BJ 1011 H176m 1920 01010080R NLfl DSQDbSb? 7 NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE t a Jn4/^/ SURGEON GENERAL'S OFFICE LIBRARY. Section W. D.S. G.O. No . %_¥-o.p% H- 8—613 MORALE THE SUPREME STANDARD OF LIFE AND CONDUCT By G. STANLEY HALL Morale Adolescence Youth Educational Problems Founders of Modern Psychology These Are Appleton Books D. APPLETON & COMPANY Publishers New York T 241 MORALE THE SUPREME STANDARD OF LIFE AND CONDUCT BY G. STANLEY HALL, Ph.D., LL.D. TIT PRESIDENT OF CLAEK UNIVERSITY Author of "Adolescence," "Founders of Modern Psychology," etc D. APPLETON AND COMPANY NEW YORK LONDON MCMXX BJ ion ISlo Copyright, 1920, by D. APPLETON AND COMPANY PRINTED in the united STATES OF AMERICA PREFACE The first draft of nearly half this present volume was printed in the Psychological Bulletin (Vol. XV, No. 11). This part was somewhat radically revised, and the substance of the volume as it now stands was given in weekly lectures in Clark University during the year 1918-19. I hope that this concise survey of these very diverse fields may be considered as a plea for a new and more inclusive standard of the evaluation of not only individuals but of human organizations, and I would fain hope it may be worthy of a place as a textbook in some of our higher institutions of learn- ing, perhaps in place of the types of ethics now in use. Our ideals of conscience, honor, and morals generally have not accomplished all we have hoped for. Why not try the standard of Morale here sug- gested as more fitting for the conditions of modern life? I have been much aided in this work by the Librarian of the University, Dr. Louis N. Wilson, who has collected for our Library some 7,700 books and pamphlets on the war, besides 2,200 not yet catalogued, 312 serials which are not complete, 253 v PREFACE maps, 6,200 posters, and 3,400 pictures. I am also indebted to Miss Helen G. Elliot, who has this col- lection in charge; and last but not least to my secre- tary, Miss Mary M. McLoughlin, who has typed and read the proof of the entire volume and has other- wise been of great service. Gt. Stanley Hall CLARK UNIVERSITY vf CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTEB PREFACE ........................................ V L Morale as a Supreme Standard.................. 1 Comparison of morale as the modern standard with the standards of (I) Conscience, (II) Honor, (III) the Superman, (IV) Morale. IL Morale, Patriotism and Health................. 22 Our present problem of morale in general and espe- cially in this country—Its peculiar difficulties here— Its relations to health. III. The Morale of Fear, Death, Hate, and Angeb..... 35 I. Morale and the psychology of fear in war—The methods of its conquest—II. Morale and death—The various attitudes of different types of soldiers to death—Burials, graveyards, and monuments—Spirit- ism—III. Anger in life, in literature, and its place in the present war. IT. Morale and Diversions.......................... 70 I. Humor, wit and fun—Its compensatory value for morale—II. Music as the organ of affectivity—Its development in this country, France, England, and Germany—War poetry—III. The soldier's reading. V. The Morale of Placards, Slogans, Decorations, and Wab Museums......................... 86 I. The origin of pictures and posters and their func- tions in this war—II. Medals and other insigna of honor in the different countries—III. Museums and collections of various kinds in different lands of mementoes of the war. VI. Morale, Sex, and Women........................101 I. Morale and sex in war—The effects of war upon this instinct—Government prophylaxis—Moralizing methods in camp—II. What women have done and can do to sustain morale—Their attitude toward the soldier. VII. Wab Aims _and Knowledge........................ 116 1. The need of soldiers to know what they are fighting for—II. The three stages of news-getting by the American press—Censorship—The German system of espionage and some methods of propaganda—The great need in this country of better knowledge of the world's events. vii CONTENTS PAGE ohapteb VIII. Conscientious Objectors and Divebsities o? Pa- triotic Ideals.......................•...... I. The treatment of objectors in lands where they are recognized—Fake objectors; the proper test and treatment—II Factors of patriotism—Contrast in the goals of military training between France and Germany, viz. organization versus esprit—The French psychology of the attack. IX. The Soldieb Ideal and Its Conservation in Peace. . 142 What is the ideal soldier?—Value of the details of his training—Carrying on the war in peace—True Democracy—Capital versus Labor—America as the "big brother" of the countries she has made democratic. X. Mobale, Tests, and Personnel Wobk..............153 Recent studies of types of character—Testing soldiers and officers—The development of personnel work in the army and in industry—Dangers here of substitut- ing Kultur for culture in general and the same danger now imminent in psychology. XL Specific Morale for the Army....................173 Outline of the Munson memorandum—Characteriza- tion of the methods of developing morale in Camp Greenleaf—Lessons of this work. XIL Morale and Rehabilitation of the Wounded......188 The state of mind of the maimed soldier and how it has been met—The marvelous work of the surgeon— The persuader—What is done in the various countries to restore the soldier to efficiency and settle him in a vocation—Success here second to no other triumph of morale XIII. The Labob Pboblem.............................. 201 The necessity of studying and realizing the funda- mental needs of labor everywhere for food, domestic life, ownership, recreation, work, intellectual activity, and association with fellow-men—The power of labor to reconstruct the world not realized by capital. XIV. Morale and Pbohibition......................... 219 The suddenness and extent of prohibition as one cause of world unrest—Comparisons with the effects of hunger—The rOle of food shortage in the development of the race—Labor meetings as a substitute for the saloon—Projection of alimentary diseasement and the need of stimulation outward XV. Morale and Profiteering........................230 War always followed by a period of greed—Its camouflages—The cures of (a) publicity; (b) ridicule; (c) portrayals of the simple life: (d) morale and revolution—The need of stngyjgg_asjwell as burning anarchistic literature viii CONTENTS chapter PAaB XVI. Morale and Feminism........................... 244 Why woman suffrage has done so little—Why its leaders are so averse to the recognition of sex differ- ences in this age when individual differences are so studied—Incompleteness of women without children— The results of her inferiority of physical strength— List of sex differences—Ultimate goal of the woman movement—Secondary sex differences in psychoanaly- sis—Problems to which woman should address herself —Marriage and divorce. XVII.. »MORALE AND EDUCATION...........................271 War activities in schools, including pre-military train- ing—A paido versus a scholio-centric system—The trend from culture to Kultur and how to check it— The rehumanizalion of "the classics—The humanistic side of science—Modifications needed in history and sociology—Education and psychology living in a pre- evolutionary age—Religious, medical, and legal train- ing—Faculty and school-board reforms. XVIII. Morale and Statesmanship......................293 The tendency of the soundest minds to become neu- rotic when confronted by great problems—The Nemesis of mediocrity—Disproportionate magnifica- tion of items of the Treaty—Loss of perspective and of the power to compromise—Failure of the League as involving a relapse to the old selfish continental policy of each nation for itself. XIX. Morale and "The Reds"..........................316 The intense appeal of radicalism—The need of a new type of professor of economics—Hatred of the "Reds" for nationalism and substitution of war between classes for the war between states—The international principle—What Bolshevik "nationalization" of prop- erty would mean in this country—Its undemocracy— The religious movement vs. it in Russia—Labor re- organization the hope of the world. XX. Morale and Religion............................342 Peculiar dangers of lapse to lower levels in religion —Sympathy between Catholicism and Teutonism—In how far the former is un-democratic—The need and opportunity for a new dispensation in religion, with hints as to its probable nature. bibliography .............................................373 ix MORALE THE SUPREME STANDARD OF LIFE AND CONDUCT CHAPTER I MORALE AS A SUPREME STANDARD Comparison of morale as the modern standard with the standards of (I) Conscience, (II) Honor, and (III) the Superman. Is there any chief end of man, any goal_or_destiny supreme over all others? If so, and if found, we shall haveTn the degree of approximation to it the best of all scales on which to measure real progress in terms of which all human values are best stated and denned. I answer that there is such a goal and that it took the awful psychic earthquake of war to reveal it in its true perspective and to show us its real scope. It is simply this—to keep ourselves, body and soul, and our environment, physical, social, industrial, etc., always at the very tip-top of condition. This super-hygiene is best designated as Morale. It implies the maximum of vitality, life abounding, getting and keeping in the very center of the current of creative evolution; and minimizing, destroying, or avoiding all checks, ar- rests, and inhibitions to it. This mysterious de- velopmental urge, entelechy, will-to-live, elan vital, horme, libido, nisus, or by whatever name it be called, which made all the ascending orders of life and in Mansoul itself evolved mind, society, language, myths, industry, gods, religion—in short all human institu- tions, and lastly science, is in some strong, in others MORALE weak, and in the same individual it is now high, now low; but its presence makes, and its absence destroys morale. The story of the retardations and advance- ments of this great energy in the cosmos constitutes every kind of real history. It is the only truly divine power that ever was or will be. Hence it follows that morale thus conceived is the one and only true religion of the present and the future, and its doctrines are the only true theology. Every individual situation and in- stitution, every race, nation, class, or group, is best graded as ascendant or decadent by its morale, hard to guage as this most imponderable, vital, and fluctu- ating of all spiritual qualities is. It is exquisitely; sensitive to temperature, climate, health, rest or fa- tigue, knowledge, tradition, and every social influ- ence. If God be conceived as immanent, as thus im- plied, and not as ab extra and transcendent, which is idolatry, we might define morale in terms of the Westminster divines as glorifying God; while the other half of this famous definition of man's chief end, "and enjoy Him forever," is simply transcendental selfishness. True morale is never motivated by the ex- pectation of pay or pain in another world. I. Morality and conscience. How, then, does morale differ from morality? I answer it recognizes and does justice to the unconscious andjnstinctive impulsions to virtue, as the Stoic-Christian ethics of conscience does not. Seneca's Mens sibi conscia recti could male-the good man happy in poverty, disgrace, and even when tortured to death as a martyr; while the 2 MORALE AS A SUPREME STANDARD tyrant, though rich and honored by all, was in his heart miserable because he lacked this inner sense of right. Kant's conception of duty as sublime as the starry heavens and as purged of every vestige of hedonism, as making behavior conform to the prin- ciples of universal law-giving, subjecting every issue to the acid test of asking what if everybody should do so—these were indeed sublime ideas. So, too, is toleration, although it is very hard indeed unless belief is already cankered by doubt. These lofty_conceptions, however, are only a part of morale. Conscience is the very acme of self-con- sciousness. It involves deliberation and excludes most of those energies of the soul that are bewusst- seinsunfahig or which cannot get into the narrow field of consciousness. The case of conscience must be sub- mitted to an inner oracle, but the brief which con- sciousness submits can never contain all the data. Hence comes casuistry and every kind of perversion, e. g., the conscientious objector. The sins done in the name of conscience are many and great; hence codes and laws are necessary. The prizes offered for years by the French govern- ment to boys in the Lycee for the best essays on moral themes were so often won by the worst boys, who could best praise the very virtues they most violated, that they were finally abandoned because it was real- ized that these lads were partly camouflaging their faults and developing hypocrisy; in other words, the kind of morality thus secured was against the inter- 3 MORALE ests of true morale. It was at best a kind of flirtation with the cardinal virtues. Over^conscientiousness tends to a kind of moral Fletcherism or excessive mastication or rumination of motives. It has led to all the contorted scrupulosities of the New England conscience. This moral invalidism is often interest- ing, perhaps pathetic and even tragic in its issue. It keeps good resolutions playing over the surfaces of the soul, which is enervated if they are not enforced. Several decades ago the French began collecting in- stances of conspicuous virtue and now have a score or two of school texts which they have gathered not merely from incidents recorded in the daily press but from their history and literature, and these instances of heroism, these golden deeds, are set forth for the inspiration of the young. Altogether they constitute most interesting and profitable data from which the most obvious inference is that in most of these cases a sudden crisis was sprung and the deed was done quite without reflection or any kind of moral or other con- sciousness, because the morale of the doer was already high or rose suddenly to the emergency. There was no time for^ conscience to act or for temptation but only a sudden realization of an instinct latent in all of us which points true as the compass to the pole to the highest goal of the individual and of the race, viz., the gregarious or social instinct, which has such countless modes of expression. Years ago a rich church-lady fell from a Brooklyn ferry-boat and was saved by a rough English tar who 4 MORALE AS A SUPREME STANDARD seeing her fall, plunged in and saved her by clinging to a cake of floating ice. With some difficulty the man was found and brought to a church-vestry meet- ing, eulogized, congratulated, given a purse, and a medal was pinned on his jacket; and finally, despite his intense aversion, he was almost dragged to the front and made to tell about the act. About all he could say was that the boat gave a^urclLTshe pitched into the water, and he of course hopped in, only doing his duty as anyone would do. But he added "I ain't no hero, and if I'd a' supposed you'd a' thought a common fellow like me was tryin' to do a big thing and would a' made such a fuss about it, I'd a' let the d---- old woman drown." He got away from the church as soon as he could, and the next morning found him in a police court for drunkenness and dis- order. Money and medal were gone, and fame knew him no more. In this case we have a deed prompted by high morale which was probably weakened by be- ing made conscious. If we always did right, we should no more know that we had a conscience than the well man knows he has a stomach, heart, or nerves. To be conscious of conscience means that evil has found entrance and that if we now do right, we do so only with a majority of our faculties and not unanimously with them all. Very, much good is done in this way, to be sure, but it is not virtue of the purest order but of a secondary quality. Virginal purity never debates or parleys, for to_delibe_rate is too often to be lost. The teachable 5 MORALE morality of our texts of ethics is of a lower order than the intuitive or automatic. The world needs it badly; enough but it is essentially remedial. It is not so much primordial innocence as moral convalescence. Hence it is not better to have sinned and be saved than never to have sinned at all. The old sailor felt that to be made conscious of his good deed brought deterioration of its quality. If the best of us have erred, every one of the worst of us has, like him, some traits of pristine, unfallen, spontaneous goodness. Even though our moral instinct is not strong enough to keep us always right; even though we are not like the child who may touch fire, or the chick that may peck at its excrements once but never again; even though we may have become acutely conscious of wrong in us to extirpate it, the essential thing is that there is the latent impulse back of and prompting all the conscious phenomena and that we do not find it in any school of current ethics. Although conscience can and will yet do very much in the world, it is no longer the supreme oracle it once was thought to be. II. Honor. In this twilight of conscience the guide most would now turn .to is honor, which is a very dif- ferent sentiment. A slur upon it makes the most cowardly boy fight, the most unabashed girl blush and weep, and the dread of the loss of it impels men to face death in almost any form. Life is a paltry thing if it must be lived in dishonor. Like conscience, it is very subject to perversions and may become ca- pricious and fantastic. Indeed it may be but a 6 MORALE AS A SUPREME STANDARD crabbed and shriveled remnant of what it once was, but it is never absent even among thieves, prostitutes, and beggars. If it is threatened, the Japanese' knight trained in the chivalric code of bushido seeks death by hara-kiri. What would any modern social group think of a man who would not defend his lady escort against brutality even though he risked his life to do so? In the medieval courts of love and under the lofty ideals of King Arthur and the Round Table and the Grail, honor was discussed, idealized, defined, and codified. It was defined as living and acting as if noble ladies were always looking on. A German pamphlet tells us that under the dueling code of the corps a member may be declared dishonorable on any one of sixty-three points, for offense against each of which he must win back his honor on the Mensur. It is sought in badges, titles, and decorations. True, it is of paganj>rigin and our academic moralists give it scant recognition, but it must be reinstalled and rein- terpreted. Aristotle thought it embodied in his ideal of the "magnanimous man," dignified in mien, slow of speech and movement, unerring in judgment, and in conflict always able to find a higher way out. Thus it is older than Christianity, and its ideals perhaps on the whole are somewhat more akin to those of the superman than they are to those of Christianity, but the true gentleman can pity even those whom he may feel that selection ought to exterminate. The man of honor despises all dignity and praise not based on genuine intrinsic merits. At his best he is marked in 7 MORALE all his ways by a distinction so natural that it seems innate, and his friendship, wherever he bestows it, is an honorary degree. True, it is a military virtue perhaps rather more than one of peace. At its best it prompts one to ask in every emergency what is the ideal course to pursue, the highest, purest, most dis- interested motive to act from, the loftiest and not the most expedient solution. The man of honor would choose to be refuted by merely specious arguments rather than to use them and win out. Dishonor is to succeed in anything, great or small, by trick or subterfuge. Honor is to do right, but not because it would be embarrassing to be found out wrong. It cannot accept secret rebates, adulterate or partake in corporate practices that as individuals one would shrink from. It cannot be silent in view of im- position and outrage when exposure would put them both to flight. Those who do this cannot be called gentlemen. Shall we go farther and say that it is dis- honorable to accept from any source a dollar that one has not earned by a real service? Honor's true knight will keep a personal conscience that neither party allegiance nor popular clamor can silence. His maxim will not be the craven one of "Make no enemies what- ever befalls," but "Make all the enemies of truth, right, justice, and decency between man and man in your community your own." This spirit is akin to that of true sportsmanship. Many remember the critical moment in an Interna- tional Tennis Championship game before the war 8 MORALE AS A SUPREME STANDARD when the representative of this country made a fluke which would have lost us the championship had not the English champion purposefully made exactly the ~~~ same fluke because he did not deem it honorable to win on an accident. It is by no means true that this spirit animates all our great games in this country, for there are still too many secret practices, tricks, and unfair advantages to make these games ideal schools of honor. There is hardly any amusement, even those most tabooed, which might not be permit- ted if it could only be made a school of honor pure and undefiled, and not of the dishonor which seeks to win at any price. Its standard of life is single, not double. It keeps the spirit as well as the letter of the profes- sional codes. It is to the inner all that the best man- ners and style are to the outer life. It is the best bond and boon of friendship, another of the forgotten pagan virtues which in its classical sense of Aristotle and Cicero can live again only in its atmosphere. Indeed honor is capable of being construed as almost the whole of the inner vocation of man. It is more elastic than conscience. In the days of the French Commune a captain was seized on a baseless pretext and trun- dled in a tumbrel to the guillotine. His young wife, in tears and agony, catching sight of him, tried to press through the crowds to stand by his side. See- ing her, he shouted, "Take her away; I do not know and never saw her," because he knew that recognition would involve her in his doom. Was this love, or honor, or both? Together they most certainly make 9 MORALE the most precious metal that human life can produce. In fine, we must not forget that the noblest function of honor is to regulate love for and duties to pos- terity, for all the issues of future generations are now committed to the honor of young men and young women. Its distinction is to preside over the race; to keep love high, pure, and wedded to religion, for each alone can keep the other pure; and to be for every age the present representative of that great cloud of witnesses who, in the long perspective of future generations, will throng the earth when we are_gone, and compared to which the fifteen hundred million people alive to-day are but a handful. Honor should be thus the native breath and vital air of the true lady and gentleman, and in putting its cult for a time in the place so long occupied by that of con- science, a great gain will ensue. 111. The superman.—Nietzsche has best formulated this ideal, which has inspirations for many in our day all its own. The conception of the superman claims to be a corollary of Darwin's struggle to survive and win the largest "place in the sun." In the long struggle of evolution the fittest have always won out and the unfit or less fit have always died out. Progress all the way from the amoeba to man has been marked by the death of laggards or backsliders who failed in the competition. Hence for the superman pity means de- generation of the world and degradation for him. Jesus was the arch plotter against the advancement of the race by teaching tenderness to weaklings. He 10. MORALE AB A SUPREME STANDARD thus indefinitely retarded the progress of humanity and in fact was Himself a pitiful degenerate, whom we must nevertheless not pity but whom we may im- precate and curse. If Russia to-day illustrates the effects of the diametrically opposite interpretation of evolution, so far as society goes, as altruism and mu- tual help under the stress of the herd instinct (Kro- potkin and his adherents), the very soul of Germany, on the other hand, especially its militarism, was no less saturated by the gospel of Nietzsche, as is set forth by her military writers from Clausewitz to Bernhardi and illustrated by the deliberate policy of frightfulness and atrocities. The superman breaks the old tables of morality for he is above the current conceptions of right and wrong, good and evil, which civilized communities have1 so long sanctioned. He despises much in the old codes of honor that used to protect_ybe_weak and de- fenseless and that would inculcate in the modern sol- dier the spirit of good sportsmanship and make him adhere to the rules of the game even in grim and grueling war. Everything that weakens the enemy— devastation, sabotage, poisoning the air (if not some- times the very water and food with morbific germs), ruthlessness to non-combatants, terrorism, etc., is allowable to the superman and the super-state or super-race. The true disciple of Zarathustra must not only be great and superior but must know and show it by every token. He must not and cannot be really beaten or overcome even by defeat. His in^ 11 MORALE eluctable pride is based on the conviction that he is a "link" or "bridge," the hope of the world, the key to the higher breed of men that will rule the world after our stage of development is forgotten. "If we fail, civilization fails with us," for most of the great men of the world have had Teutonic blood (Chamberlain). One savant has lately told us (what would make Nietzsche turn in his grave) that the Jes or the first syllable of the name of Jesus is (by the ap- plication of certain new provisions and the elimina- tion of at least one old one in the famous Grimm laws of phonic change) or originally was Ger, and the us or last syllable in His name is simply the masculine termination, so that "Jesus" is etymologically "the German." The superman is generally conceived as harsh and far above being a mere gentleman. His quality is something woman can worship but can never attain, for there never was or can be a super- woman. A century ago Germany was humanistic, but since that time, and especially since the War of 1870, her culture transformed itself into Kultur, so that prac- tical efficiency is now her ideal, and this is the cult of the superman. Ficiite made a stirring appeal to his fellow-countrymen when their armies were shattered by Napoleon, their resources exhausted, and their very morale so near collapse that apparently but for him it would have broken, to remember that they still had strong bodies, a pure tongue, a literature and philosophy among the best of the world, and that they 12 MORALE AS A SUPREME STANDARD could only rehabilitate themselves as a state or nation by trusting and utilizing to their uttermost all that education and moral energy can do to make them the center of the world's culture. They listened to him as they had done to no one since Luther, and accord- ing to his scheme and inspired by him, the Univer- sity of Berlin was established and education made the chief concern of statesmanship, so that the regenera- tion of this country in a century makes one of the most brilliant chapters of history. Since that great day Germany has undergone a change of ideals which is nothing less than revolutionary, for she has turned her backupon the spirit that made her own renais- sance. She was well on the way toward the realization of Fichte's ideals. Her science was preeminent, and advanced students of all lands flocked to her to learn the latest and best in their departments. Her in- dustrial technic led the world, and she was in a fair way to become a kind of new theocracy of science and culture. Her methods, her systematization, her modes of dealing with many social problems, her products, her trade, wrere all advancing at an ever accelerating rate. Just when these lines of development were most open and her progress most rapid, she gradually fell under the malign spell of the demon of power. She could not wait for the gradual and natural conquest of mankind by pe^^uJ_methods, but after succeed- ing in doing what no great race or nation in history had ever done before, viz., in fusing the new rich class, 13 MORALE which had grown so strong, with the old feudal no- bility (which had survived over from the Middle Ages there as nowhere else since Germany never had a rev- olution), she acquired a sense of power which made her an easy victim to the spell of militarism. Thus she threw the sword into the scale already tipping in her favor without it, and so upset the equilibrium of the world. She not only thus ceased to rule it by nor- mal methods but checked all the slower but surer spiritual influences by which she was legitimately ad- vancing towards supremacy. Her fall was thus due to the delusion that the fittest was the strongest, and by this ghastly erroj, which all the great Germans of two generations ago would have abhorred, she has not only set back the progress of the world but has for a long time to come handicapped her own legitimate in- fluences. Will a new Fichte arise now to tell the Ger- mans the painful truth and set them back again on the true path of what every intelligent and impartial observer outside, whose mind was uncorroded by pride and ambition, saw so clearly to be the way her destiny was leading her? But the ideal of the superman is not all mere pa- resis or delusions of greatness but has ingredients which the world and its morale want, recognize, and cannot afford to lose. Hegel said "Man cannot think too highly of himself as man," but this is true in a far different sense than he meant it, for man can now read his title clear to an ancient pedigree that goes far back of recorded history, back to the amphioxus 14 MORALE AS A SUPREME STANDARD and even the protozoa. He has won out and thus proved his stirps best fitted to survive. Even though anthropologists now telf us that civilized is by no means so superior to savage man as we have thought, there is at any rate a vast difference between the best and even the second-best individuals, and to excel others as well as our own past selves is one of the strongest and noblest springs of true ambition. No leveling Bolshevism can ever efface the truearistoc- * racy of native gifts or even of individual attainments. Men are and should strive to be equal in nothing save- in opportunity. There will always be some whose services to the community and the world will be worth hundreds and even thousands as much as others, and originators, pioneers, geniuses, leaders, and experts will always deserve and get more of the rewards of life than those whose services are worth less to man- kind. Indeed almost all can excel in something, and that something it is the business of not only voca- tional guidance but of home, school, and every other agency that can be utilized for that end to find out. If everyone were always doing his best thing, the A -& ■ wrorld would leap forward, and there would be vastly more just and saving self-respect in all of us; while nothing so cankers as the realization of the danger of failing because there is no opportunity to do our best. But the real superman, like the moralist, is too self-"~ conscious. The best man in the world who knowTs himself to be such is already spoiled by that knowl- edge. Even Socrates was the wisest of men only be- 15 MORALE cause he was most conscious of his ignorance, and the real overman, if praised by others as he thinks he de- serves, becomes insufferable. The Teutonic Ueber- mensch in life and in the voluminous literature in which he has lately appeared is always a supreme egoist, a victim of conscious hyperindividuation, some- times not without a taint of Narcissism. But there ought always and everywhere to be a conception of - the higher ideal man and a belief that he will some- time appear. When he does come, he will be very dif- ferent from the Teutonic ideal. He will merge and " perhaps efface himself in his cause or task; although greatest, he will be content to be thought least; he will be vastly more naive than self-conscious, and will place the good of others before that of himself. IV. Morale.—The above three ideals of life and con- duct do not suffice to meet the needs of the new era which is upon us, and the purpose of this book is to suggest a fourth, the realization of which in its true perspective was one of the very best results of the war and which should now be made a new oracle in this period of reconstruction. Morale, while not entirely definable, is best char- acterized as the cult of condition. It includes many of the best of the maxims of the other three standards, but adds a new factor of its own which gives the old ones a higher unity and greatly enhances their energy. Psychophysic condition is the most important factor in any and every kind of success. Men slump morally, financially, in their creeds, and even into ill-health 16 MORALE AS A SUPREME STANDARD because they lose condition. In a way this has always been recognized, for the oldest and most universal form of greeting is "How are you feeling?" and "I hope you are well"—are the tides of life running high or low to-day—as if this was a thing of prime concern. When we awake after a sound and refreshing sleep with every organ in tune and at concert pitch, and thank whatever gods we believe in that we are alive, well, young, strong, buoyant, and exuberant, with ani- mal spirits at the top-notch; when we are full of joy. that the world is so beautiful, that we can love our dear ones, and can throw ourselves into our work with zest^and abandon because we like it; when our prob- lems seem not insoluble and the obstacles in our path not insuperable; when we feel that our enemies are either beaten or placated; in a word, when we face reality gladly and with a stout heart even if it is grim and painful, and never doubt that it is good at the core and all evil is subordinate to good, that even if we are defeated and overwhelmed in a good cause all is not lost; when wre feel that we live for something „ that we would die for if need be—this is Morale. Morale is thus health. It means wholeness or holi- - ness, the flower of every kind of hygiene. It is the state in which the wrhole momentum of evolution is at its best and strongest in us. It is found wherever the universal hunger for more life is best getting its fill. The great religious, especially the Christian „ founders wTho strove to realize the kingdom of God, that is, of man here and now, are perhaps the 17 MORALE ^ world's very best illustrations of high morale. It is ^e race seeking expression in the individual, or in the antique phrases of theology it is God coming to con- sciousness in man. In an athletic team and its mem- bers it is conscientious training beforehand, and in the crisis it is struggling with abandon, throwing every- thing we have, are, and can do into the game up to the last moment for the sake of the team, the college, and the city each player represents. Morale is a state and ~~ partly, a-diatkesis. Its only code is that of personal and social hygiene. It is perpetual and general pre- paredness to act more efficiently in every emergency as it presents itself, where often to deliberate means to lose an occasion. It not only faces opportunities as they come but sallies forth to meet and even to make them. Morale is the very soul of the soldier. It makes an army as keen for attack as valiant in defense. It is bold and even enterprising to say to any and every op- portunity "I can;" but it does not stop here but adds "I will." Nor does it stop here, because for it the sad chasm between knowing and even willing and doing is completely bridged, so that the man of morale "does it now." Again, morale not only permits but often sanctions — many things which the old codes of morals, honor, and superhumanity forbid, for, like conscience, these may make cowards of us all. Morale serves us right when we have to do a lesser wrong, as everybody very often has to do, for the sake of a greater good. It may feel 18 MORALE AS A SUPREME STANDARD itself so "fixed in truth that it can play with gracious .— lies." It may be cruel in order to be kind, break the — letter of laws to keep their spirit, defy old and warped ideas of honor in the interests of the new and higher interpretations of life. It is ever mindful not only of new^Oficasions but of the new duties they teach and also of the old ones that they often abolish. Just as the doctor finds in every new case new complications, so that the symptom complexes of his patient are never exactly found in any medical textbook; and just as the lawyer, especially under the new method of case study, finds with his every client circumstances for which he seeks in vain for prescriptions in any corpus juris; as in both these and all professions and voca- tions there are new factors that throw us back upon our original resources, so all the exigencies of life, to be adequately met, demand incessant preparedness in "- the form of high psychophysic tone. All the rest is mechanism and routine but this is a glint of creative evolution. The soldier may be trained what to do in . the melee, how to shoot from the hip without aiming, • how to stab and withdraw his bayonet, how to club, trip, hit, jiu-jitsu, gouge, and strike for sensitive parts, and all this is a great help; but in a mortal scrimmage of man against man, where each is beyond the control of officers and is thrown upon his own per- sonal resources for initiative—here it is that condi- tion wins and the lack of it means death. Here the soldier fights with all that he ever was or did; indeed with all that his_ancestors ever were and did. Here, 19 MORALE other things being anywhere nearly equal, it is morale that decides. Only high morale, too, can make the fighters in an army good losers. The no less cardinal — trait of morale is thus how it takes defeat and retreat, and especially how it bears up under long bombard- ments or how much shelling can be endured without succumbing to shell-shock. Here the only salvation is in the alleviation of grim, passive endurance, which only condition can supply, for it alone makes diver- sion, physical and mental, possible and effective, and it is it also that makes of this long and inactive expo- — sure to danger a method of steeling the will and re- solve to fight the harder when the time for it comes. Thus my book is a plea for nothing less than a new criterion of all human worths and values. I would have the home, the state, the church, literature, sci- ence, industry, and every human institution, not ex- cluding religion, and perhaps it most, rejudged and _ revaluated by the standard of what they contribute to individual, industrial, and social morale. This would give us a new scale on which to measure real progress or regression. The war itself was the bankruptcy of the old cri- teria^ Right and wrong, honor, and superhumanity as we had interpreted them, led us astray. We trusted these old oracles too long and too implicitly. Their voices had become raucous with age and indeed they rarely spoke at all. They have now completely failed us, and we have paid and shall long continue to pay the penalty of our deafness. The world war was 20 MORALE AS A SUPREME STANDARD simply the collapse of the world morale. It was not — merely that Germany lost her old soul and the new one she put in its place proved a demon, but the other __ countries lost their vital touch upon present reality; and this for many reasons, partly because it had be- come too vast and complicated for any save a few seers, who were thought to be Cassandras, squarely to envisage. Henceforth, those states and those leaders who do not know, cannot face and base their conduct upon the larger cosmic aspects of the world wrill be— cowards taking flight from reality, perhaps to a Nar- cissistic absorption in jingoism or chauvinism. As never before, each vital racial or national factor in history must get into and keep in close rapport with - all the rest, for the synthesis especially of the great peoples of the earth is to be henceforth far closer. The day of each for itself is passed. So there must be a new international consciousness and, what is far more important, a new instinct feeling of solidarity. Few, indeed, of the leaders of the old ante-bellum dispensa- tion can become our guides in the new age that is now dawning. Henoe we must train new ones, and just in proportion as we cannot see our way clearly ahead, keep ourselves at the acji£__oJLaJertness for each next step_as the way opens. CHAPTER II MORALE, PATRIOTISM, AND HEALTH Our present problem of morale in general and especially in this country—Its peculiar difficulties here—Its relations to health. One of the best culture results of the war has been to make all intelligent people think and talk much about morale. There is already an interesting, valu- able, and rapidly growing literature about it.1 Now that the war is over, the interest which was growing so rapidly in army morale is being transferred to civil life, and we are coming into a new appreciation of its value and meaning in that domain, and are hearing of personal, family, community, city, party, business, institutional, national morale, etc. Thus the war has given us a new sense of the value of this intan- gible, spiritual virtue which, in a wnvA} menna pinrTli. ness. There is a sense in which the army, like all other human institutions, is a state of mind. Its morale is its soul (Mens agitat molem), without which masses of men and munitions make only a blind titan Polyphemus. What is the popular conception of morale? No two ideas of it are alike. It can no more be defined than energy, or life, or soul. All we can do is to try to de- scribe, to feel, and to guide it. We can already see 1 See descriptive bibliography at the end of this book. 22 MORALE, PATRIOTISM, AND HEALTH that it has very deep roots; its ultimate source is nothing less than the great evolutionary urge itself. Of this it is, as we are now conceiving it, about the latest and highest product. It bottoms, as we have seen, on nothing less than the evolutionary nisus it- self. As Car ruth said, "Some call it evolution, and ^ others call it God.'-' When and where it is strongest it makes the individual feel "fit" for any task. It also gives him a sense of solidarity with his comrades seeking the same end, and enables him either to do or to suffer in a common cause. To some extent it ebbs and flows by causes within which we cannot control or even fully understand. Yet to a great extent it can, like condition in an athlete, be trained for and cultivated. To do this latter for morale in every field is one of the great demands which modern civilization % is now laying upon itself, in far greater degree than ever before. For this reason it is of fundamental im- portance for those who would fully enter into the life of the dawning post-bellum epoch very carefully to weigh its importance and learn all that can be taught, and to seek from every source all the practical insight available to keep it at its best in ourselves, in those] nearest to us, and in every institution with which we" are connected. All, especially every young man and woman, wish to be, to do something in the world that is worth while. In proportion to the momentum of life which they inherit they feel the impulse of the youth in Longfellow's "Excelsior" to climb ever higher, to gain influence, power, and possession, to 23 MORALE overcome obstacles, and to make the most and best of themselves. This vital energy keeps up a constant pressure upon reality about them to subdue it and mold it to their will, as man has always sought to dominate Nature and Circumstance. In terms of psychanalysis morale ought to be highest when we are hardest up against reality in the Here and Now, for svhen it is best and most aggressive it not only faces rather than flees from reality but tends to construe and realize every goal of the race here and now so in- tensely that the past and the future grow a little pale for the time. Rut when morale sags or fails of attaining this goal, then the tide ebbs and the individual turns away from reality, perhaps loses himself in memories or dreams of the future, loses heart and courage, and becomes a coward to life. He is unable to face the Here and Now, evades, and becomes a slacker, and if this aban- donment of the life impulse goes too far it may bring him face to face with suicide, which is the acme of recreancy. Thus there is a sense in which life is everywhere and always a battle, in which the presence or absence of morale determines success or failure, for there is always repression to be overcome. Let us first, then, consider morale in wrar, and then attempt to apply some of its lessons to the conditions of peace. Perhaps the most salient instance in all history of the collapse of morale on a large scale is found in the Russian debacle of 1917. A nation of 180,000,000, 24 MORALE, PATRIOTISM, AND HEALTH with an army of nearly 20,000,000 sturdy, fighting men, lost its morale, abandoned the field to the enemy, and in its disintegration tore down the most auto- cratic regime in Europe and from the extreme of im- perialism swung over to the opposite extreme of Bol- shevism. It will be one of the most complex and fas- cinating problems of the psychology of the future to analyze and explain this unprecedented metamorpho- sis, but there is no better single phrase that can now describe it than to say that the Russian morale went into bankruptcy. On the other hand, history perhaps presents no such salient example of both the power and the persistence of morale as the way in which the Belgians and the other Allies endured the shock of the onset of war and the series of overwhelming calamities and defeats of its first three and one-half years. England lost her general-in-chief in whom her hopes centered, had to raise an army of a size and with a speed utterly un- precedented in her history, and had a narrow escape from crushing defeat at the Marne. Neither the, army nor the people of Belgium lost heart, although over- whelmed and plundered and outraged by the enemy to a degree unknowTn hitherto. Italy, with her high hopes and early victories, saw her armies rolled up al- most to the gates of Venice. The campaign against Constantinople had to be ingloriously abandoned. The French for years saw the enemy raping towns and moving steadily toward Paris, threatening to di- vide them from their English ally by driving the latter 25 MORALE into the sea. Then there were the great surprises of technique sprung by the Germans—Zeppelins, sub- marines, poison gas, Flammenwerfer, and systematic atrocities, aimed in fact chiefly at morale, which through all these disasters, however, never faltered, but after long years of trial came back with a glorious and complete victory. Of all the nations probably France, when everything is cleared up, will be seen to -~ have shown the most superb morale, because la patrie seems, especially since the end of the Concordat, to have taken the place held by the Church in its palmi- est days, and the extraordinary religious revival2 that had swept over the country just before the outbreak of the war was, when it is psychologically understood, perhaps the most important of all the factors that made up the French morale. I. Difficulties of maintaining morale in this coun- try.—In this country we had peculiar difficulties in maintaining ideal morale, both as we entered the war and in the training camps and later at the front. 