CONTENTS 
[no#3l Social 
[no.2] Political 
[no*ll Economic TWO YEARS OF OCCUPATION 
SUPREME COMMANDER FOR THE ALLIED POWERS 
SOCIAL 
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY 
CIVIL AFFAIRS DIVISION 
WASHINGTON 25, D. C. T W 0 YEARS 0 F OCCUPATION 
CIVIL INFORMATION AND EDUCATION 
EDUCATION 
First Year of Occupation: Schools of nil levels, most 
of which had been shut ("'own during the spring of 1945, were 
reopened and resumed operation* Under SCAP directive of 30 
October 194? steps were taken to eliminate militaristic and 
ultra.nationalistic influences and personnel from the teaching 
profession. A total of 11?,??8 teachers and administrators 
resigned prior to the issuance of the implementing Imperial 
Ordinance No* 263 of 7 May 1946, Other teachers, who had been 
dismissed by the militarists during the war years on account 
of their liberal views, were reinstated. Military schools were 
closed, and military training courses and equipment were re- 
moved from all schools. Objectionable materials were deleted 
from textbooks and committees of Japanese educators, aided 
by SCAP1s educational experts, began the task of writing new 
texts and new courses-of-study. 
A Mission,of 27 outstanding American educators visited Japan 
in March of 1946 and, after an examination of the Japanese 
educational system-and a series of conferences with SCAP offi- 
cials and Japanese educational leaders, prepared a comprehensive 
report for the reorganization of the Japanese educational system. 
The suggestions of the American Education Mission were imple- 
mented by*a group of prominent Japanese educators who prepared 
detailed recommendations for the guidance of the Ministry 
of Education. On 9, August 1946 thijs group was, established 
by ordinance on a permanent basis at Cabinet as the’Japan-, 
ese Educational Keforn Council, ' y 
« Second Year of Occupation; At present approximately 
19j000,000 students are attending some 40,000 schools of all 
levels. Over a half million teachers' are gradually learning 
to make the adjustment from the old authoritative methods 
of * classroom management to the new democratic methods of teach- 
ing, From April of 1946 to April, of 1947/new editions of text- 
books, free of objectionable materials, were printed, A nation- 
wide program for screening all educational personnel by machinery 
set up- oh ca democratic basis was initiated, in implementation 
of Imperial Ordinance No; 263 of 7, May 1946.- A total of 2,643 
educators were, removed automatically under the features of 
this Ordinance; 2,268 additional educators have been found un- 
acceptable by the Japanese screening committeee*. . 
Based upon the recommendations of the various* advisory ‘ '• 
bodies, the Ministry of Education prepared and the Diet by al- " 
most unanimous vote on 25 March 1947 passed a riew Fundamental > 
Law of Education, a document that is referred to by many Japanese 
as the ’ nagna charta" of Japanese education, Xt* implements 
those articles of the new Constitution which have educational 
implications arid provides a legal basis, for the elimination of , 
c iscriminations in education and inequality of educational 
opportunity. It contains provisions for protecting the national 
schools from political influence and emphasizes that education * 
is broader than the schoolroom* 
1 The School Education Law passed by the Diet by unanimous 
vote on' 27 March 1947. provides for the extension of compulsory, 
free education on a .steprby-step basis from six,.to nine years far 
all.Japanese children. For the present schpol year compulsory 
education was extended through the seventh year. . It is planned 
to-make the eighth school year compulsory starting in 1-948, and 
the ninth year as- soon as practicable pm the standpoint of 
availability of schoolrooms, -teachers,7, and funds. 
The. old complicated educational progression ladder was so 
designed that only a favored few had opportunity to continue, 
the IT-, education to the university level. This system has been 
replaced by a new school ladder with six years of elementary 
education and three years of lower secondary education, followed 
by three years of upper secondary education and four years of 
higher education, with provision for graduate study. Under -the 
new organizational plan.regulations for entrance to the upper 
secondary and higher educational levels have been broadened and 
made more’ democratic. 
•‘New history and geography books have been developed which• 
for the first,time give Japanese schpol children an honest'and 
objective story of their country’s development and which are: free 
of the mythology which characterized texts of the past. An entire 
new curriculum and courses-of-study, with accompanying textbooks 
for the first 12 years of schooling,, have been compiled and are 
being -printed and distributed. 'I.iese are based upon knowledge of 
the social and mental development of the child and the nature 
of the community in which he lives. There is stress upon inter- 
national- relations, the basic freedoms, and the accompanying 
responsibilities of citizenship. Provision has been made for 
increased teacher participation in the development of teaching 
materials. 
The sweeping changes that have been made ana that are conT 
tinuing to be made.in Japanese education necessitate a. retraining 
of. teachers already in service to transform them from.the old 
role of subject matter drillraasters to leaders of the learning 
processes of their pupils. The Education Ministry Under SCAP 
supervision early set to work preparing new teachers’ manuals 
and teaching guides for.specific subjects, and undertook to 
reorleht teachers to their new responsibilities. A series of 
Ministry, sponsored regional and prefectural institutes1 and con- 
ference’s have been held throughout Japan, at which the new courses- 
of-study have been introduced and explained. The raising of 
standards, of teacher training institutions has been initiated. 
Plans are being developed for sound programs of certification. 
Professional education associations 'representing various fields 
of interest have been*organized democratically and are..lending 
support to. the new educational program. 
Educational authdrity has ’been ctecehtraiizea to the extent 
that, although the legal authority has .remained with the Ministry 
of Education, greater responsibilities have been placed in the 
hands of the prefecture!-and local educational authorities, with 
greater freedom to develop programs., end practices to meet local 
needs. Groups of citizens have been established in local 
communities throughout ...Japan, tp.ajdyis authorities on 
critical problems. Preliminary steps have been taken to est- 
ablish prefectural and local school boards elected by the people, 
in whose hands the responsibility 
2 for administering the schools will be placed. These plans 
envisage the retention by lav; at the national level of 
certain ninioun provisions and standards, and the granting of 
increasing powers at prefectural and local educational levels* 
RELIGION 
First Year of' Occupation: SCAP directives were issued 
1) calling for removal of restrictions on religious freedom, 
2) withdrawing state sponsorship, support, and control from 
Shinto, and (3) prohibiting militaristic and. ultranationalistlc 
organizations'from carrying on activities under the guise of . 
religipjn. . Religious..freedqta:was':established and religious 
toleration encouraged *‘ 
Second Year of Occupation: Implementation of the basic 
SCAP directives continued.Japanese religious life was care- 
fully scrutinized and militaristic and ultranationalistic 
doctrines and are in the process of elimination# 
The enactment of a law and the promulgation of implementing 
ordinances established the legal basi3 for. to ' 
shrines and.,temples of title to the State-owned’ land which- 
they presently occupy and use for religious purposes. Virtually 
all Shinto shrines and more than half of the Buddhist temples 
now possess State-owned land which In the aggregate exceeds- 
200,000 acres.d 
- Sponsorship and support by units «or organs of “government 
of funerals,.memorial services, and other ceremoniesthe 
war dead, militarists, and ultrahationalists and participation 
in such, ceremonies by public officials’acting in their official 
capacities were prohibited by notifications, issued from the Home 
and Education Ministries.. Also-prohibited was the construction 
of monuments and statues for the war dead, militarists, and ultra- 
nationalists. The same ordinances directed, the removal-of : 
such monuments and statues located in public .schools, along 
with those patently objectionable monuments and statues located 
in public buildings and on public grounds. A .notification of the 
Education Ministry eliminated school-sponsored veneration for 'the 
Emperor. 
The influence- of Christianity was greatly strengthened* 
when Tetsu KATAYAHA and Konakichi IfATSUOKA, both active-- V’. 
Christians. became Prime Minister and Speaker’ of the House o'tu 
Representative's respectively. The of *- 
justice, -tolerance, and understanding which have guided the conduct 
of the Occupation appear to have contributed materially to the 
popularizing of Christian principles,. • Although the number, of 
Christian church members is probably less than^500f000, the 
number of Christian sympathizers has been estimated at upwards of 
2,000,000. Some 1,250 Christian foreign missionaries are pre- 
sently in Japan, about 25D of whom have entered since the be- 
ginning of the Occupation* 
ARTS ItiAP. MONUMENTS 
First Year of Occupation: Instructions were issued to the 
Japanese government arid to Occupation forces to insure the 
protection and. preservation of: cultural sites,' structures, and 
objects of national and. international importance. Inspections 
were made to determine the extent of war damage or war. deterior- 
ation, and reports were completed revealing ho appreciable 
damage tor the great cultural centers of Kyoto. Nera and Kamakura, 
3 but serious or total damage to castles of the Monoyama and. 
Tokugawa periods (1568-186? A. D.) of which Nagoya castle 
was the most prominent and famous example, and architectural 
losses to l?th and l8th'century structures in Tokyo, Yokohama, 
and Osaka. 
Second Year of Occupations. Inspections of Registered 
Sites. National Treasures, and Registered Objects were continued, 
with attention to private collections. Encouragement was given 
to the exhibition of private collections and the first major 
display of privately owned masterpieces of Chinese and 
Japanese art was held at the Hakutsuru Museum in the Kobe-Osaka 
area during April 194-7* Exhibition activities at the Nezu 
Art Museum in Tokyo were renewed, with shows in the fall of 194o 
and in the spring of 1947. 
An exhibition of National Treasures of the Imperial 
Household Museum held in Napa was attended by more than 120.000 
people in 21 days. With the promulgation of the New Constitution 
on 3 Hay 194?,. the Imperial Household Museum was transferred to the 
people,«and the name changed.to the National Museum. Pending 
the reconciliation of budgetary and other problems, the transfer 
was accomplished under an interim plan.that placed the National 
Museum under the jurisdiction, of the Ministry of Education. 
Activity in the field of contemporary art has been high, 
with displays at the Tokyo Municipal Art Gallery taking first 
place in volume at attendance and variety of exhibition. 
.The restoration and repair of National Treasures has re- 
ceived the- serious attention of the Ministry of Education. De- 
terioration of the famous Seventh Century lacquer figures of 
Guardian Kings .at' Todai-ji, caused by neglect during the war 
years, has been repaired, as have panel paintings by artists of 
the Kano in various temples in Kyoto. The long-range 
plan of Reconstruction begun before the war at Horyu-ji, near 
Nr.ra—the most important single monument of Japanese 
been resumed! the current work being concerned principally with 
the dismantling and reconstructing of the original Seventh- 
Century Golden Hall and Pagoda. Special problems involving 
the preservation of the famous murals are being studied by 
Japanese scholars and experts. 
The importance of formulating a plan for the rehabilitation 
of the area at Itsukushimh damaged by flood and typhoon in 1945 
has been stressed. 
A.new national park, Ise Shina, was designated on 20 December ■- 
1946 . 
INFORMATION 
Jas SKiriS! 
it was -emphasized that freedom of the press !^ant rlgh 
present-news and editorial opinion through, all meaic. ** 
free from influence, domination, or any form of totalitarian 
control by any governmental agency, by any Polit^aJ;vpc^^y’th^r 
uny employees* association, by any labor union, or by any 
4 for administering the schools will be placed. These plans 
envisage the retention by lav/ at the national level of 
certain minimum provisions and standards, and the granting of' 
increasing powers at prefectural and local educational levels* 
MHflE 
First Year of Occupations SCAP directives were issued 
1) •calling for removal of restrictions -on religious freedom, 
2) withdrawing state, sponsorship, support., and control from 
Shinto, and '(3) prohibiting.militaristic and ultranationalistic 
organizations1 from carrying on activities under the guise'of 
established and* religious 
toleration encouraged,' 
Second Year of Occupation: Implementation of the basic 
SCAP directives continued, Japanese religious life was care- 
fully scrutinized and militaristic and ultranationalistic 
doctrines anr?.: practices are in the process of elimination* 
The enactment of a law and the promulgation of implementing 
ordinances established the legal basis for the transfer to 
shrines and temples Of title to the.State-owned land which 
they presently occupy'arid use for religious purposes. Virtually 
all Shinto shrines and more than half of the Buddhist temples 
now- possess State-owned, land which^in the, aggregate exceedr 
300*000* acres.' ' . . 
Sponsorship and;support.by units or* organs of government 
of>.funeralsj memorial'services, and,other ceremonies for the 
wax-dead, militarists, and Ultranationalists and participation 
in such ceremonies by public officials -acting in their official 
capacities were prohibited by notifications, issued from the Home 
and Education Ministries. Also prohibited was the construction 
of, monuments and statues for the war dead, militarists, and ultra- 
nationalists. The sane ordinances directed the removal of 
such monuments and. statues1 located in public, schools, along 
with those patently objectionable monuments and statues'located 
in public buildings and on public grounds*a,, A notification of the 
Education Ministry eliminated school-sponsored veneration fon the 
Emperor* 
The influence of Christianity was greatly strengthened 
when Tetsu KATAYAHA and Kbnakichi MATSUOKA, both active- 
Christians, became Prime Minister and Speaker of the House of 
Representatives<respectively.. ; The Christian tenets, of 
justice.:tolerance, ahd understanding which have guided the conduct 
of the’ Occupation appear to have contributed materially to the 
popularizing of Christian principles*. Although the number of ■' 
Christian church members is probably ,less than 5.00,000, the 
sympathizers has been estimated at upwards of 
2,000,000. Some 1,250 Christian foreign missionaries are pre- 
sently in Japans about of whom have entered since -the be- 
ginning of the Occupation. \ 
ARTS AND MONUMENTS 
_ r £Argt Year of Occupations Instructions were issued to „the 
.Japanese government and. to Occupation forces to insure the 
of cultural sites, structures* and 
objects.of national and international importance. Inspections 
\/ere mace to cetermlne the extent of war damage or war deterior- 
ation, anc reports were completed revealing no appreciable 
carnage to the great cultural centers of Kyoto, Nera and Kamakura, 
5 but serious or total damage to cfcstles of the Momoyana and 
Tokugawa periods (1568-1867 A. 6.) of which Nagoya castle 
was the most prominent and famous example, and architectural 
losses tp 17th and l8th century structures in Tokyo, Yokohama, 
and-Osaka* 
Second- Yea* of Occupation?,- Inspections of Registered 
Sites, National Treasures, and Registered Objects were continued, 
with attention to private collections* Encouragement was given 
to of private collections and the first major 
display of privately owned masterpiecesrpf Chinese and 
Japanese art was held at the Hakutsuru Museum in the Kobe-Osaka 
area during April 1947. Exhibition activities at the Nezu 
Art Museum in Tokyo were Renewed with'shows in the fall of 1946 
and in the spring of 194?i ' 
An exhibition of National Treasures oi x.ae Imperial 
Household Museum held in Nara was attended'by more than 
people in 21 days. With the promulgation*of the New Constitution- 
on 3 May 1947, the Imperial Household Museum was transferred to the 
people,!and:the name changed to the National Museum.’ Pending 
the reconciliation of budgetary and other problems, the transfer 
was accomplished under an interim plan that placed the National 
Museum under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education. 
Activity in the field of contemporary art has been high, 
with at the Tokyo Municipal Art Gallery taking first 
place in volume at attendance and variety; of exhibition. 
The restoration ana repair of National Treasures'has re- 
ceived. the serious attention of the Ministry of Education, De- 
the famous Seventh Century lacquer figures of 
Guard tan Kings at Toda 1- ji, caused, by neglect during the war 
years, has-been.repaired, as have panel paintings by artists of 
the Kano -school in various temples in Kyoto. The long-range 
plan . of reconstruction begun before the war at Horyu-ji, near 
Nara—the host] important single monument of Japanese art—has 
been the current work being concerned principally with 
the disnantling-and reconstructing of the original Seventh- 
Century Golden Hall and Pagoda. Special problems involving, 
the. preservation of the famous murals are being studied by 
• Japanese, scholars and experts. 
.The importance of formulating a plan for the rehabilitation 
of the area at Itsukushima damaged by flood and typhoon in 1945 
has been stressed. 
, new: national park, Ise Shima, was designated on 20 December 
1946 * . < - : .' :' 
INFORMATION 
. First Year of Occupation: Steps were taken to free all 
media of public information from national gove nnent domination 
and restrictions. The establishment of a free and responsible 
press was encouraged. In conferences with editors and publishers, 
it was. emphasized that freedom of the press meant the right to 
present, hews^and.editorial opinion through all media of informat on 
free from influence, domination, or any form of totalitarian 
control by nny governmental agency, by any political party, by 
any employees* association, by any labor union, or by any other 
6 ERRATUM 
"TWO YEARS OF OCCUPATION" 
Substitute for pages 5 and 6, "SOCIAL" Section. 
pressure group. The Broadcasting Corporation of Japan, 
a monopoly which controlled all' Japanese radio programs,, and 
which had become a bureaucratic, totalitarian propaganda 
machine during the war, was reorganized and the quality 
of its programs improved. The. SCAP Information Library 
was opened in Tokyo, (the first of ten information centers to 
be established in ten major cities of Japan), which made 
books, pamphlets, current periodicals and newspapers in the 
English language, available to Japanese readers. Theaters 
and Motion Picture producers were given technical advice and 
assistance in the reorganization and rehabilitation of these 
media. Mobile projection units exhibited throughout 
Japan educational films produced in western democracies and carrying 
Japanese sound tracks. Licenses were granted to affect the 
importation and exhibition in Japan of motion pictures deemed 
desirable to the accomplishment of the mission of the Occupation, 
All public information media were used to inform the Japanese 
people of Occupation objectives and policies and to assist 
them in the democratization and rehabilitation of the nation. 
Special emphasis was laid on war guilt, the truth about the 
war, the new status of women, the basic principles of democracy, 
general elections, and other subjects of vital interest to the 
people, 
Second Year of Occupation: As the Occupation progressed, 
profession, civic, and governmental agencies were encouraged 
and assisted by SCAP specialists to work out coordinated and 
continuing information programs to familiarize the largest 
possible number of people throughout the nation with political, 
economic, and social needs and developments of a democracy. 
These programs emphasized Japan's fir?t democratic Constitution, 
free elections, the Civil Code, the Code of Criminal Procedure, 
rural land reform, labor-management relations, and the reorganiza- 
tion of the public safety agencies. The freedoms 
which are the right of an individual in a democracy were 
pointed out, and the responsibilities which accompany these 
freedoms were stressed. Information on scientific and economic 
progress were disseminated through programs initiated by SCAP 
agencies and implemented by Japanese media. All agencies 
cooperated in the development and continuing dissemination of 
information and advice on such subjects as critical natural 
resources, food, disease prevention, and public welfare. 
The s cope of these programs was widened to include the pre- 
fecture! and rural centers by means of field trips by SCAP 
personnel and institutes and conferences initiated by Japanese 
organizations and agencies. The function of Military 
Government personnel was broadened to include active though 
limited participation in these reorientation programs in order 
to accomplish the widest possible dissemination. 
Through continuous seminar meetings and individual 
conferences, difference between factual reporting and opinionated 
writing has been demonstrated to Japanese newspaper writers 
and editors. Journalistic ethics, as ennunciated by the American 
Society of Newspaper Editors, have been explained and presented 
as guides, and constant emphasis has been placed on the truthful 
presentation of news and sound and sober editorial interpretations 
of the important events and issues of the day. As a result there 
has been considerable progress towards straight and factual 
reporting; space has not been denied to those whose "Letters 
to the Editor" have disagreed with the paper's editorial 
policy; editorials have become increasingly outspoken and 
constructive. The number of daily newspaper increased from only 
53 at the close of the war to 152 in April 1947, A total of 
5 1,951 newspapers and journals of tabloid format, including 
dailies, semi-weeklies, weeklies, and papers of irregular issuance 
were being published in April, 194-7. A nationwide increase 
of 21 percent in newspaper circulation took place between 
Marsh 1946 and April 1947, the total national circulation 
of all newspapers in April 1947 being 15,935,155. 
Magazine publishers and editors have been given the 
opportunity to attend conferences to discuss their particular 
problems. Out of a total of 3,300 separate magazines pub- 
lished in Japan since the beginning of the Occupation, 
approximately 2,000. have survived the economic difficulties and 
the shortage of paper. 
Continued technical and programming assistance has been 
given the Broadcasting Corporation of Japan, designed to 
improve the quality of its broadcasts, and a number of new 
programs, modeled after popular American programs have been 
developed and gained popular approval. Listener response 
to "Information Please" has reached an average of 10,000 
letters and postcards weekly. The "National Radio Forum" 
has been recorded in all of the largest metropolitan centers 
in Japan and presently is making a circuit of cities with pop- 
ulations of fifty to sixty thousand, the aim being to make 
possible the widest possible participation. Broadcasting 
of programs originating with regional and local stations 
commenced in March ’1947 as a step toward the decentralization 
of radio control. Local broadcasting has expanded so that, 
by July, 1947, 44 Local stations were originating and broad- 
casting their own programs once weekly at peak listening hours. 
The use of visual information media to illustrate demo- 
cratic procedures and practices has been extended. In addition 
to one American newsreel released each week, 132 Allied 
feature motion pictures «nd 31 short subjects were released 
during the year ending 1 July 1947. Mobile projection units 
continued to exhibit educational films produced in western 
democracies to weekly audiences averaging 179,000 people, 
a five-fold increase over the average weekly audience during 
the first year of the Occupation. 
The use of poster exhibits commenced in October 1946 
and has proved to be an effective medium. Requests for SOAP 
prepared exhibits average 60 per month. Displays in metropoli- 
tan department stores draw daily crowds of from 3,000 to 5,000 
and numerous Japanese publishers and slide-film companies 
have been given permission to reproduce these exhibits which have 
been prepared bn such subjects as the New Constitution, Typhus 
Prevention, Land Reform, Food, et cetera. 
The SCAP Information Library in Tokyo has continued 
to make available to Japanese readers 3,000 reference books, 
10,000 pamphlets, 500 current periodicals, and 17 newspapers, all 
in English. Average daily attendance in July 1947 was 663— 
more than the average daily attendance at Ueno Library, 
Japan!s largest public library. 
A gift of the American Library Association made available 
to Japanese educational institutions files of scientific 
and scholarly publications for the years 1941-1946. 
These publications have been of inestimable value in providing 
6 Japanese scholars with news of developments In the academic 
and scientific world from which they had been cut off 
by the war. Members of the American Education Mission 
provided a collection of approximately J00 books for 
children. These books were displayed in a number of Jap- 
anese cities and have been an incentive to Japanese writers 
and publishers. Twelve libraries for educators have been 
set up in different points in Japan, each library containing . 
approximately 400 recent books on educational psychology, 
educational philosophy, curricula, teaching methods, 
et cetera. Additional shipments of books and periodicals 
from American sources are being received and distributed 
in ever-iricreasing numbers. 
PUBLIC opinio: 
First year of occupation: The Japanese people 
quickly became aware that public opinion is of importance 
in the direction of a democratic government, and many private 
and commercial organizations and agencies were established 
to study and report on public opinion. However, with no 
significant prior experience they revealed little technical 
competence. The 'national government made an unsuccessful 
effort to activate an effective public opinion organization 
as a Cabinet unit. 
Second Year of Occupation: Informal consultative 
and advisory liaison has been maintained with a peak number 
of seventy Japanese organizations engaged in whole or in part 
in public opinion survey activities. This number settled to 
forty-eight in July 194-7♦ Liaison also has been maintained 
with national government and prefectural public opinion 
organizations to insure conformity with technical 
requirements of public opinion surveys and. to prevent political 
abuse of such activities. To the extent possible, technical 
a.ssistance and counsel have been given by SCAP specialists who 
participated in the first national public opinion conference 
in Japan held in Tokyo in March of 194-7. It is considered sig- 
nificant to note that in the April 194-7, elections a number of 
agencies were able to predict the outcome with striking 
success. The results of current work of the leading organizations 
show constant improvement in sample design, quota control, 
interview design, and interviewing method. 
MDIA ANALYSIS 
The analysis of Tokyo newspapers daily and prefectural 
newspapers tri-weekly has been an important means of deter- 
mining trends, opinions, international news interest, and re- 
action to Occupation policies as expressed in Japanese 
publications. In addition, opinions reflected by writers 
in representative Japanese magazines of both general and special 
coverage have been analyzed in various subject fields. The files 
°l analyses maintained without a break since the beginning 
of the Occupation afford an over-all picture of Japanese 
press and periodical reaction to the events of the day. 
7 PUBLIC HEALTH AND WELFARE SECTION 
OCCUPATION PUBLIC HEALTH PROGRAM 
The .primary consideration in public health natters has 
been to achieve a level of sanitation and health that would 
prevent widespread disease and unrest which would impede the 
objectives of the Occupation. Since the Oriental standards and 
practices of the Japanese are far below those of the U. S, and 
othef western countries, and the state of public health had 
even further deteriorated under wartime conditions, considerable 
technical guidance and supervision has been given in this field; 
The First Widespread immunization of the civil 
population was undertaken. 5,500,000 persons were immunized 
against 23,000,000 against typhoid; 75V°00*CXX) 
against smallpox and 34,500,000 against cholera. 
SOAP directives to the Japanese Government designated ven- 
ereal diseases as infectious, provided for their control and 
the regular reporting of cases, and abrogated all laws, ordinances 
and enactments permitting the practice of licensed prostitution 
and the binding of women into harlotry. 
A weekly reporting system for all communicable diseases 
and vital statistics information was established. 
Health control and quarantine measures were instituted at 
eight repatriation centers. Through these centers 5?569,388 
Japanese returned to the homeland. To meet the possibi1 * ties of 
cholera being brought from the mainland by repatriates, ships from 
cholera ports underwent a six-day port quarantine'prior to the 
debarkation, of personnel. Ships arriving with cholera or sus- 
pected cases aboard were not debarked until 14 days after dis- 
covery of the last cholera case. 
To accomplish necessary standardization of drugs, vaccines 
and biologicals a national laboratory control program was estab- 
lished. 
The ravages of war and the destruction that had been in- 
flicted on transportation and public facilities had created de- 
plorable conditions of sanitation throughout the nation. Imme- 
diate efforts were made to train and organize six-man sanitary 
teams. The summer of 1946, 54,000 Japanese in about 9,000 
teams were actively engaged in DDT dusting and spraying, repair 
of water and sewage systems, removal of debris, elimination of 
rodents and mosquito breeding places. Sufficient supplies 
and equipment made it possible, for the first tine in world 
history, to successfully carry out a national sanitation program 
of this scope. 
During the war all attempts to inspect cattle for tubercu- 
losis and other infectious diseases had been abandoned. This 
was resestablished and the inspection of neat and dairy 
products was resumed. 
A survey of the pharmaceutical supply and equipment status 
of the nation revealed that one-half of the factories were either 
bombed out or converted to other uses. Of the remaining one- 
half, only 20 percent were operating due to lack of raw materials* 
After a careful review of stocks and facilities, a program of 
8 rehabilitating Japanese production of many supplies and 
biologicals was initiated. This program was supported by 
imports as necessary. The object of the program - to pro- 
mote manufacturing facilities and make the nation self- 
sufficient - is gradually being realize®. Great strides 
have been made with continued guidance, in the production of- sur- 
gical and medical equipment and pharmaceuticals and vaccines. 
Many of these items are being produced in sufficient quantity 
to eliminate the necessity of imports. Sale and manufacture 
of pharmaceutical supplies and < quipment were controlled 
under programs designed to re an adequate and ,even distri- 
bution to the populace. Former Japanese Army and Navy medical 
supplies and equipment were confiscated, inventoried, and sub- 
sequently released to areas of greatest need* 
Pre-war Japan was the source of tlost of the world*s illi- 
cit narcotics. There were no laws governing the manufacture 
or sale of narcotics, nor were .here any regulations governing 
the growing of opium poppies. All narcotics - finished, crude, 
or semi-crude - were confiscated. Manufacture of narcotics was 
forbidden and a control program for legitimate distribution 
embodying features similar to those in effect in the United 
States was instituted. Distribution through licenced agencies 
was rigidly controlled. Enf .cement agents were appointed 
and trained to eliminate unauthorized traffic in narcotics. 
The nutritional status of the civil population was ascer- 
tained by a survey which began with a cross section of one percent 
of the population of Tokyo raid 19 selected prefectures. Within 
three months 8 additional major cities and o additional pre- 
fectures were included. Surveys of 17?*000 test cases are 
repeated at three-month intervals. This cross section includes 
people in all walks of life.from babies to adults - farmers, 
factory workers, railroad workers, office workers, miners., _house- 
wives, et cetera. 
