•)yi
 
U LIBRARY OF MEDICINE     NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE    NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEL
aw do Aavaan ivnouvn
f
SNioiagw jo Asvaan ivnouvn    3noiq3w do Aavaan ivt>
AL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE     NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE    NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEI
3W JO AHVa8l1 IVNOUVN
7
                                         1    ^
3NIDICJ3W dO AMVaan IVNOUVN    3NIDI03W dO Aavaan ivr
AL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE     NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE    NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEI
aw do  AHvaan ivnouvn
3noiQ3w do Ayvaan ivnouvn    snidiosw do Aavaan ivr
)W di.
I  >  WH
H*l>  <!
aNioiaaw jo Aavuan ivnouvn
2  TQBbDOSO  WIN
    ao90oet'to

9X61 Vt?8S SZS N9
NLM050098062 
vaan ivnouvn
 
 
 
 
Socio-Anthropometry

      An Inter-Racial Critique



   B. L. STEVENSON, Ph. D.
BOSTON: RICHARD G. BADGER
TORONTO:  THE COPP CLARK CO., LIMITED 
Copyright, 1916, by B. L. Stevenson
All Rights Reserved
575
SHfs
MADE IN THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA

  The Gokham Prebs.  Boston.  (J. S.  A. 
PREFACE
        SOCIOLOGY  postulates  differences  among
        men:    anthropology   postulates   differences
        among men.  These differences are illustrated
        racially. By classifying the sociological and an-
        thropological differences of the three European
races and applying the findings of anthropological  data
to sociological  data it may be possible to obtain a  crit-
ical  scientific  basis to be  used  in the  application of
anthropologic  data to  problems  in sociology. Firstly,
however,  the question is raised, do the findings of the
classified  racial anthropometric data support sociologic
differences; are  sociologic differences based  on anthro-
pologic differences?  To find a solution for this hypo-
thesis it is necessary to classify the  anthropometric and
sociologic data of separate races, for example, the  three
European  races,  further, to  apply  the anthropometric
findings  to the  findings of  sociology, and finally to
summarize the main problems which arise, for the  pur-
pose of discovering a  critical scientific basis of knowl-
edge to be used in the application of anthropometry to
sociology.
   If the tendency of civilization  is  to create likenesses,
if  the laws of imitation et cetera work for similarity of
individuals, but if in spite  of the underlying principle
of harmony, very great unlikeness among individuals is
nevertheless to be observed,  the cause of  unlikeness
must be  ascertained.   It may  be that  the cause of
sociological unlikeness is physical, in  that case it  may
be sought in  anthropometry, if  not  as a causal  and
correlational primary factor,  then as a secondary cause
or accessory criterium.  To  see if  there  is  connection
                          3 
4
Preface
between  types of races and their  types of activity, be-
tween physical and social man, a comparison of typical
races,  settings and civilization   is  demanded—Teu-
tonic, Alpine and Mediterranean races with their Eng-
lish and Scandinavian, French and Russian, and Italian
nations.  Because general sociological and anthropolog-
ical  considerations  in  themselves are  too  extensive,
national  units are ipso facto prerequisite.   Since, how-
ever, numerous nations represent  each type, it becomes
necessary to limit  the  choice even if  arbitrarily to cer-
tain  well selected  nations.   Thus although Germany
ranks equally  with England and Scandinavia in repre-
senting the Teutonic type,  it has  been thought best to
exclude the former in  the light of the preeminence
which that country has already held as an anthropolog-
ical issue in racial considerations, and  to  restrict  to
the treatment  merely  of  Scandinavia  and  England;
while, furthermore, to choose Italy as the sole represen-
tative of the southern  type in view of the fact that the
development  of  this  country repeats and elaborates
that  of many another  Mediterranean nation.
  The  terms  socio-anthropologic or anthropometric
and anthropo-sociologic or physio-ethnological are  used
synonymously, but because  the point of  view adhered
to primarily in the following pages is  the anthropologic,
the term socio-anthropology is more frequently  em-
ployed.   The  data  used are, with one exception, based
upon the investigations of  others,  from which data, in
fact, as well as from authorities in both anthropological
and sociological  fields of research there  originates the
demand  for the  treatment of this problem, in other
words a seeking after the third dimension, socio-anthro-
pometry,  where  two  dimensions,  anthropology  and
sociology, are  already  given.
                               B.  L. Stevenson.
  New York  City, 1916 
                  CONTENTS
Chapter                                   Page
   I.  Introduction.  Origins of Races and  Na-
         tions  ............................    9
   II.  The Teutonic Race..................   18
  III.  The Alpine Race ...................   3°
  IV.  The Mediterranean Race.............   42
   V.  The Teutonic Racial Type............  53
  VI.  The Alpine Racial Type..............  78
  VII.  The Mediterranean Racial Type.......  98
VIII.  Socio-Anthropometric  Critique ........  115
   IX.  Critical-Historical Point of View......  124
   X.  Conclusion.........................  I3I
Bibliography  ..............................  l42 
 
SOCIO ANTHROPOMETRY 
 
Socio-Anthropometry


                  CHAPTER I

 INTRODUCTION.   ORIGINS  OF RACES AND NATIONS

           ANY discussion  of  race is handicapped by
           four points of obscurity, firstly there exists
           no very clear idea  in the  mind of many as
           to what constitutes race, secondly, the marks
           of differentiation which serve to set one race
off from another are often vaguely presented, thirdly
there seems to be no very reliable knowledge concerning
the number and the origin of races, and  finally,  geo-
graphical location is not invariably clearly defined. The
resolution of these points is attended with difficulties,
nevertheless,  a certain compromise between  facts and
semi-established facts is requisite to the treatment of the
subject  of  race.  Race may in philosophical  terms be
described as a moving reality,  a being and a becoming
or as Topinard says, "an abstract conception, a notion
of continuity  in discontinuity,  of unity in diversity."
A continuity in discontinuity  because a certain set of
elements must persist generation after generation  in
spite of the changes wrought  by  the passage of years,
in order to produce type, which  is essentially race  in
unit. That a certain set of elements is seldom found
combined in  one individual bespeaks  the  rarity of an
ideally  perfect individual type.  Types are necessarily
composed of  elements, physical  and psycho-physical,
morphological and  physiological,  and it is upon these
elements or  traits  that  the  distinguishing  marks  of
                         9 
10
Socio-Anthropometry
races are  founded.  Hair, eyes,  skin, head and stature
are  primary;   functions  of  nutrition,  reproduction,
natural  conditions,  climate,   moisture,  temperature,
food supply et cetera are secondary and presuppose  the
relation of individuals to their  habitat.  The hair by
its nature or by its colour blond or brunette, the eyes
pigmented light, intermediate or dark, the stature, tall,
short,  or  medium,  and the cephalic index—the rela-
tional  breadth of the head to its  length—all serve as
test  marks of  race.  These physical characteristics in
forming  the  basis  for classification of  all mankind in
great stocks,  or varieties,  or races,  divide  men into
colour classifications as, for instance, Deniker's division
of white, yellow,  reddish brown  and black skinned
strains.   Furthermore,  hair  may  be straight,  slank,
wavy, spiral, frizzy, curly, wooly or fleece-like.  It may
be long or  short.   The  colour may range  from pale
blond  through  the ruddy  shades  to jet  black.   The
correlations of  body height and head index  added to
colour defines  racial  characteristics more  narrowly.
Head index of all  body characteristics the least chang-
ed under  the  mutable conditions of environment gives
the final stamp to  racial distinctions  in its  dolichocep
halic and brachycephalic classifications.
  Hair,  skin,  eyes, stature and head index  are  char-
acteristics common to all  men, and  on these  points
Europe, Africa, Asia and America can  be  classified.
Over these  continents are distributed  the  white, yel-
low, red, and  black  skinned  races—black in Africa,
red in America, yellow in  Asia and white  in Europe.
Restricting to the continent of Europe, Asia and Africa
cannot be ignored.  Sergi in classifying races princi-
pally according to  cephalic index, recognizes the Med-
iterranean  district  as the center of dispersion of  the
European races, and consequently divides  mankind into
the Eurafrican and  the  Eurasian  accordingly as  the 
    Introduction.   Origins of Races and Nations  II

races  have  made  their  home in  Africa and  Europe,
or Asia and Europe.  Sub-ordinately  Eurafrican stock
is divided into two varieties,  Mediterranean and Nor-
dic.   Eurafrican  and  Eurasian  varieties  are  desig-
nated by Ripley Teutonic and Alpine Mediterranean.
The  Teutonic type  is  white  skinned,  blond  haired,
blue-eyed,  narrow of head  and  tall  of stature;  the
Alpine  type is white skinned, brown  haired,  bluish-
gray eyed,  round  of head and mediumly tall;  and  the
Mediterranean type is olive skinned, dark haired, dark
eyed,  long  of head and mediumly tall.
  Anthropologically.  With   location  is   raised  the
question of racial  origin.  Was there  originally  one or
were  there multiple  races?   The monogenists  taking
the orthodox stand  declare with  Quatrefages that all
races  have  proceeded  from  one  race,  "the  Biblical
Adam and  Eve,"  and that evident dissimilarities today
are merely the result of  climate and environment. The
polygenists, on the  other  hand, see in  the  short dur-
ation  of time of the  period of development  the  impos-
sibility of such drastic changes taking place, and declare
that  for that  reason many  original  races  must have
existed.  Agassiz, an extreme  advocate, has admitted
eight centers of origin, which  he has determined accord-
ing to the  flora and  fauna of the earth.
   However originating, whether  at  one or at  many
points upon the globe, there remains no doubt,  at least
in the minds of evolutionists, that man is but the suc-
cessor to the ape in biological development.  It  is only
needed  to  recall the  ape-like  skull of the Neanderthal
man  to  realize the  close  kinship  between  the  animal
and human world which must have prevailed through-
out the paleolithic and  neolithic ages.   That the cool-
ing of the  earth and the appearance of fauna and flora
was followed by the  advent of man is undoubted.  But
as to  whether the original men were dolichocephalic or 
12              Socio-Anthropometry
brachycephalic, and  when  the crossing and recrossing
of races occurred are matters of utmost obscurity. In-
ferior and  superior races must have battled for survi-
val, but the resulting composition is very much a mat-
ter of  guess work.  Retzius  believes  that  the  brachy-
cephalic  type  preceded the  dolichocephalic, Topinard
the opposite.   The existence  of long burrows with dol-
ichocephalic skulls and  flint instruments establishes the
fact that men had lived and worked  with tools.  The
knowledge of  the art of fire  making was  known in the
metal age, when hunting  and fishing were practiced.
Life was, no doubt, wholly  nomadic.   That wars and
invasions took place in  the stone age is believed.   His-
tories of Egypt, Persia, India and China point to the
circumstance that  civilized centers were surrounded by
nomadic tribes,  a  fact which  is  supported  by the
assumption that barbaric invasions occurred very early.
Blue eyed, light haired barbarians poured into Egypt
before 1500 B. C.   The Huns  and Gauls are later
instances.  In  fact from  the time of the very earliest
geological  periods these movements  of mankind must
have taken place, caused  by the sinking or rising  of
areas of the earth's surface,  by the increasing inclem-
ency of  one locality from lack of water supply, for
instance, and  the  increasing  clemency of  another local-
ity.   Down the broad  rivers human beings must  have
proceeded, eastwards and westwards, to  plains or val-
leys that were fertile.  Such displacements of peoples
entailed, of course, a redistribution  and substitution of
immigrants for aborigines, and implies the evolving of
social institution and the  expression of man's ethnolog-
ical characteristics.
   Ethnologically.  Race  is  an  anthropological  term;
nation, on the other hand,  is distinctly ethnological.
The beginnings of culture emphasize ethnological con-
siderations, and in  this connection  the  Aryan, homo 
    Introduction.   Origins  of  Races and Nations  13

Europaeus,  is given  large credit for the peopling of
Europe.   The contended opinion that because  most
of the tongues of  Europe possess  Sanskrit origins, and
that the myths of  Europe re-embody  the myths of cen-
tral  Asia, a necessary connection must exist between
Europe and Asia has been broken down of late by the
establishment  of  the fact that Europe has known  a
long continued racial continuity.  That the influx  from
Asia, if it did occur, must have been social and indus-
trial and  therefore purely linguistic, is the opinion of
most  of the debaters of  this question to-day.   Indeed,
linguistic  connection  is  often startingly  evident  in
ethno-anthropological matters—witness, the names of
some of   the  nations of the  present, England  from
Angles, a Germanic tribe north  of  the Elbe, France
from  the  Franks,  and Russia from the Rossi,  a Scan-
dinavian   family which  ruled  at Moscow in remote
ages.
   Early life at the close  of the neolithic age when dol-
ichocephalic races occupied Scandinavia and north  Ger-
many, Spain and  Italy,  and  brachycephalic Belgium,
Switzerland and Russia,  was characterized' by the very
rudiments of  human activity.   Hunting and  fishing
must have been followed by agriculture and  all  these
occupations  demanded tools.  This  demand set man's
inventive  energy to  work to grapple with the making
of tools,  fire, and  the bow  and  arrow.   Decorating,
weaving, the making of  pottery and  the domestication
of animals  were gradually learned.   No  division of
labour could have  occurred  until after the formation
of the state, however, for division of labour is depen-
dent  upon  organization   and the centralization  of  a
directive  agency.   The simplest  and most isolated in-
dustry must have  preceded  the  institution of trade,
but that  the  associative  element  of  trade  must  soon
have begun  to make itself felt is proven by the  early 
14
Socio-Anthropometry
occurrence of  fairs.   The purpose  of  the fairs  and
markets was  to call attention to the blessings of pros-
perity and to offer an opportunity for the disposal  of
live  stock,  metals and  the  produce  of  agriculture.
Amber  trade  took place  in  Scandinavia   at an early
date, and Tyre makes mention  of  her  trade  in  lambs.
Religious festivals offered  an early occasion  for fairs.
Scattered members of a clan or tribe were accustomed
to come together for worship of a common  deity. The
harvest  of the corn crop presented  an occasion for
celebrating a wooing, and so grew up  many a custom
among  primitive  peoples.   The oats  is  regarded  in
some countries as an autumn symbol  of  courtship  as
the myrtle is the  springtime symbol in  others.  Forc-
ible  wooing,  death  and  mourning customs,  and the
mutilation of  the  body  are all connected  with very
early periods.   The making of homes presupposed some
sort  of  marital condition necessary for  the rearing  of
children,  consequently  promiscuous marriages,  poly-
gymy, polyandry,  and monogamy have variously char-
acterized primitive family life.  The importance of the
family was indeed not to  be  gainsaid in  early days, for
to it can be traced the rudiments of state organization
in such  forms  as  the patriarchal family.   In  the  pat-
ronymic grouping  can also be detected the  early begin-
nings of  religious observances.  The  worship  of  an
ancestor antedated the  rise of  a priestly  cult.  With
settled life religion,  associated in the mind  of  a  savage
with nature  wonder, took its first  definable form.   A
worship  of the unseen, spirits and ghosts,  and  propit-
iation of the same, a belief in dreams and a regard for
omens, together with a general fear of the supernatural
characterized  primitive man's religion.   To  outward
expression  of the  inner  consciousness  of  religion can
be traced the rise of the priestly cast, the sway of med-
icine men and  the early form of terpsichorean art. 
    Introduction.  Origins of Races and Nations  15

   Slower to evolve but betokening a higher degree of
specialization than industry or religion in primitive life
is politics.   The  establishment  of a  state  marks  a
climax  in  the transition of society  from primitive to
civilized form.   It is  the  note  of difference between
tribal and  civil society, where conditions of  increasing
wealth and population demand systematic cultivation of
agriculture and organized social life.  Restlessness and
lawlessness have to be  overcome  by the force  of the
state;  a machine of government is organized and  later
towns grow  up, considerations of citizenship and eco-
nomic relations  make  their  appearance.  Upon  eco-
nomic relations  are based science, commerce and inven-
tion and these  relations become eventual factors for
differentiating kinds of  states.   The duties and the
purposes of  the  state have enlarged  its functions till
they have come to include broad  activities.  Aristotle
said of the Greek state: "it is only an outward expres-
sion of the common aspirations and beliefs  of its mem-
bers."   Because it emphasizes the  trait  common to all
members, the state  represents the very  foundation of
society, like-mindedness.
   Historically.   Ancient states as Egypt,  Babylonia,
Medo-Persia, Greece, and Rome illustrated the matur-
ity of  social  organization,   but   modern   European
nations  springing from the foundations  of  the ancient
world  are  even more  illustrative  of the crystallizing
forces of social organization as well as concrete expres-
sions  of racial  development.   From the  time when
Roman  conquests  included  theoretically  all  land from
fa/ China to  the British Isles, and the idea of the Holy
Roman  Empire was instrumental in forming the Wes-
tern and Eastern Empires, as well as Russian, Persian,
and Turkish  dominion, till the birth of modern nations
all  Europe showed, through  the surging tide  of  flux
and reflux of peoples, the formulating impulse of social 
i6
Socio-Anthropometry
organization based on racial differentiation.  Conquest
and  repulse, racial and social mixing, and the imposi-
tion  of one state of civilization or barbarity upon  an-
other  characterized those ages,  when  the  advent  of
Mahomet caused the Saracens to stretch their conques-
tial tide from Arabia westward through Africa, Spain
and France, and eastward to Constantinople, and those
early  centuries when  the hordes of the  yellow race,
the Mongols, Magyars and  Tartars of the tenth and
thirteenth centuries poured into Europe.  The disrup-
tion  of Charlemagne's power and the birth  of France,
the Norman conquest and the birth of  England  are
examples  of inter-racial conflict which  produced  two
nations destined to become dominantly typical of their
respective racial strains.
  Thus  have the  nations shifted and re-shifted  till
to-day instead of great unbroken  areas containing un-
mixed racial types as in the  ancient ages,  we have dis-
tinct  national wholes, and added to physical  type  we
have  national and distinct  ethnological  types.   Eng-
land,  the result of the Saxon Norman conquest, Russia
of successive repulses of  Mongolic hordes,  and  Euro-
pean conflicts, France of wars from the time  of Charle-
magne to Bismarck, and  Italy  of  countless vicissitudes
since  the days of the Holy Roman Empire to the war
of 1870 are all  examples of  units which  express race,
customs  and statehood.   Types of  races include  all
people, but  Teutonic, Alpine and  Mediterranean types
may  be well  represented in a  few  of  the  prominent
world powers of Europe.  England  by  virtue of long
continued national  life can well serve to represent  the
Teutonic type, France  the Slavic or Alpine type and
Italy  the Mediterranean or south European  peoples.
  Sociologically.   The old  law  of conflict,  savage
tribe  exerting its will on  another savage tribe, is thus
illustrated  in this subordination of one nation by  an- 
    Introduction.  Origins of Races and Nations  17

other, of rising and  falling powers, of destinies that
waxed and waned.  In  primitive form the subordina-
tion is physical, in the civilized it  is ethnological, for
language and customs are  imposed instead of  brute
force.   It is  always annihilation  of one form  for the
preservation of another,  which  is evolution in  process.
   That  a  nation resembles an  individual in  being
formed of certain  elements is undoubted.  Social, psy-
cho-physical and  physical traits  are present  in  each
aggregate whole.   One is a unit as  the other is a  unit.
Individuals  are  units marked  off  and differentiated
from  each  other by  racial and national barriers, pos-
sessing, hower, common  intellectual, emotional, moral
and  physical  faculties, therefore,  participating  in cul-
ture and civilization  as  a whole and  expressing art,
religion  and  literature;  and it  is  the  study of  these
individuals  as units,  or  representatives  of race-units,
defined by  ethnological, historical and  sociological dis-
tinctions, which  is  to constitute  the  subject to  be
handled.
   Given physical  traits such  as  elements of head,  hair,
skin,  eyes and stature, the question arises  does a par-
ticular cast  of sociological  setting accompany a certain
anthropologic type?   Having a type of such and  such
dimensions,  possessing  such and  such physical  charac-
teristics,  is there a likelihood that this type will manifest
itself in thought, word and deed and all their far reach-
ing consequences,  which  also may be considered type?
In other words does  anthropometric type equal socio-
logic type, and vice versa?  Upon  the  answer  to this
query depends the great  validity of socio-anthropom-
etry. 
CHAPTER II
                THE  TEUTONIC RACE