1 For a brief but brilliant review of this revival see Albert Schinz: The Renewal of French Thought on the Eve of the War. Am. Jour. Psy. XXVIII., 297-313, June, 1913. Among the very many literary ex- pressions of this religious trend in France just before the war we might mention the Voyage du Centurion, by E. Psichari (the grand- son of i^i>nan, who was killed at the head of his artillery battery). The centurion of the New Testament was a Roman officer who came to Jesus believing He could heal at a distance. Jesus was so impressed by his faith that, although the man was a Gentile, He heaied his son and at a distance, which he never did for any Jew. This shows — how Jesus regarded the soldier. The conversion of Juliette Adam; the voluminous literature idealizing Jeanne d'Arc: the new editions of Calvin and the Life of St. Augustine are other examples of what was almost a renaissance of the religious spirit in France, seen, too, in so many of the memoirs of its young soldiers and officers. The best illustrations of this spirit that have appeared in Ensrlish are Donald W. Hankey's A Student in Arms and Coningsby Dawson's Carry On. 26 MORALE, PATRIOTISM, AND HEALTH Here, as elsewhere, every day's censored report as- sured us that the morale of the troops of all the Allies was excellent, and this very iteration betrayed a deep, though half unconscious fear that it might break and thus bring the most dire disasters. That it must and should not break ("They shall not pass") was our deepest resolve, and hence we sometimes became in- tolerant in insisting that nothing be said or done any- where that could lower morale, either at home or at the front. This was the motive of censorship, and of certain restrictions upon our former "freedom of speech and press. There were also individual difficulties of maintain- ing morale in this country. Stimulus implies reaction, but in the new conditions of trench warfare men often had to remain passive and not yield even to the im- pulse to escape. This generated no end of tension, and made them very susceptible to shell shock, which rarely comes to men in action. The bombardments preliminary to an attack were directed chiefly against the enemy's morale. Every kind of activity, mental or physical, within the trenches while under fire safe- guards morale. Quiescence under stimuli is very dan- gerous, and any activation helps. Gassing, too, is very hard on morale. The possi- bility of being smothered like a rat in a hole, and the fighting with gas-masks, which lessen respiration and interrupt communication, are intense strains on forti- tude and bring a new danger of demoralization. Many people have an instinctive horror of all closed 27 MORALE spaces (claustrophobia), possibly inherited from our cave-dwelling ancestors, and men of a_ respiratory type, whose morale is unusually dependent upon atmospheric conditions, are in special danger. We were not, like the Belgians, French, and Itali- ans, fighting on our own soil or defending it from the prospect of invasion, and thus we lacked the motive of desperation. Our wives and daughters were not outraged; neither were our goods pillaged, our indus- tries destroyed, our capital raided by airplanes or fired at by "Big Berthas;" our soldiers could have no home leave to "blighty;" and so our stake seemed even less than that of England. Thus to the average Amer- ican soldier, his interest in the war was less personal and our country's interest was less material, all of which bears on morale. We are less homogeneous racially, less unified by our history and national traditions than are the lead- ing nations of Europe. Many of our soldiers were born abroad, as were the ancestors of all of us a few generations back. Scores of thousands of our soldiers knew little English, and about every race and nation of the world was represented in our recruits. It takes generations to weld heterogeneous people into unity. We have not even a convenient or unique name; the United States cannot be indicated by an adjective. (Some have suggested that we might take the occasion of the war, as Russia did to rename Petrograd, and *j henceforth call ourselves "Columbia," but I think "New Europe" wrould be a better and more timely -" 28 MORALE, PATRIOTISM, AND HEALTH designation, just as New England was named for its mother country, for nearly all our inhabitants are practically New Europeans.) So, too, there are sec- tional differences, and we also suffer from hyperin- dividuation, which is more uncurbed here, even for corporations, by the interests of the public welfare. Hence enemy propaganda, with our large German population, had an unparalleled field for all its activi- ties, and this is inimical to morale. We lacked all military traditions and spirit. We 7, had committed two mortal crimes against the God of Things As They Are, which, as history shows, he never allows to go unavenged. First, we were very rich, and secondly, we wTere very defenseless. The spirit of democracy and of militarisnTare in a sense diamet- rical opposites. Although 375,000 men enlisted, we had to deal chiefly with drafted men, taken from the free pursuit of life, liberty, and happiness to totally new conditions, where subordination and discipline are the prime necessities, and individual freedom and initiative are reduced to a minimum, with regimenta- tionjand prescription unlimited. We had to cultivate *"' militarism most intensively injorder-to. repressdt in the wrorld. We learned that liberty had to be de- fended by the same means as autocracy must be. We came to respect the military3 system not only as per- s L. C. Andrews: Fundamentals of Military Service, Phil., Lip- pincott, 1916: F. L. Huidekoper: The Military Unpreparedness of the United States, N. Y., MacMillan, 1915; W. A. Pew: Making a Sol- dier, Bost., Badger, 1917; L. H. Bailey: Universal Service the Hope - - of Humanity, N. Y., 1918; J. Peterson and Q. J. David: The Psy- chology of Handling Men in the Army. Minneapolis, The Perrin Book Co., 1919. See also the German War Book, tr. by J. H. Mor- gan, Lond., J. Murray, 1915. 29 MORALE haps the oldest of all human institutions but as the most important agency in welding individuals into true communities. Sheridan called discipline seven- ty-five per cent of efficiency. It is team-work which enables a squad to overcome a mob, which makes men out of "flabs," so that war, to say nothing of its moral equivalents, came as a new dispensation to us. To make a soldier out of the average free American citi- zen is thus not unlike domesticating a very wild spe- cies of animal. In subordinating individuals we should not, however, forget that the "kicker" is often the born fighter and needs only the right direction for his energies. All these obstacles to morale we more or less overcame. Germany had its own unique morale. It had broken with its past, with the age of Kant and Goethe, with its culture of fifty or one hundred years before, al- most as completely as Bolshevism had broken with the earlier aristocratic and bourgeois revolutionists in Russia, and yet both were usurpers claiming the pres- tige of a preceding stage. The Germans profoundly believed themselves to be the world apostles of Kultur, the true supermen called by their fate or genius to subject their neighbors and bring them to a higher_stage of civilization. This conviction of su- periority, which had grown so strong, coupled with an instinct for discipline and feudal subordination of rank to rank in a long series, was the essence of their morale which, it is our fond hope, has been overcome with the defeat of their armies. 30 MORALE, PATRIOTISM, AND HEALTH II. Morale and health.—Health is one of the prime bases of morale. Health means wholeness or holiness. The modern hygienist asks: What shall it profit a man .__, if he gain the whole world and lose his own health, or what shall a man give in exchange for his health? In recent years we have seen new and great attention to personal, school, public, municipal, and domestic hy- giene, and since the regimen of the Japanese armies in that country's war with Russia showed its import- ance, and since the lack of it in our Cuban campaign was so disastrous, on all sides more stress was laid on sanitary conditions than in any other war. The most universal greeting the world over consists in mutual inquiries about our health and perhaps even that of those nearest to us, as if all assume its cardinal importance. Now, real health is not merely keeping x out of the doctor's hands but its cult aims at keeping each at the very tip-top of his condition so that he feels full of the joy of life (euphoria) and capable of doing or suffering anything if called to do so. Most of the world's work is done on a rather low hygienic level, but its great achievements, the culminating work of the leaders of our race, have been the product of exuberant, euphorious, and eureka moments, for a man's best thingsTcome to him when he is in his besti state. War, of course, needs intense physical energy, and the labor of drill and camp-work, which has toned up so many men of poor physique, has left a bequest to morale that ought to long outlive the war. To be 31 MORALE weak is to be miserable, and to be strong and well pre- disposes to true virtue. The muscles are nearly half the body-weight. They are the organs of the will, which has done everything man has accomplished, and if they are kept at concert pitch the chasm between knowing and doing, which is often so fatal, is in a measure closed. There is no better way of stengthen- —ing all that class of activities which we ascribe to the will than by cultivating muscle. III. Food conditions morale.—It has always been known that starving troops could not fight. The French scientists! tell us that there is a particular type of man, in whom the digestive functions predom- inate, that is paralyzed more quickly than any other type by any deficiency in quality or quantity of food, and that these may more easily become heroic when defending their stores. Camp Greenleaf applied this principle by giving the rookies who came there fresh from their homes somewhat better food for two wTeeks than others got in order to make them more contented. In a sense man, like an animal, feels most at home wiienand where he feeds best,and if man really "fights on his stomach," then fighting on an empty stomach is proverbially hard. Recent studies in this field by the Pawlow school have shown us how fundamental 4 This is one conclusion of the remarkable studies begun many years ago by Sigaud in the Trait6 Clinique de la Digestion et du Regime Alimentarie (Paris, Doin, 1900), developed by Thooris, Sturel, Chailliou, and best summarized in Morphologie M4dicale; Etude de$ quatre Types Humains by A. J. M. Chaillou and Leon MacAuliffe. See also the more_ or less independent line of Italian research in Achille de Giovanni's Clinical Commentaries Deduced from the Mor- phology of the Human Body (Tr.), Lond., Rebman, 1909. 32 MORALE, PATRIOTISM, AND HEALTH proper metabolism, normal appetite and food-taking are for mental states and processes, and have shown us also how appetite is the mainspring that impels all the processes of digestion down to the very Metch- nikoff and Freudian end of the thirty-foot alimentary tube. Some still think that military life demands stimulants, although others hold that it is easier to dispense wTith them than in civil life. It does seem to be established by this war that smoking is a whole- some sedative to war strains, and certainly none but a fanatic hygienist would banish the "fag." Despite the needs in this department a soldier's life requires that he be able in emergency to endure more or less privation even here. Perhaps we may conclude that while proper and regular food is a very important constituent of morale, this can be maintained at a very high level and for a long time even under great deprivation. Rest^and sjeep, of course, make a great difference. A tired army is far more liable to panic, and fear often takes cover behind exhaustion. Sleep builds up disintegrating cells, rejuvenates, and its very dreams are often a safety valve or catharsis for war strains generally and even for experiences and memories. Thus, too, the time of day has significance. Five- o'clock-in-the-morning courage (the hour when very many~bf the German attacks began) is a very differ- ent thing from that of nine or ten o'clock at night, and darkness and inclement weather are handicaps. Sleep seems to have something to do with finishing 33 MORALE the last and higher processes of digestion. While its importance is well appreciated, something of its psy- chology, and of the enormous function which the con- ditioned reflex is now known to play, ought to be taught in every officers' training school. CHAPTER III THE MORALE OF FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER I. Morale and the psychology of fear in war—The methods of its conquest—II. Morale and death—The various attitudes of differ- ent types of soldiers to death—Burials, graveyards, and monu- ments—Spiritism—III. Anger in life, in literature, and its place in the present war. I. The conquest of fear.—From the first rumor of war and the draft on to the training-camp, to the trenches, and the charge, the chief feeling to be over- come in all men, perhaps in proportion to their intelligence and power of imagination, is fear. Cowardice is fear yielded to; bravery and courage are fear controlled. Fear is anticipatory pain, and mortal fear is of course the anticipation of death. Everyone has heard of heroes who condemned their limbs for trembling, their heart for throbbing, their alimentary tract for revolting, etc., but the brave man is he who learns to control all these physiological symptoms and to do What he ought to do in every emergency. Every symptom of fear is met with near the front and when battle impends. There is weakness, sometimes rising almost to paralysis; unsteadiness of move- ment; loss of appetite; perhaps nausea, indigestion; diarrhea is very common; flushing and pallor; and an instinct to cringe and dodge and show symptoms of shock at everything unexpected, often at the very 35 MORALE slightest surprise. In action many good men lose control of their muscles and become almost automata. Very few soldiers, indeed, can aim as well as on the rifle range, most shoot wildly, and some seem to lose control of the power of loading; while we are told by a number of high authorities that many fall by the way from sheer terror and that there are far more panics, local and even general, than find their way into history or even into official reports. Thus the efficiency of a fighting force depends more largely than hitherto realized upon the effectiveness of the methods of repressing or controlling the fear instinct. In the German experience solid formations, advancing elbow to elbowr, give a sense of security that makes men face danger more easily than they could in wide- open formations. A large part of discipline is directed more and more toward making this control effective. Just in proportion as obedience to orders becomes instinctive, so that their execution requires no thought; and just in proportion as shooting, bayonet drill, throwing grenades, and other activities of the combat are made second nature, the chance of their being done aright at the critical moment increases and the hazard of acting wildly is diminished. Facility in these proc- esses that can thus be mechanized also gives a certain degree of confidence, and the soldier feels that if he does lose his head, his muscles and reflex system will take up the task of themselves and that thus his de- fensive and even his aggressive power will not be lost 36 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER in the direst emergency. This is one reason why drill must be incessant and long-continued, even though in trench warfare less direct use is made of it. Another reason is that where many men are doing the same thing together there arises a sense of solidarity, so that each depends not only on himself but on others, and the individual feels that he is supported by the formidableness of the group. Where fear is yielded to with abandon almost any- thing may be done. Men lose their orientation in space and may rush directly at the enemy instead of fleeing from him. In panicky fugues men often tend to flee over the same course in which they have ad- vanced, sometimes going around sharp angles instead of taking quicker cross-cuts to safety because they have advanced along these angles. They throw away their weapons, accoutrements, sometimes their clothes, and run for incredible distances, perhaps leaping into chasms, and are not infrequently subject to illusions and hallucinations. Fear is extremely infectious. Often the sight of a single frenzied fugi- tive disconcerts and may disorganize a squad of coura- geous men, so that it is very important to eliminate those especially liable to start panics. We are told that the sight of a single individual fleeing, with all the facial, vocal, and other expressions of terror, is more disquieting even to experienced troops than the death of those nearest them in the ranks or a very de- tractive fire of the enemy. We have a number of rec- ords of panic even among horses in battles, which 37 MORALE sometimes attends and even causes grave disasters. At home, too, fear is an important ingredient in every form of slackerdom. It has made many con- scientious objectors wTho never objected before but have extemporized a set of pacifist principles to cam- ouflage their timidity. It is a large ingredient in the symptoms of disease even in somatic cases, and often has a real effect in retarding cure, not only of psychic but physical traumata, even in the most candid and honest men, so deep in the unconscious does it bur- row. The same explosion may cause shell shock in the guards who are conducting prisoners back of the line and have no such effect upon the prisoners them- selves, because they are free from responsibility and realize that they are out of the fighting; while the best statistics tell us that shell shock is from three to four times as common among officers, who must not only be brave but set examples to their men, as it is among privates. Many genuine cases of shell shock were cured with surprising suddenness by the news of the cessation of war. This shows that we are all perhaps far more fear- some than we know, that the instinct of self-preserva- tion is so strong that it percolates down through the unconscious regions of the soul and produces there results which are utterly inconsistent with courage, even in the bravest. Almost every important event in the soldier's pre- vious life has a bearing upon liability to or immuni- zation from fear. On the one hand, if a man has been 38 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER used to taking large risks and hazards of any kind in civil life he has a predisposition to take this larger risk. Of course if he has had hairbreadth escapes from danger he may, according to his diathesis, either come to feel that he can safely play with fortune, that he has a good star and the fates favor him, or else he may acquire a special type of timidity, some- times of the same and sometimes of other types of risks than those he has incurred. Again, even heredi- tary tendencies may make themselves felt. If for any cause one has inherited or even acquired a dread of closed spaces (claustrophobia), he finds the trench itself very trying, and this dread is greatly augmented under bombardment or by expectation of attack. It has been found, too, that those who had childish dreads of thunder storms find it harder to control their terror at the detonations of big guns and high explosives. Others have either innate or acquired horror of blood which perhaps, like all other predis- posing causes, may be overcome, if not too intense, or may incapacitate. Those with dread of open spaces find it far harder to charge in very wide open order and prefer hills, trees, or even water to the dead plain across the "hell-strip" between the front lines.1 1 See M. D. Eder: War Shock: The Psychoneuroses in War Psy- chology and Treatment, Lond., Heinemann, 1917; John T. MacCurdy: War Neuroses, Psychiatric Bulletinof the N. Y. State Hospital, No. 3, July, 1917; G. Elliot Smith and T. H. Pear: War Shock: Its Lessons, Manchester, Univ. Press, 1917; G. Rousay and J. Lhermitte: The Psychoneuroses of the War, Tr. Lond., Univ. Press, 1918; J. F. Babinski and J. Froment: Hysteria or Pithiatism and Reflex "Nervous Disorders in the Neurology of the War, Tr. Lond., Univ. Press, 1918; F. W. Mott: War Psychoneuroses, Lond., 1919; W. T. Porter: Shock at the Front, Bost, Atlantic Mo., 1918; W. H. R. 39 MORALE In general, every soldier realizes that he is increas- ing his chance of death, and this sense is the key to some of the most interesting results which scientific psychology owes to the war. It is hard work and re- quires long practice to be truly brave. The most im- perative of all instincts is the love of life, and delib- erately to risk it involves severe nervous and mental strain. But the consensus of mankind which despises cowardice is right, because there is probably no such test of human metal as whether or not and how soon and effectively the strongest of all instincts can be controlled in the interests of the group or of a great cause. One of the greatest problems, if not the chief one that overtops all others for officers is how best, soon- est, and most effectively to teach the control of fear. This is also a most important problem for each in- dividual soldier, and how he acquits himself in this task is perhaps the best measure of military efficiency. How can this be done? It is quite impossible at present to enumerate all the means, direct and indirect, which contribute to this end, for there is almost nothing in a soldier's activities or in his environment that does not in some Rivers: The Repression of War Experiences, Proc. Royal Soc. Med., 1918: G. W. Crile: A Mechanistic View of War and Peace, N. Y., Macmillan, 1916; M. Dide, Les Emotions et La Guerre, Paris, Alcan, 1917; A Gemelli: II Nostro Soldato; Saggi di Psicologia Militare: Milano, Treves. 1918; Andre" L6ri: Shell Shock: Ed. by Sir John Collie, Lond., Univ. Press, 1919; E. H. Southard: Shell Shock and Other Neuropsychiatry Problems, 599 Case Histories from War Liter- ature, 1914-18, Bost, 1919. 982 pp. (Bibliography of 77 p.). M. W. Brown: Neuropsychiatry and the War. A Bibliography with Extracts. N. T., 1919. 292 pp. Jean Lupine: Troubles Mentaux de Guerre, Paris 1917. 40 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER way bear upon it, and every day's experience helps or hinders this power of control. We can only enumerate here some of the most general and effective aids. 1. When the soldier is lying in the trenches under heavy bombardment, or when he is on distant outpost work in the dark, or wherever instinctive activity, of which danger is the greatest stimulus, is hindered, the morale of courage can never long survive if the mind is focused solely upon the peril; and here, then, we see how the soul invariably turns to the chief mechan- ism possible in such conditions, namely, diversion. Any kind of activity or occupation that takes the thoughts away from the immediate danger, however routine the work may be and whether ordered or self- enforced—moving about, conversation, cigarettes, especially a Joke, information passed along the line (which sometimes is designed only for this end) even some added discomfort like inrush of water or the necessity of digging out a closed communication, any- thing to eat or drink—all this helps to relieve, if only momentarily, the strain which may otherwise be so great that the order to go over the top, evenJnjLgrill- ing fire, comes as a relief. Never has the need of di- version been more recognized or more supplied, all the way from home to the front, than for the Ameri- can soldier in this war, and its power for morale can never be overestimated. Of all these diversions the best are those that involve the most activity, whether of mind or body, on the part of the soldier himself. It is far more effective for him to act in a play or sing 41 MORALE in a concert than to be merely a spectator or listener. 2. The second corrective of fear is example. Of this we have had endless illustrations. Even the narra- tion of a brave deed, or a decoration for heroism con- ferred upon one whom a soldier knowTs is a powerful incentive to emulation, so gregarious is man. An in- stance of it actually seen is, of course, far more im- pressive. Hocking tells of a piper who found a large company of men thrown on the ground, exhausted and in despair and expecting annihilation, who were rallied by two friends, one of whom marched up and down with a penny whistle wThile the other imitated playing a drum, until the wearied men were given cheer and arose, saying, "We'll follow you to hell,'' and were finally led to safety. Here the example of the officer is, of course, the most potent of all. Often every eye is upon him to see if he flinches, hesitates, or wTavers. If he is cool, most men will follow him anywhere, so contagious is courage. In every group of soldiers that become well acquainted there are in- dividuals, sometimes officers and sometimes privates, to whom in danger their comrades turn instinctively for their cue. 3. Some temperaments are able to establish their morale against fear by working Jhemselyjsirp before^ hand to a full realization of their peril and of the chance of a wound or even death, and accepting the situation once and for all. We have the best instance of this that I know of in the records of a number of French youths. They thoroughly realized that they 42 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER had entered upon a course which might have a fatal termination, and devoted themselves at the outset, as martyrs if need be, to a cause which was far greater than their own life. Having made this great decision, they found it gave them strength and poise in critical moments. Not very many, however, save intellectuals, and by no means all of them, are capable of this type of conscious self-immolation. L Far more acquire a kind of fatalism. Some optimists come to believe that the bullet they are to stop has not been cast, while more find'relief in the sense that the lot has already been cast in the lap of Fate and that they are to live or die more or less irrespectively of anything that they can do. This is akin to the Stoic fatalism, the Mohammedan kismet, or the Puritan will of God. 5. Some, probably_by_np means^asjnany_as church- men exDected, find genuine nervous poise in a relig- ious belief in life after death. This is probably no- where near so effective in modern armies as it was among the old Teutons, who believed in Walhalla; or among the Moslems, who held that the dead warrior passes to the lap of the houris in Paradise; or in Cromwell's Puritan "Ironsides." The sentiment lingers on, but more in the realm of poetic fancy and dim, vague feeling than in conscious conviction. The sense that death will bring honor to friends, or be a sacrifice which the country or the cause needs, in- volves a higher type ofjdealism than most soldiers can make into a very potent assuager of fear. Des- 43 MORALE pite all that is said of the glories of dying for one's country or for liberty, the analyses that have been made of patriotism show it to be a complex of many elements but not yet of prime significance to this end. 6. Probably the chief and most practical factor in the conquest of fear is familiarity. Long before he actually smells powder, the soldier's fancy irresistibly dwells much upon his possible wounds or death, while as soon as he nears the front he sees the victims of battle all about him and even sees his friends and com- rades fall. He serves his turn on the buriaXsquad and has to bring back the dead and wounded to the rear. This gives a certain immunizing callousness to it all, and he becomes very familiar with the thought that he may be the next victim and so accepts the fact with growing equanimity. The seasoned fighter learns to fight on even though his mates are falling on all sides in death or agony. Human nature can get used to anything, and wont raises the threshold of temi- bility higher than anything else. II. Morale and death.—In peace death and every- thing connected with it has always been the most solemn of all themes. The sick- and the death-bed, the last tender services, the final breath, the closing of the eyes, pallor, coldness, the preparation of the body, the shroud, coffin, funeral, entombment, and mourning, with all its depression and its trappings,— all these things make a supreme appeal to the human heart and mind. The transition from warm and ac- tive life to a putrefying corpse has always shocked 44 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER the human soul as nothing else has had the power to do. Every known savage tribe sooner or later puts its dead away because the mind and the senses of man cannot endure the phenomena of decomposition. Hence interment, cremation, burial in water, desicca- tion in air, towers of silence, are all to disguise or di- vert the soul from this supreme horror. Sepulchers, monuments, cairns, pyramids, and epitaphs, are also disguises (DecJcphenomene), just as our customs in dress from the primitive fig-leaf, and also personal adornments and toilet and marriage ceremonials, have as one of their motives the diversion of attention from the organs and functions of sex to other parts of the body or to secondary sex qualities. Many tell us that the prime motive for a belief that there is such a thing as a soul, that it survives the body, and that its fate may be more or less followed through the vicissi- tudes of a future life, was to distract attention from rotting carrion to a more beautiful set of images, and to relieve the shock of the primitive fear that death had ended all. All funeral rites serve two contrasted ends. On the one hand, they either help us to realize that our friends, whose death perhaps we have not per- sonally seen, are really dead, which is so hard for us to conceive, and that they will return to us at least in the form of dreams unless the ghosts are thus laid; or else they are to turn away our thoughts from the physical phenomena of the decay of the flesh to mem- ories and hopes, and to mitigate the shock by a com- pensatory belief that some part of the dead yet lives. 45 MORALE War brings not only the community but especially the soldier to a radically different view of death. He is not only liable to see his comrades mutilated in every conceivable way and pass in a moment from the most intense life to the most agonizing death, but he must often himself gather the mangled fragments of the bodies of his comrades, and sometimes, in excava- tions or by the disentombments caused by shells, en- visage every stage of decomposition of those previ- ously interred in ways that Barbusse2 has so grue- somely described but which even pictorial artists for bear to portray. Thus to the soldier every kind oi camouflage of death is rudely torn away, and he meets it in all its ghastliness at first hand. Not only this, but wrhile in peace murder is the worst of all crimes, it now becomes the chief of all duties, for to kill is the goal of all his training and preparation. He must inflict death with all its horrible sequels upon as many of the foe as possible. Worst of all, in some sense, is the fact that whereas in civil life death usually comes to the old, the weak, or the sick, and occurs only at rare intervals to those we know and love, now it sud- denly sweeps off masses of the strongest and best in the very prime of life. This brings death home to the soldier and the community in a far closer way. The soldier must harden himself to ail this at short notice as best he can and to such a degree that his efficiency be not abated, his courage fail, or his spirits droop. This is the acme of all the strains put upon his morale. 1 Under Fire.. Tr., Lond., Dent, 1917* 46 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER The responses, both conscious and unconscious, toi this situation are manifold, and psychology is not yeti able to evaluate or even tabulate them all. 1. A few, as we have seen, react by bravado. They affect to laugh death in the face, and make ghastly jests about the most agonizing of all these experi- ences. With some temperaments this initial affecta- tion of callousness is so instinctive and often effective a method of hardening a soul to travel this viaticum of woe that we must not condemn it without some of the insight that sympathy with the dire need of this emergency can bring. 2. Others develop the impressions and convictions of their early religious teaching and are more or less steadied by a belief, or at least a hope, that if their bodies die there is an immortal part that will not only survive but meet a reward in some "boat- house on the Styx."' This inveterate instinct undoubt- edly acts unconsciously and buoys up many a heart without any very conscious conviction and without any form of outer expression, for the soldier thinks it cowardly to revert suddenly to a faith which he has neglected through all his post-adolescent years. Only poets and spiritualists or pronounced religionists are able to formulate these anticipations of personal im- mortality, or even to conceive that the souls of those who die continue to strive above, as in Kaulbach's fa- mous cartoon, or that they go either to Walhalla or to the houris. The latter view is so in line with the deep instinct to find in love compensation for the 47 MORALE hardships of war that it makes this creed perhaps the ideal one for the soldier. No doubt the experiences of war tend to develop at least secretly every such pro- clivity where it exists, and this has been best and most sublimely expressed in the often very confessional memoirs and letters of French soldiers. 3. Many, howTever, if not most soldiers to-day, re- fuse consciously to come to very definite terms with the problem of their own death but only feel, as Winifred Kirkland* well puts it, that somehow their immolation, if the worst comes, will not be in vain and that their influence will be some kind of a perva- sive power for good, even if it works impersonally and sub specie aeternitatis. Their life is so intense and their effort so strenuous that the merit of it all cannot be entirely lost. They are on the path to glory and it cannot all end in nothingness, even if oblivion close over their personality. Somewiiere, somehow in the cosmic order their life and death will not have been in vain. 4. It is the very fact of the soldier's super-vitality- and-activity, which means the farthest possible re- move from death, that makes so many soldiers opti- mistic fatalists and causes them to feel if notthatthey have a charmed life that they will somehow escape. The glow and tingle, and perhaps especially the ere- thism of war, often make the healthy soldier feel that he has too strong a hold upon life for death to be able to stop him. 'The New Death, Boston, 1918. 48 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER There are more than three hundred distinct grave- yards definitely set apart for the dead in the three hundred miles that stretch from Flanders to Switzer- land, which is thus itself to-day the world's greatest cemetery. More and more friends at home feel as Harry Lauder did about his son—that he ought al- ways to rest in this vast field of glory, and many writers have expressed the belief that these "God's acres" should henceforth and forever be too hallowed for any armies to fight over and ought to be more de- fensive than fortifications. In the early stages of the war many who wTere buried here, often uncoffined, in trenches near where they fell, and perhaps sewed in a brown army blanket with a Union Jack laid over them,4 will never be identified. Not a few of these earlier cemeteries had their crosses or inverted bottles, containing the names of the soldiers, torn away, while very many bodies were disinterred by the shell fire of later engagements, and many trenches had to be run through them without involving reburials. But since then every effort has been made by special organiza- tions in each of the allied countries to preserve the identity of every fallen soldier no matter how mauso- lized his body was. In England a Graves Registra- tion Commission under General Fabian Ware was appointed, which sought to trace everyone from the last time he was seen to his final resting place, and to send information and souvenirs to his relatives. Iden- * The Care of the Dead, London, 1916. See also Lord Northcliffe: At the War, in the chapter "Search for the Missing," and Alfred Ney: Le Droit del Morts (1918), with 70 photographs of graves. 49 MORALE tification was later stamped on an aluminum tape, and the exact site of each grave entered in a register. There are various kinds of wooden and iron markers, with separate lots for Orientals. These registration units have done much to bind France and England. When the English came the French said, "We leave you our trenches and our dead," and have given the English permanent cemeteries. The desire by the friends for assurance that their dead have found a grave, that it is being tended, and that they "lie com- fortable"—all this is now very effectively taken care of by voluntary means, and here the Red Cross has done some of its best work, verifying records and affixes with dates, collecting everything found on the body and sending it to relatives, and answering every in- quiry possible. Major Pierce was given complete charge of our Graves Registration Bureau, which marks and erects crosses, uses a symbolic medallion, and photographs graves collectively and individually for the next of kin. It is more and more felt to be a blessed service to rescue from obscurity those who have fallen. Larger monuments are to be erected by the different coun- tries, and an international federation has been estab- lished to develop military sculptures for them. Land was permanently given by the French to the Ameri- can Expeditionary Force, and several of the larger plots have been fenced and posted while smaller ones were arranged near the front, with a unit of two of- ficers and fifty men provided for each divisional ceme- 50 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER tery, the size of these units to be increased when nee* essary. Provision is made in all countries to separate if possible the dead of the enemy from those of the home army. In Germany great attention is given to this subject, and competitions have also been instituted for the best tombs for individuals and for public group monuments.5 Some of these plans are most striking and seem to us in shocking taste. Some are high mounds like those of the Vikings for burying men in mass on the battle-field. Some are solemn mau- soleums, others circular enclosures; some suggest cairns, pyramids, towers; one is a solid block-house; many have swords, spears, and helmets, while the iron cross is very common. From one a dozen tall parallel spears emerge. Metal insignia often half cover the stone work. One vast tree-shaped monument is cov- ered with individual placques. The characters are often runic. One shows two rows of hands, twelve in all, each bearing an upright sword. As to mourning, President Wilson approved the recommendations of the Woman's Committee of The Council of National Defense that three-inch black bands be worn whereon a gilt star might be placed for each member of the family who lost his life in the service. England was the first to advocate simpler mourning and the restrictions of crepe. Even in the Boer War, Queen Victoria suggested that the morale of the people might be improved by less black. Franc* 1 Soldatengrdber und Kriegsdenkmale. Wien, 1915. 51 MORALE followed to some extent this movement in England, and leaders of fashion there did much to simplify mourning and to make the hat, the veil, shoes, and dress less ultra-fashionable. This movement, while it has impressed itself somewhat upon ultra-fashion- ables, has had a far more beneficent effect on the women of the middle and lower classes who desire to show in their habiliments the sorrow they so pro- foundly feel but lack means or are engaged in occu- pations which make ceremonial mourning difficult. Cora Harris has written a mystical story of Lee and Grant and other great fighters of our Civil War going to France in spiritual shape, hovering above the regi- ments and guiding the brain and nerving the heart of the novice. She might have gone farther and imag- ined Washington, Jackson, Paul Jones, Lafayette, and also very many of the heroes of defeat (see W. J. Armstrong's The Heroes of Defeat, Cincinnati, 1905) thus aiding our troops. It is well to remember here that many believe that the gods themselves were orig- inally worshiped as ancestors, and that in the code of the Japanese bushido the dead were a tremendous power in her war with Russia. We should do far more than we do now "lest we forget." The best memorial to the dead is to carry on their work, and there are many who believe that this country in its past has gone farther than any other toward ignoring what it owes to those who have given their lives that we may be free and prosperous. Most that we are able to do we owe to ancient benefactors, the memory of far too 52 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER many of whom has perished from among men. While, therefore, we may be less certain of personal survival and reward in another world for those who die in a great cause, we can do very much to give them a com- pensatory mundane immortality that must make a powerful appeal to every soul capable of loyalty and devotion to a cause greater than himself. From all this we see that the morale of those who go out never to return, and whose last words, whatever they were, we shall tend to cherish as a kind of morituri saluta- mus, as well as that of their survivors in the field and at home, has no more fitting index than the way in which those who have met the great defeat are en- """ shrined in our memory. The only meaning of the new death is how it affects —- life. To the philosopher who sees and knows that there is nothing beyond the grave, fictions about the soul's future have a very high and a very diverse but a solely pragmatic value. We know nothing whatever about it and probably never can. Death is simply the great tabula rasa on which the imagination of every race, creed, and even individual paints, and to the very few who can think unselfishly about it the holo- caust of war only intensifies the consciousness of nescience. It is the great void in which the intellect discerns nothing but total blackness but which feel- ing, wishes, fear, and fancy always people with their creations; and these creations do profoundly affect our lives and also the way in which we meet the thought or the reality of our own death. It is these 53 MORALE creations that war stimulates and makes very real.6 The soldier's attitude toward death is often very fluctuating; it varies inversely with the love of life. Sometimes when in great depression he exposes him- self, hoping that a bullet will bring surcease from all his troubles and feeling that death would be a most welcome relief. The scholarly soldier asks what is the use of all his study if he is to be cut off. If there is a future life it must be a rather drab platonic com- munion with ideas which is more suggestive of death than life, as Plato defined philosophy as the love and cult of death. Again, the young man feels that he has done too little to justify his survival and perhaps finds comfort in the face of death in the conviction that he never will. Again, he revolts at the prospect of his 8 The best collection of data illustrating this is found in Maurice Barres' The Faith of France (Chapter X) where he prints the sys- tematically collected letters of many young French soldiers who wrote down their own thoughts and feelings about death and later suffered it, to each of which he adds his own comments. See also Lettres d'un Soldat (Paris, 1916, 164p.) by an anonymous painter, a solitary and obscure genius who, like Olivier in Holland's Jean Christophe, every day made in mind the supreme sacrifice. Even in the trench and under fire he brooded on the beauty of the starry night, dawn, etc. The macabre of battle could not keep his spirits down. His intellect found little stimulus in war but his spontaneous emotions filled his soul to overflowing. Thus the soul tends to heal its own wounds like a skillful surgeon, often even while the critical faculties looking coldly on know that these are only consolations. See also P. Bourget's Le Sens de la Mort, wherein the skeptical sur- geon, Dr. Ortigue, dying of cancer and knowing death to be extinc- tion, operates in his hospital at the front till the end. His words and example bring his far younger wife to share his belief and to vow to commit suicide with him in the end. She is saved, however, from this after he dies by the example of a wounded young soldier who dies like a true Christian extending the crucifix over her. The faith of this hero overcame the skepticism of the scientist and the young wife promises to live. A still more sublimated and ecstatic faith is found in Borsi's A Soldier's Confidences with God: A Spiritual Colloquy (1918). Other books on this subject are L. de Grandmaison's Impressions de Guerre de Pretres Soldats (1916), and L. Bloy's Meditation's d'un Solitaire (1916). 54 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER naPPy youth so tragically and suddenly closed. On the other hand, if he has been good, he rejoices that he may be cut off before age with its temptations can spoil him, feeling perhaps that he is better now than ~~ he will ever be again. He has accomplished little in the world and perhaps his whole existence is to be futile and vacant. Then he alternates to a kind of animal hatred of death. Later he may avow atheism and think that those who share that belief and the mystics are more truly religious than the Christians. Thus the soldier in his secret soul is prone under the stimulus of impending death to develop the germinal attitudes of about every philosophy and creed, one after another, flitting from positive to negative views according to his mood or the changing circumstances of wrar. Scattered through the confessional books of soldiers we can already find abundant examples of this, and it would be easy, if there were space, to col- lect an anthology to illustrate it, although it more often takes place, especially in more uneducated and inarticulate souls, rather below than above the thresh- old of consciousness. But it is certain that the war has stimulated active souls to repeat in the often un- plummeted depths of their feeling about all the efforts that man has made to come to terms with the King of Terrors.7 As I write (February, 1920), Sir Oliver Lodge, a notable British physicist best known for his studies 'Arthur Graeme West: The Diary of a Dead Officer. This sol- dier in his letters and poems illustrates more of these moods than any other I have found, but it is most common in French memoirs. 