The surveys are conducted by Japanese officials under the 
guidance of SCAP. All persons included in the survey are given 
physical examinations every three months, body, weight is re- 
corded and information .gained as to the sources and amounts 
of food consumed. Data gathered helps determine the caloric con- 
tent and composition of the diet. 
During 194-6 the same group was observed so that nutritional 
trends could be determined from a specific controlled group of 
people. In 194-7 a new one percent cross section was selected. 
This is the first time in world history that a nutritional 
survey on such a wide natiohal scale has been accomplished. 
A survey was made of the 3,363' hospitals in Japan at t|$ 
beginning of the Occupation. Ip revealed that ample facilities 
existed to meet the nation*s needs. All Amy and Navy hospitals, 
of which there were 497, were placed under control of the Minis- 
try of Welfare and established as civilian national hospital's. 
A few became tuberculosis sanatoria and leprpsoria. 
A Council on Medical Education composed of leading Japanese 
doctors and scientists was formally organized in March, 1946. 
The Council with the guidance of SCAP seeks to raise the 
standards of medical schools throughout the nation, and to es- 
tablish proper standards of licensure to practice. All medical 
institutions were inspected to determine their fitness to con-, 
tinue under standards set up under a new program of medical 
education. 
9 -A similar Couocil '9SJ Education Wqs established to 
raise dental standards# A Council on Nosing Education was 
organized and a Model Nursing Demonstration School for teaching 
modern techniques to nurses was established in Tokyo. 
JThe need for,government subsidies to public assistance 
programs was shown by monthly public assistance reports begun in 
March 1946. The reports indicate the number of persons on relief 
and the amount of yen expended. Responding to'the need, the Diet 
in October 1946. passed the '♦Daily Life Security Law" which 
provides, for all indigent persons, adequate food, clothing, 
shelter and medical care. Latest figures show that 2,763,333 
persons are receiving monthly government assistance to the extent 
of ¥235,030,843. 
Foreseeing that the return of large numbers of people to 
urban areas evacuated during the war would cause serious disease 
hazards, raise problems of welfare and relief, and overtax the 
extremely limited housing available, a law was passed preventing 
families from returning to urban areas unless they had employ- 
ment. would not become public or private charges and had quarters 
to live in. 
Twenty-thousand tons of former Japanese Army and Navy food 
supplies were obtained and later distributed to relieve severe 
food shortages during the summer of 1946. 
Programs were adopted to provide -for the rehabilitation of 
destroyed institutional and child care homes with special regard 
for war orphans. The reorganization of the Japanese Red Cross on 
standards comparable to those of other Red Cross societies was 
undertaken. 
Lest repatriates suffer undue hardship, programs were 
launched to enable them to secure loans, find employment and 
other assistance in their efforts at rehabilitation. 
The Japanese Government’s Ministry of Welfare was reorgan- 
ized, and the Ministry now provides much better control and 
supervision over all aspects of public health and welfare 
activities. 
A plan was adopted to reorganize each of the 46 prefectural 
health departments along uniform lines so that they could 
function as separate units similar to the various state health 
departments in the United States. Fourteen of these departments 
have been reorganized and the completion of the program is 
scheduled for December 31, 1947* 
THE SECOND YEAR 
The incidence of communicable diseases had, in many cases, 
been reduced -to the lowest level in the history of Japan. Many 
control measures had been hampered by .the lack of trained 
Japanese personnel. Improvement was noted here as the result of 
educational and training programs of the previous year made 
themselves felt. Early in 1946 there had been an epidemic of 
.typhus and smallpox in the Tokyo and Osaka-Kobe areas but control 
measures had proved effective and epidemics of national propor- 
tions had been averted. 
10 No epidemics,of typhus or smallpox occurred in the second 
year. No cases of cholera have been reported this year. The 
immunization of 16.000,000 school children with diphtheria.toxoid 
in the fall of 194-6 has brought the incidence of this disease, 
for the current season, to the lowest rate in the history of 
Japan. This was the first time diphtheria toxoid had been used 
in Japan. 
The program to control typhoid and para-typhoid is currently 
being carried forward. The program, calls for the immunization 
against these fevers of 78,000,000 persons during the summer 
months, 
The sanitary teams operating in.the nation have been expanded 
to 20.000 .in 194? and 120,000 Japanese are making a valuable 
contribution to environmental sanitation. The emphasis on 
insect and rodent control and improvement of water supplies has 
resulted in the lowest overall disease rate of the past seven 
years. 
The lack of any specific vaccine, serum, drug or treatment 
for the prevention or cure of tuberculosis differentiates it from 
most acute infectious diseases that occur in epidemic form. 
Principal weapon against this disease is education of the. populace 
Efforts have been directed to the use of this weapon and the 
present awareness of the tuberculosis- problem among the general 
public is a major triumph. To meet the demand for care that this 
awareness has created, efforts are being directed to the education 
of Japanese physicians, to improve diagnostic and treatment 
facilities, provide larger food rations to sanatoria, provide 
ace,quote supplies of drugs, and also recruit properly trained 
personnel,for a long range extensive program. The plan for this 
year calls for mass x-ray examination of Japanese between the" 
ages of 10 to 24 years. This group numbers about 24,374,000 
individuals. It is planned to x-ray 8,671,6115 14,3o6,44Q will 
receive the tuberculin test and BCG inoculating is planned for 
9,2'60,000. 
Expansion of venereal disease control measures have stim- 
ulated the establishment of health and treatment centers offering 
free treatment in all cities of the nation. Approximately 675 
health centers have been reorganized and expanded to cover all 
phases of public health, public welfare, sanitation and similar 
subjects. The education of physicians and public health workers 
is being carried forward as fast as possible. Public information 
programs utilizing all media - press, radio, notion pictures,- 
posters, et cetera - are proving of great value to the overall 
program. 
Nearing completion, the repatriation program continues to 
function smoothly. Health measures have effectively prevented 
introduction of any new-contagious diseases into the nation. 
Nine additional maritime ports and two airports have been 
designated this year as quarantine- ports of entry. 
Of considerable importance to quarantine measures is a new 
method of cyanide fumigation that has. been developed and put into 
operation. 
Modeled after the system in use in the United States, the 
Daily Score Card system has been placed in’ use and has proved to 
effective in determining the sanitary standards of neat and 
dairy farms and in correcting certain: deficiencies." Disease con- 
trol methods have effected a gradual decrease 'in animal disease. 
11 Expansion of the production of pharmaceuticals and equipment 
has gone ahead as fast as the avr lability of new construction and 
raw materials would permit. Smallpox, triple-typhoid, typhus, 
cholera and diphtheria vaccine production is sufficient to the 
needs of the nation. Satisfactory levels have been reached in the 
production of pyrethrum emulsion, DDT dust and residual effect 
spray, various types of sprayers, insecticides and x-ray equip- 
ment • 
Pharmaceutical supplies and equipment are channeled through 
organized production and distribution system. 
The United Nations Committee on Narcotics has commented 
favorably on the effective control of narcotics in Japan. 
Prior to the Occupation the Japanese had made little effort 
to produce penicillin. One of the highlights of the second year 
has been the effort made to promote the production of this drug 
by the deep-tank method. The Japanese had never gone beyond the 
laboratory stage'which is prohibitively costly and inadequate. 
SCAP has introduced modern methods and adequate production of 
this vital drug is foreseen within 12 months. 
The Institute or Public Health, originally endowed by the 
Rockefeller Foundation, has been reorganized* Teaching along 
practical lines, it now provides post-graduate training in public 
health. Three-month courses embrace the fields of public health, ■ 
public nursing, vital statistics, veterinary standards, sanitation 
medicine and nutrition. The first class of 50 students is 
currently being trained in modern sanitary control. A new National 
Institute of Health was establirhod in 1947V The Institute has 
become the national agency for the assay of all biologicals, 
vaccines and sera and for research. Specific problems such as 
Japanese "B1* Encephalitis, scrub typhus, epidemic typhus, murine 
typhus and ekiri are being attacked by research groups in the 
Institute. Special commissions on ekiri and the neuro-tropic 
virus diseases are now in Japan assisting the Institute in research 
projects. 
Standards developed by> the Council on Medical Education were 
placed in effect on i April 1947V The standards are designated * 
to elevate the profession to a position comparable to that of 
modern democratic states. 
Refresher courses for graduate nurses in public health, 
clinical and midwifery subjects have been given. The model Demon- 
stration School for Nurses was, granted recognition as a college 
of nursing by the Ministry of Education. - Standards of nursing 
similar to those of other modern nations were established by a 
law passed in the Diet on 3 July 1947. For the first time in the 
history of Japan nursing educational requirements have reached a 
high level. Surveys in all 46" prefectures have been completed to 
estimate the nursing requirements and the existing facilities for 
training. 
Educational requirements for entry to schools of dentistry 
were lengthened three years when the Council on Dental Education 
adopted the 6-3-3-2-4 program. 
Continuing nutrition surveys at three-month intervals on the 
group selected for the- 1947 program indicate that food imports 
are still necessary to supplement indigenous food production* This 
is particularly true in the summer months- when food stocks are at 
a low. ebb. 
12 Eighteen million school .children will eventually benefit 
through the deTelopment of a school lunch program that cane 
through the recognition of the need for more food for that part of 
the nation still in the formative years. The program is slowly 
expanding as more food stocks become available. At present 4,000 
city schools and 4,500 village schools, with a total of some 
5,500,000 children are receiving benefits. Licensed Agencies for 
Relief in Asia (LARA) has assisted with contributions to this 
program. 
A new Children1s Bureau was formed in the Ministry of Welfare 
in 2uly of 194? and functions excellently as an aid in the 
development of special programs in the field of child care aid. 
Administered by approximately 150,000 Japanese social workers, 
the Daily Life Security Law has effectively furnished assistance 
to the needy and the handicapped* The majority of the 5,569,288 
individuals repatriated to Japan have received help from the 
government in the rebuilding of their lives. 
Colleges ana universities have recognized the need for trainee 
social workers and many of them have added courses in social 
welfare work to their curricula-. 
Reorganization of the Japanese social and welfare insurance 
systems with a view to consolidation of the various systems into a 
standard unified program is under study. 
The Japanese Red Cross continues its reorganization at a 
satisfactory pace. The program now includes health and welfare 
services, hospitals*, clinics and dispensaries, training of nurses, 
public health education, disaster preparedness and relief, voluntary 
?e?vices* bid, inquiry and message service and the Junior 
Red Cross. 
,, National Disaster Plan has been approved for submission to 
the Diet. This provides for a National Disaster Board, of Cabinet 
level, which will be responsible for making available to the 
Japanese people such items as supplies, medical care, food, cloth- 
ing, housing and other services. There will also be a National 
Disaster Operating Committee which will function in time of disaster 
Each prefecture will have a Prefeotural Planning Board and Operat- 
ing Committee which will be composed of the foilowing sections; 
police, fire, health, welfare, economics, and engineering. This 
law will also provide for recognition of the Japanese Red Gross 
as a quasi-governmental agency to act as sole coordinator of all 
volunteer agencies‘in time of disaster. 
. complete reorganization of the Vital Statistics reporting 
system^has been completed and it is now ready and able to function 
accurately and smoothly. 
13 TWO YEARS OF OCCUPATION 
SUPREME COMMANDER FOR THE ALLIED POWERS 
POLITICAL 
PUBLIC INFORMATION OFFICE, GHQ 
AUGUST 1947 TWO YEARS 0 F OCCUPATION 
GOVERNMENT SECTION 
The Government Section, GHQ, SCAP, was established 2 October 
194p to advise the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers oh 
policies relating to the establishment of a peaceful democratic 
government in Japan. 
The Section was assigned responsibility for advising the 
Supreme Commander concerning relationships of the. Japanese Govern- 
ment tb,military to subordinate governmental agencies, 
to the people, and to business (including its relationships, to 
financial regulations, to subsidies, and to other devices for the 
control and manipulation of industry). It was also assigned res- 
ponsibilities concerning the demilitarization of the government in 
all its agencies and sub-divisions, the decentralization of govern 
elimination of feudal and totalitarian practices and the 
elimination of those relationships between government and business 
which tended to continue the Japanese war potential and t6 hamper 
the achievement of the objectives of the occupation. 
■ In June, 1947, the-reform of the Japanese bureaucracy, in- 
cluding the establishment of a civil, service system based on merit 
was assigned as an additional function of the Section. 
Despite the extensive labor involved in the. complete re-organ- 
ization of the nation’s governmental, political and economic 
structure, sweeping reforms h»ve been put into execution. 
Japan, which, until two years ago, was a feudal police state, 
dominated by an oligarchy of militarists, bureaucrats' and big 
businessmen controlling''more than 80 percent of the national com- 
merce, industry and finance, has been transformed into a modern 
nation with a-Constitution guaranteeing economic, social, political 
and cultural freedom. 
The masses of the people, docile by training and terror- 
ized by fear, were without a voice In the determination of their 
own affairs. Today they are assured freedom, self-expression and 
democracy. 
A totalitarian economy, wherein the nation’s vast industrial 
combines, concentrating within themselves virtually all economic 
power dictated their policy to the Government, h*s been shattered. 
An infamous secret police system has been crushed. 
Feudalistic governmental structures have been modernized. 
Civil liberties have been guaranteed. Old laws forbidding 
freedom of speech, press, organization, religion, study and re- 
search, have been replaced by new guarantees of liberties. 
Thousands of political prisoners have been released from 
prison and have been restored their proper political and civil 
rights. 
All.vestiges of militarism h»ve been destroyed through, aboli- 
tion of the War ahd' Navy Ministries, the'Ministry of Munitions, 
the Great East Asia Ministry and other governmental agencies. 
The major reform measures taken in Japan under SCAP super- 
vision may be summarized as follows: 
1. The transfer of sovereignty from the Emperor to the people 
and the guarantee to the latter of a bill of rights derived from 
the experience and enlightened thought of the Western democracies? 
1 2, Drafting the adoption of a new democratic Constitution 
vesting sovereignty in the people and guaranteeing civil 
xioerDie s; 
3. -The elevation of the Legislature, as the body directly 
representing the people, to the position of supreme organ of 
state power; 
4. Decentralizetipn of government and the democratization 
or local governments working through leaders elected by and res- 
ponsible to the people of their localities; 
5* , reform of the traditional family system to conform 
to enlightened principles of human relationships and the confer- 
ment of political, social and economic equality upon the women 
of Japan; 
6. The removal from important positions in the political 
and economic life of Japan of leaders who formulated the policies 
of conquest, ultra-n°tionalism and aggression; 
. ?•, eradication of a u least 130 ultra-nationalistic and 
militaristic organizations, including infamous secret and terror- 
istic societies and their responsible leaders who have been barre 
from farther interference in Japanfs political, cultural, or 
economic activities* 
?ke elimination of State Shintoism as an instrument for 
instilling Emperor worship and for enslaving the minds of the 
Japanese people; 
9. ihe revision of the educational system to replace regi- 
mentation of the mind with academic freedom, the teaching of myth 
and legend with historical truth; 
10, The breaking up of a system of land ownership and 
tenancy rooted in feudalism to permit ownership by the farmers of 
the land they long have tilled, thus creating throughout Japan a 
new class of small land owners; 
IX. The breaking up of the system of private monopolies 
under which, with government protection, a dozen families have 
controlled over eighty per cent of Japan*s commerce, industry and 
finance, in order that under a system of truly free enterprise, 
widely owned, the economy may be oriented- solely toward peaceful 
ends; 
... Seeing of labor from the prohibitions under which 
it could not organize to fight for decent living wages and for 
years was exploited under conditions beside which our sweatshops 
at the turn of the century were models of advanced liberalism* 
All of these reforms have been initiated through the instru- 
mentality of the existing governmental and ecohomlc machinery. 
Thepe has been no suspension, disruption, no discontinuity of 
functioning,of these organs, no collapse, no dislocation, no 
disorder. The fears of chaos and confusion, voiced by those 
persons who viewed with alarm any move to disturb the status quo, 
have not materialized. 
Cabinet decision to dissolve the once-powerful Ministry of 
Home Affa.irs, long the core of centralized bureaucratic authority 
marks an important step in the democratization of Japan, Among 
civil pgencies, the Home Minister, because of his complete con- 
trol over the daily life of the people, had been popularly ranked 
in power and prestige,*as second only to the Prime Minister. 
2 A vitally important step, perhaps in some respects the most 
important governmental achievement during the Occupation, was the 
drafting, debating, passage and implementation of a new, democrat! 
Constitution, 
Under the leadership of the Supreme Commander, negotiations 
were undertaken with Japanese Governmental agencies which resulted 
in the preparation of a new fundamental Constitution. 
Both within the Diet, in the press and public forums as well 
as in innumerable general.conversations, the provisions of this 
document were debated long and earnestly, ' After extensive nation- 
wide discussions, certain revisions in the basic draft were accept 
ed and the Constitution was adopted virtually unanimously in both 
branches of the Diet, 
The Constitution, promulgated 3 November 1946, became effec- 
tive 3 May 1947. 
This new Constitution, now the nation*s fundamental law, con- 
forms to the most advanced concepts of human relationships and is 
a realistic blending o,f divergent theories concerning the appli- 
cation of democratic principles by a large modern state. 
An historic landmark in the age-old struggle of mankind to 
be free, it serves as a shining beacon for the people's not only 
of the Far East but of the world. Japan thereby divorced itself 
from the past and'assumed the lead in declaring its faith in 
justice and in tolerance. 
Widespread popular acceptance by both people and Government, 
without the Issuance of a single directive by the Supreme Commandc- 
is itself a fact fraught with the greatest significance for the 
ultimate re-entry of Japan into the family of nations. 
In April,1947, the Japanese people, under their new Constitu- 
tion and through a democratic election procedure, chose 232,863 
elected officials on all levels of government. These constituted 
the entire body of elected officers, including a new Diet, 46 
governors, 209 mayors, 1784 town and village chiefs, 8?22 headmen 
and*new prefecture! and local assemblies. These new officials 
carry on the work of self-government and self-reformationto the 
end that .Japan may, some day in the not too distant future, be 
able to take its place - a dignified and helpful place - in a 
world community of peaceful democratic-nations. 
NOTE: See Appendix I for more complete information on the 
new Japanese Constitution. 
THE PURGE 
The purge of all persons who shared the responsibility for 
Japan*s program of aggression always has been intended to be a 
preventative, never a punitive measure. 
Based on internationally approved policies of the Potsdam 
Declaration, it was conceived and is being administered with the 
purpose of eliminating continuity of influence or exercise of 
power by persons whose past careers showed them to be undesirable 
leaders for a nation dedicated'to democracy and world peace. 
The purge was initiated in the fields of education and police 
as early as October,-1945, Its fundamentals were first expressed 
to the Japanese government in SCAPIN 5?0 of January. 4, 1946, which 
ordered the removal of all undesirable persons from influential 
3 positions in the political, economic, and social life of Japan, 
In the first year after SC/1 PIN 550 was -issued, 1,067 versons 
had been barred and removed. An extension of the original,purge 
directive was issued by the Japanese .government on January 4, 1947 
and an additional 1,681 persons had been barred or removed up to 
July 15, 1947. 
There had been 183,000 career officers, gendarmes, and intel- 
ligence agents barred by the 1946 original directive. Another 
20*000 persons quickly had resigned their positions to avoid 
designation as purgees. 
. Except for the initial Purge Directive issued to the Japanese 
government January 4, 1946, and certain memorandums issued after 
post-review of the governments action directing the removal of 
specific individuals, SOAP has insisted that the Japanese govern- 
ment itself implement and administer the purge program. All 
Japanese government actions are subject to SOAP review to insure 
compliance with the word and spirit of SCAPIN 550. 
Up to January 4, 1947* 8CAP had reviewed 1,770 cases acted 
upon by the Japanese government and had disapproved 27 decisions. 
Between January 4, 1947, and July 19, 1947, the Japanese 
government screened 563,099 cases, most of them before the general 
election in April. A total of 1,681 individuals were removed or 
barred. 
The small number of persons actually purged indicated that fe 
risked running for office when they considered it possible that 
they would be designated as purgoes. 
.Of the. total number screened during this period SOAP reviewed 
16,047 cases, involving persons holding important elective and 
appointive posts in government, officials in the major economic 
and financial concerns, and inf--uential persons in the political 
and social life of Japan. In 47 Instances the action of the 
Japanese government was disapproved. 
Further action by SOAP upon post-review of the Japanese 
governments action has been to direct the reinstatement of 12 
individuals unjustly or mistakenly barred or removed. 
INITIAL PURGE DIRECTIVE 
* The impact of the initial purge directive, which listed un- 
desirable Japanese in seven categories, was immediate and profound 
Nine days after the directive was issued the cabinet, under Kijuro 
Shldehara, underwent extensive reorganization. Three ministers 
and six cabinet executives and many other high government official 
resigned. 
Another wave of resignations crme on March 10, 1946, when the 
cabinet interpreted "additional militarists and ultranationalists, 
a category of the original SCAP directive. The entire political 
scene was altered by this announcement. Political party leadershi 
changed, political allegiances shifted, and new.candidates were 
sought to replace those previously scheduled to run in forthcoming 
April elections. Of the 3,384 candidates for the Lower House, 252 
were barred* Among these 113 were candidates recommended by Prime 
Minister Tojo in the 1942 elections. Another 268 "recommended 
candidates" did.not file. 
By August 4946 the Japanese government announced it had com- 
pleted the Initial phases of the purge program. A total of 5,520 
persons in the Privy Council, the Diet, the Cabinet, Prefectural 
Governments, higher courts, government controlled companies, and 
4 higher educational institutions had been screened, and 814 were 
barred or removed. 
In 183,000 career officers of the army and navy, 
members of the gendarmerie and ''ormer intelligence agents had 
been categorically barred. 
EXTENSION OF PURGE 
Upon confirmation that the initial phases of the purge had 
been completed, SOAP in August 1946. issued a statement of policy 
to the Japanese government requiring extension of the purge pro- 
gram to local government, to the economic field, and*"to the field 
of public information. 
On January 4, 1947,’ one year from the issuance of the 
original directive, the Japanese government promulgated imple- 
menting ordnances extending the purge to all elective offices in 
national and local government, and to specified positions in 
certain companies, associations, and mass communication media. 
To insure that local government administration would undergo 
a complete reorganization, incumbent mayors and headmen were pre- 
vented from running for their old positions if they had held 
these positions consecutively since September, 194?. These 
officials, however, were not held from becoming candidates for 
other government positions. 
A reorganization of the screening system, setting up local 
boards, was necessary to funnel upwards of 500,000 cases through 
screening procedures before the general elections in April. 
Numbers o(f candidates screened, as reported by the Japanese 
government, included 3,426 fo* the House of Representatives; 
1,406 for the House of Councillors; 451 for prefectural governors; 
43 for the mayors of the principal cities; 72,5?0 for headmen of 
wards, towns, or villages; 21,126 for deputy-mayors, deputy- 
headmen, and accountants of cities, towns, and villages5-and 
about 42,252 members of election administrative committees. 
When successful candidates were re-examined by the Central 
Screening Committee, 11 members-elect to the House of Representa- 
tives, and four members-elect to the House of Councillors were 
removed. 
The economic phases of the purge began about April 15, 194?, 
when an estimated 3*200 persons holding policy positions..in 
about 300 companies required screening. By mid-July 1947, 292 
persons had been removed and/or excluded from public service. 
There followed extensions of the purge in the field of 
public information media, and to "invisible’1 purgees who resigned 
to escape designation but manipulated behind the scenes strings 
of influence. 
A Board?of Appeal, to review cases where injustices may 
have been committed, was established in February, 1947, Jo 
handle the increasing volume of protests as screenings were 
extended to include more persons. 
These figures do not, of course, include the tens of 
thousands of other undesirable readers who are forever barred from 
public Service but who have held no office since the purge became 
effective and therefore, have not yet been-designated by name. 
5 Nor are nearly 6,000 Thought Control and Special Higher Police, 
removed by SCAPfs Civil Liberties Directive of October,. 1945 
included. Because they are barred only from positions in the 
Justice, Welfare, and Home Ministries and from police work, their 
status is somewhat different from that of persons purged under 
SCAPIN 550 who are barred from all public Service. A similar 
group, likewise not included in th£ above, is the approximately 
5,000 teachers who have 6een removed from the field of education. 
NOTE: See Appendix II for complete review of the purge of 
Japanese who shared responsibility for their country1s program 
of aggression. 
1947 ELECTIONS 
The inalienable right to choose and to dismiss their public 
officials is one of the most important guarantees afforded Japanese 
by the new Constitution, 
In anticipation of the coming into effect of the new Consti- 
tution, a series of four (and in some instances, five) elections 
was held during April in which each of the 23?,063 public offices, 
local and national, legislative ~nd executive, was at stake. 
Seldom in history have the people of any nation enjoyed the 
opportunity in such brief span of time and by so peaceful a 
process as election, to select all of their elective officials. 
Certainly never before in Japan had such an opportunity been 
presented. 
Never, before, indeed, had Japanese voted for their local 
executives or for the Upper House of their Diet, For the first 
time in their history, Japanese voted for 46 governors, 209 city 
mayors, 10,210 town and village heads, and 22 ward chiefs in 
Tokyo, In the past all these had been selected by methods which 
made no concession to popular wishes. Governors had previously 
been appointed by the Home Minister; mayors, town chiefs and 
village headmen by local assemblies from lists approved by pre- 
fectural governors, and ward chiefs by the Tokyo governor. The 
inevitable result had been that local chief executives were in- 
different to local desires because they owed their primary 
allegiance to the Home Minister or to the governor. 
The April 194? elections also represented Japan1s first 
elections for local assemblies on the basis of universal suffrage 
and the first election for assemblies in which membership was more 
than a * purely honorary distinction. Voting hitherto had been 
based on limited suffrage only, so that assemblies’represented 
only the conservative element in Japanese life. Membership con- 
ferred no legislative powers since the assemblies met infrequently 
and were invariably dominated by local chief executives. 
These elections, moreover, were the first to be publicly 
administered. Hitherto, all elections had been supervised in 
detail by government officials controlled by the Home Ministry, 
In April 1947, 10,500 local elections administration cora- 
ilttees were established. 
Technical changes introduced into the laws prior to election 
forbade candidates to campaign, in more than one district, abolished 
the former abuses whereby teachers had required students to cam- 
paign in their interests; they also increased the number of dis- 
tricts from 53 to 117 and increased tenfold the fines to be im- 
posed for violation of election laws. 
6 In connection with the vast amount of publicity given to the 
election campaign by press, serein and radio, special commendation 
should be made of the Broadcast Corporation of Japan which re- 
jected a proposed Diet appropriation of eight million yen, 
offered in payment of time devoted to election broadcasts% on the 
ground that it was merely fulfilling its public duty* The Broad- 
casting Company of Japan thus established the principle of direct 
public responsibility, free from government direction or political 
influence. 
SHIMANE SHIMBUN (Matsue) and OKAYAMA GODO SHIMBUN (both 2 May) 
described the election results as "a corner-stone in Japan1s peace- 
ful revolution.11 They warned voters, however, that they 11 must 
exercise vigilance over the performance of the successful candi- 
dates.” SHINANO MAINICHI (2 May) voiced the same theme by writing 
"If the people are unconcerned with administration after election, 
it can be said that they are exercising only half their rights and 
duties." 
A most reassuring feature of the elections was that, following 
the election, the Japanese press contained virtually no reference 
whatever to evils such as had been prevalent in pre-war election 
campaigns. 
None but rare and isolated charges appeared concerning dis- 
franchisement (accidental or intentional) of voters qualified to 
cast their ballots, of the inefficiency or incapability of elec- 
tion officials, of fraud, irregularities, miscounting or ballot 
box stuffing. 
A certain amount of vote buying and corruption, although far 
less than in previous election. , was ,reported, but the total num- 
ber of incidents^was less and the extent of the crime more res- 
tricted 'than in previous years. 
Few, if any, charges were alleged that campaign expenses had 
violated the official ceilings or that money interests had played 
any important part in the determination of results. 
Boss activity, which had been predicted by TOKYO TIMES (12 
April) and dishonest practices, which EHIME SHIMBUN and IWATE 
SHIMBUN (both 24 April) feared might affect the House of Represen- 
tatives balloting the following day, were not again mentioned in 
the press following the close of the campaign period. 