           CONSIDERATION  of  the three  promi-
           nent racial types includes discussion of the
           Teutonic,  Alpine and Mediterranean types.
           The  first of these is,  as we have seen, fair
           haired, blue eyed, long of head and tall  of
stature.  It is  evident to-day in the Englishman and
the Scandinavian.  But it is not  to be concluded from
this statement that every Englishman or Dane repre-
sents the Teutonic type  par excellence any more  than
that England and Scandinavia are absolutely Teutonic
states.  As stated above pure type is hardly ever to  be
found,  for  the combination in one individual much less
a  nation,  of, all the  characteristic  marks  of  type  is
almost  an  impossibilty.   Nevertheless,  the  very  fact
that people however  unlike individually,  have  been
brought together at some remote  period, are living side
by side, possessing a  common language, common creed
and inspired by identical ideals of  statehood, the fact
that a people is thus massed together produces a certain
unity.  Thus  it is possible to speak of  "the English"
as a unit and mean a definite type.
   The English Nation.  To trace the  development  of
the English example of Teutonic type is to commence
with the doubt which has been  expressed as to whether
dolichocephals or brachycephals were the original homo
Europaeus  type.  That the problem  is believed to  be
less complicated on the  island  is proven by the clear
statements  of  Beddoe who definitely  states  that  the
original Britons were dolichocephalic.  That they were
dark and small of stature is generally supposed. After
                         18 
The Teutonic Race              19
the dawn of history these primitive characteristics came
to be identified with the  traits of traders and  invaders
who visited the island.  Probably the Phoenicians and
most  surely  the  Romans  left some traces  on  little
Britain.   But these visits are hardly anthropologically
important, for the traders  and the  conquerors left no
lasting  mark  on  type.   Early Britons remained the
same as they had been throughout the bronze and iron
ages till the coming of  the Teutons.   Jutes, Angles
and  Saxons  were the first newcomers to make an
impress on the island racially.  Of northern  stock,
light haired,  fair and tall,  these visitors came to stay,
and pushed the true Britons to  the western mountains.
The fertile geographical  plain  which slopes from the
Welsh mountains to the Channel was acceptable to the
agricultural  tastes  of  the  newly  arriving  Frisians.
"These men,"  said  an old  chronicler of the  Frisians,
"been high of  body, stern  of virtue, strong and  fierce of
heart;  they be free, and not subject to lordship of any
man;  and they  put their  lives in peril by cause of
freedom, and  would  liever  die  than  embrace the yoke
of thraldom."1    But still another branch of  Teu-
tons was  destined to come to Britain  before  the ter-
mination of invasions had  fixed a type which was to
become known as the English  type of  to-day.  Danes
and later Normans, the Black  and  White  Northmen,
as they  were  called, were invaders, but  unlike the
Romans, they changed  the  an thro-ethnological type of
Britain, for they came to settle  and perpetuate the race.
  The significance of this contact between  two repre-
sentative strains of the Teutonic stock  should not be
disregarded, for in it are  perhaps to  be  discovered dy-
namic elements which were to  contribute to the event-
  ^eddoe, J.  The Anthropological  History  of Europe.
London, 1912, p. 144. 
20
Socio-Anthropometry
ual rise  to  world power and physical  superiority  of
one of the participating nations.   The  Normans were
Norsemen in  France,  for from the days when  Rollo
advancing up  the  Seine, entered  Paris  and founded a
family which  in time was  to produce that brilliant
figure of  the  eleventh and  twelfth  centuries William
the Conqueror,  till  the  invasion  of England by this
very William, the  Normans  were Norsemen in France.
Thereafter  they became Englishmen, and  from that
time to  the present  day  two dominant strains have
threaded their way through  English  life and character.
The Saxon strain is expressed  in love of home, of agri-
culture, of obedience  to law, and  the democratic prin-
ciple:  the Norman strain shows  itself  in love of per-
sonal liberty, of  adventure, of  fine quality and truthful
virtues,  and the aristocratic principle.  The  Norman-
izing  of  England   affected   language, government,
church and  nobility.  The Norman conquest is  really
the birth  of England because it  was the last  of  the
invasions and  paved the way  for the working  out  of
the homogeneity of a people.  A state is  based on homo-
geneity  of race, compactness  of  territorial possession,
religious cohesion  and stability of  government.   But
it  is men who in  the last analysis  make a state, and
when through the consciousness of  the  members of a
state there runs a consciousness of  kind, a  feeling  of
like mindedness, and a sense of brotherhood,  a state is
evolved.   A realization of nationalism was  developed
early in England.  By the end of the sixteenth century
when the continental states were still  laboring  under
the dominance of separating factors,  England  possessed
a strong sense of national cohesiveness.  Homogeneity
of race  practically began  when the last invasion was
finished, that is,  when the Northmen overran  England,
for the later coming of the  Flemish  and French Hug-
uenots to the island cannot be said to have made much 
The Teutonic Race
21
impress anthropologically.   With  the  Norman con-
quest began the impulse towards amalgamation  of the
component  parts,   ancient   Britons,  Angles,  Jutes,
Danes,  and Normans into one type,  the  physical and
psycho-physical Englishmen of to-day.  That the meld-
ing is really never completed, however, is clearly  shown
in the persistence at the  present of physical  types  in
England,  Scotland and Wales which resemble very ac-
curately the old racial  types.
   Still  geographical  isolation, freedom  from  invasion
and  fertility of  domestic soil resulted in the inaugura-
tion of a small nation which was destined eventually
to expand one hundred times its original size.   Eco-
nomic pressure between enlarging population and con-
stricted quarters was to be the motive for world con-
quest and world empire.  The Teutonic trait, a desire
for adventure, colonization  and  expansiveness, operat-
ing  in  the English  conquering heroes of  the  seven-
teenth,  eighteenth  and nineteenth  centuries was  to
acquire possessions valuable  for world empire,  while
Saxon traits of tenacity  of hold,  love of settlement and
singleness of purpose were to operate for  the retention
of vast territorial possession  in the name  of England.
The industrial revolution coming to convulse old trade
and  commercial  relations proved  an opportunity  for
England's long  maturing utilitarian character to man-
ifest  itself, and the  mechanic inventions  and English
contributions to scientific skill are the result of the suc-
cessful  use  of that opportunity.   Upon the utilitarian
character  of the Briton  has  been built the great struc-
ture of England's commanding  position in the  world
arena.  Commercialism based upon domestic security
and  an adequate financial  foundation  has  resulted in a
growth of invention rapid enough to settle great indus-
trial  problems and  a  scientific  outlook  keen  enough
to maintain a trade  which brooks no rival.  The state- 
22
Socio-A nthropometry
 hood behind all this is a state with a policy of common
 sense and resolution.  What is right and worth while
 governs the action of the British.  The decision as to
 what is right  and worth  while is the outcome of the
 balance maintained  between  two  principles,   democ-
 racy and aristocracy, the Saxon and  the Norman Teu-
 tonic virtues,  and the constitutional conflict between
 king and people has illustrated the working out of this
 two-sided  English character.   The evolution  of  the
 Church of England  likewise  showed  this conflict  of
 traits, but  in much less degree  than the evolution  of
 the  machine of  government.   The free  thinking  of
 Protestantism once having entered  the English frame
 of  life  emphasized  the  conservative aristocratic prin-
 ciple of Norman origin.   To-day, the  church in Eng-
 land illustrates national  cohesiveness and social like-
 mindedness.  That such was not the case during the
 centuries when the transition from Catholic to  Protes-
 tant form of worship occurred is needless to say.  Being
 Catholic at  first,  the English  church dominated the
 government and ruled through the power of  the pope,
 until the advent of Protestantism called  for a decisive
 adjustment of  the rival  claims  of the two creeds.   A
 making  over of the  new  on  the  pattern of the old
 resulted.   Protestantism  succeeded  Catholicism with
 no  rent  in  the national  consciousness,  and no  church
 wars in England as on the continent of Europe.  The
 church expresses an  Englishman's love  of form, tradi-
 tion and social  standing.   England unlike  un-Teutonic
 countries has made no great contribution  to the heart
 of religion,  she has rather contributed to  the thinking
 powers of religion.  Criticism and good taste  are Eng-
lish churchly attributes.  These qualities likewise char-
acterize the Briton in art and literature.   Bred in col-
leges that aim to make the gentleman, molded  on the
accepted form of the ideal English gentleman,  he be- 
The Teutonic Race
23
queaths to literature a spirit of fineness of  form and a
resolution  of disharmonious  elements  rather  than a
surge of creative emotion carrying in its wake  baffling
theories  and  erotic thought  soarings.   He  does not
often intellectualize far  beyond the bonds of common-
sense, he possesses  a love of the concrete, of  healthy
physical  relaxation, a lack of sentient imagination, and
exhibits  an incapacity for  great  emotional sufferings.
Love of home, of seeing things run  smoothly,  a belief
in the ultimate success of enterprises, in efficiency and
rightly  directed  effort typify the Englishman.
  Although  differing  psychically,  rather, as we shall
see  physio sociologically,  as individual types of nations,
England and Scandinavia  are  basically alike  in  that
they  both  are representatives of  the Teutonic  type.
The difference between  them as states is one of degree
rather than of form, for  both are monarchies, and have
been so since the foundation  of  goverment in  each of
the countries.  Both have a long political  history, but
England's  is full while  Scandinavia's is scanty.  Both
have democratic elements in their monarchical form of
government,   and  both   nations  resist  encroachment
upon rights.  The  institution of  forms of justice in
Scandinavia antedated England's judicial system.  The
creed in both countries  is Protestant.   The  English
form of worship differs, however,  in  being more simi-
lar  to the Catholic creed;  in  Scandinavia, neverthe-
less, the Swedish church  follows many Church of Eng-
land  ways.   Independence of  thought  is more pro-
nounced in the Scandinavian churches than  in the Eng-
lish.  Norwegian and  Danish Lutheranism have allied
on many occasion very strongly with  the opponents of
Baptist  ritualism and formalism.   It is this  type of
religiously  protesting mind which calls up a  striking
difference between English  and  Scandinavian Teutonic
traits. 
24
Socio-Anthropometry
   Although the English and  the Scandinavians are in
 some sense very blood brothers, they are in some ways
 very much like strangers to each  other.  The  type of
 Scandinavian mind inclines to  be  dogmatic-emotional
 while that of  the  English critically-intellectual.  Both
 types  of  mind base  their activity  on reasoning,  but
 the  critically-intellectual or English mind  reasons by
 selecting from all known premises the fittest and hold-
 ing  to  it until  the  acquisition  of fresh data sets up a
 new criterium:  the dogmatic-emotional type of mind,
 on the other hand,  reasons from one premise logically
 arrived at and  tenaciously held in face of opposition.
 This latter  type of  mind  is  represented  by  certain
 churchmen of Norway and Denmark.   The disposition
 is domineering and  emotional;  the  mysticism and mel-
 ancholism  of the Danish  Inner Mission, for instance,
 show to what  extent  this trait is pronounced  under
 some  conditions  of  Scandinavian  life.   Mysticism,
 reserve of  inner  spirit,  and  philosophic questioning,
 salient  marks  of  the true  Teutonic  character,  are
 indeed  more  forcibly  expressed by the Scandinavian
 than the English temperament.  The English disposi-
 tion is  domineering and  creative.   The aggressiveness
 of the Englishman  is the insistently maintained aggres-
 siveness of dominance, and the English fighting spirit
 is a well known example of the trait.  Creative ability
 follows the national character in being utilitarian and
 rationalistic.   The   rationally  conscientious  attitude is
 the mold of  the  Briton.  True, he is convivial to the
 extent of loving sports, outing life and physical perfec-
 tion, but it is in the balance  preserved  in an English-
man's  life  which shows his rational conscientiousness.
 His  is  the  critically intellectual type and judged  by
sociality, intellectuality and morality belongs to the
category of sociality, which category  expresses a  com-
bined intellectuality with morality  and a  broad con- 
The Teutonic Race
25
sciousness of kind.  The  Scandinavians, on  the other
hand, belong to the  category of morality.  Norwegian,
Danish, and Swedish  traits express their strongest in-
dividuality in the spheres of religion and social rights.
Rationalistic but dogmatic.   The  habit of thought is
inductive  and  showed itself  in the evolution of  the
Protestant  form  of worship,  and the  constitutional
form  of  government.   This type combines an austere
character  and  a domineering, but  in  the case of  the
Scandinavians, also  a  convivial disposition.   Certain
Danes are convivial to a marked extent.  In Norway
there  is an emotional, loquacious, and susceptible char-
acter  to  be observed  in the  people of  the south-west
coast.
   The Scandinavian  Nations.   If  while as we  have
seen England's rise  to greatness is due not only to the
character  of her  people but  to geographical isolation
and  freedom  from  devastation,  what  may be  said  of
Scandinavia in this respect.  Scandinavia if represented
merely by Norway  and Sweden is  also geographically
isolated, and even including Denmark this fact is  true
to a limited extent.   If to isolation is due  England's
prominence as a world power,  the same ought to  be
said  of the northern  country.   Scandinavia's  lack  of
prominence must, however,  be attributed to her  long
winters, barren soil, low temperature and mountainous
confines,  for  these  have  proven obstacles  to develop-
ment.   The  mountainous districts of Norway   have
hindered  agricultural  pursuits;  they  also  have  con-
tributed  to the  development of the  character of  the
people, such as the gloominess of soul  and the tendency
towards  introspection of the Norwegian  valley dwel-
lers.  Northern  adventuring traits, admirable in dis-
playing the physical strength and virility of  the Scan-
dinavian nations were yet  indicative of immaturity and
incompleteness.  Viking  raids  were not  followed  up 
26
Socio-Anthropometry
by  constructive effort,  and  thus the opportunity  for
Scandinavian world power was neglected.  This fault
was due to a  characteristic  of the northern tempera-
ment,  the  obsession of  a  one-idea.   Scandinavians
pledge allegiance to a goal and leave no stone unturned
to reach that goal,  but once having  attained it their
ambition  subsides.   This devotion to  an  end  often
brings about incongruities and sharp contacts.  Art in
Scandinavia expresses this singleness of purpose.   Scan-
dinavia is a land  of contrasts, vividness and fatality.
The northern artists love color, and luster.  Brilliance
in court life characterized the reign of Gustavus Adol-
phus  in Sweden and the ministries of the Bernstorffs
in  Denmark.   Brilliance is  contracted with  melan-
cholism.   The  power of faith is strongly felt.  North-
ern  philosophy passively accepts   the  imposition   of
natural odds, and  recognizes as part of every day  life
the  oppression  of nature's forces.
  That these natural forces have played a large role in
the  formation  of Scandinavia  as a racial unit cannot
of course be doubted.  Definite knowledge of Scandin-
avia's racial origin is however lacking.  The  Neander-
thal man of  the paleolithic or diluvial period may be  the
foundation type of Scandinavian races as of other Euro-
pean strains.  At any rate it is believed that two race
strains, the  Cro-Magnon or dolichocephalic  and  the
Dissentis or brachycephalic types, have existed in  Scan-
dinavia for a very long time.   During the bronze and
iron ages there were men in Scandinavia who ploughed
and  tilled the  soil.  The waves of civilization  which
no  doubt swept over  Europe touched  the  northern
countries as well, and brought  changes in industry and
language.   At the dawn of  history  two  races  were
known to be  exisiting  in Scandinavia and till  to-day
there are two distinct  strains to  be  observed in  the
population.   History,  however, has  emphasized one 
The Teutonic Race              27
type to the exclusion of the other,  and the tall,  fair,
blue eyed type has received more than its merited share
of attention.  Pytheas'  description of the "Hyperbor-
eans" was that they were fair, tall and strong.   Indus-
tries in the  far away land of the north wind included
hunting, cattle raising and herring fishing.  About 400
B. C.  Norway, Denmark and Sweden must each  have
begun  to develop  some sort  of  individual cohesiveness
as is told in the mythical stories of  Odin giving these
countries to his three sons.   That history really began
when the Saxons were  already  established in England
is proven by the  likeness between the land systems in
the  two countries.   From  the  peasant  land  holders
there eventually sprang up concentration  of power in
one  king,  and Denmark  was  founded  around  the
sound, Sweden around  Lake Malaren, and Norway on
the North Sea boundary of  Sweden.
   Besides the identity of their land system,  great sim-
ilarity characterized  the tongues of  these  respective
countries in the  earliest of Saxon  times.   Not  only
could  an Icelandic bard  be understood  in Norway,
Denmark and Sweden but also by Frisians in England,
for the root dialect of  English  as well as Norwegian,
Danish and Swedish belongs to the Teutonic  branch
of the Indo-European  stem, according to Prof. Max
MiiHer.   The Frisians in coming to Britain brought
their Low German dialect with them.  The Scandin-
avians using another but related dialect, gradually built
up their separate philological  system,  as the  English
eventually did theirs.   Dialect precedes language, as
tribes, clans and families precede the state. A language
grows by stages,  there  is the composition of roots, the
gradual  discernments of meanings and  the  systematic
elaboration  of  grammatical forms.  In the  old Eddas
of Iceland  and the Beowulf of Britain  great  resemb-
lances of speech  are  to be found.   Nevertheless,  with 
28
Socio-Anthropometry
the passage of  time differentiation sets in and new
forms  are evolved.  The Norman tongue,  which was
the Norse dialect  Latinized, came to  England  to mix
with the old Frisian  Low German, and a new language
eventually to  be called English sprang  into existence.
   Early people were accustomed to clothe their  words
with high imagery, and  it  is this  imagery and content
which  reflects the traits of a people more  pertinently
than their form of speech.  The  Ayran theory  which
obtains little  credence  from anthropologists  is  recog-
nized to a certain  extent by ethnologists and philolog-
ists.   Indeed the claim that western  Europe obtained
her culture  from the East is believable  in  the face of
the similarities  which  exist between  Teutonic  myths
and  Sanskrit  traditions.   That  the  members  of  the
Teutonic family have traits of mutual  likeness is  surely
proven  by the sway  which certain folk  tales have had
in Scandinavia,  Germany  and  England.   While  the
conception  of Ydradsil, the Tree of  Life,  never  has
had  such a  hold  in  Britain  as  it  had among  the
Teutons on  the  continent,  nevertheless,  there are tales
of the  Norwegian "little people"  which are faithfully
repeated by  the  Irish stories of fairies  and elves. The
Icelandic tales of ships  and marauders, of pillages and
conquests are prepared in Beowulf,  and reflect a com-
mon racial  heritage.  The advance of  the Christian
faith was a means of  turning  many a  tale of  pagan-
ism and heathendom into  altered  form.  Custom and
practices changed too with the advent of Christianity.
The mistletoe shed its  ancient pagan luster  to take on
symbolism under the Christian faith.   Easter customs
to-day  in Scandinavia and  England are  often relics of
pagan  ages.   The  very formation of the Scandinavian
parliament  is  traced to the assize which originated in
days when  assembled   throngs  of commoners  were
accustomed to gather about their leader  or king  stand- 
The Teutonic Race
29
ing upon  the old  tumuli upon  which centuries before
the worshippers of Freyr had been wont to stand.  Cus-
toms  originate and  traditions gain momentum  down
the years.   Many a Norwegian  village tale is no doubt
repeated word for word to-day in  Cornwall  villages,
and  in  this  link between the countries  we  see  more
plainly  than  in any other way the marks  of a  common
ancestry which we have taken as type.
  Thus the  ruddy, fair haired  Englishman is akin to
the tall, blond Swede  and the  short  dark Welshman
is akin to  the broad headed Dane in the respect that in
the beginning all have had  a  common  ancestry  and
ethnological  breeding.  That one can go farther and
say that from these similarities other similarities result
is doubtful.  True as it is that we have seen that Scan-
dinavians  agree in reproducing  Teutonic type identi-
cally with the English  in some  respects,  in the Protes-
tant form of religion,  in  the nature of  their govern-
ment and  in  their common qualities  of love of  indepen-
dence, self reliance, common sense and in their allegi-
ance to the  principles of logic,  nevertheless, in many
other respects these two representatives of the one type
do differ strikingly.  They differ in  the quality of their
great men and they  differ in innumerable manifesta-
tions  of temperament and  disposition.   In short, we
can say that although  physically they agree  in  type,
sociologically they are very far apart in their expression
of this type.   The gap of difference  widens or narrows
according  to  the point  of  view. 
CHAPTER III
                 THE ALPINE RACE

           ANTHROPOLOGICALLY distinct from
           the Teutonic type is  the  Slavic, Celtic or
           Alpine type.  Differing not only in stature
           and colouring but markedly in  head index,
           this  second  type  has,  in  contradistinction
to the Teutonic, its own location  and  geographical  set-
ting.  It is the  Eurasian race mentioned by Sergi, or
the Alpine by Ripley, and  in ethnological  terms  it is
called the Celtic race.  Its  habitat is  broadly speaking
north-western Asia and  central Europe.  Its represen-
tatives are the Slav nations,  Russia and the south Slavic
states, Serbia, Roumania, Montenegro, etc., also Swit-
zerland,  France and  Belgium.  Authropologically  dis-
tinguished, the type  is broad headed,  mediumly tall of
stature,  dark or chestnut haired,  with eyes of blue or
gray.  Unlike as are the nations included in this type,
nevertheless,  distinguished  from   the other  extremes
the tall,  fair and long headed Teutons, and the short,
dark,  swarthy  Mediterraneans, they  are easily recog-
nized to  belong to an intermediate type.
   France  and   Russia  may   serve   to  represent
the  second  or  Alpine  race.     Unlike   in  some
anthropologic ethnographic  and  sociologic  respects,
these   nations   nevertheless   have   certain  bonds
in  common.    In   regard  to   the  anthropologic
type there is a likeness  of  components rather than of
wholes, for it is to certain strains in one that the other
agrees.   If we take  head  index,  which, as was stated
above, is the most constant exponent of race, we judge
that because the Russian and  French are to be found
                         30 
The Alpine Race
31
 in  the brachycephalic or broad  headed classification,
 these nations belong to  that racial strain which differ-
 entiates itself from the  Teutonic on one  side and  the
 Mediterranean  on the other.   Further,  if with  Sergi
 we make a broad classification as to Asiatic and  Afri-
 can divisions of  European  races this  race would be
 denominated  Asiatic.  To do  so is not to make any
 sweeping claims that it originated in Asia, for the gen-
 eral doubt as to  the precedence of dolichocephals or
 brachycephals embraces  Asia  as well as Europe.  In
 trying  to  locate anthropologically the  earliest man in
 Russia  and France we may not go any more clearly or
 any nearer to the  root of the matter than  to touch the
 doubt  which we have expressed above.  As to historic
 evidence of the men who lived early in  Gaul and  on
 the Russian plains, it may be said that Gaul was inhab-
 ited by what  in  ethnology  are called  Celts,  broad
 headed   individuals  who   were  mediumly  tall:  in
 Caesar's first conquest of the Gauls he found such men
 called  Belgae, Gauls  and  Iberians and Tacitus wrote
 of the  Scythians living  in the Carpathian  mountains.
 Soon however in both districts changes occurred.  The
 Gauls  (and Romans) in France  were overrun by  in-
 vaders.   Three contingents  came,  the Burgundians,
 the Visigoths and the Franks.  These were Teutons.
 They came from the Rhine country, and mixed signifi-
 cantly  both  sociologically  and  anthropologically  with
 the Gauls, so significantly that to-day the original Celts
 plus the Germanized Celts may be said to be the  basis
 of the  French population.  That the same thing was
 happening  in Russia was shown by  the very origin  of
 the name Russia.  The Scandinavians, mainly  Swedes,
were migrating from the north, touching Novgorod on
their itinerant trail to Constantinople,  and were  thus
contributing a Teutonic element  to the eventually  to
be formed  Russian  nation.  Consequently to-day Teu^ 
32
Socio-Anthropometry
tonic  elements are  mixed  in  both  the  Russian  and
French nations.
  The Russian Nation.  But  it was long before the
evolution  of the  finished  French  and Russian states
that these events  took place, and  in  the east the mix-
ture was destined to become increased to a yet  greater
extent before the real Russian nation  was evolved. The
early  history of Russia  is briefly told:  the patriarchial
family, the  growth of the towns,  the rise of the early
cities  of Kiev and Moscow,  the growing power of the
Boyars and  of the princes, and the final  concentration
of power  in one prince at Moscow,  constitute  the ac-
count.  Early history  thus  politically told  must  also
note the great anthropologic changes which have played
a role in  Muscovite history, that  is, the  Finnish and
Tartar  inroads which  have been  made upon Russian
unity.  Finns from  the north came  down to what  is
now  known as Letto Lithunania.   Tartars  from the
East, Chinese Tartary,  sweeping over  the immense
Russian plains brought an Asiatic influence which was
to affect Russia, but sociologically  and ethnographically
more than   anthropologically.  Nevertheless,  Tartar
strains are present in Russian  type and character, and
no  mention  of type  can neglect either Finnish or Tar-
tar traits.
  These  Finnish  and  Tartar invasions  into   Russia
illustrate  a  mixing of the great races or  racial  strains,
for yellow  skinned  men  amalgamated with the white
skinned.   Mongols,  either as Finns,  Tartars or Turks
represent  a  striking difference in  race from  European
types, and yet to the mixing of this stock with Euro-
pean  Alpine is attributed  the evolution of a people such
as  the Russians.   The Finns coming far south have
contributed  more than one legacy  to  the Great  Russian
type of to-day in  the short stature, small  gray eyes and
broad skull  of that type.  Further,  Tartar  traits are 
The Alpine Race
33
Mongoloid  traits and the prominent cheek  bones as
well as the psychic attributes of servility, qualities of
endurance and liking for secrecy and ruse are vestiges
of Asiatic origins.  That the Tartars were Turkish is
believed  by  Beddoe  as stated  in his  classification of
European Asiatic types.  Tartar  or Turkish traces are
seen to-day  in the Great Russians, the  Little Russians
and  the White Russians, who make up  forty, ten and
three millions  respectively of the present Russian pop-
ulation.   That the traces are mostly of a philological
nature is granted, nevertheless,  certain  character dis-
tinctions  are also made.   The  Great Russian is  more
Finnish than his southern brother and is stolid, tough,
capable and the pioneer of Russian initiative, while the
Little  Russian  is, on  the other  hand,  alert  in  mind,
imaginative and lacking in the force of the Great Rus-
sian.   While,  however, doubt may be expressed  as to
whether   such  traits  of servility, endurance,  wolflike
suppleness, secrecy and a  liking  for ruse are really to
be found  in  Russian  character, it is nevertheless less a
matter of conjecture that to the Tartar invasion can
be traced certain political and national  happenings in
Russian  life.   The  reign of Ivan  the  Terrible may
never have happened  in just the manner  it did  if it had
not  been  for  the Tartar Khans.   Terrible as  he  is
called, nevertheless,  Ivan  succeeded in  consolidating
Russia and  strengthening the national church.   Con-
temporaneously with  that reign  began  Moscow's rise
and  with it  the growth  of the  Boyar  or noble  class.
While on her  frontier Russia  was  extending north,
east, and  south,  to the Ural Mountains, Caspian Sea
and  Caucasus  Mountains,  at her center the tendency
towards  absolutism was  working disastrously.   After
the strong reign  weakness set in which lasted until the
reign of  Peter the Great, whose services however in
reviving  national life  succeeded  in  placing  Russia in 
34
Socio-Anthropometry
rank equally with the other powers of  Europe.  Cath-
arine  the  Second,  following Peter  in greatness of ser-
vice carried  out  many of his  ideas, and  thus an im-
proved  Russia  was able to enter upon her  nineteenth
century of  Napoleonic wars,  of  liberal  agitation, of
imperialistic  policy, of  serfdom freedom,  and of con-
flicts for expansion with European powers.
   Political expansion has never in the sphere of Rus-
sian activity meant economic or industrial  expansion.
An  antiquated  land  system,  an  exchequer  which
accomodated needs but which never tried  to carry the
world's credit, and a manufacturing  equipment suffi-
cient to contribute to  the  country's own wants, are the
institutions which  characterize economic Russia. Com-
merce, which is an expression  of world wide industrial
contact, has been lacking  in Russian economy although
in some agricultural respects this country is  one  of the
greatest producers of  the earth. Russia is rather the ex-
pression of but two concepts, the state and the church.
  The state  is autocratic and despotic  because a Rus-
sian loves  the aristocratic principle and because his type
of mind is dogmatic  emotional.  Because of a lack of
a  reactive principle  such  as  democracy  among the
people  in  England, Russia has from the  beginning of
her career steadily grown towards absolutism.   Fur-
ther, because Russia  unlike France has never thrown
off  autocratic monarchy, an explanation of such  a pro-
nounced tendency  must be sought deep in  the national
character.   Love of traditioin, moral  indifference and
an aristocratic cast of  mind are the  traits which elabor-
ate this tendency.  Indifference  combined with  inde-
pendence of character is  shown by  Russians from the
very beginning of  their  statehood.   The struggle of
the princes with  each other and  with  the nobles, and
the acquisition  of landed property by  churchmen and
nobles,  all tended  towards fostering  absolutism.  It 
The Alpine Race
35
was  a phenomenon of extremes—absolutism, but abso-
lutism yoked  with the long continued custom of serf-
dom.
  The church is an echo of the state, and also a restate-
ment of Byzantine power.  The Greek Orthodox creed
appeals to  the  Russian seeking  consolation  from the
bleakness  of life in  the  fantastic ornamentation of the
altar,  for  dogmatic, imperialistic and domineering as
is the  church, her emotion  is her love of display as her
cardinal virtue  is  her  love of conformity.   The church
appeals to the tradition-loving Russian; it also touches
the pride  of patriotism, for to be Russian  is to be  orth-
odox.  The  capacity  to accept  this their state  craft and
their church rule shows a character trait of passivity in
the  Russians, a moral willessness which seldom revolts
either morally  or artistically.  Conservative  and  crea-
tive  impulses have  only been shown by  the Russian
people in  spite of the handicaps  which the  state and
the  church have  imposed  upon  national  life.
  These  handicaps  have helped  to foster extremes of
thinking—radicalism  and  nihilism.  Because the Rus-
sian  mind is  adaptive, imitative  and keenly perceptive
it works  quickly,  often  to  sweeping conclusions.  It is
a logical  mind,  of the deductive variety.  Keenness and
lucidity of  thought  predominate  at times to the exclu-
sion  of creative ability.  Intellectually the Russians are
generally  speaking artists rather than scientists.  Rus-
sia has the  artistic temperament but lacks creative abil-
ity.    Absence  of will power  may explain  Russia's
failure to qualify as  a contributor to concrete expres-
sions of art.  It  also explains Russia's lack of a fully
developed sociality.   The  Slavic  individual is prone
to live in the present and  to discount the burdens of
the  future.  This disposition  produces gaiety and mel-
ancholy;  it also explains  bad management of personal
affairs and the prevalence  of trifling civil crimes. 
36              Socio-Anthropometry
  Personal  traits  thus  contributing  to   disposition,
character  and  type of mind  distinguish the  Russian
people from  the  Teutons  on one side and  from  their
fellow Celts, the  French, on the other.  But it  is in the
likeness to the French rather than to  unlikeness that
we  see the  close relation  of Russian to French  type.
The  Russian  instigative  disposition matches  a  like
strain  shown  by the  exercise of  French  diplomatic
talents.   Richelieu  and  Mazarin  are  reproduced in
miniature in many a petty  Russian  official  of the  pres-
ent.   Character,  too,  among the two people  classifies
similarly.   Convivial  rather  than  forceful, austere or
rationally conscientious, the  Franco-Russian character
in combining  with  the instigative temperament  does
not,  however,  produce a type which  is  ideo-emotional.
Russian type of mind  judged in regard  to the  qualities
expressed  in its creed  and state policy is  rather  dog-
matic  emotional  than  ideo-emotional, and  the French,
on the other hand, judged  from their critical  and cre-
ative disposition  and  character  are rather  critically
intellectual  than  ideo-emotional.
  The French Nation.  The French type  is convivial
in character and creative  in  disposition.  The French
social  traits of  hospitality,  desire to  please,  humor,
and  extravagance show their  conviviality.  These  char-
acter traits  are governed and held in check by the cre-
ative power in  the  French  disposition, which  seeks
thrift and the  adaptability of means toward end.  The
French middle class with its  serene mediocrity, its neat
tidiness,  and atmosphere of  tranquility, illustrate the
working  out  of  this  trait.  The  convivial  character
leads to the expression of certain moral manifestations,
the  extreme super-severity of the devout religieuse  as
well  as the licentiousness renowned  in the history  of
French courts  of past centuries.   Furthermore, in  the
sphere of morals the possession of a distinct power, the 
The Alpine Race
37
will,  distinguishes French from Russian  personality.
French disposition in being distinctively creative shows
the evidence of will.  It is will power applied to the
vanquishing  of  acceptable odds, however,  rather  than
to the overturning of repelling obstacles.   The ration-
alism of the  Teuton  is absent.  Intellectually, thinking
approaches the Latin or  Mediterranean type, for it is
deductive.    The  Code  of Napoleon illustrates  this.
Unlike the Saxon common sense  thinking, there is  a
tendency to intellectualize for intellect's  own   sake.
With it all, however, the French mind is prone to seek
balance.  This  is supplied by the critical  habit.
   The critical attitude  portrays the  Frenchman  most
conclusively.  In art and literature, in the church and
in matters of statehood this attitude is repeated contin-
uously.  Literature rising with the French nation and
expanding contemporaneously with territorial growth
has displayed the development of the French love of
technique.   That this trait has outlived the  concrete
expression of territorial expansion only serves  to show
the pure artistry of the impulse.  Science and industry,
inherently unakin to the Celto  Slavic personality, has
failed  the  French   as the Russian.   World empire
merely meant the perfection of diplomatic  arts, thus  it
was destined to fall, and show the lack of  Celto Slavic
contribution to  the  commercial  phase of  sociological
life.  With  religion and  state organization the  Celto
Slavs  regain their own.   True, religion in  France at
the present has no hold comparable to the sway of the
church in Russia.   Protestants, aetheists  and Roman
Catholics split the nation.  The growth of the French
church has exhibited no such close connection between
state and creed as existed  in Russia  and England, for
example.  That the  church and state have been allied
is due  not so much  to the interconnection of the two
as the  fact that church-statehood  was a common phe- 
38
Socio-Anthropometry
 nomenon of all the nations of the Middle Ages.   Nev-
 ertheless, in spite of all, it is true that France has had
 her religious types, her civil-religious Huguenot wars,
 her kings blessed by the popes, and her struggles for the
 freedom of unbelievers.
   The  very growth of the French state is  based  upon
 the idea of  unity  supplied  by  the  Roman Catholic
 Church. The development of  the French state, furth-
 ermore, is also an  expression  of the critical  attitude of
 the Frenchman.   Discarded monarchism, experimental
 communism,  retried  monarchism and eventual  dem-
 ocracy shows  an  inductive train of  thought processes
 exhibited by a people judged deductive from the point
 of view of religion.   Briefly the history of France is the
 history  of  the growth  of  a  state  through absolute
 monarchy to democracy.   It  is  a record of absolute
 monarchy broken  down  by  the  force  of  the  Third
 Estate,  the  eventual  submergence of  this body  in its
 own dregs, the trial  of various governments, and the
 final unification  of governmental efforts in  the  com-
 mune of France of  to-day.  That the futility  of un-
 limited  monarchy  was only  learned  in  France  after
 centuries of experience is proven by  a survey  of the
 record of the years  which passed between  the  time
 when  Louis XIV  announced "L'etat c'est  moi" back-
 wards  to the days  of the  Capetian  kings,  a  period
which included the era of the  rivalries  between court
parties,  between  the conflicting ideas of the Reforma-
 tion and the Renaissance, between rival powers, France,
 Italy and Austria, and the era when the early Cape-
 tians sought to establish a unified monarchy  in spite of
the opposition  of the rival Gallic princes.
  The France of Charlemagne had been but a  partial
state.  It was also but partially French.  Anthropolog-
 ically  France is Teutonic as well as Alpine.   The three
Gallic  states had  been German,  Roman and  Celtic. 
The Alpine Race
39
The Aryan theorists people Gaul with  a Celtic  type
which  practiced industries akin to those of all western
Europe in the bronze and  iron ages.   Roman occupa-
tion did not  affect the anthropologic type for  Rome
in  changing  the  language,  establishing  schools  and
building roads, affected  Gaul sociologically and  ethno-
logically.   It  remained for  the Germans  to change the
anthropologic type.  The big, blond Teutons who came
in the  centuries  immediately  preceding  the  Christian
era changed Gallic type as  well as culture.
   Early life in France and Russia centered round the
primitive  unit, the  tribe in  France,  and  the clan  in
Russia.  In each  country the unit  was quite separate
from all others.  Each French tribe lived by itself with
little or  no power of  combining with  its  neighbors
even for purposes  of war, as for instance  to repulse the
Romans when they  came  as conquerors.   In  Russia
the independence of the units was caused by the great
territorial  distances which  separated the  tribes.   Each
group   was and   necessarily  had  to  be  independent.
Leadership was vested in the father, later the priest and
the military ruler.  Heredity leadership thus character-
ized Russian government; Gaul on  the other hand was
controlled by elected chieftains.  Religion in  the latter
country was  of  a distinctly hierarchial  form:   there
were Druids  and a set system of rites  and  practices.
Religious myths developed in both countries, but it was
not until well into historical times  that there emerged
distinct accounts  of  heroic cycles.   The Chanson  de
Roland  illustrates the  French celebration of a  hero
akin to the English Arthur, that is, Charlemagne and
his battles with the Saracens.  This epic is written in
the  Langue  d'oil,  a  dialect which  with  Langue  d'oc
was formed when  Greek and Roman tongues inserted
themselves  into the  original Gallic tongue.  Of  the
original tongue no trace exists to-day.  Even the Ger- 
40
Socio-A nthropometry
man tribes, the Burgundians and the Franks,  did not
succeed in  displacing the  tenacious  hold  which the
southern tongues had taken.  Basque, however, a  rene-
gade of an Asiatic tongue  which exists to-day in the
Pyrenees  Mountains serves  as  a basis for founding
an  exception  to  the complete  Latinization  of  the
French.  It is  distinctly non-Aryan, as  Finnish is non-
Aryan.  The Finnish element exists in the dialects of
the Great Russian and the  White  Russians,  that is,
there  is  a  likeness  to  Asiatic tongues;  structurally,
however,  these dialects  are Aryan.    Little  Russian
bears  comparison to Sanskrit.  Further, while belong-
ing like the French tongue  to the great  Indo-European
stock, Slavic differs from the French language  in  bear-
ing more distinct resemblances  to the  Teutonic  than
the Celtic branch.
  When besides Indo-European traits there are thus to
be observed Turanian or Asiatic traces  in Russian and
French tongues, it may be possible to go a step farther
and assert  that Asiatic ethnic traits are  also to be  reck-
oned with in definition  of  Celto Slavic type.  A con-
clusion  of  this  sort  leads to  various consequences:
Asiatic ethnic traits may invalidate the claim that Al-
pine or Celtic type  is European at all;  on the other
hand  ethnic  traits   may   not  be  able to  determine
anthropologic type.   If  it is concluded, however,  that
anthropologic Asiatic traits are just  as prominent in
the Russian people  as  ethnological Asiatic traits, the
classification of Slavic type as a European Alpine type
may perhaps be fairly enough denounced.  On the other
hand  it has been stated  above that according to  Sergi,
this brachycephalic race  is Eur-Asiatic,  in other words,
Alpine type must in  all sincerity include Asiatic  traits
because it is  based  on  a variety which originated in
Asia.   Upon this ground the two representatives of the
Alpine type, France  and Russia, which we have been 
The Alpine Race
41
considering are rightly exponents of the Alpine or cen-
tral European type.  The likeness and unlikenesses be-
tween the two  nations strengthens this  point, for in
anthropologic, ethnologic and sociologic  manifestations
there are to be observed more similarities than dissimi-
larities.
   Russians,  formed  of Slavic,  Asiatic  and  Teutonic
strains, show in  their  average brachycephalic skulls,
their  brown hair, gray eyes, and medium stature sim-
ilarty to the brachycephalic and mediumly dark French,
formed of Celtic and Teutonic strains.   Ethnologically
they differ as to language.  Sociologically they are alike
and unlike.  In the possession of psychic traits, Russia
is  akin to France emotionally;  morally Russia  lacks
France's will power;  intellectually both people are of
the deductive type.  Judged by the categories of intel-
lectuality,  morality and  sociality, both nations belong
to the  category  of intellectuality.   In  the  expression
of sociological achievement, France  and Russia are alike
and unlike.  The state in Russia is theoretically a lim-
ited  monarchy, but with an autocratic star, in France
a  parliamentary  republic;   the  church  in   Russia  is
Greek Orthodox, in France Roman Catholic; in art
and  literature, France has excelled Russia  in the pro-
duction of concrete effort, while finally in industry and
commerce both nations fall behind the record produced
by the Teutonic  countries. 
CHAPTER IV
             THE MEDITERRANEAN RACE