55 MORALE of the ether, bereaved by the loss of his son in the war, is making a very popular and lucrative tour of this country, propagating a kind of spiritism which Sir Edward Clodd says "drags into the mire whatever lofty conceptions of a spiritual world have been framed by mortals." He tells us that spirits have bodies of the same size and form as ours and that in their world, which for most of them is neither Heaven nor Hell, there are "animals, trees, and flowers'' and also other things which cannot be told of in the vo- cabulary of earth, because speech is more or less of a nonconductor in these interworld conversations. We all have two bodies, according to Sir Oliver, and the spiritual, post mortem body at first finds the next world very like ours; but as evolution rules in the world of spirits as well as in ours, there are no breaks, and as time passes, most spirits grow ab- sorbed in their own environment and lose touch with ours unless they visit us on missionary tours. His lectures and prestige have caused an extraordinary revival of cults of the occult, and demands for even the ouija board, which he has made a fad, have sud- denly far outrun the supply, while the sanctums of mediums and fortune-tellers are crowded as never before, especially by those who have lost dear ones in the war. Long ago the Catholic, and lately the Eng- lish church protested against this strange recrudes- cence of the quintessence of all the superstitions of the past, of which ghost cults are the very core and of Which, strange to say, nearly all the modern scientific 56 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER victims are physicists, who have failed to heed the good old precept, "Physics beware of metaphysics." It is a consolation for mourners to feel that their dear ones are still near, and it is a cheap and easy method to encourage this belief as a sort of pragmatic first-"' aid to scab or bind up the wounds of death. Why not let survivors cherish so fond a wish and believe it true if it have real therapeutic value- The dead do live on in memory and in the influence of their deeds and words, and we may hope that they love us beyond the bourn. But the true comforter teaches survivors to live without them, to close up ranks and "carry"' on" till we, too, cross the "great divide." To bring them back is regressive and degenerative for both them and us. It is not to take up their tasks but to burden them with ours. It is psychologically akin to the necrophilism which cannot part with corpses. It is to camouflage the grim fact of death and. to help mourners to flee from, rather than to faceJts-Eeality "~ courageously. The position of the Protestant church in this country ought to be clear and articulate on this theme, but it is not, and its clergy are too proue to fall into the old, cheap, and easy way of minister- ing to the afflicted, not realizing that in so doing they are opening the doors to a superstition that is as old as the cave-man and as persistent as rudimentary organs. Conservative England, which best of all countries in the world illustrates the dual housekeeping of a Diesseits and a Jenseits, is naturally the world's 57 MORALE chief breeding-ground of (and as produced through the Psychic Research Society) the most subtle and pervasive examples of this other-worldness. No- where have intelligent people found it so hard to see that the only real phenomena here are subjective and not objective, and been so prone to ignore the warn- ing of Kant, who after reading Swedenborg refused to accept "the dreams of a visionary interpreted by theories of a metaphysician." To this predilection for dual housekeeping we must attribute not only ... British religiosity and the long lack of rapport with the Teutonic mind, which from Wundt to Freud has contributed so much, but the backwardness and un- "productivity of the English mind, as a whole, in psy- chology, and its tendency to regard all psychological questions from the standpoint of philosophy rather than as matters of purely empirical science. In this country cultured and half-cultured Greater 'y — Boston, too, has always been uniquely susceptible to cults that tend to split or dualize the soul. In Puri- tan days the other world stood over against this in the sharpest contrast, and both were really real. The Concord transcendentalists refined but in no degree lessened this contrast. Then came the circa ten years of the Concord summer school, in which W. T. Harris and his group sought to graft upon Emersonianism an exotic German idealism. Spiritism here centered in Boston, with its two chief journals; and so later did Eddyism and Emmanuelism. The faltering but profoundly sympathetic attitude of WilliamJames, 58 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER who died just before the psychanalytic movement was — felt in this country, helped greatly to prepare the soil for Sir Oliver and writers like King, Bond, Cameron, Hill, Hyslop, et al. Like the medieval church Sir Oliver preaches a domain of faith and in- tuition over against that of science and reason. All church-goers exercise a kind of flight from modern -~ reality on Sundays, but Greater Boston has long since learned to do so on week-days as well. Hence mystic cults, crystal gazing, automatic writing, etc., *~ are symptoms of mental dissociation. When the in- hibitions of true culture that always tend to repress spiritism are lessened by respectable advocacy and put in modern terms, it becomes a veritable Poti- phars wife to which all adherents of double stand- ~~ ards of mental housekeeping, like Sir Oliver, prove no Joseph. To form an intelligent opinion in this field one must have the following essential qualifications: 1. He must have a knowledge of what sleight of hand can do. The magician Keller claimed to be able to perform every one of the so-called physical phenomena of spiritism by natural means, though many who witnessed him insisted that he was really aided by spirits and was a traitor to them because he would not acknowledge it. Practically all medi- ums who deal with physical phenomena fall back on some of these tricks, at least, if the spirits do not work, and whoever heard of even an amateur presti- digitator who accepted the spiritist creed! 59 MORALE 2. The investigator must know border-line psy- chology, of which a good introduction would be the story of the wonderful performances of the German horse, Hans, before it was found to be muscle-reading, as all mind-reading is. One must understand hypno- gogic and hypnopompic states; hallucinations, indi- vidual and collective; what the imagination, and at- tention with its tonic cramps can do; the psychology of doubles and imaginary companions, often supple- mental in character; something of those cases of in- sanity which begin in belief in transcendental person- ages and energies and end as these beliefs clear up; hypnotism; and all the rest. 3. He must know normal psychology, and most of all the unconscious, wherein live and move all the primitive springs of thought and feeling, and in which are recorded all man's individual and phyletic experi- ences from his savage and animal ancestors. He must realize how prone men are to believe with the heart, which often leads them to the crudest credo quia ab- surdum. W7hat up-to-date psychologist of repute believes in spiritism or can follow the Tabulations of Sir Oliver? Again, the messages are inane and trivial. Those that purport to come from great minds from Washington down to Roosevelt suggest that these noble souls are in various stages of decrepitude not to say decomposi- tion. What have any of them ever added to our knowl- edge? All the mediums I have tested will bring fic- titious and impossible personalities to the spiritual 60 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER end of the phone just as readily as they do real per- sonages. Of all this Sir Oliver knows nothing, and in the narrow field left him his views are naive and poetic, and he relies solely on his own personal intuition and refuses to take notice of any criticism. He be- lieves in a universal ether, as do most physicists, as something diffused through all space, more real than matter, which was secreted or precipitated from it and to which all physical things are porous. Out of it all worlds and all that is in them came, and into it they will be resolved. This is hidden to sense, which can only apprehend corporeal forms of existence, which are not really real. But it is revealed to a few seers. Now, ether is the modern conception which all the ontologists from Parmenides to Hegel anticipated in their ideas of the pure and primal being, which is equal to nothing because no predicates, save negative ones, can be assigned to it. It is not unlike Spinoza's Substance or the Indie Nirvana. But all such con- ceptions have always been and must forever be pan- theistic. The corollary of them all is absorption, in- cluding personality, into the One and All. It knows nothing of any form or limit and is homogeneous. Thus to admit that it is the medium in which spirits live, move, and have their being is to destroy its very nature, and also to make our knowledge of it depend- ent upon our knowledge of the somatology and psy- chology of spirits. 61 MORALE Again, Sir Oliver believes in the preexistence of souls, as Plato did, and which he seems to think nec- essarily involved in the belief in their postexistence. Children come into the w7orld haunted by prenatal reminiscences, as Wordsworth thought, but lose them slowly with advancing years as the "shades of the prison-house" close in about them. The brain is a •'screen" which keeps out supermundane experiences, and men were made thus blind to celestial things that they might not be ravished by them but "stick to their job" of living out their lives here and now. To this the answer we deem both obvious and over- whelming. All these vestigial intimations of a higher life in infancy are perfectly explained in modern padology as due to the larger racial and hereditary momenta developed in the long experience of the hu- man stirps and its animal forbears which tend to crop out in tender years because childhood is older, larger, and more generic than adulthood, the stages of which have been added slowly step by step as man evolved. Thus the infant recapitulates the stages of the devel- opment of the race and is a better representative of it than the adult soul. Infant souls thus preexist, but solely in their progenitors, and are developed according to Mendelian laws. Again, if the brain were made a "screen" thus from supernal influence, it would seem that Sir Oliver's brain and that of those who long to penetrate the veil between this and the next world were imperfect and leaky and had failed in some degree of performing 62 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER their function as a filter to keep man at his job here. Bad filters cause often the most malignant epidemics. Of old it was thought that the gods punished those who pried into things not permitted man's estate, and we may wrell hope that Sir Oliver, who has left his laboratory to propagate superstition, will not illus- trate this Nemesis. Excessive devotion to other- world studies has driven many able men to insanity. "One world at a time and this one now" would seem to be the moral from his own conception of man's anatomical and psychological makeup. Just as life has progressed from the amoeba up to man, so Sir Oliver conceives an unbroken order after death through saintly communion, supernal beings or angels, to God himself. But this would require some kind of transmigration of souls. If I did descend from the amoeba, the amoeba is not immortal in me. There is no more of it in me than there will be of me in the angel that may evolve out of my life in Sir Oliver's other world, and my desire for another life will find no more satisfaction in this_angel than the amoeba gets in me. Indeed the gulf is wider in the former case for there is a somatic cojitinuum be- tween the amoeba and me. Telepathy is, of course, the last stronghold of all spiritistic phenomena, and all spiritists assume that souls communicate without the mediation of any of the organs of sense. This very many people believe from their own experience, but it can never be ac- cepted by science as a fact until we can so control its 63 MORALE conditions that we can announce in advance that at such a time and place we will demonstrate it. Now in fact all nerve fibers are so isolated that even in the nerve centers an impression never leaps from one fiber to another even within the same sense; much less does the strongest sound impression jump over to the nerves of sight, etc. Now if impressions can- not thus leap over such microscopic distances, how improbable that they should be transmitted between individuals or across continents! Psychologists agree that coincidences, similarity in the structure and function of the minds of friends and relatives, aided by credulity, fondness, and a preexistent appercept- ive organ, account for all these telepathic phenomena and that there is no wireless between souls, as stu- dents of electrical phenomena are so prone to infer by analogy and literary tropes. Psychology, too, no less fully explains the "sense of presence," deja vu experiences, sudden and intrusive ideas with appar- ently no associative link, and all the rest. Thus if culture would keep its own morale high, it - must resolutely refuse, despite the intense desire of the soul to answer the great question whether if a man die he shall live again, so incalculably intensi- fied throughout the world by the vast harvest of dear ones cut off in their prime by the war, to capitulate to this recrudescence of troglodyte superstition. The universe is not so made that it gratifies every human wish. Even the love of life, the strongest of all de- Bires, is negated by the grueling reality of death. One 64 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER writer says, "If death ends all, ring down the curtain. ^_ Life is a lie, there is no God, and evil shall become my good." This is the petulance of a spoiled child of civ— ilization. We have at least the immortality of good deeds, which the Buddhist exhorts all to think on as their chief comfort as the soul is entering Nirvana. There is also the immortality of the stirps; if we live* right, we live in and for future generations and make the world more fit for them. These are the mundane surrogates for immortality, and we can cultivate them here. The admonition of morale, in view of the holocaust of death by the war, is to close up the ranks — as best we can, cherish as sacred the memory of the fallen, resolve that their death shall not be_ in vain, and press onward, true Soldiers of Life. III. The morale of hate and anger.—Anger is the most sthenic of all states. A man who is thoroughly mad to the point of abandon can do and say many things impossible to him in any other state. It rings up latent powers of nerve and muscle, it flushes the blood with the most combustible of all the high ex- plosive physiological products, adrenalin, like oil sprayed into a furnace. Savages work themselves up to a frenzy of rage before rushing upon their foe. Hate, for our purposes here, may be considered as a kind of deep-settled and prolonged anger, or at least a permanent possibility and proclivity to its more ex- plosive form. The conditions of modern warfare, however, are radically changed in this, as in so many other respects. The boy who is liable to fits of Ber- 65 MORALE serker rage and warns his pal not to get him "mad" has no place in the modern army. The old morbid iracundia, excessive touchiness, and even the old furor teutonicus, which was so terrible in primitive Ger- many, avail little in campaigns where the enemy is so rarely seen and remains impersonal. It is a little doubtful whether the German songs of hate and their cult of hatred, especially against England, have made them really more effective in war. Kipling's threat- ening poem wThen England begins to hate, the old ap- peals to this impulse in the cry, "Remember the Maine" or "Remember the Lusitania" have produced really little result. Such waves of public indignation are generally more or less harmless and transient vents of animosity. Even in a bayonet scrimmage of man against man the evidence indicates that not so much hate as the instinct of self-preservation impels the thrust fatal to the enemy. Moreover, Fritz when captured or met under any other conditions is found to be not such a bad fellow. He is, after all, but a man much like ourselves. Again, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to maintain anger for any length of time at a high pressure. Its very nature is more or less ful- minating, and there is a certain tendency to subside and to lapse into a state of indifference, or perhaps even to react to a certain degree of friendliness by the law of compensation. True, the wrath of Achilles was the theme of Homer, as the wrath of God is one of the chief themes of the Old Testament, and the achievements of O*- 66 FEAR, DEATH, HATE, AND ANGER lando Furioso sometimes had a certain epic sublimity; but the day for all this has passed. Even the out- rageous atrocities of the Germans leave only a deep and settled conviction that something drastic must be done to prevent their recurrence, and they can hardly be said to have furnished the motive of chief strength in the conduct of the war. Never was there a more colossal psychological blunder made than when the foe decided on the method of frightfulness, for by this he aroused a deep and righteous sentiment of retribu- tion which had the very opposite effect from that he calculated, namely stimulating recruits and loan sub- scriptions and nerving the arm of the Allies with something of the energy of desperation. It was these deeds, and the ever clearer conviction that they were planned with deliberate purpose, that has done more than even the ambitious conquest and the affront to the rest of Europe implied in the superman assump- tion to make real peace hard, and put off beyond the vision of those now living the day of the reestablish- ment of international friendliness in the world. Men can pardon legitimate war but not these unprece- dented barbarities. The whole spirit of the Allies, especially of the Eng- lish, was totally different. They took into the field the habits of games played according to rule by gentle- men wTho would scorn to take an unfair advantage, iiTwhich even the less noble-minded of the contestants were anxious that only the best man should win. Games are played with the utmost energy and some- 67 MORALE times almost desperation but never by the true sports- man with personal antagonism. And so the war on the part of the English was a repulsivejob that sim- ply had to be done, like the cleaning out of Augean stables. The more monstrous the atrocities the greater the need of quelling the menace. Instead of cultivating hate in the school and the community, this was left to itself, and the chief appeal was to a sense "of need and duty to down the Kaiser as the common enemy of mankind or a mad dog. I heard a college president preach to soldiers that — instead of hating the German when he thrust his bayo- net into his abdomen he must love him and offer a si- lent prayer for his soul. Such an attitude is a psy- chological impossibility.8 It may be a relic of the savage custom of propitiating the souls of victims lest their ghosts come back to wreak vengeance on the slayer; but even this was done not in the heat of con- flict but afterwards. We conclude, therefore, that it is not only legiti- mate but necessary that our soldiers should know7 au- thentically and impartially all we can tell them in re- gard to outrages that lie without and beyond the sphere of war precedents and of humanity. The Frenchman who had seen his home or that of his fellowman destroyed, his orchards ruined, his tools and cattle stolen, his wife, daughter, and sister outraged or enslaved, must have found hate an------ has arrived safely at this camp. He will remain here for some time getting used to army life and learning the first simple things that our soldiers must know. The army supplies him with clothing, good food, comfortable quarters, and medical attendance. But in another way your help is desired. Give him the support of your confidence and cheer. Write to him often. Getting mail is a big event in the soldier's day, and getting none is a real disappointment. If pleasant things happen at home, - write him about them. If you are proud of him, tell him so. Let him know that you are back of him. Don't be worried if your first letters to him are de- layed; this is bound to happen sometimes. Keep writing just the same and we will see that he gets all 182 SPECIFIC MORALE FOR THE ARMY you write, even if it takes a little time. Remember always that you, too, are part of the American army ~ —you are the army of encouragement and enthusi- - asm. Write letters filled with these things to your soldier and you will help us to help him. His ad- dress is----." This letter served a double purpose, that of inform- ing the people at home of the safe arrival of the sol- dier and of enlisting civilian support. Very many replies to these letters were received by the battalion commander which show their great value as a stim- ulus of civilian morale as well as that of the soldier. The "sick sergeant" in each company was a source of general information, disseminating notices and programs, leading in mass athletics and singing, and in addition taking charge of the mail and in general doing all he could to build up morale. He especially cared for sick-calls, rest-periods, and evenings. He organized inter-company games, etc. As to entertainments, there were many—vaude- ville, boxing, wrestling, band and other concerts, mass singing, motion pictures, dramatics, inspira- tional addresses, war talks, and talent was generally., selected from the soldiers themselves, the morale ser- geant always being on the lookout for any kind of en- tertaining ability, giving the recruits try-outs, and putting those who excelled on larger circuits. These morale sergeants met daily to discuss problems, re- port activities, suggest improvements, etc. On de- parture from the detention camp the soldiers received 183 MORALE a brief farewell talk. Here, although best of all at Camp Gordon, special efforts were made to instruct foreigners in English. In France each division had its morale organiza- tion and the seventh, especially, had what was called a "welfare officer." Stress was laid upon evening en- tertainments. Every evening there was one lasting two and a half hours under the direction of the mo- rale organization, while many more local ones were given in the huts of the different organizations. Religion was recognized as an adjuvant of morale, - but this was generally left to special agents of the different religious bodies, and the policy of the of- ficers was that of "Hands Off." All in all, the meth- ods inaugurated at Greenleaf, according to one esti- mate, raised the initial morale of soldiers some 30 per cent, above the average, but such things are of course hard to estimate. II. In what was called extensive morale represen- tatives of all agencies—singing, library work, the Red Cross, entertainment, athletics, etc., got together and compared notes and harmonized their methods and ideals. Special attention was given to the social evil . by tracts on venereal disease, prostitution, and also on alcohol, as this work is represented as perhaps even more vital than any other for morale. Those capable of entertaining were relieved from afternoon duty and were put on a special schedule, and im- provements in their specialty were suggested and urged. It was found necessary to provide not onlj 184 SPECIFIC MORALE FOR THE ARMY segregated activities of all these sorts but special of- " ficers for colored troops. Certain films were tried out and found so much more effective than others that at- tempts were made to standardize them. Information was posted on bulletin boards, and great use was made of posters, cartoons, mottoes, and slogans. Spe- cial postal cards were devised with inspirational illustrations and to minimize the effort of writing home at least every two weeks, which was required, and especially when informing home relatives promptly of every change in address. A question- naire was addressed to 15,000 men asking each to specify grievances, disappointments, improvements, etc., whether he looked to the future with confidence, or dread, and who, if anyone, or what had hindered or helped his development as a good soldier. The re- sults of this are not yet accessible.1 The civilized world has more and more felt the need of morale education, and many very diverse schemes to that end have been devised.2 But there are still many who doubt with Socrates whether vir- tue can really be taught. No one who has studied the Greenleaf scheme can doubt that morale, which is a somewhat different thing, can be inculcated. If all the ideals of that camp were realized, as they might 1 In the above characterization I have been materially aided by . the informal report of this work made out for me by Mr. H. D, Fryer, who supplied me with various typewritten but as yet un« printed memoranda and circulars, including the Yerkes report of July, 1918. and pamphlets, the special publications of the Americaa Social Hygiene Association, etc. 2 See a description of these many methods in my Educational} Problems, i, Chapter 5. 185 MORALE have been if the war had lasted longer and these schemes had been more evolved, the world would have had here an object lesson of the highest value. Had this work been finished, it would have greatly reduced the pathetic abatement of individual and army mo- rale all the way from the soldier's induction into service to his home-coming, discharge, and his reen- listment in work. As it was, each of these stages, al- though much was done to counteract this tendency, marked a decline of morale. Here we could have learned many lessons from England if we had chosen to, but if another war ever comes we shall do vastly better. All in all, the story of what was done at Greenleaf for those who passed through its two weeks' course, each day of which was minutely scheduled even to the menus of each of its meals, has not only its inspiration but its lessons for civilian industrial and educational life. Every business concern should have, along with its psychological testers and the evaluation of its industrial efficiency, its morale spe- cialists, and so should educational institutions; and possibly sometime each political party, each trade, each social organization, and perhaps each church to develop its own esprit de corps and to keep it at the top of its condition, as chivalry and the medieval - guilds did so well. We need to realize anew and more and more clearly that the ultimate human value " of every occupation and institution is what it con- tributes to develop and sustain personal and general morale, and that the effectiveness with which they do 186 SPECIFIC MORALE FOR THE ARMY this is the standpoint from which every other aim and achievement and even production itself is a by-pro- duct. Even the war was, on the whole, a good or bad thing for the world as it advanced or lessened the morale of the nations that had a part in it. CHAPTER XII MORALE AND REHABILITATION OF THE WOUNDED.1 The state of mind of the maimed soldier and how it has been met— The marvelous work of the surgeon—The persuader—What is done in the various countries to restore the soldier to efficiency and settle him in a vocation—Success here second to no other triumph of morale. If the average sound soldier felt the contrast be- tween the enthusiasm with which he was sent off to the war and the acclaim with which he was welcomed home again on the one hand, and the cooler and more discriminating spirit that he found on reentering in- 1The chief journals devoted to rehabilitation are (a) In England, Recalled to Life: A Journal Devoted to the Care, Reeducation, and Return to Civil Life of Disabled Soldiers and Sailors (first No., June, 1917) and Reveille, began in August, 1918. (b) In this country the Surgeon-General's office in January, 1918, began publishing typewrit- ten bulletins on recent literature on reconstruction and reeducation which in the following June was continued in the journal, Carry On. Our government has also issued a special series of bulletins (No. 30 appeared in April, 1919) on different aspects of this work. See, too, E. T. Devine's Carnegie report on Disabled Soldiers and Sailors Pensions and Training (N. Y., 1919). The Red Cross has published two series of pamphlets on various aspects of the subject, (c) In France we have Larousse Medical since 1917 (copiously illustrated). (d) In Germany we have Kriegsinvalidenfiirsorge since 1916. Besides this serial material there is a literature on the subject far too voluminous to cite. See Dr. R. F. Fox's Physical Remedies for Disabled Soldiers (London, 1917); A. Broca and Ducroquet's Ar- tificial Limbs. Tr. by R. C. Elmslie (London, 1918) ; R. T. MacKen- zie's Reclaiming the Maimed (N. Y., 1919); G. Harris' Redemption of the Disabled (N. Y.. Appleton, 1919); D. C. McMurtrie's The Dis- abled Soldier (N. Y., Macmillan, 1919) ; H. C. Marr's Psychoses of the War (London, Bailliere, 1919) ; also The Physiology of Industrial Organization, by J. Amar. (Paris, 1917). In this and subsequent pub- lications the author was one of the first to try to analyze the move- ments in occupations and their relations to physiological principles. For a single set of articles I find nothing better than that of Thomas Iregory's in World's Work (Aug., 1918.) 188 REHABILITATION OF THE WOUNDED dustrial life on the other, this contrast was far sharper for the wounded. True, employers in some firms at first discriminated in favor of the wounded soldier, but this spirit always and everywhere tends to yield sooner or later to that of efficiency, which can afford to pay a man for only the services he is actually able to render. Some enthusiastic girls, also hospital and Red Cross nurses, married the maimed and even accepted "baskets" (a gruesome army slang word for those who have lost all four limbs) as hus- bands, but this pitch of fervor was rare and also tran- sient, for pity and love cannot long be confounded. Thus the returned soldier who is seriously mutilated or invalided, of which the war has produced several millions, is in fact in a pathetic condition. The possibility of having to exhibit his mutilations on the street and begging from passers-by is something the self-respecting veteran, who has heard wounds suf- fered in his country's service called glorious, feels to be as bitter as death itself, and it is a shame for any country to permit it, as many often have in the past, sometimes even to those to whom it has given pen- sions. Very careful examinations of the discharged were wisely planned to prevent unjustifiable claims for after-effects of the war, which are often such a burden and were so especially after our Civil War, when for many years the total pension budget in- creased inversely as the number of survivors. In the first place, the maimed man generally has his physical vitality and vigor more or less reduced, 189 MORALE and perhaps his mental tone is lowered; hence he has less courage in facing life than before. Again, the very members most essential in his occupation may be gone or incapacitated so that he must start all over again in a new line of work, and this is more discouraging for the skilled craftsman than for the unskilled laborer. Finally, many wounds so disfig- ure the body and even the face that the victim shrinks from being seen, and he may be a painful object even to those nearest and dearest to him. Thus he tends to feel himself useless and dependent, his pride is galled, and he may despair, although he rarely com- mits suicide. He more often grows suspicious that his disfigurement has abated love of wife, children, and friends, that their devotions are from a sense of duty and perhaps performed with inner repugnance. Sometimes instinct inclines him to compensate for these feelings by arrogance and domineering au- thority to compel what he fears love falters in doing. Who save those who have suffered thus can conceive the inner tortures of an athlete suddenly made a cripple for life or of an attractive face made ugly and repellent, suggesting in some cases a disposition the very opposite of that which really exists. Again,it is not surprising that the seriously wound- ed soldier should thus gravitate more or less strongly, according to circumstances and disposition, toward a state of mind in which the typical case feels that he has made unwonted sacrifices for his country, which should henceforth care for him, and also perhaps that 190 REHABILITATION OF THE WOUNDED his friends and family should very gladly serve him. His exceptional sacrifices demand exceptional recog- nition and reward. If it is glorious to die for one's country, it is hardly less but more glorious to be mu- tilated in its service. He is at least more heroic than those who came through without scathe. He has "done his bit and got his hit" and now the nation he has helped to save owes him a comfortable living. This obligation was almost implied in the sentiment with which he was sent off to the front, and he feels neglected and deems the world ungrateful. At the institutions for convalescents {e.g., the Walter Reed and other such hospitals) the persuaders and en- couragers found this attitude not at all uncommon and one of the very hardest to meet or modify. This state of mind was, of course, more common among those who enlisted under the allurements of our meth- ods of recruiting volunteers but has been only less frequent among those drafted. It may make men pes- simistic but it rarely goes so far as to make them con- scious parasites, though it may make them enemies of even our industrial society. Now it is just these two classes of cases which illustrate the most utter debacle of morale. But it is also upon some of these that morale has wrought its most marvelous regenerations, for both the despair of the first and the cynicism of the latter class have been triumphantly overcome, although we must frankly admit that there have been some of both who resisted all cure. 191 MORALE First of all the agencies of rehabilitation comes surgery with its now marvelous arsenal of ever new, more refined and effective methods, which have made it such a power for morale as well as for physical sal- vage. The soldier is young, in good condition, rarely suffers from operative phobia, and in general makes a good patient. Many are at first reconciled to dis- ablement because it means a furlough or perhaps "Mighty" for good, and are grateful to fate because it is better at least than "going West," a spirit that may, though happily rarely does, culminate in malin- gering, magnifying symptoms, and possibly in self- inflicted wounds; while a few heroic souls chafe under everything that interferes with getting back into the fray. Men with faces shattered ("gargoyles" or Cali- bans) are given, e. g., new noses made out of perhaps their own rib-bone covered by a flap or two of skin from a part of the face that can be later covered by a false beard. An artificial jaw may be fitted by the aid of a plaster cast with paraffin, or a new and care- fully molded cheek is made to conform as nearly as possible to the photograph of the patient before his injury, and these and even ears are usually supported in some way by glasses. When we read not only of plastic surgery but of the grafting of glands and the substitution of parts and organs in the living man by those taken from animals and even cadavers, we wonder whether, along the line of these methods, life may not sometime be rejuvenated, and we think of 192^ REHABILITATION OF THE WOUNDED bold and clever romances like "The Heart of Don -- Vega," whose old heart was physically replaced by a new one, with a change of disposition; or of the clever story by an anonymous author of the man who had a new brain. Skull disfigurements are cleverly dis- guised, and not only eyes and teeth but ears are re- placed by artificial ones, and all these facial surger- ies restore those who would otherwise be isolated from the commerce of life. As to limbs, there is a far less percentage of amputations than ever before, not only of feet and legs, which are far more often wound- ed and more often require this treatment than do hands and arms, but even the latter can be replaced by extremely ingenious devices so intricate that only long practice gives skill enough to bring out all their possibilities. Some of these artificial limbs are stand- ardized but others have been evolved by individuals, with fingers working by springs released by rolling balls held in grooves, which with sufficient skill can perform very many of the functions of the normal hand.2 With various sockets and inserts very many different things can be done and tools, perhaps modi- fied, can be used, and not a few patients have invented ingenious devices to meet their own type of need. Not only tools but sometimes industrial processes have been modified, and this was done before the ar- mistice in more than four-score occupations, which 3 P. Martinier and G. Lemerle: Injuries of the Face and Jaw and Their Repair, Lond., Bailliere, 1917; and G. Seccombe Hett: Meth- ods of Repair of Wounds of the Nose and Nasal Accessory Sinuses Proc. Royal Soc. of Med., XII, No. 8, July, 1919. 193 MORALE have been thus fitted to the maimed as they have been to these callings. Some cripples before as well as those made by the war have become prodigies of rehabilitation, like L. Simms (Outlook, September 11, 1918) who at six lost both hands by amputation midway between the wrist and elbow, but went through Oberlin College, became superintendent of schools, and tells us that he can thread a needle and sew, use the typewriter and piano, shave, shoot, write, dress and undress, etc. We have also the noted case of M. J. Dowling, who some thirty-six years ago had hands and feet frozen off in a Minnesota blizzard, and is now a bank president and director of various insti- tutions. Such men are a splendid object lesson to -the maimed and are brought as examples of courage and perseverance to hospitals for war cripples. Four- teen of these "encouragers" have been brought to this country from France. But it is when surgery and mechanical devices have done their best that the higher work of morale for these cases really begins. There was often. especially in England, a very persistent idea that if the crippled learned to earn, his pension might be diminished, and even effective legislation to prevent this did not entirely obviate the need of personal per- suasion and counter-assurance. When a new occupa- tion must be chosen, it should be as near the old one as possible, and thus choice requires much discrim- ination and a wise adviser can here often be of great help. 19* REHABILITATION OF THE WOUNDED First of all, the subject must realize that, as ~ Gregory puts it, when a man loses his leg it affects his thinking perhaps even more than it does his walk- ing for he is liable to lose his nerve, at least for a time. Rehabilitation is hardly more a question of - arms, legs, and eyesight than it is of point of view of the cripple himself and also that of his friends and of the public. He must not be cobbled up, pen- sioned, and turned loose to become a tramp or ped- dler of shoestrings or pencils, as was too often the case after our Civil War, nor merely given an official job by the government, as was the case in Germany and France after the War of 1870. He is handicapped but not done for. Our half million cripples not only in the hospital but in the curative workshop, one of which was attached to every army ^ corps, must develop new ambitions and aims. The mind must be focused on the object as a product and not on the process of making it. He must come to think of himself not as marred but of what he can "" do. He should be given occupations even in bed, where he is liable to form habits of moping, drifting, and being waited on. It is in work that brings re-- suits and awakens interest, so that stiff joints slow- ly grow flexible and strength increases, that the value lies, and when these increments are measured by the protractor and dynamometer, even if the res- toration is slow it gives buoyancy instead of depres- sion. This result is, however, often best if disre- garded and left one side as a by-product. A man 195 MORALE tired with working a foot-treadle, e. g., designed only to restore the lost power of movement in the leg, if put to fret-work on a jigsaw finds his rate of im- provement in leg power augmented. The notion of ' his helplessness must be stamped out. Our government and others have made very in- teresting collections of stories of men who have en- countered such handicaps, and it has many movies showing cripples engaged in not only many kinds of occupations but in a great variety of games; while there is a long list of devices and inventions, some petty and individual and some of great and general significance, made by cripples not only to help them- selves but for the benefit of their comrades in mis- fortune. Besides this wonderful collection there is - in the Surgeon-General's office an illustrated book made up of the life histories of cripples who have succeeded, a copy of which is now accessible to every disabled soldier or sailor. It was also designed to help the "cheer-up" squad, for these "twice heroes" show what grit and pluck can do. The state of mind of the cripples, as Gregory so well puts it, thus needs great attention. Patriotic hysteria in the first year of the war so glorified the wounded soldier that the police hesitated to arrest him for almost any excess. In France many at first became habitual drunkards, and here only four per cent were willing to go back to their old jobs as wage-earners. Coddling, overadulation, and hospital- itis, which result from long being served and doing 196 REHABILITATION OF THE WOUNDED nothing, well illustrate how mistaken treatment de- nothing, well illsutrate how mistaken treatment de- stroys morale. The nation's gratitude must not spoil ,. its heroes, and even their friends must expect them to play men's parts and not lapse toward the plane of pauperism. Then after this first flush of en- thusiasm came the era of preferential employment. Pennsylvania, e. g., alone provided industrial posi- tions for 42,111 American disabled soldiers and sail- ors, and in France there was the same process of spoiling by unwise solicitude, followed by a new regime. But this stage quickly passed. Employers are patriotic but they cannot long be expected to engage these men unless it is a sound business proposition. Some ten per cent of the four thousand members of our National Association of Manufacturers agreed to employ disabled men, but there were ever more dis- criminations. Thus the war cripple must eventually succeed or fail according to the worth of the service he can render. Countries differ greatly in their programs all the way from where the surgeon leaves the soldier through his complete reeducation and industrial re- habilitation in society. The Gorgas conference in January, 1918, drew up an excellent plan and bill which Congressional politics killed. Of all countries Canada has by general consent done best. Some would have the individual not discharged from the army but kept under military control until he is self-supporting or at least has reached his maximum of efficiency. This plan, however, has nowhere been 197 MORALE adopted save in Belgium, and there for the most part with only skilled laborers, because it is deemed an unwarrantable interference with personal liberty, and also because to realize the best that is in an in- dividual his own interest must be a source of chief appeal. In the Red Cross Institution in New York City, under the patronage of the Millbank gift, vo- cational teachers have been given courses on the in- dustrial needs. In France the most remarkable in- stitution is UEcole Joffre. It was founded at Char- leroi by M. Anzer Besaque, and when the Germans destroyed it, he drifted to Lyons, where he met the famous mayor, Herriot, one of the most picturesque figures in France. Here it was that the above-named school developed. In France reeducation was main- ly under military discipline, with a view to the sol- dier's return to the army, and industrial training there is voluntary. In Great Britain men are dis- charged too soon and too much liberty is given to break off training if it becomes irksome. In Queen Mary's convalescent hospital are concentrated all the artificial limbs, and here men go after amputation. The Queen gave the workshop, where each patient is given a leaflet describing the courses so that he may choose wisely. Although only the beginnings are taught here, the soldier's mind is taken off his in- juries and he lives in an atmosphere of usefulness. When he acquires his limb, he goes to Roehampton, where he is given more leaflets, listens to lectures, is given advice, etc. Sir Arthur Pearson, himself blind, 198 REHABILITATION OF THE WOUNDED has provided for blind soldiers. St. Dunstan's, given by Otto Kahn of New York, has several annexes. This institution to-day represents the very last and best thing that civilization can yet do for the blind. The Lord Roberts' Memorial Workshop, opened just after the South African war, has set the fashion for half a dozen others. Then, too, soldiers are en- couraged to settle on land. There are innumerable smaller efforts by philanthropic individuals and or- ganizations. Since May, 1917, and the Interallied Conference, the allied nations have united to make this work more effective. Physical, mental, and moral therapy go hand in hand. Medical electrotherapy, X-rays, douches, massage, hydrotherapy, light, artificial air-currents, plays and games, occupations as treatment, scores of appliances, some suggested by the Zander apparatus, and testing and measuring every degree of improve- ment, protractors, e. g., to test foot-drop, ab- and ad- duction, pro- and supination, etc.—all these show the singular ingenuity which physical therapy has de- veloped in meeting the emergencies of war and in adapting everything to the vast variety of individual cases. Now the same is true with the war psychas- thenias. Horrible recurrent dreams, e. g., may be banished by painting or by narrating them.3 A pho- bia can be abated by tracing it to its roots in an ex- - perience of childhood; mental vacuity and helpless- ness by successfully prospecting through the pa- 8 See H. C Marr: The Psychoses of the War, 60 et seq., Lond.. Frowde, 1919. 199 MORALE tient's life and mind for something that profoundly affects his personality. In some cases it is necessary to go back to and repeat school-room topics and methods, perhaps even in more simple form than in the school itself, and thus to build up a new personal- - ity. Often the psychotherapist finds it very hard to discover a point of interest vital enough to start _from. Each day in the process of analysis presents new problems which must be met by new methods. In the more purely morale cases the chief task is to find or make a motive and a goal for rehabilitation not only in making the patient feel that life and his efforts are worth while but in giving him the most indispensable preparedness for his new life, viz., hope and confidence. The example of those who have best overcome most of the obstacles due to dis- ablement is one of the most precious of all the moral inspirations of the war and should be spread before the young in all lands, beside the story of great men - who rose from obscurity and by dint of their own efforts have impressed themselves upon history, and also along with the record of the most heroic war martyrs who have fallen in battle, in order that youth -may be heartened in fighting its way to success. A man who has been shattered in body and mind and nevertheless succeeds in making good, despite his in- firmities and in face of the many subtle temptations within and without to be a laggard, is a true hero of morale, of whose life even a nation seeking reha- bilitation from the ravages of war should take heed. 200 CHAPTER XIII THE LABOR PROBLEM The necessity of studying and realizing the fundamental needs of Labor everywhere for food, domestic life, ownership, recreation, work, intellectual activity, and association with fellow-men—The power of Labor to reconstruct the world not realized by Capital. Since the Industrial Revolution and the unhappy antagonism of Capital and Labor, with at first the former and now, especially during and since the war, the latter tending to subordinate the other, the world has entered upon a new era, and a new and higher morale here, too, is imperative, and industrial prac- tice, legislation, and public opinion must take new cues from the Zeitgeist. We must realize that in all lines of production labor is no longer a commodity but a partner and must be accepted sympathetically as an intelligent cooperator, and that the long, sad history of sweating, strikes, riots, sabotage, injunc- tions, and the rest, represent a dark-age period that we must emerge from and which has not been credit- able to our insight into the fundamental laws of hu- man nature. Industry is the chief trait of our nation and of our age. One estimate is that it now absorbs nine- tenths of all human ability, mental and physical. Moreover, business and its methods and interests more and more dominate politics, education, science, 201 MORALE and, in a sense, also religion. It makes war or peace, prosperity or decline. It is economic interests that will eventually find or make a way of adjusting the claims of the superman versus Bolshevism, of capital versus labor, and of the classes versus the masses generally. To this system the morale of the work- man is no less important than that of the soldier in the war. Not only his physical but his mental con- dition is all-determining. It is here, therefore, that we must reconsider basal human impulses, often more unconscious than conscious, and inventory and grade the main determining tendencies that consti- tute the normal motives of man's behavior, the thwarting of which makes most of the troubles in in- dividual, social, and economic life. These play a role in industry as fundamental as the categories have in the history of philosophic thought, and we must seek them where Aristotle found his, viz., in the market place, rather than by psychological analysis. They are not simple but genetic and elemental and in- stinctive, and we shall find far more help from writers like Carleton Parker1 and Ordway Tead2 than from the more scientifically psychologic writ- 1 Motives in Economic Life. Amer. Econ. Rev. Sup. March, 1918, and The I. W. W. Atlan., Nov., 1917. 