This situation stood in sharp contrast to the experience of 
former years when accusation of election law violations, especially 
bribery and corruption, had been common phenomena of the press. 
A wide variety of pre-election measures was taken to insure 
democratic elections: strengthening of the election laws, exten- 
sion of the franchise, increase in the number of polls, applica- 
tion of the purge, assurance of non-interference by the police, 
surveillance by Occupation Forces, to name a few. Insofar as 
counting and tabulation were concerned, not only did every candi- 
date have the right to have a witness present at every step in 
the voting and counting process at every polling place and ballot 
counting station in Japan—but every Japanese citizen had the 
further right to bring any protest which he might have to the 
attention of the Occupation Forces as well as his own Government. 
With respect to the laws, therefore, every step in the elec- 
toral process, from the filing of 'candidacy and the registration 
of voters to the final tabulation of results was fully protected 
by laws and safeguards comparable to those of any democratic nation 
Insofar as violations of. these laws were concerned, not only were 
Japanese procedures of investig tion, indictment and trial highly 
competent and satisfactory but once again full opportunity was 
afforded all citizens to bring any criticisms of methods to the 
7 dictments tirJlkcUon ‘iVtXoks 1*7 elutions 
“^J;99?.83 opposed to 2,632 in the one election of 
sn indication that political morality markedly imnroved 
The figure of 2,997 included all alleged viol-tionffrom all 
sources• 
• J? connection, it is imperative to note that the vast 
majority of claims of election law violations involved such crimes 
°C voters, house to house canvassing for votes, and 
vioiations of the poster law. For all the 42,000 polling nieces 
200 000 stations in a11 Japen and for ail the 
ballots which were counted during five elections there 
wpre only a handful of charges made anywhere—by press, or public 
or candidates or parties—of improper casting of votes, and no 
charges were made of miscounting of votes. 
Improvement of Elections 
T^CO?sif?ring aver?ge abstention rate of 30 percent for 
t e 1947 elections, it must be recalled that essentially this 
rperesents a percentage of all eligible voters and not a percent- 
age of the total of registered voters. Japanese law provides 
basically for automatic registration; once each year all eligible 
in terrd reSardlefs of whether they have any interest 
in voting or not. In most Western countries, of course, the situ- 
thp°£ f^£V£rS^; registration is not automatic but requires that 
tF4.J?kG the illative and register himself. From the stand 
point of the percentage of all adults actually participating in an 
th(rreforf> a 7° percent turnout in a Japanese election 
would be equivalent* of about an 8? percent turnout in an average 
American election. ” 6 
Political Implications 
to/o T?e £?llowing t?ble summarizes party votes in the 1946 and 
d eiections. Since the method of voting adop.ted in the House 
of Representatives election'in 1946 permitted voters to cast ballot 
for two or three candidates, dependent on the size-of the elector*! 
district concerned, direct comparison with the Representatives 
election of 194? is not possible, since this ye*r electors voted 
for but one candidate each. Table II, however, projects a 
for comparison, indicating an estimated division of votes in 1946 
if electors had then cast ballots for but one candidate. 
8 19*+6, 10 April 
Liberals 
Democrats 
Social 
Democrats 
Cooperatives 
Coramuni st 
Minor 
Parties 
Indepenr- 
dents 
Total 
13.505.7^ 
10.350,530 
9,858,1+08 
1.799.766 
2,135.757 
6.673.272 
11,352.602 
5573+87879 
The same reduced 
to common denora. 
6,500,one 
U, 96a,000 
U,730#Oco 
sfi'vrr 
1,030,COO 
3, ico,'to 
5,63",'oo 
26,6^0,000 
5 -April 
2,111,906 
1,605,51+0 
6,067,059 
392,867 
258,0U1+ 
1,590,637 
16.736.586 
26,760,667 
Governors 
20 April, Local 
3,822,767 
3. U7.202 
1+, 8^7.188 
1.038,271 
309,177 
1,026,178 
7,235.693 
21,896,1+76 
20 April, National 
1.360,1+56 
1,908,087 
3.679,811+ 
569,916 
610,91*8 
1.039,819 
12,662.073 
21,1+11,113 
25 April 
7.295.21+2 
6,857,1+80 
7,168,888 
1.862.753 
1,002,883 
1.560,070 
1.616.295 
27,361.611 
30 April, Municipal 
1,980,001 
2,073,1+91 
2,0U9,!+QU 
ii+S.^3 
0 S2,'4C9 
652.571 
2 7 .1+81,019 
y, 638.638 
Prefectural 
5.733*280 
6,092,109 
5.682,627 
1.187.322 
556,673 
2,52r ,1+28 
5,086,367 
31,258.61+6 
April 10 
2U.1+ 
I8.7 
17.8 
3.2 
3.8 
11.7 
20.1+ 
1CC.C 
April 5» Gov, 
7.9 
6.0 
22.6 
1.5 
o.9 
6.0 
55.1 
ICO,a 
April 20, Local 
17.C 
1^.3 
22.2 
6.5 
3.2 
5.0 
33. S 
V>0> 
April 20, Natl, 
6.5 
7.2 
16.6 
2.6 
2.9 
K3 
59.3 
109.0 
April 25 
26.6 
25.1 
26.2 
6.8 
3.7 
5.7 
5.9 
100#c 
April 30, Pref, 
18.3 
19.5 
17.5 
3.8 
1.8 
8.1 
31.-0 
10^.0 
April 30, Munic, 
6.5 
6.8 
6.7 
0.9 
0.8 
2.1 
76,6 
100.0 
9 POLITICAL PARTIES 
I 
Japanese politics are a tangled maze of personalities, cross- 
currents, compromises and flexibilities, but the general course is 
clear. Japan is moving toward democracy and toward the adoption 
of a Western type of parliamentary government- 
Elections.have been marked uy the manner in'which electors 
disregarded party lines to select candidates whom they regarded as 
personally well-qualified by character and experience. 
A second noteworthy result has been the repudiation after 
full, fair and free discussion, of extremists of either reactionary 
or revolutionary character. 
Recent Election Results 
Of 20? candidates in the April 1947 elections for.46 governor 
ships, voters chose 29 Independents, fiV© Liberals, four Social 
Democrats, three Democrats and five of various minor parties. 
In 202 mayoralty elections, 144 Independents, 2? Democrats, 
12 Liberals, nine Social Democrats and one Cooperative were 
elected, together with 11 representatives of minor parties. 
In 4,247 village headship contests, 3,716 Independents were 
returned, 159 Liberals, 145 Democrats, 126 Social Democrats, 74 
minor parties, 19 Cooperatives and -eight Communists, 
An estimated -54 percent of the eloctprabe voted Independent, 
with 24 percent Social Democratic, eight percent Liberal, seven 
percent for minor parties, five percent Democratic and one percent 
each for Cooperatives and Communists. 
House of Representative 
The Social Democratic party, with 144 seats, won a plurality 
in the House of Representatives. Next in order the Democrats, 
130; Liberals, 129; Cooperatives, 31? various minor parties, 10; 
Independents, nine; Japan Farmers, eight; and Communists, four’. 
These figures represent gains of 46 Social Democratic seats 
over the figures at the close of the last Diet, Minor parties in- 
cluding the New,Japan Farmers1 party, gained 13 seats while Inde- 
pendent figures remained unchanged. Gains were made at the ex- 
pense of the Liberals who now have eleven less seats than in the 
last Diet, Democrats 15 less, Cooperatives 31 less,and Communists 
two less. The Farmers1- party, a new organization, drew its 
strength largely from last year’s Cooperative party. 
Since 234 votes were required for a Lower House majority, no 
party could single-handedly control the government. 
After various, political maneuvers, therefore, agreement was 
reached whereby the Social Democrats, Democrats and Cooperatives 
formed a coalition, totalling .305 seats, as a.gainst a maximum of 
159 opposition votes. Tetsu Katayama, Social Democrat became 
Prime Minister May 1947, with Hitoshi Ashida, Democrat, as vice- 
Prime Minister. 
The Social Democrats are professedly Socialists. The Demo- 
crats call themselves stream-lined modernists, but among them are 
numerous conservatives.. The Cooperatives, largely an agrarian 
group, differ from Social Democrats in philosophy but work, with 
them,.for practical governmental purposes. 
10 Similarly the opposition is composed of Liberals, who are 
committed to conservatism, and Communists, as well as various 
smaller parties of contrasting political opinions. 
House of Councillors 
The newly constituted House of Councillors contains a poli- 
tical group peculiarly its own named the Ryokufu Kai, or Green 
Breeze Society, so-called because it announced its intention of 
effecting a spring-like renaissance in Japanese ’affairs. This 
group enrolls members. These include virtually all former 
members of the House of Peers who succeeded in being elected as ' 
Councillors, ex-diplomats and other who felt that the Upper House 
should preserve a character above the party battle. 
True political parties in the Councillors include 47'SociaJ 
Democrats, 43 Liberals, 42 Democrats, 18 Independents and four 
Communists. 
If party lines were strictly drawn this might seem to indicate 
that the Katayama coalition controls only 89 votes out of 2?0 in 
the House of Councillors, as against a possible opposition bloc of 
161 votes. 
Such, however, is not the e se since the 96 Green Breeze 
members do not constitute a genuine party.and are neither pro- nor 
anti-coalition. At least 13 of them were members, at the time of 
their election, of the Cooperative party, but merged thereafter 
with others, chiefly Independents and Liberals, to form the non- 
partisan Green Breeze Society. 
II 
All parties profess to democratic government, anti*- 
bureaucracy, social insurance, stabilization of the people’s live- 
lihood, better rationing methods, abolition of the black market, 
entry of Japan into the United Nations, a speedy peace treaty, 
justice in international relationships, and other popular causes. 
They differ in the ways suggested to accomplish these results. 
Social Democratic Fart 
The Social Democratic party, for instance, contains some 
members who are popularly classified as left-wingers, as well as 
so-called right wingers. 
The Social Democratic party is the contemporary successor to 
several pre-war farm-labor parties. Some of these were frankly 
proletarian, and their survivors constitute the Social Democratic 
left wing. 
The Social Democratic p*rty has enjoyed the support of the 
largest group fo politically conscious labor unions. For example, 
the Speaker of the House of Representatives is a right wing Social 
Democrat who is also president of the Japan Federation of Labor. 
Many members of the formerly outcast Eta group are also believed 
to have supported the Social Democrats; their leader, who is vice- 
president of the House of Councillors, is also a Social Democratic 
committeeman. 
As might be expected from its large labor unionist membership, 
the Social Democratic party is strongest in the cities. 
It stands for the creation of a peaceful democratic revolution 
through peaceful democratic processes, for the progressive national 
ization of essential key industries, beginning with coal and iron, 
for the taxation of incomes derived from war profits, and for the 
suspension of interest on war bonds. 
11 c?,VIlb.^C°axiL±on wlT'n more conservative parties precluded aggres- 
ction °f measures which conservatives termed socialistic, 
tbe party is at present moving toward introduction of a bill 
for state control of coal production. 
tic Party 
The Democratic party, created in March as the successor of 
the former. Progressive party, is also divided into two groups — 
a renovationist faction he-ded by Foreign Minister Hitoshi flshida, 
Shidehara6 conservative 6rour’ lec' former Prime Minister Kijuro 
The Ashida section, now in control, includes most of the 
younger members of the party. 
... |bl,s bolds second place in the Diet but in mapy locali- 
ties it led in elections for mayors, village headmen and assembly- 
men, J 
Some observers believe that its nucleus consists of remnants 
of the pre-war Minseito party—citing Home Minister Kozaemon 
Kimura and State Minister Tskso Saito as examples—and there is 
no ooubt but that many old-line politicians of that p*rty are 
influential local leaders. 
The Democratic party stands for strict economic supervision 
iin contrast to Liberal desires for free economy and to Social 
Democratic ideas of state control). 
Liberal Party 
• 4. The Liberal party, strong among businessmen and financial 
interests, and headed by former Irime Minister Shigeru Yoshida, 
regards anti-Communism as its strongest platform plank. 
Because it defends individual enterprise, it argues it 
l7SUidv.aC<^°mpi4 i53 ends and through evolution rather 
than by immediate drastic action. 
The Liberal party was the plurality party in the 1946 Diet 
f?11 to second P1?ce in snd then to third place 
among Diet parties. 
Peoples ' Cooperative Party 
The Peoples' Cooperative party, founded as an agrarian party 
based upon Japanese semi-official producing and distributing 
monopolies, lost most of its original members through the purge. 
1 br?adened its b?se Ly merging with a powerful bloc of 
schoolteachar Diet members headed by State Minister Junzo 
Sazamon, and with v&rious local parties such as that led by the 
party s present chief, Communications Minister Takeo Miki. 
The party stands for the cooperative principle, for the pro- 
motion of education, and for the stabilization of Japan upon a 
generally conservative basis. 
Japan Farmers' Party 
The Japan Farmers' party regards itself as the true Coopera- 
tive Party from which it split when the latter voted to admit city 
members and education members to what had been a purely agrarian 
group. The Farmers' party strength lies in Hokkaido, formerly a 
Cooperative stronghold. 
12 Other Minor Parties 
Minor parties and Independents are, in the main, identical. 
In virtually no instance except that of the Communists, is any 
national group concerned nor are any firm ideas set forth differ- 
ing from those of other parties. These groups,some of which may 
be as evanescent as the 28 Minor Parties which existed when the 
194-6 Diet opened but which gradually became absorbed in larger 
parties, center about the personality of individuals popular in, 
one locality but entirely unknown elsewhere in Japan. 
The Communists call themselves the party of the masses but 
have failed to. win support of more than between one to two per- 
cent of the voters. The party platform colls for abolition of 
capitalism and the Imperial System. This attack upon the Emperor 
was more strongly voiced in 1946 than in J947. 
* The party is led by Sanzo Nosaka' and Ryuichi Tokuda. Tokuda 
spent eighteen years in prison prior to his release under the 
terms of SCAP’s civil liberties directive issued on 4 October 
1945* Nosaka is well known for his Propaganda work among Japanese 
troons captured by Yenan Chinese. 
LABOR MINISTRY 
Noteworthy among the specific - steps undertaken by the 
Japanese nation to secure a complete reformation of its govern- 
mental structure has been the establishment of a Labor Ministry, 
The Japanese labor record prior to the surrender had indeed 
been black, but in the early days of the Occupation, the work- 
ingman was freed from all the oppressive restrictions. During 
succeeding months, measure after measure designed to protect him 
and promote his welfare was enacted into law. No cabinet, how- 
ever, established any governmental agency with sufficient authority 
and prestige effectively to represent labor1s interest in govern- 
ment, although during the January 194? crises, the Yoshida'Cabinet 
suggested establishing a Labor Ministry. 
With Labor steadily becoming more articulate and better, 
organized and with measures such os the Labor Standards Law, the 
Labor Relations Law and the Unemployment Security Law reaching 
fruition, it became apparent that the manshift machinery set 
up in the Welfare Ministry was Inadequate. The Katayama Cabinet, 
under the leadership of its Minister of Labor designate, 
Yonekubo, therefore drafted a bill to- establish a strong and 
effective labor ministry. 
The movement was Japanese in conception and execution. When 
the final Cabinet draft was presented to' the Supreme Commander 
for approval in early July, no alteration or amendment was 
required and the bill in its original form was laid before the 
Diet on 22 July 1947. 
NATIONAL GOVERNMENT 
Ministry Home Affairs 
The Ministry of Home Affairs ’(Naimusho) is probably the 
oldest formal arm of government in Japan, dating back as far as 
the year AD 649,* Its position was established more definitely in 
1868 with the Melji Restoration and became, probably at that time, 
the most important ministry of government as -created by the Meiji 
Constitution. It consisted of the four most powerful bureaus in 
the scheme of government as it affected the domestic affairs of 
13 the people. These were; 
Shrines Bureau 
Local Affairs Bureau 
Police Bureau 
Public Works Bureau 
It can be truthfully said that the Home Ministry controlled 
the intimate lives of the Japanese people from the "cradle to 
the grave," Through its Shrines Bureau it forced the people to 
conform to ritualistic State Shinto. While this was not a real 
religion it compulsorily required the people to observe and 
partake of the various rites and ceremonies which were developed 
under this cult. This was one of the principle devices by 
which the people's spirit was held in subjection and through which 
it was possible to infuse the general populace with ultra- 
nationalistic and militaristic doctrines. 
All of the shrines, numbering more than 100,000 came under 
the jurisdiction of this Ministry. The members of the higher 
priesthood were State employees and directly under the Home 
Ministry, thus the spiritual education of the people was com- 
pletely in the hands of the government. 
Through its Bureau of Local Affairs the Home Ministry con- 
trolled to the minutist detail the local government in Japan. 
The Horae Minister appointed all of the prefectural governors. 
They were subject to his discipline and could be shifted or 
removed at his pleasure. The governor, in turn, could refuse to 
follow actions taken by the prefectural assembly. Any pre- 
fectural assembly could be dissolved by the Home Minister when- 
ever he so deisred. The governo:’ also had power to nominate 
mayors and could remove them. City assemblies could be dissolved 
by the Ministry of Horae Affairs the same as prefectural 
assemblies. Thus by his power of life and death over countless 
thousands of local officials, the Home Minister was virtually an 
absolute monarch of internal administration in Japan, 
Another of the principal functions of the Local Affairs 
Bureau was the administration of elections. This was absolute. 
At no point in the election procedure or machinery did the 
citizens of Japan have any representation. The Horae Ministry 
was in charge of the machinery at the national level and its 
henchmen, governors and local officials, ran the machinery at 
the local level. From the earliest days of the parliamentary 
system elections were notoriously swung by the power which the 
Home Ministry exercised. During the period, through the 1920*s, 
when party development reached its highest level, the party in 
power, through its use of Home Ministry controls, was always 
able to swing the elections as it saw Tit. 
In the later years, preceding and during the war, the most 
vicious regimentation of the people came through the police force 
of Japan, which was also under the Horae Ministry. By both legal 
and extra-legal methods the police eliminated dissident elements, 
frequently throwing people in jail who were considered trouble- 
some and keeping them there for years without lodging specific 
charges. The police department exercised many functions which 
are not normally associated with police administration in the 
western world. These cover such a wide.range of subjects as 
recording births and deaths, exercising many functions in 
connection with economic affairs, keeping track of movements of 
people, censorship of books, magazines, newspapers, etc. 
14 In elections, previously discussed, the police were used to 
harass, intimidate, and often to eliminate troublesome opposi- 
tion candidates or groups. 
The neighborhood associations, which r©present an oriental 
institution dating back some centuries, were highly developed 
during the war. Through these associations the most Intimate 
check was kept on every individual person in Japan. Operating 
the rationing system, it exercised tremendous power over every 
family* This institution was a?so directly under the Ministry 
of Hom6 Affairs. 
The Public Works Bureau, as its name implies, was in charge 
of such matters as harbors, roads,.rivers, flood control, etc. 
By virtue of its veritable size, the Horae Ministry was in a 
position to exercise great power in its administration of this 
Bureau. 
This Ministry also had under it many of the public instit- 
utions in Janan, such as Homes, Asylums, Houses of Correction, 
etc.. 
The surrender of Japan and successive directives from SCAP 
had stripped the Home Ministry of many of its principal functions 
and responsibilities. The two most important of those remaining 
early this year were local affairs and the police. The respon- 
sibility v/ith respect to the former was substantially eliminated 
by the granting of local autonomy by Diet action to the pre- 
fectural city, town and village governments. Decentralization 
of the police force which was obviously close at hand would re- 
duce the Home Ministry’s responsibility in regard to that,. fun- 
ction. Thus it was clear that, this Ministry, which was ortce the 
most powerful in the Japanese government with thes exception of 
the War,and Navy Ministries, was now merely a hollow shell of 
its former self. 
The Japanese government accordingly presented a plan for 
the reorganization of the Home Ministry , taking into a ccount 
the changed conditions. This Ministry had within it the most 
hardened core of the professional bureaucracy and it was plain 
that this bureaucracy was resisting a thorough reorganization. 
Inevitably, as the days went by, it became apparent that 
the Ministry could and should be abolished. Draft legislation 
to accomplish this has been prepared by the government, and will 
be submitted to this session'of the Diet for its consideration. 
Thus will come to an end an institution which has for centuries 
been an instrument of oppression for the Japanese people. It 
was a most powerful ally of the militarists in conditioning the 
nation to face almost unbelievable privations in making pre- 
parations for war and during the war itself. 
LOCAL GOVERNMENT 
During the first year of the occupation the Local Govern- 
ment Division was concerned with the reorganization of the 
organic laws which have established the structure for government 
in the local echelons: the Law Concerning the Organization of 
Towns and Villages, the Law Concerning the Organization of 
Cities, the Law Concerning the Organization of Urban and Rural 
Prefectures and the Law Concerning the Metropolis of Tokyo-to. 
The program was divided into two phases of work, one dealing with 
the central government and the other with the local governments. 
The first phase entailed extensive examination and study of 
fundamental laws, Imperial ordinances and ministerial orders 
under which the ministries of the central government exercised 
authority and control over the echelons of local government. 
15 Administrative procedures were .ilso analyzea intensively. 
Although all the ministries of the central government were studied, 
special attention was devoted to the Ministry of Home Affairs 
because of its jurisdiction and direct authority over all local 
governments. The second phase was wholly one of field inves- 
tigation, first to obtain knowledge and benefits from the exper- 
ience of military government companies, and second to test and 
observe the results of the findings produced in *the first phase. 
These field investigations covered numerous military government 
companies and other units, as well as, of course, many villages, 
towns, cities and prefectures in which Japanese officials and 
other citizens were contacted. 
The purpose of conducting so widely a detailed examination 
and analysis was to secure an unquestionable foundation of facts 
on laws and administrative practices and procedures on which could 
be built more simplified and useful structures for local govern- 
ments and from'which could be devised a democratic, integrated 
system for the whole framwork of government in Japan. 
The revisions represented great progress in the democrati- 
zation of the government even for the Japanese countryside in 
which the old feudalistic elements more strongly 
than elsewhere. The revisions introduced (1) the principle of 
direct elections by universal suffrage in all three echelons of 
local government, (2) the concept that local assemblies in Japan 
can be effective controlling bodies, (3) a new agency in the 
system of conducting local -elections to make -manipulations more 
difficult, and (4) the practice of recall and initiative thus 
giving the people themselves some certainty of control on all 
their elected officials and representatives. 
The completion of the four‘laws was achievedat the end of 
the first year of the occupation although final enactment by the 
Diet and promulgation were not accomplished until the beginning 
of the second year. 
During the second year of the occupation continued work and 
further revisions of the four laws given above, produced a bill 
entitled, nThe Law Concerning Local Autonomy" and was promulgated 
as Law No. 67 on 16 April 1947. This Law- is a codification of 
the four laws and the revised Imperial Ordinance No. 147 which 
provides the prefectural governments with their more important 
departments and offices and the governors with powers over the 
personnel to staff them. 
The new law still within the confines of the Meiji'Constitu- 
tion contains many added liberalizations. It eliminates the 
dominant power of the Ministry of Home Affairs. Under the old 
laws local decisions could not be made on a host of local 
because of hampering restrictions in a chain of permissions having 
to be sought from higher authorities. In the law local assemblies 
are given the right and power to debate the budget completely, 
even to altering the total sum of it. With the introduction of 
the procedure of having standing committees for particular or 
combined functions of government, the assemblies have been pro- v 
vided with agencies for obtaining better and continuing infer-, 
mation to utilize in their legislation. This new procedure, toget- 
her with more, frequency of assembly meetings, lessened the need 
for a council. Previously the council functioned when the Assembly 
was not in session. Vice-governorships were also established. For 
the first time the right of self-government was given to the 
inhabitants of the outlying islands. Moreover, a system for the 
creation of'special cities was introduced under which a large 
municipality "could obtain the status of a prefecture. 
. 4 
16 During the year another major alteration was made by 
dissolving and eliminating the system of Tonari Gumi. In its 
compulsory form in which all people were forced to be members, 
this system was introduced in 1940 to regiment citizens for war. 
It placed between the citizen and the municipality three organs 
of control to watch and direct their activities. Approximately 
ten families were united into a neighborhood association or 
Tonari Gumi with a chief at its head; about one hundred of these 
formed a block association or Chonaikai in the cities and towns 
or a Burakukai in the villages. In some cases the Burakukal and 
Chonaikai formed federations or Rengokai. All these organizations 
had their own chiefs, in theory elected, in practice appointed* 
In view of the small number of members in each Tonari Gumi, 
the life of every individual under a constant surveillance. 
The eradication of this evil system was a sine qua non for the 
healthy development of democracy in Japan. Its existence had been 
defended because (1) the administration could easily issue orders 
to citizens, and (2) the distribution of rations was facilitated. 
Not only was the abolition of the Tonari Gumi needed but also a 
radical change in the system of rationing and re-establishment in 
Japan of a free consumers1 movement. 
The present efforts of the Local Government Division are 
directed toward (1) the prevention of further establishment of 
the central organs in the prefectures, independent of the prefect- 
ural government; (2) the study the relationship between the 
central ministries and the local bodies to determine (a) which 
functions of sound government may be most properly performed by 
the local body without any interference on the part of the cen- 
tral government; (b) which functions may be most effectively per- 
formed by the central government with its own representatives in 
the givejn area; Cc) which functions should be performed by the 
local governments under the supervision of the central government. 
The actual work here involves the legal and functional rela- 
tionships between the central government and all local bodies, 
particularly prefectures, in the fields of finance, commerce and 
industry, education, labor, public health and welfare, agricul- 
ture, forestry and transportation. 
LAW NO. 67 
Law No. 67, the Law Concerning Local Autonomy, was promulgated 
16 April 1947. This law codifies former laws dealing with the 
organization and structure of (1) towns and villages, (2) cities, 
(3) prefectures, (4) Tokyo. 
I. Chief Executives; 
1. Today they are elected directly by the populace for a 
four year terra. They may be re-elected. This term of 
office is provisional because the officers can be re- 
moved through (a) vote of non-confidence of assemblies, 
(b) recall procedure by voters through petition, and 
(c) impeachment of governors only for non-performance of 
national duties.* 
Formerly the governors, as high ranking bureaucrats, were 
appointed by the Home Affairs and served 
appointments of short duration with the avowed purpose 
of serving primarily the central.government rather than 
the local. Mayors took office through indirect election 
by the assemblies; they were elected renewable terms of 
fo.ur years. Today the executives are now responsible 
to the electorate and must answer at the polls for their 
actions. 
17  XII gfcJlItJl'ax ai'ti XU duiuxius ui d i xunuv/C auu 
personnel. Each is responsible for the administration 
within his area of jurisdiction; each has final control 
of personnel although the a ctual work is performed by 
a deputy through an organized division of the adminis- 
trative offices; each initiates a budget bill and is 
responsible for its execution. 
Under the old laws these powers were held completely 
by the executive. Today, they share this authority 
with the legislatures. The budget may be altered in the 
legislative assembly whereas before, the budget was the 
prerogative of the executive. 
II, Tne Assemblies: 
1, Today as before the assemblemen are elected directly 
by populace for a four-year term. The term also is 
provisional as, after a vote of non-confidence, the 
assembly can be dissolved. Assemblymen today can be 
recalled by popular vote. This could not have been done 
previously. 
2, Powers of the assembly have been greatly increased. 
Today they exercise real legislative powers. Formerly 
their position was almost entirely advisory. 
(a) Today the assembly can override the executive's 
veto. Formerly this required action by the governor 
and the Minister of Home Affairs, Moreover the Minister 
of Home Affairs held the threat of dissolution over the 
assemblies. This power has now been taken from him. 
(b) Today the assemblies may alter the budgets. Under 
the old laws, assemblies could lower the total amount 
but could not raise it. 
(c) Ratification and confirmations! powers are greater 
in that more nominees* names must be -submitted for 
appointment. 
III. Other Changes: 
1. Election Administration Committees now supervise and con 
trol elections and political campaigns. These bodies 
are independent and are responsible to the public. 
2. Recall procedure the public a check on executive 
and legislative agencies. 
3, Initiative procedure allows the public to bring a matter 
or bill directly for legislative consideration. 