      ITALY  best represents the Mediterranean  type.
      This nation,  furthermore, is to  be taken as the
      single representative  of  the last named  of the
      three  European  races because   it presents  two
      types of civilization, the  Roman  and the Italian.
In its way it more fittingly contrasts with England and
Scandinavia as representatives  of the Alpine type than
would two separate nations taken in a group,  as  Italy
and  Spain or Spain  and Portugal, for  instance.   Al-
though all the western districts bordering the Mediter-
ranean Sea repeat the Mediterranean type, it is to  Italy
particularly that  we look for the greatest historical and
cultural manifestations of this type.  And yet Italy it-
self constitutes an anthropological problem.   By whom
was it peopled and how was it settled ?  Many theories
are offered in explanation.   Three contrasting  theories
of original Italian type have been advanced.   The Teu-
tonic  Aryan  has  been said  to  be the foundation  type,
also the Scythian or  Slavic  origin has been  suggested,
but Sergi  holds  to an original  Mediterranean  type.
Earliest man  dates about  the tertiary  period.   The
skulls of that epoch were dolichocephalic it  is believed
—Neanderthal-like but not Neanderthal nor Turanian.
These prototypes of  the  present-day  "wine-drinking,
lettuce-eating  Italians"  must  have been small, slight
and dark,  but very little is known of them.  Names
are given  to old tribes variously as Umbrians, Oscians,
Vituli, Etruscans, Latins, Sabines and  Pelgasians.  The
Mediterranean type peopled more than the Italian pen-
insula, it  must  be remembered;  Babylonia, Assyria,
                         42 
               The  Mediterranean Race           43

Egypt, and Greece had civilizations which were expres-
sions of  the culture of the men of the Mediterranean.
This ancient civilization  of  the  Mediterranean world
is one of  the strongest  proofs against the possibility
that the Teutons peopled south Europe.   Established
in Asia  Minor, Africa, Greece, Italy,  and the Iberian
Peninsula, the Mediterranean men can easily be divid-
ed into  four  divisions according to  location, the Iber-
ians occupying what  is now  Spain  and  Portugal,  the
Ligurians  Italy, the Pelasgians Greece, and the Libyans
North Africa.
   The Iberians, Ligurians and Pelasgians were similar
to each other in ethnic type.   The Pelasgians and Lig-
urians were in fact closely associated with  one another
in history, as the old descriptive accounts of early Italy
show.   Similarly,  in  architectural forms  is a likeness
which is to  be  observed between the  two countries.
Pelasgians were architects, also agriculturists and wor-
shippers  of the sun.  Through the myths and festivals,
for  instance,  the  festival  of  the triumph  of the sun's
disk over the rainy months of  winter, a strain of like-
ness is thought to be traced.   This point is used as  a
justification of connecting the early Ligurians with  the
Scythians,  thus making the Mediterranean  type a form
subordinate to the  Slavic.  Pliny and Livy described
the  old  Italic tribes,  the Pelasgians,  the  Sabines,  the
Etruscans, etc.   But  although Etruscans are mention-
ed in a  descriptive way  no  explanatory discussion of
the origin  of  this particular brachycephalic  Italian pop-
ulation  has ever been satisfactorily  determined.  The
question  stands to-day, Who  are the Etruscans?  as  un-
decided as the Basque question in  France.   Some writ-
ers say the original  Etruscans were Rhaetian, northern
brachycephals, others  say a people from Asia  Minor.
Sergi inclines to believe that dolichocephals  and brachy-
cephals met in Etruria and mixed.  At any rate to this 
44
Socio-Anthropometry
mixing of types is attributed the remarkable character
of Umbrian and Etruscan civilization.  Language and
custom witnessed to the brilliancy of this culture.  The
very founding of the Eternal City, according to Ripley,
is due to Umbrian, Oscan and Tuscan  factions, as can
be seen from comparison of old records such as hymns,
chants and old laws relating to regal usages.
  The Roman Nation.   Unlike  as are the racial ele-
ments represented by the  various old Italian tribes,
the  unlikeness of components,  nevertheless, did not
hinder the formation  of one of the most brilliant em-
pires the  world has ever  known.  Rome sprang  into
existence upon the racial soil of Umbrian, Oscan, Latin,
Sabine and  Etruscan civilization.  Many  a contribu-
tion may have been  made but it  is mainly by  what
Rome in her turn has contributed to posterity that her
significance is  judged.  Built upon  seven hills, or  three
towns, according to whatever version of  old, half-mythic
stories is believed, Rome was  supposedly  governed by
a king, or magister populi, and a senate.  At all events
it was at the head of the empire  when  Hannibal  came
to  invade  Italy.   Based on  the  authority  of  having
welded together various Italian provinces, based on an
authority  founded on slavery moreover, Rome  gave a
standard language, a standard coin,  and  a standard
law to all the civilized world.   The  Roman  tongue
was Indo-European,  and the temper of her statehood
imperialistic.
  Thus Italy until the end of the fourth century was
economically  brilliant,  politically  dominant and the
master power  in  the world.  Intellectually superior,
she had already established her position as head of the
church.   With the turning of the fifth century,  how-
ever, came a change;  a change which was to be mani-
fested anthropologically,  ethnologically and sociologi-
cally.  The barbarian   attacks signalled  the  change. 
The Mediterranean  Race           45
Three successive divisions  of  invaders are included in
the entire invasion, which affected the Mediterranean
type by  the  infusion of Alpine and Teutonic blood.
The Ostrogoths from the Danube country were Slavic
brachycephals, the Lombards also, and the Franks enter-
ing Italy from France were Teutonic Gauls.  To these
three successive  attacks  of  foreign intruders Rome was
called  upon  to  impose an opposing front, but  being
unable to resist  she succumbed and incorporated  the
new members into her state.  The imperial policy was
strengthened to  be  used as a disciplinary force in  the
hand of  the  now ruling  barbarian  chiefs,  and  the
church, furthermore, was made the recipient  of  the
Gothic stamp, for the  division  of the East and West
Empire was  fostered by the  rivalries which  grew up
between  various factions,  the  Ostrogoths, the  Lom-
bards,  the Franks,  Byzance,  and the Papacy.  These
three types of northerners, Ostrogoths,  Lombards, and
Franks differed  in the elements  which they contributed
to Italy,  as is shown by the events which they brought
about in  Italian history.  The Lombards who came
in 553-568 were less civilized than their predecessors,
the  Ostrogoths.   The  former  overran the  northern
part and  a strip  of central  Italy, but they did not pene-
trate to  the eastern  shore  and  always remained  north
of Rome.  Umbria and  Lombardy since the days of the
barbarian inroads have been differentiated from  the
rest  of the population  of  the  country, and  Italy is to-
day  like  a cloven hoof, so  unlike to its  southern is its
northern   part.   The Franks also added  a Teutonic
element to the north,  which  is evident  in our  day in
the Germanized  traits in the  Piedmontese  valleys.  In
the days  of the infusion direct political values were to
be drawn from  the north  Italian district.   The  Lom-
bards in uniting against the church at Byzantium help-
ed to maintain the Papacy in the west, and  although 
46
Socio-Anthropometry
 from want of  a centralized government the Lombards
 were destined  to lose their hold on Italy,  their succes-
 sors,  the Franks, were also to play the role of political
 factors in  Roman  life.  In  contributing  Pippin who
 aided the Papacy against the Lombards and the Eastern
 Church, the Franks were to congratulate themselves
 with  the superior  distinction of having  founded the
 great Holy Roman Empire.   Charlemagne's coronation
 in 800 opened  a new political era for Rome. With the
 decline of the old Empire politically and intellectually,
 came the birth of a  new empire, which with its grad-
 ually rising satellite  the Italian  nation, was to stretch
 its way into the future and rear a new structure on the
 physical basis of the old Ligurian race.
   The Italian  Nation.  Throughout  the course of his-
 tory  depicting  the  Italian  type, two forces are to be
 reckoned with  as most prominently,  and almost exclu-
 sively, formulative  of Italy: they are the forces of the
 sociological  institutions, church and state.  The church
 has been more effective, but the  church has also been
 a universal force,  therefore it was a factor  affecting
 Europe generally as well as Italy particularly.  Relig-
 ion,  especially  the  Catholic  faith, reflects  formulating
 Italy  most  vividly.   Nevertheless, from the time of pre-
 historic origins  to  the introduction  of  Christianity,
 religion played no great role in the Italian world.  It
 was after the Christian era, in fact,  from  the birth of
 Christ  to   the  fifteenth  century  that the  church's
 supreme significance became  so evident.  Early Roman
 religion was animistic; emphasis  was laid  on the con-
 crete  unimaginative  side of  worship:  man  knew  or
 cared to know  nothing concerning the  actions of his
 gods;  Vesta was the goddess of the  hearth  but that
she must be something more was only vaguely sensed by
the Roman mind.  Propagation characterized the physi-
cal aspect of early  religion.   That  animism, however, 
              The Mediterranean Race           47

gradually gave place to other forms of specific worship
was natural as the Romans grew in sophistication. The
Etruscan culture  made a contribution.  To those the-
orists who trace the Etruscan element  to the East, it
seems  probable that  Babylonian  elements  are  to be
observed  in  the  contribution which  Etruria made  to
Roman religion.
   Paganism, however, eventually  gave  way to  Chris-
tianity and with the change to a different set of thought
processes and incentives to action came an alteration in
the characteristics of the nation supporting  the  transi-
tion.   At first there was a great contrast between the
national character and the new religion,  between the
humble Jewish sect in Rome and the imperial  magis-
trates.  The authority of St. Peter had no  easy battle
to fight with philosophical  Eastern cults, ancient civil-
izations and Roman authority.  That it did win out is
reflected in  Constantine's establishment  of Christianity
as the state worship, an organization  with its spiritual
head  in  Constantinople and its civil administration  in
Italy.  The heyday of success  attesting  the  reversal of
the national mind  from Roman to Christian is witnessed
by  the triumph of an Augustine and a Benedict  over
the ideals of an Octavius and a Diocletian.
  That  the  ideals of  an  Augustine  and a Benedict,
however, had in them the eternal elements of power is
shown by  the  successive conflicts  through  which the
church and the nation had to pass—conflicts with dying
Rome,  conflicts  with  failing  temporal sovereignties,
conflicts with antagonistic religions, and with decadence
in the church itself.  Expressive of  the Italian character
as the Popish church is, it shows the rise and fall  of a
nation that was ever expectant of universality and  ever
destined  to  disappointment  in  that expectation.    The
church represents  Italy as she stood figuratively on tip-
toe, it represents  Italy and Rome  side by side, it  also 
48              Socio-Anthropometry
represents the Italy of  to-day with her still  dominant
church interest.  Taking all  the political and economic
unity of the old world, as she did, adapting the adminis-
trative idea  of ancient Rome to a new empire, playing
her Lucullus and her Scipios  over again in the world of
ideas and beliefs, Italy has pursued  a line of conduct
in church statehood which can be equalled by no other
world  power.
   Constitutionally,  Italian life has passed through four
successive states, a  kingdom,  a republic, an empire and
again a kingdom.   The earliest  knowledge  of Roman
history is that the  government was kingly, a magister
populi  ruled the  people.  But this fact like  the state-
ment that the earliest organization was the unit form
of the  curiae are  only bits of partial  knowledge.  Like
the suggestion  of the leagues of the twelve cities  of
Etruria  and the thirty cities  of  Latium, these facts
belong to a period too obscure to be described accur-
ately.  With the  disruption of monarchy, however, and
the establishment of  a  republic there occurred a more
clearly defined period of action.   Under the new order,
of magistrates chosen by  the people, the patrician city
took on a significance which  it was never to lose in the
subsequent roll of  Italian history.   But struggles be-
tween  aristocratic and democratic elements in the pop-
ulation attended the full expansion of cities, and event-
ually led with other causes  to the erection  of empire.
But the sway of the little city-states continued uninter-
rupted throughout  the vicissitudes which assailed  the
empire and,  with  the  coming of  the  "barbarians," it
was these very city-states which offered material for the
building of a Holy Roman Church Empire.  That the
warring  element of  strength  and weakness  in  states
was destined to outlast the Holy  Roman Empire itself
is instanced by the  long continued  contests between the
Guelfs and Ghibellines.   Made up  of several  promi- 
              The Mediterranean  Race            49

nent states as well as numerous smaller ones, Italy had
to face the  problem  of searching for national unity
among such component parts as the Kingdom of Sicily,
the Kingdom of Naples, the Papal states, the  cities of
Florence, of Venice, of Genoa, the duchy of Milan, etc.
That the lordship of cities was great is evidenced in the
glory of  the  trade of  Venice,  her Orient traffic, her
sway over dependent provinces and  her almost regal
splendour.  Even into the nineteenth century city aris-
tocracy obtruded  as  a hindrance to  national  unity.
Spanish  and  French rulers have  taken their  hand at
remodelling the government, and Italy has had to con-
tend with an almost hopeless problem of  state individ-
ualism.  Feudal south and democratic north Italy pre-
sent even to-day, after Garibaldi's  successful estab-
lishment  of  the principles  of  unity in  i860, a very
diverse pattern.   Although  Italy  is now consolidated,
although  the Vatican mixes very little in  schemes of
federation and  restricts itself to  certain well defined
circles in the political sphere, Italian nationality is really
only an  idea  of very modern growth won at  the cost
of foreign oppression and internal discord.
   It  is  easily  seen  that  statecraft  in  Italy reflects
national character  to a great extent.  Fully illustrative
as are Italian court schemes of the  purely  instigative
disposition and, particularly in the older ages, of simple
aggressiveness,  it  is nevertheless  clearly  recognizable
that Italian  personality, formed of many diverse cul-
tural elements and playing a long role in history must
be a very complicated affair.  Because two civilizations
have contributed to the formation  of the Italian indi-
vidual it is no exaggeration to say that sociologically he
is  a highly  complex unit.   Anthropologically  Italy  is
less mixed as a population than many another nation,
yet sociologically Italy offers herself  as a finely differ-
entiated subject. 
5o
Socio-Anthropometry
  Physically the Mediterranean figure possessing a dol-
ichocephalic  head  index, short stature and  dark  hair
and  eyes  is  accepted  as the usual Italian individual.
Brachycephals are found, however, in  the northern part
of Italy, "the cock  pit  of the nation," as it has been
called.  In  that district traits which  differ psychically
are also to  be  found;  those emotional,  volitional and
intellectual  traits recall  the mixed  elements which have
contributed  to the Italian personality of to-day.
  Italian  disposition is a combination of the aggressive
and  instigative,—aggressive  as old Rome  was  aggres-
sive, and instigative as have been  the cabals and  polit-
ical  intrigues from  the  days of  Lorenzo the Magnifi-
cent to the modern age.   In character as well as in dis-
position the  Roman-Italian  personality is  a  compound
of two blends, austere and convivial,—austere as were
the old law-making administrative magistrates, convi-
vial  as the  beauty-loving Italian  is convivial.  If  the
volitional  complexes of  the  old  conquerors were  more
remarkable  than the volitional complexes of their later
cousins, it is equally true that the  emotional self of the
latter is more highly developed than that of the  former.
In his love  of  sensuous pleasure,  of artistic expression
and  desire for play,  the  Italian shows more of a Greek
than a Roman paternity.  Plastic  art, painting, church
music, play festivals  and  public   amusement  portray
these emotional traits.
  As Italian disposition and character are complex so
is the type of mind.  Convivial and impulsive as are the
Mediterranean dwellers, the classification of instigative
disposition  and convivial character in  producing  the
ideo-emotional  type of mind  does not  quite  fit  the
Italian  type.  This  is  not  the Italian  of history,  of
world action and universal  reputation.  It is the dog-
matic-emotional which predominates in the larger char-
acter and which is  emphasized  in the cold,  calm, ap- 
              The Mediterranean Race           51

praising quality of Italian judgment combined with the
hot  impulsiveness  of  emotion,  a combination  which
makes the  Italian a past master in the  art of revenge,
vengeance, cabal and intrigue.  Teutonic traits of Lom-
bard  heritages are evident  in  democratic Lombardy.
Vigor and  power are marks of the northern breed.  In-
tellectual vigor combined with  moral corruption char-
acterized the tenor of post  Renaissance  days, and tem-
peramental jealousy  is  to-day  a relic of  the by-gone
cynicism.    But  hand  in  hand with Italian jealousy
there goes  a high and sensitive  regard to personal hon-
our.  Honour  is, in fact, based  on a vivid  imagination,
and  in the Italian the imagination is intense and  swift.
The aesthetic equipment of Italians recalls  the aestheti-
cism  of  cultured  Rome,  but  in scientific  traits  the
Italian receives his greatest heritage  from  early  Pagan
ancestors who  contributed the alertness  of  sense which
makes the  Italians such good observers and  which, com-
bined with their regard for concrete truth and objective
mentality,  produces accurate  Italian  scientific men.
   However  formed  by the inheritance  of  ancestral
traits, the Italian is at any rate  clearly somewhat a pro-
duct of his habitat; climate and geographical situation
have contributed  to the  molding of his body and  mind.
Whether or not  it is  merely a  matter of statement to
attribute the swarthy skin, dark hair and eyes  of the
Italian to life in a sunny, breeze-swept peninsula  in the
midst  of a southern  sea, it is  easily  granted that the
sea faring  traits  of that individual is due  to  life on  a
compact  little peninsula bound  by a navigable sea and
shut  off by mountainous  barriers from contact  with
adjoining countries.   But  although  Italy  has been  a
maritime trader,  one  cannot insist upon  this geographi-
cally fostered trait as one  of  the dominant characteris-
tics of Italian  life to-day, because as a  matter of fact
commerce,  industry, and mechanical arts are less fully 
52              Socio-Anthropometry

developed in Italy  than in many another country.  As
with  all Latins, so with Italians, commerce plays a
subordinate role to art.  It is in the sphere of emotion,
morals and intellect that Italy has won her great socio-
logical  achievements,  namely,  art, church  and  state.
More productive  in the realm  of art than the  Celt,
and more productive in the  realm of religion than  the
Teuton, the Mediterranean personality yet falls behind
the Teuton in creative expression  of governmental tal-
ents.  Judged by the categories  of morality, intellectu-
ality,  and sociality,  the  Italian virtually belongs to none
but partakes of the nature of both the categories, mor-
ality and intellectuality. His intellectuality differs from
the intellectuality  of  the  Franco-Russian type,  as  his
morality differs from the Scandinavian, and yet because
of his unparalleled civilization and because of his con-
tribution to  the heart of religion, the  Roman-Italian
belongs to  the joint morality-intellectuality category.
  As thus  men are on the whole differentiated by emo-
tions, wills and intellects, or by  feelings,  actions and
thoughts, the  question  naturally  arises how do  these
differences  occur and upon what are they  based?  The
claim that  men are racially  different seems to be logi-
cally  admitted.  Upon what  then are  the differences
to be based?  Anthropology  attempts to  answer this
question, and sociology to make use of  the deductions
of anthropology.   Is this claim of anthropology valid,
or is it erroneous for sociologists to make use of anthro-
pology as the basic  foundation for racial divisions?   An
attempt to  answer this question will  be  made in  the
subsequent chapters which are to  consider the anthro-
pologic, or rather,  anthropometric, that is, the system-
atized and  statistical  anthropologic, characters of  the
three types of  Europeans,  the Teutons,  the Alpines
and  the Mediterraneans. 
CHAPTER V
            THE TEUTONIC RACIAL TYPE

           THE Teutonic type described sociologically
           and  anthropologically  gave a general  pres-
           entation of the Scandinavians and the  Eng-
           lishmen.   It  furnished  no  precise  deline-
           ation of the physical characteristics of  these
individuals, who were  merely stated  to be tall,  long
headed and, on the whole, fair.  The task of presenting
accurate data for  the physical delineation of a people
belongs to the  domain of anthropometry.  The fulfill-
ment of this demand in the requirements of the  Teu-
tonic type is the function of this chapter, which will
deal firstly with material  covering the Scandinavian
type, presented tabularly and in a descriptive way, and
secondly,  with  similarly presented  material covering
the English type.
  Scandinavia.  Scandinavia, possessing on  the whole
the pronounced Teutonic type, is nevertheless a land of
a certain amount of variety.  Broad heads, dark colour-
ing and  in some districts short stature  prevail.   Den-
mark's population runs towards broadheadedness;  Nor-
way has two distinct types, the dark haired, short, west-
coast dwellers and the taller, lighter easterners;   Nor-
way is also intermixed with Lapps from the north, as
is Sweden with  Finns from the northeast.  In spite of
discrepancies blondness is the prevalent colouring,  how-
ever, a  fact which is so uncomplicated that but slight
substantiation  from statistics  is needed.  Emphasizing
Denmark rather than Sweden and Norway so univer-
sally judged blond,  and quoting an  investigation  of
some 300,000 children  begun by the  Danish Univer-
                         53 
                                         TABLE 1                                             ^

                  Hair Colouring of Children of Different Ages and  Sex

 Age               Black      Dark       Medium       Light        Red        Total
Years             MFMF      M     FM     FMF     MF
  6  ..........     8    13    127    181    502   543    733    649    37   43    1,407  1,429
  7  ..........    85   126   1,116  1,194  4,077  3,745   5,677  4,764  290  286   11,245 10,115
  8  ..........   119   137   1,592  1,700  5,673  5,219   6,761  6,081  395  395   14,540 13,532    ,.
  9  ..........   157   160   1,600  1,916  5,702  5,128   6,493  5,705  365  356   14,317 13,265    ?
 10  ..........   187   167   1,850  2,019  5,919  5,367   6,211  5,647  416  399   14,583 13,599    5.
 11  ..........   171   206   2,003  2,183  5,935  5,280   5,949  5,223  360  360   14,444 13,252    ?
 12  ..........   250   201   2,111  2,342  6,157  5,556   5,453  5,762  367  340   14,338 13,201    **
 13  ..........   236   246   2,187  2,373  6,126  5,085   4,671  3,949  322  358   13,542 12,011    |,
 14  ..........   171   206   2,003  2,183  5,935  5,280   5,949  5,223  386  360   14,444 13,252    §"

   Total...... 1,285  1,321  13,206 14,384 41,634 36,935  43,087 37,506 2,657 2,599  101,869 92,745    |

                                                                                                 <3 
The Teutonic  Racial  Type           55
sity  Statistical Laboratory  in  1893  and continued by
the Anthropological  Committee now at work on  the
population of Denmark, it  will be seen from the con-
clusion  of that committee stated by  Dr. Hansen1  that
"fairness  is the predominant colouring."   About one-
third of all these children, aged 6-14 of both sexes and
representative of many  districts,  are light haired  and
light eyed.
   Of 194,614 children (see Table 1) 41,634 boys and
36,935  girls  had medium  coloured hair  and 43,087
boys  and  37,506 girls had  light coloured hair.  The
per cents, for light hair are  respectively 22 and  18  for
boys and  girls.   Taking the colour  of the eyes  of  the
same 194,614 boys and  girls, and dividing into  classes
of dark, medium and light eyes, it is seen that the great-
est number, 63,904  and 57,627 girls, falls in the light
class.  The percentages  for dark coloured are 4.27  for
		TABLE 2	
Colour	of the Eyes	of Children of Different Ages and Sex	
Age	Dark	Medium Light	Total
Years	: M F	M F M F	M F
6..	120 147	362 360 925 922	1,407 1,429
7..	982 976	3,082 2,650 7,181 6,489	11,245 10,115
8..	1,186 1,235	4,138 3,705 9,216 8,592	14,540 13,532
9..	1,169 1,299	4,067 3,656 9,081 8,310	14,317 13,265
10..	1,242 1,313	4,175 3,829 9,166 8,457	14,583 13,599
11..	1,105 1,305	4,158 3,753 9,181 8,194	14,444 13,252
12..	1,110 1,302	4,274 3,829 8,954 8,070	14,338 13,201
13..	1,133 1,202	4,210 3,585 8,199 7,224	13,542 12,011
14..	266 242	1,150 730 2,037 1,369	3,453 2,341
Total.	8,313 9,021 29,616 26,097 63,940 57,627 101,869 92,745		
  xHansen,  Soren.  Om  Haarets  og Ojnenes  Farve  i
Danmark.  (On the Colour of the Hair and Eyes in Den-
mark).  Meddelelser om Danmarks Antropologi, Copen-
hagen,  1907-1911, pp. 314- 
                                       TABLE 3.                                         ux

         Colour of the Hair and Eyes of 1,000 Children of Different Ages and Sex

                 Black     Dark    Medium   Light     Red    Dark   Medium   Light
  Age            Hair     Hair     Hair     Hair    Hair    Eyes     Eyes     Eyes
 Years          MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMF
   6  ..........   6   9   90  127   356  380  521  454  27  30  85  103  257  252 658  645
   7  ..........   8  13   99  118   362  370  505  471  26  28  87   96  274  262 639  642
   8  ..........   8  10  110  126   390  386  465  449  27  29  81   91  285  274 634  635   g3
   9  ..........  11  12  112  144   398  387  454  430  25  27  82   98  284  276 634  626   55.
  10  ..........  13  12  127  149   406  395  426  415  28  29  85   96  286  282 629  622   ?
  11  ..........  12  16  138  165   411  398  412  394  27  27  76   99  288  283 636  618   ^
  12  ..........  17  15   147  177   430  421  380  361  26  26  77   99  298  920 625  611   ^
  13  ..........  17  20  162  198   452  423  345  329  24  30  84  100  311  299 605  601   ^*
  14  ..........  21  28   179  203   447  432  330  310  23  27  77  103  333  312 590  585   •§.
Average ......  12  14   130  155   409  398  423  405  26  28  81   97  291  282 628  621   2 
The Teutonic Racial  Type           57
boys, 4.62 for girls, medium 15.2 for boys and 13.0 for
girls,  and light coloured 32.8 for boys and 29.6 for
girls,—percentages  which  indicate a predominance  of
fairness.   (See Table 2).   Selecting  1,000 of this
group and reckoning the relative number of individuals
per thousand it is seen that of 1,000 of each sex there
were 423 boys  with light hair and 628  with light eyes,
and 405  girls with light hair  and 621  with light eyes.
While medium hair ranks next,  the number of medium
eyes  to 1,000  (291)  is lower  than the 409 medium
coloured heads to 1,000.  (See Table 3).   Correlating
the results for  hair and eyes among 1,000 children the
following relations were  obtained.  (See Table  4).
The conclusion reached after consideration of the above
four tables  is  that the  Danes  are without exception
blond.  Furthermore,  fair  hair  with all its shades  is
met with especially among the European populations of
the north.   There are, it has been computed, only six-
teen  brown  haired out of every one hundred Scandi-
navians.  This leads to the easily estimated conclusion
that Scandinavians are on the whole blond.
   Stature is high among the Scandinavians.   Topinard2
says  the  Scandinavians (Norwegian and Swedes)  are
1,713  and  the Danes  1,680.   Deniker3  places  the
Swedes in general at  1,705, the Norwegians at 1,720
and the Danes at 1,685.  Taking Copenhagen4 men of
the ages  18  to  25 the  average heights run:—
  'Topinard, P.  Anthropology.  London, 1890, pp. 320-321.
  3Deniker, J.   The Races  of Man.  London,  1900, pp.
581-S84.
  'Hansen, S. Om Legemsvaegt og Legemshojde.  (About
the Weight and  Height  of  the  Body).   Meddelelser
om Danmarks  Antropologi, Copenhagen, 1907-1911,  Bind
I., p. 218. 
58
Socio-Anthropometry
18 year old........................167.18 cm
19	.....168.22 cm.
?n	....169.01 cm.
?1	.............169.48 cm.
??	................169.77 cm.
?"\	........169.84 cm.
?4	................169.87 cm.
25	" . .................169.87 cm.
   Because height is assumed to vary with environment
and conditions of health the Table 55 given below list-
ing the Danes according  to occupation is  interesting.
But  although occupation does influence stature to the
extent of bringing the highest index 173.7 of university
students down to the 165 of tailors, it does not succeed
in lowering the rather high racial average of 169 cm.
   The conclusion  formerly reached that Scandinavians
are blond is now reenforced by the statement that they
are tall in stature.   Finally, considering head indices,
it  is found that Swedish heads particularly are dolicho-
cephalic, or mescephalic, a fact stated according to the
researches of Retzius6.   See  Table 6.   Norwegians are