'Instincts in Industry. A Study of Working-Class Psychology. 232, Bost., 1918. * Supplemented, perhaps, by writers like Glenn Frank and R. W. BruSre; Spargo (Americanism and Social Democracy, N. Y., Harper, 1918); A. Henderson (Aims of Labor, N. Y., Huebsch, 1919); Boyd Fisher (Industrial Loyalty, Lond., 1918); P. S. Grant, (Fair Play for the Worker); Meyer Bloomfield (Management and Men, N. Y., Cen- tury, 1919); W. L. MacKenzie King (Industry and Humanity, N. Y., Houghton, Mifflin, 1918); E. E. Schoonmaker (The World Storm and Beyond, N. Y., Century, 1915). 202 THE LABOR PROBLEM ings of McDougall, Thorndike, Shand, or from char- *~ acterology generally. The more important of these human impulses and needs may be tabbed off as follows:— 1. Food. When this is abundant and fit, men tend to be contented; and when it is scanty or ill- adapted to their nutritive needs they become uneasy, restless, and seize upon anything however untoward to objectify and justify their discontent. The Paw-~- low philosophy has given us a vastly broader basis for realizing the importance of this factor of human well-being. Studies of the "conditioned reflex" suggest to us what the very position of the senses near the entrance to the alimentary canal (because all of them _ were originally food-finders and testers) long taught in biology, that a large part of not only animal but of human activity consists in the quest for and pro- vision of adequate food supply. Fasting and incipient starvation have motivated the great migrations of animals and men, and the home and hearth lose much of their attraction if the table there spread is not adapted to make for growth or restoration of tissue lost by activity. Hence the well-known significance of all sumptuary laws and regulations. Now, too, that prohibition has removed the long-accustomed physiological reenforcement that drink once gave, .. which also made men more content with inadequate fare, we cannot doubt that we have here a source of aggravation to present discontent; while the scanty food allowance which the war necessitated in 203 MORALE European lands has had a no less profound effect on the morale of these peoples. The prime need, then, not only of labor but of mankind generally is ~ to be well nourished, and that labor enjoys this fundamental condition of stability should be the first object of inquiry Where conditions are to be studied, for there is no more fundamental need of life. Metabolic insufficiency has of late been rec- ognized for school children as a cause of truancy, irritability, apathy, insubordination, and even vice and crime. The same is true of armies. But we have not yet learned that it is no less true of com- munities in time of peace and perhaps most of all for laborers. Napoleon said an army "fights on its belly," and the same is true of the army of toilers. The old materialists, Biichner and Moleschott, based their system on the phrase, "Man is what he eats," and now the Russian school of physiologists are amplifying this view and telling us that we not only eat but think, feel, act, etc. as we digest, and are even interpreting the higher psychic powers of man on a metabolic basis. Just how food shortage through- out the entire Occident has predisposed its popula- tion to revolution only the expert, and not even he can yet entirely explain. But the obvious lesson of it all is that every great industry needs not only its - Hoover to insure an adequate supply but its practi- cal dietitian to investigate and suggest ways of reaching the sources and the cures of discontent in this field. If alimentary conditions had been kept at 204 THE LABOR PROBLEM their optimum and every organ and tissue had been well nourished, and enough fit food had been at the command of the laborer's purse, there would have been far less labor trouble throughout the world of late. Here the new trophic psychology has a vast - field for its practical application. Never was there such need for and such sure advantage to our entire industrial system from our teaching the girls and women of the working classes what and how to buy, how to cook, flavor, and even serve foods and drinks to make them appetizing, for appetite, we now know, gives the momentum not only to digestion as it is generally understood but to all the higher and later processes of assimilation; while fasting in all the studies that have been made of its conditions makes restlessness by far its chief behavioristic concom- ' itant. 2. Next to hunger comes love as a psychic. world-power, the one conserving the individual and the other perpetuating the race. From the teens on the sexes must meet wholesomely. Each needs all_ the influence from the other to mature aright, espe- cially from early adolescence well on into the age of full nubility. Dancing, for instance, is at this age almost a primitive instinct and can be made a far more potent regulative of morale at these susceptible years than the world has yet realized. Every normal individual wants to mate and enjoy family life. Working as well as all other girls must have means, too, to deck themselves appropriately, 205 MORALE for without this they easily lose all self-respect and are exposed to the greatest temptations. A best dress or suit, and occasionally a dressing up in it, is itself a factor of morale for both sexes. Even before mar- riage interest in the other sex tends to stabilize each, and wedlock and the added responsibilities it entails do this yet more. Every family must have its home and be able to rear its children decently. Whatever thwarts phyloprogenetic instincts is not only waste- ful but dangerous, for psychanalysis has lately - opened a vast new field here for both theory and practice. It has compelled us to regard almost everything connected with the transmission of the sacred torch of life in a new light and taught us how many of the diseases not only of the individual but of society, and in some sense particularly of indus- trial life, are due to derangements of the erotic and domestic life. Wage-scales need not perhaps, as they now sometimes are, be supplemented by bonuses for babies, but such scales should always discriminate in favor of employees with families. The workman's appreciation of good schools for his children make these an asset of growing worth in the labor market, while licentiousness in a community is an industrial "' disability. 3. A third instinct only a little less primeval is that of ownership. Everyone, except hoboes or ex- treme communists, who though still found in theory are very rare in our greedy age, craves something he can call all his very own property, and the unique 206 THE LABOR PROBLEM extension of his personality to all its interests which it thus gives. With no provision against sickness, old- age pensions or insurance, "lay-offs," and other ex-"" igencies, the workman feels insecure and is ready to listen to radicalism just in proportion as he feels that change would not make things worse for him. Own- ership not only widens interest and makes for con- servatism but gives a sense of personal worth, inde- pendence, or freedom of thought and action, of hav- ing a place and function in the social order; and also, what is perhaps yet more important, it safeguards against a sense of the injustice of an industrial sys- tem that exacts a man's best endeavor for a bare sub- sistence; while if he sees no chance or hope of ever getting ahead, despair sooner or later supervenes, and desperation is the most dangerous and inflammable explosive of all psychic states. Immigrants who have been lured to our shores by extravagant hopes" of easy wealth suffer most by the great disillusion that they experience and so fall easiest prey to the ever-active agencies of discontent. A laborer who has toiled hard all his life and at sixty is laid off as no longer useful, with nothing laid up and hence depen- dent on his relatives, is an economic burden both to himself and to the community, and the worst thing about it all is the rankling, festering sense of injus- - tice, which is not much mitigated by the fact that even early in life discouragement may have made him improvident and have aborted the instinct for acqui- sition. 207 MORALE 4. This brings us to another fundamental instinct, viz., play, amusement, or recreation. Everyone, especially those who lead the drab life of the mod- ern toiler, needs and craves an occasional "good time." Indeed we all need to glow, tingle, and feel life - intensely now and then. We want our affective na- ture stirred to its nethermost depths. Our souls as well as our bodies are erethic, and it seems as though . our blood needed sometimes to be flushed with adren- alin. These second-breath states and impulses need legitimate cultivation because thus only can the in- - dividual learn to draw upon his racial resources. Orgies of sex and drink are the easiest and common- est vents of this instinct to "life more and fuller" for which the soul pants, and to find proper vicariates is one of the chief considerata of the morale of labor, as it is indeed of morale in other fields. The degenerate plebs of Rome ranked the demand for circuses beside that for bread. All animals, as well as men, seek pleasure and avoid pain, and if they must suffer, they seek compensation for it. The algedonic scale is a long one, ranging all the way from ecstasy to agony, and the tranquillity of both the individual and so- ciety depends upon the proportions in which these sovereign masters of life really dominate it. Here . we especially need "the new Sunday." Although the old Puritanical gloom is fast passing, the Church makes now almost no claim upon Sunday afternoon and evening, though it generally "sits tight" again.st opening them to games, dramas, and other well-cho- 208 THE LABOR PROBLEM sen and uplifting amusements lest the day be "Euro- peanized." We need here a commission to rescue from the present neglectful, wasteful, and often vicious influences this great western holiday by sug- gesting programs that will make it the happiest day of the week, and it is labor that most needs this. 5. By nature, or at least by second nature, man is a worker. He must do and make things and enjoy the advantages that come from all that he does or makes well or he is a slave. The struggle of one party to get the most work for the least pay, and of the other to get the most pay for the least work is the nadir of industrial morale and involves the greatest of all economic wastes, a waste that will never cease until labor shares both profits and management and - the interests of both these moieties of the processes of production are thus identified. Nothing less will ever bring industrial peace and check "sojering" on the one side and exploitation on the other. Few em- ployers realize how hard most men will work if the rewards of their endeavors are fair and sure and in some kind of proportion to their effort. Normally man is a striver and he will even drudge if it pays in . betterment of his condition and if his loyalty be en- listed. Labor Should have relative permanence, and instead of the present disastrous turnovers there should be a new identification of interests. Just in proportion as work is made equitably profitable, man in general wants more not less of it. He is not by na- ture lazy, shiftless, or improvident but is made so by 209 MORALE abnormal conditions. Veblen is right; there is an in- stinct for workmanship that if we could only appeal to aright, would almost redeem man from the ancient curse of his fabled fall and realize many ideals now often thought to be unattainable. 6. The need of mentation. One of the chief traits of man as distinct from animals is his larger brain and his highly, some think abnormally developed in- tellect. Curiosity is perhaps the earliest expression of the basal noetic instinct and is well developed in many animals. All educational systems, libraries, the press, science, and even myth, gossip, and espion- age, were evolved to satisfy this craving. Ignorance -is asphyxia and every normal soul craves more knowl- edge. Tests of mentality show how mistaken it is to -assume that the illiterate are eo ipso inferior or less truly wise than the learned. The mind of man was never so active and alert as it is to-day. Politics, local, national, and international; labor problems, strikes, with which the world to-day fairly boils; war and peace methods, social problems, ever wider in- dustrial relations, automobiles, which every bright "young man wants to understand, a larger view of all agricultural methods and devices, land transporta- tion, steel, mining, ships, immigration, machinery,— all these are stimulating and developing the intellect far more, on the whole, than schooling ever succeeded in doing. The workman thinks close to facts, and these are so very thought-provoking that the impulse to deal with them can often even overcome his fa- 210 THE LABOR PROBLEM tigue. But the tired man is prone to extreme and radical views because they are easiest, and inclines toward trial-and-error methods because the surplus energy that feeds the impulse to intellectualize is in- sufficient. And yet even thus he makes hundreds of inventions, great and small, every year and count- less helpful suggestions of improvement in processes, management, and even organization, many of which are of high survival value. Even the academic phrases of Marx and the idealism of the Fabians and- guildists, although they diverted psychic energy from hard reality toward idealism, gave much, with a wholesome ferment that at least did a great deal to overcome inertia and stimulate rationalizing activi- ties. Industrial night- and trade-schools are doing ever more, but life and industry themselves give an even more firmly organized brain tissue, and the workman is extending his purview to include employ- ers' problems, markets, and trade conditions; and all this works to overcome the evils of catch phrases and the law of least effort. The sooner we learn that labor now has a mind of its own and a very good,- keen, well-stored, and resourceful one, more and more able to hold its own in any forum, court, legislature, or labor conference against employers and capital, and realize all the intellectual agencies it can enlist in its behalf, the better it will be. Its best leaders are men of rare native mental power and sagacity. They can think and talk convincingly, and their leadership is the spontaneous acme of sincerity, of well-matured 211 MORALE and intense conviction. Their creeds are ever more constructive and less destructive. They often have _ the stuff of which martyrs are made and the best of them are incorruptible. What they most crave is to be taken into the confidences of and into the same kind of partnership with those who control. What they most dread is secret arrangements to the disad- vantage of those whom they loyally represent. Thus every appeal to the mentality of labor and every op- portunity of the laborer for the kind of culture he wants, as distinguished always from that his employ- ers or even philanthropists and social workers think he ought to have, is a direct asset to efficient produc- tion; and to thwart this noetic instinct or even to ig- nore and neglect it is simply to drive it into perverse, wasteful, and perhaps dangerous channels. 7. Man is the most gregarious of all creatures and he owes his conquest of animals and the material world very largely to this basal instinct which, as __ Trotter has shown, is hardly less primitive than that of self-preservation. From the huddling of ani- -mals for warmth, as Sutherland has shown, to the mob and tribal instinct and up to the club, party, sect, and class, the impulse to act, feel, and think in masses or groups is one of the great primordials. Fashions, creeds, philosophies, unions, schools of thought, folk- ways, mores, communities,—all show the strength and depth of the human trend toward collectivity. The crowd is very subject to suggestion and must have and is very subordinate to its leaders. It is this in- 212 THE LABOR PROBLEM stinct that makes solitude so painful and domestic service so discredited, and causes the now world-wide tendency to urban congestion. There is often a con- flict of loyalties, e. g., race and language conscious- ness may be arrayed, especially in polyglot communi- ties, against trade loyalties. The ties of comradeship in arms are very close, and at home the war tended to break down class distinctions, even on the street, and it is this that makes the dispersal of great crowds when aroused so hard and even dangerous. Free as- sociation, good-fellowship, and fraternization, there- fore, express an instinct that can do great things for good or evil, and if this is thwarted or repressed, men either stagnate and grow cranky or else become fit for "treason, strategy, or spoils." Every hour of idle- ness and discontent, to say nothing of strikes, fer- tilizes the germs of Bolshevism. But there is one great danger that may be charac- terized here as follows: Science is the very highest - embodiment of the principle of reality. It represents the most heroic objective and impersonal attitude of mind. Huxley compared the devotion of the modern investigator to fact and law to the Christian sense of self-surrender and his feeling of absolute dependence upon God and His will. We must give up precon- ceived ideas and become as little children as con- trasted with the self-satisfying processes of thinking under the "pleasure principle." It is incidental that science has conferred so many blessings upon man- kind. But while we have utilized it for all kinds o( 213 MORALE comforts, we have not really learned its great lesson of the inexorable inviolability of the law of cause and effect. Many if not most strive to lessen pain and toil and to increase and equalize pleasures, which have become the chief quest of man to-day. Thus the gregarious spirit has one of its culmina- tions in the drift toward the city, where so many in- ventions can be enjoyed as contrasted with the coun- try where man faces the stern laws of nature. As E. G. Groves well says, "Everything conspires to build into the urban philosophy of life the conviction that the obstacles that hamper human inclination are due to the interference of other people." In the city we feel that we would get all we want but for the conflicting wants of others. Because contacts are chiefly with perspns the idea arises that all our thwartings are due to wrongs inflicted upon us by other people, and so they get the blame; while in the country it is na- ture that checks our purposes. To this source of urban interest must be added the more rapid weak- ening of older moral and religious restraints by radi- calism, the acceleration of the state of mind that feels that we must get everything here and now, the sharper focalization upon the bald economic problem of getting more dollars at once by any means, which seem enhanced in value because they can be ex- changed for such intense pleasures, and finally the fact that demagogues and extremists make more promises and arouse more hopes which are unful- filled. All these tend to lower the tone of city morale. 214 THE LABOR PROBLEM We must not forget, too, that the closing of the sa- loon, where men met their friends and which was an important organ for the deployment of the social sense, made it necessary to find another vent for their gregarious instinct in the union or in collective ac- tion for the betterment of their condition. (See the chapter on Prohibition.) —— Labor is now at the greatest crisis in its history.- We are told that since the war began, wages have, on on the whole, advanced about 100 per cent, hours have been reduced 10 per cent., and efficiency and output in many industries are to-day only about 80 per cent of the normal. There is only one way of re- ducing prices for the necessities of life, and that is increased output. To raise wages and lessen output only makes matters worse. Labor in this country is at a parting of the ways, and at the present writing it seems uncertain whether its course will be directed by its conservative leaders or by a more radical group of them. It is significant that in Germany the work- men have lately gone on record as favoring a "ten- hour day, no strikes, and no advance in wages." If the radical element of labor wins control, it will be a heavy blow to all the great American expectations of business leadership in the world to-day. Unionism. and probably collective bargaining have come to stay. This involves the right of private, always sharply dis- tinguished in this respect from public utility and gov- ernmental officials, to strike if necessary to enforce- their demands. It will be hard indeed to bring labor 215 MORALE to give up the right to be represented by delegates of ■" its own choosing whether in the shop or brought iu from outside, but the shop that is closed either to members of the union or to those who prefer to stay outside will always result in great and unfair disad- vantage, in the one case to the employer and in the other to the laborer. Employers in this country are less awake to the needs of the hour and to the neces- sity of making concessions to the new demands of the laborer than those in Europe. They do not realize the power of labor nor the dangers of revolution that now impend. Still less do they realize the subtle plea that soviet ideals under various names are now mak- ing to labor throughout the world, and it is lament- able that our political leaders have not studied, and therefore vastly underestimate the force of the ap- peal that labor not only can now but ought every- " where to take the helm and reorganize the world. The best of us have not seen that labor to-day, if it fully realizes its power and can organize, has the world "on the hip" and can radically reconstruct our entire industrial system, destroy all the economic ad- vantages which our size and resources make possible and which we have so fondly counted upon after the war. The gravest of all its bequests to this restora- tion period is the problem whether we have leaders who are at once informed, sagacious, and foresightful enough to find or make a way out of the present dead- lock, which the story of the labor conference at Wash- ington now ought to bring home to all of us. The 216 THE LABOR PROBLEM morale of Capital and also of Labor and their rela- tions to each other is at present very low, and until there is a new morale for both, we can never have in- dustrial peace. The Whitley report shows that Eng- land, owing probably to the better organization of her boards of trade and chambers of commerce, is much farther on in the way of this peace than we are. While this plan could not be adopted without modifi- cations to fit it to our conditions, it is a hopeful sign that if employers like Judge Gary have as yet little conception of the new industrial revolution that is now pending, others like John D. Rockefeller, Jr., with his plan of a hierarchy of joint council from the smaller local plants up to those of national di- mensions, have glimpsed a way of setting a backfire to the insidious soviet principle that workers alone shall rule the world. It now begins to seem not impossible that the time will come sooner or later when we shall have to face the issue between the utter loss of our present pro- ductive power and of our industrial and commercial prospects on the one hand or, on the other, the revo- lutionary reversal of our present restrictions on im- migration and import some millions of Asiatic toilers to check the profiteering spirit of labor leaders. In ancient Rome, the women, Zeller (in his Vor- trage und Abhandlungen) tells us, were fabled to have struck and declared they would bear no chil- dren until the Senate granted them certain rights. This, of course, was a measure far more desperate 217 MORALE than present methods and one not yet resorted to in modern life. He also tells us how when the pipers struck and marched to Tiburnum, they had Rome at their mercy for there could be no sacrifices to the gods, no religious processions, no marriages or funerals. This suggests what might happen if to-day the clergy should strike and close all the churches, the results of which an anonymous recent skit has amplified. In the medieval university students often struck against their dons and also against the municipalities and even kings and popes, and it was thus they won their ancient liberties and privileges; while to-day students and even school classes and teachers themselves have taken similar measures, and it is not entirely incon- ceivable that our modern educational institutions may thus some day tie up the sources of knowledge. These things may happen on a larger scale, and even courts, legislative bodies, kings, and presidents may follow suit. But even this would be less disastrous in its immediate effects than if the miners combined to freeze us and food producers should conspire to starve us to their terms. Capital might withdraw, and * all bankers, millionaires, and heavy stockholders re- tire with all their holdings to some far off Plutocria of their own, beyond the reach of every confiscatory method, and leave the rest of the world to syndicalists and socialists, and all the wage-earners the world over might at a predetermined day and hour paralyze all occupations. At any rate such vague possibilities may hearten us that the worst has not yet come. 218 CHAPTER XIV MORALE AND PROHIBITION The suddenness and extent of prohibition as one cause of world un- rest—Comparisons with the effects of hunger—The r61e of food shortage in the development of the race—Labor meetings as a substitute for the saloon—Projection of alimentary diseasement and the need of stimulation outward. Practically every great nation and race in history and even savage tribes have had some form of stimu- lating beverage or drug, and this has often played a very prominent role in their social customs and re- ligious rites. Even the Christian Church has utilized wine in one of its chief sacraments. While there have always been ascetics, the great majority of men who have lived on this earth have, at least occasionally, drunk something stronger than water. However convincing the physiological data which favor ab- stinence may be—and this, I believe, is by no means a closed question—the psychological and social effects of such a stimulus have by no means been sufficient- ly studied and, what is perhaps no less important, the few and significant data we have in this field have not yet been given their true evaluation. Not only laborers but the average man and, indeed, his forebears for generations have had their tipple, and for a very large proportion of them beer or light wine has been used habitually and daily. Of these 219 MORALE moderate drinkers there are perhaps few who have put themselves hors de combat by a "spree." Science tells us what few users would deny—that it is not the very best food and even that it has some qualities of poison; but so do some of our habitual foods, as well as tea and coffee. The user, however, insists that it does certain things for him all its own and so persists, if he can, in using it. He believes it rests and happifies him. It may draw a little on his physiological reserves, but he often needs to use it to keep the pace or to be contented. It is a sedative, a banisher of care, trouble, and worry, tending to make one live in the present and banish disquietude about the future and dim unpleasant memories of the past. If it dulls his intelligence a bit, that itself is often a relief. If his food is poor and scanty, he thinks he has something that can to some extent make good the deficit, and he feels dietary shortage or error less consciously. If his wages are small and his work hard, he has a solace. The saloon is a social as well as dietetic institu- tion and it also stimulates the sociability and good fellowship so satisfying to gregarious man. In the saloon many find one of the chief joys of life. They feel relaxation and stimulus combined in proportions which are most agreeable, and go home to happier sleep and more pleasant dreams for it all and back to work in the morning with pleasing memories and anticipations. The moderate user loaths the sot and is indignant at the reformer who intimates that he is 220 MORALE AND PROHIBITION in danger of becoming one. The more intelligent advocates of temperance have recognized the social function of convivial drinking and have tried long, if not very wisely and successfully, to provide a psychic substitute, not only for beverages that cheer and can inebriate but also for the saloon itself. It is much that the need of such a vicariate has been recognized. Now, suddenly and with none of these palliatives or ameliorations, the saloons throughout the country are closed, the currents of habit dammed, and one of the staple intakes of a large proportion of the world's workers is cut off by drastic and penal leg- islation. Upon whom does the chief burden of hard- ship fall? Not upon the manufacturers, for they are a small minority; not upon the bartenders who have been thrown out of business, although they are many and have much political and social influence; not upon habitual drunkards, for they, too, are a small minority; but chiefly upon those who indulge only in moderation. Some of these have welcomed the new law because it strengthened in them eco- nomic or hygienic impulses in the same direction which, without this external aid, were too feeble to act. The consciences of these have been reen forced. Crime and disorder due to inebriation have been everywhere decreased, it is true. But the great.ma- jority of moderate users feel that one of the inherent rights of man has been invaded and experience a goading sense of injustice. Perhaps they are better 221 MORALE off and will admit it later, but nevertheless the effect of this abrupt breaking of a fixed habit of the individual and of the race is bound to cause deep and widespread, if rather slow and to the psycho- logical laity undetected, results. Ask anyone who has tried to give up smpking (and this is a practice which the new lady voters and their followers, and the parsons and pedagogues which have sometimes been called a third sex and all their followers will next try to stop) how he felt, and he will reply that the hours dragged, that he was restless, uneasy, made changes in his daily habits, sought new interests or diversions, or worried along hoping that the uneasiness would abate or something would turn up; or possibly he sought a substitute. So, too, the moderate drinker seeks some other source of mild psychic inebriation as a surrogate for the ex- periences of the saloon and as a vent for his aimless, ill-defined cravings. He is perhaps all unconsciously discontented and his attitude is that of a seeker of something, though he knows not what. He is a trifle resentful, perhaps anxious and fearsome, before he finds a definite object or cause for these feelings. There is something lacking and his life seems a bit void. Formerly be was able to change his inner states at the bar, but now that this is impossible, the only relief is in seeking a change in his outer situation in order to reestablish the lost equilibrium with his en- vironment. This is, of course, essentially uncon- scious, and he has very little idea of what is taking 222 MORALE AND PROHIBITION place within him. He knows nothing of the law of psycho-kinetic equivalents for they work as secretly and slowly as do irresistibly. -" Now, all studies of fasting in men and animals, as we have said above, show that shrinkage of rations makes all creatures restless. Incipient starvation has played an important if not the chief role in all the great migrations of insects, fish, birds, higher mam- mals, and men. The westward sweep over southern Europe of Huns, Vandals, and other wild tribes from western and southern Asia is now.known to have been caused by a physiological upset due to climatic changes attending the desiccation of a great internal sea that made waste and arid wide spaces that had once been fertile and capable of supporting large populations. When the food supply grows scanty, every living thing that has organs of locomotion mobilizes for a trek in quest of better food areas. If it is impossible to change the habitat, then the state of mind undergoes a change under the same princi- ple of compensation. Not only do men, as Napolepn said, fight on their stomachs, but courage, persever- ance, temperance, and even public sentiment and opinion depend largely on the normality of nutritive processes. We even hear much now of the herbivor- ous and carnivorous types of character in man, but a volume would hardly suffice to enumerate the basic facts that show how hunger is a CQEggent of loxe in the world. —-" If alcohol is the vicious thing physiologically it 223 MORALE is now commonly said to be, even the moderate drink- er under prohibition must be regarded somewhat as a patient undergoing a more or less unwilling cure. His whole system in general, and his metabolic ac- tivities in particular, are in process of refunctioning if not of reconstruction. Especially his stomach, liver, kidneys, and brain, which school temperance books and cuts depict as so disorganized and morbid, must undergo a considerable change in order to be- come normal, and so we must expect our patients to be irritable, and make all due allowances and pro- vision for this. It is thus characteristic of this state of mind that if it cannot find outlet, it is prone to make an object for this smothered resentment. If thwarted in one direction, man seeks vent for his feelings in another. Thus it comes that if the tem- perancelers are too strongly entrenched to be over- come, the former would-be drinker turns against capital, employers, and the industrial system, or at least is more ready to listen to the advocates of radi- cal views. Deprived of the conviviality of the saloon he finds a proxy for it in strike_meetings, where common cause brings him very close to his fellow-men. When the bars are closed his recourse is the streets, and if there is a mob or riot he finds in these a source of ex- citement which he once found in the bottle or the glass. Instead of a few boon companions he seeks vent for his social instincts in the crowd, and the dis- content of his alimentary tract is projected outward 224 MORALE AND PROHIBITION upon his general social and industrial environment. Teetotalism has its place, and a very important one in the cure of chronic inebriates, and we all know the arguments and statistics of the temperance propa- ganda by heart; but of the otber_^ide we know far less. Most great reforms come slowly, but here actu- al prohibition has come almost like a shock and the whole autonomic system has to make readjustments as best it can. Thus a psychologist seeks to find the relation between the prohibition of Vodka and the Russian debacle and Bolshevism, as well as between industrial and social unrest; and in this country the epidemic of strikes, which S. C. Mason of the Na- tional Association of Manufacturers states has cost us ten million dollars a day for the last eight months, cannot be entirely disconnected from our sudden and enforced abstinence. Men in process of cure of the drink habit are more particular about their food and more dependent upon both its quantity and quality. Better edibles have long been known to be a safeguard against this habit, and poor, badly-cooked, ill-adapted, or insufficient nutriment is one of the chief causes of the craving that may make the drunkard. Thus to set a table in any sense or degree which can make up for the ta- booed bar, especially With the present soaring prices, is a graver problem than either wage-earner or house- wife has yet learned to realize and which they are not competent to solve if they do see it. That subtle and of late much-discussed thing we call appetite, which at 225 MORALE its best impels all the processes of the lower and even the higher activities of digestion, is so meiamor- phic that we cannot trace all its transformations, one of which, some are now telling us, is hunger for intellectual pabulum. But we do know that both its normal and perverted forms are profound deter- minants of both character and conduct and that its satisfactions or thwartings on its different planes have very much to do with the place of both indivi- duals and communities on the algedonic scale; and also that they are potent factors in activation or tranquillization. The saloon, indeed, has always played a great so- cial role, far more important than even psychological sociologists have yet realized. It was the poor man's club where he met his fellows, exchanged views and concepts, learned what was going on in his environ- ment, and got into more vital touch with it. It was also a great political institution where the henchman met his followers and won their votes. For this so- cial intercourse he now substitutes a tradje^union meeting where his own individual interests are de- bated by those in his calling, and here he seeks and finds contact with narrow, more personal, and more common interests. One reason for this is the deep human need for ex- citement. So urgent is this that if man cannot get it by drink, he will work up calentures about the items -- of his environment. Durkheim and his school think the great step upward in the early history of man 226 MORALE AND PROHIBITION was taken in the fervor of collective feeling, think- ing, and acting, as in the savage corroboree; and mild inebriation, whether by drink, ideas, or common sen- timents, not only fuses individual souls into a larger whole but also and by many other means loosens higher superindividual, racial energies, and inspires each with the instinct of the herd. The deepest root and chief charm of alcohol is that its cult mobilizes the higjiej^powers of men in its way and enables each to draw on the stored capital of the species. This, too, is its danger. A great many of the most signal achievements of man in his progress upward have been done in this exalted and inspired state when he seems to be helped by powers higher than his own. Religion itself owes much if not most of its in- fluence to the fact that its cults placed at the dis- posal of the individual those powers which inebria- tion is the easiest and most vulgar way of getting at and using. ^^> Human nature will not give up this ready way of access or appeal without an adequate substitute and should not be expected to do so. Hence the demand is now laid upon us as never before to find the sources of legitimate excitement which may occasionally arouse us to a higher pitch of abandon. To do this is now one of the imperative tasks of morale in the interest not only of education but of industrial, so- cial, and civic life. Many if not most of the great questions of this reconstruction era have been more warmed and heated than they would otherwise have 227 MORALE been because this ready recourse to low-level stimu- lus has been removed. «" Drunkenness is a terrible disease, and perhaps it needed a no less drastic cure than prohibition. But the patients have now convalesced from the disease itself and are like men who, having taken drugs that had checked the invasion of noxious germs, must now undergo a subsequent convalescence from the effects of the strong antidotes that must be elimin- ated from their systems. If they are cured of the -disease, they are not yet cured of the medicine. There wras a time when men found needed excite- ment in religion, which sometimes lapsed to orgies and even debauches. Some of the most intense ex- periences of the race and the individual have been in this domain, but that is no longer the case. Wars, panics, great psychic epidemics, have swept over the world, and along with their devastations have also served as vents to compensate man for the long re^ ~~ pressions that society and the mores always impose. In ancient Rome the circus, in Spain the bull-fight, in various Catholic countries the customs of Mardi Gras, the carnival of the Corso, hallowe'en, April Fool's Day, where liberty degenerates into license and everyone feels impelled to let himself go and for the time being breaks the monotony and routine of life, and now perhaps the mild excitement of the ^movies, prize-fights, and our great national games may serve something of this purpose. But the aver- - age modern toiler, especially in this country, knows 228 MORALE AND PROHIBITION little or nothing of any of these and so turns to dissi- pation or drink, which in a sense must vicariate for all of them. Our problem thus is to see that as the world "goes dry," the human soul must not dessicate. Plato longed for a day when statesmen would become philosophers; and philosophers, statesmen. Now we are realizing that for many reasons and in many fields legislators ought to be psychologists. But, alas! we are about as far from realizing the classical as the modern ideal. The psychologists have a duty here in this reconstruction period which they have not yet accomplished. CHAPTER XV MORALE AND PROFITEERING War always followed by a period of greed—Its camouflages—The cures of (a) publicity; (b) ridicule; (c) portrayals of the simple life; (d) morale and revolution—The need of studying as well as burning anarchistic literature. War always upsets industry. Young men are called to the colors, and older men and women and boys and girls take their places. The vast supplies, stores, munitions, and ships that must be provided in as short a time as possible transform the machinery of production and distribution and cause general un- settlement. The government comes to the aid or as- sumes control of our great public service corpora- tions. There is great centralization of power and perhaps arbitrary use of it, and lavish and often in- considerate expenditure. Thus, along with and often as if in compensation for the glow of patriotic and self-abnegating enthusiasm, arises a spirit of greed and profiteering. Wages and prices seesaw upward, and the motive of public good gives place to that of private or personal profit. Even those who respond generously to the many war charities and other calls cannot resist the temptation to make excessive profits, opportunities for doing which are so many and alluring. Legislation against the high cost of living, the sale at cost of government stores, ex- 230 MORALE AND PROFITEERING posure of wrong-doing, court procedures, and public- ity can help a little; but so strong and fundamental is the lust to own and acquire, so well entrenched, able, and subtle are the defenses of even the most ob- noxious trust methods of hoarding and manipulating the market, and so many are the members of our law- giving bodies who secretly hold retainers for the in- terests, and so powerful and sagacious are their lob- bies that the best legislation can only slightly miti- gate the evil, for the more reformatory the laws, the more difficult it is to execute them. "Why should and how could I refuse to accept high selling rates like my competitors? The purpos£_QfJui.siness is to make all the money it can, whether from a government con- tract or customers, and to ask me to charge less than I can get is not only an interference with the liberty of trade but is a blow at my rights and those of eco- nomic society. How can I be asked to forego the ad- vantages others are utilizing to the uttermost? Is it not rather my right and my duty to enter and stay in the battle of competition and enlarge my business and make it lucrative by every decent means?" To meet this spirit by an appeal to the good of the community as a whole, or by preaching the re- ligious duty of self-subordination, service, and sacri- fice, or by portraying the evils of selfishness is insuffi- cient. The profiteer often gives generously to his church, if he has one, and feels especially that if he has made honest returns of his property and income and paid all the taxes the government claims, he has 231 MORALE done his duty to his country. Perhaps he does more yet by way of charities and feels that he has bought and paid for protection and immunity. Moreover, he has laws or can have them made, or else can find able counsel to justify ways of legal evasion from those which would curb his excesses. In fact, neither charity, patriotism, nor good citizenship as he con- ceives them offers any formidable barrier to his lust for gain. Perhaps he is even considered generous to his employees and has won and is proud of their loyalty, and is thought honest, benevolent, and pub- lic-spirited in his community. But for all this the profiteer lacks the very basis of business morale. What is this and how can it appeal to him? This is one of the hardest and most pressing problems of the whole reconstruction morale. To find an ade- quate answer would be to find a way of escape from one of the greatest dangers that threaten human so- ciety to-day. Perhaps there is no remedy and perhaps no safeguard can be found. Ancient states, especially Greece and Rome, perished because they could find no means of checking the disintegration of their social and political organizations by the lust of per- sonal aggrandizement. They declined so far because public spirit died. Are we destined to share their fate? The torch of their civilization not only burned dimly but would have gone out completely, and the world would have been plunged into utter darkness but for the timely advent of Christianity. But can we hope for any new dispensation as regenerative 232 MORALE AND PROFITEERING as that was to save us from a more complete fall? Many corrective agencies besides the appeal to leg- islation and courts are already at work, others sug- gested, and still others are possible for both the trusts that squeeze competition and the profiteering that squeezes customers, as follows:— 1. Publicity, e. g., in the Ida Tarbell exposure of the Standard Oil trust, can drag to light disreput- able secret methods and agreements and thus do much to arouse public sentiment to condemnation of a concealment that hides unfairness, just as to make diplomacy open instead of secret makes for its re- form. Just as the old church confessional held that to confess is the first step toward forsaking sin, and as the new psychanalytic cures rest on the principle that to get conscious of psychic defects tends to their removal, so the awakening of a community to a sense of the evils that prey upon it is the first step towards its regeneration. To be really therapeutic publicity must be pitiless. Nothing must be concealed and no one guilty must escape. The difficulties here are very grave; the greater the abuses, the more elaborate are the methods of protection and defense against ex- posure. In an age and land where eloquence was the focus of all educational endeavor Cicero taught that the chief function of the orator was to see that no great and good act, however private and modest, went without its meed of praise. He should have added that the orator ought to allow nothing harmful to the community to remain unknown and uncen- 233 MORALE sured. This should now be the function of the press, the pulpit, and the teacher in these fields. Among story- and playwrights the arts and devices of the de- tective of crime have of late given him an uncanny and almost supernatural sagacity. Detectives of in- dustrial and commercial malpractice are now even more needed and will require yet greater powers of insight, endurance, and courage. We have had many government investigations and reports that exposed underhand methods in different lines of business, and advanced students in the department of economics in many of our universities have shed light on many practices in local lines of business. But we need and shall sometime have bureaus of trained ..experts who will, upon call, investigate the practices of corpora- tions with regard to fairness of profit-making, as we already do of efficiency, and there will be concerns that will court and be advantaged by such publicity, for it would indeed be an advertisement for any good firm. It is a low state of morale in a community that will long submit to extortion, as Americans are too prone to do, without even a citizens' committee to at- tempt their amelioration. The effectiveness of the publicity-cure depends, first, on the tone and virility of public opinion, and secondly, upon the sensitive- ness of offenders to its censure. There are thosejwho fear only legal penalties and are unperturbed by so- cial opprobium or even ostracism, and there is dan- ger that the number of these defiant graspers is grow- ing and that they are becoming bolder. For these 234 MORALE AND PROFITEERING public condemnation has no terrors unless it costs them customers and patronage, and that it does so every community should have the morale to make sure. There are, on the other hand, concerns that have voluntarily submitted themselves to such ex- aminations, although thus far this has been done in too sporadic and unorganized a way. Some, again, who at first used religion and ostentatious charity as a defense mechanism against the condemnation of the community and their own conscience, or as a cloak for their covert crimes against industrial society, have later grown more amenable to public criticism and not only complied with its dictates outwardly but have done so with inner conviction. Thus publicity has even brought true regeneration. Rarely as this has occurred, morale has sometimes triumphed over profiteering under the tonic stimulus of publicity. 