4, The Tonari Gumi system established as an integral part 
of Japan's total war effort, has been abolished. The 
individual can now go with his or her problems direct 
to ward, village, town or city offices instead of 
being forced to belong to a system of organizations 
which intervened between the people and their govern- 
ment. With the abolishment of the-Tonari Gumi, Chonaikai 
and Rengokai, a three layer network of compulsory organ- 
izations has been removed. 
18 Under the Tonari Gumi system, as amplified during the war, 
no Japanese could receive food c • other necessities if he failed 
to cooperate with all orders of his superiors. The system drilled 
and disciplined Japan for war, indoctrinated every individual with 
nationalistic and militarist theory, and spied upon those deemed 
likely to hold liberal or democratic ideas. 
This system was wiped out by Japanese Government orders de- 
manding the absolute cessation of all Tonari Gumi activities by 
31 March 1947. 
New regulations provided for a more democratic method of 
food distribution and for the assumption by local authorities of 
all governmental or quasi-governmental responsibilities formerly 
administered through Tonari Gumi channels. 
- Until the close supervision over their freedom had--been re- 
moved, and until Japanese could be assured opportunity for 
individual development, free from fear of espionage, from maliciou* 
interference by envious or suspicious neighbors seeking to curry 
favor with the authorities,* and frofn the crushing weight of bureau- 
cratic intervention in even the minor details of their daily life, 
Japanese had no real opportunity to be free. 
Abolition of the Tonari Gumi and the assumption of true per- 
sonal liberty affords Japanese society its first real opportunity 
in history to win and to enjoy the blessing of liberty. 
courts ;nd law 
The chief accomplishments in the' field of law during the first 
two years of the Occupation have resulted from the promulgation of 
a democratic Constitution, the establishment of an Independent 
judiciary, and a sweeping reform of the Japanese legal system. 
Because all laws, ordinances, et cetera contrary to the pro- 
visions of the Constitution were to become invalid with its err- 
forcement, it was necessary both to enact completely new legisla- 
tion to implement the provisions of the Constitution and to revise 
the existing judicial and legal system to conform to the principles 
of the new Constitution. 
In the beginning of the Occupation ECAP was primarily con- 
cerned with the main problem of demilitarization rather than with 
Japan’s judicial organization and law. However, the Japanese Gov- 
ernment, under the direction of the Occupation authorities, did 
abolish the most conspicuous legal restrictions on civil liberties 
and did. abrogate a number of laws which did not conform to the 
democratic principles and policies of the Occupation. Most of 
these were concerned with the -al of measures which had been 
used to suppress opposition to the war lords and the imperialists. 
During the preparation of the draft of the proposed Constitu- 
tion two Committees, the Provisional Legislative Investigating Com- 
mittee of the Cabinet and a similar group from the Ministry of 
Justice revised the codes and statutes to implement the provisions 
of this proposed Constitution. The Committees also introduced re- 
forms in spheres.of law not immediately affected by the Constitution 
When the preparation of this supplementary legislation was 
concluded, the two committees recommended preliminary and tentative 
outlines of nineteen bills to the Cabinet. These bills covered a 
variety of subjects including: 
a. Bills relating to the new position of the Imperial family: 
(1) The Revised Imperial Household. Bill 
(2) Imperial Household Economy Bill 
19 b» Bills of an organizational character: 
(1) Cabinet Bill 
(2) Diet Bill 
(3) House of Councillors ©lection Bill 
(4) Administrative Offices Bill 
(5) Finance Bill* 
(6) Civil Service Bill 
c. Bills relating to civil liberties: 
(1) Revision of the Petitions Law 
(2) Revision of the Ci' i Code 
(3) Revision of the Criminal Code 
(4) Revision of the Code of Criminal Procedure 
(5) Revision of Law for Criminal Procedure Compensation 
d. Bills relating specifically to the judicial administration 
(1) Court Organization Bill. 
(2) People1s Investigation of Judges Bill 
(3) Impeachment of Judges Bill 
(4) Administrative Litigation Bill 
(5) Public Procurators Office Bill 
Coincidental with the promulgation of the new Constitution on 
3 November 1946 a far-reaching amnesty was granted. It consisted 
of general amnesty covering political offenses, such as lese majest 
and most military offenses, of sracial amnesty to be granted indi- 
vidually of commutation of and of rehabilitation. 
The 91st extraordinary session of the Diet. 26 November 1946, 
to 26 December 1946, adopted four major bills whose provisions im- 
plemented the provisions of the Constitution. 
a. The Cabinet Law provided for the machinery and proce- 
dure by which the Cabinet and the Ministers of State are to operate 
b. The House of Councillors Law provided for the election 
of members of the first Chamber, qualifications for election of 
candidates, et cetera. 
c. The Imperial House Law related to all matters concern- 
ing succession to the throne, status of members of the Imperial 
Family, membership in the Imperial Family, the regency, ceremonial 
functions, and the establishment of the Imperial House Council. 
d. The Imperial House Economy Law implemented Article 88 
of the Constitution dealing with property of the Imperial Household 
as belonging to the State and with the appropriation of expenses for 
Imperial Household in the budget. 
Legislative Enactments Concerning Judicial Administration and the 
Basic Codes. 
The new Constitution of Japan has not only brought about a 
sweeping transformation in the organization and functions of the 
Judiciary,/ it has, in addition, established’principles which affect 
the basic Japanese law such as Civil and Penal Codes of Civil and 
Criminal Procedure in an almost revolutionary way. Fundamental 
human rights have been guaranteed and safeguards are especially 
elaborate for the protection of the individual in the field of 
criminal justice. All these constitutional innovations'have re- 
quired implenentary legislation. Japan finds itself, therefore, 
in the middle of a comprehensive and fundamental reform of the 
whole body of law. 
The first phase of this reform was concerned with the organ- 
isational aspect of the administration of justice. In its 92nd 
Session, the Diet enacted a new Court Organization Law and a 
Public Procurators1 Office Law. 
a. Court Organization Law. 
The basic principles behind this law are the complete 
inde»pendence of the judiciary from Hip particularly the Ministry of Justice and, in conn.ction with this, the strengthen- 
ing of the pfestige and power of the Supreme Court to which the 
judicial administration is entrusted , The two new prerogatives 
of the highest tribunal, judicial review over legislation and 
rule-making power aye vested in the Supreme Court and the inferior 
courts, namely high courts, di.suriot courts and summary courts. 
Consequently the Court Organization Law provides that all legal 
disputes shall be decided by these courts. This brings about, 
among others, the abolition of the Court of Administrative Liti- 
gation, However, the monopoly of the courts of law on legal 
disputes will in no way prevent the establishment of a jury system 
or preliminary fact finding by administrative agencies. 
The Supreme Court will, as a rule, be restricted in both 
civil and criminal affairs to a review of issues of law. 
The High Courts take the place of the former appellate 
courts. 
The District Courts take over most of the functions of the 
former Local Courts which are a", dished. 
The Summary Courts, as the lowest strata, may be compared 
with the institution of Justice of Peace in Anglo-Saxon 
countries. In civil suits they are limited to less significant 
claims and in criminal affairs they try petty offenses, thus 
also taking over the functions of the former Police Courts, 
which cease to exist. 
The Supreme Court will consist of one Chief Justice appointed 
by the Emperor on designation of the Cabinet, and of fourteen 
associate Judges appointed by the Cabinet, 
Ten of the judges must be on the basis of strict 
professional requirements such as long experience as 
lawyer, or professor of legal science, while the remaining* five 
are not subject to such limitation in order to open the way for 
the appointment of personalities with a background different from 
that of the normal expert in jurisprudence. In order to facilitate 
the choice of suitable personailities to the high position of a 
judge of the Supreme Court, it is provided that the Cabinet con- 
sult an Advisory Committee before making the designation of the 
Chief Justice and the appointment of the other judges. This Com- 
mittee determines on the candidates to be proposed to the Cabinet. 
It had been considered necessary to postpone the appointments to 
the Supreme Court until a Cabinet was formed after the enforcement 
of the new Constitution. 
It may be noted that all appointed judges of the Supreme Court 
are subject to recall by popular referendum. The status of all 
judges has been fundamentally changed. Formerly they were regarded 
as civil, servants and were classified and remunerated like admin- 
istrative officials. Appointments and promotions were determined 
by the Ministry of Justice, Now their appointment is entrusted to 
the Cabinet, which, however, in its selection is limited to the 
proposals of the Supreme Court. 
21 The -law repeats the constitutional guarantee that no judge 
shall, against his will, be dismissed or be removed to any other 
position, or be suspended from exercising his judicial function, 
or have his salary reduced, except by Impeachment or in the 
case of-the judges of the Supreme Court by popular referendum, 
or unless he is declared mentally or physically incompetent 
to perform his official duties. However, a retirement age 
has been fixed at 70 years for judges of the Supreme Court and 
at 65 years for judges of the inferior courts. 
It is noteworthy that the Supreme Court now has power 
of appointment and removal over the bulk of all those court 
officials who are not judges. Such secretaries, research 
assistants, teachers at a Judicial Research and Training 
Institute, clerks and sheriffs were formerly under the juris- 
diction of the Ministry of Justice. 
Another important shift of jurisdiction from the Ministry 
to the Supreme Court has been made with regard to matters 
concerning the study and examination of judicial apprentices. 
These matters will in the future be subject to the rule-making 
power of the Supreme Court. 
b. Public Procuratorys Office Law. 
This lav/ is essentially a reenactment of those provisions 
of the former Court Organization Law which related to procurators 
their powers--and their relationships. The need for a separate 
law dealing with these subjects followed from the complete 
separation of courts and administrative agencies required by 
the Constitution. In the past the close connection between 
judges and public procurators who both were under the super- 
vision of the Ministry of Justice had unfavorably affected 
the personal independence of the Judiciary, The procurators 
organizationj as before, is nationwide and is made up of 
separate offices which correspond to the new type of 
courts—the Supreme Procurators1 Office to the Supreme Court; 
High Procurators1 Offices to the High Courts; District 
Procurators1 Offices to the District Court; and Local 
Procurators1 Offices to the Summary Courts, 
22 Procurators are appointee" administrative officials and are 
responsible to the national government through the Ministry of 
Justice. However, the Procurator General as Chief of the Supreme 
Procurators1 Office enjoys a limited functional independence. 
A number of supplementary laws connected with the organizatio 
of courts and procurators1 offices was enacted by the last Diet, i 
These laws were concerned with, enforcement with the 
establishment of inferior courts and their jurisdiction; with the 
total number of court officials; and with temporary provisions con 
earning the compensation of judges and public procurators. 
The Constitution provides that no law contrary to its prin<- 
ciples shall have legal fofee after 3 May 194?, the date of en- 
forcement of the Constitution. The Japanese Government, aware of 
the danger of a hasty legisla^-'. n under pressure of time resorted 
to the expedient of submitting to the last Diet provisional bills 
which contain only the most elementary revisions of the basic Code 
These provisional revisions were enacted by the Diet in the fields 
of civil law and procedural law. They will be replaced Joy laws to 
be passed by the present Diet which will incorporate the final and 
full revision of the whole, body of law. Their temporary character 
is made clear by the provision that they will become automatically 
invalid at the' end of this year. 
a. Provisional Revision of the Civil Code. 
The Law emphasizes as its guiding principle individual dignit 
and the essential" equality of r :es, as provided in the new Consti 
tution. All restrictions on the legal capacity of women as wives 
and mothers are abolished, A wife will, in. the future, be free to 
dispose of her property. With regard to grounds of divorce, hus- 
gand and wife are now treated equally. While hitherto parental 
power was primarily in the hands of the father, now it is exercise' 
jointly by the father and mother. 
The most sweeping change ijq the family law of Japan has been 
brought about by the abolition of the centuries-old semi-feudal 
instition of the "head of the house". According to this old syste? 
not the family consisting of father, mother, and children, but the 
Chouse"—a kind of clan group—was the basic family unit. The 
Head of the House, usually the oldest male-of the group, exercised 
considerable legal and economic powers over the other members of 
the house regardless of whether he lived with them or not. He 
owned most of the family property, and succession into property war 
thus tied up with the succession into the headship of the house. 
As a logical consequence of the abolition of the institution, 
the new law provides that the principles governing succession to 
the property which is not house property shall be applied to all 
property. Furthermore the inheritance right of the spouse (husband 
or wife), not existing in the Ci"Til Code with regard to such suc- 
cession- into personal property has been established. 
b. Provisional Revision of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 
The fundamental change in the criminological attitude necessi- 
tated by the new constitutional safeguards for the individual's lij 
and liberty must bring about a thorough-going reform of the criminr 
procedure which in the past left too much latitude to arbitrary 
23 intenerence oy T;ne s taue anu one puxxv.c xn vi*w 
of privacy. The provisional law restrictes itself to the necessar; 
implementations of the Constitution and to revisions mainly re- 
quired as a consequence of the enforcement of the neto Court Organ- 
ization Law. 
The most important reforms are those designed to carry out 
the principles of the Constitution with regard to arrest and deten- 
tion. The law provides that no public procurator or Judicial 
police officer shall have the power to issue a warrant of arrest 
or detention. Only a judge may issue such warrant. As: a rule, 
a warrant of arrest must be procured before apprehending a suspect 
on reasonable ground of suspicion. 
The need for a practical dj vice to facilitate the prompt 
apprehension of a criminal motivated, however, the legislators to 
make two exceptions from the rule that the judicial warrant must 
precede the arrest; one is the case in which there are sufficient 
grounds to suspect the commission of a serious felony if, in addi- 
tion, because of great urgency a warrant of arrest could not be 
obtained beforehand from a Judge. In such a case a public procure 
tor or a judicial police official may apprehend the suspect, but 
must immediately request a warrant of arrest from a judge, and if 
such warrant is not issued must release the suspept at once. The 
second exception is the case of an individual actually engaged in 
committing a crime. For example, when a pickpocket is caught stea 
ing a purse, the individual citizen or police officer could not 
possibly obtain a warrant of arrost before seizing the thief. 
In all cases of arrest the warrant of detention must be re- 
quested from a judge by the public procurator without delay, and 
in any event within seventy-two hours from the time of physical 
apprehension of the_ individual. That is an important innovation 
because as the law was heretofore, this period only started to 
run from the time the apprehended person was brought to the police 
station. This device made it possible for a police official to 
delay the delivery of the apprehended person by holding him in con- 
finement at a place other than the police prison and thus to pre- 
vent arbitrarily the speedy operation of justice. Now this has be< 
made impossible since this 72 hour period starts from the moment or 
the physical apprehension. Only a judge may, upon proper showing 
of fapts, later rule the unavoidable circumstances, such as weathej 
conditions and poor communications, justified a delay. If the 
warrant of detention is not iar** :d by the judge on request within 
the mentioned period, the apprehended person must be released 
immediately. 
Another equally important safeguard which guarantees a speedy 
trial is the provision that the public procurator must bring public 
action as promptly as possible tinder the circumstances. If no 
public action has been commenced within ten days after a warrant 
of detention was requested by the public procurator, the suspect 
must be released. This is mandatory and binding upon the procuratc 
as well as upon the Court. Consequently, all time limitations sur- 
rounding arrest and detention of a suspected criminal are tied 
irrevocably to the moment of his actual physical apprehension. 
Thirteen days after this moment, public action must have been broug 
or he must be released. 
Following the principal established in Article 37 of the Con** 
stitution, the court must provide counsel for a proverty-strlcken 
accused. Heretofore, the court had to appoint counsel only if the 
crime involved was felony or in certain other special cases Invol- 
ving incompetents and minors, and then only upon the advice of the 
public procurator. 
To guard an accused further against arbitrary action it has 
been provided that preliminary examinations which all too often tool 
24 tjle character of f<inquisition" and prolonged the criminal process 
shaj.1 no longer be conducted; that no one shall be compelled to 
testify against himself; that confession obtained by compulsion, 
torture, threat, or polonged arrest or detention is inadmissible; 
that no person shall be convicted where the only proof against- him 
is his own confession. 
At the time of the trial, the accused is given-the right to 
examine all witnesses who have given testimony against him, and 
documents containing testimony may not be used as evidence unless 
the accused at the time of trial is, given opportunity to question 
and examine persons who have given such documentary testimony, or 
unless it is impossible or extremely difficult in view of unusual 
circumstances (having in mind such instances as dying declarations 
and witnesses residing at great distances) to give such rights to 
the accused and this question of unusual circumstances must be 
passed upon by the court. 
The fight of privacy in the home, as set forth in Article 35 
of the Constitution, is unequivocally set forth in the law accord- 
ing to which a public procurator or judicial police officer may 
not seize, search, or inspect without a judicial warrant—save in 
the case when a criminal is arrested while in the commission of a 
crime or when they are executing a warrant of arrest or detention. 
c. Provisional Revision of the Code of Civil Procedure 
This law contains predominatly technical procedural changes 
required by the new court organization. It elaborates, on one im- 
portant new right of the individual. The Court of Administrative 
Litigation being abolished, all actions for the annulment or altera- 
tion of any illegal act done by any administrative office may be 
brought to the regular court. The scope of such action is unlimited. 
Since the Court of Administrative Litigation had a very 
jurisdiction in cases defined by statute, this is a unique inova- 
tion designed to enforce the poeplefs right of challenging arbi- 
trary acts of administrative authorities whatever their nature may 
be. 
First Session of the National Diet 
Other important bills relating to Judicial Administration and 
Basic Codes are pending or are designed to be submitted to the 
present Diet. These include; 
a. Civil Code 
This bill contains elaborate and final legislation on the civil 
law and will replace the 'provisional ammendment of the Civil Code. 
b. Penal Code 
The existing Penal Code will be modernized and democratized. 
The specific protection w-hich the Emperor and the members of the 
Imperial Family have enjoyed heretofore with regard to offenses . 
against their lives and reputation will be abolished, since lese 
majesty provisions are no longer considered reconcilable with the 
new constitutional position of the Emperor and with the principle 
of equality of all citizens. 
Furthermore, the penal provisions concerning treason in wartime 
will be eliminated as a logical consequence, of the renunciation of 
war proclaimed in the new Constitution. 
Finally the libel and insult provisions will be amended because 
the existing law is considered incompatible with the new civil 
liberties, particularly freedom of expression. 
25 c. Family Registration Law 
This bill is designed to replace the old koseki system of 
registration which is based on the abolished house system. 
d. Bill for the Adjustment of Domestic Affairs, 
This bill is concerned with the organization and functions of 
a Court of Domestic Relations attached to the District Court and 
in charge of conciliation and determination in natters concerning 
family life. 
e. State Redress Bill 
This bill implements Article 1? of the Constitution according 
to which every person nay sue for redress as provided by law from 
the state or a public entity in case he has suffered damage through 
illegal act of any public official. 
f. Bill Concerning the Compensation of Judges 
g. Bill .Concerning.-the ComnensnSlsn. of. mxill&.JLZQ&umzoz&. 
h. Bill for Partial Amendment of the Law of Lawyers 
This bill is designed to give the Bar Association and lawyers 
a more autonomous status. 
1. BUI for the Popular Review of Judges 
This bill provides for the popular referendum in connection 
with the recall of judges of the Supreme Court. 
j. Judge Impeachment Bill 
This bill establishes rules for the organization and proce- 
dure of the Impeachment Court of the Diet, which according to the 
Constitution has authority to decide on the removal of judges. 
k. Reformatory Bill 
This bill is designed to adjust the treatment of juvenile 
delinquents to the modern concept of criminology. 
1. Code of Criminal Procedure 
To replace the provisional Code 
m. Habeas Corpus Act 
n. Code of Civil Procedure 
To replace the provisional Code 
Appointment of Judges to the Supreme Court 
a. Pursuant to the Court Organization Law, a judiciary Ap- 
pointment Consultative Committee was established by Cabinet Order 
in April 194?, and started its operation. However, the Yoshida 
Cabinet found it advisable to leave the designation of the Chief 
Justice and the appointment of Associate Justices to the first 
Cabinet formed under the new Constitution. This decision, although 
conforming to the spirit of the Constitution, delayed the final 
establishment of the new judicial system. 
b. To avoid a legal vacuum that might endanger the operation 
of justice, an Interim Supreme Court, consisting of membeieof the 
old Supreme Court and vested with te .ipr-ary emergency powers only, 
was formed. 
26 c. A second Consultative Committee for the Appointment of 
Judges of the Supreme Court was formed under the new Cabinet, It 
was comprised* of fifteen members: 
(1) Speaker of the House o? Representatives 
(2) Speaker of the House c* Councillors 
(3-6) Four persons elected by mutual vote from among the 
■judges of the whole country 
(7) One person elected by mutual vote from among the public 
procurators of the whole country and the persons who 
were the President or Judges in full time service of 
the* Court of Administrative Litigation as of May 2, 1947, 
(8-11) Four persons elected by mutual vote from among the 
lawyers of the whole country. 
(12-13) Two university professors of legal science. 
(14-1?) Two learned and experienced persons as designated by 
the Prime Minister. 
The Consultative Committee chose thirty candidates, mostly 
judges, lawyers and legal scholars, on 28 July 1947 to be presented 
to the Cabinet as the Committed • proposals for designation of the 
Chief Justice and for appointment of the Associate Justices. A 
program was conducted on" 29 July to 31 July 1947 to sample the 
opinion of the 'members of bar as to the qualification of these 
candidates to Supreme Court. This rather startling innovation of a 
public opinion poll on a question of such national importance 
occasioned much interest and discussion in the legal world. 
The legislation attempts on the one hand, to accomplish the 
tremendous task of creating an independent judiciary and consequent 
ly a completely reformed court system and on the other hand, to 
establish a new legal system based on concepts of justice and indi- 
vidual new to the Japanese poeple. It is obviou 
that these laws^fora only the initial basis for a development towai 
a genuine democratization of the Japanese society and that they wil 
be effective only if they are applied in the proper spirit. The 
actual administration of justice must, therefore, be given particu- 
lar attention. 
Finally, the most important factor in the success of the new 
democratic legal system is the Japanese people themselves. They 
must be educated and instructed to enjoy the rights and privileges 
guaranteed by'law. They must ever be on guard to*pfeveht any 
infringements of their rights. It is the Japanese people who will 
determine whether the objectives of_the Occupation and the prin- 
ciples of the Constitution, as they affect the Japanese legal 
system, will be realized. 
Educational sampaigns to prr/ote this education are currently 
in progress. 
27 APPEND IIJ 
GIST OF THE NEW JAPANESE C0H6IIOTI0N 
The new Constitution of Japan which became effective May 3* 
1947f transformed Japan into a representative and parliamentary 
democracy, characterized by the supremacy of the legislative branch 
over the executive. 
Sovereignty, which, hitherto rested with the Emperor, now rests 
with the people. 
The imperial institution survives only in the modified form of 
an Emperor who is even more restricted than is the Head of the State 
in other parliamentary governments. 
As in Great Britain, Japan has a bicameral legislature, the 
lower house wielding more power than\ the upper, and a strong Prime 
Minister within the cabinet. The cabinet, exercising executive 
power, is responsible to the Diet. 
The Constitution abolishes the former dependence of the courts 
upon the executive. Moreover, it establishes 11 judicial supremacy'* 
by granting the Supreme Court the.power to determine the constitu- 
tionality of legislative and administrative acts, thus subjecting 
both the executive and legislative- branches of government to check 
by an independent.judiciary. 
A Japanese Bill of Rights covers the broad fields of political, 
social, economic and. juridical relations between the individual and 
the state. The Meiji Constitution nominally provided for the tradi- 
tional civil liberties, but actually operated to cancel those- rights 
by legislative acts. The new Constitution contains no such loop- 
holes, but solemnly delcares that fundamental human rights are 
eternal aiad inviolate. 
The renunciation of war is a unique feature of the new Consti- 
tution. Born out of the bitter experience of war and defeat, this 
provision bears the impress of the modern conception that mankind 
constitutes a unity. It renounces the right of belligerency and 
forbids development of the means to wage war as the only effective 
curb upon war. Here, for the fhnrt time in history, a national 
state thus offers specific and absolute guarantees of peaceful in- 
tention, not only to its own people, but to the world at large. 
The moral significance of this renunciation is self-evident. 
The permanent total abolition of armed forces is a logical 
result of the renunciation of war. This, too, is an innovation in 
the history of constitutions. 
Of all the government institutions, that of the Emperor has 
undegone the most striking transformation under the new basic law. 
The Meiji Constitution declared him head of the Empire, sacred and 
inviolate; under it he held and exercised the rights of sovereignty; 
the legislative power, the supreme command of the Army and Navy,, 
with the right to declare war, to make peace and to" conclude 
treaties. The new Constitution vests sovereignty in the people and 
regards the monarch only as a Japanese citizen. His share in the 
sovereignty is the same as that of any other citizen, ts in Belgium 
and Holland, he.is merely the symbol of the state and of the' unity 
of the people. 
It is significant that the Constitution does not make the 
Emperor even a titular chief executive or head of the State, In 
England, France, Belgium, Holland and the Scandinavian countries 
’’hile the Cabinet or the Prime’ Minister actually exercises the 
28 executive power, "cne King or presiucuu, cvcu j-j. « — - - -~o — --- 
is considered the chief executive. The new Japanese device of 
vesting with executive power only the organ which actually exer 
cises it is an innovation in the history of constitutions. 
THE NATIONAL DIET 
In accordance with the principle that sovereignty rests with 
the people, the Diet as the representative of all people ranks 
first among the governmental institutions. The Constitution 
solemnly proclaims that the Diet shall be the highest organ*of 
state power and the sole law-making organ of the states 
The Diet consists of the House of Representatives and the House 
of Councillors* The members of both Houses shall be representative 
of all people and shall be elected by secret ballot in accordance 
with the principle of universal add t suffrage. The right to vote 
and the right to be elected snail not be abridged because of race, 
creed, sex, social status, family origin, education, property or 
income. 
The denial of family origin as a standard for determining 
membership in the upper house and the requirement that members, of 
both Houses must be representative of all the people make it con- 
stitutionally impossible to revive the former House of Peers. 
The term of office of members of the Lower House is four years, 
while that of Councillors is six years, with half of the members 
being chosen every three years. 
The Diet has important functions with regard to the budget. 
The Constitution sets forth the general principle that the power 
to administer notional finances shall be exercised as the Diet 
shall determine. No money shall be expended nor shall the State 
obligate itself« unless authorized by the Diet, Furthermore,"the 
power to impose *new taxes or to modify existing ones is exclusively 
vested in the. Diet, 
The far-reaching budget power of the Diet signifies an 
ant forward step in the democratic process. According to the Meji 
Constitution the Diet had no power to increase the budget submitted 
to it by the Cabinet, and in the event of rejection by the Diet, 
the budget of the preceding year remained in force. These crippling 
limitations have been-abandoned. 
The new Constitution provides that all property of the Imperial 
Household shall belong to the State and that all expenses of the 
Imperial Household shall be appropriated by the Diet in the budget. 
THE CABINET 
Executive power is fixed in the Cabinet with the Prime Minister 
as head of the Cabinet, The Prime Minister must be a member of the 
Diet, His appointment shall be formally made by the Emperor but 
only after designation by the Diet. This, in substance, means an 
election of the Prime Minister by the Parliament. 
The other Ministers of State are appointed by the Prime Minis- 
ter and may be removed by him as he chooses. However, at least 
Naif of their number must be members of the Diet. This is another 
Evidence of'the-People1 s insistence on the designation of Ministers 
who have won popular approval by election to the Diet. 
in case the Cabinet no longer enjoys the confidence of the 
•mI °** RePresentatives it must resign. This requirement of 
spiiaarlty is a logical consequence oilJUie. predominant position of 
the Prime Minister, who on important political issues must identify 
29 himself with his associates. In addition it is in keening with 
the traditional Japanese characteristic of group responsibility. 
The Constitution requires the resignation of the Cabinet in 
two other instances; (1) when there is a vacancy in the post of 
Prime Minister, and (2) upon the first convocation of the- Diet afta 
a general election to the House of Representatives, While not 
always explicitly provided for constitutionally, this is the 
practice in most parliamentary democracies, A change in the persor 
of the premier as well as in the composition of the Parliament 
generally necessitates some political adjustment. 