                      TABLE 4
Correlation of  the Colour of Hair and Eyes in 1,000 Chil-
                        dren
Black Hair ..
Dark  Hair ..
Medium Hair
Light  Hair ..
Red Hair
Eyes  (Masculine)
        Dark Medium
Total
1,000
  6Ibid.
  "Retzius, G. and  Fiirst, K. M.  Anthropologia Suecica
Beitrage zur Anthropologie der Sweden.  Stockholm  1002
p. 105.                                             ^ ' 
The Teutonic Racial  Type
59
                    Eyes (Feminine)
                            Dark Medium
Blair Hair  .............       8      4
Dark Hair  .............      50      56
Medium  Hair  ..........      30     156
Light Hair.............       7      59
Red Hair...............       2      7

    Total  ..............      97     282

                       TABLE 5
Light	Total
2	14
49	155
212	398
339	405
19	28
621
1,000
Stature of Danes
Number   Occupation                      Age  Height
1,523 University students  .................   22.9   173.7
1,685 Clerks  ..............................   21.3   172.0
 129 Farmers  ............................   20.9   171.6
 129 Glaziers .......:........................    168.9
 250 Upholsterers  ........................   21.4   168.8
 237 Butchers  ...........................   20.8   168.7
 587 Machine hands .....................   21.3   168.7
 107 Engravers..............................    168.5
 320 Fishers, sailors .....................   21.4   168.1
 314 Tinners ............................   20.5   167.8
 109 Bookbinders............................    167.7
 156 Cigar and tobacco workers..........   21.7   167.6
 243 Barbers ............................   21.1   167.3
 181 Shoemakers  ........................   21.5   167.2
 365 Bakers  .............................   21.0   166.9
1,765 Unskilled laborers  ..................   20.8   169.4
1,038 Blacksmiths ........................   20.8   169.1
 719 Servants, waiters ...................   21.6   168.9
 407 Machinists  .........................   22.2   171.5
 388 Masons ............................   21.3   170.8
 154 Draftsmen  .........................   22.1   170.4
 565 Messengers  ........................   20.4   170.4
 245 Locksmiths, mechanics..............   20.6   170.2
 348 Carpenters  .........................   21.0   170.2
 197 Stokers ............................   22.3   170.1
 281 Printers,  typesetters  ................   21.6   1/0.1
 155 Electricians  ........................   • • • •    J70.0
1,362 Clerks  in stores  .....................   21.1   169.9
 915 Cabinet makers  ....................   20.9   169.8 
6o
Socio-Anthropometry
 625 Painters ............................   21.6    169.4
 244 Tailors .............................   21-6    165-7
    Total, 15,901.  Average height, 169.6.

                       TABLE 6

         Classification  of  Swedish Head Indices

  Number of individuals classified.      Cases    Percent.
55-59 Extreme dolichocephalic........      3
60-64 Ultra         "         ........     10
65-69 Hyper        "         ........   477         1
70-74 Dolichocephalic  .................  13,023        29
75-79 Mesocephalic  ...................  25,505        56
80-84 Brachycephalic..................  5,549        12.3
85-89 Hyper   "     ..................   276         0.6
90-94 Ultra    "     ..................     31         0.1
95-99 Extreme "     ..................      5

    Total .............................  44,879       100

not so sweepingly dolichocephalic.  C. F. Larsen7 in
studying a  region  of  Norway influenced  by the immi-
gration  of  Lapps, distinguished  six  grades  or types,
four of which have brachycephalic heads.  When it is
recalled that Lapps are one of the very broadest headed
peoples,  the predominance  of high  indices is not to
be  wondered at.   Blond colouring and  a mixture of
indices are  effects  of  the amalgamation.    (See Table
7.)  Danes border between dolichocephalic and brachy-
cephalic.  The  results of the Danish Anthropological
Committee  measuring in  1904,  the  heads  of 4,000
adults of both sexes aged  20-65  years, all districts of
Denmark, proved  80 degrees to  be  the  average head
  'Larsen,  C. F.  Nordlands-befolkningen:   Antropolog-
iske undersogelser. (An Anthropological Investigation of
the Population of  the North).   Videnskabs Selskabets
Skrifter I.  Mathematisk Naturvidenskabelig Klasse.   No.
2.  Christiania, 1905,  p.  14. 
The Teutonic Racial  Type

        TABLE 11
61
INDEX.			iit b s g ?ISS|s skills i																			
18 12 11 10 9 8 7 «						1									'	1				1	! 1 i ' 'l	J_
1NDBX.			;	z	5|S		Sis		a	3 IS		s	2	a	I	sis	£	n	B	S Is lis	«? « O - 7. « -^1.1) Of X|	
My 13 12 11 10 9 B 6	*r-old chl	li'.n				'			'		i ?	1		i i			l l	i	1 l	i i i	i i i II! 1 8 1 1 2	1 < > 3
INDEX			ell Is			i ~		s	s	s	1	ss		S	s	p I	-	;	,"	S5C	SSBBSSSSSSfS	clq - ?. f> . ow os»e,oa.
H J 13 12 0 3 7 6	ar-old rhi	dron.		i i	i 2	2 1	1	s	i	i		i	i	l	1			i 2	1	i i i i 1	l 1 l 1 l II II 8	1 1 ? 1
HID EX.			g	%p\i			i	1	$7		I	1	i	1	1						■Q. » O - m »|-» o «? r- ec	
14 J 13 12 11 10 0 8 7 B	tar-old chl		1 1			1 1 2 1			1			i i	i				1		1	i i i i	1 1 1 1	«
INDEX.			'';■	%	11		i	3'a		5	33		3		3	7	is	1	?		saliillslis	1 i
U-yi 18 13 10 g 8 J 9	ar-old chi				'							'						1		1 1	i i	'
index.8   Ribbing9 measuring in 1907  the  inhabitants
of Bornholm found  an index of 80 degrees in  15 per
  "Hansen,  S.  Om  Hovedets Breddeindeks  hos Danske.
(The Breadth Index of the Head in Danes).  Meddelelser
om Danmarks Antropologi, Copenhagen, 1907-1911, p. 269.
  'Ribbing,  L.   Nogle  Ord om Bornholms  Antropologi.
(Anthropology  of  Bornholm).  Meddelelser  om  Dan-
marks Antropologi.   Copenhagen, 1907-1911,  p. 195- 
 62              Socio-Anthropometry

 cent, of his cases.  (See Table 8).  The index is slight-
 ly lower in two of the three lists supplied by Steensby.10
 Quoting Hansen, "Denmark's present population must
 be  designated  as  mesocephalous  or  brachycephalous,
 (sub-brachycephalous)   whether  Deniker's  or Topin-
 ard's terminology be  used.""Children's  head indices
 are consistently dolichocephalic.   See table of distribu-
 tion  (Table  n)  for  250  Norwegians,  Danes and
 Swedes, aged 6 to  14 years.12  Average indices indicate
 75.3  for  Swedes,  76.5  for Norwegians  and  77.8  for
 Danes.   As a summary of the  indices, Table 12 illus-
 trates averages stated by various investigators.

                      TABLE 7

                   Norwegian Types

                       Group                    Index
 Scandinavian - Teutonic   Dolicho - Mesocephalian
    (South District) ..............................   77.8
 Scandinavian - Teutonic   Dolicho - Mesocephalian
    (North District) ..............................   78.2
 Brachycephalian 80-82 with  traces  of  Scandinavian
      Teutonic....................................   81.0
 Blond Brachycephalic, peculiar stamp  (South Dis-
    trict)  .........................................   84.3
 Blond Brachycephalic, peculiar  stamp  (North Dis-
      trict)  .......................................   84.4
 Brachycephalic with traces of mixed Teutonic type ..  84.0

  "Steensby,  H. P.  Forelobige Betragninger  over  Dan-
marks Raceantropologi.  (Preliminary Observations on the
Racial iypes  in Denmark).  Meddelelser om Danmarks
Antropologi, Copenhagen, 1907-1911, p. 134
 ,^Ia^sen', ?• T 0m Hovedets  Breddeindeks hos  Danske.
 (The  Breadth Index of the Head in Danes).  Meddelelser
om Danmarks Antropologi, Copenhagen, 1907-1911, p 228.
  "Stevenson  B. L.  Comparative  Conclusions Regard-
ing the Head Index of Scandinavians in Europe and Amer-
ica  Internationles Archiv fur Ethnographie, Leyden, Hol-
land.  Jdu.  aaII.  Heft vi, 1915. 
The  Teutonic Racial  Type          63
    TABLE 8

Danish Head Index
Head Index
72—72.99 ..
73—73.99 ..
74—74.99 ..
75—75.99 ..
76—76.99 ..
77—77.99 ..
78—78.99 ..
79—79.99 ..
80—80.99 ..
81—81.99 ..
82—82.99 ..
83—83.99 ..
84—84.99 ..
85—85.99 ..
86—86.99 ..
87—87.99 ..
88—88.99 ..
90—90.99 ..

    Total ..
Men Women	
2	0
1	0
4	3
10	3
24	8
22	7
31	10
32	15
42	13
38	11
26	12
22	8
19	6
4	5
5	1
1	0
1	2
0	1
285
105
TABLE 9
Danish Head Index
                    People of
Head Index            Anholt
     91 .............     0
     90 .............     0
     89 .............     0
     88 .............     2
     87 .............     2
     86 .............     4
     85 .............     8
     84 .............     5
     83 .............     8
     82 .............     9
     81 .............     8
The	The
Vestjyder	Nordlynboer
3	0
2	0
4	0
7	2
8	6
5	6
10	15
15	17
15	28
28	43
32	54
 
64
Socio-Anthropometry
80		5	29
79		10	26
78		3	9
77		5	10
76		3	8
75		1	7
74		2	2
73		0	1
	Total ...	75 TABLE 10	218
 50
 68
 45
 28
 13
  9
  5
  0

389
 Index
of Head
69—70..
70—71.
71—72.
72—73.
73—74.
74—75.

75—76.
76—77.
77—78.
78—79.
79—80.

80-81.
81—82.
82—83.
83—84.
84—85.

85—86.
86—87.
87—88.
88-89.
89—90.
Danish Head Index


    Men  Women
       1     0  Dolichocephalic
4	0
2	2
6	3
12	9
41	15.
81	43'
96	92
160	119
199	172
267	196.
243	249"
230	271
190	238
156	176
139	131.
64	110'
52	92
20	42
21	27
6	16
Sub-dolichocephalic
Mesocephalic
Sub-brachycephalic
Brachycephalic 
The Teutonic Racial  Type           65
4	11
1	3
1	2
0	0
0	1
1	0
3	0
90—91..............
91—92..............
92—93..............      1     2 \ Ultra-brachycephalic
93—94..............
94—95..............

95—96..............
96—97..............
  Regarding 84  (Table  12), a head index found by
Larsen, as an exception, the remaining indices allow the
assumption that the Scandinavians are dolichocephalic,
which  in the case of Danes runs into  brachycephaly.
  The general conclusion thus reached is that although
Danes,  Swedes and Norwegians have their individual
variations,  especially  in  head  index, the Danes being
more inclined  towards  brachycephaly  than  the  two
northern (really technically speaking the genuine Scan-
dinavian countries), there is, nevertheless, a racial doli-
chocephaly tall stature and fair colouring to  be observed,
as a whole, in this Scandinavian  representative of the
Teutonic type.

                     TABLE  12

     Indices classified according to various  authors

         Retzius Larsen Ribb'g Steensby Hansen Stevens'n
Swedes  ...75.79                                75.3
Norwegians      77.8-84                        76.5
Danes.....                 80     79    79-80    77.8

  England.  While  Scandinavia's population  is thus
broadly depicted  as tall, fair, and dolichocephalic, and
strongly homogeneous, on the whole, England's popu-
lation  is, on  the  other  hand,  even  more  consistently
Teutonic in  being more  uniformly regular in regard
to head index, and more noticeably Teutonic in being a 
66
Socio-Anthropometry
few centimeters taller than the Scandinavian.   Racial
homogeneity characterizes the British Isles, but the con-
stituent parts, England,  Scotland  and Ireland form as
do Norway, Denmark and Sweden in Scandinavia sep-
arate  units  within the whole.   Further, because  the
British Isles  were populated by Jutes, Angles, Saxons
and Scandinavians, as we have mentioned  above,  the
traits  of these contributory peoples are to be noticed in
the population of the British Isles  to-day.  True  as it is
that geographical  isolation has played its part in pro-
ducing uniformity of  type, nevertheless,  there are shire
types  in England, Scotland, Ireland  and Wales which
recall old invaders of Great Britain.  The bronze  age
is recalled by Cumberland types;  Barley and Cornwall
have cases which strikingly resemble men of old Britain,
and the  blond Anglo-Saxon reappears  in Surrey and
Sussex men.  The Jutish  type in Kent and the brunette
Welsh in  Cardiganshire and Montgomery also recreate
old types.  Thus it is to be inferred that although thor-
oughly Teutonic in the greater scope  of its homogeneity
Britain is nevertheless also pre-Teutonic in some of its
racial elements.
  The dominant  feature of  the  English population,
and by English is here meant  the entire population of
the British Isles, is colour distinction.  Because  heads
are so regularly uniform and because stature is less varia-
ble on the whole than pigmentation, the subject of para-
mount interest for English anthropometry is  colour  dif-
ferentiation.   Now although all colours from light to
dark are  found, it is the position of the scale  of pigmen-
tation  rather than the presence of differences in  colour
which is  illuminating to  racial  analysis.  From the east
to the west,  from the Channel to the Atlantic Ocean,
England's  population progresses  from  blondness  to
brunetteness.  This is the direction of Teutonic influ-
ence.   The progressive gradation of colour is accom- 
The Teutonic  Racial  Type           67
panied by uniformity of head index, 77 or 7813 for the
most  part  either in the east or the west.   Stature is
lower in the south  and higher in the north; emphasiz-
ing detail, stature  is lower  for Wales and Cornwall,
and east Ireland, with areas of short stature in Scot-
land.   By  short  is  never meant actual shortness, how-
ever.  British indices are always high in comparison to
the other  races  of Europe,  for  the very  distinction
between shorter and higher on the island hovers about
the index  174.  Thus it is  seen  that to  negrescence
rather  than  to  stature or  head index  anthropologic
interest  in  England  turns.
   Dark eyes with light hair are very uncommon, while
dark hair with fair eyes form 25 per cent, of the colour
combinations;  for pure brunette England's  total is
only 31  per cent.,  Scotland's is 22 per cent., Ireland's
23, and Wales 27.   In the very dark regions the dark
types  exceed the blonds by  15  per cent, while in  the
light  regions the blonds only exceed  the others by 5.
Lincoln is  a good  example of light Britain, and Her-
fordshire and  Buckingham of dark  Britain.   Ireland
has red  haired types besides the blond-haired, blue-eyed.
In  Wales  the black haired  individuals  predominate;
in Pembroke,14 however, of 4,151 school children there
were, discounting  the  dark  haired,  more  fair  haired
than children of medium tone.  In Scotland the results
of an investigation by Gray and  Tocher15 of school
children showed  a fair race type on  the  Borders, a
dark haired and light eyed type in the west and north-
west,  and a comparative absence of dark and black hair
  "Ripley, W. Z.  The Races of Europe.  New York, 1899.
p. 304-
  "Beddoe, J.   The Anthropological History  of Europe.
London,  1912,  p.  149.
  uIbid.,  pp.  162-163. 
                    TABLE 13                                        &
                                                                     oo
   The Colour of the Hair and Eyes in Scotland
                      Hair Colour               Eye Colour
             Red  Fair Medium Dark  Black Blue  Light Medium Light
Boys_____   5.5   24.9
Girls......   5.1   27.4
Boys......   5.3   21.8
Girls......   4.8   21.3
Boys......   5.2   22.2
Girls......   5.2   20.5
43.3	25.0	1.2	14.7	30.3	32.7	32.3
40.9	25.4	1.2	14.9	30.3	32.1	22.8
45.7	26.1	1.1	10.7	30.7	34.1	24.5
44.1	28.6	1.2	11.7	29.9	34.0	24.4
47.2	24.5	.9	11.0	31.0	37.2	20.8
49.1	24.2	1.1	10.7	31.4	36.2	21.7
&5
a- 
The Teutonic  Racial  Type           69
in the  Eastern Lowlands.   Elderton16 measuring some
72,857 school children in  Scotland found the greatest
per cents,  to  fall  in  the  class distinguished medium.
Neither dark nor light, the per cents, for three selected
groups ran from 40.9 to 49.1  in  favor of the medium
class of hair colour, and 32.1 to 37.2  in favor of med-

                      TABLE  14

  Colour of the Hair and Eyes  as  reported by Duncan

                                   Hair
                            Fair  Medium  Dark Total
     fBlue .............     55      13     22     90
Eyes \ Medium..........     22      16     23     61
     [Dark  .............     13       4     16     33

         Total .........     90      33     61     184

                     TABLE  15

   Colour of the Hair and Eyes as reported by Cooper

                                   Hair
                            Fair  Medium  Dark Total
     [Blue .............      17       8      1     26
Eyes < Medium  .........     25      21      8     54
     [Dark  .............      12      16     12     40

         Total .........     54      45     21     120

ium coloured  eyes.  See Table 13.  Reports for Aber-
deen by Duncan17 and  Cooper18 and a report quoted
  "Elderton, E. M.  On the Relation of Stature and Weight
to Pigmentation.  Biometrika, VIII, p. 440.
  "Duncan, J. W.  Table of the Colour  of the Hair and
Eyes  of  184 Inhabitants  of  Aberdeen.   Report of  the
British Ass'n. for the Adv. of Sci., Toronto,  1897, p. 506.
  "Cooper,  J.  Table of  the Hair and Eyes of 120 Inhab-
itants of  Aberdeen.   Report of the British Ass'n. for the
Adv.  of  Sci., Toronto,  1897,  p. 507. 
                                    TABLE 16

      Colour of the Hair and Eyes of 720 School Children attending Public School

    Standards               Infant    I      II     III     IV     V     VI   Total
Average Ages  ..........       6       7      8       9     10     11      12

     [Dark .............      42      23      32      30     26     16      14
Hair i Medium..........      74      55      43      40     46     56      18
     [Fair .............      63      38      28      28     19     21       8
VJ
o
         Total .........     179    116     98      98     91     93      40

     [Dark ............      51     16     30      20     16     22      10
Eyes \ Medium  ..........      67     61     25      32     49     39      19
     [Fair .............      61     39     48      46     26     32      11
332 205	Co ©
	fs
	
720	O i
	a
165	
292	■^
263	"x=>
Total .........     179     116     103      98     91     93      40     720 
             The Teutonic Racial  Type           7*


                     TABLE 17

  Colour of the Hair and Eyes  as reported by Gardiner

                                   Hair
                           Fair  Medium  Dark Total
     [Light ............      20      28      9     57
Eyes ^ Medium  ..........      6      18     12     36
     [Dark .............      1       1      9     11

         Total .........      27      47     30     104

                                   Hair
                           Fair  Medium  Dark Total
     [Light ............      47      29     11     87
Eyes \ Medium..........      12      13     24     49
     [Dark .............      0       4      9     13

         Total .........      59      46     44     149

                     TABLE  17-a

  Colour of the Hair and Eyes as reported by Macleay

                                    Hair
                            Fair  Medium  Dark Total
     [Blue .............      47      60     23     130
Eyes \ Medium..........      32     35      15     82
     [Dark .............      25      22     24     71

         Total .........      104     117     62     283

by the  British Association19  regarding school children
in  Aberdeen in  1897 show preponderancy of fair  and
medium colouring.   Duncan  found 55 cases out of  184
having fair hair and blue eyes, Cooper 25 cases out of
 120; in the Aberdeen report which  included cases meas-
ured in the Island of Lewis, the largest number of indi-


  "Colour  of  the  Hair  and Eyes  of 720 School Children
Attending  Public School.  Report of  the British Ass'n for
the Adv.  of Sci., Toronto, 1897, P- 506. 
72
Socio-Anthropometry
viduals possessed medium hair and eyes. Scotch fairness
is  emphasized again by the reports  of  Gardiner  and
Macleay20, who  quoted the  largest returns for  fair
hair and light eyes.  See Tables 17 and 17a.
   Coming south  into  England  proper  and  examining
adults in Yorkshire, it is found with  Taylor21 that out
of 31  individuals dark hair and dark eyes predominated.
But again, the Barley men  in England showed a pre-
dominance of  red and  brownish hair  and blue or light
eyes (see Tables  19 and 21,  prepared  by Taylor  and
Haddon  for Yorkshire and  Herts respectively).  Thus
it is to be concluded that although throughout the Brit-
ish Isles medium and  light tones alternate, a general
tendency towards fairness is to be observed in Scotland
which in the case  of special English shires is thoroughly
substantiated.  This agrees  with the  general statement
mentioned above  that  fair  and medium  coloured  cases
represent  about two-thirds  of the population (70 per
cent,  in rough figures).
   Stature according to Taylor varied within the limits
156 cm  and  183  (masculine)  within  which limit  8
cases had heights of 160 and upwards and 9 of 170 and
upwards.   According  to  Haddon  the  heights  of the
inhabitants of Barley  fell  as  low as 149 and rose as
high  as  180,  with 3  cases at  169  (see Table  19).
Quoting the  results obtained in the Anthropometric
Laboratory of Trinity College22 in  Dublin in  1898,
there  among 272  physicians, clergymen, students, mer-
  ^Report of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, Toronto, 1897, p. 507.
  aTaylor, J. J.   Anthropometric Notes on the Inhabitants
of Cleckheaton, Yorkshire,  Ibid., p. 508.
  ^Browne, C.  P. Report of the  Work Done in the An-
thropometric Laboratory  of Trinity College, Dublin, from
1891  to  1898.  Proceedings of the Royal Irish  Academy
Third Series 5, pp. 269-293. 
Physicians  ...........     (25)
Dentists  .............     (6)
Clergymen  ...........     (11)
Teachers  ............     (22)
Scientific men .......     (14)
Mercantile  men......     (13)
Students—Honour men     (32)
Honour men—Class B     (55)
              Class C     (94)
TABLE 18
Stature
	Head Index			Stature	
Mean	Minimum	Maximum	Mean M	inimum Maximum	
			mm	mm	mm
79.0	72.4	84.5	1748	1645	1879
81.3	76.3	83.3	1711	1675	1870
80.5	76.4	81.7	1731	1673	1798
78.1	72.1	82.4	1737	1637	1824
79.9	74.6	85.5	1732	1614	1830
78.2	75.0	81.5	1715	1593	1831
78.7	73.7	84.9	1745	1653	1841
79.0	72.6	88.1	1748	1623	1879
78.6	73.0	86.6	1749	1610	1885
c*
V* 
Socio-Anthropometry
 ^0000O"')00^'OirlO'-iON'-,,tN

T3cM00O^bcM'-*''--|^0NQp\O*-!0pc'i
 CtvtvOOtvtvOOOOrvtvOOtvOOOOtvCO

m
JvOtvOOVOtvtvirj^B^ivrJh^twO ^O ""tf"
      )-*VOcr>iO-^-iOPOOOCMCMOOpQ
.SJ'tv ^QVQ^^hQOjjpNTOJvOc^ON^
K<
^5"
SbM
  s

2 2 «
ffi2-i-S'clJ25 2  233^Sjs2
  cqfetefcpqeQQmmrtPiCQPpqPQ
 V 1_

 rt 2 ON <-< VO On \Q CM ""> Q ON tv i-h O 5*2 On On
gs^t-HCMio'^-vOPOTj-^cMTfioTr'^TfTr
C'HN«0TMOv0N00 0\O'HNCOrt-iii
C                      »-f «-H rl t-( »-i ,-(
3 
The Teutonic  Racial  Type          75
cantilemen, etc., there were 2 general averages of 171,
3 of 173 and 4 of 174.   See Table 18.
  Lastly,  examining the  head  measurment and pre-
senting the results firstly,  of individual cases, and sec-
ondly, of districts, it will  be found that although indi-
vidual measures vary greatly,  the returns  for  districts
are uniformly  grouped  about  76, 77 and  78  degrees.
Individually,  indices range  from 72 degrees  to 8523
and show a wide variety of measures, which in  a larger
census entirely disappears.   The conformity to  the law

                     TABLE 20

Anthropometric Data of Hair,  Eyes, Height and  Head
               as  reported  by Griinbaum

                                       Cranial
Number	Hair Eyes	Height	Index	Sex
1	Dark Light brown	1,658	85.8	M
2	Dark Green	1,630	84.4	M
3	Fair Blue	1,533	82.2	M
4	Dark Light gray	1,602	80.0	M
5	Brown Light gray	1,740	79.8	M
6	Brown Blue	1,720	79.4	M
7	Brown Blue	1,640	78.9	M
8	Fair Dark gray	1,733	78.9	M
9	Brown Light gray	1,655	78.7	M
10	Red Light gray	1,595	78.4	M
11	Dark Dark gray	1,640	77.4	M
12	Brown Green		77.0	M
13	Fair Green	1,665	76.9	M
14	Brown Light brown	1,744	76.9	M
15	Brown Blue	1,680	77.9	M
16	Dark Dark gray	1,700	77.7	M
17	Dark Blue	1,655	75.8	M
18	Brown Blue	1,607	75.5	M
19	...... Light gray	1,725	74.8	M
20	Dark Dark brown	1,515	82.7	F
  ^Haddon,  A. C.  On  the Physical  Characters  of  the
Inhabitants of  Barley, Herts.  Report of the British Ass'n.
tor the Adv. of Sci., Toronto, 1897, p.  503. 
76
Socio-Anthropometry
21	Dark Light gray
22	Dark Green
23	Brown Blue
24	Dark Green
75.4	F
78.2	M
	M
	M
1,584
1,740
1,630
1,610
                     TABLE 21


Anthropometric Data of Hair, Eyes, Height and Head as
                 reported by Taylor
Number Sex Age		Hair	Eyes	Height	Index
1	20	F	M	1,728	75.0
2	21	D	D	1,563	79.3
3	23	F	L	1,836	76.1
4	23	D	M	1,684	80.7
5	23	B	D	1,709	76.9
6	24	D	D	1,734	85.2
7	25	B	D	1,713	80.3
8	25	D	D	1,778	76.4
9	25	D	D	1,714	77.2
10	30	D	D	1,721	79.5
11	30	D	D	1,706	80.5
12	35	B	M	1,744	76.2
13	35	D	D	1,650	81.5
14	48	B	M	1,830	77.9
15	50	B	M	1,692	81.4
16	20	B	M	1,679	78.7
17	38	B	M	1,675	78.2
18	23	B	D	1,656	82.1
19	23	D	D	1,648	80.7
20	60	B	M	1,615	85.3
21	20	F	D	1,574	
22	20	B	M	1,564	8L1
23	21	B	D	1,557	76.8
24	21	B	M		82.6
25	21	B	M	1,656	81.8
26	22	F	M	1,507	79.1
27	25	D	M	1,554	81.2
28		D	D		
29		D	D		
30		D	D		
31		D	D	1,588	807
 
The Teutonic Racial Type
77
                      TABLE 22

                      Head Index

                                 —Maximum—
                                 Length Breadth
  Districts               Number Inches  Inches  Index
Kerry  ...................    20    7.81   6.07    77.8
Munster  .................    46    7.71   5.96    77.30
Rest of Ireland  ..........     9    7.78   5.91    76
South Wales .............    66    7.67   5.98    77.96
Cornwall  .................    17    7.72   6.01    77.90
S. Devon  ................    42    7.66   6.00    78.30
N. Devon................    56    7.75   6.05    78.13
W. Somerset  ............    71    7.66   5.88    76.8
S.Somerset..............    32    7.56   5.94    78.57
E.Somerset..............    94    7.67   5 96    77.7
Gloucester ...............    77    7.70   5.98    77.59
Wiltshire  ................    55    7.76   5.96    76.82
E. Glos. and E.  Wilts.....    17    ........    78.3
East of England..........    30    9.65   6.01    78.6
Yorkshire................    11    7.70   6.02    78.6
Cumberland & Lancashire    10    7.74   6.00    77.5
Educated  English........    40    7.78   6.09    78.25

of British dolichocephaly is borne witness to by the uni-
formity of  the indices  quoted by Beddoe  for  various
districts.24
   Dolichocephaly is thus seen to be a prominent mark
of the Englishman; it also characterized the  Scandina-
vian as we have  seen.   Preeminently, it distinguishes
the Teutonic type, which  is at the same time fair in
colour.  Stature also'  is  a mark of the northern breed,
and we have seen that stature is almost invariably high
for Englishmen and Scandinavians.  Stature,  head and
colouring, all in fact point to  the maintenance of dis-
tinct type by these two nations belonging to  the Teu-
tonic race.
**Beddoe, J.  The Races of Britain, London, 1885, p. 231. 
CHAPTER VI
              THE ALPINE RACIAL TYPE

            RUSSIA.   There is no Alpine racial  homo-
            geneity  and   Russia  indicates  this  most
            plainly as  we have seen above.  To discuss
            pure Russian  type would be to exclude Fin-
            nish  and  Mongolo-Turkish  traits.   The
 Great Russians, White  Russians  and  Little Russians
 with the addition of the non-Aryan  Russians of the
 east and south  must  all  be taken as representative of
 anthropologic Russia.  In all  this conglomeration of
 variously formed original types,  the broadheaded, med-
 iumly tall  and  medfumly tinted  type  should prevail,
 but that  it  does only  when  generalizing  must  be
 admitted  in  face  of  the conflicting  results obtained
 from the study  of individual cases.   Studied by  dis-
 tricts,  governments, or regions Russian heads, stature
 and colouring vary, but  generalizing  and quoting re-
 sults for all Russia, the following statements by  Ivan-
 ovoski1 may be  taken  as  representative.   Russians are
 brachycephalic, for 66 per cent, of  the population  in the
 west is brachycephalic, 71 per cent, in the  east,  63 in
 the north,  and 68  in the south.   See  Table  23.  Rus-
 sians are both tall and short—not so tall as the English
 and Scandinavians nor so short as the Italians.  Quot-
 ing the figures of  Ivanovoski it  is found that western
 Russia has  its greatest percentages in  the  165 to  170
cm division,  the  east and north  in  the classification
below  160,  and  the south agrees with the west in class-

  'Ivanovski A. A.  About the Anthropological Formation
of the Population of Russia. Moscow, 1904.  (In Russian). 
  Division

Western Russia


Eastern Russia .