2. Ridicule in the form of satire and caricature and irony can do something, as has often been shown in the field of political profiteering, e. g., in the classic case of Nast and the corrupt Tweed ring in New York City years ago. France is most responsive to this method, for there a clever bon mot or cartoon has sometimes been an important factor in even the fall of a minister and cabinets. Here we find some rapprochement between morals and aesthetics, for satire to be effective must be fresh as well as ap- posite. To represent the genus profiteer as an octo- pus, vampire, hog, a masked holdup man, an enor- mously bloated human monster; to bestialize por- 235 MORALE traits of money magnates or to represent them behind bars or in striped prison attire; to caricature the ex- travagances and excesses of the worthless offspring or the general preposterousness of the newly rich— all these were once effective but have lost most of their force because they have become trite, and also because the victim himself has learned to laugh with the public. The real culprits, too, are usually direc- tors whose meetings are behind closed doors and their proceedings secret, and while the great body of stock- holders who simply cut coupons and pocket dividends are protected by anonymity, even executive heads act under the mandate of the "higher-ups," who are hard to find. The laugh of derision must be at somebody, and if no object can be found ridicule loses its point. Juvenal's castigations did little to check the degene- ration of his day; Pope's "Dunciad" did alleviate the pest of poetasters, and "Don Quixote" gave the final voup de grace to medieval chivalry; but for us there seems little prospect of help from these sources. The auri sacra fames is too strong and its excesses too tragic for wit or humor, and its armor blunts the shafts of satire. It invites invectives rather than any form of derision, and even this is likely now to be discredited as implying radical socialism or even Bolshevism. A modern Juvenal would be thought an advocate of the soviet, if not an anarchist. 3. Portrayals and illustrations of the simple life. Of these we have had many. Ourjmstitutions were planned when life was largely rural; intercourse, 236 MORALE AND PROFITEERING trade, commerce, and manufacture, elemental; and plain living and high thinking an ideal that seemed well on the way to realization. From Plato's Re- public down men have dreamed of model states, com- munities, and Utopias of many kinds, and there have also been many spasmodic attempts to set up and operate societies where the common good was the su- preme goal of each. Some of the best novels of our generation, too, have portrayed idyllic pictures of so- cial conditions where individual good and the motive of personal gain were subordinated to the general weal. Scholars have lived among the ignorant, rich men and women among the poor, to know and to help them. Academic sociologists and economists have •> often inculcated into their classes more or less ran- cor against great wealth and its methods, and stressed the abuses of capitalism until one would think some of them were almost ready to take the vowjif-pov- erty, in which eastern ascetics and medieval saints found veritable inspiration for service. Clergymen k- have felt and voiced the charm of the simple life. But wealth is phlegmatic and its conscience greasy and slippery, so that no painful friction is felt and there is no attrition of the lust for pelf. We all have schizophrenic or split souls. We have a warm side for these idealities, at least in a kind of Sunday - mood, but on Monday, Mammon has us in his clutches " and we lose the vision in the practicalities of week- days. Of these two souls, which it is the peculiarity of modern man to have developed, one is weak and 23T MORALE its primacy is only occasional, while the other is strong and habitual and there is too often an im- pervious partition between them. Neither need en- croach upon the domain of the other. The grasper even feels complacency that he can tolerate and per- ~ haps even enjoy the portrayal of a line of bad prac- tices of which he is himself not incapable and which are not utterly alien to the main determinants of his life. It is only when his ideals threaten actual and * immediate harm to his own material interest that he condemns them. Thus we must conclude that all such principles and examples of high civic morale, while they are too valuable to be abandoned, can really do but little in such an unprecedented crisis as this through which we are now passing. Those who think we may arrive easily and imperceptibly at our economic and philanthropic millennia do not see that we may warm to them just because and in so far as we feel that they cannot be actualized, and our sympathy with them we feel to be a compensation for not realizing them. Sympathy here acts like an attenuated virus or a Platonic catharsis in insuring immunity. Thus we hear sermons, see plays, read romances, or sometimes communistic treatises, and - even praise those who, if they controlled our conduct, would utterly subvert our present way of life. Such individuals are, of course, developing a secondary personality which may possibly some time become the dominant one. But this would occur only under - great stress and such conversions are rare. They are 238 MORALE AND PROFITEERING not, however, impossible, and we shall see later how~ this may sometimes occur and regenerate individuals and communities. 4. Morale and Revolution. This to many seems the only way outside of existing laws and courts. Some day the masses will arise in their might and sweep away capital, privilege, the upper classes, and the present economic, social, industrial, legal, and religious system, and usher in a new__dispensation. To the chief modern paradigm of the FrenchJRevolu- tion is now added the far more effective and contem- _ porary achievements of Bolshevism and the forcible expropriation of wealth. This proletarian hope has never been so strong in the world before. Very many of those not in this movement have hitherto been profiteers in most that men strive for. We can hardly overestimate the force of this appeal in the world to- day or the enthusiasm and often the fanaticism of its devotees. Very few of the wealthy and the cultured know the force of this appeal. We shall never be en- tirely overwhelmed by this flood because we are a na- tion in which the middle class predominates, as dis- tinct from Russia where the middle class was so small and impotent, but it is a movement of such psychological intensity that it will break us if we cannot bend and make rather radical readjustments. We have simply to make a better organized world. What are the dictates of high morale in this emergency? First of all we must learn, and that sympathetical- 239 MORALE ly, how life looks to the poor and the ignorant; how the anarchist really thinks and feels and just what he wants and why; how the immigrants from many lands who have found their way to our shores differ in their temperament and views of life and its Avork; what these classes love and hope for, and what dis- tempers infect their souls and what parasites prey on them; and we must multiply every agency of in- formation, both of ourselves and of enlightenment on his part. In this intensified campaign of education of him and ourselves we must seek to give the men -and women of the masses better leadership and set them better examples. From this point of view I be- lieve that the censorship of our government has been mistaken. Both my academic friends and I have tried in every way to obtain and collect confiscated seditious literature, and the responses to our appeals have been often met as if we were propagandists in- stead of investigators trying to discover and help to heal a social disease. Those generally cheaply printed tracts, leaflets, journals, and pamphlets which we have been able to obtain are often seductive but are easy to answer, even to the lower level of in- telligences to which they are addressed. But they get in their work, for the most part, unchecked, al- though many of them are utterly and radically un- and antiiAmerican. The Americanization methods of our schools rarely reach those who read these sheets, and the secret propaganda of Bolshevik ideas is but little—checked just where it is doing most 240 MORALE AND PROFITEERING mischief. A true morale requires that all these se- ditious and revolutionary utterances be carefully- collected and studied, as we study infectious germs or an epidemic in order to develop effective therapies and prophylaxes for them. If such a task were definitely assigned to our academic teachers of soci- ology and economics, it would be indeed a new and important step in safeguarding our very civilization, and perhaps what is more important, it would in- cidentally do much to restrain and correct certain radical tendencies in the same direction which now infect so many professors in these fields by showing them whither they are tending. If any of them should be thus converted, one bacMre to these aims would be set. This would have great significance for morale, and the very strength of dangerous opin- ions which require yet deeper studies to complete them would itself tend to secure us in the way of safety. The Mormons have or had a method of sending out their more thoughtful, educated young men, especially if they were growing skeptical of the tenets of their church, as missionaries, and it was found that by thus holding a brief for their doctrines and defending and making active propaganda for them, they almost al- ways succeeded in the end in at least answering their own doubts and converting themselves. If some of our younger sociologists who have radical leanings were set the task of making propaganda for such con- servative views as they have left against the rising tide 241 MORALE of Bolshevism, by studying and answering its litera- ture, the same change for the better might be se- cured.1 There is only too much reason to fear that many of our academic teachers have grown at heart more radical than their friends or even they them- selves suspect, but at least we must not forget that they have, on the other hand, done an incalculable service against profiteering, especially in the way of exposing corrupt practices. While our laws prescribe more or less effectively for the safety of public and private health by stamping out the germs of infectious diseases wherever they appear, our chief hope is in those laboratories which actively cultivate these mor- bific germs to find their antidote, and we need to do more to establish such therapeutic agencies for the yet more deadly germs of anarchism now so active in our midst. While the press in this country is more or less ef- fective and to some degree free from external control, it is nevertheless rapidly becoming more and more servile to its advertisers. A large part of the revenues of most of our journals comes from this source, so that they have long competed with each other in low- ering the price of their sheets in order to extend their circulation, according to which the price of their ad- vertising is rated. It is no secret that very many concerns find it expedient to lavish vast sums upon advertising which may or may mot bring any great ' Paul Frederick Brissenden: The I. W. W., A Study of American ' Syndicalism. N. Y., Columbia U., 1919. 242 MORALE AND PROFITEERING increase of customers but which is so effective in pre- venting editorial attack. The threat of withdraw- ing this patronage by any large class of advertisers is often only too effective, and it is sometimes even necessary to know the chief sources of this income before we know whether a paper will print or decline even an outside communication that effectively at- tacks them. If we could only have here and there a well endowed journal which would take no_advertise- ments at all and was conducted solely in the interest of public morale, with its columns open to all who intelligently sought to advance it, much could be ac- complished here. As it is, the instincts that make for profiteering are almost inseparable from a commercial age, and if we analyze ourselves conscientiously and careful- ly, the best of us will probably find that we have not always lived up to the maxim of never accepting a dollar which does not represent a dollar's worth of real service. CHAPTER XVI MORALE AND FEMINISM Why woman suffrage has done so little—Why its leaders are ec averse to the recognition of sex differences in this age when in- dividual differences are so studied—Incompleteness of women without children—The results of her inferiority of physical strength—List of sex differences—Ultimate goal of the woman movement—Secondary sex differences in psychanalysis—Problems to which woman should address herself—Marriage and divorce. The English militant suffragettes had the saving common sense deliberately to suspend their campaign of sabotage when the war came and to spare the world the patheticism of their starvation and forced feeding in jails, and they have now won in Europe and this country their long fight for complete citizenship. Not only the polls but nearly every vocation and all the learned professions, educational opportunities everywhere, and even legislative bodies and many offi- cial positions are open to them. Woman now is doubtless on the way toward becoming a political power that everyone seeking an elective office from the presidency to a position on the school boards must reckon with. It would seem as if after all the reforms promised if women attained the right to vote, we should even have a woman's party with its own distinctive platform and program, but there is no one yet who seriously proposes this. Women have been a power in many great and good causes—prohi- 244 iMORALE AND FEMINISM bition, child labor, education, sanitation, etc.—but they have done little to elevate the tone of local poli- tics ; while in the larger questions of national or even state politics their influence has been very little felt. Even the social evil they have done little to mitigate. Thus much as woman has accomplished and much as has been done for her, we find in many quarters a feel- ing that she is yet far from her goal, and there is even a query abroad as to whether she really knows what she truly wants. It is surely no longer, in the main, equality of opportunity with man, which has so long been her slogan. She cannot bring herself to relinquish any of the old privileges of her sex while claiming so many new ones. Most of all, nearly all the leaders of her sex resent the one clear call of the present hour to go back to first principles and ask again what are the real intrinsic differences between man and woman. While recognizing in practical life, as she needs must, all the fundamental differences, she evades in near- ly every possible way all attempts to bring these obvious differences into the foreground because still obsessed by the old fear that difference means in- feriority, rather than implying, as all the best of them do, a distinct superiority. In many women's meetings I have attended the topic of diversities, if not taboo, is at least distasteful. Even at the International Conference of Women Physicians (New York, Sep- tember to October, 1919) I was, I think, authorita- tively told that the foreign delegates welcomed as the 245 MORALE American women disapproved this theme. When in 1873 Dr. Edward Clark called attention to the need of monthly easement from strain, a storm of protest arose, and in the flood of answers he was said to have "insulted every woman in the land," and the need which he so clearly showed is even yet very unsatis- factorily recognized. Women leaders especially in this country have al- ways minimized innate sex differences. Once they ignored or denied them, and now we are told that even most of the more obvious of them, such as muscu- lar inferiority, have been acquired by woman's long subjection to man and will be obliterated in time by the new regime of parity. A very accomplished woman medical expert now tells us that type (in this case Jung's distinction between introverts and extroverts) is a distinction superior to that of sex and supersedes it, when in fact it is related to it only in the way in which color, adiposity, temperament, and every other characteristic point of difference be- tween individuals is. In fact, this horror differenti- arum belongs to a stage of the feministic movement which has done its work and should be laid aside, and in its place we should have a new and almost op- posite ideal. To attain the new morale which the times now demand of her sex woman is called on to find and emphasize every possible real and certain sex difference and to push it to the uttermost. She should now stand squarely upon the facts of her sex and strive to become as truly feminine as man should 246 MORALE AND FEMINISM be virile. In place of the old goal, then, of equality and identity we should place a new ideal of differ- entiation. As Hyatt long ago showed, savage men and women are more alike in form, feature, industrial efficiency, including muscle, than under civilization, which always and everywhere involves progressive differentiation. Another movement characteristic of our times em- phasizes this demand. To-day we test and measure every kind of physical and mental capacity. The new individual psychology seeks with all its resources to find the proprium of each person and to put each at the job for which he is best fitted, no matter whether by inherited or acquired traits. We are finding under this method enormous economy, and that, too, in the most precious of all the factors of production, viz., the human element. We seek out the peculiarities of age, race, constitutional diathesis, temperament, type, etc., and strive to redefine and utilize them all in terms of happiness and efficiency. We even assume that there is something, if we can only find it, in which almost everyone can at least relatively excel, and are realizing that even great ability in the wrong place is doomed to failure. Vocational guidance and even health, sanity, and morality are involved in this work. Sex, one of the chief differences in the hu- man race, should no longer claim exemption from this survey and refuse to profit by the incalculable advantages which its practical application would entail. 217 MORALE This is not the place, nor am I competent to enumer- ate, least of all in their true perspective, all the dif- ferentiae, but an attempt to tab off ever so roughly a few of the most obvious of them may suggest some- thing of the new morale that its proper recognition will give to the new cause of woman in the world. No normal woman is complete without bearing and rearing children. Her body and soul were meant for motherhood. Everything the world adores in her centers about this function. By far the largest part of the office of repopulating the world in successive generations rests mainly upon her. She is, on the whole, the best woman who produces and rears to ma- turity the most and the best children, and the same is of course true of the fathers, although in a far more indirect way. Everything whatever that interferes with this her supreme function is a loss to the human race. The problem of national, racial, and individual supremacy bottoms on that of fecundity plus the con- servation of offspring. Those nations that excel here will rule the world in the future. Lecky thought the Dark Ages were due to the celibacy of those who were potentially the best parents, and if the best women now refuse for any cause this function, they are con- tributing in the same way to retard the progress of the country and the world. Who save the modern woman of the old regime, who fought the long and bitter war of sex against sex, ignores this, and who of the most insightful of us all yet recognizes all the practical implications of this most obvious of first 248 MORALE AND FEMINISM principles in this field. Even the exemption of women from labor during later pregnancy and early lactation has gone but a little way. Although men and women have each all the essen- tial traits of the other, the "fashion-plate," "Gibson girl" is no less a monstrosity than the feminized male, and everything that tends to reapproximation is not in the interests of true progress as seen in the larger light of biology. Hence the ideal of those feminists who claim everything that man has, would do everything that he does, in his way, and because he does it, must be radically modified. Woman's na- ture and needs must be reformulated, and she must recognize that many of those very qualities which she has hitherto kept in abeyance and suppressed, because they differentiated her from man, should be activated. Only by doing this in the industrial, social, domestic, intellectual, and even marital relations can she jus- tify all the great new opportunities which are now opening to her throughout the world. The problem of "What next?" for her, therefore, requires a new and more advanced program for the future, since much as she has won of late, these achievements are only prolegomena and she is still far from her ulti- mate goal. All that she has accomplished represents only the preparatory stages of the struggle to attain what she really wants. There is already a vast mass of data,—experiment al, historical, sociological, economic, anthropological, and biological,—and such a maze of opinions and an 249 MORALE all-pervasive bias, conscious and unconscious, even among experts, that the attempt to find a consensus as to real sex differences and tab off its items may seem, curiously enough, at the same time both over- bold and commonplace. Woman certainly has less physical strength than man. The war has shown this for she has not fought in the trenches. Botchkareva1 was herself a prodigy of valor and endurance but her "Battalion of Death" was depleted to one-fourth, not by battle but by the inherent unfitnesses of her sex for warfare, which is the field par excellence for Adler's "manly protest." She faces death in most of its forms more heroically than man but not mutilation. Physical training improves her no less, but her ideal is not that of a Hercules. The very fact that she is inferior in muscular power has made her turn to subtlety, persuasion, and moral force for attaining her ends, which are more spiritual. As by her tact, insight, and altruistic devotion to offspring she tamed and domesticated savage man, so now by these same quali- ties, more enlightened, resourceful, and concerted, she faces the greater task of purging modern society of its gross selfishness, for this is the root of all our evils—political, industrial, social and moral. Per- haps nowhere are virile qualities more stimulated than in warfare; nowhere do men get so close to- gether as in the camp and trench. Despite woman's disapproval of war it is just these qualities that are 1 Maria Botchkareva: Tashka, My Life as Peasant, Officer and Exile, N. Y., Stokes, 1919. 250 MORALE AND FEMINISM most attractive to her. She not only abhors the slacker (and whoever heard of a hero of romance who was not athletic!) but instinctively encourages war by her worship of the uniform because it is a symbol of man's power to protect defenseless motherhood and childhood. In this way she more or less offsets her work for peace. Nothing is thus more obvious than the fact that in all those forms of physical labor that involve the larger fundamental muscles—dig- ging, most of the activities of farming, lumbering, road-making, transportation by sea and land, build- ing, fisheries,—and the severer forms of athletics, she cannot compete with man, and because of her func- tions in transmitting life, the industries she enters should require less uniformity, to which her nature submits with more danger. A volume would not suffice to describe the differ- ences of the sexes at every stage and in every condi- tion of life. There is little clear difference in the acuity of the senses, reaction and association time, memory, or class rank in all academic grades (in which, indeed, she is often superior to the male, so that she has abundantly justified her right to the higher education everywhere). She distinctly excels man in color perception and appreciation. The whole world of flowers and even plant forms have a message for her that man knows not of. They are often given half-human characteristics and perhaps embody dis- tinct moral qualities. Woman is better oriented in her immediate environment, and less likely to be in- 251 MORALE formed about things that are afar in time and space and do not immediately concern her. She also pre- sentifies more and better than man, that is, sees everything in terms of the here and now. She under- stands other women better than man understands other men,and judges and measures man by different standards from those which he applies to his fellow- men. She is vastly more altruistic. Her love is more absorbing and its loss less consolable. Her religious instincts are far stronger. Her moods are more vari- able and periodically conditioned. Her emotional nature is richer, deeper, stronger, and it is in this do- main now just beginning to reveal its secrets to psy- chology that the mainsprings of life, health, success, and failure are found. While we know much of the adolescent boy, the adolescent girl is still one of the great mysteries. She matures earlier and passes her prime sooner, but seems on the whole to live a little longer. She needs more time for both her toilet and regimen. As a girl she plays different games; pre- fers different pets; submits best to school discipline and authority; has less power to organize; is more plastic and adaptable and less often punished in school; is far more conscientious about tasks and "flunks" less; has a larger vocabulary in early life; prefers and excels in language, literature, and the hu- manities rather than in the more exact physical sci- ences, while in biology and chemistry she is more drawn to applications to life rather than to pure sci- ence; she prefers the concrete to the abstract and is 252 MORALE AND FEMINISM more interested in persons than in ideas. Women graduates marry by much less percentage than male graduates. She knows and teaches young children far better than man does. She suffers vastly more during both pubertal and adolescent years from re- pressions, is held in check by far more conventional and social taboos of both conduct and expression, and is more a slave to fashion. She is more liable to cer- tain and less so to other diseases, in many of which there are complications peculiar to her sex. She en- dures most surgical operations better than man and dreads them less. Her sex has furnished the great majority of, the complex and interesting cases upon which psychanalysis is based, and this because of her more exuberant, emotional, and imaginative life. She has gathered most of the original data of paidology, although man has done most in the way of writing it up and systematizing it. At all ages she meets death with more resignation and suffers less from fear of it. If she commits suicide, it is by different methods and for different causes. Woman's offenses against the criminal law, too, differ radically from those of man. The same is true of her social activities. Marriage involves far more change in her inner and outer life than it does for man, and is far more fateful either for weal or woe. Like man she is sexed in very dif- ferent degress, the excess in her tending to masochism as in him it does to sadism. Her self-consciousness takes a very different form. She is more intuitive and man is more logical. Her sex instincts are more 253 MORALE rhythmic, less fulminating, with far wider psychic irradiations, and she also has far more power of both sublimation and repression. Now, even these differences are inadequately rec- ognized. Their implications are manifold, and the practical application of them would involve social, industrial, and educational readjustments of a far- reaching nature, which if made would greatly en- hance the efficiency of our civilization. If woman would now reinterpret herself and her environment more or less according to her nature and needs, she could realize many possibilities now open which have never been within reach before, the doors of which will soon be closed if they are not entered now. The ultimate goal of the whole feminist movement is more independence, initiative, and control by woman over her reproductive and domestic life. As- suming that everything is right or wrong that is so biologically and sociologically (which, by the way, is one of the most pregnant postulates of our times in its new quest for first principles), we may say that it is both the right and duty of every woman to mate and bear and rear children, to do this without stigma, and to be sheltered and protected while doing it. Always, and especially more when the world needs repopu- lation, to refuse this function, if it can be performed under tolerably normal conditions, is not only recre- ancy but is akin to desertion. Moreover, it is a dwarf- ing and a perversion of Nature's intent. This, too, is ithe call of patriotism and religion. Selfishness, fas- 254 MORALE AND FEMINISM tidiousness, or timidity are no more excuses than they are for slackerdom in war, and to face these obstacles is woman's perpetual call to heroism. Highly cultured mothers often hesitate long before enlisting in this war against the race suicide of the best. If they venture upon motherhood, it is but for once or perhaps with the motto Uno sed leo, with the excuse that their culture enables them to develop their offspring so much more than the common mother can do, that what is lacking in its number can be made up by its quality. It is the sons and daugh- ters of such who are liable to be handicapped later by an aggravated mother-complex, from which more neg- lect, wise or even unwise, would have saved them. Nurture can never compensate for that most ancient and precious of all worths, heredity. The only child, especially of such over-careful parentage, spe- cial studies show to be peculiar and almost always a little warped and spoiled by overattention.2 Here, too, we face the problem of birth control and contraceptive methods, diffusion of the knowl- edge of which so many eminent men, led perhaps by the committee of one hundred prominent American women, have of late actively espoused, although to diffuse these methods is still a crime in the statute books of many of our states. It is of course pathetic that so many wives now bear children when they are unfit or more than they can endow with health or de- ' E. W. Bohannon : A Study of Peculiar and Exceptional Children, IV, 3 Ped. Sem., Oct., 1896; and The Only Child in a Family, V. 475* Ibid, April, 1898. 255 MORALE cently provide for. While preventions of some usu- ally traditional kind are known and used everywhere, even among savage tribes, there is a large section of society, generally the lowest and most prolific, that knows them not, at least practically. These methods of course offer a safeguard against the results of ille- gitimate intercourse and may thus tend to increase it. Surely physicians should have the right to prescribe them, but there is great reason to doubt whether the universal diffusion of this knowledge would be in the interests of true human stirpiculture. We are very far from being able yet to breed men as we breed cattle. To achieve this end we must perhaps some- time use contraception, but it is doubtful whether we are yet near enough to the goal to make any general propaganda of this mode of bettering humanity either safe or wise. But this, again, is on the whole more a woman's problem than it is a man's. But we must go deeper yet to find the taproot of the intersex problem. Some two-thirds of Darwin's epoch-making "The Descent of Man" are devoted to secondary sexual characters and traits. By this he means sex differences other than those of the sex or- gans and their functions, which are primary. In chapters crowded with facts he traces secondary sex differences in insects, fishes, lower and higher verte- brates, including birds, and finally man. There are differences in form sometimes amounting to dimor- phism; there are also differences in color, stridula- tion, voice, hair, strength, all the organs of conflict, 256 MORALE AND FEMINISM and a host of others. In a sense, too, flowers and the many devices of plants for securing cross fertilization belong here. There are also differences in behavior, showing off, ornamentation for allurement, etc. Proof that all these structures and functions are connected with sex is shown not only by the rdle they play in the life of the various species but hy the fact that they develop at sex maturity and decline with senescence. As we go up the scale, the male seems to win more by using these secondary qualities, even pugnacity, as a method of charming rather than forcing the fe- male, and even if he has a mate for the season he must win her anew at every approach for there is no mar- riage among animals in the sense that there is but one courtship and once winning is followed by sub- jection ever after. Now modern psychanalysis has greatly extended our knowledge of these secondary sex qualities in the human species and shown them to be a far larger fac- tor in life than we had supposed. It shows us that many of the highest human qualities—moral, re- ligious, aesthetic, social—in short that happiness, health, and success in life generally are dependent to a degree we never dreamed of upon the normality of the vita sexualis. It has also shown us that the sex instinct is the most plastic, educable, polymorphic, and transformable of all things in human nature, that its regimen conditions far more than we had dreamed of in human life, and that its perversions are the 257 MORALE worst and its sublimations and spiritualizations the best things in man's world. As Darwin shocked the conservatives of his time by showing the great r61e that secondary traits have played in all the stages of animal evolution, so the psychanalysts of to-day are showing the pervasiveness and dominance of second- ary psychic sex qualities in hygiene, art, religion, lit- erature, the formation of character, the determina- tion of sanity and insanity, and in the production of genius, so that to many sex in its larger sense now seems the chief source of human energy and efficiency. These studies, along with the hardly less important researches of the so-called Pawlow school on the con- ditional reflex, have now given a tremendous rein- forcement to the old saw that love and hunger rule the world. They are also showing that from a bio- logical point of view man is sexually aberrant in that in him alone mating has become an end in itself and is vastly in excess of the needs of procreation. This was the mystic fall of man. It was caused or exag- gerated by three very important facts: (1) the devel- opment of the hand and its possible misuse; (2) the erect position, which made impregnation less certain; and (3) the use of clothing and fire, which made an instinct that had been seasonal active throughout the year. But the new dispensation of love seeks redemption and would turn this curse into a blessing. To this very excess of sex energy, because it is so metamor- phic, man owes much of his higher development and 258 MORALE AND FEMINISM many of his greatest achievements, and our problem now is to advance this process more consciously since we are coming to understand it so much better. It is most significant and fortunate that this new insight coincides with the great advance in the influence of woman in the world. Now, the chief factor in the long-circuiting subli- mation or irradiation of the sex impulse, not only into Darwin's secondary sex qualities but also into the higher cultural field, has been the hesitation or reluctance of the female. If she had wooed and made the advances, or even been won too easily, the sex impulse would have been short-circuited and the higher qualities would never have been developed. In the larger sense courtship is not merely the formal, conventional process society in different ages and climes prescribes, but it consists in making oneself as fit as possible to pass successfully the incessant examination to which the nubile female is always sub- jecting every nubile man in her environment. To fill and satisfy thus woman's ideal is the acme of morale in this field. Thus in a sense Miss Gamble is right in saying that woman has made man by giving him his best qualities by her coyness and resistance. A humble missionary's son in an obscure corner of the British colonial possessions fell in love with the daughter of the governor of the province, who did not reciprocate his advances. He resolved to make him- self worthy, and so went home, studied, worked, and rose until he finally was himself appointed governor 259 MORALE —all to win the girl who made him, which he did. It would be impossible to enumerate all the great deeds, noble qualities, monumental works in every field of art and literature which men have achieved under the inspiration of women, and this is the larger psychogenetic function of court- ship. Some girls even develop ideal lovers (for a salient illustration of which see the romantic and anonymous story "Whispering Dust"), and may be so fortunate as to find their ideal embodied in .some man. If not, they have to make compromises with their ideal which are sometimes tragic unless the man of their choice can develop toward the realization of their dreams. Something of this sort all wooing seeks more or less to achieve, and to stimulate it is one of the chief prerogatives of woman. The girl who goes in to win at any price and allows liberties in her competition is thus recreant to one of the chief func- tions of her sex, and the wife who favors or permits marital approaches without a preliminary flushing up of these higher secondary sex qualities in her mate lowers the standards which it is the prime function of her sex to keep high. Not only this, but the pre- liminary activation of these higher powers must in some way we do not yet fully understand mobilize more of the pangens, ids, determinants, or other vital units essential for giving the offspring the full benefit of the higher heredity. Surely those conceived in this way must be better endowed by Nature than those conceived in sudden, brutish passion. 260 MORALE AND FEMINISM What we need to-day, then, is to know more about the higher equivalents of sex, just as we are seeking substitutes for war and drink, and it is fortunate for the world that we are just now finding more of these psycho-kinetic surrogates, proxies, and vicariates for it. It was out of superfluous reproductive energy that Nature evolved all the Darwinian secondary sex qualities, and now we must find and utilize the irra- diations of this basal instinct that are necessary for the next upward step of human culture. The dangers as well as the possibilities here are many and great, because the arousal of the proxy function may stimulate instead of vent or vicariate for the primary. While we do understand much of the uses of physical culture here, it is much less realized that almost any and every kind of affectivity, using this term in the broadest sense to include the feelings, sentiments, emotions, and even moods and passions, have this function. These higher traits and functions of mind and body are all erethic and ex- citable. Youth particularly needs spells of excita- tion. It must tingle, glow, increase blood pressure, and to do this in a way and in directions that develop the higher powers of man helps on their transmissi- bility. Wherever, for instance, in school, monotony, routine, and lifeless methods prevail, we are laying the basis for a low-level erogenous excitement, be- cause if legitimate interests are not aroused,theyoung are prone to seek excitement in forbidden ways. In industry, too, mechanical, uniform, and uninterest- 261 MORALE ing processes fail to provide for this need, which if left to itself so strongly tends to lapse to evil ways. We are happily now learning that more and more of our real life consists of affectivities, and wherever we can substitute interest and zest of any kind or of any degree for dull, mechanical processes, we are setting a back-fire to these temptations. Thus sports, games, interest in machines, art, social activities, and any- thing into which the young can throw themselves with abandon serve not only as moral preventatives and prophylatics, but they also make these very qualities more accessible to heredity. Thus the more monotony in physical or educational work, the greater the need of arousing and absorbing recreations. Involved in all this is the general principle that it is possible for the individual to draw upon the accu- mulated energies of the race that slumber in him, and here there opens before us a new problem in the edu- cation of the future, not only in the sense of schooling but for the regimentation of social and individual life. Many if not most of the great steps upward that man has taken in the course of his civilization— the great books, works of art, architecture, reforms, inventions and discoveries, victories in war—have been made by those who were more or less in a state of super-excitement, when they were really exercis- ing the higher powers of man, which can only be done by calling upon the vast stores of racial energy laid up in us all, and without the adequate expression of which most live out all their lives. It adds something 262 MORALE AND FEMINISM to know, as we now do, the glands which must be aroused to exceptional activity as a physiological con- dition of this state, so that some now speak of the "adrenalin type" of man and of work. In the army we found those who having marched, fought, gone without sleep or food until they seemed to be "all in," rather suddenly found themselves reenforced by a power not themselves, so that they made a great rally and performed what seemed not only to others but to themselves prodigies of valor and effort,—these men often being those who in their lives before had given least indications of such reserves. Part of the education of the future, therefore, must be to teach each man a ready way of drawing upon these reserve powers to meet emergencies. This abandon to super- individual energy not only has power to abate but it may even go far toward suppression of the sex im- pulse, as celibates, anchorets, hermits, and saints have shown us. Indeed it is possible to overdraw our ac- count at this great bank of heredity, so that, to use Spencer's phrase, individuation subordinates the pow- ers of genesis. It is not mystics alone but also great geniuses and even great warriors who have thus given to mankind energies that were meant for posterity. Exercise in thus mobilizing the higher powers of man is necessary for the most effective hereditary trans- mission, and is a kind of rehearsal in exaggerated and specialized form of the arousals which should always precede the act of transmission itself. A word of caution, however, is necessary here. It is possible for 263 MORALE man, and still more so for woman, to overdraw his or her vital genetic energies in these ways of diversion. Especially is this true for refined, cultivated, and conscientious girls. The problem of finding and using these higher sub- stitutes is essential for the progress of civilization. Aristotle first glimpsed it in his doctrine of catharsis, and homeopathy later applied it to medicine with the maxim similia similibus curantur, and since Jenner discovered vaccination and especially since Pasteur, it has opened to us the great field of immunity by an attenuated virus. As pain and rage were vented homeopathically by seeing these passions represented on the stage in'tragedy, and the spectator was after- ward for a time safeguarded against yielding to them in the shock and strain of real life; as chicken-pox gives immunity from small-pox; so psychology is now seeking a prophylactic against not only war and drink but venery by finding more harmless vents for these instincts. Ultra-pacifism cannot eliminate the fight- ing instinct; prohibition and teetotalism cannot de- stroy man's proclivity for inebriation; and celibacy cannot eradicate the sex instinct. All these propen- sities are too deeply rooted in human nature ever to be eliminated. Hence, these negative methods are so crude and drastic, that we must seek higher and bet- ter methods in which the substitute will not prove a provocative. Religion, which is one of the world's chief agents for sublimating sex, has always tended more or less not only in ancient orgies but also in 264 MORALE AND FEMINISM the history of great revivals to lapse into grossness. Dancing properly conditioned is one of the very best and most morally hygienic of all amusements, but uncontrolled it is full of jeopardy for body and soul. We must not, then, taboo but rather safeguard it. Once it was the highest expression of the religious instinct. Such is its charm that the young must and will dance, and while it may lapse to pure vicious- ness, it is capable of sublimation that would make it a valuable accessory in every church parlor. The same might be said of the movies, of boxing bouts, pool, billiards, etc., especially in these days when labor is more exposed to all the dangers of ennui and monotony and fuller of unrest than ever before. Since the excitements of the war have died down, and es- pecially since the laborer has lost his tipple, he seeks compensation not in the circuses, as in ancient Rome, but in crude and crass recreations and in strikes, where the war spirit and fever will not die out, so that the danger of lapsing to low-level pleasures was never so great. The ultimate quest of woman, then, is for the final decision in all matters connected with her reproduc- tive function. This the female has in nearly every known species of animal and in the best primitive races of the past and the ascendant savages of to-day. The loss or abdication of this most precious of all woman's rights is the root of nearly all she now suf- fers from. What she should do to-day is to reassert and magnify her function of sexual selection. Thic 265 MORALE does not necessarily involve any more initiative in the old leap-year custom. Science has shown us that woman's love conforms best to the great biologic and psychologic law of complementation and this fits her best to select the other parent for her children. Her love, too, is more conformable than man's more sud- den passion to the interests of posterity, and is thus more eugenic and less selfish. Here the leaders of her sex should exercise the greatest sagacity and also boldness, for they stand before a long-closed door which is just now open but will soon close again un- less she enters it while she can. Here we face the most difficult and delicate of all problems, that of the marriage bed, itself a source of so much supreme weal and woe in life. Mrs. Stopes in her "Married Love" has spoken the boldest, truest, and sanest word so far accessible in print which all, not only the newly-wed but those about to wed and perhaps especially husbands, should read and ponder. Every approach should be a new courtship in the sense above suggested, both alike consenting in the end. This is woman's way, of which most husbands know little and into which they should be ini- tiated. Thus and only thus can the human male be given immunity from his polygamous instincts, by realizing on how low a level his habitual satisfaction has been sought and how vastly higher and larger a gratification that is really sacramental can be. The wife who sinks to be the mere instrument of her hus- band's self-abuse abandons the highest prerogative 266 MORALE AND FEMINISM of her sex and predisposes him sooner or later to seek novelty elsewhere. All that constitutes