As to the functions of the Prime Minister, the Constitution 
provides that, representing the Cabinet, he submits bills to the 
Diet, reports on general notional affairs and foreign relations an* 
exercise control and supervision over various administrative 
branches. The Cabinet as such entrusted with functions of a 
general as well as special nature. It shall administer the law 
faithfully and conduct affairs of the State. The Constitution 
moreover, lists the management of foreign affairs; the conclusion 
of treaties, which however, require the preceding or subsequent 
approval of the Diet; the administration of the civil service in 
accordance with standards established by law; the preparation of 
the budget and its presentation to the Diet; the issuance of Cabin 
orders to execute the Constitution and the law; and the decision o 
matters of amnesty and rehabilitation. 
THE JUDICIARY 
In the past Japanese judges were theoretically independent bu" 
actually were controlled by the Ministry of Justice. This arrange- 
ment did not foster a genuinely independent judiciary. Ambitious 
judges were inclined to adapt their decisions? particularly in 
political cases, to the wishes of their superiors. Moreover, they 
were under continuous observation and control by public procurator 
who reported to and obeyed the Ministry of Justice, 
The new Constitution removes the courts from the Justice 
Ministry, Thus foundations are l*id for the Independence of the 
judges in the exercise of their conscience. They a re bound only 
by the Constitution and by the laws. 
The President of the Supreme Court is appointed by the Empero*- 
upon designation by the Cabinet. This Places the Chief Justice on 
an equal ceremonial level with the Prime Minister, Other Judges 
of the SuffTeme Court are appointed by the Cabinet. A popular revir 
of judicial appointments to the Supreme Court at 10-year intervals 
is provided. Japan has by this means expressly recognized the 
political character of the highest tribunal and the interest of , 
the people* in the personnel cor* using it. 
The judges of the inferior courts are also appointed by the 
Cabinet, but from a list of persons nominated by the Supreme Court 
This arrangement entrusts the determination of personnel policy 
practically to the Supreme Court, Life tenure is replaced* by a 
10-year term of office in order to permit.a removal in incompetent 
or otherwise objectionable judges. For all judges an age limit fo? 
retirement'will be provided by law. Apart from this the Constitu- 
tion provides the judges shall not be removed except by public , 
impeachment unless declared or physically incompetent to 
perform official duties. An impeachment court will be established 
from among the members of both houses of the Diet for the purpose 
of trying those judges against whom removal proceedings have been 
instituted. 
The most important and ft.'-reaching power which the Constitu- 
tion confers upon the Supreme Court is the power of judicial review 
30 The Court will "determine the constitutionality of any law, order 
regulation or official act" and thus becomes the guardian of the 
Constitution. The political significance of this development can 
hardly be overestimated. The power of judicial review h«s fre- 
quently been characterized as judicial supremacy, a term which 
sometimes obscures the understanding of the functions pertaining 
to this power. The Judiciary does not interfere with the prerog- 
atives of the legislature and does not violate the-principle that 
the Diet shall be the sole law-making organ of the State. In 
reviewing laws the Supreme Court determines whether laws conform 
to the Constitution. A court 'decision that a is unconstitu- 
tional has the effect of rendering it unenforceable. The court 
does not make or even veto lews; it simply reviews them to deter- 
mine whether they are in harmony with the supreme law, the Con- 
stitution. 
31 APPENDIX II 
1 August 1947 
THE PURGE 
On 4 January 1946 the Supreme Commander for the Allied 
Powers issued a sweeping directive requiring a purge of all 
persons who shared responsibility for Japanfs program of 
aggression. 
This directive, issued as SCAPIN 5?0, was designed to 
remove undesirable persons from, positions of influence and 
authority^in the political, economic and social life of Japan. 
For the fields of education and police, separate similar pro- 
grams had been initiated as early as October 194?. 
The removal and exclusion program has never been either 
in concept or administration a punitive measure but was and 
is a technique designed to eliminate the continuity of in- 
fluence or exercise of power by persons whose past careers 
showed them to be undesirable leaders for a nation dedicated 
to democracy and the cause of world peace. 
BAGIS FOR THE PURGE 
Potsdam Declaration 
The international basis; for the entire purge program is 
found in that part of the Potsdam Declaration which states, 
’’There must be removed for all time the authority and in- 
fluence of those who deceived and misled the people of Japan 
into embarking on world conquest, for we insist that a new 
order of peace, security ahd justice will be impossible until 
irresponsible militarism is driven from the world’U 
Occupation Directives 
In accordance with initial U. S. Post-Surrender Policy 
for Japan SCAP was directed, by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to 
insure that no persons be "allowed to hold public office or 
any other positions of responsibility or influence in public 
or important private enterprise who have been active exponents 
of militant nationalism and aggression, who have been in- 
fluential members of any Japanese ultranationalistic, terroris 
tic or secret patriotic society”. , . , , who have been in- 
fluential in the activities of Imperial Rule Assistance 
Organizations, "or who manifest hostility to the objectives 
of the occupation”. 
SCAP v;as further directed to prohibit the retention in* 
or selection for, positions of important responsibility in 
industry, finance, commerce, agriculture, or public or private 
financial institutions, agencies or organizations, of any 
persons who have been active exponents of militant nationalism 
or aggression, and of all those who do not direct future 
Japanese economic effort solely toward peaceful ends. 
In the absence of. evidence to the contrary, SCAP was 
directed to assume that persons who held key positions of 
high responsibility since 1937 in any of the fields enumerated 
above have been active exponents of militant nationalism and 
aggression. 
THE 4 JANUARY 1946 DIRECTIVE 
SCAPIN 550 which has become famous as the ”4 January 
Directive” Is SCAp!s implementation of the early instructions 
from the Joint Chiefs of Staff* Purg.e. Categories 
This basic directive ordered the Japanese Government to 
remove from public office and to exclude from government 
service exponents of militant nationalism and aggression 
falling within the following defined categories: 
Category A. War Criminals, 
Category B. Career Military ,and Naval Personnel; 
Special Police 'and Officers jitLjSgL 
War MinistriesT ~ 
This category included members of the 
Board of Fleet Admirals and Field 
Marshals, the Supreme Military 
Council, the Imperial General Head- 
quarters, the Army and Navy General 
Staffs, and the Supreme Council far 
direction of the war; all career 
commissioned officers and enlisted 
personnel who served in or with the 
military or naval police or other 
special or secret intelligence police 
organizations; and all persons who 
served as higher officials-, in the 
Ministry of War or Ministry of Navy. 
Category C. Inflll^1^%lJiQinbe.rs._o£,Jiltr^^ti.giria* 
listic. Torrorls'tfc or Secret Patriotic 
So.cie.ties* 
Founders, officers, directors and .other 
important officials, large financial 
contributors to, or editor of any 
publication or organ of' such societies. 
Category D. Persons JCnflue.r^tia.I .in .tho 
of the"Ymperial Rule' AsVisFarTce As- 
sbclatlon, the TTmueria 1 "RuTcTUss 1 stance 
Politicarl S.ocTe tyt _and_the. P_olitic.al 
A^^cfa ti on j££.1g r e at jj a pari' 
National officers, leading officials in 
Prefectural or Metropolitan subdivisions 
editor of any publication or organ of 
the above or agencies or affiliates of 
the above organizations. 
Category E. Officers of Financial and Development 
Organizations involved In Japanese, 
Expansion. 
Persons who between 7 July 1937 and 2 
September 194? were directors, presi- 
dents, vice presidents, advisors, 
auditors or controlling branch 
managers in Japanese occupied terri- 
tory of above institutions. 
Category F. Governors of Occupied Territories,• 
. ' Certain specified higher officials 
such as governor general, civil admin- 
istrator, and military administrator 
in Japan’s wartime colonial empire. 
Category G. Additional Militarists _and,tJltr&- 
natlonalists7 
33 These broad provisions bring under the 
terras of- the directives 
1. Any person who has denounced or con- 
tributed to the seizure of opponents of 
the militaristic regime* 
2. Any person who has instigated or 
perpetuated an act of violence against 
opponents of the militaristic regime. 
3. Any person who has played an active 
and predominant governmental part in 
the Japanese program of aggression or 
who by speech, writing, or action has 
shorn himself to be an active exponent 
of militant nationalism and aggression. 
INITIAL ACTION OF THE 
MEW imlMENT ING THE PURQE 
Ordinances Issued 
On 27 February 1946 the Japanese Government promulgated 
Imperial Ordinance No. 109 and Cabinet and Home Affairs Ministry 
Ordinance No.. 1 of 1946 which established the machinery for 
applying the Directive. These ordinances determined, first, 
who should be screened, second,' who should be classified' as 
undesirable in light of the Directive and third, how the re- 
moval of undesirables -should be accomplished. 
By the terms of these ordinances all incumbent officials 
of the then first three civil service grades, and those who 
held positions of comparable authority, all staff officers of 
114 listed corporations, associations,and other organizations 
under the special control of the government, and all applicants 
for future elective or appointive posts in the national govern- 
ment were subject to screening to determine their eligibility. 
The seven categories of undesirables outlined by the 
Directive were defined in greater detail by the ordinances as 
follows; 
1. No change was made in the category applying to 
war criminals (Category A). 
2* The one affecting career military and naval per- 
sonnel (Category B) remained substantially the same. 
3. The provisions of Category C were defined as ap- 
plying to influential members of 123 listed ultranatlonalistic 
or secret patriotic societies. 
4. The many agencies and affiliates of the Imperial 
Rule Assistance organizations (Category D) were enumerated and 
the influential positions in each duly listed. 
5. The number of financial and development organi- 
zations involved in Japanese expansion (Category E), as listed 
in the original directive, was increased. 
6. The exact titles and positions of high Japanese 
officials in occupied territories (Category E) were defined. 
7. The broad provisions of Category G, were ex- 
tensively Interpreted by a special cabinet announcement ap- 
pearing shortly after the promulgation of Imperial Ordinance 
109. 
34 It brought under the purge memorandum all persons 
who had occupied certain policy-forming positions on the 
highest government level between the outbreak of nThe China 
Incident” and the Surrender, 
It listed other high government positions of some- 
what lesser importance and provided for the purge of indivi- 
duals who had occupied them providing there was conspicious 
evidence that these individuals hare played an Important part: 
(a) in the conclusion of alliances with the. Axis or with 
puppet nations in preparation for the Greater East Asia War, 
(b) in the suppression of opponents of militarism, (c) in 
concluding economic agreements with occupied countries, (d) 
in the financial or production program for Japanese military 
activities. 
The interpretation of Category G also brought under 
the purge: (a) those officials who had over a long period 
of time engaged in the suppression of civil liberties, (b) 
other officials, members of the Diet, artists, writers, 
publishers, editors and businessmen who had participated in 
activities proscribed under Category G, (c) officials of 
companies that had produced the weapons and sinews of war, 
(d) highest. officers of patriotic societies not listed under 
Category C and (e) any person who liras recommended as a can- 
didate by the TOJO Government in 1942, 
The ordinances provided for a screening committee to 
examine questionnaires and to decide upon individual eligi- 
bility. In the event that the individual was found to fall 
under the criteria as.defined in the ordinance, the Prime 
Minister was to designate him as an undesirable person, and*, 
to order his removal and exclusion from office. The ordinances 
also provided for the collection of questionnaires and con- 
tained a penalty clause designed to insure that such question- 
naires would be filled out truthfully and completely. 
Initial Operation and Effect Of The Purge 
The impact of the Purge Directive was immediate and pro- 
found. On 13 January 1946, only 9 days after the Directive 
was issued, the Cabinet of Baron Kijuro Shldehara underwent 
extensive re-organisation. Three ministers and six cabinet 
executives and many other high government officials resigned. 
In view of the imminence of the approaching April elections 
the government released the criteria as soon as they had been 
determined in the form of Cabinet announcements, without wait- 
ing until the entire bill had been written. Thus, by the end 
of February when Imperial Ordinance No. 109 was officially 
promulgated, action had already been taken to bring under the 
purge (a) persons who had been influential in patriotic and 
secret societies, (b) influential members of the Imperial Rule 
Assistance organizations, and (c) career naval and military 
personnel, of whom approximately 183,000 were barred from 
the Public Service. 
On 10 March 1946, the day of the Cabinet announcement 
interpreting Category G. the Shidchara Cabinet sustained 
second wave of resignations 5 five ministers retired. Many 
members of the House of Peers followed suit. Within the month 
30 new appointees, duly screened under the new ordinances, 
were appointed to fill the vacancies thus created. 
That part of the 10 March interpretation which rendered 
ineligible for public service all members of the Lower House 
who had been recommended by the Tojo Government greatly altered 
the political scene. Leadership of political parties changed, 
political allegiances shifted and new candidates were sought 
to replace those previously scheduled to run in the April 
35 elections. Of the candidates for the Lower House, 252 
were barred* Of the 252 barred, 113 were candidates re- 
commended by Prime Minister Tojo in the 1942 elections. Another 
268. "recommended candidates’’ did not file. 
When the Diet convened on 20 June 1946 all successful can- 
didates to the Lower House were re-screened and their cases 
reviewed. As a result ten more were removed, nine of these 
by Japanese Government order and one, Ichiro Hatoyama, leader 
of the Liberal Party, by SOAP directive. 
On 16 May 1946 the Japanese Government prepared a .qtill 
more comprehensive and detailed interpretation of those para- 
graphs of Category G relating to other government officials, 
members of the Diet, artists, writers, publishers, editors and 
businessmen who had in activities proscribed under the 
Directive, These extended criteria were not publicly announced 
at the time lest such an announcement interfere with the 
completion of screening by the scheduled deadline. Nevertheless 
this document represented an early extension of the purge pro- 
gram into industry and the field of public information, an 
extension to be perfected and completed the following year. 
Statistical jSummary 
By August 1946 the Japanese Government announced the sub- 
stantial completion of the initial phase of the purge program. 
The Privy Council, the Diet-, the Cabinet, Prefecture! Governors, 
all officials of the then first three ranks, judges of higher 
courts, officials of government controlled companies, pro- 
curators of certain higher courts, and officials of higher 
educational institutions directly under the Ministry of 
Education had all been screened. These totalled 5, 520 
of which 814 wore barred or removed, and 4,706 were passed. 
This figure was subsequently increased by 4 January 1947 to 
8,899 persons screened, of which 7*832 had been passed and 
1,067 barred or removed. In addition 183,000 career officers 
of the army and navy, members of the gendarmerie and former 
intelligence agents had beer categorically barred. The way 
was now clear for the anticipated extension of the program 
to local government, to industry and to the field of public 
information* 
ErrBNStON OF PURGE PROGRAM 
Prellminary Stops. 
In August 1945 a statement of SCAP policy was issued re- 
quiring the Japanese Government to prepare a comprehensive 
plan-for: (a)the exclusion from prefcctural and municipal 
assemblies and from appointive posts of all personnel deemed 
undesirable under the provisions of SCAPIN 550; (b) the ap- 
plication of that directive to all elections of members of 
both Houses of the Diets (c) the exclusion of all purged per- 
sonnel from any influential political or economic posts. 
This statement also provided that the Japanese Government 
should publish the full text of the plan simultaneously with 
its submission to SCAP, 
The Extension Plan 
On 22 October the government submitted to SCAP and simul- 
taneously released to the public a plan which- comprehensively 
implemented the 4 January Directive* 
'In the ensuing two .months the essential features of this 
plan were incorporated into definitive and appropriate form 
for issuance as law. 
36 The Extension Ordinances 
On 4 January 194-7, one year from issuance of the original 
directive, the Japanese Government promulgated Imperial 
Ordinance Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 of 1947 and Cabinet and Home 
Affairs Ministry* Ordinance No. 1 of 1947, thus implementing 
all the features of the approved plan. These ordinances con- 
tained provisions which were designed to reach into all 
fields. 
Criteria for Screening 
The screenablc positions were extended to include all 
elective and appointive posts in the national and local 
governments and specifled positions in certain companies, 
associations, mass communication media and other organizations. 
These latter Y/erc defined to be positions in; companies in 
Y/hich the government had special interests ; organizations sub- 
sidized by the government or serving for the public benefit; 
principle newspaper companies, news agencies, publishing 
companies, motion picture and theatrical companies, broad- 
casting corporations and-other media of mass communication5 
political parties, their branches and similar organizations5 
and influential companies, financial institutions and other 
economic organizations* "mhe specific offices considered to 
be policy-making positions and approximately 470 such com- 
panies, organizations, etc., were specifically listed. 
Criteria for Purging 
In a manner similar to that in which definition of 
screenable positions was enlarged, the purge criteria were 
also more specifically defined. 
No changes were made in the definition of the categories 
applicable to war criminals (Category A) career military and 
naval personnel, etc; (Category B), officials of financial 
and development companies involved in Japanese expansion 
(Category E) and officials in occupied territories (Category 
F). Vith regard to the influential members of ultranational- 
istic, terroristic or secret patriotic societies (Category 
C) the criteria were specifically defined to include those 
persons in the local branches thereof who had held positions 
comparable to-those previously defined as applying only to 
the national level. The criteria applicable to persons in- 
fluential in the Imperial Rule Assistance Association, (Cate- 
gory D)'v/ere further defined in the case of parent organiza- 
tions and major affiliates to include officials of all local 
subdivisions thereof, down to and including chiefs of to\m 
and village branches. 
The category in which the most far-reaching and com- 
prehensive definitions wore made was that applying to ad- 
ditional militarists and ultranationalists (Category G)• 
The provision in this category, implemented by Cabinet 
announcement of 10 March 1946 described heretofore, which 
applied to government officials and professional men who had 
participated in activities such as mentioned in this category 
was defined more clearly. Those falling under the provisions 
of the ordinance were government officials who took part in the 
planning or execution of propaganda or dissemination of news 
for the purpose of (1) instigating war; (2) suppressing op- 
ponents of jingoism; (3) advocating dictatorship, totalitar- 
ianism of the Nazi or Fascist pattern, and militarism or 
ultranationalism; (4) guiding or controlling thought or speech 
for the same purpose; (5) political direction or economic ex- 
ploitation of Japanese occupied territories; (6) furthering 
37 important plans for wartime general mobilization or economic 
control, and other plans for the direction of war# 
Diet members in or outside the Diet who had in ?*riting, 
speech or action been conspicuously active in instigating or 
directing war, suppressing opponents of jingoism or inspiring 
dictatorship, totalitarianism of the Nazi or Fascist pattern, 
militarism or ultranationalism were considered undesirable 
within the purview of the provision. 
Men of letters and artists who by their works had ad- 
vocated aggression or militant nationalism, actively contri- 
buted to such propaganda, or who through their political or 
philosophic doctrine laid down an ideological basis for the 
policies for the Greater East Asia, or New Order in the East 
Asia or policies of a similar nature, or the China Incident 
or the Pacific War 5 who had advocated the supremacy of the 
Japanese nation to be a leader of other nations or who co- 
operated actively with propaganda of tftc above effect; who 
persecuted or denounced liberals or anti-militarists for their 
liberal or antimilitaristic ideologies; or who in any other 
way advocated or championed militarism or ultranationalism 
were by this provision brought under the terms of the Directive. 
This added definition made it possible to measure by a clearer 
standard the writings, speeches, articles, news reports, etc. 
of this group of people. 
Closely associated with the above was the more elaborate 
interpretation of the criteria as applied to the principal 
officials and editorial personnel of 'organizations in the 
information media field. As published in the Cabinet Ordinance 
certain officials of newspaper companies, magazine or book 
publishing companies, broadcasting corporations, companies 
producing motion pictures or theatrical presentations and any 
other media of mass communication in or outside Japan who held 
office during the period between 7 July 1937 and 7 December 
194-1 and whose companies engaged in the activities listed in 
the preceding paragraph as- criteria for judging men of letters 
and artists were brought under the Directive. These listed 
officials were the Chairman, Vice-chairman, President, Vice- 
president, Managing Director, Standing Director, Chief of 
Compilation Bureau, Chief of Research Bureau, Editor-in-Chief, 
Managing Editor, Chief of Editorial Staff, or any other 
official who exercised authority or influence commensurate 
with that of any of the above positions. Previously the 
criteria as it applied to the information media field had 
been so vaguely defined as to bo difficult of application; 
this had largely been remedied. 
Perhaps the most sweeping extension of the provisions 
of this broad category, was in the interpretations as they 
applied to certain top officials of what had previously been 
referred to as "influential companies or national policy 
companies manufacturing finished aircraft or arms or 'pro- 
ducing iron or steel." This category had now been broadened 
to include all policy-making officials down to but not in- 
cluding ordinary directors, but including all other officials, 
regardless of title, who in fact exercised authority or in- 
fluence commensurate with that of any of the above in any 
company which was conspicuously influential in the manufacture 
of strategic or critical material of war, conspicuously mono- 
polistic in. the production of basic productive materials or 
business of communications or transportation, or domestic or 
foreign trade; holding companies or influential companies 
closely associated thereto; and companies capitalized in ex- 
cess of one'hundred million yen or which had commanded ex- 
cessive economic power, Two hundred and forty-six such 
companies were listed in the ordinance. 
38 InJ met ions 
Contained in Imperial Ordinance Mo, 1 of 194-7 are four 
injunctions designed to prevent the continuity of influence 
rnd power by purgees in those positions and organizations in 
the public service from which they had been removed. Penalty 
clauses are included which make violators of the above in- 
junctions liable to confinement for not more than three years 
or to a fine not exceeding 15,000 yon. 
Non-Suecession provisions 
A feature designed to allow now leadership to come to 
the front in municipal governments was incorporated in Im- 
perial Ordinances Nos. 3 and 4 of 194-7, also issued on 4 
January 1947. These ordinances provided that mayors, deputy- 
mayors, headmen of wards'“In Tokyo, headmen and deputy-head- 
men of towns and villages and headmen of federations of 
neighborhood assocications (CHONAI KAI CHO and BURAKITKAI 
CKO),, who had held such positions consecutively fromrl Sept- 
ember 1945 until 1 September 194-6, even though they did not 
fall, under the provisions of the purge ordinance, were to he 
barred from filing as candidates for those respective positions 
for a period of four years. So much of this as it applied to 
the headmen of federations of neighborhood associations was 
revoked when, on 3 March 194-79 those federations were abolished 
Ad ministration 
Because of the increased amount of screening anticipated 
at all levels, estimated by the government at between 
500,000 and 700,000 cases, a reorganization of the screening 
system was effected by the promulgation of Imperial Ordinance 
No. , 2 of 1947. 
This ordinance provided for one Central Public Office 
Qualifications Examination Committee, forty-six Prcfcctural 
Committees (including 5 major cities; and 118 Municipal Com- 
mittees (cities with population of 50,000 or more). 
The Central Committee was made responsible to the Prime 
Minister who makes final decision on all cases screened by 
that committee. The local committees make recommendations 
to their respective prcfcctural governors who give final 
thereon. 
The Central Committee's authority was limited to positions 
in the national government, positions in organizations com- 
parable thereto, and the top elective posts of the prefectures 
and 5 principal cities. All other posts in local government 
and those in local branchcs'of screcnable organizations were 
within the screening authority of the local committees. 
Publicity 
The results obtained by the publicity of the extended 
purge plan in October 1946 made it desirable that in the future 
all activities and results in connection with the purge be 
given wide publicity. This publicity program is accomplished 
in several ways. The Central Government, through the Prime 
Minister, the governors, and the mayors of the five principal 
cities , releases to the press and posts, semi-monthly bulletins 
listing by name all those persons who have been screened dur- 
ing the preceding two weeks, together with results of the 
screening. The questionnaires of all such persons together 
with copies,of the purge ordinances are made available for 
public inspection at the offices of the screening committees 
concerned. A copy of the questionnaire of each candidate is 
39 also available for public inspection at the office of the’ap- 
propriate election administration committee,•as well as the 
screening committee’s office. ‘News releases and radio broad- 
casts explain to the people not only the purpose behind the 
purge but also the important provisions of the purge ordinances. 
Schedule of Bcreenln 
The order in which various groups would be screened was 
determined by schedule. Proposed appointees for local com-? 
mittces were screened first. The general cloctiohs then im- 
pending necessitated screening election officials and can- 
didates next. Screening of economic entities, principal 
public.offices, political parties and public-information 
media organizations followed. 
Activities Prior to Elections 
Prior to the General Elections in April 194? all can- 
didates for the more important.elective posts were screened 
and the following report made,, by.the Japanese Government:. 
Candidates 7/1 led Passed ♦Provisionally Barred 
Passed 
House of Representatives 3,426 3,2Z0 59 137 
House of Councillors 1,406 .1,36!? 10 31 
Prefecture!' Governors 4?1 428 3 20 
Mayors of 5 Principal 
Cities 43 42 - Z 
*No final decision could be reached in these cases noted as 
11 provisionally passed” because research in the information 
media field had not boon completed. 
• During the same period the Local Committees screened an 
estimated 72,550 candidates for headmen of wards, towns, and 
villages; 21,126 candidates for deputy-mayors, deputy-headmen 
and accountants of cities, towns and villages; and about 
42,2?2 members of election administrative committees. 
ctivitics Subsequent to Elections 
Subsequent to the elections and prior to assuming office, 
successful candidates for the important elective posts, 
screened by the Central Committee were re-examined. Eleven 
members-elect to the House of Representatives and four members- 
elect to the House of Councillors wore removed. One of those 
removed was ISHIBASHI, Tanzan, former Finance Minister of 
the Yoshida Cabinet. 
The Central Screening Committee also post-screened 
2.803 successful candidates for prefectural assemblies and 
2o4 assemblymen of the five principal cities. 
During the same period the Local Committees post-screened 
158,757 persons who had been elected to the assemblies of 
cities, wards, towns and villages. 
Economic Phase 
This phases beg an about 15 A.pril 1947, at which time it 
was estimated that 3,200 persons holding policy positions in 
approximately 300 companies would require, screening. 
By the middle of July 194? approximately 3,150 persons 
holding leading and influential-positions in over 240 companies 
had been screened and their cases reviewed by SCAP; a total 
of 292 persons had been removed and/or excluded from public OVJJ. VXUUi IllUi U i Ul!ld4.uUU VjLIKJ DU1 UUliXUg Ui jjvjx ou11*2 J4ixu*J\s 
questionnaires had not yet been obtaihdd, the seeking out of 
those whose positions were not listed in the mandatory pro- 
visions of the ordinances but who had, nevertheless, ex- 
ercised influence and authority commensurate with' such listed 
positions and the formal designation of those who had resigned 
to escape the legal injunctions against purrees. 
Public Information Media Purge 
Paragraph 5 of the' "remarks" section of Appendix I. 
Cabinet -and Home Ministry Ordinance No. 1 of*1947 constituted 
the basis of the Public Information Media Purge. This para- 
graph brings under the provisions of the Directive any scholar, 
journalist or editor and any.principal official of a publish- 
ing house, newspaper or magazine, broadcasting corporation, 
motion picture or theatrical company who between 7 July 1937 
and 7 December 1941 advocated aggression, or militant nation- 
alism, espoused totalitarianism or advocated the,supremacy 
of the Japanese nation over other nations, denounced liberals 
and anti-militarists, or in any other way advocated or cham- 
pioned militarism or ultranationalism. 
The just and equitable application of these provisions 
necessitated extensive research in every field of public 
information, including not only a study of the media itself 
but of the organizational structure of public, information 
companies. This program was undertaken in March 1947 by a 
Cabinet Secretariat Sub-committee, which during the ensuing 
three months compiled a list of 225 newspapers and news 
agencies, 15 motion picture companies, 5 broadcasting com- 
panies and 5 organizations controlling the dissemination of 
information,- deemed* to have engaged in activities proscribed 
under. Category G. This list was published as part of an , 
amendment to the "remarks" outlined above. This amendment 
brought under the provisions of the Directive specified office- 
holders in listed companies but provided an opportunity for 
any individual or company to produce satisfactory evidence 
as to why exemption should be granted. 
PROVISIONAL DESIGNATION 
This term grew but of the need to prevent persons who 
had resigned to escape beihg purged from legally continuing 
their influence, which they might have exorcised as'long as 
they did not publicly commit actions or assume positions 
legally screonablc. They also received pensions and other 
benefits to which, if they had been purged, they would, not 
be entitled!. 
On-12 March 1947 the government promulgated imperial 
Ordinance No. 77, which is primarily directed against those 
potential or "invisible" purgecs who engage in political 
activity, and as such cannot effectively be applied to all 
"invisible purgees" 
On 2 July 1947, the government issued Cabinet Order 
No. 119* of 1947 which provides that the Prime Minister can 
effect the' provisional designation of any person concerning 
whom there is sufficient evidence to indicate that he falls 
within the purview of the Memorandum, This designation is 
effected by individually notifying the persons concerned. 