Northern Russia


Southern Russia
           TABLE 23

       Russian Head Index

Dolicho-   Sub-doli-               Sub-brachy-
cephalic chocephalic   Mesocephalic  cephalic  Brachycephalic
   %          %          %          %           %
   5           10          19          31_________35         H

                                                              c*

                           15          30           41         ^
	15	
5		9
	14	
6		11
	17	
5		10
20
17
	66	
30		41
	71	
30		33
	63	
31		37

15                                 68               £
vl
O 
8o
Socio-Anthropometry
ifying in the 165  to  170 division.   (See Table 24).
Generalizing about the colour of the hair it may be
said that medium  tone prevails,  for  reckoning three
shades, light, mixed, and dark for all Russia,  the larg-
est percentages in each of  the four divisions of Russia,
north, east, south and  west, fall in the column denoted
mixed.  See  Table 25.   Generalizing once  more, it
can  be said  that while  head  index stands rather con-
stantly at 82,  brunetteness  increases regularly from
north  to south; the Baltic  Sea is the center of  the circle
of blondness which extends  southwards;  and stature
may be described as progressively increasing in a circle
that swings  from the  north to the east, to the south,
and  the west.
   Particularizing, stature  and colouring show the most
interesting  features.   For European  Russia, stature
oscilates from heights  that  are   quite small,  as  for
instance in Kasan and  Ufa, to those that are quite large
as 165-167 in the Baltic Sea  provinces2 while the gov-

                      TABLE 24

                       Stature
                                  Height
  Divisions       x-1600mm 1601-1650 1651-1700  1700-x
Western Russia.....   19%      25%     30%      26%
Eastern Russia.......   32%      27%     23%      18%
Northern  Russia....  26%      25%     25%      24%
Southern Russia.....   24%      28%     29%      19%

ernments of Suwalki, Tula and Jaroslav furnish heights
which  are medium.   The White Russians  who  are
found  to be purest  in  Tver and Pskov are supposed to
average about 165.  A great deal of red hair is recorded
as found in  European Russia, yet among White and

  2Ivanovski, A. A.  About the  Anthropological Formation
of the  Population of Russia.   Moscow, 1904, pp. 165-167. 
The Alpine Racial Type            81
Great Russians  there  is an  almost equal proportion
(52 and 51  per  cent.) of dark to light, while among
the Little and Great Russians the two  shades are dis-
tributed  equally, only  the  White  Russians have  a
greater proportion of light eyes.  The colouring of hair
and eyes  has been  generally estimated to be  mixed;
Ivanovoski  considers that 35  to  50 per  cent, of the
European Russians  possess medium colouring.
   But it is necessary to consider the other  racial strains
which are present  in the  Russian population, that is,
the Asiatic  elements evident in  Finnish and Mongo-
loid traits which  have been mentioned above.  Lowered
stature is an instance of Asiatic heritage,  for example,
in the case of Perm; there the recruits are said to have
an  index of 1643 while the real Perm inhabitants have
an  index of 161.  Turko-Mongoloid traits are evident
in Tartars  (Tatars) of some governments which dis-
tinctly belong to  European Russia, as in Kasan, Samara,
Riazan and  Tambov.  Stature in Kasan  and Samara
runs  161,  162, 163, 168 for various provinces where
the Tschouvaches are found, while the Bashkirs who in

                     TABLE 25
                       Colour
                                   Colour Types
  Divisions                    Light    Mixed    Dark
Western Russia............      33%     43%      24%
Eastern Russia............      14%     38%      48%
Northern Russia ..........      26%     48%      26%
Southern Russia...........      21%     35%      44%
Orenburg measured 166, 165, 160, in Samara measured
161  the same as  the Tschouvaches.4  Whether in Rus-
  "Maliew.                          T   ^ .„   ,
  'Deniker, J.  La Taille  en  Europe.  La  Taille  des pop-
ulations Turco-tartars et  des Caucasiens.  Soc. d'anthrop.
de Paris Bull, et Mem., ser. 5, v.  10, p. 66. 
82
Socio-Anthropometry
                     TABLE 26

                      Stature

 Limits of
 variation                     Number     Percentage
1500—1520 ..................       3           2
1521—1540 ..................       1           °-s
1541—1560 ..................       4           2
1561—1580 ..................       6           4
1581—1600 ..................       6           4
1601—1620 ..................       18           12
1621—1640 ..................       17           12
1641—1660 ..................       20           13
1661—1680 ..................       14           9.5
1681—1700 ..................       17           12
1701—1720 ..................       22           15
1721—1740 ..................       12           8
1741—1760 ..................       6           4
1761—1780 ..................       2           1
1781—1800 ..................       0           0
1821—1840 ..................       1           0.5
1841—1860 ..................       0           0
1861—1880 ..................       1           0.5

    Total..................      150          100

sia proper, that is, in Riazan, Tambov, or the Crimea,
the Tartars measure about  162,  163 and  164,  while
Cossacks of Central Asia, Siberia and the Caucasus run
lower.5   The  Kirghiez, Turks and Sarts, on  the other
hand, have comparatively high indices.  Again, in the
Caucasus the Tscherkess, the people of Azerbaijan, and
the Grusians have stature of 167, 168 and  164 respec-
tively.  To illustrate the stature it is well  to take the
people of Azerbaijan, which  although it is Persian ter-
ritory nevertheless is not Turkish.  Deniker says, "Les
Aderbeijani qui ne  sont  Trues  que par leur langue,
  "Anutchin, D. N.  Ergebnisse der anthropologischen Erf-
orshung Russlands.  Globus, v. 80, p. 249. 
The Alpine Racial Type            83
offrent un contraste frappant avec les vrais Turcs pour
la taille comme pour I'indice cephalique."  Quoting a
table  from the investigation of  KurdofP the  mode ap-
pears as  171-172.  Table 26.  The  Grusians who are
not far removed from Azerbaijan are, however, shorter;
their  index  falls about  164.  This  index corresponds
to the mode for hair colour among the Grusians. See
the table of results (Table 27)  presented by Javakofr;7
there were  57 black haired and 46  hazel  eyed among
100 cases.   Classified particularly according to the col-
	TABLE;	17		
Colour of the Hair and Eyes				
Colour of Hair Black Hazel Light	Number of 57 33 10	Cases	Height 164.5 163.4 166.2	
Colour of Eyes Hazel Blue Green Light Gray	46 5 20 7 22		163.8 159.0 164.4 168.5 165.3	
	TABLE 28			
Colour of the Hair				
Dark 97 ........ 64.5	Light 36 24	Tawny 1 0.5	Gray 16 11	Total 150 100
No.
%
our of the hair and eyes, Russia's population often seems
to possess the combination of hazel eyes and dark hair.
  "Kurdoff, K. M.  The Tartars of the Trans-Caucasus.
Russki Antropologitschesky Zhurnal, No. 4, 1912, p. 9.
  'Javakoff, A.  To the Anthropology of the Grusians  in
the  Caucasus.  Russki Antropologitschesky Zhurnal, Nos.
1 and 2, 1913, pp. 99-162. 
84
Socio-Anthropometry
The colour of the  hair in Azerbaijan is dark, as  64.5
per cent, of the 150 cases measured by Kurdoff shows.
(See Table 28).  This  is the Turkish  element.   Fin-
nish colouring, on the other hand, is brought out in the
tables presented by CevastianofP  concerning  the Perm
group;  of  258 individuals  143 had medium  hair, 53
flaxen and only 29 dark.  See (Table 29).  Or quot-
ing other  figures  supplied  by the same  author,  the
identical result is obtained.  In Table 30  the  greatest
per cent.,  18,  of individuals is seen  to  have medium
hair and blue eyes.  Disregarding special districts and
judging all Russia on the basis of Ivanovoski's classifica-
tion of  types into light (real blonds and near blonds),
mixed   (neither distinctly  light nor dark), and dark
almost brunette and real brunette, the following state-
ment  can be  made:  while  southeastern Russia tends
towards darkish type, the northwestern runs to medium
and even  significantly towards light type in  the west.
(See Table 31).
  Lastly,  a consideration of head index in all Russia
leads to final conclusions about Russian anthropometric
type.  In all European Russia there is 4  1-2 times more
brachycephaly than dolichocephaly.  The Caucasus and
Siberia  are like  eastern  Russia.   A  table of indices
(Table 33) of a Perm group  in  eastern Russia shows
a high  number  of  brachycephals,  54,  in a  hundred
cases.9   But this brachycephaly  is  offset by the doli-
chocephaly of the Turkish group in Azerbaijan,10 which
possesses greater  dolichocephaly  than  brachycephaly.
  'Cevastianoff, E. P.  To the Anthropology of the Zerans.
Russki Anthropologitschesky  Zhurnal,  No.  1,  1912,  pp.
58-68.
  "Ibid., p.  58.
  "Kurdoff, K. M.  The Tartars of the Trans-Caucasus.
Russki Antro. Zhum&l, No. 4, 1912, p. 12. 
TABLE 29
Colour of the Eyes and Hair
Blond   Flaxen  Medium    Dark
Blue eyes...,
Hazel eyes .
Yellow eyes
Blue eyes ..,
Blue green
Green......

      Total
M
7
M
 3
 2
 8
 4
F
12
10
 2
 4
 8
 2
M
13
31
15
 2
 1
 2
F
 9
42
 5
 2
21
M

'8
 1
2
 F
 1
17
Black
M   F
 Red
M   F
2    2
     1
Total Total
10   13   17   36  64   79
  23       53      143
11    18
  29
1
M
25
41
25
12
 2
 2
 F
30   55
72  113
 9   34
 8   20
32   34
     2
5    4  107  151
  9      258



00
LA 
86
Socio-Anthropometry
                     TABLE 30

             Colour of the Hair and Eyes

    Classification                    Number  Per Cent.
Blond with blue eyes............        10       13
Blond with hazel  eyes ..........         2        2
Blond with yellowish blue eyes..         4        5
Light with blue eyes  ............         9       12
Light with hazel eyes............         3        4
Light with  yellowish blue eyes..         8       10
Medium with blue eyes ........        14       18
Medium with hazel eyes ........         7        9
Medium with yellowish blue eyes.        12       16
Dark with hazel eyes ...........         4        5
Red with blue eyes..............         1        1
Red with hazel eyes.............         1        1

    Total  .......................        75       95

                     TABLE 31

                       Colour

                                   Light  Mixed Dark
                                    %      %      %
Western Russia.................      33      43      24
Oriental Russia  .................      14      38      48
Northern European Russia......      26      48      26
Southern European Russia......      21      35      44
                     TABLE 32

                     Head Index

    Types                          Number  Per Cent.
Dolichocephalic .................        23        15
Subdolichocephalic  .............        43        29
Mesocephalic ...................        52        35
Subbrachycephalic  ..............        24        16
Brachycephalic  .................         8        5

(Table 32).   But in all Russia there is 4  1-2 times
more brachycephaly  than dolichocephaly as has been 
The Alpine Racial Type            87
said.   Ivanovoski gives  14 per cent, dolichocephals,  17
per cent, mesocephals, and 68 per cent,  brachycephals.
   The conclusion made on the basis of  the agreement
of the four quarters in giving brachycephaly is that
Slavic type is fast brachycephalic.  That it is medium
sized,  has been gathered from the results quoted, which
have pointed to 169  as a frequent  stature index. Lastly,
although Asiatic Russia is occasionally dark, European
Russia can  be  regarded  as  medium with a tendency to
sandy  colouring in the Baltic region.
   France.  Brachycephaly and  racial autochthony  in
the midst of various racial elements characterize Russia
and  France.  Aside from  these  likenesses the French
type differs slightly from  the  Russian in being shorter
on the  average,  and  although  both  are  medium
in  colour,   the  medium  of  the  French  is   chest-
nut   rather  than   the  sandy   or  the  dull  col-
oured  shade of  the Russian.  In France  more  than
in any of the countries  instanced except perhaps  Rus-

                     TABLE 33

                     Head Index
    Types                          Number  Per Cent.
Dolichocephalic.................         0
Subdolichocephalic..............         1        1
Mesocephalic ...................        11       11
Subbrachycephalic ..............        34       34
Brachycephalic  .................        54       54

sia, heterogeneity prevails.   Broca says, "Partout il
y a des hommes grands et  des hommes petits, partout il
y  a  des blonds  et  des  bruns, des tete  longes  et des
tetes rondes, des yeux noirs, bleus ou gris,  des visages
celtiques, germaniques  et  meme  pelasgiques."11   The

  "Broca, P.  Memoires d'anthropologie.  Paris, 1871, vol.
I, P  331- 
88
Socio-Anthropometry
 two original components of the French people, which
 we have  mentioned above, the original  Celts  and the
 Teutons,  or Burgundians and Franks,  make  a  racial
 hodge-podge in France to-day.  Taking  the country as
 a whole  we  can distinguish  two  stature  types, two
 colour types, and dolichocephaly as well as brachycep-
 haly.  The general  area for  lower head indices is the
 region of  Flanders, down through Limoges to the Med-
 iterranean belt of coast line.   The three undisturbed
 spots of  Savoie, Auvergne and Brittany differ from
 this main track.  Stature is higher in the north than in
 the south, a fact which  tallies with the old  Burgun-
 dian occupation of the northern provinces, Moselle and
 other Rhine provinces.  Colouring increases in degree
 from the north  to  the south.   The dwellers on  the
 Mediterranean side  of France  are  the  darkest of  all.
 Basques are of  mixed colour.  In stature they are about
 the  average French  height  165:   Deniker12  quotes
 165.8. They are both dolichocephalic  and  brachycep-
 halic, although Collignon emphasizes mesocephaly.
  Reviewing the stature heights of  Gers a province in
 the near vicinity of the Basque arrondisements of Mau-
 leon and Bayonne on the slopes of the Pyrenees, a great
 uniformity of  index  is to be  observed  which  follows
 very closely the medium for  all French heights.  See
 Table 34  for results  quoted by Collignon.13  The aver-
age of 163.9 agrees almost absolutely with the 164 of all
 France.   Directly north  of Gers,  but in Vienne14  in
central France  the stature shows a similar convergence
to the medium  since  for the five arrondisements  of Civ-
  "Deniker, J.  The Races of Man.  London, 1900, p. 580.
  "Collignon, R.  La Taille dans le  Department du Gers.
Revue mems. de  I'Ecole  d'Anthr.  VII, p. 339.
  "Atgier, E. A.  Anthropologic de  la Vienne aux temps
actuels.  Soc.  d'anthrop.  de Paris.   Bulletins,  ser  4, vol
9,  pp. 617-637. 
The Alpine Racial  Type            89
 ray, Londun, Chatellerault, Montmorillon and Poitiers,
 there  is  an  agreement  among the arrondisements  in
 giving the largest number  of  returns  in the stature
 division 160  to  164 cm.   For all  Vienne, some  1,800
 cases,  the  greatest number  of  heights  were  included
 between the limits 160 and 170, but those cases between
 160 and  165 were 583  to the 543 of the cases in the
 upper division.
   Deniker gives  164.6  as  the index for all  France,
 Topinard 165.  Broca's studies of  conscripts of  20 to
 21 years, gives an average of 164.2 or 164.9.  Topin-
 ard15  points  to  Doubs as the center  for tall  heights,
 and Haute-Vienne for the shortest. In  the neighbour-
 ing district of Vienne, as has just been shown, the stat-

                      TABLE 34

                        Stature

   Canton                             Average Stature
 Auch—North  .................................   1,646
 Auch—South  .................................   1^653
 Gimont ......................................   1,643
 Lombez ......................................   1,627
 Cologne  ......................................   1,661
 L'Isle—Jourdain  ..............................   1,644
 Samatan......................................   1,636
 Mirande  .....................................   1,645
 Aignan.......................................   1,634
 Marciac  ......................................  1,636
 Masseube  ....................................   1,631
 Mielan  .......................................  1,640
 Montesquion ..................................  1,638
 Plaisance  ....................................  1,643
 Riscle........................................  1,643
 Mir a  doux ..................................  1,659
 Saint-clar ....................................  1,667
Jegun  ........................................  1,623
Saramon .....................................  1,626
Vic-Fezensac.................................  1,636
Topinard, P.  Anthropology.  London, 1890, p. 324. 
90
Socio-Anthropometry
Condon  ......................................   1^97
Cazaubon ....................................   J>627
Eauze........................................   1.616
Montreal .....................................   1.634
Nogare .......................................   ^'6%
Valence  ......................................   1.637
Lecteure......................................   1.654
Fleurance ....................................   1,651
Mauvezin .....................................   1,642
Department  of  Gers ..........................   1,639.6

                      TABLE 35

Stature of 1867 Individuals in  the Department of Vienne

                     Short     Medium      Tall
                   Less  154  160    164   170   180
                   than   to    to     to    to   to
  Cantons           154  159  164   170   177   X Total
Civray  ............  0     8   18     18     8    0    52
Availles  ...........  0     7   10     9     8    0    34
Charroux ..........  0     6   14     10     6    0    36
Couhe  .............  2     7   15     20    30    1    75
Gencay ............  0    12   29     19    12    0    72

Total   for   arron-
  disement of ......  2    40   86     76    64    1
Civray.............    42        162         65     269

Londun ............  1     4   14     22     9    0    50
Montcontour .......  2     8   16     32    10    0    59
Monts-sur-Guesnes .  0    10  21     9     6    0    46
Trois-Moutiers  ....0     8   19     9    11    0    44

Londun............  3    30   67     63    36    0
                       33        130        36     199
Poitiers—north  ___  2
Poitiers—south  ___  2
Lusignan  ..........  1
Mirebeau  ..........  4
Neuville ...........  0
Saint-Georges  .....  1
Saint-Julien l'Ars  ..  0
La  Villediter  ......  1
16    19
26
69
4	20	15	14	2	57
6	39	24	11	0	81
19	21	17	5	0	66
10	29	21	13	0	7h
5	15	12	14	1	48
7	12	21	4	0	44
3	12	20	13	1	50
 
               The Alpine Racial Type            91


Vivonne  ...........   0    7    6    11     6    0   30
Vouille  ............   0    6   17    27    14    0   64

Poitiers ............  11    71  187   187    120    6
                       82        374       126     582

Chatellerault .......   2    21   39    26    38    5   131
Dange .............   4    12    8    11    10    0   45
Leigne-sur-Usseau .3    5   15    14     5    0   42
Lencloitre  ..........   3    15   25    12     7    0   62
Pleumartin  ........   2    12   18    21    12    0   65
Vouneiul-sur-Vienne  0    10    8    11    13    0   42

Chatellerault .......  14    75  113    95    85    5
                       89        208        90     387

Montmorillon ......  2    9   22    24    22    1   80
Chauvigny .........   4    14   18    10    13    0   59
L'Isle Jourdain ....   3    13   23    32    19    0   90
Lussac  ............   1    10   33    19    18    0   81
Saint-Savin  ........   1    9   17    18    11    0   56
La Tremoiulle  .....   0    9   17    19    18    1   64

Montmorillon .....  11    64  130   122    101    2
                       75        252        103    430

Total  for   Depart-
  ment of Vienne... 41   280  583   543    406    14
                       321       1,126       420   1,867
PerCent............  17.19      60.31      22.49

ure runs very near the average, so that on the whole
a  general  statement can be  made  that  taking  the tall
and the short,  165  can very well express the medium.
   In quoting colouring, four principal shades are usual-
ly   distinguished among  French inhabitants, black,
brown, chestnut and fair, couleur foncee, coulour inter-
mediare, couleur claire which is chestnut or  chdtain,
and blond.  Garnier-Mouronval16  recording the colour
  "Garnier-Mouronval, M.  Recherches anthropometriques
sur les normands.  L'Anthropologic, XXIV, p. 27. 
92
Socio-Anthropometry
 of hair and eyes of 100 conscripts in Normandy found
 dark chestnut  or brown hair and  dark  eyes  to  pre-
 dominate, 31 and  31  cases respectively out of 100  each
 for  hair and eyes.  (See Table 36).  Topinard  does
 not  agree to a general statement about hair colour  in
 entire France, he distinguishes  two  types which he
 claims may have originated from primitive  stocks, the
 Celts and  the  Teutons.  Thus  in  what  he calls the
 Kymric region, that is, northeast France,  he considers
 that the fair haired type predominates to the exclusion
 of the  brown  (chestnut haired), while in  the Celtic
 region chestnut hair outstrips  fair.   The per cents, are
 quoted at 55 and  78.17  (See Table 37).   Distinction
 between these two; regions is  not so* marked in regard
 to eyes,  for while in the Kymric  Departments  blue
 eyes outrun brown by a difference of 4.2, the per cents.

                     TABLE 36

             Colour of the  Eyes and Hair

Colour of Eyes                              Number
    Dark .......................................   31
    Medium ....................................   15
    Light .......................................   25
    Blue ........................................   29

       Total ...................................  100

Colour of Hair                              Number
    Dark .......................................   25
    Medium ................................      31
    Light .......................................   21
    Blond  ............!..........................   23

       Total ...................................  100
"Topinard, P.  Anthropology.  London, 1878, p. 349. 
               The Alpine  Racial  Type           93

                      TABLE 37

                    Colour  of Hair

  Classification
Kymric Departments ..................
    (Nord,  Jura,  Bas-Rhin,  Moselle,
    Haut-Rhin, Meurthe)
Celtic Departments....................
    (Correze,  Haute   Loire, Aveyron,
    Indre, Cartal, Ardeche, Dordogne)

for both shades equal each  other in the Celtic Depart-
ments.  Table 38.   Altogether, very black haired indi-
viduals are  not to be found except among the Basques.
Bretons are brown haired,  for among  368 cases meas-
ured, 57 per cent, were found to be brown, in compar-
ison with 22.7  per cent,  chestnut  or medium,  and 20
per cent,  fair or sandy.
  Among the Bretons high brachycephaly is to be met
with, 84.9 in the interior and 83 on the coast, as quoted
by  Topinard.   Deniker places the index  at 82.7, and
Collignon at  83.72.   The  Basque index,  83.45 (Col-
lignon) is  very similar to  this, while  the district of
Gers for which we have quoted the stature results, the
index goes  higher,  that is,  to 85.71.  In the districts
of Haute-Vienne the  index is as low as 79, but again in
Normandy  it  rises—Seine-Inferieure  81.1, Eure 91.34.
Calvados 81.62 and Orne 83.37.  While a table of the
indices of  all France prepared by Collignon gives a gen-
eral idea of  the distribution of indices, (see Table 29),
a presentation of indices by regions gives a better idea
of  French  head  measurements,   for  instance, those
quoted by Deniker  for the Department du Nord, 80.4,
for  Limousin  and  Perigord 80.7   (Collignon  a bit
lower), and the Provengals 81.7.   Head index  as  a
rule follows no stature distinctions, with possible excep-
tions, for instance, in  the Department of Doubs, quoted
Fair  Chestnut
  55      44.9

  21.8    78.0 
94
Socio-Anthropometry
                      TABLE 38

                  Colour of the Eyes

                                       Blue     Brown
                                         %         %
Kymric Departments..................    56        41.8
Celtic Departments ....................    50        50.0

                      TABLE 39

                      Head Index

Number     Departments
 Cases        of France                          Index
  23 Ain........................................  86.72
  62 Aisne......................................  80.88
  33 Allier  .....................................  83.33
  32 Basses-Alpes ..............................  83.67
   5 Hautes-Alpes ..............................  84.37
  53 Alpes-Maritimes  ...........................  82.85
  91 Ardennes ..................................  83.24
  23 Ardeche  ...................................  85.24
  23 Ariege .....................................  82.89
  20 Eure-et-Loir...............................  82.83
  30 Gard  ......................................  83.12
  30 Haute-Garonne  ............................  83.43
  24 Gers  ......................................  85.71
  62 Gironde....................................  82.60
  21 Herault ....................................  82.50
 329 Ille-et-Vilaine .............................  84.02
  19 Indre ......................................  82.66
  29 Indre-et-Loire .............................  81.40
  20 Isere  ......................................  85.32
  24 Jura .......................................  88.20
  20 Landes  ....................................  84.50
  43 Loire ......................................  84.04
  27 Haute-Loire  ...............................  87.52
 160 Loire-Inferieure   ...........................  83.77
  22 Loire-et-Cher ..............................  83.30
  41 Loiret .....................................  83.08
  20 Lot  ........................................  85.59
  21 Lot-et-Garenne  ............................  86.66
  26  Bas-Rhin ..................................  83.64 
               The Alpine Racial  Type            95