home and all the concourse of domestic life, the charm of wives who can restrain and then wisely bring their spouse to a consummation that so compensates for infre- quency, is nearing the great goal and is giving wedded life its larger orbit. How the world needs again the wisdom of matrons, the counsel of Plato's wise senes- cent women, the need of which has long been felt but sometimes ignorantly branded as weird and even witchlike! There is a greater joy in married life than most at least of our sex have ever dreamed of. We have been content to live on a lower plane, and if there is anything that the new psychanalysis reveals more plainly than anything else, it is that so many of the catastrophes, hygienic, moral, industrial, and even financial that befall men and women, are due to perversions and distortions of this function. When a true morale has done its work here, the ultimate goal of feminism, which is nothing less than redemp- tion from the mystic fall of man, will be attained, the effectiveness of heredity progressively advanced, and the way will be open to the solution of the many sub- sidiary questions. The rapidly and ominously growing problem of the unwed mother, which some of the noblest women of continental Europe have so boldly grappled with, leaders here have been afraid of. Shall she be nursed through the ordeal privately in some institution for that purpose, abandon her offspring in a home for 267 MORALE foundlings, from which they would later be placed and supervised in some of the million childless homes of this country, and then return to the world sore in heart but seemingly as if nothing had happened? This practice is more Catholic than Protestant and there is much to be said for it. Some urge that the men about to marry such a woman later should know; others, that he should not. Under both theories such "physiological widows" have afterwards made as happy marriages as have those whom death rather than betrayal has bereft. How false to life is the sen- timent still often fostered by romance that woman can truly love but once or that those thus victimized have necessarily really and permanently lost their virtue! As to divorce, in this country there are far more di- vorce courts than in all the rest of the world. The ratio of divorces to marriages has steadily increased, until now from one-eighth to one-tenth of all mar- riages end in divorce, women securing them about twice as often as men. S. B. Kitohin (in his "A His- tory of Divorce") tells us that the spirit of English divorce laws is still that of the age of the Inquisition when they were made, and Catholics still forbid it. In this country each state has its own divorce laws, and there is as great diversity as to causes and proced- ure among the different states as there is in the age of consent, the punishments for bastardy, methods of dealing with prostitution and venereal disease, ob- scene literature, the interpretation and enforcement of the Mann law, etc. If both parties really want it 268 MORALE AND FEMINISM and can agree upon its terms, why should not that suffice, and why should there be any social censure, still less scandal or public procedure? If there are no children and no property, permanent separation by mutual consent should be simple and easy, and even if the custody of children and the property ad- justments are arranged to the satisfaction of both parties, why should court proceedings be necessary for the dissolution of the marriage tie? With some safeguards against intimidation or coercion what more is needed? In fact the sacramental idea of mar- riage has almost everywhere given place to the contractual view, and the Church has sanctioned many a union of those whom God never joined. The Church makes no investigation of any kind of fitness for marriage, not even medical, but performs its function upon all mature persons who present themselves, and why should not the same kind of mutual agreement also sanction the way out by the same token, without too prying scrutiny into reasons? Courts have their place only when there is divergence of view and wish concerning annulment or its condi- tions, but even here simplification is greatly needed. Again, not only do current methods and prejudices keep many really alienated couples outwardly to- gether because of the excruciating publicity involved in legal proceedings for separation, and not only does the dread often make one or both parties condone ob- vious infidelity in the other, but it sometimes presents to the community the ghastly spectacle of a wedded 269 MORALE pair living together and keeping up the pretenses be- fore others of marital devotion when love has fled or perhaps gone over to its ambivalent opposite, mutual repulsion and even aversion. War, too, always in- creases infidelity and also divorces. Conceding noth- ing to any such wild vagaries as trial marriages, is it not plain that if divorce is made easy and respectable, it would not only tend to keep each contracting party on his good behavior but would also bring to each the constant realization that the other is not so indis- solubly bound that neglect or alienation of affection would not naturally involve permanent separation? The god of Love puts some who have voluntarily joined themselves asunder, and why should man in- terfere with the execution of this divine will? Is not this whole subject now so beset with difficulties, in- consistencies, insincerities, and contradictions be- tween theory and practice that both our ideas and sentiments need radical revision? Is not this subject, too, from its very nature one which woman should dow squarely put up to herself? She is generally most concerned, and she ought now to do far more toward solving the problem than she has in the past. Would not her refusal to do so be craven flight from the new reality which faces her, a kind of desertion or slackerdom? Neither conscience nor the sense of honor, hitherto the chief tribunals of human conduct, has so far found a way out, and so we must make an appeal to the new and higher tribunal of morale, the establishment of which we owe to the war. 270 CHAPTER XVII MORALE AND EDUCATION War activities in schools including pre-military training—A paido- versus a scholio-centric system—The trend from culture to Kultur and how to check it—The rehumanization of the classics— The humanistic side of science—Modifications needed in history and sociology—Education and psychology living in a pre-evolu- tionary age—Religious, medical, and legal training—Faculty and school-board reforms. While we can hardly accuse our educational system as a Whole of having a low morale, there is no factor of our "new European'' civilization that would profit more by a higher tone of its morale than our entire system from the kindergarten to the university and the academy of sciences. The war caused great changes in nearly every school topic and grade, and we had campaigns, liberty loan, thrift and other drives galore. For food production fit boys were re- leased for farm work, even terms were shortened, and twelve million children attempted to make home gardens. There were competitions, prizes, canning clubs, junior Red Cross work, school savings banks, collections for French orphans, correspondence with Belgian children and those of our allies; the enforce- ment of attendance laws was relaxed that children might earn or take the place of their drafted elders; there was much teaching of patriotism, many new laws, pre-military and even military training, and 271 MORALE standards suffered. In his comprehensive survey P. Ling1 tells us that of all the school subjects the teach- ing of history was most modified in both content and method. Next came geography, then civics, then English composition and reading; in fact there was hardly any topic in the curriculum that was not more or less modified. In those city systems that went the limit a very large part of the entire time and energy of the pupils was consumed by these new activities. In the field of science in high school, college, and university more stress was laid upon practical applications, and many teachers and professors were either called away or else assigned definite war problems. The de- partments most affected in this way were chemistry, physics, economics, and psychology, nearly two hun- dred teachers of the latter being employed in testing soldiers, in personnel and other work, some of whom will probably never return to pure science and many never to teaching. Some half a million in :.ll of those who were seeking the higher education became sol- diers, while a division of the Student Army Training Corps was established in practically every college and university. Unlike_the_E!rench and especially the Gerjaans, the prospects of the war had had very slight influence in this domain until the war was actually upon us, and its emergencies had to be met by extemporized meth- 1 Public Schools and the War, 159, Clark University dissertation, 1919. 272 MORALE AND EDUCATION ods. Since the sudden close of the conflict there has been, on the one hand, a strong conservative trend to settle back everywhere to the old ways, while on the other hand many reformers, more or less radical, have seen their opportunity and have urged reform upon us. The breaking up of old routine here as every- where brings the "psychological moment" with its endless possibilities of improvement. Chief among the changes needed, urged, or probable—at any rate pos- sible—and necessary for higher morale here are the following, beginning at the bottom of the system: 1. The kindergarten and lower grades must be more paido- and less scholio-centric. The nature and needs of the child, mental and physical, should deter- mine everything. To that end we must know more of children, with whom this country with its million childless homes has lost touch more than any other in the world in the present or the past, although promising advances in this direction were well under way when the war came. This is true humanism here. The literature of paidology, however, which is now very copious, has nowhere yet found adequate appli- cation or even unified literary presentation for the normal1 as it has for the abnormal child.3 We have partially recognized the instinct of play but less so the necessity of purely mechanical drill more or less during the quadrennium from eight to twelve, habituation, memory, and discipline having * See, however, Maria Montessori's Pedagogical Anthropology, ., fHenry H. Goddard: Psychology of the Normal and Subnormal, N. Y„ Dodd, Mead, 1919. --- 273 MORALE then their nascent period. We have not, however, save in the Junior High School or in the "Six-Three-Three" system recognized the important changes that make puberty so epochful, and some of our would-be peda- gogical leaders have even failed to recognize the fact that interest is to education what the Holy Spirit was to the ancient church, and that all structures built on any other foundation, save those that must be mechanized like reading, writing, numbers, etc., are too loose and unsubstantial to bear the strain of the traffic of life. The body and soul of the growing child are the most precious and also the most plastic things in the world, and all ultimate values are meas- ured by the one criterion of how much they contrib- ute to bringing the rising generation to an ever fuller maturity. The value of elementary education is not so much what it inculcates as the strength and many- sidedness of the interests developed in the child when the period of compulsory education ends. 2. The war has done more to develop technology than pure science, and has tended in many minds to insert the order formerly insisted on, which was pure science first and then its applications, so that many now believe that our curriculum should pay far more attention in the early stages of ^every science to its application, reserving its purer forms and the ideals of invention, discovery, research, and creative scholarship to those elite minds that reach the most advanced stages of scholastic development. The dan- ger of Kultur at the expense of or in^ place of cul- 274 MORALE AND EDUCATION, ture has stimulated conservatives to insist upon re- version to the old studies, but has found perhaps even more effective expression in the new sense that all kinds of applications of human knowledge to the conquest and subordination of nature to man's con- trol have in themselves possibilities of true culture that have not yet been adequately evoked. One of the most certain and universal results of the war, as already expresed in nearly all the allied countries, has been to prolong by two, three, or even four years the period of attendance by continuation courses, and there is a new desire for vocational efficiency and a new appreciation of its value, as seen in the increased number of evening classes and perhaps yet more clearly in the very significant corporation schools. When we add to this the strong tendency to study each individual and to assign him to just that place in a big industrial establishment where he can be of most value to himself and the firm, we can realize to some extent the magnitude of the problems now open- ing to the higher pedagogy! Theefficiency system, accounting, and the development of experts Who ex- amine, test, and report upon not only city and state school systems but industrial establishments and methods, have opened still another vista which sug- gests that all the processes of production will be an- alyzed and many of them made far more economic of human effort. Man now commands so many of the mri proyrcdiamur, carpe diem, "nothing ventured, noth- ing have," and the like, but animal species through all the evolutionary ages have survived or perished ac- cording as they had or had not the powrer of adapta- tion to the great cosmic changes that went on in their environment. Psychanalysis is now teaching us the same lesson in its field. When the problem of his or her life be- comes too complicated to be faced and met, the neu- rotic constitution takes flight from reality either to sickness or to symptoms, phobias, obsessions, or inhi- hibition, and perversions arise, and cure consists in envisaging again and aright, with the help of a wise physician, the essential facts and conditions that con- front the patient's present life and setting him again on the right trail. Thus, in a word, cure is restora- tion of the patient's morale. The ingenuities shown in the manifold ways of escaping this one thing need- ful are beyond all computation and.show how clever and adept the human soul is, far down below the limits of consciousness, in shirking the devoir present when it becomes too arduous. Some of these fugitives from facts as they are react to infantile states where the conditions of life were simpler. In dementia 294 MORALE AND STATESMANSHIP praecox the patient becomes a Narcissus and loves and admires only himself, and is arrested in the pubescent stage of his development. Or, again, he may become a conceited, egoistic, foolish doctrinaire impervious to arguments. Others grow rancorous, suspect plots and persecutions, and evolve endless precautions against imaginary dangers. Still others become too timorous to act or even to think and frit- ter away their energies in inane doubts, and welter in inanities until all the flavor of conviction is lost. As I write, our Congress and our thinking public are confronted in the consideration of the Treaty and the League of Nations with the most intricate and difficult problem that the cultural world has ever faced. Few have even read all the texts themselves, and of those who have done so, still fewer in this new country, so remote from Europe and really so igno- rant of it, are able to see all the relations of its items to the past of European nations and peoples, to say nothing of the Orient and of the future. Never have even the wisest had such a sense of their own incom- petency to know all that they would and should in the premises, and to act aright in an emergency where a decision must soon be made. The simplest and easiest way, therefore, is to scrap the whole treaty, and this course would be bound to grow more seductive to some, while our sense of the tremendous moment and epoch-making complexity of it and of our own "apperceptive insufficiency" in- creases. This course would bring a sudden sense of 295 MORALE holiday easement, like the jubilee remission of a great debt that long had been hanging over us. Like the conscientious objector to war, those who advocate this view might almost be accused of slackerdom un- worthy of the spirit of our own soldiers who faced the awful chance of death for a cause they thought worthy of it. This course finds the widest approval among the pacifists, who have the horror of all con- flicts characteristic of some neurotics. To revert to our former isolation, however, would be to repudiate most of the obligations and opportunities which the war has brought. "Safety first" means to men of this type our own present safety, for what is posterity and what is Europe to us? Without vision peoples perish, but prophetic insight into the future is too hazardous, and adequate knowledge of European con* ditions is too hard. By remaining juvenile we es- cape growing pains. It is better to balk and buck than to draw or carry the heavy load our manifest destiny now lays upon us. In fact, it is as much our duty to help settle the world we have done so much to unsettle as it was to enter the war, and to counsel abrogation is like calling a retreat after our soldiers had won a hard victory instead of reaping its fruits. It would also be to break faith with and desert our allies in the most critical hour. In fact neither the power nor the spirit of the enemy is broken. He is certain to reorganize east- ward and make common cause with Slavic Russia, and the real menace to the world's future, although 296 MORALE AND STATESMANSHIP we cannot date it, is most ominous. The Central, and we know not what Eastern and Southern powers will some time be launched on a campaign of revenge and recompense for the hard conditions of the present peace, and if Western Europe falls, this country will soon follow. Henceforth, thus, our fate is indisso- lubiy bound up with that of at least our two chief allies wherever the other nations that took part in the great war shall be found in the future alignment. Whether we wish it or not, we are henceforth in a very real sense a part of Europe ("New Europe"). Never have we had so many interests there, and all of them are bound to grow; for this country is to be a great factor, as it never began to be before, in every item of European diplomacy and trade. Why, then, should we not face the realities of the situation in- stead of attempting to evade or retreat from them? We can no more help integration with western Europe than our original colonies could escape federation. Here, again, it is "liberty and union now and forever one and inseparable" or, expressed in more fundamental biological terms, synthesis must go hand in hand with differentiation or there is re- trogression toward the protozoan or unicellular stage of life. Besides the fugue type of reaction to the Treaty and its issues is the regression-to-infancy type. When we were but a row of colonies along the Atlantic, it was our obvious policy to utilize our isolation. We had just broken away from Europe, and it was manifestly 297 MORALE wise to let her alone and be let alone by her; and under this quasi hermit policy we grew and pros- pered. Just as adults often hark back to the allure- ments of their childhood and home, and long for its happy carelessness and protection; and as in an over- civilized age and land jaded souls like Rousseau would retreat to a state of nature and revel in dreams of primitive Arcadian simplicity when the world was young; so souls world-wearied with an age of strenu- osity and efficiency long for the paradisaic state of callow infancy, ignoring the fact that the very trend that made Washington and his associates federalists would make them league-advocates to-day. In fact, the new era which the close of the war ushers in has made all precedents, traditions, and previous history seem a little stale and pedantic. The past has its lessons, but in a new age too much reliance upon them may prove a greater hindrance than help. When we consider parties, of which De Tocqueville well said every state needs at least two—the one con- servative, mindful that no good thing of the past be lost, and the other progressive, that seeks chiefly the new duties that new occasions always demand—we see how far we have drifted from this ideal. By the war the power and patronage of the government has grown enormously. Not only has taxation and our total annual income and expenditure increased by leaps and bounds, but the government seems more or less likely to control at least some of the great public service institutions hitherto private corporations. The 298 MORALE AND STATESMANSHIP possession and operation of these vast interests and the "spoils of office," likely in the future to be far greater than in the past,—these are now the goal of each party, and thus the prizes to the winner are vaster than have ever been dreamed of by politicians before. This is why the non-partisanship of the war has been s*o prematurely abandoned and we find our rival parties struggling with each other for the con- trol of this vast patronage. In Washington we have the spectacle of nearly all the great questions of re- construction debated and settled nearly along par- tisan lines, with only a narrow margin of individual conviction. Each party is, for the most part, intent upon making political capital at the expense of the other, for the struggle now is for the control of the vast business of the nation for the next presidential quadrennium. This lapse from statesmanship is nothing less than profiteering in politics and indicates the collapse of political morale just when it should be at its very highest and best. The strongest argument against public ownership is that along with the in- crease of material interests at stake, there will be a corresponding increase in the bitterness of the con- flict between the "ins" and "outs," and that in these struggles the very traditions of lofty, disinterested Statesmanship that is intent solely on the good of the people as a whole, will be lost beyond recall. Thus it is hard to see how a great nation can survive if every- one who controls any of it is "on the make" for him- self, for his business, or for the interests that elect 299 MORALE and perhaps retain him and his party in power. The doctrinaire is no less psychotic and ill-adapted to meet great new issues. He is an absolutist and perhaps an idealogue. He luxuriates in his own con- victions, and is so hyperindividualized and cocksure he is right that it is very hard for him to do team- work and to make the compromises and concessions always essential for joint action. For those who op- pose him there is no excuse or explanation except the worst. To adopt the lesser evil in order to attain the greater good seems to him as impossible as "going to Canossa" did to Bismarck, or as seeing any good in Rome did to the Puritan Protestant. His entire pro- fessional experience has been that of an advocate and not that of a judge, and real arbitration is often al- most impossible for him. He has too much will for his intellect. His temperamental recalcitrancy may make him irreconcilable even to his party and his constituents, and perhaps his own interests. While others hesitate or change as they grow wiser, his cer- tainty is absolute. With him inconsistency is almost a phobia. Here, again, we have an illustration of the great law that even those able and sane enough in the ordi- nary emergencies of their lives develop every symp- tom of neurasthenia when confronted by exigencies too great for their mental or moral powers. The weakling breaks down because he cannot solve the ordinary problems of his livelihood, family, and social relations. So, too, the strongest become weaklings 300 MORALE AND STATESMANSHIP when called upon to face problems of world dimen- sion. It is all a question of the proportion between tasks and ability. It has long been recognized by the few wise men of the world that the institutions of civilization, the industries, the management of state, the corpus of knowledge and science, discoveries and inventions, etc., were becoming too big and compli- cated to be adequately managed by men of the caliber that our institutions now produce. It is ever harder to find able leaders and guides. Thus mediocrity and incompetency cause vast wastage of human energy and material resources.1 Faced, thus, by the colossal task of reconstructing the world, before which not only we but the most sagacious and experienced experts of Europe, who are closer to their prob- lems than we, can act only more or less tentatively and provisionally, what is our cue out of the labyrinth of all these perplexities and difficulties? To this there is one answer and but one recourse, and that it is the deathless glory of this country to have suggested and to have done much to make operative. It is to make an appeal to the deepest, simplest, and clearest of all the instincts in the hu- man soul, the instinct of justice. Every human being has within him the sense of fair play and of a square deal. Somehow and somewhere and at some time 1 See The Cult of Incompetence by E. Faguet (1911); Le Problems de la Competence dans la Democratic by Joseph Barthelemy (Paris, 1918); Originality by T. S. Knowlson (1918); Professionalism and Originality, by F. H. Hay ward (London, 1917) ; also Ralph Adams Cram's two small volumes, The Nemesis of Mediocrity, 52, 1917, and The Sins of the Fathers, 114, 1919. 301 MORALE the world feels that the virtuous must be happy and the wicked suffer. Pleasure and merit on the one hand, iniquity and pain on the other, belong together or this world is a moral chaos and there is no po- larity of right and wrong. Job did not yield to his counsellors because he had an invincible sense that this must be so. It was because these two did not always seem to go together that all future states of rewards and punishments were evolved, for if jus- tice were meted out here, heavens and hells would be less needed. All penal cults and all social ap- proval and censure, all drama and romance, are based on and illustrate the law that both the evil and the good get their deserts. No artist would dare repre- sent it otherwise, for to do so would be pessimism. All the people of the earth must be assured life, liberty, and security in the pursuit of happiness un- der law, and this must take precedence over all ma- terial, national, diplomatic, dynastic, or other in- terests. This our democracy has in some sense and to some degree striven to and now has actually sought to teach, although it must be admitted with only partial but yet with an inspiring degree of suc- cess at Versailles. It was a sublime and world-chal- lenging attitude that we were able to take in re- nouncing indemnities and all advantages that we might have claimed for our work in turning the tide of war, and insisting only by way of compensation for what we had done upon simple justice for all peo- ple and such safeguards against future aggression as 302 MORALE AND STATESMANSHIP could be provided. Paramount to all other questions and as a condition precedent to everything in the way of settlement, we insisted on the simple moral law of righteousness. , In some senses our President was a prophet coming from the wilderness in the crisis to proclaim the primal principles of right and wrong as common sense and common law conceived them. To do the right thing in all the ways specified in the fourteen points was all he counseled. Thus our president was a new "Daniel come to judgment" for his message expressed the highest morale of this country and also of the whole conference. While the delegates of other peo- ples were strenuous in insisting upon their own ad- vantages, he alone set the right in the highest place. He is a pedagogue and lectures Congress much in the de haut en bas spirit he would use to his Princeton seniors, and he has all the pedagogue's resentment at correction, criticism, opposition, or even searching in- terrogation. He can work well only with hisi subor- dinates, not with his peers. He has made errors ga- lore, as subsequent events have shown, but who could be infallible in the many momentous decisions that the war has forced him to make. He is efficient in attack and sometimes seems to have a genius for ex- citing needless animosities. Compromise and con- cession come especially hard for one of his diathesis. But, on the other hand, his great achievement of appealing to the conscience of the world and insist- ing that the plain principles of ethics should prevail 303 MORALE between nations as between individuals in a com- munity, has assured him forever a very high place in the history of this country and the world; and what- ever the fate of the League of Nations, and whatever he does or fails to do in the future, this will remain one of the greatest achievements of our age. To be quitters now would not only be to betray our soldiers living and dead, make their work abortive, and leave this war as unfinished as our Civil War would have been without the Emancipation Procla- mation, but it would also be betraying our Allies, especially France. Within the League we can do much for the smaller nationalities and eventually even for China, while outside it we can do little. Within it we are relatively safe from all future wars; without it we must at once set to work organizing a powerful army and navy and be prepared for eventu- alities, with our front line along the east of France abandoned for one on our own coast-line. To with- draw now would be suicidal for all our economic in- terests abroad and would tend to limit our enter- prise to the narrower horizon of the home market clubs. The advantages and opportunities opened by the League are far too vast to be calculated at pres- ent, and business needs only to wake up to the new world opening before it ere it is too late; when it does, the narrowness and perversity of those who would scuttle the League or use it as a football of party politics will be realized. Free and normal eco- nomic life is now the surest guarantee of peace, while 304 MORALE AND STATESMANSHIP restraints and handicaps of industry and trade are now and henceforth chief among all the causae belli. One more neurotic trend is now in evidence here. When confronted by a grave and complex situation, the psychopathic constitution tends to focus on one or more of its items and to magnify them beyond all bounds, ignoring others and losing all sense of per- spective and proportion. The larger view of the whole is lost in particular and special aspects of it, and the patient cannot see the forest but only indi- vidual trees. In this process of overdetermination the general emotional excitement is transferred and concentrated upon a single point, and this is made either an erotic, phobic, or perhaps an anger fetish. Other no less important points remain bewusstseins' unfahig, i. e., the field of consciousness is too narrow for them to get into it at all or to attain the promi- nence they deserve in it. So, in the discussion of this momentous treaty of twenty-six articles, nearly all the time and attention has been focussed upon a very few of them, the importance of which has been disproportionately overestimated, while other articles of even greater moment for the world as a whole al- most escaped attention. A sense of the treaty as a whole remains almost entirely undeveloped save by a scant half dozen men in this country, and these all outside of Congress. Can we get out of the League, and with little difficulty and promptly if we ever want to; can we, with our noli me tangere tenden- cies and with almost a phobia of interference in our 305 MORALE own affairs from without, not have a little stronger phraseology on the Monroe Doctrine, using this op- portunity to exact something like recognition of it from our Allies; will Japan, a country where the old Bushido spirit makes honor and fidelity to pledges a religion and which has a more flawless diplomatic record than any great country in Europe, be relied upon to keep the letter and spirit of its pledge of re- storing Shantung and name a date; shall we scrap the whole treaty because of the injustice of one item of it, or because in questions that require absolute unanimity we have but one instead of six votes— these are questions important, of course, but of really narrow import as compared with the many others which the treaty involves and of which we have heard almost nothing. Thus our baffled and distraught wiseacres, trying to cope with problems too many and great for them, have taken refuge in and fetish- ized into factitious importance items like the above, which have been surcharged with all the emotion transferred to them from the field of party rivalry, personal antagonism, and especially from the deep and more unconscious sense of their own insufficiency. Such are the motives some of them adduce for insist- ing upon not merely recommendations and reserva- tions but amendments, a course which would involve not only all the hardships and disadvantages of delay but is liable in the end to involve a relapse to our old policy of isolation. The critics of the League, too, have thus far not 306 MORALE AND STATESMANSHIP only shown themselves destructive and not construc- tive but have shown a singular incapacity to grasp the chief constructive features of it. We have heard little of the rehabilitation of Poland and the other nation-states that have been restored or created out- right; of the great transformations in the Balkans; and of the new epoch for Turkey and Constantinople, for so many centuries the heart of European intrigue and in some sense a key not only to the Near but to the Far East; of the unprecedented new opportuni- ties which the treaty will open for trade; of the re- moval of the handicap of autocracy which has brought a new sense of not only relief but of exhila- ration to the world, which has caught from us "the spirit of '76;" of the dismemberment of the artificial and cruel Hapsburg domain. Still less have we been warmed by the spirit of moral uplift that comes from the new possibility of realizing at last the age-long dream of a federation of the world and the democra- tization of all its members. Nor have we tried to realize what the internationalization of labor, now made practical, involves. The official watchmen we have placed in our outlook towers have given us little help in realizing what the most sagacious and learned of all students of ancient Greece called the four great culture powers, not only of the classic but of the mod- ern world: its ethos or moral sense; its logos or rea- son and science so far as man has reached conclusions about the cosmos and the place he holds in it, which all adopt; nomos or the formulated laws and rules of 307 MORALE all collective life and society; and the mythos or all the culture power inherent in idealizations, tradi- tions, hopes and all the loftier products of the imagi- nation. The final verdict on the Treaty-League is what these supreme judges will say when we hear from them. To get into rapport with these larger aspects of the question we need generalizations that are really such. We need also sentiments at their best and distinct from a sentimentality that appeals only to the superficies of the mind, a poetry that is inspired by the loftiest of humanistic ideals, an eloquence that makes a higher appeal than to mob and party pas- sions—in a word we need the best thing that true re- ligion can give, faith in a power that makes for right- eousness and has done so through all the ages, and which inspires men to recognize, seize, and make the most and best of new and great opportunities when they present themselves. What the citizen voter wants is a broad bird's-eye view from an altitude suf- ficient to bring out the salient features in their proper relief and to show their general relations to each other and to the course of history. We need leaders who can look up rather than down like Bunyan's muckraker, who can use not only the microscope but the telescope as well, who can reorient the course of the Ship of State by appealing from dead reckoning to the eternal stars and to what Kant called their only rival in sublimity, the moral law within. Only this course can give and perpetuate our leadership of 308 MORALE AND STATESMANSHIP the world. Amendments that recommit the treaty and which cannot possibly be adopted, or which in- volve a new and independent treaty with Germany, from which we can never begin to secure advantages such as the League offers us, are nothing less than wanton sabotage and emasculation of morale for which we and our posterity will have to make long and tedious reparation. All countries of Europe, particularly France and Poland, made great concessions to Wilsonian ideas, great as was the sacrifice of national aspirations which these involved. Italy and Roumania have al- ready shown marked tendencies to break away and relapse to the old selfish nationalism so characteristic of the policies of continental Europe. If the League fails, all these countries are sure to revert, some sooner some later, to the old methods of each country for itself, and the great hope of new and better things for the world and of more altruistic national policies will abort, and the old spectacle of each country for itself will again hold sway. We went into the war to make the world safe for democracy, but we have made it very unsafe for the new democracies we have created, and we must not now make it contemptible. During the war we gave the splendid spectacle of a great country laying aside differences of party, section, creed, and class, and to some degree of every personal and financial interest, and uniting as we had never done before in all our history in a great cause. Now every party, interest, 309 MORALE and even type of individuality is asserting itself re- gardless of the common welfare, until the spectacle we present to the world is one of discord and strife almost unprecedented. In this change we have sunk from the zenith almost to the nadir of morale. The spirit of concession, which is the very basis of democ- racy, seems to have taken its flight from among us. Our President, always an ultra-individualist, seems no longer capable of rising to the great possibilities of the hour, and our Senate seems paralyzed and is hold- ing up the business of the country, checking the progress of the world, and jeopardizing if it has not lost the leadership which the issues of the war gave it a chance to perpetuate. Volumes of wordy debates on questions which a few dozen business men would have settled in a few weeks informally around a green table have thrown everything out of proportion, and have also resulted in inflaming not only partisan but the most intense personal rancors and in confirming almost everyone in his own individual opinion. There is a general drift toward the attitude of irreconcilability which, when attained, makes anyone, especially law-makers, unfit for every administrative or legislative useful- ness. The voice of practically the whole country cries out to the White House and to the Capitol to settle the Treaty and the League somehow, anyhow, and get down to work on the vast body of delayed legislation ever larger and ever more pressing, and the neglect of which is daily more disastrous not only 310 MORALE AND STATESMANSHIP to the government generally, which has never been brought into such disrepute or lost respect and pres- tige to such a degree before, but to our material pros- perity and the morale o'f the entire nation. But the voice of the people is as unheeded if not as unheard in Washington as are the voices of the few real states- men among us, who are to a man outside of the Sen- atorial halls or administrative circles. Does frenzied politics make our representatives insane? Have none of them been inspired with the common sense of Lincoln, who simply brought to the great affairs of the nation in distress the same homely, practical spirit of equity that a country squire applies to dis- putes within his township? Lincoln would have said to the Senate, "A plague on both your parties. Agree on any reservations and I will accept your verdict and waive my personal objections, if I must, ad majorcm gloriam patriae. But agree, and that quick- ly, and get busy and earn your salaries, which are now worse than wasted." An emperor would have dissolved the Senate and decreed a new election. A czar might have abolished Congress as purely obstructive and obsessive, and settled the matter him- self with his ministers. A Bismarck would have read the "Levites" from the Speaker's desk at the Capitol, criticizing each party and faction, and defied or whipped all recalcitrants into line. A Cromwell would have turned our Congress out with an armed force, with clanking armors in the senatorial floors and galleries. But we are a democracy and so can 311 MORALE do none of these things, but must wait, suffer, be patient, hope, and perhaps pray for divine interven- tion in the hearts of men that may bring contrition, sanity, and a larger view. We need nothing less than a new school of states- manship. League or no league, henceforth our rela- tions will be far closer and mutual dependence far greater between different lands, and so the need of knowing the mind and even the secret heart of espe- cially the other leading peoples of the world will be more pressing. Had England been less ignorant of the soul of her great competitor, Germany, she would not have been caught unprepared but would have foreseen more clearly and been ready for the inevit- able. Statesmen must henceforth be experts in their knowledge not only of Europe but of the Orient. Their interests and their thoughts must henceforth take on more cosmic dimensions. We are an integral part of the world as never before whether we will it or not. Our press should unite its forces and vastly extend and perfect its system of gathering information throughout the world, especially at the great centers. It is a reproach to it that especially since the war ceased, we know almost nothing, save by occasional glimpses, of what is going on in parts of Europe in which our interests had been keenly aroused and which are now in the most critical condition. Nor does our government itself begin to know these things as well as do those of Europe, whose consular and diplomatic agents are trained in special institu- 312 MORALE AND STATESMANSHIP tions for the purpose, have served a long apprentice- ship, and who can look forward to life careers if they choose this line of service because their positions are not liable to be made the spoils of office. The new statesmanship will not obscure great issues by party politics; nor will it allow even national greed and selfishness to stand in the way of the larger interests of man. In this way the morale of even politics, which is now so low all the way from the ward leader to the Senate, may be restored. In the hierarchy of virtues patriotism ranks very high, but there is one and one only that outranks it, and that is love of mankind as a whole. Never has there been so much talk of Americanism and such need of teaching it to young and old, especially to re- cent comers to our shores. But Americanism must not lapse to fanaticism or be made a cloak for any kind of the narrow, selfish, jingoism that penalizes and persecutes rather than persuades all radical opin- ions. Moreover, there is already a true internation- alism in the field of missions, trade, capitalism, and to-day of labor. Now, it is a great law of psycho- genesis that the man who begins by loving even his country better than he loves mankind is not a desir- able citizen of the world to-day, and as senescent in- volution begins in the fifth or sixth decades of life, such a one will very strongly tend to lapse to a lower stage in which he loves party more than country, or his sect more than religion, or his class interests more than those of the community, and he will also 313 MORALE strongly tend to end by loving himself and his own wish and will best of all. This retreat or katabasis of soul (the exact opposite of the expansive spirit of youth which is the only regenerative force in the world) is the fate of all who put acquisition above service. It is this trend to hyperindividuation of ever narrower groups that has been from the dawn of history one of the chief if not the essential cause of the decline and fall of the ancient states, and which if not contravened will undermine modern civilization. The fall of ancient Greece began in the disintegration of the sophists who affirmed that the truth was what it seemed to each. It began in Rome with the decline of the middle class as a result of the long struggles between the upper classes and the masses, the latter becoming almost enslaved and the former arrogant, luxurious, and self-indulgent. This was really the psychological cause, although, as some historians are now telling us, the malaria brought by Hannibal may have accelerated the decadence. Even the contempo- rary enthusiasm for syndicalism in France, if it in- volves abatement of love for la patrie because of more devotion to industrial groupings, is degenerative and can end only as a soviet. One of the most clear and obvious conclusions from the incomparably complex life of our day, so full of conflicts between such innumerable group interests, and especially in a democracy, is that the chief criter- ion of true leadership is the power to compromise. All those in power must be ready to concede and to 314 MORALE AND STATESMANSHIP accept a part when they cannot get the whole, as well as sometimes even to do the lesser evil to secure the greater good. Democratic leaders to-day must have the team spirit and submit to the arbitration of the umpire. Those Who guide the Ship of State must be eager to get half a loaf if they cannot get the whole, and those captains or mates, be they presi- dents or senators, who cannot get together and adjust differences in the interests of the whole people and of the world are not pioneers but enemies of the new order of things now dawning. Irreconcilables whose motto is "all or nothing," those who exult in the tyranny of majorities, who have too much will for their heart, their conscience, or their intellect, mani- fest the very spirit that has made all the wars in his- tory. A tonic cramp of the will, whether of the in- dividual or a rumpy group or even a majority, is like scrap-iron that sabotages the delicate machinery of a democracy. CHAPTER XIX MORALE AND "THE REDS" The intense appeal of radicalism—The need of a new type of pro- fessor of economics—Hatred of the "Reds" for nationalism and substitution of war between classes for the war between states— The international principle—What Bolshevik "nationalization" of property would mean in this country—Its undemocracy—The religious movement vs. it in Russia—Labor reorganization the hope of the world. Red radicalism long antedated the war, which has, however, made it vastly more prevalent and formi- dable to the established order of things throughout the civilized world than it has ever been before in history. It has its fanatics, clever propagandists, and even its astute and more or less scholarly thinkers everywhere. Besides its own special literature widely and surreptitiously circulated, despite its exclusion from the mails and its penalization and frequent seizures, and its open and covert promulgation by speakers and writers who are its avowed disciples, there are far more subtle advocates of its principles whom we find in print everywhere, in academic halls, in society, and these "carriers" of the -infection are themselves often hardly conscious that they are already in the first stages of the disease; and many of those they influence are already half-persuaded, even while honestly assuming an impartial and even negative attitude toward it. Very likely it will prove 316 MORALE AND "THE REDS" that our chief danger lies in these intellectuals and their half-cultured, naive, and half-conscious ad- herents. It is impossible to define radicalism since it has so many forms, stages, and parties often in- tensely hostile to each other. Its fundamental traits may, however, be roughly indicated as follows: 1. Labor. Practically all "reds" agree with Karl Marx that material wealth, if not all property, "origi- nated in the five fingers of the working man." They have cleared