A period of thirty days is provided from the date of receipt 
of such designation during which the person so notified can, 
if he so desires, file a letter of exemption with a question- 
naire which is examined and-processed in the normal manner. 
If no such exception is filed within the thirty day period, 
the designation becomes effective under the provisions of 
41 the basic Ordinance, and is publicly announced and made a 
matter of official record.. 
By the end of July 194-7 documentary evidence had been 
submitted listing substantially all officials who held 
policy positions in the designated economic companies be- 
tween 7 July 1937 to 2 September 194?. Of these approxi- 
mately 800 clearly fell under the provisions of the Memoran- 
dum, an additional 200 were deceased, the addresses or 
some 200 wore unknown, and more than ?00 will bo required 
to submit questionnaires. 
Lists of persons coming within the purview of the 
categories pertaining to war criminals (Category A) and to 
career military and naval personnel (Category B) arc under 
preparation. 
Preparation commenced on 10 July 1947 of a list of 
persons who held the policy-making positions in the public 
information- media companies and organizations. It is 
estimated that this list will be completed as soon after 
30 July 1947 as all "evidence to the contrary" can bo fully 
considered. 
The collection of documentary evidence insofar as it 
affects the former officers and persons of authority in 
secret, patriotic, ultranationalistic and militaristic 
societies -is currently in progress. 
APPEAL BOARD 
On 23 February 1947 the Japanese Government pro- 
mulgated Imperial Ordinance No. 6? of 1947 setting up a 
Board of Appeal. Prior to this time any person, who felt 
that a mistake had been made or an injustice committed in 
his case could appeal to the Prime Minister. However*, 
relatively few such appeals had been, received. But with 
enlarged amount of screening conducted, appeals 
increased until by July 1947 a total of 99 was listed with 
the Appeal Board. Of these, 36 were rejected or recommended 
for rejection, 9 recommended for reinstatement, while ?4 
were undergoing either examination or deliberation. In- 
itially Ordinance No. 6? provided that before an appeal 
could be appellant must have vacated his 
position; however, in July 1947, this provision of the 
Ordinance was revoked and appeal is now. possible .immediately 
upon designation. At.first the Appeal Board was handi- 
capped by lack-of a sufficient secretariat,but recently 
a Cabinet Order was issued which provided a secretariat 
sufficiently large to enable the Board to investigate and 
prepare cases more promptly. 
SUMMARY 
From its inception the has remained preventa- 
tive. Although SCAP was authorized to intern active 
exponents of militant nationalism or aggression, the 
desire to preserve the preventative nature of the program 
restricted the use of this authority to suspected war 
criminals only. 
Except for the initial Purge Directive issued to the 
Japanese* Government on 4 January 1946 and certain memoranda 
issued after post-review of the governments action direct- 
ing the removal of specific individuals, SCAP has insisted 
that the Japanese Government itself implement and administer 
the purge program, subject to the right reserved by SCAP 
to review any action of the Japanese Government to insure 
compliance with the word and spirit of SCAPIN ??0. 
42 By 4 January 1947 of 8,899 ceses acted upon by the 
Japanese Government 1,770 had been reviewed by SCAPf In 
27 Instances the action: pf thej JaUane#$Government ?a$ dlsv 
approved* 
; 4 January $947 and 19 .tuly' 1947 the Japanese 
Gove rnmeht screened %'S*099 cases, removing or barring a 
total of 1,681 individuals* Of the total number screened 
during this period SOAP rsvle- red 16,047 cases*, 
persons holding Important elective and appointive posts 
in jove rhyent, officials in 1 ho major chromic and finan- 
cla1 concerns, and influential persons in the political 
and Soc1dI. tIre of Ja nan 4 In 4? inst £hcfcs-the ac ti on t>.f 
the Japanese Gove rnnent tms disapproved* 
Further action by SOAP upon j3Q«t*revlerf of the Japanese 
Governments action has been io direct the reinstatement of 
12 individuals unjustly o~* mistakenly barred err removed* 
Statirtice on persons affected hy tiie Fro.aren- 
as of nid'-July .Toduce to the -folio./1U* approximate, totals: 
11 Barred and removed -*Init ihl phase 
f4 Jan 1946 4 Jan 1947).........s♦*,.., 1,067 
2* Barred arid removed im'erthePvtension. 
(4 Jah 1947 - I? Ju|y 1947)..• -4....v 1,S?1 
• r. ■ ' ■•* ' ,* v<1 ■ * * 
3. Career officers, "cndartc.es and Intel* 
licence afputs barred*by original 
difect 1 ve*4':'fi • ** * • • •«••«**•****•• 183,000 
4, Persons Thp resignedtheir positions 
in order to evbld designation,, f ,. *.* t. •.• 20,000 ■* 
Fheseifigures do libt, of course, include the tens of 
thousands of other undesirable loaders ?ho are forever barred 
from ihiblic Service but hrho have held no office since the purge 
became 'effective and therefore have not yet been designated by 
name# ITor are nearly 6000 J|vrU!ght Control and Special Higher; 
Police reoov.ed by $GAP’s Civil Liberties firoctivc o" October,’ 
194? Included# Because they ard barred only from positions In 
the Justice! Welfare, and Home Ministries and. from police rrork, 
their status! Isieore’/iat different from that of persons purged 
under SCAPUT 5?0 arc barred fro®hr 11 .Public Service. A 
similar group* likevise not Included In the above, is the app- 
roximately* 5000 teachers r/hio Havo boon removed from the rield 
of education.. 
43 TWO YEARS 0 F OCCUPATION 
INTERNATIONAL PROSECUTION SECTION 
Oil December 8, 194?, the International Prosecution Section 
was established as a staff section of SCAP and charged with the 
duty of investigating and bringing to trial those persons who 
could be charged as having committed crimes against peace; that 
is, planning, preparing, initiating or waging of aggressive war 
contrary to. international law or treaties, agreements and as- 
surances, or participating in a conspiracy to perform any of such 
acts. 
The first task of the section in its first year of work was 
to determine the persons who were to be charged as responsible 
for the bringing about of the aggressive wars which Japan had 
waged since 1931 and to determine the charges against them. To 
accomplish this task, a large number of persons including the 
proposed accused were interrogated at length and thousands of 
documents, some of which had been newly discovered in the archives 
of the Japanese government, were scanned for evidentiary material. 
The first indictment charging twentv-eight persons as responsible 
for the activities of Japan in waging aggressive warfare 
was filed with the International Military Tribunal for the Far 
East on April 29, 1946. On May 3, the Tribunal formally convened 
for the purpose of arraigning the defendants. 
The formal trial opened on June 4, 1946, with the delivery 
of the opening address by Mr. Joseph B. Keenan, Chief of Counsel. 
The actual presentation of evidence began on June 13, 1946. 
Shortly after the formal trial had opened, the Tribunal adjourned 
the proceedings for about two weeks to enable air conditioning 
to be completely installed in the courtroom. From the time the 
Tribunal resumed, the Prosecution continuously presented its 
evidence without interruption or recess until it rested on January 
24, 1947. 
For purposes of convenience in handling the vast amount of 
material which the Prosecution had to present to the Tribunal, the 
Prosecution*s evidence was broken down into phases. By the con- 
clusion of the first year of the occupation the Prosecution had 
completed the presentation of its evidence on four phases of the 
case; namely, the Constitution and Government of Japan, Propaganda 
in Preparation for War, the Manchurian Aggression, and Aggression 
Against China. 
During the first half of the second year of the occupation, 
the Prosecution completed presentation of its remaining phases.. 
The phases covered in that period were Narcotics and Opium, 
Economic Aggression in Manchuria and China, Conspirational Re- 
lations between Germany and Italy, Aggression against France, 
Aggression against the Soviet Union, Economic, Military and Naval 
Preparation for Aggressive War, the Illegal Fortification of 'the 
Mandated Islands, Aggressive Warfare against the United States and 
Great Britain, Aggressive Warfare against the Netherlands, 
Atrocities against the people of the Philippines, General Conven- 
tional War Crimes and Atrocities against civilian populations in 
other areas, and evidence relating specifically to one or more of 
the individual defendants. 
The Prosecution finished presentation of its evidence on 
January 24, 1947. In the course of the presentation of its 
evidence, the Prosecution brought before the Tribunal 104 witnesses 
and submitted 2282 documents consisting of official records of the 
44 Japanese government and of other nations, interrogations of the 
accused, affidavits, and other similar documents. The documents 
presented were but a small fraction of the total number of 
documents scanned and translated, and were selected after mature 
and deliberate consideration as the best then available for the 
presentation of the evidence against the accused. In preparing 
any document for presentation to the Tribunal, it was necessary 
under the rules of the Tribunal to translate the document into 
either English or Japanese. In the event the document was in a 
third language, it had to be translated into both English and 
Japanese. Thereafter, 2?0 copies of the document had to be 
reproduced for distribution to the Tribunal, the Prosecution, 
Counsel for the Defense, other public bodies and newspapers. 
The Defense began to present its evidence on February 24, 
1947 after a short recess to allow for preparation. The several 
hundred witnesses which the Defense proposed to call hove had to 
be investigated for purposes of cross-examination and their 
connection with the case determined. Defense documents must be 
analyzed for purposes of determining their relevancy, materiality, 
and probative value as evidence to meet the issues of the 
Prosecution. 
45 TWO YEARS OF 0 C C II P S II 0 II 
LEGAL SECTIOW 
Investigation of War Criminals 
During the period November 1, 1945, to July 21, 1946, the 
V/?Alg'’t'10n Dlvision had under investigation 636 cases. A totai 
or 430 cases were completed, leaving 206 on hand at the end of 
the period. 
t,lt„,jranf offices were opened during 1945 and 1946 in Osaka, 
Fukuoka, Sapporo, Nagoya, Hiroshima, Niigata and Sendai so that 
interrogations and investigations could be carried out with a 
minimum of delay in dealing with Japanese Government agencies. 
*?u515f July 21, 1946, to July 21, 194?, the Inves- 
ti'ontJntlth1V?;A<0n tod under investigation 2,029 new oases in addl- 
enA® 206 oase? not oonoleted by July 21, 1946. Of these 
?9non’ 90 Were This resulted in a cumulative total of 
°®ses completed of the total of 2,665 under investigation 
during the period from November 1, 194?, to July 21, 1947. 
Apprehension of Suspected War Criminals 
rvAA-PS Of July 15, 1947, the apprehension of 3 214 Japanese Sus- 
pects has been directed by the Legal Section, some for trial in 
apan and some for_trial by Allies in areas outside Japan, Of 
?i^S;rD^barnai'PS0Aimstfijr have been i itemed in Sugamo Prison 
216 were deleted from the memoranda after proof was received that 
nrovonS?f£S wer° held in prisons outside Japan, or were otherwise 
proven-to be unobtainable or not desired. A high percentage of 
,ri„sf_^nt|rnedZ approximately 55 per cent, have been or are await- 
ing transfers to other areas for trial. Seventy-five have been 
proven dead and authenticated death certificates have been re- 
AS °f July 1947> thero were 393 Suspected War Crimi- 
nals whose apprehension has not vet been accomplished. This 
.Ifcent or the includes a number who 
are believed to be held by Allied Nations in areas other than 
Japan proper and also a number who are believed dead, but whose 
death cannot be proven. 5 
__Q. Durpast year, requests have been received from 
Governments and the United States Navy to locate, 
for> cnd dispatch Japanese lav/yers and interpreters to 
war crinesetrl0irOUghOUt th<3 ’’aoi:fic» t0 assist in the* conduct of 
f„,, of July 28, T-94-7,Japanese personnel in the categories 
indicated have been engaged: 
BRITISH: 
Singapore 
Hong Kong 
Lawyers 
Interpreters 
Bhuddist Priests 
43 
4-2 
2 
Lawyers 
Interpreters 
2 
2 
DUTCH (NEI) 
Lawyers 
9 
Interpreters 
11 
PHILIPPINE REP 
(MANILA) 
10 
10 
AUSTRALIAN (Rabaul) 
4 
Admin. Pers. 
3 
10 
U.S. NAVY (Guam) 
4 
Inter prcters 
3 
Prosecution of Suspected War Crimnnl.g 
The Prosecution Division of the Legal Section began 18 months 
of actual trial work before Military Commissions appointed in December 194-5. During this period of time prosecutors have 
organized, assembled and clarified an enormous volume of 
documentary evidence; classified much oral evidence coming from 
witnesses, and drafted charges and specifications against many 
accused Japanese. 
The Prosecution Division has been charged with the responsi- 
bility of preparing charges and specifications and trying Class 
B- and Class C Japanese War Criminals. A large number of the case 
involve atrocities committed in Prisoner of War Camps, aboard 
transports enroute to Japan, against B-29 crew members after they 
had parachuted to safety, by members of the Japanese Army Medical 
Corps in conducting medical and surgical experiments, and atro- 
cities involving the Japanese Kempei Tai, or secret police. 
Material assistance and a grea-t contribution to the program 
has resulted in the assignment to the Section of a number of 
Australian, British, Canadian (mission completed), Chinese- and 
Dutch officers and other military personnel from these Allied 
countries, all of whose Governments have furnished excellent 
documentary evidence and, in many instances, have been able to 
procure live witnesses for the trial of cases here. 
As of July 1, 1947. after 18 months of actual trial work, 
the Division has assisted in the trial of 146 cases involving 
274 perpetrators. Of this group, nine were found "Not Guilty”; 
in 25 cases the death sentence was imposed and five accused have 
been executed to date. Life imprisonment was imposed in 21 cases 
Sentences ranging from 25 to 50 years were imposed in 36 cases, 
10 to 25 years were imposed in 83 cases, 5 to 10 years were im- 
posed in 37 cases, and 5 years or less were imposed in 62 cases. 
47 TWO Y E £ R S OF OCCUPATION 
SUPREME COMMANDER FOR THE ALLIED POWERS 
ECONOMIC 
PUBLIC INFORMATION OFFICE, GHQ 
AUGUST 1947 TWO YEARS 0 F OCCUPATION 
CIVIL COMMUNICATIONS 
First Year. In the first year the primary Job,in the 
communications field was demilitarization. All fixed radio 
statiohs and telegraph and telephone offices of the former 
Japanese Army and Navy were closed and dismantled, or con- 
verted to the use of the Occupation Forces, the Japanese 
Demobilization Board, or the domestic communications system. 
Stocks of equipment and supplies were inventoried and distri- 
buted to the public communications offices. The Broadcasting 
Corporation of Japan, which is the sole broadcasting agency, 
had been a propaganda weapon of the militarists. It was re- 
lieved of undesirable personnel and thoroughly reorganized as a 
free and democratic institution. 
SCAP ordered the Japanese Government to strictly control 
all radio stations, through licensing, assignment of frequencies, 
and increased surveillance of operations. In order to speed 
the work of repatriation, radio broadcasts were beamed to Jap- 
anese nationals outside the home islands, and other radio ser- 
vices were provided to Repatriation officials. 
kt the same time radiotelegraph newscasts from Japan to the 
outside world were inaugurated and radiotelegraph circuits be- 
tween Japan and the U. S. and London were set up for press 
messages. Other inter-national radiotelegraph circuits were 
opened and submarine telephone and telegraph circuits were main- 
tained. 
The work of rehabilitation began during the first year 
and the Japanese Government appropriated one billion yen 
for communications construction. Actual and budgeted expend- 
itures were carefully scrutinized so that they would result in 
services for the Occupation Forces or the domestic internal 
economy. 
Production of communications equipment was set into motion. 
Current requirements of the postal, telecommunications and 
broadcasting systems were net, Production of vacuum tubes, 
which would be used by radio owners in all parts of Japan, 
was particularly emphasized. 
Prom an administrative point of view, the most important 
envelopment of the first year was the elevation of the govern- 
ment agency managing, communications to Cabinet level, thus 
assuring the newly-named Ministry of Communications, an amal- 
of enterprises whose operation entailed the employment 
of 400.000 persons, of adequate status to present to the 
Cabinet the needs of the Japanese civil communications -systems. 
|gc.ond Yepr: 
■&c-:rji;ni strati on? In order to continue democratization 
oi the Japanese communications system, SCAP encouraged the 
setting up of a Temporary Legal Committee, which framed eight 
new communications laws concerned with postal, telephone, tele- 
radio operations. The New laws are being introduced 
in the current session of the National Diet. 
International Telecommunications 
pri?clpS1 the Japan Telegraph and 
Construction Company, both highly autocratic 
in their structure and. policies and forming nh obstacle 
to the aenocratic integration of the communications system, 
Cover) 
1 were placed in the process of liquidation, -by a SCAP directive 
issued 25 March. At the peak of its power, the ITC had in- 
vestments in Korea, Formosa, Mongolia, Manchuria, Central 
China, the East Indies, Singapore, Hongkong, Hainan and Palao, 
The ITC had managed its far-flung interests through a group 
of interlocking directorates , . Liquidation of these companies 
,is being accomplished through the Holding Company Liquidation 
Commission, which called in all stocks of, other companies 
owned by the ITC; and JT&T. These stocks will be sold to the 
public by that commission. The operation of the facilities 
of the companies was taken over by the Japanese government, 
which’became the employer of the former personnel of these 
companies. 
SCAP also brought about innrovements in the accounting 
and budgetary .procedures of the Ministry of Communications, 
In December, 1946, for the first tine in its history, the Min- 
istry of Communications itemized by projects its budget for 
the fiscal year ahead before submitting it to the National 
Diet. The practice previously had been to secure a lump sun 
appropriation and then to allocate it to various uses. 
A new accounting system, for the Ministry, whereby the 
financial status of its enterprises might .be determined sep- 
arately, was installed to replace the cash system previously 
in use. On 1 April 194? the Diet passed the Communications 
Enterprises Account Law, ?jhich provided for the change to .a 
modern accrual accounting system. 
A further reform of the Ministry of Communications 
accounting system is the establishment of a depreciation 
reserve.< A program to secure data on which depreciation 
accounting procedure may be based has been initiated, and the 
year ahead should see this project brought to fruition, 
■' 4 ' 
Much remains to be accomplished, however, in the imple- 
mentation of the plan for the integration of operations at present 
performed by the Japan Telephone Equipment Company, whose 
functions are being assumed by the.Ministry of Communications, 
This company has maintained approximately 196.000 privately-owned 
telephones. The Ministry plan is to acquire rhese instruments, 
through donation or purchase, and maintain them. It is es- 
timated that entire integration will require from.three, to five 
years, 
Telephone and Telegraph. The second year saw 
great progress made in the repair of telephone exchanges, through- 
out Japan. This program, initiated in September. 194b, has 
brought about the rehabilitation of all major offices, thereby 
improving the service to approximately .600,000 telephones. 
Due to the installation of 130,000 new telephones, the present 
total in Japan stands at approximately 1,160,000. An average 
of roughly 5,000,000 telegraph messages per month was maintained 
in the year ending Augrot. 1947. which approximates.-.the monthly 
traffic loads in the years 1940 .and 1941, 
In a program covering the next three to. five years 
the Ministry of Communications formulated a new policy under which 
the government will own FBX installations. Formerly privately 
owned, the 20,000 PBX installations throughout Japan will grad- 
ually be, brought .und.er Ministry ownership. 
Construction on one major cable route has been*continued 
throughout -the year, and a sectiah consisting of approximately 
l85 miles of non-1ended carrier cable with cable carrier repeater- 
stations Has been brought to 95 per cent completion. Practically 
2 all direct war Manage to sections of outside toll plants 
has. now been repaired or rehabilitated. Maintenance of sub-- 
marine cables, which are extremely important to the communi- 
cations system of insular regions, was facilitated by the 
acquisition of a second large cable ship. 
The major communications requirements of the Occupation 
Forces have been served during the second year following 
the Surrender by an average of 1,200 leased line circuits. In 
addition approximately 70*000 toll calls a month have been 
placed over long distance circuits of the domestic system. 
The work of the next year will include implementation of 
the outside toll plant program, and arrangements to obtain 
most of the common items of Occupation Force signal main- 
tenance supply from Japanese manufacturers, instead of importing 
them from the United States. 
International Radiol . International radio services continued 
to expand durirgthe second year of the Occupation. Authorization 
was given to the sending of private and non-transactional 
business radiotelegrans between Japan, Hawaii and the United 
States:■radiotelegraph and program transmission was opened be- 
tween Japan and Manila; and a radiotelegraph circuit for 
official government messages ?jas set up between Japan and the 
Netherlands East Indies, 
Other international radio services were continued, including 
beamed radiotelegraph newscasts from Japan to repatriation 
areas in Southeast Asia and Manchuria. 
Improvements were made in some services. Due to intolerable 
delays on the direct Osaka-London circuit, which follows an 
extremely northern route for considerable distance, the cir- 
cuit was rerouted via Colombo' in May 1947, bringing about an 
immediate improvement in the service. 
Domestic Radio: A limited public correspondence was react- 
ive coastal radio system. Radiograms now 
may be sent by Occupation personnel who heave ARO and FPO addresses 
to U. S. citizens aboard ship, A corresponding service 
is provided for British and other Allied Powers who make the 
necessary arrangements. 
Two radio quadrant-indicating aerial beacons were added 
to the five already operating in July 1946 for the navigation 
of Occupation Forces aircraft. 
SCAPIN 1166 which established regulations governing the 
operation of Japanese radio stations, as to location, power, 
licensing and authorizing procedures, and technical standards to 
be followed, was published August 1946, later revised by SCAPIN 
1744 in July 1947. 
The Japanese have been required to expand their monitoring 
of internal and international stations and to establish self-- 
surveillance. As monitoring of international services was inad- 
equate, a close liaison with,the Federal Communications Commission 
Field Monitoring Division was established. The monitoring 
system has now expanded to 90 per cent of the strength required 
by SCAP, and has begun to show results. Weekly reports showing 
violations of standards requirements and engineering, mal- 
practices by offending stations now are being submitted to SCAP. 
3 Broadcastings The second postwa? year saw some of the 
groundwork laid for the development of Japanese broadcasting as 
a popular medium of information ■ nd education and an instrument 
of democracy. 
Broadcast transmission had been before the war, and continued 
to be. conducted as a non-profit, public-service corporation 
organized under the Japanese Civil Code. The year’s, achievement 
consisted largely in the educatl n of new leaders whortook the 
place of■ those who had been in power during the militaristic 
periodf and in a study of the problems and prospects of broad- 
casting. 
This study has revealed the problems which confront leaders 
in the broadcasting field. These include legislative clarifi- 
cation of the legal status of the Broadcasting Corporation of 
Japan, the establishment of its financial structure on a sound 
basis, rehabilitation of facilities for transmission, reorgan- 
ization of distribution of programs and station and network 
coverage, and the improvement of programs so that they will 
constitute a better service to listeners. 
Studies have also been made to improve the design, production, 
equitable distribution and servicing of radio receiver sets from 
the viewpoint of the listeners. 
In order to develop the technical, social, economic and legal 
bases and future policies for the expansion of broadcasting 
services, including standard broadcasting, FII international 
broadcasting and television are being investigated. 
Communications Equipment Ha:-, iifacturing: The past 12 months 
saw the completion of the conversion of all communications equip- 
ment manufacturing plants in Japan from war-time' to peace-time 
production. Approximately 90$ of all plants possible to put back • 
into production have been rehabilitated. Practically all phases 
of the communication industry have been operating close to 
capacity. Production has risen substantially. xhe output of radio 
receiving tubes, an outstanding example, has increased from 160,000 
tubes per month a year ago to the present rate of 629,000 tubes 
per month, and the plan is to bring production up to 1,500,000 
tubes per month in the next 12 months. 
In order to properly handle communication equipment production 
and distribution problems, governmental controls have been est-: 
ablished over the distribution of raw materials arid blacknarket 
activities have been checked. Previously existing systems.of graft 
between private manufacturers and government procurement agencies 
have broken up., and the unhealthy situation of competition 
between private communication equipment manufacturers and the 
Ministry of Communications, which had been allowed to arise, has 
been abolished. 
Research and Development: In the pas-c year teleprinter 
weather.reporting circuits were established for the first time in 
Japan. Two weather reporting stations at Sendai and: -Sapporo are 
now linked with Tokyo, although the service is not wholly satis- 
factory, Radio teleprinter operation, another innovation in Japah, 
also is in an experimental stage, .Laboratories in Japan are 
emphasizing the search for material substitutes as scarcities are’ 
gravely Impairing production of communications equipment. A najot 
project which remains to be accomplished is the reorganization of 
the Ministry of Communications research and development laborator- 
ies to increase their efficiency, and productivity. During the past 
year surveillance.was maintained over all‘ communications labor- 
atories in Japan. 
4 Postal Services: The standard which has been set for the 
rehabilitation of the Japanese postal system is that which will 
meet the minimum requirements of a democratic country and people. 
One of the most important problems was the reestablishment 
of international mail service between Japan and all .other 
countries of the world. These arrangements were completed 10 
September 1946 when the first international postal service in 
Japan since the end of hostilities was inaugurated. 
Until January 194? only personal and family communications 
on pofetal cards in the regular international mails to and from 
Japan, and 'relief parcels to Japan were allowed. At that time 
international service was expanded to include non-transactional 
letters to and from Japan and all countries of the world. The 
opening of international airmail, the increasing of the weight 
limit of international parcel post relief parcels, and the addition 
of other postal services in operation before the war are at present 
being studied. 
Investigation of the domestic postal system has brought to 
light a multiplicity of feudalistic and paternalistic allowances 
and commissions in its wage structures. One beneficial result 
has-been the abolition to a great extent of the giving of the so- 
called "Free Fund*' allowances which had been abused by the chiefs 
of special post offices, who are not subject to all accounting 
provisions of regular post offices. 
Faster handling of mail has resulted from the adoption of 
modern methods of mail handling and distribution, from improve- 
ments in railway mail cars and from revision of mail dispatch 
schedulesT 
Investigation of the Japanese Postal Transfer system also 
has resulted* in a narked increase in efficiency through revision 
of laws, increases in fees, and new budgeting methods, A survey 
of accounting procedures for receipts and disbursements at post 
offices has effected many improv *..ents, among which are adequate 
measures for the protection of funds. Methods to curb illegal 
practices of postal employees such as embezzlements and the 
cashing of frozen checks have been instituted to protect the 
public• 
A survey of the Japanese Post Savings system, the "poor nan*s 
checking account" in Japan, brought about a reorganization which 
has not only increased .its efficiency of operation but its relia- 
bility, Services and safeguards necessary for the democratic 
tradition, which were discontinued by the Japanese during the war, 
have been reintroduced, and many autocratic practices have been 
eliminated. 
The tangible achievements during the past year have consisted 
in the further freeing of the Janrmese communications system, from 
undemocratic influences and practices through the destruction of a 
powerful telecommunications monopoly, the inauguration of modern 
accounting procedures, the rehabilitation of telecommunications 
lines, the reopening of international communications—including 
international postal services, the improvement of quality and the 
raising of the* production of communications equipment to essential 
levels. 
5 TWO YEARS OF OCCUPATION 
Civil Property Custodian 
During the first year of the occupation, the Japanese Govern- 
ment was instructed relative to the custody and disposition of the 
property of.foreign nations and their nationals which included 
those of the United Nations, enemy nations and property Yirhich the 
Japanese had looted from all parts of their former empire, plus 
certain miscellaneous property. 
SCAP also took over the control of certain Japanese domestic 
property which included those of ultranationalistic and terroristic 
organizations, suspected war criminals and large quantities of 
Japanese Government precious metals and gems. At the same time, 
investigation of the foreign exchange assets of Japan was begun and 
thousands of external assets were codified and tabulated. 
The collection of diamonds seized from the Japanese Government 
and stored in the vaults of the Bank of Japan was inventoried, 
classified and evaluated. Experts of the Smithsonian Institute, 
Washington, D,C.,. were brought out to do the job. Substantial 
amounts of previously unreported property were uncovered as the 
result of investigations and audits. 
During the past twelve moqths much has been accomplished in 
the task of control, custody and especially the disposition of 
foreign property in Japan. 
Approximately ¥ of United Nations1 and their 
nationals1 property has been restituted in fifteen separate cases. 
A wider recognition is now given through powers of attorney 
to persons seeking restitution of property for persons who can not 
come to Japan at this time. Localized responsibility is still 
with the Japanese Government for the continued protection and 
preservation of United Nations*property scattered throughout the 
islands. 
