
392 
517 
1901 
24 
13 
2 
26 
21 
15 
1902 
1903 
1904 
f 
1905 
1906 
1907 
Total 
Holyoke: 
1900 
17,469 
1,772 
98 
1,870 
2,911 
142 
3,053 
417 
467 
1,296 
712 
37 
749 
1,588 
114 
124 
7,791 
990 
873 
769 
852 
832 
823 
907 
1,046 
46 
58 
66 
75 
69 
61 
98 
94 
5 
• 7 
7 
8 
8 
7 
5 
9 
51 
65 
73 
83 
77 
68 
103 
103 
142 
100 
104 
122 
119 
83 
99 
101 
6 
4 
4 
8 
6 
3 
3 
4 
148 
104 
108 
130 
125 
86 
102 
105 
7 
12 
7 
9 
7 
6 
10 
7 
49 
46 
26 
28 
29 
50 
34 
43 
75 
56 
41 
71 
64 
67 
72 
72 
34 
20 
17 
25 
20 
24 
13 
27 
1 
1 
35 
21 
17 
25 
20 
24 
13 
27 
101 
92 
93 
89 
112 
92 
79 
96 
2 
19 
23 
499 
458 
401 
389 
393 
417 
457 
581 
1901 
3 
16 
1902 
12 
5 
5 
34 
5 
1903 
1904 
8 
3 
7 
1905 
1906 
1907 
Total 
7,092 
567 
56 
623 
870 
38 
908 
65 
305 
518 
180 
2 
182 
754 
82 
60 
3,595 
Lawrence: 
1900 
1,290 
1,130 
1,168 
1,144 
1,147 
1,384 
1,345 
1,450 
74 
64 
62 
55 
60 
69 
78 
68 
8 
5 
2 
6 
16 
14 
9 
7 
82 
69 
64 
61 
76 
83 
87 
75 
197 
150 
132 
153 
138 
204 
191 
198 
12 
7 
14 
12 
15 
9 
10 
9 
209 
157 
146 
165 
153 
213 
201 
207 
24 
31 
26 
15 
17 
22 
36 
20 
31 
48 
43 
35 
34 
79 
59 
41 
92 
90 
117 
82 
109 
129 
114 
97 
36 
36 
42 
31 
35 
40 
24 
. 35 
2 
2 
38 
38 
42 
31 
36 
40 
25 
38 
126 
115 
126 
124 
130 
128 
124 
141 
7 
3 
18 
12 
6 
1 
33 
8 
21 
1 
18 
9 
1 
28 
11 
13 
660 
578 
568 
610 
585 
661 
655 
810 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1 
1904 
1905 
1 
3 
1906 
1907 
Total 
10,058 
530 
67 
597 
1,363 
88 
1,451 
191 
370 
830 
279 
9 
288 
1,014 
88 
102 
5,127 INFANT MORTALITY AND EMPLOYMENT OF MOTHERS. 
INFANT MORTALITY IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
Table IV.-SUMMARY OF TOTAL DEATHS (ALL AGES) FROM SPECIFIED CAUSES, IN 11 NEW ENGLAND TEXTILE TOWNS, 1900 TO 1907-Concluded. 
Locality and year. 
All 
causes. 
Diseases of early infancy and 
congenital malformations. 
Diarrhea, enteritis, and 
gastritis. 
Convul- 
sions. 
Non- 
tubercu- 
lous 
menin- 
gitis. 
Pneu- 
monia. 
Bronchitis and laryngitis. 
Tuber- 
culosis 
(all 
forms). 
Whoop- 
ing 
cough. 
Measles. 
All other 
causes. 
| 
Diseases 
of early 
infancy. 
Congeni- 
tal mal- 
forma- 
tions. 
Total. 
Diarrhea I 
and 
enteritis. 
Gastritis. 
Total. 
Bron- 
chitis. 
Laryn- 
gitis. 
Total. 
Massachusetts -continued. 