land, made it fertile, raised all the crops, reared every kind of building, created and operated all the agencies of transportation, made and run all machines, etc. Thus if working men the world over simply folded their arms, not only all values would shrivel but mankind would starve or freeze and civilization be brought to a standstill. Workers nu- merically outnumber all others, and if they combined, they could take possession of the world any day. Labor does not even yet begin to realize its power and its prime and all-conditioning importance if it would only unite, and this is because of its age-long subjection to the ruling classes who exploit it but are really parasites upon it. Hence the call of the "reds" to the toilers is: Awake, arise, open your eyes, throw off your shackles, organize, and be ready and able, if and when the call comes, to strike, not in single trades, localities, or even countries but all together and everywhere when "the day" comes. Instead of being underlings, slaves, or "hands," as if labor were a commodity to be bought in the lowest and sold in 317 MORALE the highest markets like others, turn the tables upon your oppressors, take the helm, appropriate the wealth created by your sweat and blood, and take your rightful place in the sun and rule the world in a new righteousness, not forgetting that simple justice requires that your oppressors be themselves oppressed in their turn, for there is a sense in which not only capital but all property is robbery f6r which restitu- tion, with interest, is the very least that can be demanded. Now, first of all, we must realize what a toxin appeal all this makes to even the most ignorant toiler. It gives him a rankling sense that he has been a vic- tim of age-long injustice, a .self-pity that may rise to patheticism, a rancor against our whole system, not only industrial but social, moral, and even religious, and along with all this and despite its inconsistency with it a cankering feeling of inferiority. He magni- fies all the confessed abuses of which the world is only now too full, and becomes suspicious lest ulter- ior and sinister designs lurk behind even the most sincere concessions to his claims, which makes all negotiations vastly harder. How shall we set a backfire to this appeal of radi- calism? This is perhaps the most vital question of our day, and I can only suggest a few lines along which we may approximate an answer. First of all, we must realize, and sympathetically, the true state of mind of labor, and this is most of all necessary for employers, the vast majority of whom even yet have 318 MORALE AND "THE REDS" little conception of the depth and strength of the un- rest, its causes, or its partial justification. Under the most favorable conditions we can never again hope for industrial peace in the world until the in- terests of labor and capital are identified by some form of cooperation. The reds say labor must either rule or ruin. Employees must be in a sense members of the firm, share all its prosperity, be trained to see its interests, and pass upon all its policies of which they are capable. They must also be in a position to be reasonably assured of the prime needs of life— food, raiment, shelter, recreation, intellectual activ- ity, provision for wife and child and for accident and old age, must be able with diligence to accumulate property, and enjoy reasonable tranquillity and activity of mind. These are the irreducible minima. They are felt to be the inalienable right of every effi- cient human being, especially in our land of prosper- ity. Those who stand in the way of attainment of any of these legitimate goals are the real enemies of society. It is they who are in no small part responsi- ble for the present industrial unrest, especially in ' our own land. Even Bakunin, the apostle of destruc- tion, advised that the rankest exploiters and profi- teers of labor be exempted from its vengeance when its day comes, as object lessons of what their class could do in order to enflame to a still higher pitch the just rancor against them. Our great captains of industry should especially unite to employ experts like C. H. Parker, Ordway "319 MORALE Tead,Glenn Frank, John Spargo, A. Henderson, Boyd Fisher, J. R. Commons, Meyer Bloomfield, Mackenzie King, Robert Bruere, etc., of whom we most fortu- nately and opportunely now have increasing numbers, to work at the great centers of unrest, explore in the most sympathetic way the actual attitude and opera- tions of the minds of radicals of high and low degree, and suggest antidotes for the morbific germs, the in- fection of which is now more and more widespread. In fact, the trope of antibodies is misleading, for the "reds" generally suffer from half or partial truths which need only to be made complete. Their instincts are generally sound and their feelings right, but bad leadership has given them perverted expressions which need to be corrected. It is because the mind of labor has been so neglected that it has become in- fected with the cheap plausibilities of anarchistic and nihilistic agitators from whose influence better in- formation and more insight will emancipate the work- man. If normal and informed, his morale is the best in the world, although it may so readily become the worst if perverted. When the red agitators cry, "Do not burn but read and answer our arguments," we should accept their challenge, which is by no means a formidable one. Meanwhile we must not forget that labor without capital and well-trained leadership is a blind Poly- phemus. We can never undo the Industrial Revolu- tion, which created factories and mass production, radical as is the reorganization now demanded. Nor 320 MORALE AND "THE REDS" must we forget that capital in the world as it is, de- spite all its outrageous abuses, is on the whole the strongest incentive to enterprise and originality, and to make the acquisition of wealth impossible would bring paralysis. If we could only make wealth, as it should always and everywhere be, a true measure of service, it would differentiate men very greatly, so that we should have the deservedly rich and poor, as God and Nature intended them to be because of their vast diversities of gifts. To take away rewards ac- cording to merit would be to fly in the face of human nature, to ignore the fact that history is largely what great men have made it, and to perpetuate the in- veterate and tragic blunder of assuming that men are or even can or should be equal in anything save opportunity. Colossal as is this task of converting capital from its predatory greed, to abolish it is the most fatuous of all iridescent dreams, and I am optimistic enough to believe that it is already beginning to see the error of its ways and to realize the need of not merely con- ference and compromise but, what is far better, arbi- tration, and that it is already well on the way to ad- mit labor to full participation and cooperation in all its enterprises because such schemes are working so well that self-interest will impel them much farther along this line. 2. The second tenet of the "reds" everywhere is war, universal and implacable, but no longer of na- tions and races against each other but of class against 321 MORALE class within every nation and race. The proletariat must war not only against rulers and autocracies but no less, if not more so, against the rich, and perhaps most of all against the middle classes or bourgeoisie. For the "reds" the whole existing order of things is rotten. They would overthrow all governments, and close every Parliament or Congress because these are dominated by high finance which would oppress la- bor. In Russia radicalism has already disfranchised those who held office under the old regime, the priest- hood, employers of laborers, however few; it has con- fiscated or "nationalized" government-owned prop- erty, estates and possessions of the rich, seized the banks, public buildings, post offices, the means of transportation and communication, church prop- erty, the press, advertising agencies, of which it makes great use, seems to have made void insurance policies, and has made inheritance impossible. The army is to be made strong, and many of its officers are elected by the soldiers. Most reds went further and believed that the dominion of labor and of the pro- letariat must be brought in by a revolutionary reign of terror, such as Bakunin advocated and the French Revolution partially illustrated, and which is akin to the Teutonic military policy of frightfulness and atrocities; hence the coup that brought the Bolsheviks into power and the massacres that followed it. "The existing order of things must be so exterminated that no germ of it remains from which it can grow again," and to this end anarchy and slaughter must usher in 322 MORALE AND "THE REDS" the new dispensation. Not only assassination, bombs, sabotage, and executions but some believed even mas- sacres should be a necessary first step to the great overturn throughout the world in order to bring in panic a new realization of not only the strength but the desperate purpose of the radicals. A period, then, of destruction must precede the great reconstruction, and those who will not yield must be exterminated, for only when ruthlessness has done its work upon the beati possedentes can an era of real peace come to the world. "Destruction is creative." The masses must launch a new curse of God, or rather of Satan, of whom Bakunin and his followers avowed them- selves disciples, against the classes. Never has there been such a large proportion of the people living under any civilization who profoundly believed it a sham, a fraud, and an infamous iniquity, as now. This is not mere kurophobia or horror of authority, a fanatical passion for limitless freedom, degraded into license to do, say, and be anything without let or hindrance, but beneath all this there is often a rancor nothing less than murderous against all who hold positions of power, wealth, or influence. Envy, thus, often grows to hate, and hate may culminate in assassination. The Decembrist revolt, which was so bloodily sup- pressed in 1825, was organized largely by intellec- tuals and embraced many from the upper classes, and down to the rise of Bolshevism, which aims to be purely proletarian, many of the best minds in Russia have advocated not only revolution but violence. But 323 MORALE with the fall of Kerensky and the disintegration and collapse of the army, the masses, led by the extrem- ists, took the helm, and the moderates gave way to radicals who believed that any means were justified to accomplish their ends, and who preached the gos- pel of despair and revenge for the generations of awful injustice which Czarism had caused for serfs, peasants and working men. In answer to all this we must admit that the his- tory of Russia is a story of oppression without par- allel even in the treatment of plebeians by the pa- tricians of ancient Rome, or of the Jacquerie by the aristocrats in pre-revolutionary France. The moral is that the suffering masses may suffer much and long, but eventually they will rise in their might and the persecuted become the persecutors. The god of History simply had to wreak vengeance for such an accumulation of outrages; otherwise he would be asleep or dead, and there would be no such thing as retributive justice in the world. Thus we must, first of all, recognize that among all who love liberty and believe in justice throughout the world, there is a deep if half-unconscious trace of sympathy even with the excesses of the Russian reds. Certainly they never could have come into control without an initial program of terror, which, however, they promise to forego when their rule is secured, and this rule they seem to believe is to be so beneficent that it will in the end justify all the bloodshed and cruelty since the coup d'etat that brought them into power. The 324 MORALE AND "THE REDS" Muscovite temperament cannot hold theories in abey- ance or cold storage but must rush them into practice. If the goal is Slavic solidarity, although the leaders claim allegiance to the future rather than to the past, they must not break with the far more idealistic revolutionists of the nineteenth century, who pre- pared the intellectual soil for their now purely eco- nomic and material regime, and above all they must, before anything can be finally settled, adopt a policy that will unite all classes and mitigate instead of in- tensify class conflicts. 3. The third trait of all reds is inter- if not anti-nationalism. To them all states are obstructions to progress. The world is their only country—that is, the world of toilers, and they anathematize pa- triotism and are jealous of all wars between nations as so much loss to their holy war of class against class. Wars in the past have been a great factor in uniting nationals of all social and industrial grades, and this is the basis of the falsely called pacifism of radicals. In Russia the "red" leaders can never for- get that the First International (London, 1864) was aborted by the War of 1870, in which French and Germans of all classes preferred country to a dena- tionalized cause, forgot internationalism, and fol- lowed the flag, fighting each other regardless of the bonds of class brotherhood. Still greater was the dis- may of the "reds" that despite all their safeguards against it, the Second International (Paris, 1889) met the same fate in the great war of 1914. To the 325 MORALE red mind all wars between stales and empires, which always end by making the poor poorer and the rich richer, are begun for one or both of the following ends, conquest and plunder, or else to avert class and labor war within. When internal revolution seems imminent, monarchs and their counsellors, who since the French Revolution have an almost sleepless phobia of inner revolts, declare war on each other to divert attention from evils within, and to be able to unite all classes and factions in defence against an outer foe. It was this view of wars that motivated the disgraceful peace at Brest-Litovsk, which it was hoped would divert all the energies of pugnacity back to its normal field, viz., the civil war of classes. The reds are thus jealous of all outer antagonisms and animosities. To be ruled by one or another of existing states is only a choice between evils almost equally great, for president, czar, or kaiser; congress, parlia- ment, or duma, are equally capitalistic and are chiefly bent on enslaving labor. Even the almost world-wide propaganda of Bolshe- vism, which now plays so important a role in their policy, is to make sure that whatever happens, there shall be no similar third debacle of internationalism. Hence the ever-recurring slogan of the Third Inter- national of March, 1919, seventy-two years after the famous manifesto of Marx and Engels, is "Workers of all lands, unite!" The task now is not reform of existing institutions but to establish a new revolu- tionary dictatorship of the lower classes. Hence S26 MORALE AND "THE REDS" civil war against those in power must be declared in all lands. Special appeals are made to "colonial slaves." It is the oligarchy now in power that is held responsible for all the horror and disasters of the re- cent war. Any league of nations would only strength- en their strangle-hold upon the deluded people. The League is simply world capitalism organizing to sub- ject mankind. Hence we must "transform the whole world into one cooperative community and bring about real human brotherhood and freedom." The French syndicalists are nearly right but are really outside because their aims are confined within na- tional limits. "The revolutionary era compels the proletariat to make use of the means of battle which will concentrate its entire energies by mass action, with its logical resultant, direct conflict with gov- ernmental machinery in open combat." German im- perialism revealed its traitorous character by its bloody deeds in Russia, and now the Entente is un- masked as a group of murderers throttling revolt by their barbaric colonial soldiery. Indescribable is the white terror of the bourgeois cannibals; incredible are the sufferings of the working classes. The inter- ests and problems of the workers of the world, who constitute its great majority, are identical in all lands and in all industries.1 Many organizations in this country, as well as all others, are now seeking to infect laborers throughout 1 Red Radicalism. By A. Mitchell Palmer. (Manifesto of the Communist International, adopted at Moscow, March, 1919.) Wash., Govt. Print. Office, 1919. 327 MORALE the world with all the rancor bred in Russia by gen- erations of czarism. These views are covertly diffused by very astute colporteurs in India, Ireland, Egypt, and all the great colonies where natives are intelli- gent enough to receive them; and indeed it requires little but selfish interest to be enflamed by these crude appeals to unrest and the lust of gain and spoliation, for the "all-power-to-the-Soviet" policy has no more regard for race and language than it has for nationalism. All in all, this is the world's most terrible object lesson of democratization gone mad, and neither pub- licists, statesmen, economists, nor sociologists have yet fully understood its strong and subtle appeal, real- ized its ever growing power, and are still less able to correct it. And no wonder, for it now preaches things hitherto undreamed in their philosophy, and our leaders might well exclaim with Hamlet, "The time is out of joint; Oh cursed spite, that ever I was born to set it right." We knew the radical theories of Marx, Engels, and LaSalle but thought them subtle sophists, and at most believed the revolution they pre- dicted far in the future, if indeed it was ever possible. But it is upon us and is the most real fact and the most pressing problem of the present. A Senate Committee2 report tells us that Bolshe- vism in this country now would mean confiscation or "nationalization" of land, including 6,361,502 farms, of which 62.1% are owned in fee by the farmers who 'Congressional Record, Dec. 12, 1919. 328 MORALE AND "THE REDS" cultivate them, and also the improvements, machin- ery, and live stock on them to the value of nearly forty-one billion dollars (census of 1910); of 275,000 manufacturing establishments, including more than twenty-two billion dollars of invested capital, much of which is owned by small investors; of 203,432 church edifices; of forests aggregating 555,000,000 acres, with an annual product of one and one-third billion dollars; of seventeen million dwellings, of which nine million are owned in fee and five million are free from debt; of 22,896 newspapers and peri- odicals and their equipment; of our 31,492 banks with their eleven million depositors drawing interest from savings, and consequently belonging to the bourgeois class. There is twenty per cent, more life insurance in force in this country than in all the rest of the world, nine-tenths of which is mutual, with fifty mil- lion policies representing thirty billion dollars. This, too, would be seized, and the protection it renders would be made valueless. The abolition of 194,759 Sunday schools, with their nineteen million pupils, would take place, and church property valued at over one and one-half billion dollars would be seized. In addition nearly forty-two million members of 227,487 church organizations would be subjected to the domi- nation of atheist dictatorship. Not only are all owners of property beyond an amount so limited that it would include a very large portion of our citizenry (and we do not know what would happen to our circa nine thousand millionaires 329 MORALE under this regime) disfranchised, but the power to vote is so conditioned and handicapped that the Bol- shevik system rests upon no very broad foundation. Those who vote do so not by parties but by trades or crafts; that is, they can elect to the local body a member of their own vocation, and with this their responsibility and influence in the state ceases. The members of this local soviet vote to elect members of the rural soviet, its members vote for the provincial, and the provincial for the All-Russian Congress. The members of the higher body, therefore, are removed at least two or three times from the voter himself. The city voters, who include for the most part work- ers in factories and also soldiers and sailors, are given about five times as much voting power as the peasants. For instance, if a member of the All-Russian Con- gress represents the city, there is one for every 25,000 votes; but if the farmers or peasants, one for 120,000. In the regional units for city dwellers there is one representative to every 5,000 voters; in the country, one to every 25,000, so that even the peasants are to this extent disfranchised. Peasants, then, who com- prise the majority in Russia, have only one-fifth of the voting power of soldiers, sailors, and factory hands and city laborers, showing the deep-seated dis- trust in which they are held. The All-Russian Congress is very large and un- wieldy, and hence appoints a committee of two hun- dred members; and this committee, still further re- moved from the people, selects an executive commit- 330 MORALE AND "THE REDS" tee of seventeen, called the council of the people's commissars, each member of which presides over an- other committee chosen by the Council, which exer- cises the functions of a cabinet department of the government; Lenin, e. g., being chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee, and Trotzky of that of the Army and Navy. With this hierarchy it can hardly be said that the leaders are responsible to the people, or indeed to the country, but only to a com- mittee ; and as the vast majority of people in all but six of the fifty provinces of Russia are agriculturists, in addition to the wholesale disfranchisement and re- duction of food rations to those who cannot vote, such a scheme cannot be called democratic. It stands throughout for class selfishness, and kills loyalty to the country just as its property limitations kill am- bition. Each delegate of the people has in view not his country or even a part of it, but his own trade, which, again, stresses selfishness. Hence the general impression of instability of the entire system.3 The animosity of those in power against the Church is intense.4 They abhor the ideal of any hope beyond 8 Isaac Don Levin: The Russian Revolution, N. V., Harper, 1917. 280 pp.; Angelo S. Rappoport: Pioneers of the Russian Revolution, Lond., Paul, 1918. 281 pp.; F. A. Palmieri: Theorists of the Russian Revolution, Cath. World, Vol. 108, p. 575; Robert Hunter: Bolshev- ism and the Labor Movement, Lond., 1918. 338 pp.; Peter Graevenitz: From Autocracy to Bolshevism. Lond., Allen & IJnwin, 1918. 128 pp.; John Spargo, Psychology of Bolshevism, N. Y., Harper, 1919. 150 pp.; Daniel Dorchester: Bolshevism and Social Revolt, N. Y., 1919. 122 pp.; C. E. Russell: Bolshevism and the United States, Ind., Bobbs- Merrill, 1919. 341 pp.; Catherine Breshkovsky: Russia and the World, N. Y., Russian Information Bur., 1919. 30 pp.; John Spargo: Bolshevism, N. Y., Harper, 1919. P. F. Brissenden: The I. W. W., A Study of American Syndicalism, N. Y., Longmans, Green, 1919. 432 pp.; E. Antonelli: Bolshevik Russia, N. Y., Knopf, 1920. 307 pp. 331 MORALE the grave as an obstacle to the realization of their communist ideal, but rather promise all good things in the Here and Now. They call religion "opium for the people," a tool of capitalist domination, and are jealous of any spiritual bond. The truest work is physical labor, and already the antagonism between the town and the country, between the well-to-do peasants and the poor day laborers, is bitter, for pros- perity invites not only denunciation as an enemy of the people, but those who rise above mediocrity pro- voke jealousy and are in danger of spoliation for any surplus is liable to requisition. Hence the partial pa- ralysis everywhere of productive activity in the social decomposition of this material Utopia. The real op- ponent of this, and perhaps just now the chief hope of Russia, is the religious movement, which began very soon after the revolution of 1917. The Church had been identified with the State, and its priests were state functionaries. Hence they were charged with devotion to the old regime, the churches were pillaged, and in one province one-tenth of the priests assassinated, often with the greatest cruelty. The church of Holy Russia is not international like Catholicism, but intensely national, and it was the first to regain its morale. This was shown in an im- mense assembly in the streets of Moscow in 1918 "when every individual present was there at the peril of his life." "In this vast assembly was found every * See Prince Troubetzkoy's The Bolshevist Utopia and the Re- ligious Movement in Russia, Hibbert Journal, Jan., 1920. 332 MORALE AND "THE REDS" rank of society, and classes did not exist. All would lay down their lives for the faith of Russia, and this was the rebirth of the national self-consciousness," for it is religion that is bringing classes into friendly relations. When everything else went to pieces, the Church alone retained its integrity, cemented by the blood of thousands of new martyrs. The Church un- dertook the great national work of combating an- archy. There was no other national assembly throughout the nation, and it was profoundly, felt that the safety of Russia could only be secured by spiritual regeneration. When the army was disin* tegrating, the Church alone dared to remind the sol- dier of his oath and tried to stem the shameful flight of troops, and the assassination of officers, and also fought the war of classes in the army. The great work of the Moscow Council was to re- store the patriarchal power, which has combined to an unusual degree the religious and national motives. Its members were inspired by the Patriarch, Hermog- enes, who saved Russia during the anarchy after the fall of the old dynasty of the czars in the 17th centu- ry. Thus while Moscow was still bombarded, the Church drew up her answer to the fratricidal con- flict, and a Patriarch was enthroned under a dome pierced by a Bolshevik shell. The new Patriarch, Tykone, a gentle soul and the very embodiment of the highest morale, proved a wonderful helmsman of the Church through the hurricane. He rose to the height of all that was required, anathematized the govern- 333 MORALE ment in a document which many priests were killed for reading, called the execution of the Czar a crime "without a name and with no excuse," condemned the treacheries, brigandage, and murder of those in pow- er, and came to represent a power that stirred Rus- sia to its depths by the grandeur of the moral forces that have been set into action under the slogan, "Christ is risen." The sovic; principle of rule by representation by different industrial groups, instead of by delegates chosen from geographical and political localities, -has a vitality raid possibility of development in it which statesmen reared under the present system can never begin to realize. Many tentatives the world over had prepared the way for it and have helped make its diffusion so rapid. Every form of trades unionism has brought a new sense of craft brother- hood, helped on by all trade schools and the new vocational consciousness and loyalty culminating in syndicalism. In Russia the Zemstvos, which had long given a progressively restricted form of self-govern- ment of local communities, awoke to a new activity early in the war uniting in an All-Russian Union, to first provide food and then to supply munitions to the soldiers, till all classes realized the insufficiency of the Prussianized government and its often traitorous officials which had kept the army without supplies. The soviet strove and in no small degree succeeded in becoming the heir to the spirit and tendencies of the Zemstvos. In China the gildic organizations, which 334 MORALE AND "THE REDS" have for centuries supplemented the inefficiency of the political government, and which are largely re- sponsible for the unique stability of Chinese society, have, especially in the student movements of that country now so dominating in their influence, devel- oped the keenest interest in the soviet principle as something China will sooner or later profit by. The soviet principle has in it almost unlimited pos- sibilities, relatively few of which Bolshevism, which adapted anol adopted it, has yet realized. To limit salaries or income generally is no intrinsic part but rather a perversion and arrest of it. Mankind will never for long tolerate a system which forbids the recognition of individual differences in value of ser- vices performed. The middle and even the upper classes will have little difficulty in coming to terms with it wherever it has become established, and slowly will transform the dead and low-leveling tendencies which were proclaimed as its initial radical form. It will inevitably change its character in the cultural task that confronts it of reorganizing the industries and other institutions of the world, and its radical factors are sure to be reduced. Meanwhile govern- ment by political parties, the older rival system, is everywhere showing its deficiencies. The paralysis of our Senate and chief executive has probably done most to breed a deep if yet half-unconscious distrust of our present democratic representative system. Even those most loyal to it are disturbed by a deep new anxiety not only as to its efficiency but as to its 335 MORALE being intrinsically the best way of effecting the rule of the people. To-day our government is less re- spected and less trusted than ever before in our his- tory. Ignorance and partisan rancor have combined to make it incapable of effective action when more and greater issues than ever before are pressing for settlement, and every thoughtful man is pondering in his heart whether a group of intelligent business men and laborers would not be better trustees of the vital and ever widening interests of this country. We are trained to abhor control by "the interests" as suggestive of monopolies and trusts; but are even these worse than control by interests of parties, the platforms of which differ so little and the conflicts of which have ceased to be for principles and become almost solely for the vast and growing patronage that falls to the victor. The danger of tyranny by kings and autocracies has gone forever, and the world is committed to democ- racy of some sort, which is now not only safe but tri- umphant. A world-wide Declaration of Independence from predatory capitalism was the psychological next step. The soviet principle asserts the inalienable right of man against the exploitation of profiteer and monopolist and the tyranny of soulless corporations. The strength and prestige of these the war has im- paired in Europe so that a new balance of power between capitalism and productive labor is in process of being found, and the struggle thus involved seems likely to be more severe in this land than in any 336 MORALE AND "THE REDS" other. Russia naturally made the first epochful effort to work out the soviet principle, but at present it seems doubtful whether it can carry it through to its logical consequences. The practical genius of Lenin began, as it needs must, with the ideal of pro- letarian control, for in that country labor conditions, not only in the agrarian regions but especially in the factories, were the worst possible. But the perma- nent exclusion of the middle and upper classes from their share of power is impossible. As the prole- tarian "majority" come into control, the other classes will rapidly fall into line and must be given their true place in any new order that will stand. Every- thing now depends on the ability of the soviet leaders to organize upward till each class has its proper place. In fine, psychology sees one way, and one only, of setting a backfire to Bolshevism and its perversion of the soviet idea, and that is by effecting the reor- ganization of industry on a broad cooperative basis and giving the world an object lesson of harmony and efficiency in production, with the recognition of the primacy of the human factor, in order to substitute mutual good will for unrest and conflicts. We should rely no longer on the summary intrusion of courts, should give up the idea of transferring industrial prob- lems to governmental bureaucracies, and still more we should avoid everything which will cause the more isolated and independent organization of laborers versus employers, for this intensifies the class con- 337 MORALE sciousness of both and can only result in more set crystallized forms of opposition. We should waste no time in trying to limit the worker's inalienable right to strike and to bargain collectively, and should attempt no more raids or deportations. Labor and capital must speedily abandon their long and invet- erate antagonisms and unite their interests and sym- pathies, each recognizing the rights, functions, place, and needs of the other. Bolshevism with its crude and violent solution is already and will still more be upon us, and most of the best that has been accom- plished, and yet better things which now seem possi- ble, will be lost, and we shall sink back to a cruder and more primitive condition and the economic and social world will have to rebuild itself almost from the bot- tom unless we are prepared to meet this crisis. If, on the other hand, we have the morale to organize industries on the basis of a fair wage and fair profit, so that each member of a concern shall be advantaged by all, and with full identification of interests and a new consciousness of unity, Bolshevism can make no appeal, for we shall have already attained the goal which it will take it decades if not generations to reach. The alternative the world now faces is either a new industrial peace or Bolshevism. We must change the present system or it is doomed to destruction with a long and painful period of reevolution. At present no one is doing so much to drive the world to Bolshevism as the exploiter of labor on the one hand, 338 MORALE AND "THE REDS" and the rabid laborite on the other. It is hard to say which is the most dangerous or inimical to society, for both are promoters of the very class war on which Bolshevism thrives. All conciliatory spirits in either camp, who really seek concord, can make concessions, can see the other side, contribute ever so little to better mutual understanding and harmonization of aims and efforts, are helping to save the world from the great relapse that now threatens it. Either we must put an end to labor unrest or Bolshevism will fan it into a world conflagration. A labor party once in control would inevitably sovietize any country. But how low and proletarian a level the reconstruc- tion will start from must differ greatly, and would depend chiefly upon the degree of solidarity effected between employer and employees. Thus only a new high morale can save us from a radical industrial revolution. On this the course of the world's future history now chiefly depends. Now (early in 1920) the world problem is which will reach industrial good-will in the sense of J. R. Commons first, Bolshevism or the older political capi- talistic states, led now by this country. Both rivals have certain advantages easy to tab off. Labor is in the saddle with Bolshevism. The latter now has the strongest army in the world and probably also the best-disciplined, for since the Kerensky debacle and the military chaos that followed it, Trotzky has brought a wonderful and almost regenerating new morale into the army. The great majority of these 339 MORALE soldiers want peace and will readily return to its con- ditions with every prospect that the same spirit of al- most military discipline will be developed in indus- try, war being only an emergency measure to be laid aside as soon as it has accomplished its purpose, ex- actly as the "terror" was. The proletariat, however, lacks brain power in just those great industrial and social transformations now in process which need brains more than they have ever been needed in the world before. But the Bolshevik leaders appreciate and are now making desperate efforts to supply this need, partly by the high salaries they are paying to ex- perts, also by their reorganization of schools and their efforts to make education compulsory up to sixteen, by the establishment, at least on paper, of seventeen uni- versities in place of the former seven, while many in- tellectuals and also not a few of the former rich and noble classes are turning to its service. Profoundly as they antagonize Capital, they not only have appro- priated enormous amounts of it in Russia but are seeking almost frantically to lure foreign capital by special inducements and security to come to their aid in developing their matchless resources, although at the same time debasing the currency of the country almost beyond precedent by flooding it with ever cheaper paper which there is no intention, still less any possibility of redeeming. The soviet government has specifically renounced propaganda and left that to the Third International, which its leader, Zinoviev, declares to be its chief aim. The most active members 340 MORALE AND "THE REDS" of the Third International are missionaries with an enthusiasm that suggests the early Jesuits. It is they that burn to preach the gospel of communism in all lands. Nowhere so much as in Russia at the pres- ent is the need for capital and credit so great, but it must everywhere be entirely subordinated to labor, and we are told that under such a system strikes will be forever impossible. The old Russian aristocracy is in many places making the best terms it can with the soviet government, and both are very often victims of profiteers, while death, disease, and lowered vi- tality from insufficient food and shelter are so deci- mating the country that Lenin says communism must kill the microbe or it will conquer communism. Bol- shevism has an enormous task before it can establish order and restore the wonderfully delicate balances of the agencies of demand and supply, which, as J. M. Keynes has shown, were never so intricate be- tween every country in Europe as before the war. Our own task, on the other hand, just now seems harder jet, for here neither capital nor labor can sub- ject the other and we must harmonize the two, arbi- trate, and find some method of obliterating the long and bitter traditions of conflict. If soulless capital and monopoly were supreme and labor reduced to ~" serfdom, we should have the counterpart of Bolshe- vism and the problem would be simplified. But this is impossible and intolerable. CHAPTER XX MORALE AND RELIGION Peculiar dangers of lapse to lower levels in religion—Sympathy be- tween Catholicism and Teutonism—In how far the former is un- democratic—The need and opportunity for a new dispensation in religion, with hints as to its probable nature. The best and highest things are by their very nature hardest to keep at the top of their condition and are peculiarly prone to lapse to a low level. Of nothing is this quite so true as it is of religion, which without constant revival dies into the rigidity of dogma and formalism. Religion is still suspicious of science et dona ferentes, which it once persecuted. It is espe- cially jealous of evolution, as if God were a hypocrite saying one thing in His inspired word which is irrec- oncilable with the revelation ne madv> of Himself in the older Bible of nature. For the so-called higher criticism which shows that Scripture was itself a nat- ural and inevitable product of man's cultural develop- ment the very large conservative wing of the Church has little but objurgations. The most liberal of all the Christian denominations still harks back to Chan- ning, Emerson, and perhaps Parker, and in place of the earlier radical Protestantism which character- ized it, tends to a mild aestheticism, and is declining because it is uneugenic and does not make good by adding proselytes to make up for its losses from race 342 MORALE AND RELIGION suicide. With the casting off of old forms it lost thej saving sense of reality, and lives with a touch of Nar- cissism in a beautiful dream-world it has made for it- self. It disapproves revivals, and its seminaries have not led as they ought to have done in the advance- ment of liberal Christian scholarship. It clings tena- ciously to the dogma of a personal objective God and individual immortality, hopes for Heaven but has al- lowed the doctrine of Hell, its vital counterpart, to lapse to innocuous desuetude, while even in the liber- ality it has so long plumed itself upon it is very often surpassed by individual leaders in other denomina- tions commonly thought more conservative. In the genteel and charming invalidism of this originally most virile and promising movement Protestantism is without any kind of organized advance guard but is led onward toward freedom by noble volunteers and stragglers. The most conservative or Catholic wing of Chris- tianity is still patristic in its theology and looks to St. Thomas for its philosophy. Always more Petrine than Pauline in its spirit, it is masterly in organiza- tion, and as an institution has never, to say the least, been distinguished by love of science, and is espe- cially hostile toward everything that savors of evolu- tion, which it regards as the one great modern heresy. It excommunicated Spinoza once and later Loisy, and condemns all who place truth above dogma. Its mar- velous genius for organization is offset by its lack of bold inventors and discoverers of new truth and origi- nal, pioneer investigators, although there are some 843 MORALE most striking exceptions to this general rule. Its su- preme pontiff condemned modernism, proclaimed the infallibility of his office, and announced that the Holy Mother was miraculously conceived. It has al- ways felt itself the spiritual heir to the Roman em- pire, and has wrought into its institutions and cults many of the best things from all the culture of an- tiquity, as well as of the early medieval and Christian centuries; and these it has made into one of the most marvelous social, moral, cultural, and even political structures that the world has seen, to Which its lead- ers are sincerely proud and happy to subordinate themselves. It has thus made itself a solidarity and a power that has to be reckoned with in every great question in every country of the western world. It has produced saints who were paragons of virtue and self-effacement, that seem almost exotic and too beau- tiful to belong to this selfish world; while hundreds of thousands of celibates have lavished on it the love that was meant for husband, wife, and children. It is more fecund than Protestantism and is grow- ing faster, but its faith and cult are transcendental. It is so intent that no good thing from the past be lost that it is often blind to the present and future good. It puts theology above philosophy, and both above sci- ence. Its universe is theocentric, not anthropocen- tric. For it the next life conditions this, and it would fain place the Church above the State. Its political and patriotic loyalty is generous, sincere, and de- voted, as was abundantly demonstrated beyond criti- 344 MORALE AND RELIGION cism by the late war. But it believes in a higher al- legiance and looks with almost horror upon all theo- ries of the absolutism of the State (e. g., in the sense of Hegel) or upon any which substitute the State for the Church, and of course was still more shocked by Rothe's plea that the Church should now be abolished and the State take its place. In fact, the German idea of supreme authority in the state is a transfer from Catholicism. But the Church, as Zeller long ago proved, got it from Plato's Republic and Aris- totle's Politics. The point that we would stress here is that the whole idea of a super- or metaphysical state is aristocratic, as is Catholicism. Both are products of generations of hard, conscious theorizing, and thus both are also and alike opposed to the prime postu- late of democracy, viz., that state and theocracy alike were evolved unconsciously from and by the folksoul, by the tribal spirit, and in ways which Durk- heim1 has best shown. Thus every rigid hierarchy is essentially un- or anti-democratic, and despite all the rivalry there wall always remain a deep analogy and a strong sense of kinship between the Teutonic worship of the State and the Latin propensity to submit their personal lives to ecclesiastical control. Both theocracies, that of Berlin and of Rome, are anti-democratic. Like Teutonism, too, Catholicism has its own * See, too, L. T. Hobhouse: The Metaphysical Theory of the State, N. Y., Macmillan, 1918: W. Willoughby: Prussian Political Philoso- phy, N. Y., Appleton, 1918; and H. J. Laski: Authority in the Mod- ern State, New Haven, Yale U. Press, 1919. 345 MORALE highly evolved morale; but both are artifacts, prod- ucts of a unique Kultur, and thus very different from those institutions which we know are the spontaneous evolution of the mind of the demos. As the Church holds the keys of Heaven and claims to be the only way through which God can be approached, so the ab- solute state bars the people from the control of gov- ernment, which is administered for not by them, and the real folksoul now no longer speaks through either. One condemned Darwinism in exactly the same spirit as the other condemned Nicolai. It would be difficult to-day to say which of these two is more intolerant of heresies, although certainly it is only the State now that persecutes. Between the extremes of Romanism and Unitarian- ism we have, according to a recent estimate, sixty- three sects and denominations in this country rang- ing from the largest, most enlightened, and beneficent down to the smallest, poorest, meanest, most super- stitious, and fanatical. No human institution is so conservative of things outgrown as is religion, and nothing has done so much harm and also so much good in the world. Nothing can vitalize so many ab- surdities in both thought-and conduct. Because its vital index is so high that it can vitalize anything, it needs incessant reformation and molting of old forms, and without this its morale can sink to a very low and formal level. It is liable to almost every form of psychic disease—lethargy, a rigidity that is almost cataleptic, stereotypy, depression and exalta- 346 MORALE AND RELIGION tion, fixed ideas, arrest, with every characteristic symptom of dementia praecox, and is prone to illu- sions, delusions, hallucinations, etc.2 Its proclivity to superstition and even ghost cults is just now since the war so much in evidence that in England the very church leaders have felt called on to protest. The issue we now face is whether the enhancement of religiosity that all wars, and most of all this by bringing death so near, have generated in all minds, secular and ecclesiastic, shall find expression in the widespread revival of effete superstitions, or whether we can find and make the war a point of departure for nothing less than the new, long-expected, and long-delayed third dispensation of Christianity some- what in the sense long ago described by Renan, which would put an end once and for all to the age-long conflict between science and religion, so well described in A. D. White's monumental work on this subject as the world's greatest tragedy and waste of energy. This is perhaps the chief of all the culture problems bequeathed to us by the war. As the culminating task of the world in all Chris- tendom I would conclude this volume by attempting to sketch in rough outlines what this new dispensa- tion now struggling to be born essentially is, or at least seems to be, to one psychologist. It is in general anticipatory words, the substitution everywhere of immanence for transcendence; it is a restatement of the essential old dogmas in terms of the human needs 2 Josiah Morse: Pathological Aspects of Religions, 264, Worcester, Clark U. Press, 1906. 347 MORALE from which they sprang, or an attempt to state and meet these needs by more adequate, modern modes of thought and life. It sees a great rapprochement be- tween reason and faith. It will show that what lay concealed in the latter is now beginning to stand re- vealed to and by the former. 