German property, such as movable assets of the German Govern- 
ment and repatriated German nationals has been placed in four ware- 
houses under United States Eighth Army supervision and the movable 
assets of German enterprises are placed under Japanese custodians. 
Authority has been granted to dispose of movable property for 
the internal economy of Japan or for the export program where it 
is spoiling, deteriorating and depreciating. To date accomplish- 
ments include the disposition of medical supplies of the German 
Naval Hospital, the sale of dyestuffs for ¥ 37?000,000 and the 
disposition of stocks of three German corporations. 
German real estate valued at approximately ¥ 22,000,000 and 
representing 130 units of real estate is being administered and a 
policy for the rental and payment of insurance, taxes and main- 
tenance charges is being formulated. 
There are 78 enterprises in Japan of vested German interest 
with gross assets estimated at approximately ¥ 133,000,000. With 
the exception of five corporations and partnerships, none of these 
enterprises are operating. Japanese custodians have been appointed 
where necessary. 
The status of three very large Japanese concerns with mixed 
German interests is pending determination as to either liquidation 
of assets or sale of shares and participation in annual profits. 
Pending this determination, measures have been taken to hold in 
escrow, under SCAP, a total of about ¥ 10,000,000. 
6 Looted property is that which can be identified as having 
been located in an Allied country at the time of occupation of 
that country and which was removed by fraud, force, or duress .by 
the Japanese or their agents. The fact that payment was made is 
disregarded unless there is conclusive evidence that fraud, force, 
or duress did not take place. 
During the year. 86 individual claims have been received 
from the United Kingdom Reparation and Restitution Delegation, 
plus lv333 individual ship claims* 
A total of 105claims has been received from the Philippine 
Reparation and Restitution Delegation, 
A total of 89 claims has been received from the Chinese 
Reparation and Restitution Delegation, 
A total of 137 claims has been received from the Netherlands 
Reparation and Restitution Delegation. 
Restitution for the year amounted to .a total of 41 as follows 
Ships : 
15 (China 4. Korea 9, United 
Kingdom 1, Netherlands 1) 
5 (Philippines 3, British 2) 
Automobiles 
Cultural Objects: 
13 (Netherlands 4, Korea 1, Scot- 
land 1, Chine 2. Solpman 
Islands 1, Philippines 2, 
United Kingdom 2; 
Industrial Equipment: 
2 (British 2) 
Miscellaneous s 
6 (China 3, Netherlands 1, 
British I, Philippines 1) 
Miscellaneous property Irv Ived the property of neutral 
nations and "special status" nations. In this field an investi- 
gation was conducted as to illegally possessed foreign films in 
Japan. About 2,500 foreign films were taken into custody. 
Data has been secured on all property in Japan of the various 
puppet governments. An effort was also made to ascertain the 
source of the funds with which this puppet property was purchased. 
Procedure for disposition of this property is under, consideration. 
On 18 October 1946. the Supreme Commander for the Allied 
Powers sent out Invitational letters to.the eleven member nations 
of the Par Eastern Commission requesting the appointment of per- 
manent five-man Reparation and institution Delegations to be 
stationed in Tokyo. 
Since that date, all nations have sent Reparation arid Resti- 
tution Delegations to Japan with the exception of India. The ' 
Delegation from that country is expected to arrive in the near 
future. 
7 TWO YEARS 0 F OCCUPATION 
CIVIL TRANSPORTATION 
1.* Transportation Status at Tine of Surrender* At the time* 
of surrender, Japanese transportation facilities were in poor 
condition. The Merchant Marine, with less than one million 
operable gross tons, was at less than one-fifth of its immediate 
prewar strength. The majority of usable vessels had been built 
during the war to sub-standard specifications and were badly 
deteriorated due to lack of proper maintenance and to Initial use 
of sub-standard materials. Although the railways had suffered 
comparatively little actual war damage, lack of maintenance to 
permanent right of way, rolling stock, and communications, coupled 
with failure to rehabilitate actual damage on a current basis, 
had caused gross, deterioration of efficiency. Municipal trans- 
portation was seriously disrupted due to bombings. Over fifty 
percent of the bus and trolley equipment was totally destroyed or 
badly damaged* Highway transportation was at a low ebb due to 
deterioration, both of roads and vehicles. 
2, Practically all transportation was operated or controlled 
by the Japanese Government through the Ministry of Transportation, 
with private enterprise and initiative almost completely stifled. 
Two-thirds of the railway system is government owned and operated. 
During the war, the government took over from private interests 
the entire operation of the merchant fleet. 
3. Immediately after the surrender, the Occupation Forces 
assumed supervisory control of portions of the transportation 
system. The Eighth Army, through the 3rd MRS exercised supervisory 
control over land transportation to the extent necessary to serve 
the Occupation Forces. A Shipping Control Authority for Japan 
(SCAJAP) was established to supervise the operation of the merchant 
fleet. SCAJAP, now functioning under- the Commander, Naval Forces 
Far East, directs the activities of the Civilian Merchant Committee 
(CMC) which is the operating agency of the Japanese Government 
functioning under the Ministry of Transportation. In September of 
1946. a Civil Transportation Section was established in the Head- 
quarters of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers to advise 
on policies relating to use and rehabilitation of water and land 
civil transportation facilities of Japan. 
4, Target Programs. Programs for rehabilitation were set up 
to accomplish restoration of plant and equipment necessary to 
sustain a minimum level of economy. For the railways, the programs 
include reconstruction and rehabilitation of housing and building 
facilities, of equipment, and of permanent way. Programs for 
municipal and highway transportation include construction of trucks 
buses, street-cars, etc. necessary to replace worn-out and des- 
troyed equipment. Programs for the merchant fleet include plans 
for salvage, major repairs and completion of construction of new 
vessels whose keels have already been laid. Other programs to 
improve efficiency of operations were established at the same time. 
These include planned maintenance and repairs consistent with the 
availability of materials, labor and funds. Programs for-effecting 
changes in forms of control of transportation include plans for 
breaking up of monopolistic controls and restraints, means of 
financing the costs of salvage and major repairs, and the re- 
establishment of a normal pattern of rates. These programs in- 
volve considerable legislative reform. 
8 5, Although inerked progress was made against rehabilitation 
programs during the first year of the occupation, the major 
accomplishment was the formation of the programs themselves and 
the establishment of goals. For the railways, first priority 
was given to restoration of equipment and buildings necessary to 
eliminate bottle-necks restricting operating efficiency. With 
regard to the Merchant Marine,, first consideration was given to 
rehabilitation of vessels which could most, economically and speed- 
ily be put into serviceable condition. Due to the low level of 
industry(and commerce, immediately after surrender, the traffic 
load on municipal and highway transportation was light. Early 
restoration of minimum operations was fairly rapid due to 
utilization of critical supplies released from Japanese Army and 
Navy stocks. Street and highway repair programs, however, pro- 
gressed slowly due to shortages of paving and.repair materials. 
6. Progress, In Rehabilitation of Railroads.. By July 1947, 
approximately one-third of the railway repair capacity had been 
permanently restored. The repair program itself, however, is 
behind schedule due to critical shortages of materials such as 
steel, coke, carbide, etc. It is estimated that approximately 
fifty percent of housing and building reconstruction is completed. 
There remains considerable work to place the railway system in a 
reasonably normal condition for continued operation, but with an 
improvement in the supply of essential materials, it; is believed 
that the program will keep abreast of .the general economic 
recovery of the nation. Rehabilitation 6f railway communications 
is progressing satisfactorily and much of the program will have 
been,completed by the end of the Fiscal.Year 1948. Progress of 
railroad rehabilitation is reflected by the daily average of gross 
ton kilometers, which have increased 26.3 percent over 1945* Gross 
tons per train have .increased 34.2 percent and coal consumption 
has decreased from 96 kilograms to 90 kilograms per 1,000 gross 
ton kilometers. 
?• Progress in Rehabilitation of Merchant Fleet. Progress 
of the program of rehabilitation of the merchant fleet has been 
slow but steady. At the time of surrender, the Japanese reported 
526 steel vessels of over 100 G/T, a total of 736,000 gross tons 
in active service. A recent figure for Japanese steel vessels * 
over 100 G/T under SCAJAP control shows 777 operating ships with 
a gross tonnage of over one million tons. The salvage, program 
is approximately one-half completed. Progress is necessarily 
retarded by lack of materials and funds. It is estimated that the 
salvage and major repair program can be completed by the end of 
th4 fiscal year 1951 provided materials, labor, and funds can be 
made available as required. 
8. Because of acute shortages in materials, maintenance pro- 
grams are below desired levels. .In order to conserve materials, 
emphasis' is being placed on essential maintenance, but in many 
instances work which should be done on a current basis is being 
deferred. 
9. Progress In Democratization or Transportation Management 
and Control. Considerable progress has been made in programs for 
democratization of forms of management and control. Obstacles are 
rapidly being overcome.and positive results.are looked for within 
the current .year. Laws have been or are in process of being 
enacted to accomplish reforms in land and harbor transport, also 
toprovide and protect ah orderly and democratic framework within 
which a Merchant Marine can be re-established. Because of gross 
distortions brought about: by the war and subsequent disturbed 
economic conditions, a normal pattern for tariffs cannot yet be 
formulated, but stymies now in progress are calculated to point 
out .and provide a means of regaining normal freight rates both for 
land and water transportation. 
9 TWO y .3 A FiS OF OCCUPATION 
ECONOMIC AND SCIENTIFIC SECTION 
In the first two years of the Allied Occupation of *Japa.n, 
SCAF's activities in econonic natters have been directed toward 
exadfeating the'old imperialistic; noh-demdera'tic, econonic 
pattern of life'and. replacing it with a new framework which should 
uea’d into democracy and rightful membership among the com- 
munity pf nations* In each of the specific fields of labor, in- 
dustry apd. industrial reparations.* foreign trade, finance, price 
control and. ra t ioning sole’nc e anc te c hnology, ant i-1 rus t and , 
cartels, and in the basic economic research necessary for an under- 
standing of the several fields, a guided" denpbratizing program is 
under way./.The purpose is fourfold,‘to insure that Japan will not 
again wage aggressive war, to reform and democratize the Japanese 
economic structure, to restore* the4 Japanese economy.on a sound 
self-supporting basts, and tb -assure*' the "'Japanese people of . their 
"right to a peaceful, fruitful'existence;* 
FINANCE 
. Within the field of SCAP set but on one hand to 
destroy those aspects’ of the Japanese financial,structure that 
•were used to promote the war* On" the ether hand, the program was 
intended to maintain, and strengthen these, aspects which could, con- 
tribute to the earliest possible’recovery of Japan in its new and 
modif ied s e tting.: 
"In money- andxbanking the first!yearfs program was one of 
issuing superimposed regulations to control repatriates* funds, to 
from removing the capital assets of once con- 
quered countries*, to block and segregate bank accounts, financial 
instruments or other property that later might have had value as 
foreign exchange assets, to-place stringent restrictions on bank 
withdrawals.,, to institute a system of credit rationing and to x * 
authorize a conversion/' Toward the end of the first year 
certain regulations were relaxecMto encourage reorganization.and 
reopening of financial institutions, as well as industrial and 
concerns:.; Systems.1 for reporting" the: condition of all 
Commercial banks were also-established. * - 
In. the, second w year, while many' of’ the controls continue, 
reorganization is]the keynote;!-A program pf licensing foreign 
bahks to operate on a limited1 scale and* of authorizing selected 
types o£;‘foreign. businesses-to operate, has been developed. A 
Reconstruction Finance Bank hasjb&en. established and a general re- 
organization of all corporate- financial institutions, including 
insurance companies, is progressing. In the final months of the 
second year the financial aspects of"reopening large scale foreign 
trade has become responsibility. 
Ili the field of public finance- a system of control-, supers 
visibh, and approval:pf governmental budgets was established in 
the first year. Control over* the of the Imperial House- 
hold was also established and maintained and supervision over the 
tax structure was Instituted. Two extraordinary tax laws were 
enacted.;. The Captial Levy Law had the twofold objective of decon- 
centreing private fortunes and of providing funds fnr the Govern- 
ment > .while the, War Indemni ty Tax had : a. s it £ objective the cancella- 
tion of wap damage. claims. • *"v 
second yearinpubllc finance saw the reform of govern- 
mental 'accduiitlng, procedures, :the power of the" Diet over public j 
finance increased: by virtue of the new constitution, the establish- 
ment of procedures for the disposition of State*owned property, 
and the reorganization of the ordinary tax structure, including the 
’’pay-as-you-go" tax plan. 
10 Perhaps -one of the most significant aspects of financial re- 
organization has been .in the field of "liquidation.1* In the, first 
year of the Occupation,46 institutions were closed, principally 
financial colonization and wartime development companies which 
were used to spearhead the economic penetration of conquered areas 
or to tighten control on the home front. The total book value 
of assets of the 46 Institutions within Japan was5f 176 billion. 
During, the first year proceeds of the sale or collection of 
certain of these assets totaled ¥ 1.8 billion and payment of 
domestic claims was ¥ 0.6 billion* 
During the second year, 113 additional Wartime institutions 
were closed, including domestic control associations and sub- 
sidiaries and affiliates of institutions previously closed. Total 
assets of the 159 closed institutions are .estimated at ¥ 209 
billion and liquidation proceeds have been ¥ 8.8 billion and pay- 
ment of domestic claims hae been ¥ 7.4 billion. 
ANTITRUST AND CARTELS 
The initial step in this field was to direct the creation 
of the Holding Company Liquidation Commission, a juridical person 
empowered to liquidate the major holding companies "and tp decon- 
cehtrate the control held over them by individuals. 
During the first year the activities of 41 holding companies 
and their approximately 1,200 first-line subsidiaries were in- 
vestigated and designated as "restricted" concerns. These.com- 
panies were prohibited from engaging without prior SCAP approval, 
in' any act not construed to be in the normal course, of business.* 
This enabled SCAP to maintain surveillance so as to preclude the 
dissipation of assets until dissolution or reorganization could be 
achieved. Approximately 2G0 applications for exception to the 
prohibitions above were reviewed, investigated, and acted upon 
during the year. 
In addition to the holding companies investigated, more than 
2,000 control companies, associations, and unions were investi- 
gated during the first year. As a result of these investigations*, 
the Japanese Government was directed 'to dissolve all control asso- 
ciations and to repeal all laws and regulations which had fostered 
their growth. On the positive side the newly organized Japanese 
Economic Stabilization Board was directed to create agencies to 
allocate materials to specific industries. The Japanese Govern- 
ment was directed to dissolve the Koeki Eidan, the war-time foreign 
trade agency, and to establish in its stead a Japanese Board of 
Trade as the exclusive government agency to handle all foreign 
trade transactions, finally, the Japanese Government was directed 
to prepare legislation prohibiting international cartels and the 
execution by Japanese firms of restrictive international contracts. 
The activities of the second year consisted of supervising r 
the work of tbe Holding Company Liquidation Commission and of . 
designating 67 corporations as holding companies. The Holding 
Company Liquidation Commission designated 56 members of.Zaibatsu 
families and commenced investigations of 27 additional families ,1 
to"determine if their members should be designated. The real 
and personal property of designated family members is controlled. 
All companies designated by the Holding Company Liquidation 
Commission were directed to effect measures to protect and preserve 
securities and other properties in such companies owned by foreign 
nationals since 7 December 1941, 
Late in the second occupation year liquidation plans were 
submitted by the Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Yasuda and Fuji 
Holding Companies. On 3 July 1947. Mitsui and Mitsubishi, the 
two* largest and most powerful trading companies in Japan, were 
ordered by the Holding Company Liquidating Commission to liquidate 
Immediately* 
11 The 6? designsted,holding companies had 150.8 million shares 
of stock with a par value of about ¥ 6.3 billion. The HCLC also 
took custody of over ¥ 500 million in bonds held by the 6? desig- 
nated companies and the voting rights of -the shares of 4,085 sub- 
sidiary and affiliated concerns. 
Antitrust legislation.w-s initiated in the second year and 
became law on 31 March 1947. Trade Commission was appointee' 
on 14 July 1947, to carry out the intent of the legislation. 
In the direction of restricted companies, more than 2,000 
applications requesting permission to perform acts not construed 
to be in the normal, course of business were reviewed and acted 
upo'n in the second .year. .Expenditures of more than ¥ 4: billion 
were authorized for the rehabilitation of industries essential 
to the economic recovery of Japan. 
PRICE CONTROL AND RATIONING 
In tlje field of price control and rationing SCAP has directed 
the activities of the Japanese Government in the planning-and „ 
execution of the economic controls necessary to assure the equitabl 
distribution of food, production materials, and consumer* goods, 
and through price control, to minimize inflation. 
At the war’s end Japan's indigenous food stocks were very low 
and the wartime controls had broken. It was obvious that a severe 
food shortage would develop by the spring of 1946. In October 
the 2.1 go (1042 calories) staple food*ration was reinstated; this 
ration, although effective the previous July, had been allowed to 
lapse. About the same time the first food requirements study was 
made. 
*The anticipated food crisis began in April of 1946, and in 
May the Japanese government under SCAP supervision placed in effect 
an"emergency food deficit transfer plan." This plan brought out 
hoarded stocks and forced them into legal distribution channels 
at legal prices. Further to relieve the crisis, imported foods 
were released throughput the summer. While these actions did not 
result in an adequate diet for the Japanese people, they did pre- 
vent widespread starvation and unrest'. Without controls and plan- 
ning, large numbers of Japanese would, probably have starved arid 
inflation would undoubtedly have become rampant.* 
In August 1946, on the basis of plans drawn In the spring 
and early summer, the Economic Stabilization Board,1 a central 
economic control agency, was Created in the Japanese Government. 
A Price Board was also established. Both agencies, however., 
suffered from a lack of funds and from inadequate governmental 
support. 
The continued short food supply has necessitated various 
emergency measures during the second year. . In an effort to break 
the black market and to lessen the danger of mal-distribution, 
the official ration was raised to 2,5 go (1240 calories) and the 
Japanese were instructed to take vigorous action to improve the 
food distribution system and control the black market. , 
In February 1947, SCAP took vigorous action through the 
Japanese government to improve rice collections. Collections, 
though' 104 percent of the initial quota set.were short of the 
110-percent revised goe,I. In tho winter and spring 267,000 tons 
of imported foods were released for distribution while an equiva- 
lent amount of rice was withdrawn from distribution to be made 
available during the critical summer months,." This rice is current- 
ly being released. While current supply does not meet the needs 
of the Japanese people, the deficit, is being spread so that there 
12 will be a maximum shortage of five days ration per month 
until the 194-7 harvest Is in* The effective per capita 
distribution this year is 62.5 go per month as compared 
with.63.O go per month in 194-6. In view of the millions 
of returned repatriates, the total volume is actually larger 
than a year ago. , , , 
In June 1947 the new Cabinet announced an 8-point econ- 
omic stabilization program. It included plans for increasing 
the supply of food, distribution at equitable prices, 
allocations control of critical items, and a new price policy. 
In July the new Cabinet announced a price stabilization 
program setting prices at a maximum of 65 times the base 
period 1934—36. The hew program must be effectively inte-, 
grated if the new higher wages are to be effective In pur- . 
chasing basic necessities* 
In June 1947 the old neighborhood associations were abol- 
ished and a new democratic food distribution method was 
established. To help curb the black marketsr all non-essentia3 
restaurants were closed on 5 July for a period of six months.. 
Under, the new "link11 distribution system the producer is 
enabled to purchase farm implements, fertilizer, fish nets, . 
and clothing at official prices, provided he sells his produce 
through the official distribution organization. 
In July 1947 the Japanese Government announced a coordin- 
ated nationwide distribution and anti-blackmarket program. 
to support the price stabilization program* to assure equity 
in the distribution of scarce necessities, and to reduce the 
real cost of living by minimizing the dependence of the- pop-- 
ulation on blacknarket supply sources. The program is in- 
tended to eliminate the sources of blacknarket goods.,, to control 
transportation of essential commodities, and to redirect goods 
into legal channels at official prices. It further aims to 
improve the official procedures and increase the efficiency of 
distribution. 
FOREIGN TRADE 
Two basic objectives are involved in the foreign trade ... 
policy of the Occupation;, they are, first, the creation of a , 
balanced trade position for Japan and, second, a volume of for- 
eign trade to bring the Japanese economy to the- average 1930- 
1934 level. Japan requires imports of food and essential ,c 
raw materials and must be able to reach a, situation in which, 
either her goods or her services can be exchanged for the nec- 
essary imports. 
SCAPfs first "action with respect to foreign trade was to 
limit the activities of the Koeki-Eidan, the war-time import- 
export agency of Japan which was one of the tools of Japanese 
aggression. The Koeki Eidan was abolished and the Japanese 
Government was directed to establish a new agency to handle 
foreign trade. This agency, Breki Cho, in November 1945 es- 
tablished a yen revolving fund to pay Japanese producers for 
their supplies. To further aid the established 
a foreign trade account to pay for American goods from the pro- 
ceeds of the sale of Japanese goods. Both nations were thus 
in position to resume some trade even without the formal 
establishment of foreign exchange Sates. 
Primarily the Japanese havo shipped raw silk to the- United 
States and received foods from the U. S. By January 1946, 
13 an ‘overall import-export program for the calendar year wgs 
established and approved in Washington. In March 1946 
the U, S. Commercial Co. became the--commercial ageticy 
for SCAP in the.Ui Sf For the year 1946 imports were 
$305 million and*exports were $72 million. 
A new program was developed for 194? before the year • 
began.1 Progress to date indicates that imports will be 
approximately as in 1946 while gross exports will be more 
than three tines as great as 1946. The overall volume of both 
is still insufficient, however, and the la'g in the import pro- 
gram is indicative of the need for further attention. Mere 
balance of trade, even if it could be achieved, does not 
make up for volume. 
Of tremendous potential stimulus to Japan1s foreign 
trade was the decision on 13 August to use approximately 
$137,000,000 worth of Japanese-owned gold and silver as a base 
for acquiring foreign exchange. This "gold pot" will be util- 
ized as a credit base against which private or“governmental 
financing institutions of Allied or neutral countries will be 
asked to advance funds or commodities to activate their 
trade with Japan. ..The fund will serve as a credit base for.loans 
which 'could eventually total upwards of $500,000,000, 
Additional impetus to foreign'trade can be anticipated as 
private traders re-enter Japan on 15 August 194?* 
IITUSTRY 
In September 1945 Japanese industry had virtually ground 
t6 a halt. ! In the face of rapidly disappearing stockpiles 
of essential rqw materials and the .virtual lack of imports 
for many months iprior to surrender,.’ Japan1 s industrial remnants 
were disintegrating rapidly. For a considerable period the 
rail lines and. equipment only that maintenance 
absolutely hecessary to keep the dwindling stocks rolling. 
Stocks, of ingots and pig iron were at the vanishing point, 
and actually would have been non-existent had the Japanese 
been -able to*furnish the fuel to fire their open hearth 
furnaces, 
The immediate tasks :0f SCAP were to remove the war pio-cential 
of Japanese industry and to aid in the rehabilitation of, Japan*s 
industry to pre-dete mined allowable limits.' War potential 
was removed through directives, ordering the destruction of ar- 
senals . aircraft factories, and other- war,baking machinery. 
Following surveys^in November, 1945, initial.production goals 
which eventually would become industrial levels were established 
for the Japanese. * Later the Par Eastern Commission iet 
the production level of* the years 1930 to 1934 as the top limit 
for Japanese industry. That period included approximately two 
years of Japanese:depression. 
Following the early reforms, SC AP directed the Japanese.- 
Government to replace Industrial Control Companies’and Industrial 
Control Associationswith public agencies and1 with a 
publicly managed system; of materials allocation' designed 
to facilitate recovery. Concurrently SCAP directed attention 
to technological improvement in food processing industries' to. 
aid the Japanese tn achieving greater self-sufficiency in food. 
The shipbuilding industry was rapidly converted to peacetime 
activities and trawlers and fishing vessels of all types became 
its chief .product. 
14 At present Japan's productive level is approximately 
one third of the limit set by the Far Eastern Commission 
and only 15, to' 20 percent of her peak wartime, output- of 
■.T,;."'$he f prt*1of • SCAP have been the fight in- 
crease cqal rpreduction-and to distribute the, production -■ 
most effectively* r 1A1 though 36. million tons of. coal per 
year are regarded as*cssential to Japan's minimum economy, 
only small-quantities were coming from the pits at the. 
close of the war* At the' end- of ‘the,, second year of occu- 
pation the. rate of coal production approximately 26 
million tons per year; intensive efforts continue to achieve 
increased production# ■ • Labor shortages. labor skillsi,,t1worn, 
out tools, financial: difficulties! chd inadequate housing: 
all play a part in the failure thus far:to achieve, the minimum 
production goal. .Production of many other Commodities kept 
pace with the coal output and distribution* , In. the field ■ 
of construction and reconstruction desperately needed housing 
facilities were made- available. Allocations of lumber, cement, 
glass, nails.,, copper wire, and other essentials for,;housing 
were made, by the Japanese Economic Stabilization Board*. 
The allocation system was buttressed by a system of building, 
permits intended to.halt non-essential construction while 
giving priority to the essential. The blackmarket in build- 
ing materials and construction was finally throttled,though 
not broken. ,Dy August 194? one-fourth.of the war-destroyed 
houses in Tokyo had been replaced. Substantial progress has 
been reported from other- bomb damaged*cities* 
Fertilizer production increased over thd two year span 
by more than 400 percent and the industry now appears $0 
have the best reconversion record. Because a ,ton of fertil- 
izer means more than three additional tons of food (within 
limits) the fertilizer program Is vitally itipprtant' to the 
food-short Japanese, * 
In August 1946 SCAP selected industrial plants in nine 
industrial categories which would be subject to, reparations 
removal. These selections were designed reduce the surplus 
industrial capacity above the specified limits within which 
Japan's future, economy will be contained*. Above the level as 
designated by the Far Eastern Commission, 'oil machine, tools* 
ball bearing plants, caustic soda plants, shipbuilding facil- 
ities, sulphuric acid plants. ' spaa; 
plants, chlorine plants, munitions plants, and thermal 
electric .plants were designated for reparations. 
The recovery of the textile industry has been complicated 
by shortages in.raw materials, rawvcotton and wool, and by the 
shortage- of coal required for processing. Nevertheless, during 
the past eight months, production of the key textiles, reached 
progressively higher levels. Generally, the post war highs 
varied from-one fourth to.one eighteenth of the pre-war production 
records*. The post war gains-have been made, in the face of 
dwindling stockpiles of fuel and of raw materials. Virtually 
fill the textiler industries are living on day-to-day deliveries 
of coal, since stockpiles were reduced;‘Considerably below an 
emergency operating level in the last quarter of 1946, 
; ; Production^in the key textile industries has increased 
from five tp . 15—fold since the beginning of the Occupation! 
15 TEXTILE PRODUCTION COMPARISON 
* Jan". 1946 
Post-war 
Peak 
(nonth) 
Monthly Average 
Pre-war Peak’ Year 
Gotten Yarn 
1,885,000 
V- 
(Apr 
•47) 
130,000,000 (1937) 
(lbs.)' 
27,394,00b 
Rayon Yarn 
(lbs.) 
206,000 
1,356,000 
(Jim 
•47) 
27,500,000 (.1937) 
Woolen and 
Worsted" Yarn 
1,292,000 
1 2,700,000 
(Dec 
•46) 
13,000,000 (1937) 
(lbs.) 
Haw Silk 
(bales) 
2,957 
16,834 
(liar 
•47) 
60,000.61934) 
The production trend in the textile industries during the 
next six to twelve months will depend almost entirely on quantl*- 
ties of coal which will be mined in Japan. Even ■ if_SCAP*s pro- 
gram for the import of raw wool and raw cotton are fulfilled :to 
the point where all operable capacity may be utilized, coal will 
be the limiting factor in the output. . 
Production of rayon requires more coal per unit output .than 
other industries and therefore is more seriously affected by the 
coal shortage. Attempts have been and are being made to import 
high grade rayon pulp and caustic soda. If additional coal were 
made available through expanded domestic production or imports, 
the chemical industry.and the rayon pulp industry could provide 
enough raw materials to operate the rayon mills at capacity. 