  26  Haut-Rhin.................................  83.80
  23  Aube  ......................................  83.07
  30  Aude  ......................................  81.05
 332  Aveyron  ...................................  85.50
 221  Bonches-du-Rhone .........................  81.43
  81  Cantal .....................................  87.08
 191  Calvados  ..................................  81.62
  21  Charente ...................................  80.93
  29  Charente-Inf...............................  82.06
  47  Cher  .......................................  81.77
  62  Maine-et-Loire ............................  83.16
 919  Manche....................................  83.10
  25  Marne .....................................  84.11
  20  Haute-Marne  ..............................  86.83
 100  Mayenne  ..................................  84.10
  50  Meurthe  ...................................  85.64
  62  Meuse .....................................  85.00
 173  Norbihan  ..................................  82.62
  41  Moselle....................................  83.97
  41  Nievre  ....................................  83.14
 171  Nord  ......................................  80.38
  52  Oise  .......................................  82.60
 120  Orne  ......................................  83.37
 183  Pas-de-Calais..............................  80.36
  55  Puy-de-D6me  ..............................  85.53
  62  Basses-Pyrenees...........................  83.45
  21  Hautes-Pyrenees ....................'.......  83.67
  35  Pyrenees-Orientales  ........................  78.24
  44  Vosges  ....................................  86.68
  31  Yonne .....................................  82.57
  26  Cote-d'Or..................................  84.01
2023  Cotes-du-Nord.............................  83.72
  24  Correze....................................  83.98
  20  Creuse .....................................  82.83
  53  Deux-Sevres  ...............................  82.83
  21  Dordogne  ..................................  79.17
  22  Doubs  .....................................  86.05
  21  Drome .....................................  84.89
 109  Eure  .......................................  81.34
  51  Rhone  .....................................  86.01
  22  Haute-Saone...............................  87.37
  41  Saone-et-Loire  .............................  87.11
  44  Sarthe .....................................  83.84
 191  Savoie .....................................  87.39 
96
Socio-Anthropometry
  25  Haute-Savoie  ..............................  86.25
 100  Seine ......................................  81.57
 283  Seine-Inferieure ...........................  81.10
 106  Seine-et-Marne ............................  82.86
 161  Seine-et-Oise  ..............................  81.57
  51  Somme  ....................................  81.88
  22  Tarn ......................................  83.72
  18  Tarn-et-Garonne ...........................  85.80
  54  Var .......................................  82.77
  47  Vaucluse  ..................................  81.53
  32  Vendee  ....................................  84.47
  30  Vienne  .....................................  82.94
  20  Haute-Vienne..............................  79.70
  14  Lozere.....................................  87.87
 237  Corse......................................  76.93

above by Topinard as possessing 156 tall statured men
to 1,000 men, the index is 86.05, while Haute-Vienne
possessing the proportion of  31.6  to  1,000  men has an
index of 79.7.  Prevalence  of  similarity of  index for
varying heights is well brought out in a table prepared
by Manouvrier in which although  the height varies
from  146 to  180 the index never goes beyond 81.1 to
83.1.   (See Table 40).
  We are thus left with the general conclusion  that
the French are brachycephalic 80-81,  that they are med-
iumly  tall 165  cm, and that on  the  whole  they are
inclined  to be chestnut  coloured, darkish  of  eyes  and
brown of hair.  Reiterating the conclusion deduced con-
cerning Russian type being brachycephalic, medium of
height and of  colouring, a  final  statement is evolved
that Alpine type is  thus, in spite of all seeming discrep-
ancy in composition, quite uniformly regular in being
brachycephalic, and medium of stature  and of colour-
ing. 
The Alpine Racial  Type          97
TABLE 40
Head Index
Number of		Cephalic
Individuals	Height	Index
21	146 cm	83.1
128	151	82.5
522	156	82.2
1,045	161	82.2
1,177	165.4	82.3
800	170	82.4
313	175	82.1
65	180	81.1
4,071 
CHAPTER VII
          THE MEDITERRANEAN RACIAL TYPE

      IT was  remarked above  that Italy, being formed
      of the  old  Italian  tribes  of  Umbrians, Oscans,
      Vituli and Latins, had somewhat of a mixed pop-
      ulation.  Further, the Ostrogothic, the  Lombard
      and Frankish invasions changed the type  in Lom-
 bardy,  Umbria and Piedmont.  Now,  while  it  is not
 possible to  draw anthropologic  conclusions about Ro-
 man anthropometric type, it is quite possible to outline
 the physical contours of the short, dark, dolichocephalic
 Mediterranean of to-day.
   Italy.  Three prominent facts stand  out in Italian
 anthropometry:—stature  decreases  progressively from
 north to south, dolichocephaly increases  from  north  to
 south, and  there is  an increase of pigmentation  or  an
 advance in brunetteness in  the same  direction.  Exam-
 ing Italy piecemeal and proceeding from the southern-
 most  part,  Sardinia  is  seen  to be  most  African-like
 of all European populations.   There blondness is  so
 rare that light traits occur  in  less than  10 per  cent,  of
 the total population  and blond  types less than  3 per
 cent.;  further, an extremely short stature  (156) is  to
 be met  with  as  well  as  a  head index  of  73.   Sicily,
 being more subject  to a greater impress of changing
 population, is  not so distinctive in type.  Tuscany tends
 towards the northern  type,  but like her prototype, the
 Etruscan, is problematic, for her long headed  district
differs  from  the nearby  broad  headed  districts  of
Marshes and  Umbria.  In Lucca the  differences be-
tween north  Italian (that is, broad headed taller and
                         98 
The Mediterranean  Racial  Type        99
fairer type)  and south Italian  (that  is,  long headed,
short and very dark) type is brought out.  The index
74-78  (see  Table  41) is in marked contrast  to  the
pronouncedly north Italian Piedmontese 83-89.1  Pass-
ing over Liguria which is southern in type, we reach
the northern-most  provinces of Lombardy and Pied-
mont where indices are as high as 83 and 84 and  stature
runs to  162 and 165.   Thus it is seen that the anthrop-
ometric character of Italy's population presents a rather
regularly  culminating geographical order  of  colour,
height and head index, which in toto gives the general
Mediterranean figure with its dolichocephalic head, its
short stature and dark colouring.
  But examining stature, head  and colouring in more
detail and  presenting the results tabularly as well as

                     TABLE 41

                    Head Index

    Index                                  Number
   70—79.9  ..................................    10
   71—71.9  ..................................     3
   72—72.9  ..................................     8
   73—73.9  ..................................     9
   74—74.9  ..................................    12
   75—75.9  ..................................    10
   76—76.9  ..................................    13
   77—77.9  ..................................    14
   78—78.9  ..................................    10
   79—79.9  ..................................     9
   80—80.9  ..................................     7
   81—81.9  ..................................     6
   82—82.9..................................     4
   83—83.9  ..................................     2
   84—84.9  ..................................     2
   85—85.9  ..................................     1

      Total  .................................   120
  ^ittaluga, R.  Studio antropometrico sulle donne  della
Lucchesia.  Societa romana, vol.  15, pp. 15-34- 
100
Socio-Anthropometry
in a descriptive way the following results are obtained.
Livi2  who measured 256,166  cases gives a  height  of
164.7 cm as the  general Italian  average.   (See Table
42).  The greatest  number of recruits measured from
1874-1878 is reported by  de  Rossi3 to have measured
162 cm.  Of 1,776,250  cases 110,706 measured 162
cm and 110,169 measured 165.  (See Table 43).  In-
teresting as  a presentation of Italy's varying north and
south types  are the results (Table 44) quoted by Pit-
taluga4 for  the inhabitants  of Lucca, a place which
although situated in the north of  Italy shows a southern
stature (157).   Judging stature  more  generally  the
table  (Table 46)  quoted below gives a good idea of
Italin  height.   The division  into four  groups, first
heights less  than  160, second  160 to 165, third 165 to
170, and fourth 170 and above, shows the greatest bulk
of 299,355 cases measured in the 160 to 165 class, with
87,394 cases in the 165 to 170 class, and about as many
below 160 as above  170.
   According to Boas5, who measured fifteen  cities in
Campania,  Abruzzo, Basilicata,  etc., the head indices
ranged from 77.6 to 81.9.  (See Table 45). Although
these indices are  slightly  lower than those  obtained by
Livi for the same places,  they  agree on the whole with
the results  found by that author.  Indices which are
exceptionally  low  are   to  be  found,  however,  for
instance, in  Apulia at Leuca where there is an index of
73-
  sLivi, R.  La Condizione  Sociale e lo Sviluppo Fisico.
Revista italiana di soc. Torino.   1905.  Anno 9, p. 474.
  8De Rossi, G.  La Statura degli Italiani.  Archivio per
I'antropologia e la etnologia, vol. 33, pp.  17-64.
  *Pittaluga, R.  Studio  antropometrico  sulle donne  della
Lucchesia.  Societa romana, vol. 15, pp.  15-34.
  "Boas, F. and H.  The Head-Form of the Italians as
Influenced by Heredity and Environment.  American An-
thropologist, vol. XV,  No. 2, p. 177. 
The Mediterranean  Racial Type       101
TABLE 42
                         Stature

                  Total
               number  of    General
  Regions     observations  Height
Piedmonte  .....   29,558      165.0
Liguria  ........    7,016      165.6
Lombardia......   32,156      165.4
Veneto .........   25,324      166.6
Emilia .........   21,722      165.4
Tescara  ........   21,148      165.7
Marche  ........    9,235      163.9
Umbria  ........    5,214      164.4
Lazio  ..........    6,552      164.4
Abruzzi e Molise   12,334      163.4
Campania ......   24,365      163.7
Puglie  .........   13,962      163.7
Basilicata ......    4,894      162.7
Calabria  .......   10,346      163.4
Sicilia ..........   27,009      163.7
Sardegna .......    5,301      162.1
Italy............   25,166      164.7
Among	Among
Students	Peasants
166.9	165.1
167.3	165.5
167.6	165.3
168.2	166.5
167.7	165.1
167.6	165.6
166.6	163.5
167.1	163.7
167.1	163.7
166.7	163.0
165.7	163.1
166.6	163.1
165.9	162.2
166.1	162.8
166.6	162.9
164.1	161.1
166.9	164.3
TABLE 43

  Stature
Height
  125
  125
  126
  127
  128
  129
  130
  131
  132
  133
  134
  135
  136
  137
Number
  266
  163
   49
   48
   69
   85
  247
  140
  175
  235
  277
  417
  418
  561
Height
  146
  147
  148
  149
  150
  151
  152
  153
  154
  155
  156
  157
  158
  159
Number
 3,305
 4,092
 5,078
 6,386
 9,650
11,761
15,219
20,033
37,058
56,317
65,283
73,999
82,607
88,372
Height
  168
  169
  170
  171
  172
  173
  174
  175
  176
  177
  178
  179
  180
  181
Number
 82,847
 69,733
 62,666
 49,932
 42,405
 33,090
 25,904
 21,484
 15,819
 11,878
  8,836
  6,347
  5,223
  3,124 
102
Socio-Anthropometry
138      634        160   102,048     *   182     2,254
139      717        161   104,495        183     1,651
140     1,171        162   110,706        184     1,082
141     1,168        163   109,736        185       606
142     1,534        164   106,898        186       422
143     1,659        165   110,169        187       354
144     2,029        166    99,259        188       233
145     2,796        167    92,918        189       145
                                         190       68
 Total ..................................  1,776,350

                  TABLE 44

                    Stature

Stature
   cm                                   Number
   145 ...............................     1
   146 ...............................     1
   147 ...............................     1
   148 ...............................     1
   149 ...............................     5
   150 ...............................     5
   151 ...............................     3
   152 ...............................     5
   153 ...............................     4
   154 ...............................     8
   155 ...............................     3
   156 ...............................     4
   157 ...............................    15
   158 ...............................     8
   159 ...............................     6
   160 ...............................     9
   161 ...............................     3
   162 ...............................     5
   163 ...............................     1
   164 ...............................     5
   165 ...............................     4
   166 ...............................     7
   167 ...............................     4
   168 ...............................     0 
           The Mediterranean  Racial  Type       103

        171 ...............................     0
        172 ...............................     !

            Total  .........................   113

                      TABLE 45

                      Head  Index
  Place                            Livi          Boas
Caserta  .........................    81.8           80.3
Chieti ..........................    83.3           81.9
Campobasso.....................    81.6           82.0
Avellino ........................    81.4           80.6
Napoli..........................    82.6           80.9
Salerno  .........................    82.7           81.0
Bari  ............................    80.7           79.6
Potenza  ........................    80.8           81.3
Cosenza  ........................    77.9           77.6
Messina  ........................    78.8           77.8
Palermo ........................    79.1           77 6
Trapani  ........................    80.0           78.7
Caltanisetta  ....................    79.4           78.3
Girgenti  ..........................  80.1           78.8
Catania.........................    79.7           77.8

   Hair and eye colouring in the members of the Medi-
terranean  race is  not distinguished by  any remarkable
features.   Dark colouring  is the rule, but light hair
and  eyes are  found, however.  Surprisingly large  fig-
ures for gray eyes,  for instance, are given in the table
(Table 46)  quoted below6—61,638  gray eyes against
26,164  black  eyes.   Hazel  eyes predominate as can be
seen from  the large number  180,321 in  299,018 total
cases.  Hair is not black so often as would be supposed.
In contradistinction to  the 179,876  cases of  chestnut
coloured hair there are only 92,897 of  black.  On  the
whole, Italian colouring is  chestnut and hazel,  or  ac-
cording to the more general classification, Italian hair
is medium in  tone,  and  Italian eyes are dark.
  "Saggio  dei  Risultati anthropometrici.  Rome, 1894, pp.
46-47. 
                                         TABLE 46

                        Stature and the Colour of the Hair and Eyes

                                        Stature                      Stature
                                      Number of  Less than
   Compartments                       cases        160      160 to 165    165 to 170
 Piedmonte  .......................     33,541        5,151      11,444      10,481
 Liguna..........................      8,104        1,057       2,560       2,659
 Lombardia  .......................     36,904        5,209       1,016      11,653
 Veneto  ...........................     28,509        2,694       8,116       9,522
 Emilia............................     24,616        3,478       8,020       7,882
 T°scana  .........................     23,738        2,969       7,500       7,672
 Marche  ..........................     10,747        2,248       4,018       2,988
 Umbria  ..........................      6,301        1,109       2,437       1,825
 aIIw •:•■■■•■....................      8,035        1,482       3,004       2,298
 Abbruzzio Mohse  .................     14,524        3,624       5,673       3,625
 Campania  ........................     28,967        6,650      11,097       7,619
 Pug.1,1.6   ...........................     16,546        3,842       6,267       4,226
 Basihcata  ........................      5,976        1,690       2,374       1,424
 Cal.abria .........................     13,336        3,341        5,224       3,336
Siciha  ...........................     32,824        7,804      12,110       8,651
Sardegna.........................      6,687        2,196       2,776       1,333

      Total  .......................   299,355      54,544     104,636      87,394
o
4>
170 and
 above
  6,465
  1,828
  8,026
  8,177
  5,236
  5,597
  1,493
    930
  1,251
  1,602
  3,601
  2,011
    488
  1,435
  4,259
    382

 52,781
Or,
a 
              Colour of                               Colour of
              the Hair                                the Eyes
Compartments  Cases   Red  Blond  Chestnut Black  Cases    Blue   Gray Chestnut Black
Piedmonte  ..  33,522   248   4,164   21,412    7,698    33,468   4,539   8,829   18,070   2,030
Liguria  .....    8,091     42    853    5,175    2,021     8,096     849   1,560    5,017    670
Lombardia  ..  36,860   256   3,733   23,237    9,634    36,867   4,922   8,780   20,666   2,499   w
Veneto  ......  28,472   219   3,577   17,577    7,099    28,470   4,483   7,313   14,954   1,720   2
Emilia  ......  24,583   130   1,762   14,977    7,714    24,582   2,306   5,350   14,989   1,937   *
Toscana  .....  23,721   175   2,192   14,999    6,355    23,720   2,472   4,995   14,606   1,647   ^
Marche  .....  10,739     65    801    6,733    3,140    10,735   1,083   2,279    6,693    680   £*
Umbria  .....    6,293     29    567    3,801    1,896     6,290     737   1,327    3,735    491    &
Lazio  .......    8,025     61    512    4,886    2,566     8,027     664   1,439    5,199    725    qf
Abbruzzi Mo-                                                                                    3
  lise  .......  14,515     78    951    9,086    4,394    14,504   1,246   2,900    9,277   1,081    a
Campania  ...  28,926   144   1,964   16,672   10,146    28,951   2,431   4,983   18,301    3,236    a
Puglie  ......  16,537     67    937    9,460    6,073    16,539   1,253   3,117   10,504   1,665    8
Basilicata  ...    5,971     32    288    3,551    2,100     5,964     399    980    4,109    476    fc
Calabria .....  13,320     29    503    6,938    5,850    13,309     729   1,870    8,820    1,890    §
Sicilia .......  32,806   129   1,648   18,471    1,255    32,811   2,513   5,254   20,942   4,102    S'
Sardegna ....    6,685     16    115    2,901    3,653    6,685     269    662    4,439   6,685    *"""

    Total  ...  299,066  1,720  24,573 179,876  92,897  299,018  30,895 61,638 180,321  26,164   !§.
o 
io6
Socio-Anthropometry
   Italian type is thus dark, mediumly tall and dolicho-
 cephalic.   Franco-Russian type is medium in stature
 and  colour,  and  brachycephalic:  Scandinavian  and
 English types are light, tall and dolichocephalic.  There

                      TABLE 47

             Head,  Stature and  Colouring

  Nationalties                          Head
 Scandinavians.......................Dolichocephalic    78
 English.............................      "            78
 Russians...........................Brachycephalic    82
 French..............................                  82
 Italians.............................Mixed            80

  Stature                              Colouring
 High 170.........................Light  hair,  light  eyes
  "   170.........................Medium "
Medium 165......................   "    "   Medium"
        165......................   "
        165......................   "     "   dark   "

 are consequently similarities and dissimilarities between
 these three types, and in  these very points  of similarity
 and  dissimilarity are  involved parallelisms which are
 taken to justify sociological conclusions.
  Sociologic differences are indefinite and philosophical:
 anthropometric differences are exact and scientific. And
 yet  in one sense inexactitude  characterizes  anthropome-
 try,  especially international anthropometry. There are
 many obstacles  which stand  in the way  of obtaining
 reliable data;—there is no universal scheme of measure-
 ment, there are various methods, such as the  German,
 French, English and Swiss, and there are various ways
 of interpretating data.  In military nations emphasis is
 laid  on conscript returns, in  other countries pathologi-
 cal aims bias the gathering of material.  On the whole,
 English investigators  follow rules laid down  by the 
           The Mediterranean  Racial  Type      107

Anthropometric Committee7, Scandinavians follow both
French  and German  lines,  and  Russians adopt  the
French methods, Topinard's terminology, for  example,
and Broca's colour scales.   For the purpose of reconcil-
ing points of unessential difference and seeking a com-
mon character  for the investigations quoted, the author
has employed the methods advocated by Martin.8  Col-
ouring of  the hair has been identified  with the colour
of the  hair exhibited  in  thirty samples  contained  in
Fischer's HaarfarbentafeP: dark is taken to mean Nos.
4-9 and  27-30  (inclusive), medium 10, 17  and 22-26,
and fair  18, 21 and 1-3.   For  the colour of the eyes
see the Augenfarhentafel by Luschan10;  dark  is equiv-
alent  to  Nos.  1-6 (inclusive), medium 7-12, and light
13-16.

COMPARISON OF TEUTONIC, ALPINE, AND MEDITERRAN-
                     EAN TYPES

   So  taking our various national  data for head index
and roughly generalizing from average results  obtained
for various districts in the Teutonic, Alpine, and Med-
iterranean countries  the  following conclusion can be
made  upon the basis of the analysis presented by Chart
1.  English heads are  dolichocephalic, as is shown by
the short narrow  curve rising  to  its  maximum at 77
degrees  (Chart No.  ia) ;  Scandinavians are next in
order  with a curve which  rises  to 79  degrees (Chart
  'British  Association:   Anthropometric Investigation  in
the  British Isles.   Report  of the  British Ass'n.  Dublin,
1908, p. 351-
  "Martin, Rudolph.  Lehrbuch der Anthropologic  Jena,
1914, pp.  188-200.
  "Ibid.,  p.  188, Fig. 51.
  "Ibid., p.  193. Fig. 53- 
108            Socio-Anthropometry
—Scandinavian---English
No.  ia);  Italians have a longer curve with a maxi-
mum at 77  degrees (Chart  No. ic), and the French
and Russians are quite brachycephalic with vertices at
82 and 83 degrees.  (Chart  No. ib).
  Stature  in the north is almost invariably high, while 
The Mediterranean  Racial  Type       109
       —Teutonic---Alpine - . -.  Mediterranean

in the  Alpine and Mediterranean  belts it may be high
or low.  That it is, however, as  a whole generally med- 
HO             Socio-Anthropometry
—Russian---French
ium in  the latter is shown by  the maximal rise of the
Alpine  and Mediterranean  curves  in  Chart No.  2 to
30 and  13 per cents, at 165 cm.  These maxima as well
as the massive character of the two curves serve  to set
them  off in  contradistinction to the  Teutonic curve 
The Mediterranean Racial Type       ill
						frrrrrffrrr	riT|T|j|ijj|	rnii in ii
					|iE:|:!E	::::::::EB±	t:;:--::::	:±E::EEEfc ? :iEE:EE:: k
			pEEEE	ill	±EEEpE	:::EEEEES	i=:-^r	:EE::::EE: j
t-			tt+S^		|eee|:ee	---*«;-- j ||	|:EEEEEE5	:+::::±fE3 .....-L-t-f^ J:x:::::v .....i—c
							|:EE:E:EEE	4_"H!!!lt" *
which  reaches  its maximum  at  169 cm with  36 per
cent., and is sharp and angular in form.
  Head  index,  then,  differs  in  the northern,  central
and  southern nations;  the north and south are some-
what alike, the central unlike.  Stature differs in being
most pronounced in the north, while the south and cen-
tral  districts resemble one another.   Finally, consider-
ing colouring, additional points of likeness and  unlike- 
112
Socio-Anthropometry
ness are  noticed.   The Scandinavians are light haired
and light eyed, the English are medium toned and light
of eyes, the Russians are medium toned of hair and eyes,
the French also, and  the  Italians  medium of hair and
dark of eyes.   In  other words,  an increase  of negres-
cence is observed in the nations  according to the order
mentioned:—Teutons are fairest, Alpines medium and
 
          The Mediterranean  Racial  Type       113

Mediterraneans darkest  (Chart No. 3).  Scandinavians
differ  from  English,  however,  in  having  more com-
plete absence of dark  colour, while on the other hand,
the Russians and the French make a harmonious racial
group.   (See Table 47).
   Summarizing,  there are  racial  differences  in head,
stature and colouring.  Presenting these differences as
points  of similarity and dissimilarity it  is easily granted
that there exists little likeness  between Teutons  and
Mediterraneans, or between Teutons and Alpines.   In
other words the dissimilarities between races outweigh
the similarities, a conclusion  which carries the  implica-
tion that there must exist little or no sociological rela-
tion  between  Teutons  and  Alpine-Mediterraneans,
while  between Alpines and Mediterraneans some  sort
of sociological relation may exist.
   Within  the  racial  groups the points of similiarity
outweigh those of dissimilarity.  Within  the Teutonic
group  there is likeness between  the Scandinavians  and
English  in head, stature and eye colouring.  Within the
Alpine group there  is absolute harmony between Rus-
sians and French  who agree as to heads, stature  and
colouring.   Comparing  inter-racial groups,  the Scan-
dinavians have no  relation with the Franco-Russians:
the English compared  with the Russians exhibit a point
of similarity in  colouring, compared with the  Italians
there is  common  dolichocephaly.   Between the Rus-
sians and Italians there  is a slight similarity.   Socio-
logically (a) Scandinavians ought to parallel the Eng-
lish, (b) the English  should resemble  the  Alpines  and
the  Mediterraneans  slightly, (c)  the  Russians  and
French should parallel  each other, and (d)  Russians
should  resemble Italians in a slight degree.
   The point of  issue,  however, is what significance do
these anthropometric  likenesses  and unlikenesses bear
to the  matter of sociologic differences.  We have seen 
U4
Socio-Anthropometry
that the Scandinavian nations,  Great Britain, Russia,
France and Italy belong to varied sociologic types.  The
question logically  rises,  is  there  correspondence  be-
tween  likenesses and unlikenesses of sociologic and an-
thropometric types which  can  lead to the assumption
that sociologic  facts  can be classified  according to the
postulates of physical anthropometry. 
CHAPTER VIII
         SOCIO-ANTHROPOMETRIC  CRITIQUE

      IN  thus  following the  course  of that  moving
      reality  of race  called by Topinard  "an abstract
      conception, a notion of continuity in discontinuity,
      of unity in diversity" from paleolithic times down
      through  neolithic  ages  and  over the period  of
prehistoric  into the  threshold  of historic life  and mo-
dernity, the ever evolving nature of human  phenomena
has revealed  itself.  Throughout the described span of
development  which included ages  of bronze and iron,
man's  use  of flint instruments and  the domestication
of animals, the origins of  trade, wars, migrations,  dis-
placements of  peoples  and the births  of  church  and
statehood,  there has  been a constant tendency  to group
the phenomena as manifestations of an evolving reality.
Disposition, character, type of  mind have been treated
with  head, hair, and stature as derivatives of a com-
mon stock.  The whole matter has been  stated as if
the laws of  evolution  which  hold in  the  physical or
biological sense held  also in the domain of  the psycho-
physical, but it is just this hypothesis which  in laying
bare such procedure exposes the whole fallacy of  socio-
anthropology.   It is  upon just this point that anthro-
pologists and sociologists  cannot  unite, for there  can
be drawn  from  biologic anthropolgy no laws binding
upon  sociologic fact.   Laws,  customs,  manner of  liv-
ing, in short, all that goes  to make up culture  is not de-
termined by biologic laws.  That anthropology  in its
broadest sense includes culture  as datum for archeology
and  ethnology, does not  imply that  physical anthro-
pology, or anthropometry,  is  anything more  than  ad-
                         H5 
u6
Socio-Anthropometry
vanced human anatomy or biology, a truth which makes
impossible the plausibility of  inserting biologic consid-
eration into  the purely psychologic domain of idea com-
plexes, habits, emotions and  beliefs.
  The bases of  one and  the other of the two  sciences
are antagonistic.   In one case the basis is physical, in
the other, psycho-physical  and spiritual;  in one case the
unit is man, in the other the socius or man related to
man,  consequently, given differing units and differing
bases  in  how far  is it legitimate to  conclude that the
facts  of  one department reenforce  and  supplement
the facts of the  other?  Anthropology aims  (a)  to
study man as a zoological specimen,  (b) to study him
in all time,  and in all parts  of the globe, (c)  it seeks
to break mankind up  into  component  parts  and  to
group these  parts together again according to genetic or
relational elements,  and  (d)  it  has  to  do with racial
grouping only in so far as this grouping occurs within
the limits set by  similarity of original  elements.   In-
clusive  of  ethnonolgy  and  archaelogy,  anthropology
has to consider  culture only  in  so far  as it assists in
determining  the essential  grouping of mankind.  It is
thus brought into relationship with  sociology through
the province of  culture, but sociology in  its elemental
definition is  nothing  more than  the  science of human
association.   It aims  (a)  to  study man  in all his rela-
tionships to  other men and  his  manifestations  in  the
material  world,  (b)  to find  regular laws  of cause and
effect, and  (c) to determine  how man  will act under
certain  conditions  according to  scientific law,—aims
which have  in effect no  coincidence  with the aims of
specialized anthropology.   Anthopometry, which seeks
to measure  man,  to standardize  the  measurements for
the purpose  of  formulating  controlling  laws through
the medium of  comparison,  has no  direct  correspon-
dence with the postulates  of sociology, that is, the study 
            Socio-Anthropometric Critique        117