Lowell: 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1,848 
2,041 
1,943 
1,943 
1,738 
1,901 
1,919 
2,062 
124 
150 
145 
130 
126 
98 
109 
133 
18 
7 
16 
14 
17 
21 
16 
18 
142 
157 
161 
144 
143 
119 
125 
151 
223 
208 
212 
265 
237 
271 
260 
244 
13 
16 
13 
11 
9 
17 
9 
15 
236 
224 
225 
276 
246 
288 
269 
259 
41 
43 
43 
32 
19 
32 
29 
30 
63 
70 
75 
63 
55 
94 
69 
41 
162 
198 
160 
143 
138 
133 
176 
161 
85 
69 
73 
66 
65 
63 
74 
81 
4 
1 
1 
1 
1 
89 
70 
73 
66 
66 
63 
75 
82 
201 
174 
170 
152 
156 
179 
170 
177 
1 
15 
8 
16 
3 
17 
10 
14 
1 
22 
9 
1 
19 
8 
20 
9 
912 
1,068 
1,019 
1,050 
893 
968 
976 
1,138 
Total 
15,395 
1,015 
127 
1,142 
1,920 
103 
2,023 
269 
530 
1,271 
576 
8 
584 
1,379 
84 
89 
8,024 
New Bedford: 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1,325 
1,249 
1,364 
1,602 
1,366 
1,297 
1,367 
1,550 
124 
103 
122 
111 
114 
122 
139 
122 
6 
4 
5 
8 
12 
4 
5 
6 
130 
107 
127 
119 
126 
126 
144 
, 128 
19.3 
144 
178 
194 
182 
158 
197 
243 
8 
1 
4 
6 
16 
6 
5 
6 
201 
145 
182 
200 
198 
164 
202 
249 
32 
25 
25 
30 
35 
29 
32 
31 
55 
42 
47 
50 
32 
25 
42 
62 
95 
69 
95 
110 
81 
82 
67 
78 
41 
51 
60 
56 
32 
34 
44 
69 
2 
5 
5 
41 
53 
65 
61 
32 
34 
44 
69 
118 
160 
130 
143 
167 
140 
158 
152 
14 
1 
17 
17 
10 
10 
11 
10 
14 
4 
5 
11 
2 
1 
5 
5 
625 
643 
671 
861 
683 
686 
662 
765 
Total 
11,120 
957 
50 
1,007 
1,489 
52 
1,541 
239 
355 
677 
387 
12 
399 
1,168 
90 
47 
5,597 
NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
Manchester: 
1900 
1901 
1902 
* 1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1,154 
1,077 
1,057 
1,065 
977 
1,296 
1,256 
1,234 
88 
39 
44 
42 
62 
74 
109 
130 
4 
9 
6 
6 
14 
15 
13 
10 
92 
48 
50 
48 
76 
89 
122 
140 
164 
154 
131 
151 
116 
158 
110 
116 
10 
7 
4 
12 
9 
7 
13 
4 
174 
161 
135 
163 
125 
165 
123 
120 
32 
17 
28 
24 
12 
15 
9 
18 
49 
52 
51 
32 
33 
154 
72 
49 
95 
79 
106 
90 
73 
76 
84 
82 
38 
33 
55 
37 
32 
20 
35 
49 
1 
2 
1 
2 
1 
6 
2 
39 
35 
56 
39 
32 
21 
41 
51 
131 
114 
91 
99 
110 
122 
111 
99 
3 
12 
6 
18 
7 
6 
21 
25 
5 
1 
12 
8 
539 
559 
529 
551 
509 
636 
673 
642 
Total 
9,116 
588 
77 
665 
1,100 
66 
1,166 
155 
492 
685 
299 
15 
314 
877 
98 
26 
4,638 
RHODE ISLAND. 
Pawtucket: 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
778 
664 
737 
662 
27 
35 
17 
25 
3 
4 
8 
13 
30 
39 
25 
38 
79 
59 
64 
75 
6 
10 
7 
6 
85 
69 
71 
81 
3 
3 
5 
6 
24 
23 
31 
22 
49 
58 
45 
41 
28 
23 
26 
25 
1 
29 
23 
26 
25 
76 
74 
75 
75 
4 
9 
9 
13 
1 
4 
3 
465 
374 
446 
362 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
681 
725 
718 
841 
• 26 
32 
31 
29 
7 
5 
5 
8 
37 
36 
37 
67 
63 
76 
3 
5 
5 
70 
68 
81 
5 
2 
2 
4 
12 
8 
17 
7 
46 
72 
55 
66 
25 
22 
21 
27 
1 
25 
23 
21 
27 
75 
86 
-73 
101 
6 
5 
3 
1 
4 
5 
1 
427 
417 
436 
514 
Total 
5,806 
222 
53 
275 
533 
49 
582 
30 
144 
432 
197 
2 
199 
635 
36 
32 
3,441 
Woonsocket: 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
554 
479 
546 
489 
465 
489 
530 
.444 
25 
42 
35 
27 
25 
30 
43 
24 
5 
4 
4 
4 
5 
3 
1 
4 
30 
46 
39 
31 
30 
33 
44 
28 
134 
92 
81 
62 
47 
92 
89 
85 
3 
5 
4 
5 
5 
4 
1 
1 
137 
97 
85 
67 
52 
96 
90 
86 
8 
4 
5 
1 
3 
1 
4 
4 
19 
17 
14 
6 
14 
11 
6 
4 
37 
28 
43 
44 
60 
39 
53 
39 
18 
15 
19 
19 
12 
12 
18 
8 
1 
2 
3 
1 
19 
15 
21 
22 
12 
12 
18 
9 
64 
59 
73 
68 
72 
75 
75 
43 
5 
1 
1 
13 
3 
3 
4 
4 
1 
3 
1 
3 
6 
1 
234 
209 
264 
237 
216 
213 
235 
227 
Total 
3,996 
251 
30 
281 
682 
28 
710 
30 
91 
343 
121 
7 
128 
529 
34 
15 
1,835