Cotton spinnes have been rehabilitating war-damaged and 
stored machinery steadily since, the first shipments of American 
cotton arrived in Japan in June 1946. On June 1, 1946, there 
were fewer than 2,500,000 cotton spindles operable, and only a 
quarter of these were In operation. A year later, there were 
2.700.000 spindles operable of which 2,200,000 were operating. 
Further rehabilitation up to the 4,000,000 spindle limit set by 
the 11-nation Far 'Eastern Commission will be determined by the 
quantities of raw cotton which-are made available. The pre- 
surrender peak of cotton spinning capacity in Japan had been 
12.500.000 operable .spindles of which 8,000,000 were operating. 
Eighty per cent of the cotton goods produced since June 1946 
has been made available for export, with the result that suffix , 
cient cotton goods have been provided to liquidate the Commodity 
Credit Corporation debt, when the goods are sold. In addition, 
significant quantities have been made available for distribution 
to the essential coal mining, food producing and?processing, 
transportation, and communication industries. -. The quantity thus 
far made available for general distribution to the Japanese 
people has been very snail. 
The goal for monthly production of raw silk was set; last 
year at bales. This level was achieved late in 1946 
and production has been stabilized at around these levels ever 
since. Emphasis has been placed'on types most desired iri the 
export market. Flans have been formulated for diversion of a 
considerable proportion of silk production into the weaving- 
industry where, it is’ believed, an important export potential 
lies. This field, and the field of manufactured silk articles, 
will be exploited more fully when private buyers arrive in Japan. 
The rayon industry has progressed slowly but steadily in 
the past six months and has reached several successive postwar 
production peaks. The gains in production volume have been 
snail when compared with the operable capacity.of the industry. 
Only one-haIf the effective* operable production capacity of the 
filament branch and 1? percent of the capacity of the staple branch 
are actually being utilized. Production volume is only *> percent 
of rrewar reaks. 
16 The industry rust depend entirely on scarce indigenous 
supplies of coal, pulp, and caustic soda. Efforts have been made 
to increase production of these raterials and to rake larger 
allocations to the rayon industry. 
The production trend in the woolen and worsted industry has 
been irregular since the end of the war, A considerable stockpile 
of raw wool, originally built up to supply the Japanese army and 
navy, existed when the Occupation began. The woolen industry 
has conserved this stock and censured it slowly, stabilizing 
production at about the present levels in order to keep the rills 
in operation as long as possible. The supply is now approaching 
the vanishing point. The first postwar shipments of Australian 
wool arrived in Japan early in June, but the quantity of '7*481 
bales is negligible when compared, with the 300,000 bale capacity 
of the industry, or with the consuming potential of both the . 
domestic and export markets. 
Export markets are being investigated for linen products, 
since the fiber is grown in Japan arid no imported materials are 
required. Production has been small, pending determination of 
the export potential. 
Supplies of Jute, hemp, and other industrial fibers were at 
an extremely low level-at the end of the war and have so continued 
as a result of inability to imp st significant quantities. Small 
imports of cordage fiber have been received from China, the 
Philippines, and the United States. 
LABOR 
In .the field of labor, the first year of the Occupation was 
concerned primarily with four main objectives: (1) creation of 
conditions under which a free and democratic labor movement could 
develop: (2) encouragement of^sound labor relations through ' 
collective bargaining; (3) creation of democratic labor legis- 
lation; and (4) effective use of Japan1s manpower resourcesi , Only 
the first of these objectives was accomplished during the first 
year, put important beginnings were made with respect to the others 
The first objective was achieved by dissolving the wartime:, 
"laborfront" organizations, by divorcing the police from labor 
administration, and by the ordered elimination of the repressive 
labor'laws which had blocked the development of labor unions 
through free self-organization. The Trac'e Union Law of December, 
194established the framework of .basic labor rights^and provided 
for the of 48 tripartite Labor Relations Committees to 
handle, labor disputes. By August 1946.- 3.000,000 Japanese workers 
were labor union members,- While the rights of workers td strike * 
were abridged in those instances where the interruption of services 
would be inimical tp the objectives of the military occupation, 
work stoppages were few and of sport duration and in no case was 
intervention by occupation troops necessary. 
During the first year, an Advisory Committee on Labor, consist 
ing of 12 American experts in labor legislation, surveyed the labor 
policies, programs, and agencies of the Japanese Government.and pre- 
pared detailed recommendations. Discrimination because of race,, 
nationaility. or social status was forbidden by SCAP directive. 
Finally, initial steps were taken toward the "rationalization" of 
the extremely complex and cumbersome Japanese wage structure. 
In the manpower field, a public works program was created to 
handle the problem, of unemployment and to speed reconstruction of 
public works. Special recruitment programs were undertaken to staff 
the textile and mining industries. -Initial steps were taken for 
the reorganization of public employment exchanges and beginnings 
were mde toward the abolition of Japan's malignant "labor boss" 
recruitment system. 
17 The labor policies and programs of the first year wer£,con- 
tinued and successfully extended in the Second year. mem- 
bership nearly doubled and both the federations of labor and the 
employer organizatibns took definite shape,.with unions giving 
increasing attention to internal democracy. While labor disputes 
increased in number most of them were settled by direct negotia- 
tions or by the successful attention of the Labor Relations Com- 
mittees. A proposed general strike was averted, however, only by 
SCAP intervention. 
V/ithin the Japanese Government the labor administration 
agencies were strengthened arid several new agencies were created. 
By August 1947 the new Ministry of Labor had three old Welfare 
Ministry Bureaus. Labor Administration, Labor Standards, and 
Employment Security; and two new Bureaus, a Women's and Minor’s 
Bureau and a Bureau of Labor Research and Statistics. 
By the end of the' second year, the general framework had been 
completed for a system of modern labor legislation which compares 
favorably with those of progressive democratic countries. Import- 
ant new laws included the Labor Relations Adjustment.Law (September 
1946), the Labor Standards Law (April, 194?)% the V'orknen’s Acci- 
dent insurance Law (April. 1947). the Seaman’s Law (April. 1947) v- ‘ 
and the Employment Security Law (August, 1947). Legislation 
providing for unemployment insurance was introduced in the Diet in 
August, 1947* 
Throughout Japan both employer and labor education.was greatlj 
expanded-during the .year and material progress' was made by both f 
national and prefectural Labor Relations Committees in their 
organization and operation. 
In the manpower field major second year objectives have been: 
(1) to develop an effective system of free public employment office 
(2) to eliminate archaic and undemocratic labor recruitment prac- 
tices. (3) to promote full use of Japan*s manpower resources in 
activities supporting economic rehabilitation, and (4) to encourage 
effective unemployment measures. 
The public employment exchanges were stripped of their last 
vestiges'of wartime labor controls and emphasis directed toward 
service to workers and employers.’ Steps were, taken to eliminate 
labor bosses from labor organizations -and to prosecute cases 
bordering on indentured service. Special recruitment programs 
raised total employment In the coal mines from 232,000 to 410,000 
and irj the textile industry from 173,000 283,000. The public 
works program became effective during this year.and at its peak 
gave employment to some 1,300,000 persons and plans were laid to 
rake the program more effective in urban areas. The katayama 
Cabinet announced unemployment insurance as one part of the Govern- 
ment 1 s eight-point reconstruction program. 
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICS 
In October 1945. SOAP*s Directive No., 3 broadly prohibited 
scientific and technical research in Japan and required monthly 
reports from Japanese scientists. The purpose of the initial 
approach was to break the former subservience of scientific en- 
deavor to the Japanese war effort. 
During first year, SOAP conducted continuous and intensive 
investigations of Japanese scientific research activities. These 
investigations shewed that Japanese science and technology no. 
longer offered a threat to the.safety of the occupation forces. 
Hence restrictive control was virtually eliminated and the policy 
changed to one of cooperative encouragement of peaceful scientific 
investigation. A new directive authorized research to be under- 
taken provided such activities were not directed towards warrlike 
18 purposes, aeronautics, or certain aspects of nuclear physics. 
Semi-annual reports replaced the monthly reports previously re- 
quired. 
Toward the end of the first year a basic policy was developed 
concerning the general attitude toward scientific work in Japan. 
Cognizance of research activity was to be maintained by requiring 
research to be reported and by making routine and special investi- 
gations in the field. Pure and applied research were viewed as 
activities of value to the rehabilitation of Japan and, by the 
natural inclinations of scientists in search of truth, an import- 
ant agent in a democratic society for establishing and maintaining 
a feeling of friendship between nations. A remolding of the 
scientific structure in Japan was to be brought about to make it 
fit a democratic society released from domination by nationalistic 
and reactionary personalities and thinking, as well as dogmas re- 
lated to age, political power, and social level. Such hopes for 
new freedom and democracy in Japanese science were to be achieved 
by the Japanese themselves, with SCAP offering guidance and help. 
During the second year of Occupation the reorganization of the 
Japanese science structure progressed to the point where a deliber- 
ative group was formed, to meet in August, 1947. This group pur- 
ported to be representative of all scientific fields, geographical 
areas, and personalities characterized by relation to industry, 
government, or academic institution, It was claimed by the Japan- 
ese that this group had the intellectual stature and national pres- 
tige to prepare and recommend to the Japanese people an effective 
and acceptable plan for the incorporation of the Japanese scientific 
community into the economic and social life of Japan, The group1s 
aim was to meet not only the scientific and engineering needs of 
reconstruction, but also to provide a vigorous segment of Japanese 
life which would continue to contribute to the preservation of 
democracy, and to establish and maintain the respect of all high- 
principled peoples of the world. To assist SCAP in the formulation 
of policy in this regard, arrangements were made for a group of-six 
American Scientists from the National Academy of Science to visit 
Japan in July and August, 1947, 
In the reparations program nearly all the laboratory equipment 
from Japan*s Army and Navy establishments has been collected and 
put in order to await final disposition to claimant nations. Work 
has continued on evaluation of the equipment and standards for 
packing. 
Detailed information on scientific and technical establishments, 
organizations, and personalities has’been collected and tabulated. 
There are approximately 500 organizations'in Japan whose research 
or engineering work warrants consideration, including 13 universities 
doing work in all fields, A report on the activity in each field 
of scientific and engineering endeavor, based upon reports by the 
Japanese of their research work, has been prepared. 
Other projects, most of which have long range Implications, 
have progressed to varying degrees. Some 3*7°° abstracts of Japan- 
ese scientific publications issued during the war have been made. 
Considerable effort has been directed to the problems of standards 
so important in research, in manufacturing, and more particularly 
in connection with foreign commerce. Work continues on plans for 
the Japanese to stimulate standardization for domestic progress and 
to achieve more ready acceptance of their products in foreign markets 
Even the scientists failed to escape some activity connected 
™ith the Zaibatsu, for the latter organizations were involved in 
research activites as well as in manufacturing, banking, and trading. 
The Institute cf Chemical hnd Physical Research was divested of its 
Zaibatsu control and the groundwork has been laid for its rehabili- 
tation and Independent future aided by a substantial government loan. 
19 Finally a program to fost r the sinplification of technical 
and scientific terminology in the Japanese language has been 
undertaken. Nationally recognized groups have been formed in 
each field to study and recommend appropriate action. 
RESEARCH A ID STATISTICS 
The inadequacy of the Japanese Government®s statistical 
system and the dependence of the Government upon data from pri- 
vate sources showed the need for a statistical mission from the 
United States. The Mission was composed of seven top-flight 
statisticians and economists, headed by Dr. Stuart A. Rice of 
the U.S. Bureau of the Budget. The Mission made numerous recom- 
mendations and suggestions for improving the organization and 
operation of the Japanese statistical system. 
The Japanese Government, cognizant of its statistical short- 
comings, established a central coordinating and planning group 
called the Statistics Committee. With the passage of the 
Statistics Law at the latest session of the Diet, the Committee 
has control over statistical surveys and for the organization 
of Japanese statistical agencies. Even before the arrival of 
U.S. Statistical Mission and before establishment of the Statis- 
tics Committee and the Statistics Law, the Ministry of Commerce 
and Industry was directed to establish a Bureau of Research and 
Statistics. The appropriation for this purpose for the fiscal 
year ending 31 March 1948 is ¥ 8.3 million. 
While the Statistical Mission was in Japan, considerable 
effort was directed toward the development of plans for an alloca- 
tion system to be administered by the Economic Stabilization 
Board of the Japanese Government. The Board has been required to 
take over the function of distribution of critical materials, 
formerly performed principally by control associations and contro 
companies. 
20 TWO YEARS OF OCCUPATION 
GENERAL PROCUREMENT AGENT 
In accordance with the rules of land warfare, Japan was and 
is expected to provide supplies, facilities and services to meet 
the needs of the occupying forces to the extent that this can be 
effected without causing starvation, wide-spread disease, or 
acute physical distress. 
At the beginning of the occupation a procurement procedure 
was devised which, though simple, fully meets the needs. All 
requisitions, in the form of procurement demands, are placed on 
the Japanese Government whose responsibility is.to locate a 
source of supply. The supplier is. given a copy of a receipt 
form, upon delivery of the item and he is paid by the Japanese 
Government upon presentation of receipt. 
Because of the dislocation of the Japanese economy, it was 
pecognized that certain items were in extremely short supply. 
A list of such ciritcal items is published throughout Japan and 
procurement of items on the list is closely controlled. As 
economic conditions change, additions or deletions to the list 
are made. 
The outstanding feature of the procurement system used in 
Japan has been its flexibility. Early in the occupation, troops 
were spread far and wide but the smallest unit could present a 
procurement demand to the local representative of the Japanese 
Government. As the troop operations became more concentrated, 
the sane procedure could be used for filling the needs of larger 
groups, 
In order to exercise better control over procurement and to 
estimate well in advance the impact on Japanese economy-, a new 
system has been inaugurated which requires supply units to fore- 
cast their requirements several months in advance. These fore- 
casts cover miscellaneous indigenous items and, except in 
emergencies, must be approved by SCAP before procurement demands 
may be served on the Japanese Government. 
For accounting and reporting purposes all indigenous procure- 
ment has been divided into three general categories, namely: 
(1) Consumables. (2) Rentals of capital assets, and (3) 
Construction, rehabilitation and furnishing of capital assets. 
Current and future instruments covering indigenous procurement 
from the Japanese Government for the occupation forces will be 
segregated and identified within these categories. 
All procurement instruments involving critical items and all 
forecasts of miscellaneous indigenous procurement are referred to 
GHQ, SCAP for approval. 
The Commanding General, Eighth Army is the sole procuring 
agency of indigenous supplies from Japanese sources. Therefore, 
all procurement instruments approved by GHQ are referrid to ■ 
Commanding General, Eighth Army for processing. 
21 TWO YE AH S 0 F OCCUPATION 
j-TATU.-AL RESOURCES 
The economic rehabilitation of Japan, within the limits 
allowed by the Potsdam declaration, depends in the ultimate 
analysis on the use which is made of her domestic resources. 
Early in the occupation comprehensive surveys in the fields 
of mining and geology, agriculture, fisheries and forestry were 
made. These surveys revealed $he extent to which utilization of 
Japan’s? meager natural resources had been dislocated by the war, 
and the urgent need' for basic long range reforms and emergency 
measures in each-of these fields. 
The most pressing- problems were the material shortages. At 
war’s end Japan faced a raj or coal and fuel, wood crisis. Rice 
production had dropped during 1945 to approximately 68 percent 
of average pre-war levels. Production of timber to rebuild 
shattered cities was virtually at a standstill. 
To avoid, the threat of starvation a number of emergency 
measures were recommended by SCAP to increase the indigenous food 
supply. Fishing areas '"ere extended beyond the original boundaries 
set in November of 194-5. To further increase fisheries production 
quantities.of netting, cotton, rope, wire, fishing vessels and 
other equipment were made aval? Ae from Japanese sources, Arrang 
rents were made through other SCAP sections for the purchase by 
the Japanese Government of surplus U. S. fuel oil for the use of 
fishermen. A total of 237*386 kiloliters of petroleum product? 
was imported for fishirg vessels in and distributed through 
the ’’link system”, which provided for the exchange/of fuel oil 
for fish in established proportions.- 
Exhaustive checks were made of fish landing reports. As an 
incentive to channeling fish catches into the legitimate market, 
fishermen were given extra rice allotments above their ration for 
obtaining specified quotas of fish catches% 
Fertilizer materials, seeds and farm tools wefe made avail- 
able to Japanese farters, lands formerly used for military purposes 
were converted into, farms. Agr° *ien economists compiled data 
for all Allied agencies concerned with food import problems. Food 
production, collection and consumption in the 194? rfce year were 
analyzed, and forecast analyses were made for the next three years. 
The methods used by the Japanese government in crop reporting and 
food collection were investigate-" by field check and appraised. 
Recommendations designed to minimize "opportunities for under re- 
porting crons", and for the upward revision of collection quotas 
as well as for streamlining the whole collection machinery were 
made. Responsibility for solving the problem of feeding Japan’s 
millions rests primarily with the Japanese government. Since this 
was and is still the most urgently critical single problem in 
Japan today, SCAP has exercised close surveillance of the Ministry 
of Agriculture and Forestry in administering the food collection 
program, and in encouraging production. 
Arrangements were made for increasing the production and 
importation of fertilizer in Japan, Recommendations were made to 
the Japanese, governr ent for increasing domestic fertilizer pro- 
duction and improving, distribution. Food crops were given high 
priority in fertilizer allocations. Plant disease specialists 
advised arid helped Japanese Ministry of Agriculture officials in 
developing methods for controlling plant: diseases. 
22 Second only to the food problem in irportance was the fuel 
supply, upon which depends the industrial recovery of Japan, 
Field investigations of mining methods, capacities and reserves 
as well as labor and material requirements were used as a basis 
for recommendations for improving technical procedures. Con- 
ferences were held with Japanese cabinet ministers to stimulate 
governmental action. From November 1945 to October 1946 the pro- 
duction of coal was tripled, although it still remained below 
minimum requirements. The distribution system for coal, coke 
and lignite was revised. 
The latter half of the first year of the occupation brought 
a gradual shift from emergency operations to long range planning 
for improvements in technological procedures and for the con- 
servation of Japan’s dangerously depleted natural resources. 
Before the arrival of the occupation forces, Japan was twenty 
years behind the rest of the world in the field of mineral ex- 
ploration. SCAP experts in the field of mining and geology con- 
ducted a painstaking search, both within and outside Japan proper 
for potential sources of raw materials necessary for rehabilitating 
Japanese economy. For the first time in Japanese history a 
regional survey of all oil producing strata was undertaken as a 
primary step to full exploitation of petroleum reserves. ,Although 
the Jaranese petroleum industry produces in one year what the 
oil wells of Texas produce in one day, -it is an integral part of 
'Japan’s economy. Through the efforts of SCAP engineers it has 
been put through a much needed reorganization both from the stand- 
point of operations and geological practices. At SCAP suggestion 
a Petroleum Exploration Advancement Committee composed of Japanese 
scientists, was created for the purpose of locating new sources 
of oil in Japan. Under the auspices of the committee 59 geological 
survey projects and 12 geophysical projects were planned for 1947* 
SCAP forestry experts begcan during the first year of the 
Occupation to conduct equally extensive surveys of all forest areas 
in Japan. These surveys revealed that Japan had been cutting two, 
possibly three times the amount of timber growing in her forests, 
and that at the same tine about 14 percent of the forest areas 
was unused because of the lack of roads. To put timber production 
on a sustained'yield basis, the Japanese government was assisted 
in Ccarrying out a reforestation program which calls for planting 
nine billion seedlings, enough to reforest 10 million acres in 
the next five years. SCAP has encouraged replanting of Japan’s 
overcut protection forests for erosion control. To bring unused 
forest areas into production, 276 miles of forest roads were 
built which opened up 270,000 acres of forestk supporting a timber 
volure of more than 500,000 cubic feet of lumber. 
Lumber is a key commodity in the industrial and physical 
recovery of Japan from the ravages of war. During World War II 
the whole lumber industry was under the complete control of the 
Japanese Governrent which exercised its authority through the 
Japan Lumber Company, SCAP faced the problem of retaining necessary 
control to insure proper distribution of lumber while at the same 
time allowing for the rebirth of free enterprise throughout the 
industry. T’-is was accomplished by the dissolution of the Japan 
Lumber Company, and the establishment of democratic forest industry 
associations, ordered by SCAP directive on June 26, 1946. The 
Japan Forest Industry Association established by the Japanese in 
It pierentation of the directive, is now composed of 35 prefectural 
associations and one national association. 
One of Japan’s major-problems has been the pressure of a large 
agrarian population on a lirited area of arable land. The Japanese 
government has made repeated attempts during the past 70 years to 
increase this are- by reclaiming and improving submarginal lands. 
23 During the first year of the occupation, SCAP specialists reviewed 
critically the latest,Five-Year Land Reclamation program, and 
made numerous revisions in procedures. Besides bringing new 
land into cultivation a program for improving 8?7?0«000 acres of 
present cultivated land by proper drainage, irrigation and flood 
control was undertaken. The whole development program has as a 
goal an eventual increase of 2? percent in the cultivated acreage 
of Japan and the establishment of a million new farms• Since the 
beginning of the Occupation approximately 500,000 acres of land 
have already been reclaimed for cultivation. This is more than 
half the land reclaimed between 1910 and 1939• During^the first 
year of the Occupation, SCAP experts investigated the possibilities 
-for increasing pasture and forage utilization to Increase live- 
stock production, and started a reconnaissance soil survey project 
to be used as a basis for future agricultural planning* 
At the beginning of the second year of the Occupation arrange- 
ments were completed for Japanese whalers to participate In 
Antarctic whaling for the first time since Japan1s entry into the 
war. The expedition made up of twenty-one vessels owned by two 
fishing companies, was authorized by SCAP directive on August 6, 
1946 as an emergency measure, to increase Japan1s meager food 
supply by vitally needed proteins* Two SOAP representatives 
accompanied the fleets as observers to insure compliance with, 
prescribed regulations. In.approximately four months of whaling 
operations in the the expedition returned to Japan with 
a total of 1,175 whales. These provided over 21,000 metric.tons 
of salted and frozen neat* and 50 tons of salted livers for dis- 
tribution to the Japanese people, the equivalent in food value of 
approximately 40,000 tons -of wheat. It also provided 12,000 tons 
of whale -oil. and 11 tons of vitamin A and D which is in short 
supply all over the world, and worth six million dollars in foreign 
exchange.. A second Antarctic .whaling expedition authorized on 
June 21, 1947 by the Supreme Commander pursuant to instructions 
from the United States government is now being organized. 
The second year of the Occupation brought Japan1s downtrodden 
tenant farmers one step-closer t*c freedom from the economic bondage 
of a feudalistic agrarian system. The first assault on this system 
came on December 9* 1945, when SCAP directed the Japanese govern- 
ment to undertake a program of agrarian reform which would redis- 
tribute the lend equally among Japan1 s fivemand a half million '■ 
farm families. The program was translated from plan to reality 
with the promulgation of the Land Reform Law bn October 21. 1946,, 
drawn up by Japanese legislators in response to the directive. 
The mein objectives, of the: Law are to transfer land ownership 
to those who actually till the soil, remove the yoke of high rents 
and* improve the conditions of tenancy for those farmers who will - 
continue to rent the land they cultivate. ’These to 
be accomplished through purchase by the government of from 70to 
80 percent of the tenant cultivated land of Japan for resale to 
tenant farmers within a two-year period ending December 31. 1948. 
Some five million acres of land, or one third of all Japan*s farm 
lands will be involved in the transfer. Compensation of the land- 
owners is at legally established price levels. Resale of the land 
to tenant cultivators after consolidation into economic farm units 
will be at the same prices. Tenant payments may be made in equal 
annual installments over a 24-year period, will'never exceed one 
third of:the gross income of the land, and may be reduced, delayed 
or cancelled by the.government in case of crop failure or a drop in 
farm prices. ' 
In accordance with provisions of the law, every immediate 
member over 20 years of age of farm families owning or cultivating 
one or more tan (.245 acres) of land was registered in categories 
of owner, owner-cultivator or tenant by November 30, 1946, 
24 Responsibility, for adiiinisterihg the purchase program,rests 
with the; local and prefectural. land, commissions democratically 
elected by and'fron, among Japan*s farmers. The local land com- 
missions, made up - of five tenants, three owners and two owner- 
cultivators, were elected on December 31* 1946. The prefectural 
lend commissions, made up in parallel ratio, were elected by and 
from among members of the local land commissions on February 25, 
1947; 
The Central-Land Commission, which decides on broad policies, 
was appointed by the Cabinet on March 26,- 1947. 
As provided by law, .farmers dissatisfied with the actions of 
'their representatives on the commissions may petition for their 
removal and schedule recall elections. The number of recall elec- 
tions of rural land commissioners throughout Japan (1100) resulting 
from tenant demands for.more effective action is an indication*of 
the increasing awareness on the part of the most downtrodden 
elements of the Japanese agrarian population. 
The program is now in full swing. The overall purchase plan 
for the transfer of land from landlords to tenant farmers provides 
for periodic purchases at fixed dates Within the two-year period. 
The first 1ana purchase date was set for March 31, 1947, at which 
time 129,000 cho of land were bought by the local commissions. 
The second occurred July 2, 1947* and brought about the purchase 
of a total of approximately 219,000 cho. These two purchases have 
exceeded by almost 50.000 cho the goal set by the Japanese govern- 
ment for purchase to date. 
Also available for resale to tenants are the 193*603 cho of 
land turned over to the government by landowners in lieu of cash 
tax payments. The total of 541,889 cho amounts to more than one 
third of all the land estimated to be available for purchase and 
resale by the land commissions to the tenant farmers. 
To accomplish the maximum consolidation without disturbing 
production,government acquisition of the land has been expedited 
while resale to the tenants has been deferred.’ The first sale of 
lands to tenant purchasers, however,.has already begun during the 
month of July. In many cases, the actual transfer of land to* 
tenants will be a technicality, since tenant-purchasers will bid 
to buy the land they are already cultivating. 
The task of altering the basic structure of Japan*s agrarian 
economy requires%more than the creation of. the administrative 
machinery of reform. It-entails also the re-education of the great 
mass,of Japanese farmers as to their newly acquired democratic rights 
and privileges. In order to set the rural lahd reform program in 
motion, and to insure its effective accomplishment, the Japanese 
Ministry of Agriculture, with the assistance and encouragement of 
SCAP has launched an extensive campaign of education on land reform 
through the press. 
25 TWO YEARS 0 F OCCUPATION 
REPARATIONS 
1. First Year1s Work - The preparatory work for reparations 
removals-which was accomplished during the first year of the 
occupation consisted largely of inventorying metalworking equip- 
ment in arsenals and aircraft plants. This was performed ,by the 
Reparations Branch in the Economic and Scientific Section* General 
Headquarters, Supreme Commander for the Allied. Powers, which was 
subsequently transferred and established separately as a Reparations 
Section. 
2. Second Year!s Work - Host of the work'of this year has 
consisted of inventorying and evaluating a large proportion of the 
facilities taken into custody for reparations. 
3. During the second year, all 11 member nations of the Far 
Eastern Commission established Reparations and Restitution 
Delegations under the operational control of the Supreme Commander 
to handle all reparations and restitution matters for their 
respective governments. 
4-. In accordance with a directive from the United States 
Government, the Supreme Commander on 21 May 194-7 established the 
Reparations Technical Advisory Committee, consisting of the Chiefs 
of the respective Reparations and Restitution Delegations, and 
headed by the Chief of the Reparations Section, to assist him in 
an advisory capacity in the development of procedures for the 
orderly removal of reparations facilities. 
5. -Towards the latter part of the second year, the United 
States Government announced an interim directive under provision 
of the terms of reference of the Far Eastern Commission, authorizing 
the Supreme Commander to make limited deliveries ox reparations 
goods to China, Philippines, the Netherlands (for the Netherlands 
East Indies), and to the United Kingdom (for Burma,. Malaya, and 
other Fair East colonial possessions). In accordance with-the interim 
(over) 
26 Directive, the Supreme Commander on 9 July 194? announced the 
availability of metalworking equipment in Army and Navy arsenals 
and synthetic rubber plants which were to be allocated as soon 
as administratively possible. No allocations were made, however, 
by the end of the second year. 
6. The complete Job of physical removal of reparations 
equipment is accordingly still to be accomplished. 
27