of the  socius in all  its manifestations  for  the purpose
of  formulating  laws  directed  towards benefiting  so-
ciety.
   Such stipulations postulate the problems of the two
sciences, if  sciences they may both be called when it is
"futile  to talk about a science" for  "when  we come to
organic life we  have incalculable factors.  These fac-
tors are more complex when we pass  from animal  to
man and  from  the individual  to  society."  Sociology's
problem is  summed up in its aim, the  good of society;
or stated fully,—man has various expressions of his na-
ture,  sociology  studies him  in all  his manifestations,
classifies his activities and seeks a reconciliation of these
various activities to  a common or telic law, which is
the good  of society.    Anthropometry's problem is  the
study of man's differing bodily dimensions with a view
to determining  the causes of differences.  The end  of
one science  is moral,  of the other,  material.  Sociology's
task is presented in the question, do men, considered in
all  their varying manifestations,  exert  themselves  for
the good  of  society, in  other words,  is  the  telic law
functioning?  Anthropometry's task is the mere  pre-
sentation  of physical differences noted  among individ-
uals or  groups of individuals.  The  unification of these
two tasks would be the working hypothesis  of socio-an-
thropometry.   Stated,   it infers  that  man  embodying
certain  social manifestations and marked  by  certain
physical characteristics is destined perhaps to work out
the telic law.
  At any   rate   the  assumption  is  made that  certain
mental  traits  are always attached to the same physical
ones.   English,  Russian or  Italian  physical traits, for
instance, should  go hand in  hand with English, Rus-
sian  or Italian  mental  traits.   The  investigation of
Teutonic, Alpine and Mediterranean types brought out
the fact that  there exists no  direct anthropologic rela- 
u8
Socio-Anthropometry
tion between Teutons, and Alpine and Mediterraneans.
Furthermore, there exists little sociological relation be-
tween the Teutons and the Alpine-Mediterraneans, for
the Teutons are by disposition domineering and crea-
tive, the Alpine-Mediterraneans instigative;  in charac-
ter the Teutons  are  austere  and  rationally conscien-
tious, the Alpine-Mediterraneans convivial;  in type of
mind  the former are critically-intellectual and the lat-
ter dogmatic-emotional;  finally, judged by  the cate-
gories of sociality, the Teutons belong to the  category
sociality, while the Alpine-Mediterraneans  belong  to
the categories  of  intellectuality  and morality.    The
Teutons are characterized by  a form of statehood that
recognizes  the rights of the people  to a greater extent
than popular rights are recognized in the Alpine-Medi-
terranean countries, although  France  and Italy are in
this respect more  like the Teutonic type than  is Rus-
sia.  In the matter of creed  the Teutons are Protes-
tant, and the Alpine-Mediterraneans  are Catholic: in
commerce and industry Teutonic England has  achieved
more  than  all  the other Alpine-Mediterranean  coun-
tries together,  while  in  art  the latter far outstrip the
former.  Judging as a whole it  may be said  that the
inference that there  exists  no direct relationship be-
tween  these  types is  amply  substantiated by sociologic
as well as anthropometric analysis.   In  other  words a
positive  direction  is given to  the socio-anthropometric
case of  parallelism.
   On  the other hand, judging by  inter-racial  indica-
tion a  negative answer  is given  to the query  of par-
allelism, for although  England  and Scandinavia both
belong  to the Teutonic  group they  differ in being un-
like dispositionally, in character, and  in type  of mind
and sociality.  Nevertheless, since state and church are
consistently  constitutional and Protestant in  the two
countries, the conclusion for sociological unlikeness be- 
Socio-Anthropometric Critique        119
 tween  these two  homogeneously Teutonic  countries
 cannot be too sweepingly  made.
   Socio-anthropometrically,  Scandinavia  is  diametric-
 ally opposed to France,  Russia  and Italy, for although
 the  type of mind is dogmatic-emotional  in  the  north
 as well  as in central and southern Europe, the disposi-
 tional and  character traits which make up  these types
 of mind differ.   Categorically  Scandinavia belongs to
 the  morality type,  France and Russia  to the type of
 intellectuality.  The church in Scandinavia  is Protes-
 tant, in France, Russia, and  Italy Catholic, while art
 achievements in France  and Italy are unparalleled in
 the north.
   Anthropometrically England  is like France and Rus-
 sia in having  types similar in  colour of hair,  and is
 also akin to Italy in possessing dolichocephaly, but so-
 ciologically England  is opposed to France, Russia and
 Italy.   The creative disposition of  the  English is off-
 set by the  instigative disposition  of  the  French, Rus-
 sian, and Italians, the rationally conscientious character
 of the  former  is offset  by the convivial  character  of
 the latter, the critically-intellectual mind, by  the dog-
 matic-emotional, and the category of sociality, by  the
 joint category  of intellectuality-morality.  In the way
 of sociological  achievements England's  unique contri-
 bution has been the state, Italy and Russia, the church;
 the English exhibit  marked commercial powers and  the
 French and Italians  marked artistic ability.
  This  case of sociological opposition is  offset,  how-
 ever,  by the agreement of  anthropologic and  sociologic
 facts between France and  Russia and Italy.   Alike  as
 in possessing medium stature  and  medium  coloured
 hair  so  in  instigative disposition, convivial character,
 Catholic creed  and  artistic achievements,  the Franco-
 Russians and Italians only differ pertinently in their
form  of  governments. 
120
Socio-Anthropometry
   Thus it would seem that there is to be found a cer-
 tain  amount  of anthropometric and  sociologic paral-
 lelism,  which  might support the  claim that  sociologic
 type in being coincident with anthropometric type, can be
 classified synonymously.  On the other hand it is chiefly
 to be concluded from the following reasons that the case
 of  parallelism  is  unquestionably assailed, firstly,  be-
 cause  although there are  three distinct  anthropologic
 types, Teutonic, Alpine and  Mediterraneans, there  are
 but two distinct sociologic types since Alpine and Med-
 iterranean types are  not  sharply  differentiated  from
 one  another  sociologically, secondly that although the
 English and the Scandinavians are one  type  they are
 nevertheless unlike, while the French and the  Russians
 which  are also one  type are quite alike, or  in other
 words  Teutonic  type is  relatively  anthropologically
 homogeneous,  sociologically it  is heterogeneous, while
 the  Alpine type is both  anthropologically and socio-
 logically homogeneous,—conclusions which refute con-
 sistent  parallelism.   Since neither  racial nor  national
 sociologic  type holds  consistently to  anthropometric
 classifications, the assumption is made that socio-anthro-
 pometry in postulating certain  mental  traits combined
 sine  qua non with  physical traits  reduces to an absur-
 dity.
  As futile to  argue, for instance, that  because Eng-
 lish  hair  is darker than  Scandinavian,  English com-
 merce outruns  Scandinavians, as to define Russian gov-
 ernmental  methods in her Mongolic strains.   Socio-
 logical  considerations  have no basis in  anthropometric
 fact.  Sociology is based as much upon history,  econom-
 ics  and philosophy as  upon biology,  ethnology and
 archeology, and  the  very question  of the distribution
 of peoples  is  for sociology more a matter of  economic
supply and demand than  a scattering in obedience to
racial  commands.  Archeology, anthropology,  ethnol- 
Socio-Anthropometric Critique        121
ogy, philology,  history,  psychology and  geography are
all  indirectly related  to sociology, but  since it  is the
task of archeology merely to delineate prehistoric man,
of ethnology  to present the customs, laws and  habits
of racial individuals, of philology to investigate  man's
speech, of history to follow  the course of man's actions
in chronological sequence, of  psychology to  define the
properties of  man's mind, of  geography his habitat, so
is it the task  of sociology to restrict itself to the delin-
eation of man's social actions.  That Neanderthal men
were remote anthropologic men and not essentially res-
idents of Gaul or Britain, that ploughmen were Aryans
and not essentially founders of the house of William
the Conqueror, that hordes  were examples of early so-
cial  formation and not conglomerates of long or broad
headed individuals requires  that facts shall be  faced in
view of the science involved;  anthropologic  facts shall
be  studied  in  anthropologic  connection, ethnological
facts in ethnological connection,  and sociological facts
in sociological connection.   Because long burrows, dol-
ichocephalic skulls and  flint instruments are  discovered
in the same locality it  does not unquestionably follow
that ethnological  laws are  binding upon anthropologic
fact.   Considerations of wars  and invasions,  Huns and
Gauls belong to  the  domain of  history; the culture
of ancient Rome to the history  of civilization;  early
trade  in Scandinavia  and   the origin of the  state in
Russia are  economic  and  sociologic facts.   The  for-
mation of nations such as England, France, Russia and
Italy are phenomena  of historic,  economic and  socio-
logic import, but  although in defining national  type,
geography, politics, psychology, etc., enters  in, no true
sociologic definition of nations purely according  to an-
thropometric  data can logically obtain.
  Sociologic  type  is subject to  laws inoperative  upon
anthropology.   The physical type, in fact, changes less 
122
Socio-Anthropometry
frequently and less suddenly than the psycho-physical;
furthermore,  the  physical type  may  persist while  the
type of culture may take on  a wholly  different com-
plexion, as  for instance, the Mediterranean men were
physically the same under Roman as under Italian civ-
ilization.   Sociologic  institutions may  change  regard-
less of physical  type, for example, England before  the
Reformation was doubtless just as tall,  dolichocephalic,
and  fair as at the  present day.  Viewed from  the  an-
thropologic point  of view, a  fair,  brachycephalic and
mediumly  tall type does not  necessarily  imply a Fin-
nish Russian culture,  for it  might just as easily fit an
Italian Tuscan;  as well say  a social fabric supported
by  a short, dark,  dolichocephalic  type  is  Welsh as
Italian.  Sociology is  the study of civilization and  the
criteria to be applied to civilization  carry very  little
significance for  physical traits.  Taking  the dominant
sociological institution,  the  state,  no set rule  can in
any  manner govern both  the  brand  of the state and
its constituents.   An absolute  monarchy  may apply to
the Russians, to  the  pre-Revolution  French and  the
early English; democracy characterizes old Rome and
modern France.   In those states which  have had  an
experience  of mixed government a mixed physical type
is not ipso facto the rule.  Although France with her
history of various forms of statehood  does have a pop-
ulation  that is varied  in type, Russia with  her varie-
gated types has long maintained an unchanging  form
of government.
  The attempt to adapt the findings of anthropometry
to the solution  of sociologic  problems  is,  finally,  in-
exact and   unscientific.   Inexactness  and  unscientific
candor are evident in  the lack of a control.  General
physical measurements can never  in  any exact  sense
be correlated  with general sociologic facts, much less
so in the treatment of  national units.  Although a peo- 
            Socio-Anthropometric Critique        123

pie may be  described as broad of head, short of stature,
dark of colouring, and be called Icelandic, there is  no
possibility  of ever scientifically recording the  correla-
tion between broad head,  short stature,  dark clouring
and Icelandic.   No separation of the two components
of  comparison, for instance,  is ever  possible,  for  the
physical traits cannot be  divorced  from the national
conception  Icelandic.    Therefore the  futility  of cor-
relating the  national  physical and  national  psycho-
physical.  Anthropologic  type  is independent of socio-
logic type. 
CHAPTER IX
        CRITICAL-HISTORICAL  POINT  OF VIEW

            THE  Sociological  Point  of  View.    The
            working  hypotheis  of anthropo-sociology
            in  requiring a  telic law which  is  to be
            executed by men marked  in a characteristic
            physical manner  implies  one of  three  re-
lational conceptions between mind and  matter.   One
argument,  that of parallelism  for instance, is  undoubt-
edly contained in the  premise, and yet in spite of  the
contradiction which lies in the conscious unfolding of
institutional life versus the unconscious development of
biological life,  the  biologic law  of  evolution is unhesi-
tatingly  argued  for by sociologists.   Vacher de  La-
pogue, for instance, in  committing  himself to the view
that sociologic type invariably accompanies  physiolog-
ical type apodeitically  argues  for  the concomitance of
social and  physical  law.  In his UAryen, son Role So-
cial1 he elaborates a brilliant scheme  of parallelism  be-
tween   dolichocephaly,  blondness,   and  moral   su-
periority.    The   blond   dolichocephal   is   an   ex-
ploiter, an adventurer, an inventer, and a wielder
of ideas.   "II  predomine  dans les arts,  l'industrie, le
commerce,  les  sciences et  les  lettres."2  Furthermore,
the blond  dolichocephal is  member of a superior race.
His race has subjugated the brachycephals.   It has con-
signed the  latter to  the  mountains  and  ill-favoured
places, while it occupies the cities and centers of pop-
ulation.  Vacher de  Lapouge in  thus presupposing a
superior  race  gives place  to  the perfect working out

  Vacher de Lapouge, G. L'Aryen, son  Role Social. Paris,
1899.
  2Ibid., p. 399
                         124 
          CriticaUHistorical Point of View       125

of the law  of  evolution.  This is Spencerian thinking
which conceives of life as "a correspondence of internal
to external  changes;  that  mental evolution is the ex-
tension of adjustment in  space and  time;  that social
evolution is progress."3  In other words,  Spencer in
insisting upon  full  scope  for the evolutionary  process
reduces all  type to  the state of paying obedience to a
uniform law.   Physical and  psycho-physical  are  but
aspects of a whole  which  according to Spencer is an
organism.   But  society as  an organism expressed, for
instance,  in the writings of  Schaeffle, Lilienfeld  and
Worms, has long ago received the full brunt of adverse
criticism.  Attacked on the score of defective analogy
because of the lack  of proximity of parts in society as
in an  organism,  the absence of  a central function, the
possibility of separate social life apart from the whole,
and  finally,  self-determinism contrasted with the lack
of freedom  of  the  one and  the  other, society comes to
its own  in  defining itself as super-organism.  That in
so doing  it  thus avoids the casual connection between
psycho-physical  and physical  events,  is a  fact which
contributes  somewhat of  a defeat  to psycho-physical
correlation.
  Now while  Giddings does  not acknowledge the or-
ganic  view  of society, he  does  admit a common  law
which governs all  adaptation.    Throughout the gra-
dations physical and mental through which  the race of
man  progresses there is "genetic  order  of  evolutional
change" and "the balanced  order of correlation."  "The
presumption which  biology establishes that the reign
of natural law extends to every realm of the world of
life is confirmed by the sciences  of social phenomena."4

  3Giddings,  F. H.  Sociology.  Columbia University Press,
New  York,  1008, p.  28.             .    .     .
  4Giddings,  F. H.  Sociology.  Columbia University Press,
New York, 1908, p. 11. 
126
Socio-Anthropometry
But although maintaining the existence of uniform gen-
eral law,  Giddings  recognizes the  cleavage  existent
between  biologic  and sociologic phenomena.    Evolu-
tionary demands may be satisfied by  biologic examples
of  adaptation of  organism  to  habitat, but  there is  a
question  whether  this holds good  of  society's position.
"Finally," says  Giddings,5 "There  is a profound ques-
tion of interpretation,  the ultimate question  of causa-
tion.   From the political sciences we have derived con-
ceptions  of teleological  causation.  .   .   .   From bi-
ology we have derived the conception of an  ecological
explanation.   Life proceeds through an  adaptation  of
organism  to  environment.  ...   Is  social  evolu-
tion, in like manner,  an ecological  adaptation?  Grant-
ing that it is,  is  it also an idealistic striving?   How
far, then may our interpretation of social relations le-
gitimately  be idealistic, how far must it be ecological?"
  Ward  makes direct  application of biology  to so-
ciology.  As the lower organism seeks pleasure, effort,
satisfaction  so  man  seeks  these   three  expressions
which  in  reality  control  all life.  While in biology,
heredity,  variation and  development effect  the sum-
mary  of  biologic totality,  in  society  conservatism,
change  and progress work  out corresponding  courses.
"Progress  in society,"  says  Ward,6 "like development
in the  organic world, is in the  main an advance in the
direction  of  perfecting  the  types  of  structure."   But
although Ward is a  biologic sociologist, in some  meas-
ure a physic-ethnologist, as for  instance when  he quotes
Taylor7  as substantiating  ethnographic parallels by the
occurrence of the  same or similar customs and practices

  BIbid., p.  13.
  "Ward, L. F.   Static and Dynamic Sociology.  Political
Science Quarterly, vol. X,  No.  2,  p.  213.
  'Ward, L. F. and Dealey, J.  Q.   A Text Book  of Sociol-
ogy. New  York, 1909, p. 27. 
Critical-Historical  Point of View      127
in peoples of nearly the same  culture at widely  sepa-
rated regions of the globe, which shows  that there is a
uniform law  in the psychic and social development of
mankind, he does not carry psycho-physical parallelism
to the extent  that it is carried by Ammon and Closson.
  To  the sociologists  of the  methodic turn, Comte,
Quetelet, etc., there is little significance attached to dis-
tinctions  of  anthropometric  sociologic  order:  socio-
logists of political cast of mind, Gumplowicz and Chan-
ning, trouble themselves  very little  with such an is-
sue: it remains with the biological  school,  Ross and
Ratzenhofer,  for  example, to  raise  questions of  supe-
rior races  and racial distribution.  Nowhere,  however,
is there  so distinct a demarcation  of physical anthro-
pometric  type along the lines of sociologic form  as in
Vacher de  Lapouge's  treatment of  the hypothesis of
anthropo-sociology.8  Laws  of  head  index   in  cities,
laws  of emigration  types, of  racial  stratification and
racial  development are formulated,  which record  di-
rect correspondence between anthropometric and socio-
logic phenomena.   The  tendency to classify sociological
data  according  to the postulates of  anthropologists  is
thus evident  not  only  among sociologists but  among
anthropologists as well.
   The  Anthropological Point  of  View.   Among the
anthropologists the penchant to regard  sociology as a
mere appendage to anthropology is set forth  in Topin-
ard's definition of anthropology—in its  broad  sense
it comprises  everything  that relates to man,  and  is di-
vided into anthropology in  its restricted sense, or an-
thropology proper, and into ethical anthropology.9  The
first studying man as an animal and the second as men
associated  together sociologically,  represents  the  com-

  "Vacher de Lapouge, G.  L'Aryen, son Role Social. Paris,

  Topinard, P.  Anthropology.   London, 1878,  pp. 1-25, 
128
Socio-A nthropometry
 prehensive  position of  the older anthropologists,  fol-
 lowers of Haeckel for the  most part who identify with
 his  material  universe  the wholesale  study  of man.
 Quatrefages  and  Topinard,  the anthropologists,  and
 Prichard, Tylor and Hovelacque, the ethnologists, take
 man's physical  and  spiritual  life as the  natural out-
 come  of the  undifferentiated  law of evolution.  The
 question whether in so doing  they  recognize  one uni-
 form controlling law rather than parallelism is brought
 out  by a comparison  to the thinking of Deniker, who
 makes a hard and  fast distinction between biologic  and
 social  science.   The  difference is marked  according to
 Deniker10 by the fact that the trend of  evolution  has
 been specialized along different lines.  One science pre-
 sents man as an organism living under nature, the other
 man living  in an artificially created environment,  and
 possessing  free   will.   This  latter  sociologic   science
 (which, of  course, in  the  view of  the anthropologists
 is called ethnology or  ethnography) "should concern
 itself with human societies  under all their aspects;  but
 as history, political economy,  etc., have already taken
 possession of the study  of  civilized  peoples,  there only
 remains  for it the peoples  without  a history or those
 who have not been adequately  treated by historians."10
 The temptation  is for anthropologists  to regard soci-
 ology  one-sidedly,  merely as a  study of  the existence
 and  development of communities, always  restricting its
 scope by the very self  limitations of the  anthropologic
 point of view.   The somatological postulate  is allowed
 to dominate the sociological field.
  Pursuing the  claim that  monism hardly answers  the
 real  query in  the matter of socio-anthropology,  for in
postulating uniform law no  substantiation of parallelism
or causation between spiritual and physical fact  is  ac-
'Deniker, J.  The Races of Man.   London, 1900, p. 9. 
          Critical-Historical Point of View       129

tually advanced,  the question remains open for the  out-
and-out  socio-anthropologists or  anthropo-sociologists
to answer.  From Vacher de Lapouge to Ripley  they
go farther than  agreeing  upon parallelism, when  they
argue plausibilities for causal connection, if not in some
instances  direct  causation.   Lapouge  in  formulating
definite laws of  interaction  between physical  type  and
social manifestation, such  as the concentration of doli-
chocephals as well as individuals  of shortened stature
in cities, the dolichocephaly of upper as opposed to low-
er classes,  is quite thoroughly indorsed by Ripley  who
quotes  anthropometric  data gathered  by Durand de
Gros, Calori, Lombroso, Ricardi and Livi to prove  that
head  index in cities  is more dolichocephalic than in
rural districts, who quotes Ammon's Law for lowered
stature  in  metropolitan localities,  and who states  that
the dolichocephals are mentally and socially superior to
the brachycephals, a fact  which is based upon  the de-
tailed statements of Von Holder, Beddoe, Taylor,  etc.,
to the effect that in France, Germany, Austria and the
British  Isles the upper classes are distinctly  lighter in
tone of hair and  eyes than the peasantry.
   Ammon  in  formulating  the  law  quoted  above by
Ripley,  places  himself  among the foremost of the  fol-
lowers  of  the  anthropo-sociologist thinkers.   Not  only
in stating  that stature  is lower in  cities than  in  sur-
rounding rural  districts does Ammon take  his stand
with  those, Closson,  Hocepied,  Boas, etc.,  who  sup-
port the contentions of the socio-anthropologic school,
but  he  also takes the  position of  believing  the other
tenets  of  that school,  tenets which  are  summarized
thus: that selection rules throughout  the  psycho-phys-
ical  world, that  heredity makes  use  of environment,
that sexual selection works for  the creation  of  psych-
physiological type, that city  dwellers are different from
rural dwellers and that emigrating spirit corresponds 
I3Q
Socio-Anthropometry
to an emigrating physical type.  The climax of socio-
anthropologic thinking that the blond dolichocephalic is
and  always has been  the dominant race,  incidentally
an indirect argument against the evolutionist theory so
tenaciously held by many socio-anthropologists, is  not
agreed to by all. 
CHAPTER X
                     CONCLUSION

              METHOD and Criteria.    The matter
              finally  resolves into  two  aspects.    In
              brief,  do  sociologists recognize parallel
              laws   governing  physical   and  mental
              change,  and  do  they  substantiate  the
working out of these  laws in sociologic fact?  Do  an-
thropologists recognize parallel  laws and  do they sub-
stantiate the working out of these laws in anthropologic
fact?
   Lapouge started with  the hypothesis that the Aryan,
or  in  more general terms,  the blond dolichocephalic
race is the superior race.  This is  the position  of  as-
suming that physical  and mental  facts are coordinate,
and the burden of proof lies in adjusting sociologic con-
ditions to meet  the behavior of  the  blond dolichoce-
phalic  type. In doing this Lapouge uses anthropometric
data collected by others than  himself,  and  his pro-
cedure is  to interpret a priori this material in the light
of  general sociologic fact.    Comparison  rather  than
scientific  exposition of results gives conclusions  which
Lapouge  shapes in the form of  laws.   These  laws  in-
clude  in  addition  to  the hypothetical subject matter
(the blond dolichocephal's  sociologic  standing)   other
contributory  and  subordinate  matters  which  in  the
course  of the  treatment of  the  blond  dolichocephals
have come up for discussion.   The interpretation of all
the results is invariably made on the assumption of an
a  priori  theory  which  in  its very  essence  is  con-
trovertible.
   Ripley's  hypothesis  is  that  natural  conditions  make
                         131 
132             Socio-Anthropometry
sociologic men.  He proceeds to analyse the anthropo-
metric findings  of  other  investigators  on the supposi-
tion that physical  topography,  climate, etc., not  only
produce  anthropologic but  sociologic types.   His  con-
clusions are based on anthropometric, topographic and
historic data,  arrived  at  by  a  priori as well  as  pos-
teriori reasoning.   His  point  of departure is anthropo-
metric, his deductions, on the other hand, sociologic.
  Ammon and  Boas  in  drawing  up  socio-anthropo-
metric conclusions reason a posteriori.   In each case the
interpretation of anthropometric fact is  framed in socio-
logic  explanation arrived  at by analogy, a picturesque
but unscientific  procedure.  Science reasons  from  facts
as causes to  facts  as effects, and logical causation is
the  only dependable scientific procedure.  Likeness in
cause and effect is essential:  phenomena must  be  akin
in matter or in form.  Given related phenomena, upon
likenesses or unlikenesses may rest the characteriza-
tion of the components  of comparison.
  Not only does  socio-anthropometry  suffer from di-
vision of aim, not only are  there grounds to doubt the
very basis  of  socio-anthropometry as  a science, but  a
modus operandi itself is  lacking.    No  anthropo-socio-
logic  method  has  so  far been developed;   anthropo-
metric methods  are inadequate,  and sociologic methods
are  unequal for coping with  anthropometric problems.
Before such a science can be established anthropometric
methods  must be extended  to admit of wider  applica-
tion, and sociologic methods must  be narrowed to more
definitely scientific  ends.
  Of primary  necessity to the working out of socio-
anthropometric problems  would be  the  requirement of
international  agreement  upon  matters of  formulae,
instrumentarium, modes of  procedure,  methods  for de-
tecting error and checking  and verifying results.
  Also of prime importance to an establishment of the 
Conclusion
133
subject of socio-anthropology  is the need for extended
original  research.  Conclusions based upon  data  gath-
ered, for instance, by  Collignon for France and Livi
for Italy are all very well for French and Italian con-
ditions but  in order to make valid universal  (sociologic
or anthropometric)  laws investigations  of international
scope should be entered upon.   Uniformity of units in
regard to age, sex, social conditions, etc., etc., are requi-
site sine qua non in such study, for far reaching  ques-
tions of the influence of various factors upon skulls,
their variability according to age, sex, artificial manipu-
lation, as well as the sexual ratio in stature, colouring,
etc., are far from being settled.  It is necessary to find
out more clearly what  causes the formation of the head
and to control external factors.  "Encore serait-il neces-
saire si  Ton voulait mettre en cause la  forme du crane
ou la race  indique  par 1  'indice cephalique,  de voir si
les conditions exterieures  independantes  de la race  et du
crane  ne sont  pas venues  compliquer la  question."1
Stature  in  itself  presents more than ordinary difficul-
ties.   Taking a small  group,  for instance, 200 Italian
peasants in  Lombardy,  among  the two hundred, 50 may
because of illness  have been slightly retarded in growth,
25 may be feminine, 25 dwellers in the  valleys, 50 may
because of  lacking  a  few years of mature  growth  be
under par,  and furthermore 50 may  be but  recent ad-
ditions  to  the  population  of  the place in  question.
Comparing  them  to a  place in Cornwall, for instance,
is it  possible to get  just such a combination of varying
units, 50 sickly,  25  feminine,  25 valley dwellers,  50
under age limit, and 50 new-comers?
  Furthermore, sociologic concepts being general and
speculative  in nature are  difficult of  analysis as objec-
  'Manouvrier, L.  L'Indice cephalique et la  Pseudo-Soci-
ologie.  Revue I 'Ecole d'Anthrop,  IX, p. 259. 
134             Socio-Anthropometry
 tive fact.   Matters which concern the "soul of a peo-
 ple," or the sociologic significance of  Protestantism and
 Catholicism are  too comprehensive and too complex in
 nature to qualify  for exact  objective analysis.  Socio-
 anthropometric  studies  are  forced  to depend,  at the
 best, upon  generalization not only in sociology but in
 anthropometry as  well.   The analysis of the popula-
 tion of a nation is when considered as a whole glaringly
 generalized.  Russia, for instance, has very dark haired
 and very light haired  districts, but  taken as a whole
 the  designation  medium  coloured of necessity  has to
 cover the whole range of national variation.  The socio-
 logical analysis  of a people is,  furthermore, exceed-
 ingly general, and  what is of greater significance, there
 has  been no sociological  modus  operandi  developed for
 determining just what  is  the sociological  nature  of  a
 people.   Its psychological character has indeed  been
 standardized by  Giddings into categories of kind,  but
 aggressive,  instigative,  domineering  and  creative  dis-
 position, and forceful, convivial, austere and rationally
 conscientious character  are inadequate as criteria for
 the  "soul of a people."   Aggressive and domineering
 are to  an extent  mutually inclusive, and the contempla-
 tive attitude is neglected  in  this classification of types
 of disposition.  The older version of antiquity, that is,
 bilious, sanguine and lymphatic  temperaments is  still
 more inadequate.  Racial  psychology is  in arrears  in
 the matter of exact classification, and yet even suppos-
 ing the contrary, Manouvrier in placing  himself open
 to conviction, says  that after  all the matter of identify-
 ing certain  psychologic  traits in  a group of people is
distinctly hazardous.  Speaking of dolichocephaly and
brachycephaly he adds, "II faudrait des statistiques tres
etendues pour savoir si chacun de des deux  types fournit
un  nombre  relativement superior d'individus  possedant 
Conclusion
135
telle ou telle qualite."2
   Problems.  But regardless of defects in investigations
already at hand,  regardless then of the lack of a truly
scientific  modus operandi for handling  anthropometric
sociologic  investigations, problems nevertheless present
themselves for  treatment in spite  of the fact that the
whole field of  socio-anthropometry can unquestionably
be  assailed.   Furthermore,  that these problems origin-
ate in the doubtful  ground of  socio-anthropology  does
not for a moment preclude the possibility of attempted
solution.   Prerequisite to the  treatment of  sociology in
reference to physical type is a  determination of the part
to  be  played by national units.   Do  nationalities  in
themselves  affect  socio-anthropologic   considerations?
The problem as such has not  come up  for  direct treat-
ment by anthro-sociologists.  Boas  in laying stress upon
the locality theory, that is, all Europe divided by  type
instead of country3  means  to discountenace  the value
of  national units, but  if any  sort of absolute standard
or  test mark  of sociologic phenomena is to  be required
it seems  impossible  to do  without  national  units  as
expressive of  the  working out of sociologic laws.   For
instance,  the  problem of physical and  social heredity
demands  such a background.   On the  other  hand, na-
tionalities present obstacles in the unlike physical  units
which  are often to be found in a national population, as
for instance in  Russia.  Consideration of national  type
is,  finally, essential to the treatment of such socio-an-
thropologic problems as city life, emigrating type, etc.
   However,   the  question  of  primary  or  furthermore
of superior races  does  not necessarily demand solution
from  socio-anthropometry.  There is too much  doubt

  2Manouvrier, L.  L'Indice  cephalique et la Pseudo-Soci-
ologie.   Revue I'Ecole d'Anthrop.,  IX, p.  258.
  3Boas, F. The Race-War Myth.  Everybody's Magazine,
vol. XXXI, No.  5, P- 672. 
136
Socio-Anthropometry
about the original race to  make hard and fast  state-
ments possible.  The socio-anthropologic question gains
nothing thereby.   Not only has it been maintained and
successfully  disputed that the  big, blond  Aryans have
been the  original stock, but  it has  also  been main-
tained  that  short, dark dolichocephals4 have  held  the
honour of being mankind's progenitor.  But says  Boas5
in regard  to the blond  Aryan  myth,  "No one has ever
proved either that all the Aryans of the earliest  times
were blonds,  or that people speaking  other  languages
may not have been  blond, too;  and nobody would  be
able to  show that the  great achievements  of  mankind
were due to the blond  thinkers."   Gumplowicz6 says
national chauvinism might  be  read into  the claim for
racial superiority.  Although there are  those who  main-
tain that  stocks are unchanging, that  for  instance  the
population in Denmark is  the same to-day  as it was
in the  neolithic age7 nevertheless for the  consideration
of  practical  socio-anthropometric problems  no  final
statement about primary  races is required.   The  a
posteriori order is more practical than the a  priori in
this case.
   Of primary  importance  to  socio-anthropologists  is
the consideration of city versus rural  type, a problem
which  although carefully studied by  Ammon, Collig-
non, and  Livi deserves more than usual  scientific cau-
tion and  acumen.   To  substantiate  the  law  of  urban
dolichocephaly not only must  nationalism  be  reckoned
with but  there must be also careful unification of ma-
terial,  uniformity of method  and procedure.   In  se-
  4Sergi, G.  The  Mediterranean Race.  New York,  1909.
  BBoas, F.  The Race-War Myth.  Everybody's Magazine,
vol. XXXI, No. 5, P- 671.
  "Gumplowicz, L.  Politische Anthropologic Die Zukunft,
vol. 45, pp. 174-183.
  ^Meddelelser om Danmark's Antropologi, Bind I, p. 163. 
Conclusion
137
letting material  the factor of heredity should be taken
into account, and rural inhabitants  of three or more
generations should  be compared  to  urban  inhabitants
native for the same length  of  time.   When number,
sex, and age are  carefully controlled, interpretation of
final  results must be guarded in respect  to determin-
ing active  rather  than potential  causes of stature devia-
tion.  This is where a  great stumbling block to socio-
anthropology is  met.   The  decision  as to what  is the
sociologic  cause  for differences—if difference is  found
to exist—is wrapped in  the obscurity of multiform soc-
iological matters. Furthermore, aside  from  sociological
ambiguity  there  may be  explanation on  socio-anthro-
pometric  grounds in  reference  to city  head-type, that
is,  dolichocephalic emigrating type may be finally the
explanation  of   dolichocephalic  urban  type.    Urban
stature  offers a variety  of problematic points.  In tak-
ing stature in cities,  factors  of race,  age, sex, wellbe-
ing, training, etc., must  be  controlled.   Furthermore,
distribution must be widely extended  in order to avoid
error from averaging;  likeness of units  that  is,  class
and social  conditions, must be regulated before conclu-
sions can be sought.  The fact that a variety of artificial
factors  as  occupation  and habits affect stature requires
a careful elimination  of arbitrary factors.
   When   the problem  of upper class dolichocephaly
versus lower class brachycephaly presents  itself, stricter
care than  ever must be  given to probable  error because
of  the artificiality of  factors.   Not only  is it  difficult
to substantiate the claim that dolichocephaly and blond-
ness  characterize upper classes,  it is  even  difficult to
localize upper classes  exclusively; war and  democracy,
restlessness and  ambition constantly  change the  boun-
daries of class.   Never can  it be asserted that brachy-
cephaly changes  directly  into dolichocephaly with the
social change. Furthermore, brachycephalic nations have 
138             Socio-Anthropometry

their upper classes, and that these should be other than
brachycephalic is utterly  unsuppositional.    Although
with Beddoe one can say that a study of navy men
leads to the  conclusion that class affects  head index,
with Livi  it  can be  shown  that in  southern Italy the
professional classes are brachycephalic while in northern
Italy they  are  dolichocephalic.   As evidence  ne plus
ultra, who would expect  the dolichocephalic negro to
mark the apex of civilization?
   The  problem  of emigrating peoples offers the most
speculation of all anthropo-sociologic  matters.   It  has
been asserted  that dolichocephaly characterizes emigrat-
ing  peoples,8  and it  is asserted that  not only  do  the
more mutable characteristics of stature and  colouring
but  head index changes under the influence of  altered
environment.9  In stating  that head  index changes, the
socio-anthropologists go too far is challenged by Sergi10
and  Radosavljevich.11  They denounce  the claim that
environment may produce a totally altered type.  The
claim is virtually an attack on the physical-social theory
of  heredity.   Mendelism, hybridization,  and  similar
biologic  considerations affect physical type,  and it is
not plain or mountain, severe or  moist  climate which
affect dolichocephaly or brachycephaly.   Is it the habits
and  the  customs of peoples which act upon  the mus-
cles of the  head and so transform the cranial structure,
  "Vacher de Lapouge, G. L'Aryen, son Role Social. Paris,
1899-
  "Boas, F.  Changes in Bodily Form of Descendants  of
Immigrants.   The Immigration Commission.  Washington,
1910.
  10Sergi, G.  Variozone e Eredita Nell 'Uomo.  Problems
in Eugenics, vol. I., 1912.
  "Radosavl  jevich, P. R. Professor Boas' New Theory of
the Form of  the Head.  American Anthropologist  (N  S )
Vol. XIII, No. 3.                                  ' 
Conclusion
139
asks Sergi.  Nothing of that sort happens in fact.  So-
cial heredity implies transmitted historical and cultural
environment.
  Even  in  America, an example  of immigrating peo-
ples which  shows phenomena of transplanted stocks,
neither the  first nor the second  position of the socio-
anthropologists  is substantiated.   Brachycephals as well
as  dolichocephals are  emigrating peoples:  emigrating
physical  stock  has created  biologic phenomena, but no
parallelism  with sociologic phenomena  has  so  far been
substantiated.   That  there may  be a  connection, but
that that connection is not yet proven is suggested by
Manouvrier,12 the arch critic of pseudo-sociology, when
in  discussing the plausibilities for  biologic  interpreta-
tion of sociology  he says, "II faut cependant  se garder
de  croire que de biologie soit capable de fournir imme-
diament 1 'explication  des phenomenes sociaux."   That
social  and  physical heredity are  virtually  distinct  en-
tities is  the conservative belief.
  Conclusively it may  be stated that there is not enough
evidence to  be  marshalled into dogmatic socio-anthro-
pometric laws.    The  tendency is  to make brief and
sweeping conclusions  on  insufficient  evidence.   An-
thropology  has to do with longer epochs than sociology'.
The demand for society's consideration is  the present
and the near future;  society is pragmatic  and is con-
cerned with  action  under certain  specific  conditions.
The demand made upon anthropology  is never press-
ingly  immediate.  Pure anthropology  has  to  do with
centuries where sociology has decades to handle. Changes
in  anthropologic  type  are  so long delayed  and  so  ex-
tended in  space that  under  no consideration  can they
be  made use of to support explanations for the occur-
  "Manouvrier, L.   L'Indice cephalique et la Pseudo-Soci-
ologie. Revue 'l'Ecole d'Anthrop.  IX., p. 235. 
140
Socio-Anthropometry
rence of  political or  economic  events.   Hansen13  in
speaking of politics and racial types says, "One must be
careful   .  .  .  not to combine directly or indirectly
the physical idea of  race with the historic-political as-
pects." Very little is gained, for but a small part of the
domain  of sociology is touched by anthropology. Where
sociology  is philosophical, anthropology  or  anthropo-
metry is mathematical, where sociology  is synthetical,
anthropometry is analytical.
  Summary.   That future anthropometry, in the words
of Hrdlicka,14 should be concerned with  firstly, studies
of the complex range of the variations of normal white
man living under average conditions, secondly, studies
of the structure and organic qualities of  man regarded
in relation to  time, thirdly, studies of the human races
and  their  mixing and  subdivisions, fourthly, of  en-
vironmental groups of humanity subject to extremes of
temperature, etc., and lastly studies in combination with
other branches of accumulated knowledge to show the
future  evolution of  man and  to lay down  indications
for humanity's possible regulation and improvement, in-
dicates  that upon the  points  of  racial  mixing and en-
vironmental grouping,  sociologic studies  may possibly
cooperate with  anthropometric.  But  that  the  most
directly implied connection is detected in  the final stage
of  progress  means  that socio-anthropometric transi-
tion is virtually placed  in the Utopian sphere of human
improvement,  in other  words, taking the entire sweep
of anthropologic development  and the  entire sweep of
sociologic progress, and rasing the question as to wheth-
er there is a logical validity in using the postulates of

  "Hansen, S.   Om Hovedets  Breddeindeks hos Danske.
(The Breadth-Index of the Head in Danes).  Meddelelser
om Danmarks Antropologi, Bind I., p.  240.
  "Hrdlicka, A.  Physical Anthropology and its Aims. The
Anatomical Record, vol. 2, No. 5, pp. 193-195. 
Conclusion
141
one science  for postulates of  the other,  it can be stated
that judged by racial (national)  differences, the claim
of sociology to classify its data according to the postu-
lates  of physical  anthropometry has been  seen to be
doubtful.   Classified sociologically  and  anthropomet-
rically  the  findings  from racial  investigations do not
justify the claim that physical and psycho-physical facts
are controlled by  one and the same law, nor that there
is consistent parallelism, nor that there is a causal re-
lation between the  two.  Finally, judged on  the basis
of aim and content, there is absolute separateness and
antithesis between the two branches of knowledge; and
judged as a practical science,  socio-anthropometry re-
veals a lack of a modus operandi, and analysed as far as
previous  investigations permit, it  betrays  an absence
of  proof of the  fact  that sociological phenomena are
ever directly attributable to anthropometric phenomena. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Ammon, Otto.  Zur Anthropologic Norwegens, Cen-
       tralb. f. Anthropologic, Jahrg, 5, p. 129.
 Abbott, Frank F.   A History and Description of Ro-
       man Political Institutions.  Boston, 1901.
 Arutinov, A.  A.   A Caucasian Tribe.  Material  for
       the Anthropology of the Caucasus.   Tidings of
       the Imp. Society of Natural Sciences and Eth-
       nography in the Imp. Moscow University,  v.
       106.  Works of the Anthropological Division,
       v.  23.
 Anutschin, D.  N.  Ergebnisse  der  Anthropologischen
       Erforschung Russlands.  Globus, v. 8b, p. 249.
 Adams, George B.  The Growth of the  French Na-
       tion.  New York, 1912.
 Atgier, E.  A.   Anthropologic de la  Vienne aux temps
       actuels.  Soc.  d'anthrop. de  Paris.  Bulletins,
       ser. 4, vol.  9, p.  637.
 Alexinsky,  Gregor. Modern Russia.  London, 1913.
 Baring, Maurice.   The Russian People.  London, 1911.
 Broca, P.   Memoires d'antropologie.  Paris, 1871.
 Boas, Franz.   Changes in  Bodily Form  of Descend-
       ants  of  Immigrants.   The Immigration Com-
       mission. Washington,  1910.
     The  Race-War Myth.   Everybody's Magazine,
       vol. XXXI, No. 5,  1914.
 Boas,  Franz and  Helene.   The  Head-Form  of  the
       Italians as Influenced by Heredity and Environ-
       ment.   American  Anthropologist,   vol. XV,
       No. 2.
Binder, Rudolph   M.  Lectures in  Sociology.  New
       York University.  New York, 1914-1915.
                       142 
Bibliography
143
 Beddoe, John.   The Anthropological History of Eu-
        rope.  London,  1912.
     Races  of Britain.  London, 1885.
 Browne,  C. R.   Report of  the  Work  Done  in  the
        Anthropometric Laboratory of Trinity College,
        Dublin,  from  1891 to  1898.   Proceedings  of
        the  Royal Irish Academy,  third  series,  5,  pp.
        272-290.
 Biometrika.  VIII, pp. 13, 40, 340 354.
 British Ass'n.   Anthropometric Investigation in  the
        British  Isles.   Report  of  the British  Ass'n.
        Dublin, 1908, p. 351.
 Bruckner,  Alexander.  Geschichte Russlands bis zum
        Ende des  18.  Jahrhunderts.  Gotha, 1896.
 Bertillon,   Adolphe.  Demographie  Figuree  de   la
        France.   Paris,  1874.
 Closson, Carlos, C.   Review of The Races of Europe.
     Journal of Political  Economy, v.  8, p. 58.
     A Critic of Anthropo-Sociology.  Ibid., p. 397.
 Cummings, J.   Ethnic Factors and the Movement  of
        Population.  Quarterly Journal of Economics,
       v.  14, pp.  171-211.
 Cevastianoff, E. P.  To the Anthropology of the Zer-
       ans.    Russki  Anthropologitschesky  Zhurnal,
       No 1, Moscow,  1912.
 Cooper, J.  Report of the British Ass'n.  for the  Adv.
       of Sci.,  Toronto, 1897, p. 507.
 Collignon, R.  La Taille dans le Department du Gers.
       Revue mems. de I'Ecole d'Anthr.  VII, p. 339.
     L'indice  cephalique  des  populations  francaises.
       L'Anthr.,  I,  pp. 200-24.
     Anthropologic de  la  France:  Dordogne,  Char-
       ente, Creuse,  Correze,  Haute-Vienne  Mems.
       Soc.  d'Anth., seri 3,  I.
Collier, Price.   England  and  the  English.  London,
       1909. 
144
Socio-Anthropometry
Diserud, Juul.  Science of  Anthropology,  Chicago,
       1908.
Donaldson, J. W.   Varronianus:  a critical and histor-
       ical  introduction to the ethnography of ancient
       Italy.  (No place and no  date).
Deniker, J.   The Races of Man.   London, 1900.
     La Taille  en Europe.  La taille  des  populations
       Turco-tartars  et  des  Causasiens.   Soc. d'an-
       throp. de Paris. Bull, et mem. ser. 5, vol. 10, p.
       66.
Duncan, J.  W.   Report of the British Ass'n for the
       Adv. of  Sci.  Toronto, 1897, p. 506.
Ellis, H.  The Comparative Abilities of the  Fair and
       Dark.  Monthly Review, vol. 4, p. 84.
Edmundson,  George.   The Church in Rome  in  the
       First Century.  London, 1903.
Elderton, E. M.   On the Relation of Stature and
       Weight  to Pigmentation.   Biometrika,  VIII,
       P- 340.
Emerson, R. W.  English Traits.  New York,  1899.
Fletcher, Robert.   Paul Broca and the French  School
       of Anthropology.  Washington,  1882.
Ferrero, Guglielmo.   Characters and Events of Roman
       History.   New York, 1909.
Freeman, Edward A.  History of Federal Government
       in Greece and Italy.  London, 1893.
Fouillee, Alfred.  Traits Psychologiques du Caractere
       Italian.  Revue Politique et  Litteraire,  ser.  4,
       tome XVII, No.  5.
     Psychologie du Peuple Russe.   Revue Politique et
       Litteraire.    Revue Bleue, Numero  16,  ser.  4,
       tome, XVIII.
Gumplowicz, L.   Politsche Anthropologic.  Die Zu-
       kunft, v. 45, pp. 174-183.
     Per Rassenkampf.  Innsbruck, 1883. 
Bibliography
H5
Giddings, F. H.   The Principles of Sociology.  New
       York, 1896.
    Readings in Descriptive  and Historical Sociology.
       New York, 1909.
    The American People.   The International Quar-
       terly, vol. VII, No. 2.
    The Psychological Review, vol. VIII, No. 4, pp.
       337-349-
    Sociology. Columbia University Press, New York,
       1908.
Garnier-Mouronval, L.  Recherches anthropometriques
       sur les normands.  L'Anthropologic, XXIV, pp.
       25-49.
Hrdlicka, Ales.  Physical  Anthropology and its Aims.
       The Anatomical Record, v. 2, No. 5, 1908.
Hocepied, Albert.   L'Anthropo-Sociologie.   Annates
       de Sociologie de Societe  Beige, 1900.
Haddon, A.  C.   The Study of Man.   New York,
       1898.
    On the Physical  Characters of the Inhabitants of
       Barley, Herts.   Report of the B. Ass'n. for the
       Adv. of Sci., Toronto, 1897, P- 5°3-
Hamy, E. T.  Materiaux pour servir a  1' anthropologic
       du nord de la France.  L'Anthrop., Paris, 1893-
       1908, v. XL
Herve, Georges.  La Taille en Alsace. Rev. de I' Ecole
       d'Anth. de Paris, vol.  XL
    La Race Basque.   Ibid.,  vol. XI-X, p. 213.
Hansen, Soren. Om Haarets og Ojnenes Farve i Dan-
       mark.   (On the Colour of the  Hair and Eyes
       in Denmark).  Meddelelser om  Danmarks An-
       tropologi, Copenhagen, 1907-1911,  Bind I, pp.
       285-318.
    Om Legemsvaegt og  Legemshojde.   (About the
       Weight and Height  of  the  Body).  Ibid., p.
       203. 
146
Socio-Anthropometry
     Om Hovedets Breddeindeks hos Danske.   (The
       Breadth-Index of the  Head  in Danes).  Ibid.,
       p. 221.
Ivanovski, A. A.   About the Anthropological Forma-
       tion of the Population of Russia.   Tidings of
       the  Imperial  Society of Natural Sciences  and
       Ethnography.  .   .  .   in  the Imp.  Moscow
       University, vol.  105, Works of  the Anthropo-
       logical Division,  v. 22.   Moscow, 1904.
Javakoff, A.   To the Anthropology of the Grusians.
       Russki Antropologitschesky Zhurnal, No. 1  and
       2, Moscow, 1913.
Journal of the A nth. Institute, London, 30-31 n. s.
       3-4, 1900-1.
Kant,  I.   Anthropologic in pragmatischer Hinsicht.
       Frankfurt, 1799.
King, B. and Okey, T.   Italy To-Day.  London 1901.
Knauer,  T.   Der  russiche  National-name  und  die
       indo-germanische  Urheimat.   Indo-germanische
       Forchungen, v. 31, p. 67.
Kurdoff, K. M.  The Tartars of  the  Trans-Cau-
       casus,  Russki   Antropologitschesky   Zhurnal,
       No. 4,  Moscow, 1912.
Letourneau, Charles.  La Sociologic  Paris,  1882.
Lazarovich-Hrebelianovich.   The   Servian   People.
       New York, 1910.
Lefevre,   Andre.  Race  and   Language.   Internal.
       Sci., ser.  72.
Lombroso,  C.   L'uomo  bianco e  l'uomo  di  colore.
       Torino  Annali  di statistica,  serie 2a,  I,  pp.
       111-124.
Livi, R.   L'indice ponderal ou rapport entre la taille
       et le poids.   Archiv  italiennes de  biologie,  vol.
       32,  pp.  229-247.
     Giornale  medico del R. esercito, XLV, pp. 826-
       872. 
Bibliography
H7
    Archivio  per  I'ant., XXVI, pp.  17-26  and 223:
       XIX, p. 390.
    Atti. Soc. romana di antrop.y I, p. 292.
    La Condizione Sociale e lo  Sviluppo Fisoco.  Re-
       vista italiana di soc.  Torino, 1905, Anno 9, pp.
       471-500.
Larsen, C.  F.  Nordlands-befolkingen:  Antropolog-
       iske undersogelser. (An Anthropological Inves-
       tigation  of  the  Population  of  the North).
       Videnskabs-Selakabets Skrifter, I,  Mathematisk
       Naturvidenskabelig Klasse, No. 2, Christiania,
       1905.
Manouvrier, Leonce.  L'indice cephalique et le pseu-
       do-sociologie.   Revue Vecole  d'anthrop.,  IX,
       Paris,  1899.
       Les Recherches anthropometriques du Dr. Paul
       Godin sur  la Croissance.  Ibid., XIII-XIV.
    Apercu de cephalometrie anthropologique.  L'An-
       nee psychologioue, 1899.
Mommsen, T.  History of Rome.   New York, 1894.
Machiavello,  Niccolo.   History  of  Florence.   New
       York,  1901.
Martynov, S. V.  The Region of Pechora.  Petrograd,
       1905.
Martin, Rudolph.   Lehrbuch der Anthropologic Jena,
       1914.
Mortillet, Gabriel  de.  Formation  de la Nation Fran-
       caisc  Paris, 1897.
Miiller,  Max.  Lectures on the Science  of Language.
       New York,  1890.
Meddelelser om Danmarks Antropologi, Bind I,  Copen-
       hagen, 1907-1911.
Prichard, J.  C.  De generis humani varietate.   1808.
       (No place  given).
    Researches into the  Physical History of  Mankind.
       London, 1851. 
148
Socio-Anthropometry
Pickering,  Charles.   The Races  of Man.   London,
       1895.
Pittaluga, Rosetta.   Studio antropometrico sulle donne
       della  Lucchesia.  Societa romana, vol. 15, pp.
       15-34-
Pittard,  E.   Influence de la Taille  sur I'indice cepha-
       lique.  Soc.  d'anth. de Paris, ser. 5,  p. 280.
Quatrefages, A.  The Human  Species.   New York,
       1881.
Quetelet, A.  Du  Systeme Social et  des Lois  qui le
       Regissent.  Paris,  1848.
Retzius,  G. and Fiirst, K. M. Anthropologic Suecica.
       Beitrdge   zur  Anthropologic  der  Schweden.
       Stockholm, 1902.
Ripley, W. Z.   The Races  of  Europe.   New York,
       1899.
     Ethnic Theories and  Movements of  Population.
       Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol.  14,  p.
       426.
Rossi, Gino de.  La Statura degli Italiani e 1' incremen-
       to in  Essa verificatosi nel Periodo 1874-1898.
       Archivio  per  I 'antropologia e la etnologia, vol.
       33, PP- 17-64-
Rassat,  M.  Contributions a 1  'Ethnographie  et au
       Folk-Lore Savoyards.  Revue d 'ethnographie et
       de sociologie, n. s.  3,  1912.
Radosavljevich, P. R.  Professor Boas' New Theory of
       the  Form of  the Head.   American Anthropolo-
       gist, n. s.  vol. XIII, No.  3, 1911.
Report   of  the  Inter-Departmental  Committee  on
       Physical Deterioration.   London,  1904.
Report of the British Association for the Advancement
       of Sci. Toronto, 1897.
Ribbing,  L.  Nogle Ord  om Bornholms  Antropologi.
       (Anthropology of  Bornholm).   Meddelelser 
Bibliography
H9
       om  Danmarks Antropologi,  Bind I, Copenha-
       gen,  1907-1911.
Sergi, G.   The Mediterranean Race.  London,  1901.
    Variazione  e  Erededita  Nell 'Uomo.   Problems
       in  Eugenics,  vol.  I,  The First  International
       Eugenics Congress, London, 1912.
    La Stirpe Ligure  nel Bolognese, Atti di Storia
       partia,  Bologna,  1883.
    Profilo anthrop. dell'Italia, Archiv per I'Anthrop.,
       1898.
Sedgwick,  H. D.   A Short  History of Italy.  New
       York,  1905.
Spalikowski,  E.  Anthropologic  normande   contem-
       porainc  Paris,  1900.
Skelton,  O. D.  Current  Interpretations of History.
       Ontario  Educational  Association:  Proceedings
       of the 49 Annual Conv.,  1910.
Spencer,  H.   The   Principles   of  Sociology.  New
       York,  1905.
    Social  Statics.  New York, 1893.
Stevenson, B. L.  Constancy or Variability in  Scan-
       dinavian  Type.   Internationales  Archiv  fur
       Ethnographie.   Leyden,  Holland.   Bd. XXII,
       Heft ii,  1914.
     Comparative  Conclusions  Regarding the  Head
       Index of Scandinavians in Europe and America.
       Ibid., Bd. XXII, vi,  1915.
Steensby,  H.  P.   Forelobige Betragtninger over Dan-
       marks  Raceantropologi.   (Preliminary Obser-
       vations on  the  Racial  Types in  Denmark).
       Meddelelser  om  Danmarks Antropologi, Bind
       I,  Copenhagen, 1907-1911.
Societa romana di Antropologia Roma, vol. 15,  pp.
       15-34-
Saggio dei Risultati  anthropometric^  Rome, 1894.
Tylor, E. B.   Anthropology. New York,  1893. 
i5o
Socio-Anthropometry
Topinard, Paul.  Anthropology.   London, 1878.
     Science and Faith,  or Man  as  an Animal and
       Man as a Member of Society.   Chicago,  1899.
Tarde,  Gabriel.  The  Laws  of Imitation.   New
       York, 1903.
Trevelyan, George Macauley.  Garibaldi's Defense of
       the Roman Republic.   New York, 1907.
Taylor, J. J.   Anthropometric Notes on the Inhabi-
       tants of  Cleckheaton,  Yorkshire.   Report  of
       the  B.  Ass'n.  for the  Adv. of Sci., Toronto,
       1897-
Ward, Lester  F.  Pure Sociology.  New York  1903.
     Static  and  Dynamic  Sociology, Political Science
       Quarterly, vol. X, No. 2,  1895.
Ward, L.  F.  and Dealey,  J. Q.  A  Text-Book  of
       Sociology.  New York, 1909.
Worms, R.  Organisme et Societe.  Paris, 1896.
Wissler,  Clark.  The  Doctrine  of   Evolution  and
       Anthropology.   Journal of Religious  Psychol-
       ogy, vol.  6, p. 223.
Virchow, R.   Meinungen und Tatsachen in  der An-
       thropologic  Anthr. Gesell. Mittheil., v. 30,
       p. 14.
Vacher de Lapouge,  G.  L'Aryen, son  Role Social.
       Paris, 1899.
Venn, J.   Cambridge Anthropometry.  Journal Anthr.
       Institute, London,  188, vol. XVIII, pp. 140-
       154-
Usher, Roland  G.   The  Oldest  Nation of  Europe.
       National  Geographic  Magazine,  vol.  XXVI,
       PP- 393-4H-
Zimmern,  H.  Italy  of the Italians.   London, 1906.
Zampa, R.  Sulla etnografia dell 'Italia, Atti  dell
       'Accademia pontificia de'Nuovi Lincei, 1891. 
INDEX
Africa, 10, 43
America, 10, 139
Anthropologists, 128, 129
Anthropology:  postulates,
   3;  as dimension, 4; an-
   thropological source,
   11; anthropological dif-
   ferences, 106; problems,
   117
Asia,  10;  Persia, Egypt,
   India, China,  12, 15;
   Asiatic traits,  40, 78,
   81
Ayran, 39, 124, 127, 136

Biology,  126; Mendelism
   and hybridization, 138,

Cephalic Index: in gener-
   al,  10, 133,  137;  ori-
   gins,  12;  Russian, 41;
   Scandinavian,  60,  62;
   English,  67;  French,
   94;  Italian,  99;  doli-
   chocephalic, 124
Civilization,  tendency of,
   3;  soul of people,  134
Cro-Magnon, 26
Customs, 13, 14, 28, 126;
   Roman, 46
Data:  sociologic and an-
  thropologic, 3;  sources,
  4;   interpretation  of,
  106; for problems, 135;
  summary of, 141
Dissentis, 26

England, 4, 18, 66,  118
Ethnology, 13, 116, 128
Europe,  10,  112;  homo
  Europeaus, 18
Eyes: in general, 10; Rus-
  sian,  41,  81;  Italian,
  51;  Scandinavian,  55;
  English, 66,  68;
  French, 92; Italian, 105

Formulae, 132
France,  20,  30, 36,  89,
  119

Germany, 4,  106;   Ger-
  manic tribe, 13;  Rhine
  country,  31; German-
  ized  traits, 45

Hair: in general, 10, 120;
  Russian,  41, 81,  106;
  Italian,  51, 105,  106;
  English,  66, 68,  106;
151 
152                    11

   French, 92, 106

Head:  in  general,  10;
   Russian,  41, 79;
   Italian, 50; French, 87;
   Italian, 103
Holy Roman Empire,  16,
   46

Industry,   English,   21;
   Russian, 34
Italy, 4, 46, 98, 119

Lapps, 53, 60
Literature,  English,  22;
   French, 37, 39

Politics, origin, 15;  Eng-
   lish, 22;  Scandinavian,
   23;  Russian, 34;
   French, 37, 38; Italian,
   48, 118

Race:   composition,   9;
   stocks,  10;  origin, 11,
   31, 121; Teutonic, 18;
   Scandinavian, 26; Med-
   iterranean, 42;  French
   and Russian, 39, 115
Religion,  29;   primitive
   man,  14; English, 22;
   Scandinavian, 23;  pa-
   ganism,   28;   Greek
   Orthodox,  35;  French,
   37, 118;  Italian,  46
Rome, 42, 44;  old Italian
   tribes, 98
Russia, 15, 30, 32, 119

Saxons, characteristics of,
   20
Scandinavia, 4, 14, 25, 27,
   53, n8
Skin:  in general,  10;
   Italian, 51, 105
Sociological categories, 24,
   29,36, 50, 52, 119,  134
Sociologists, 124, 127
Sociology:  postulates,  3,
   116;  as  dimension, 4,
   16;   sociologic  differ-
   ences,  106
Stature:  in general,  10;
   Scandinavian,  57,   59;
   English, 73;  Russian,
   78;   French,  89,   90;
   Italian, 100

Tartar, 16, 32, 81
Terms: socio-anthropome-
   tric,  anthropometric-so-
   ciologic,   physio-ethno-
   logical, 4;   physio-eth-
   nological, 126
Traits: as factors, 17; In-
   do-European,   27,   40;
   general European, 117
Types: perfect, 9; in gen-
   eral, 17; Slavic, 30, 35,
   43;  Celtic, 30, 37; re-
   semblances  and  differ-
   ences,  113;  Teutonic,
A 
Index
153
16, 23, 29,  53;  com-
parison  of,   107,  117;
Alpine,  16, 30, 36, 78;
comparison   of,   107,
117;    Mediterranean,
16, 98; comparison  of,
107,  117;   sociologic,
121;    anthropometric,
  121;   city and rural,
  136
Type of mind, 24, 119;
  English and  Scandina-
  vian,  24;   French,  37;
  Italian, 50

Welsh, 66, 67,  122 
 
 
 
 
aNiD.asw jo Aavaan ivnouvn     3noio3w jo Aavaan ivnouvn

■RY OF MEDICINE    NATIONAL LIBRA 
]3w jo Aavaan ivnouvn
3NOIQ3W jo Aavaan ivnouvn
3NiDia3w jo Aavaan i>
 
NLM050098062