1. Every religion, from the most savage to the highest, postulates the need of some kind of rebirth, and science finds this need performed in the changes involved in puberty and adolescence. Before these years each individual normally lives for himself. The young must be clothed, fed, educated, protected, but with the dawn of sex maturity comes a new instinct to serve, merge with the tribe or community,3 and subordination of the individual to the herd. The new altruism, if not completed here, leaves man an unfin- ished or an arrested being. Every savage tribe has its ceremonies of initiation, and every religion believes in some kind of conversion or confirmation symbolic of Nature's regeneration at this age. Thus religion has institutionalized and formulated in its creeds and ceremonies this great change, and we know now enough about the latter to see that it is precisely its needs that all these religious forms seek to meet. Each to be a good member of society must be un- selfed and subordinated to it, and in this sense the scriptural admonition that "unless a man be born again he cannot enter the Kingdom of God" is true to anthropology. * See my Adolescence, 11, chap. 13. N. Y., Appleton, 1904, which is devoted to this subject. 348 MORALE AND RELIGION 2. The Christian doctrine of the Holy Spirit is another attempt to formulate a large group of phe- nomena which both psychology and psychiatry are now coming to understand as an essential need of men. The so-called adrenalin type of man perhaps best illustrates this. Most of the great work of the world has been done by man's higher powers or by those under the influence of some kind of afflatus or second-breath; and, what is far more important, we are coming to realize that these experiences, which may be truly called inspirational, are a very funda- mental need, especially in the plastic, erethic stage of our physiological life. Genius in all its great produc- tions has felt itself caught up, carried on by a power not itself which has been variously interpreted as a Muse or as a goru, and in the Scriptural record of the phenomena of Pentecost we have a very graphic and objective story of the way in which all great causes take hold of great souls and impel them with a mo- mentum that has behind it the whole nisus of evolu- tion to attack the greatest of all problems. 3. The New Testament is a love story, and its moral is that man is perfect when the greatest and best thing in him, love, is fixed upon the supremest object, viz., God. Dante idealized it, and the Freud- ians are showing that it is the most plastic thing in Mansoul and the most all-determining for his career. Almost anything or any act may become an erotic fetish, and the calentures of love are seen not merely in the best amorous literature but in the passionate 349 MORALE impulsion of mystics to be completely absorbed in the Divine nature. Very much of that which makes or mars life is due to whether man's affections grovel or climb, and no psychologist can fail to see that love of God and the libido have the same mechanisms, and that religious and sex normality and abnormality are very closely connected. "Love rules the camp, the court, the grove; for love is God and God is love." 4. The doctrine of sin or harmatology plays a great role in all theologies. Men, like races, are deca- dent or ascendant. The story of degeneration as presented by Nordau is a modern amplification of the patristic idea of sin. The best survive; the worst perish. This moral dualism is found in the biological history of all species, so that near the beginnings of life there is a kind of dualism and it is only the law of selection that sinners die. The evolutionary nisus is impelling the whole human race onward and up- ward, and while the true ideal superman is a very different thing from the medieval saint, both doc- trines imply the indefinite perfectibility of men, of whose struggles the old doctrines of sin and tempta- tion are the most ostensive of old historic illustra- trations. Instances are found in all the disharmo- nies within the body which Metchnikoff describes, and in all the conflicts and repressions and impul- sions that psychanalysis tells us of. 5. Prayer is described in the old hymn as the soul's sincere desire "uttered or unexpressed." In other words, it is a wish, the potency of which in the field 350 MORALE AND RELIGION of science it was left for the Freudians to set forth. Every man strives upward and onward. He has not only the will-to-live but wants to make the most and best of himself; and to formulate our strongest de- sires definitely aids to their realization, just as the fervent, effectual prayer of the righteous is said to avail much. The wish, if it is strong enough, can do great things, extravagantly symbolized in the phrase "move mountains." The modes of constraining the gods to help us are really only modes of enlisting the active cooperation of our own deep unconscious na- ture, which is the most effective agent in bringing the fulfillment of our right wishes, for the yearning to fulfill bad wishes is prayer to the devil. 6. Confession has been a great institution in the church, and we are told that to confess is to forsake. But it has also lately become, with a slight change of terms, one of the most important of all psychothera- peutic agencies. The analyst is now the father con- fessor, and he knows as well as the priest does that to bring up clearly to consciousness, and especially to oral expression, a complex, an error, or a lapse is the first step toward cure. In fact, consciousness itself is extradition or objectivization, and hence comes its cathartic quality. Religion sees a very vital part, but as yet only a part of this great truth. Consciousness is attracted to anything within us that goes wrong and focuses where there is uncertainty or hesita- tion, and all of its projective function is simply remedial. Perhaps if we could be wound up like a 351 MORALE clock always to do right without choice or hesitation, as Huxley wanted to be, sin and error would vanish, and we might attain a life as perfectly fitted to our nature and needs as that, e. g., of instinct in the in- sect world, where extremely complex life histories and social organizations seem to have been developed with perfect automatism, because these creatures we call lowly have been in the world so vastly longer than man that their adjustment to the conditions of life is more perfect. 7. Heaven and hell have served their chief func- tion in the world by keeping alive perhaps the very most fundamental of all moral instincts, viz., justice. Nothing so goads the soul of the individual, of work- ing classes, communities, or states, to desperation as a condition in which the bad win and the good lose the great joys of life. There is no deeper moral instinct than that which affirms that merit should meet its re- ward, and demerit its punishment. Man long tried to construe human experience so optimistically that a case for justice could be made out without transcend- ing his present life, as we see, e. g., in Job. But the tyrant, the extortioner, the enslaver made this view entirely impossible, so that man would have been driven to desperation if he had not found effective recourse in belief in another life in which the in- equalities of this life would be compensated for. This is the psychological genesis of all forms of belief in future rewards and punishments, and indeed it was a great step in the world when the long-cherished be- 352 MORALE AND RELIGION lief in ghosts was thus enlisted in the service of vir- tue. On this view, if all the good people in the world had always been happy in proportion to their good- ness, and all the bad wretched in proportion to their evil, there could have been no belief in transcendental moral compensations. 8. Hence doctrines of immortality in its several forms. Here we have first the vulgar one of the medi- cine-man, the spiritists, and some of the psychic re- searchers, viz., belief in a subtle, material, ghost-like form that survives. This is the oldest and most crass, and the church has happily long trancended this in its more refined contemporary convictions. Again, in- fluential immortality teaches that the effects of what men do live after them. The founders of institutions, great discoverers and reformers, soldiers who die to save liberty or country, and not only those who were anxious to survive in the memory of their friends or even the race but who are ready to give their lives for great causes in the service of which they know they will always be anonymous, are likewise animated by a desire for mundane immortality. Third comes the plasmal immortality of Weismann and eugenics, which Galton thought is to be the religion of the fu- ture. Sooner or later all of us who live to full ma- turity desire to pass on the torch of life to posterity, and shrink from the extinction of our line, which goes back to the amoeba. Childlessness has a tragic pathos all its own, and one of the great motives of life is to provide for the successors in our stirp. The 353 MORALE motives to virtue for the sake of offspring, so actively discussed just now, have great possibilities of de- velopment. True family pride always tends toward purity, and especially the scientific man now realizes that the supreme function of the soma is to contrib- ute something, infinitesimal though it may be, to the greatest of all wealths, viz., heredity, or to the immor- tal germ plasm. Now, these three are the primal im- mortalities, and the belief in continued personal con- scious existence after death is only a byproduct, or vicariate, or surrogate, or symbol of them; and we find it entirely consonant with the laws of psychan- alysis that when these latter two forms are ade- quately developed, the selfish lust of the individual to live again after death and get all possible happiness for himself abates. Thus the theological formula of immortality has been the locum tenens, and one source of the rare tenacity with which it has been held is because it is so surcharged with all the sym- bolisms of these less egoistic forms of belief in the continuity of souls. If in addition the above motive of compensation for injustice were taken away, the lust for a future life would be a product of luxury aiid self-indulgence, and man would be ready and even glad to face in the end the conception of absorption into the great One and All as his supreme apocatas- tasis. 9. Belief in God is one of the most precious and inalienable articles of every creed but the time has now come when we must realize frankly that this su- 354 MORALE AND RELIGION preme thesis must be subjectified. The Russian dra- matist, Andreev, describes the objective God as a dwindling figure standing in the corner, holding a light that is burning out, and looking on the tragic history of man, even this war, with no emotion and with no attempt to influence human affairs. His theme really is not the twilight but the death of deity, and he seeks to represent thus the pallid, tenuous, and moribund faith in a deity who shapes things from without. Now the histories of religion show that nearly everything in nature has been somewhere, sometime,an object of worship—rocks, hills, heavenly bodies, clouds, the sky and sea, trees, totemic animals, and last came the anthropomorphic deities. There are really two gods, one that presides over nature, the great compelling One and All partly typified by the numen tremendum of Sinai, and the other a more kindly being who represents and cares chiefly for man as the crown of creation. Science worships the god of the forces and laws of nature, while the Christian god symbolized by the historic fig- ure of Jesns, represents Mansoul in its acutest struggles and its highest aspirations. The the- ology of this god is, as Feuerbach long ago showed, simply anthropology, and what the Christian really worships is the good upward tendencies in the human soul in all its wonderful achievements, conscious and perhaps in some sense especially unconcious. This is the deity that created all human institutions— language, society, science, and religion itself. All 355 MORALE these sprang out of the great heart of humanity, and the time has now come when we must understand that the worship of every kind of objective deity is at best a refined form of idolatry. The true and living God is the developmental urge—"Some call it evolu- tion, and others call it God." His activities of course culminate in the soul of man, the sublimest product of which is the conception of a perfect God. As the primordial urge He created man, and endowed him with a soul which enabled him to evolve the concept of a sublime creator and upholder of the universe. Feuerbach was only partially right when he would re- duce theology to anthropology, because nature no less than man is God's work. He might better have said that the theology of the future is science in its largest, broadest aspect. He might have said, too, that the field of individual consciousness is too narrow to be the projection field of any adequate conception of the source of nature and of man. If we now dispense with all extradited conceptions of deity, and frankly recognize that the supreme object of worship and service is the power that in the beginning started the course of evolution and in the end became for human life the power that makes for righteousness, we shall at once not only experience a great eclaircissement and have a new sense of the unity of the cosmos, but we shall redeem God from the age-long suspicion that He is a hypocrite saying one thing in His works and another in His word, and shall realize that the leaves in Nature's great bible laid down in the rocks and 356 MORALE AND RELIGION the essential story imperfectly expressed in our sa- cred Scriptures belong together, and can neither of them be understood aright without the other. Man's religious instincts will then have not only a genuine renaissance but an indefinite extension in scope, and we shall see that there is a sense in which everything is divine, and that what we call the personality of deity is simply the highest expression of anthropo- morphization. Again, all the old conceptions of any kind of Dia- bolos or a counter-realm of forces and persons over against the kingdom of God have already now been pretty well subjectivized thus, and there are very few who believe in a personal devil. But during all the ages of vivid faith in an objective God a belief in His great adversary was hardly less strong. The fact that God's counterpart has thus undergone the very in- wardization we postulate, cuts the psychological tap- root of our belief in an outward god whose existence was more or less bound up with that of his great anti- thete. Thus in the fate of Diabolos we see a sure prophecy that the same fate of interiorization awaits deity itself. Does anyone believe that man's concep- tion of evil in the world has been weakened by the lapse of the belief in a malign personal agent? Has it not rather given us a deeper realization of the true nature of sin, error, degeneration, and all the agencies obstructive to real progress; and may we not confi- dently expect that the same process of resubjectiviza- tion would bring not at all the atheism that timid 357 MORALE churchmen fear but a deeper, stronger, and more effective theism?* Something like the above will be the religious atti- tude of man's maturity if he ever reaches it. Rites, ceremonies, and creeds belong to the projicient ado- lescence of the race which the "harvest home" of senescent involution, if complete, always reverses. Max Miiller tells us in substance that in many typi- cal homes in the Punjab, long the heart of the classic culture of India, one often sees in the same family the grandchildren reared with implicit belief in all the gods of the most fecund of all mythologies, with their minds saturated with all the folk superstitions. These the typical parents have outgrown, revering only the great epics and a few of the superior gods henotheistically, addressing each in turn as supreme as the mood of the worshiper changes. The grand- fathers have passed these and all intervening stages, regarding all deities as shadows which the soul pro- jects in its ascending steps, intent solely on the pur- gation of sin and error, and looking forward with equanimity and often longing to the great absorption into the One and All which is the fate of all men, gods, and the worlds themselves. Thus all stages of re- —ligious evolution are completed in the span of a single life. This would be somewhat paralleled in the Chris- — tian world if the child passed, as it matured, from Ca- tholicism on through liberalism to pantheism; or in the larger field of comparative religions, if he passed * See my Jesus, the Christ, in the Light of Psychology, N. Y., Doubleday, Page & Co. 1917. 2 vols. 358 MORALE AND RELIGION from the crass savage fetishism on to the worship of sun, moon, stars, clouds, rocks, stones, trees, plants, animals, and finally totemized men, as the race did. Another suggestive but more remote parallel would be the postulate of Du Buy5 that each child might with advantage be brought through first a Confucian stage, focusing on social forms and obligations as a kind of discipline in psychic attitude; then a Mo- hammedan period of passionate affirmation of unity in the world; then a stage of discipline by this one deity; then at adolescence, the age of dawning love, would come Christianity as the best expression of man's highest state, this to be followed by a Bud- dhistic discipline of soul, turning from the world with all its pomp and vanities to higher and more unincorporated things; and, finally, in old age the finished soul would feel the Brahmanic urge of de- personalization and apocatastasis. Of course any such religious recapitulation is at present only an iridescent dream. AH religions in their best and most intense, which is also their youthful stage, have merit and good in them all their own, but the great synthesis and resultant sympathy between them is something which even the scholars and pioneers in this field have not yet reached, so that any such religious curriculum as the above, if it is ever practical, is a long way off. Only the specu- lative philosopher Hartmann6 long ago had the hardi- "Amer. Jour, of Relig. Psy and Edu., I, No. 1, 7-29, May, 1904. " Phanomenologie des sittchen Bewusstseins. 871, Berlin, Duncker, 1879. 359 MORALE hood to attempt to characterize such an evolutionary history of the religious consciousness, laying down its stages somewhat as paleontology would trace the ascending orders of life, and his ambitious and pre- mature effort is full of errors and gaps, and ends in a pessimism so extreme that it consigns to the grave every great hope of the race. If we ever have any such processional of the soul, it will be a grammar of assent and not of dissent, and these stages will follow the biological analogies of the chambered nautilus and of all spiral shells and not the rival pattern of Nature, that of painful and successive moults. Berkeley attempted to inwardize the objective ma- terial world, and told us that the esse of all things external was really their percipi. I interpret this7 as a mistaken transfer to the wrong field of the strong impulse of man, as he matures, to inwardize all religions and reinterpret them in terms of human nature and needs, and abjure faith in outer objec- tivity as the most refined form of idolatry. Berkeley felt this senescent trend, but his conservative up- bringing and his clerical training made it impossible for him to apply it as he should have done to the whole dominion of faith. It was strong enough in him, however, to drive him to the more desperate venture of subjectifying the material world instead. It is in this sense that psychanalysis sees in his phil- osophy its classic paradigm of normal, maturing, and T The Genetic View of Berkeley's Religious Motivation, V. 137- 162, J. Rel. Psy., April, 1912. 360 MORALE AND RELIGION senescent involution, the best symbol perhaps in the history of modern Western thought of the true invo- lution which is the chief trait of psychic maturity in religion. Meanwhile, and finally, let us not forget that the world will never be saved by creeds, forms of wor- ship, or even by belief, but that even they are valu- able or vicious solely as they improve or impair char- acter. The final test of not only all of them but of all institutions of education and religion alike, as well as experience itself, is what they do for will, feeling, emotion, sentiment, or in a word for disposi- tion, and how much they help in the following points: (a) Does man find his pleasures in things he ought to? Can he face the world with joy and confidence and get real happiness out of the fundamental things of life; or is he depressed, discouraged, and prone to lose hope? How the world loves the buoyant tem- perament, the cheerful optimist, the man who is al- ways near the top of his condition, who can see the good side of others, of life, and things in general! Whether in the trenches or in home life his fellow- men turn to him and dub him "good fellow," the de- gree summa cum laude which the folk confers upon its favorites. Some call it super-health or life abounding. It is simply high morale in this field. Are we educating the rising generation to find more or less pleasure in the things they ought to? (b) Another ingredient of character and tempera- ment is altruism shading up into love. If our schools 361 MORALE and creeds make men selfish instead of self-sacrific- ing, profiteers instead of benefactors, always on the make and getting instead of giving, they are not evolving the herd instinct on which all social insti tutions rest, but are undermining it. We must build inner and see that they take the place of outer re- straints to both greed and lust. No life is complete that is not devoted to something above and beyond the individual, and he is not mature who has not found things he would die for as well as live for if the occasion arose. Do our cults and our culture help youth to control passion, or do they find in the very training we give them subtle excuses for self- indulgence? Do love of country, of the welfare of the community in which they live, of mankind, have their true place in their hearts? Do they learn of the joys of service? These are perhaps the supreme tests of the real value that home, school, state, or Church can give or do for them. (c) Again, man must fear aright. We have seen how potent was this basal anticipation of pain in the soldier, and it is no less a force though in a very different way in the life of the citizen. I have com- piled from medical literature a table of 276 phobias or morbid fears showing man's manifold proclivities to timidity.8 Most men have fears of poverty, many of dire need and perhaps even of hunger. How can this dread be made to be a spur to prudence and industry? 8 A Synthetic Genetic Study of Fear, Am. J. Psy., 25: 149 and 321 (1914). 362 MORALE AND RELIGION All fear the loss of love or of respect, they have a; horror of inferiority, and the psychanalyst seeks in his every patient for the root of every psychic disturb- ance in some conscious or unconscious fear. All young people need security and help here, for many if not most suffer dangerously, e. g., from sex fears, and if taken in time can easily be relieved. Do we teach the rising generation to fear aright, that is, to fear most evils that are greatest, such as unhygienic habits, dishonesty, and everything degenerative, and have we forgotten that true courage is the consum- — mate flower of morale? (d) Anger and hate are another fundamental trait. Many lives are marred by petty irritability at trifles, and anger, as well as pity and rage, has its fetishes that are often absurd. The indignation of a great, wise, and just man is often sublime, like that of Yah- veh himself. It can sweep away great and inveterate abuses and make moral revolutions. There are al- ways wrongs and evildoers in every community that are worthy of it, and it is a craven shopman's motto to make no enemies. We should rather choose them wisely, and every man should fight some wrong with all that is in him, for peace has its wars and its vic- tories. A fit of righteous resentment is often thera- peutic, and indeed may be almost regenerative. Are we angry and do we hate aright? The same might be said of pity and sympathy so often perverted, and the proper development of which is so basal for character and conduct. The death of 363 MORALE Christ is the world's masterpiece of pathos. The same is true also of ambition, of the impulse to do and be something distinctive in the world, to make the most and best of ourselves and life. It is also true of other traits illustrating how "out of the heart are the issues of life." Every one of the ancient civilizations fell. Ars man's modern attempts to domesticate himself, which we call the civilization of to-day, also self-destructive, and are the states and nations now playing their role on the stage of history doomed to the same fate? What is true progress, and is man really making any? With all our ever vaunted advance in discoveries and inventions, arts and sciences, are we really better men than the ancient Hittites, Babylonians, Greeks, Ro- mans, and the rest whose very languages are dead and whose gods only scholars know of? The world was never so populous, but the future belongs not to the races that are most fecund but to those which add to this a selective environment that conserves the best and eliminates the worst or least fit to survive, so that quality and not numbers alone holds its true place as a cofactor. The philanthropy and the medi- cal arts that keep the unfit alive do not improve mankind. Now what is the one disease that destroyed the old and will surely be the death of our civilization if we cannot find an antidote and therapy for it? It is over- individuation and its resultant egoism and selfish- ness. Here animal society has a great lesson for us. 364 MORALE AND RELIGION There is not one instinct in any social creature from bees and ants up that does not subordinate the indi- vidual to the group. AH that these creatures do from birth to death is in the interests of the community. No individual lives unto itself. The formicary and the bee state are vastly older than man and may long survive him unchanged, because for each member life is service. Hence come the stable forms in which these gregarious instincts find expression. Each so- cial animal lives true to its type, with complete self- subordination and self-sacrifice, if need be, to it. This is true of packs of wolves, of wild sheep, horses, cat- tle, elephants, deer, the buffalo, lemming, pelican, seals, all creatures that build social nests, migrate, and make forays. Here we see the consummation of mutual help. Man alone develops consciousness of self, and in him alone this has grown so hypertrophied that it has become the muse of his philosophy, and one school of psychology holds that there is nothing else in Man- soul worthy of its attention. The ancient Elohist Hebrew seers thought this a fall, from which Chris- tianity set forth a plan of redemption, which Bud- dhism had sought to do in another way before. But both plans too soon became the one insistent on dogma and the other mechanized in objective rites. These two seers, one for the East and one for the West, saw more clearly than any other of the sons of men the evil and its menace, and suggested a cure that brought new hope to the world, but to most men to- 365 MORALE day they are voces et praeterea nihil. So forgotten or misunderstood are they now that their represen- tatives bring almost as much confusion as help, and the coarser souls among them only pervert and mis- lead. If we cannot resurrect these seers from their elaborate entombments, we must at least try to re- state the psychokinetic equivalents of their insights in modern terms and with the utmost clearness and brevity. Man has two natures, one aboriginal, innate, in- stinctive, and unconscious, so that there slumber in each of us all the capacities and possibilities of the race both for good and for evil. Everything objective is good or bad as it strengthens the good or evil trends within us. A few enemies of mankind armed with all the resources of modern science could by united effort almost depopulate the world and destroy our civilization. As knowledge has augmented man's power over Nature, it has not given him a correspond- ing increase in his sense of responsibility. The edu- cation that gives only knowledge and skill is incom- plete and superficial if it does not also reach the deeper springs of character and disposition and in- crease the will to help and serve others, instead of in- creasing, as it now too often does, only the selfish will to power. Nothing is truly learned until it sinks so deep that it affects heredity and would give to our children, even if born after we were dead, some pre- potency of sound over unsound tendencies. Ability to~read, write, and cipher, to excel in an occupation 366 MORALE AND RELIGION or a line of culture, no matter for how many genera- tions these facilities have been acquired, gives to off- > spring little or no inborn power in these directions; but diathesis, disposition, and character, as all studies of heredity indicate, do more or less strongly tend to be transmitted, and there is at least a point here which Weismannism cannot and must not pass, al- though we may not yet be able to segregate unit char- acters. Something of this kind must be true or else all progress is only a Sisyphus labor to be eternally - begun and never securely achieved. Here and here alone I would carry pragmatism to its extremest limits, and am almost ready to say that I would replace, if I could, any or all of my most cher- ished theoretical beliefs by almost any others, and would teach them to my children if they helped us toward the life of service illustrated by animal so- cieties, and checked the devastating momentum of hyperindividuation and greed which has destroyed every great state in the past and which will annihilate our own civilization if we cannot check it. Just now, faster than ever before, men, parties, and interests, seem to be losing the very power of compromise, arbi- tration, conciliation, the readiness! to submit conflict- ing claims to fair and impartial trl unals. In the ebb of the great wave of altruism and service which char- acterized the war we have now entered a period when selfishness is rampant and to an almost mad and or- giastic degree, until it seems as if nothing but a new religion could save us from disintegration. 367 MORALE Hence, if we can no longer expect any new advent of any ab extra deity, our only hope is to appeal to the great heart and soul of the race out of which came all bibles, gods, and every human institution, and which has hitherto met all great emergencies and answered all the deep prayers, wishes, and aspira- tions that have ever been answered in the past, and exhort all men everywhere to put and keep themselves at their best and not to act or resolve from low con- dition. If Mansoul is not now pregnant with some great new departure and does not therefore need the care which the world everywhere gives to those near- ing parturition, then we must decline and fall. As morale is the heart of an army, so it alone can hearten us to withstand the most subtle and inveterate foe of all civilizations, viz;, the degeneration that comes from selfishness. Bolshevism is only Czarism democratized. The lower always follow and catch the spirit of the up- per classes in the love and use of leisure and idleness, birth control, the love of luxury, display, fashions, forms of amusement, attitudes towards religion, lust for power—all these and more seep down from patri- cians to plebs. All the poor are or would fain be like the rich, and one chief ingredient of their enmity to- ward them is envy. Thus all classes are more intent on getting than on doing good. Each would be some kind of superman if he could, and his soul is turbu- lent with the spirit of unrest and even revolt because he cannot realize his own overweaning ambitions for 368 MORALE AND RELIGION himself. Thus until the heart of man normally does experience a transforming new birth to altruism, there can never be a, true and lasting kingdom of God, that is of man. Woman is thought to be by na- ture less selfish. Her day has come, and we really ought to look to her for help. But she is timid from her long subjection and cannot see and has not the courage to seize the cue or opportunity; and, more- over, she is not herself untainted by the hyperindi- viduation of our age. Thus the old hopes are fading one by one, the old gods are dead or dying, and their religions are in a deepening twilight. Nothing or no one can save us but ourselves. Must history forever repeat itself, nations and races rising one after an- other, coming to power and then declining and dying, always of the same malady, because man can find and apply no remedy to it that will make society im- mortal as it should be, like those instinct has evolyed? Christianity could have done it, perhaps, if it had been understood and not become crassified by dogma and rites, overinstitutionalized by organization, and supernaturalized. It saw the vanity of riches, power, and place, and brought an antidote for mundane sel- fishness; but it appealed to transcendental satisfac- tions and would pay for self-effacement in this world by individual glorification in another, faith in which is now ineffective if not moribund. Now we want to be shown that altruisnijDays in this life, and it will be long before we can show the world that it is here and now good policy. All the proof that it is so that the 369 MORALE hedonistic calculus of our ethics has yet been able to set forth seems only flimsy and tenuous casuistry to the man on the street. Thus, again, I say the one clear call of the Zeitgeist to us just now is to keep ourselves in the attitude of expectation, of watchful waiting. This is not unlike the cry of the Baptist to "prepare the way," to watch and await some new dispensation or to be always ready, as Jesus would have His disciples for the com- ing of the Son of Man. This means in modern terms simply to get and stay at the very top of our condi- tion, confident that out of this state only can salva- tion come. Every great hope has been born of a great despair, as the blackest darkness precedes dawn. If all consciousness is remedial, the new world con- sciousness now developing may also prove to be so. Even love, we are now told, always passes through a precocious stage when it is focused only on self, and it is arrested if it does not with growth turn away from self to focus on some other object. Must altru- ism forever suffer arrest in the stage of precocious de- mentia that has caused nations in the past to decay because checked at the stage of self-love? Love alone unselfs. Man is profoundly gregarious and can yet devote himself to causes, parties, and countless social and industrial groups. Can this self-subordination not find a larger object in service of mankind itself? Man has loved wealth because it gives power; but this power is, after all, only vulgar and material, only a symbol of a higher moral power. We use wealth self- 370 MORALE AND RELIGION ishly, but its philanthropic uses give far higher sat- isfaction. Can we not sometime learn not only how to acquire but how to put it to its highest uses and experience the incomparable joy that comes from a giving that is not only great but wise? Perhaps some John D. Rockefeller, Jr., of the future may lead some such apostolate for the wealthy and make them some- time, as Carnegie said, "ashamed to die rich." Many of our academic and some non-academic sociologists may be Socratic midwives of a new and better future. There seems now to be a great hope for a sounder morale in them. There are clergymen who have broken with the traditions of their theological train- ing and found ways of evading the limitations of their office, and taught the simple gospel of right between man and man now and here. There are social and up- lift workers who perhaps live among the poor, and many teachers who have by their lives and their pre- cepts touched the hearts of those they influence with this only true gospel of service. Thus, although Pandora has opened her old box and again let loose all of its evils upon mankind, we find a new hope at the bottom, viz., personal, civic, social, industrial, and religious morale, the acme of healthfulness of body and soul. Like the appeal from Philip drunk to Philip sober our appeal is now from Mansoul sick to Mansoul well, and we must and will believe that this appeal will be heard. BIBLIOGRAPHY Psychology and History: Some Reasons for Predicting Their More Active Cooperation in the Future. By Harry E. Barnes. Amer. Jour. Psy., Oct., 1919. This article gives a bird's-eye view of the various modern writers who have interpreted history from a psychological, and more specifi- cally from a psychanalytic point of view. It might be supplemented by G. P. Gooch: History and His- torians in the Nineteenth Century (Lond., Longmans, 1913) ; B. D. Adams: The Power of Ideals in American History (New Haven, Tale U. Press, 1913) ; J. H. Robinson: The New History (N. Y.), Macmillan, 1912) ; J. F. Shotwell: The Interpretation of History (Amer. Hist. Rev., 1912-13, pp. 692 et seq.) France and the Next War. A French View of Modern War. By Com. J. Colin. Lond., Hodder and Stoughton. 1914. 316 pp. Like nearly all the works of French writers everything here centers from the battle itself. This is a careful psychological study, especially of the Napoleonic wars, stressing morale from the stand- point of the battle. Industrial Good-Will: The Human Side of the Labor Problem. By J. R. Commons. N. Y., McGraw-Hill, 1919. 213 pp. In place of the old commodity theory determined solely by de- mand and supply, and the newer machinery theory which is supported by the efficiency movement, the writer pleads for a new good-will method which shall recognize human instincts and desires, which if thwarted always make trouble. We have come out of the war the greatest industrial power in the world, and where other nations are bankrupt we are creditors. But we shall throw away all of these advantages if we cannot establish industrial good-will. Les Etudes sur le Combat. By Ardant Du Picq. Paris, Hachette, 1880. Until Marshal Foch's book appeared, this has been probably the most characteristic presentation of the psychology of the actual face- to-face combat, which the French make central in their war theory and teaching, just as the German works tend to center about ma- neuvers and tactics. 373 MORALE Psychology of War. By LeRoy Eltinge. Fort Leavenworth, Kans„ Press of the Army Service Schools, 1918. 126 pp. This is a very effective book and widely read by officers, based to some extent on Le Bon's principles. The psychology of the crowd and mass is discussed, and there are excellent chapters on panic in war, and on the psychology of infantry combat In an appendix he discusses the causes of war, which bottom on the increase of popu- lation and economic pressure, and this, to the author, shows that war is inevitable. The Principles of War. By General Ferdinand Foch. Tr. by J. de Morinni. N. Y., 1918. 372 pp. Here we have the principles of Foch the Teacher which he has lived up to. The whole work is sown with references to morale, which is the force that most needs to be economized, that is regu- lated by intellectual discipline, that is affected by strategy. The last three chapters culminate, like all French works, in the battle itself. Morale. By Harold Goddard. New York, G. H. Doran Co., 1918. 118 pp. This is largely a reprint of articles but a most stimulating book for soldiers. The preliminary morales are health, gregariousness, and humor. The major are pugnacity, adventure, work, communal labor, justice; while the composite morales include, pride, victory, sport, fatalism, and reason. Then comes the supreme morale, which is that of creation. Sex and Morale and Morale and Reconstruction are also included. Morals and Morale. By Luther H. Gulick, M. D., with an Introduc- tion by Raymond B. Fpsdick. Association Press, 1919. 192 pp. This book was practically finished before the author's death, and has been brought down to date by the most competent of all au- thorities. Dr. Gulick studied the sex_ problem at the front, and the last half of his book is made up of appendices, starting with the messages of President Wilson and Secretary Baker and containing the important documents which show just what our government has done for sex in the army. This is the best and most comprehensive work on the subject The Metaphysical Theory of the State. By L. T. Hobhouse. N. Y., Macmillan, 1918. 156 pp. This is an admirable statement of the Hegelian theory of the state and its various ramifications with a criticism of this view, which the author thinks contributed so much to the Prussian ideal of the state as absolute. One should read in this connection II. J. Luski'a Authority in the Modern State (New Haven, Yale U. Press, 1919). See, too, W. Willoughby's Prussian Political Philosophy (N. Y., Appleton, 1918) ; Ernest Parker: Political Thought in Enqland from Herbert Spencer to the Present Day. (Lond., Williams, 1915). Morale and Its Enemies. By William Ernest Hocking. New Haven, Yale Univ. Press, 1918. 200 pp. ---- The author was at the front for a short time during the summer of 1917. The substance of this book was given in lecture courses. The first part treats of the Foundations of Morale, and includes chapters on why morale counts and how much, what is good morale, its foundations—instinct and feelings, knowledge and belief, realizing 374 BIBLIOGRAPHY the war, enmity, the purposes ot Potsdam, the mote in our own eye, taid state blindness. The second part deals with the Morale of the Fighting Man. Here are chapters on the psychology of the soldier, discipline, will, practice, command, morale-building forces, fear and its control, war and women, and the longer strains of war. Le Courage. By Louis Huot and Paul Voivenel. Paris, Alcan, 1917. 358_ pp. This is the broadest and most comprehensive treatise on the sub- ject, its history, literature, manifestations in war and its psychology, and sketches with great detail the inner history of a great conflict, its beginning, acme, and end. At the apex of his excitement the fighter's state is masochistic and he absolutely loses fear. There are other analogies between the erethism of war and that of sex. The author's main thesis is that courage is the triumph of the instinct of social over individual preservation. It abounds in very acute ob- servations. Some of the voluminous literature on Ideal States should be in- teresting reading to-day. e. g., C. W. Wooldridge: Perfecting the Earth (Cleveland, Utopia Publ. Co., 1902) ; A. P. Russell: Sub Coleum: The Sky-Built Human World (Bost., Houghton, 1893) ; R. M. Chapman: Vision of the Future (N. Y., Metropolitan Press, 1916) ; O. Gregory: Meccania, the Super-State (Lond., 1918) ; E. Pataud and E. Pouget: Syndicalism and the Cooperative Commonwealth (Oxford, New In- ternational Publ. Co., 1913) ; W. D. Howells: Through the Eye of the Needle (N. Y., Harper, 1907); H. G. Schuette: Athonia or The Original Four Hundred (Manitowoc, Wis., Lakeside, 1911) ; M. I. Swift: The Horroboos (N. Y., Liberty Press, 1911) ; R. A. Cram: Walled Towns (Bost, Marshall, Jones, 1919) ; W. O. Henry: Equi- tania (Omaha, Klopp, 1914) ; H. G. Wells: A Modern Utopia (N. Y., Scribner, 1907); J. Miller: The Making of the City_ Bcautijul (1894); W. Morris: News from Nowhere (N. Y., Longmans')-; 1. Donnelly: Atlantis (N. Y., Harper, 1882); E. Bellamy: Looking Backicard (Bost., Houghton, 1898). On Internationalism, as on all these topics, there is a vast litera- ture from which it seems invidious to seek out a few. We mention, however, W. P. Merrill: Christian Internationalism (N. Y., Mac- millan, 1919) ; F. B. Sayre: Experiments in International Adminis- tration (N. Y., Harper, 1919); F. C. Howe: The Only Possible Peace (N. Y., Scribner, 1919) ; R. Muir: Nationalism and Interna- tionalism (Lond., Constable, 1916); Rabindranath Tagore: National- ism (N. Y., Macmillan, 1917). The Physical Basis of Society. By Carl Kelsey. N. Y., Appleton, 1916. 406 pp. See also World Power and Evolution. By Ellsworth Hunting- ton. New Haven, Yale U. Press, 1919. 287 pp. The Economic Consequences of the Peace. By J. M. Keynes. N. Y., Macmillan, 1920. 298 pp. ~*~ This much-read book disparages the Treaty as neglecting to deal with the very subtle economic questions upon the exact balance of which peace and happiness are dependent in Europe. President Wil- son was an idealist insisting only upon his moral principles and quite unable to cope with the subtleties of European diplomacy. America should now cancel all debts of foreign countries to it and should lead in raising an enormous loan, which would be paid to develop European industries. The Treaty must be revised for Germany cannot possibly meet all the conditions. Keynes modernizes Norman Ansell's "The Great Illusion" (1910) which insisted that the world was governed 375 BIBLIOGRAPHY not by political or military but by economic forces, and that no na- tion could ever afford to destroy the industry of another. This, Keynea says, the Treaty does for Germany. Hier et Demaiti. By Gustave Le Bon,__Paris, Alcan, 1918. 252 pp. In this work the author applies his psychology of peoples and the crowd to war before and during battle, and seeks to give a practical application to his view that the force of the army is the force of collectivity, a view that underlies both his The Psychology of Peoples (N. Y., 1912. 216 pp.) and his Enlignments Psychologiqucs de la Guerre Europeenne (Paris, 1916, 354 pp.) The Psychology of Courage. By Herbert Gardner Lord. Boston, John W. Luce, 1918. 164 pp. The author is a professor at Columbia University. t His book deals with mechanism in man, the nature of courage, iits simpler and lower forms, acquired and complex mechanism in its higher forms, courage of differing patriotisms, its ultimate foundations, training—general and special, restoration of courage when lost shell-shock, and an epilogue on morale. The Psychology of War. By John T. MacCurdy. London, Heine- mann, 1917. 68 pp. This treats chiefly of primitive instincts and gregariousness and its correlation with primitive instincts. The author jhas made very important contributions in the base hospitals to the knowledge and treatment of shell shock. The Biology of War. By G. F. Nicolai. New York, The Century Co., 1918. 553 pp. The author of this book, which is one of the very best the war has produced, was formerly Professor of Physiology in the Univer- sity of Berlin, and suffered bitter persecution' at' the hand of the German government for printing his valuable work. Part "I discusses the war instinct war and the struggle for life, selection by meaus of war, the chosen people, how war is metamorphosed and the army transformed, the roots of patriotism, its different species, unjusti- fiable chauvinism, the legitimate individualism of nations, and al- truism. Part II tells how war may be abolished, describes the evo- lution of the idea of the world as an organism and how this concep- tion has been voiced, or rather how unsuccessful have been the at- tempts to express it discusses the transformations of human judg- ment and finally war and religion. The author starts with a drastic arraignment of the ninety- three German professors who signed the famous German Manifesto of October, 1914, which prompted his book. He shows remarkable familiarity with the history of war, but the chief thesis with which his book concludes is that God is humanity, theology is an- thropology, and in this way he redefines in modern form the con- ception first set forth by Feuerbach that all modern conceptions of God are really those of humanity ejected and projected upon the clouds. God is Man and therefore brotherhood and peace must evict war. ^ * Motives in Economic Life (Amer. Econ. Rev. Sup., Mar., 1918) ; The I. W. W. (Atlan., Nov., 1917) ; The Technique of American In- dustry (Atlan., Jan., 1920). By Carleton Parker. See also the work of his pupil, Ordway Tead: Instincts in In- dustry—A Study of Working-Clasa Psychology (Bost., Houghton, 1918). See, too, in the same spirit, P. S. Grant: Fair Play for the Workers (N. Y., Moffat, Yard, 1919) ; A. Henderson: The Ainu of Labor (N. Y., Huebsch, 1919) ; Boyd Fisher: Industrial Loyalty 376 BIBLIOGRAPHY (Lond., Routledge, 1918) ; W. MacKenzie King: Industry and Hu- manity (Bost., Houghton, 1918) ; R. W. Bruere: Labor and the New Nationalism (N. Y., Harper, 1919) ; M. B. Reckitt and C. E. Bec- hofer: The Meaning of National Guilds (Lond., Palmer, 1918); F. British Labor party and an interesting comparison with Russian soviet THE END 2) \ BJ 1011 H176m 1920 01010080R NLM DSOObSt? 7 NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE