NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE Washington Founded 1836 U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Public Health Serrice * '*' ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA. A POPULAR DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE, HISTORY, POLITICS AND BIOGRAPHY, BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME; INCLUDING A COPIOUS COLLECTION OF ORIGINAL ARTICLES IN AMERICAN BIOGRAPHY; ON THE BASIS OF THE SEVENTH EDITION OF THE GERMAN COSffVERSATEOBTS-lESXICON. EDITED BY FRANCIS LIEBER3 ASSISTED BY E. WIGGLESWORTH AND T. G. BRADFORD. Vol. VIII. ^InlaMjjfjCa: . CAREY AND LEA. SOLD IN PHILADELPHIA BY E. L. CAREY AND A. HART—IN NEW YORK BY G. & C. & H. CARVILL—IN BOSTON BY CARTER & HENDEE.. 1831. EASTERN DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA, to wit: Be it remembered, that on the tenth day of August, in the fifty-fourth year of the Independence of the United States of America, A. D. 1829, Carey, Lea & Carey, of the said district, have deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof tbey claim as proprietors, in the words following, to wit: " Encyclopaedia Americana. A Popular Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature, History, Politics and Biography, brought down to the present Time ; including a copious Collection of Original Articles in American Biography ; on the Basis of the seventh Edition of the German Conversations-Lexicon. Edited by Francis Lieber, assisted by E. Wigglesworth." In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, "An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned:" and also to the act, entitled, "An Act supplementary to an act, entitled, ' An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned,' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving and etching historical and other prints." D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. ENCYCLOPEDIA AMERICANA. Linn.eus. (See Linne".) Linne, Charles, but more generally des- ignated by his Latinized name, Linnaus, the most celebrated naturalist of his age, was a native of Sweden. He was the son of a clergyman, and was born May 13, old style, 1707, at Roeshult, in the province ofSmaland. His father was fond of gar- dening, and his little domain was stocked with plants not commonly cultivated—a circumstance to which the prevailing taste of the son maybe fairly attributed. He was sent to the grammar-echool, and af- terwards to the gymnasium of Wexio, to be educated for the ministry ; but, as he disliked the studies of the school, and pre- ferred to collect plants and catch butter- flies, he remained behind his fellow-pupils in Latin and Greek, and the teachers de- clared to his father that he was only fit for a mechanic. The father sent him to a shoemaker; but the physician Rothmann, having discovered talents in the boy, in- duced his parents to let him study. As botany afforded him no prospect of a support, Linne was obliged to study medi- cine. In 1727, he entered at the univer- sity of Lund in Scania, whence he re- moved, the following year, to Upsal. During his early residence there, the nar- rowness of his father's circumstances ex- posed him to great difficulties, from which he was relieved by the patronage of Cel- sius, the theological professor, an eminent naturalist, who had become acquainted with him in the botanical garden at Upsal, and through whose recommendation he obtained some private pupils. He also formed a friendship with Artedi, a med- ical student like himself, devoted to the cultivation of natural history. He now, in his 24th year, conceived the idea of a new arrangement of plants, or the sexual sys- tem of botany, relative to which lie wrote a memoir, which was shown to Rudbeck, the botanical professor, who was so struck with its ingenuity, that he received the author into his house, as tutor to his sons, and made him his assistant in the office of delivering lectures. Forty years before, Rudbeck had made a journey to Lapland, which excited the curiosity of the learned. A new journey was now concluded upon, and, in 1732, Linne was sent, by the acad- emy of sciences at Upsal, to make a tour through Lapland, from which he returned towards the close of the year. Fifty Swedish dollars were thought sufficient by Linne to defray his expenses, and with this small sum he made a journey of more than 3500 miles, unaccompanied. In 1733, he visited the mining district around Fahlun, and gave lectures on mineralogy, having formed a system of that science, afterwards published in his SystemaNatu- ra. While he was thus adding to his repu- tation at Upsal, he became involved in a violent quarrel with the medical professor, Nicholas Rosen, who seems to have acted with a great deal of illiberality, and found means to prevent Linne from continuing his private lectures. He therefore engaged in a scientific tour through the province of Dalecarlia, and remained for some time at Fahlun, lecturing and practis- ing medicine with considerable suc- cess. He again went to Lapland on a mineralogical tour, with seven young men; and, in 1735, published a complete Flora of this country—a classical work. In the same year, he went to the university of Harderwyck, in Holland, and took the de- gree of M. D. He then visited Leyden, where the first sketch of his Systema Natu- EASTERN DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA, to wit: Be it remembered, that on the tenth day of August, in the fifty-fourth year of the Independence of the United States of America, A. D. 1829, Carey, Lea & Carey, of the said district, have deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words following, to wit: " Encyclopaedia Americana. A Popular Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature, History, Politics and Biography, brought down to the present Time ; including a copious Collection of Original Articles in American Biography ; on the Basis of the seventh Edition of the German Conversations-Lexicon. Edited by Francis Lieber, assisted by E. Wigglesworth." In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, " An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned:" and also to the act, entitled, "An Act supplementary to an act, entitled, ' An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned,' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving and etching historical and other prints." D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. M'J Hisf, * to V. % ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA. Linnjeus. (See IAnni.) Linne, Charles, but more generally des- ignated by his Latinized name, Linnaus, the most celebrated naturalist of his age, was a native of Sweden. He was the son of a clergyman, and was born May 13, old style, 1707, at Roeshult,in the province of Smaland. His father was fond of gar- dening, and his little domain was stocked with plants not commonly cultivated—a circumstance to which the prevailing taste of the son may be fairly attributed. He was sent to the grammar-school, and af- terwards to the gymnasium of Wexio, to be educated for the ministry ; but, as he disliked the studies of the school, and pre- ferred to collect plants and catch butter- flies, he remained behind his fellow-pupils in Latin and Greek, and the teachers de- clared to his father that he was only fit for a mechanic. The father sent him to a shoemaker; but the physician Rothmann, having discovered talents in the boy, in- duced his parents to let him study. As botany afforded him no prospect of a support, Linne was obliged to study medi- cine. In 1727, he entered at the univer- sity of Lund in Scania, whence he re- moved, the following year, to Upsal. During his early residence there, the nar- rowness of his father's circumstances ex- posed him to great difficulties, from which he was relieved by the patronage of Cel- sius, the theological professor, an eminent naturalist, who had become acquainted with him in the botanical garden at Upsal, and through whose recommendation he obtained some private pupils. He also formed a friendship with Artedi, a med- ical student like himself, devoted to the cultivation of natural history. He now, in his 24th year, conceived the idea of a new arrangement of plants, or the sexual sys- tem of botany, relative to which he wrote a memoir, which was shown to Rudbeck, the botanical professor, who was so struck with its ingenuity, that he received the author into his house, as tutor to his sons, and made him his assistant in the office of delivering lectures. Forty years before, Rudbeck had made a journey to Lapland, which excited the curiosity of the learned. A new journey was now concluded upon, and, in 1732, Linne was sent, by the acad- emy of sciences at Upsal, to make a tour through Lapland, from which he returned towards the close of the year. Fifty Swedish dollars were thought sufficient by Linne to defray his expenses, and with this small sum he made a journey of more than 3500 miles, unaccompanied. In 1733, he visited the mining district around Fahlun, and gave lectures on mineralogy, having formed a system of that science, afterwards published in his SystemaNatu- ra. While he was thus adding to his repu- tation at Upsal, he became involved in a violent quarrel with the medical professor, Nicholas Rosen, who seems to have acted with a great deal of illiberality, and found means to prevent Linne from continuing his private lectures. He therefore engaged in a scientific tour through the province of Dalecarlia, and remained for some time at Fahlun, lecturing and practis- ing medicine with considerable suc- cess. He again went to Lapland on a mineralogical tour, with seven young men; and, in 1735, published a complete Flora of this country—a classical work. In the same year, he went to the university of Harderwyck, in Holland, and took the de- gree of M. D. He then visited Leyden, where the first sketch of his Systema Natu- 4 LINNE—LINSEED OIL. ra was printed in the form of tables, filling 12 folio pages. He became acquainted vv ith John Frederic Gronovius, Boerhaave, and John Burman of Amsterdam ; and he then published a work, entitled Finda- menta Botanica, exhibiting the basis of his botanical system. Mr. Clifford, a rich merchant of Amsterdam, made him su- perintendent of his garden at Hartecamp, near Haerlem, rich in curious exoth s, of which Linne drew up a systematic cata- logue. In 1736, he made a visit to Eng- land. He returned to Holland with many new plants for Mr. Clifford's garden, his description of which, entitled Hortus Clif- fortianus, with 37 plates, was now publish- ed in a most splendid form. He also pub- lished the first edition of his Genera Plantarum. In 1738, he made an excur- sion to Paris, and, towards the end of that ye;ir, returned to his native country, and settled as a physician at Stockholm. At first, he experienced neglect ; but, through the influence of count Tessin, he was appointed physician to the navy, and had a salary for giving public lectures on botany in the summer, and on mineralogy in the winter. The establishment of the royal academy of Stockholm, of which he was one of the first members, contributed to the advancement of his reputation, by the opportunities which it afforded for the display of his abilities. In 1741, he suc- ceeded Roberg in the professorship of medicine at Upsal, to which was added the superintendence of the botanic garden, to the new arrangement and augmentation of which he devoted much of his time and attention. In 1745, appeared his Flora Suecica, and the next year his cata- logue of Swedish animals, entitled Fauna Suecica. He was elected to the post of secretary of the academy of sciences at Upsal. In 1746, an honorary medal of him was struck at the expense of some noble- men ; and, .in 1747, he was nominated royal archiater. Through his influence, many young naturalists were sent to ex- plore various countries ; and to his zeal in the cause of science we owe the discove- ries in natural history made by Kalm, Os- beck, Hasselquist and Loefling. He was employed by the queen of Sweden to de- scribe her museum at Drottningholm, when he made a new scientific arrange- ment of the shells contained in it About 1751, he published his PhUosophia Botan- ica, and, in 1753, his Species Plantarum, containing a description of every known plant, arranged according to the sexual Bystem. This work of Linne, which Hal- ler terms his Maximum Opus et Mternum, appeared originally in two volumes, 8vo. ; but the edition published by Willdenow at Berlin, 1799—1810, is extended to ten volumes. In 1753, this great naturalist was created a knight of the polar star—an honor never before bestowed on a literary man. In 1761, he was elevated to the rank of nobility. Literary honors were also conferred on him by scientific socie- ties u: foreign countries. In 1768, he com- pleted the plan of his Systema Natura,. which, through successive editions, had been enlarged to three octavo volumes. Linne acquired a moderate degree of op- ulence, sufficient to enable him to pur- chase an estate and mansion at Hammar- by, near Upsal, where he chiefly resided during the last 15 years of his life. There he had a museum of natural history, on which he gave lectures, and to which he was constantly making additions, from the contributions of travellers and men of science in various parts of the world. His health, during a great part of his life, enabled him to pursue his researches with vigor and activity; but in May, 1774, he had an apoplectic attack, which obliged him to relinquish the most laborious part of his professorial duties, and close his literary labors. A second attack occurred in 1776, and he afterwards experienced a third; but his death did not take place till January 11, 1778. Besides his works on natural history, he published a classi- fied Materia Medico, and a systematic treatise on nosology, entitled Genera Mor- borum. Few men in the history of sci- ence have shown such boldness, zeal, activity and sagacity as Linne : natural science is under unspeakable obligations to him, though the different systems es- tablished by him may be superseded by more perfect ones. Charles XIV, king of Sweden, in 1819, ordered a monument to be erected to him in his native place. By his wife, the daughter of a physician at Fahlun, he had a son and four daugh- ters. The former, Charles von Linni, jun. was joint-professor of botany, and after- wards professor of medicine at Upsal. He was well acquainted with science, but distinguished himself by no discoveries of importance. On his death, without issue, in 1783, the family became extinct —Elizabeth Christina von Linni, one of the daughters of the great naturalist, studied botany, and became known by her discovery of the luminous property of the flower of the tropaolum, of which an account w,as communicated to the academy of Stockholm. Linseed Oil. (See Flax.) LINT—LION. 5 Lint, in surgery, is the scrapings of fine linen, used by surgeons in dressing wounds. It is made into various forms, whicli have different names, according to the difference of the figures. Lint, made up in an oval or orbicular form, is called a pledgU; if in a cylindrical form, or in shape of a date or olive stone, it is called a dossU. These different forms of lint are required for many purposes ; as, 1. to stop blood in fresh wounds, by filling them up before the application of a bandage; though, if scraped lint be not at hand, a piece of fine linen may be torn into small rags, and applied in the same manner: in very large hemorrhages, the lint or rags should be first dipped in some styptic liquor, as alcohol, or oil of turpentine, or sprinkled with some styptic powder: 2. to agglutinate or heal wounds ; to which end lint is very serviceable, if spread with some digestive ointment, balsam, or vulnerary liquor : 3. in drying up wounds and ulcers, and forwarding the formation of a cicatrix: 4. in keeping the lips of wounds at a proper distance, that they may not hastily unite before the bottom is well digested and healed: 5. they are highly neces- sary to preserve wounds from the injuries of the air.—Surgeons of former ages used compresses of sponge, wool, feathers, or cotton, linen being less plentiful than in later times; but lint is far preferable to all these, and is, at present, universally used. Lintz, capital of Upper Austria, on the Danube, at the influx of the Traun, is well built, with a bridge 400 paces long, and has, exclusive of the garrison, a popu- lation of 18,700 inhabitants; houses, 1000. Here is the largest woollen manufactory in Austria, in which fine carpets are made. Much gunpowder is also manufactured here. In 1784, Lintz was made a bishop's see. In 1674, the lyceum was founded by Leopold, and, in 1824, institutions for the deaf and dumb, and one for the blind, were erected. The Northern Institute is a college for the Catholics of the north of Germany. Lon. 14° W 45" E.; lat. 48° 18' 54" N. Linus ; the name of a celebrated mu- sician of antiquity, to whom Diodorus Siculus, quoting Dionysius of Mitylene, attributes the introduction of verse and music into Greece. He was a native of Chalcis, and to him are ascribed a poem on the exploits of Bacchus in India, a treatise on mythology, the addition of a string to the lyre then in use, and the in- vention of melody and rhythm. Suidas also joins in giving him credit for the last- mentioned improvements, and calls him the first lyric poet. A few fragments of poetry, under his name, are to be found in Stobaeus. Lion (felis leo). The lion, like all other cats, is armed, in each jaw, with six strong and exceedingly sharp cutting teeth, two formidable canine, and six others, occupying the usual place of the molars, but differing from these by termi- nating in sharp protuberances. Besides these, there is a small tooth, or tubercle, on each side of the upper jaw, immediate- ly posterior to all the others. The tongue is covered with rough and elevated papU- la, with their points directed backwards. The claws, which are five in number on the fore feet, and four on the hinder, are of great length, extremely powerful, and much curved; like those of the other cats, they are retractile within a sheath en- closed in the skin covering the paws. The lion is distinguished from his kindred species by the uniformity of his color, which is pale tawny above, becoming somewhat lighter beneath, and never, ex- cept while very young, exhibiting any markings; and also by the long and flow- ing mane of the old male, which, cover- ing the whole head, extends backwards over his shoulders. Notwithstanding the praises that have, from time immemorial, been bestowed on this animal, for grateful affection, dauntless courage, and merciful forbearance, he is nothing more, in moral and intellectual faculties, than a cat of im mense size and strength, and endowed with all the guileful and treacherous qual- ities of that treacherous tribe. His daunt- less courage is a mere consciousness of superiority over the animals by which he is surrounded, and wholly disappears in the neighborhood of man ; his merciful forbearance is nothing more than that he never destroys more than satiates his hun- ger or revenge, and that, when under the dominion of man, he suffers his keeper to approach him without injury. The lion is only met with in the wanner regions of the old world, and more particularly of Africa, in whose vast forests and arid deserts he reigns supreme and uncon- trolled. He is met with, but rarely, in parts of India, Arabia and Persia, but his range in these countries is becoming very limited. From Libya, whence the Romans obtained so many, he has almost disap- peared ; and in classic Greece, where, we are informed by Aristotle, he once occur- red, none are to be found. In America, this species never occurred, its place being supplied by the puma. Naturalists have 6 LION. differed greatly as to the longevity of this animal. Buffon stated it to be from 20 to 22 years; but it far exceeds this, as the one in the Tower of London, which died in 1760, lived in captivity above 70 years; and another died in the same place, at the age of 63. The lioness brings forth from three to four at a birth. The cubs, when first born, are about the size of a small pug dog, and continue to suck the mother for about a year. At this time, their color is a mixture of reddish and gray, with a number of brown bands. The mane of the male begins to make its appearance when the animal is about three to three years and a half old. The male attains maturity in seven, and the female in six years. The strength of the lion is pro- digious, a single stroke with his paw being sufficient to destroy most animals. The bone of the fore leg is remarkably fitted to sustain the great muscular strain so powerful an exertion occasions. Its texture is so compact, that it will strike fire with steel. The lurking-place of the lion is generally chosen near a spring, or by the side of a river, where he has an opportunity of surprising such animals as resort to the water to quench their thirst Here he lies in wait, crouched in some thicket, till his prey approaches, and then, with a prodigious leap, seizes it at the first bound; if, however, unsuccessful in this, he immediately retires to wait another opportunity. In the night, more particu- larly, the lion prowls abroad in search of his prey, the conformation of his eyes being, like those of the common cat, well fitted for seeing in a dim light. The roar of the lion is loud and terrific, especially when heard hi the solitary wilds he in- habits: this roar is his natural voice; for, when enraged, he utters a short and sud- denly-repeated cry, whilst the roar is a prolonged effort, a kind of deep-toned grumbling, mixed with a sharp, vibrating noise. It has been usually stated, that the lion had constant and stated times for roaring, especially when in captivity; but this has been shown to be erroneous in some degree. It appears, however, that, in summer time, and especially before at- mospheric changes, he uniformly com- mences about dawn; at no other time is there any regularity in his roar. When enraged, his cry is still more appalling than his roar; he then beats his sides with his tail, agitates his mane, moves the skin of his face and his shaggy eyebrows, thrusts out his tongue, and protrudes his dreadful claws. The lion requires about 15 pounds of raw flesh a day; he drinks often, lapping like a dog; but in this pro- cess his tongue is bent downward: his breath is very offensive, and the odor of his urine insupportable. There is some variation, in the lions of different countries in external appearance, though, in essen- tial particulars, their habits are identical. The Asiatic variety seldom attains an equal size with the Cape lion ; its color is a more uniform and pale yellow, and its mane fuller and more complete, and being, moreover, furnished with a peculiar ap- pendage of long hairs, which, commenc- ing beneath the neck, occupy the whole of the middle line of the body beneath. Even the Cape lion presents two varieties, known as the pale and the black, distin- guished, as their appellations imply, by the lighter or darker color of their coats. The latter of these is the larger and more; ferocious of the two. The Barbary lion has the same full mane as the Asiatic, but exceeds him in size. The number of lions, as has been observed, lias greatly diminished, judging from the multitudes spoken of by ancient writers, and those carried to Rome. Thus Sylla the dictator exhibited, during his pretorship, 100 of these animals; and Pompey presented 600 in the circus. Lion-fights were common under the consulate, and during the em- pire. Adrian, it is said, often caused 100 to be destroyed at one exhibition ; and Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius were equally prodigal in gratifying the people. At the cape of Good Hope, lions are hunted, not only for the purpose of extermination, but also for their skins. In the day time, and in an open country, from 10 to 16 dogs will easily overcome a lion of the largest size; nor does there appear to be any necessity that the dogs should be very large; as he is less swift than these animals, they readily overtake him, on which the lion turns round, and waits for the attack, shaking his mane, and roaring in a short and sharp tone, or sits down on his haunches to face them. The dogs then surround him, and, simul- taneously rushing upon him, subdue him by their united efforts, though not before he has destroyed several of them. But the mode of destroying them, usual amon« the Bushmen, is by shooting them, either with fire-arms or poisoned arrows. The inhabitants know that the lion generally kills and devours his prey at sunrise and sunset On this account, therefore, when they intend to hunt them, they notice where the antelopes are feeding at day- break : if they perceive that these animals are alarmed, they conclude that they have LION—LIPOGRAMMATIC COMPOSITIONS. 7 been attacked by a lion. Marking the Bpot whence the alarm took place, about mid-day, when the sun is very powerful, and the object of their attack asleep, they carefully examine the ground, and, if they find him, they lodge a bullet or poisoned aiTow in him. Sometimes, however, he is fairly brought to bay in the day time, by the hunter, as the following account from Pringle testifies. After his retreat is found, " the approved plan is to torment him with dogs till he abandons his covert, and stands at bay in the open plain. The whole band of hunters then march for- ward together, and fire deliberately, one by one. If he does not speedily fall, but grows angry, and turns upon his enemies, they must then stand close in a circle, and turn their horses' rear outward, some holding them fast by the bridles, while the others kneel to take a steady aim at the lion as he approaches, sometimes up to the very horses' heels, crouching every now and then, as if to measure the distance and strength of his enemies. This is the moment to shoot him fairly in the forehead, or some other mortal part. If they continue to wound him ineffectu- ally, till he becomes furious and desperate, or if the horses, startled by his terrific roar, grow frantic with terror, and burst loose, the business becomes rather serious, and may end in mischief, especially if all the party are not men of courage, coolness and experience." Very full accounts of the lion and his habits are to be found in the travels of Sparmann, Barlow, Levail- lant, Burchell, &c, in Southern Africa, and also in the Library of Entertaining Knowledge, and the Tower Menagerie, from which the above account has been condensed. Lion's Gulf. This is the proper spelling of the gulf generally called Gulf of Lyons. The name is derived from lion, on account of the fierceness of the gales, at some seasons, in this gulf. The proper mode of writing it in French is Golfe du Lion. (See Lyons, Gulf of.) Lion's Share ; the whole, or a dispro- portionate share of the advantages of a contract, claimed by one of the parties, and supported by the right of the strong- est. The phrase is derived from a fable of iEsop. Lipano, Countess of (Caroline An- nunziada); the widow of Murat (q. v.), and the sister of Napoleon. She be- came grand-duchess of Berg, and queen of Naples. She was born March 26, 1782. Lipari ; a cluster of volcanic islands in the Mediterranean, which take their name from the principal one of the group, about 24 miles from the north coast of Sicily. Lou. 15° 12' E. ; lat 38° 34' E.; population, about. 20,000. These islands were called, by the ancients, JEolia, Vul- cania, and Insula Liparaorum, and feign- ed to be the residence of ^Eolus and Vul- can. Lipari, the largest, is populous and well cultivated, producing great quantities of corn and fruit, especially figs and rai- sins ; it likewise produces alum, sulphur, nitre and cinnabar. It is about 15 miles in circumference; the air is healthy, and the inhabitants industrious and good sea- men. On the eastern coast is situated a town of the same name. In this island were formerly pits, which emitted fire and smoke, but have long ceased to do either. Population, 15,000; square miles, 100. The other islands arc Stromboli, Panaria, Vulcano, Salini, Alicudi and Felicudi, with two or three smaller ones. The volcanic eruptions, formerly frequent in the island of Lipari, ceased in the sixth century, but the whole island is composed of pumice- stone, lava, volcanic glass, and black sand; and the warm baths, and heated vapors of the Stoves (excavations which emit hot, sulphureous exhalations),prove the activity of the subterranean fires. The celebiated crater of Vulcano was visited by general Cockburn in 1812 (Voyage to Cadiz); the volcano is probably only slumbering, and not extinct Stromboli is at present the most remarkable of the islands ; its fires are in unremitting activity, the eruptions taking place at regular intervals, varying from three to eight minutes. (See the works of Dolomieu, Spallanzani, Bry- done, &c.) Lipinski, Charles, one of the greatest violinists, was born in 1790, at Radeyn, Poland. His father gave him his first in- struction in music. In 1810, he was ap- pointed director of music at the German theatre in Lemberg, and gave up the vio- loncello, till then his chief instrument, and devoted himself more to the violin. In 1814, he was so attracted by Spohr's playing, that he resigned his place, in or- der to have leisure for practising that artist's manner. He remained in his native country until 1817, when he went to Italy to hear the celebrated Paganini. (q. v.) In Piacenza, he played with hir>i in a concert. Since that time, he has travelled in Russia, Germany and France. His style inclines to the elevated. LlPOGRAMMATIC COMPOSITIONS ? those in which certain letters are purposely left out. Thus Lope de Vega wrote a 8 LIPOGRAMMATIC COMPOSITIONS—LIPSIUS. novdla without / or a. Kotzebue wrote one without r. The word is derived from the Greek lemur (signifying to omit, and used in many compound words), and ypa/Jiia (letter). Lippe. The ancient principality of Lippe is, at present, divided between two reigning houses: 1. Lippe-Detmold con- tains about 490 square miles, with 71,200 inhabitants. Detmold, with 2700 inhab- itants, is the capital. Public revenue, 490,000 guilders. The prince furnishes a contingent of 600 men to the German confederacy. The constitution granted by the mother of the present prince to the country is still suspended, because the no- bility will not allow the peasants to be represented. 2. Schauenburg-Lippe. The dominions of the prince of Lippe-Buck- eburg-Schauenburg contain 212 square miles, with 25,500 inhabitants; revenue, 215,000 guilders; contingent to the Ger- manic confederation, 240 men. Biicke- burg, the capital, is on the river Au. In 1810, the prince abolished the last traces of bondage, and, Jan. 15,1816, established a constitution. Lippi. There were three Florentine artists of this name. Of these, the eldest, Francesco FUippo, born in 1421, and sur- named the Old, had taken the vows as a Carmelite monk, but afterwards abandon- ed the church, and underwent many vi- cissitudes of fortune. On one occasion, he fell into the hands of a Barbary corsair, who sold him to slavery in Africa. The successful exertion of his talents, upon the portrait of his purchaser, was rewarded by his restoration to liberty. On his re- turn to Italy, he was received into the ser- vice of the grand-duke of Florence. His death took place in 1488; and, although he was then 67, it is said to have been the result of an intrigue with a female of a re- spectable family, poison being employed by her relatives for his destruction.—He left one son, FUippo, also a painter of considerable reputation, born in 1460. Many of his works are yet to be found in the city of which he was a native. He died in 1505.—Lorenzo, the third of the name, descended of the same family, unit- ed to considerable skill as a historical and portrait painter the arts of poetry and mu- sic. He was born in 1606, and is advan- tageously known as the author of a bur- lesque poem, entitled Malmantile Racquis- tato. Of this work there have been three editions; two printed at Florence, in 1688 and 1731, the other, in 1768,at Paris. It ap- peared originally under the fictitious name of Zipoli. His death took place in 1664. Lipsius, Justus; an acute critic and er- udite scholar of the sixteenth century, born at Overysche, in Brabant, a village situated between Brussels and Lou vain, in Octo- ber, 1547. Martinus Lipsius, the intimate friend of Erasmus, was his uncle. His genius developed itself very early, hi* memory being considered wonderful. Be- fore he'had completed his ninth year, he had written some miscellaneous poetry, much above mediocrity. He was instruct- ed at Brussels, and, subsequently, in the colleges of ^Eth, Cologne and Louvain. He removed to Rome in his 20th year, and, having secured the patronage of car- dinal Granvella, by dedicating to him his treatise Variorum Ledionum, was received into his household, in the nominal capaci- ty of secretary. With this distinguished prelate he remained till 1569, sedulously consulting the treasures of the Vatican, and other principal libraries, especially employing himself in the collation of rare and ancient manuscripts. On his return to the Netherlands, after a short time spent at Louvain, he visited the capital of the; German empire, and then accepted a pro- fessorship in the university of Jena. Here the fickleness of his disposition, and the vacillating state of his opinions respecting religious matters, which eventually fixed the imputation of imbecility on a charac- ter in other respects estimable, first became apparent. He renounced the Romish church, and became a Lutheran ; but, quitting Jena, at length, with an avowed intention of spending the remainder of his life in retirement in his native country, he repaired to Overysche, and, soon after, recanted his supposed errors, and became reconciled to the see of Rome. In 1577, however, he again removed to Leyden, when he embraced the doctrines of Cal- vin, and, during the 13 years which lie spent in that university, gave to the world the most esteemed of his works. In 1590, he returned finally to Louvain, and once more became a Catholic, and that of the most bigoted description. Many tempt- ing and honorable offers were made him by various potentates, to engage him in their service; but he refused them all; and, at length, died at Louvain, in the spring of 1606. Superstition led him, a short time before his death, to dedicate a silver pen, and his fur gown, to the virgin Mary. His principal works are the Varia Lediones above-mentioned; an excellent Commentary on the Works of Tacitus: treatises De" Constantia; De MUUia Ro- mano ; De Amphitheatris; De Pronuntia- tione reda Lingua Latina ; De Cruce; LIPSIUS—LISBON. 9 De uiui Religione; De Bibliothecis; Satira Menippaa; Saturnalia; and an Oration on the Death of the Duke of Saxony. The best edition of them is that printed at Antwerp, in 1637. Liqueur (from the French); a palat- able spirituous drink, composed of wa- ter, alcohol, sugar, and some aromatic infusion, extracted from fruits, seeds, &c. The great difference in the quali- ties of the different liqueurs is owing principally to a variation in the propor- tions of the sugar and alcohol. The French distinguish three qualities : the first are the ratafias, or simple liqueurs, in which the sugar, the alcohol and the aromatic substance are in small quantities: such are the anise-water (q. v.), noyau, the apricot, cherry, &c. ratafias. The second are the oils, or the fine liqueurs, with more saccharine and spirituous matter; as the anisette, curacao, &c, which are those commonly found in the cafis. The third are the creams, or su- perfine liqueurs, such as rosoglio, maras- chino, Dantzic water, &c. The same ar- omatic infusion may, therefore, give its name to liqueurs of different qualities, in which the materials are the same, but the proportions different: thus one propor- tion of ingredients gives eau-de-noyau; an- other, creme-de-noyau, &c. LlQUIDAMBAR StYRACIFLUA, Or SwEET Gum. This tree is widely diffused through the U. States, from lat 43° to Florida, and along the shores of the gulf into the prov- inces of Mexico. The leaves, which somewhat resemble those of some maples, are very regularly five-lobed, and the lobes are serrated on the margin. The flowers are inconspicuous. The fruit con- sists of a sort of bur, supported on a long pedicle, and is somewhat similar to that of the button-wood, or plane-tree, but is much less even, on the surface. It is abundant every where throughout the Middle, Southern, and Western States, and sometimes has a trunk five feet in diameter, with a proportional summit. The usual diameter, however, is from one to three feet The wood is compact, ca- pable of receiving a fine polish, and has been used for articles of furniture; but, for this purpose, it is inferior to either the wild cherry or black walnut It is, how- ever, employed for lining mahogany, for bedsteads, and for a variety of purposes in the interior of houses, possessing great strength, but requiring protection from the weather. The bark, on being wounded, yields a small quantity of a fragrant resin. This tree is, however, inferior, in useful properties, to many others which inhabit our forests. Liquorice (glycyrhiza); a genus of leguminous plants, containing eight spe- cies, one of which is a native of North America, and the others are confined to the northern and temperate parts of the eastern continent They have pinnated leaves, and small, blue, violet, or white flowers, which are disposed in heads or spikes, and are remarkable for the sweet- ness of the roots. The common liquorice (G. glabra) grows wild in the south of Europe, and is cultivated in many places, even in England, for the sake of the root, which is much used in pharmacy, and forms a considerable article of commerce. More than 200 tons of the extract are man- ufactured annually in Spain, a considera- ble portion of which is sent to London, and employed in the brewing of porter. It is often administered medicinally, in coughs and pulmonary affections, and the aqueous infusion is exposed for sale in all the European cities, as a refreshing beve- rage. A deep, light and sandy soil is best adapted to its culture. The American species (G. lepidota) inhabits the plains of the Missouri, from St Louis upwards, ex- tending even to the borders of the Pacific, but is not found in the Atlantic states. Liriodendro.v. (See Tulip-Tree.) Lisbon (Lisboa), the chief city of Portugal, and the residence of the court, in the province of Estremadura, on the right Lank of the Tagus, which is here a mile and a half in width, and not far from the mouth of the river, is built on three hills, in a romantic country, and exhibits a grand appearance from the harbor. In- cluding the suburbs Junqueira and Alcan- tara, it is about five miles in length, and a mile and a half in breadth. It contains 40 parish churches, 75 convents, and 100 chapels, 44,000 houses, and, before 1807, had 300,000 inhabitants, but, at present, has not more than 200,000, among whom are many foreigners, Negroes, Mulattoes, Creoles, and 30,000 Galicians, who come from Spanish Galicia, and serve as por- ters and water carriers, and perform other menial occupations. The town is open, without walls or gates. The highest hill only has a castle, now in ruins; but the harbor is beautiful, capacious and safe, and is defended by four strong forts on the banks of the river (St. Juliana, St. Bugio, the tower of Belem, &c). Many of the streets are very uneven, ou account of the hilly situation of the city. The finest are ou the banks of the river. There are no elegant private buildings. 10 LISBON—LISLE. The houses of the nobility are distinguish- ed only by their size. The western part has been beautifully rebuilt since the dreadful earthquake (Nov. 1, 1755) which destroyed half of the city, with the loss of 30,000 lives,* the streets being straight, and regularly laid out, with fine houses and squares. The eastern part of the city, which was not affected by the earthquake, has preserved its gloomy aspect—crooked Btreets and old-fashioned houses, six and seven stories high. Lisbon was for- merly known to be extremely filthy and unsafe; but, at present, regulations have been made to provide for the public secu- rity, and the streets are well lighted. Among the squares, the principal are the Placa do Commercio and the Rocio. They are connected by handsome, wide, straight streets. The former, on which the royal palace, now in ruins, was situ- ated, lies on the bank of the Tagus, at the landing-place of the harbor, is an ob- long square, of 615 paces in length and 550 in breadth, and is surrounded, on three sides, with fine buildings (the fourth is open towards the river). • In the centre there is a bronze statue of king Joseph I. The Rocio, where the autos dafi were for- merly exhibited, is a regular oblong, 1800 feet In length and 1400 in width, with the new palace of the inquisition on one side. In this square 10 streets meet. Among the churches, the new church is the finest, and is the most magnificent building erected since the earthquake. The patriarchal church, on an elevated situation, which affords a beautiful view, is magnificent in its interior, and contains rich treasures and many curiosities. The patriarch, the head of the Portuguese church, has a large annual income. The aqueduct, about seven miles in length, is a remarkable construction. The centre is so high, that a ship of the line might pass under it. The water is carried over the valley of Alcantara, on 35 marble arches. It withstood the force of the earthquake, although the keystones sunk a few inches. The St Joseph's hospital, where 16,000 sick, and the foundling hospital, where 1600 children, are annually received, de- * The city then contained about 150,000 inhab- itants. The shock was instantly followed by the fall of every church and convent, almost all the large public buildings, and more than one fourth of the houses. In about two hours after the shock, fires broke out in different quarters, and raged with such violence, for the space of nearly three days, that the city was completely desolated. The earthquake happened on a holy- day, when the churches and convents were full of people, very few of whom escaped serve to be particularly mentioned. Among the literary institutions an- the royal acad- emy of sciences, the college of nobles, the marine academy, with other seminaries, a botanical garden, three observatories, the royal cabinet of natural curiosities, and several public libraries, among which is the royal library, containing 80,000 vol- umes. Lisbon is the seat of the supreme authorities, and of the patriarch of Portu- gal, witli a numerous clergy. The inhab- itants have but few manufactories: there are not even mechanics enough to supply the demands of the city. But Lisbon is the centre of Portuguese commerce, which extends to most of the countries of Eu- rope, to the V. States, and to the Portu- guese possessions in other parts of the world. There are about 240 Portuguese and 130 foreign (principally English) mer- cantile houses. From 1700 to 1800 ves- sels arrive annually at the port (Junquei- ra). The beautiful environs of the town are embellished by a great number (6—7000) country seats (quintas). In the vicinity are Belem and the castles Raina- lhao and Quelus. Lisle, or Lille (Flemish, Ryssel); a large and strong city of France, formerly the capital of French Flanders, and now of the department of the North, situated on the Deule, in a dead flat. The Deule is navigable, and is divided into several branches, part of which supply the moats or great ditches of the citadel and town. The form of Lisle is an irregular oval; its length, from north-west to south-east, is nearly two miles; its breadth, about three quarters; its circumference, between four and five, exclusive of the earthen ram- parts that surround the town, and which are, in their turn, surrounded by a moat Lisle presents an imposing appearance, from its extent, its fortifications, its canals, its squares, and its public buildings. Few cities of France can vie with it in the straightness and width of its streets, the regularity of its buildings, and its general air of neatness. Several convents have survived the revolution ; the hospitals are five, one very large. Lisle is a fortress of the first rank. Its citadel, the masterpiece of Vauban, is the first in Europe after that of Turin. It is a mile in circuit, and is surrounded by a double moat. The trade of Lisle is extensive. Its manufac- tures are of camlets, serges, and other woollen stuffs, cotton, calico, linen, silk, velvet, lace, carpets, soap, starch, tobacco] leather, glass and earthenware. The ori- gin of this town is ascribed by tradition to Julius Caesar. Louis XIV took it from LISLE—LITCHFIELD. II the Spaniards in 1667. It surrendered, in 1708, to the duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene. At the peace of Utrecht, it was restored to France. In 1792, it was bombarded by the Austrians, who were obliged to retire, with the loss of 20,000 men. In 1815, Louis XVIII spent one day here, before leaving France. Popu- lation, 69,860 ; 18 miles east of Tournay; Ion. 3° 4' E.; lat 50° 37' 50" N. List ; the enclosed ground wherein knights held their justs and tournaments; so called because encircled with barriers as with a list. Some were double, one for each cavalier, so that they could not ap- proach nearer than a spear's length. Hence to enter the lists is to engage in contest. Listel ; a small square moulding, serving to crown or accompany a larger, and to separate the flutings in columns. L'Istesso Tempo (Italian) ; a phrase implying that the movement before which it is placed is to be played in the same time as the previous movement Litany (from the Greek Xtraveia, suppli- cation, prayer); a form of prayer or song, used on occasions of public calamity, first introduced, according to Zonaras and Ni- cephorus, by Proclus, about the year 446, at Constantinople, in the reign of Theodo- sius; according to Paulus Diaconus, under Justinian, at Antioch, in consequence of the following circumstance: An earth- quake, says the legend, having driven the people into the fields, a boy was suddenly taken up into the air in their presence; but was again let down unhurt, on the people crying out Kyrie eleeson! The boy related that he h d heard the songs of the angels, " Holy God! Holy and Mighty, Holy and Immortal! have mercy upon us !" and this gave rise to the litany. This kind of common prayer was, perhaps, not unusual among the Jews, and the 136th Psalm seems to have been adapted to this pur- pose. Litanies afterwards became very common, and every saint of the Roman calendar has his litany. It must be own- ed, that some of these are very unmean- ing, enumerating all the names and mira- cles attributed to the saint, and, in this re- spect, not unlike those prayers of the Romans, which consisted merely of a catalogue of the names of the deity ad- dressed, against which St Paul gives a particular warning. Litanies are found in the old hymn-books of the Lutherans, but are no longer used by German Prot- estants. The Catholic litanies are distin- guished into the greater and less. The latter is said to have been composed by bishop Mamertus, of Vienne (in France), in 446, when that place was visited by re- peated calamities; the former by Gregory the Great, during an inundation of the Tiber, and a raging plague. This con- sisted of a song of seven choirs (hence septiformis), of clergy, monks, nuns, boys, girls, Roman citizens, and widows and mar ried women. The Utany probablyconsisted, at first, of the words kyrie eleeson, but was gradually enlarged. The litany was annu- ally sung on the dies rogationum. At a later period, the litany was not only addressed to the Holy Trinity, but also, as we have said, to the saints, and sung in processions. This latter kind of litany of course was omitted by the Protestants. The usual an- swer of the people is, Ora pro nobis (pray for us), if the Utany is directed to the Vir- gin or a saint; or IAbera nos (deliver us), if it is addressed to the Deity. Indecent parodies have often been made on lita- nies, and sung in connexion with other profane songs. In early times, instances occur of this being done, even by monks. (See the note to the article Fools, Feast of.) The following parody is taken from the Cavalier's Letanie (1647): From too much keaping an evil decorum, From the manyfold treasons parliai/ientorum, From Oliver Cromwell, dux omnium malorum, Libera 710s. See the Sacra Litania varia (Antwerp, 1606), and Bingham's Origines Ecclesias- tica, for a great variety of litanies.—Thai this simple form of prayer and responso has, at times, been of great advantage to the people cannot be denied ; and, because many litanies are poor, all ought not to be condemned. (See Liturgy.) Litchfielo; a post-town, and capital of Litchfield county, Connecticut; 30 miles west of Hartford, 31 north-north-west of New Haven, 329 from Washington; Ion. 73° 37' W.; lat. 41° 5C N.; population, in 1820, 4610 (for the population in 1830, see United States) ; organized as a town in 1721, and contains four large territorial parishes. The principal village is delight- fully situated oh an elevated plain, afford- ing extensive and beautiful prospects. It was made a borough in 1818, and con- tains a court-house, a jail, a female acad- emy, a law school, a printing-office, a bank, and two houses of public worship,— one for Congregationalists, and one for Episcopalians,—and has some trade. In the township, there are nine houses of public worship,—four for Congregational- ists, four for Episcopalians, and one for Baptists. It is a good agricultural town, and contains numerous mills and manufactur- ing establishments, cotton manufactories, 12 LITCHFIELD—LITERARY HISTORY. iron works, &c. Mount Tom, on the western border of the township, is 700 feet high. There are four ponds in this township, the largest of which comprises 900 acres. There is a medicinal spring within half a mile of the court-house. The law school in this town is a private institution, established in 1782, by judge Reeve. In 1798, judge Gould was asso- ciated with him. Since 1820, judge Gould has lectured alone. The students, how- ever, are weekly examined by another gentleman. The number of students, from 1798 to 1827, both inclusive, was 730. The number has been somewhat reduced, by the establishment of another school in connexion with Yale college. The students in this seminary study the law by titles, in the order in which the lectures are given. The mode of instruc- tion is by lecturing on the several titles of the law in an established order. The course of lectures occupies about 14 or 15 months. One lecture is given every day. There are two vacations of four weeks each ; one in May, the other in October. The price of tuition is at the rate of $100 a year. Lit de Justice was formerly a sol- emn proceeding in France, in which the k>.ig, with the princes of the blood royal, the peers, and the officers of the crown, state and court, proceeded to the parlia- ment, and there, sitting upon the throne (which, in the old French language, was called lit, because it consisted of an un- der cushion, a cushion for the back, and two under the elbows), caused those com- mands and orders, which the parliament did not approve, to be registered in his presence. The parliament had the right of remonstrating, in behalf of the nation, against the royal commands and edicts. If the king, however, did not choose to recede from his measures, he first issued a written command (lettres de jussion) to the parliament ; and if this was not obey- ed, he held the lit de justice. The parlia- ment was then, indeed, obliged to submit, but it afterwards commonly made a pro- test against the proceeding. Louis XV held such a IU de justice, in 1763, in order to introduce certain imposts, but, on ac- count of the firm resistance of the parlia- ments, he was finally obliged to yield. The last lUs de justice were held by Louis XVI, in 1787 and 1788. Literary Histort is the scienee whose object is to represent the develope- ment or the successive changes of human civilization, as far as these are manifest- ed in writings, as the object of political history is to show the same, manifested in the various political establishments and changes. In a more limited sense, literary history treats of learned writings, their contents, fate, modifications, translations, &c. (which is bibliography, q. v.), of the lives and characters of their authors, the circumstances under which they wrote, &c. (which constitutes literary biography). The latter has also been called external lUerary history, the former internal literary history, because it aims to show, in a con- nected view, the developement of sciences. From its nature, it is obvious that literary history could not fairly begin until man- kind had acquired extensive knowledge of what has been done and written, which required the preparatory study of centu- ries, as well as a civilized intercourse among the various nations. This science is, indeed, of comparatively recent date, and we have by no means, even yet, a general literary history. What we have is mostly confined to Europe; at least, we are yet too little acquainted with many parts and periods of the literary history of" the East, which has several times given an im- pulse to the western world, to authorize us to call what has hitherto been done a gen- eral literary history. The branch which relates to Greece and Rome must remain of surpassing importance. The ancients did not treat literary history as a distinct de- partment of history. The literature of the Greeks, and, though not in the same degree, that of the Romans, were so inti- mately connected with their religion and politics, that a separation of literary from general history could not easily take place; besides, the materials were not sufficient to claim a separate consideration. Hence the classics contain only scattered notices and detached materials for a literary liis- tory, partly in biographies of poets, philos- ophers, orators, grammarians, &c.; partly in criticisms and extracts from their writings. Such notices we find in the works of M. Terentius Varro, Cicero, Pliny, Quinctilian, Aulus Gellius, Dio- nysius of Halicarna6sus, Pausanias, Athe- naeus, and the biographers Plutarch, Sue- tonius, Diogenes Laertius, &c. Suidas and Photius likewise contribute names and titles. The middle ages contribute only detached facts to the history of their literature, partly in chronicles, partly in the confidential communications of poets and other authors, respecting their own lives. The first rude attempt at a compilation of general literary notices, yet without systematical order, was made by Polydore Virgil of Urbino in his work LITERARY HISTORY. 13 De Inventoribus Rerum, which first ap- peared in print in 1499. The true father of literary history is the famous Conrad Gesner, whose Bibliotheca Universalis contains stores of knowledge not yet ex- hausted. In his 25th year, he began to execute his grand plan of a general work on literature, and, in three years, his ma- terials were so far prepared, that they could be arranged for printing. Accord- ing to his plan, the work was to be divided into three parts—an alphabetical dictiona- ry of authors, a general systematic view of literature, Which even cites single dis- sertations and passages, and an alphabeti- cal index of matters and subjects treated. (See Ebert's Bibliog. Lex., article Gesner.) The first edition of the first division ap- peared in 1545.* Peter Lambcck gave in- struction in literary history at the gymna- sium of Hamburg, in 1656, on the plan of Gesner and Virgil, and published, in 1659, outlines, as a text-book for his lec- tures, the title of which is Prodromus Historia Literaria. Daniel George Mor- hof 's Polyhistor Literarius, Philosophicus et Practicus, the first edition of which appeared in 1688, contributed to promote the study of literary history. Since the beginning of the eighteenth century, lite- rary histoiy has been a favorite study of the learned, and has been taught in the * Lord Bacon, in his Advancement of Learning (De Aug. Sci. ii. 5), seems to have been the first (1605) to have traced out the objects and extent of a general literary historv (Historia Literarum, Historia Literaria). " History," says he, " is natural, civil, ecclesiastical and literary; where- of the first I allow to be extant, the fourth I note as deficient. For no man hath propounded to himself the general stale of learning to be de- scribed and represented from age to age, as many have done the works of nature, and the state civil and ecclesiastical, without which the history of the world seemeth to me to be as the statue of Polyphemus with his eye out, that part being wanting which doth show the spirit and life of the person : and yet I am not ignorant that in divers particular sciences, as of the jurisconsults, the mathematicians, the rhetoricians, the philoso- phers, there are set down some small memorials of the schools, authors and books; and so like- wise some barren relations touching the invention of arts or usages. But a just story of learning, containing the antiquities and originals of knowl- edges, and their sects, their inventions, their tra- ditions, their divers administrations and man- agings, their flourishings, their oppositions, decays, depressions, oblivions, removes, with the causes and occasions of them, and all other events con- cerning learning, throughout the ages of the world, I may truly affirm to be wanting. The use and end of which work I do not so much de- sign for curiosity or satisfaction of those that are lovers of learning, but chiefly for a more serious and grave purpose, which is, that it will make learned men wise in the use and administration of learning." vol. viii. 2 universities, and in higher schools, at least in Germany. To these lectures we owe several Introductions, General Views, and Systems of literary histoiy. We mention, in chronological succession, Burkhard Gotthelf Struvius, professor at Jena ; Matthew Lobetanz, professor at Greifs- wald ; N. H. Gundling, professor in Halle; Gottlieb Stoll, professor in Jena; G. G. Zeltner, professor in Altorf; C. C. Neu- feld, professor in Konigsberg; F. G. Bier- ling, professor in Rintehi ; and others. Reimmann must also be mentioned on ac- count of his Introduction to Historia lat- eraria (1708), and his Idea Systematis An- tiquitatis Literaria. Still more important was Chr. Aug. Heumann's Conspedus Republica Literaria, a work much superior to any that had preceded it, in arrange- ment, acute criticism and richness of ma- terials. John Andrew Fabricius's Sketch of a General History of Literature (1752) is a comprehensive work, and unites the synthetic and analytic method. A. Y. Goguet was the first to introduce a more philosophical treatment of literary history; and the Italian Denina rivals him in brilliancy of manner, without equalling him in thoroughness and originality of views or in judgment. It began to be more and more clearly felt, that literary history, though an independent branch of histoiy, would remain a mez-e list of names, titles, and dates, if it were not treated with constant reference to the state of religion, politics, morals, and the arts. Attempts have been made to treat it as a part of the general history of civili- zation by Iselin, Ferguson, Home, and particularly by Herder. In recent times, the Germans have taken the lead in this science, both in extent of knowledge and comprehensiveness of views. J. G. Eich- horn's and L. Wachler's work is of high value, as are also those of S. G. Wald, J. G. Meusel and Fr. Schlegel. It would exceed our limits were we to mention here the different productions upon the literary history of single nations and par- ticular periods. A work on an extensive plan, though not of a general nature, is the great enterprise of the literary society of Gottingen—History of Arts and Sci- ences in Europe, since the Restoration of the same, until the End of the Eighteenth Century. — Literaiy history is naturally divided into ancient, middle and modern. The ancient terminates with the retire- ment of science into the convents, in the sixth century; the middle begins with the downfall of the great Roman empire (about 500 A. D.) and the commencement 14 LITERARY HISTORY—LITERARY PROPERTY. of literary civilization in the various Eu- ropean nations, without the support of ancient classical civilization (see Berring- ton's Literary History of the Middle Ages); and the last begins about 1450, when the study of the classics was renewed, and knowledge revived in Europe. Literary Property. In the whole compass and variety of the products of human labor, no one thing is more exclu- sively such than intellectual works. In the fabrication and production of almost all other subjects of value and property, the materials are supplied, directly or in- directly, by the earth or the water ; and man only cooperates with nature in fur- nishing the article. But a piece of music, a painting, a poem, an oration, a histoiy, or a treatise of any description, is the off- spring of the unaided labor of the mind. It is supplied from abroad, only with the canvass, paper, parchment, or whatever other substance is used for recording the work, and affording the evidence of its accomplishment, but which is no more a part of the thing produced, than a deed, conveying an estate, is a part of the thing conveyed. But, though the right to the products of intellectual labor is thus pe- culiarly positive and absolute, it is among the latest rights of property recognised in a community, since the subject of it, the product itself, is only the result of an ad- vanced state of civilization. Another reason of its not attracting a more early attention, is its abstract, incorporeal na- ture, and also, in some cases, the difficulty of defining and identifying it, and decid- ing what is an infringement of this right of property ; and again, in some coun- tries, speaking the same language as those bordering upon them, the great difficulty of protecting this kind of property from infringement, though no doubt arises as to the identification of the thing claimed, or in determining what shall be considered to be an infringement. The question whether an author has, of common right, and independently of any special statute in his favor, a property in the products of the labor of his mind, as unquestionable and absolute as any other producer has in those of the labor of the hands, was very elaborately discussed in the court of king's bench, and in the house of lords, in ' England, in the time of lord Mansfield, in the celebrated cases of Millar against Tay- lor, reported in the 4th volume of Bur- row's Reports, in relation to the copyright of Thomson's Seasons ; and Donaldson against Becket, reported in the same vol- ume. The first of these cases came be- fore the court in 1769. In 1709, the statute of 8 Anne, chapter 19, had been passed, giving to authors an exclusive copyright " for the term of 14 years, and no longer." Notwithstanding the limita- tion of the right to that term, by the stat- ute, it had been held, in divers cases, sub- sequently decided, that the exclusive prop- erty of the author, or his representatives or assigns, continued after the expiration of the 14 years ; and, accordingly, in 1739, lord chancellor Hardwicke granted an injunction against a person, other than the proprietors, priuting Milton's Paradise Lost, the title to the copyright of which was derived to the proprietor, under an assignment by Milton, 72 years before. In the case relating to the copyright of Thomson's Seasons, three of the judges, namely, lord Mansfield and justices Aston and Willes, were of opinion, that the ex- clusive right of property continued after the expiration of 14 years from the first publication, as limited by the statute of Anne, and such was the decision of the court Mr. Justice Yates dissented from that opinion. Five years afterwards, in 1774, the other case came before the house of lords, and, as is usual with that tribu- nal, the opinion of the judges of the king's bench, common pleas and exchequer, was taken. Lord Mansfield, being a member of the house of lords, did not give an opinion in answer to the questions pro- pounded by the house, with the other judges, but acted and voted as a member of the body. Of the 11 judges who gave opinions, eight were of opinion that an author had of common right—that is, as by the common law, or without any stat- ute to this effect—the exclusive privilege of publishing his own works ; and three were of a contrary opinion. Seven, against four to the contrary, were of opinion, that, by publishing his work and vending copies, he did not abandon his exclusive property to the public, or, in other words, that, by making and selling one copy, he did not authorize all other persons to make, and use or sell as many copies as they might choose. This seems to be so plain a point, that, if four respectable judges had not been of a contrary opinion, one would be ready to say it admitted of no doubt. A case very analogous, but much stronger in favor of the author's right of property, is stated in the public journals (1831), as having recently been decided in France. An artist had sold a statue or picture, the production of his own chisel or pencil, and the question was made whether the purchaser had a right to LITERARY PROPERTY. 15 publish engravings of this original. It was decided, that the artist alone, and not the purchaser, had, in such case, the ex- clusive right to make and puhlirh engrav- ed copies. But, on the other question, proposed by the house of lords, viz. whether the statute of Anne took away the author's exclusive right to his own property, after the expiration of 14 years, six of the judges were of opinion in the affirmative, so that the whole 12 judges were equally divided upon this question, lord Mansfield being, upon this and the two other questions, in favor of the au- thor's right But the house of lords de- cided that the author had no exclusive right after the expiration of the period limited in the statute, though the reasons given on that side, by the judges who supported it, are veiy unsatisfactory ; and it is not easy to divine the grounds of the decision. But it has been acquiesced in as law from that time, both in England and the U. States. Thus, while the pov- erty of authors and scholars—the great leaders and champions of civilization and intellectual advancement—has been pro- verbial all the world over, the government has interposed, or is construed to have in- terposed, with its mighty arm, not for their protection and reward, but to despoil them of their property, the fruits of their own labor, and sequestrate it for the pub- lic use. If a man cultivates the ground, or fabricates goods, the fruits of his labor go to him and his heirs or assigns, abso- lutely, forever ; but if he spends his life upon a poem or musical composition, he only has a lease of it for 14 years, accord- ing to the statute of Anne, when it is to be forfeited to the public. This doctrine displays, in striking contrast, the rewards bestowed, and the forfeitures enacted, in reference to different species of glory and public service. While a military hero is rewarded with a grant of lands and a title of honor, to himself and his heirs ad in- finitum, a man of equal genius, who, by his labors, instructs and delights mankind, and sheds a lasting glory upon the country of which he is a citizen, is despoiled of the fruits of his own labors. The injus- tice of such a doctrine is so obvious, that its legality, though sanctioned by an ac- quiescence of half a century, may well be questioned. However this may be, legislatures have begun to mitigate the forfeitures heretofore inflicted upon lite- rary eminence, by extending the time for which an author may enjoy the fruits of his own talents and industry. By a law passed in the 54th year of George the Third, chapter 156, an author is entitled to an exclusive copyright in his work for 28 years, and, if he is living at the end of that period, it is continued during his life. This act is entitled to the commendation of being less unjust than that of Anne. On the continent of Europe, the laws are much more favorable, or, rather, mucn less unfavorable, to authors. In France, they are entitled to an exclusive copyright during their lives, and their heirs or as- signs for 20 years afterwards. In many of the German states, the right is perpet- ual, but it is subject to this disadvantage^ that it extends only to the state in which it is granted, and the work may be pirated in the others with impunity. This can be avoided only by procuring a copyright in the different German states, which is at- tended with much difficulty and expense. The defect of the laws of these German states on this subject, therefore, is not in confiscating the author's property, or re- fusing to recognise his right to it, but in burthening him with heavy expenses in securing its protection. In Russia, the period of the copyright is the same as in France, and it is not liable to be seized and sold for the payment of the author's debts. In the U. States, the constitution provides, that congress may secure, " for limited times, to authors, &c, the exclu- sive right to their respective writings," &c. Under this provision, a law was passed, in 1790, giving to authors, being citizens of the U. States, or being resident therein, the sole right of printing and vending their works for the term of 14 years from the time of recording the title in the clerk's office ; and, if living at the expiration* of that period, and then citizens or resident as above, they could have a renewal of the exclusive right for 14 years longer, on filing a copy of the title again in the clerk's office. This law also required, that, at the commencement of each term, the author should publish the clerk's cer- tificate in some newspaper for four weeks. It also required that a copy should be de- posited in the office of the secretary of state. A more liberal, or, rather, less illib- eral, law was passed on this subject in 1831. By this act, the exclusive right is extended to 28 years, with a right of re- newal for his life, if the author is living at the expiration of the first copyright. It dispenses with the publication of the clerk's certificate in a newspaper—a very useless provision ; for, if the work itself gives notice that the copyright is secured, a person who pirates it can have no pre- tence for alleging ignorance of the fact. 16 LITERARY PROPERTY- LITHOGRAPHY. The act, also, though it requires that the author shall supply a copy for the office of the secretary of state, excuses him from the trouble of depositing it there, requiring him only to leave it in the office of the clerk of the district court (See CopyrigU.) Literature, according to the English dictionaries, means learning. In general use, however, this word, in English, com- monly signffies what in other countries would be called elegant literature, exclud- ing works of abstract science and mere erudition. The meaning of the word, in English, however, is vague. In Ger- man and French, the word means, dis- tinctly, the whole which has been writ- ten. Hence the phrase " literature of the middle age," or "medical literature," means the aggregate of works written during the middle ages, or on medicine, &c. Literary is applied to all those branches of read- ing which come within the scope of a general reader ; the phrase " literary gen- tleman" corresponds pretty nearly to the French homme de letlres. Literary ga- zette is a journal which treats of works interesting to a general reader. In literary history, the word has a more extensive meaning. (See Literary History.) Lithia ; the name applied by Arfwed- son to an alkali discovered by him in analyzing the petalite. The name was derived from the Greek XlOaos (stony), in allusion to the existence of the earth in a stony mineral. Lithia has since been detected in spodumene, and several kinds of mica. The best process for procuring it is the following : One part of petalite or spodumene, in fine powder, is mixed inti- mately with two parts of fluor-spar, and the mixture is heated with three or four times its weight of sulphuric acid, as long as any acid vapors are disengaged. The silica of the mineral is attacked by hydro- fluoric acid, and dissipated in the form of fluosilicic acid gas, while the alumina and lithia unite with sulphuric acid. After dissolving these salts in water, the solution is boiled with pure ammonia to precipi- tate the alumina ; is filtered, evaporated to dryness, and then heated to redness to ex- pel the sulphate of ammonia. The resi- due is pure sulphate of lithia, which is dissolved in water and decomposed by acetate of barytes ; and the acetate of lithia, being heated to redness, is convert- ed into the carbonate of lithia, and, finally, this is decomposed by lime or barytes, which affords pure lithia. Its color is white ; it is not deliquescent, but absorbs carbonic acid from the air ; very soluble in water; acrid, caustic, and acts on colors like the other alkalies : heated with plati- na, it acts on the metal. It combines with the different acids, and forms salts with them, like potash and soda, though pos- sessed of a higher neutralizing power than these alkalies. Its phosphate and carbon- ate are sparingly soluble ; its chloride is deliquescent and soluble in alcohol, and this solution burns with a red flame. All its salts give a red color, when heated on a platinum wire before the blow-pipe. The muriate and nitrate are deliquescent The metallic base of lithia was evolved by sir H. Davy, by galvanism ; but it was too rapidly oxidized to be collected : the metal was, however, seen to be white like sodium, and burned with bright scintilla- tions. Lithic Acid, in combination with pot- ash, is obtained from human urinary cal- culi, by digesting them in caustic lixivium,: the lithate of potash gives up the lithic acid, on being mingled with acetic acid. It has the form of white shining plates, which arc denser than water ; is without taste or smell, and dissolves in 1400 parts of boiling water. It reddens the infusion of litmus. The lithates are all tasteless, and very sparingly soluble in water. Lithic acid, by repeated distillations, is re- solved into am:no::i-i, nitrogen and prus- sic acid. Lithochromics ; the art of painting in oil upon stone, and of taking impressions on canvass. This process, which is de- signed to multiply the master-pieces of painting, was invented some years ago by Malapeau, in Paris, who received a patent for his invention, and has an establishment for lithochromic productions, which have been popular in Paris since 1823. Tins process is a substitute for the copying of portraits ; it also serves as a cheap means of ornamenting walls. This art, howev- er, is still in its infancy. The lithochromic paintings yet produced are less valuable than the poorest copies. A similar but much superior invention has been made by Sennefelder, which he calls mosaic im- pression. Lithography (from \Wos, stone, and ypaQuv, to write); the art invented by Aloys Sennefelder (q. v.), of taking impressions from drawings or writings on stone, with- out engraving. As the history of the inven- tion of this art, and the principles on which it depends, are contained in the ar- ticle Sennefelder, we shall confine ourselves in this place, to an account of the proccs^ of lithographic printing, and of the mate- rials used in it Two substances are used for drawing upon stone—lithographic LITHOGRAPHY. 17 chalk and lithographic ink. The former is made of 1^ ounce of soap, 2 ounces of tallow, lh ounce of pure white wax, 1 ounce shell-lac, i ounce lamp-black. Another receipt gives 2 ounces soap, 5 ounces wax, | ounce tallow, and 1 ounce lamp-black. The soap, after it has been scraped fine, is put in an iron or earthen vessel, over the fire, and, when it is melted, little pieces of wax and tallow are added ; it must be stirred the whole time, and, when the heat is extreme, the contents of the vessel are to be lighted by a burning taper, the stirring being continued. After a short time, the flame is to be extinguish- ed ; and, while the mixture is boiling, the lamp-black is to be gradually added. When this is done, the mixture is taken from the fire, and poured out on an iron or stone plate, and may be made into any form desired. For lithographic ink, a great many different receipts have been given ; one of the most approved of which is a composition made of equal parts of tallow, wax, shell-lac and com- mon soap, with about one twentieth part of the whole of lamp-black. These ma- terials are mixed in an iron vessel; the wax and tallow are first put in, and heat- ed till they take fire, after which the other ingredients are successively added; the burning is allowed to continue until the composition is reduced about one third. All calcareous stones, being sus- ceptible of taking in a greasy substance, and of imbibing water with facility, are suitable for lithographic printing, provided they are compact, capable of receiving a fine polish, and of a clear and uniform color ; the more compact and uniform in color, the better. Those commonly used are a nearly pure carbonate of lime. Suitable stones are by no means scarce. The quarry from which the first litho- graphic stones were extracted, is still that which furnishes them in ihe greatest abundance, and of the largest dimensions. It is situated at Solenhofen, near Pappen- heim, in Bavaria. No quarries hitherto known in France, afford stones equal to the German. Those found near Chateau- roux are of a similar color to those of Solenhofen, and even harder, and of a finer grain ; but they are full of spots of a softer nature, so that it is difficult to pro- cure pieces of the necessary size. In England, a stone has been used which is found at Corston, near Bath. It is one of the white lias beds, but is inferior to the German in fineness of grain and closeness of texture. When proper stones cannot be obtained without difficulty or great ex- 2* pense, it is more advantageous to fabricate artificial slabs, to which a proper density and hardness may be given. An intelli- gent potter can easily imitate the density of natural stones. Slabs, used for this purpose, have been made of stucco, com- posed of lime and sand, and fastened with the caseous part of milk. Artificial slabs, however, have not been made so as to equal the real ones ; and the royal insti- tute of France have thought the subject of sufficient importance to offer a large prize for the best. The stones are polish- ed by putting fine sand between two of them, and thus rubbing them against each other till the surface is smooth ; then each separate stone is rubbed with water and pumice-stone. After the stone is thus prepared, it may be used for all kinds of writing and drawing, with the brush or pen, &c. But if it is to be prepared for chalk, it must have a rougher surface, and, after the application of the pumice-stone, it is to be covered with very fine sand, of a uniform size, and rubbed with another polished stone without water. This is turned round and round, till the necessary roughness is produced. Both kinds of plates must be carefully preserved against greasiness, such as they would receive from the touch of the hand, since ail the greasy spots appear in the impression, the greasy printing ink remaining on them. If the drawing is to be prepared with ink, the stone is first covered with oil of turpentine or soap-water, to prevent the lines from spreading. Then the drawing may be made on the stone with a black lead pencil or with a red crayon ; but the latter is preferable, because, when the ink comes to be applied, it is easier to discov- er how far the lines of the drawing arc really covered with ink. After having dissolved the ink in rain or river water (the former dught to have stood some time), these pencil outlines are covered with ink. If the stroke is black, or, at least, dark brown, it may be inferred that the impression will succeed. But if light brown, and transparent, it will not give the impression. The ink may be laid on with the pen or brush. Goose quills, however, are not well suited for this pur- pose, particularly if the strokes are to be very fine; the pens are too quickly blunted; but steel pens are used to great advantage: these are made of watch springs. After the drawing, the plate is left several hours, and then put under the press. For draw- ing with chalk, it is necessary to apply the finest and softest tints first, and the strongest afterwards. If the proper effect cannot be 18 LITHOGRAPHY-LITHUANIA given to the foreground by chalk only, a little ink is added with the brush or pen. If the drawing has very fine tints, it is necessary that the impression from the plate should be taken immediately, other- wise the oil will dry or evaporate, and the ink will not take effect on these parts. The oil varnish used must be of the best kind. Before the stone is covered with ink, it must first be dipped in nitric or sulphuric acid, diluted with water to such a degree, that only a slight effervescence is produced ; the proportion of acid should be but little more than one per cent; this will make the stone in the parts not covered by the drawing more readily imbibe the water. This process is called dching the drawing. After rhis, it is merely dipped in common water. Great care must be taken that the acid is not too strong, as it will then injure the fine strokes and tints. When the stone has imbibed sufficient water, a liquid mixture must be poured over it, consisting of one sixth lin- seed oil, two sixths oil of turpentine, and three sixths of pure water: this again must be wiped off clean, and the stone must be then covered with a solution of gum- arabic in water; this prevents the lines from spreading. Immediately after this process, it is inked. The printing-ink is applied by means of leather printers' balls, stuffed with hair, or by cylinders, which must be of various sizes. The first impressions are seldom perfect After each impres- sion, the stone is washed with water, and, from time to time, is sponged over with gum-water, which is prepared from one ounce of finely pounded gum-arabic, and half a pound of water. The ink which has settled on a spot that should be light, is either removed with a clean sponge, or by diluted acid, applied with a sponge, and the place is afterwards washed with pure water. The printing-ink is com- posed, like other printing-inks, of oil-var- nish and fine lamp-black. To prepare the varnish, a vessel is about half filled with pure linseed oil, and heated till it takes fire from the dame of a piece of burning paper. It is allowed to burn till reduced to the proper density. To de- scribe the press, a drawing would be neces- sary. Besides the mode of preparing the drawings above described, drawings are also cut into the stone, and from these impressions are taken. Engravings may also be multiplied by putting them wet on a stone, when they come from the copper- plate press, and subjecting them to pres- sure, by which the ink is made to leave the paper and adhere to the stone. Al- though lithography is of great use, and excellent impressions are produced, par- ticularly at Munich, it is yet very imperfect In landscapes, the soft tints and the per- spective cannot be properly given ; the lines are not sufficiently delicate. The number of impressions which can be taken from a lithographic chalk drawing, will vary according to the fineness of the tints. A fine drawing will give 400 or 500; a strong one, 1000 or 1500. Ink drawings and writings give considerably more than copper-plates. The finest will yield 6000 or 8000, and strong lines and writings many more. Upwards of 80,000 impressions have been taken, at Munich, from one writing of a form for regimental returns. But it is probably susceptible of farther improvements. Stone paper, a substitute for stone plates, was invented by Sennefelder, in 1817. (See Sennefelder's VoUsldn diges Lchrbuch der Steindruckerey, Munich, 1818). Lithography is now veiy widely spread. In all parts of Ger- many, also in France, Russia, England and the U. States, there are lithographic printing establishments. The lithographic process is generally employed for printing music, and has given rise to lithochromics. (q. v.) The best lithographic establish- ments, at present, are at Munich (Bavaria) and Paris. The French are the most ex- pert in the process of printing. Some beautiful lithographic prints have also been executed at Berlin. Lithotomy is the name given to the operation for extracting the stone from the bladder. (See Stone.) Lithotrity ; a surgical operation, by which the stone in the bladder is crushed by an instrument invented and first ap- plied by doctor Civiale, of Paris, in 1826. He has written on the subject Lithuania (in the language of the country, IAtwa; in German, Lithauen); an extensive country, formerly an inde- pendent grand-duchy, containing 60,000 square miles, but in 1569 united to Po- land. Since the dismemberment of that kingdom in 1773,1793, and 1795, the great- er portion of it has been united to Russia, and forms the governments of Mohilew, Witepsk, Minsk, Wilna and Grodno. The climate is temperate and healthy, and the face of the country nearly a level, in- terrupted only by a few insignificant hills. The soil is in some parts sandy ; in others marshy, or covered with woods; but, wherever it is cultivated, very produc- tive. The principal rivers are the Dfina, or Dwina, the Dnieper, the Niemen, the Przypiec and Bug. There are also many L1THU AN I A—LITURGI A. 19 lakes and morasses. Lithuania raises considerable numbers of cattle, and pro- duces abundance of corn, flax, hemp, wood, honey, and wax. The mineral kingdom yields iron and turf. The forests are full of game; among the wild animals are the urus, lynx, elk, beaver, &c. Corn, wax, honey, wolf and bear skins, leath- er, wool, and small but good horses, are exported. The manufactures are iron, glass, leather, and there are numerous distilleries. The Lithuanians, who are of Lettish origin (see Livonia), were in the eleventh century tributary to Russia. They made themselves independent when Rus- sia was divided by the troubles under the successors of Wladimir, and soon became formidable to their neighbors. Ringold, in 1235, bore the title of grand-duke, and, under his successors, the whole of Rus- sian Lithuania was separated from Russia. Gedemin conquered Kiev; Wladislaus Yagello was baptized in 1386, and, by his marriage with the Polish queen Hedwig, united Lithuania and the conquered Rus- sian provinces with Poland. A portion of Lithuania, 6675 square miles, with nearly 400,000 inhabitants, now forms part of Gumbinnen, in the province of East Prussia, and is fertile and well culti- vated. (See Russia, and Poland.) Litmus; a blue paste or pigment ob- tained from the lichen parellus. It is brought from Holland at a cheap rate, but is not much used in painting, for the least acid reddens it; but the color is again re- stored by the application of an alkali. On this account, it is a very valuable test to the chemist for detecting the presence both of an acid and alkali. It is employ- ed also for staining marble, and by silk dyers for giving a gloss to more perma- nent colore. Considerable quantities of the lichen are collected in the northern parts of Great Britain. Litre. (See France, division Decimal Measure.) Litter ; a sort of vehiculary bed ; a couch or chair wherein the Roman pa- tricians were borne by their servants, par- ticularly on solemn public occasions, such as triumphal pomps or religious ceremo- nies. These litters were mostly provided with an awning or canopy, to preserve their occupiers at once from the heat of the sun and from the general gaze. Little Rock ; the seat of govern- ment of Arkansas territory, which is some- times called by the name of Acropolis or Arcopolis. It is a high bluff point on the south bank of the river Arkansas, and derives its name from the masses of stone about it It is 300 miles from the mouth of the river by its course, and about half that distance in a direct line. The village of Acropolis was laid out in 1820, and is but small; 1237 miles west of Washington; lat 34° 34' N.; Ion. 92° 107 W. Littleton, or Lyttleton, Thomas, a celebrated English judge and law authori- ty, born at the beginning of the fifteenth century, at Frankley, having been edu- cated at one of the universities, was re- moved to the Inner Temple, where he studied the law, and became very eminent in his profession. In 1455, he went the northern circuit as judge of assize, and was continued in the same post by Ed- ward IV, who also, in 1466, appointed him one of the judges of the common pleas. In 1475, he was created a knight of the Bath, and continued to enjoy the esteem of his sovereign and the nation until his death, at an advanced age, in 1481. The memory of judge Littleton is preserved by his work on Tenures, which has passed through a very great number of editions, those from 1539 to 1639 alone amounting to twenty-four. This work is esteemed the principal authority for the law of real property in England, while the commentary of sir E. Coke is the repository of his learning on the sub- jects treated. Littorale ; an Italian word signifying the sea coast, applied particularly to* the Hungarian province on the coast of the Adriatic, comprising the three towns Fiume, Buccari and Porto-Re, with their territories, on the northern coast of Dal- matia. It formerly belonged to the mili- tary district of Croatia. The emperor Joseph II annexed it to Hungary in 1776, and gave it a civil government for the encouragement of Hungarian commerce. The district had, in 1787, 19,928 inhab- itants upon 140 square miles. From 1809 to 1814, it formed part of the Illyrian provinces of France. In 1814, it was re- stored to the Austrian empire, and, in 1822, was reunited with the provinces of the crown of Hungary. The seat of gov- ernment is at Fiume. (q. v.) Liturgia (Greek, Xeirovpyia); the office of the XtiTovoyoi. These were persons in Athens, of considerable estates, who were ordered by their own tribe, or by the whole people, to perform some public duty, or sup- ply the commonwealth with necessaries at their own expense. This institution indi- cates the rudeness of an age in which po- litical science had made but little progress. These Xurovpyoi were of divers sorts, all elected out of 1200 of the richest citizens, 20 LITURGIA—LITURGY. who were appointed by the people to un- dertake, when required, all the burden- some and chargeable offices of the com- monwealth, every tribe electing 120 out of their own body. These 1200 were di- vided into two parts, according to then- wealth. Out of the wealthiest half, were appointed 300 of the richest citizens, who, upon all exigencies, were to furnish the commonwealth with necessary supplies of money, and, with the rest of the 1200, were to perform all extraordinary duties in turn. If any person, appointed to un- dergo one of the duties, could find anoth- er person more wealthy than himself, and free from all the duties, the informer was excused. This obnoxious institution was abolished on the proposition of Demos- thenes. (See Wolf's Prolegomena to De- mosthenes, Bockh's PolUical Economy of Athens, and Potter's Grecian AntiquUies.)— The word Xuroupyia is the origin of the English word liturgy (q. v.), the sense having become contracted from public ministry, in general, to the ceremonies of religious worship. Liturgy (Greek, Xurovpyta, from Xtirov, public, and ipyov, work); a precomposed form of public worship. It is merely our intention here to mention some of the most important liturgies, without entering at all into the question of the primitive forms of worship in the Christian church. There are three liturgies used in the Greek church—those of Basil, of Chrysostom, and of the Presanctified. They are used in all the Greek churches subject to the patriarch of Constantinople; also in the countries originally converted by the Greeks, as Russia, Georgia, Mingrelia, and by the Melchite patriarchs of Alexandria, An- tioch and Jerusalem. (King, RUes of the Greek Church.) There are various liturgical books in use in the Roman Catholic church, the greater part of which are common to all the members in communion with the church, while others are only permitted to be used in particular places, or by par- ticular monasteries. The Breviary con- tains the matins, lauds, &c, with the va- riations made therein according to the several days, canonical hours, and the like. There are various breviaries appro- priated only to certain places; as the Am- brosian breviary used in Milan, the Galli- can, by the church of France, and those of different monastic orders; but the Ro- man breviary is general. It consists of the services of matins, lauds, prime, third, sixth, nones, vespers, complines, or the post-communie, that is, of the seven hours, on account of the saying of David, " Sev- en times a day do I praise thee." It is recited in Latin. The Missal, or volume employed in celebrating mass, contains the calendar, the general rubrics, or rites of the mass, and, besides such parts as are in- variably the same, the dc tempore, that is, the variable parts on Sundays and holy- days that have proper masses; the propri- um sanctorum, or the variable parts ill the masses for the festivals of such saints as have proper masses; and commune sancto- rum, or the variable parts on the feasts of those saints that have no proper mass. The canon of the mass was committed to writing about the middle of the fifth century. Gregory the Great made many additions to it. The Ceremonial contains the offices peculiar to the pope, treating of his election, consecration, benediction and coronation, the canonization of saints, the creation of cardinals, the vestments of the pope and cardinals when celebrat- ing the divine offices, &c. The Pontifi- cale describes the functions of the bishops of the Roman church, such as the con- ferring ecclesiastical orders, consecrating of churches, manner of excommunicating, absolving, &c. The Ritual treats of those functions which are to be performed by simple priests, or the inferior clergy, both in the public service of the church, and in the exercise of private pastoral duties. The ancient Gallican liturgy is that which was in use among the Gauls before the time of Pepin and Charlemagne, who intro- duced the Roman mode of celebrating divine worship. The Spanish liturgy, more commonly called the Mozarabic lUur- gy, is derived from that of Rome. The Ambrosian liturgy, used in the cathedral at Milan, derives its name from St. Am- brose, who made some changes in it. It does not differ from the Roman in doc- trines, though it does in form. The whole of the Roman liturgy is in Latin. The Protestants all adopted their vernac- ular tongue in the celebration of divine service. In 1523, Luther drew up a litur- gy, or form of prayer and administration of the sacraments, which, in many points, differed but little from the mass of the church of Rome (Opera, ii, 384). He did not, however, confine his followers to this form, and hence every country, in which Lutheranism prevails, has its own liturgy, agreeing with the others in the essentials, but differing in many things of an indif- ferent nature. The prayers are read or chanted by the minister at the altar, and the subject of the discourse is, in most cases, limited to the epistle or gospel of the day. A new liturgy for the principal LITURGY—LIVADIA. 21 divine service on Sundays, holydays, and the celebration of the holy communion, was published at Berlin, in 1822. This was designed primarily for the use of the royal and cathedral church in Berlin, but has been generally adopted in Prussia. Calvin prepared no liturgy, but his fol- lowers in Geneva, Holland, France, and other places, drew up forms of prayer, of which the Genevese and the French are the most important The Genevese litur- gy contains the prayer with which divine service begins, a confession of sins, public prayers for every day in the week, and for some particular occasions, the Lord's prayer, decalogue, and creed, &c. A new liturgy of the French reformed church was compiled in 1826. The Kirk of Scot- land, or the Scotch Presbyterian church, has no liturgy. The Directory for the public Worship of God contains direc- tions for the assembling of the congrega- tion, the manner of proceeding, &c. In 1562, the Book of Common Order, or Knox's Liturgy, was recommended to be used by those who were unable to pray without a set form. In England, before the reformation, the public service of the church was performed in Latin, and dif- ferent liturgies were used in different parts of the kingdom. The most cele- brated of these were the Breviary and Missal, secundum usum Sarum, compiled by the bishop of Salisbury about 1080. They consisted of prayers and offices, some of very ancient origin, and others the produce of later times. In 1536, by Henry VIII's direction, the Bible, Pater- noster, creed and decalogue were read in English. In 1547, Edward VI com- missioned Cranmer, Ridley, and 11 other divines, to draw up a liturgy in English. This was published in 1549, and again, with some changes, in 1551, whence it was called the Second Prayer Book of Edward VI. In the reign of James I, and, finally, at the restoration, it under- went new revisions. This was the last revisal in which any alteration was made by authority. A liturgy of the New Church (the Swedenborgians) signified by the New Jerusalem in the Revelation, was published by the Swedenborgian general conference in England, in 1828. The liturgy of the episcopal church in Scotland, is at present not very different from that of the church of England. The attempt of Charles I (1637) to intro- duce into Scotland a book of common prayer, copied from the English, produc- ed the solemn league and covenant. The Directory was afterwards adopted, but by no means strictly adhered to. In 1712, the English Book of Common Prayer was finally adopted, with some modifica- tions. The Book of Common Prayer of the Protestant Episcopal church in the U. States was adopted in 1789, and, besides some minor deviations from the English, it omits the Athanasian creed, and, in the Apostles' creed, leaves the officiating minister the discretional power of substi- tuting, for the expression "he descended into hell," " he went into the place of de- parted spirits." It has adopted the obla- tion and invocation in the communion service, in which it approximates to the Scottish communion office, and has add ed six forms of prayer—for the visitation of prisoners; for thanksgiving for the fruits of the earth and other blessings; for morning and evening prayer in fami- lies ; for the consecration of a church or chapel; and, lastly, a beautiful and im- pressive office of institution of ministers. (See Koecher's Bibliotheca Liturgira; Bingham's Origines Ecclesiastica ; Com- ber's Scholastical History of Liturgies.) Livadia ; the ancient Hellas (q. v.), or Middle Greece (see Greece); situated to the south of Janna, or Thessaly (q. v.), and north of Morea (q. v.), bounded east by the ^Egean, and west by the Ionian sea, 5800 square miles in extent, and containing 250,000 inhabitants, chiefly Greeks. The name is derived from the town of Livadia (or Lebadia; 2000 houses and 6000 inhabitants). The boundary be- tween Livadia and Thessaly is formed by the mountain Q5ta (on whose summit Hercules was burned), now called Kumai- ta. It is only accessible, at least for artil- lery, by a narrow pass between OZta and the swamps on the Malian gulf (gulf of Zeitouni), or the famous pass of Ther- mopylee. (q. v.) In the war of the Greek revolution, several decisive battles were fought in this part of the country, the most bloody near the town of Zeitouni, the ancient Lamia, which lies to the north. From this pass, which is about six miles long, we enter, 1. Locris, the northerly part of Livadia; farther south lie, 2. Phocis, with the ancient Elatsea, now Turko-Chorio, watered by the river Cephiss'us, and intersected by mount Parnassus (q. v.); and, still more south- erly, 3. Bceotia; 4. Attica; and 5. Me- garis; to the west are, 6. ^Etolia; and 7. Acarnania. The ancient names of places are now revived, and Middle Greece has been divided into East and West Hellas. (See Greece, Revolution of Modern.) The boundary of Greece, as 22 LIVADIA—LIVERPOOL. settled by the protocol of February, 1830, runs north of Livadia, thus placing it within the kingdom of Greece. The character of the present inhabitants of these countries is as various as their de- scent and mode of fife. The first in- habitants of the coast were chiefly of foreign, or, as the Greeks called it, of barbarian descent. Their occupation was piracy. The mountaineers were robbers, constantly at war with their op- pressors. Missolonghi (q. v.), the only strong-hold on the western coast, has been rendered celebrated by late events. To the north is the ancient Actium (q. v.), or Azio. Prevesa, which, with Parga (q. v.), and the coast of Epirus, was ceded to the Turks in 1800, and Arta (q. v.), near the gulf of Arta, belong to Albania. In the southerly part of Locris lies Lepanto. (q. v.) In Boeotia (q. v.) is the town Li- vadia, formerly Lebadia, at the foot of mount Helicon, near which are the cave of Trophonius (q. v.), and the fountains of Mnemosyne (memory) and Lethe (ob- livion). Not far off are Leuctra and Pla- taea (q. v.), and the ruins of Thespise, whose inhabitants were selected by Le- onidas to die for their country, with the 300 Spartans. Tanagra, on the ^Esopus, was the birth-place of the celebrated Corinna. (q. v.) Mount Cithseron divides Boeotia from Attica (q. v.) and from Me- garis. (q. v.) (See Greece.) Live Oak. (See Oak.) Liver (jecur, hepar); a large gland which occupies a considerable portion of the cavity of the belly, and which secretes the bile. It is a single organ, of an irregular shape, brownish-red color, and, in general, is smaller in propor- tion as the individual is more healthy. It occupies the right hypochondrium, or space included by the false ribs, and a part of the epigastric region, and lies im- mediately under the diaphragm (midriff), above the stomach, the transverse colon, and right kidney; in front of the verte- bral column, the aorta and the inferior vena cava, and behind the cartilaginous edge of the chest. The right false ribs are on its right, and the spleen on its left. The superior surface is convex, and the inferior is irregularly convex and concave, which has given rise to the division into the right, or large lobe, the small, or infe- rior lobe, and the left lobe. The right ex- tremity of the liver is lower than the left, and is the most bulky part of the organ. The pressure of the surrounding organs, and certain folds of peritoneum, called its ligaments, which connect it with the dia- phragm, retain the liver in its place, leav- ing it, at the same time, a considerable power of changing its relative position. The organization of the liver is very complicated. Besides its peculiar tissue, or parenchyma, the texture of which is unknown, it receives a larger number of vessels than any other gland. A peculiar venous system—that of the vena porta- rum—is distributed in it To this must be added the ramifications of the hepatic ar- tery and veins, the nerves, which are small, the lymphatic vessels, the excreto- ry tubes, and a peculiar tissue, enclosed by a double membrane, a serous or peri- toneal, and a cellular one. The excreto- ry apparatus of the bile is composed of the hepatic duct, which, rising imme- diately from the liver, unites with the cystic duct, which terminates in the gall- bladder. The choledochic duct is form- ed by the union of the two preceding, and terminates in the duodenum. (See Gall- Bladder, and Bile.) Liverpool ; a borough town of Eng- land, in the county palatine Lancaster; the principal seaport in the British dominions. It extends along the eastern bank of the Mersey, about three miles, and, at an av- erage, about a mile inland. On the west side of it, and forming a remarkable fea- ture in the town, lie the docks, which, with the wharfs, warehouses, &c, extend in an immense range along the bank of the river. On the other side, the town is prolonged into numerous suburbs, con- sisting of villas and country houses, the residence or retreat of its wealthy citizens. The streets are mostly spacious, airy, some of them elegant, and the greater part of them lighted with coal gas. The older and more confined parts of the town are fn a state of improvement. The public buildings are elegant. The princi- pal of these are the town hall, exchange buildings, corn exchange, lyceum, athe- naeum, Wellington rooms, infirmary, work- house, blue-coat school, dispensary, and asylum for the blind. There are at pres- ent 20 churches belonging to the estab- lishment, many of them of much archi- tectural beauty; a greater number of chapels belonging to various denomina- tions of dissenters ; with four Roman Catholic chapels, a meeting-house for Quakers, and a Jews' synagogue. The charitable institutions are numerous and well conducted. About 1500 patients are admitted annually into the infirmary. The blue-coat hospital maintains and educates about 200 boys and girls. The school for the blind is on a most extensive scale. LIVERPOOL—LIVERPOOL, EARL OF. 23 A handsome and spacious theatre, and a circus, are open during great part of the year. At the royal Liverpool institution, public lectures are given; and attached to it is a philosophical apparatus and a museum of natural curiosities. A botanic garden was also established in 1801, at an expense of about £10,000. The lyceum and the athenaeum consist each of a news-room and library. There are also the Union news-room, the. music-hall, the Welling- ton rooms, opened in 1816, for balls, con- certs, &c, the town hall, the exchange buildings, erected in 1803, for commercial purposes. The area enclosed by the fronts of these buildings and the town hall, is 197 feet by 178. In the centre of the area is erected a superb group of bronze statua- ry, supposed to be the largest in the king- dom, to commemorate the death of lord Nelson. The trade of Liverpool is veiy extensive. The most important branch is the trade with Ireland, from whence are imported from 2300 to 2500 cargoes of provisions, grain, &c. ; and in return are shipped salt, coals, earthenware, &c. The second branch of commerce is that with the U. States, which consists of more than three fourths of the whole commerce of this country with England. Of this com- merce, cotton-wool is the chief article, and may be termed the staple of the Liv- erpool trade. In 1830, of 793,695 bales of cotton imported into England, 703,200 were carried into Liverpool. In 1824, the whole amount imported into Liverpool was 578,323 bales, of which 413,724 were from the U. States. The West India trade may be considered next in impor- tance. The trade of Liverpool to other parts of the globe, is veiy great, and rap- idly increasing, particularly to the East Indies. In 1824, the amount of the ex- ports of Liverpool was £20,000,000 ster- ling ; the number of vessels belonging to the port in 1829, was 805, of 161,780 tons. Liverpool has an extended system of ca- nal navigation, which has grown up with its increasing trade, and by which it has a water communication with the North sea. The manufactures are chiefly those connected with shipping, or the consump- tion of the inhabitants. There are ex- tensive iron and brass founderies, brewe- ries, soap-works and sugar-houses. In the vicinity are many wind-mills for grind- ing corn, which have a very striking ap- pearance ; also a large tide-mill, and another worked by steam. A great num- ber of men are employed in building, re- pairing and fitting out vessels. Of the finer manufactures, the watch-movement and tool business is carried on extensively, being almost entirely confined to this part of the kingdom ; and in the neighbor- hood is a china-manufactory, where beau- tiful specimens of porcelain are produced. Liverpool sends two members to parlia- ment, chosen by about 4500 freemen. It is governed by the corporation, consisting of a common council of 41 persons, from among whom a mayor and two bailiffs are annually chosen by the free burgesses. The following is an account of the pro- gressive increase of its population :—In 1700, 5000 ; in 1760, 26,000 ; in 1773, 34,407 ; in 1790, 56,000; in 1801, 77,653; in 1811, 94,376 ; in 1821, 118,972 (or, in- cluding the suburbs and a floating popu- lation of 10,000 sailors, 151,000); in 1831, 163,000; with the suburbs, 200,000. The Liverpool and Manchester rail-road com- mences with a tunnel, 22 feet high, 16 broad, 6750 long. The thickness from the roof to the surface of the ground, va- ries from 5 feet to 70. About two thirds of it is cut through solid rock. The rail- road is continued through the remaining distance of 30 miles, with embankments, viaducts and excavations. It is traversed by locomotive steam-carriages, consuming their own smoke, and running at the rate of 18 miles an hour. The quantity of merchandise conveyed between Liver- pool and Manchester, has lately been es- timated at 1500 tons a day, the number of passengers at 1300. But the most remark- able objects in Liverpool are its immense docks. The old dock, the first opened, was constructed in the beginning of the eighteenth century. In 1821, there were six docks and basins, covering an area of 63 square acres. The Brunswick dock has since been added, of 10 acres, and addi- tional docks are in contemplation, which will give an area of 92 square acres. In 1724, the dock dues were £810 lis.; in 1828, £141,369, on 10,700 vessels. Before the sixteenth century, Liverpool was a mere hamlet; in 1716, her merchants be- gan to engage in the trade to America and the West Indies. The growth of the manufactures of Manchester promoted the growth of the place, while an exten- sive contraband commerce with South America and the chief portion of the Afri- can trade, made it the first seaport in Great Britain. 204 miles from London ; 36 from Manchester; Ion. 2° 591 W.; lat 53° 25' N. Liverpool, Charles Jenkinson, earl of, was the eldest son of colonel Jenkinson, the youngest son of sir Robert Jenkinson, the first baronet of the family. He was born in 1727, and educated at the Char- 24 LIVERPOOL, EARL OF—LIVERY. ter-house, wnence he removed to Univer- sity college, Oxford, where he took the degree of 31. A. in 1752. In 1761, he ob- tained a seat in parliament, and was made under-secretary of state. In 1766, he was named a lord of the admiralty, from which board he subsequently removed to that of the treasury. In 1772, he was ap- pointed vice-treasurer of Ireland, and was rewarded with the sinecure of the clerk- ship of the Pells, purchased back from Mr. Fox. In 1778, he was made secretary at war, and, on the dissolution of the admin- istration of lord North, joined that portion of it which supported Mr. Pitt, under whose auspices he became president of the board of trade, which office he held in conjunction with the chancellorship of the duchy of Lancaster, given him in 1786. In the same year (1786), he was also elevated to the peerage, by the title of baron Hawkesbury, of Hawkesbury, in the county of Gloucester ; and, in 1796, he was created earl of Liverpool. He re- mained president of the board of trade until 1801, and chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster until 1803. His death took place on the 7th December, 1808, at which time he held the sinecures of collector of the customs inwards of the port of Lon- don, arid clerk of the Pells in Ireland. The earl of Liverpool for a long time shared in all the obloquy attached to the confidential friends of the Bute adminis- tration, and, in a particular manner, was thought to enjoy the favor and confidence of George III, of whom it was usual to regard him as the se< ret adviser. The earl of Liverpool was the author of the following works—a Discourse on the Es- tablishment of a Constitutional Force Vi England (1756); a Discourse on the Con- duct of Great Britain in Regard to Neutral Nations, during the present War (1758); a Collection of Treaties, from 1646 to 1673 (3 vols., 8vo., 1785) ; a Treatise on the Coins of the Realm, in a Letter to the King (1805). Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of; son of the preceding ; born in 1770, and died in 1828 ; known in public life, from 1796 to 1808, as lord Hawkes- bury ; from 1812 to 1827, first lord of the treasury. He was educated at the Char- ter-house; on leaving which, he was enter- ed of Christ-church, Oxford. His father directed his reading and studies in polit- ical economy, and other branches of po- litical science at this time; and, on leaving the university, Mr. Jenkinson set out on his travels. He was in Paris at the out- break of the French revolution, and, in 1791, took his seat in the house of com- mons, in which he distinguished himself as a debater and an efficient member of the house. In 1801, he was appointed secretary of state for foreign affairs, and, two years later, was called to the house of peers as baron Hawkesbury. On the death of Pitt (1806), the premiership was offered him, but declined; and, after the short administration of Fox, his former office was again conferred on him, in the Percival ministry. After the assassination of Mr. Percival, lord Liverpool (as he had become, on the death of his father, in 1808) accepted (1812), though reluctantly, the post of premier. His administration was marked by great moderation and pru- dence at home, but the foreign depart- ment bore the different impress of lord Londonderry (q. v.) and Canning, (q. y.) Lord Liverpool lost popularity by the trial of the queen, which was closed, as is well known, by the abandonment of the bill of pains and penalties, on the part of the ministers. It was on this occasion, that earl Grey demanded of him " how he dared,upon such evidence,to bring forward a bill of degradation, the discussion of which had convulsed the country from one end to the other, and might have been fatal to her independent existence." A paralytic stroke, in the beginning of 1827, having rendered him incapable of attend- ing to business, Mr. Canning succeeded him in the premiership. Liverwort. The plant so called is the hepatica triloba of Pursh. Like many other supposed remedies, it has had a temporary reputation for the cure of pul- monary consumption. It is a pretty little plant, flowering very early in spring, and is common to the U. States and Europe. There are two varieties, one witli obtuse, and the other with acute lobes to the leaves. Livery (livrie). At the plenary courts in France, under the sovereigns of the sec- ond and third races, the king delivered to his servants, and also to those of the queen and the princes, particular clothes. These were called livrees, because they were delivered at the king's expense. The ex- pense of these donations, together with that of the table, the equipages, the pres- ents for the nobles and the people, amount- ed to an immense sum. A prudent econ- omy afterwards suppressed these plenary courts, but the livery of the servants still remained. In London, by livery or UVe. ry men, are meant those freemen of the city who belong to the 91 city companies which embrace the various trades of the LIVERY—LIVINGSTON. 25 metropolis ; they have the exclusive priv- ilege of voting at the election of members of parliament and of the lord mayor. Out of this body, the common council, sher- iffs, aldermen, and other officers for the government of the city, are elected. Livia Drusilla ; wife of the emperor Augustus, daughter of Livius Drusus Claudianus, who lost his life in the battle of Philippi, on the side of Brutus and Cas6ius. She was first married to Tibe- rius Claudius Nero, by whom she had two sons, viz. Drusus and Tiberius. When she fled with her husband to Italy, before the triumvir Octavianus, she narrowly es- caped being made prisoner by him, who afterwards became her husband. From that place, she went with her son to An- tony, in Achaia, and when her husband was reconciled to Augustus, returned to Rome. Here her personal and mental charms made such an impression on the triumvir, that he repudiated his wife Scri- bonia, in order to marry her, and, in the 715th year of Rome, tore her, though preg- nant, from her husband. Livia knew how to use her power over the heart of Augus- tus, for the attainment of her ambitious purposes, and effected the adoption of one of her sons as successor to the throne. At her instigation, Julia, the only daugh- ter of Augustus, was banished. Ancient writers, too, almost universally ascribe to her the deaths of the young Marcellus, of Lucius Cresar, and the banishment of Agrippa Posthumus. Augustus, having no longer any near relatives, yield- ed to her requests in favor of Tiberius. In the emperor's will, Livia was consti- tuted the first heiress, was received into the Julian family, and honored with the name of Augusta. She was also made chief priestess in the temple of the deified Au- gustus, and many coins were struck in her honor. But Tiberius proved himself very ungrateful to his mother, to whom he was indebted for every thing, and would not allow the senate to bestow up- on her any further marks of respect He did not, however, treat her in public with disrespect ; but, when he left Rome, in order to gratify his lusts in an uninter- rupted solitude, he fell into a violent dis- pute with her, did not visit her in her last sickness, would not see her body after her death, and forbade divine honors to be paid to her memory. Livingston, Philip, one of the signers of the American Declaration of Inde- pendence, was born at Albany, in New York, January 15, 1716, was graduated at Yale college, in 1737, and became a vol. vm. 3 merchant in New York. In 1759, he was returned a member to the general assem- bly of the colony, and afterwards to the general congress of 1774, and to the con- gress that issued the Declaration of Inde- pendence. In 1777, Mr. Livingston was a senator in the state legislature of New York. In 1778, he was again deputed to the general congress, where his effort.- aggravated a dropsy of the chest. He died, June 12, 1778, at York, Pennsyl- vania, to which congress had retired. Livingston, Robert R., an eminent American politician, was born in the city of New York, November 27, 1746. He was educated at King's college, and grad- uated in 1765. He studied and practised law in that city with great success. Near the commencement of the American rev- olution, he lost the office of recorder, on account of his attachment to liberty, and was elected to the first general congrc>.> of the colonies ; was one of the commit- tee appointed to prepare the Declaration of Independence ; in 1780, was appoint- ed secretary of foreign affairs, and, throughout the war of the revolution, signalized himself by his zeal and effi- ciency in the revolutionary cause. (See his letters, in the Diplomatic Correspond- ence of the Revolution.) At the adoption of the constitution of New York, he was appointed chancellor of that state, which office he held until he went, in 1801, to France, as minister plenipotentiary', ap- pointed by president Jefferson. He was received by Napoleon Bonaparte, then first consul, with marked respect and cordiali- ty, and, during a residence of several years in the French capital, the chancellor ap- peared to be the favorite foreign envoy. He conducted, with the aid of Mr. Mon- roe, the negotiation which ended in the cession of Louisiana to the U. States, took leave of the first consul (1804), and made an extensive tour on the continent of Europe. On his return from Paris, as a private citizen, Napoleon, then emperor, presented to hiin a splendid snuff-box, with a miniature likeness of himself (Na- poleon), painted by the celebrated Isabey. It was in Paris that he formed a friend- ship and close personal intimacy with Robert Fulton, whom he materially in- sisted with counsel and money, to mature his plans of steam navigation. (See Ful- ton, and Steam-Boat.) In 1805, Mr. Livings- ton returned to the U. States, and thence- forward employed himself in promoting the arts and agriculture. He introduced into the state of New York the use of gypsum and the Merino race of slice;». 26 LIVINGSTON—LIVIUS. He was president of the New York acad- emy of fine arts, of which he was a chief founder, and also of the society for the promotion of agriculture. He died March 26, 1813, with the reputation of an able statesman, a learned lawyer and a most useful citizen. Livingston, Brockholst, judge of the supreme court of the U. States, was the son of William Livingston, governor of New Jersey, and was born in the city of New York, November 25, 1757. He en- tered Princeton college, but, in 1776, left it for the field, and became one of the family of general Schuyler, commander of the northern army. He was afterwards attached to the suite of general Arnold, with the rank of major, ami shared in the honor of the conquest of Burgoyne. In 1779, he accompanied Mr. Jay to the court of Spain, as his private secretary, and re- mained abroad about three years. On his return, he devoted himself to law, and was admitted to practise in April, 1783. His talents were happily adapted to the pro- fession, and soon raised him into notice, and, ultimately, to eminence. He was called to the bench of the supreme court of the state of New York, January 8, 1802, and, in November, 1806, was trans- ferred to that of the supreme court of the U. States, the duties of which station he discharged, with distinguished faithful- ness and ability, until his death, which took place during the sittings of the court at Washington, March 18, 1823, in the 66th year of his age. He possessed a mind of uncommon acuteness and ener- gy, and enjoyed the reputation of an ac- complished scholar, and an able pleader and jurist, an upright judge, and a liberal patron of learning. Livius, Andronicus, the father of Ro- man poetry, by birth a Greek of Taren- tum, first went to Rome at the commence- ment of the sixth century from the foun- dation of the city, as instructer to the children of Livius Salinator. He intro- duced upon the Roman stage, dramas after the Grecian model, and, besides seve- ral epic poems, wrote a translation of the Odyssey, in the old Saturnine verse. We have only a few fragments of his writings, which may be found in the Comici Latini, and the Corpus Poetarum. (See Fabricius, Bib. Lat. iv, 1.; Tit. Livii, Hist, vii, 2.) Livius, Titus, born at Padua, in the year of Rome 695 (59 B. C), came from the place of his birth to Rome, where he attracted the notice of Augustus, after whose death he returned to his native town, where he died A. D. 16. His his- tory of Rome, to which he devoted 20 years, rendered him so celebrated, that a Spaniard is said to have gone from Cadiz to Rome merely for the purpose of seeing him. Of the circumstances of his life we know little. He was called, by Augustus, the Pompeian, because he defended the character of Pompey, in his history ; this, however, did not prevent his enjoying the patronage of the emperor till the time of his death. According to Suidas, Livy did not receive, during his lifetime, the ap- plause which his history deserved, and it was not till after his death that full justice was rendered him. In the fifteenth cen- tury, his body was supposed to have been discovered at Padua, and a splendid mon- ument was raised to his memory. His Roman history begins at the landing of yEueas in Italy, and comes down to the year of the city 744. His style is clear and intelligible, labored without affecta- tion, diffusive without tediousness, and argumentative without pedantry. His de- scriptions are singularly lively and pictu- resque, and there are tew specimens of oratory superior to that of many of the speeches with which his narratives are interspersed. Yet he was accused (see QuintUian, viii, 1) of provincialism (" pa- tavinUas"). His whole work consisted of 140 or 142 books, of which we have remaining only the first 10, and those from the 21st to the 45th, or the first third and fourth decades, and half of the fifth. In the first 10 books, the history extends to the year 460 ; the portioii between the 21st and 45th books contains the account of the second Punic war (A. U. C. 536), and the histoiy of the city to the year 586. In the year 1772, Bruns, while engaged in collecting various read- ings, discovered, in a codex rescriptus, in the Vatican, a fragment of the 91st book ; but it is not of much importance. It was printed at Rome, and reprinted at Leipsic, in 1773. The epitome of the whole work, which has been preserved, has been as- cribed, by some, to Livy, by others, to Florus. Following this outline, and de- riving his facts from other credible sources of Roman history, Freinsheim composed his Supplement to Livy. The best edi- tions of Livv are those of Gronovius (Amsterdam, "1679, 3 vols.), of Draken- borch (Leyden, 1738—46, 4 vols.], and, among the*later editions, those of Emesti, Schafer, Ruperti and Doring. The best English translation is that of George Baker (6 vols., 1797), which has been often reprinted in England and the U. States. LIVONIA—LIZARD. 27 Livonia. The Russian provinces upon the Baltic, viz. Livonia, Esthonia, Cour- land and Semigallia, early belonged to the Russian states, as tributaries, while they retained their own institutions, and were never protected by the Russians from hos- tile inroads. During the period when the Russian empire was in a state of confu- sion, they became independent, but were again reduced to subjection by Peter the Great. Livonia was little known to the rest of Europe till 1158, when some mer- chants of Bremen, on their way to Wisby, in Gothland, in search of new sources of commerce, were thrown upon the coasts of Livonia. The country was afterwards frequently visited by the people of Bre- men, who soon formed settlements there. An Augustine friar, Meinhard, with other Germans, emigrated thither about 28 years after. He converted the inhabitants to Christianity, and was their first bishop. The third bishop after him, by name Albert, who advanced as far as the Dwina, first firmly established the foundations of the spiritual authority. He built the city of Riga, in the year 1200, and made it the see of the bishopric. At the close of this century, the Danish king, Canute VI, made himself master of these provinces, which were, however, given up by his successor, Wladimir III, for a sum of money, to the Teutonic knights, with whom the order of Brethren of the Sword, founded by Albert, in 1201, had been united, so that the dominion of the Teu- tonic order comprehended all the four provinces above mentioned. They were, however, too weak to hold them against the Russian czar, John II Wasiliwitch, who was bent upon reuniting them with the Russian empire, and the state was dissolved. Esthonia then placed itself under the protection of Sweden ; Livonia was united to Poland; and Courland, with Semigallia, became a duchy, under Polish protection, which the last grand master of the Teutonic order held as a Polish fief. From this time, Livonia became a source of discord between Russia, Sweden and Poland, for near a century, from 1561 to 1660. At the peace of Oliva, in 1660, this province was ceded to Sweden by Poland, and it was again united to the province of Esthonia. (q. v.) By the peace of Nystadt, in 1721, both provinces were again united to the Russian empire. Li- vonia is bounded east by Ingria, south by Lithuania and Samogitia, west by the Baltic, and north by the gulf of Finland. It is productive in grass and grain, and consists of two provinces, Esthonia and Livonia, of which the first lies upon the gulf of Finland, the last upon the borders of Courland and Poland. The Livonians, like the Lithuanians, are a branch of the Finns, and are, for the most part, in a state of servitude ; but the grievous op- pression, under which they were held by their tyrants, the nobility, has been much lightened by an imperial decree of 1804. Besides the original inhabitants, there are, in the countiy, many Russians, Germans and Swedes. The greater part are Lu- therans ; but Calvinists, Catholics, and the Greek church, enjoy liberty of worship. In 1783, the country was newly organized, and Livonia became the government of Riga, and Esthonia that of Revel. The name of Livonia was, however, restored by the emperor Paul, in 1797. It is, at present, divided into five circles. The gov- ernment of Riga contains 20,000 square miles, and 980,000 inhabitants.—See the Essai sur I'Histoire de la Livonie, by count de Bray (Dorpat, 1817, 3 vols.), and Granville's Journey to St. Peters- burg (1828). Livre ; an ancient French coin. The word is derived from the Latin libra (q. v.), a pound. It appears as early as 810 B. C. At first, the livre was divided into 20 solidos; afterwards into 10 sous; in Italy, into 20 soldi; in Spain, into 20 sueldos, as the old German pound into 20 schUlinge, and the English into 20 shillings. The livre was, at first, of high value. The revolution changed the name into franc. (See Franc, and Coins.) Livy. (See Livius.) Lizard. All reptiles having a naked body, four feet and a tail, are vulgarly known under the name of lizards. Lin- naeus himself only constituted two gene- ra of this numerous class of animals— draco and lacerla; but more modem nat- uralists have greatly increased the num- ber of genera. The following is the ar- rangement followed by Cuvier in the last edition of his Regne animal:— LIZARD—LLAMA. Second Order of REPTILIA, or SAURIENS. Family I. CROCOD1LIENS. Crocodilus, Br. Sub-genera, 3. Family II. LACERTIEXS. Monitor. Lacerta. Sub-genera, 7. Family III. IGUAMENS. Section I. Acamiens. Stellio, Cuv. Agama, Daud. Iotiurus, Cuv. Draco, Lin. Sub-genera, 18. Section II. Iguaniens proper. Iguana, Cuv. Ophryessa, Boii. Basiliscus, Daud. Polychrus, Cur. Ecphimotes, Fitz. Oplurus, Cuv. Anolius, Cuv. Family IV. GECKOTIENS. Gecko, Daud. Sub-g-enera, 8. Family V. CHAMJELIONIENS. Chamaeleo. Family VI. SCINCOIDIENS. Scincus, Daud. Seps, Daud. Bipes, Lacep. Chalcides, Daud. Chirotes, Cuv. Besides these, the salamanders, which belong to the fourth order, or Batracicns, are also generally termed lizards. (See . llligator, Basilisk, Chameleon, Crocodile, Dragon, Gecko, Iguana, Monitor, &c.) Lizard, Cape ; the most southern promontory of England, in the county • ■?" Cornwall. Llama (auchcnia, Iilig.). This valuable animal, which supplies the place of the camel to the inhabitants of Southern America, is much more graceful and del- icate than the Eastern " ship of the desert." Their slender and well formed legs bear u much more equal proportion to tho size and form of their body. Their necks are more habitually maintained in an upright position, and are terminated by a much smaller head. Their ears are long, point- ed, and very movable; their eyes large, prominent and brilliant, and the whole expression of their physiognomy conveys a degree of intelligence and vivacity that is wanting in the camel. There has been much difference of opinion among natu- ralists as regards the number of species. Tlie first travellers in America spoke of rite llama, the guanaco, the alpaca, and the vicugna, without giving such details The llamas inhabit the Cordilleras of the Andes, but are most common in Peru and Chile; they are rare in Colombia and Par- aguay. They congregate in large herds, which sometimes consist of upwards of a hundred individuals, and feed on a grass peculiar to the mountains, termed ycho. As long as they can procure green herb- age, they are never known to drink. At the period of the arrival of the Europeans in i'eru, these animals were the only ru- minants known to the inhabitants, by whom they were used as beasts of burden, and killed in vast numbers for their flesh and skins. Giegoiy de Bolivar asserts that, in his time, 4,000,000 were annually killed for food, and 300,000 used in the service of the mines of Potosi. From the form of their feet, they are pecu- liarly fitted for mountainous countries, being, it is said, even safer than mules. They are also maintained at a trifling expense, wanting, as is observed by father Feuillee, " neither bit nor saddle ; there is no need of oats to feed them; it is only necessary to unload them in the evening, at the place where they are to rest for the night ; they go abroad into the country to seek their own food, and, in as were requisite to identify them. Most the morning, return, to have their baggage of the early naturalists, including Linnieus, replaced, and continue their journey." reduced them to two species, the llama or They cannot carry more than from 100 guanaco, used as a beast of burden, and to 150 pounds, at the rate of 12 or 15 the alpaca, paco or vicugna, prized for its miles a day. Like the camel, they lie wool and flesh. Bufibn was at first of the down to be loaded, and when they are -.-.me opinion, but, subsequently, admitted wearied, no blows will compel them to the vicugna as a third species. Molina proceed. In fact, one of their great faults also separated the guanaco, and added a is the capriciousuess of their disposition. nfth, the hueque or Chilian sheep, both of When provoked, they have no other mode which species were adopted by most sub- of avenging themselves than by spitting, sequent compilers. Mr. F.Cuvier, howev- which faculty they possess in an extraor- er, limits the number to three, rejecting the dinary degree, being capable of ejecting two last mentioned ; whilst baron Cuvier their saliva to a distance of several yards. ..uly admits tha llama and the vicugna, con- This is of a corroding quality, causiu"' sdering the alpaca as a variety of the first, some degree of irritation and itching, if ft LLAMA—LLANEROS. 29 falls on the naked skin. Besides then- services as beasts of burden, the llamas afford various articles of no small utility ro human life. The flesh is considered very wholesome and savory, especially from the young animal. Their wool, though of a strong, disagreeable scent, is in great request, especially among the native In- dians, who employ it in the manufacture of stuffs, ropes, bags and hats. Their ekins are of a very close texture, and were formerly employed by the Peruvians for soles of shoes, and are much prized by the Spaniards for harness. The female llama goes five or six months with young, and produces one at a birth. The growth of the young is very rapid ; being capable of producing at three years of age, and be- ginning to decay at about twelve. The llama is four feet and a half high, and not more than six in length. He has a bunch on his breast, which constantly exudes a yellowish oily matter. His hair is long and soft ; his colors, various shades of white, brown, &c. The tail is rather short, curved downwards. The hoofs are divided; or, rather, the toes are elongated forwards, and terminated by small horny appendages, surrounding the last phalanx only, rounded above, and on either side somewhat curved. There are several specimens of the llama in the differ- ent menageries in Europe, where they appear to thrive very well. Llaneros (from llano, plain); the in- habitants of the plains, or Llanos (q. v.). In this article, we speak more particu- larly of those in Venezuela. The im- mense plains of Venezuela, which afford excellent pasture for all kinds of flocks and herds, are generally inhabited by con- verted Indians or descendants of Indians and whites, who are distinguished for activ- ity, ferocity, ignorance and semi-barbarous habits, and are called Llaneros. From childhood they are accustomed to catch and mount wild horses, which roam by hundreds over the savannas. When at war, they are generally armed with a long lance, anil often have neither swords nor pistols. Uniform is unknown among them; a few rags cover the upper part of their body ; their pantaloons are broad and full, some- what in the Mameluke style. They have blankets (mantas), as is the case with most Indians in habits of intercourse with whites; many of them have hammocks. They are brave in defending their plains. Their manner of fighting is much like that of the Cossacks ; they never attack in regular files, but disperse themselves in every direction, rushing onward, flying, repeatedly attacking and constantly harass- ing the enemy. Paez, who was bom and bred among them, and is in manners, lan- guage and ferocity, a complete Llanero, commanded them during the war of Co- lombian independence, and is adored by them. They choose their own officers, and dismiss them at pleasure. The} suffer no foreigners among them. As they have played a conspicuous part in the revolutions of Colombia, we subjoin the description of them by colonel Hippisley, which is corroborated by general Ducou- dray Holstein,in his Memoirs of Simon Bol- ivar. " Sedeno's cavalry (Llaneros)," says colonel Hippisley, " were composed of all sorts and sizes, some with saddles, very many of them without ; some with bits, leather head-stalls and reins; others with rope lines, with a bite of the rope placet] over the tongue of the horse as a bit ; some with old pistols hung over the saddle bow, either incased in tiger-skin, or ox- hide holster-pipes, or hanging by a thong of hide, one on each side. As for the troop- ers themselves, they were from 13 to 40 years of age, of black, brown, sallow complexions, according to the castes of their parents. The adults wore coarse, large mustachios, and short hair, either woolly or black, according to their cli- mate or descent. They had a ferocious, savage look. They were mounted on miserable, half-starved, jaded beasts, horses or mules; some without trowsers, small clothes, or any covering, except a bandage of blue cloth or cotton round their loins, the end of which, passing between their legs, was fastened to the girth, round the waist; others with trowsers, but without stockings, boots or shoes, and a spur gen- erally gracing the heel of one side : and some wearing a kind of sandal made of hide, with the hair side outward. In their left hand they hold their reins, and in their right a pole, from eight to ten feet in length, with an iron head, very sharp at the point and sides, and rather flat; in shape like our sergeants' halbert. A blanket of about a yard square, with a hole, or rather a slit, cut in the centre, through which the wearer thrusts his head, falls on each side of his shoulders, thus cover- ing his body, and leaving his bare arms at perfect liberty to manage his horse, or mule, and lance. Sometimes an old musket, the barrel of which lias been shortened 12 inches, forms his carbine, and a large sabre or hanger, or cut and thrust, or even a small sword, hangs by a leather thong to his side. A flat hat, a tiger skin or high cap, covers his head, with a white feather 30 LLANEROS—LLORENTE. or a white rag stuck into it." This pic- fiire will remind the reader of some of the cavalry which Russia marched from her Asiatic dominions against France in the final struggle with Napoleon. Llanos ; the name given in the northern part of South America, particularly in Colombia, to vast plains, almost entirely level, and interrupted only by detached ele- vations, called, in Spanish, mesas. The su- perficial area of the llanos is estimated at 296,800 square miles ; they extend from the coast of Caracas to Guiana, and from Merida to the mouth of the Orinoco and the Amazons. A large portion of them is sandy and without much vegetation, ex- cept on the banks of the rivers and during inundations: some fan-palms are found. When the inundations occur, the beasts Like refuge upon the mesas. The llanos have been supposed by some to have for- merly been the bottom of the sea. They are distinguished into the (a.) Llano of Co- lombia, extending from the mountains of Caracas to the mouth of the Orinoco, and to the mountains of St. Ffc, and contain- ing several mesas (do Amana, de Guani- pa, de Paja, 50—65 feet in height\ which, in the rainy season, are covered with rich verdure, and inhabited by herds and flocks of all descriptions.—(b.) Llano de Casa- nare; a continuation of the former, be- tween the Orinoco, Meta and Siuaruea.— ic.) Llano de S. Juan; very fertile, woody, often so thickly overgrown, that it can only be penetrated by means of the nu- merous rivers; lies on the southern bank ■ if the Meta, reaching to the Amazons, and was discovered in 1541. by Gonzalu Ximones Qucsada.—(d.) Llnnu of the Amazons, or the Maranhon; on both sides of the river, extending from tiie Amies to rite mouth of the Maranhon, over 2100 miles ; it is also wooded, and rich in Lrrass, entirely without stones, and inhab- ited by many species of animals. The inhabitants of these plains are called Llaneros (q. v.). Farther to the south, such plains are called pampas (q. v.). Llorexte, don Juan Antonio, born in 1756, near Calahorra, in Arragon, author of the first history of the Spanish inquisi- tion, drawu from its own records, re- ceived his education at Tarragona, enter- ed the clerical order in 1770, received a benefice at Calahorra, and, in 1779, by means of a dispensation (as he was hardly 23 years old), was consecrated a priest This, however, did not prevent him from pursuing the study of the canon law, while he devoted his leisure to the muses. At Madrid, he was attracted by the theatre, and composed a sort of inelo-drama, the Recruit of Galicia. A tragedy, entitled Eric, the King of the Goths, was not rep- resented, as it contained allusions to ex- isting difficulties at the court of Madrid. In 1789, he was made chief secretary to the inquisition. Here he had an oppor- tunity to learn from the archives of the tribunal the histoiy of its shameful and barbarous proceedings. In 1791, he was sent back to his parish, on suspicion of be- ing attached to the principles of the French revolution, and in spite of the protection of the minister Florida Blanca, who was an enlightened statesman. Here he occupied himself actively in the sup- port of emigrant French priests; and many of these unfortunate men were indebted to him alone for their subsistence. The man- uscript of a history of the emigration of the French priesthood, founded upon the knowledge obtained from these acquaint- ances, and written in 1793, was lost by the fault of the censors of the press. In the mean time, don Manuel A bad la Sierra, an enlightened man, was made grand inquis- itor, who, intending to reform the admin- istration of this tribunal, employed Llo- rcnte to prepare a plan for the purpose. But, before it was completed, the removal of A bad la Sierra was obtained by his enemies. Some time after, the design was taken up again at Madrid, and Llorente repaired thither to submit the plan which he had prepared in conjunction with the bishop of Calahorra. Jovellanos (q. v.), minister of justice, supported them. It was proposed to make the proceedings of the tribunal of the inquisition public. All depended upon their obtaining the assist- ance of the prince of peace, the favorite of the queen. But Jovellanos was suddenly removed from ottice, and the inquisition remained as it was* (See Inquisition.) Llorente soon felt its* arm himself. His correspondence was seized; the most in- nocent expressions were misinterpreted; he was sentenced to a month's confine- ment in a monastery, and to pay a fine of 50 ducats, and was removed from the ap- " A French ultra.Clausel de Coussergucs, having publicly asserted that the inquisition had not burnt any person since 1680, Llorente, in his Lettre a M. Clausd, &,c..sur I'Inquisition d'Es- pagne (Paris. 1817), proved, that from the year 1700 to 1308 alone, no less than 1578 persons had perished at the stake by its means! And how long is it since this holy tribunal suffered th<« body of general Miranda, who had died in their dungeons, to be devoured by dogs, and burnt a German officer in effigy, because he had, during the war under Napoleon, translated a book, which, in Spain, was considered heretical ? LLORENTE—LLOYD. 31 pointments which he held in the Holy Office. He lived in disgrace till 1805, when his reputation caused him to be re- called to Madrid to investigate some dark points of history. He was then appointed a canon of the cathedral of Toledo in 1^00, and, in 1807, after he had proved himself of noble descent, he was made a knight of the order of don Carlos. In the next year, when Napoleon undertook to regulate the affairs of Spain, Llorente re- paired to Bayonne, at Murat's request, and took part in organizing the new institu- tions of his country, which, ' however, could not take permanent root, as the cler- !_ry saw in them the destruction of their au- t hority. When Joseph Bonaparte entered Madrid, in 1809, he charged Llorente to take possession of the papers of the inquisi- tion, and of the buildings and archives which were under the superintendence of the general commandant of the place. In 1812, Llorente published a historical me- moir on the inquisition, with the view of freeing the Spanish nation from the charge of having ever been attached to this institu- tion, and to the autos dafe. Llorente was almoner of kingJoseph,who made him,suc- cessively, counsellor of state, commander of the royal order of Spain, commissioner- general of theCruzarfcr. He followed Joseph to Paris after the disastrous campaign of the French in Russia, and in 1815 had the intention of accompanying him to the U. States; but, remaining to take leave of his family, he was induced to give up the plan. In 1817, he published his history of the inquisition in Spaiu, in French—a work which was soon translated into most European languages, and which has be- come a historical source. An abridg- ment has been published by Leonard Gal- lois. When the old authorities were re- stored, he was obliged to flee. Banished from his country, deprived of his property and of his fine library, Llorente lived in [•"ranee, after the downfall of the French j ;arty in Spain, in indigence. But the hatred r.f the illiberal party arose, at last, to such ;: height, that the university of Paris for- bade him from teaching the Spanish language in the boarding-schools, which had been his only means of support. The rage of his enemies was raised to the highest pitch by the publication of his Portraits politiqucs des Papes, and the i ild man was ordered, in the middle of the winter of 1822, to leave Paris in three days, and France in the shortest pos- sible time. He was not allowed to rest one day, ami died exhausted, a victim to the persecutions of the nineteenth centu- ry, a few days after his arrival in Madrid (Feb. 5, 1823). During his residence in France, he published his Mimoires pour servir a I'Histoire de la Revolution d Es- pagne, avec des PUces justi/icatives, under the name of R. Nelleto (an anagram of Llorente), in three volumes (Paris, 1815)— a work of value, as illustrative of the events of 1808, in Spain. He also wrote a bio- graphical account of himself (Noticia bio- grafica de Don J. A. Llorente, Paris, 1818). and Aforisnws Politicos. The Discursos sobre una Constitucion religiosa was act- ually written by an American, but arrang- ed and edited by Llorente. He also su- perintended an edition of (Euvres com- petes de Barthelemy de las Casas (Paris, 1822). Lloyd, Henry, a military officer and eminent writer on tactics, born in Wales, in 1729, was the son of a clergyman, who instructed him in the mathematics and classical literature. At the age of 17 he went abroad, and he was present at the battle of Fontenoy. He afterwards trav- elled in Germany; and having resided some years in Austria, he was appointed aid-de-camp to marshal Lascy. lie was gradually promoted, till, in 1760, he was intrusted with the command of a large detachment of cavalry and infantry, des- tined to observe the movements of tho Prussians. Lloyd executed this service with great success; but soon after resign- ed his commission in disgust He was then employed by the king of Prussia; and during two campaigns, he acted as aid-de-camp to prince Ferdinand of Brunswick. After the peace of Huberts- burg, he travelled, till the occurrence of hostilities between Russia and Turkey, when he offered his services to Catharine II, who made him a major-general. He distinguished himself in 1774, at the siege of Silistria; and, subsequently, he had the command of 30,000 men, in the war with Sweden. At length, he left Russia, and travelled in Italy, Spain and Portugal. He visited general Eliott, at Gibraltar, whence he proceeded to England. Hav- ing made a survey of the coasts of the country, lie drew up a Memoir on tin; Invasion and Defence of Great Britain, which was published in 1798. He re- tired, at length, to Huy, in the Nether- lauds, where he died, June 19, 1783. Be- sides the memoir, he was the author of an Introduction to the History of the War in Germany, between the King of Prussia and the Empress-Queen (London, 1781, '2 vols., 4to.); and a Treatise on the Composition of different Annies, ancient 32 LLOYD—PUBLIC LOAN. and modern. These works have been translated into French and German, and Jomini made use of the Introduction for his TraUi des Grandes Opirations MUi- taires. Other works of Lloyd's are said to have been bought up and suppressed by the English government, and many of his papers are said to have been taken possession of, at his death, by a person supposed to be an emissary of the English ministry, among which were the Continu- ation of the History of the Seven Years' War, and a History of the Wars in Flan- ders. The truth, however, of these state- ments seems doubtful. Lloyd, James, was born in Boston, in 1769, graduated at Harvard college in 1787, and, on leaving college, entered the counting-house of Thomas Russell, whose extensive foreign trade made it by far the most suitable place in New England to acquire a practical knowledge of business. He visited Europe, and resided some time in Russia, about the year 1792, and, after a successful career in commerce, was elected by the legislature of Massachusetts, in 180r', a senator in congress. During Ave years, and at a period of great party excitement and national difficulty, Mr. Lloyd conducted himself with pru- dence, intelligence, firmness and integrity. Brought up in the school of Washington, he kept the political maxims of that great man always in view. When war was declared against England in 1812, he op- posed that measure more from a convic- tion of our incompetent preparation, than from any doubt of our ability to contend successfully when properly armed. His speeches, on that memorable occasion, bear ample testimony to this, as well as to his warm attachment to his country, and soli- citude for its naval and military fame. In 1822, the legislature of Massachusetts re- appointed him to the national senate. During another period of five years that he held his seat in that body, he added to his previous reputation by a constant application to business. For the greater part of the time, he was chairman of two imjwrtant committees—that on commerce and that on naval affairs; a station that obliged him to arrange the numerous reports incidental to the current concerns of each session. The investigations to which he was led, in the discharge of these duties, gave rise to several pamphlets, which he published at different times. The last of these was published Decem- ber 30, 1826, at Boston, and entitled Re- marks on the Report of the Committee of Commerce of the Senate of the U. States, March 31, 1826, on the British colonial Intercourse. He died at New York in 1831. Lloyd's Coffef.-Housk, London, on the northern side of the royal exchange, has long been celebrated as the resort of eminent merchants, underwriters, insur- ance brokers, &c. As Lloyd's is one of the most extensive and best known insur- ance offices, the estimate of a vessel at Lloyd's tends much to determine her char- acter among merchants. The books kept here contain an account of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and are remarkable for their early intelligence of maritime affairs. Lloyd's List, a publication in which the shipping news received at Lloyd's coffee-house is published, on account of the extensive information contained in it, is of great importance to merchants. Loadstone. (See Magnet.) Loan, Public, is the name given to money borrowed by the state. There may occur cases which require expenses for which the ordinary revenue of the state is not sufficient If, in such cases, it is not possible to increase the usual revenue by augmenting the taxes, with- out great inconvenience to the nation, the state will find it advisable to borrow, and to pay interest till it can discharge the principal. If such loans are appropriated to objects by which the means of produc- tion are augmented, the state strengthen- ed, and industry increased, they answer the same purpose as those which an in- dustrious tradesman makes in order to enlarge and improve his business. If he is successful, he will increase his property, and the loan itself will afford the means for repaying it. This will be the case also with the state, when it employs the borrowed capital to open to the nation increased means of profitable industry, by facilitating its intercourse with other coun- tries, giving security to its commerce, and increasing its means of production. But if the loans are expended in useless or unfortunate wars, or in other unprofitable ways, they diminish the means of labor or enjoyment, and burthen the nation with taxes to pay the interest and discharge the capital. The capitalists who aid in pro- ducing, when they lend their capital to men of business, and receive their inter- est from the proceeds of their capitals, become unproductive subjects as soon as they lend it to the state which expends it uselessly, for now they live on the prod- ucts of the capitals of others, when be- fore they lived on the products of their own. As loans, however, may become PUBLIC LOAN—LOANDA. 33 necessary to the state, the only ques- tion is, What is the most advantageous method of making them ? A chief dis- tinction among loans is this—that the government promises either the repay- ment of the capital at a particular time, until which it pays interest, or reserves the liber- ty to retain the capital, according to its own pleasure, only paying interest regularly. The first kind is liable to occasion trouble to the state, because the payment may often fall at an inconvenient time. The payment of large sums, too, at a particular period, has this disadvantage, that the nation, when the payment is to be made, becomes destitute of ready money. Therefore large loans are usually con- tracted in such a way that the payment is made, successively, at many periods, «r re- mains entirely indefinite. The last kind of loans requires that the credit of the state should be undoubted, and also that large capitals should have been accumu- lated in the hands of many rich people, who find their greatest advantage in dis- posing of them in loans. Where there is a well founded system of credit, statesmen think it most advantageous to secure only the regular payment of the stipulated in- terest, but to leave the payment of the capital at the pleasure of the state. This is called the funding system, as far as fixed funds are assigned for the perpetual pay- ment of the interest. These perpetual annuities, as they are called, had their origin in England, but have since been im- itated in Holland, France, Russia, Austria, and many other states. In order to pro- vide for the redeeming of the capital, a sinking fund (French, amortissement) is established, together with the fund appro- priated to the payment of the annuities. This is procured by means of a tax large enough to pay the annuity as long as it lasts, and to redeem, annually, a part of the capital debt. This sinking fund is in- creased every year, if the annuities, annual- ly redeemed are added to it (See Sink- ing Fund.) According to this method, the state cannot be said, properly, to borrow capital; it sells annuities, and fixes, at the sale, the rate at which they may be redeem- ed. They are commonly estimated at so much percent The government says—I offer you an annuity of three, four, five, &c. per cent, redeemable at my pleasure. How much will you give me for it ? Ac- cording to the market rate of interest, and the degree of credit which the state en- joys, the capitalists offer 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, &c, per cent. The sinking fund aims to discharge the debt, gradually, by redeem- ing, annually, part of the annuities, at the market price. If the latter exceeds the price for which it had sold its annuities, it will be obliged to redeem them with loss; but if it is less, it can redeem them with gain. Another kind of loan is, when the capitalists pay 100 per cent, at a fixed rate of interest, the government re- serving the right to pay the capital at any convenient time. Suppose that the state, when it wishes to borrow, is obliged to pay eight per cent, and that these stocks, in the course of three years, should rise in the market 100 per cent, above par; the state would easily find capitalists, who would lend at the rate of four per cent annually, and with this it could redeem the eight per cent, stocks. If, therefore, the state has reason to expect that the price of the stocks will rise, its best plan is to receive a fixed capital sum at such a rate of interest as it is obliged to give. But if it fears that the interests or the prices of the stocks will fall, it is for its advantage to procure the necessary money by the sale of stocks at the market price, because it may hope to redeem them at a reduced rate. Sometimes premiums, or the chances of a lottery, are employed to stimulate reluctant capitalists, and some- times even force. If a government must have recourse to other means than those arising from the annuity or interest offered, it is a certain sign that it enjoys but a fee- ble credit, or that there is a want of capi- tal. How fertile modern history is in loans of every kind, and into what an unhappy situation many states have fallen, by reason of them, is well known. In Austria, the proprietors of the stocks have bet-n forced, several times, to advance further sums, to avoid losing what they had already lent. (See National Debt.) Loanda, or Loando, or St. Paul de Loanda ; a city of Angola, in a province of the same name, capital of the Portu- guese possessions in this part of Africa; longitude 13° 22' E.; latitude 8° 55' S. : population, stated by Clarke at 5,000; by Hassel at 18,000. It is pleasantly situated on the declivity of a hill, near the sea- coast, and the streets are wide and regular. It covers a large extent of ground, but is neither walled nor fortified. - It is the seat of a bishop, and contains three convents. The port is safe and spacious; the coun- try around pleasant and fertile, abounding in cattle, com and fruits; provisions plen- tiful and cheap; but the water bad, and must be brought from a neighboring river, on an island opposite. The houses be- longing to the Portuguese are built of 34 LOANDA—LOBELIA. stone; the houses of the natives are more numerous, but mean. The Jesuits officiate as priests, and preside over the schools. Loango ; a country of Western Africa, of limits somewhat vague. The country subject to the king of Loango extends from the Zaire or Congo, on the south, to cape St. Catharine, a coast of upwards of 400 miles; but Loango proper occupies only the middle part, excluding Mayom- l>a on one side, and Malemha on the other. The climate is described as fine ; rain of rare occurrence, and never violent, but dews abundant; the soil a red, stiff clay, and veiy fertile, but little cultivated ; the grains are manioc, maize, and a species of pulse, called msangen; the sugar-cane grows to a great size; palm-trees are abundant; also potatoes and yams, and the finest fruits grow wild. Among the animals are tiger-cats, ounces, hyaenas, hares, and antelopes. The country is thinly inhabited; the population is esti- mated by De Grandpre at 600,000. The inhabitants are very indolent, and live in the most simple manner. Their houses are formed of straw and junk, roofed with palm leaves. The government is despot- ic, and the dignity is transmitted only in the female hue. Almost the only object for which Europeans resort to this coast is the trade in slaves. While Loango was in the height of its power, its port was almost the exclusive theatre of this trade. The trade has of late much diminished. (See Tuckey's Expedition to the Congo.) Loango ; a city, and the capital of Loan- go, on a river which forms a bay at its mouth, about six miles from the Atlantic; longitude, according to captain Tuckey, 12° 30' E.; latitude 4° 401 N. ft is about four miles in circuit, containing only about 600 enclosures, in each of which then; is a number of cottages; and the in- habitants are computed at 15,000. The land in the vicinity is very fertile, and the water excellent. The entrance of the bay is attended with some danger. The town s called also Lovango, Loangiri, Banga, .:nd Buali; by the natives, Borai, or Boori. Lobau, George Mouton, count, lieu- tenant-general, and, in 1830, commander of the national guards of Paris, one of the pupils of the French revolution of 1789, and a distinguished actor in that of July, 1830, was born in 1770, and de- signed for commercial pursuits. On the invasion of France, in 1792, he entered the military service, and obtained his first promotion on the Rhine. Having serv- ed with distinction in Italy, where he was dangerously wounded, he was cre- ated, by the first consul, Bonaparte, general of brigade, and afterwards accom- panied the emperor in all his campaigns, in the capacity of aid. In 1807, he was wounded at Friedland, and promoted to the rank of general of division. His bril- liant services in Spain, in 1808, and in Germany, obtained him his title of count (See Aspern.) After having served in the Russian campaign, he was made prisoner in Dresden, in 1813, but set at liberty after the abdication of Napoleon. He rejoined the emperor during the hundred days, was named peer of France, received the command of a division, and distinguished himself at Waterloo. On the second res- toration of the Bourbons, count Lobau was banished from the kingdom (see Louis XVIII), and he resided in Belgium till 1818, when he was allowed to return to France. During the revolution of 1830, he took an active part on the popular side, and, when Lafayette resigned the command of the national guards, was appointed (De- cember 26) commander of those of Paris. Lobeira, Vasco, author of the cele- brated romance of Amadis de Gaul, was born at Porta, in Portugal, in the four- teenth century. In 1386, he was knighted on the field of battle, at Aljubarrota, by king Joam I. He died at Elvas, where he possessed an estate, in 1403. The original of his celebrated romance was preserved in the library of the duke of Aveiro, who suffered for the conspiracy agaiust Joseph I; but whether still in ex- istence or not, is doubtful. This romance has been claimed for France, it having been asserted that Lobeira was only a transla- tor ; but doctor Southcy has succeeded in refuting that pretension. (See Amadis.) Lobel, Martin de (Latinized, Lobelius), was born at Lille, in 1538, studied medi- cine at Montpellier, travelled through Italy, Switzerland, Germany, became physician to the prince of Orange, and was, at a later period, invited to England, as botanist, by king James. He died in 1616, at Highgate, near London. His chief works are Stirpium adversaria nova, with engravings (London, 1570, folio; several times reprinted ; the last time, Frankfort, 1651, folio); Plantarum seu Stirpium His- toria cum Adversariorum Volumine, with engravings (Antwerp, 1576, folio ; in Dutch, ibid, 1581); Icones Stirpium (Ant- werp, 1581, 4to.; also London, 1605, 4to.). After him, a genus of plants has been called Lobelia. All the species are poisonous; some very much so. Lobelia; a genus of plants distin- guished by the labiate corolla, and by LOBELIA—LOCH KATRINE. 35 having the five stamens united in the form of a cylinder, as in the composita. About 150 species are known, which are herba- ceous or frutescent, having alternate leaves, and flowers disposed in terminal racemes. The juice in all is milky, and more or less acrid and caustic. Among the species inhabiting the U. States, the most re- markable are the three following :—The L. syphUUica is found in moist places throughout the Middle and Western States. It grows to the height of three or four feet, and bears large and beautiful flowers, of a fine blue color. It was, formerly, a celebrated remedy with the aborigines, and, as such, has been brought into no- tice among medical practitioners; but its virtues have been overrated, and it is now rarely employed. It, however, possesses diuretic, properties.—The large scarlet flowers of the L. cardinalis, or cardinal flower, are conspicuous in the low grounds, and along the banks of streams, through- out the U. States. The brilliancy of the flowers has rendered this plant a favorite in the Europeajn gardens, where it has been cultivated for more than two centu- ries.—The L. inflata, or Indian tobacco, is an upland plant, often growing even in cultivated grounds, from Canada to Caro- lina. The flowers are very small, blue, and are succeeded by inflated capsules. It possesses emetic properties, and is an acrid and dangerous plant, it was em- ployed as a medicine by theliulians,and has, of late, acquired some celebrity from being used by a certain class of empirics. Ten other species of lobelia inhabit the U. States. Lobster (astacus). This well known crustaceous animal has already been cur- sorily mentioned under the head of Craw- fish (q. v.), and it was there inadvertently stated, thut the lobster, found on the Amer- ican coast, was the A. gammarus, or, in other words, identical with the European species. It was so considered by most naturalists, until Mr. Say pointed out the differences between them. (See Journ. .lead. Nat. Sci. PhUad., i, 165.) He terms it A. marinus. Mr. Say observes that Seba, however, was aware that this spe- cies was distinct from the European, and figured it in his great work. They are exceedingly alike, though there are.certu'm traits of difference, sufficient to authorize ;t separation. The habits of the American species arc, as far as they have been ol>- served, analogous to those of the gamma- rus. They are taken by means of pots or traps, made of strips or osiers, formed somewhat, like a mouse-trap, baited with garbage, attached to a cord and buoy, and sunk by means of a weight. The Euro- pean lobster having been more studied by naturalists, the following particulars re- specting it have been obtained. Like the crabs, they change their crust annually. Previous to this process, they appear sick, languid and restless. They acquire the new shell in about three or four days, during which time, being perfectly de- fenceless, they become the prey, nOt only of fish, but also of such of their brethren as are not in the same condition. It is difficult to conceive how they are able to draw the muscles of their claws out of their hard covering. The fisher- men say, that during the pining state of the animal, before casting its shell, the limb becomes contracted to such a de- gree as to be capable of being withdrawn through the joints and narrow passage near the body. Like all other crusta- ceous animals, they only increase in size whilst in a soft state. The circumstance of lobsters losing their claws on occasion of thunder-claps, or the sound of cannon, is well authenticated. The restoration of claws lost thus, or from their frequent combats with each other, in which the vanquished party generally leaves one of his limbs in his adversary's grasp! lIia.V be readily observed, as the new limb seldom. if ever, attains the size of the former. These animals are so sensible to the shock communicated to the fluid in which they live, by the firing of cannon, that it is said they wholly deserted New York bay, from this cause, during the war of inde- pendence. In the water, they are veiy rapid in their motions, and, when sud- denly alarmed, can spring to a great dis- tance. They attain their retreat in a rock with surprising dexterity, throwing them- selves into a passage barely sufficient to permit their bodies to pass. They are extremely prolific : doctor Raster says that he counted 12,144 eggs under the tail of .-•. female lobster, besides those that remained in the body unprotruded. The female deposits these eggs in the sand, where they are soon hatched. Loch ; the Scotch for lake. Loch Katrine, or Catherine ; a small lake of Scotland, in the county of Perth, in the Grampian hills, celebrated for the picturesque beauties of its shore.-. It has become famous as the scene of the Lady of the Lake. Bordering on it are the Trosachs, rough and stupendous mountains, full of wildness and rude gran- deur. The access to the lake is through a narrow pass, about half a mile in length, " the Trosachs' rugged jaws." 36 LOCH LEVEN'—LOCKE. Loch Leven. (See Leven.) Loch Lomond ; a lake of Scotland, in the county of Argyle. It communicates with the Clyde by a river, which joins the Clyde at Dumbarton, and is about 30 miles long, and, in some parts, 8 or 9 broad, and contains about 30 islands. This beautiful lake is surrounded by hills and mountains, and is celebrated for the grand and picturesque scenery of its shores. Its depth is various, in some parts 100 fathoms. It abounds in trout. Lock ; a well known instrument, used for fastening doors,..chests, &c, generally opened by a key. The lock is reckoned the master-piece in smithery, a great deal of art and delicacy being required in con- triving and varying the wards, springs, bolts, &c, and adjusting them to the places where they are to be used, and to the several occasions of using them. The principle on which all locks depend, is the application of a lever to an interior bolt, 'y means of a communication from with- out ; so that, by means of the latter, the lever acts upon the bolt, and moves it in such a manner as to secure the lid or door from being opened by any pull or push from without The security of locks, in general, therefore, depends on the number of impediments we can interpose betwixt the lever (the key) and the bolt which secures the door; and these impediments are well known by the name of wards, the number and intricacy of which are sup- posed to distinguish a good lock from a bad one. If these wards, however, do not, in an effectual manner, preclude the ac- cess of all other instruments besides the proper key, it is still possible for a me- chanic, of equal skill with the lockmaker, to open it without the key, and thus to elude the labor of the other. Various complicated and difficult locks have been constructed by Messrs. Bramah, Taylor, Spears, and others. In a very ingenious lock, invented by Mr. Perkins, 24 small blocks of metal, of different sizes, are in- troduced, corresponding to the letters of the alphabet. Out of these, an indefinite number of combinations may be made. The person locking the door selects and places the blocks necessary to spell a par- ticular word, known only to himself, and no other person, even if in possession of the key, can open the door, without a knowledge of the same word. Locks. When a canal changes from one level to another of different elevation, the place where the change of level takes [dace, is commanded by a lock. Locks are tight, oblong enclosures, in the bed of the canal, furnished with gates at each end, which separate the higher from the lower parts of the canal. When a boat passes up the canal, the lower gates arc opened, and the boat glides into the lock, after which the lower gates are shut. A sluice, communicating with the upper part of the canal, is then opened, and the lock rapidly fills with water, elevating the boat on its surface. When the lock is filled to the highest water level, the upper gates are opened, and the boat, being now on the level of the upper part of the canal, passes on its way. The reverse of this process is performed when the boat is descending the canal. Locks are made of stone or brick, sometimes of wood. The gates are commonly double, resent bling folding doors. They meet each other, in most instances, at an obtuse angle, and the pressure of the water serves to keep them firmly in contact Cast iron gates are sometimes used in England, curved in the form of a horizontal arch, with their convex side opposed to the water. In China, inclined planes are said to be used instead of locks, along which the boats are drawn up or let down. They have also been used in Europe, and on the Morris canal, in New Jersey. Locke, John, one of the most eminent philosophers and valuable writers of his age and country, was born at Wrington, in Somersetshire, Aug. 29, 1632. His father, who had been bred to the law. acted in the capacity of steward, or court- keeper, to colonel Alexander Popham, by whose interest, on the breaking out of the civil war, he became a captain in the ser- vice of parliament The subject of this article was sent, at a proper age, to West- minster school, whence he was elected, in 1651, to Christ-church college, Oxford. Here he distinguished himself much by his application and proficiency; and, hav- ing taken the degree of B. A. "in 1655, and of M. A. in 1658, he applied himself to the study of physic. In the year 1664, he accepted an offer to go abroad, in the capacity of secretary to sir William Swan, envoy from Charles 11 to the elector of Brandenburg, and other German princes ; but he returned, in the course of a year, and resumed his studies with renewed ardor. In 1666, he was introduced to lord Ashley, afterwards the celebrated earl of Shaftesbury, to whom he became essentially serviceable in his medical capacity, and who formed so high an opinion of his general powers, that he prevailed upon him to take up his resi- dence in his house, and urged him to LOCKE. ' 37 apply his studies to politics and philoso- phy. By his acquaintance with this no- bleman, Mr. Locke was introduced to the duke of Buckingham, the earl of Halifax, and others of the most eminent persons of their day. In 1668, at the request of the carl and countess of Northumberland, he accompanied them in a tour to France, and, on his return, was employed by lord Ashley, then chancellor of the exchequer, in drawing up the Fundamental Constitu- tions of Carolina. He also superintended the education of that nobleman's son. In 1670, he began to form the plan of his Essay on the Human Understanding, and, about the same time, was made a fellow of the royal society. In 1672, lord Ash- ley, having been created earl of Shaftes- bury, and chancellor, appointed Mr. Locke secretary of presentations, which office, however, he Jost the following year, when the earl was obliged to resign the seals. Being still president of the board of trade, that nobleman then made Mr. Locke sec- retary to the same ; but, the commission being dissolved in 1674, he lost that ap- pointment also. In the following year, he graduated as a bachelor of physic, and, being apprehensive of a consumption, travelled into France, and resided some time at Montpelliei-. In 1679, he returned to England, at the request of the earl of Shaftesbury, then again restored to power; and, in 1682, when that nobleman was obliged to retire to Holland, he accompa- nied him in his exile. On the death of his patron, in that country, aware how much lie was disliked by the predominant arbi- trary faction at home, he chose to remain abroad ; and was, in consequence, accused of being the author of certain tracts against the English government; and, although these were afterwards discovered to be the work of another person, he was arbitrarily ejected from his studentship of Christ- church, by the king's command. Thus assailed, he continued abroad, nobly refus- ing to accept a pardon, which the cele- brated William Penn undertook to pro- cure for him, expressing himself, like the chancellor L'Hospital, in similar circum- stances, ignorant of the crimes of which he had been declared guilty. In 1685, when .Monmouth undertook his ill-con- certed enterprise, the English envoy at the Hague demanded the person of Mr. Locke, and several others, which demand obliged hiin to conceal himself for nearly a year; but, in 1686, ho again appeared in public, and formed a literary society at Amster- dam, in conjunction with Limborch, Le- clere and others. During the time of his vol. vm. 4 concealment, he also wrote his first Letter concerning Toleration, which was printed at Gouda, in 1689, under the title of Epis- tola de Toleranlia, and was rapidly trans- lated into Dutch, French and English. At the revolution, he returned to England. in the fleet which conveyed the princess of Orange, and, being deemed a sufferer for the principles on which it was estab- lished, he was made a commissioner of appeals, and was soon after gratified b) the establishment of toleration by law. In 1690, he published his celebrated Essay concerning Human Understanding, which he had written in Holland. It was in- stantly attacked by various writers. It was even proposed, at a meeting of the heads of houses of the university of Ox- ford, to formally censure and discourage it; but nothing was finally resolved upon, but that each master should endeavor to prevent its being read in his college. Nei- ther this, however, nor any other opposition, availed ; the reputation, both of the work and of the author, increased throughout Europe; and, besides being translated into French and Latin, it had reached a fourth English edition, in 1700. In 1690, Locke published his second Letter on Toleration ; and, in the same year, appeared his two Treatises on Government, in opposition to the principles of sir Robert Filmer, and of the whole passive-obedience school. He next wrote a pamphlet, entitled Some Considerations of the Consequences of lowering the Interest and Value of Money (1691, 8vo.), which was followed by other smaller pieces on the same subject. In 1692, he published a third Letter on Toleration, and, the following year, his Thoughts concerning Education. In 1695, he was made a commissioner of trade and plantations, and, in the same vear, published his Reasonableness of Christianity, as delivered in the Scriptures, which being warmly attacked by doctor Edwards, in his Socinianism Unmasked, Locke followed, with a first and second Vindication, in which he defended him- self in a masterly manner. The use made by Toland, and other latitudinariau writers, of the premises laid down in the Essay on the Human Understanding, at length produced an opponent in the cele- brated bishop Stillingfleet, who, in his Defence of the Doctrine of the Trinity, censured some passages in Locke's Essay ; and a controversy arose, in which tlie great reading and proficiency in ecclesias- tical antiquities of the prelate yielded, jn an argumentative contest, to the reasoning powers of the philosopher. With his 38 LOCKE. publications in this controversy, which were distinguished by mildness and ur- banity, Locke retired from the press, and, his asthmatic complaint increasing, he resigned his post of commissioner of trade and plantations, observing that he could not, in conscience, hold a situation, to which a considerable salary was attached, without performing the duties of it. From this time, he lived wholly in retirement, where he applied himself to the study of Scripture; while the sufferings incidental to his disorders were materially alleviated by the kind attentions and agreeable con- versation of lady Mashain, who was the daughter of the learned doctor Cud worth, and, for many years, his intimate friend. Locke continued nearly two years in a declining state, and at length expired in a manner correspondent with his piety, equanimity and rectitude, Oct 28, 1704. He was buried at Oates, where there is a neat monument erected to his memory, with a modest Latin inscription indited by himself. The moral, social and political character of this eminent man, is suffi- ciently illustrated by the foregoing brief account of his life and labors; and the ef- fect of his writings upon the opinions and even fortunes of mankind, is the best eu- logium on his mental superiority. In the opinion of doctor Reed, he gave the first example in the English language, of writ- ing on abstract subjects with simplicity and perspicuity. No author has more successfully pointed out the danger of ambiguous words, and of having indistinct notions on subjects of judgment and rea- soning ; while his observations on the various powers of the human understand- ing, on the use and abuse of words, and on the extent and limits of human knowl- edge, are drawn from an attentive reflec- tion on the operations of his own mind. In order to study the human soul, he went neither to ancient nor to-modern philosophers for advice, but, like Male- branche, he turned within himself, and, after having long contemplated his own mind, he gave his reflections to the world. Locke was a very acute thinker, and his labors will always be acknowledged with gratitude, in the history of philosophy; but, at the same time, it must be remembered, that, in attempting to analyze the human soul, as an anatomist proceeds in investi- gating a body, piece by piece, and to derive all ideas from experience, he has un- intentionally supported materialism. His declaration, that God, by his omnipotence, can make matter capable of thinking, has been considered dangerous in a religious point of view. Locke's great work, his Essay on the Human Understanding, which he was 19 years in preparing, owes its existence to a dispute, at which he was present, and which he perceived to rest entirely on a verbal misunderstanding, and, considering this to be a common source of error, he was led to study the origin of ideas, &c. The influence of this work has rendered the empirical philoso- phy general, in England and France, though, in both countries, philosophers of a different school have appeared. (See Cousin.) Henry Lee and Norris (in Ox- ford) were among his earliest opponents. In France, Jean Leclerc (Clericus) distin- guished himself particularly as a partisan of Locke; and 'sGravesande spread his philosophy, by compendiums, in Holland. Amidst the improvements in metaphysical studies, to which the Essay itself has main- ly conduced, it will ever prove a valuable guide in the acquirement of the science of the human mind. His next great work, his two Treatises on Government, was opposed by the theorists of divine right and passive obedience (see Legitimacy), and by writers of Jacobitical tendencies ; but it upholds the great principles, which may be deemed the constitutional doc- trine of his country. It was a favorite work with the statesmen of the American revolution, by whom it is constantly ap- pealed to in their constitutional arguments. His Reasonableness of Christianity main- tains, that there is nothing contained in revealed religion inconsistent with reason, and that it is only necessary to believe that Jesus is the Messiah. His posthu- mous works, also, have caused him to be considered, by some, as a Sociniau. Besides the works already mentioned, Locke left several MSS. behind him, from which his executors, sir Peter King and Mr. Anthony Collins, published, in 1706, his Paraphrase and Notes upon St. Paul's Epistles to 'the Galatians, Corinthians, Romans and Ephesians, with an Essav prefixed for the Understanding of St Paul's Epistles, by a reference to St Paul himself. In i700, the same parties published Posthumous Works of Mr. Locke (8vo.), comprising a Treatise on the Conduct of the Understanding, an Exam- ination of Malebranche's Opinion of see- ing all Things in God. His works have been collected together, and fre- quently printed in 3 vols., folio, 4 vols. quarto, and, more lately, in 10 vols., 8vo.' with a life prefixed, by Law, bishop of Carlisle. Some unpublished MSS. yet remain in possession of lord King, Who LOCKE—LOCOMOTION. 39 has given to the public some valuable materials in his Life and Correspondence of John Locke (London, 1829).—See, also, Stewart's Philosophical Essays. Locker ; a kind of box, or chest, made along the side of a ship, to put or stow any thing in.—Shot lockers; strong frames of plank near the pump-well in the hold, in which the shot are put Lockman. (See Lokman, and Fable.) Locomotion. The arts of locomotion are very well described in Bigelow's Technology (Boston, 1829), and the few remarks that follow are abridged from the first part of the article. The chief obsta- cles which oppose locomotion, or change of place, are gravity and friction, the last of which is, in most cases, a consequence of the first. Gravity confines all terres- trial bodies against the surface of the earth, with a force proportionate to the quantity of matter which composes them. Most kinds of mechanism, both natural and artificial, which assist locomotion, are arrangements for obviating the effects of gravity and friction. Animals that walk, obviate friction by substituting points of their bodies instead of large surfaces, and upon these points they turn, as upon cen- tres, for the length of each step, raising themselves wholly or partly from the ground in successive arcs, instead of drawing themselves along the surface. As the feet move in separate lines, the body has also a lateral, vibratory motion. A man, in walking, puts down one foot before the other is raised, but not in run- ning. Quadrupeds, in walking, have three feet upon the ground for most of the time; in trotting, only two. Animals which walk against gravity, as the common fly, the tree-toad, &c, support themselves by suction, using cavities on the under side of their feet, which they enlarge, at pleas- ure, till the pressure of the atmosphere causes them to adhere. In other respects their locomotion is effected like that of other walking animals. Birds perform the motion of flying by striking the air with the broad surface of their wings in a downward and backward direction, thus propelling the body upward and forward. After each stroke, the wings are contract- ed, or slightly turned, to lessen their re- sistance to the atmosphere, then raised, and spread anew. The downward stroke also, being more sudden than the upward, is more resisted by the atmosphere. The tail of birds serves as a rudder to direct the course upward or downward. When a bird sails in the air without moving the wings, it is done in some cases by the ve- locity previously acquired, and an oblique direction of the wings upward ; in oth- ers, by a gradual descent, with the wings slightly turned, in an oblique direction, downward. Fishes, in swimming for- ward, are propelled chiefly by strokes of the tail, the extremity of which being bent into an oblique position, propels the body forward and laterally at the same time The lateral motion is corrected by the next stroke, in the opposite direction, while the forward course continues. Tii6 fins serve partly to assist in swimming, but chiefly to balance the body, or keep it upright ; for, the centre of gravity being nearest the back, a fish turns over, when it is dead or disabled.* Some other aquat- ic animals, as leeches, swim with a sinu- ous or undulating motion of the body, in which several parts at once are made to act obliquely against the water. Serpents, in like manner, advance by means of the winding or serpentine direction which they give to their bodies, and by which a succession of oblique forces are brought to act against the ground. Sir Everard Home is of opinion that serpents use their ribs in the manner of legs, and propel the body forwards by bringing the plates on the under surface of the body to act, suc- cessively* like feet against the ground. This he deduces from the anatomy of the animal, and from the movements which he perceived in suffering a large coluber to crawl over his hand. Some worms and larvae of slow motion, extend a part of their body forwards, and draw up the rest to overtake it, some perform- ing this motion in a direct line, others in curves. When land animals swim in water, they are supported, because their whole weight, with the lungs expanded with air, is less than that of an equal bulk of water. The head, however, or a part of it, must be kept above water, to enable the animal to breathe ; and to effect tlus, and also to make progress in the water, the limbs are exerted, in successive im- pulses, against the fluid. Quadrupeds and birds swim with less effort than man, be- cause the weight of the head, which is carried above water, is, in them, a smaller proportional part of the whole than it is in man. All animals are provided, by na- ture with organs of locomotion best * The swimming-bladder, which exists in most fishes, though not in all, is supposed to have an agency in adapting the specihe gravity of the fish to the particular depth in which it resides. The power of the animal to rise or sink, by al- tering the dimensions of this organ, has been, with some reason, disputed. 40 LOCOMOTION—LOCUST. adapted to their structure and situation; and it is probable that no animal, man not being excepted, can exert his strength more advantageously by any other than the natural mode, in moving himself over the common surface of the ground.* Thus walking care, velocipedes, &c, al- though they may enable a man to increase his velocity, in favorable situations, for a t-hort time, yet they actually require an in- creased expenditure of power, for the purpose of transporting the machine made use of, in addition to the weight of the body. When, however, a great additional load is to be transported with the body, a man, or animal, may derive much assistance from mechanical arrange- ments. For moving weights over the common ground, with its ordinary asperi- ties and inequalities of substance and structure, no piece of inert mechanism is so favorably adapted as the wheel-car- riage. It was introduced into use in very early ages. Wheels diminish friction, and also surmount obstacles or inequali- ties of the road, with more advantage than bodies of any other form, in their place, could do. The friction is dimin- ished by transferring it from the surface of the ground to the centre of tije wheel, or, rather, to the place of contact between the axletree and the box of the wheel; so that it is lessened by the mechanical advantage of the lever, in the proportion which the diameter of the axletree bears to the diameter of the wheel. The rub- bing surfaces, also, being kept polished and smeared with some unctuous sub- stance, are in the best possible condition to resist friction. In like manner, the common obstacles that present themselves in the public roads, are surmounted by a wheel with peculiar facility. As soon as rhe wheel strikes against a stone or simi- lar hard body, it is converted into a lever for lifting the load over the resisting ob- ject. If an obstacle eight or ten inches in height were presented to the body of a carriage unprovided with wheels, it would stop its progress, or subject it to such vio- lence as would endanger its safety. But by the action of a wheel, the load is lifted, aud its centre of gravity passes over in the direction of an easy arc, the obstacle liunishing the fulcrum on which the lever acts. Rollers placed under a heavy body di- minish the friction in a greater degree than wheels, provided they are true spheres or cylinders, without any axis on which they * This remark, of course, does not apply to situations in which friction is obviated, as upon water, ice, rail-roads, &c. are constrained to move ; but a cylindrical roller occasions friction, whenever its path deviates in the least from a straight fine. The mechanical advantages of a wheel are proportionate to its size, and the larger it is, the more effectually docs it diminish the ordinary resistances. A large wheel will surmount stones and sim- ilar obstacles better than a small one, since the arm of the lever on which the force acts is longer, and the curve described by the centre of the load is the arc of a larger circle, and, of course, the ascent is more gradual and easy. In passing over holes, ruts or excavations, also, a large wheel sinks less than a small one, and conse- quently occasions less jolting and expend- iture of power. The wear also of large wheels is less than that of small ones, for if we suppose a wheel to be* three feet in diameter, it will turn round twice, while one of six feet in diameter tums round once ; so that its tire will come twice as often in contact with the ground, and its spokes will twice as often have to support the weight of the load. In practice, how- ever, it is found necessary to confine the size of wheels within certain limits, part- ly because the materials used would make wheels of great size heavy and cumber- some, since the sopare.te parts would ne- cessarily be of large proportions to have the requisite strength, and partly because they would be disproportioned to the size of the animals employed in draught, and compel them to pull obliquely downwards, and therefore to expend a part of their force in acting against the ground. Locomotive Engine is that which is calculated to produce locomotion,or motion from place to place. (See Steam-Engine.) Locris was a country of Middle Greece, whose inhabitants, the Locrians, were among the oldest Grecian people. There were four branches of them—the Epicnemidian, the Opuntian, Ozolian, and Epizephyrian Locrians. The last were a colony from the Ozolian stock, and lived in Lower Italy. Their capital, Locri, was one of the most powerful, splendid and wealthy cities of Magna Graecia. Locust. The misapplication of popu- lar appellations, and the mutations of en- tomology, have introduced some confu- sion in regard to the scientific names of many insects. Our American cicada are popularly known here both by the names of harvest-fly and locust; the latter term, however, is incorrectly applied. Under the generic name locusta is included, by several modern entomologists, the devour- LOCUST. 41 ing locusts of the eastern continent, and the common grasshoppers (as they are here called) of our country. These ento- mologists use the term in nearly the same sense as Linnaeus, who affixed it to a group of his great genus gryllus, which constitutes the genus gryllus proper of Fabricius. The grasshopper may be thus characterized. The wings and wing-cases are applied obliquely to the sides of the body in repose ; the antenna? are short, and do not taper towards the ends ; the feet have only three joints ; and the tail is not furnished with a projecting oviduct, or piercer, for the deposition of the eggs. These insects have the hind legs formed for leaping, and the males produce a stridulous sound, by scraping these legs against their wing-cases. The female de- posits her eggs in the earth, and the young survive the winter in the larva? state, concealed among the decayed veg- etation of the surface. They pass through an imperfect metamorphosis, for both larva? and pupa? resemble, somewhat, the perfect bisects in form, are active, and take food in the same way, but are destitute of wings. In all stages, they are her- bivorous, and sometimes do immense in- jury to vegetation. Our salt marshes har- bor an innumerable host, which not un- frequently strips them of every blade of grass ; or, when a scanty crop is gathered into the barn, the hay is so filled with the putrescent carcasses of these grasshoppers, or locusts, as to be highly offensive, and totally unfit for forage. In some sections of our country, they occasionally .appear in such numbers as to fill the air in clouds, and wherever they alight they de- vour every green thing in their path. It is stated, on good authority, that, more than once, when they visited some parts of New England, they not only ate up all the grass in the fields, but actually attack- ed clothing and fences to appease their insatiable hunger. Some workmen, em- ployed in raising the steeple of a church, in Williamstown, Massachusetts, were, while standing near the vane, covered by them, and saw, at the same time, vast swarms flying at a great height far above their heads. These swarms are said to return after a short migration, and perish on the very grounds they have ravaged. (See Dwight's Travels.) Many of these insects are ornamented with various beau- tiful colors, particularly on the wings, which, however, in repose, are not visible, being folded like a fan, and covered by the long, narrow wing-cases. One of the largest and most common American spe- 4* cies is the locusta Carolina of Linnaeus. It is about one inch and three quarters in length, and the wings are of a deep black color, surrounded with a broad yellow border. The most celebrated species of grasshopper is the gryttus migratorius (mi- gratory locust). Of all animals capable of adding to the calamities of mankind, by destroying the vegetable products of the earth, the migratory locusts would seem to possess the mostformidable pow- ers of destruction. In Syria, Egypt, and almost all the south of Asia, these insects make their appearance in legions, and carry desolation with them, in a few hours changing the most fertile provinces into barren deserts, and darkening the air by their numbers. Happily for mankind, this calamity is not frequently repeated, for it is the inevitable precursor of famine, and its horrible consequences. The an- nals of most of the southern Asiatic cli- mates are filled with accounts of the de- vastations produced by locusts. They seldom visit Europe in such swarms, though they are occasionally formidable to the agriculturist Even when dead, they are still productive of evil conse- quences, since the putrefaction which arises from their inconceivable number, is so great, that it is justly regarded as the cause of some of those desolating pesti- lences which almost depopulate whole districts of country. When locusts thus make their appearance, they are said to have a leader, whose flight they observe, and to whose motions they pay a strict regard. We are told that nearly as much damage is occasioned by what they touch, as by what they devour. Their bite is thought to contaminate the plants, am! either to destroy or greatly weaken their vegetation. Of the innumerable multi- tudes in which they occur, scarcely an adequate conception can be formed. Bar- row (Travels, &sc.) states that, in Southern Africa, the whole surface of the ground might literally be said to be covered with them for an area of 2000 square miles. The water of a very wide river was scarcely visible on account of the dead carcasses that floated on the surface. When the larva? (for these are much more voracious than the perfect insects) are on a march during the day, it is utterly impos- sible to turn the direction of the troop, which is generally with the wind. In some parts of the world, these insects art- used for food. For this purpose, they are caught in nets, and, when a sufficient number is procured, they are roasted over a slow fire, in an earthen vessel, till the 42 LOCUST. wings and legs drop off; when thus pre- pared, they are said to taste like craw- fish. Mr. Adanson (Voyage to Senegal) says, however, that he would willingly re- sign whole armies of locusts for the mean- est fish. The locust constituted a com- mon food among the Jews, and Moses ias specified the different kinds which they were permitted to eat. " Even these thou may est eat; the locust after his kind; the bald locust after his kind ; the beetle after his kind ; and the grasshopper after his kind." (Levit. xi, v. 22.) The popular term grasshopper is also applied, and with more propriety, to in- sects in another group of the grylli—the tettigonia of Linnaeus (locusta of Fabricius). Tht-y are distinguished from the locusts of the preceding section, by their veiy long, bristle-shaped, or tapering antenna?, iind by having four joints to their feet, and au exserted oviduct The latter in- strument often has the form of a curved sword or sickle, and is used in preparing ^ hole, and conveying the eggs to their appropriate nidus beneath the soil. These insects have long, slender hind legs, form- ed for leaping ; but the males do not play with them against their wing-cases, for the production of sounds. Their musical orgtuis consist of a pair of frames, within each of which is stretched a transparent membrane. These tabourets are affixed to that part of the base of each wing-case which laps on the top of the back, ami one lies directly over and in contact with i„ the other ; so that, whenever the wing- cases are opened' and shut, the frames urrate together, and, as often as the shuf- fling motion is repeated, a grating sound is produced. These musical grasshoppers are usually x)f a green color, and are noc- turnal in their habits. During the day- time, they conceal themselves in the grass or the foliage of trees ; but at night, they ■ (nit their lurking places, and the joyous r.udc commences the song of love with which he recreates his s'.Iem partner. It would be well to restrict the popular ap- pellation grasshoppers to these insects, which have been distributed into several modern genera. Two only need here be 'mentioned, viz. conocephahts (Thunbersr). jirrila, Kirby], including the species whose head terminates in front in a coni- cal projection, and pterophyUa (Kirby;. whose head is obtuse, and not produced in front The latter genus contains the well-known insect, called, from its note, katy-did, pterophyUa concava (locusta con- cava, Say). Its large, oblong-oval, concave wing-cases, inwrap the abdomen, and meet at their edges above and below, somewhat like the two sides or valves of a pea-pod. Perched on the topmost twig of a tree, the insect begins his nocturnal call by separating, closing, and re-opening his wing-cases. The friction of the ta- bouret-frames upon each other, thrice, produces three distinct notes, which is the usual number ; occasionally, only two are given, when the wing-cases are mere- ly opened and shut once. The mechan- ism of these organs reverberates, and in- creases the sound to such a degree, that it may be heard, in the stillness of the night, at the distance of nearly a quarter of a mile. At intervals of three or four min- utes, he repeats his obstreperous babble, while rival songsters echo the notes, and the woods resound with the call of katy- did, she did, the live-long night. The tetii- gonia of Linnaeus, or grasshoppers above- mentioned, are not to be confounded With the insects referred to the modern genus tettigonia of Olivier, Lamarck and La- treille. The former, with all the grylli of Linnaeus, have jaws for masticating their food, and belong to the order orthoptera ; while the latter, with the cicada or har- vest-fly (misnamed locust), have suctori- ous tubes, for puncturing plants and im- bibing then juices, and belong to the order omoptera. In the genus cicada, the anten- na? are six-jointed ; there are three ocelli, and the legs are not adapted for leaping. In tettigonia, the antenna? are three-joint- ed ; titere are only two ocelli, the thorax is transverse, not produced behind, and the legs are formed for leaping. To the genus tettigonia (Olivier) may be referred the minute insect which attacks the grape vine, and injures it to a great extent by noxious punctures, and the exhaustion of its sap. When the leaves of this valua- ble plant are agitated, the little tettigonia leap or fly from them in swarms. The infested leaves soon become yellow, sickly, and, losing their vitality, give to the plant, in midsummer, the aspect it assumes, nat- urally, at the approach of winter. On turning up the leaves cautiously, the in- sects will bo seen busily employed upon the under side, with their proboscis thrust into the tender epidermis. These insects pass through all their metamorphoses, which are imperfect, upon the plant; the wingless larva? and pupa?, having a gene- ral resemblance to the perfect insects, feed together in the same manner, and their innumerable white cast skins will be found adhering to every part of the leaves. This species survives the winter in the perfect state, hybemaling beneath LOCUST—LOCUST TREE. 43 sticks, stones, and among the roots of grass. It may be called tettigonia vitis (Harris). It is, in its perfect state, nearly one tenth of an inch long ; of a straw color, with two broad, scarlet bands across the wing-cases, one at the base and the other on the middle, and the tips of the wing-cases are blackish.—The cicada tet- tigonia (Fab.), popularly misnamed locust, and found in various parts of the world, subsists on the leaves of trees and other vegetable substances. These insects are furnished with a hard proboscis, capable of boring wood. They are well known from the peculiar noise made by the males. The instruments for this are sit- uated on each side of the base of the ab- domen, and each is covered by a kind of cartilaginous lamina. The cayity which contains these is divided by a triangular partition. Examined from its internal side, each cell presents, anteriorly, a white and plaited membrane, and below this, a tense, thin, transparent lamina, termed, by Reaumur, the mirror. Viewed from the external side, there will be seen another plaited membrane on each side, which is acted on by a powerful muscle, composed of a great number of straight and parallel fibres ; this membrane is the drum. The muscles, in rapidly contracting and relax- ing, act on this drum, and thus produce the noise. It is said, that in some species, in tropical climates, this is very powerful. Mr. Smeathman speaks of some of these insects, whose notes can be heard at the distance of half a mile. The most re- markable species is the 17 years locust (C. septemdecim), so common, in particular seasons, in some parts of the U. States. These insects emerge from the ground towards the end of April, and always dur- ing the night. On their first coming out, they are in the pupa state; but the back soon bursts, and the perfect fly appears. They begin to lay eggs about the end of May; these are deposited in close lines of two inches long, in the tender twigs of trees. As soon as the young attain their growth, in the grub state, they fall to the ground, and make their way two or three feet underneath the surface, in order to undergo their change into the pupa form. Soon after attaining their last transforma- tion, they are found in great numbers over large districts of country. They ap- pear about every 17 years, though it is highly probable, that the periods of their return vary, according to the heat of the climate, and other circumstances. These insects have been known to make their appearance in the city of Philadelphia in great numbers, penetrating from their subterranean residence, between the bricks of a pavement Notwithstanding the usual idea, they are in no way injurious to vegetation, except from the damage done by the female in depositing her eggs. This insect is the favorite food of various species of animals. Immense numbers are destroyed by the hog, before they emerge from the ground ; they are, also. when in their perfect state, eagerly de- voured by squirrels. Some of the larger birds are also fond of them. The Indians likewise consider them as a debcate food when fried. In New Jersey, they have been converted into soap. It is stated, on good authority, that they never light on the pine, nor does the female deposit her eggs in this tribe of trees. There are many oth- er species in the U. States, which have been described by Mr. Say, in the Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia. (See Bar- ton's Medical and Physical Journal, &c.) Locust (robinia pseudacacia). This valuable and ornamental tree, which is so frequently cultivated in the Atlantic States. and which is highly prized in Europe, grows wild in great profusion among the Alleghany mountains, and throughout the Western States, even to the borders of the sandy plains which skirt the base of the Rocky mountains. When in bloom, the large, pendulous racemes of fragrant, white flowers, contrasting with the light- green foliage, produce a fine effect, and give this tree a rank among the most or- namental. The leaves are pinnate, and the leaflets very thin and smooth. The flowers, resembling in form those of the pea, diffuse a delicious perfume, and are succeeded by a flat pod. The branches and young stems are usually armed with thorns. The wood is compact, hard, ca- pable of receiving a fine polish, and has the valuable property of resisting decay longer than almost any other. The color is greenish-yellow, with brown streaks. Locust-posts are consumed in enormous quantities, and are every where preferred, when they can be obtained. This wood is also veiy much employed in ship-build- ing, in the upper and lower parts of the frame, together with the white and live oaks and red cedar ; but it is difficult, in the Atlantic ports, to procure stocks of sufficient dimensions. For tree-nails, it is preferred to all other kinds of wood, as it acquires extreme hardness with age, and considerable quantities of these are annu- ally exported to Great Britain. It is also employed by turners, and, from its fine grain and lustre, forms a very good sub- 44 LOCUST TREE—LODI. stitute for box. The locust grows very rapidly, but, when cultivated in the Atlan- tic states, it is found to be exceedingly lia- ble to the attacks of an insect, which, by boring into the wood in various direc- tions, weakens the tree so much, that it is easily broken by the wind. In various parts of Europe, great attention has been paid to the propagation of this tree, for ornament as well as for its useful proper- ties, and its cultivation is further encour- aged by the absence of the destroying insect above-mentioned. The usual stat- ure of the locust is 40 or 45 feet, but, in the fertile regions of the south-west, it at- tains much greater dimensions, sometimes reaching the height of 80 feet, with a trunk 4 feet in diameter.—The R. viscosa, a smaller tree than the common locust, from which it is distinguished by its rose- colored flowers, and by having the young branches covered with a viscous sub- stance, is, in its natural state, confined to the south-western parts of the Alleghany mountains. It usually does not exceed 40 feet in height, with a trunk 12 inches in diameter, and is a more ornamental tree than even the preceding. The prop- erties of the wood are very similar to those of the common species, and it will bear cultivation in the same climates.— The R. hispida is also a native of the south-western ranges of the Alleghanies. It is a shrub with very hispid branches, often cultivated in our gardens on account of its very large and beautiful rose-colored flowers, which, however, like those of the R. viscosa, are inodorous.—A fourth spe- cies of robinia is said to exist within or near the basin of the Red river, but, with respect to its character, botanists are, at present, entirely uninformed. This genus is thus peculiar to North America. Loder, Ferdinand Christian von, an anatomist and philosophical physician, and physician to the emperor of Russia, was born at Riga, 1753, and studied med- icine at Gottingen. In 1778, he took the degree of doctor of medicine and surgery, and was immediately appointed professor in the medical faculty at Jena. He then travelled two years in France, Holland and England, and formed an acquaintance with the most distinguished men of sci- ence. In 1782, he returned to Jena, where he established an anatomical the- atre, a lying-in hospital, and a cabinet for the natural sciences. He likewise found- ed a medico-chirurgical clinicum, in which Hufeland and others assisted. He then became physician to the grand-duke of Weimar, and delivered lectures on several branches of medicine. In 1803, he entered the Prussian service, and was appointed ordinary professor of medicine in the uni- versity of Halle. In 1806, he declined an invitation to enter the service of the king of Westphalia, to whom Halle then be- longed, and went to St Petersburg. The emperor Alexander appointed him one of his physicians in 1810, after he had been raised to the dignity of a noble by the king of Prussia, Loder settled in Moscow; in 1812, was charged with making provision for the wounded ; and, when the French occupied the city, he established hospitals for 600 officers and 31,000 privates, in different towns, the di- rection of which he held for eight months. In 1813, the great military hospital at Moscow was intrusted to him ; but, in 1817, he resigned this trust, though he continued to be active in the service of the hospitals. In 1818, he was employed in instituting an anatomical theatre at Moscow, at the expense of the imperial treasury. Six days in the week, for ten months in the year, he lectured in Latin, besides devoting much of his time to the church, the schools, the practice of medi- cine, and public affairs. Besides his translations of Park, Johnson, &c, and many academical dissertations and pro- grams in Latin, at Jena and Halle, he has written Anatomisckes Handbuch (2d edition, Jena, 1800); Anfangsgrunde der Medic. Anthropologic und Genchtl. Arzneiwissen- schqften (3d edition, Weimar, 1800); Jour- nal fi'ir die Chirurgie, Geburtshulfe und Genchtliche Arzneikunde (vol. 1—4, Jena, 1797—1804); Tabula Anatomica (Latin and German, Weimar, 1803); Elementa Anatomia hum. Corp. (1 vol., Moscow, Riga and Leipsic, 1822); and other works. Lodge. This word, with several sym- bols and ceremonies, was taken from the corporations of stone-cutters and masons, by th3 freemasons. The former called the place where they assembled a lodge; and, in freemasonry, lodge signifies the place of meeting; and hence that body of masons, with necessary officers, &c, who meet at such place. Each lodge is dis- tinguished by its particular name, with the addition of the name of the place where it holds its meeting. (For further informa- tion, see Masonry.) Lodi, a well-built town, since 1814 the chief town of the province of Lodi in the government of Lombardy, in the Lombar- do-Venetian kingdom, lies on the Adda, in a fertile territory; Ion. 9° 31' E.; lat. 45° W N.; population, 17,800. The bishopric is subject to the archbishop of LODI—LOG. 45 Milan. The town contains a strong cita- del. The celebrated Parmesan cheese is made, not at Parma, but at and about the town of Lodi alone, and is considered the best in Italy. The manufactures of earth- en ware are also celebrated. It was at this place that general Bonaparte gained the famous victory, May 10, 1796, over the Austrians, under Beaulieu. They had passed the Adda, evacuated Lodi, and taken a very strong position, defended by 30 pieces of cannon, which could be ap- proached only by a narrow bridge over the Adda. Bonaparte formed a part of his forces into a close column, brought his whole artillery into play, and charged at a quick step. The slaughter was dreadful, as the Austrian artillery swept down whole ranks at once on the bridge. The French wavered ; but, at this critical moment, the French generals Berthier, Massena, Cer- voni, Lannes, &c, placed themselves at the bead of the column, forced their way over the bridge, and took the Austrian batteries. The Austrians fought bravely; both armies struggled with the greatest obstinacy, and victory long remained in suspense, till the division of Augereau came up, and decided the fate of the bat- tle. The Austrians, driven from their post, lost a part of their artillery and over 3000 men ; but Beaulieu saved the honor of the Austrian arms by a retreat conduct- ed with coolness. The French loss was not less. If they did not lose 4000 men, as the Austrians stated, they certainly lost more than 2000, which was their own ac- count Men of science have censured lioth generals,—Bonaparte, for taking a post with an immense sacrifice, of which, say they, he might have been master, in 24 hours more, witiT comparative ease; and Beaulieu, for having evacuated the town of Lodi in such haste, as to neglect break- ing down the bridge, by which alone the enemy could approach his position; but it is idle to dispute with Raphael about perspective. Lodi remains one of the most striking military achievements of Napole- on ; not merely from the personal courage which he displayed, but from the boldness with which the action was planned, and the energy with which it was executed. At Lodi, Bonaparte received the title of petit caporal (little corporal). (See Thiers's His- toire de la Rivohdion Franpaise (vol. 8th); Botta's Histoire de VItalic de 1789 a 1814.) Log; a machine used to measure the rate of a ship's velocity through the water. For this purpose, there are several inven- tions, but the one most generally used is the following, called the common log. It is a piece of thin board, forming the quad- rant of a circle of about six inches radius, and balanced by a small plate of lead, nailed on the circular part, so as to swim perpendicularly in the water, with the greater part immersed. The log-line is fastened to the log by means of two legs. one of which is knotted, through a hole at one corner, while the other is attached to a pin, fixed in a hole at the other corner, so as to draw out occasionally. The log- line, being divided into certain spaces, which are in proportion to an equal num- ber of geographical miles, as a half or quarter minute is to an hour of time, is wound about a reel. The whole is em- ployed to measure the ship's head-way in the following manner: The reel being held by one man, and the half-minute glass by another, the mate of the watch fixes the pin, and throws the log over the stern, which, swimming perpendicularly, feels an immediate resistance, and is con- sidered as fixed, the line being slackened over the stern, to prevent the pin coming out The knots are measured from a mark on the line, at the distance of 12 or 15 fath- oms from the log. The glass is therefore turned at the instant that the mark passes over the stern ; and, as soon as the sand in the glass has run out, the line is stopped. The water, then being on the log, dislodges the pin, so that the board, now presenting only its edge to the water, is easily drawn aboard. The number of knots and fath- oms which had run off at the expiration of the glass, determines the ship's velocity. The half-minute glass, and divisions on the .fine, should be frequently measured, to determine any variation in either of them, and to make allowance accordingly. If the glass runs 30 seconds, the distance between the knots should be 50 feet. When it runs more or less, it should there- fore be corrected by the following analogy: As 30 is to 50, so is the number of seconds of the glass to the distance between the knots upon the line. As the heat or moist- ure of the weather has often a considerable effect on the glass, so as to make it run slower or faster, it should be frequently tried by the vibration of a pendulum. As many accidents attend a ship during a day's sailing, such as the variableness of winds, the different quantity of sail carried, &c, it will be necessary to heave the log at every alteration, and even if no alteration be per- ceptible, yet it ought to be constantly heav- ed. The inventor of this simple but valu- able device is not known, and no mention of it occurs till the year 1607, in an East India voyage, published by Purchas. 46 L.G-liOARD—LOGAN. Log-Board; two boards sinn.mg to- gether like a book, and divided into sev- eral columns, containing the hours of the day and night, the direction of the winds, and the course of the s .ip, with all the material occurrences that happen during the 21 hours, or from noon to noon, to- geth r with the latitude by observation. From this table, the officers work the ship's way, anil compile their journals. The whole, being written with chalk, is rubbed out every day at noon. Log-Book ; a book into which the contents of the log-board is daily tran- scribed at noon, together with every cir- cumstance, deserving notice, that may hap- pen to the ship, or within her cognizance, either at sea, or in a harnor, &c. The intermediate divisions or watches of a log-book, containing (bur hours each, are usually signed by the commanding officer thereof, in ships of war or East Indiainen. Log-Line; the line which is fastened to the log (q. v.). Logan, James; born at Lurgau, in Ire- land, Oct. 2i>, 1674, of Scoitisii parents. At the age of 13 years, having learned Latin, Greek, and some Hebrew, lie was put apprentice to a linen-draper in Dublin ; but, the country being involved in much confusion by the war of the revolution (1688), he returned to his parents, at Bris- tol, in England, where he devoted all the time which he could command to the im- provement of his mind. In his 16th year, having happily met with a small book on mathematics, he made himself master of it without any maimer of instruction. Having, also, further improved himself in the Greek and Hebrew, he acquired the French, Italian and Spanish languages. He was engaged in a trade between Dub- lin and Bristol, when Willian Penu made proposals to him to accompany him to Pennsylvania, as his secretary, which he accepted, and landed, with the proprietor, in Philadelphia, in the beginning of De- cember, 1699. In less than two years, William Penn returned to England, and left his secretary invested with many im- portant offices, which he discharged with fidelity and judgment He filled the offices of provincial secretary, commis- sioner of property, chief justice, and, upon the demise of governor Gordou, governed the province for two years as president of the council. He had, for a long time, earnestly solicited from the proprietary family a release from the fatiguing care of their business; but, even after this release, he was constantly consulted and appeal- ed to in difficulty. And the quiet and good government of the province, for a number of years, was due to his prudence and experience. He lived about 20 years at Stenton, enjoying literary leisure, cor- responding with eminent men in various countries, and engaged in collecting that library which he bequeathed to the pub- lic, 'lie was also the author of several learned works. His Experimenta Melde- mata de Plantarum Gcneratione entities its author to be ranked among the earliest im- provers of botanv. It was written in 1739. He corresponded with the great Swedish botanist. The aborigines, of whose rela- tions with the government of Pennsylvania he had the chief management, paid an af- fecting tribute to his worth, when, in his old age, they entreated his attendance, on their behalf, at a treaty held in Philadel- phia, 1742, where they publicly testified by their chief, Cannassatego, their satis- faction for his services, calling him a wise and good man, and expressing their hope that, when his soul ascended to God, one just like him might be found for the good of the province, and their benefit. He was a man of uncommon natural and ac- quired abilities, of great wisdom, modera- tion and prudence; well acquainted with the world and mankind, as well as with books; of unblemished morals, and in- flexible integrity. He died at Stenton, near Philadelphia, Oct. 31, 1751, having just completed his 77th year. Logan, George, doctor, son of William and grandson of James Logan, was born at Stenton, near Philadelphia, Sept. 9, 1753. He was sent to England for his education when very young, and, on his return, served an apprenticeship with John Reynolds, merchant of Philadelphia. He had early a great desire to study medicine, which he undertook after he had attained the years of manhood. After spending three years at the medical school of Ed- inburgh, he travelled through France, It- aly, Germany and Holland, and returned to his own country in 1779. Here he ap- plied himself to agriculture with success, and was one of the first who made exper- iments with gypsum as a manure. He was, in a few years, elected to the legisla- ture, and served in several sessions. His character, as a representative, was marked by strict integrity, and an adherence to what he believed to be the public benefit The public mind being much agitated, on account of the French revolution, and the violent ascendency of party spirit, and the nation standing on the brink of a war with France, he embarked for that country in June, 1798, in order to try to prevent such LOGAN—LOGARITHMS. 47 an issue. For this step he was denounced as a parricide to his country, and loaded with the utmost abuse. But he succeeded in his intentions. Upon his arrival at Hamburg, he found that all entrance into the French territory was interdicted to American citizens; yet, by the friendly interference of Lafayette in his favor, he obtained a passport from the French chargi d'affaires, and proceeded to Paris, where he heard that Elbridge Gerry (q. v.), the last of our commissioners, had left that city for the U. States, that an embargo had been laid on all our shipping in French ports, that several hundreds of our sea- men were confined in French prisons, and that all negotiation was at an end. Find- ing that he could not get introduced to the chief director, Merlin, then the highest functionary in France, by means of Tal- leyrand,—who, nevertheless, received doc- tor Logan himself with courtier-like com- placency, and used eveiy art to sound what was his message or intentions, in vain,—doctor Logan introduced himself to M. Schimmelpennick, the Batavian minister, who presented him to Merlin, by whom he was very cordially received. In the visits which he made him, he succeed- ed in convincing the director of the im- policy of the measures pursued by France towards this country, and, finally, obtained a decree, raising the embargo, and liberat- ing our seamen, and giving, through the American consul-general, assurances to our government that they desired to re- new their former amity and friendship with the U. States. He returned to the U. States in 1798, and published, in the Aurora of Jan. 12 (date of his Letter to the Public), 1799, a justification of himself, most decidedly repelling the charge of having been sent to France by a faction, &c. Directly after his return, the law familiarly called Logan's law, was enacted by congress, and a negotiation was en- tered upon which terminated in a peace with France. Mr. Logan sat in the sey- enth and eighth congresses, from Decem- ber, 1801, to March, 1807, as senator from Pennsylvania, and might have continued longer in that station, but he declined a reelection. In 1810, he visited England, with the same philanthropic desire of pre- serving peace betweeu the two countries. Here, though he failed in effecting the good which he had so much at heart, yet his re- ception, by men of the highest respectability of both parties, was highly flattering. He was exceedingly grieved at the war which followed. His health gradually declined for some years, and he died April 9.1821. Logarithm (from the Greek X6yos, proportion, and apifyds, number). " The logarithms of numbers are the exponents of the different powers to which a con- stant number must be raised, in order to be equal to those numbers ; the princi- ples, therefore, which apply to exponents in general, apply to logarithms." To con- stitute a logarithm, it is necessary that the exponent should refer to a system or se- ries. These exponents, therefore, consti- tute a series of numbers in arithmetical proportion, corresponding to as many oth- ers in geometrical proportion. Take, for instance, the series 101 = 10; 102 = 100; 103 = 1000 ; 10* = 10,000 : then we have the logarithm of 10=1 ; logarithm, 100=2 ; logarithm, 1000=3 ; logarithm, 10,000 = 4, &c. Perhaps the definition of a logarithm may be more scientifically expressed thus: Logarithm is a mathemat- ical term for a number by which the mag- nitude of a certain numerical ratio is ex- pressed in reference to a fundamental ra- tio. The value of a ratio becomes known to us by the comparison of two numbers, and is expressed by a number called the quotient of the ratio ; for instance, 12:4 is expressed by 3, or 18:9 by 2; 3 and 2 being called the quotients of the two pro- portions, 12:4 and 18:9. If we now imagine a series of proportions, which have all the same value or quotient, as, for instance, 1 to 3, 3 to 9, 9 to 27, 27 to 81, &c. (in which 9 and 3, 27 and 9, 81 and 27, are in the same ratio as 3 and 1), and if we at the same time adopt the ratio 3 to 1, as the fundamental ratio (or the unit of these ratios), then 9 to 1 is the double of this ratio, 27 to 1 the triple, 81 to 1 the quadruple, and so on. The num- bers 1, 2, 3, 4, which indicate the value of such ratios, in respect to the fundamental ratio, are called logarithms. If, therefore, in this case, 1 is the logarithm of 3, 2 must be the logarithm of 9, 3 of 27, 4 of 81, &c. If we adopt, however, the ratio of 4:1 as the fundamental one, and hence 1 as the logarithm of 4, then 2 would be the logarithm of 16, 3 of 64, &c. The logarithms of the numbers which lie be- tween, must be fractions, and are to be calculated and put in a tabic. A table of logarithms, made according to an assumed basis or fundamental ratio, of all numbers to a certain limit, is called a logarithmic system. The most common, at present, is that of Briggs, in which the fundamental basis is 10 to 1; hence 1 is the logarithm of 10, 2 of 100, 3 of 1000, 4 of 10,000, &c. It is evident that all logarithms of numbers between 1 and 10, must be more 48 LOGARITHMS—LOGGE 1)1 RAFFAELLO. than 0, yet less than 1, i. e. a fraction; thus the logarithm of 6 is 0.7781513. In the same way, the logarithms of the num- bers between 10 and 100 must be more than 1, but less than 2, &c.; thus the log- arithm of 95 is =1.9777236. All loga- rithms of the numbers between 0,10,100, 1000, &c, are arranged in tables, the use of which, particularly in calculations with large numbers, is very great. The process is simple and easy. If there are numbers to be multiplied,-we only have to add the logarithms ; if the numbers are to be di- vided, the logarithms are merely to be subtracted ; if numbers are to be raised to powers, their logarithms are multiplied ; if roots are to be extracted, the logarithms are merely to be divided by the exponent of the root In a table of logarithms, the integer figure is called the index or charac- teristic. The decimals are called, by the Germans and Italians, the mantissa. In general, the logarithms of the system in which 1 indicates 10, are called common or Briggs's logarithms. The properties of logarithms, and some of their uses, were taken notice of by Stiefel or Stifelius, a German clergyman, who wrote as early as 1530; but the use of them in trigonometry was discovered by John Napier, a Scotch baron, and made known by him in a work published at Edinburgh, in 1614. Loga- rithmic tables are of great value, not only to mathematicians, but to all who have to make calculations with large numbers. The best logarithmical tables are those of Vega (q. v.) and of Callet. The former are calculated with'10 decimals.* Loga- rithms are of incalculable importance in trigonometry and in astronomy. Ve- ga's edition of Vlacq's tables contains a trigonometrical table of the common loga- rithms of the radius or log. sin. tot. = 10.0000000, which gives the logarithms of sines, arcs, co-sines, tangents and co-tan- gents for each second of the two first and two last degrees, and for each ten seconds of the rest of the quadrant. Under Na- pier's direction, B. Ursinius first gave the logarithm of the sines of the angles from 10 to. 10 seconds, the logarithm of the tangents, which are the differences of the logarithms of each sine and co-sine, to- gether with the natural sine for a radius of 100,000,000 parts. Kepler turned his attention particularly upon the invention of Napier, and gave a new theory and * Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables have lately been published by F. R. Hassler (New- York, 1830); and Mathematical Tables, compris- ing Logarithms of Numbers, &c. (Boston, 1830). The English tables are too numerous to mention. new tables. Briggs was also conspicuous in the construction of tables. M creator shows a new way for calculating the log- arithms easily and accurately. Newton, Leibnitz, Halley, Euler, L'Huillier, and others, perfected the system much, by ap- plying to it the binomial theorem and dif- ferential calculus. The names of Vlacq, Sherwin, Gardiner, Hutton, Taylor, Callet, and others, deserve to be honorably men- tioned. The edition of Vlacq, within a few vears, by Vega, is particularly valua- ble. * During the French revolution, when all measures were founded on the decimal division, new tables of the trigonometrical lines and their logarithms became neces- sary. The director of the bureau du ca- tastre, M. Prony, was ordered, by govern- ment, to have tables calculated, which were to be not only extremely accurate, but to exceed all other tables in magnitude. This colossal work, for which the first mathematicians supplied the formulas and the methods for using the differences in the calculations, was executed, but the depreciation of the paper money pre- vented its publication. The tables would have occupietl 1200 folio pages. (Notices sur les grandes Tobies Logarithmiques d Trigonomitriques, calculis au Bureau du Catastre a Paris, an IX.) Logau, Frederic, baron of; an epigram- matist, born in Silesia, 1604, and died in 1655. He early showed poetical talents, but, at a later period, his avocations appear to have prevented him from attempting any large poems, and his poetical produc- tions were confined to short pieces and epigrams. He published a selection of 200 epigrams, which were so well receiv- ed, as to induce him (probably in 1654) to publish a new collection of 3000. A contemporary of Opitz, he followed in the steps of his great predecessor, and often expresses himself with as much vigor. Many of his epigrams are original and happy, and arc the more striking as this department has been little cultivated by German writers. Logau is particu- larly original in the gnome, and truly poetical in a form which is now become foreign to poetiy. Ramler and Lessing, who edited a collection of his epigrams in 1759, revived his reputation. After Lessing's death, Ramler republished the collection, in 1791. Select poems of Logau are contained in W. Midler's Bib- liothek deutscher Didder des 17 Jahrh. (Library of the German Poets of the seventeenth Century, volume vi, Leipsic, 1824). Logge di Raffaello ; part of the LOGGE DI RAFFAELLO—LOGIC 49 Vatican, and one of those beautiful scenes to be found nowhere but in Rome. Leo X had these logge or arcades built under the direction of the immortal Ra- phael. There are three stories which en- close a court called U Cortile di S. Dama- so. The middle story is the most cele- brated. It is formed by thirteen arches, and the vault of each contains four paint- ings in fresco, representing scenes from the Old Testament, and executed by Giulio Romano, Pierin dal Vaga, Pelle- grino da Modena, Polidoro, and Maturino da Caravaggio, and others, after cartoons prepared by the great Raphael himself. The number of these exquisite pictures is fifty-two; the arches and pilasters are adorned with grotesque paintings, exe- cuted by Giovanni da Udine, so famous in this branch, also under the direction of Raphael. Logic (Xoytni, i. e. tinam^); die science of the laws of thought, and the correct con- nexion of ideas. It is not certain, how- ever, whether the name was derived orig- inally from thought or from language, be- cause both may be designated by \6yos, i. e. reason and word. In German, this science has also been called Denk-Lehre, or Verstandes-Lehre (rule of thinking, or rule of the understanding), because logic strives to represent, in a scientific way, those laws which the understanding is bound to follow in thinking, and with- out the observance of which, no correct conclusions are possible. Logic is valua- ble, not only as affording rules for the practical use of the understanding, but also as a science preparatory to all other sciences, particularly mental philosophy, as it affords the rules for giving scientific connexion to all knowledge, the laws of thinking determining the character of scientific arrangement. But, inasmuch as the laws of logic can only determine the form of our knowledge, but can by no means teach us bow to obtain the ma- terials of knowledge, and gain a clear in- sight into things (which is the business of mental philosophy, properly so called), in so far logic has been, of late, separated from intellectual philosophy. But if, as is not unfrequently done, all sciences are divided into the historical (those which proceed from experience, as history, natural philosophy, medicine, &c.) and the philosophical (the subjects of which do not fall within the domain of expe- rience), logic is a philosophical science, because the laws of the connexion of thoughts and ideas are founded in reason itself^and not in experience, and the sub- vol. vm. 5 jects of logic are, therefore, capable of a demonstrative certainty beyond those of any other philosophical science. Logic has not unfrequently be^en overvalued, particularly by the ancient philosophers. It should be always kept in mind, that the most systematic order, alone, does not rentier assertions truth. The province of logic has been enlarged or restricted by different philosophers. Among the ancients, logic was made to include the deeper philosophical investigation of the general characteristics of truth, or the essen- tial conditions of the truth of our knowl- edge, which some modern philosophers have referred to metaphysics. Logic may be divided into the pure and the applied ; the former treats of the general laws and operations of thought (conceiving, judg- ing, concluding), and their products (notion, judgment, conclusion). Applied logic treats of thought under particular and special relations, which are to be taken into consideration in applying the general laws of thought, viz. the connex- ions of thought with other operations of the mind, and the impediments and limi- tations which it thereby experiences, as, also, the means of counteracting them. For the first scientific treatment of logic, we are to look to the Greeks. Zcno of Elea is called the father of logic and dia- lectics ; but it was then treated with par- ticular reference to the art of disputation, and soon degenerated into the minister of sophistry. The sophists and the Mega- rean school (founded by Euclid of Mega- ra) greatly developed this art. The latter, therefore, became known under the name of the heuristic or dialectic school, and is famous for the invention of several soph- isms. The first attempt to represent the forms of thinking, in abstrado, on a wide scale, and in a purely scientific manner, was made by Aristotle. His logical writ- ings were called, by later ages, organon. and for almost two thousand years after him maintained authority in the schools of the philosophers. His investigations were directed, at the same time, to the cri- terion of truth, in which path Epicurus, Zeno, the founder of the stoic school, Chrysippus and others followed him. Logic, or dialectics, enjoyed great esteem in later times, particularly in the middle ages, so that it was considered almost as the spring of all science, and was taught as a liberal art from the eighth century. The triumph of logic was the scholastic philosophy (which was but a new form of the ancient sophistry); and theology, particularly, became filled with verbal 50 LOGIC—LOGOS. subtilties. Raytnundus Lullus strove to give logic another form. The scholastics were attacked by Campanella, Gassendi, Peter Ramus (Pieire de la Ramie), Bacon and others with well-founded objections. Descartes and Malebranche again con- founded logic and metaphysics. Locke, Leibnitz and Wolf, Tchirnhausen, Tho- masius, Crusius, Ploucquet, Lambert (in his New Organon), Reimarus and others, have rendered great service to modern logic. Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, have maintained very various opinions on the subject. Whateley's Treatise on Logic, first published in the Encyclopadia Metro- polUana, and since in a separate volume, is one of the best treatises, in English, on the subject Logier, John Bernard, descended from a family of Frenclt refugees, was born in 1780, at Kaiserslautern in the Palatinate, where his grandfather was organist His father was appointed, in 1796, violinist in the chapel of the elector of Hesse-Cassel. When the subject of this article was ten years old, he played the flute, then his tiivorite instrument, at a public concert. His parents having died, his guardian en- deavored to dissuade him from cultivating music, and he accepted the offer of an Englishman to accompany him to Eng- land, in 1805. De Griffe instructed him on the piano-forte. He received an ap- pointment in the baud of a regiment, com- posed several pieces for the band, and gave instruction on the piano-forte, which led to his attempts to simplify the manner of teaching. He was appointed organist in Westport, Ireland, the regiment having been disbanded in consequence of peace. Wishing to teach his daughter, then seven years old, to play the organ in his absence, and finding her hand defy all his endeav- ors, he was led to think of some contriv- ance for giving it the necessary flexibility. The result was his valuable chiroplast (former of the hand), which was com- pletely successful. In 1814, he began to teach his system more generally in Dub- lin. In 1817, Mr. Logier went to London to have his system examined by the phil- harmonic society. Although the result of the examination was not favorable, the system became very popular. In 1821, the Prussian government sent an agent to London to inquire into its merits, and Mr. Logier was soon after invited by the same government to introduce it in Berlin, whither he went in 1822, and, at the end of five months, received an order from the king to instruct twenty persons so that they might spread his method throughout Prussia. It was introduced into Leipsie, and many other places of Germany. Its peculiarity consists in giving instruction to many pupils at the same time, and, though open to the objection to which all systems are exposed, that they cannot produce genius, its success sufficiently shows not only its practicability, but also its advantages. Logos (Greek, Xiyos, from Xiytiv, to speak) has a great variety of meanings: 1. lan- guage, speech in general; hence, 2. every manifestation of the reason and under- standing by language, so that it has the meanings of oration, eloquence, conver- sation, address, also of the right and op- portunity of speaking, &C. Language being peculiar to man, as a reasonable be- ing, and speech presupposing thought, logos signifies, 3. reason, the faculty of thinking in general; 4. every thing which is a production of the latter, as notions, conceptions, demonstration, calculation, explanation, condition and relation, nay, even wisdom and logic. Thus logos has the meaning both of ratio and oratio.* In Christian theology, the word Xdyos, as usetl in certain passages in the Scriptures, has been the source of continual disputes ever since the third century of our era. The passage in the Bible which chiefly gives rise to this discussion,Is the opening of the gospel of St. John :—" In the begin- ning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God. All things were made by him, and without him was not any thing made that was made," &c. In the Greek text, the expression here translated Word (le verbe, das wort, &c.) is Xdyo;. What is here to be understood by Uyos, what is its essential character, whether it is a person of the Deity or nor, the creative intellect of God, or the Son, through whom he created, or the divine truth which was to be revealed, &c.—this work is not the proper place to examine, nor will our limits permit us even to enu- merate the different opinions which have been entertained on this interesting point of Christian metaphysics. We can refer the reader to no better source of informa- tion than the General History of Chris- tianity and the Church (in German), by Augustus Neander, Hamburg, 1827 et seq. * A slight study of cultivated languages will show how generally the word signifyjnor speech, or some word derived from the original verb to speak, has acquired a very extended meaning- as the Latin res, from the Greek ^U| I SpeaV Xdyof from Xeyuv. Emer and Deber. signifying word, are the most generic terms in the Oriental languages. LOGOS. 51 —a work of distinguished research and im- partiality. The Roman Catholic doctrine of the Xoyoi (verbum) makes it a person, and not a mere name, and maintains that the Word is called God, not by catachre- sis, but in the strict and rigorous meaning of the term; that the most ancient fathers of the church always taught the divinity of the Word, and that they derived the idea from the Holy Scriptures alone, and not from the Platonic philosophy, as many have asserted. For a view of the Catholic doctrine, we must refer our readers to the Catholic Dictionnaire de Thiologie (Tou- louse, 1817), article Verbe, and to the works particularly devoted to this subject Some of the opinions of modern theolo- gians on the meaning of the logos are as follows:—It is necessary, some say, in or- der to understand the true meaning of logos, to begin with the examination of oofta, which was previously used. (See the book of Proverbs, viii, 1 et seq., and the book of Wisdom, vii, 22 et seq.) The po- etical author of the Proverbs does not imagine a person separate from God, but only an interior power of God, because, in his time, there could be no idea of a being proceeding from God, the Jews having borrowed this notion at a later period from the Oriental doctrine of ema- nations. The author of the book of Sirach (xxiv, 3) first uses Xdyos ™ 6t5, as equivalent to oota, to signify the almighty power of God. The Word being an act of wisdom, gave rise to the symbol. John speaks of the logos in the beginning of his gospel only, and afterwards uses the expression nvcvpa tS OtS. From his representation, the following positions have been deduced:— the logos was (a.) from the beginning of all things (comp. Proverbs, viii, 22; Sirach, xxiv, 9); (6.) from the beginning with God (comp. Sir. i, 1; Wisd. ix, 4, 9); (c.) through it the world was created (Prov. Sol. viii, 31 ; Sir. xxiv, 9); (d.) in the per- son of Christ, the logos was manifested as a man to the world (Wisd. Sol. x, 16 ; ii, 14; Sir. xxiv, 12). St John, therefore, say those who thus interpret him, had the same idea of the logos as the apocryphal writers; for the circumstance that the latter ascribe to the logos the creation of all things, while St. John leaves this point unde- cided in his h apxn 'K does not amount to a contradiction. Others, particularly the earlier commentators, understand by logos, the Deity himself, that is, the second per- son of the deity (according to St. John viii, 58). But those who adhere to the former opinion maintain that this is in contradic- tion to John xiv, 28 ; xii, 49—50; v, 19— 20; and that he understood by logos, only a power of God, which was communi- cated to Jesus, on account of which he could claim divine attributes, and yet call the Father, as the source of this power, greater than himself. Others, as Herder, Paulus, Eckerman, understand by logos, the Word of God (HIIT 1D"!)> which, in the Old Testament, as the expression of die will of God, is the symbol of his creative power (Gen. i, et seq.). The later Jews also represented the divine omnipo- tence by the word of God. But it is maintained, on the other hand, from the manner in which John speaks of the logos, that he did not understand by it merely the divine omnipotence. A similar ac- count is given of the creation by the Word, in the religion of Zoroaster. Ac- cording to Richter (Das Christenthum und die altesten Religionen des Orients), the logos corresponds with the Indian Om, the Persian Hanover, the Egyptian Kneph. Others, following the fathers of the church, particularly Eusebius, understand by logos an independent substance, external from God, like the vSs of Plato. But this, again, it is said, involves an error, because Plato means by vSs, only a power of God. Still others, as Mosheim, Schlegel, Jerusalem, declare, with Irena?us, the logos of St. John to be identical with the logos of the Gnos- tics (q. v.); but it is objected, that John did not conceive of a plurality, like that in the doctrine of a?ons. Lange considered logos equivalent to the sophia of the Old Testament, and that to the logos of Philo, and as a distinct person from God ; but., say the others, aoipia is not something distinct from God. Paulus, in his Com- mentary, also identifies the logos of Phi- lo with that of St John. But it is said, on the other hand, that John cannot be supposed to have been acquainted with Philo's notion, as it was not an opinion commonly known at the time, and that the view of the apocryphal writers is more similar to his; moreover, that if St John meant any thing more than an original, eternal power in God, his es&s ,)v would imply dualism. Others have attempted grammatical explanations. D6- derlein and Storr translated the word X6yos by doctrina, the abstract being put for the concrete, doctrine for teacher, as in Gen. xlii, 38; 2 Sam. xxii, 23; Luke iv, 36. According to others, b Xdyos means b Xeyd/icvos (the promised); but histoiy makes no mention of Christians who still expect- ed a Messiah. The ancient philosophers often distinguish two logoses, an interior in God or man, which merely thinks 52 LOGOS—LOIRE. (X at ^»*"ihneld Hogs, . . . 20,000 ) inarket on,y- Milk, . . 8,000,000 gallons. Butter,.... 11,000 tons. Cheese, . . . 13.000 " Wheat, . 1,000,000 quarters, of which four fifths, made into bread, form . 15,000,000 quartern loaves. By a return from the corn exchange, it appears that the quantity of British and foreign corn and flour in bond, on the 1st June, 1830, was as follows: Wheat,......295,107 quarters. Oats,........430,3: VI " Flour,.......173,059 cwts. Foreign ditto: Wheat,.......21,129 quarters. Oats,.........13,343 " The value of poultry, annually consumed, amounts to nearly £80,000, exclusive of game, the supply of which is variable. The principal market for live cattle is at Smithfield, held every Monday and Thursday. The markets for country- killed cattle, pigs and poultry, are Lead- enhall (where skins and leather, also, are exclusively sold); .Newgate, on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays; and Fleet (now Farringdon) market, rebuilt on a large scale, und opened in 1829. The supply of fruit and vegetables is equally abundant The chief mart is Covent garden, where ranges of handsome shops have lately been erected on the estate of the duke of Bedford. There are at least 2000 acres, in the immediate vicinity of London, continually under spade-cultiva- tion as kitchen-gardens; which, by judi- cious management, yield an interminable succession of valuable esculents. It has been calculated, that the cost of fruit and vegetables consumed annually in London, exceeds £1,000,000 sterling. The fruit- gardens, exclusive of those belonging to private residences, are computed to occu- py about 3000 acres, chiefly on the banks of the Thames in Surrey and Middlesex. Few cities are more abundandy supplied with fish of every description and quality. Turbot and brill of the finest quality are procured from the coast of Holland; sal- mon in profusion from the great rivers of Scotland and Ireland, and, occasionally, from the Thames; mackerel, codfish, lobsters and oysters, from the river mouth. A calculation makes the supply of fish at Billingsgate, in the year 1828, as follows: Fresh salmon, .... 45,446 Plaice, skate-, &c, . 50,754 bushels. Turbot,.......S7,95H Cod (fresh), .... 447,130 Herrings, .... 3,336,407 Haddocks,.....482,493 Mackerel, .... 3,076,700 Lobsters,.....1,954,600 And the numlier of fishing-vessels en- gaged in furnishing this supply, was registered, in the same year, at 3827. The consumption of ale and porter may be estimated from the following facts: It appears by the annual statement of the London brewers, for the year ending July 5, 1830, that the quantity of porter brewed by the ten principal houses, amounted to 1,077,285 barrels. The ale annually brewed, by the six principal ale-brewers, amounts to about 80,000 barrels. Still the consumption of malt liquor has de- creased within the last three years; for, in 1827, the quantity returned, by the ten principal brewers, was 1,129,772 barrels. The decrease is owing, jierhaps, partly to the deteriorated quality; for it appears, that, while the quantity actually brewed throughout England amounted, during the last ten years, to 6,170,000 barrels, the actual quantity of malt used decreased annually in a remarkable degree. But, besides this, the comparative cheapness, and more rapid excitation produced by ardent spirits, especially that deleterious compound called English gin, have in- duced the most destructive habits of in- temperance among the lower classes. It is stated that there are about 11,000 public houses, i. e. houses for the sale of beer and spirituous liquors, in London alone, averaging a profit of 20 to 30 per cent. upon the property vested in them. The total consumption of gin, in London, has risen, during the last two years, from 12,000,000 to 24,000,000 gallons! The temperature of the atmosphere in London is considerably above that of the mean temperature of Middlesex, or the adjoining counties. It is generally humid, liable to sudden variations, and, occasionally, to fogs of extraordinary density during the winter months. The mean temperature is 51° 9> Fahrenheit. The extreme range of the thermometer may be taken in Jan- uary, 1795, when it sank to 38° below LONDON. 61 zero, and in July, 1808, when it rose to 94° in the shade. The barometer aver- ages 29£ inches. A considerable part of the metropolis, viz. the city of Westmin- ster and the borough of Soutiiwark, is below the level of the highest water-mark. The soil, in general sound and dry, the sewers and drains, which convey away all impurities, the broad tide-current of the Thames, the wholesome and abundant supply of provisions, and the precautions for cleanliness, combine to render London, perhaps, the healthiest metropolis in the world. The average duration of human life has increased with the improvements in domestic economy, insomuch that the rates of premiums on life-insurances have universally been lowered. The diseases of London are in nowise peculiar to it as a city. Those of a cutaneous nature are comparatively rare. Many result from the nature of the employment, in manu- factures of various kinds; others are the offspring of intemperance. The annual mortality in London, which, in the year 1700, was as 1 in 25, may now be taken at 1 in 40 persons. The number of registered births amounted, in the year ending Dec. 15, 1829, to, males 13,764 ; females, 13,354 ; total, 27,118. The num- ber of registered burials, in th£ same year, was, males, 12,015; females, 11,509; to- tal, 23,524. The table of baptisms does not include the children of Dissenters from the establishment It was stated, in a meeting lately held for the purpose of forming a grand national cemetry, in Lon- don, that the annual interments amounted to about 40,000.—Civil government. The chief civic officer of London is the lord mayor, annually elected from among the aldermen on the 29th September. The powers and privileges of this officer are very extensive. The court of aldermen consists of 26 members. They are chosen for life by the householders of the 26 wards into which the city is divided, each being the representative of a several ward. They are properly the subordinate gov- ernors of their respective wards, under the jurisdiction of the lord mayor, and preside in the courts of Wardmote for the redress of minor grievances, removing nuisances, &.c, assisted by one or more deputies, nominated by them from the common council ofithe respective wards. Such as have filled the office of lord mayor, be- come justices of the quorum, and all others are justices of the peace witliin the city. The sheriffs, two in number, are annually chosen by the lively, or general assembly of the freemen of London. vol. viii. 6 When once elected, they are compelled to serve, under a penalty of £400. The common council is a court consisting of •240 representatives, returned by 25 of the wards, in proportion to their relative ex- tent ; the 26th, or Bridge Ward Without, being represented by an alderman. The general business of this court is to legis- late for the internal government of the city, its police, revenues, &c. It is con- vened only on summons from the lord mayor, who is an integral member of the court, as arc the aldermen also. The decisions are, as in other assemblies, de- pendent on a majority of voices. The recorder is generally a barrister of emi- nence, appointed, for life, by the lord mayor and aldermen, as principal assist- ant and adviser to the civic magistracy, and one of the justices of Oyer and Ter- miner, for which services he is remune- rated with a salary of £2000 per annum from the city revenues. The subordinate officers are the chamberlain, town clerk, common sergeant, city remembrancer, sword bearer. &c. The livery of London is the aggregate of the members of the several city companies, of which there are 91, embracing die various trades of the metropolis. They constitute the elective body, in whom resides the election, not only of all the civil officers, but also of the four members who represent the city iu parliament The local jurisdiction of Westminster is partly vested in civil, partly in ecclesiastical officers. The high stev\ - ard has an undcr-steward, who officiate.-, for him. Next in dignity and office arc the high bailiff and the deputy bailiff; whose authority resembles that of a sheriff! in summoning juries and acting as return- ing officers at the election of members of parliament, of whom the city of West- minster returns two. These officers are chosen by the dean and chapter of West- minster, and appointed for life. The borough of Southwark is one of the city- wards, and denominated Bridge Ward Without. It is subject to the jurisdiction of the lord mayor. It returns two mem- bers to parliament. The military force supplied by London comprises two regi- ments of militia, amounting to 2200 men, whom the city is authorized to raise by ballot; the officers being appointed by the commissioners of the king's lieutenancy for the city of London, according to a parliamentary act in 1794. The year 1829 witnessed the almost entire remodel- ing of the ancient system of police and nightly watch. These latter guardians of the public were heretofore appointed 62 LONDON. by the several wards in the city district, and by the parochial audiorities in other parts of the metropolis. But a recent act of parliament established a body of metro- politan police, divisioned and disciplined somewhat like the gens (Tarmerie of France, and subjected to die control of a board, consisting of three commissioners, who superintend and are responsible for all acts of their inferiors. The metropolis being subdivided into sections, each has a station or watch-house, and a company of police, consisting of 1 superintendent, 4 inspectors, 16 sergeants, and 144.police constables. They are dressed in a blue semi-military uniform, and are on duty at all hours, night and day. This new police commenced its duties, in several of the parishes of Westminster, on Sept 29,1829, and is becoming gradually extended to the other districts. The present number employed is estimated at 5000 men. But the city retains its special establishments, under the control of its own magistracy. It comprises marshahnen, day and night patrols, constables, watchmen and street- keepers, altogether amounting to 800 or 900 men, appointed by the several wards. The principal city police offices are at the Mansion house and Guildhall, where aldermen preside in rotation. In the dis- tricts not within the city jurisdiction, there are eight different offices, presided over by 27 magistrates, usually selected from among the barristers. There are also 100 foot-patrols, and, in winter, 54 horse- patrols, the former continually, the latter only by night, protecting the streets and environs of the metropolis. Independent of these is the Thames police, established in 1798, for the protection of persons and property connected with the shipping, from Vauxhall bridge to Woolwich. The chief office is at Wapping, and the impor- tance of such an establishment may be estimatetl, by considering that there are upwards of 13,000 vessels of various sizes engaged on this river, annually discharg- ing and receiving more than 3,000,000 packages of gootls of every description. The chief prison for criminals is Newgate in the Old Bailey. It is the common gaol for London and Middlesex. The number of its inmates varies from 900 to 350. The Compter is situated in Giltspur street, close to Newgate, and destined for the recep- tion of vagrants and persons committed previous to examination, or as a house of correction for the confinement of persons sentenced to hard labor or iinprisoument Clerkenwell prison, in Spafields, receives prisoners of every description, for the county of Middlesex. Its average num- ber of inmates is about 200. The I leet prison, in what was lately Fleet market, is a receptacle for debtors and persons guilty of what is technically called contempt of the court of chancery. It is intended to remove this nuisance, and to build a sub- stitute in St George's fields, in the Bor- ough. The prison usually contains 250 indwellers, and keeps ward of about 60 out-patients, i. c. prisoners privileged to five within the rules. The King's Bench prison is a spacious gaol for debtors and minor criminals. It has about 200 sepa- rate apartments. The other prisons of note are in Southwark, viz. Horsemonger lane or the Surrey county gaol, appro- priated to felons and debtors; the Bor- ough Compter, for various classes of offenders; the New Bridewell, erected in 1829, near Bethlehem hospital, as a house of correction, in which the prisoners are chiefly employed at the tread-mill; and the Marshalsea prison, in Blackman street, for persons committed by the Marshalsea court. The principal houses of correc- tion are the Bridewell hospital, Cold Bath fields, and the penitentiary at Milbank. The ecclesiastical division of London comprises 97 parishes within the walls, 17 without, * 10 in Westminster, besides 29 out-parishes in Middlesex and Surrey. It contains one cathedral (St. Paul's), one collegiate church (Westminster abbey), 130 parish churches, and 70 Episcopal chapels; nearly 200 places of worship belonging to Protestant Dissenters ; 18 churches or chapels of foreign Protestants, viz. 1 Armenian, 1 Danish, 2 Dutch, 5 French, 7 German, 1 Swiss, and 1 Swe- dish ; 6 meeting-houses of the Friends (or Quakers); 10 British Roman Catholic chapels ; 5 ditto for foreigners of that per- suasion, viz. 1 Bavarian, 1 French, 1 German, 1 Sardinian, 1 Spanish ; and 6 Jewish synagogues, one of which is for Portuguese, and another for German Jews. (Westminster abbey and St. Paul's cathe- dral are described in separate articles.) London owes not merely its magnificent cathedral, but 53 other churches, to sir Christopher Wren. The multiplication of churches has nearly kept pace with the rapid extension of the metropolis. The commissioners, appointed for the purpose, are gradually removing the stigma upon an opulent church establishment, that r.- ligious accommodation was unprovided for the poor. Many of the churches pos- sess much architectural beauty. There are, in London, 45 free schools, endowed in perpetuity, for educating and maintain- LONDON. 63 ing nearly 4000 children, 17 for pauper or deserted children, end about 240 parish schools, in which clothing and education are supplied to about 12,000 children. The chief public endowments, of the first description, are, St. Paul's school, Christ's hospital, Westminster school, Merchant Tailors' school, and the Charter house. St. Paul's school, founded in 1509, be- stows a classical education upon 153 pu- pils. Christ's hospital, founded by Ed- ward VI, in 1547, can accommodate about 1100 children, of both sexes, who are clothed, boarded and educated for seven years. Some of the boys are prepared for the university, most of them for commerce. Westminster school, founded in 1560 by queen Elizabeth, receives a large number of pupils of high rank and respectability. Merchant Tailors' school, founded by the company of merchant tailors in 1561, educates about 300 pupils at a very low rate of payment The com- pany nominate to 46 fellowships in St. John's college, Oxford. The Charter house, endowed in 1611, supports and educates scholars for the university (where they receive a liberal annuity), or for com- merce, besides instructing about 150 other pupils. Many other charitable institutions for education arc supported by voluntary contribution, as are, also, the parochial schools, which usually provide clothing and elementary instruction for the poor children of the respective parishes. The children of these schools are annually assembled in the vast area of St Paul's, on the first Thursday in June. The cen- tral national school, with its 40 subsidiary schools in London, educates there about 20,000 children. The British and for- eign school society, at its central and sub- sidiary schools, of which there are, in London, 43, educates about 12,000 chil- dren. The Sunday schools, taught by about 5000 gratuitous teachers, instruct between 60,000 and 70,000 children. The foundling hospital is capable of receiving about 200 children. There are also or- phan asylums, an asylum for the deaf and dumb, one for the indigent blind, and many others. Alms-houses are numer- ous. There is a small debt relief society, a mendicity society, a philanthropic socie- ty for giving employment to the industri- ous poor, a prison discipline society, &c. There are also various hospitals; St Thomas's, with 490 beds; St Bartholo- mew's, capable of accommodating be- tween 400 and 500 patients; Guy's hospi- tal, with 400 beds; St. George's, with 350; Middlesex hospital, able to contain 300 pa- tients ; the London hospital; small-pox hos- pital ; various lying-in hospitals, &c. The Bethlehem hospital and St Luke's hospital receive insane patients. The humane society has 18 receiving-houses in differ- ent parts of London, with apparatus for restoring suspended animation. Dispen- saries relieve more than 50,000 patients annually. There are at least 30 of them, besides 12 for the sole purpose of vaccina- tion. The college of physicians and the college of surgeons examine candidates for the professions of physic and surgery, in the metropolis and the suburbs. The museum of the latter body contains the collections of the celebrated John Hunter, amounting to 20,000 specimens and ana- tomical preparations. The apothecaries' company grant certificates, without which no one can practise as an apothecary in England or Wales. The number of booksellers and publishers is more than 300. The number of newspapers is 55. (See Newspapers.) The British museum (q. v.) is a spacious brick structure, in the French style of architecture. It was, originally, the palace of the first duke of Montague, built in 1677; its dimensions, 216 ft. length by 70 ft. depth,and 57 ft height. The ground floor is appropriated solely to the reception of the library of printed books. The principal or upper floor con- tains the miscellaneous articles of curiosity for public inspection ; such as collections of minerals, lavas, volcanic productions, shells, fossils and zoological specimens, British and foreign, and also various arti- cles from the South sea Islands, and North and Western America, &c. The ground floor is connected with a more modern building, called the gallery of an- tiquities, divided into 15 apartments, in which are distributed nearly 1000 pieces of sculpture, Greek and Roman, a fine collection of terra cottas, Roman sepul- chral urns, cippi, sarcophagi, &c. In a temporary room are deposited the Elgin marbles, purchased by government for £35,000. The upper floor of this gallery contains the collections of Herculanean and Pompeian antiquities made by sir William Hamilton, cabinets of coins and medals, and also a rare collection of prints and engravings by the most eminent artists. The present building is destined to be razed to the ground as soon as a splendid edifice, now constructing, is com- pleted. There are various other public libraries. King's college (q. v.) was founded in 1828. The London university, founded in 1825, is not a chartered insti- tution. Its course of instruction compre 64 LONDON. hends languages, mathematics, physics, ethics, law, history, political economy and medical science, communicated in public lectures, examinations by the professors, &c. The building is yet incomplete, the central part alone being finished, which extends 400 feet in length, and 200 in depth. The front, to Gower street, is a handsome facade, adorned with the no- blest portico in London, of 12 Corinthian columns, ascended by a flight of steps, surmounted by a dome and lantern. On the principal floor is a spacious examina- tion hall, a museum of natural history, a museum of anatomy, professors' apart- ments, a grand library, 120 feet by 50, and a smaller library, 41 feet by 22"; and at each end is a semicircular theatre for lec- tures, 65 feet by 50. The ground floor is portioned into lecture-rooms, cloisters, two theatres, chemical laboratory, muse- um, offices and council-room. The num- ber of students, in this university, in the year 1829, was 680. The royal society of literature was instituted in 1823 ; the royal society for improving natural knowl- edge, in 1663; the society of antiquaries, in 1372; the royal institution, in 1800, for diffusing mechanical knowledge, and the application of science to the various purposes of life; the society of arts, in 1574, to award premiums and bounties to useful inventions and discoveries; the royal academy, in 1768, for the promo- tion of the fine arts. It provides students with busts, statues, pictures and living models, and has professors of painting, architecture, anatomy, perspective and sculpture. Their annual exhibition of new paintings, drawings, sketches, sculp- tures, &c, the admission to which is one shilling per head, averages £6000 per an- num, and supports all the expenses of the establishment. There are several other societies for the promotion of the fine arts, and the private collections of works of art are numerous and splendid. The number of theatres and amphitheatres is 12, of which the principal are, the King's theatre or Italian opera-house, Drury lane and Covent garden theatres. Vauxhall gar- dens are a favorite place of summer resort for the lovers of music, siuging and fire- works. The principal promenades are St James's park, Green park, Hyde park (q. v.), (which comprises nearly 400 acres) Kensington gardens, and the Regent's park, which is laid out in shrubberies and rich plantations, adorned by a fine piece of water, studded with villas and inter- sected by rides and promenades. The Zoological gardens, in this park, contain main different sorts of animal?, in pad- docks, dens or aviaries. The commerce of London was so extended, even in the fourth century, that 800 vessels were cm- ployed in its" port, for the exportation of corn onlv. In the seventh century, it is characterized by Bedc as the emporium of traffic to many nations; and, in the twelfth centurv, it appears that the prod- ucts of Arabia and the East were largely imported. In the thirteenth century, the company of merchant adventurers was incorporated by Edward I ; in the six- teenth, the Russia company received its charter from Mary, which was confirmed by her successor, Elizabeth; and the Le- vant or Turkey company was established. The increase of commerce in this century led, also, to the erection of the royal ex- change, by sir Thomas Gresham. The beginning of ths seventeenth century wit- nessed the first patent granted to the East India company, the incorporation of the company of Spanish merchants, and the establishment of assurance and insurance companies. (See Companies, and Com- merce of the World.) The number of ves- sels belonging to the port of London, in 1701, was 560 ships, containing 84,882 tons; in 1829, 26(53 ships, containing 572,835 tons. The value of the imports and ex- ports of London, in lfc^u, was £36,527,000; in 1829, £107,772,805. The customs of London amounted, in 1710, to £1,268,095; in the year ending July 5, 1829, to £15,597,482; ditto, 1830, to £16,385,049. The number of vessels employed in the coasting trade, was, in 1796, 11,176; in 1827, 17,677. The number of vessels employed in the foreign trade, in 1827, was, British, 4012; foreign, 1534; total, 5546; in which it is calculated, that one sixth of the tonnage and one fourth of the men were employed in the East India trade, and one sixth of the tonnage and one third of the men in the West India trade. The vessels employed in the river navigation, in 1827, were 3000 barges, 350 punts, and 3000 wherries, the total tonnage of which was 110,000 tons, em- ploying 8000 men. There are 50 steam- vessels, of different descriptions, belonging to the port of London, and the year 1830 is remarkable for the successful voyage of the first steam-packet from India. The custom-house, in Lower Thames street, is a spacious building. The principal front to the river presents a facade of 480 feet in length ; the depth is 100 feet; and the principal or Long room is 180 feet by 60. The building affords accommodation to 650 clerks and officers, besides 1000 land- LONDON. 65 ing waiters and servants. The docks of London are on a scale of grandeur com- mensurate with the extent of its com- merce. (See Docks.) St. Catharine's docks were commenced in 1827, with a capital of which £1,000,000 sterling was subscribed by 19 persons only. They communicate widi the river by a canal 190 feet long and 45 broad, and cover a surface of 24 acres, originally occupied by 1250 houses, situate between London docks and Tower hill, including St Catharine's church and hospital. They are calculated to accommodate 1400 mer- chant vessels, annually, in the wet docks and basin, the former covering 11 acres. The cost of completing these great works was £2,000,000 sterling. In noticing the manufactures and u-ade of London, we shall merely observe, that as early as the fourteenth century, it was celebrated for its excellent cloths and furs, the skinners and cloth-workers forming a numerous and wealtljy class of citizens. In die sixteenth century, the manufacture of tine glass, silk stockings, knives, pins, needles, pocket-watches and coaches, was exten- sively established. In the seventeenth, it was noted for the manufacture of salt- petre; and the silk manufactures, on an extensive scale, commenced under die in- dustrious French refugees, great numbers of whom settled in Spitalfields, after the revocation of the edict of Nantes. The printing of calicoes was also commenced, and weaving-looms were introduced from Holland. From that time to the present, the productions of London have increased with extraordinary rapidity, and include every article of elegance and utility. No city can boast more splendid shops, or in greater number, than London : these, with the vast warehouses in the city, where the whole- sale trade is chiefly earned on, excite the astonishment of foreigners. Previously to the year 1694, the pecuniary transactions of London were chiefly canned on by the aid of the wealthy goldsmiths, who were the principal bankers during the disturb- ances of the civil wars. In 1694, the bank of England was incorporated, under the title of the governor and company of the bank of England, in consideration of a loan of £1,200,000 advanced to government, at the rate of £8 per cent The amount of bank-stock capital, in the year 1750, was £10,780,000; it is now £14,553,000. The average price, during the ytar 1829, was £213. (See Bank.) In no part of the world is the post-office system con- ducted on a scale of such magnitude, excellence, security, and speed of connnu- 6* nication, as in England. The general post-office, in London, is a magnificent building. The increase of revenue, from this department, will be apparent from the following comparative statement: In 1651, it amounted to £10,000 per ann. 1690,..........83,319 " 1783,.........146,000 " 1829,........1,337,000 " It is stated, that the average number of letters which pass through the post-office exceeds half a million weekly : 30,000 letters were put into the post-office on the 26th of June, 1830, the day of king George IV's death. The chief offices of the East India company are comprised within the precincts of the East India house, in Leadenhall street—a spacious edifice, ornamented by an Ionic portico of six columns, and presenting a state- ly front of 200 feet length. Insurances on ships are chiefly effected by under- writers, whose principal place of resort is Lloyd's coffee-house, on the nortli side of the royal exchange. Insurances on lives, and against loss of property by fiie, are effected by 37 insurance companies. (For the bridges, see Bridge). The Thames tunnel was commenced in 1825, and was intended to form a communication, under the bed of the river, between Rotherhithe and Wap- ping. It was to consist of two parallel archways, each 1300 feet long and 14 feet wide, having the partition wall pierced by a series of arched passages, to allow ac- cess from one road to the other. The crown of the tunnel is 15 feet below the bed of the river, and the approaches are formed by spiral descents of easy declivity. The progress of the work is suspended at present; but the portion of it complete extends above 600 feet in length, aud is accessible to visitors. If ever it be finish- ed, it will form one of the most extraordi- nary substructions of ancient or modem times. The projector was Mr. Brunei, a skilful and enterprising engineer. The Monument, on Fish street hill, is a lofty column of the Doric order, erected to commemorate the dreadful fire of London, in 1666. Sir Christopher Wren furnished the design. The altitude is 2C2 feet from the pavement, the diameter of the shaft 15 feet, the pedestal 40 feet high, and its plinth 28 feet square. The inscription, ascribing the fire to the Catholics, has been lately effaced. Besides the public edifices already noticed, are die new pal- ace of Buckingham house, Westminster hall, the council office, the banqueting 66 LONDON. hoHse at Whitehall, and private resi- dences, Melborne house (Whitehall), and Burlington house (Piccadilly). St. James's palace, Pall mall, is an irregular brick buildhig, originally built as an hospital for lepers. Though totally destitute of exter- nal beauty, its internal arrangements are well calculated for state purposes, and it contains many spacious and superb apart- ments, where the royal court levees and drawing-rooms are held. The archiepis- copal palace of Lambeth is a pile of great antiquity, forming the town residence of the archbishops of Canterbury, and at present being almost entirely rebuilt The grounds are extensive and beautifully laitl out. It contains, among other apartments, a chapel, gallery, library, containing 25,000 volumes, and the Lollards' tower, used in popish times as a prison for the reformers of that designation. The Admiralty is fronted by a lofty and most ill-propor- tioned Ionic portico, and separated from Whitehall by a light screen. It contains the offices and residences of the commis- sioners of the admiralty, and is near the Horse-guards, a hideous edifice, wherein the commander-in-chief holds his levees, and transacts military affairs. An arched gate-way communicates with St. James's park. The house of lords, in Old Pal- ace yard, is not remarkable for architec- tural beauty. The peers assemble in a room, the walls of whicli are hung with tapestry representing the defeat of the Spanish armada. The house of com- mons holds its meetings in an ancient chapel, called .S7. Stephen's, adjoining Westminster hall, plainly fitted up, and affording but stinted accommodation for the 650 members of whom that body is composed. It was originally founded by king Stephen, and rebuilt by Edward 111, in 1347. It communicates with the speaker's house, a commodious and hand- some residence. The Tower of London is an extensive pile, situated on the north- ern bank of the Thames, below London bridge, sepaiated from the river by a plat- form, and environed by a ditch of consid- erable depth and width. Its walls enclose an area of 12 acres, having the principal entrance on the west. (See Tower.) The general destination of the Tower was altered on the accession of queen Eliza- beth, for it had been a royal palace during 500 years previous to that event. Anoth- er class of edifices, partaking somewhat of a public character, are the club-houses. situated, chiefly, within the precincts of St. James's street, Pall mall, and Regent street. Crockford's, in St James's street, is unri- valled in the splendor of its internal deco- rations, ami presents an external elevation of chaste architectural elegance; but its object is avowedly gambling, and its fas- cinations have been the ruin of many. The athena?uin is a very beautiful struc- ture, erected by Mr. Burton on part of the site of Carlton palace, and oppo- site to the senior united service club. The university, the union, the oriental, Brookes', and the junior united service club houses, are also handsome and com- modious.— Ancient London. The origin of London is involved in deep obscurity; but it certainly was a strong-hold of the Britons before the Roman invasion. The ctvmologv of its name is variously traced; the most "probable supposition deriving it from two British words, llyn and din, sig- nifying the town on the lake. Its Roman designation, Augusta, marks it as the capi- tal of a province; and Tacitus speaks of Londinium, or Colonia Augusta, as a com- mercial mart of considerable celebrity in the year 61. It was subsequently noted as a "large and wealthy city, in the time of the emj>eror Severus, and regarded as the metropolis of Great Britain. A few ves- tiges of the original walls are still discov- erable in London wall, in the courts be- tween Ludgate hill and the Broadway, Blackfriars, and in Cripplegate church- yard. It had four principal gates, open- ing to the four great military roads, and others were subsequently formed, but their names alone commemorate their ex- istence. After the Roman forces had been withdrawn from Britain, in the fifth century, London fell successively under the dominion of the Britons, Saxons, and Danes. It was nominated a bishop's see, on the conversion of the Saxons to Chris- tianity, in 604, and a cathedral church was erected in 610, where St. Paul's now stands. Its importance in the year 833, appears from a Wittenagemot having been held here : and under the reign of Alfred, who gained possession of it in 884, its municipal government was planned, which lias since been gradually moulded into the form described in a preceding part of this notice. Its wealth seems to have rapidly increased during the reign of Edward the Confessor; and, on the conquest by Wil- liam I, iu 1060, it assumed that station which it lias ever since retained, as the metropolis of the kingdom, having re- ceived from that monarch a charter, still preserved in the city archives, and beauti- fully written in Saxon characters. The privileges of the city were further extend- ed by a charter of Henry I, in 1100; and, LONDON. 67 early in the reign of Richard I, the title of mayor was substituted for that of baUiff, which had previously designated the chief magistrate of London. In the reign of Edward III (1348), it was ravaged by a pestilence, during which 50,000 bodies were interred in the ground now forming the precincts of the Charter house. The year 1380 was marked by the insurrection headed by Wat Tyler, and suppressetl by the courage of sir William Walworth, mayor of London. A similar, but equally unsuccessful attempt, threatened the safe- ty of the metropolis in the year 1450, when it was assailed by Jack Cade and a power- ful body of malecontents. During the reign of Edward IV, we have the earliest notice of bricks being employed in the building of houses in London. Cisterns and conduits for water were constructed, and the city was generally lighted at night by lanterns. A dreadful visitation, called the sweating-sickness, desolated the city in 1485, soon after the accession of Henry VII, during whose reign the river Fleet was made navigable to Holborn bridge, and the splendid chapel, called after that monarch, was appended to Westminster abbey. Many valuable improvements in the municipal regulations of the city, its police, streets, markets, &c, were effected during the reign of his successor, Hen- ry VIII. The reign of Edward VI wit- nessed the establishment of Christ's hos- pital, Bridewell, and St Thomas's hos- pital ; and, under the sway of Elizabeth, the metropolis increased, with surprising rapidity, in commercial enterprise and general prosperity. The plague renewed its ravages soon after the accession of James I, in 1603, when upwards of 30,000 persons fell victims to it Sir Hugh Mid- dleton, about that time also, commenced his great work of supplying the inhab- itants with water from the New river; and the pavements were improved for the comfort of pedestrians. The reign of Charles I was marked by a recurrence of the plague, which carried off 35,000 of the inhabitants. It returned in the year 1665, with unparalleled fury. This aw- ful visitation swept away 100,000 of die inhabitants within 13 months. It was shortly after followed by the great fire, which broke out on the 2d September, 1666, and raged with irresistible fury, until it consumed 89 churches, 13,200 dwelling- houses, and 400 streets, the city gates, Guildhall, numerous public structures, hospitals, schools, libraries and stately edifices, leaving a ruined space of 436 acres, from the Tower to the Temple church, and from the north-east gate, along the city wall, to Holborn bridge, and destroying property to the estimated amount of £10,000,000. Within less than five years after this terrible calamity, the city was almost wholly rebuilt, in a style of far greater regularity, security, com- modiousness and salubrity. After the revolution of 1688, the metropolis rapidly expanded, and, in 1711, the population was found to bave so gready increased, that an act of parliament passed for the building of 50 new churches. The win- ter of 1739—40 is memorable for the occurrence of the most intense frost re- corded in the annals of England; it con- tinued for eight weeks, and the Thames, above London bridge, became a solid mass, on which thousands of the citizens assembled daily as to a fair. The reign of George III witnessed a great extension of the splendor, comforts and elegances of social life in London. The north of the metropolis became covered with spa- cious streets, squares, churches and pub- lic edifices. The thoroughfares were ren- dered safe and clean; the enormous signs and protruding incumbrances of the shops were removed. Blackfriars, Southwark and Waterloo bridges, Somerset house, Manchester, and other squares, at the West End, were erected, and the vast parish of Marylebone almost covered with buildings. In 1780, an insurrection, com- posed of the lowest rabble, direatened very alarming consequences to the peace of the city. The prisons of Newgate, the King's Bench and the Fleet were burned, and military interference was necessary to quell the disturbances. In 1794, a dread- ful fire broke out in Ratcliffe highway, and consumed 700 houses. The jubilee of George Ill's accession was commemo- rated on the 25th October, 1809, and the grand civic festival to the emperor of Russia, king of Prussia, and other distin- guished foreigners, was given, by the cor- poration of London, in Guildhall, at an expense of £20,000, in the year 1814, the winter of which was memorable for a frost of six weeks' continuance and ex-' treme intensity. During the regency and reign of George IV, the grand avenue of Regent street, the unfinished palace of Buckingham house, the splendid ter- races on the site of Carlton gardens, the widenings of Charing cross, Pall mall, and die Strand, wrought a great change iuthe West End of the metropolis. Much curious information upon the history, an- tiquities and progressive improvements of London will bo found in the works of 68 LONDON—LONGCII AM P. Stowe and Maitland, in Pennant's " Some Account of London," and in the work of Brayley, Brewster and Nightingale, en- titled " London, Westminster and Middle- sex described," in 5 vols. 8vo. Londonderry, Robert Stewart, mar- quis of, the second son of the first mar- quis, was born in the north of Ireland, June 18, 1769, and was educated at Ar- magh, after which he became a commoner of St John's college, Cambridge. On leaving the university, he made the tour of Europe, and, on his return, was chosen a member of the Irish parliament. He joined the opposition, in the first place, and declared himself an advocate for par- liamentary reform; but, on obtaining a seat in the British parliament, he took his station on the ministerial benches. In 1797, having then become lord Castle- reagh, he returned to the Irish parliament, and, the same year, became keeper of the privy seal for that kingdom, and was soon after appointed one of tbe lords of the treasury. The next year, he was nom- inated secretary to the lord-lieutenant, and, by his strenuous exertions, and abilities in the art of removing opposition, the union with Ireland was greatly facilitated. In the united parliament, he sat as member for the county of Down, and, in 1802, was made president of the board of control. In 1805, he was appointed secretary of war and the colonies; but, on the death of Mr. Pitt, he retired, until the dissolution of the brief administration of 1806 restored him to the same situation in 1807; and he held his office until the ill-fated expe- dition to Walcheren, and his duel with his colleague, Mr. Canning, produced his resignation. In 1812, he succeeded the marquis of Wellesley as foreign secretary, and the following year proceeded to the con- tinent, to assist the coalesced powers in ne- gotiating a general peace. His services after the capture of Napoleon, and in the gene- ral pacification and arrangements which have been usually designated by the phrase the settlement of Europe, form a part of history. It is sufficient to notice here, that he received the public thanks of par- liament, and was honored with the order of the garter. On the death of his father, in April, 1821, he succeeded him in the Irish marquisate of Londonderry, but still retained his seat in the British house of commons, where he acted as leader. Af- ter the arduous session of 1822, in which his labor was unremitting, his mind was observed to be much shattered; but, un- happily, although his physician was ap- prized of it, he was suffered to leave Lon- don for his seat at North Cray, in Kent, where, in August, 1822, he terminated his life by inflicting a wound in his neck, with a penknife, of whicli he died almost in- stantly. This statesman has been censured for a severe, rigid, and persecuting domestic government, and for an undue countenance of despotic encroachment and arrangement as regards the social progress of Europe. His party and supporters, in answer to these strictures, for the most part, plead po- litical necessity and expediency, while no small portion of them defend his views on the ground of principle. He was an active man of business, and a ready, although not an elegant orator. His remains were in- terred, in Westminster abbey, with great ceremony, but not without an exhibition of popular ill-will. (See Mem. of the late Marquis of Londonderry, London, 1829.) He was succeeded in his title by his half- brother, lieutenant-colonel lord Stewart, who was, for some time, ambassador to Prussia, and afterwards to Vienna. His lordship is author of a Narrative of the Peninsular War (second edition, London, 1828), and a Narrative of the War in Ger- many and France, in 1813 and 1814, and is a member of the British house of peers, as earl Vane. Longchamp ; a promenade of the Pa- risian fashionables, on the right bank of the Seine, about four miles below the capi- tal. It was once a convent, founded by Isa- bella, sister of St. Louis, where she spent her last years, and terminated her life, Feb. 22,1269. The convent was then called the Abbaye de I'humUiti de Notre Dame, and the credulity of the times ascribed to the bones of Isabella, who was buried there, such miraculous powers, that Leo X canonized her in 1521. 116 years after, the bones of Isabella, with the permission of Urban VIII, were collected in the presence of the archbishop of Paris, and, like other relics, set in gold and silver. Two other princesses of France also died there— Blanche, daughter of Philip the Long, who likewise ended his life at this place, Jan. 3, .1321, and Jeanne of Navarre. Previous to the revolution, Longchamp was a place of resort of the Parisian beau monde and of the English. It is still re- lated, that on those days when it was a part of bon ton to repair thither (Wednesday, Thursday and Friday of Passion week), some of the English carried their luxury so far, as to make the shoes of their horses and tbe tires of their coach wheels of sil- ver, on these promenades. In the begin- ning of the revolution, when the abbey of Longchamp, like the monasteries LONGCHAMP—LONGEVITY. of France in general, was abolished, and the buildings partially demolished, the splendor of this place was destroyed ; but under the consulate, when wealth again dared to display itself openly, Longchamp recovered its ancient brilliancy, and again offered the Parisian ladies an opportunity of exhibiting their charms. Tallien and Recamier were then the stars in this fir- mament of fashion and beauty. Under the imperial government, the splendor of Longchamp was somewhat diminished, owing partly to Napoleon's contempt for frivolous exhibitions, partly to the con- tinued wars, which withdrew great num- bers of rich young men from the capital. After the restoration, the promenade of Longchamp was almost wholly neglected. But more recently, it has again recovered some of its former splendor. Longevity. The extreme limit of hu- man life, and the means of attaining it, have been a subject of general interest, both in ancient and modern times, and the physi- ologist and political economist are alike attracted by the inquiry. It is for the stu- dent of biblical antiquities to decide in what sense we are to understand the word year in the scriptural accounts of the an- tediluvians ; whether it signifies a revolu- tion of the sun or of the moon, or wheth- er their extreme longevity is only the cre- ation of tradition. In the sense which we now give to the word year, the accounts would make the constitution of men at the period referred to, very different from what it is at present, or has been, at any period from which observations on the duration of human life have been transmitted to us. The results of all these observations, in regard to the length of life in given circumstances, do not essen- tially differ. Pliny affords some valuable statistical information, if accurate, regard- ing the period at which he lived, obtained from an official, and, apparently, authentic source,—the census, directed by the em- peror Vespasian, in the year 76 of the Chris- tian era. From this we learn that, at die time of the computation, there were, in the part of Italy comprised between the Ap- ennines and the Po, 124 individuals aged 100 vears and upwards, viz. 54 of 100 years", 57 of 110, 2 of 125, 4 of 130, 4 of 135 to 137, and 3 of 140. At Parma, a man was living aged 120, and 2 aged 130; at Faenza, a female aged 132; and at a small town near Placentia, called Velleia- cium, lived 6 persons aged 110 years each, and 4 of 120. These estimates, however, do not accord with those of Ulpian, who seems to have taken especial care to be- come acquainted witii the facts of the case. His researches prove that the ex- pectation of life in Rome, at that time, was much less than it now is in London, or in any of our cities. Hufeland, indeed, in his Macrobiotics, asserts that the tables of Ulpian agree perfectly with those afforded by the great cities of Europe, and that they exhibit the probabilities of life in ancient Rome to have been the same as those of modern London. But doctor F. Bisset Hawkins, in his Elements of Medical Statistics (Lon- don, 1829), says that the tables, kept by the censors for 1000 years, and constituting registers of population, sex, age, disease, &c, according to Ulpian (who was a law- yer, and a minister of Alexander Seve- rus), refer only to free citizens, and that, to draw a just comparison between Rome and London, it would be necessary to take, among the inhabitants of the latter city, only those who were similarly cir- cumstanced, viz. those whose condition is easy; in which case, the balance would be greatly in favor of modern times. Mr. Finlayson has ascertained, from very ex- tensive observation on the decrement of life prevailing among the nominees of the Tontines, and other life annuities, granted by the authority of parliament, during the last 40 years, that the expectation of life is above 50 years for persons thus situated, which affords the easy classes of England a superiority of 20 years above even the easy classes among the Romans. The mean term of life among the easy classes of Paris is, at present, 42 years, which gives them an advantage of 12 years above the Romans. In the third century of the Christian era, the expectation of life in Rome was as follows: From birth to 20, there was a probability of 30 years; from 20 to 25, of 28 years; from 25 to 30, 25 years ; from 30 to 35, 22 years; from 35 to 40, 20 years; from 40 to 45, 18 years; from 45 to 50, 13 years; from 50 to 55, 9 years; from 55 to 60, 7 years; from 60 to 65, 5 years. Farther than this the com- putation did not extend. The census taken from time to time in England affords us information of an unquestion- able character. The first actual enumer- ation of the inhabitants was made in 1801, and gave an annual mortality of 1 in 44.8. The third and last census was made in 1821, and showed a mortality of 1 to 58. (See Abstract of the Answers and Returns made pursuant to an Act passed in the Year of George IV, &c, by Rickman.) The mortality then had decreased considerably within 20 years. In France, the annual deaths were, in 1781, 1 in 29; in 1802,1 70 LONGEVITY. in 30; in 1823, 1 in 40. In the Pays de Vaud, the mortality is 1 to 49; in Sweden and Holland, 1 to 48; in Russia, 1 to 41; in Austria, 1 to 38. Wherever records have been kept, we find that mortality has decreased with civilization. Perhaps a few more persons reach extreme old age among nations in a state of little cultiva- tion ; but it is certain that more children die, and the chance of life, in general; is much less. In Geneva, records of mortal- ity have been kept since 1590, which show that, a child born there has, at present, five times greater expectation of life than one born three centuries ago. A like improve- ment has taken place in the salubrity of large towns. The annual mortality of London, in 1700, was 1 in 25: in 1751, 1 in 21; in 1801, and the 4 years preceding, 1 in 35; in 1811, 1 in 38; and in 1821, 1 in 40 ; the value of life having thus doubled, in London, within the last 80 years. In Paris, about the middle of the last century, the mortality was 1 in 25; at present, it is about 1 in 32; and it has Years. Years. 5 41.05 10 38.93 20 31.91 30 27.57 40 22.67 50 17.31 60 12.29 70 7.44 The following is the annual mortality of some of the chief cities of Europe and this country: Philadelphia,.........1 in 45.68 Glasgow,...........1 in 44 Manchester,..........1 in 44 Geneva,............1 in 43 Boston,.............1 in 41.26 London,............1 in 40 New York,..........1 in 37.83 St. Petersburg,........1 in 37 Charleston,..........1 in 36.50 Baltimore,...........1 in 35.44 Leghorn,...........1 in 35 Berlin,.............1 in 34 Paris, Lyons, Barcelona and Strasburg,.........1 in 32 Nice and Palermo,......1 in 31 Madrid,............1 in 29 Naples,............Iin28 Brussels,............1 in 26 Rome,.............1 in 25 de been calculated that, in the fourteenth den century, it was one in 16 or 17. The 41; annual mortality in Berlin has decreased >rds during the last 50 or 60 years, from 1 in has 28 to 1 in 34. The mortality in Manches- s a ter was, about the middle of the last cen- age tury, 1 in 25; in 1770, 1 in 28 : 40 years iva- afterwards, in 1811, the annual deaths ren were diminished to 1 in 44; and, in 1821, ,- is they seem to have been still fewer. Iu tal- the middle of the last century, the mortal- iow ity of Vienna was 1 in 20; it has not, five however, improved in the same propor- one tion as some of the other European cities. ive- According to recent calculation, it is, even of now, 1 in 224, or about twice the propor- of tion of Philadelphia, Manchester or Glas- 1, 1 gow. Many years ago, Mr. Finlayson ing, drew up the following table, to exhibit the 1,°1 difference in the value of life, at two hus periods of the seventeenth and eigh- 80 teenth centuries. Had it been calculated the for 1830, the results would have been still ; at more remarkable. has Years. 51.20 125 48.28 124 41.33 130 36.09 131 29.70 131 22.57 130 15.52 126 10.39 140 . From Dec. 12, 1828, to Dec. 15, 1829, in I*"8 London, the whole number of deaths was 23,525. The proportion of deaths, in dif- ferent ages, was as follows: .26 Under two years of age,......6710 I Between two and five,.......2347 .83 Five and ten,............1019 ' Ten and twenty,.......... 949 ;,50 Twenty and thirty, ........1563 i.44 Thirty and forty,..........1902 i Forty and fifty,...........2093 [ Fifty and sixty,...........2094 Sixty and seventy..........2153 > Seventy and eighty,........1843 Eighty and ninety,......... 749 I Ninety and one hundred,..... 95 I One hundred and one,...... 1 ; One hundred and eight,..... 2 » On the average of eight years, from 1807 Age*. Mean Duration of Life, reckoning from 1693. 1789. So that the Increase of Vi- tality is in the inverse Ratio of 100 to LONGEVITY. 71 to 1814 inclusive, there died annually within the city of Philadelphia and the Liberties, the following proportion of per- sons, of different ages, compared with the total number of deaths: Per Cent. . . . 25.07 From one to two years, . . . . 10.71 . . . 5.67 . . . 3.00 . . . 3.60 . . . 8.63 . . . 10.99 Forty to fifty,....... . . . 7.98 . . . 5.95 . . . 4.29 . . . 3.27 . . . 1.89 Ninety to one hundred, . . . . 0.50 One hundred to one hundred ten, 0.0009 Another question of interest is the inquiry in what degree the various trades and professions are favorable to human life, or the contrary. Several statements have lately been published respecting this sub- ject, but farther and more copious obser- vations are required, to afford satisfactory results.* Literary occupations do not ap- * The Literary Gazette gives, in a tabular form, the results of a work on this subject, from the pen of Mr. Thackrah, an eminent surgeon, of Leeds.— Out-of-door occupations. Butchers are subject to few ailments, and these the result of plethora. Though more free from diseases than other trades, they, however, do not enjoy greater longevity: on the contrary, Mr. Thackrah thinks their lives shorter than those of other men who spend much time in the open air. Cattle and horse-xleal- ers are generally healthy, except when their habits arc intemperate. Fish-mongers, though much exposed to the weather, are hardy, tem- perate, healthy and long-lived ; carl-drivers, if sufficiently fed, and temperate, the same. La- borers in husbandry, &.c, suffer from a deficiency of nourishment. Brickmakors, with full muscular exercise in the open air, though exposed to vicis- situdes of cold and wet, avoid rheumatism and inflammatory diseases, and attain good old age. Paviers arc subject to complaints in the loins, in- creasing with age, but they live long. Chaise- drivers, postilions, coachmen, guards, &c, from the position of the two former on the saddle, irreg- ular living, &.c, and from the want of muscular exercise, in tin; two latter, are subject to gastric disorders, and, finally, to apoplexy and palsy, which shorten their lives. Carpenters, coopers, wheelwrights, 6cc, are healthy and long-lived. Smiths are often intemperate, and die compara- tively young. Rope-makers and gardeners suffer from theirstoopingpostures.—in-door occupations. Tailors, notwithstanding their confined atmos- phere and bad posture, are not liable to acute diseases, but give way to stomach complaints and consumption. The prejudicial influence of their employment is more insidious than urgent: it undermines rather than destroys life. Stay- makers have their health impaired, but live to a good age. Milliners, dress-makers and straw- pear to be more injurious to long life than many others. Many of the first literati, most distinguished for application through- out life, have attained old age, both in modern and ancient times. In the an- cient authors, numerous instances of this kind are recorded, many of which may be found collected in the work of Hufe- land, already alluded to.—We will add a few instances of extraordinary longevity. The Englishman Pair, who was born in 1483, married when at the age of 120, re- tained his vigor till 140, and died at the age of 152, from plethora. Harvey, the distinguished discoverer of the circulation of the blood, who dissected him, found no decay of any organ. (PhUosophical Trans- actions, vol. iii, 1698.) Heniy Jenkins, who died in Yorkshire, in 1670, is, per- haps, the greatest authentic instance of longevity. He lived 169 years. Marga- ret Forster, a native of Cumberland, Eng- land, died in 1771, aged 136; and James Lawrence, a Scotchman, lived 140 years. A Dane, named Drakenberg, died in 1772, in his 147th year; and John Effingham, or Essingham, died in Cornwall, in 1757, aged 144. In 1792, a soldier, named bonnet-makers are unhealthy and short-lived. Spinners, cloth-dressers, weavers, &c, are more or less healthy, according as they have more or less exercise and air. Those exposed to inhale imperceptible particles of dressings, &c, such as frizers, suffer from disease, and are soonest cut off. Shoemakers are placed in a bad posture. Digestion and circulation are so much impaired, that the countenance marks a shoemaker almost as well as a tailor. We suppose that, from the reduction of perspiration, and other evacuations, in this and similar employments, the blood is im- pure, and, consequently, the complexion darken- ed. The secretion of bile is generally unhealthv, and bowel complaints are frequent. In the few shoemakers who live to old age, there is often a remarkable hollow at the base of the breast-bone, occasioned by the pressure of the last. Curriers and leather-dressers are very healthy, and live to old age. Saddlers lean much forward, and suffer, accordingly, from headache and indigestion. Printers (our worthy coopcrators) are kept in a roufined atmosphere, and generally want exercise. Pressmen, however, have good and varied labor. The constant application of the eyes to minute objects gradually enfeebles these organs. The standing posture, long maintained here, as well as in other occupations, tends to injure the digestive organs. Some printers complain of disorder of the stomach and head, and tew appear to enjoy full health. Consumption is frequent. We can scarcely find or hear of any compositor above the age of 50. In many towns, printers are intem- perate. Bookbinders,—a healthy employment. Carvers and gilders look pale and weakly, but their lives are not abbreviated in a marked de- gree. Clock-makers are generally healthy and long-lived; watch-makers, the reverse. Hou-sa servants, in large, smoky towns, are unhealthy. Colliers and well-sinkers,—a class by themselves, 72 LONGEVITY. Mittelstedt, died in Prussia, at the age of 112. Joseph Surrington, a Norwegian, died at Bergen, in 1797, aged 160 years. The St Petersburg papers announced, in 1830, the death of a man 150 years old, at Moscow; and, in 1831, the death of a man in Russia, 165 years old, was reported. On May 7, 1830, died a man named John Ripkey, at the age of 108, in London. His sight remained good till the last In 1830, a poor man, near lake Thrasimene, died 123 years old. He preserved his faculties to the last In 1825, pope Leo XII gave him a pension. The late return of the population of the city of New York, according to the census of 1830, makes the number of those who live beyond the allotted three-score and ten, hi the propor- tion of about 1£ per cent, of the whole number. Although the number of white males exceeds that of females 1861, yet, of those who are upwards of 70, 8009, the excess is in favor of the females, there being 4175 of the latter, and but 3834 of the former. Of the 17 white persons above a hundred, 15, on the contrary, are males; and of the 45 black persons, a hundred and upwards, only 11 are males. The proportion of centenarians among the —seldom reach the age of 50.—Employments producing dust, odor, or gaseous exhalations. These are not injurious, if they arise from animal substances, or from the vapor of wine or spirits. Tobacco manufacturers do not appear to suffer from the floating poison in their atmosphere. Snuff making is more pernicious. Men in oil-mills ure generally healthy. Brush-makers live to a great age. Grooms and hostlers inspire ammoni- ac al gas, and arc robust, healthy, and long-lived.. Glue and size boilers, exposed to the most nox- ious stench, are fresh-looking and robust. Tal- low-chandlers, also exposed to offensive animal odor, attain considerable age. Tanners are re- markably strong, and exempt from consumption. Corn-millers, breathing an atmosphere loaded with ilour, are pale and sickly, and very rarely attain old age. Malsters cannot live long, and must leave the trade in middle life. Tea-men suffer from the dust, especially of green leas ; but this injury is not permanent. Coffee-roasters become asthmatic, and subject to headache and indiges- tion. Paper-makers, when aged, cannot endure the effect of the dust from cutting the rags. The author suggests the use of machinery in thi-> pro- cess. In the wet and wear and tear of the mills, ihey are not seriously affected, but live long. Masons arc short-lived, dying generally before ■10. They inhale particles of sand and "dust, lift heavy weights, and arc too often intemperate. Miners die prematurely. Machine-makers seem to suffer only from the dust they inhale, and the con- sequent bronchial irritation. The (iron) filers are almost all unhealthy men, and remarkably short- lived. Founders (in brass) suffer from the inha- lation of the volatilized metal. In the founding of yellow brass, in particular, the evolution of oxide of zinc is very great. They seldom reach 10 years. Copper-smiths are considerably affected blacks is much larger than among the whites, making all proper allowances for their exaggeration and ignorance.—Bel- sham's Chronology informs us that 21 persons, who had attained the age of 130 and upwards, died between the years 1760 and 1829: of these, one was aged 166. In the same period, 39 had attained the age of 120, and not 130. The num- ber who attained the age of 110, and not 120, was 36 in the same space. And those who died after the age of 100, and before 110, were 54 within the period. Of the whole number recorded, 94 were natives of England, 23 of Ireland, and 12 of Rus- sia. Doubtless many more have died after the age of 100, without having had their names recorded. The northern cli- mates afford more instances of longevity than the southern; and, although far the greater part of those who have attained extreme old age have been distinguished for sobriety, yet some of them do not appear to have been in the habit of resu-aining their appetites. In China, where old age is much respected, people receive presents from govern- ment, when they have attained a great age. by the fine scales which rise from the imperfectly volatilized metal, and by the fumes of the spelter. or solder of brass. The men are generally un- healthy, suffering from disorders similar to "those of the brass-founders. Tir.-plate-workers are subjected to fumes from muriate of ammonia, and sulphureous exhalations from the coke which they burn. These exhalations, however, appear to be annoying, rather than injurious, as the men arc- tolerably healthy, and live to a considerable age. Tinners, also, are subject only to temporary in- convenience from the fumes of the soldering. Plumbers are exposed to the volatilized oxide of lead, which rises during the process of casting. They are sickly in appearance, and short-lived. I louse-painters are unhealthv, and do not gen- erally attain full age. Chemists and druggists, in laboratories, are sickly and t-oiisuinptive?°Po:- ters, affected through the pores of the skin, be- come paralytic, and are remarkably subject to constipation. Hatters, grocers, bakers and chim- ney sweepers (a droll association) also suffer through the skin; but, although the irritation oc- casions diseases, they are not, except in the last class, fatal. Dyers are hcalthy^and long-lived. brewers are, as a body, far from healthy. 1 'nder a robust and often florid appearance, they con- ceal chronic diseases of the abdomen, particularly a congested state of the venous system. M'hcii these men are accidentally hurt or"wounded thev are more liable than oik-'r individuals to severe and dangerous effects. Cooks and confectioners rue subjected to considerable heat. Our common ri',>1ok.s .are more unhealthy than house-maids. I heir digestive organs are frequently disordered • thejf are subject to headache, and their tempers rendered irritable. Glass-workers are healthv Glass-blowers often die suddenly. # LONGHI—L( Lonohi, Joseph, engraver, born 1768, in the States of the Church, went, during the political disturbances in Italy (1797), to Mi- lan, where he distinguished himself, and surpassed, in drawing, the famous Morghcn. No living engraver is able to represent flesh with such truth. He is master of every species of engraving, but subjects technical science to the true object of the art. In the style whicli combines etching with the application of the burin, he sur- passes the most distinguished of his pre- decessors. In this department, are his Philosopher, from Rembrandt, and Daudo- lo, from Mettrini. His Magdalen, after Correggio, represents, with an almost inde- scribable exactness, the softness and trans- parency of tint admired in the original. His Galatea floating in a shell, from a painting by Albano, is equally excellent Raphael's Vision of Ezekiel he has also engraved in a masterly manner. His original pieces, as, for instance, Pan pur- suing Syrinx, from the first book of Ovid's Metamorphoses (finished in 1814) have also been much admired. His Raphael's .Marriage of the Holy Virgin is worthy of the original, and is one of the finest en- gravings of our times. Some fragments, which have been published, of his History of the Art of Engraving, have also given him a reputation its a writer on this sub- ject. Eugene Beauharnais, when vice- roy of Italy, appointed Longhi professor at the academy of art in Milan, where he has formed several excellent scholars; he also received from that prince tiie order of the iron crown. Longimetry; the measuring of lengths or distances, both accessible and inacces- sible. Accessible distances are measured by the application of some measure a cer- tain number of times, as a foot, chain, &c. And inaccessible distances arc meas- ured by taking angles, &c, by means of proper instruments, as the circumfirentor, quadrant, theodolite, &c. This embraces a great number of cases, according to the situation of the object and observer. Longinus, Cassius ; a Platonic philoso- pher and celebrated rhetorician of the middle of the third century, A. D. Ac- cording to some accounts, he was born at Emesa, in Syria; according to Ruhnken, Athens was his birth-place. Greek litera- ture was the principal subject of his studies. At Alexandria, Athens, etc., he attended the lectures of the most dis- tinguished scholars. He studied the Stoic and Peripatetic systems of philosophy, but subsequently became an ardent ad- herent of die Platonic, and annually cele- VOL. VIII. 7 )NG ISLAND. 73 brated the birth-day of its founder, by a banquet His principal attention was di- rected, however, to the study of grammar, criticism, eloquence and antiquities. At the invitation of queen Zenobia, he went to Palmyra to instruct her in Greek learn- ing and to educate her children. lie was likewise employed by her in the adminis- tration of the state, by which means he was involved in the fate of this queen. For when Zenobia was taken prisoner by the emperor Aurelian, and could save her life only by betraying her counsellors, Longinus, as the chief of them, was seized and beheaded, A. D. 275. He suffered death with all the firmness of a philoso- pher. Of his works, among which were some philosophical ones, none is extant, except the treatise On the Sublime, which goes under his name, and this is in a state of mutilation. It illustrates, with great acuteness and taste, the nature of the sublime in thought and style, by rules and examples. The best editions are those of Pearce (1724), of Toup and Ruhnken (Oxford, 1778). Benj. Wciske's edition appeared at Lcipsic, 1809. There is an English translation of it by Wm. Smith. Longinus is usually called Dionysius, but this has arisen from the negligence of edi- tors. The manuscript copy of the trea- tise On the Sublime, in Paris, and one in the Vatican, bear the inscription in Greek, By Dionysius or Longinus, which appear- ed in the first printed copies as Dionysius Longinus. The Florence manuscript bears the inscription Anonymous. Some critics have ascribed the work to Diony- sius of Halicamassus, others to another Longinus, while others confess that the author is uncertain. Long Island, or Nassau Island ; an island belonging to the state of New York, extending 120 miles in length, and vary- ing from 10 to 20 miles in breadth. On the west, it is divided from Staten Island* by the Narrows, and from Manhattan Island by East river. On the north, East river and Long Island sound sepa- rate it from the main land. Its eastern extremity is Montauk point On the south, it is washed by the ocean. Lon. 71° 47' to 73° 57' W.; lat 40° 34' to 41° 10' N. Like other insular positions, its climate is more mild than that of the ad- jacent continent The island is divided into three counties—King's, Queen's and Suffolk. Sag Harbor is the principal port. The south side of the island is flat land, of a light, sandy soil, bordered, on the sea coast, with large tracts of salt meadow. The soil, however, is well 74 LONG ISLAND—LONGITUDE. calculated for raising grain, especially In- dian corn- The north side of the island is hilly, and of a strong soil, adapted to the culture of grain, hay, and fruits; and the eastern part is remarkably adaptetl to the growth of wood, and supplies, in great part, the city of New York with this arti- cle. This ridge forms Brooklyn and other heights, known in the revolutionary war. The principal towns and villages on the island are Brooklyn, Jamaica, Sag Harbor, Flatbush, Flushing, Satauket and Huntington. Long Island Sound ; a bay, from 3 to 25 miles broad, and about 120 long, ex- tending the whole length of Long Island, and dividing it from Connecticut. It communicates with the ocean at both ends, and may be considered as extending from New York on the west to Fisher's Island on the east. On its northern shore are the towns of Greenwich, Stamford, Fairfield, Bridgeport, Milford, New Haven, Saybrook, New London, Stonington, &c. It receives the Connecticut, Housatonic, Thames and other rivers.* Longitude, Geographical ; the dis- tance measured, according to degrees, minutes, seconds, &c, on the equator, or a parallel circle, from one meridian to another, which is called the first, or prime meridian. Longitude is divided into eastern and western. It is altogether in- different through what point we draw the first meridian, but it must be settled what point we adopt. In Germany, the Island of Fcrro (q. v.) is generally adopted; in France, tbe observatory at Paris ; in Eng- land, that of Greenwich; in Berlin, that of Berlin; in the U. States, the meridian of Washington is sometimes taken as a first meridian. Some geographers reckon from the first meridian 180 degrees west, and the same number east; others, on the contrary, reckon the longitude from the west to the east, the whole length of the equator, to 360 degrees. The longitude of any place, together with the latitude (q. v.), is requisite for the determination of the true situation of the place upon the earth. From the form of our earth, it fol- lows that the degrees of longitude must always decrease towards the poles. The degrees of latitude, on the contrary, are all taken as equal to each other, and each amounts to 60 geographical miles. The measure of a degree of longitude upon any parallel of latitude is found by mul- tiplying the length of a degree on the * The most recent chart of Long Island Sound is that published by the Messrs. Blunts (New York, 1830.) equator by the co-sine (taking radius equal to 1) of the latitude of the parallel. The longitude shows the difference of time between any place and the first meridian. The sun performing his apparent revolu- tion in 24 hours, a place which lies 15 degrees farther to the west than another, will have noon one hour later. Places whose difference of longitude amounts to 180° have opposite seasons of the day, since in the one place it is mid-day, and in the other, at the distance of 180°, it is midnight at the same moment The difference in longitude of any two places may be also determined by observations of the time of certain celestial phenome- na, taken at both places, such as eclipses of the moon, occultations of fixed stars, and, in particular, the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites; and, vice versa, we can, from the difference of longitude of two places, accu- rately ascertain the difference of their time. 15° upon the parallel circle correspond- ing to one hour, 1° gives 4' of time, 157 give 1' of time, 15" give 1" of time, &c. The difference of longitude between Bos- ton and London may serve as an example. This difference is 71°, 4', 9" ; consequent- ly, noon at London is 4 hours 44 minutes and 6 seconds earlier than at Boston. The determination of longitude at sea, or of the situation of a ship at any moment, is highly difficult and important The English parliament, in 1714, offered a re- ward of £20,000 for an accurate method of finding the longitude at sea, within one half of a degree; but this act was re- pealed July 15, 1828. A watch which should preserve a uniform motion, was the most suitable means that could be afford- ed to the navigator, who might, from the difference of the time of noon on board the ship, and the time by the watch, imme- diately determine the difference between the longitude of the place for which the watch was regulated, and that wherein the ship then was. Harrison (q. v.) was the first who invented a chronometer of the requisite accuracy. Upon the first voyage, it deviated only two minutes in four months. Other artists followed, namely, Kendall, Mudge, Berthoud, Le Roy, &c.; and Arnold and Emery have lately pre- pared such accurate chronometers, that they have been used for the determination of longitude upon land, as well as at sea, with great success. . Nevertheless, astro- nomical observations furnish the most ex- act methods of determining longitude. As eclipses and occultations are compara- tively rare, and are somewhat difficult of calculation, the distances of the moon LONGITUDE—LOON. 75 from the1 sun or some of the fixed stars have been adopted for the calculation of longitude, because these can be measured almost every night, and an accurate knowledge of the moon's orbit is the only thing requisite thereto.—Longitude in the heavens, as that of a star, &c, is an arc of the ecl.ptic comprehended between the first of Aries, and a circle perpendicular to tin; ecliptic, passing through the place of the star. The computation is made according to the signs of the ecliptic. The longitude of a star is found by means of its right ascension and declination. It changes on account of the precession of the equinoxes. (See Equinox, and Pre- cession.) Longus, author of a Greek pastoral ro- mance, the subject of which is the loves of Daplmis and Chloe, probably lived in the time of Theodosius the Great Noth- ing is known of the circumstances of his lite, nor is he mentioned by any of the ancients. His work is interesting by its poetical spirit, graphic description and Btyle. The earlier editions, of which Vil- loisou's is the best, do not contain the work in so complete a state as that of Courier (Paris, IblO). He supplied, from a Florentine manuscript, an important chasm, but, having taken a copy of it, was careless or mean enough to render the page of the manuscript which contained that narration, illegible by an enormous ink-spot This spot, the librarian, Del Fu- ria, justly indignant, has laid before the eyes of the public in an engraving, with au account of the whole affair. Longwood. (See Si. Helena.) Loo-Choo, or Lieou-Kieou, or Lew- Chf.w ; a group of islands in the Pacific ocean to the south of Japan and cast of China to which they are tributary. Lat 26° to 27° W N. ; Ion. 127° W to" 129° E. But little was known to us of these islands until they were visited by Maxwell and Hall, on their return from the embassy to China. (See Hall's Voyage to Corea and Loo-Choo.) They are represented as having a mild climate and an excellent soil, abounding in fruits and vegetables. The voyagers who have touched have been allowed to land only under the most jealous precautions, and have never been permitted to enter the country. In other respects, they have been kindly treated and supplied with provisions, for which the islanders have uniformly refused to receive pay. Capt Hall paints the islands as a new Arcadia, in which the use of arms, money and punishments is unknown. It is man- ifest that little reliance is to be placed on the accounts of travellers, who were igno- rant of the language of the Loo-Chooans, and whose intercourse with them was'ev- idently subject to all the restraints of a most vigilant and despotic police. In fact, the statements of captain Hall on several points have been contradicted by the last voyager who has visited these islands (Beechey, Voyage in the Pacific, Loudon, 1831), who asserts that the Loo-Chooans have arms and money, and inflict the most severe and cruel punishments. As for the supplies, they appear to have been fur- nished by authority, and not by individu als, and the refusal to receive compensa- tion is easily accounted for, on the ground that the government which shows such an aversion to strangers, is unwilling to suffer any trrjfic between them and its subjects. They were for some time subject to Japan, but, in 1372, were conquered by China. Look-out ; a cape on the coast of North Carolina, in lat. 34° 34' N.: N. E. of cape Fear, and S. W*. ofcape Hatteras. Loon (colymbus); large aquatic birds, common to both Europe and America. The} seldom visit Britain, but are met with in the north of Europe and Asia. In America, they are most numerous about Hudson's bay, but are also found farther south. In Pennsylvania, they are migratory, making their appearance in the autumn. They are commonly seen in pail's, and procure their food, whicli is fish, by diving and continuing underwater for a length of time. They are very wary, and are seldom killed, eluding their pur- suers by their great dexterity in plunging beneath the water. They are very rest- less before a storm, always uttering loud cries on the approach of a tempest They are not eaten, the flesh being rank and fishy. Some of the tribes in the Russian empire tan the skin which covers the breast of this fowl, and form dresses, &c. of it, which are very warm, and imbibe no moisture. The Greenlanders also make the same use of them. The loon measures two feet ten inches from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail, and four feet six inches in breadth : the bill is strong, of a glossy black, and four inches and three quarters long, to the comer of the mouth. The head and half of the length of the neck are of a deep black, with a green gloss, and purple reflections; this is suc- ceeded by a band consisting of interrupted white and black lateral stripes, whicli en- compasses the neck, and tapers to a point on its fore part, without joining ; below this is a broad band of dark glossy green 76 LOON—LOPE DE VEGA. and violet, which is blended behind with the plumage of the back ; the whole of the upper parts are of a doep black, slight- ly glossed with green, and thickly spotted with white, in regular transverse or semi- circular rows, two spots on the end of each feather; the lower parts are pure white, with a slight dusky line across the vent The outside of the legs and feet is black, the inside lead color. The leg is four inches in length ; both legs and feet are marked with five-sided polygons ; weight about eight to ten pounds. The female is somewhat smaller than the male, and differs in her colors. The young do not attain their perfect plumage until the second or third year. It should be men- tioned, however, that Temminck and the prince of Musignano state that the, two sex- es are alike in plumage: our sportsmen who reside on the coast where these birds are plenty, insist, on the contrary, that the adults of both sexes may always be dis- tinguished by their plumage. The female lays two large brownish eggs, and general- ly builds at the edge of small islands or the margins of lakes and ponds. In swim- ming and diving, the legs only are used, and not the wings, as in the guillemot and auk tribes; and, from their being situated far behind, and their slight deviation from the line of the body, the bird is enabled to propel itself through the water with great velocity. Loos, Daniel Frederic, a distinguished die-sinker, was born at Altenburg, in Sax- ony, in 1735. Stieler, the royal die-cutter, took him as an apprentice, but kept him back from jealousy. Loos, however, final- ly went to Dresden, where he worked at the mint, but his merits were here also kept secret by his employer. After many vicissitudes, Loos was employed in the Prussian service at Magdeburg, but was unable to maintain his family, and lived for some time in poverty, in Berlin. His merit was at. last acknowledged. In 1787, he became member of the academy of fine arts, and produced a great number of medals. Purity of style and drawing were not so much required in medals as at present in Germany, but his successors have hardly surpassed him in technical skill. Loos died in 1818. His son is one of the chief officers of the Berlin mint Lope de Vega (Don Lope Felix de Vega Carpio; Frey, as he is often called, signifies friar), a celebrated dramatic poet, was bom at Madrid, Sept. 25, 1562. While a child, he displayed a lively taste for poe- try, made verses before he knew how to write, and, as he himself avers, had com- posed several theatrical pieces, when scarcely 12 years of age. About this time, he ran away from school with a com- rade, for the purpose of seeing the world, but was stopped in Astorgn,aiid sent back, by the authorities of the place, to Madrid. Lope early lost his parents, but was ena- bled, by the assistance of Avila, bishop of Alcala," to complete his studies. He after- wards found a patron in the duke of Alva, at Madrid. Encouraged by this Maece- nas, whose sccietary he became-, he com- posed his Arcadia, a heroic pastoral in prose and verse, of which Montemayor had given an example in his Diana. The Arcadia is an idyl, in five acts, in whicli the shepherds, with their Dulcineas, speak the language of Amadis, and discuss questions of theology, grammar, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, music and poetry. Inscriptions are also introduced upon the pedestals of the statues of distinguished men in a saloon, in which a part of the action takes place. This work proved the various' acquisitions of the author. Con- ceits and quibbles are frequent in this, as in Lope's other writings. In general, he is one of those writers who set a danger- ous example of that false wit, a taste for which extended almost all over Eu- rope. Marino particularly introduced it into Italy, and acknowledged, with lively expressions of admiration, that Lope had been his pattern. After the publication of his Arcadia, Lope married. He appears, however, to have cultivated the poetic art with increasing zeal. A nobleman of rank having made himself merry at Lope's expense, the poet revenged himself upon this critic, and exposed him to the laughter of the whole city. His opponent challenged him, and was dangerously wounded in the encounter, and Lope was obliged to flee tb Valencia. After his return to Madrid, the loss of his wife rendered a residence in that place insupportable to him. In 1588, therefore, he served in the invincible ar- mada, the fate of which is well known. During this expedition he wrote La Her- mosura de Angelica (the Beauty of Angeli- ca), a poem in 20 cantos, which continues the histoiy of this princess from the time in which Ariosto left it. By this work he hoped to do honor to his country, in which, as he learned in Turpin, the suc- ceeding adventures of the heroine occur- red. In addition to the peril of rivalry with Ariosto, tbe difficulty of success was increased by the appearance of a poem upon the same subject, by Luis Bor- hono de Soto, under the title Las Lagry- mas de Angelica, which passed for one of LOPE DE VEGA. 77 the best poems in the Spanish language, and was honorably mentioned in Don Quixote. In 1590, Lope returned to Madrid, and again entered the married state. In 1598, he obtained one of the poetical prizes, offered on the occasion of the canonization of St Isidore. This prize poem he published with many other poems, under the name of Tome de Bur- guUlos. About this time, he also com- posed a great number of pieces for the theatre. His literary fame increased, and his domestic situation made this the hap- piest period of his life. But he lost his son, and soon after his wife, and had only a daughter left. He now sought consola- tion from religion, and became a priest and secretary of the inquisition. His de- votion, however, did not interfere with his poetical studies, and he still endeavored to maintain the distinguished rank which he had taken upon the Spanish Parnassus, and to repel the attacks of his foes and his rivals, among whom Luis de Gongora y Argote was the most distinguished. Lope, who had been attacked in his satires, and who was indignant at the corruption of taste produced by him, allowed himself to ridicule his obscure and affected style, and that of his pupils, although, in his poem Laurd de Apollo, he acknowledges the talents of Gongora. But Gongora's cor- rupt taste infected even his opponents, and it must be confessed that Lope's last works are not entirely exempt from it Another yet more distinguished assailant was Cervantes, who publicly advised him, in a sonnet, to leave the epic poem, upon which he was then engaged—Jerusalem conquistada—unfinished. Lope parodied this sonnet, and published his poem, the weakest of his performances. He accom- panied it with many remarks, which are all found in the last edition of 1777. Cer- vantes acknowledged his merits, howev- er, in the following verses : " Poeta insigne, A cuyo r-erso o prosa Ninguno le avantaje ni aun le hrga." (A distinguisheel poet, whom no one, in verse or prose, surpasses or equals.) Cer- vantes died soon after (1016), in poverty, in the very city in which his rival lived in splendor and luxury, and in the pos- session of the public admiration. How differently has posterity judged of these two poets ! For 200 years, the fame of Cervantes has been increasing, while Lope is neglected in his own country. About the time of Cervantes' death, the enthusiasm of the Spaniards for Lope ap- proached to idolatry, and he himself was not wise enough to reject it. The number of his poetical productions is extraordina- ry. Scarcely a year passed in which he did not print a poem, and, in general, scarcely a month, nay, scarcely a week, in which he did not produce a piece for the theatre. A pastoral, in prose and verse, in which he celebrates the birth of Christ, established his supremacy in this branch ; and many verses and hymns olf sacred sub- jects bore testimony to his zeal for the new calling to which he had devoted himself. Philip IV, who greatly favored the Spanish theatre, when he ascended the throne, in 1621, found Lope in possession of the stage, and of an unlimited authority over poets, actors, and the public. He imme- diately loaded him with new marks of honor and favor. At this time Lope pub- lished Los Triumphos de la Fe; Las For- tunas de Diana, novels in prose, imitations of those of Cervantes ; Circe, an epic poem, and Philomela, an allegory, in which, under the character of the night- ingale, he seeks to revenge himself upon certain critics, whom he represents under that of the thrush. His celebrity in- creased so much that, suspicious with respect to the enthusiasm which had been shown for him, he printed the work Soliloquios a Dios, under the assumed name, N. P. Gabriel de Padecopeo (an an- agram of Lope de Vega de Carpio),whicli likewise obtained great applause. He afterwards published a poem on the sub- ject of Maiy Stuart, viz. Corona tragica (the Tragic Crown), and dedicated it to pope Urban VIII, who had also com- memorated the death of this queen. The pope wrote an answer to the poet with his own hand, and conferred on him the title of doctor of theology ; he also sent him the cross of the order of Malta—marks of honor which, at the same time, reward- ed his zeal for strict Ccitholicism, on which account he was also made a familiar of the inquisition. All this contributed to support the enthusiasm of the Spaniards for this " wonder of literature." The people for whom he wrote, without regard to criticism (for he says in his strange poem, Arte de hazcr Comedias, that the people pay for the comedies, and, con- sequently, he who serves them should consult their pleasure), ran after him whenever he made his appearance in the street, to gaze upon this prodigy of nature (monstruo de naturaleza), as Cervantes call- ed him. The directors of the theatre paid him so liberally, that at one time he is said to have possessed property to the amount of more than 100,000 ducats ; but he was 78 LOPE DE VEGA. himself so generous and charitable, that he left but little. The spiritual college in Madrid, into which he had been admitted, chose him president (capellan mayor). In common conversation, any thing perfect in its kind, was called Lopean. Until 1635, he continued without interruption to produce poems and plays. At this pe- riod, however, he occupied himself with religious thoughts, and devoted himself strictly to monastic practices, and died August 26 of the same year. The prince- ly splendor of his funeral, of whicli the duke of Susa, the most distinguished of his patrons, and the executor of his will, had the direction, the great number as well as the tone of the panegyrics, which were composed for this occasion, the emulation of foreign and native poets to bewail his death, and to celebrate his fame, presented an example altogether unique in the histoiy of literature. The splendid exequies continued for three days, and ceremonies in honor of the Spanish Phoenix were performed upon the Spanish stages with great solemnity. The number of Lope's compositions is astonishing. It is said that he printed more than 21,300,000 lines, and that 800 of his pieces have appeared upon the stage. In one of his last works, he af- firmed that the printed portion of them was less than those which were ready for the press. The Castilian language is, in- deed, veiy rich, the Spanish verses are often very short, and the laws of metre and rhythm are not rigid. We may, how- ever, doubt the pretended number of Lope's works, or we must admit, that, if he began to compose when 13 years of age, he must have written about 900 verses daily, which, if we consider his employments, and the interruptions to which, as a soldier, a secretaiy, the father of a family, and a priest, he must have been subject, appears inconceivable. What we possess of his works amounts to only about a fourth of this quantity. This, however, is sufficient to excite astonishment at his fertility. He himself informs us that he had more than a hundred times composed a piece and brought it on the stage within 24 hours. Perez de Montalvan asserts that Lope composed as rapidly in poetry as in prose, and that he made verses faster than his amanuensis could write them. He es- timates Lope's plays at 1800, and his sa- cramental pieces (Aidos sacramentalos) at 400. Of his writings, his dramatic works are the most celebrated. The plots of those that approach nearest to the charac- ter of tragedy, are usually so extensive, that other poets would have made, at least, four pieces of them. Such, for instance, is the exuberance found in La Fterza lasti- mosa, which obtained the distinction of be- ing represented in the seraglio at Constanti- nople. In fertility of dramatic invention, and facility of language, both in prose and verse, Lope stands alone. The execution and the connexion of his pieces are often slight and loose. He is also accused of making too frequent and uniform a use of duels and disguises (which fault, howev- er, his successors committed still more fre- quently), and of freedom in his delineations of maimers. Some (lord Holland, for in- stance) have attributed to him also the in- troduction of the character termed gracioso, upon the Spanish stage. In those irregu- lar pieces, which Lope composed for the popular taste, we find such bombast of language and thought, that we are often tempted to conclude that he intended to make sport of his subject and his hearers. The merit of the elaborate parts of his tragedies consists particularly in the rich exuberance of his figures, and, according to the Spanish critics, the purity of his language. In judging of his boldness in treating religious affairs, we must take into consideration the character of the nation, and the nature of the Spanish stage. Many foreign dramatic writers, we may- add, have imitated Lope, and are indebted to him for their best pieces and touches. Schlegel, in his lectures on the drama (Vorlesungen iiber dramatische Kunst), says of Lope—" Without doubt, this writer, sometimes too much extolled, somet. :nes too much undervalued, appears in the most favorable light in his plays; the thea- tre was the best school for the correction of his three capital faults, viz. defective connexion, prolixity, and a useless display of learning." In some of his pieces, es- pecially the historical, which were found- ed upon old romances and traditions, a certain rudeness of manner predominates, which is by no means destitute of charac- ter, and seems manifestly to have been chosen for the subjects. Others, which delineate the manners of the time, display a cultivated tone. They all contain much humor and interesting situations, and prob- ably there are few which, with some alter- ations, would not be well received, even at the present day. Their general faults are the same—carelessness of plot and negligent execution. They are also de- ficient in depth, and in those fine qualities which constitute the mysteries of the art. A CoUeccion de las Obras sueltas assi en Prosa como en Verso de D. Lope, &c. ap- LOPE DE VEGA—LORD'S SUPPER. 79 peared at Madrid, 1776, seq. (21 vols.,4to.). This does not contain his plays, however, which were published at an earlier date, in 25 vols., 4to. Concerning his life (of which his poem Dorothea gives, per- haps, the most valuable information) and writings, consult the work of lord Hol- land—Some Account of the Life and Writings of Lope Felix de Vega Carpio (London, 1817, 2 vols., 2d edition). Lord ; of uncertain etymology ; a title of honor or dignity, used in different senses. In the feudal times, lord (seigneur) was the grantor or proprietor of the land, who retained the dominion or ultimate property of the feud or fee, the use only being granted to the tenant. A person who has the fee of a manor, and conse- quently the homage of his tenants, is called the lord of the manor. In these cases, the lordship or barony was connected with the seigneurial rights of jurisdiction. The superior lord is styled lord paramount, and if his tenants again grant a portion of land to other persons, they being tenants in reference to the lord paramount, and lords in reference to their own tenants, are called mesne or mean, i. e. middle lords. Lord is also a mere title of dignity, at- tached to certain official stations, which are sometimes hereditary, but sometimes only official or personal. All who are noble by birth or creation, that is, the peers of England, are called lords; the five or- ders of nobility constitute the lords tem- poral, in contradistinction from the prelates of the church, or lords spiritual, both of whom sit together in the house of lords. (See Peers.) It is sometimes only an official title, as lord advocate, lord mayor, &c. It is also applied, but only by cour- tesy, to the sons of dukes and marquises, and to the eldest sons of earls.—In Scrip- ture, the word Lord, when printed in capitals, in the Old Testament, is a trans- lation of the Hebrew Adonai, whicli ,the Jews were accustomed to substitute in reading, and even in writing, for the in- effable namp Jehovah (q. v.). In the New Testament, it is applied to Jesus Christ, the term, in tbe original Greek, being Kvpios (owner, master.) Lords, House of. (See Parliament, in the article Great Britain.) Lord's Supper; a ceremony among Christians, by which they commemorate the death of the founder of their religion, and make, at the same time, a profession of their faith. Jesus Christ instituted the rite when he took his last meal with his disciples. The bread, which he broke after the Oriental manner, was a fitting symbol of his body, which was soon to be broken ; and the red wine (for, probably, Christ used this kind of wine, whicli is the met common in Palestine) was a sig- nificant symbol of his blood. In all the churches founded by the apostles, this usage was introduced. In the first and second century, this rite was celebrated in connexion with the agape (q. v.) or love- feast. After the third century, when the congregations became more numerous, the agapes ceased, and the Lord's supper was from thence celebrated on the occasion of every divine service in the churches, in such a way that all present could parti.ke, with the exception of catechumens (i. e. Christians not yet baptized), and of unbe- lievers. These were obliged to withdraw when the celebration of the Lord's supper commenced, because communion was considered as a mysterious act, which was to be withheld from profane eyes. Chris- tians soon began to ascribe supernatural power to the rite, and to take the conse- crated bread and wine for more than bread and wine, and to maintain that the body and the blood of our Savior were united with them. From this originated the doctrine of transubstantiation, which was started by Parrhasius Radbertus, in the ninth century. Though this doctrine was at first opposed (see Berengarius), yet it was soon generally received, and, in 1215, solemnly confirmed by pope Inno- cent III, in the fourth Lateran council. From the new doctrine sprang the adora- tion of the host (in which God was pres- ent, according to the new belief), as well as the custom of refusing the cup in the communion to the laity, because it was supposed, that, where the body of Christ was, his blood must be too (Concomitance), whence the use of the wine was not necessary for the r^eption of the com- munion. This refusal was, also, partly owing to a desire of avoiding every occasion whereby the blood of Christ might be incautiously spilled, and become profaned; and partly to the efforts of the clergy to establish a distinction in their own favor. Even before the origin of the doctrine of transubstantiation, the Lord's supper had begun to be represent- ed as a sacrifice. From this sprang the private mass. (See Mass.) After the notion of purgatoiy had become prevalent, this doctrine was connected with the above-mentioned conception of the com- munion as a sacrifice, and now masses were said chiefly for the purpose of delivering the souls of the deceased from purgatory. As early as the seventh century, private 80 LORD'S SUPPER. masses were celebrated in various places 5 after the ninth century, they were in use every where. Thus die Lord's supper had become, in the course of time, something quite different from the design of its founder. This had been contended pre- vious to the reformation, by some parties dissatisfied with the ruling church, espe- cially by the Hussites (seeHussUes, in article Huss), in the fifteenth century, to whom, indeed, the council of Bale was obliged, to allow the use of the cup in the com- munion. The reformers renewed the complaint, that the church had deviated, in the celebration of the Lord's supper, from the purpose of Christ, and the ex- ample of the apostolic age, and both the German and Swiss reformers agreed in rejecting the doctrine of transubstantia- tion and the mass, and maintaining, that the Lord's supper ought to be celebrated before the whole congregation, and with the administration of both bread and wine. In explaining the words by which the supper was instituted, Luther and Zuinglius differed, and their different opin- ions on this subject formed the principal subject of the unhappy dissension between the Lutheran and Calvinistic churches. Luther took the words," This is my body," &.C., in their literal sense, and thought that the body and blood of Jesus Christ were united, in a mysterious way, with the bread and the wine, so that the com- municant receives, witb and under (cum et sub) the bread and wine, the real body and real blood of the Redeemer. Zuinglius, on the other side, understood the words in a figurative sense, and sup- Kosed that Jesus Christ meant to say, " The read and the wine represent my body and my blood," and maintained, therefore, that the bread and wine were mere signs of the body and the blood of Christ From this difference of opinion arose a violent dispute between Luther and Zuin- glius, which, in later times, has been continued between the Lutheran and Cal- vinistic divines. The opinion advanced by Calvin, by which a spiritual pres- ence of the body and blood of Christ is supposed in the communion, though it came nearer to the Lutheran doctrine than that of Zuinglius did, yet was essen- tially different, and, therefore, also met with a strong opposition from the strict adherents of Luther. Melanchthon in- clined to the Calvinistic notion, and so did many other Lutheran divines, who were called by the opposite party PhUip- ists and Crypto-Calvinists. The formula concordia, or articles of religious peace, suppressed the Crypto-Calvinists in the greatest part of the Lutheran church, and established the idea of Luther. In recent tunes, many Lutheran divines have in- clined to the Calvinistic doctrine. The Greek church has not adopted the doc- trine of transubstantiation in its whole extent; yet her doctrine comes nearer to this dogma than to that of the reformed church. The Oriental Christians differ also from the Western, in using leavened bread in the Lord's supper, and in admin- istering it to children. (See Greek Church.) [The doctrine of the Lord's supper has given rise to such long and bitter conten- tion between Catholics and Protestants, that the following remarks, written by a Catholic, and giving the Catholic views on this subject, may not be uninteresting to our readers.] The Catholic doctrine of communion (says the writer) cannot be understood without a clear insight into the fundamental views of the Catholic church on all sacred things. He, to whom Christianity is not an external reve- lation of the Deity, to whom Jesus is not the incarnate God, and his doctrine not divine truth higher than all human con- ceptions, who regards not the church as a divine institution, and her traditions as in- disputably true, cannot enter into the Catholic views on the communion. It must be particularly considered, that Cath- olic Christianity is of a truly mystic nature. By mysticism we mean not the capricious imaginations of each individual, but the universal mystical belief of the church. Of these mysteries the sacrament of com- munion is the highest, and is the central point of all the institutions of the Catholic church. In all religions, we find the idea of a sacrifice, which man offers to the De- ity, by which he acknowledges a relation between himself and the Deity, and en- deavors to represent the devout spirit of re- ligion by an act of external worship. The purer is this idea of a sacrifice, the purer is the religion. It was reserved for Chris- tianity to give it its highest reality and greatest purity. In the prophecies relat- ing to the Messiah, it is said, that he shall be a priest after the order of Melchisedek (Psalm ex. 4); but this Melchisedek was a priest of the Most High, who offered bread and wine. (Gen. xiv.) How then was this prophecy fulfilled ? Malachi pre- dicted that the sacrifices of the ancient law would be abolished, and supplied by a pure meat-offering. (Malachi i, 11.) The incarnate God walked in the flesh among mortals, teaching and working miracles. After having performed the miracle of LORD'S SUPPER. 81 multiplying the loaves, he delivered a part of his mysteries (John vi, 48—56 ; 1 Co- rinth, xix, 16; Luke xxii. 19, 20 ; Mark xiv, 22—29; Math. xxvi. 26—28.) It is easily perceived that this rite must have been coeval with the foundation of his religion, and that the apostles every where intro- duced it and made known its signification. But what the apostles have introduced and preached we learn only by tradition. This tradition, however, tells us that the ordinance of Christ was meant literally. The Lord (proceeds the writer) remained in his church : in the congregations of the Christians, the body and the blood of the Savior were offered and tasted in the shape of bread and wine. This was the belief of the church from the beginning; and it cannot be shown that it commenced at any particular time, or supplanted another doctrine. The clearest proof of this is, that a similar doctrine, even if it be not the same doctrine of transubstantiation, is to be found in all the churches, which long since separated from the Catho- lic. This rite is in remembrance of the death and the resurrection of Jesus. But how (says the writer) can we sin against the body and the blood of Jesus ? How can we take it at all unworthily, if the whole ceremony is a mere act of commemora- tion ? To what purpose would be the ad- monition, "This do in remembrance of me," if there was no meaning attached to it but that of a participation in the fruits of Jesus' death by an act of commemora- tion ? The memory of Jesus is essentially connected with all the benefits of bis reli- gion. Further, as soon as we admit of a real presence of Jesus in the eucharist, we must be ready to concede, also, that the bread and wine cease to exist in reali- ty, though they remain still in appearance. That which really exists, is the sacra- mcntally (not visibly) present body and blood of Christ. By a miracle of the Omnipotent, a change is effected, and this we call transubstantiation. It has been proved already, by Leibnitz, that there is no philosophical contradiction in this, and we find it the principle of a whole philo- sophical school, the sceptics, to dispute the real existence of appearances. Even the oldest Christian fathers, not only in sermons, but in passages explanatory of their doctrines, and destined for the in- struction of the catechumens, expressed themselves in such a way as to show us that the first Christians were not only convinced of Christ's being pres- ent through our belief, but also that the bread or wine no longer existed. Justin Martyr, endeavoring to give the emperor a notion of the religion of the Christians, after describing the ceremo- ny of consecration, says, " We eat this not as common bread, and drink this not as common wine ; but as Jesus Christ, after having been made man by the word of God, had flesh and blood, so we believe also, that the food consecrated by his words, has become the flesh and blood of the man Jesus." (Acts 1.) We know al- so, that the Christians were accused, by the pagans, of eating, in their secret as- semblies, the flesh of an infant—a notion which certainly took its rise from thci* doctrine of the Lord's supper, of which the former might have heard some ob- scure account. The Christians, in gene- ral (continues the writer), kept this doc- trine very secret (disciplina arcani). If they believed that they received Christ only through faith, it is not easy to see why they made such a mystery of it But this they did, and instructed their catechu- mens in this doctriue but a short time lie- fore their baptism. The dogma of tran- substantiation is as old as the communion itself, and was by no means first set up by Parrhasius Radbertus, in the ninth centu- ry, as is commonly asserted by the Prot- estants. There is no reason why that real presence should be limited to the time when the Christian receives the eu- charist; for Christ distinctly says, "Thisis my body," and tenders it, on that account, to his disciples. And how could it be de- cided at what moment this presence com- mences, and when it ceases? The first Christians knew nothing about this limi- tation. They regarded the consecrated host with feelings of adoration ; they partook of it with the utmost awe, and carried it with them in times of persecution, to encourage themselves by the enjoyment of it Origen, a writer of the third centu- ry, says, " You, who are allowed to par- take in the holy mysteries, you know how to keep the body of the Lord you receive, with all caution and reverence (the Chris- tians received it formerly with their hands), lest any part of the hallowed gift fall to the ground ; you believe justly that you bring guilt upon yourselves when, by neg- ligence, you drop any part of it" Equally strong terms are to be found in Cyril's in- structions to the new converts, as well as in the liturgy of all thctOriental and West- em churches, the testimony of which is of the greater importance, as it is not the testimony of a few single scholars, but the public profession of entire churches. As from the first times, the presbyter of the • 82 LORD'S SUPPER congregation performed the consecration, the peculiar view of the Catholic church, which considers the spiritual guide of a congregation as a sacrificing priest, is ex- plained. The mass is nothing but this sacrifice, and, so far, as old in its essential character as the Lord's supper, though it first received its external additions and form under Gregory the Great The'Lord's supper is a sacrament, which, by an ex- ternal symbol, sanctifies the internal man. The Catholic view of communion per- vades the whole Catholic religious and ec- clesiastical system. This creed of the whole Christian church, the Greek not excepted,as it is represented here, remained uncoiitroverted until the eleventh cen- tury, when the controversy between the Greek and the Latin churches broke out, respecting the bread to be used in the communion—whether it ought to be leav- ened or unleavened. Respecting the doc- trine of the supper, there arose no dis- pute, till the beginning of the thirteenth century, when the priest Berengarius of Tours denied the doctrine of transub- stantiation, but not that of the sub- stantial presence of Christ The whole church was surprised at this innovation. This gave occasion, in the fourth Lateran council, to a solemn proclamation of the old creed of the church on transubstan- tiation. This creed continued in full au- thority, and even Huss did not impeach it; nay, Huss and his adherents were filled with reverence towards the sacrament, and claimed even the cup. It had become customary in latter times, from fear of spill- ing some part of the blood, to give only the hotly to the laity, since in the body the blood was contained (doctrine of concom- itance). The Hussites, however, believed that the cup was a constituent part of the sacrament, without which the sacrament would not be complete. The church con- demned this opinion as a heresy, in the council of Constance, in 1415* By the reformation of the sixteenth century, the whole Catholic system was attacked, as the reformers, rejecting the traditions of the church, took the Bible alone for then- guide in matters of belief, and departed, at the same time, from the Catholic theory of communion. If they had left the Catholic doctrine on communion, the priesthood and mass would necessarily have remained too. By what means could the priests of the new sect obtain their consecration ? It was therefore neces- sary to establish a new theory of com- munion ; or, rather, it was the natural con- sequence, since the new church, founded on reason, by which the scripture was to be searched, must needs lose a sense of the Catholic mysteries. In the council of Trent, session 13, are pronounced the following canons, which represent tbe creed of the church:—1. If any one de- nies that there is contained in the most holy sacrament of the altar, truly, really and substantially, the body and the blood, together with the soul and divinity of our Lord Jesus Christ, and, consequently, the entire Christ,—if such a one say, that he is contained therein only as in a symbol, vdfigura, vd virtute, anathema sit (let him be cursed). 2. If any one says, that there remains in the most holy sacrament of the altar, the substance of the bread and wine, together with the life and the blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, and if he denies that wonderful and miraculous transform- ation of the whole substance of the bread into the body, and the whole substance of the wine into the blood, whilst there re- mains only the shape (species) of the bread and the wine, which transformation is termed, by the Catholic church, tran- substantiation—anathema sit. 3. If there be any one who denies that there is con- tained in the venerable sacrament of the altar, under both sorts, and after division has ]yrn performed under the single parts of both sorts, the whole Christ—anathema sit. 4. If any one says, that, after conse- cration has been performed, the body and the blood of Christ is not in the miracu- lous sacrament of the altar, but that this is only during the tasting, neither before nor aflenvards, and that there is not in the consecrated host or the particles, [ire- served or remaining after the celebration of the Lord's supper, the true body of the Lord—anathema sit. 5. If any one says, either that remission of sins is the principal effect of the sacrament of the altar, or that no other results spring from it—anathema sU. 6. If any one says, that the only-begotten Son of God is not to be adored by external worship, in the holy sacrament of the altar, and to be revered with particular solemnity, nor to be sol- emnly carried about in processions, after the praiseworthy and universal usage of the church, nor to be presented publicly to the people, and that those who adore him are idolaters—anathema sU. 7. If any one says, it is not permitted to keep the holy eucharist in the pix, but that it must be distributed immediately after the consecration to the by-standers, or that it is not permitted to bear it reverentially to the sick—anathema sU. 8. If any one says, that the Christ offered in the eucharist is LORD'S SUPPER—LORRAINE. 83 tasted only spiritually, and not sacrament- ally and really—anathema sit. 9. If any one denies that all Christian believers of either sex, as soon as they are arrived at years of discretion, are bound, after the command of the holy Catholic church, to communi- cate, at least, at Easter every year—anathe- ma sit. 10.1 f any one says, that it is not per- mitted to the officiating priest to adminis- ter the sacrament to himself—anathema sit. 11. If any one says, that faith alone is a sufficient preparation for the enjoyment of the holy sacrament—anathema sit. The Catholics have still the prasens numen, as a pledge that the Lord remains with their church. (Sec Corpus Christi.) Lorenzo de Medici. (See Medici.) Loretto ; a small town in the States of the Church,about three miles from the sea, in the Marc of Ancona, with a bishop, who is also bishop of Recanati, and 5000 inhabitants, who are principally supported by the resort of pilgrims. Pilgrimages are made to the casa santa—the holy house in the cathedral of Loretto, which is supposed to have been the house of the virgin Mary, and which was carried by the angels (1291) from Galilee to Dalmatia, and thence, in 1294, to Italy, near Recanati, and, finally (1295), to the spot where it now remains. This holy house, which is in the centre of the church, is covered, externally, with marble, and is built of ebony and brick. It is 30 feet long, 15 wide, and 18 feet high, and richly ornamented. It has also been imitated at other places (for instance, at Prague). Loretto formerly contained great treasures, collected from the pil- grims. The income of this house once amounted to 30,000 scudi, besides the presents received annually. -The pilgrims were estimated at 100,000 yearly. Amongst other curiosities, a window is shown in the holy house, through which the angel Gabriel appeared to Mary, when he an- nounced the birth of the Savior. Ra- phael's painting of the virgin throwing a veil over the infant is beautiful. The treasures were, in part, expended in pay- ing the contributions imposed by the French (1798) ; the rest was taken posses- sion of by them. They carried the image of the virgin to Paris, but it was restored with great pomp, December 9, 1802. L'Orient ; a fortified and regularly built seaport of France, department of the Morbihan, on the bay of Port Louis, at the influx of the small river Scorf. The harbor is large and secure, and of easy access. It has still some trade, particular- ly with the French colonies, and is a nlace of importance, on account of its magazines for the use of the royal navy. The principal manufacture is of salt Population, 17,115 ; 340 miles W. by S. Paris ; lat. 47° 45' N. ; Ion. 6° 2' W. Lorme, Marion de. (See Dtlorme.) Lorraine, Claude. (See Claude Lor- raine.) Lorraine (Lotharingia; in German, Lothringen), so called from Lothaire II, to whom this part of the country fell in the division of the empire between him and his brothers, Louis II and Charles (854), had previously belonged to the kingdom of Austrasia. It was divided into Lower and Upper Lorraine ; the former in- cluding all the country between the Rhine, the Meuse and the Scheldt, to the sea ; the latter the countries between the Rhine and the Moselle, to the Meuse. Lorraine, at a later period, was bounded by Alsace, Franche-Comte, Champagne, Luxemburg, the present Prussian province of the Low- er Rhine, and the Bavarian circle of the Rhine, containing 10,150 square miles, and at present forming the French depart- ments of the Meuse, the Vosges, the Mo- selle and the Meurthe, with a population of 1,500,000 inhabitants. Its forests and mountains, among which the principal is the Vosges, are adapted for the raising of cattle, and contain much game ; they also yield copper, salt, iron, tin, and some sil- ver. Salt springs and lakes, abounding with fish, are also to be found. The soil is, for the most part, poor, and not adapt- ed for tillage. The' vine is cultivated to a considerable extent The French and German languages are spoken. The peo- ple are of German origin. Lorraine was tor centuries a subject of dispute between France and Germany. It was, for a long time, a fief of the German empire. On the death of Charles the Bold, duke of Lorraine, in 1431, without male heirs, the country was inherited by his daughter Isabella. The two grandsons of her son- in-law Frederic—Antony and Claude— founded, in 1508, the principal and col- lateral Lorraine lines, the latter of whicli spread in France (the dukes De Guise, D'Aumale, D'Elbceuf, D'Harcourt, belong- ed to it). From that time forward (1540), France took a decided part in all disputes relating to Lorraine. Charles of Lorraine was driven out, during the 30 years' war, on account of his connexion with Austria. He was restored in 1659, under severe conditions, and, in 1662, he consented diat Lorraine should go to France on his death, the house of Lorraine being recognised as princes of the blood. He was, however, again deposed, and died 84 LORRAINE—LOT. in the Austrian service. His brother's grandson Leopold was recognised as duke of Lorraive by the peace of Rys- wick (1697). France finally succeeded in her intentions, when Stanislaus, father-in- law of Louis NV, and the dethroned king of Poland, by the peace of Vienna (No- vember 8, 1738), received the duchies of Lorraine and Bar (with the exception of the county of Falkenstein), which, after his death (1766), were united with France. By the second peace of Paris (1815), a small part, with the fortress Saarlouis, was ceded to Germany, and now belongs to the Prussian province of the Lower Rhine. Besides the principal town, Nan- cy (q. v.), Luneville (q. v.) has been dis- tinguished by the peace of 1801. Charles Eugene, duke of Lorraine-Elbceuf, bom September ^5, 1751, at the commence- ment of the French revolution, command- ed the regiment royal Allemand, under the title of prince Lambesc, and afterwards en- tered the Austrian service, and died at Vienna, November 21, 1825. He was the last of the younger line. The elder line now rules in Austria, Tuscany and Mode- na. (See Etienne's Resume' de. I'Histoire de Lon-aine (Paris, 1825). See also Hapsburg.) Lory. This name has been given to some of the parrot tribe, from their fre- quently repeating the word. They have, however, no distinct characters of suffi- cient importance to separate them from the great genus psittacus. They arc very active and gay, even in captivity. They are found, for the most part, in the Mo- luccas, and are held in great estimation in some parts of the East. The most priz- ed is the scarlet lory, which was for a long time unknown in Europe, as the Dutch were at first wholly unsuccessful in trans- porting it thither ; the birds generally died on the voyage. They are now, however, brought across the ocean without much difficulty, and are marked by their tender- ness and attachment to their masters. The Javanese appear to have a great pre- dilection for them, and raise them in great numbers. But the most valuable of these birds is the yellow-collared, which is of a deep red color, with a circle of yel- low around its- neck. It is principally found in New Guinea. It is very docile and familiar, and has great aptness in learning to speak ; this, added to its beau- ty, and its extreme delicacy, as well as the difficulty of rearing it, renders it very highly esteemed. A single bird has been sold in London as high as 20 guineas. Lot ; a river of France, which rises in the department of Lozere, and joins the Garonne, near Aiguillon ; length, 150 miles. It gives name to a department (See Department.) Lot ; according to the Hebrew history, a nephew of Abraham, who, to avoid dissensions between bis followers and those of Abraham, went east into the plain of Jordan, towards Sodom, while his uncle dwelt in Canaan. Haying been taken captive by some marauding chiefs, Lot was delivered by Abraham from their hands. Having received two angels into his house in Sodom, an attack was made upon it by night, by the inhabitants, who were struck blind, and the impend- ing destruction of the city was announced to Lot. He escaped from the devoted spot, with his family ; but his wife, looking back at the scene of devastation, "became a pillar of salt," which Josephus, and Ben- jamin of Tudela, declare existed in their times, and, according to some late travel- lers, was to be seen not long ago. The text is, by some, understood merely to sig- nify, that she was rendered a statue, that is, motionless, by being incrusted with salt. Lot afterwards became the father of Moab and Amnion, by his two daughters. Lot. Man often finds it extremely difficult to choose between two measures, things, persons, &c. In such cases, he often allows himself to be determined by some outward impulse. This is, in part, the reason why men appeal to lot. The predominant motive, however, in very many cases, is a superstitious belief of the direct interference of the Divinity in de- termining the result Hence we find the lot most frequently resorted to in ages and nations little advanced in civilization, and less guided by reason than by belief in supernatural influences; and hence, too, the religious ceremonies with which the appeal to lot is often accompanied in such a state of society. (See Divination.) It would be endless to enumerate the differ- ent modes of determination by lot, and the various cases in which men have resorted to this mode of resolving doubts. The Hebrews used to draw lots before under taking any important enterprise ; also in criminal trials, to determine the question of guilt or innocence ; and at the elec- tion of officers. Thus the apostle Mat- thew was chosen by lot For this pur- pose, dice or small stave%were generally taken. The holy lot was the Urim and Thummim. The Greeks made use of dice, with signs, letters or words inscribed. These were drawn out of a vessel, and in- terpreted by priests, or the dice were thrown as in games. Such dice were found LOT—LOTTERY. 85 in many temples, and one at Praeneste was famous on that account. The northern nations—Russians,Gerinans,Swedes,&c— all had their ways of prying into the fu- ture by lot. Tbe Moravian Brethren have re-introduced the appeal to lot ; they use it in the case of marriages and appoint- ments, in their community, though it must be observed that they are not determined solely by it Lot has received, in America, the pe- culiar meaning of a portion of land, as a house-lot. In the first settlement of the country, a certain portion or share of land was allotted to each inhabitant of a town ; this was called his lot. Hence, in a more general sense, the same word was applied to any piece of land. (See Americanism.) Lot-and-Garonne ; a department of France. (See Department.) Loth; a German weight, the half of an ounce, or the 32d part of a pound avoir- dupois. The lead used by navigators and mechanics is also called Loth in German. Lotichius, Peter (called Sccundus, to distinguish him from his uncle), born at Saalmunster, in Hanau, 1528, studied phi- losophy, the ancient languages, rhetoric and poetry under Melissus, Camerarius and Melanchthon ; served in the forces of the Smalcaldic league ; travelled in France and Italy, as the tutor to some rich young men ; during this time, studied medicine at the most famous universities of both countries, and afterwards received a doc- torate at Padua. He died very young, while professor of medicine at Heidel- berg, 1560, as it is said, in consequence of a love potion, which was given him in Bologna. His Latin poetry, particularly his elegies, give him a place among the first modern Latin poets. There are edi- tions of his Poemata, by P. Burmann (Amsterdam, 1754, 2 vols., 4to.), and by Krctschmar (Dresden, 1773). Lotion, in medicine and pharmacy, is a wash for beautifying the skin, by clear- ing it of the deformities occasioned by a preternatural secretion. Almost all the lotions advertised for sale, contain much deleterious matter, and therefore ought never to be had recourse to. Lottery (from lot); a scheme for the distribution of prizes by chance. Lotte- ries, like every other species of gambling, no doubt have a pernicious influence upon the character of those concerned in them. Though this influence is not so direct, and the immediate consequences are not so disastrous, as those of some other species of gambling, which call into exercise the violent passions, and stake the gambler's vol. viii. 8 whole fortune upon a single chance or exertion of skill,—still, as this kind can be carried on secretly, and the temptations are thrown in the way of both sexes, all ages, and all descriptions of persons, it spreads more widely in a community, and may thus silently infect the sober, economical and industrious habits of a people more extensively and deeply, than those species of gambling which are attended with greater turbulence, and a train of other vices. Lotteries are of different kinds: I. Numerical lottery, or lotto (lotto di Ge- nova); invented by the Genoese. At the elections of the counsellors, the names of the candidates were cast into a vase, and then into a wheel-of-fortune, when wagers were laid upon the event of tbe elections ; the state finally undertook the superin- tendence of the bank. It is said that Benedetto Gentile, a counsellor, first in- troduced this lotto in 1620 ; and, because the name Gentile, by chance, had never been drawn, the popular belief prevailed, that the devil had carried him off, together with his name, to punish him for this un- lucky invention. Numbers were after- wards substituted instead of the names of eligible noblemen, and hence the lotto as- sumed its present form. The numbers from 1 to 90 are used ; from these, on the day of drawing, five numbers are always drawn. Out of the 90 numbers, each ad- venturer chooses for himself such and as many numbers as he likes, and specifies with what sum and upon what kind of chance he will back each selected num- ber ; whereupon he receives a printed ticket. In this lottery, there are four kinds of chances: 1. An. estrado, so called, which requires only one number among the five that are drawn, and in which the successful adventurers received 14 times the stake. By this the lotto gains 16 per cent, because there are 17 blanks to one prize. 2. The wager, in which a man lays a wager, as it were, with the lotto, thtit one of the selected numbers will have the first, second, third, fourth or fifth place in the order of drawing. Should this event happen in the drawing, the bet- tor obtains 67 times the sum deposited. By this the lotto gains about 25 per cent. 3. The third is an ambo, in which, of the numbers drawn, there are two which the adventurer has pitched upon. He re- ceives from the lotto 240 times the stake. In this case, the lotto gains 37 per cent, there being 399 blanks to one prize. 4. The last is a terno, by which the lotto gains 54 per cent, there being 11,347 blanks to one prize. It requires the ad- 86 LOTTERY. venturer to pitch upon three of the five numbers drawn, in which case he wins 4800 times the amount of the stake. The quaternes and quinternes are a later in- vention, and seldom applied to practice, because the lotto thereby gains 88 per cent and more. The lotto was every where patronized by the multitude, with an interest increasing almost to madness. Wise governments soon saw into the de- structive tendency of the lotto, and put an end to it, or prohibited adventuring in it under a severe penalty. Though the profit of the lotto banks was evident, yet fortune, by means of ternes and quinternes, brought many of them to ruin, or, at least, to its very verge, and hence, if numbers were backed too frequently, the conductors took the precaution to secure themselves, by declaring before the drawing, that such numbers were full, and they could receive no further stake upon them. Frauds, also, were practised, by means of violent riding and carrier-pigeons, on those lottos, the under offices of which, being placed at a distance, were accus- tomed to sell tickets, after the drawing in the principal offices had commenced. II. The proper lottery, called also class lotte- ry, when divided into classes. Its origin is more ancient than that of the lotto. It has been referred to the Roman Congia- ria. It is more probable that it originated from the transfer of merchandise by lot, of which method the Italian merchants made use even in the middle ages, and of which we also find traces in Germany ; for as early as 1521, the council at Osna- burg is said to have established lotteries for merchandise. So also in France, un- der Francis I, similar lotteries for mer- chandise were permitted to the merchants, under the inspection of government, in consideration of certain duties. A money lottery was established at Florence, in 1530. In 1571, there appears to have been a public officer in Venice for the inspection of the lottery. From Italy, lotteries passed into France, under the name of Manque (from the Italian bianca, because most of the tickets were blanks, mere white paper, carta bianca). In 1582 and 1588, Louis de Gonzaga established such a blanque in Paris, for providing poor girls of his estates with dowries ; and, in 1656, Lawrence Tonti (from whom the Tontines derive their name) sought to es- tablish a large blanque royale, which was first accomplished in 1660. Since this time, there have been in France only lot- teries royales, the income of which is commonly applied to public buildings. This iniquitous traffic has been revived of late, in France, on a much larger and more destructive scale than it has attained in any other country. In 1810—and we have no reason to believe any decrease has since taken place—lotteries were drawn twice a week at Paris, and so often at Bordeaux, Brussels, Lyons and Stras- burg, as to afford one every other day. 12,000,000 francs were yearly produced to government by this public gambling ; and it has been estimated, that at Paris, the re- sult has been more than 100 suicides an- nually. In England, the first lottery oc- curs in 1567—1568, a printed plan of which, as distributed, belongs to the an- tiquarian society in London. In 1612, a lottery was granted in behalf of the Vir- ginia company, and, in 1680, one also in behalf of the undertaker of an aqueduct to furnish London with water. In 1709, the rage for private, and, in many in- stances, most fraudulent lotteries, was at its height in England, and shop-keepers, of all descriptions, disposed of'their goods in this way, the price of tickets being as low as half a crown, a shilling, or even six- pence. Towards the close of the year, an existing act of parliament was put in force for their suppression, and another to the same purpose was passed in the 10th of queen Anne. The first parliamentary lottery was instituted in 1709, and, from that time till 1824, no session passed with- out a lottery bill. In October, 1826, the last English lottery was drawn. They are now abolished in England. As early as 1549, a lottery was drawn in Amster- dam, to procure money for the erection of the tower of a church, and, in 1595, one at Delft In 1653, one was established at Hamburg, according to the Dutch method, and, in 1699, the first class lottery, at Nu- remberg, and, in 1740, the first one was drawn in Berlin. Most of the late Ger- man lotteries are drawn in classes, in or- der to facilitate the sale of tickets. The great lottery of Hamburg goes upon the plan of one drawing. Latterly, lotteries for merchandise of all kinds, under the inspection of government, have been fre- quent in Germany. The managers of the principal lotteries sell only whole tickets. Brokers, however, divide them into halves, quarters, eighths, and even six- teenths, in order to facilitate their sale. In some places, they even let out tickets and parts of tickets, upon a particular number of drawings ; in which case, they are not obliged to pay the prize which may fall to the ticket, unless it be drawn within the stipulated number of drawings. If the LOTTERY—LOTUS. 87 principal prizes remain for a long time in the lottery, so that the probability of be- ing able to obtain them increases at each successive drawing, then a great profit is made in buying and selling tickets, and there are cases in which, in the last draw- ings, 10, and even 20 times the original price of the ticket has been demanded. Very lately, in the Austrian monarchy, in the kingdom of Bavaria, and in the duchy of Mecklenburg, estate lotteries have been got up, and manufactories, the estates of noblemen, and even whole lordships, have been disposed of by lottery, under public sanction, and, ordinarily, under the securi- ty of important mercantile houses, which undertook the.disposal of the property, in order to settle the debts of the owners. A money lottery has ordinarily been com- bined with them. Latterly, lotteries have been combined with state loans. When the credit of the state is low, or when the rate of interest is high, efforts have been made to induce capitalists to put their money into the hands of the state, by means of a lottery, which gives them the expectation of a premium above the cus- tomary interest of the country. For ex- ample : If a government is uncertain of obtaining, or cannot obtain, money at 7 per cent, it may, perhaps, effect its object by offering 4 per cent for a loan, and di- viding the remaining 3 per cent among the lenders by means of a lottery ; for the hope of winning the great prizes in the lottery, in addition to the certainty of disposing of their capital at 4 per cent, has a stronger influence on many men than the offer of 7 per cent interest In this way, loan? have been raised in Aus- tria, Denmark, Baden and other states, and also in Prussia, in 1821. By this means, in Prussia, stocks to the amount of 30,000,000 were sold at their full nominal value, which, in the market, were current only at 70 per cent. In most, if not all of the U. States, lotteries, not specially au- thorized by the legislatures of the states, are prohibited, and the persons concerned in establishing them are subjected to a heavy penalty. This is the case, at least, in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Mas- sachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Ma- ryland, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, Ohio, Mississippi, and probably in most if not all the other States. The penalty is various : in Ken- tucky, it is a fine of $2000; in Tennessee, double the sum contained in the scheme. In Alabama, each person concerned is lia- ble to a fine of $1000. In Louisiana, a man who sells tickets in a lottery not au- thorized by the legislature of that state, must pay $5000 for the license so to do, and if he sells tickets in several such lot teries at the same time, this amount must be paid for the license in each case. If he sells without a license, he is liable to a fine of $2000 for each ticket. In many of the states, the sale of tickets in lotteries established by law in other states is penal. In Massachusetts, any person concerned in the sale of tickets in a lottery not au- thorized by the commonwealth of that state, is liable to a fine of from $50 to 5000. In some of the states, lotteries have been veiy numerous. This is the case with several of the Southern States— Virginia, Maryland, and particularly Ten- nessee. They have also been numerous in New York. The object for which they have been granted has been generally the assistance of literary or benevolent in- stitutions—colleges, academies, hospitals, asylums, or of public works—as roads, bridges, the improvement of the naviga- tion of rivers, &c. Their pernicious ef- fects have induced the legislatures of some of the U. States to decline granting them in any case. Lotus. This name has been applied very vaguely to various species of plants, which have beer. cc!c'.„«U-eI in mymol^ and fabulous tradition. In tbe ancient Hindoo and Egyptian mythological rep- resentations of nature, the lotus (ndum- bium speciosum, Lin.), an aquatic plant, was the emblem of the great generative and conceptive powers of the world. Sev- eral varieties are found in India under the names of padma, tamara and camala, When Vishnu, says the Hindoo fable, was about to create the world, the god, swim- ming in the ocean of milk, produced the lotus from his navel. It unfolded its flower, and displayed Brama, the first re- sult of the creative energy. As an aquatic plant, the lotus was the attribute of Ganga, the goddess of the Ganges. In Egypt, it was consecrated to Isis and Osiris, and was an emblem of the creation of the world from water. It was also the sym- bol of the rise of the Nile and the return of the sun. It is found in bass-reliefs and paintings on the Egyptian temples, in all representations of sacrifices, religious cer- emonies, &c, and in tombs and whatever is connected with death or another life. With both of these nations, it was regarded with religious veneration, and the precept of Pythagoras to abstain from beans, has been supposed to refer to the fruit of the lotus-plant. The rhamnus lotus is a shrub, 88 LOTUS—LOUDON. the fruit of which is a small farinaceous berry, of a delicious taste, which is used by the natives of Africa to make a sweet cake. This shrub is found on the northern coast of Africa, and is probably the food of the lotophagi of antiquity. The fables of the ancients concerning them are well known. They were represented as a mild, hospitable race of men, in northern Africa, who lived on the lotus berry (hence their name Awro; and the marchioness of Montespan, mother of the duke of Maine and of the count, of Tou- louse (see Rachechmart), and Maria An- gelica d'Escorailles, duchess of Fontanges, who died in 1681.—Louis XIV was five years of age when his father, Louis XIII, died. His mother caused herself to be declared regent and guardian. To Maza- rin was intrusted the superintendence of tbe education of the king, which was much neglected. But, although Louis learned nothing from his teacher, the arch- bishop Perefixe, he observed much. A deep impression was made on him, dur- ing his minority, by the commotions of the Fronde (see Fronde, and Retz), which set so many different characters in action. Sept. 7, 1651, Louis proclaimed his ma- jority ; but Mazarin continued at the head of the government till his death, March 9, 1661. From this time, Louis reigned 54 years, without any prime minister, in com- plete accordance with his own words— L'itat, c'est moi ! From Mazarin he had learned an ambitious policy, and a con- tempt of the parliament On one occa- sion, when Mazarin could not effect hia purpose, the young king, 17 years of age, entered the hall of the parliament of Par- is, booted and spurred, with his whip in hia hand, and commanded an edict to be registered. Every thing united to sur- round him with splendor. Histoiy, how- ever, has not confirmed his title of great. Louis possessed some royal qualities, per- haps all that are requisite for show. Thus h« was enabled to* gratify the inclination of the French for theatrical display ; he even gave this inclination a permanent direction. His reign was adorned by great statesmen and generals, ecclesiastics, and men of literature- and science. The civil wars had produced the same effect, whicli the revolution afterwards produced, of calling forth men of talent and energy, who made the national glory and the splendor of the king the object of their exertions. Louis himself had a taste for a kind of greatness. u This was," as John Mtiller says of him, " the source of the benefits which he rendered to the arts and sciences, of the disturbances of Europe, of the violation of all treaties, in short, of the remarkable character of his reign." The king was, unfortunately, ignorant, and destitute of settled principles. II aima la gloire et la rdigion, says Montesquieu, d on Vempecha toute sa vie de connaitre ni I'une ni Vautre. His person was vigorous and noble.* With handsome features and a tall form he united a peculiar digni- ty of language and manner. The noble and charming tone of his voice won the * John Kettler, of Zuricfy cast an equestrian statue of Louis XIV, at Paris, in 1699. 94 louis xrv. heart; but the loftiness of his whole de- meanor inspired respect His kiudness never passed into familiarity. One look of his kept the witling in check. The Spanish gravity, which he inherited from his mother, was tempered by the graces of French politeness. Naturally so grave, that even the oldest courtiers never recol- lected to have heard more than one jest from his mouth, he loved, nevertheless, gayety in others, applauded Moliere's comedies, and laughed at the witty sallies of niadame de Montespan. At his court, which became a model for all the others of Europe, every thing had reference to the king, and tended to augment his dig- nity. The nearer you approached his per- son, the higher rose your awe. It was a reverence resembling worship, which was paid to the throne, the person of tbe king, and the pride of the nation. On the whole, to use an expression of Boling- broke's, hardly ever has a king played his part better. But a theatrical representa- tion he always would maintain, even in trifles ; for example, in his latter years, he never appeared in the presence of any one without his great peruke. But he possessed, nevertheless, qualities which are requisite for playing well the part of a monarch. " The qualities of his mind," says Grouvelle, "were justness, solidity, constancy and application. He united therewith habitual discretion and the seri- ousness which conceals deficiencies. He was naturally silent, and inclined to ob- servation." Louis had nothing of the hero, but he possessed the art of ruling those who surrounded him. He was no genera!, but was able to appropriate to himself the reputation of his generals. Resoluteness and energy elevated him, at times, above the restrictions of courtly etiquette. Early in life, he danced in the ballets. But hearing at the theatre, when Britannicus was performed, the verse in whicli it is said of Nero, as a reproach, R excdle a se donner lui-meme en spedacle aux Romains, he never again danced in public. The manners of his time favored bis natural disposition to gallantry. He loved with enthusiasm, and expressed his feelings with dignity and tenderness. With an excellent memory, his judgment was sound; he knew how to say what was suitable at the right time, and with dignity and delicacy; he understood how to punish and reward with words. Thus after the widow of Scarron, supported by many friends, had solicited in vain, for several years, her husband's pension of 1500 livres, he gave her a pension of 2000 livrea, with the words, Madame, je vous ai faU attendre long terns, mais vous avez tant o?amis, que fai voulu avoir seul ce mirUe aupres de vous. The following trait shows, that, even in generosity, he had a dash of ostentation. The marquis of Uxelles, having been compelled to sur- render Mayence, 32 days after the opening of the trenches, threw himself at the feet of the king, whose displeasure he feared, while he related the reasons of the sur- render. " Rise, marquis," said the king; "you have defended the fortress like a man of spirit, and capitulated like a man of sense." He intimated to the aged Boi- leau, who had retired to Auteuil, aud ap- peared but seldom at court, that when his health permitted him to come to Versailles, he would always have a half an hour for him. Louis was above the praise of trifles. When De Grammont found fault with a madrigal of the king's, Louis was pleased, that the courtier, being ignorant of the author, had spoken so freely. Boi- leau, also, ventured to blame some verses which met the king's approbation, and Louis was by no means displeased. " He understands such things ; it is his busi- ness," was his remark. Low flattery he re- pelled: thus he rejected the prize-question of the French academy—"Which of the virtues of the king deserves the prefer- ence ?" By the esteem which he manifested for Boileau, Moliere, Bossuet, Massillon, &c, he contributed to inspire the higher classes with a respect for the aits and sci- ences, and a taste for the society of men of learning and genius. But this was only meant to give splendor to hia reign. Cor-- neille and Lafontaine, and the meritori- ous scholars of the Port Royal, remained unnoticed by him. The great Arnaud, doc- tor of the Sorbonne, was compelled to live almost entirely concealed, from 1641, and died in exile. Louis was 20 years of age, and devoted to the pleasures of the court and chase, when Mazarin died. " To whom shall we now apply ?" asked his secreta- ries of state . " To me," he replied with dignity ; and the handsomest man of the kingdom, who had grown up in perfect ignorance, with his heart full of ro- mantic gallantry, devoted himself sedu- lously to business and the acquisition of information. In the first half of his reign, he labored daily eight hours. But his natural pride often degenerated into haughtiness, his love of splendor into use- less extravagance, his firmness into des- potism. Determined no longer to tolerate Calvinism in France, he said—" My grandfather loved the Huguenots without LOUIS XIV. 95 fearing them ; my father feared, without loving them; I neither fear nor love them." He evinced his severity, also, in the case of Fouquet, superintendent of finance, from whom he accepted a file, when he was on the point of condemning him to perpetual imprisonment, in 1661; with equal cruelty he took revenge for his of- fended pride, on the pope, in 1662. He was, as may be seen from his Instructions pour le Dauphin, a despot from religious conviction. As an absolute sovereign, he regarded himself as the proprietor of all the possessions of his subjects, but deem- ed himself bound to make a wise use of his power. He rarely, however, mistook the extraordinary men who signalized his age and France. He manifested an in- terest in the advancement of his nation; but, deceived by self-love, he submitted to the influence of others. While he be- lieved himself free and independent, ma- dame de Maintenon exercised the strongest power over him, by her talents, piety and virtue. His credulity went so far, that he assured the nuncio, in 1685, that whole cities, such as Uzes, Nismes, Montpellier, &c, had been converted! While the Protestants were robbed of their property and freedom, he was engaged in splendid hunting expeditions. Two meritorious naval officers, who had taken the liberty to offer some modest suggestions respect- ing a naval school, were imprisoned for a year, and cashiered. The reputation of Louis is the work of his ministers and generals. (See Turenne, Condi, Luxem- bourg, Catinat, and VUlars.) Feuquieres raised the art of war into a science. Lou- vois (q. v.) introduced discipline into the army. Vauban greatly improved the art of fortification. Men like Estrades and D'Avaux, made diplomacy at home in France. Louis himself was capable of negotiating immediately with ambassa- dors, on matters of state. The splendor of the French court, the boldness dis- played in the cabinet and the'field, the fame of the nation in arms and arts, intro- duced the French language into the courts of Europe, and from die peace of Nime- guen, in 1678, it gradually supplanted Lat- in, as the official language of states. But Colbert was the chief source of the great- ness of Louis and France. That ordering, creating, and sagacious spirit originated the great standing armies of Louis, and im- posed this burden on all the governments of Europe; at the same time, he maintain- ed 100 ships of the line, and encouraged manufactures, navigation and commerce; and the first French settlement in the East Indies was founded at Pondicherry. Colbert developed the astonishing re- sources of France, in population, natural riches and national spirit. But, after his death, in 1683, Louvois and Louis plucked the fruit, while they felled the tree. The pride of the king, and the vanity of the na- tion, seconded the ambition of the despotic minister of war. Notwithstanding all this oppression, disaffection never found a rally- ing point of resistance. Such gratification did the nation experience in the splendor of a cruel and prodigal reign ! Five wars, die revocation of the edict of Nantes (which Benj. Constant has well termed Verreurde Louis XIV, et le crime de son conseU), the building of Versailles, the hatred of the nations, the battle of La Hogue, and the deep policy of William.Ill of England, overthrew the power of Louis in the Spanish war of succession. Favorable circumstances, the opinion of the age, and the consciousness of strength on the part of a people not yet corrupted, were all that preserved from downfall the tottering throne of the failing king. Death rapidly snatched away those who stood nearest him ; first his only son, then his grand- son, with his grandson's wife and eldest son, the hopes of France. The court in- trigues, satiety, devotion, and the religious predominance of Maintenon, together with the influence of his confessor, La Chaise, and his far worse successor, Tellier, from 1709, made the heart of the aged king in- different to the state of his dominions. The proud Louis, who imaginetl himself competent to every thing, who, after the death of his great minister, selected young men, whom he could guide at pleasure, was, at last, so led astray by his confessor, Tellier, that he caused the constitution Uni- genitus, drawn up according to Tellier's plan, by three Jesuits, to be issued as a bulljn 1713, by pope Clement XI,who was equally deceived, thus giving the Jesuit party the triumph over their opponents, and, at the same time, producing commo- tions, which continued for forty years to agitate the church and state. Louis man- ifested, however, a strength of mind ami firmness in death, as well as in the misfor- tunes which, in his last years, shook his throne and house ; for Heinsius, Eugene and Marlborough humbled the pride of France before the Spanish throne was se- cured to the second grandson of Louis, by the death of Joseph I and#the victoiy of Vil- lains at Demain. He submitted to all con- ditions, unless they were dishonorable, but such he rejected with scorn. When Philip was finally established on the 96 LOUIS XIV. throne at Madrid, the partition wall of the Pyrenees was not destroyed, as Louis had hoped, when he said to his grandson, on his departure, II n'y a plus de Pyrinies; and France was burdened with a debt of 2,500,000,000 livres. The plan of attach- ing Spain to France, in order to counter- act the connexion of England and Hol- land (which threatened the French com- merce, navigation and colonies), exhausted France, and laid the foundation of that revolution which was not to terminate till a century after the death of Louis XIV. Grouvelle says, therefore, of him, with justice—" We may allow him good qual- ities, but not virtue. The misfortunes of succeeding reigns were, in part, his work, and he has hardly influenced posterity, except for its ruin." The same judgment is passed by madame de Stael, in her Re- flections on the French Revolution. What is called the age of Louis XIV, as com- pared with Pericles, Augustus and the Medici, was a result of the impulse whicli circumstances communicated to the na- tional genius. Louis, who was not him- self possessed of a great, comprehensive mind, and who was much and laboriously occupied on. trifles, patronized genius only as a necessary instrument for his purposes. At Colbert's suggestion, he founded the academy of sciences and that of inscriptions ; he improved the French academy, encouraged able writers to raise his reputation and the French language above the hatred of nations, and the sphere of its influence was wider than that of his armies. His nation gave laws to Europe, in matters of taste. The tone of French society was a model for the German courts, and corrupted the spirit of the nobility, while it destroyed morals. It is not, however, to be forgot- ten, that die expulsion of the Huguenots from France also promoted the diffusion of the French language and manners. The great art of pleasing was the soul of all the other arts in France ; it even opened to science itself the avenue to the circles of the polished classes. Pascal, who wrote with vigor and delicacy, the sublime Bos- suet, and Fenelon, splendid in his humili- ty, the great Comeille, who boldly took his flight above the surrounding barba- rism, the unique Moliere, the inimitable Fontaine, and the calm thinker and spirit- ed satirist, Boileau, the friend of the clas- sical Racine, kindled the blaze of light and philosophy in France. " Their elec- trical shock roused," as John von Muller expresses himself," the north from the mo- notonous studies of its universities." The fine arts were not neglected. Of Lebrun's epoch of art under Louis XIV, we are reminded by 34 paintings by this master in the museum of the Louvre. The Flemish school, particularly Teniers, did not please the king. Lesueur, Poussin and Mignard were the ornaments of the French school. Girardon was distin- guished among the sculptors. Lenotre laid out the splendid gardens of Versailles; Perrault built the colonnade of the Lou- vre, Hardouin Mansard the dome of the invalids. Lulli was thte creator of French music. A large proportion of the great monuments of France, which excite the astonishment of the traveller, had their origin in the reign of Louis. He con- structed the wonderful harbors, ship- yards and fortifications at Brest, Rochefort, L'Orient, Havre, Dunkirk, Cette and Tou- lon. At his bidding, the canal of Langue- doc united the Mediterranean with the ocean.—See Voltaire's Siccle de Louis XIV, the duke de St Simon's (Euvres compldes pour servir it I'Histoire des Cows de Ijouis XIV, de la Rigence et de Louis XV; and the Memoires de Dangeav, as well those published by madame de Gen- lis, as those published by Lemoncey (Par- is, 1818), in his Essai sur VEtdblissement monarchique de Louis XIV; the (Euvres de Louis XIV (vol. i—vi, Paris, 1806), published by the diplomatist Grouvelle and the count Grimoard, and the Con- siderations sur Louis XIV, by Grouvelle, contained in this selection, which, al- though too favorable, are an excellent in- troduction to the history of this monarch. The Instructions pour le Dauphin, of 1661—1668, comprised in that work, are supposed to have been taken down by Pelisson, from the mouth of the king. But Louis himself did not practise his precepts. Thus he warns the dauphin to beware of the influence of favorites, and still more of the love of the female sex, which tends to divert the mind from busi- ness. These writings, besides other his- torical matter, contain information respect- ing the system of corruption practised by Louis XIV, even at German courts, e. g at Berlin. The Mimoires and Pikes mi- lilaires, which constitute the third and fourth volumes of the work, relate to the campaigns of 1672—1678, and that of 1692. In Grimoard's preface, they are said to be not unimportant for the history of die war. The letters of Louis, in the two last volumes of this work, are mostly of little consequence. The politeness and dignity with which this proud king writes to his ministers and generals are remark- LOUIS XIV. 97 able. This delicate tone was then gen- eral, and gave to language and maimers that agreeable refinement which made Paris so attractive. Political Occurrences during this Reign. The most splendid period of the reign of Louis XIV extended from the peace of the Pyrenees, concluded by Mazarin, in 1659, to the death of the great Colbert, in 1683. That peace, however, lasted only till 1065, when Louis, on the death of his father-in- law, Philip IV, king of Spain, laid claim to the Spanish Netherlands, by virtue of the right of devolution, as it was called (which was a private law in part of the Netherlands, but could by no means be considered the rule of succession to the government of these states). Holland, therefore, concluded, in 1608, a triple alli- ance witb England and Sweden, for the preservation of the Netherlands, of which alliance, although Louis was victorious in two campaigns, the peace of Aix-la-Cha- pelle was the result. Louis retained, in- deed, the conquered places in the Nether- lands, but was compelled to abandon his intentions on the country at large, and, as he attributed this to the triple alliance, he resolved on a retaliatory war against; Hol- land, having previously succeeded in sep- arating England and Sweden from their connexion with the vpublie, and uniting them with himself. This war, undertaken without regard to the commerce of France, to which it was veiy detrimental, and iu which Spain, the German emperor and Brandenburg also engaged against France, continued from 1672 till the peace of Nimegucu, concluded 1678 and 1679, in which Holland lost nothing, while Louis XIV received from Spain, Burgundy (the Franche Comte), whicli the king of Spain had previously held, as an appurtenance to the circle of Burgundy, under the sove- reignty of the German empire, and 16 places in the Netherlands. Louis lost, in this war, his two greatest generals, Tu- rennc and Conde. ; the former fell at Sas- bach, in 1675; the latter retired in 1676, on account of his feeble health. Louis, however, still had Catinat, Crequi, Lux- embourg, Schomburg and Vauban. After the peace of Niineguen, it would have been politic for Louis to have ceased pros- ecuting, for a while, his plans of aggran- dizement ; but he renewed, immediately after, the riunions, as they were called. In the three treaties of peace, a number of places, with all their appurtenances, had been ceded to France, though it had not been decided what really did pertain to them. Louis, therefore, established, in vol. viii. 9 1680, chambers of riunions at Metz and Brisach, whose office it was to accord him, under the form of right, every thing that could be considered in any way as be- longing to those places. France, in this manner, acquired large districts on the bor- ders of the Netherlands and of Germany. Louis would also gladly have obtained Strasburg, but, as even the chambers of riunions could start no formal claim to it, this important place was quietly surround- ed by soldiers, and compelled to surren- der, in 1681, without a blow. Spain and the German empire protested against this act, but both found it expedient, in 1684, to enter into a 20 years' truce with Louis XIV, by which this monarch obtained, for that time, besides Strasburg, all the places reunited prior to August 1, 1681. Meanwhile, Colbert had died, in 1683. From this time, France declined with the same rapidity that it had risen under his administration. The first blow it receiv- ed, was the revocation of the edict of Nantes, October 22, 1685, after several years' oppressions of the Protestant party, by which measure the kingdom lost 700,000 of its most valuable subjects. To this measure the king was led by the united exertions of the two parties of the court, iu other respects opposed to each other—the parties of the minister Louvois and of Maintenon, who cooperated with the generally benevolent confessor of the king, Lachaise. Colbert, to his death, had opposed the adoption of violent measures, which might induce the Protestants to emigrate. France was, soon after, involved in a new war. Several circumstances gave Louis XIV and Louvois opportunity, in spite of the 20 years' truce, to enter the field anew. The war, which Louis now waged from 1688 to 1697, against Germany, Holland, Spain, Savoy and England, was terminated by the peace of Ryswick, in which Louis resigned all the riunions, and, in addition, ceded to Ger- many, Brisach, Friburg, Kehl and Phil- ipsburg, besides all the smaller fortresses erected by France on the German side of the Rhine. Although, throughout the war, Louis was conqueror rather than conquered, he was bent on peace. The exhaustion of his kingdom, and especially the fear that a continuance of the war might frustrate his views on the Spanish succession, compelled him to yield. The death of Charles II, king of Spain, to which Louis had long looked forward, took place at the end of 1700. Louis had already concluded treaties of partition, with respect to the Spanish succession, 98 LOUIS XIV—LOUIS XV. with England and Holland; but Charles II, by a secret testament, had designated the grandson of Louis, Philip of Anjou, as heir of the whole monarchy, to the disadvantage of the house of Austria, in which the inheritance was legitimately vested. On the enforcement of this tes- tament Louis insisted, after the death of Charles, and was thus involved in the Spanish war of succession, 1702—13, which he precipitated by acknowledging the English pretender (son of James II), in violation of the peace of Ryswick. The finances of Louis were in great dis- order ; he had also lost many of his great men in the cabinet and fieid; while, on the other hand, his numerous enemies— England, Holland, the emperor and the German empire, Prussia, Portugal and Spain—could oppose to him two of the greatest generals—Eugene and Marlbor- ough. France suffered greatly by this war, which was terminated by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, and those of Rastadt and Baden, in 1714, brought about by the concurrence of several circumstances fa- vorable to France, especially by the change that took place in the political system of England, in 1710, after Louis had several times proffered peace, without success, on account of the hard terms insisted on by his enemies. Louis made, indeed, some concessions to England, Holland and Sa- voy, but saw his grandson acknowledged as king of Spain, under the name of Philip V. This, however, was connected with the condition of* a renunciation, which should prevent the possibility of any future union of the Spanish and French crowns. The internal prosperity of the kingdom was totally ruined by this war, of which the expenses, in the year 1712 alone, amounted to 825,000,000 livres. The great army which he kept on foot, was what chiefly excited and nour- ished in Louis the love of conquest He maintained a larger standing army than any other prince of his time. It rose from 140 to 300,000 men. Respecting the policy of Louis XIV, the following is the language of Flassan:—" The cabinet of Louis XIV, notwithstanding the diversity of talents of his ministers, exhibits, in its most important negotiations with for- eign powers, almost always the same character of lofty pretension. The spirit of his policy may be clearly seen in the manner in which he insisted on interpret- ing the treaties of Munster, of the Pyre- nees, and of Nimeguen, and the renuncia- tion of queen Maria Theresa. The means of imparting validity to such arbitrary ex- planations, were, force of arms, artful di- plomacy, expert spies, and corruption. The king expended great sums in secur- ing the favor of sovereigns—Charles II, for example, of England—their ministers and mistresses. Against his enemies, he employed, even in times of war, clandes- tine popular excitements ; he encouraged the commotions in Catalonia, Sicily, Eng- land, Portugal and Hungary. More than any king before him, he enlarged the boundaries of the kingdom, especially towards the north ; by which means, he secured the capital against the accitlents of war. Till the battle of La Hogue, May 29, 1692, in which the combined English and Dutch fleet, under admiral Russel, overcame the French admiral Tourville, he maintained the balance of power on the ocean, and made his flag respected by the natives of Barbary and by the most powerful maritime states. On the continent, he held a decided predomi- nance till the peace of Nimeguen, so that he had no reason to fear any coalition of the other powers. To this his connexion with Sweden and some of the small Ger- man principalities mainly contributed. He subsecpiently fell somewhat from this high elevation, but continued to be the first sovereign of Europe, even after his defeats in the Spanish war of succession; for, after he hatl severed the league form- ed against him by the peace with Eng- land, neither Austria nor the German em- pire could long offer resistance." To this foreign policy, favored by the weakness and political errors of his neighbors, was added an arbitrary internal administration. The system of police, organized by D'Ar- gensou, in the last years of the reign of Louis, was, in its effects, as formidable as an inquisition. Louis XV, the great grandson of Louis XIV, and son of that excellent tluke of Burgundy (q. v.),,who was educated by Fenelon, was born February 15, 1710, commenced his reign in 17i5, and died May 10,1774. He married, in 1725, Ma- ria, the daughter of Stanislaus Leczyn- ski (she died in 1768). The History of Louis XV, by Antoine Fantin Desodoards (Paris, year VI, 3 vols.), and the Age of Louis XV, bv Amoux Laffrey, pub- lished by Maton (Paris, 1796, 2 vols.), do not correspond to what might be expect- ed from French writers, after Voltaire's work on the reign of this king. The memoirs of Duclos, St Simon and others, the History of France in the 18th cen- tury, by Lacretelle (Paris, 1811, 6 vols.), and the well known work La Vie privie LOUIS XV. 99 de Louis XV (4 vols.), contain important materials for the history of this unworthy and degraded king, who, by his licen- tiousness, bigotry, prodigality and despot- ism, rendered the evils of the state incu- rable. The tige which educated and cor- rupted him, and on whicli he and his court reacted in a not less injurious manner, explains not only the origin, but also the spirit and malignity of the revolution. A great part, however, of this fault, falls on the regency, administered by Philip, duke of Orleans, and the cardinal Dubois, till 1723. (See Orleans, Philip of.) The in- fluence of the age of Louis XlV on the religious and political notions of the cul- tivated classes, and especially the increas- ing power of public opinion in France during the reign of Louis XV, are con- spicuous. The characteristic of tbe age of Louis XV, consists in the intellectual developement of the nation, in the splen- dor and boldness of new philosophic views, whicli had so strong an influence on society. From them proceeded a fearful separation of reason from mo- rality, of the passions from rectitude, and of enlightened ideas from the forms of state and church. The immoderate love of pleasure, which, from die higher, de- scended into the lower classes, and was de- fended or excused by the philosophy of the day, was united with an avaricious selfish- ness,which was awakened by the rash finan- cial schemes of Law and the regent, and connected with fraud,despair,and the bank- ruptcy of 500,000 citizens. From this love of pleasure and selfishness, proceeded most of the faults and vices of the contempo- raries of Louis XV. The moral infection spread farther and farther, and ate deeper and deeper into the roots of public spirit ami every civil virtue. Louis XlV left his great grandson and successor with the words, " I have, against my inclination, imposed great burdens on my subjects ; but have been compelled to do it by the long wars which 1 have been obliged to maintain. Love peace, and undertake no war, except when the good of the state and the welfare of your people render it necessary." A much deeper impression should have been made on the mind of the royal child, by the conduct of the people who accompanied the hearse of the king with insults and the grossest expressions of joy. But what an idea must the boy of six years have formed from the lit de justice (the strongest exer- tion of despotism), heltl by the regent, to confirm his regeiuy! How different were the views of his father, the noble duke of Burgundy, who intended, in case he as- cended the throne, to restore to the people their lost rights! In his 7th year, Louis was first placed under the care of men. But his tutor, the marshal Villeroi, was no Montausier, Beauvilliers or Fenelon. On one occasion, when Louis had recovered from a violent sickness, his subjects mani- fested their satisfaction by repeated re- joicings. The court and gardens of the Tuileries were full of men. Villeroi car- ried the king from one window to anoth- er. " See them, my king ! your people : all this people belongs to you ; all that you see is your property ; you are lord and master of it." The instructer of the young king,lhc prudent and modest Fleury, won the confidence of his pupil in a no- ble manner. A third, who had, however, less influence on the young king, was his confessor, the Jesuit Liniercs. The car- dinal Dubois had effected his appointment to this important office against Flcury's wish and the advice of cardinal Noailles. Fleury, however, acquired the entire con- fidence of Louis, who, after the death of the regent, in 1724, by the advice of his instructer, appointed the duke of Bour- bon chief minister of stale, who could undertake nothing, however, without the knowledge and consent of the prelate, then 73 years old. Till now, the king, who entered upon the government him- self iu 1723, but had hitherto intrusted the management of affairs to the former regent, as first minister of state, had shown no will of his own. A Spanish princess of six years had been destined for his wife, and had been subsequently sent back to her parents; the marshal Villeroi had becn'banished from the court, and the king had married Maria Leczyn- ski, the daughter of Stanislaus, the tie- throned king of Poland, indifferent and submissive in all these proceedings. But when the party of the duke attempted to get rid of the prelate, and the offended Fleury had retired to his country seat, the king insisted on his return with such firm- ness, that the duke found himself obliged to apply to the prelate, and solicit his re- turn. Soon after, in 1726, Fleury was placed at the head of the administration. He declined the title of first minister, but was, in fact, such till his death, in 1743. His habit of dissimulation extended it- self to the king, in whose private life a great change now took place, probably favored by Fleury himself. The noble germ which his application and some generous expressions had manifested, was stifled in sensual pleasures and the luxury 100 LOUIS XV. of a court life. The peaceful Fleury, who endeavored to restore order and economy, now gave the enervated mon- archy a seven years' tranquillity ; but he was not sufficiently enlightened to -com- pose the controversy respecting the bull Unigenitus. He soon saw himself, con- trary to his will, involved in a war. After the death of Augustus II, king of Poland, in 1733, Louis wished to see his father-in- law chosen successor of Augustus, and declared that the freedom of election should be interrupted by no foreign pow- er ; but the emperor Cliarles VI, having concluded an alliance with the elector of Saxony, and supported his election as king of Poland, Louis's plan was frus- trated, and a war broke out After two campaigns, France acquired for Stanis- laus, who had fled from Dantzic in dan- ger of his life, the possession of the duchy of Lorraine, by the preliminaries of Vi- enna, in 1735. After the death of Charles VI, in 1740, the project of marshal Belle- isle, to dismember the Austrian hereditary states, plunged the aged cardinal into a war, the success of which was frustrated by the parsimony of the minister, then 85 years old. The French armies fought on the side of the elector of Bavaria, who laid claim to the whole Austrian mon- archy. England was on the side of Ma- ria Theresa. The conquest of Bohemia was not accomplished ; scarcely could Maillebois, Belleisle and Broglio effect the retreat of the wreck of the defeated army from Bohemia and Bavaria, over the Rhine. Still greater were the losses of France by sea ; for Fleury had neg- lected the marine. After his de'ath, in 1743, the victories of count Maurice of Saxony (see Maurice) gave new splendor to the French arms ; and, by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, France regained her lost colonies. But the state was, more than ever, exhausted by an unjust and im- politic war. Louis had himself taken a part in several campaigns, and, when he was attacked at Metz by a severe mala- dy, received the appellation of the well- beloved (le bien-aimi). The affection felt for him by the French exceeded his de- serts ; for Louis became, from this time, more and more unworthy of the public respect, sinking into the grossest indo- lence and sensuality, and abandoning the management of state affairs to the mar- chioness of Pompadour. (See Pompadour.) She was, in reality, the ruler, the monarch being absorbed in his orgies, or childish amusements and despotic fears. He showed himself, without dignity, the sport of petty passions, and the instru- ment of external influences. The nation, on which so powerless a government could have no effect, followed entirely its restless caprices. Contents of public opinion, bold hopes and new systems, amused and engaged all classes of so- ciety. Livery one longed for a new and better state ; obedience became more and more lax, the wish of change more de- cided ; a few steps more would lead to in- surrection. The sensuality of the king put him entirely in the power of the am- bitious Pompadour. While she made him lead the shameless life of an Eastern monarch, she sacrificed, according to the caprice of the moment, the honor, wealth, and the prosperity of the state, to those who were able to gain access to her by their attractive qualities. She accustomed the king to the acquits de comptant, or warrants for payment, which exhausted the treasury, and introduced confusion into the accounts. The cost of the parc- aux-cerfs, as it was called,—the most abom- inable instrument of the king's voluptu- ousness,—was defrayed by such acquits, which, according to Lacretelle, amount- ed, eventually, to 100,000,000fr. Lou- is also loved to play deep, and a\>- propriated, for this purpose, a private chest, the losses of which he supplied from the public chest. Those who lost to him were indemnified by lucrative pub- lic offices. In order to increase this fund, he engaged in stock-jobbing and in specu- lations in grain. The rise and fall of the stocks, and the price of corn, interested him in a manner entirely unbecoming a king. He appropriated a capital of ten millions, from his private treasury, to this disgrace- ful traffic, and even allowed the name of M. Mielavand to be introduced into the state almanac of 1774, among the offi- cers of finances, as trisorier des grains pour le compte de S. M. To relieve his ennui, he printed several books, and was even pleased with the celebrated physio- cratical system of his physician Quesnay. He called him his thinker (penseur), lis- tened with satisfaction when he censured the policy of his ministers, but never troubled himself about the application of his ideas. Towards women he conduct- ed, in public, with the courteousness of a French chevalier, mingled in their petty quarrels, and played the part of a confi- dant He was inquisitive about the in- trigues of all the courts of Europe, and, to inform himself respecting them, main- tained secret agents, of which his minis- ters, in many cases, knew nothing. The LOUIS XV. 101 dignified, manly conduct of the dauphin, die virtues of the dauphiness, made no permanent impression on him. He some- times, however, seemed to feel remorse, especially after the death of the queen. But he soon sought and found solace in his old pleasures. From the year 1769, he was governed by Du Barry (see Barry), who is said to have cost the royal treasu- ry, in five years, 180 million livres. As Louis became older, his bigotry and apa- thy increased, while he sank deeper in sensuality. His secret debaucheries dis- honored innocence, and poisoned the do- mestic happiness of his subjects. The public contempt was expressed in satires, caricatures and songs, to which the people had already become accustomed under the regency. The hatred of the people gave credence to the most exaggerated ac- cusations, and Louis, from fear and aver- sion, withdrew himself from the public eye. With this carelessness and apathy of the king, the French levity increased continually; every one was engaged with trifles and selfish plans ; the most impor- tant affairs of state, on the contrary, were neglected. France, at the same time, saw itself involved, in 1754, in a maritime war with England, on account of the forts on the Ohio, and, as if this contest was of no importance, rashly took the side of Austria against Prussia, in 1756. The shrewd Kaunitz had gained the favor of the vain Pompadour, who was offended by the sarcasms of Frederic II. By her influence, the duke de Choiseul (q. v.) was appointed first minister, in the stead of the abbe Bernis, and, May 1, 1756, a new alliance was concluded with Austria, at Versailles, which was unique in histoiy. The French suffered great losses by sea and land; even their military reputation bad declined since the battle of Rossbach, Nov. 5, 1757; and, after seven unhappy years, they had reason to congratulate themselves, when Choiseul concluded a peace with England at Fontaiuebleau, in 1762, and the definitive treaty was settled at Paris, in 1763, although France had to relinquish to England, Canada, as far as the Mississippi, Cape Breton and the islands Grenada, Tobago, St. Vincent and Dominica, together with Minorca. Louis remained indifferent to all these events. The first time that he saw marshal Riche- lieu after the conquest of Mahon, in 1756, he turned to that general, who was adored by the whole nation, with the question, " How did you like the Minorca figs ?" The famousfamily compact of the Bour- bons, by which Choiseul hoped, in the 9* course of the war (1761), to unite forever the policy of Spain, Sicily and Parma with the French interest, was of no great benefit to France. After the war, Choi- seul's ministry was marked by several (often violent) reforms; especially by the expulsion of the Jesuits from France, in 1764, and by the acquisition of Corsica, in 1769. Shortly after, Mme. du Barry, in connexion with the chancellor, Maupeou, effected the overthrow of the duke De Choiseul, and elevated to his post the duke of Aiguillon. The quarrel of the latter with the parliament at Renncs, which had written against him in a vio- lent tone, as former governor of Bretagne, and the refractoriness of all the parlia- ments, especially with respect to the new oppressive financial edicts, induced the king, in 1771, to banish the members of the parliament from Paris, and, soon after, to abolish the parliaments entirely, which were first reestablished under Louis XVI, in 1774, with certain limitations. The notorious edict which the chancellor Maupeou then issued, called the king the sole and supreme legislator of his king- dom, who permitted parliament, indeed, to protest against a new law, but, after two considerations, might demand uncon- ditional obedience. Thus Maupeou made the absolute will of the monarch a consti- tutional law! A worthy countei-part of Maupeou was the comptroller-general of finances, the abbe Terrai, who impover- ished the country, while he received an income of 1,200,000 livres. In proportion as the king was despised at home, the au- thority of France was lessened abroad. The partition of Poland took place in 1773, without the knowledge of France. After having sunk into a complete nullity, the king, whom no domestic misfortunes, not even his own attempted assassination, in 1757, by a fanatic, Damicns (see Da- miens), nor the public misery, cotdd restore to consciousness, died of the small pox, caught of a young girl, by whom the countess Du Barry wished to dispel his melancholy, leaving a debt of 4,000,000,000 livres. Age of Louis XV.—In proportion tis the reign of Louis was weak and per- nicious to the state, the spirit of the nation rose, awakened by the times of Louis XIV, and by distinguished men in the arts and sciences. In Paris, public insti- tutions arose ; palaces and churches were built (for example, the church of St. Genevieve, by Soufflot, &c.); the military school of Paris, and the Champs EUsies, were laid out in 1751, by the minister of 102 LOUIS XV. war, count D'Argenson ; the intendant, Trudaine, prosecuted, with success, the construction of roads. The commerce of Lyons and Bordeaux adorned these cities with regal splendor. Stanislaus Leczynski, who died in 1776, restored the public prosperity in Lorraine, and Pigal executed a splendid monument, which was erected in Strasburg, to the marshal Saxe, who died in 1750. Of the numerous paint- ers of this period, the best were Lemoine and V'ernet But taste degenerated under the influence of a voluptuous court, and art paid homage to luxury. It delighted in empty show, but, at the same time, car- ried manufactures to perfection. The inge- nious Vaucanson applied his talents to the improvement of the Gobelin manufactory. (See Gobelin.) Louis XV himself took an interest in the porcelain manufactory established at Sevres, by the advice of madame de Pompadour. At the same time, he is said to have suppressed, from humanity, a means of destruction, which would have been more formidable than the Greek fire; but this is not historically proved. Enterprising and intelligent men, like La Bourdonnaye, the founder of the colonies of the Isle de France and Bour- bon, and even his calumniator, Dupleix, extended the commerce of France. Lou- isiana, Canada, especially St. Domingo and the Lesser Antilles, the colony on die Senegal, and the ports of the Levant, em- ployed the Frencli activity, and enriclied the maritime cities. But, by the unjust measures of La Bourdonnaye, the state de- prived itself of the advantages acquired in the East Indies over England ; and, while France lost Canada and several islands by the maimer in which it carried on the war (from 1756—(32), it promoted the British power in India. The third estate, however, gradually acquired, by its wealth and intellectual advancement, consequence and influence. Public opinion assumed, in the age of Louis XV, the character of levity, frivolity and boldness, which was afterwards so strongly developed in tin; revolution. Striking events, such as the trial of the unfortunate John Calas (q. v.), and the execution of the young chevalier De Labarre (q. v.), for sacrilege, brought new opinions into general circulation. But the evil genius of France willed that the de- cline of morals and religion, contemporary with the abuses of arbitrary power, with prevalent prejudices and the oppressions of the priesthood, should change the light of truth, just springing up iu France, into a desU-oying fire, and the defensive weapon of knowledge into a two-edged sword; that the egotism of sensuality should gam possession of the territory of reason, and that brilliant wit should be more esteemed than a serious purpose and a solid charac- ter. This unhappy concurrence of the public misery with sensual licentiousness, stifled those improved views, and that scientific cultivation, whicli Montesquieu and others, to whom France was indebt- ed for its intellectual influence on the higher classes of society, in a great part of Europe, exerted themselves to dissemi- nate. The ignorant, stupified Louis had an abhorrence of all intellectual cultiva- tion. He feared talented writers, and fre- quently said of them, that they would be the cause of ruin to the monarchy. He, nevertheless, followed, in the first part of his reign, the advice of cardinal Fleury, who highly esteemed the sciences, and subsequently yielded to the opinion of the court, and especially of Pompadour, who took a pleasure in being denominated the patron of genius, and a judge of the excellent. The most powerful and per- manent influence on the spirit of the na- tion was exerted by Voltaire, who com- menced his splendid career, in 1716, with the tragedy of (Edipus. Louis had an aversion to him, but the marchioness in- duced him to appoint Voltaire his histori- ographer and groom of the chambers. Meanwhile, the preference visibly mani- fested by the court towards the poet Cre- billon, inspired the author of the Henriade with a disgust at residing in Paris. Si- multaneously with him, the immortal Montesquieu awoke the powers of reflec- tion and of wit in the nation. His Lettres Persannes (1721) kindled the spirit of public criticism, and his work Sur les Causes de la Grandeur et de la Dicadence des Romains (1734), like his EsprU des Lois . (1734), became a classic manual for the study of politics. About this time, the interest universally felt in scientific sub- jects, induced cardinal Fleury and count Maurepas to persuade the king to ascer- tain the truth of Newton's opinion re- specting the form of the earth by the measurement of a degree in a high north- ern latitude and under the equator, which was undertaken in 1735 and 1736, and to patronize Cassini's map of France. After 1749, J. J. Rousseau, Diderot, D'Alem- bcrt, Duclos, Condillac and Helvetius are found in the ranks of the great writers of France. The greatest agitation in public opinion was caused by the Dictionnaire Encyclopedique of Diderot and D'Alem- bert, against which the clergy, particular- ly the Jesuits, and the ministers, rose en LOUIS XV-*LOUIS XVI. 103 masse. No less attention was excited by the work of Hclvetius, De VEsprit. Even the ladies took a very active part in tbe contest of philosophy. Bureaux d'esprit were formed, and from the philosophical circles at the houses of the baron of Ilol- bach and Helvetius, there proceeded sev- eral works in support of materialism and atheism, especially from 1758 to 1770. Tin; most famous of them is the Systeme de la Nature, of whicli the baron of Hol- bach is regarded as the author. Religion was shamelessly assailed by La Mettrie, D'Argens, the abbe de Prades, who, l>an- ished from France, sought refuge with Frederic II, but whose opinions found reception in France. Condemnation by the Sorbonne only excited opposition, and the boldness of the age loved to defend rash and splendid errors, if they afforded opportunity for the exhibition of acuteness. No work was more destructive of public morals than Voltaire's Pucellc—a talented poem, which the licentious spirit of the times of the regency alone coukl have inspired. But better men, such as Tur- got and Malesherbes, labored, not without the approbation of the better part of the public, to counteract this pestilence, and saved the honor of sound reason. Such a production is Duclos's Considirations sur les Moeurs, of which Louis XV him- self said, " It is the work of a man of honor." Thomas, Marmontel and Laharpe remonstrated loudly against atheism. Vol- taire's wit was particularly directed against the Christian religion, after the duke de Choiseul, in order to nave all the voices against the Jesuits for himself, undertook the protection of the philosophers and of the author of the Didionnaire PhUoso- phique (Voltaire). Rousseau roused the most violent anger of the antiphilosophers, by his Emilie. Jesuits and Jansenists united against him, and, notwithstanding the general admiration which he received, he was obliged to leave France. Such was the revolutionary spirit of the age of Louis XV. The contempt for the court and royalty produced by his reign, the ex- haustion of the state caused by his extrav- agance, the rise of a critical and liberal spi- rit, and the corruption of state and church, gave birth to the revolution, and the de- based state of the public morals, poisoned by the example of the court, stained it with hideous excesses. Louis XVI, who was destined to as- cend the throne of France on the eve of a great political convulsion, and to atone with his life for the faults and follies of his predecessors, was the grandson of Louis XV, and the second son of the dauphin, by his second wife, Maria Josephine, daughter of Frederic Augustus, king of Poland and elector of Saxony. Louis was born Aug. 22, 1754, and, in H 70, married Marie Antoinette of Austria. The countess Marsan, governess of the royal ' family, had a large share in his education, and even after he became king, Louis lis- tened to her representations, of which the abbe Georgcl relates a remarkable in- stance in his memoirs. With the best intentions, but entirely inexperienced in iriatters of government, this unfortunate prince ascended the throne in 1774, at the age of hardly 20 years. He modestlv declined the title of le Desiri, given him by the nation, which he excused from the tax usual on the occasion. After the death of the Dauphin, in 1765, his grand- father had intentionally kept him from acquiring the knowledge connected with his destination ; and the countess Du Barry sought to revenge herself for the contempt exhibited towards her by the serious. strictly moral prince, who dearly loved his wife, whom she hated, by making him ridiculous in the eyes of the king. The ministers, also, secretly spread the opinion that the prince was severe, and far re- moved from the indulgent kindness of his grandfather. He was retiring, silent and reserved, and did not dare to express his benevolent feelings. His reserve passed for distrust He felt himself a stranger at a court where he was surrounded by vice under a thousand glittering forms. As he heeded not flattery, he was indifferent to the courtiers. The duke Choiseul there- fore said, that, on the most desirable throne of the world, he was the only king who not only had no flatterers, but who never experienced the least, justice from the world. In his countenance, which was not destitute of dignity, were delineated the prominent features of bis character— integrity, indecision and weakness. He was injured, however, by a certain stiff- ness of demeanor, repulsive to the commu- nications of friendship. His manners had nothing of the grace possessed by almost all the princes of the blood. In confiden- tial intercourse alone, he frequently ex- pressed himself sensibly and ingeniously, but blushed if his observations were re- peated. Facility of comprehension, in- dustry, and an extraordinary memory, made him successful in his studies; but, unhappily, they had no immediate rela- tion to the duties and knowledge of a prince. He employed himself too assidu- ously in unimportant particulars. Thus he 104 LOUIS XVI. printed, when dauphin, in 1766, 35 copies of Maximes morales et politiques, tiries de Telimaque, imprimies par Louis-Auguste, Dauphin. Versailles, de Vimprimerie de Monseigneur le Dauphin. He had him- self collected these maxims from Fene- lon's work. He was familiar with geo- graphical and chronological details; but the practical lessons which kings should derive from history, were unknown to him, although, while dauphin, he had read several good historical works. A translation, by him, of some parts of Gib- bon's History, appeared under the name of Le Clerc de Sept Chenes, his reader. Upright, pious and indulgent, he was philanthropically disposed, both towards his nation and towards individuals. The virtues of his father, the quiet, domestic life of his mother, had deeply impressed upon him a moral, religious feeling. But his example was destined to show how insufficient, on a throne, are the virtues of a private man. He chose count Mau- repas his minister of state, a man of talent and experience, but of little solidity of character, and desirous of shining in epi- grams. In the room of the infamous abbe Terrai, he committed the financial department to the enlightened, able and upright Turgot, who resolved to remedy the abuses of die state by thorough re- forms on strict philosophical, and, in some degree, physiocratical principles, and looked upon the privileged orders as the sources of all evil. But the friends of ancient abuses, the high nobility, the court, and the clergy, immediately formed a combination against him. When the parliaments were restored, by the influ- ence of Maurepas, against the judgment of Turgot, the contest of opinion, between old and new views, more than ever em- barrassed the government The count of Vergennes was at the head of foreign affairs; count Muy was minister of war ; and Sartine, of the marine. The new theories, which Turgot proposed in the council of state, had, indeed, the approba- tion of the philosophers: even the tal- ented men and women, whom madame Helvetius, madame Geoffrin, mile. Espi- nasse, the princess of Beauveau, and the duchess D'Anville, collected around them, took a lively interest in Turgot's liberal plans, which were loudly praised by Jo- seph II and Leopold; but his opponents found a support for their resistance in the old parliaments. *The most oppressive feudal services, arbitrary exactions, slave- ry in the mountains of Jura, and the rack, were abolished, and many useful regula- tions established; but Turgot could not overcome the king's dread of an open struggle with the clergy, the nobility and parliament These bodies united against the minister, and the people, which was ou his side, could not, without representa- tives, afford any assistance against such a league. The foes of the minister stirred up the populace, and, on occasion of an edict declaring the corn-trade free, scenes occurred resembling those which subse- quently marked the revolution. The timid and inexperienced Louis believed himself hated by the nation, and was in- dulgent towards the seditious; filially, by the advice of Turgot and Muy, he acted with vigor, and the disturbances, called, in Paris, la guerre desfarines, were quieted after the amnesty of May 17, 1775. The coronation of the king, 11th June, 1775, was followed by the appointment of the virtuous Malesherbes as minister. He was the friend of Turgot. Their united influence might, perhaps, have done much towards reforming the old abuses, but, unhappily, the new minister of war, the count of St Germain, was too violent in his innovations. The corps that were disbanded or diminished, and the offended military nobility, loudly expressed then* dissatisfaction at the system of innovation, which was disliked, moreover, by the higher classes. "The state will perish," was the general cry, and the parliament refused to register five edicts of the king. Louis resolved, indeed, to maintain his authority, by a IU de justice, March 12, 1776 ; but the queen, a princess who was equally superior to her husband in vivacity of understanding and in wit, and loved splendor and pleasure, supported the op- position together with Maurepas, who was Turgot's secret enemy. Her the king could not resist. He hesitated : the deficit produced by the payment of debts and the expenses of the coronation, in 1775, in- spired him with distrust of Turgot's phil- osophical views. Malesherbes gave in his resignation. Turgot was obliged to follow his example. The privileged party was victorious, but the hatred of the third estate, and the desire of all enlightened and well-disposed persons for a thorough reform, was increased. They did not wish to overthrow the whole system, until the North American revolution threw a firebrand into this inflammable mass. The day on whicli Louis concluded the treaty with the U. States, Feb. 6, 1778, decided his fate ; for the war to which it gave rise, from 1778 to 1782, and which cost France, according to Audouin, 1,400,000,000 livres, LOUIS XVI. 105 accustomed the nation and army to re- publican ideas, and produced a cureless deficit; this, a meeting of the states-gen- eral; and this, the fall of the monarch and monarchy. Louis himself was averse to engaging in this war; but he was out- voted in the council of state, the ministers hoping to establish French commerce on the overthrow of the English. After Tur- got's removal, the extravagance of the court increased: while Louis refused him- self any great expenditures ho yielded too easily to the tastes of the queen and the princes of the blood. Luxury antl splen- dor made the expenses of the court very great: they played high ; they built; they exhibited races; they gratified eveiy whim; and Louis's dissatisfaction, which often withdrew him from these entertain- ments, was regarded as the indication of an ordinary mind. The regularity of his manner of life, in which study and do- mestic pleasures were intermingled with business, made no impression on the gay spendthrifts. Louis did not possess the art of inspiring the court and princes with respect He paid the debts of count Artois. The queen, also, gave herself up to her love of gayety. Taste and love of the arts, clothed in all the humors of the fashion, reigned in the festivals of Versailles and Petit Trianon. Maurepas either did not see whither all this must lead, or, with his characteristic .levity, yielded to necessity. Pleasure was his element. He remained the directing min- ister till his death, Nov. 21, 1781, sharing the confidence of the king with the tal- ented queen, and with every one who could deceive the monarch under the ap- pearance of zeal for the common welfare. The changes in the ministry of the fi- nances, which was committed, in turn, to Clugny, Taboureau, Necker, Joly de Fleu- ry, and D'Ormesson, increased the confu- sion. The existence of great abuses was notorious; but the extirpation of their deep-rooted causes was impossible. The dismissal of Nccker, who had become an object of great dislike by his vain compte rendu, was considered as a public mis- fortune by the third estate, whose favor Necker exerted himself to acquire. Thus, long before the revolution, a real anarchy prevailed in public opinion, which pene- trated even to the council of state. After the peace of Versailles, in 1783, which brought some advantages,—not, however, sufficient to repay the expense incurred,— the frivolous Calonne, liberal in promises, few of which were redeemed, was ap- pointed minister of finance. In foreign affairs, for example, in the dispute about the Scheldt, Vergennes maintained, though not without sacrifice of money, the honor of the French crown ; but the commercial treaty of 17mJ, with England, was deemed the greatest error of his administration, although it was a consequence of the peace of Versailles, fie was also blamed for having rejected the closer connexion proffered by Joseph II, and for thus causing the approximation of Austria to Russia. The king himself betrayed weak- ness in dismissing the minister before the accomplishment of his plans, which he had at first approved. It is said that he sometimes spent his leisure hours in the labors of a blacksmith, and this led him to the use of strong liquors. Drinking and working at the furnace had heated his blood, his understanding was weakened, a/id, subsequently, his natural indolence, with his increasing corpulence, destroyed his mental activity, anrl produced a phleg- matic indifference. Yet it is known that Louis took pleasure in literary occupations, antl engaged with fondness in public en- terprises. He framed, with much sagacity, the plan and instructions for Laperouse's voyage round the world, in 1786. Sev- eral passages in those instructions express, in a touching manner, the benevolent feelings of this artless prince. He often la- mented Laperouse's unhappy fate, with the words, "I see very well that 1 am not for- tunate." 1 lis kindness of disposition made him particularly interested for the poorer clergy. He followed, however, the max- im of Louis XV, not to give bishoprics, or rich benefices, to any but nobles. He drew a line of division, equally unjust, and far more pernicious, with respect to the army, in which military rank was con- fined exclusively to the nobility. ' The third estate could not speak out; so much the more bitterly and violently did the populace complain of the court and higher classes, when, in consequence of the infa- mous affair of the necklace, the process against the cardinal prince of Rohan was commenced in 1785. (See Georgel's Memoires, vol. ii.) The libel of the brand- ed countess De la Mothe and her hus- band, disseminated the grossest calumnies against the innocent queen, whicli were but too easily credited by the people. By this means, the throne was disgraced in public opinion ; and the duke of Orleans, the implacable enemy of the queen, was accused of using the infamous La Mothe as the tool of his hatred. In this fermen- tation of public sentiment, Calonne per- suaded the king to convene the notables, 106 LOUIS XVI. in order to find some resources for the exhausted treasury. Unhappily, the count of Vergennes died, Feb. 13, 1787, and, on the 22d February, the king opened the assembly with a speech, which was not favorably received. The deficit, which the comptroller-general had stated at 112,000,000, but whicli was estimated at more than 140,000,000, rendered Calonne's plans suspected. An opposition was formed, and Calonne received his dismis- sal. Parliament refused the imposition of two new taxes, which woukl have been burdensome to the large landed proprie- tors, and demanded the convocation of the estates. The nation heard the proposition with exultation; the court trembled. Louis ventured on a lit de justice; but the parliament declared it void. According to Lacretelle, a calembourg was the spark which kindled the mine that overthrew the throne, while the mass of the nation, excited by opinions and passions, exas- perated by hatred and contempt, reduced to desperation by the sight of multiplied wants, and inspired, by the example of America, with the love of freedom, be- came incapable of restraint or moderation. The king banished the parliament to Troyes. Thus war was declared between the throne and nation. The government, moreover, had acted without dignity in regard to the contest of the Dutch patriots with the hereditary stadtholder, in 1787, and thus entirely lost the respect of the people. The king himself manifested a good nature, bortlering on weakness, to his nearest connexions, who, like the duke De Coigny, consented only with the great- est reluctance to the restrictions of the royal household. A negotiation was final- ly commencetl with the parliament ; it returned ; the measures, on both sides, became more violent; the rebellion broke out in Brittany, in June, 1788; the nobili- ty and the officers of the regiment Vas- signy, then, for the first time, dared to carry arms against the commands of the king. Even the clergy loudly demanded the convocation of the estates. (Respect- ing the pernicious artifices of the royalists, in general, much information is contained in Besenvai's and Molleville's Memoirs.) The weak prime minister, Brienne (see Lominie), opposed in all his projects, re- signed, and Necker entered the council, in 1788, as minister of finances. Louis con- vened a second time the notables, to settle the form of the estates and the manner of voting. May 5, 1789, the states-general met. Amidst the conflicts of the privi- leged orders, and the new opinions, the king remained gentle and timid, deserted and alone. " God forbid," said he to the nobility, who would not unite with the diird estate, "that a single man should perish for my sake." His sole object, which he pursued with earnestness of purpose, was the common weal; but around him every thing vacillated ; how could he show firmness ? The democrats hated him as a king; the emigrants and the aristocrats, who remained in France, deemed him incapable of governing. He himself made the greatest sacrifices to the state, even such as endangered his per- sonal security, for instance, the disbanding of his body guard. He could not, never- theless, escape the most envenomed cal- umny. Among other things, it was re- ported that, by a secret act, he bad pro- tested against every thing, which had been extorted from hi in in limitation of the ancient royal prerogatives. Mean- while, even amid the grossest calumnies, a flattering word was sometimes heard. When Louis XVI attended the nation- al assembly (Feb. 4, 1790), the national guard of Versailles caused a gold med- al to be struck, on whicli was repre- sented a pelican feeding its young with its blood. The device was, Frangais, sous crt cmblime adorez votre roi ! The 12th, 13th and 14th of July, 1789; the night of August 4 ; the horrors of the 5th and 6th of October; the flight of the king, June 21, 1791, intercepted at Varennes, 60 leagues from Paris, when Louis, from his hesitation to use force, prevented the success of Bouille's plan for his escape, and, at the same time, excited public opinion against himself by the declaration which he left behind (see the statement of M. de Valory, in the Minerve, Novem- ber, 1815, and the Memoirs of Bouille and Choiseul); the acceptance of the constitu- tion of Sept. 14, 1791, which declared his person inviolable ; the attack of the popu- lace of Paris on the royal palace, June 20, 1792, when Louis, with equal firmness and dignity, rejected the demands of the insurgents, and, on the 22d, openly de- clared that violence would never induce him to consent to what he considered hurtful to the general welfare ; the catas- trophe of August 10, to which Louis submitted, because he had not the courage to overcome the danger; his arrest in the national assembly, to whicli he had fled for refuge; finally, his trial before the con- vention, where he replied to the charges with dignity and presence of mind;— these were the most important events in the histoiy of the king. (See France, from LOUIS XVI. 107 17B9 to 1814.) He exhibited, under these circumstances, the courage of innocence, and a strength of mind before unknown in him. As a prisoner of the municipality of Paris, in the Temple, he was denied, till shortly before his death, pen, ink and paper. (See the Journal de ce qui s'est passi a la Tour du Temple pendant la Captiviti de Louis XVI, by Clery, the faithful servant of die king; and a work on the same subject by Hue, who followed Louis to the Temple.) His usual employ- ment was instructing his son and reading. I le preferred Latin authors to the French. He read, almost every day, portions of Tacitus, Livy, Seneca, Horace and Ter- ence ; in his native language, chiefly travels. On the evening before his death, he found that he had read 157 volumes, in the five months and seven days of his imprisonment. He evinced himself a loving husband and an affectionate father. In his private capacity, no candid man can with- hold from him his esteem. Jan. 15,1793, Louis was declared guilty of a conspiracy against the freedom of the nation, and of an attack on the general security, by a vote of 690 out of 719 ; on the 17th January, he was condemned to death, the law requiring for condemnation two thirds of the votes, having been repealed on the 16th, during the trial, and a bare majority declared suf- ficient. After repeated countings, it was found that 366 votes were given for death, making, consequently, a majority of 5 in 727. Jan. 21, 1793, he was guillotined, in front of his former palace, in his 39th year, the appeal to the nation, proposed by his advocates, Malesherbes, Tronchet and Desezc, having been rejected, on the 19th, by 380 votes out of 690. He died with the courage of Christian faith. His last words, which asserted his innocence and forgave his judges, were drowned in the rolling of drums and in the cry Vive la ripubhque !—See the Memoirs of the Abbe Edge worth (the priest who prepared him for death), containing his narrative of the last hours of Louis XVI (London, 1816). —Even in his youth, Louis manifested a sensibility unusual in the higher classes. He needed not the sight of misery; when he heard it spoken of, he shed tears, and hastened to relieve it. Unknown, he alle- viated misfortune in the cottage and gar- ret. When he was first saluted at court, as dauphin, after the death of his father, the duke of Burgundy, he could not restrain his tears. Still greater was his grief at the death of Louis XV. " O God," he cried, "shall I have the misfortune to be king!" His favorite maxim was, " Kings exist only to make nations happy by their government, and virtuous by their example." The establishment of the mont de piiti, the caisse cfescompte, the abolition of feudal services, of torture, and of slavery in the Jura, arc only some of his benevolent measures. He caused the state prisons to be examined, and liberated the unhappy victims of despot- ism. Louis declared that he would never sign, beforehand, a letire de cachet His great object was the happiness and love of his people. On his journey to Cher- bourg, in 1786, where he had undertaken the construction of the celebrated harbor, in 1784, to which he had appropriated 37,000,000 livres, he received the most unequivocal marks of the love of the French. He wrote, at the time, to the queen, "The love of my people has touched me to the heart; think you not that I am the happiest king on earth?" And iu his will of Dec. 25, 1792, he save, "I forgive, from my whole heart, those who have conducted towards me as ene- mies, without my giving them the least cause, and I pray God to forgive them. And I exhort my son, if he should ever have the misfortune to reign, to forget all hatred and all enmity, and especially my misfortunes and sufferings. I recom- mend to him always to consider that it is the duty of man to devote himself entirely to the happiness of his fellow men ; that he will promote the happiness of his sub- jects only when he governs according to the laws; and that the king can make the laws respected, and attain his object, only when he possesses the necessary authori- ty." In the same spirit he wrote to Mon- sieur (Louis XVIII): " I submit to Provi- dence and necessity, in laying my inno- cent head on the scaffold. By my death, the burden of the royal dignity devolves upon my son. Be his father, and rule the state so as to transmit it to him tran- quil and prosperous. My desire is, that you assume the title of a regent of the kingdom; my brother, Charles Louis, will take that of lieutenant-general. But less by the force of arms than by the assur- ance of a wise freedom and good laws, restore to my son his dominions, usurped by rebels. Your brother requests it of you, and your king commands it. Given in the tower of the Temple, Jan. 20,1793." Louis was buried in the Magdalen church- yard, Paris, between the graves of those who were crushed to death, in the crowd, at the Louvre, on the anniversary of his marriage, in 1774, and the graves of the Swiss, who fell on the 10th August, 1792, 108 LOUIS XVI—LOUIS- XVIII. in his defence. Desodoard's work on the history of this prince, is of little value. J. J. Regnault's Siicle de Louis XVI is not impartial. The Vie privie et politique de Louis XVI, avec un Pricis historique sur Marie Antoinette, Mme. Elizabeth, etc., par M. A., contains little that is not to be found elsewhere. More important are the abbe Georgel's Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire des Evenements depuis 1760, jusqu'en 1806—1810, published by the nephew of the author, after bis death (Paris, 1817, 2 vols.), and Mad. Campan's Memoirs of the private Life of the Queen, with Anecdotes of the Times of Louis XIV, XV, XVI (Paris, 1822,3 vols.); and the abbe de Montgaillard's Histoire de France depuis la Fin du Regne de Louis XV, &c. (Paris, 1827, 4 vols., to 1793.) Louis XVII, second son of Louis XVI and of Marie Antoinette, was born at Versailles, March 27, 1785, and, in 1789, after the. death of his elder brother, received the title of dauphin. He was four years old, when his mother presented him to the seditious populace of Paris, and carried him to the capital on the ter- rible 5th and 6th October. Confined with his parents and his aunt Elizabeth (q. v.), in the Temple, his innocent gayety and affectionate disposition were the chief solace of the unhappy prisoners. On the death of Louis XVl, he was proclaimed king by the royalists, and his uncle (since Louis XVIII) assumed the title of re- gent He was soon after separated from nis mother, sister anrl aunt, and delivered (1793) to a shoemaker by the name of Simon, a fierce Jacobin, of a gross and lerocious disposition, who, with his wife, treated the young Capet with the most unfeeling barbarity. Reproaches, blows, scanty food, the damps and filth of a dun- geon, and a sleep broken by menaces and abuse, were the lot of the innocent child. He was even compelled to drink strong liquors, and join in the obscene songs, and repeat the atrocious language of his tor- mentor. He survived this treatment only till June 8, 1795, when he died, at the age of 10 years and two months.- He was buried in the common grave in the ceme- tery of Ste. Marguerite, where his remains could not be distinguisbed in 1815. Seve- ral impostors have appeared, pretending to be the prince ; among them, Hervagant, a tailor's son, in 1802 (died 1812 in prison), and Bruneau, a shoemaker, who, in 1818, was condemned to seven years' imprisonment (See Eckard's Mimoires sur Louis XVII.) Louis XVIII (Stanislaus Xavier), le Disiri, formerly count of Provence, third son of the dauphin (the son of Louis XV), born November 17, 1755, married, May 14, 1771, the daughter of king Vic- tor-Amadeus III of Sardinia, Mary Jo- sephine Louisa, who died in 1810. At the accession of his brother, Louis XVI, in 1774, he received the title of Monsieur, and, after his death, became regent of France. After the death of his nephew, June 8, 1795, from which time he reck- oned his reign, he took the name of Louis XVIII, king of France and of Navarre. But, with tbe exception of England, the states of Europe did not acknowledge him as king of France before the taking of Paris, March 31, 1814. His brother, Monsieur, count of Artois, as lieutenant- general, became the head of the provis- ional government in Paris, April 13. Im- mediately after, Louis XVIII began his reign, by his manifesto from St Ouen, May 2, 1814. During the reign of his brother, he had taken but little interest in the intrigues and the pleasures of the court, and had principally occupied him- self with books ; his wife had followed a different course. It is said that, in his youth, Louis had much taste for poetry, and was the author of several tolerably good poems. He translated also some volumes of Gibbon's History, and applied himself to the study of the Roman poets and philosophers. The history of his emigration, he has related in au agreeable manner, in a work which appeared at Paris, in 1823 (Rilation d'un Voyage a Bruxelles el a C'oblence, 1791); dedicated, a Antoine Louis Francois d'Avaray, son libirateur, Louis Stanislaus Xavier de France, pltin de Reconnaissance, Salut. In the first assembly of the notables, in 1787, he was at the head of the first of the seven bureaus, and appeared on the side of the opposition, against Calonne, con- troleur-giniral des finances ; at least, the latter was most violently attacked by the bureau, under the presidency of the count of Provence. The people, therefore, looked upon him with favor, and saluted him with cries of joy, when he received from the king orders to compel the regis- tration of some edicts, by the cour des comptes. His brother, the count of Ar- tois (Charles X), on the other hand, who did not belong to the opposition, was loaded with reproaches. At the second assembly of the notables, November 9, 1788, he alone declared himself for the double representation of the third estate. During the revolution, it was as impossi- ble for him as for the king to escape the LOUIS XVIII. 109 attacks of calumny. After the destruction of the Bastile, the king, accompanied by his two brothers, entered the hall of the na- tional assembly, July 15, and declared that he counted upon the love and the fidelity of his subjects, and had, therefore, given orders to the troops to withdraw from Paris and Versailles. But the peo- ple of Paris hatl already proscribed the count of Artois, who, therefore, left the kingdom, July 16, with his two sons. He was followed by the princes of Conde and Conti, and the dukes of Bourbon, Enghien and Luxembourg. Monsieur remained. As the people were clamor- ous for the execution of* the marquis of Favras, who had sought means for the escape of the king, and had attempted a counter revolution, hi which the count of Provence had taken part, the latter went to the hotel de ville, in Paris, the day after the arrest of the marquis (December 26, 1789), to defend himself in person. He asserted tiiat the only connexion he had ever had with the marquis, was, that he had bargained with him for 2,000,000 of livres, wherewith to pay his debts. The people believed that this money was to have been appropriated to the levying of troops. The marquis was condemned to death, by the chatelet, and hanged Feb- ruary 19. At last, the violence of the factions in Paris induced the king, June 21,1791, to attempt to escape to the fron- tiers of the kingdom. Louis took the road to Montmedy, and the count of Provence tiiat of Mous. The former was arrested at Varennes; the latter reach- ed Brussels in safety. From Coblentz, he protested against the decrees of the na- tional assembly, and the restraints put up- on the freedom of the king. When the king, October 30 and 31,1791, called up- on hjm to return, the princes issued a declaration, that they regarded the con- stitution as the work of rebels, and that the lung held the throne merely in trust, and was obliged to leave it to his posterity as he had received it. January 16, 1792, the legislative assembly, therefore, de- clared the count of Provence to have for- feited his right to the succession. The two brothers of the king, at the head of 6000 cavalry, now joined the Prussian army. After the death of Louis XVI, Monsieur, who had previously been re- siding at Hamm, in Westphalia, lived at Verona, under the name of count of Lille. In 1795, he was here proclaimed, by the emigrants, king of France and of Navarre. The calamities which after- wards befell him he bore widi dignity and vol. vm. 10 resolution. In the following year, when the Venetian senate, through fear of Bo- naparte, obliged him to leave Verona, he declared himself ready to do so, but re- quired that the names of six princes of his house should first be struck from the golden book of the republic, and that the armor, which his ancestor, Henry IV, had given it, should be restored. He now led a wandering life, supported by foreign courts, especially the English, and by some friends of the house of Bourbon. He first went to the amy of Cond6, on the Rhine, to serve as a volunteer, but was afterwards obliged to leave it, and went to Dillingen, in Suabia. July 19, 1796, at 10 o'clock in the evening, as he was standing at a window, with the dukes of Grammont and Fleury, a musket ball was fired at him, which grazed his tem- ple. "Never mind it," said, he immedi- ately to the alarmed dukes; " a blow on the head, that does not bring a man down, is nothing." When the count D'Avaray exclaimed, " If the ball had struck a line deeper—" Louis replied, " then the king of France would have been called Charles X." From thence he went to Blanken- burg, a small town in the Hartz, where he lived under the protection of the duke of Brunswick, and carried on a correspond- ence with his friends in France, especially with Pichegru. After the peace of 1797, he went to Mittau, where he celebrated the marriage of the duke of Angouleme with the daughter of Louis XVI. When Paul I refused to permit him to reside any longer in his states, the Prussian gov- ernment allowed him to remain in War- saw. While here, Bonaparte, in 1803, attempted to induce him to renounce his claims to the throne. But he answered to the messenger of the first consul, Feb- ruary 28, " I do not confound M. Bona- parte with his predecessors ; I esteem his valor and his military talents, and thank him for all the good he has done my peo- ple. But, faithful to die rank in which I was bom, I shall never give up my rights. Though in chains, I shall still esteem my- self die descendant of St. Louis. As successor of Francis the First, I will at least say like him—' We have lost all ex- cept our honor.'" April 23, the princes concurred in the answer of the king. In 1805, Louis, with the consent of die em- peror Alexander, returned to Mittau ; but the peace of Tilsit obliged him to leave the continent, and he, at last, took refuge in England, in 1807. His brother, the count of Artois—since 1795, Monsieur— had lived in Great Britain, principally in 110 LOUIS XVIII. Edinburgh, from 1796. Louis had taken several steps to procure the restoration of his family in France. With this view, he had written to Pichegru, and given him full powers. His letter of May 24, 1796, is a proof of die great confidence which he had in this " brave, disinterested and mod- est" general, to whom, as he then thought, " was reserved the glory of restoring the French monarchy." When the army of the prince of Conde, in which, since 1798, the duke of Berri had commanded a cav- alry regiment of nobles, first in Russian, and afterwards in English pay, had been by circumstances gradually broken up, and had obtained from the Russian em- peror the liberty of residing in Volhynia,the princes of the Bourbon familyceased to take an active part in the operations of the war. Louis XVIII, until the conclusion of the great 9trugglerremained in England, where he lived at Hartwell,in Buckinghamshire,^ a very simple manner, occupying himself pardy with the Roman classics, especially Horace, of whom he translated much, and retained in memory a large part, and part- ly with political studies. That he resem- bled Li character his unfortunate brother, we know from several examples of his kind feelings. Soon after the disastrous expedition of the French to Russia, he wrote to the emperor Alexander a letter, rec- ommending the French prisoners of war, as his children, to the magnanimity of that monarch, and he refused to join in the rejoicings in England, for he could not but mourn the death of so many Frenchmen. When the allies invaded France, the count of Artois went to Basle, February 2, 1814. His eldest son, the duke of Angouleme, had gone to join Wellington. They published a proclama- tion from Louis XVIII to the French, dated Hartwell-house, 1st February, 1814, which induced a party, first in Bordeaux, and afterwards in Paris, to declare for the Bourbons. The king promiseel entire oblivion of the past, the support of the administrative and judicial authorities, the preservation of the new code, with the exception of those laws which interfered with religious doctrines ; security to the new proprietors against legal processes ; to the army, all its rights, titles and pay; to the senate, the support of its political rights ; the abolition of the conscription ; and, for himself and his family, every sac- rifice which could contribute to the tran- quillity of France. Soon after the disso- lution of the congress of Chatiilon, the count of Artois entered Nancy, IJarch 19. But the duke of Angculeme first saw the lilies of the Bourbons planted on Frencli ground at Bordeaux, March 12. The res- toration of the Bourbons was a subject first brought strongly home to the French, at the time of the entrance of the allies into Paris, by the declaration of the em- peror Alexander, March 31, that they would treat neither with Napoleon nor with any member of his family. Talleyrand, Jaucourt, the duke of Dalberg, Louis and De Pradt contributed not a little to this in an interview with Alexander, the king of Prussia, Schwartzenberg, Nesselrode, Poz- zo di Borgo, and Liechtenstein, March 31, by the assurance that the restoration of the Bourbons was the wish of a large ma- jority of the nation. (See De Pradt's Ricit historique sur la Restauration de la Royauti en France,le31 Mars,18U.) The senate now appointed a provisional gov- ernment under the presidency of Talley- rand, which, April 3, gave the authority of a law to the resolve of the senate of April 2, for the deposition of Napoleon, and published in the MonUeur die project of the constitution of April 5, according to v/hich the Bourbons were to be recall- ed to the throne. A decree of April 4 also intcuet: 1 the government to the count of ArtoL'., umil the moment when Louis, called to the throne cf France, should ac- cept the constitution drawn up for the kingdom. Louis XVI-,1 now left Hart- well, and reached London, April 20, whence the prince repeat (George IV) ac- companied him to Dover. From Dover, the duke of Clarence (now William IV), April 24, conducted him to Calais. With Louis landed also the duch&s of Angouleme, the prince of Conde, and ^iis son, the duke of Bourbon. Upon landing, he pressed the duchess of Ang . ime to his heart, and said, " I he ":i aga'.i th3 crown of my ancestors ; if it wei . of roses, I would place it on yoc head ; a3 it is of thorns, it is for me to wear it" T lie mem- ory of his landing upon Freroh ground, is perpetuated by a Doric coh ::ut of mar- ble erected at Calais, and the trace of his first footstep is carefully preserved in brass. The king remained some days in Compiegne, where, as at St. Ouen, he re- ceived deputations from the ruthosities at Paris. He was welcomed at £t Ouen by the emperor of Austria, and at Compiegne by the emperor of Rur;h. From St. Ouen, May 2, he issued that r:markable proclamation, by which he rcccp'ed the most essential part of the constitution of the senate (April 5), in 12 articles, bur u.b- mitted the wlo/e, as being to~ Vstily drawn up, to the revision of a committee LOUIS XVIII. Ill of the senate and legislative body. May 3, Louis made bis entrance into Paris. The hopes of all now rested upon him. In compliance with the will of his unhap- py brother, who had commanded forgive- ness, he solemnly declared "that all ex- aminations into opinions and votes, until the time of the restoration, are forbidden. The same oblivion is made the duty of the courts of justice and of the citizens." Ho formed his ministry of members of the former provisional government, and of zealous royalists, such as the chancellor D'Ambray. One of his first ordinances related to the continuance of the op- pressive taxes (droits riunis), which the state of the kingdom rendered necessary. It had been promised that they should be abolished, but it was only possible to ameliorate the mode of their collection. He afterwards concluded peace with Aus- tria, Russia, England, Prussia, Spain, Por- tugal and Sweden, at Paris, May 30, 1814, and caused a constitution to be drawn up. Although his ministry too little under- stood the spirit of public opinion, yet, by prudence and firmness, it was able to re- strain the disaffected. It inclined to the old prejudices, and fulfilled none of the just expectations of the nation, with re- gard to the freedom of the press, and the prevalence of liberal ideas. The old roy- alists, as well as the partisans of the empire, had been deceived in the dreams of their pride and their covetousuess. The former thirsted for revenge, and aspired to regain their lost advantages. The latter, in- cluding the soldiers of Napoleon, 100,000 of whom had returned from captivity, were indignant at the disgrace of the French arms. After the proclamation of peace, Louis caused his chancellor, D'Am- bray, in his presence, to lay before the leg- islative body and the senators the consti- tution of the kingdom (la charte constitu- tionnelle), June 4, it having been already approved by nine senators and nine depu- ties, after it had been drawn up by the three ministers D'Ambray, Montesquiou and Ferrand. It was unanimously ac- cepted as the will of the king, and re- corded. (See France, since 1814.) The chamber of deputies, which was estab- lished by this instrument, requested the king to take the surname of "the desired," Louis le Desiri. When the chamber was occupied with fixing the civil list, Louis answered the deputies, " Let them attend to the state, and neglect me." The king appointed from the new and old nobility, from the senators and marshals, 151 mem- bers of the chamber of peers ; 53 of the former senators, among whom were 23 foreigners, were not appointed peers" by the king ; others were excluded, as Cau- laincourt, Fesch, Fouche, Gregoire, Ro- * derer, Sieyes. They retained, however, their property, antl the widows of those who had died received pensions. It was not to be expected, that men who had voted for the death of Louis XVI could now be peers of France. The king gave his full confidence to his minister, M. de Blacas, and the chancellor D'Ambray. The latter and the five secretaries of state, (the minister of foreign affairs—Talley- rand—of tbe interior, of war, of the finances, of the navy), and the directors- general of the police and the post-office, together with the state counsellors and the maitres des requites, formed the king's council, to which were admitted distin- guished men of the old and new nobility, and the former state officers, together with some whose only claim was, that they had shared the sufferings of Louis. The new relations with foreign powers were regu- lated by Talleyrand with his usual ability, and not without dignity and a proper re- gard to the pride of the nation. His di- plomacy now professed great magnanimi- ty and respect for the rights of the peo- ple. On the other hand, the minister of the interior, abbe Montesquiou, did not succeed in gaining the public opinion in favor of the Bourbons. Still less did the minister of war, general count Dupont, succeed in gaining the favor of the army, which hated him. His successor, Soult, contributed much, by his severe meas- ures, to excite the anger of the army against the king. The personal mild- ness of Louis XVIII, anil his love of justice, were often betrayed, in spite of the judgment which he frequently show- ed, into imprudent and inconsistent meas- ures. He was accused of surrounding himself with the leaders of the Chouans, and with emigrants, and admitting them, in preference to all others, into the royal guard. The army was exasperated by the diminution of the pensions of the members of the legion of honor, and the severity which had placed so many offi- cers upon half pay. The chamber of peers, composed mostly of the old nobili- ty, and attached to their old prejudices, often thwarted the better views of the chamber of deputies. The chancellor D'Ambray showed great weakness in favoring the privileged classes, and was careless in the eludes of his office. The count Blacas, little acquainted with France, was hated by all parties. The censorship 112 LOUIS XVIII. of the ministers limited the freedom of the press, while libels were promulgated against men who had displeased the gov- ernment Merely in consequence of a political reaction, thirty honorable names were struck from the list of members of the national institute. Hired or fanat- t ical writers maintained that the sale of the national domains was invalid, and that the crimes of the revolution were not to be pardoned. The restoration of tithes and the old privileges was openly talked of in the country-. The ortlinance of Blacas with regard to the Sunday po- lice excited so much ill feeling in Paris, that it was found necessary to repeal it The prohibition of masked balls during Lent, caused still greater dissatisfaction; and the obstinacy of the curate of St. Roch, who opposed the burial of a cele- brated actress in consecrated ground, ex- asperated the people against the priests. In short, every thing appeared to confirm the warning of Lally-Tollendal:—" But one more act of madness was wanting to France; antl that we now have ; we see the throne of the king shaken by his friends." Against the pure, or, as they were afterwards called, ultra royalists, were united the republicans and the mili- tary and constitutional royalists. In the midst of all this Napoleon returned from Elba. To understand the events of March, 1815, it is necessary to call to mind what the majority of the nation ex- pected of Louis XVIII. (See Comte and Dunoyer's Censeur ou Examen des Ades et des Ouvrages qui tendent a ditruire ou a con- solider la ConstUution de VEtat; and the Examen rapide du Gouvemement des Bour- bons en France, depuis le Mois d'Avril, 1814, jusqu'au Mois de Mars, 1815.) The nation wished, 1. to have its political lib- erties secured, or the right of being rep- resented by -deputies, chosen by the peo- ple ; 2. the personal liberties of the indi- viduals, or security from prosecutions for imaginary crimes, or contrary to the legal forms; 3. the equality of citizens in the eye of the law, and the rights of all to obtain any civil and military dignity, by merit and talents ; 4. the abolition of feu- dal services; 5. the right, in criminal ac- cusations, to be judged by a jury ; 6. the independence of the judiciary upon every other power in the state; 7. the right of levying taxes by their representatives, and on all in proportion to their property ; 8. the right of every individual to exercise any means of gaining a living which did not interfere with the rights of other citi- zens ; 9. the right of every one to com- municate his thoughts to his fellow citi- zens, bv public writings, being responsible only to the law; and, 10. the right of every one to perform divine worship in his own way, without molestation. But instead of satisfying the demands of the nation, the Bourbons, it was maintained by the parties above mentioned, had sought to tlestroy public opinion, and had thus lost the attachment of the Frencli. The following grievances were particularly complained of: 1. the abolition of the na- tional colors; 2. the surrender of all the fortresses beyond the ancient frontiers of France, to the allies, by Monsieur, as lieu- tenant-general, April 23, 1814 (with these fortresses he had given up 13,000 cannons, and had thus caused the loss of Belgium, and of the left bank of the Rhine); 3. the royal declaration, whereby the new con- stitution had been imposed upon the na- tion by virtue of the royal pleasure and prerogative, while it ought to have been proposed to it for acceptance (from the form used for this purpose, it would fol- low, that every successor of the king might abrogate or alter the charter at will); 4. the stain upon the national honor, from the king's declaration that he owed his crown to the prince regent qf England ; 5. the exclusion rf many respectable members of the semuo from the chamber of peers, and the filling their places br- others, who, for 20 years, had borne arms against France ; 6. the neglect to abolish the droit riunis, and other vexatious taxes; 7. the restrictions on the freedom of the press; 8. the persecutions of the holders of the national domains, and the expres- sions of the minister, count Ferrand, on this subject in the chamber of deputies; 9. the libels against those who had taken part in the revolution, although these were forbidden by the constitution; 10. the exclusive appointment of the old no- bility to embassies; 11. arbitrary taxes, imposed without the consent of the legis- lature ; 12. the great influence of priests, &c. It ought to be observed, however, on the other hand, that Louis XVIII had provided for the personal security of the subject by the independence of the tribunals, and the responsibility of the ministers; though the law on the lat- ter point had not yet gone into effect when the revolution of March began. But the ministers should have forgotten their old ideas, and ruled in a popular manner. Henry IV had, when he as- cended the throne, changed his religion, and thus obtained the love of his people. Napoleon at Elba was fully informed of LOUIS XVIII. 113 the troubles in France, and the divisions at the congress. His appearance in France, March 1, 1815, was like a thun- der-bolt to the army and the nation. The state of popular feeling was entirely un- known to Louis. Those who surrounded him, as ignorant as himself, still deceived him with accounts of the devotion of the army, and of desertion among the soldiers of Napoleon. The defection of Labedo- yere and Ney finally opened the eyes of the king, but it was too late. He was obliged to flee from Paris, in the night of March 20, after having dissolved the two chambers on the 19th. On the evening of March 22, he reached Lille, whence he issued several decrees, forbidding all levies and contributions for Napoleon, and dis- banding the rebellious army. Twenty- four hours after, he was obliged to leave Lille, to avoid falling into the hands of his enemies, and went by Ostend to Ghent The duke and duchess of Orleans, the old prince of Conde, the count of Artois, and the duke of Berry, hastily left Paris. The duke of Bourbon remained in Vendee, and the duke and duchess of Angouleme in the south of France. Their object was to awaken a popular sympathy in favor of the king. An army was, indeed, formed in Vendee, and the duke of An- gouleme levied troops, but, deserted by a part of them, and surrounded by the gen- erals of Napoleon, he was obliged to con- clude the capitulation at Pont d'Esprit, April 8, in consequence of which he em- barked, April 15, at Cette for Barcelona. The duchess of Angouleme, whose for- titude had been tbe subject of admiration, showed, at Bordeaux, the courage of a heroine. The city and the people were devoted to her, but the troops favored the advance of general Clauzel, and the duchess was obliged to embark for Eng- land, April 2. Besides the ministers and several officers, marshal Berthier, Vic- tor, Marmont, and the duke of Feltre, followed the king. The number of his followers amounted at last to a thousand. While iu Ghent, he issued an official pa- per, the Journal Universel, which con- tained several pieces by Chateaubriand. In the meanwhile, Talleyrand, at Vienna, was actively engaged in the cause of the king, and Louis was included in the league of March 25, against Napoleon. When the allies invaded France, Louis XVIII returned, and went to Cambray. He here proclaimed a general amnesty, with the exception of traitors, and promised to avoid all the faults he had committed in 1814, from ignorance of the new spirit of the nation, and to dismiss Blacas. In the meanwhile, the chambers, convoked by Napoleon, had appointed an executive commission under the presidency of Fou- che, and deputies who were to negotiate with the allies upon the basis of their inde- pendent right to choose a form of govern- ment ; but the allies would not consent to this. Bliicher and Wellington besieged Paris, and Fouche, who had already in- duced Napoleon to leave France, put a stop to the shedding of blood, by the capitulation of Paris, July 3. Louis was thus again restored to the throne of France. July 7, the Prussians and Eng- lish entered Paris, and on the afternoon of the 9th, Louis followed, under the protec- tion of Wellington. The king immedi- ately appointed his new ministiy, at the head of which was Talleyrand, and in which Fouche was minister of police. The most declared partisans of Napo- leon now lost their places. July 13, the former chamber of deputies was dissolv- ed, and a new one summoned. (See Chambre lntrouvable.) Among the most decided measures by which the king sought to support his throne, was the or- dinance of July 16, disbanding the army, according to the wishes of his allies; which Macdonald effected with great pru- dence. To form a new army, 4000 offi- cers were appointed, in part of those who had escaped the conscription ; and accord- ing to the edict of May 20, 1818, of the half-pay officers of the army of 1815, only those were appointed who had served for 15 years or more, and, consequently all French soldiers, since 1803, were made incapable of service. Yet the constitution of 1814 had secured to all officers the preservation of their rank and their pen- sions. An ordinance of July 24, 1815, designated the rebels who were excluded from the amnesty. According to this, 19 generals and officers, Ney, Labedoyere, the brothers Lallemand, Erlon, Lefcvre, Des- nouettes, Ameilh, Drouot, Brayer, Gilly, Mouton, Duvernet, Grouchy, Clauzel, La- borde, Debelle, Bertrand,Cambronne, La- valette and Savary, were to be arrested and brought before a court-martial. Thirty- eight others were exiled, according to a resolution of the chambers, including Soult, Carnot, Exoelmans, Bassano, Van- damme, Lamarque, Lobau, Barrere, Ar- righi, liegnauk da St Jean d'Angely, Real, Merlin de Douay, Hulin, the poet Arnauid, colonel Bory de St. Vincent, Mellinet and others. Twenty-nine were degraded from the peerage, as Lefebvre, Suchet Augereau, Mortier, Cadore, Pia 114 LOUIS XVIII. cenza, &c. A few exculpated themselves by proving that they had not received from Napoleon a seat in the new cham- bers. Of the rebels, towards whom many circumstances recommended mercy, La- bedoyere was shot August 19; Ney, De- cember 7, 1815; and Mouton Duvernet, July 26, 1816. Lavalette (q. v.) escaped from prison, December 21, 1815; Drouot and Cambronne were released; the great- er number took refuge in flight; some, like Debelle, were pardoned ; others, as Dejean the son, Laurence, Gamon, Al- quier, Duboisdubai and Grandpre receiv- ed, in 1818, permission to return. In the meanwhile, the royalists, who called them- selves redUigncs, obtained greater influ- ence. The princes were dissatisfied with Fouche's appointment to the ministry. At the same time, he made himself ob- noxious to the allies by his reports to the king on the new state of France. Talley- rand and Fouche, though devoted to the cause of the king, were looked upon by the royalists as men who ought not to be admitted to authority in the new system of things. Thus a change in the ministry took place, September 25, 1815. Fouche was dismissed, and, in order to please Russia, the duke of Richelieu was made minister of foreign affairs in his place. Decazes became minister of police, Cor- vette, of the finances, and Clarke, duke of Feltre, minister of war, &c. The ultra royalists now raised their heads. The state of things before 1789, alone appear- ed legitimate in their eyes. The election of the deputies was made accordingly, and many of those elected were but 25 years old, though 40 was the legal age. A change of the constitution was openly talked of. On the other hand, the partisans of the fallen government, excited by the ultras, began to form conspiracies; but for their speedy punishment prevotal courts were introduced, which, however, were abolished in 1818. Decazes discovered several conspiracies, among which, how- ever, that under Didier alone broke out, in May, 1816, in the vicinity of Grenoble. The numerous arrests attracted attention, and several foreigners, as the English who had favored Lavalette's escape, lord Kin- naird (in his letter to lord Liverpool), and the Polish count Sierakowski, complained of the arbitrary conduct of the French police. It excited great dissatisfaction that the duke of Richelieu, as minister, in the trial of Ney, had availed himself of the extreme rigor of the law in procuring his condemnation. Among the princes, the duke of Orleans (see Louis-Philip) alone used a milder tone. When an address of thanks to the king, written lw Chateau- briand, was read in the house of peers, the duke proposed to change the passage in which traitors were given up to the jus- tice of the king, so as to recommend the persons there named to the mercy of the king. The censors of the press would not allow his speech to be printed ; and the duke, for whom a party was already forming, though without his own consent soon after (October, 1815) went to Eng- land. Richelieu now concluded with the allied powers the treaty of November 20, 1815 (see France), whicli embarrassed the finances of the kingdom, since, from De- cember 1, 1815, France was bound to pay 140,000,000 yearly, toward 700,000,000, which had been the expenses of the war, with 130,000,000 for the support of the army of occupation. A violent dispute soon after arose in the chambers on the subject of the law of amnesty. The ultra royalists, January 6, 1816, proposed some changes, which extended and rendered more severe the first propositions of the king. All the relations of Napoleon were, under pain of death, banished from France; they lost the property conferred upon them, and were obliged to sell what they had bought Those, also, who had voted for the death of the king (rigicides), and those who, in 1815, had received offices or honors from the usurper, or had acknowledged the Additional Act to the constitution, were banished from the kingdom, and forfeited all their civil rights, and the titles, estates and pensions, whicli had been conferred on them. Of 366 who had voted for the king's death, 163, who were still living, were banished from France. Three only—Tallien, Milhaud and Richard—were allowed to remain. If violent measures were taken against the real or suspected anti-Bourbonists (among others a captain was imprisoned on suspi- cion, for having named his horse Cossack), the public authorities did but little to re- strain the commotions at Nismes, and the department of Gard, where political and religious fanaticism had caused the perse- cution and murder of the Protestants, in 1815 and 1816. One voice only was heard in the chambeivin the cause of the Protestants—that of the noble D'Argen- son; but Trestaillons, who was universally known to be a murderer, remained un- punished. (He died in 1827.) The vic- tory in the chambers gradually inclined to the royalists, who were called exagiris, or whUe Jacobins. The king, therefore, closed the session, April 29, 1816, after a law, LOUIS XVIII. 115 prohibiting divorces, had been passed. LainC, the former president of the cham- ber of deputies, was appointed minister of the interior, and, with Corvetto, Richelieu and Decazes, formed, in the ministry, the constitutional majority; the minister of the marine, Dubouchage, appeared to join them, so that the chancellor, D'Ambray, and the minister of war, Feltre, alone pos- sessed the confidence of the ultras. (In September, 1817, marshal St. Cyr took the place of the latter; count Mole, a peer of France, the place of Dubouchage ; and, somewhat later, Roy, the place of Corvet- to.) In the midst of continual seditions in France, tbe majority of the ministers, supported by the influence of the Russian ambassador, Pozzo di Borgo, and of Wel- lington, succeeded in obtaining from the king the ordinance of September 5,1816, by which he dissolved the chamber of deputies, and ordered that the new mem- bers should all be of the lawful age of 40. At the same time, he declared that the constitution should be subjected to no alteration. This victoiy of the consti- tutional party gave a check, for a time, to the ultra royalists, to whom Louis XVIII himself ditl not appear to be enough of a royalist, and silenced, for some time, their Vive le roi, quand mime— / The organ of that party, Chateaubriand, in his work De la Monarchic sdon la Charte, reproached the government with haviug taken away personal liberty and the liberty of the press. He was even bold enough to maintain, that that ordinance was contrary to the wishes of the king. The elections for the new chambers were such that the constitutionalists could raise their voices. They spoke in vain, though with great talent and boldness, for the freedom of the press and a jury. The law of censorship of November 9 remained in force. The state of the people, in the general dearness of all articles, and the weight of the taxes, needed every possible alleviation, and the king's spirit of order contributed greatly to this. From 1814 to 1816, the arrears amounted to more than 83,000,000, which had increased the budget of expenses for'1817 to 1,088,000,294 francs, being 699,000 more than in 1816; while the reve- nue for 1817 could not be estimated high- er than 774,000,000, so that a deficit of 314,000,000 was to be covered. Recourse was hael to loans; the same thing took place in 1818. The diminution of the standing army, and its entire dissolution in conse- quence of the congress of Aix, were, there- fore, fortunate events. Among the events of the administration of Louis XVIII, it must, however, be remarked, that trie na- tional institute was restored in 1816, with- its former four academies, although the best institutions, as that of the decennial prizes, were not retained. The attempt to bring Hayti to submission, by the offer of fa- vorable conditions, utterly failed, and the concordate was not effected with the pope. Louis was himself inclined to use mild measures. On the day of St. Louis, therefore, August 25, 1818, when the bronze statue of Henry IV was erect- ed in Paris, which had been paid for by private subscription, several persons ar- rested for political offences were pardon- ed. He allowed, also, some of die exiles who had voted for the death of the king, as Cambaceres, Rabaud, and 15 members of the convention, to return. As, howev- er, he gave way to the inclinations of the emigrant party, on several occasions, the nation conceived suspicions that the Bour- bons could not sincerely forgive. The king neglected to give full security in their property to the possessore of the national domains, by a particular edict. At the same time, the constitutional party was strengthened by the passage of laws which contradicted the articles of the charter. The liberals, therefore, obtained, for a time, the superiority, and Louis named, December 29, 1818, his third, and, No- vember 19, 1819, his fourth ministry, un- der Decazes. (See France, since 1814.) From this time, the government of Louis had the support of public opinion. But, after the assassination of the duke of Berry, February 14, 1820, the party of the ultras again raised its head. Riche- lieu took the place of Decazes; the law of election was altered; the censor- ship of newspapers was introduced, per- sonal freedom limited, &c. All this gave more power and influence to the extreme royalists. The party of anti-Bourbonists, whicli thought that the welfare of France required a dynasty not belonging imme- diately to the Bourbon line, remained still a large one, while the party of the princes. which showed a yeiy great anel very natural predilection for Louis, was sup- ported by the ultras, who sought to form, in all Europe, a general coalition against liberal "principles. The white conspiracy, as it was called, detected in 1818, showed that it was the object of the ultra royalists to destroy the constitution. They had given to the ambassadors of foreign pow- ers a paper—written, it is said, by the baron de Viu-olles—Note secrete exposant les pretextes et le but de la derniire conspira- tion, to attract their attention to the dan- 116 LOUIS XVTII—LOUIS-PHILIP I. gers which menaced the reign of the Bourbons, that their troops might not be withdrawn from France, but a change made in the French ministry. This note, the giving of which was, according to the French laws, treasonable, caused so much dissatisfaction, that Chateaubriand, in his Remarques sur les Affairs du Moment, de- nies having had any thing to do with it That party had in view to form a new ministry, of which Villele, Chateaubriand, Donadieu, and others, were to be mem- bers. All examination into this business was, however, prevented, and the generals Canuel, Chapdelaine, with H. H. Joannis, Roinilly, De Sorgis, &c, who had been alreaely arrested as accomplices, were re- leased August 19, 1818, from the secret prison (secret). By the ordinance, July 24, however, the baron Vitrolles was struck off the list of ministers of state and members of the privy council of the king. But Louis allowed what was called the theocratic party, in union with the friends to old privileges, to gain, con- tinually, more influence in the internal management of the kingdom. This was shown by the prosecutions against the writers, who complained of abuses in the public administration, and, especially, of the measures of the secret police, by which those who were suspected of being political enemies were enticed to mani- fest their feelings by deeds. An instance of this kind was the punishment of the deputy Kdchlin. By the change in the law of elections, in June, 1820, the system of the strict royalists was triumphant; Villele (q. v.) was placed at the head of the ministry. But the strength of the king, who had, for several years, been un- able to walk, now entirely failed him. His last triumph was the campaign in Spain in 1823. In August, 1824, it be- came evieient that his disease was mortal. Until the day of his death, September 16, 1824, he gave proofs of firmness and resignation. " Un roi doit mourir," said he, quaintly, "mais ne doit jamais itre malade." Louis XVIII possessed much intellectual cultivation and sagacity, but, enfeebled by disease, he had not suffi- cient strength of character to restrain the ultras, nor did he" understand new France.—He had one remarkable max- im—L'exactitude est la politesse des rois. Louis III (called, in German history, the ChUd), born hi 893, succeeded his father, the emperor Amulph, when six years old. In his minority, archbishop Hatto, of Mentz, administered the gov- ernment, and carried the monarch about with him, wherever the affaire of the em- pire required the presence of the regent During the course of his reign, Germany was desolated by the Hungarians, and torn asunder bv civil discord. He assum- ed the imperial title in 908, but was never crowned. He died in 911 or 912, and with him ended the royal line of Charle- magne. Louis IV, the Bavarian, emperor of Germany, son of Louis the Severe, duke of Bavaria, was bom in 1286. On the death of Henry VII (q. v.), five electors were in favor of Louis, while the others supported Frederic, duke of Austria. The two rivals being both crowned, a war en- sued, and Frederic was made prisoner, in the battle of Muhldorf, in 1322. (See Bavaria; and Germany, History of.) In 1315, Louis had expelled his brother, Ro- dolph, who opposed his election, from the Palatinate, but, after the death of the lat- ter, had formed a convention with his sons, by virtue of whicli their patrimony was restored to them, and the electoral dignity was to belong alternately to Bava- ria and the Palatinate. The vacant Mark of Brandenburg he conferred, in 1322, on his eldest son. In his disputes with pope John XXII, against whom he was joined by the Visconti party in Italy, he main- tained the dignity of the German crown, and set up the antipope Nicholas V. In 1346, Clement VI excommunicated him, and succeeded in causing five electors to set Charles of Luxembourg, king of Ho- hemia, on the imperial throne. In the midst of this dispute, Louis died (1347). (See Mannert's Louis IV, or the Bavarian, in German, 1812.) Louis Bonaparte. (See Appendix, end of this volume.) Louis-Philip I, elected, Aug. 7, 1830, king of the French,known previously under the tide of the duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis-Philip, duke of Orleans (Egaliti), and of Marie-Adelaide de Bourbon Pen- thievre, grand-daughter of a natural son of Louis Xl V by madame Montespan, was bom at Paris, Oct. 6,1773. The line of Bourbon-Orleans (see Bourbon) was found- ed by Philip, brother of Louis XIV, who conferred on him the duchy of Orleans. Philip II, his son, was the well known re- gent of France, whose grandson was Louis- Philip, father of the subject of this article. (See Orleans.) The wife of king Louis- Philip is Mary-Amelia, daughter of Fer- dinand IV, king of the Two Sicilies. (The royal family is given in the article France, division Statistics.) Louis bore, at first, the title of duke of Valois, and, when his LOUIS-PHILIP I. 117 father became duke of Orleans, that of duke of Chartres. At the age of five years, he was placed under the care of the chevalier De Bonuard ; but, in 1782, the direction of his education was intrust- ed to the countess De Genlis. In 1791, a decree of the constituent assembly having required the proprietary colonels to quit the military career, or to take the effect- ive command of their regiments, the duke of Chartres, who was ambitious of the honor of serving his country, placed himself at the head of the 14th regiment of dragoons, which bore his name, and was then in garrison at Vendome. Here he succeeded in saving, by his courage and presence of mind, a nonjuring clergy- man, on the point of being massacred by the populace, which accused him of hav- ing treated with contempt a procession conducted by a constitutional clergyman. He shortly after gave a new proof of his humanity by saving an engineer from drowning. The city of Vendome decreed him, on account of these honorable actions, a civic crown. In August, 1791, he quit- ted Vendome, with his regiment, to go to Valenciennes, where he passed the win- ter, fulfilling the duties of the oldest colo- nel of the garrison. In 1792, when Louis XVI had declared war against Austria, the duke of Chartres made his first campaign. In 1792, Dumouriez succeeded Lafayette in the command of his division of the army. Sept. 11, 1792, the duke of Chartres was appointed lieu- tenant-general, and was called to take the command of Strasburg. " I am too young," said he, "to shut myself up in a town, and prefer to remain active in the army." He did not go to Strasburg, und Kellermann, whose army was reinforced by a division of the army of the Rhine, confided to him the command of his sec- ond line, composed of 12 battalions of infantry and 6 squadrons of cavalry. At the head of this second line, he fought at Valmy, Sept. 20,1792, and displayed great bravery and judgment The 26th of the same month, the executive council ap- pointed the duke of Chartres to the second command in the new-levied troops, who were to be united by Labourdonuaye at Douay. But the duke declined this ap- pointment, and went to Paris to ask per- mission to remain in the line, and in Kel- lermann's army ; but, as he had been al- ready superseded there, it was proposed to him to pass into that of general Dumou- riez, who was going to Flanders, to at- tempt the invasion of Belgium, and he accepted the offer. Nov. 6, the French, under Dumouriez, gained the celebrated battle of Jemappes (q. v.), in which the duke of Chartres distinguished himself The duke was at Toumay when the con- vention passed a decree of banishment against all the members of the Bourbon family who were in "France. He was de- sirous that his father, and all the family, should join him in emigrating to the U. States; but his distance from Paris delay- ed the arrangements, and the tlecree was revoked before they were finished. In February, 1793, the duke was recalled to the army, and employed at the siege of Maestricht, under the orders of general Miranda. Shortly after this, the duke, who had manifested, with more frankness than prudence, his horror at the revolu- tionary excesses in France, saw a decree of arrest levelled agaiust himself. He then resolved to quit the army and his country. He went to Mons, where he was kindly received by the arcbeluke Charles, who offered him the commission of lieutenant-general in the Austrian army. This, however, he declined, and obtained passports for Switzerland. He went from Mons to Switzerland, in April, 1793, with Caesar Ducrest, his aid, having but a small supply of money; crossed, as a fugitive, the same countries through which he had passed, a short time before, as a conqueror with the French army, and learned, from a newspaper, the arrest of all his family. He arrived at Basle in September, and there waited for his sister, who had just arrived at Schaffhausen, with madame ele Genlis and the count Montjcye. In order to join them, he quitted Basle, and at- tempted, in vain, to fix himself at Zurich or Zug. He was eveiy where repulsed, and received notice that no part of Swit- zerland was safe for him. In this sad sit- uation, he was anxious to find a retreat for his sister; and count Montjoye applied to general Montesquiou, who, having fallen under the accusation of the cemstitutional assembly, while he commanded the army of the Alps, had taken refuge in Switzer- land, and lived in retirement at Bremgar- ten, under the name of chevalier Rionel. This gentleman took an interest in their situation, and succeeded, not without diffi- culty, in getting admission for mile d'Or- leans, and even madame de Genlis, into a convent in Bremgarten. To the duke of Ckartres he could only say, that there was nothing for him to do but to wander in tbe mountains, taking care to stay but a short time in any one place, until circum- stances should become more favorable. The duke of Chartres, satisfied with having 118 LOUIS PHILIP I. placed his sister in security, followed this judicious advice. Alone and on foot, almost without money, he began his travels in the interior of Switzerland and the Alps. Eveiy where he was seen contending with courage against fatigue and poverty. But his resources were entirely exhausted, and, being recalled to Bremgarten by a letter from M. Montes- quiou, he obtained, through the interfer- ence of that gentleman, the situation of professor at the college of Reichenau. He was examined by the officers of this institution under a feigned name, and unanimously admitted. Here he taught geography, history, the French and Eng- lish languages, and mathematics, for eight months, without having been discovered. The simplicity of his manners prevented any suspicion being entertained of his elevated rank, and he was able to con- ciliate the esteem of the government, and the gratitude of his pupils. It was at this place that he learned the tragical end of his unfortunate father. Some political movements taking place in the Grisons, mademoiselle d'Orleans quitted the convent at Bremgarten, and joined her aunt, the princess of Conti. M. Montesquiou thought that he might now give an asylum to the prince, of whom his enemies had for some time lost all trace. The duke received the most hon- orable testimonials in quitting Reiche- nau, and retired to Bremgarten. Here he remained, under the name of Corby, until the end of 1794, when he thought proper to quit Switzerland, his retreat there being no longer a secret In the state in which Europe then was, there was no country where the duke of Or- leans (for this was now the title of the subject of this article) could be safe from the indefatigable persecution of which he was the object He resolved to go to America ; and Hamburg ap- peared to him the best place for his em- barkation. He arrived in that city in 1795. Here his expectation of funds failed him, and he could not collect suf- ficient pecuniaiy means to reach the United States; but, being tired of a state of inactivity, and provided with a letter of credit for a small sum on a Copenha- gen banker, he resolved to visit the north of Europe. This banker succeeded in obtaining passports for him from the king of Denmark, not as the duke of Or- leans, but as a Swiss traveller, by means of which he was able to travel in safety. He travelled through Norway and Swe- den, seeing every thing worthy of curi- osity in the way; journeyed on foot with the Laplandere, along the mountains, to the gulf of Tys, and reached the North Cape August 24, 1795. After staying a few days in this region, at eighteen degrees from the pole, he returned through Lapland to Tomeo, at the ex- tremity of the gulf of Bothnia. From Torneo he went to Abo, and traversed Finland ; but he did not visit Russia, where Catharine then reigned. He next visited Stockholm, where he was discov- ered by the French minister in Sweden, and introduced to the king and the duke of Sudermania, who treated him with distinction, and offered him every facility for seeing all he desired in the kingdom. After this northern tour, the position of the duke of Orleans, in a political and pecuniary point of view, did not improve. Emissaries from different parties sought the prince, bringing him different prop- ositions. Some of them were desirous of drawing him into foreign camps; while the agents of the executive direc- tory, to which he had become an object of suspicion, wished to persuade him to leave Europe. In the month of Au- gust, 1796, he received a letter from his mother, the duchess of Orleans. She begged him, in the most touching man- ner, in her own name, and for the inter- est of her other children, detained at Marseilles, to quit Europe for America. He sailed from the Elbe, on board the American ship America, in September, 1796, and, in October, he arrived in Phila- delphia. The passage of his two broth- ers, the duke of Montpensier and count Beaujolais, was not so fortunate. It was not until February, 1797, that they reach- ed America, and joined their brother. They brought him more hopes than re- sources. The duke of Orleans proposed to them to travel in the interior of the United States. They set out on horse- back, accompanied by a single servant, named Beaudouin, who had followed the duke of Orleans to St Gothard. They went to Baltimore, and thence into Virginia, where they saw general Wash- ington at Mount Vernon, who, before the expiration of his presidency, had invited them to visit him. After travelling through the south, they visited the falls of Niagara, and, in the month of July, 1797, they returned to Philadelphia, at the time the yellow fever raged in that city. These three princes, who had been bom to the highest fortune, could not quit this dangerous residence for want of money. It was not until September, that their moth- LOUIS PHILIP I. 119 er, having recovered possession of her property, supplied them with means for a new journey. They went first to New York, and then visited Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Maine. On their return to Boston, the newspapers informed them of the ban- ishment of their mother. They then went immediately to Philadelphia, in- tending to join their mother in Spain, whither they were informed that she had been transported. But the want of funds, and the war between Spain and England, opposed their desires. There seemed but one course left, namely, to go to Louisiana, and thence to Havana. They left Philadelphia in December, 1797, and went down the Ohio and the Mississippi, to New Orleans, where they were kindly received. They staid in this city five weeks, waiting for a Span- ish vessel; but, being disappointed, they embarked in an American ship, which was taken, on the voyage, by an English frigate. The duke of Orleans discov- ered himself to the captain,.who landed him with his brothers at Havana, the 11th of March. They attempted in vain to get a passage to Europe. Notwith- standing their regret at being obliged to live out of France, they would have been contenteel in obscurity, if they could have obtained the means of an honorable subsistence. Their reception by the Spanish authorities, and the in- habitants of Havana, gave them some hopes; but the court of Madrid disap- pointed them, by forcing them to quit the island of Cuba. An order was issued at Aranjuez, directing the captain-general of Havana to send the three brothers to New Orleans, without providing them with any means of support. The broth- ers refused to go to tbe place designated, but went to the English Bahamas, where they were kindly received by the duke of Kent, who, however, did not feel authorized to give them a passage to England in a British frigate. They were not discouraged, but sailed in a small vessel to New York, whence an English packet carried them to Falmouth, and they arrived in London in February, 1800. The duke still desired most earnestly to see his mother, and the English government allowed him to take passage to Minorca in a frigate. The war between Spain and England threw many obstacles in die way of the interview between the duke and his mother, and he was obliged to return to England without seeing her. He then established himself, with his brothers, at Twickenham, in England. The duke visited every thing curious in Great Brit- ain, and studied, with great zeal, the po- litical economy and the laws of the coun- try. The duke of Montpensier died in the year 1807. Count Beaujolais was in feeble health, and was ordered by the English physicians to visit a warmer climate. The duke accompanied him to Malta; from thence to Sicily; but, before their arrival at the latter place, the young prince died. After many adventures, the duke met his mother at Mahon, from whom he had been separated sixteen years. In November, 1809, he was mar- ried, at Palermo, to the princess Amelia, daughter of the king of Sicily. After the fall of Napoleon, he returned to Paris, and enjoyed the happiness of finding himself in a country which had not forgotten his former services. On the return of Napo- leon, in 1815, he sent his family to Eng- land, and was ordered by the king to take command of the department of the North. He remained in this situation until the 24th of March, 1815, when he gave up the command to the duke of Treviso, and went to join his family in England, where he again fixed his residence at Twick- enham. On the return of Louis XVIII, after the hundred days, an ordinance was issued, authorizing, according to the charter, as it then stood, all the princes of the blood to take their seats in the chamber of peers; and the duke re- turned to France, in September, 1815, for the purpose of being present at the ses- sion. Here he distinguished himself by a display of liberal sentiments, which were so little agreeable to the administra- tion, that he retired again to England, where he remained till 1817. He wi-.s not again summoned to sit in the cham- ber, on his return, and remained, there- fore, in private life, in which he displayed all the virtues of a good father, a good husband, and a good citizen. In 1824, he received the title of royal highness. His son, the duke of Chartres (now duke of Orleans), was educated, like his ancestor, Henry IV, in the public institu- tions of the country, and distinguished himself by his success in his studies. The family of die duke was ever a model of union, good morals, and domestic virtues. Personally simple in his tastes, order and economy were combined with a magnificence becoming his rank and wealth. The protector of the fine arts, and the patr of letters, his superb palace, and his delightful seat at Neuilly, were 120 LOUIS PHILIP I—ST. LOUIS. ornamented with the productions of the former, and frequented by the distinguish- ed scholars of the age. After the events of July, 1830 (see France, since 1814), the deputies present, 89 in number, invited the duke to assume the executive power, un- der the title of lieutenant-general of the kingdom. During the three days, he had remained at his country seat, at Neuilly, and had even kept himself coucealed, so that confidential messengers, sent to him on Wednesday and Thursday, had been un- able to find him. But, after the combat was over, feeling that the throne was now vacant, he accepteel the invitation of the deputies, to become lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and, on Saturday, issued a proclamation in that capacity. The ses- sion of the chambers was opened, Aug. 3, by the lieutenant-general, who communi- cated to them the abdication of Charles X and his son. Aug. 6 and 7, the chamber of deputies declared the throne vacant, and invited the duke of Orleans to assume the title of king of the French, under cer- tain conditions, which he accepted, and, on the 9th, took the oath to the new char- ter. Thus, in a fortnight from the issuing of the ordinances, the old dynasty was overthrown, and a new one established, on republican principles. The king im- mediately proceeded to name his cabinet, from the moderate liberal party. Guizot, Louis, Mole, the duke de Broglie, Gerard and Sebastiani, %vere the new heads of the different departments, and numerous changes were made in the officers of the government, to establish a harmony be- tween the agents of power and the new system. In the administrative branch, out of 86 prefect^, 76 were removed; 196 subprefects, out of 277: in the military, (i5 general officers, out of 75, were chang- ed ; 65 colonels removed, and nearly all the governors of fortresses: in the legal, 74 procureurs were dismissed. The for- eign relations of the new dynasty next re- quired attention : special missions were sent to the different courts of Europe, and were favorably received by all except Russia. Security against foreign invasion, and the preservation of domestic tranquil- lity, were provided for by the organiza- tion of the national guard, and the increase of the army. (For the trial of the minis- ters, the riots attending it, and farther de- tails ou the histoiy of France, see Appen- dix to the concluding volume of this work.) Peyronnet (q. v.), Chautelauze, Guernon de Ranville and Polignac (q. v.), were sen- tenced to imprisonment for life, with the additional penalty of civil death, in the case of Polignac. Nov. 3, the ministry was changed, and Laffitte became presi- dent of the council and minister of finance, who was succeeded in this post by Casimir-Perrier (see Perrier), Mtirch 14, 1831. Louis, the baron, formerly more known as the abbi Louis, a French statesman, was bom at Toul, in 1755, and, at the outbreak of the revolution, was connected with the parliament of Paris. He showed himself favorable to the new principles, and, in 1790, assisted the bishop of Autun (Talleyrand) in celebrating mass on the Champ de Mars. On the overthrow of royalty, he retired to England, where he remained until the revolution of the 18th Brumaire. During the imperial govern- ment, he held several inferior posts in the departments of war and finance, and, in 1814, was made minister of finance by LouisXVIII, whom he followed to Ghent After the second restoration, he was a member of the chamber of deputies, until 1818, when he was again placed at the head of the financial department, from which he retired in 1819, in consequence of the arbitrary tendency of the ministerial policy at that time. After this retirement, he voted, in the chamber of the deputies, with the liberal sjde of the house (coti gauche). M. Louis was the first minister of finance under the new government, in 1830, but was succeeded (Nov. 3) by Laf- fitte. (q. v.) M. Louis is largely engaged in the wine trade, and has accumulated a large fortune by successful commercial operations. Of a cool temperament, his moderation has never permitted him to join in the extremes of any party; but his honesty, information and good sense seem to have acquired the esteem and confi- dence of all. Louis, St.; the chief town of Missouri, on the west bank of die Mississippi, 18 miles, by water, below the junction of the Missouri, and 14 above that of the Mara- mec, 30 below that of the Illinois, 200 above that of the Ohio, 1180 above New Or- leans, about 1100 below the falls of St Anthony, 897 from Washington; Ion. 89° 3& W.; lat 38° 3& N.: population, in 1810,1600; in 1820, 4598 ; in 1830, 5852. The situation of the town is elevated, pleasant and healthy. The ground on which it stands rises gradually from the first to the second bank. Three streets run parallel with the river, and are inter- sected by a number of others at right an- gles. The town extends along the river about two miles. The second bank is about 40 feet higher than the plain on ST. LOITS-LOUISIANA TERRITORY. 121 which the town is chiefly built, and affords a fine view of the town and river. On this bank stand the fortifications erected, in early times, for the defence of the place. The town contains several houses of pub- lic worship, among which is a Catholic cathedral, and a theatre. The houses are mostly of wood, but many are built of stone, and whitewashed. Most of them are furnished with a large gartlen.— St. Louis was first established in 1764. It is, at present, in a state of rapid improve- ment, fast increasing in population and trade. Its situation is advantageous and interesting, being more central, with re- gard to the whole territory belonging to the U. States, than any other considerable town; and, uniting the advantages of the three great rivers, Misr-'.ssippi, Missouri and Illinois, with their numerous branches, and possessing unrivalled facilities for an extensive trade, it will probably become a large city, and be the centre of an exten- sive commerce. The country around and west of St. Louis, for the distance of 15 miles, is an extended prairie, of a very lux- uriant soil. (For the college, see Missouri.) Louisa, Augusta Wiliiklmi.na Ama- l:a, queen of Prussia, daughter of Charles, duke of Mecklenbun:-Strelitz, was born March 10, 1776, at Hanover, where Ik r father was commandant When six years old, she lost her m'other; and her grand- mother, at Darmstadt, took charge of her education. In 1793, the present king of Prussia, then prince royal, saw her at Frankfort, when she and her sister were presented to his father. The prince was immediately struck with her uncommon beauty, ami was soon after betrothed to her. Prince Louis, of Prussia, was be- trothed, on the same day, to her sister, the present duchess of Cumberland. Dec. 24, 1793, the princess Louisa was married to the crown-prince at Berlin, and, when her husband ascended the throne, Nov. 16, 1797, she became, in her exalted station, the model of a wife, a mother, and a queen, who alleviated misery wherever she could, and promoted merit. In 1806, when Prussia was suffering severely under the burdens of war, this princess became still more popular: indeed, her beauty and grace, her benevolent and pure character, her sufferings and her fortitude, rendered her an object almost of adoration. She died in 1810. Louisburg ; capital of Cape Breton; situated on a point of land on the south- east side of the island; Ion. 59° 5& W.; lat 45° 54' N. Its streets are regular and broad, consisting, for the most part, of vol. viii. 11 stone houses, with a large parade at a little distance from the citadel, the inside of which is a fine square, near 200 feet every way. The town is half an English mile in length, and two in circuit The har- bor is excellent, and is more than half an English mile in breadth in the narrowest part, and six miles in length, from north- east to south-west. The principal trade of Louisburg is the cod fishery. It was taken from the French by the English fleet, under sir Peter Warren, and the American forces, commanded by sir Wil- liam Pepperel, in the year 1745, but af- terwards restored to France, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748. It was again taken by the English, under the command of admiral Boscawen and lieutenant-gen- eral Amherst, in July, 1758, and its forti- fications have been since demolished. Louis d'or ; a French gold coin, which received its name from Louis XIII, who first coined it in 1641. (See the article Coins.) The value of the Louis is there given at .94,35. Louis XIII coined, likewise, a piece of silver money, called louis blanc, also ecus, and, among us, French crowns. Louisiana Territory. The French, when in possession of a great portion of the continent of North America, seem to have applied this name, in a vague man- ner, to all the territories claimed by them south and west of Canada. In this sense, it must be considered as coextensive with the valley of the Mississippi, bounded on the east by the Alleghanies, and stretching westerly an unknown and indefinite ex- tent to the Spanish dominions and the then unexplored wilds of the interior. By the treaty of 1763, which made the Mississippi the boundary between the English and French colonies, the name was limited to the part of the valley west of the river, but still of an unsettled extent westward. This region was purchased of France by the U. States, by whicli it has been explored, and formed into the states of Louisiana and Missouri and the territories of Arkansas and Missouri. We shall here give a general account of the progress of discovery in this great region, and of its history, referring, for local details, to the separate heads above mentioned. The Spaniards were the first to colonize, if not to discover, Florida, the western limits of which were by no means accu- rately fixed ; and De Soto (q. v.) was probably the first white man who saw the Mississippi, which he crossed in one of his expeditions, not far from the influx of the Red river. In 1673, a French mis- 122 LOUISIANA TERRITORY. sionary, Marquette (q. v.), with Joliette, a citizen of Quebec, crossed the country from lake Michigan to the Mississippi, which they descended to the mouth of the Arkansas.—SeeUecueiZ des Voyages (Paris, 1681), published by Thevenot, as a sup- plement to his collection.—Six years later, De la Salle (q. v.), commander of a fort on lake Ontario, set out to explore the coun- try, having in company father Hennepin. They passed the winter on the Illinois, and La Salle returned to Canada to procure supplies, leaving the missionary with orders to ascentl the Mississippi to its sources. In the spring of 1680, Henne- pin accordingly descended to the mouth of the river, followed up its course to the falls of St. Anthony, and, on his return to France, published an account of his trav- els, in which he called the region Louisia- na, in honor of Louis XIV. (See Henne- pin.) The first attempts at the coloniza- tion of this region were not made till 1699, when an expedition sailed from Rochefort, untler the command of Lemoine d'lbber- ville, a Canadian naval officer of reputa- tion, who was the first to enter the Missis- sippi by sea, and who laid the foundation of the first colony at Biloxi. The Span- iards, who had not long before established a settlement at Pensacola, protested against the occupation of this country, whicli they claimed to be included within the limits of Mexico, by the French, but were not able to prevent their occupying a new post on Mobile river, in 1702. The French had kept up a communication be- tween their colonies in Canada and Lou- isiana, and had been active in exploring the country, principally on the river and to the east of it In 1713, a census of the latter colony gave a population of 400. In the year 1712, Antoine de Crozat, who had amassed a fortune of 40,000,000 livres in the India trade, purchascel a grant of this country, with the exclusive rig-it of commerce for 16 years. Disappointed in his speculations, Crozat gave up the grant in 1717, and the Mississippi commercial company obtained it .V new government was formed, consisting of a governor, at- tendant antl royal council, and grants of land were made to individuals. New Or- leans was founded, the cultivation of to- bacco was introduced, anel miners were sent to work the mines near St Louis; but, in 1731, the company gave up the country to the crown. The early hostili- ties of the French with the Spanish and English colonists, and with the different na- tive tribes, it is not our intention to relate. See Natchez.) The struggle of tb/ French and English power in North America, from 1754, is a subject of more interest. The Frencli had scattered them- selves over the more central parts of the beautiful valley of the Mississippi. Kas- kaskia, Cahokia, Vincennes, St Genevieve, the post of Arkansas, Nachitoches on Red river, Natchez on the Mississippi, were rallying-points of the rural population in this immense region, who had adopted, in some degree, the manners of the In- dian huuters, while New Orleans and Mobile had become places of considerable commerce. The French claimed all the country west of the Alleghanies, and had established a chain of communication from New Orleans to Quebec, whicli they meditated to strengthen by a line of forti- fied posts. The "English, who claimed the country from the Atlantic to the St. Lawrence, found themselves thus exposed to be shut in upon the eastern slope of the Alleghanies. The French occupied and fortified the important position at the head of the Ohio, to which they gave the name of fort du Quesne. The English general Braddock failed in his attack on this post, but the war terminated in the complete humiliation of France, who, by the peace of 1763, was obliged to cede Canada, and all her possessions east of the Mississippi, to England. The preceding year (Novem- ber, 1762), she had ceded all her posses- sions west of that river, with the island of Orleans, to Spain, and the name of Louis- iana now became limited to this part of the valley. In the war of the American rev- olution, Spain conquered Florida from the English, and, by the peace of 1783, that province was ceded to the Spaniards, while all the country between Florida and the St. Lawrence, and the ocean and the Mis- sissippi, was acknowledged as au indepen- dent state. (See United States, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, &c.) The navigation of the Mississippi soon became a source of difficulty between Spain and the U. States. After much delay, the treaty of 1795 was concluded between the two powers, by which a line of boundary was agreed on, and the free navigation of the river secur- ed to the U. States. In 1798, the Spanish posts, to the north of 31°, were evacuated, but Spanish ships committed depreda- tions on the American commerce, and re- fused to allow the navigation of the Mis- sissippi, and the right of deposit at New Orleans, which had been secured by trea- ties. A force was accordingly prepared on the Ohio, by the government of the U. States, in 1799, intended to descend the Mississippi and seize New Orleans. A LOUISIANA TERRITORY. 123 change of administration was followed by the disbanding of these troops, but repre- sentations were made to Spain against the violation of the treaty, with a demand of redress, which was answered by the declaration that Louisiana had been ceded to France. The French force destined for the occupation of the country was blockaded in the Dutch ports by the Eng- lish, and the firet consul ceded Louisiana to the U. States for the sum of $ 15,000,000, by a treaty dated April 13, 1803. (See the secret history of this treaty in the His- toire de la Louisianc, by Barbe-Marbois, Paris, 1829.) The country passed peace- ably into the possession of the U. States, and measures were immediately taken for organizing its government, and examining its unknown regions. It was divided into the territorial governments of Orleans, which, in 1812, was admitted into the Union as an independent state under the name of Louisiana (see Louisiana, State of), and of Louisiana, afterwards cbanged to Missouri. (See Missouri State, and Missouri Territory.) The firet national expedition was planned by president Jef- ferson, and placed under the command of captain Lewis (q. v.) and lieutenant Clarke (afterwards governor of Missouri), with instructions to ascend the Missouri, cross the Rocky mountains, and descend, by the Columbia, to the Pacific ocean. They began the longest river voyage since the time of Orellana, May 14, 1804. Having wintered at fort Mandau, they continued their voyage next spring, and, after a course of 3000 miles, arrived at the foun- tain head of the Missouri. Fifty days were occupied in crossing the mountains by a difficult road; but shorter and more easy passages have since been discovered. Descending the Columbia to its mouth, they reached the Pacific ocean, at a dis- tance of 4134 miles from their starting- point. They returned by a somewhat shorter route of 3550 miles, having been the first who hael crossed the North American continent, from the Mississippi to the Pacific. (See Lewis and Clarke's Expedition to the Sources of the Missouri, Philadelphia, 1814.) About the same time, lieutenant (afterwards major) Pike was sent to explore the sources of the Missis- sippi, and, on his return from that expe- dition, to survey the country lying between the Rocky mountains and the Mississippi, and examine the sources of the Arkansas and Red rivers. Having arrived at the head of the former, antl suffered much from cold and hunger, on account of the elevated situation of the country, he reach- ed a large river, which he supposed to be the Red river, but which proved to be the Del Norte. He had unconsciously entered the Spanish territories with his party, when they were arrested by Spanish sol- diers, and carried, almost without clothing, to Santa Fe, but were afterwards set at liberty, and returned to Nachitoches. (See Pike's Expedition to the Sources of the Mis- sissippi, Philadelphia, 1810.) In 1819, the federal government organized a new ex- pedition, of a militaiy and scientific na- ture, to examine more carefully, with a view to colonization and defensive estab- lishments, the country east of the Rocky mountains. It was commanded by major Long, and a narrative of it has been writ- ten by doctor James, botanist to the expe- dition. The party embarked at Pittsburg, in a steam-boat, and reached the mouth of the Platte in the middle of September. Having passed the winter on the banks of that river, they resumetl their route in June, 1820, antl crossed the great sandy desert which extends, in a gentle slope, nearly 400 miles, to the base of the Rocky mountains, and nearly 500 miles from north to south. Its surface is fun-owed by ravines, several hundred feet deep, in which are a few stunted trees. On the elevated surface of the desert, not a tree is to be seen; but it is thickly set with the spiny cactus, or prickly pear. Proceeding southwardly, they tlescended the Arkan- sas, and returned with large collections of skins of rare animals, some thousand pre- served insects, and an herbal of 400 or 500 new plants. (See Account of an Expedi- tion to the Rocky Mountains, Philadelphia, 1828.) Another expedition, under general (now governor) Cass, proceeded to explore the British frontiers about the sources of the Mississippi. Schoolcraft was the his- torian of this expedition. (Travels to the Sources of the Mississippi, in 1820, Albany, 1821.) To complete the survey of tbe frontier, major Long was sent, in 1823, with Mr. Keating, to ascend the St. Peter's, a considerable river which falls into the Mississippi. They traced the river to its source (375 miles), and, proceeding north- ward, reached the Red river, which flows into lake Winnipec. (See Narrative of the Second Expedition to St. Peter's River, Lake Winnipec, &c, by WUliam H. Keat- ing.) This completed the general survey of this immense region. Its northern boundary was settled by the convention of 1818 with Great Britain, on a line drawn in 49° from the lake of the Woods to the Rocky mountains: the soudiem, by the treaty of 1819 with Spain, is from the 124 LOUISIANA TERRITORY—LOUISIANA STATE. Sabine river, in 32° N., to the Red river ; then along that river to 100° W., thence directly north to the Arkansas, which it follows to 42° N., and thence, in that par- allel, to the South sea. The states of Louisiana and Missouri, and the territory of the Arkansas (q. v.), have already been set off, and are occupied with a thin, but active and rapidly increasing population. The great mineral and vegetable wealth of this vast region, and its almost unparallel- ed facilities of communication, open a wide prospect to the prosperous, free and happy communities that are springing up in its bosom. The territory west of the Rocky mountains, which seems to belong to the I . States rather by priority of discovery than as a part of the Louisiana purchase, will be described under the head of Oregon. Beside the works already mentioned, consult Char- levoix's Description de la Nouvelle France ; Jefferson's Account of Louisiana ; Stod- .dard's Sketches of Louisiana; and Flint's in- teresting work, Geography and History of the Mississippi Valley (Cincinnati, 1S28.) Louisiana; one of the U. States, form- ed in 1812. It is bounded north by Ar- kansas territory, east by the state of Mis- sissippi and the gulf of Mexico. The eastern boundary line is formed by the river Mississippi, from lat 33° to 31° N.; thence, by the parallel of 31°, to Pearl river; thence by that stream to its mouth. The gulf of Mexico forms the southern boundary, and Sabine river the western, from its mouth to lat. 32° N.; thence the boundary line proceeds due north to lat. 33°, thence due east to the Mississippi; Ion. 89° to 94° 5' W.; lat. 29° to 33° N.; 240 miles long, from north to south, and 210 broad ; square miles, 48,220, or 31,463,000 acres: population, in 1820, 153,407; slaves, 69,064: in 1830, 214,693. The principal rivers are the Mississippi, Red, Ouachitta, Black, Tensaw, Sabine, Calcasiti, Mermentau, Vermilion, Atchaf- alaya, Teche, Pearl, Amite and Iberville. The largest lakes arc Pontchartrain, Mau- repas, Borgiie, Chetimaches, Mermentau, Calcasiu, Sabine, Bistineau, Bodcau and Ocatahoola. All the southern part of this state is a vast alluvial tract of low cham- paign country, extending from lake Borgne to Sabine river, and from the gulf of Mex- ico to Baton Rouge and Red river; about 250 miles long, and from 70 to 140 wide. This extensive tract is intersected by nu- merous rivers, bays, creeks and lakes, dividing the country into a great number of islands. The country about the Balize is one continued swamp, destitute of trees, and covered with a species of coarse reeds, from four to five feet high. Nothing can be more drvarv than a prospect from a ship's mast, while passing this immense waste. A large extent of country in this state is annually overflowed by the Missis-. s-ppi. According to Mr. Darby, the ave- rage width of overflowed lands above Red river, from lat 31° to 33° N., may be as- sumed at 20 miles, equal to 2770 square miles. Below lat 31° to the efflux of the Lafourche, about 80 miles in extent, the inundation is about 40 miles in width, equal to 3200 square miles. All the coun- try below the efflux of the Lafourche is liable to be inundated, equal to 2370 square miles. From this calculation, it appears that 8340 square miles are liable to be in- undated by the overflowing of the Missis- sippi; and if to this bo added 2550 square miles for the inundated lands on Red riv- er, the whole surface of the state liable to inundation, will amount to 10,890 square miles. Of this extent, not one half is ac- tually covered annually with water. The immediate banks of all the streams are seldom, and many of them never, inundat- ed ; and they afford strips of rich, tillable land, from a milrf to a mile, and a half wide. The country between the Missis- sippi, Iberville and Pearl rivers is an im- portant part of :!;o s::.te. The southern half is a level country, yet highly product- ive in cotton, sugar, rice, corn and indigo. The northern part presents an undulating surface, covered with a heavy growth of timber, consisting of white, red antl yel- low oak, hickory, black walnut, sassafras, magnolia and poplar. The district of New Feliciana has been considered, by some, as the garden of Louisiana. The south-western part of the state, comprising the districts of Opelousas and Attakapas, consists mostly of extensive prairies. Some of these prairies are detached, but the lines of woods between them are gen- erally very narrow, and they may be con- sidered as forming one immense meadow. A large portion of these tracts are barren, but some parts, particularly that bordering on the Teche, are very fertile, and contain flourishing settlements. It has been esti- mated, that the prairie lands in the state, including the swamps along the gulf of Mexico, constitute one fifth of its whole surface. The country on both sides of Red river, from its mouth to the limits of the state, is intersected with lakes, whicli are more than 40 in number, and all com- municate with the river. The bottoms on the river are from one to ten miles wide, and of a veiy fertile soil. The timber on the bottoms is willow, cotton-wood, hon- LOUISIANA STATE—CODE OF LOUISIANA. 125 ey-locust, pawpaw and buckeye; on the rich uplands, elm, cucumber, ash, hickory, mulberry, black walnut, with abundance of grape-vines; upon the second-rate, or sandy uplands, white, pitch and yellow pines, and various kinds of oak.—The cli- mate of Louisiana is as cold as that of the Atlantic states about two degrees further north. The orange ceases at about 30°, the sugar-cane at 31°. Sugar and rice are the staples of the state in general south of 30°, and cotton north of that parallel; the latter, however, is extensively culti- vateel in every part of the state. Among the fruits are the apple in the northern parts, the peach, and several species of fig (q. v.), the orange, the pomegranate and grape. The olive-tree is found, and the Provencals, who were settled in Lou- isiana, affirmed that the oil was as good as that of their native country. Indigo was formerly much cultivated, but has been, of late, in a great measure abandon- ed. The rice is remarkably good, and yields abundantly. Some attention has lately been paid to the cultivation of the tea plant; and the finest tobacco is raised, but is not so profitable as sugar and cot- ton. The kinds of cotton cultivated are Louisiana, green seed, or Tennessee, and, recently, Mexican cotton. The amount of sugar made in 1828 was 87,965 hhds.; of molasses, 39,874 hhds.: in 1829, the sugar made was 48,238 hhds.; and, as there are 40 gallons of molasses to each hogs- head of sugar, the hogsheads of molasses must have been somewhat less than half as numerous. The tobacco exported, from Oct 1, 1827, to Oct. 1, 1830, was, for the first l2 months, 35,111 hhds.; for the sec- ond, 25,491; for the third, 28,028. The bales of cotton exported in the same peri- ods were 304,848, 267,949, 351,890. The total of exports of the state, in 1829, was 812,386,060. The value of imports, for the same time, was $6,857,209; amountof ton- nage, 51,903, of which 17,000 was steam- boat tonnage. The arrivals at the port of New Orleans, from Oct. 1, 1829, to Oct. 1, 1830, were 286 ships, 445 brigs, 366 schoon- ers, 33 sloops, 778 steam-boats,—total, 1898. (For an account of the canals, sec Iidand Navigation.) The U. States granted the state 46,080 acres of land for a college, and one thirty-sixth of each township, or 873,000 acres, for schools. There are col- leges at New Orleans and Jackson. In 1827, the legislature made a grant to each parish of $2,62£ to every voter, to be ap- plied to the education of the poor ; in consequence of which nearly $40,000 are annually applied for this purpose. The Catholic is the predominant religion of Louisiana: there are a few Baptists and Methodists. According to returns for 1828, the militia amounted to 12,274 men. The principal towns in the state are New Orleans (q. v.), Donaldson or Donaldson- ville (the seat of government), Nachito- ches, Alexandria, Baton Rouge, Opelou- sas, Galveztown, &c. The constitution differs little from those of the other states (see Constitutions); but the law is not the common law which prevails in the rest of the country, except so far as its provis- ions have been introduced by statute. The civil law, which prevailed under die French dominion, has been retained in its principal features. (See, below, Louis- iana, Code of.) The present white inhab- itants -of Louisiana are descendants of the Spaniards, French and Anglo-Amer- icans, or emigrants from the other states, or from the Spanish colonies. The char- acter of such a mixed population, scattered over a great extent of country, must, of course, be various. The English lan- guage and the Anglo-American institu- tions are, however, assuming the predom- inance. The early histoiy of the state will be found in the preceding article. In 1812, the territory of Orleans, having been found to contain the requisite number of inhabitants, was admitted into the Union, under the name of Louisiana. Jan. 8, 1815, the attack of the English on New Orleans was repulsed by general Jackson. (See New Orleans.) Louisiana, Code of. Most of the U. States, even those which were formerly colonies of France and Spain, have adopt- ed the common law of England, as the basis of their municipal law. The state of Louisiana, however, has steadily ad- hereel to the civil jurisprudence which it derived from the continent of Europe, though, in criminal matters, the English jurisprudence has been followed. The custom of Paiis, which the colonists brought with them, as the law of the new colony, was first reduced to writing in France in 1510, and enlarged and amend- ed in 1580. The deficiencies of the cus- tomary law, both in the mother country and the colony, were supplied by refer- ence to the Roman jurisprudence. Lou- isiana was ceded by France to Spain in 1762, and was taken possession of by this latter power in 1769, when the Spanish law was introduced. The great body of this law, called the Side Partidas, was compiled as early as 1263. The ji'co^ii- lacion de Costilla, published in 1567, vis intended to clear up the confusion of the 126 CODE OF LOUISIANA—LOUISVILLE. previous codes, but it leaves the authority of the Parlidas generally unimpaired. The cession of Louisiana to the U. States necessarily introduced the trial by jury in a modified form, and the writ of habeas corpus, which were unknown to the pre- existing laws. The legislative council of the territory of Orleans borrowed largely from the common law, but principally those forms of proceedings necessary to confer efficient powers on the courts or- ganized under the authority of the Union. But, in the adjudication of suits between individuals, the Spanish jurisprudence was the sole guide, except in commercial questions. In 1806, the legislative coun- cil ordered two able jurists to prepare a civil code for the use of the territory, on the groundwork of the civil laws which governed the territory. It was reported in 1808, and adopted, but was not allowed to supersede the previous laws, except as far as those laws were inconsistent with its provisions.* The "Digest of the Civil Code now in Force in the Territory of Or- leans," as it was called, though termed a code, is, in fact, little more than a synop- sis of the jurisprudence of Spain. It con- tinued in operation for 14 years, without any material innovation. In 1822, Messrs. Derbigny, Livingston and Moreau Lislet were selected by the legislature to revise and amend the civil code, and to adtl to it such of the laws still in force as were not included therein. They were authorized to add a system of commercial law, and a code of practice. The code which they prepared, having been adopted, was pro- mulgated in 1824, under the title of the " Civil Code of the State of Louisiana;" and the legislature resolved, that, "from and after the promulgation of this code, the Spanish, Roman and French laws, which were in force when Louisiana was ceded to the U. States, and the acts of the legislative council of the legislature of die territory of Orleans, and of the legis- .ature of the state of Louisiana, be, and hereby are, repealed in every case for which it has been specially provided in this code." It would seem that where the code is silent on any subject, any preex- isting law on that subject, whether of French or Spanish origin, or of native growth, would be considered as still in force. The new code, independently of the great changes which it has introduced, is much more full and explicit in the doc- * In 1819, a law was passed to encourage and authorize the translation of such parts of the Par- tidas as were conceived to have the force of law in the state, and such a translation was made. trinal parts than the former digest The theory of obligations, particularly, deserves to be "mentioned, as comprising, in a con- densed and even elegant form, the most satisfactory enunciation of general princi- ples. The jurisconsults appear to have profited much by the great work of Toul- lier, entitled Le Droit civU Fran fats. The code contains 3552 articles, numbered from the beginning for convenience of reference. The most striking and mate- rial changes introduced by the new code, relate to the rules of succession, and the enlarged liberty of disposing of property bv last will, by curtailing the portions which must be reserved for forced heirs. The new order of succession conforms to that established in France by the Code Napoleon, and will be found to be copied almost precisely from the 118th novel of Justinian, from which the Spanish rules of descent had deviated in some essential particulars.—The legislature of Louisiana provided also for the formation of a penal cotle, by an act passed in 1820, and in- trusted the charge of preparing it to Mr. Edward Livingston. A plan of a penal code was accordingly drawn up by him, and presented to the legislature in 1822. The manuscript copy of the part of the code which had been prepared, was de- stroyed by fire in 1824, and Mr. Living- ston has been since engaged in repairing the loss, and completing the code. Louisville ; a city of Kentucky, on the Ohio, opposite to the rapids or falls of that river, on a plain elevated about 70 feet above the level of the river; Ion. 85° 3& W.; lat 38° 3' N. The soil is rather sandy, with a substratum of rich clay, from which very good bricks are made. The town is regularly laid out: eight broad and straight streets, parallel with the river, are intersected by 18 others, at right an- gles, running from the river to the south- ern boundary of the city, which is about three miles long, with an average width of upwards of one mile. The population, by the census of 1830, was estimated at about 10,500: a most rapid increase has taken place, and the numbers are now (June, 1831) estimated at 13,000 to 14,000. The public buildings in Louisville are a court-house, gaol, ten houses of public worship, a poor-house, city school and marine hospital, all in good taste. The private buildings are mostly of brick, without much ornament; the warehouses, particularly those whicli have been erect- ed within one or two years, are very ex- tensive. Louisville is the most commer- cial city in the west, commanding the LOUISVILLE. 127 commerce of a great extent of country. It exports tobacco, whiskey, cotton bag- ging and baling, hemp, flour, pork, bacon, lard, and many other productions of the country. Its imports are various and ex- tensive, the easy circumstances of the people whom it supplies creating a large demand for foreign articles of comfort and luxury. The commerce is carried on by upwards of 300 steam-boats, measuring from 50 to 500 tons each, some of which are daily arriving from or departing for all parts of the immense valley of the Mississippi. The arrivals during the last year exceeded 1500, and the departures were about the same number ; this is exclusive of keel and flat boats, which must have amounted to at least that number. Louisville is the great commercial elepot for the country bordering on the Ohio and its tributary waters, and the Mississippi above Natch- ez, the country lying near to the great lakes resorting to this city for many arti- cles of trade. A bridge over the Ohio is contemplated to be built at this place, which will give great facilities to the in- tercourse with the state of Indiana; and a rail-road is about being commenced, to connect the trade of Lexington and the rich counties of the centre of Kentucky with its commercial mart. The public building most worthy of note is the ma- rine hospital, erected from funds granted by the state. It cost about $40,000. It is supported by annual grants from the general marine hospital fund of the U. States, and from a tax on auction sales within the city : this institution annually alleviates the tlistresses of hundreds of sick and infirm boatmen and decayed sea- men. The city school was established in 1830. The building is of brick, and is three stories high: in each story is a sepa- rate school, chiefly on the monitorial plan. It will accommodate about 600 children, and now contains about 400. There are several excellent private schools. A branch of the bank of the U. States was established iu 1817. Louisville has also an insurance-office, three daily papers, and a weekly price-current. There are 50 licensed hacks and about 150 drays and carts. Mail-coaches daily arrive from the great roads, east, west, north and south. Manufactures are yet in their infancy. There is one manufactory of cotton, and one of woollen, three irou founderies, and a steam-engine factory, tanneries, &c. Hats, saddles, shoes, &c, are made. The Louisville and Portland canal is about two miles in length ; it is intended for steam- boats of the largest class, and to overcome a foil of 24 feet, occasioned by an irregular ledge of lime-rock, through which the en- tire bed of the canal is excavated, a part of it to the depth of 12 feet, overlaid with earth. There is one guard and three lift locks combined, all of which have their foundation on the rock. There are two bridges; one of stone, 240 feet long, with an elevation of 68 feet to the top of the parapet wall, and three arches, the centre one of which is semi-elliptical, with a transverse diameter of 6b", and a semi- conjugate diameter of 22 feet; the two side arches are segments of 40 feet span ; the other is a pivot bridge, built over the head of the guard lock, and is of wood, 100 feet long, with a span of 52 feet, in- tended to open, in time of high water, as boats are passing through the canal. The guard lock is 190 feet long in the clear, with semicircular heads of 26 feet in di- ameter; is 50 feet wide, and 42 feet high. The solid contents of this lock are equal to those of 15 common locks, such as are built on the Ohio and New York canals. The lift locks are of the same width with the guard lock, 20 feet high, and 183 feet long in the clear. The en- tire length of the walls, from the head of the guard lock to the end of the outlet lock, is 921 feet. There are three culverts to drain off the water from the adjacent. lands, the mason work of which, when added to the locks and bridge, gives the whole amount of mason work 41,989 perches, equal to about 30 common canal locks. The cross section of the canal is 200 feet at the top of the banks, 50 feet at the bottom, and 42 feet high, having a capacity equal to that of 25 common canals. The Louisville and Portland canal was completed and put in partial operation on the first of January, 1831, from which time up to June 1 of the same year, 505 boats of different descriptions passed its locks. A bank of mud at its mouth, which could not be removed last winter from the too sudden rise of the water, will be re- moved at the ensuing period of low water, when the canal can be navigated at all times, by all such vessels as navigate the Ohio. The Ohio, when the water is lowest, is not more than two feet deep in many places above and below the falls, and rises 36 feet perpendicular above the falls opposite to the city; and 60 feet per- pendicular rises have been known at the foot of the falls. An appropriation of $=150,000, by the U. States, was made last winter, by which the low places in the river are to be improved so as to give four feet of water, in low water, from its mouth 128 LOUISVILLE—LOUVAIN. to Pittsburg. This improvement will much facilitate the intercourse with Lou- isville. Louisville has been allowed by travellers and strangers to be one of the greatest thoroughfares in the Union. At least 50,000 passengers arrive here an- nually from below, and it is reasonable to conclude that half that number pass through it descending. Great bodies of emigrants from the east and nortli pass through it; and it is not uncommon, in the autumn, to see the streets filled, for days together, with continued processions of movers, as they are called, going to the " great west" In former years, Louis- ville had the character of being unhealthy ; but, since the introduction of steam-boat navigation, aud the improved methods of living, no town of its size in the U. States has been more healthy: the year 1822, so fetal to the health of the whole valley of the Mississippi, is the last in which any thing like general sickness has been known in this city. The city government con- sists of a mayor and city council, chosen annually, by the viva voce vote of all resi- dents, in their respective wards. Louse (pediculus). These disagreea- ble and unseemly insects belong to the or- der parasUa (Latr.), and are characterized by having six feet formed for walking, a mouth furnished with a proboscis, anten- na? as long as the thorax, and the ab- domen depressed, and formed of several segments. Almost every species of ani- mal fs frequented by its peculiar louse, sometimes by several kinds: even man is subjected to their attacks. They breed with amazing rapidity, several generations occurring in a short period. Certain cir- cumstances appear to be exceedingly fa- vorable to their increase; as infancy, and that state of the system giving rise to phthiriasis, or the lousy disease. The hu- man race is infested by several species, among which are the P. humanus corporis, or body louse, principally occurring in adults who neglect cleanliness; and the P. humanus capUis, or common louse, most frequent in children. Cleanliness is the best antidote against these disgusting in- truders. The lousy disease, though now of very rare occurrence, appears to have been by no means unfrequent among the ancients. Herod, Antiochus, Callisthenes, Sylla, and many others, are said to have perished from this disorder. Some na- tions consider them as a gastronomic lux- ury, and, at one tune, they were used in* medicine. Those of our readers who wish for full information on these disagreeable parasites, will find ample details respect- ing them in the works of Rhedi, Swam- merdan and Buonanni, who seem to have studied their habits and manners with great assiduity. LoUTHERBOUaG, or Lutherburg, Phil- ip James; a landscape painter of eminence, bom at Strasburg, in 1740. He studied under Tischbein, and afterwards under Casanova, and displayed great talents in the delineation of battles, hunting-pieces, &c. After having been admitted a mem- ber of the academy of painting at Paris, where he was first settled, he removed, in 1771, to London, where he was employed in the decorations of the opera-house, and also at Drury-lane theatre. He subse- quently contrived an exhibition, called the Eidophusikon, somewhat on the plan of the Diorama, which, however, did not prove a very profitable speculation. In 1782, he was nominated a royal academi- cian ; and, as a landscape painter, he pos- sessed deserved celebrity. He also paint- ed some historical pictures, as the Victory of Lord Howe, and the Siege of Valen- ciennes. His character was eccentric, and he was so far infatuated with the rev- eries of animal magnetism, as to have ac- companied the impostor Cagliostro (q. v.) to Switzerland. He returned to England, and died near London, in 1812. Louvain (Dutch, Loeven, Leuven); for- merly the capital of one of the four dis- tricts of the duchy of Brabant; more lately of a circle in the province of South Bra- bant, kingdom of the Netherlands; at pres- ent belonging to Belgium. Louvain is situated on the river Dyle, and a canal leading from this river to the Rupel, five leagues E. N. E. from Brussels ; lat 50° 53* 26" N.; Ion. 4° 41' 54" E. There are seven churches, five convents, a magnifi- cent hospital, 4000 houses, and 25,400 in- habitants. John IV, duke of Brabant, founded the university in 1426, to which belonged four colleges, a considerable library, a botanical garden, and an anatom- ical theatre. In the sixteenth century, it contained 6000 students. Having become extinct during the French revolution, it was restored as a lyceum (q. v.), and, Oct. 6, 1817, again formally reestablished. The number of students is 580. In 1825, a philosophical college for Catholic cler- gymen was founded, with the intention of raising the standard of learning among the candidates for holy orders; but the cler- gy were so much against it, that in 1830, when a Catholic minister was appointed for the affairs of Belgium, the philosoph- ical college was abolished. Louvain has greatly contributed to nourish that spirit LOUVAIN—LOUVET DE COUVRAY. 129 of opposition, which the Catholic Belgians have manifested towards the government of the Netherlands, and of which the sep- aration of Belgium has been the conse- quence. In the beginning of the fourteenth century, when the city had 200,000 inhab- itants, the woollen manufactures support- ed lOO,000 workmen, many of whom, after the insurrection of 1378, emigrated to England, and founded the English woollen manufactures. The most im- portant article of industry is beer, of which 150,000 casks are exported annually. There are from 10 to 12 lace manufacto- ries. The commerce in corn and hops is considerable. During the late revolution, the inhabitants embraced with ardor the cause of independence, and repelled with courage (Oct 23, 1830) the attacks of the Dutch. Louvel, Pierre Louis, the assassin of the duke of Berry, son of a Catholic mer- cer, was born at Versailles in 1783, and served as saddler in the royal stables. From his youth upwards, he was of a gloomy and reserved disposition, and im- patient of contradiction, but industrious and temperate. He often changed his master, and oftener his residence. From all circumstances, it is evident that he was fanatical and eccentric. He hated the Bourbons, and wished to extirpate the family, the duke of Berry in particular, because he was expected to continue the line. Feb. 13,1820, about 11 o'clock in the evening, when the prince was con- ducting his wife from the opera to the carriage, Louvel pressed towards him, seizeel him by the left shoulder, and stab- bed him with a knife in his right side. Upon the firet cry of the prince, the sol- diers of the guards pursued the mur- derer, who was apprehended and con- ducted into the guard-room of the opera- house. He was examined in the presence of the minister Decazes, and immediately avowed, that, 6ix years previous, he had formed the resolution of delivering France from the Bourbons, whom he considered the worst enemies of the country; that, after the duke of Berry, he had intended to murder the rest, and, finally, the king. His trial was conducted by the chamber of peers. The investigations continued three months, and 1200 witnesses were examined, in order to discover accom- plices. At length Bellart, the attorney- geueral, declared in the indictment (May 12), that none had been tliscovered. June 5, Louvel, between his two counsel, was placed at the bar of the chamber of peers, sitting as a court of justice. The chan- cellor D'Ambray, president of tbe cham- ber, examined him. Louvel declared that no personal offence had induced him to commit the murder, but only au exaspera- tion, created by the presence of the foreign troops, as early as 1814 ; that, in order to distract his thoughts, he had travelled, and visited the island of Elba, but, in that place, had no conference with Napoleem or his attendants; that, after Napoleon's return from Elba, he was taken into ser- vice as saddler in the imperial stables, and, hence, had obtained this station in the royal stables. No political party, no indi- vidual, had persuaded him to commit This act He had read no newspapers nor pamphlets. He admitted that his deed was a horrible crime; but stated that he had determined to sacrifice himself for France. Louvel's defenders alleged a monomania, or an insanity consisting in a fixed idea, and appealed to the dying request of the prince for the pardon of his murderer. Louvel then read his defence. The high court of justice condemned him to death. After a long delay, he admitted the visit of a clergyman, but, on the day of his ex- ecution (July 7, 1820), paid no attention to his words, directing his eyes over the multitude, which witnessed his execution in silence.—See Maurice Mejan's Hist, du Proch de Louvel, assassin, &c. (2 vols., Paris, 1820). Louvertcre. (See Toussaint-Louver- ture.) Louvet de Cow ray, John Baptist; a French advocate, distinguished as an actor in the revolution. At the commencement of the political commotions, he joined the pop- ular party, and displayed a decided aver- sion to royalty and nobility. He publish- ed a romance, entitled Emilie de Varmont, ou le Divorce nicessaire (1791), in support of the prevalent opinions relative to mar- riage, and spoke at the bar of the national assembly in favor of a decree of accusa- tion against the emigrant princes. In 1792, he was chosen a deputy to the con- vention, when he attached himself to the party of the Girondists, and voted for the death of Louis XVI, with a proviso, that execution should be delayed till after the acceptance of the constitution by the peo- ple. He was denounced by the terrorists, and includeel in an order of arrest issued June 2, 1794. Having escaped from the capital, he retired to Caen, with several of his colleagues, and employed himself in writing against the Jacobins. He was de- clared mi outlaw; on whicli he fled to Brittany, and thence to the department of the Garonne. At length he separated 130 LOUVET DE COUVRAY—LOUVOIS. from his companions, and returned to Paris, where he kept himself concealed till after the fall of Robespierre. He sub- sequently published an account of his ad- ventures during the time of his proscrip- tion, entitled Notices sur I'Histoire et le RicU de mes Perils—a work written in a romautic 6tyle, which bas been translated into English and other languages. Louvet recovered his seat in the convention in March, 1795, aud he occupied the presi- dency in June following. He was after- wards a member of the council of five hun- dred, which he quitted in May, 1797, and died at Paris, August 25 of that year. He is chiefly knovvu in literature as the au- thor of a licentious novel—La Vie du Chev- alier Faublas. Louvois, Francois Michel Letellier, marquis of, minister of war to Louis XIV, sou of the chancellor Letellier, born at Paris in 1641, was early made a royal counsellor through the influence of his father. He displayed so little inclination for business, and so great a love of pleas- ure, that his father threatened to deprive him of the reversion of the secretariship in the war department, which had been conferred on him at the early age of 13. From this moment young Louvois aban- doned his habits of dissipation, and de- votetl himself to business. After 1666, he had the whole management of the ministry of war, and soon exercised a des- potic control over his master and over the army. His extensive knowledge, his de- cision, activity, industry and talents, ren- dered him an able minister; but he cannot aspire to the praise of a great statesman. He was too regardless of the rights of human nature; too lavish of the blood and treasure of France; too much of a despot, to deserve that honorable appella- tion. His reforms in the organization of the army; his manner of conducting the ware of his ambitious master, if they were not rather his own; and, above all, his successes, render his administration bril- liant—See Audouin's Histoire de I'Ad- ministration de la Guerre (Paris, 1811.)— •But, justly appreciated, Louvois must be considered as the evil genius of the showy but disastrous reign of Louis XIV. While the king was flattered with the idea of having formed the young minister, and of directing his government in person, every thing was, in fact, done by Louvois, and according to his views. The generals were all required to communicate imme- diately with him; and, although Turenne would not submit to this order, yet the king showed all his letters to his minister, and answered them according to his sug- gestions. Bold and grasping schemes, which could be executed only by the un- wearied activity and industry of Louvois, were proposed by him for the purpose of rendering himself necessary to Louis, who, he was conscious, disliked him personally. Hence, notwithstanding the solemn renun- ciations of all claims to Franche-Comte and the Spanish Netherlands (see Louis XIV, and France), war was undertaken (1667 and 1669) to get possession of them. The war of 1672, against Holland, was begun at the instigation of Louvois, and would have been finished much sooner, had he not, contrary to the wishes of Conde and Turenne, insisted upon occu- pying the fortresses, and thus given the Dutch time to open their sluices. The victories of Turenne (q. v.), in 1674 and 1675, were gained by a disobedience of the orders of the minister of war; but the desolation of the Palatinate was com- manded by him. The system of reunion, as it is called (see Louis XIV), was now adopted, and Louvois took possession of Strasburg, in the time of peace (1680). On the death of Colbert (1683), of whom he had been the enemy, his influence became still greater, and one of its most fatal effects was the revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685), the dragonnades, and the consequent flight of so many peaceful and industrious Calvinists. Lou- vois was now superintendent of the royal buildings, and, on occasion of a dispute with the king about the size of a window, in which the latter had spoken severely to him, " The king," said the minister, " be- gins to meddle with every thing; we must give him something to do; he shall have a war;" and a pretext was soon found. The system of riunion had united the European powers in the league of Augsburg; and it was determined to seize on Philipsburg, one of the bulwarks of Germany. This was done with so much secrecy as to prevent the place being relieved. The French arms were successful but disgraced by the horrid burnings and devastations committed by the direction of Louvois. The Palatinate was reduced to a wilderness in mid-winter (1689). The war was conducted with great ability by Louvois; but his arrogance had long rendered him odious to Louis. The king's dislike had been increased by the cruel devastations of the Palatinate, and when the minister proposed to him to complete the desolation by the burning of Treves, he refused his consent Louvois replied, that, to spare his majesty's con- LOUVOIS—LOVELACE. 131 science, he had already despatched a cou- rier with orders to that effect. Louis, filled with indignation, was prevented from strik- ing his minister only by the interference of madame de Maintenon. Soon after, on presenting himself at the royal council, he discovered, or fancied he discovered, in the countenance and words of the king, marks of severity, and was obliged by faintness to retire to his hotel, where he died within half an hour. Whatever may be our feelings at the arrogance, cruelty and despotism of Louvois, we cannot de- ny him the merit of having organized the brilliant victories of the reign of Louis. Louvre ; the old royal palace at Paris, on the north bank of the Seine, a splendid quadrangular edifice, with a court in the centre, completed by Napoleon. The ori- gin of its name, and the time of the erec- tion of the oldest part of it, are unknown. We only know that Philip Augustus, in 1214, built a fort and a state prison in this place; that Charles V, during the years 1364—80, added some embellishments to the building, and brought his library and his treasuiy thither; and that Francis I, in 1528, erected that part of the palace which is now called the old Louvre. Henry IV laid the foundation of the splendid gallery which connects the Lou- vre, on the south side, with the Tuileries; Louis XIII erected tbe centre; and Louis XIV, according to the plan of the physi- cian Perrault, the elegant facade towards the east, together with the colonnade of the Louvre, which, even now, is the most perfect work of architecture in France. At a later period, Louis XIV chose the palace built by him at Versailles for his residence. After Napoleon had taken possession of the Tuileries, he began a second gallery, opposite to the former, by whicli the two palaces would have been made to form a great whole, with a large quadrangular court in the centre; only 600 feet of' it were completed at the time of his abdication, and it has not since been continued. Since the revolution, the col- lection of antiquities has been kept in the lower floor of the Louvre. Here, also, the exhibitions of national industry take place, antl the academies hold their ses- sions.—To have the privilege of the Louvre, formerly meant, in France, a permission to drive, with a coach, into the courts of all the royal palaces. At first, tliis was the prerogative of the princes only ; but, in 1607, when a duke, under the pretence of indisposition, rode into die Louvre, Henry IV gave him (and, in 1609, the duke of Sully also) permission constantly to do so. At last, during the minority of the king Louis XIII, all the high officers of the crown, and dukes, obtained this privilege from Mary of Medici. Lovat (Simon Frazer), commonly call- ed lord; a Scottish statesman, born in 1667. He was educated in France, among the Jesuits, and, returning to his native country, he entered into the army, and, in 1692, he was a captain in the regi- ment of Tullibardine. After having com- mitted some acts of violence in taking possession of his hereditary estate, he fled to France, and gained the confidence ot the old pretender, which he made use of, on his return to Scotland, in order to ruin his personal enemies. He again went to France, where he was imprisoned in the Bastile, and was liberated only on condi- tion of taking religious orders, in pursu- ance of which engagement he is said to have become a Jesuit. In 1715, he a sec- ond time betrayed the pretender, and he was rewarded by the government of George I with the title of Lovat, and a pension. He now led a quiet life, uniting in his own person the contradictory char- acters of a Catholic priest and a father of a family, a colonel and a Jesuit, a Hano- verian lordj and a Jacobite laird. Not- withstanding the favors he had received, he engaged in the rebellion in 1745; and, after having displayed his usual craft and audacity, he was finally seized, tried, con- demned, and executed in April, 1747, at the age of 80. Notwithstaneling his age, infirmities, and a conscience supposed to be not wholly void of offence, he died, says Smollett, like a Roman, exclaiming, Dulce et decorum pro patria niori. A vol- ume of autobiographical memoirs, by this restless and unprincipled politician, was published in 1797 (8vo.). Love-Feast. (See Agape.) Lovelace, Richard, a poet of the seven- teenth centuiy, was born about 1618, and educated at Oxford. On leaving Oxford, he repaired to court, entered the army, and became a captain. He expended the whole of his estate in the support of the royal cause, and, after entering into die French service, in 1648, returned to Eng- land, and was imprisoned until the king's death, when he was set at liberty. His condition was, at this time, very destitute, and strongly contrasted with Anthony Wood's gay description of his handsome person and splendid appearance in the outset of life. He died in great poverty, in an obscure alley, in 1658. His poems, which are fight and elegant, but occasion- ally involved and fantastic, are published 132 LOVELACE—LO WEND A L. under the title of Lucasta, under which noted for the extent of its water power, its name he complimented Miss Lucy Sach- manufacturing establishments, and the ra- everell, a young lady to whom he was at- pidity of its growth ; situated at the junc- tached, who, on a false report of his death, tion of the Concord and Merrimack nv- married another person. Colonel Love- ere; bounded by the former on the east, lace, who, for spirit and gallantry, has and the latter on the north ; Indian name, been compared to sir Philip Sidney, also Wamasit; the seat of a tribe of praying wrote two plays, the Scholar, a comedy, Indians, at the breaking out of Philip s and the Soldier, a tragedy. war, in 1675; incorporated in 1826 ; nam- Lover's Leap; the name of a cliff, 144 ed from Francis C. Lowell, of Boston, feet high, in the island of Leucadia (q. v.). who was distinguished by his successful Low Countries. (See Netherlands.) efforts in introducing the cotton manu- Low Dutch and High Dutch ; used facture into the U. States. The hydraulic improperly for Dutch and German. The power of Lowell is produced by a canal, two languages are quite distinct, so that a completed in 1823, 1£ mile in lengdi, 60 German ami a Dutchman cannot under- feet wide, and carrying 8 feet in depth of stand each other any better than a French- water. A portion of the waters of the man and a German. In fact, the Dutch Merrimack is forced through this canal by language resembles the English more a dam at the head of Pawtucket falls, and than it does the German, so that a Ger- is distributed in various directions, by man understands it much easier, if he has channels branching off from the main a knowledge of English. The reason is, canal, and discharging into the Concord that both, Dutch and English, are main- and Merrimack rivers. The entire fall is ly derived from the Low German. The 30 feet, and the volume of water which frequent confusion of the terms Dutch the canal is capable of carrying, is esti- ande German probably arises from the mated at 1250 cubic feet per second, fur- circumstance, that the proper name of nishing 50 mill powers of 25 cubic feet German is Deutsch, antl that of Gcrma- per second each. In some instances, the iiy, Deulschland, and that the Germans whole power is used at one operation, ap- and Dutch were originally considered as plied to wheels of 30 feet diameter ; but one nation by the inhabitants of England, more frequently the power is divided into (See Dutch, and Low German.) two distinct falls of 13 and 17 feet each. Low Water; the lowest point to which The water power is heltl and disposed of the tide ebbs. (See the article Tide.) by a company, holding a large amount of Lowell; 25 miles N. W. from Boston; real estate, with a capital of $600,000. Manufacturing Establishments now in Operation. Name. Capital. No. of Mills. Manufacture. Merrimack co., $1,500,000, 5, with bleaching and print works. . printed calicoes. Hamilton co., . . 800,000, 3, with bleaching and print works, j i^stuffi^huSn^" Appleton co., . . 500,000, 2...................\ coarae. *^& and 1 r ( sheetings. Lowell co.,_____400,000, 2...................\ mSro c,?t]ls> carPet- ( nigs. Woollen factory,..........................5 broadcloths, cassi- ( meres, &c. Neiv Worses, erecting by Companies which have been organized. Suffolk co., . . . 450,000, 2 mills,.................coarae cottons. Treinont mills, '. 500,000, 2....................cottons. Lawrence co., . 1,200,000, 4....................printed cottons. The quantity of cotton manufactured at dertaken as soon as surveys are corn- Lowell, in 1831, is estimated at 17,000 pleted. bales, of 300 pounds each. Population, LSwenoal, Ulrich Frederic Wolde- by the census of 1830, 6477; churches, 8; mar, count of, great grandson of Frederic viz. Congregational 3, Episcopal 1, Baptist III, king of Denmark, born 1700, at 1, Methodist 1, Universalis! 1, Roman Hamburg, began his military career in Catholic 1 ; 2 banks. A charter for a Poland (1713), became captain in 1714, rail-road from Boston to Lowell was and entered the Danish service, as a vol- granted in 1830 ; the capital for which, unteer, during the war with Sweden. In .§600,000, has been subscribed, to be un- 1716, he served in Hungary, and distin- LOWENDAL—LOW GERMAN. 133 guished himself at the battle of Peter- wardein, and at the sieges of Temeswar and Belgrade. He next took part in the ware in Sardinia and Sicily, and was pres- ent at all the battles from 1718 to 1721. During peace, he studied gunnery and en- gineering, and was made field-marshal and inspector-general of the Saxon in- fantry in the service of Augustus, king of Poland. The death of this monarch (1733) gave him an opportunity of dis- tinguishing himself by his valiant defence of Cracow. Having entered the service of the empress of Russia, she was so well satisfied with his conduct in the Crimea anil Ukraine, that she appointed him com- mander of her forces. In 1743, he was made lieutenant-general in the French service, and, at the sieges of Menin, Ypres and Friburg, was conspicuous for his courage and skill. In 1745, he com- manded the corps of reserve at the battle of Fontenoy, in whicli he took an hon- orable share. After having taken many strong places in Flanders, he obtained possession of Bergen-op-Zoom, by storm, September 16, 1747. This place, till then, had been considered impregnable, and was occupied by a strong garrison, antl covered by a formidable army. The fol- lowing day, he received the staff of mar- shal. He died 1755. Lowendal- was thoroughly acquainted with engineering, geography and tactics, and spoke Latin, German, English, Italian, Russian and French, with fluency. With these ac- complishments, he combined modesty and amiableness of disposition, though a devotee of pleasure, like the marshal Saxe, his most intimate friend, whom he also resembled in his application to mili- tary studies. Lower Empire (Bas Empire); a term applied to the Roman empire during the period of its decline. From the establish- ment of the seat of government at Byzan- tium (Constantinople), and the division of the empire into the Eastern and Western, the former is often called the Byzantine (q. v.) empire, and, after the restoration of the Western or Latin empire, under Char- lemagne, the Greek empire. Lebeau's Histoire du Bas Empire begins with the reiublic buildings, plain. The cathedral is arge, but in a bad style ; the palace is old, and without beauty. The Accademia degli Oscuri, founded in 1584, was reorganized in 1805, under the title Accademia Luc- chesina di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, by prince Bacciocchi. Here is also a university with an observatory. It is the see of an archbishop, and contains two large wool- len, and considerable silk manufactories. The inhabitants carry on a trade in oil and silk, and are actively engaged in agricul- ture. The beautiful environs of the town are adorned with country seats. In the vicinity are a mineral bath and the harbor of Viareggio. Lucchesini, Girolamo, marquis of, for- merly Prussian minister of state, descended from a patrician family of Lucca, where he was bom in 1752, was introduced by the abbe Fontana to Frederic II, about 1778, who took him into his service as librarian, with the title of a chamberlain. Lucchesini, the literary friend of Frederic II, firet received a diplomatic appoint- ment under his successor, being sent to Warsaw, where, at the opening of the council of state, in 1788, he exerted him- self with great activity, encouraged the advocates of independence against Russia, and, in March, 1790, brought about an alliance between Prussia and Poland. In 1791, he was present at the congress of Reichenbach, in the capacity of a plenipo- 140 LUCCHESINI—ST. LUCIA. tentiary, for effecting, in conjunction with the English and Dutch ministers, a peace between the Turks and the emperor. In July, 1792, he went once more to War- saw, where he was compelled, by existing circumstances, to break the alliance that he himself had signed. In Jai/aary, 1793, the king appointed him his ambassador to Vienna; he, however, accompanied the king during the greater part of that cam- paign. Iu March, 1797, he was recalled from Vienua, and, in September, 1802, was seut, as ambassador extraordinary, to Paris, and afterwards visited Napoleon at Milan. The breaking out of the war between Prussia and France, in October, 1806, was unjustly ascribed to his instiga- tion. He accompanied the king to the battle of Jena, then signed an armistice with Napoleon at CJiarlottenburg, of which, however, the kiDg did not ap- prove ; in consequence of which, as he believed himself to have lost the favor of the king, he took his dismission, in order to return to Lucca. He was afterwards chamberlain to Napoleon's sister, the princess of Lucca, and accompanied her to Paris on the occasion of her brother's second marriage. Count Segur, in his Tableau historique et politique de I'Europe, passes the following judgment on his Polish mission: " No man was better atlapted for the post than he. His ac- tivity left no opportunity unimproved. Vigilant in accomplishing his object, and rapid in choosing the best means, the marquis of Lucchesini combined the qual- ities of an experienced courtier with the practical knowledge of a statesman. Learned without pedantry, his great mem- ory supplied him useful facts for the pur- poses of business, as well as interesting anecdotes for conversation. His intimacy with Frederic II procured him a great influence; his powers of insinuation ena- bled him to penetrate into the interior of all characters; his sagacity easily removed die veil from all mysteries ; and his zeal and activity, which gave him an open and frank appearance, concealed his real views, and persuaded the Poles that he was as ardently engaged for the promo- tion of their welfare as his own." His work concerning the confederacy of the Rhine, Sulle Cause e gli Effetti della Con- federazione Renana, etc. (Italy, 1819), was published at Rome, and in a German translation also, by Von Halem, at Leipsic (3 vols., 1821). In the Atti della R. Accad. Lucches. di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, I (Lucca, 1821), he contributed a paper on the history of Frederic II. He died at Florence, Oct. 19, 1825. He must not be confounded with the marquis Cesare Lucchesini, counsellor of state in Lucca, whose DdV lllustruzione deUe Lingue a»- tiche e moderne e principalmente ddl'^ haliana, procurata net Secolo XVIII dagl' Italiani (Lucca, 1819, 2 vols.), is a contin- uation of the work of Denina. He has also published Fragments for the Lite- rary History of Lucca. Lucerne (Luzern); a canton of Swit- zerland (q. v.), bounded N. by Aarau and Zug, E. by Schweitz, and S. and W. by Berne ; superficial ansa, 800 square miles ; population, 105,600 Catholics. The elevation of the country is great, but it contains no very lofty summits; mount Pilate, 7100 feet high, is the principal. The soil is generally fruitful, antl more corn is produced than is consumed in the canton. Great numbers of cattle arc raised, and cheese is therefore among the chief exports. The people are of German origin, and in a very comfortable condi- tion. Lucerne joined the Swiss confede- racy in 1332; its constitution is repre- sentative, but founded on aristocratic principles. The sovereign power resides in the hundred, a senate elected for life by the richer citizens. Two presidents (Schultheissen) exercise the executive pow- er alternately for a year. Lucerne was one of the 11 cantons in which funda- mental changes in the cantonal constitu- tions were demanded by the people in October, 1830. An account of the move- ments at that time will be found in the article Switzerland.—Lucerne, the capital, is on the lake of Lucerne and the river Reuss. It contains 6700 inhabitants, and is, alternately with Berne and Zurich, the seat of a papal nuncio. The cathedral contains one of the finest organs in Eu- rope. General Pfyffer's tojiographical model of a large part of Switzerland, in relief, is to be seen here; and in the vicinity is a lion, sculptured in relief on a rock (1820), to commemorate the massacre of die Swiss guards, in the Tuileries. The lake of Lucerne is a portion of the large lake of Vierwald- stadtereee. Lucia, St., or St. Alousie ; one of the Caribbee islands, in the Wrest Indies, be- longing to Great Britain ; 27 miles long, and 12 broad; seven leagues south of Martinico ; Ion. 61° W.; lat 13= 37' N. This island exhibits a variety of hills, and, among others, two that are remarkably round and high, said to be volcanoes. At the bottom of these are plains, finely watered with rivers, and very fertile. ST. LUCIA—LUCINA. 141 The air, by the disposition of the hills, which admit the trade-winds into the island, is very healthy. The soil proeluces timber, cocoa and fustic, and is well adapted for the cultivation of sugar and coffee. It is provided with many bays and harbors, the chief of which, called Little Carenage, is accounted the best in all the Caribbees. Population in 1803, 16,640 ; whites, 1290; people of color, 1660; slaves, 13,690 : in 1810, 20,000. The town of Carenage contains 5000 or 6000 inhabitants, and Castres 3000 or 4000. Lucian, a Greek author, distinguished for his ingenuity and wit, was born in Samosata, the capital of Comagene, on the Euphrates, during the reign of Trajan. He was of humble origin, and was placed, while young, with his uncle, to study statuary; but being unsuccessful in his firet attempts, he went to Antioch, and devoted himself to literature and forensic rhetoric. He soon, however, confined himself to the latter, and travelled in sev- eral countries (among others, Greece, Ita- ly, Spain and Gaul) as a rhetorician. Iu the reign of Marcus Aurelius, he was made procurator of the province of Egypt, and died in the reign of Commodus, 80 or 90 years old. The works of Lucian, of which many have come down to us, are narrative, rhetorical, critical and satir- ical, mostly in the form of dialogues. The most popular are those in which he ridicules with great wit the popular my- thology and the philosophical sects, par- ticularly his Dialogues of the Gods, and of the Dead. They have given him the character of being the wittiest of the an- cient writers. He seems not to belong to any system himself, but he attacks im- posture and superstition freely and boldly w herever he finds them. The Epicureans, who, in this respect, agree with him, are therefore treated with more forbearance. The Christian religion, of which, howev- er, he knew little, and that only through the medium of mysticism, was an object of his ridicule. In his sarcasm, he not unfrequently oversteps the bounds of truth, sometimes repeats calumnies against elevated characters, and occasionally, ac- cording to the notions of our time, offends against decency, though, in general, he shows himself a friend of morality. The best editions of his works are by Bourdo- let (Paris, 1615, fob), by Hemsterhuis and Reitz (Amsterdam, 1743, 4 vols.,4to.), and the Bipont (10 vols., 8vo.). Among the English translations are those of Spence, Hickes and Franklin. Lucien Bonaparte. (See Appendix, end of this volume.) Lucifer (light-bearer; with the Greeks, phosphorus); a son of Jupiter and Aurora. As leader of the stare, his office, in com- mon with the Hours, was to take care of the steeds and chariot of the sun ; and he is represented riding em a white horse, as the precursor of his mother ; therefore the morning star. He is also the evening star (Hesperus), and in this character has a dark-colored horse. For this reason, riding horses (desultorii) were consecrated to him, and the Romans gave him the name of Desultor. It has long been known, that the evening and morning star are one and the same, viz. the beautiful and bright planet Venus.—The name of Lucifer is also given to the prince of darkness, an allegorical explanation of the fathers of the church making a passage of Isaiah (ix, 2^), in which the king of Babylon is compared with the morning star, refer to the evil one. Lucilius, Cains Ennius, a Roman knight, grand uncle to Pompey the Great on the maternal side, bom at Suessa (B.C. 149), served his first campaign against Numantia, under Scipio Africanus, with whom he was very intimate. He is con- sidered the inventor of the Roman satire, because he first gave it the form under which this kind of poetry was carried to perfection by Pereius, Horace and Juve- nal. His satires were superior, indeed, to the rude productions of an Ennius and Pacuvius, but he, in turn, was surpassed by those who followed him. Horace com- pares him to a river which carries along precious dust mixed with much useless rubbish. Of 30 satires which he wrote, only some fragments have been preserved in various editions, of whicli those of Dou- sa (Leyden, 1597, 4to.; Amsterdam, 1661, 4to.; and Padua, 1735) are esteemed the best. In his lifetime, tbese satires had an uncommon popularity. He died at Naples about 103 B. C.—There was also another Lucilius, who wrote a didactic poem^Etna, edited by Corallus (Le Clerc), Amster- dam, 1803. Lucina, a surname of Juno (according to some, of Diana; according to others, the name of a daughter of Jupiter and Juno), is derived either from lucus (grove, because her temple stood in a grove), or lux (light, because children are brought to' light at birth), or from luceo (I shine, as denoting the moon). Her festival was celebrated March 1, on which occasion the matrons assembled in her temple, adorned it with flowers, and implored a I «2 LUCLN A—LUCRETII S. happy and brave posterity, fecundity and an easy delivery. (Sec lldhyia.) Luckner, Nicholas; a uaron of the German empire, born at Campen in Ba- varia, who became a general in the French army. In the seven ytare' war, having displayed consid.Table talents as a com- mander of hussars, he was, on the occur- rence of peace, invited to enter into the service of France, in which he obtained the rank of lieutenant-general. Iu 1/89, he sided with the revolutionary party, an.I, from the beginning of 1/91, ho belli vari- ous military employments. His age, ex- perience anil reputation occasioned his being placed in situations to which his abilities were unequal. In December, 1791, he received the baton of marshal; and a few months after, he was appointed generalissimo of the French armies. After having made his appearance at Paris, where he enjoyed a short-lived popularity, and showed a disposition to support the king's constitutional authority, he went to take the command of his army at Stras- burg. After August 10, 17!>2, he lost the chief command. He went to Paris to jus- tify himself before the national conven- tion, in January, 1793, antl was ordered to retire wherever lie thought proper. Hav- ing some time after dcmainied payment of a pension due to him, he was arrested and put to death. Lucknow; a city of Bengal, capital of a circar of the same name, in Otitic, situ- ated on the Goomty ; 95 miles N.N. W. of Allahabad, and 215 S. E. of Delhi; Ion. 80° hU E.; lat 26° 24' N.; popula- tion, in 1800, estimated at up wares of 300,000; since that time it is thought to have diminished ; it was formerly esti- mated as high as 500,000. It is a very ancient city, and the residence of the gov- ernors or nabobs of Oude. It is by no means a handsome town, the streets being very irregular and narrow; some of the houses of brick, but most of them mud walls, covered with tiles. The situation is bad, and the soil is a white sand, which, in hot weather, is driven about by the wind, and pervades every thing. The gilt domes of die mosques and the mauso- leum of Azoph ud Dowleh give it a gay appearance at a distance. In the vicinity of the city stand the houses of the British resident and other European inhabitants. The Goomty is navigable for middling- sized vessels at all seasons. Lucon, or Luconia; the principal of the Philippine islands, in the Eastern seas, belonging to Spain, sometimes called Ma- nilla, from its capital; between lat. 13° and 19° N; Ion. 120° to 124° E. ; about 400 ni.lt-strum iionh to south, and from 90 to 12eJ in breadth ; square miles, about 65,000. The counti \ is generally mountainous, an elevated ridge extending die whole length. Tin re are several volcanoes, and earth- quakes are frequent, and sometimes de- structive; those of 1650, 17o4 and lr-24, are still rem inhered with terror. The cli- mate is moist, but temperate tor the lati- tude, and the soil fertile. Cotton, indigo, sugar, tobacco, coffee, and other tropical produce, grow in great abundance ; also the richest fruits of the East and West Indies. There are 40 different sorts of palm-trees, excellent cocoas and cassia, wild cinnamon, wild nutmegs, ebony, san- dal-wood, and excellent timber lor ship- building. Gold is lbuiid upon the moun- tains, and is washed down by rains. Cat- tle abound ; civet cats are common, and ambergris is thrown upon the coasts in great quantities. The commerce is con- siderable ; the principal exports are indi- go, coffee, pepper, rice, sugar and pearls. In 182*.", of 81 vessels engaged iu this trade, 29 were Spanish and 21 Am. rican. The population is 1,37(5,000, and is com- posed of Spaniards, who are few, aborigi- nal blacks, Malays, Metis and Creoles. The negroes are chiefly in the interior, and are in a very barbarous state. The Malays, among whom the principal tribe is the Tubals, are in part independent, and in part subj ct to the Spaniards. Brave, active, gay and industrious, when not ru- in (I by the tyranny of the Europeans, they are rendered by oppression cruel and rapacious. Lucon was discovered by Magellan, in 1521, and conquered by the Spaniards iu 1571. (See Philippines.) Lucretia ; a Roman lady of distin- guished virtue;, whose ill treatment by Sextus Tarquin led to the destruction of the kingdom, and the formation of the re- public of Rome. She was the wife of Collatinus, a near relation of Tarquin, king of Rome. Sextus Tarquinius, who contrived to become a guest in the ab- sence of her husband, whose kinsman he was, found means to reach her chamber in the middle of the night, and threatened, unless she gratified his desires, to stab her, kill a slave, and place him by her side, and then swear that he had slain them both in the act of adultery. The fear of infamy succeeded. She afterwards summoned her husband, father and kindred, and, after acquainting them with the whole transac- tion, drew a dagger, and stabbed herself to the heart (See Brutus, Lucius Junius.) Lucretius, Titus Carus, a Roman LUCRETIUS—LUCULLUS. 143 knight, probably born 95 B. C, is sup- posed to have studied the Epicurean phi- losophy at Athens, lie is said to have been made insane by a philtre, and, in his lucid intervals, to have produced several works, but to have committed suicide in his 44th year. We possess, of his composi- tion, a didactic poem, in six hooks,DeRerum Natura, in which he exhibits the prin- ciples of the Epicurean philosophy with an original imagination, and in forcible language. The unpoetical subject of the poem must, of itself, make it, on the whole, a failure; but parts, notwithstand- ing, such as the description of human misery, the force of the passions, the ter- rible pestilence of Greece, &c, demon- strate that Lucretius was possessed of great poetical talents. By reason of his anti- quated terms, and the new meanings which he gave to words, Quinctilian him- self regarded his poem as very hard to be understood. The principal editions are those of Creech (Oxford, 1695; London, 1717; Basle, 1770, &c), of Havercamp (Leyden, 1725, 2 vols., 4to.), and of Wake- field (London, 1796, 3 vols., 4to.). A masterly Gorman translation, in the metre of the original, has been executed by Knebel (Leipsic, 1821, 4to.). The Italian version by Marchetti, and the French by Pongerville, are also good. The poem has also been translated into English by Creech, by Bushy and by Good. Good's transla- tion is accompanied by the text of Wake- field, and by elaborate annotations. Lucullus, Lucius Licinius; the con- queror of Mithridatcs. Being chosen adilis curulis, at the same time with his brother Marcus Licinius, he manifested, in the Marsian war, ability and courage. In the civil wars of Sylla and Marius, he sided with the former. In the year of the city 679, he was appointed consul and commander of the army which was to proceed to Cilicia against Mithridates. Having already served against Mithridates with an inferior command during his questorship, he was acquainted with this country. He firet sought to restore the ancient discipline, which the Roman sol- diers had forgotten among the voluptuous Asiatics. Mithridates had already made a victorious beginning of the campaign by a naval battle with the consul Aurelius Cotta, the colleague of Lucullus. Lucul- lus was therefore compelled to hasten the attack of his land forces. But when he approached the army of Mithridates, and ascertained its strength, he deemed it ju- dicious to avoid a decisive battle, and con- tented himself with cutting off* the king's communications. Mithridates now ad- vanced with a considerable force to be- siege the city of Cyzicum, the key of Asia, then in the possession of the Ro- mans. Lucullus, however, defeatedhisrear- guard on their march thither, and com- pelled the king to give up his attempt Lucullus now advanced to the coasts of the Hellespont, prepared a fleet, and van- quished the squadron of Mithridates near the island of Lemnos. This victory ena- bled him to drive all the other squadrons of Mithridates from the Archipelago. The generals of Lucullus subdued, mean- while, all Bithynia and Paphlagonia. Lu- cullus, again at the head of his army, con- quered various cities of Pontus, and, al- though overcome by Mithridates in a bat- tle, he soon acquired such advantages, that he finally broke up the hostile army, and Mithridates himself sought protection in Armenia. Lucullus now changed Pontus into a Roman province. Tigranes refusing to surrender Mithridates to the Romans, Lucullus marched against Ar- menia, and vanquished Tigranes. Mithri- dates, however, contended with various fortune, till Lucullus was prevented from continuing the war against him effectually, by the mutiny of his soldiers, who accus- ed him, perhaps not unjustly, of avarice and covetousness. In Rome, the dissatis- faction of the soldiers towards Lucullus was found well-grounded ; he was de- prived of the chief command and recalled. He was received, however, by the patri- cians, with every mark of respect, and ob- tained a splendid triumph. From this time, Lucullus remained a private individ- ual, spending in profuse, voluptuousness the immense riches whicli he'had brought with him from Asia, without, however, abandoning the more noble and serious occupations of a cultivated mind. During his residence as questor in Macedonia, and as general in the Mithridatic wars, he had become intimate with the most dis- tinguished philosophers. His principal instructer was the academician Antiochus, who accompanied him in some of his campaigns. Lucullus was therefore most interested in the Platonic system. After his return, he pursued the study of philos- ophy, inducetl many scholars to come to Rome, anel allowed them free access to his house. He also founded, by means of Tyrannion, whom he had taken prisoner in the Mithridatic war, an extensive libra- ry, which was free to every one, and of which Cicero made diligent use. His example, also, induced other distinguished Romans to draw learned men to Rome at 144 LUCULLUS—LUGDUNUM. their expense. At last, he is said to have lost his reason in consequence of a philtre, administered by his freedman Callisthenes, so that it was necessary to place him un- der the guardianship of his brother. He soon after died, in his 66th or 68th year. Lucullus first transplanted the cherry-tree to Rome from Cerasus, in Pontus, 680 years after the building of the city. Luddites ; a name given, some years since, in England, to the rioters who de- stroyed the machinery in the manufactur- ing towns. They were so called from one of their leaders, named Ludd. Lcden, I lenry, was born at Lockstadt, in the duchy of Bremen, in 1780; studied at Gottiugen ; in 1806, was made extraor- dinary professor of philosophy at Jena, and, in 1810, professor of history. Besides numerous historical, philosophical and po- litical treatises in periodical publications, he has written the lives of Thomasius, Grotius, and sir W. Temple, and other valuable works, among which are Ansichte des Rheinbundes (1808) ; Allgemeine Ge- schichte der Vblker und Staaten des Alter- thums (3d edition, 1824); Allgemeine Ge- schichte der Vblker und Staaten des Mittelal- ters (1821); and Gesch. der Deutschen Vbl- ker (3d vol., 1827). In his Nemesis, or Political and Historical Journal, he attack- ed the statements of Kotzebue, in his " secret, dangerous, end, in part, unfounded repoit" He superintended the publica- tion of the duke of Saxe-Weimar's Trav- els in the U. States. Ludlow, Edmund, a distinguished leader of the republican party in the civil wars of Charles I, the eldest son of sir Henry Ludlow, was born about 1602, at Maiden Bradley, in the county of Wilts, and received his education at Oxford, whence he removed to the Temple, in or- der to study the law. He served with distinction in the parliamentary army, and when "the self-denying ordinance" took place, he remained out of any ostensible situation, until chosen member for Wilt- shire, in the place of his father. At this time, the machinations of Cromwell be- coming visible, he was opposed by Ludlow with firmness antl openness. With a view of establishing a republic, he joined the ar- my against the parliament, when the latter voted the king's concessions a basis for treaty, and was also one of Charles's judges. With a view of removing him, Cromwell caused him to be nominated general of horse in Ireland, where he joined the army under Ireton, and acted with great vigor and ability. When Cromwell was declared protector, Lud- low used all his influence with the army against him, on whicli account he was recalled, and put under arrest. Although he refused to enter into any engagement not to act against the government, he was at length allowed to go to London, where, in a conversation with Cromwell himself, he avowed bis republican principles, and, refusing all security or engagement for submission, he retired into Essex, where he remained until the death of the pro- tector. When Richard Cromwell sue ceeded, he joined the army party at Wal lingford-house, and was instrumental in the restoration of tbe long parliament, in which he took his seat. The restoration was now rapidly approaching, antl, find- ing the republicans unable to resist it, he quitted the country, and proceeded to Ge- neva, w hence he afterwards, with many more fugitives of the party, took refuge at Lausanne, where Lisle was assassinated by some English royalists. Similar at- tempts were made on the lives of Ludlow and others ; but his caution, and the vigi- lance of the magistracy of Berne, protect- ed him, antl he passed the remainder of his life at Vevay, with the exception of a brief visit to England after the revolution, from which he was driven by a motion in parliament for his apprehension, by sir Edward Seymour, tbe leader of the tory party. He closed his life in exile, in 16l»3, being then in his 73d year. Ludlow was one of the purest and most honorable characters on the republican side, without any fanaticism or hypocrisy. His Me- moirs contain many particulars in relation to the general history of the times: they are written in a manly, unaffected style, and are replete with valuable matter. Luff ; the order of the helmsman to put the tiller towards the Ice-side of the ship, in order to make the ship sail nearer the direction of the wind. Lugdunum ; the Latin name of several cities; 1, a colony of the Romans, also called Lugdunus, the present Lyons (q. v.), though not on precisely the same spot 2. Lugdunum Batavorum (Lugd. Bat.); a city in Gallia Belgica, at a later period, in the middle ages, called LeUhis; at present, Leyden (q. v.); hence, on the title-page of classics, Lugduni Batavorum, many of which are very fine editions. 3. Lugdu- num ; a city of the Convenae, in Gallia Aquitania, most probably the present St Bertrand. 4. Lugdunensis (Gallia) was the name given, in the time of Augustus, to a part of Caesar's Gallia Celtica. There were Lugdunensis Prima, afterwards Ly- onnais; Lugdunensis Secunda, afterwards LUGDUNUM—LULLY. 145 Normandy ; Lugdunensis Tertia, after- wards Touraine, Maine, Anjou and Britta- ny ; Lugdunensis Quarta, or Senonia, com- prising part of Champagne, south of the Marne, the southern part of Isle de France, Chartrain, Perche and Orleannais. Lugoer ; a vessel carrying three masts, with a running bowsprit, upon which she sets lug-sails, and sometimes has top-sails adapted to them. Lug-Sail ; a quadrilateral sail bent up- on a yard, which hangs obliquely to the mast, at one third of its length. These are more particularly used in the barca- longas, navigated by the Spaniards in the Mediterranean. Luke ; author of one of the Gospels, which is distinguished for fullness, accu- racy, and traces of extensive information ; also of the Acts of the Apostles, in which he gives a methodical account of tbe ori- gin of the Christian church, and, particu- larly, of the travels of tbe apostle Paul. Though these two books were designed merely for his friend Theophilus, they soon attained a canonical authority, and were publicly read in the churches. Con- cerning the circumstances of the life of this evangelist, nothing certain is known, except that he was a Jew by birth, was a contemporary of the apostles, and could have heard accounts of tbe life of Jesus from the mouths of eye-witnesses, and was for several years a companion of the apostle Paul, in his travels; so that, in the Acts of the Apostles, he relates what he himself had seen and participated in. The conjecture that he was a physician is more probable than the tradition which makes him a painter, and which attributes to him au old picture of Christ, preservetl at Rome. On account of tins latter tradi- tion, however, he is the patron saint of painters, and a celebrated academy of these artists, at Rome, bears his name. Luke of Leyden, one of the founders of modern painting in the North, stands by the side of Dtirer, Holbein and Kra- nach, at the head of the old German school, though, strictly, he docs not be- long to Germany. He was born at Ley- den, 1494, and enjoyed, in early life, the instruction of his father, Hugo Jacob, and afterwards that of Cornelius Engelbrecht- sen, an eminent painter, and scholar of Van Eyk. At the early age of nine, he began to engrave, and, in his twelfth year, astonished all judges, by a painting; in water-colors, of St. Hubert. In his 15th year, he produced several pieces, compos- ed and engraved by himself, among which the Trial of St. Anthony, and the Conver- vol. viii. 13 sion of St. Paul, in regard to composition, characteristic expression, drapery, and management of the graver, are models. After this, he executed many paintings in oil, water-colors, and on glass; likewise a multitude of engravings, which spread his fame widely. He formed a friendly inti- macy with the celebrated John of Mabuse and Albert Dtirer, who visited him in Leyden. His unremitted application in- jured his health; and his anxious friends persuaded him to travel through the Neth- erlands. But his hypochondria was not removed. He imagined himself poisoned by envious paiuters, and hardly left his betl for almost six years; during which time he labored uninterruptedly, and rose to the highest rank in his art. He died in 1533, in his 40th year. This artist is ex- cellent in almost all parts of his art, though he could not entirely divest himself of the taste which characterized the childhood of painting. His designs are striking, in- genious anel varied ; his grouping judi- cious and natural; character appears in all his figures, particularly in the heads, though this character cannot be called noble. The situations and attitudes of his figures are very various, which is the more re- markable, from the great number of per- sons often found in his paintings. His draw- ing is correct, yet not ideal, but fashioned after the models of the country in which he lived. His drapery is, indeed, mostly ar- ranged with truth, but without taste, heavy, and deformed by many small folds. His coloring is pleasing and natural, but the aerial perspective is neglected; and there is a certain harshness, not to be mis- taken, peculiar to that period of die art. Notwithstanding his high finish, he paint- ed easily. His engravings and wood-cuts bear evidence of a most careful and steady management of the graver. They are very rare, and highly prized, particu- larly those in which he selected the same subject with Albert Dtirer, in order to compete with him. The friends often shared their ideas and compositions; but Luke ranks below Dtirer. The fullest and most beautiful collection of engravings by this master, is in the library at Vien- na. His paintings are scattered about in many galleries; the principal in Leyden, Vienna, Dresden, Munich, and in the Tri- buna at Florence. Lully, Raymond, a distinguished scho- lastic of the thirteenth century, author of the method called Ars Lvlliana, taught throughout Europe, during the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, was born in Majorca, in 1235. After having been 146 LULLY—LUNA. attached to the gay court of James 1 of Arragon, he became filled with pious feelings, and, at about the age of 30, retir- ed to a solitude, and, for the purpose of converting infidels, began the study of theology. Encouraged by visions, he un- dertook the task by studying the Eastern languages, and invented his new method, or Ars demonstrativa Veritatis, for the pur- pose of proving that the mysteries of faith were not contrary to reason. He then visited Rome and France, in the schools of whicli ' he taught; and, while at Montpellier, com- posed his Ars inventiva Veritatis, in which he developes and simplifies his method. Passing over into Africa, for the purpose of convincing the Mohammedan doctors of the truth of Christianity, he narrowly escaped with his life; and, on his return to Europe, wrote his Tabula generalis, a sort of key to his former works, and, in 1298, obtained from Philip the Fair a pro- fessorship at Paris. From this periotl dates the establishment of his doctrine in Europe. His Ars expositiva and Arbor Scientia are his other principal works on this subject. A second visit to Africa, for the purpose of converting the disciples of Averroes, resulted in his banishment from that region; but he returned a third time, and was stoned to death, about 1315. The Lullian method was taught and com- mented on for several centuries in Europe. The principal commentators are Lefevrer d'Etaples, Alstedius, Sebonde, &c. (See Degerando, Histoire comparie des Systemes de PhUosophie.) Lully, Jean Baptiste; born at Flor- ence, of obscure parents, in 1634. As a child, he exhibited a passionate fondness for music. The chevalier Guise, who had been commissioned by Mile, de Montpen- sier to send her an Italian page, struck with his talent, engaged him, and despatch- ed him to Paris in his 10th year. The lady, however, was so little pleased by his appearance, that she sent him into her kitchen, where he remained some time in the humble capacity of an under-scullion. His musical talent becoming accidentally known to a gentleman about the court, his representations procured him to be placed under a master. He now rose rapidly, till he obtained the appointment of musician to the court His performance soon at- tracted the notice of the king, by whose direction, a new band, called les petUs Vi- olons, was formed, and Lully placed at the head of it, in 1660; about which period, he composed the music to die then favor- ite amusements of the court, called ballets, consisting of dancing, intermixed with singing and recitative. In 1670, Lully was made joint-director of die French opera, established tbe preceding year, on the plan of that at Venice, which situation he filled till his decease, in 1687. Luily contributed much to the improvement of French music, and is said to have been the inventor of the overture. Lumbago (from lumbus, die loin); a rheumatic affection of the muscles about the loins. (See Rheumatism.) Lumpers ; laborers employed to load and unload a merchant ship when in harbor. Lump-Fish (cyclopterus, Lin.). These fish are very remarkable for the manner in which their ventral fins are arranged. They are united by a membrane so as to form a kind of oval and concave disk. By means of this apparatus, these fish are enabled to adhere with great force to any substance to which they apply themselves. This has been proved by placing one of them in a bucket of water, when it fixed itself so firmly, that, on taking the fish by the tail, the whole vessel and its contents were lifted from the ground, although it held some gallons. (Brit. Zoology.) The largest of the genus is the C. lumpus: this js about nine inches long, and sometimes weighs seven pounds. The back is arch- ed and sharp, of a blackish color, varie- gated with brown. The body is covered with sharp, black tubercles; and on each side, there are three rows of large, bony scales, and .mother on the back. The great resort of this species is in the north- ern seas, about the coast of Greenland. Great numbers of them are devoured by the seals, who swallow all bufc the skins, quantities of which, thus emptied, are seen floating about in the spring months, when these fish approach the land for the pur- pose of spawning. It is said that the spots where the seals carry on their depreda- tions can be readily distinguished by the smoothness of the water. Crantz says that the inhabitants of the barren tracts of Greenland, who are obliged to depend, for the greatest part of their subsistence, on fish, eagerly avail themselves of the arri- val of this species. The roe is remarkably large: when boiled, it forms an exceed- ingly gross and oily food, of whicli the Greenlanders are very fond. The flesh is soft and insipid. Lump-lac (See Coccus, end of the article.) Luna (the moon), among the Greeks, Selene, was the daughter of Hyperion antl Terra (Gaea),and was the same,according to some mythologists, as Diana, (q. v.) She LUNA—PEACE OF LUNEVILLE. 147 was worshipped by the ancient inhabitants of the earth with many superstitious forms and ceremonies. It was supposed that magicians and enchanters, particularly those of Thessaly, had an uncontrollable power over the moon, and that they could draw her down from heaven at pleasure, by the nitre force of their incantations. Her eclipses, according to their opinions, proceeded from thence, and, on that ac- count, it was usual to beat drums and cymbals, to ease her labors, and to render the power of magic less effectual. (See Helios.) Lunar Caustic (See Nitrate of SU- ver.) Lunar Year. (See Year.) Lunatics, in medicine. (See Mental Derangement.) Lunatics, in law. (See Non Compos.) Lund, or Lunden ; a town in Sweden, province of Skonen, and government of Malmohus, 5 miles from the Baltic; Ion. 13° E.; lat 55° 44' N.; population, 3224. It is a bishop's see, and contains a univer- sity, founded in 1668, by Charles IX, which has 15 professors, a botanic garden, an anatomical theatre, a cabinet of curios- ities, an observatory, and a library of 40,000 volumes. The number of stutients, in 1827, was 631. Luneburg; formerly a principality of Lower Saxony, at present a province of Hanover, with 4325 square miles, and 264,000 inhabitants. The Elbe forms its boundary on the north and north-east Luneburg is a vast plain of sand, interrupt- ed here and there by deep moors and for- ests of pine. The marshes on the rivers are, however, wonderfully productive, but they are better fitted for pasture, and the cultivation of garden vegetables, than for tillage. The rivers of the province all flow into the Elbe or the Weser, the high- land whicli divides the basins of those two rivers being the great Luneburg heath. The dikes, which protect the country from the inundations of the Elbe, are enor- mously expensive. About seven tenths of the whole province are incapable of cultivation, and corn is not produced in quantities sufficient to supply the inhabit- ants. Flax is extensively raised, and the cattle are numerous and of a good de- scription. Bees are kept on the heaths, and the fisheries in the rivers are impor- tant. Salt, wool, linen, beeswax and wooden-wares, are the chief exports. The great commercial road from Ham- burg to Hanover and Brunswick, runs through the province, and the towns of Luneburg antl Celle carry on a considera- ble commission business. Luneburg was originally an allodial estate of the house of Brunswick, and gave its name to one of the branches of the family. (SeeBruns- ivick.)—Luneburg, the capital of the prov- ince, is an old town, with about 11,300 inhabitants, situated ou the Uraenau, which is navigable to this place for small vessels. The Kalkberg is a curious gyp- seous rock, 118 feet high, on which are remains of ancient fortifications, and in the quarries of which is found the rare mineral boracite. The salt springs are capable of yielding 2000 tons of salt a week. The transit trade between Hanover and Brunswick is extensive, a large num- ber of horses being brought to Luneburg annually, and is estimated at 15,000,000 rix dollars. Lunette, in the art of fortification; a very vague expression, which, in its origi- nal signification, probably comprised every detached work built in the form of au an- gle, and consisting of but two faces. It was afterwards used in a more limited sense, to denote, 1. Small, generally ir- regular, works, with or without flanks, that are placed in the principal ditch, be- fore the ravelins, or other out-works, for the purpose of covering such places of the chief rampart, as may be seen from the open field, or of defending from the side such points as, through a mistake in the original plan of the fortifications, were left unprotected, the guns from the bas- tions not being able to reach them. 2. Ad- vanced works on or before the glacis, sometimes constructed in the form of an angle, sometimes in the form of a bastion. This kind of lunettes, skilfully disposed on the weak fronts of a place, and arrang- ed in one or two lines, so as to flank one another, may check the approach of the enemy for a considerable time, by obliging him to make his trenches at a greater dis- tance than he would otherwise have done, and subjecting him to losses in the capture of each lunette. Particular attention must be paid to dispose them in such a manner as to render it impossible for the enemy to attack two lunettes at the same time. Luneville ; an open city of Lorraine, department of the Meurthe, in a fruitful plain, with a castle, 3 churches, and 12,378 inhabitants. In 1735, Stanislaus Leczyn- ski, king of Poland, to whom Lorraine and Bar had been granted, resided here. Lat. 48° 3S7 N.; Ion. 6° 307 E. LunevUle, Peace of; concluded Feb. 9, 1801, between Austria (also in the name of the German empire) and the French republic, upon the basis of the peace of 148 PEACE OF LI NEVILLE—LUNGS. Campo-Formio. (q. v.) Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine were ceded to France; Milan and Mantua to the Cisalpine (q. v.) republic; Venice, and the country as far as the Atlige, Istria and Dahnatia, to Austria. The princes on the left bank of the Rhine were to be indemnified by territories within the empire. Austria ceded the Frickthal, and the strip of land between Basle and Zurzach, to Frauce, who, in 1502, gave them to Switzerland. Austria ceded Brisgau to the duke of Mo- dena, and consented to the erection of the kingdom of Etruria, for which the grand- duke of Tuscany was to be indemnified in Germany. The valley of the Rhine formed the boundary of France. The navigation of the river was declared free, and remained so until 1804, when toll was imposed for the complete indemnifi- cation of several members of the empire. Lungs; the organs of respiration in the mammalia (man, quadrupeds, and the ce- taceous animals), birds antl reptiles. The lungs are situated in the chest, and are divided into two parts, called lobes. They are enveloped in a delicate and transparent membrane,derived from the pleura,through which they have the appearance of net- work, and are connected with the spine by the pleura, with the neck by the windpipe, and with the heart by the roots of the pulmonary artery and veins. In their specific gravity, they are the lightest of all the animal organs, even when exhausted of air; hence their name of lights. To the touch, they are soft, spongy and elas- tic. In their internal structure, they are composed of an infinite number of mem- branous, celled blood-vessels, nerves and lymphatics, all connected by cellular sub- stance. The cells communicate with each other, but have no communication with the cellular substance: small tubes arise from them, which are finally united into one large tube from each lobe ; and these two at length join to form the windpipe. The blood-vessels called the pulmonary vessels are destined to distribute tbe blood through the cells, for the purpose of sub- jecting it to the action of the air (see Blood, and Heart); while the bronchial vessels are intended to supply the blood which nourishes the lungs. (For the ac- tion of these organs in respiration, see Respiration.) The cetacea (whales, seals, &c.) breathe by lungs, and are therefore obliged to ascend, at intervals, to the sur- face of the water, to obtain a supply of at- mospheric air. The respiratory orifice, in these animals, is not situated at the ex- tremity of the snout, but on the top of the head. In birds, the lungs are smaller than in quadrupeds, but they have air distrib uted throughout their'muscular system and in the cavities of the* bones—The lungs afford a means of ascertaining whether a new-born child, whicli is found dead, was or was not living, when born,— a question often of great importance in forensic medicine. The lungs of the in- fant are placed in water, to see whether they will swim or sink. Before birth, the lungs are dark red, contracted into a small place within the cavity of the breast, firm, and specifically heavier than water. They therefore sink "in water, whether they are entire or cut into pieces; and when cut, no air-bubbles come forth, either in or out of the water, nor does much blood ap- pear. But if the babe has lived after birth, and therefore breathed, air has en- tered the lungs, bas thus enlarged the cav- ity of the chest, and the lungs themselves are expanded, appear of a loose, spongy texture, of a pale red color, cover the heart, and fill the chest They then swim in wa- ter, as well in connexion with the heart as without it, as well entire as in pieces. If cut, a peculiar sound is audible; air proceeds from them, and rises, if they are pressed under water, in small bubbles. From the incisions in the lungs, v d, and, generally, foamy blood issues. Against this test, it has been objected—1. that air may be found in the lungs, though the infant never breathed. This could happen, how- ever, only (a) from air having been blown into them; but, in this case, the chest of the infant is not arched, very little blood is to be found in the lungs, and it is not bright red nor foamy : (b) from putre- faction ; but, in this case, the other parts of the body would also be affected by pu- trefaction : the lungs are not expanded, pale-red air-bubbles show themselves only on the surface, and not in the interior substance, unless the highest degree of pu- trefaction has taken place. 2. It is said that the child may have breathed, and therefore lived, without air being found in the lungs. Tliis is not proved, and is at variance with the received ideas of the manifestation of life. 3. That part of the lungs may swim, another may sink. This can happen only with lungs in a diseased state, and would only prove an attempt of the infant to breathe, without the possi- bility of living. 4. That a child may have lived without breathing; but this state of apparent death cannot be called life: life cannot be supposed without breath. If all precautions are taken, all attending circumstances considered, the external LUNGS—LUSTRATION. 149 appearance of the infant well observed, and the state of the other intestines exam- ined, the foregoing test may be considered as sufficient for the decision of the ques- tion, whether a child has lived after birth or not. Another kind of test by means of the lungs has been proposed, which is founded on the proportion of the weight of the whole body to a lung which has breathed, and one whicli has not; and still another, which rests on the circum- ference of the chest before and after breathing has commenced; but both are more complicated, troublesome, and less certain than the former one. Lupercalia ; a yearly festival observed at Rome, the 15th of Februaiy, in honor of the god Pan, surnamed Lupercus (from lupus, wolf, and arceo, to drive away), the defender from wolves. It was usual firet to sacrifice two goats and a dog, and to touch, with the bloody knife, the foreheads of two illustrious youths, who always were obliged to smile while they were touched. The blood was wiped away with soft wool dipped in milk. After this, the skins of the victims were cut into thongs, with which whips were made for the youths. With these whips the youths ran about the streets, all naked except the middle, and whipped those they met Women, in particular, were fond of receiving the lashes, as it was believed that they remov- ed barrenness, and eased the pains of child-birth. This excursion iu the streets of Rome was performed by naked youths, because Pan is always representee! naked, tmd a goat was sacrificed because that deity was supposed to have the feet of goats. A dog was added as necessary for the shepherd. The priests which officiat- ed at the Lupercalia were called Luperci. Lupine ; a genus of leguminous plants, containing about 30 species, which are her- baceous or frutescent, bearing petiolate and usually digitate leaves,and large, handsome flowers, which are disposed in a terminal raceme. Thelupinuspercnnis grows wild in sandy places, from Canada to Florida, and bears beautiful blue flowers. It has beeu cultivated in Europe for more than 150 years. We have eight other species, and probably more, in Nortli America, several of which are only found westward of the Rocky mountains. Two of our southern species are remarkable for having simple leaves. Lupulin. M. Planche firet ascertained that die three active ingredients of the hop, viz. the oil, resin and bitter principle, reside in the brilliant yellow grains scat- tered over the calicinal scales of the cones, 13* which serve as their envelope. Doctor Ives of New York, and MM. Payen and Chevalier, have since confirmed this posi- tion. This matter, when insulated, is of a golden yellow color, in little grains, with- out consistence, which attach themselves to the fingers, and render them rough. It has a penetrating aromatic odor: 200 parts of it afforded, 1. water; 2. essential oil; 3. carbonic acid ; 4. subacetate of am- monia ; 5. traces of osmazome ; 6. traces of fatty matter; 7. gum; 8. malic acid; 9. malate of lime; 10. bitter matter, 25 parts ; 11. a well characterized resin, 105 parts; 12. silica, 8 parts; 13. traces of car- bonate, muriate and sulphate of potash ; 14. carbonate and phosphate of lime ; 15. oxide of iron and traces of sulphur. The bitter matter, inuoduced into die stomach, destroys appetite. Lusatia (in German, Lausitz); an ex- tensive country, bordering on Bohemia to the south, Meissen to the west, Branden- burg to the north, and Silesia to the east. It was formerly a margraviate, and was divided into Upper and Lower Lusatia, with a superficial area of 4250 square miles, the population of which is about 500,000. With the exception of the circle of Kottbus, whicli had fallen into the hands of the house of Brandenburg in 1550, Lusatia was granted to the elector of Saxony, in 1635. In 1815, all Lower Lusatia (1940 square miles), with a large part of Upper Lusatia, was ceded to Prus- sia (in all 3200 square miles, with 294,700 inhabitants), and was annexed to the gov- ernments of Frankfort and Liegnitz. The part of Upper Lusatia, whicli remained to Saxony (1050 square miles, with 195,000 inhabitants), now forms the circle of that name, comprising the eastern part of the kingdom; chief town, Bautzen (q. v.). It is not very fertile, hardly supplying half of the consumption of its inhabitants, Flax is raised in all parts, but great quan- tities are imported for the use of the manufactures. Linen, woollen and cot- ton are the principal manufactures. (See Saxony.) Lusiad. (See Camoens.) Lusitania; a part of Spain, whose extent and situation have not been accu- rately defined by the ancients. Accord- ing to some descriptions, it extended from the Tagus to the sea of Calabria. The inhabitants were warlike, and the Romans conquered them with great difficulty. They generally lived upon plunder, and were rude and unpolished ill their man- ners. (See Spain, and Portugal.) Lustration ; purification; in particular 150 LUSTRATION—LUTHER. the solemn purification or consecration of the Roman people, by means of an expiatory sacrifice (sacrificium lustrale), which was performed after every census. (See Census.) The name may be derived from luere, in the sense of solvere, for, on this occasion, all public taxes were paid by the farmers-general to the censor; or from lustrare (to expiate), because, after the census, an expiatory sacrifice was offered for the whole Roman people. The sacrifice consisted of a bull, a sow, and a sheep or ram (suovetaurilia). The ram was dedicated to Jupiter, the swine to Ceres, and the bull to Mars. This sol- emn act was called lustrum condere. As this lustration took place at the end of every five years, lustrum came to signify a period of five years. Lustre. (See Lustration.) Lute (in Italian, liuto ; Frencli, luth ; German, laute, perhaps from the German lauten, to sound) is an instrument which originated from the ancient lyre. (q. v.) Some, however, think that it was intro- duced into Spain by the Moore, where it was called laoud; and from thence into Italy, where it received the name of liuto. The chelys, or testudo, of the Romans, was probably a similar instrument It is a stringed instrument, formerly much in use, anciently containing only five rows of strings, but to which six, or more, were afterwards added. The lute con- sists of four parts, viz. the table ; the body, which has nine or ten sides ; the neck, which has as many stops or divis- ions ; and the head, or cross, in which the screws for turning it are inserted. In playing this instrument, the performer strikes the strings with the fingers of the right hand, and regulates the sounds with those of the left. The notes for the lute are generally written on six lines, and not on five. There were formerly various kinds in use. The lute, simply construct- ed, is called the French lute ; if it has two necks, one of which sustains the base notes, it is called a theorbo ; if tbe strings of the theorbo are doubled, it is called an arch-lute. The difficulty of playing up- on this instrument, as well as that of tuning it, is probably the reason that it has gone out of use. Luther, Martin, one of the greatest men of the sixteenth century, was born at Eisleben, November 10, 1483. Hans Luther, his father, a miner, removed with his family to Mansfeld, in 1484, and was appointed to a seat in the council. Mar- tin was educated in the deepest respect for rebgion, and, at the age of 14, was sent to school at Magdeburg; but re- ceiving no assistance there, he was sent, in 1498, to Eisenach. At firet he obtain- ed his support by singing songs at the doors, like many other poor scholars ; but he was soon taken under the care of a maternal relation in easy circumstances. At school, he made rapid progress in Latin and other studies ; in 1501, enter- ed the university of Erfurt ; in 1503, re- ceived the degree of master, and delivered lectures on the physics and ethics of Aristotle. About this time, he discovered, in the library of the university, a Latin Bible, and found, to his no small delight, that it contained more than the excerpts in common use. He was destined by his father to the law ; but his more intimate acquaintance with the Bible, of which the clergymen of that time knew only the Gospels and Epistles, induced him to turn his attention to the study of divinity. The impression produced on him by the death of his friend Alexis, who expired at his side, on a journey from Mansfeld to Er- furt, by a stroke of lightning or the blow of an assassin, uniting with the effect of his early religious education and his poverty, decided him to devote himself to the mo- nastic life. Contrary to the wishes of his father, he entered the monastery of the Augustines, at Erfurt, in 1505, and sub- mitted patiently to all the penances and humiliations which the superiors of the order imposed upon novices. But he al- ways regarded himself as an unprofitable servant Pure and innocent as he was, he tortured himself with bitter reproaches,and was attacked by a severe fit of sickness; during which, one of the elder brothers consoled his troubled heart, and promised him the forgiveness of his sins through faith in Jesus Christ. This doctrine, al- most forgotten in the zeal of the clergy for good works, as they called them, and in the traffic in indulgences, brought a new light into the soul of Luther. He was also encouraged by the paternal mild- ness of Staupitz, the provincial of the ortler, who, perceiving his extraordinary talents and acquirements, delivered him from the menial duties of the cloister, and encouraged him to continue his theologi- cal studies. In 1507, he was consecrated priest, and, in 1508, by the influence of his patron, Staupitz, he was made profes- sor of philosophy in the new university of Wittenberg. In this sphere of action, his powerful mind soon showed itself. He threw off the fetters of the scholastic phi- losophy, so intimately connected with the papal hierarchy, asserted the rights of LUTHER. 151 reason, and soon collected a large number of disciples. In 1510, he visited the court of pope Leo X, at Rome, on business in- trusted to him by his order. This journey revealed to him the irreligion and corrup- tion of the clergy at Rome, and destroyed his reverence for the sanctity of the pope. After his return, he became a preacher at Wittenberg, and, in 1512, he was made a doctor in theology. As such, his oath bound him, as he thought, to the fearless defence of the Holy Scriptures. His pro- found learning, which embraced an inti- mate acquaintance with the ancient clas- sics, the fathers of the church, and the spirit of the Greek and Hebrew lan- guages, together with the fame of his eloquence, soon made Luther known to the principal scholars, and esteemed as a powerful advocate of the new light which was breaking upon the world. Great, therefore, was the attention excited by his 95 propositions, given to the world October 31, 1517, and intended to put an end to the sale of indulgences, by the Dominican Tetzel. Luther was impelled to this couree solely by the love of truth, and by his indignation against the traffic in indulgences, the unhappy effects of which had appeared already in his con- gregation at Wittenberg. Ambition or hatred of the Dominicans had no influ- ence in producing this measure. His propositions were condemned as heretical as soon as they appeared. Hogstraaten, a Dominican at Cologne, doctor Eck at In- golstadt, and Prierias, an officer of the Roman court, immediately began au at- tack upon Luther; but neither their in- vectives, nor the papal summons to Rome, which he did not obey, nor the mild ex- hortations of the cardinal Cajetan, at Augsburg, in 1518, and of the nuncio Miltitz, at Altenburg, in 1519, with allur- ing offers from the pope himself, were sufficient to induce him to recant He replied to his opponents with boldness and determination, and even after his dis- pute with Eck at Leipsic, in 1519, he still maintained the invalidity of indulgences, and of the papal supremacy. No one an- swered him, and he appealed with justice from the decision of Cajetan, to the pope, and from the pope to a general council. In 1520, Luther and his friends were ex- communicated. His writings were burnt at Rome, Cologne and Louvain. Indig- nant at this open act of hostility after his modest letter, in which he had showed himself desirous of reconciliation, de- clared his submission to the *pope, and advised a reform in the church, Luther burned the bull of excommunication, and the decretals of the papal canon, at Wit- tenberg, December 10, 1520. By this act, he dissolved all connexion with the pope und the Roman church. Frederic, the elector of Saxony, seemed in doubt whether he should protect him. But the worthiest of the German noblemen, Hut- ten, Sickingen, Schaumburg, whom he called upon to defend the new opinions, hailed him as the champion of religious liberty, and offered him their fortresses and their arms. But Luther wished no protector but God. He refused to listen to his anxious friends, who advised hirn not to brave the Roman hierarchy ; a spirit within urged him forward, and he could not resist. The people received, with amazement, the words of a monk, who defied at once the poj>e and tho clergy, the emperor and the princes. For this he did, when he presented himself at the diet of Worms, April 4, 1521, accom- panied by a few friends antl the inqieriat herald, who had summoned him. He was met by about 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a league from Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, that when Spalatin sent a messenger to warn him of his dan- ger, he answered, " If there were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs of its houses, I would go on." Before the emperor, the archduke Ferdi- nand, 6 electors, 24 dukes, 7 margraves, 30 bishops and prelates, and many princes, counts, lords and ambassadors, Luther ap- peared, April 17, in the imperial diet, ac- knowledged all his writings, and, on the following day, made his defence before tbe assembly. He concluded his speech of two hours iu length with these words: " Let me then be refuted and convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures, or by the clearest arguments ; otherwise I cannot and will not recant ; for it is neither safe nor expedient to act against conscience. Here I take my stand; I can do no other- wise, so help me God ! Amen." He left Worms, in fact, a conqueror; but it was so manifest that his enemies were determined upon his destruction, that Frederic the Wise conveyed him privately to the Wart- burg, to save his life. Neither the pro- scription of the emperor, nor the excom- munication of the pope, could disturb him in his retirement, of which he took ad- vantage to translate the New Testament into German. But this retirement con- tinued only 10 months. When informed of the disturbances excited by Carlstadt (q. v.), on the subject of images, he could 152 LUTHER. no longer endure restraint, notwithstand- ing the new outlawry which the emperor had just issued against him, at Nuremberg; and, at the risk of provoking the displeas- ure of the elector, he hastened to Witten- berg, through the territory of George, duke of Saxony, who was one of his most bit- ter enemies. The letter to Frederic, in which he justified his departure, proves, not less than his conduct before the diet at Worms, his fearless courage and the greatness of his soul. The sermons which he delivered for eight successive days af- ter his return (in Starch, 1522), to quell the violence of the enraged insurgents in Wittenberg, are patterns of moderation, and wisdom, and popular eloquence. They show, in a striking light, the error of those who consider Luther only as a violent and rude fanatic. He was violent only against malignity, or when he thought the great truths of religion in danger. Such mo- tives sufficiently account for his caustic reply to Henry VIII, king of England, and the bitterness of spirit manifested in his controversies with Carlstadt and Erasmus. The latter, not without reason, he charged with worldliness and lukewarmness in a good cause. He viewed the attack of Carl- stadt on his doctrine of the sacrament as an open apostasy from the faith, and an act of ambitious jealousy. Amidst these disputes and attacks, his plans for a total reforma- tion in the church, which was called for by the voice of the nation, were matured. In 1523, at Wittenberg, he began to purify the liturgy from its empty forms, and, by laying aside his cowl, in 1524, he gave the signal for the abolition of the monasteries, and the better application of the goods of the church. In 1525, he married Catha- rine von Bora, a nun, who had left her convent. After overcoming numerous difficulties, he took this important step at the age of 42 years, as much from princi- ple as inclination, with the design of re- storing the preachers of the gospel to their natural and social rights and duties. Warm as was the zeal of Luther for a reform in the church, he was desirous of avoiding disorder and violence. While he went hand in hand with the imperial cities and foreign princes, both in words and actions, he opposed, most decidedly, the violence of the peasantry and of the Anabaptists. His enemies have shown great injustice in implicating him as the author of those outrages which arose from the enthusiasm of the ignorant, and were displeasing to his noble and generous mind. Luther prepared, from 1526 to 1529, a new church service, corresponding to the doc- trines of the gospel, under the patronage of the elector, and with the aid of Me- lancthon and other members of the Sax- on church. His larger and smaller cate- chisms, to be used in schools, were also of great service. But every one must look with pain upon the severity and in- tolerance which he manifested towards the Swiss reformers, because their views differed from his own in regard to the Lord's suuper. (See Lord's Supper, and Sacrament.) He was thus the chief cause of the separation which took place be- tween the Calvinists and the Lutherans. But, without his inflexible firmness, in matters of faith, he would have been un- equal to a work against which artifice and power had arrayed all their forces. The rapidity with whicli the reformation (q. v.) advanced after the confession of Augs- burg, in 1530, rendered the papal bulls and the imperial edicts against Luther in- efficient But he was obliged to be con- tinually on his guard against the cunning Papists, who strove to make him give up some of the parts of his creed ; and it required a firmness bordering on stern- ness and obstinacy to maintain the vic- tory which he had won. With a spirit incident to such a state of things, Luther wrote, in 1537, the Smalcaldic articles; he gave a refusal to the ambassadors of Brandenburg and Anhalt, who were sent, in 1541, by the diet of Ratisbon, to make him more compliant towards the Catho- lics ; and, In 1545, he refused any partici- pation of his party in the council of Trent The severity which he used in the de- fence of his faith, by no means diminishes the merit of his constancy: and an apolo- gy may easily be found for the frequent rudeness of his expressions, in the pre- vailing mode of speaking and thinking; in the nature of his undertaking, which required continual contest; in the provo- cations by which he was perpetually as- sailed ; in his frequent sickness; and in his excitable imagination. The same ex- citability of temperament will serve to explain those dreadful temptations of the devil, which disquieted him oftener than would seem compatible with his strength and vigor of mind; for that age regard- ed the devil as a real personage, an evil principle ever active; and, if any one devoted himself to the cause of God, he was constantly obliged to resist attacks of the evil one upon his virtue. He says himself, " I was born to fight with devils and factions. This is the reason that my books are so boisterous and stormy. It ia my business to remove obstructions, to LUTHER—LUTHERANS. 153 cut down thorns,to filLup quagmires, and to open and make straight the paths; but, if I must, necessarily, have some failing, let me rather speak the truth with too great severity, than once to act the hypo- crite and conceal the truth." Even the enemies of Luther are forced to confess that he always acted justly and honorably. No one can behold, without astonishment, his unwearied activity and zeal. The work of translating the Bible, which might well occupy a whole life, he completed from 1521 to 1534, and thus rendered his name immortal. He equalled the most prolific authors, in the number of his trea- tises on the most important doctrines of his creed. After the year 1512, he preached several times eveiy week, and, at certain periods, every day; he officiated at the confessional and the altar; he car- ried on an extensive correspondence in Latin and German, on various subjects, with men of rank, and of distinguished literary attainments, and with his private friends ; and, notwithstanding all this press of occupation, he allowed himself some hours every day for meditation and prayer, and was always accessible to visi- ters. He gave advice and assistance wherever it was needed; he interested himself for every indigent pereon who ap- plied to him, and devoted himself, with his whole soul, to the pleasures of society. In company, he was always lively, and abounded in sallies of wit and good hu- mor (preserved in his Tischredem [Table- Talk]); he was temperate in his enjoy- ments. Luther was no stranger to the elegant arts. His excellent hymns are well known. His fondness for music, too, was such, that, as often as circumstances permitted, he would relax his mind with Binging, and playing on the flute and lute. But few men are equal to such excessive labor; and, with a weaker constitution, such a constant round of action, and vicissitude and toil would soon have overcome the great reformer. Indeed, from the year 1531, he had a painful disease (the stone, accompanied with vertigo) to contend with, and, in several fits of sickness, was brought near the grave; but he lived to the age of 63. Just before his last journey to Eisleben, where he was summoned by the counts of Mansfield to settle a dispute, he wrote, in a letter to a friend, the following description of his condition: " Aged, worn out, weary, spiritless, and now blind of one eye, I long for a little rest and quiet- ness ; yet I have as much to do, in writing, and preaching, and acting, as if I had never written, or preached, or acted. I am weary of the world, and the world is weary of me ; the parting will be easy, like that of the guest leaving the inn ; I pray, only, that God will he gracious to me in my last hour,-and shall quit the world without reluctance." He wrote this in January, 1546. On the 18th of the suc- ceeding February, he died at Eisleben, and was buried in the castle-church of Wittenberg. He left a wife, whom he tenderly loved, and two children (two others having previously died) in straiten- ed circumstances. His wife died in 1552. The male line of his posterity became ex- tinct in Martin Gottlieb Luther, who was a counsellor at law, and died at Dresden, in 1759. Against his will, his adherents styled themselves Lutherans ; against his will, they engaged in a war which broke out immediately after his death, and deso- laterl Germany. As long as he lived, Luther was for peace; and he succeeded in maintaining it; he regarded it as im- pious to seek to establish the cause of God by-force; and in fact, during 30 years of his life, the principles of the reformation gained a firmer footing, and were more widely propagated, by his unshaken faith and unwearied cndeavt>r, than by all the ware, and treaties and councils since. Lu- ther's Sammtl. Werke (Complete Works) appeared in 1826, at Erlangen, in 60 vols. Five different collections of his writings were published earlier, of which the most complete is that by Walch (24 vols., 4to.). There is a life of Luther, by Schrdckh, in his Lebensbeschrieb. beriihmter Gel. (Lives of distinguished Scholars), (part 1, 1790). —For further information, see the articles Reformation, and Protestants. See also the Life of Luther, with an Account of the Refor- mation, by A. Bower (London, 1813), and the articles on Calvin, MelancVion, Eras- mus, Zuinglius; also Robertson's Charles V, and Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History. Lutherans ; the followers of the doc- trines of Luther, though the reformer himself, in his writings, expresses his dis- approbation of making his name that of a sect In Spain, and some other Catho- lic countries, the name Lutheran is, in common parlance, almost synonymous with heretic. In Sweden and Denmark, there is an established Episcopal Luther- an church ; this is not the case in Protes- tant Germany. Bishops have lately been created in Prussia (see Liturgy); but, as far as church government is concerned, they are merely titular, whatever may have been the intention of their establish- ment. They are, however, neither Lu- theran nor Calvinist, but evangelical (q.v.). 154 LUTHERANS—LUTZEN. The Lutherans in Germany cannot bo said to adhere, strictly, to all the doctrines of Luther, so great a freedom of opinion, on religious matters, having gained ground in that country. As few German Calvin- ists adhere to predestination, few Luther- ans adhere to consubstantiation, in the Lord's supper. (See Lidher, and Refor- mation.) Luthern, in architecture; a kind of window over the cornice in tbe roof of a building, serving to illuminate the upper story. Lutzen, a small town in the present Prussian duchy of Saxony, to which two celebrated battles have given historical renown, containing 1300 inhabitants, and belonging to the government of Merse- burg, lies 11 miles S. W. of Leipsic. Strategy shows why Saxony has so often been the field of battle between the pow- ers of the north-east and the powers of the south-west of Europe. How often have the plains of Leipsic and Lutzen, the neighborhood of Dresden and Bautzen, been the scene of conflict! The first bat- tle of Lutzen was fought in the 30 years' war, Nov. 6 (16), 1632, between Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, and Wallen- stein, duke of Friedland. The imperial troops, under the latter, amounted to 40,000 men; the Swedish troops, under Gustavus, to 27,000, including the Saxons under Bernard, duke of Saxe-Weimar. The battle was extremely obstinate, and neither party was decisively victorious during the day, but Wallenstein began retrograde movements the next day. In his army, the famous general Pappenheim was mortally wounded, and soon after died. On die side of the Protestants, the hero of their cause, Gustavus Adolphus, fell. The circumstances of his death are uncertain; but it is a mistake to suppose that he fell a victim to revenge and treachery. His body was found, by the soldiers sent in search of it by Bernard, under a heap of dead, and so much mutilated by the hoofs of horses, as to be recognised with difficulty. A plain stone marks this spot, not far from Lutzen, on the great road to Leipsic; a few poplars and some stone seats surround it. His body was carried to Lutzen, where traces of the blood are still shown, in the town house. (See Gustavus I, and Thirty Years' War.) A second battle, fought near Lutzen, May 2, 1813, between Napoleon and the. com- bined Russians and Prussians, was the firet great conflict after Napoleon's disas- ters in Russia; and on tins occasion, the young French and Prussian levies first measured their strength. Several reasons induced the allies to attack Napoleon, though his army, according to the best calculations, was much superior in num- bers. The French corps in Saxony amounted to about 150,000 men ; the allies had 55,000 Prussians and 30,000 Russians beyond the Elbe. The latter were superior iu cavalry, the French in artillery, and each was desirous to decide the battle by the species of troops in which his superiority consisted. Count Witt- genstein commanded the allied forces. Napoleon's troops were moving in the direction of Leipsic, and had already ad- vanced considerably, while they were still supposed, by the enemy, to be near Lut- zen. General Kleist became engaged in a sharp conflict with the French van, which was much superior to him in num- ber. The mass of the enemy was thus directed against the flank and rear of the allies. Between the allies and Lutzen lay the villages Stareiedel, Kaya, Rana, Gorschen, hardly guarded by Ney's corps, which was quietly bivouacked behind them. Wittgenstein took this corps for Napoleon's van, and ordered the attack accordingly. The Prussian troops took these villages with great promptness. It was necessary that Ney should sustain himself until Napoleon could bring back his masses fron: the road to Leipsic. The possession of these villages was, therefore, warmly contested; they were taken and retaken with equal courage and obstinacy ; but the successive arrival of new bodies of French caused some changes in Witt- genstein's orders; the allied cavalry could not operate so effectually as had been hoped, and the want of infantry began to be felt severely. Both armies displayed great courage. The Prussian troops fought with a resolution corresponding to the ardor which had hurried them into the field, and its effect became visible on the French centre, which did not escape Na- poleon's experienced eye. " The key of the position," says the duke of Rovigo, "was the village of Kaya, occupied by Ney, and through which ran the road from Pegay to Lutzen. Had the allies succeeded in cany in g this place, they could have advanced to Lutzen, and thus have divided the French army into two portions, which could only have been reunited on the other bank of the Saale. Great efforts were therefore made, by the French, to maintain Kaya, which was taken and retaken several times in the course of the day." The emperor Napo- leon now ordered general Drouot, his aid- LUTZEN—LUXEMBOURG. 155 de-camp, to advance in all haste, with 60 pieces of artillery, as near as possible to the enemy's columns, and to attack him obliquely, on his left flank; for this, the course of the Flossgraben, which had also been used to great effect 200 years before, in the battle first described, afforded an ad- vantageous position. The artillery made such ravages in the enemy's columns, for the space of an hour, that he could not resist the vigorous attack which Napoleon renewed on Kaya, by means of marshal Mortier's corps. This village was at last carried, as well as the others : night came on, and the last attempt by th additional care is requisite in making a thousand boxes. The same result ap- pears in all the arts of printing: the im- pressions from the same block, or the same copperplate, have a similarity which no labor of the hand could produce.—12. Accuracy of the Work. The accuracy with which machinery executes its work is, perhaps, one of its most important advan- tages. It woultl hardly be possible for a very skilful workman, with files and pol- ishing substances, to form a perfect cylin- der out of a piece of steel. This process, by the aid of the lathe and the sliding rest, is the every day employment of hundreds of workmen. On these two last advan- tages of machinery depends the system of copying, by which pictures of the original may be multiplied, and thus almost un- limited pains may be bestowed in pro- ducing the model, which shall cost 10,000 times the price of each individual speci- men of its perfections. Operations of copying take place, by printing, by cast- ing, by moulding, by stamping, by punch- AIACHINERY—MACKEAN. 181 ing, with elongation, with altered dimen- sions. A remarkable example of the arts of copying lies before the eye of the read- er in these pages. 1. They are copies obtained by printing from stereotype plates. 2. Those plates are copies ob- tained (by casting) from moulds formed of plaster of Paris. 3. Tbe moulds are copies obtained by pouring the plaster, in a liquid state, upon the movable types. 4. The types are copies (by casting) from moulds of copper, called matrices. 5. The lower part of the matrices, bearing the impressions of the lettere or characters are copies (by punching) from steel punches, on which the same characters exist in relief. 6. The cavities in these steel punches, as in the middle of the letters a, b, &c, are produced from other steel punches in which those parts are in relief. (For machinery, in political econ- omy, see Labor-saving Macliines.) Machinery, in poetry. (See Poetry.) Mack, Charles, baron von ; an Austrian general, born in Franconia, in 1752. On leaving college, his inclination led him to enlist as a private in a regiment of dra- goons, and his good conduct soon obtain- ed him the rank of a petty officer. In the war with Turkey, be obtained a cap- tain's commission. His spirit of enter- prise procured him the favor of Laudon, who recommended him to the emperor. On the occurrence of war with France, Mack was appointed quarter-master-gen- eral of the army of the prince of Coburg, and directed the operations of the cam- paign of 1793. In 1797, he succeeded the arch-duke Charles in the command of the army of the Rhine. The following year, he was sent to Naples,^ then invaded iiy the French; but, being beaten in the field, and suspected of treason by the Neapolitans, he tied to the French camp, and was sent as a prisoner to Dijon. He found means to justify his conduct in the opinion of the emperor, who, in 1804, constituted general Mack commander-in- chief in the Tyrol, Dalmatia and Italy. In 1805, Napoleon forced him to retreat beyond the Danube, and to submit to the famous capitulation of Ulm, by which 28,000 of the Austrians became prisoners. Mack was permitted to go to Vienna, where he was hied before a military tri- bunal, and received the sentence of death as a traitor to his country. His doom, however, was commuted by the emperor for imprisonment; and he was, after a time, released, and died in obscurity, in 1828. Mackean, Thomas, an eminent Amer- vol. vm. 16 ican judge and revolutionary patriot, was bom March 19, 1734, in the county of Chester, Pennsylvania. After an academic and professional course of studies, he was admitted an attorney, at the age of 21, and soon obtained the appointment of deputy attorney-general in the county of Sussex. In 1757, he was admitted to the bar of the supreme court of Pennsylvania, and, in the same year, elected clerk of the house of assembly. In October, 1762, he was elected a member of the assembly for the county of Newcastle, and was annually returned for seventeen successive years, although he resided in Philadelphia for the last six years of that period. Wishing to decline a re-election, he went to New- castle in 1779, and stated his purpose. A committee then waited upon him to request that he would designate seven persons in whom they might confide as representatives of that county. He was finally obliged to comply with this flatter- ing request, and the gentlemen whom he named were chosen by a large majority. Mr. Alackean was sent to the general congress of the colonies, whicli assembled at New York in 1765. He, Lynch and Otis formed the committee who framed the address to the British house of commons. In 1765, he was appointed judge of the court of common pleas and of the orphan's court for the county of Newcastle. In November term, 1765, and February term, 1766, he was one of the bench that ordered the officers of the court to proceed in their duties, as usual, on unstamped paper. In 1771, judge Mackean was appointed collector of the port of Newcastle. WThen measures were atlopted to assemble the general congress of 1774, he took an active part in them, and was appointed a delegate from the lower counties in Delaware. September 5, he took his seat in that body, and served in it eight consecutive years and a halfj being annually re-elected until February, 1, 1783. He was the only man who was, without intermission, a member during the whole period. He was president of the body in 1781. Though a member of congress till 1783, yet from July, 1777, he held the office and executed the du- ties of chief-justice of Pennsylvania. He was particularly active and useful in pro- moting the declaration of independence, which he signed. A few days after that event, he marched, with a battalion, of which he was colonel, to Perth Amboy in New Jersey, to support general Wash- ington, and behaved with gallantry in the dangerous skirmishes which took place 182 MACKEAN—MACKENZIE. while he remained with the army. He re- turned to Delaware to prepare a consti- tution for that state, which he drew up in the course of a night, and which was unanimously adopted the next day by the house of assembly. In 1777, he acted as president of the state of Delaware. At that period, as he relates, he was hunted like a fox, by the enemy; he was com- pelled to remove his family five times in a few months, and at length placed them in a litde log house, on the banks of the Susquehannah ; but they were soon obliged to leave this retreat, on account of the Indians. July 28, 1777, he received the commission of chief-justice of Penn- sylvania, which office he discharged 22 years, and gave striking proofs of ability, impartiality and courage. Some of these are related in the Biography of the Sign- ers to the Declaration of Independence. Judge Mackean was a member of the convention of Pennsylvania that ratified the constitution of the U. States, which he sup- ported in a masterly speech. As a delegate to the Pennsylvania convention of 1788, he aided in forming the present constitution of Pennsylvania. In 1799, he was elect- ed governor of that state, as a leader of the democratic, contradistinguished from the federal party. As governor, he had an arduous task to perform, and he was equal to it, but he betrayed the party poli- tician too often, in the course of his ad- ministration, which lasted for nine years, the constitutional limit In 1803, it was proposed to him to become a candidate for the office of vice-president of the U. States; but he declined. In 1808, he retired from public life, in which he had been engaged for fifty years, and died June 24, 1817, in his 84th year. He was one of the fathers of the republic, and in this quality will be honored, aside from the resentments whicli his proceedings as a party politician engendered. Mackenzie, Henry, a novelist and miscellaneous writer, whom sir W. Scott, in the dedication of Waverley, calls the Scottish Addison, was bom in Scotland, in 1745, and, after completing his prelimi- nary education, became attorney in the court of exchequer, in Scotland. He had previously resided in London, for profes- sional purposes, and, while there, wrote his first production, the Prince of Tunis, a tragedy, which was favorably received. His passion for elegant literature led him to devote his leisure hours to polite stud- ies, and made him the friend and associ- ate of the most eminent scholars of Edin- burgh. In 1771, his Man of Feeling ap- peared, and was followed, a few years after, by the Man of the World, and, at a later period, by Julia de Roubigne. These works are distinguished by sweetness and beauty of style, tenderness and delicacy of imagination, and deep pathos, which rendered them extensively and deservedly popular. A club of literary gentlemen, in Edinburgh, to which Mackenzie be- longed, were accustomed to read essays on various subjects, at their meetings, and, at his suggestion, and under his di- rection, a series of them was published (from 1778), under the title of the Mirror; he afterwards conducted a similar pub- lication, under the title of the Lounger, to both of which he communicated a large portion of the essays. In these, united with his usual grace of style, he displayed a power of wit and humor, in rallying the follies of his age, which we do not discover in his novels. It is wor- thy of memory that, in his essays in the Lounger, he was the firet to bring Burns forward to the public notice. To the royal society of Edinburgh, and to the Highland society, he made many valuable communications, and was the author of the report to the latter on the controversy concerning the poems of Ossian, in which he maintains their authenticity. This re- port was publishetl separately (1805), and contains much valuable information rela- tive to Gaelic poetry. While thus ac- tive in literary pursuits, Mackenzie dis- charged, for a long time, the laborious duties of controller of taxes for Scotland, and was the delight and ornament of the society which he frequented. He died at a veiy advanced age, Jan. 14, 1831. (See Scott's Lives of the Novelists.) Mackenzie, sir Alexander; originally a Canadian merchant, engaged in the north-west fur trade. In 1789, he deter- mined to undertake a journey, with the view of penetrating to the coast of the Northern Polar ocean. He set out from fort Chippewyan, June 3, crossed the Slave lake, and descended the river which now bears his name. July 12, his party reached a spot where the river expanded into a lake, on which they pursued their course till, by the rising of the tide, and the presence of whales, it was obvious that they were near the sea. They were now nearly in the latitude at which Heame found the Coppermine river to fall into the sea, but about 30° more in longitude to the west By this journey, Mr. Mackenzie added one more link to the chain of discoveries in the North. He reached fort Chippewyan, on his return, MACKENZIE—MACKINTOSH. 183 September 4, having been absent 102 days. In Octolier, 1792, he undertook a still more arduous journey across the conti- nent, to the shore of the North Pacific. He encountered innumerable difficulties, and suffered greatly, before he could ac- complish his purpose; but at length, July 12, 1793, he arrived on the coast of the Pacific, near cape Alcnzies, in latitude 52°. In 1801, having returned to England, he published his Voyage through North America to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, in 1789 and 1793 (4to.); and, in the fol- lowing year, he received, as a reward for his exertions, the honor of knighthood. Mackenzie's River ; a river of North America. In the first part of its couree, it flows N. E. to the. Lake of the Hills, under the name of the Unigah, or Peace river; thence to Slave lake, it is called Slave river; it then takes the name of Mackenzie's river, and flows 780 miles N. into the Arctic sea ; Ion. 130° to 135° W.; lat 69° 14' N. Its whole course is about 2000 miles. (See preceding article.) Mackerel (scomber). This is a tribe of migratory fishes, which annually visit our coast, and is among the most celebrateel of tiiat class, for its numbers, and for the great use made of it iu a salted state. The European mackerel (S. scomber) was early known as an article of food, and was held in high esteem by the ancient Romans, as forming the celebratetl sarum, a pickle, or sauce, of which they made great use. This was preparetl from seve- ral different kinds of fishes, but that from the mackerel was deemed by far the best. The mackerel is easily taken, by a variety of baits, and the capture always succeeds best during a gentle breeze of wind, whicli is hence termed a mackerel breeze by sea- men. At such a time, the usual bait is a bit of red cloth, a colored feather, &c. This fish, when alive, possesses great symme- try of form and brilliancy of colors, which are much impaired by death, though not wholly obliterated. It is said, that, in the spring, their eyes are almost covered with a white film, which grows in the winter, and is regularly cast at the beginning of summer, before which they are half blind. There are several species of mackerel on die coast of the U. States, the most com- mon of which the S. vernalis, closely re- sembles the European species. Mackinac. (See MichUimackinac.) Mackintosh, sir James, eminent as a jurist, a statesman, and a writer,—equally distinguished for his extensive learning, his large views, and his liberal principles in law, politics and philosophy,—is de- scended of an ancient Scotch family, and was born in the parish of Dorish, county of Iuvemess, Scotland, in 1765. After studying at the school of Fortrose, in Ross-shire, he was sent to King's college, Aberdeen, and spent three years at Edin- burgh, chiefly in medical studies. He received his medical degree in 1787; but his attention had already been drawn to general literature, history, and moral, po- litical and speculative philosophy, and his inclination soon led him to abandon his profession. In 1789, we find him in London, where he published a pamphlet on the regency question, which, on ac- count of the sudden recovery of the king, attracted little notice. A visit to the con- tinent, at that interesting period, contrib- uted to excite his sympathies for the French, and he published a reply to the celebrated Reflections of Burke, under the title of Vindicia Gallica, or Defence of the French Revolution (1792), a work which laid the foundation of his fame, and ac- quired for him the friendship both of Fox and his great antagonist. About this time, Mr. Mackintosh entered himself as a stu- dent of Lincoln's Inn, was soon called to the bar by that society, and commenced the practice of the law. Having obtained permission, though not without much difficulty, to deliver a couree of lectures in the hall of Lincoln's Inn, on the law of nations, he published his Introductory Lecture, under the title of a Discourse on the Law of Nature and Nations. The ability which it displayed obtained him a large audience, including some of the most distinguished men of the country. On the trial of Peltier for a libel against Bonaparte (then first consul of France), in whicli the prosecution wtis conducted by Mr. Percival, the attorney-general (after- wards firet minister of state), and Mr. Abbot (the present lord Tenterden), the defence was conducted by Mr. Mackin- tosh, as sole counsel, " in the most brilliant speech," says sir W. Scott, " ever made at bar or in forum," which at once estab- lished his reputation as an advocate and an orator. The recordership of Bombay, with the dignity of knighthood, was soon after conferred on him, and, besides the discharge of the duties of his office, the nine years which he spent in India were marked by his exertions in the ameliora- tion of the criminal law, the foundation of the Literary Society in Bombay, and his valuable communications in the Asiatic Register. While sitting on an admiralty cause, he declared that that court was bound to decide by the law of nations, 184 MACKINTOSH—AIACLAURIN. and not (as had been maintained by one of the judges in England) by any direction from the king or his ministers. Soon after his return to England, sir James was returned a member of tbe house of com- mons, for the county of Nairn, in Scotland (1813), and has since sat for the borough of Knaresborough, in Yorkshire, in the influence of lord Fitzwilliam. VVhen he firet entered the house, he did not appear equal to his reputation; but, in tbe suc- ceeding sessions, he took his stand among the first parliamentary speakers. To au intimate acquaintance with the common and civil law, he adds the rarer character of a generous statesman ; and there are few instances in which finer reasoning, or deeper learning in the history of nations, and the influence of human laws upon the feelings, passions and interests of the human race, have been sustained, devel- oped and enforced by a more manly and vigorous eloquence. His greatest efforts were directed to the amendment of the criminal code, which had been under- taken by sir Samuel Romilly, and was taken up as a solemn bequest by his friend and representative. The escape of Napo- leon from Elba, the congress of Laybach, the Irish Catholics, the oppression of the Greeks, Scotch juries, the trial of the queen, are a few of the subjects on whicli he has exerted his eloquence. Sir James was, for some time, lord rector of the university of Scotland. He is also the author of a celebrated review (Edinburgh Rev., vols. 27 and 36) of Stewart's Discourse on the Progress of Metaphysical Science, and of a Discourse on the Progress of Ethical and Political Science, prefixed to the new edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and published separately (4to., 1830). His Histoiy of Englantl is not a de- tailed narrative of events, but a rapid, yet clear, profound and philosophic view of the state and progress of society, law, government and civilization in England, in which the lessons of experience, the character of men and events, die circum- stances which have promoted, retarded, modified the social and political improve- ment of the English nation, are unfolded and judged with the acuteness of a phi- losopher and the wisdom of a practical statesman. His style is simple, clear, graceful and elegant, and often rises to eloquence, when the historian traces out the growth of liberty, and the influence of generous institutions. In July 1831, he made an eloquent speech in favor of reform. Macklin, Charles, an actor aud drama- tist of some celebrity, was bom hi Ireland, 1690, and was employed in Dublin, as a barge-man, until his 21st year, when he went to England, and joined a company of strolling comedians. In 1716, he appeared as an actor in the theatre at Lincoln's-Inn- fields. It was not, however, until 1741, that he established bis fame as an actor, by his admirable pcrformaneeof Shylock,that be- ing, indeed, the only character in which he stood preeminent He continued on the stage until 1789, which long interval was marked by the usual vicissitudes of the- atrical life, rendered still greater by the temper of the individual. During the last years of his life, his understanding became impaired, and in this state he died, July 11, 1797, at the age of 107. His Man of the World, a comedy, discovers a keen knowledge of life and manners, and ex- poses meanness, sycophancy, and politi- cal servility, with considerable skill. His Love A-la-mode also possesses kindred merit. Macklin was an entertaining com- panion, although dictatorial, and very iras- cible. AIacknight, James, a learned Scottish divine, born in 1721, was educated at Glasgow and Leyden, and, on his return, was ordaineel minister of Alaybole, where he remained 16 yeare, and composed his Harmony of the Gospels, and his New Translation of the Epistles. In 1763, he published his Truth of the Gospel History. In 1772, he became one of the ministers of Edinburgh. Dr. Macknight employed nearly 30 yeare in the execution of his last and greatest work, on the apostolical epistles—a New literal Translation from the Greek of all the Apostolical Epistles, with Commentaries and Notes, philolog- ical, critical, explanatory and practical (1795, 4 vols., 4to.). He died in 1800. AIaclaurin, Colin ; a celebrated math- ematician and philosopher, born in Scot- land, in 1698. He studied at Glasgow, where he took the degree of M. A. at the age of 15, and defended a thesis on the Power of Gravitation. In 1717, he ob- tained the mathematical chair in the Mariscbal college at Aberdeen, and, two years after, was chosen a fellow of the royal society. In 1725, he was elected professor of mathematics at Edinburgh, where his lectures contributed much to raise the character of that university as a school of science. A controversy with bishop Berkeley led to the publication of Maclaurin's great wors, his Treatise on Fluxions (Edinburgh, 1742, 2 vols., 4to.). He died June 14, 1746. He was the au- thor of a Treatise on Algebra; an Account of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophical Dis- MACLAURIN—MADAGASCAR. 185 coveries; papere in the Transactions of the Royal Society ; and other works. Macpherson, James; a Scottish writer, tlistinguished in literary histoiy for his translations or imitations of Gaelic poems, said to have been composed in the tiiird century. He was born in 1738, and stud- ied at Aberdeen and Edinburgh. Having published Fragments of Ancient Poetry, translated from the Gaelic or Erse Lan- guage, a subscription was raised to enable him to collect additional specimens of national poetry. He produced, as the fruit of his researches, Fingal, an ancient Epic Poem, translated from the Gaelic (1762, 4to.); Temora, and other Poems (1763, 4to.); professedly translated from originals by Ossian, the son of Fingal, a Gaelic prince of the third century, and his contemporaries. (For an account of the controversy on this subject, see Ossian.) From the evidence of the contending par- ties, it may be concluded, that Macpher- son's prose epics were founded on tradi- tional narratives current among the High- landers; but the date of the oldest of their lays is comparatively modern; and it is now difficult, if not impossible, to ascer- tain the precise extent of his obligations to the Gaelic bards of former ages. Mr. Macpherson was afterwards agent to the nabob of Arcot, in consequence of which he had a seat in the house of commons from 1780 to 1790. H« died in 1796, and was interred in Westminster abbey. He was also the author of a prose trans- lation of Homer'* Iliad, and of some other works. AIacrabiotics (from paicpos, long, and (3i'>s, life); the science of prolonging life. Hufelaiid called his well known work Makrabiotik, or the Art of prolonging hu- man Life. (See LongevUy.) Macrobius, Aurelius Ambrosius Theo- dosius; a Latin author, in the reigu of the emperor Thcodosius, to whom he offici- ated its an officer of the wardrobe, and enjoyed a considerable share of the impe- rial favor. The countiy of his birth, as well as the religion whicli he professed, are both uncertain. He was the author of a miscellaneous work, entitled Satur- nalia, curious for its criticisms, and valu- able for the light it throws upon the manners and customs of antiquity; a commentary on Cicero's Somnium Scipio- nis, in two books, valuable for the exposi- tion it affords of the doctrines of Pythago- ras, with respect to the harmony of the spheres; and a treatise De Differentiis et Societatibus Graci Latinique Verbi. There are several editions of this author's writ- 16* ings, the best of which are those of 1670, Leyden, and 1774, Leipsic. He is sup- posed to have died about the year 420. Madagascar ; an island of Africa, on the eastern coast, separated from the con- tinent by the channel of Mozambique, which is about 270 miles across. It ex- tends from 11" 57' to 25° 40' S. lat, and from 43° 33' to 50° 25' E. Ion., and is about 900 miles long, and from 120 to 300 broad ; square miles, about 220,000; pop- ulation, uncertain ; estimated by Flacourt at 1,600,000; by Rondoux, at 3,000,000; by Rochon, at 4,000,000. It is one of die largest islands in the world, and is re- markable for its fertility. The surface is greatly diversified, being intersected, throughout its whole length, by a chain of lofty mountains, the highest summits of which are said to be about 11,000 feet above the sea. The scenery of these mountains is often grand and picturesque. The forests abound in beautiful trees, as palms, ebony, wood for dyeing, bamboos of enormous size, orange and lemon trees. The botany of the island is interesting; iron mines abound in various parts; other minerals are found; but the mineralogy of the island has been but little explored. The countiy is well watered by numerous streams, mostly small, which descend from the mountains. In this genial cli- mate, they produce a luxuriant fertility. Rice is the staple food of the inhabitants. Other productions are potatoes, sugar, silk, &c. The sheep produce fine wool. The cocoa-nut, banana, &c, flourish. The inhabitants are composed of two dis- tinct races, the Arabs or descendants of foreign colonists, and the Negroes or original inhabitants of the island. The character of the inhabitants differs much in the different parts of the island, anil the accounts of writers are very discordant on this subject But, in reality, too little is known of the greater part of" the island, to afford grounds for any safe opinions. The name and position of this island were firet made known to Europeans by Marco Polo, in the thirteenth century, although it had been known to the Arabs for several centuries. It was visited by the Portuguese in the beginning of the sixteenth century. The French made at- tempts to found colonies there in the middle of the seventeenth century, but abandoned the island after many struggles with the natives. In 1745, they made new attempts, but without much success. In 1814, it was claimed by England as a dependency of Mauritius, whicb had been ceded to her by France, and some setde- 186 MADAGASCAR—AIADDER. ments were established. One of the na- tive kings of the interior, who had shown himself eager to procure a knowledge of European arts for his subjects, consented, in 1820, to relinquish the slave-trade, on condition that ten Madegassees should be sent to England, and ten to Mauritius, for education. Those sent to England were placed under die care of the London missionary society, who sent missionaries and mechanics to Madagascar. In 1826, 1700 children were taught in the mission- ary schools, and parts of the Scripture liave since been translated into the native language. This king died in 1828, and we do not know what has been the disposi- tion of the new ruler.—See Rochon, Voy- age a Madagascar; Flacourt, Histoire de Madagascar; Copland, History of Mada- gascar (1822). Madame, in France; the title of the wife of the king's brother, of the sister of the king's father, or the sister of the king's mother, or of the FUle de France (the daughter of the king or of the dauphin, deceased during the life of the sovereign). —Mesdames de France ; the common title of the daughters of the French kings.— Mademoiselle; a title of honor of the daugh- ters of the king's brothers, the daughters of the king's father's brothers, or the daughters of the king's mother's brothers. In 1734, it was ordered that it should be given only to the first princess of the blood. Madder (rubia); a genus of plants that has given its name to an extensive family, including, among others, the genus galium or bedstraw, wdiich it closely re- sembles in habit but differs in the fruit, which consists of two globular corneous berries. Fifteen species are known, of which only one inhabits the U. States, viz. the R. brownei, which grows in Georgia, Florida, and the mountains of Jamaica. They are chiefly herbaceous, with rough branching stems, simple leaves arranged in whorls of four or six, and small flowers, which are usually disposed in terminal panicles. R. lindorum, or dyer's madder, is by far the most impor- tant of the genus, on account of the fine scarlet color afforded by the roots; and, indeed, this substance is essential to dyers and calico-printers, and their manufac- tures could not be carried on without it In consequence, it has become an impor- tant article of commerce, and is imported into Britain from Holland to a very great extent. Though cultivated in France for a century and a half, the supply is yet inadequate to the consumption in that country, and it is largely imported from the Levant as well as from Holland. Since the extension of manufactures in the U. States, it has become an object t>f importance to introduce the culture of madder, and the subject has engaged the attention of several intelligent and public- spirited individuals. The plant grows wild in many parts of the south of Europe. The root is perennial, long, Creeping, about as large as a quid, and red both without and within; from it arise sev- eral trailing, quadrangular stems, rough, branching, and two or three feet in length ; the leaves are oblong-oval, and prickly on the margin and mid-rib; the flowers are yellow antl small, and are disposed in a panicle, at the extremity- of the branches, and in the axils of the superior leaves; they make their appearance in June and July, and are succeeded by blackish ber- ries. The most approved method of cul- ture is from seed, and where this practice is pursued, certain precautions are requisite. As the madder of hot climates affords more coloring matter, as well as a deeper tint, it is best for those who live in a northern region to import the seed from th*» south. Again, when the seed is too much dried, it may remain in the ground two or three yeare before it will germinate. On this account, it should be kept in a bed of moistened earth or sand, whenever there is any delay in sowing it. A light, rich and deep soil is the most suitable, and it should be ploughed to the depth of two feet. The time of sowing is in February, or the beginning of March, for the more northern, and in September or October for the more southern regions. This kind of crop requires but little care and attention: for the first year, it is neces- sary only to keep it free from the weeds, and to hoe it slightly once during the sum- mer ; for the second, it requires hoeing in the spring, in the summer, and again, a little more deeply, in the latter part of the season; the same is requisite for the third year, except that the earth is heaped up about the base of the stems, in order to make it shoot with more vigor, and en- large the roots. It is usual, before the second time of hoeing, to cut the stems for cattle, who are very fond of it; but this practice should not be repeated during the season, as recommended by some writers, or the roots will suffer. It is only at the end of the third year, that the crop is ready for harvesting; and, if it is suf- fered to remain in the ground beyond this period, more is lost than gained. The roots, at this time, contain die greatest MADDER. 187 quantity of coloring matter, and have attained their full size. The best method of obtaining the roots, is the following: A trench is dug along the rows, to the depth of two feet, when, by loosening the earth about the roots, they may be taken up entire. In a good soil, a single plant may yield forty pounds of the fresh roots, which diminish, in drying, six sevenths or seven eighths of their weight The roots should be immediately washed, freed from all tlecayed parts, and dried as quick as possible, either by the sun or in a kiln. It is well observed, that madder is a haz- ardous crop, as, from its yielding a return only after a lapse of three yeare, it is often impossible to foresee what will be the state of the market at that time. Another mode of cultivation is from the roots, which are divided and set out Twenty thousand plants may be allotted to an acre. In England, the madder from Holland is most esteemed, and it is cultivated in that country to a veiy great extent The pro- cess of pulverizing the roots, wl Jch is done by pounding or grinding, was, for a long time, kept a secret by the Dutch. In the state of a powder, it is of an orange- brown color, and is liable to become damp, and to be spoiled, if kept in a moist place. Madder is used for dyeing wool- len, silk, and also cotton goods, and the color is very lasting, and resists the action of the air and sun. Within a few years, a method has been discovered of render- ing the red exceedingly brilliant, and ap- proaching to purple. It also forms a first tint for several other shades of color, and, besides, has, of late, been successfully used by painters, and is found to yield a fine rose color. Madder also possesses the singular property of imparting its red color to the bones of those animals which have used it for food, and also to the milk of cows, if they have eaten of it freely. Composition of Madder, and its Employ- ment in Dyeing. All the parts of the plant contain a yellow coloring matter, which, by absorption of oxygen, becomes red; the root is, however, most productive in this coloring matter, and is the only part employed in dyeing. It is distinguished into three parts—the bark, the middle por- tion, and the interior woody fibre. TIki bark contains the same coloring matter as the wood, but mixed with much brown extractive matter, which degrades the hue. The bark may be separated in the milling, for it is more readily ground, and may thus be removed by the sieve. In the middle part of the root, which con- tains the finest coloring matter, and that in largest quantity, there may be distin- guished, by the microscope, a great many shining red particles, dispersed among the fibres. These constitute the rich dyeing material. Tbe fibres contain a brown substance, similar to what is found in the bark. The roots occur in commerce, dried and in powder. They are also sold fresh ; in which state they yield finer colors, dye more, and give up their color- ing matter with one third less water. Ac- cording to experiments made in England, five pounds of fresh roots go as far as four of the dry ones; and it is estimated that eight pounds of fresh roots are reduced to one in drying; hence the great advantage of using the green roots becomes apparent The roots produced in the south of France, when sold in the fresh state, are called alizari. They are reddish-yellow, but, when ground, take a fine red tint. The madders of Germany and Holland are orange-yellow, passing into brown-red, having an acid and saccharine taste, and a strong smell. John found, in 100 parts of madder, Fatty matter, of a red-brown color, resembling wax,..... 1.0 Red resinous matter, ....... 3.0 Red extractive matter,.......20.0 Oxidized extractive,........ 5.0 Brownish gum,........... 8.0 Ligneous fibre,...........43.5 Acetate of potash and lime, .... 8.0 Phosphate, muriate and sul- ) „„ phate of potash, about $ ' Silica,................ 1.5 Oxide of iron,............ 0.5 100.0 According to other analyses, madder con- tains free tartaric acid. Kublmaun finds, in the madder of Alsace, red coloring , matter, dun coloring matter, ligneous fibre, vegetable acids, mucilage, vegeto-animal matters (azotized), gum (4 per cent.), sugar (16 per cent), bitter matter, resin, salts; the last consisting of carbonate, sulphate and muriate of potash, carbonate and phosphate of lime, with silica. The re- cent researches of M. AI. Robiguet, Colin and Kuhlmann, seem to prove that the differences in the madder dyes proceed from the relative proportions of two dis- tinct coloring principles in madder, which they have called alizarine and xanthine. By digesting the powder of madder in water, and acting upon the jelly-like solu- tion thus obtained by boiling alcohol, an extract is afforded, which, at a sublim- ing heat, yields the proper red coloring matter of madder, or alizarine. Or the 188 MADDER—MADEIRA. ground madder may be treated directly with boiling alcohol; and to the alcoholic solution, dilute sulphuric aciU is added, which precipitates the alizarine in a copi- ous orange precipitate.' Alizarine has a golden-yellow hue, is insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether, is precip- itated by acids, but not by alkalies, show- ing distinctly an analogy to resins. The xanthine was obtained from a fawn-yellow matter, soluble in alcohol and water, by precipitation with oxide of lead, washing the precipitate with alcohol, aiid extricat- ing the color by sulphuric acid. It has an orange-green tint, and a saccharine taste; alkalies cause it to pass into red, and acids to lemon-yellow. It is inferred by these chemists, that, in those fabrics which exhibit rose tints, the xanthine pre- dominates ; while in the violet, it is nearly wanting. From a knowledge of these facts, it becomes easy for a skilful dyer to promote the absorption, by the cloth, of one or other of these coloring principles, or to remove one of them, should both together have been attached to it. Kurrer bas published, in the Polytechnic Journal of Dingier for 1827, a process, by a spirituous or viuous fermentation, and an immediate subsequent washing, which gives a perfect result with all the madders of commerce. The madder, penetrated with water, and covered over merely one inch, fer- ments in from 36 to 48 hours, when the whole is transferred into a tub containing a considerable quantity of cold water. Here the madder precipitates, and must be washed with several cold waters. The ordinary madder-red dye is given in the following way:—the yarn or cloth is put uito a very weak alkaline bath, at the boil- ing temperature ; then washed, dried and galled ; or, when the calico is to be print- ed, for this bath may be substituted one of cow-dung, subsequent exposure to tbe air for a day or two, and immersion in very dilute sulphuric acid. In this way the stuff becomes opened, and takes and retains the color better. After the galling, the goods are dried, and alumed twice ; then dried, rinsed, and passed through the madder bath. This is composed of three fourths of a pound of good madder for every pound weight of the goods. The bath is slowly raised to the boiling point in the course of 50 or 60 minutes TViore or less, according to the shade of color wish- ed for. When the boiling has continued for a few minutes, the stuff is taken out, washed slightly, and dried a second time in the same manner, and with as much madder. It is then washed and dried, or passed through a hot soap bath, which carries off the fawn-colored particles. Other dyes likewise are added to the mad- der bath, to obtain other shades of color ; for instance, a decoction of fustic, weld, logwood, quercitron, knoppem, the mor- dants being modified accordingly. Hoel- terhoff iirescribes for ordinary madder-red, the following proportions:—20 pounds of cotton yarn, 14 pounds of Dutch madder, 3 pounds of gallnuts, 5 pounds of alum ; to whicli are added, first, \h pound of ace- tate of lead, and, subsequently, a quarter pound of chalk. When bran is added to the madder bath, the color becomes much lighter, and of a more agreeable tint.— Adrianople madder-red is given by many- distinct operations. The firet consists iu cleansing or scouring the goods by alkaline baths, after which they are steeped in oily liquors, brought to a creamy state by a little carbonate of soda solution. Infu- sion of sheep's dung is often used as an intermediate or secondary steep. The operation of oiling, with much manual labor, and then removing the superfluous or loosely adhering oil with an alkaline bath, is repeated two or three times, taking care to. dry hard, after each process. Then follows the galling, al- uming, madtlering and brightening, for removing the dun-colored principle, by boiling at an elevated temperature, with alkaline liquids and soap. The whole is often concluded with a rosing by salt of tin. Madeira ; an island offthe western coast of Africa, belonging to Portugal; Ion. 17° W.; lat 32° 30* N.; square miles 407; population estimated at 100,000. The body of the people are of Portuguese de- scent, negro slavery not being permitted. The peasants are veiy poor, rude and ig- norant ; the hardest labor is performed by females. The religion is Catholic. The island consists of a collection of mountains, the most elevated of which is 5068 feet high. The lower slopes are covered with vines, the loftier summits with forests of pine and chestnut A great part of the sides of the hills consists of abrupt pre- cipitous rocks, supposed to be of volcanic formation. Most of the rocks along the coast are composed of a white lava. The productions, besides wine, are wheat, rye, sugar, coffee, maize, kidney-beans, arrow- root, pine-apples, &c. The great produc- tion is wine, of well known excellence. The quantity annually made is about 20,000 pipes, of which two thirds are ex- ported principally to Great Britain and the British colonies. The best vines grow on MADEIRA—AIADRAS. 189 the south side of the island. There are several varieties of wines; the best is called London particular. The tax-gath- erer takes the teudi part of the must: the rest is divided between tbe proprietor and the farmer. Goats abound, and still more hogs, which, being allowed to run wild, acquire a taste of venison ; the rabbit also is very common in the mountainous dis- tricts. Bees are veiy common, and the honey they produce is very delicate. Beg- gar} is common among the peasants, and is considered no disgrace. The Portu- guese gentry live in a proud and retired manner, associating little with strangers. In the city, the most opulent part of the inhabitants consists of British merchants, established there for the wiue trade. The commerce of the island consists almost entirely in the export of its wine. For vessels stopping at Madeira, provisions and refreshments are exorbitantly dear. Ad- jacent to Madeira is Porto Santo, a small island, and the Desertas, which, with Ala- deira itself, compose the group of the Aladeiras. Funchal, the capital, with 20,000 inhabitants, is in Ion. 17° 61 W. ; lat 32° 37' N. Porto Santo was discover- ed by Zarco, a Portuguese navigator, in 1416, unless we may believe the romantic story of Macham, an Englishman of ob- scure condition, who is said to have eloped with a young lady of noble birth, and set sail for France, but was driven to this region. The lady is said to have died in consequence of her sufferings,aud Macham did not long survive. (See the Voyage of Robert Alacham in Hakluyt, II.) In 1419, Zarco discovered the island which he called Madeira, or the Wood, on ac- count of the magnitude and number of the trees that covered it, and which have since almost entirely disappeared. For the history of the recent events in Aladei- ra, see Portugal. Barrow, Staunton, and Bowdich's voyages contain information relative to this island. (For information respecting the wines, see Henderson's History of Wines.) Madeira; a river in South America, large, abundant and navigable ; about 1100 miles long, rising in the mountains of Chuquisaca, in die republic of Peru. It runs an easterly couree to Santa Cruz de la Sierra, with the names of La Plata, Chuquisaca, Cachimayo and Guapay; and, turning to the north, enters the Ama- zon river, with the name of La Madeira (Portuguese' for wood), on account of the vast quantity of wood which it carries down with its current It abounds in ex- cellent fish. Madison, James, bishop of Virginia. (See Appendix, end of this volume.) Mad.ness. (See Mental Derangement.) AIadoc ; according to a Welsh tradi- tion, a Welsh prince, who, in consequence of some domestic dissensions, went to sea widi ten ships and 300 men, in the twelfth century, anil discovered land in tbe ocean far to die west. He made several voyages to and from this unknown land, but final- ly was lost to the knowledge of his coun- trymen. The story is to be found in the Welsh Triads, and Hakluyt gives an ac- count of the voyages in his collection. Later travellers have imagined that they had discovered traces of these early emi- grants in different varts of the country, and we have had stories of white Indians and Welsh Indians, iScc. (See Hum- boldt's Personal Narrative, book ix, note A.) Madonna (Italian); properly, my lady: thus Petrarch often calls Laura madon- na ; but uow it is more particularly ap- plied to die Virgin Mary, as she is called in other languages, our lady. Alany cele- brated pictures are known under the name of Madonna, as the famous Madon- na di Sisto of Raphael, in the gallery of Dresden. Madras, Presidency of; part of the English possessions in Hindoostan, com- prehending the whole of the countiy south of the Krishna, excepting a narrow strip on the western coast and the Northern Circars. A considerable portion of it is governed by native princes subordinate to the British, and protected by a subsidiary force ; the rest is under die immediate direction of the governor aud council of Madras, and, in 1822, was subdivided into 24 districts, with an area of 166,000 square miles, and a population of 13,677,000. The commerce of this presidency is in- considerable, compared with that of the others, in consequence of the want of a harbor, aud of navigable rivers. Madras, the capital of the presidency, is the larg- est city on the coast of Coromandel. Lat. 13° 5'N.; Ion. 80° 21' E.; 1044 miles from Calcutta, 770 from Bombay; population, by census, in 1823. 415,751. It consists of fort St. George, the Native or Black town, and the European houses in the envi- rons, surrounded by gardens. The heavy- surf which beats on the shore, and the rapid current in tins part of the gulf, render the landing often dangerous and always diffi- cult Boats, formed of three planks sewed together, are used for crossing tbe surf; but in stormy weather, when no boat can venture through it, the native fishermen 190 MADRAS—MADURA. pass it on rafts called catamarans. The Black town is an irregular assemblage of brick and bamboo bouses, crowded to- gether in narrow and dirty streets, inhab- ited by Hindoos, Mohammedans, Arme- nians, Portuguese, and other Europeans engaged in the company's service. The houses of the Europeans are generally of but one story, surrounded' with verandas ; wet mats of cusa grass are placet! before the doors and windows, in the rainy season, to perfume and cool the apartments ; the heat is then excessive. Besitles some lit- erary and charitable institutions, Aladras contains the government houses, and is the seat of the supreme court of die pres- idency. Madrid ; a city and capital of Spain, in New Castile, and in a province of the same name, on the Manzanares, near the centre of the kingdom, about 200 miles from the sea; 650 miles S. S. W. of Paris, 350 W. by S. of Rome ; Ion. 3° 3& W. ; lat 40° 25' N. ; population, by a census in 1825, 201,344, including strangers. It is situated in a large plain, on several emi- nences, and is 2200 feet above the level of the sea, being the most elevated capi- tal in Europe. Seen at a distance, it presents nothing that announces a great city, and, the environs being destitute of wood, and even of vines, while most of the villages are in hollows, the prospect is uncommonly dreary. On drawing near, the prospect is more cheerful. The city is of an oblong form, about six miles in circuit, surrounded by a high earthen wall, but has no ditch, or any other means of defence. The old streets are narrow and crooked, but many others are wide, straight and handsome. They are paved, kept clean, and lighted. The city has 15 gates, 42 squares, mostly small, 506 streets, 77 churches, 75 convents, 8 colleges, and 18 hospitals, 65 public edifices, 17 fountains, and several promenades, among which the Prado is the principal. The private houses are uniform, generally low, with grated windows, and have little striking in their exterior. The churches are less magnificent than in several other cities in Spain. There are two palaces on a large scale—the Palacio Real at the western ex- tremity, and the Buen Retiro at the eastern. The Palacio Real is of a square form, ex- tending each way 404 feet, 86 feet high ; the enclosed court 120 feet square. It is Btrongly built, the exterior elegantly orna- mented, and contains a collection of paint- ings of the best mastere of Flanders, Italy and Spain. The royal library contains about 130,000 volumes, and 2000 manu- scripts. The great school of Madrid has 16 mastere, who teach the various arts and sciences. There is another seminary, on an equally extensive plan, for the sons of the nobility and gentry. There are acad- emies for the study of the several fine arts, a botanic garden, and a variety of charitable institutions. Madrid is the Man- tua Carpetanorum of the Romans, and the Majoritum of the middle ages. Philip II firet maele it the capital of the kingdom, on account of its central position. It was occupied by French troops in 1808, and was the residence of Joseph Napoleon until 1812. It was afterwards occupied by the English. In the French expedi- tion into Spain in 1823, it was again en- tered by the French, under the duke d'Angouleme. (See Spain.) AIadrigal ; a short lyric poem adapted to express ingenious and pleasing thoughts, commonly on amatory subjects. It con- tains not less than four, and generally not more than 16. verses; and consists, com- monly, of hendecasyllables, with shorter verses interspersed, or of verses of eight syllables irregularly rhymed. In the soft Provencal dialect, it was called madrial, because used for subjects of a material, that is, of a common and low character. Other derivations are given, as from man- dra, which signifies, in Greek and Latin, a sheepfold. The earliest madrigals were those of Lemmo of Pistoia, set to music byCasella, who is mentioned by Dante. They were afterwards subjected to stricter rules in regard to the number of verses and the rhyme. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we find matlri- gals for the organ and other instruments. The madrigals of Tasso are among the finest specimens of Italian poetry. This form has been successfully cultivated by the Germans. Madura ; a territory celebrated in the Hindoo mythology, now forming a part of the Madras presidency. The capital, of the same name, contains the vast palace of the ancient rajahs, now going to decay, with its lofty dome, 90 feet in diameter, and the Great Temple, one of the most remarkable monuments of Hindoo archi- tecture, with its four gigantic porticoes, each surmounted with a pyramid of ten stories. Alahadeva, under the mystic form of the lingam, is the principal object of adoration. Among other remarkable places in this territory is the island of Ra- meswara (the Lord Rama), separated from the main land by a narrow strait, across which stretches a line of rocks called Ad- am's bridge. Rama, seized with compunc- MADURA—MiEONIDES. 191 tion for the slaughter of the Brahmans in his wars, here set up the holy lingam. Meander, now Meinder ; a river of Asia Minor, which takes its rise in Phrygia, on mount Celanus: it forms the boundary between Caria and Lydia, and flows into the iEgean sea between Priene and Miletus. It was celebrated among the ancients for its winding course. The name was thence transferred to the inter- twined purple borders on mantles and other dresses, as well as upon urns and vases ; hence, figuratively, meandering paths, meandering phrases; that is, arti- ficial turns and circumlocutions, &c. M.ecenas, C. Cilnius, the favorite of Augustus, and patron of Virgil and Hor- ace, traced his genealogy from the ancient Etrurian kings. He has been described as a pattern of every political virtue, and a most generous patron of the sciences. He was never, in fact, however, a public minister; for even the office of prefect of Italy and Rome, which he held after the victory at Actium, was only a private trust; and the notions whicli are enter- tained of him as the protector of the learned, and which have made his name proverbial, seem to be veiy much exag- gerated. It is true that he collected at his table poets, wits and learned men of eve- ry description, if they were pleasant com- panions, sought their conversation, and sometimes recommended them to Augus- tus; but it was from political motives, for the purpose of gaining friends for Augus- tus, and extending his fame. It is true, also, that he gave Horace a farm, and ob- tained his pardon and freedom, and that be enabled Virgil to recover his property ; but, for a man whom Augustus hat! made exorbitantly rich, the present to Horace was a trifle, and Virgil merely received from him what was justly his own. Ala> ceuas was not a man of great qualities; but he well understood how to employ the favors of fortune. Widiout strong passions and a lofty ambition; endowed with a fine taste and a sound judgment; prudent, and cool enough to do whatever lie did rightly and thoroughly, and san- guine enough not to shrink before diffi- culties, and always to anticipate a happy result, but too fond of ease and pleasure to love or to pursue any business, if he was not compelled by necessity ; of an agreeable person, gay in conversation, affable and generous; inclined to rally others, and equally willing to receive their attacks in return ; artful, and skilful in employing others for his own purposes; careful in the choice of his intimate friends, but faithful and constant after he had once chosen them; and, if necessity required, capable of any sacrifice ;—these qualities gained him the confidence of Augustus, which he enjoyed undiminish- ed till his death. Augustus used to ban- ter him on his effeminacy, his love for curiosities, precious stones and gems, his affectation in mixing old Etrurian words with Latin, and making new words. In return, Maecenas ventured to make use of great freedom, or rather of severity of ex- pression, as, for instance, during the trium- virate, when Octavius was in the tribunal, passing many sentences of death, Maece- nas presented him his tablets with the words, " Surge tandem, carnifex!" (Rise, executioner!)—a reprimand which pro- duced its effect; and Octavius did not take offence at it When Augustus con- sulted with Agrippa and Maecenas, wheth- er to retain or resign the supreme power, Maecenas, in opposition to the advice of Agrippa, urged him to retain it. Thus he proved, that he preferred the profitable to the honorable. Maecenas appears less worthy of esteem as a private man. He had a palace, in the form of a tower, on the Esquiline hill, which was surrounded with splendid gardens. Here, at the close of the civil ware, being about 40 years old, he resigned himself to indolence, lux- ury and frivolous pleasures. Of all spec- tacles, he was most fond of the pantomim- ic dance, which he himself introduced into Rome. Bathyllus (q. v.), who was famous for his beauty, and his skill in this exhibition, was his favorite. He was no less fond of the pleasures of the palate. His indolence betrayed itself in his dress, in his gait, in his manners, and even in his style. He died in the year of Rome 745. His writings are mentioned by Seneca, Isiodorus and others ; but none of them are extant. Maelstrom, or Moskoe-Strom ; a whirlpool in the North sea, near the island Aloskoe. In summer, it is but little dan- gerous, but is very much so in winter, especially when the north-west wind re- strains the reflux of the tide. At such times, the whirlpool rages violently, so as to be heard several miles, and to engulf small vessels, and even whales, which ap- proach it M£Nades (from paivopai, I am mad); a name applied to the Bacchanalians, the priestesses of Bacchus. MjEOnides. (See Homer.) The Muses were likewise sometimes called Maonides, because Homer was viewed as their great- est favorite. 192 xM^EOTIS—MAFFEI. Mjeotis. Palus Maotis was the name given by the ancients to what is now called the Sea of Azoph. (See Azoph.) Maese. (See Meuse.) Maestricht. (See Mastricld.) Maestro ; the Italian for vwxter, and not unfrequently used in maestro di capella, chapel-master. Maestro dd sacro palazzo is the papal censor of books and the pope's confessor, a Dominican. Maffei ; a celebrated Veronese family, which has produced many eminent men. 1. Alessandro (marquis), bom 1662, served under Maximilian Emanuel, in the cam- paigns against the Turks and the French, distinguished himself in the war of the Spanish succession, and, after the victory of Belgrade (1717), was made field-mar- shal, and died at Munich, in 1730. The memoirs which appeared under his name (Verona, 1737) were written by his brother, Scipio.—2. Bernardino, born at Rome, 1514, educated at Padua, created cardinal at the age of 35, died at the age of 40. He possessed a large collection of coins, of which he made use in his lost Histoiy from Medals.—3. Francesco Sripio (mar- quis), born at Verona, 1675, studied in the Jesuits' college at Parma, aud went to Rome in 1698, where he devoted himself to poetry, and was received into the Ar- cadia. He afterwards entered the milita- ry career, served under his brother, Alex- ander, in the Spanish succession war, and, in 1704, was present at the battle of Do- nauworth as a volunteer. His literary taste soon recalled him to Italy, where he wrote his Delia Sfienza chiamata Caval- leresca—a work full of learned research into the usages of the ancjents in settling private quarrels, and in which he main- tains, that duelling is contrary to religion, sound reason and the welfare of society. To improve the condition of Italian lite- rature, the decline of whicli he lamented, be undertook, in connexion with Apostolo Zeno and Vallisnieri, the publication of a periodical, the object of whicli was to criticise native works, and make his coun- trymen acquaintetl with foreign literature. At the same time, he directed his atten- tion to the Italian drama, which ho en- riched by his Teatro Italiano—a collection of the best comedies and tragedies (3 vols., 1723)—and by his original tragedy of Me- rope. (See Italian Theatre, in the article Italy.) This production, although only a judicious essay towards uniting the Greek and Frencli tragedy, met with the most brilliant success. His comedy La Cere- monia was also brought upon the stage with applause. To revive the study of the Greek language, which was much neglected by his countrymen, he invited skilful teachers to Verona, whom he sup- ported at his own expense. The discov- ery of some important manuscripts in the cathedral of his native city, gave his learn- ed labors a new turn, one of the results of which was Verona Illustrata (1731). Maffei's reputation had now extended to foreign countries, and, in 1732, he set out on a visit to France, England, Holland, and returned by the way of Vienna, where he was received in the most flat- tering manner by Charles VI. He died in Verona in 1755, and a monument is there erected to his memory. Among his numerous works, the most important, be- sides those already mentioued, are Rime e Prose (1719); Isloria diplomatica ; Muse- um Veronense, and other writings relative to his native city. I lis complete works appeared at Venice (1790, 21 vols., 4to.)— 4. Giovanni Piclro, one of the most learn- ed writers among the Jesuits, was born at Bergamo, in 1535, went to Rome, where he became acquainted with Annibal Caro and other distinguished men, became afterwards professor of rhetoric at Genoa, then secretary of the republic, and, two years later, entered the order of the Jesu- its, hi Rome. Having published a Latin translation of Acosta's Histoiy of India (1570), he was invited by Henry of Por- tugal to Lisbon, and employed to write a general history of India; for whicli pur- pose he hat! access to original documents in the archives. This work (Historiarum Indicarum Libri xvi) appeared at Florence, in 1588 (better edition, Cologne, 1593), and is characterized rather by beauty of style than by profoundness "of research or acutencss of judgment lie died at Tivoli, 1003.—5. Paolo Alessandro, born at Volterra, 1653, died in Rome, where he had chiefly resitled, in 1716. By an in- dustrious study of museums and cabinets, he acquired an extensive knowledge of ancient works of art His principal works are Raccolla di Statue Antiche e Modeme (Rome, 1704), and au edition of Agostini's Gemme Antiche, whicli he en- riched with valuable notes and additions; it is less prized by connoisseurs than the old and scarce edition of 1657, which Is re- markable for the beauty of its engravings. —6. Raphael, called also Raphael of Vol- terra, bom at Volterra, in the middle of the fifteenth century, died there in 1522. His chief work is Commentarii Rerum Urbana- rum Libri xxxviii (Rome 1506), of which the first 23 books contain geographical antl biographical treatises: the remainder AIAFFEI—MAGDALEN SOCIETIES. 193 is a general view of the state of knowl- edge at that time. Makra ; a town of Portugal, province of Estreniadtira, six leagues north-west of Lisbon, containing a magnificent palace, erected by John V. It is constructed of marble, and is nearly a square of 728 feet The church is placed in the centre of the fabric, having the palace on one side and the convent on the other. It was begun in 1717, and finished in 1742. A beauti- ful park and fine gardens are attached to it. The kings of Portugal have often re- sided here. The palace includes a col- leys', which has a library of 40,000 or 50,000 volumes, and a fine mathematical appara- tus. Population, 2,800. (See Murphy's splendid work, published in London, in 1791, the text of which is by Luis de Sousa.) AIagadoxo, AIagadosho,oi-Makdisho; a kingdom of Africa, situated on the coast of the Indian sea, extending from the riv- er J ubo, near the equator, to beyond the fifth degree of north latitude. How far it extends to the westward, is not known. It has its name from its capital, situated in a large bay, formed, as has been said, by die mouth of the river of the same name, which is called by tbe Arabs the NUe nf Magadoxo, by reason of its annual overflowing. Owen's chart (1827) lays down no river between the Julio and 8° north, au extent of 500 miles. The city of Alagadoxo is a place of great com- merce, and vast resort from the kingdoms of Aden, and other parts; whence their merchants bring cotton, silk and other riot lis, spices, and a variety of drugs, which they exchange with the inhabitants for gold, ivory, wax, and other commodities. it is chiefly inhabited by Mohammedans. The town "is situated in Ion. 45° lO' E.; lat 2° 1' N. AIagalhaens, or Magellan, Fernando de ; a famous Portuguese navigator, who .discovered the straits at the extremity of South America, anil conducted tbe firet expedition round the world. He served under Albuquerque in the East Indies, and distinguished himself, especially at the taking of Malacca, in 1510. He after- wards entered into the service of Spain, and was intrusted, by Charles V, with die command of a fleet destined to explore a passage to the Molucca islands, by sailing westward. The voyage was commenced September 20, 1519. About the end of October, 1520, he entered the straits since called after his najne, antl, on the 27th of November, discovered the Pacific ocean. Continuing his couree, he arrived vol. viii. 17 at the Ladrone islands, and subsequently at the Philippines, on one of which he lost his lift1, in a skirmish with the natives, in 1521. Magazines. (See Periodicals.) AIagdale.n, or Mary of Magdala, a city on the lake of Galilee, in Palestine, by an old erroneous interpretation, is con- founded with the sinner mentioned in Luke vii, whose name is not given, antl who, on account of her repentance and trust in Christ, was assured by him of the forgiveness of her sins. The histoiy of her conversion from a licentious life be- ing confounded with the story of Alary of Magdala (see Mary), the ideal of St. Magdaien was formed, and has given oc- casion to some of the most celebrated productions of the pencil. Penitent fe- males who had lived licentious lives, early banded together, and formed a religious order, under the protection of St. Magda- lena, whicli existed in Germany before 1215; and similar institutions arose about tbe same time in France, Italy and Spain. In France, they termed themselves Made- lonctles. They adopted the rules of St. Augustine, and formed various congrega- tions, distinguished by the color of their dress (white, gray or black), antl by the different degrees of strictness in their mode of life. This order, which admit- ted, at firet, only courtesans and females who had lost their honor, has spread into both Indies; aud, although the members of it were only bound to social exercises of devotion, and did not apply themselves to useful offices, and have, moreover, de- parted from their ancient laws, by the re- ception of virtuous women, yet the in- stitutions continue till the present day. The Catholic Magdalen establishments now remaining in Protestant countries, have been obliged to devote themselves to the care of the sick; such as that at Laubau, in Upper Lusatia. Magdalen Societies, so called from the view of the character of Mary Magdalen already given, have also been established, of late years, to afford a retreat to penitent prostitutes, and enable them to pursue the work of their own reformation. Such a society was established in London, in 1758, principally by the exertions of doc- tor Dodd, and, since that period, between 4000 and 5000 abandoned women have enjoyed the benefits of the establishment, and have been restored to their families and society. By far the greater number of those who have been protected here have subsequently continued respectable and correct in their behavior. No female who has conducted herself with propriety 194 MAGDALEN SOCIETIES—MAGIC. in the house, is allowed to leave it unpro- vided for. Similar societies also exist in some of our principal cities. Magdalkna, a large river of South America, rises from lake Pampas, in the Colombian province Cundinamarca, re- ceives many other rivers, and falls, after a course of 900 mile's, by two branches, into the Caribbean sea. It contains numerous alligators. It gives name to a department of Colombia. There is another river of the same name in Texas. Magdalene Islands ; a cluster of islands, seven in number, situated in the gulf of St. Lawrence, about 42 miles north- west from the island of Cape Breton. They are thinly inhabited by fishermen. Lon. 61° 407 W.; lat between 47° 13' and 47° 42'N. Magdeburg, one of the most impor- tant fortresses of Germany, and, from the time of Charlemagne, of considerable commercial interest, capital of the former duchy, and present Prussian government of the same name, in the province of Saxony, is situated on the left bank of the Elbe, which is crossed by a wooden bridge, about 95 miles from Berlin ; lon. 11° 38' E.; lat. 52° & N.; with 36,600 inhabitants, exclusive of the garrison. Magdeburg, with her 16 bastions, extensive outworks, &c, forms one of the strongest fortresses of Europe, and commands the middle Elbe. The Gothic cathedral is worthy of notice. Alagdeburg has two excellent gymnasia, many other establish- ments, and considerable transit trade be- tween the coasts and the interior of Ger- many, with some manufactures, &c. In 1743, a canal was constructed uniting the Elbe and Havel, and, therefore, the Elbe and Oder. Magdeburg was the favorite residence of Otho I. The town took an active part in the reformation. It was taken by assault, May 20 (10), 1631, by the Catholic generals Tilly and Pappen- heim, and was the scene of great cruelties. In 1806, it was dishonorably surrendered, by general Kleist, to Ney, after the battle of Jena. By the peace of Tilsit, it was ceded to France, which annexed it to the kingdom of Westphalia, and, by the peace of Paris, it was restored to Prussia. Car- not lived here, when in banishment as a regicide, and died here. Magdeburg, Centuries of. (See Centuries of Magdeburg.) Magellan. (See Magalhaens.) Magellan, Straits of; passage be- tween the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, at tbe southern extremity of the continent of America; upwards of 300 miles in length, from cape Virgin, in the Atlantic, to cape Desire, in the Pacific ocean, in some places several leagues over, and in others not half a league. The passage through these straits is difficult and dan- gerous. Lon. 70° to 77° W.; lat. 52° 30* to 54° S. AIagellanic Clouds ; whitish appear- ances, like clouds, seen in the heavens towards the south pole, and having the same apparent motion as the stare. They are three in number, two of them near each other. The largest Les far from the south pole; but the other two are about 11° distant They may be multitudes of stare, like the milky way. AIagellona the Beautiful ; the name of an old French novel, reproduced in various forms, in many languages, proba- bly composed in the eleventh or twelfth century, by a Provencal minstrel. AIa- gellona is the daughter of the king of Naples; Peter, son of the count of Prov- ence, is her lover. Petrarch is said to have given the present form to the novel. Its title is L'Histoire du noble et vaiUant Chevalier Pienc de Provence et aussi de la belle Maguellone, File du Roy de Naples (1496,1524,1625). There are other editions, without year and place. The duke of Marlborough paid, in 1813, for a copy iu folio', £22 Is. Lope de Vega made use of the subject in his drama the Three Diamonds. (See Alillin's Voyage en France, vol. iv, p. 354 ; also Gorres's Deutsche Volksbiicher.) AIaggiore, Lake. (See LagoMaggiore.) AIagians (Magi) derive their name from mog or mag, which signifies priest in the Pehlvi language. (See Indian Lan- guages.) They were the caste of priests with the Persians and Aledians. They were in exclusive possession of scientific knowledge. As sacrifices and prayer could be offered to Ormuzd only through them; as Ormuzd revealed his will only to them, and they therefore could pry into futurity; in short, as they were consider- ed mediators between the people and the Deity,—they necessarily possessed great authority, which they abused. Zoroaster was their reformer. He divided them into learners, teachers and perfect teach- ers. (For the doctrine of Zoroaster, see the article.) Magic Men, as soon as they began to observe the phenomena around them, could not help seeing the close connexion which exists between man and external na- ture. When the sun sets, he wants rest, and sleep approaches with night; atmospher- ic changes affect his health; certain MAGIC—MAGISTRATE. 195 wounds become painful with the change of weather, or at certain phases of the moon ; some men are painfully affected in the presence of particular animals (see Antipathy) ; certain liquids exhilarate, others destroy life. Such and similar observations, combined with many of au erroneous and exaggerated character, springing from credulity and ignorance, soon led men to treat this mysterious con- nexion of man and nature, and the influ- ence of things or causes without him, upon bis mind and body, as a peculiar science, which, when occupations were not yet divided, of couree belonged to the priests, whose exclusive possession of knowledge made them the guides of men in science and the arts as well as in re- ligion. This is considered, by some, the natural origin of supernatural magic ; others, on the contrary, believe that there once actually existed a deeper knowledge of the powers and influences of nature, transmitted from earlier and purer ages, but lost with increasing folly and guilt; and others believe that men once possessed the means of producing supernatural effects with the assistance of evil spirits, as those particularly gifted by Providence were able to produce supernatural effects with the assistance of God. Alaia, the eternal mother of things, is, in the Indian mythol- ogy, the goddess of intellectual as well as of sensual love. In another signification, she is the musp, the goddess of prophecy and poetry, and also of deception ; aud the word magic seems to be connected with this root, of so various, yet easily conjoined meanings. Aledia, Persia, and the neigh- boring countries, famous for their knowl- edge of astronomy aud astrology, are de- scribed as the chief seats of the ancient magi, whose doctrine seems to be, in part, of great antiquity. This docuiue repre- sentee! opposition or strife as the parent and original cause of all things. After the opposition between tight and darkness, Ormuzd and Ahriman, was established, the whole series of finite beings, the whole sensual world, proceeded from this con- stant struggle of light and darkness, good and evil. The change of day and night, light and darkness, the whole series of ages, time itself) is only a consequence of this struggle, in which sometimes light, sometimes darkness, appeal's victorious, until finally light shall conquer forever. If all finite things stand under the influ- ence of preserving and destroying powers in nature, it is clear that he who could master these powers could dispose, at his pleasure, of the things subject to diem; and the doctrine of the Alagians was, that, by prayer and a true knowledge of those laws of opposition, love and hatred, light and darkness, such power could be ob- tained ; and that thus, also, it was possible to pry into futurity. But it was believ- ed that as the world became sinful the light of the ancient doctrine of the magi was obscured, and those who bore the name became, at last, only evil-disposed sorcerers. One important branch of their art was, now, the excitement of love by potions and enchantments. Their love-potions consistetl partly of ingredi- ents, whicli are still known to physicians as stimulants, partly of parts of animals who had died longing for food or air, or the saliva of hungry dogs, and other still more disgusting substances. Alagic, at this period, also occupied itself w ith for- tune-telling, calling up the dead, bewitch- ing by tbe look (with the Romans and Greeks, jettatura)—a superstition which we find existing in the processes again6t witches in modern times, with the prepa- ration of amulets, the inflicting of pain on a person by correspondent applications to his image in wax, &c. He who wishes to become acquainted with the poetical side of magic, ought to read the Arabian Nights (q. v.). It can hardly be doubted, that the art of the ancient magicians was founded, to a considerable degree, upon a superior knowledge of the powers of na- ture. The name of the magnet, magnes, or enchanting stone (according to one derivation,) seems to indicate tiiat it was not unknown to the magi; and some of their phenomena seem referable to galvanism.—Interesting information on this subject is contained in Kleuker's Zen- davesta, and still more in his Magikon, which contains the history of numerous secret doctrines; see also Creuzer's Sym- bolik und Mythologie; Windiscbmanu's Inquiries respecting Astrology, Alchemy and Magic, (in German, Frankfort, 1818); also, George Conrad Horet, On Ancient and Modern Magic, its Nature, Origin ami History (in German), with his Zauberbw- liothek (6 vols., Alentz, 1820—25). (See Divination, Demon, Witchcraft.) AIagindanao. (See Mindanao.) MagisterArtium. (See Master of Arts.) Magister Equitum. (See Master of the Horse.) Magister AIatheseos. (See Pythago- ras.) AIagistrate ; a public civil officer, in- vested with the executive government or some branch of it. Thus, in monarchical governments, a king is the highest or firet 106 MAGISTRATE—AIAGLIABECCHI. magistrate. But the word is more par- ticularly applied to subordinate officers, as governors, intendants, prefects, mayors, justices of the peace, and the like. In Athens, Sparta, and Rome, the chief magistrates were as follows: From Ce- crops to Codrus, Athens hael 17 kings; from Medon to Alcmaeon, 13 archons for life: from Charops to Eryxias, 13 decen- nial, and from that time, annual archons. The democracy established by Solon was changed into a monarchy by Pisistratus, who was succeeded by his sons Ilippias and Hipparchus. The ancient democra- cy was then restored, but was interrupted for a year, after the unhappy issue of the Peloponnesian war, by the domination of the 30 tyrants, and, for a short time, by that of the decemviri. Under the Alace- donian kings, and afterwards under the Romany except at intervals, tbe freedom of Athens was only a name. Auti pater decreed that 9000 of the principal citizens should administer the government, and Cassander made Demetrius Phalereus prefect of the city. In Sparta, the magis- trates were kings, senators, cphori, 6cc. Chosen by a majority of suffrages, they held their offices, some, as the kings and senators, for life, others for a limited time. Among the Romans, there were different magistrates at different times. The first rulers were elective kings. After the ex- pulsion of Tarquin the Proud (in the year of the city 244, B. C. 510), two coneuls were elected annually to administer the government In cases of pressing dan- ger, a dictator was appointed, with un- limited power, and in case of a failure of all the magistrates, an interrex succeeded. This course continued, with occasional interruptions, till the year of the city 672, or B. C. 81, when Sylla assumed the su- preme power, as perpetual dictator. Af- ter three yeare, however, he voluntarily laid aside his authority, and the consular government lasted till Julius Caesar caused himself to be declared perpetual dictator, B. C. 49. From this time, the consular power was never entirely restored. Soon after the assassination of Caesar, the tri- umvirs, Octavius, Lepidus and Antony, assumed a still more absolute sway; and Octavius finally became chief ruler of the Roman empire, under the title of princeps or imperator. He retained the magistrates of the republic only in name. In the be- ginning of the republic, tbe consuls seem to have been the only regular magistrates. But, on account of the constant wars, which required their presence in the ar- my, various other magistrates were ap- pointed, as pretore, censors, tribunes of the people, &c. Under the emperors, still different officers arose. The Roman magis- trates were divided into ordinary and ex- traordinary, higher and lower, curule antl not curule, patrician and plebeian, civic and provincial. A distinction between pan-ician and plebeian magistrates was firet made in the year of Rome 260 (B.C. 494); that between civic and provincial, when the Romans extended their con- quests beyond the limits of Italy. The ordinary magistrates were diviiled into higher and lower; to the former belong- ed the consuls, pretore and censors; to the latter, the tribunes of the. people, cdilcs, questors (q. v.), &c. The most important extraordinary magistrates were the dictator, with his master of horse, ami the interrex. The difference between cu- rule and not curule magistrates depended on the right of using the curule chair, which belonged only to the dictator, con- suls, pretore, ceusors and curule edilcs. During the republic, magistrates were chosen at the comUia, particularly in the centuriata and tributa; in the former, the higher ordinary authorities were chosen, and in the latter, the lower ordinary au- thorities. Under the emperors, the mode of the election ef i;> •..ristrates is uncertain. Magliabecchi, Antonio; a learned critic, who was librarian to tfie duke of Tusca- ny, eclebrateel alike for die variety of his knowledge and the strength of bis mem- ory. He was born at Florence, in 1633, and, in the early part of his life, was en- gaged in tbe employment of a goldsmith, which he relinquished to devote himself to literary pursuits. He was assisted in his studies by Michael Ermini, librarian to cardinal Leopold de'Medici, and other literati residing at Florence. Through unremitting application, he acquired a multifarious stock of erudition, which made him the wonder of his age. Duke Cosmo III made Alagliabecchi keeper of the library which he had collected, and gave him free access to the Laurentian library, and the Oriental MSS.; of the latter collection he published a catalogue. His habits were very eccentric. His at- tention was wholly absorbed by his books; among which he took his rest and his meals, dividing his time between the ducal library antl his private collection, inter- rupted only by the visits of pereons of rank or learning, attracted towards him by the report of his extraordinary endow- ments. He left no literary work deserv- ing of particular notice ; but he freely af- forded information to those authors who MAGLIABECCHI—MAGNA GRjECIA. 197 sought his assistance in their own under- takings. Notwithstanding his sedentary mode of life, he was 81 years old when he died, in July, 1714. (See Spence's Par- allel between R. Hill and Magliahccchi.) Magna Charta Libertatum ; the Great Charter of Liberties, extorted from king John, in 1215. (See John.) The barons who composed the Army of God and the Holy Church, were the whole nobility of England ; their followers comprehended all the yeomanry and free peasantry, and the accession of the capi- tal was a pledge of the adherence of the citizens and burgesses. John had been obliged to yield to this general union, and, June 15, both encamped on the plain called Runnymede, on the batiks of the Thames, and conferences were opened, which were concluded on the 19th. The preliminaries being agreed on, the barons presented heads of their grievances and means of redress, in the nature of the bills now offered by both houses for the royal assent The king, according to the custom which then and long after pre- vailed, directed that the articles should be reduced to the form of a charter, in which state it issued as a royal grant. Copies were immediately sent to every county or diocese, two of which are yet preserved in the Cottonian library in the British mu- seum. To secure the execution of the charter, John was compelled to surrender the city and Tower of London, to be held by the barons till August 15, or until he had completely executed the charter. A more rigorous provision for securing this object is that by which the king consented that the barons should choose 25 of their 'number, to be guardians of the liberties of the kingdom, with power, in case of any breach of the charter, and the delay or denial of redress, to make war on the king, to seize his castles aud lands, and to distress and annoy him in every possible way (saving only the pereons of the royal family), till justice was done. Many parts of the charter were pointed against the abuses of the power of the king as lord paramount; the tyrannical exercise of the provisions of the forest laws was checked, and many grievances incident to feudal tenures were mitigated or abolished. But beside these provisions, it contains many for the benefit of the people at large, and a few maxims of just government,applicable to all places and times, of which it is hardly pos- sible to overrate the importance of the firet promulgation by the supreme authority. " No scutage or aid shall be raised in our kingdom (except in three given cases) but by the general council of the kingdom." This principle, that the consent of the community is essential to just taxation, has been the life of the British constitu- tion. The 39th article contains the cele- brated clause which forbids arbitrary im- prisonment and punishment without law- ful trial : " Let no freeman (nullus l&er homo) be imprisoned or disseized, or out- lawed, or in any manner injured or pro- ceeded against by us, otherwise than by die legal judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land. We shall sell, delay or deny right or justice to none." This arti- cle contains the writ of habeas corpus (q. v.) and the trial by jury, the most effectual se- curities against oppression, which the wis- dom of man has devised, and the principle that justice is the debt of every govern- ment, whicli cannot be paid without ren- dering law cheap, prompt and equal. The 20th section is hardly less remarka- ble:—"A freeman shall be amerced in pro- portion to his offence, saving his contene- ment, a merchant saving his merchandise, and the villain saving his wagonage." The provision which directs that the su- preme civil court shall be stationary, in- stead of following the king's pereon, is an important safeguard of the regularity, ac- cessibility, independence and dignity of public justice. Blackstone has given an edition of the Charter, with an introduc- tion in his Law Tracts. (See also the histories of Hume and Mackintosh.) AIagn^an Institute; founded by pro- fessor Arnus Alagnaeus, for the publication of Icelandic manuscripts at Copenhagen. Magna Grjecia ; the southern part of Italy, which was inhabited by Greek colo- nists. D'Anville bounds it, on the north, by the river Silar or Selo, which empties into the gulf of Paestum. But it seems more natural to annex Campania to it, and to take for the boundaries on the one side, the Vulturous, where the territory of Cuma ceased, and on the other, the Frento or Fortore, which forms the boundary of Apulia, and flows into the Adriatic, as the Grecian colonies reached to that point. The tribes, indeed, which had emigrated into Italy from the north, in the earliest times, spread through all Italy, but always confined by the Apennines, and in the in- terior of the countiy. Several centuries after, Greeks came hither, began to build citi.:s on the unoccupied coasts, and inter- mingled by degrees with the inhabitants of the interior. The foundation of these Grecian colonies was unquestionably af- ter the destruction of Troy. Athenians, Achseans, Eubceans, &c, with some Tro- 198 AIAGNA GRjECIA—MAGNESIA. jans, repaired hither. According to Dio- nysius of Halicarnassus, the followers of iEneas were scattered through the differ- ent parts of Italy. Some landed in Iapygia, others retired to both sides of the Apen- nines, and founded colonies. Subsequent- ly the Romans sent colonies to Calabria, and partly in that way, partly by conquest, became (272 B. C.) masters of all the Greek colonies. The Greek was no longer the sole language in Calabria; the Latin was also spoken ; and an intermixture of the Grecian and Roman manners and usages took place, which is yet percepti- ble. Alagna Graecia comprised the prov- inces of Campania, Apulia, Iapygia, Lu- cania and Bruttii. The most celebrated republics were Tarentum, Sybaris, Croto- na, Posidonia, Locris and Rhegium. Magnates (in low Latin, the Great) was formerly in Poland, and is still in Hungary, the name applied to the noble estates, who took part in the administra- tion of the government In Poland, they were the spiritual and temporal senators, or the counsellors and high nobility. Among the senators were reckoned the archbishop of Gnesen, aud formerly the archbishop of Lemberg, the bishops, way- wodes, the castellans and royal officers or ministers. In Hungary, the barons of the kingdom are considered as magnates. These are—1. the greater; to wit, the Palatine, royal and court judges, the Ban or governor of Croatia, Sclavonia and Dahnatia, the treasurer and the highest officere of the court ; 2. the smaller, or counts and barons. To the prelates, infe- rior nobles and royal free towns, this de- nomination does not extend. AIagnesia ; one of the earths, having a metallic basis called magnesium. It ex- ists in nature, under various states of com- bination, with acids, water, and other earths, and is found in various mineral springs, and the water of the ocean, united with sulphuric and muriatic acids. It may be obtained by pouring into a solution of its sulphate a solution of subcarbonate of soda, washing the precipitate, drying it, and exposing it to a red heat It is usually procured in commerce by acting on mag- nesian limestone with the impure muriate of magnesia, or bittern of the sea-salt manufactories. The muriatic acid goes to the lime, forming a soluble salt, and leaves behind the magnesia of botb the bittern and the limestone ; or the bittern is decomposed by a crude subcarbonate of ammonia, obtained from the distillation of bones in iron cylinders. Muriate of ammonia and subcarbonate of magnesia result. The former is evaporated to dry- ness, mixed with chalk, and sublimed. Subcarbonate of ammonia is thus recov- ered, with whicli a new quantity of bit- tern mav be decomposed. 100 parts of crystallized Epsom salt require, for com- plete decomposition, 56 of subcarbonate of potash, or 44 dry subcarbonate of so- da, and yield 16 of pure magnesia after calcination. AIagnesia dissolves very spar- ingly in water, requiring 5142 times it? weight of water at 60°, and 36,000 of boiling water, for solution. The resulting liquid does not change the color of vio- lets ; but when pure magnesia is put upon moistened turmeric paper, it causes a brown stain. It possesses the still more essential character of alkalinity in form- ing neutral salts with acid in an eminent degree. It absorbs both water and car- bonic acid, when exposed to the atmos- phere. It is infusible, except in the in- tense heat of the compound blow-pipe. The salts of magnesia are in general very soluble, and crystallizable, and possessed of a bitter taster. Tbe Carbonate is pre- pared for medicinal use, by dissolving equal weights of sulphate of magnesia antl carbonate of potash, separately, in twice their weight of water; mixing them together, and diluting with eight parts of warm water ; the magnesia at- tracts the carbonic acid, and the compound, being insoluble, is precipitated, while the sulphate of potash that remains continues in solution. The mixture is made to boil for a few minutes ; after c'ooling a little, it is poured upon a filtre ; the clear fluid runs through, and the precipitate of car- bonate of magnesia is washed with water till it is tasteless. When the process is conducted on a large scale, the bittern or liquor remaining after the crystallization of sea-salt, which is principally a solution of muriate and sulphate of magnesia, is substituted for the pure sulphate, and this is precipitated by a solution of pearlash or of carbonate of ammonia. Carbonate of magnesia is perfectly white, friable, and nearly tasteless. It is veiy sparingly sol- uble in water, requiring at least 2000 times its weight at 60°. When acted on by water impregnated with carbonic acid, it is dissolved; and from this solution, al- lowed to evaporate spontaneously, the carbonate of magnesia is deposited in small prismatic crystals, which are trans- parent and efflorescent—Nitrate of mag- nesia has a ,taste bitter and acrid. Its crystallization exhibits a mass of needle- like crystals, deliquescent, soluble in half their weight of water at 60°.—Sulphate of MAGNESIA—MAGNESIAN MINERALS. 199 magnesia, generally known by the name of Epsom salt, is made directly by neutral- izing dilute sulphuric acid with carbonate of magnesia ; but in the large way, by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on mag- nesian limestone, and the native carbonate of magnesia. It is possessed of a saline, bitter and nauseous taste. It crystallizes readily in small quadrangular prisms, which effloresce in a dry air. It is ob- tained also in larger six-sided prisms, ter- minated by six-sided pyramids. Its pri- mary form is a right rhombic prism, the angles of which are 90° 307 and 89° 301. It is soluble in au equal weight of water at 60°, and in three-fourths of its weight of boiling water. It undergoes the watery fusion when heated. On mixing solutions of sulphate of magnesia and sulphate of potash in atomic proportion, antl evapo- rating, a double salt is formed, which con- sists of one equivalent of each of the salts, and six equivalents of water. A similar double salt (isomorphous with the preceding) is formed by spontaneous evaporation from the mixed solutions of sulphate of ammonia and sulphate of magnesia.—Phosphate of magnesia, form- ed from the combination of the acid and the earth, crystallizes in prisms, which are efflorescent, soluble in about 15 parts of cold water, and which, by heat, melt into a glass.—A triple phosphate of nwgnesia and ammonia exists, which is formed by add- ing phosphoric acid with ammonia, in ex- cess, to a magnesian salt. It is insoluble, and is precipitated in a soft white powder of shining lustre. It forms one variety of urinary calculus, and its formation affords one oi the best tests for the discovery of magnesia.—Muriate of magnesia has such an affinity to water, that it can be obtained in acicular crystals only by exposing its concentrated solution to sudden cold. No chloride of magnesium can be obtained by heating this salt; for the acid is ex- pelled from it uudecomposed, by the ap- plication of heat—Chloride of magnesia may be formed in the same manner as chloride of lime. It has the same bleach- ing power, antl it has been proposed to ap- ply it to the same purpose. When the chloride %£ lime is used, a small quantity of lime is left on the cloth : this, in the last operation of washing the cloth with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, is converted into sulphate of lime, which, being insoluble, remains, and affects the colors, when the cloth is dyed. The ad- vantage of employing the chloride of magnesia is, that, if sulphate of magnesia is formed, it is so soluble as to be easily removed by washing. Magnesia is a veiy useful article of the materia medico. It is used as an antacid and cathartic. It is however, nearly inoperative, unless there is acid in the stomach, or unless acid is taken after it The carbonate and sulphate are the most frequently used of the prepara- tions of magnesia"; but the pure earth, sold under the name of calcined magne- sia, is sometimes preferred ; it is liable, however, to form large and dangerous ac- cumulations in the bowels, of several pounds weight, when its use has long been persevered in. The Epsom salt con- sumed in the U. States is principally manu- factured at Baltimore, from the magnesite and magnesian limestone, found in Lan- caster county, Pennsylvania. The annual amount manufactured at this place is given at 1,500,000 pounds. Magnesian Minerals. Of these, the hydrate of magnesia, or native magnesia, deserves to be mentioned in the first in- stance. It is a rare substance, having hitherto been met with only,at two local- ities—Swinaness in Unst, one of the Shet- land Isles, and Hoboken, in New Jersey ; in the latter place, occurring in thin seams, traversing serpentine. It exhibits a 1am- ellnr, or broad columnar structure ; is but little above talc in hardness, or in the diffi- culty of its cleavage ; sectile; thin lami- naj flexible; specific gravity 2.350. Its color is white, inclining to green ; lustre pearly; translucent Before the blow- pipe, it loses its transparency and weight, and becomes friable. In acids, it is dis- solved without effervescence, and consists of 70 magnesia and 30 water.—The sili- ceous hydrate, or Deweylite, is a compact, white, or yellowish-white mineral, found in the serpentine of Aliddlefield, Alassa- chusetts, and near Baltimore, Maryland. It has a hardness between calc-spar and fluor, and is composed of silica 40, mag- nesia 40, and water 20. It appears to be identical with the kerolUe of Breithaupt— Carbonate of magnesia, or magnesite, is found crystallized in radiating and parallel fibres, reniform, tuberose and massive; fracture, when massive, flat conchoidal. It also occurs pulverulent; fracture flat conchoidal, sometimes earthy; dull ; col- or yellowish-gray, cream-yellow, yellow- ish and grayish-white ; streak white ; opaque; adheres to the tongue. Some of the compact varieties are very tough, giving fire with the steel, though too soft to impress fluor; specific gravity, 2.808. It is infusible before the blow-pipe; dissolves with a slow effervescence in the dilute nitric and sulphuric acids. It consists of 200 MAGNESIAN MINERALS—AIAGNET. magnesia 48.00, carbonic acid 49.00 and water 3.00. It is found in Stiria, Silesia and Spain. A variety of it, possessing an earthy fracture, and containing about four per cent of silex, is found in the islands of Sanios and Negropont, in the Archipel- ago, and is called, by the Germans, Meer- schaum, and by the French, Ecume de Mcr. It is soft when first dug, and, in that state, is made into pipes, but hardens by expo- sure to the air. The most remarkable deposit of this mineral, however, is found at Hoboken, in New Jersey, where it oc- curs disseminated, in seams, through a serpentine rock; and is sometimes crys- tallized, at others pulverulent Sulphate of magnesia is found in crystalline fibres, parallel and divergent, and in the shape of crusts; more rarely, also, it has been found pulverulent It is easily recognised by its bitter saline taste. Specific gravity, 1.75 ; color white; lustre vitreous, trans- lucent, or transparent It dissolves very easily in water, deliquesces before the blow-pipe, but is difficultly fusible, if its water of crystallization has been driven off. It effloresces from several rocks, both in their original repositoiy and in artificial walls, and then it is a product of their decomposition. It forms the princi- pal ingredient of certain mineral waters. It occurs at Freiberg and its vicinity, efflorescing upon gneiss, also at the quick- silver mines of Idria, in Carniola, and various other places in Europe. Its most remarkable depositories, however, are the limestone caves of Kentucky, whose floors are often covered with it, in delicate crystals, to a considerable depth, inter- mingled with a dry earth, which has come from the decomposition or disintegration of the limestone rock: this earth is leached, in very considerable quantities, by the inhabi- tants of the country, who obtain from it their supply of Epsom salt. (For a notice of Borate of magnesia, see Boracic Acid.) Magnet. (For an account of the native magnet, see the article Iron, division Mag- netic Iron Ores.) The peculiar power of certain iron ores to attract and hold fast iron, was known, even in ancient times, by Thales. (q. v.) Much later, it was dis- covered that these iron ores, or magnets, were capable, also, of communicating their power to the iron which they attract Accordingly, there are both natural and artificial magnets. All the phenomena connected with the magnetic power, and its relations to the other powers of nature, are comprised under the name of magnet- ism. In recent times, it has been found that pure cobalt and nickel have the same magnetic qualities as iron, only in a much weaker degree; but how far the magnetic influence may be imparted to still other bodies, totally free from iron, is, as yet, a matter of doubt. Those minerals which are not metallic are nearly all attracted by the magnet, at least after having been ex- posed to the action of the fire. Almost every part of animal and vegetable matter, after combustion, is more or less attracted by the magnet. In most of these instances, however, tbe magnetism is probably due to the combination of iron. Natural mag- nets, as well as artificial, have two points, in opposite directions, where the iron is attracted most strongly: these points or places are called magndic poles. One mode of discovering them is by putting the magnet in iron filings, which attach themselves to it most at these two points or poles. If a magnet is left with the fewest impediments possible to its motion, by being placed on water, supported by some slight floating substance, or, without support, on mercury, or by suspension from its centre of gravity between the two poles, or by being supported there by a fine point, it will always turn with one pole towards the north, with the other pole towards the south. Strictly speaking, the direction of the poles is, in Europe, at present, north-north-west and south- south-east. In some parts of the earth, the northern point of the magnet deviates from the meridian to the east; in others, to the west; in others, it coincides with the meridian. Its deviation is called the declination of the needle. The point of the magnet which has a northerly direc- tion, is called the north pole; the other, the south pole; the straight line between both is termed the magnetic axis,; and the prolongation of this line, curving, however, to correspond to the surface of the globe, is called the magnetic meridian; the line which cuts the middle of the magnetic meridian at a right angle, and in a horizontal plane, is called the magnetic equator. The property of the magnet, to place itself always in the magnetic merid- ian, is called its polarity. This property is most easily observed in the case of a steel needle, artificially rendered magnetic, and so suspended at its centre of gravity, that it has almost perfect freedom for horizon- tal motion; this is the magnetic needle of the compass, (q. v.) When two magnets are brought near together, the poles of the same name repel each other: the poles of different names attract each other.—The phenomena of the magnetic needle, to- gether with others to be mentioned in the MAGNET. 201 sequel, induce us to consider the earth itself as a great magnet, whose magnetic poles agree with its equatorial poles. In respect to this great magnet, the fact which we have just stated shows that the poles of every particular magnet, properly speaking, are the opposite of what they are called. What we call north pole, be- cause attracted by the north pole of the earth, is, for this very reason, the south pole of the magnet Analogous to the signs used in electricity (q. v.), one pole is also marked by -f- AT, and the other by — M. The magnetism of the earth is also called terrestrial magnetism. The most remarkable phenomenon of the magnet, in relation to the earth, is the va- riation of the magnetic meridian in most parts of the globe, upon which depends the declination of the needle. Accurate observation of this phenomenon has ascer- tained the following facts: There are certain points on the earth where no declination exists. The lines formed by their series, however, do not coincide with the geographical meridians; but, on tbe contrary, deviate from them very irregu- larly. According to the most recent ob- servations, there exists a line without declination in the Atlantic ocean, between the old and the new world. It intersects the meridian of Paris, at a southern latitude of about 65°; thence it mounts to the north-west, to about 35°.W. longitude from this meridian, or 32° $& 37" from Green- wich, as high as the latitude of tbe coast of Paraguay ; after which, becoming again almost north and south, it skirts the coasts of Brazil, and proceeds to tbe latitude of Cayenne. Then, turning suddenly to the north-west, it takes the direction of the U. States, and thence proceeds to the northern parts of the American continent, which it traverses in the same direction. The position of this line on the globe is not immutable ; at least for a century and a half, it has been tending considerably from the east to the west. It passed London in 1657, and Paris in 1664. Thus, in its present direction, it has traversed in the latitude of these places, nearly 80° of longitude in 150 yeare. But there is no doubt that this change is not uniform. It is even very unequal in different parallels. In the West Indies, for example, the declination of the needle has hardly varied for 140 years. In general, the slowness of this movement leaves it uncertain whether it is constantly progressive, or whether it must continue in any particular direction. The veiy accurate observa- tions habitually made in several observa- tories of England and France, have ap- peared to indicate, for some yeare, a com- mencing retrogradatiou towards the east; but, even in the yeare 1790 and 1791, a similar retrogradation had been observed, which did not, however, continue. The very exact measures of the inclinations or dip of the needle, made at different peri- ods, by Gilpinsand Cavendish, at London, have proved that this element is also vari- able, though much less so than the decli- nation. The inclination was, at London, in 1775, 72° 30'; in 18C5, 70° 21'. This result has been confirmed in France, by the observations of Humboldt. It bas been also proved, anil in a still more striking manner, by tbe successive meas- ures of the inclination made by different navigators, between 1751 and 1792, at the cape of Good Hope, which indicate, during this time, a progressive increase of incli- nation, amounting to 5°. There is anoth- er line without declination, almost oppo- site to the preceding, which, beginning in the great Southern ocean, and running constantly in a north-western direction, cuts the western point of New Holland, traverses the Indian ocean, enters the continent of Asia at cape Comorin, and thence, passing through Persia and West- ern Siberia, ascends to Lapland. This line, however, divides near the great arch- ipelago of Asia, and gives rise to another branch, whicli, running almost directly north and south, passes this archipelago, crosses China, and runs into the eastern part of Siberia. The two branches which intersect this line either experience no change of place, or move with much slowness. The declination of the needle does not appear to have varied sensibly for 140 yeare at New Holland. Indica- tions of a fourth line without declination, were observed by Cook in the South sea, towards the point of greatest inflexion of the magnetic equator. On the other hand, the points where the greatest declination of the needle has been observed are in high latitudes north and south. The greatest observed by Cook in the southern hemisphere was at 60° 40' of latitude, and 91° 24' 37" W. from Greenwich. In the northern hemisphere, where the magnetic pole has been much more nearly ap- proached, much greater declinations have been observed, amounting, in fact, to nearly 90° W. If the magnetic pole had been crossed, the north pole of the needle would have been turned to the south, and, directly over the pole, its direction would have been vertical, and, of couree, it would have had no horizontal direction. It ap- 202 AIAGN ET. pears, therefore, that the horizontal direc- tion wilbbe very weak, when the dip or inclination is great; so that a very slight extraneous influence, such as the iron on shipboard, may render the compass use- less. Besides these variations, others oc- cur daily, and others according to the sea- sons. From eight o'clock A. AL, the declination increases until about three o'clock ; then it decreases until eight P. M., and remains unaltered until eight A. AI. The amount of these daily devia- tions is the greatest from April to July, when it is from 13' to 16'; in the other months, it is from 8' to lO'. The di- rection of the needle is said to be affected by approaching earthquakes, or eruptions of volcanoes. If a needle stands in the magnetic meridian, and is displaced by foreign power, it returns, when the power ceases to act, to its former situation by a series of oscillations. The time of an os- cillation, in the case of the same needle, has a certain relation to the magnetic power of the earth, and serves as a meas- ure of it, in a similar way as the oscilla- tions of the pendulum serve for the meas- urement of the degrees of gravity. Alex- ander von Humboldt found that a needle which, in Paris, made 245 oscillations in 10 minutes, made, in Peru, but 211 in the same time, whicli would give the propor- tion of the magnetic power of the earth at Paris to that in Peru nearly as 135 : 100.* On the other hand, according to Gay- Lussac, an elevation of 3532 toises, about 22,600 feet, over the level of the sea (in a balloon), showed no influence upon the magnetic power. The number of the os- cillations, and, of course, the intensity of the magnetic power of the earth, always diminishes in approaching the magnetic equator, and increases in approaching the magnetic pole. Another remarkable and evident manifestation of the influence of the magnetism of the earth upon the nee- dle, is the inclination or dip of the latter; i. e. a deviation from the horizontal plane in northern regions, of the north pole of the magnet; in the southern regions, of the south pole of the magnet; and which, in the region of the magnetic equator, is 0, but increases towards the poles. This * This result of the observations of Humboldt and Rossol has been confirmed by subsequent observers. Mr. Hermann, in the years 1829 and 1830, made no fewer than 700 magnetic observa- tions, between the meridians of Berlin and Rio Ja- neiro. He crossed the magnetic equator during that period several times. The magnetic inten- sity whicli he observed in various points corre- sponds exactly with that observed by M. Humboldt in the same places. phenomenon, also, is subject to differences, because the magnetic equator of the earth cuts the terrestrial equator, and winds through it in a serpentine line, in which it reaches twice on each side its maximum of distance from the earth's equator, which is nowhere more than 14" 10'. The incli- nation, in the northern hemisphere of the earth, is the strongest between 70°an.l 80° latitude. Under 74° 47', where Tarry (q. v.) remained during the winter, the inclination amounted to 86° 43' 45". The cause of all these phenomena is, as yet, unexplained. That there are great mag- nets in the earth, which move periodically ; or (according to professor Steinhaiiser) that an interior planet (Minerva) revolves round the centre of the earth once in 440 years, and thus product s the magnetic phenomena on the surliiee; or that (as Sander supposes) these are to be ascribed to a magnetic planet on the other side of Herschel, completing a revolution only once in 1720 years, may be matter of interesting speculation, but can hardly be looked on as any thing more. If we ob- serve single magnets, we find that their effect of attraction or repulsion only takes place at small distances, and dim'misht s in a proportion between the square and the cube of the distance. The form of mag- nets, their size, and other circumstances, cause differences in this respect Two magnets attract each other most powerful- ly by the opposite pohs. Next in de- gree is the attraction of die magnet for soft, pure iron; cast-iron, steel and iron ores are not attracted so strongly; solu- tions of iron iu acids, still less; iron com- pletely oxydated, or iron-rust, is not at- tracted at all ; neither is red-hot iron. The power of the magnet is gready di- minished by heating it: a white heat de- stroys the power entirely. When pounded to powder, magnets also lose their virtue ; but if a maguet, in the form of a bar, is cut perpendicularly through its axis, in several pieces, each one of the pieces ac- quires a south pole and a north pole, but both of less power than those of the entire magnet. Bodies not susceptible of mag- netic influence have no effect when inter- posed between a magnet and iron ; but if a sheet of iron is placed between two magnets, so that its two surfaces are turned towards the magnets, the strength of tbe latter is much weakened. If the sheet, however, is so placed between the mag- nets, that the two edges are turned towards them, the effect of the magnets, in attract- ing each other, is increased. Exhaustion of the air from the place occupied by the MAGNET. 203 magnet does not affect its virtue. The strength of a small magnet is greater, in proportion, than that of a large one. Mag- nets weighing only a few grains will sometimes support more than 60 times their own weight; but magnets weighing over 2 pounds rarely support more than 10 times their weight. If the weight con- sists merely of iron, the magnet will sus- tain more than if other weights are attach- ed to the iron : so, also, a magnet will lift a heavier piece of iron, if this lies on iron, than if it lies on wood, or any thing else. It is very remarkable, that the power of a magnet can be augmented, by making continual additions to the weight which it supports; but, if the magnet has no op- portunity to exercise its strength on iron, it becomes, by degrees, weaker. It is also favorable to the power of a magnet, to keep it in such a situation that its north pole is uppermost, or turned towards the north in the meridian. But the means for giving a maguet the greatest effect are to arm it. The armature of a magnet concentrates the power of both poles (which otherwise disperse their power over a large surface) in two points, to both of which a piece of iron is applied at the same time. A natural magnet, for this purpose, is made smooth at its poles, and two broad pieces of soft iron are applied to the magnet, so as to project on one side. The two pieces of iron having be- come themselves magnetic by their con- tact with the body, and having thus their contiguous extremities impregnated with opposite magnetic powers, a piece of iron applied so as to touch them both, will be strongly attracted, and thereby the sus- pending power very considerably increas- ed. The pieces of iron are generally held fast upon the magnet by means of a brass or silver box. A piece of iron called a lifter, anil furnished with a ring and a hook, or a scale, for carrying a weight, being applietl to the magnet, furnishes means of determining its power. Artificial magnets may be armed in the same man- ner. The effect of arming a magnet is very great: one which would support only one grain in its unaided state, has thus been made to support 760 grains.— Magnetic power may be communicated from a magnet to another body capable of receiving the magnetic power, by mere touching. Every piece of iron attracted by a magnet becomes, to a degree, mag- netic, but ceases to be so if it is removed from the sphere of action of the magnet. Iron, however, may be rendered perma- nendy magnetic, either by communicating to it the magnetic virtue of the earth, or by the aid of proper magnets (natural or artificial). The firet effect takes place on iron (particularly bars of soft iron), placed for some time in the magnetic line. All that is required is, that the iron does not deviate at too great an angle from the line: hence iron bare, which hang in the magnetic meridian horizontally (as iron balance-beams) grow magnetic; also iron bars which, in regions distant from the magnetic equator, are placed perpendicu- larly. In the northern hemisphere, the upper end becomes the south pole, the lower end die north pole; in the southern hemisphere, the contrary takes place. The communication of magnetic virtue in this way is promoted by giving to the iron bars a tremulous motion by hammering or boring: under such circumstances, even hard iron may become magnetic. Red- hot iron, growing cold in this position, also becomes magnetic. Tongs and fire- forks, by being often heated, and set to cool again in a posture nearly erect, have gained this magnetic property. The other way of communicating magnetic power, by rubbing iron with a magnet, is the most common and most effectual. Hard iron receives magnetism in this way with more difficulty than soft iron, but re- tains it longer. Steel, sufficiently hard, may be rendered permanently magnetic, while soft iron can never be made so. Take a steel bar, eight inches long, half an inch wide, and an eighth of an inch thick; put the north pole of a magnet in the middle of the bar, and draw it to one end; return, without touching the bar, to the point where you began, and thaw again down to the end. Do this from 10 to 20 times. This part of the bar is now the south pole; the other end, the north pole. The artificial magnet is strength- ened, if the other half of it is rubbed in the same way, with the south pole of the original magnet. This process is called the single stroke. Another way, called the double stroke, is to put both the poles of a magnet in the middle of die bar, and to draw die magnet, without changing the direction of the poles, several times from one end of the bar to the other, taking away the magnet finally at the middle of the bar. A third way is that of the circu- lar stroke. Four steel bars are placed so as to form a square, upon which the op- posite poles of two magnets are drawn round several times. A magnet is in no degree weakened by communicating its power to iron or steel, but no magnet can give more strength than it possesses; yet, 204 MAGNET—ANIMAL MAGNETISM. if a steel bar is rubbed with several mag- nets united, it receives more power than belongs to each single magnet Thus, by the connexion of many magnets, arti- ficial magnets of veiy great power may be obtained. By these methods, masses of iron-dust and oil may be rendered mag- netic. The following way of making strong magnets, by percussion, was invent- ed by captain Scoresby, and published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1822. He observes—"The strong magnetizing effects of percussion on soft steel induced me to apply this property to the formation of magnets. For this purpose, I procured two bars of soft steel, 30 inches long and an inch broad; also six other bare of soft steel, 8 inches long aud half an inch broad, and a large bar of soft iron. The large steel and iron bare were not, however, absolutely necessary, as common pokers answer the purpose very well; but I was desirous to accelerate the process by the use of substances capable of aiding the developement of the niaguetical properties in steel. The large iron bar was firet hammered in a vertical position; it was then laid on the ground, with its acquired south pole towards.the south ; and, upon this end of it, the large steel bare were rested while they were hammered ; they were also hammered upon each other. On the summit of one of the large steel bars, each of the small steel bars, held also vertically, was hammered in succession; and, in a few minutes, they had all ac- quired considerable lifting powers. Two of the smaller bare, connected by two short pieces of soft iron, in the form of a parallelogram, were now rubbed with the other four bare in the manner of Canton. [This manner is, to take two of the four bars, and place them together so as to make a double bar in thickness, the north pole of one even with the south pole of the other, the remaining two being put to these, one on each side, so as to have two north and two south poles together. Sepa- rate the north pole from the south pole at one end by a large pin, and place the bars perpentlicularly, with that end downwards, on the middle of one of the parallel bars, the two north poles towards the south, and the two south poles towards its north end. slide them backward and forward three or four times the whole length of the bar, and, removing them from the middle of this, place them on the middle of the other bar, as before directed, and go over that in the same manner ; then turn both the bars the other side upwards, and repeat the former operation. This being done, the two bare that have been thus treated, are to change places with two of the touching bare which are to be subjected to the same process, and so with the two other touching bare.] These were then changed for two others, and these again for the last two. After treating each pair of bars in this way a number of times, and changing them whenever the manipula- tions had been continued for about a min- ute, the whole of the bars were at length found to be magnetized to saturation, each pair readily lifting above eight ounces. In accomplishing this object, I took par- ticular care that no magnetic substance was used in the process. All the bare were freed of magnetism before the ex- periment, so that none of them, not even the largest, produced a deviation of five degrees on the compass at three inches distance. Any bare which had been strongly magnetized, and had had their magnetism destroyed or neutralized (ei- ther by hammering, heating, or by the simultaneous contact of the two poles of another magnet placed transversely), I always found had a much greater facility for receiving polarity in the same direc- tion as before, than the contrary. Hence it generally happened that one blow, with the original north end downwards, pro- duced as much effect as two or three blows did with the original south end downward." The correspondence be- tween magnetism and electricity, in many of their phenomena, which has been long observed, has led philosophers to refer both to a common principle. (See the article Electro-Magnetism.) In Schu- macher's Astronomische Nachrichten (Oc- tober, 1828), Hansteen announced that he was about to publish a chart, containing several thousand magnetical observations, obtained from the English admiralty, and comprising those collected by Parry, Sa- bine, Liitke, Wrangel, Franklin, &c, and that he only waited till he had himself visited Siberia to make observations there. Magnetic Neeole is a needle touched with a loadstone, and sustained on a pivot or centre, on which, playing at liberty, it directs itself to certain points in or un- der the horizon. (See Magnet, and Com- pass.) Magnetism, Animal. This name was given by Mesmer, in the latter part of the eighteenth century, to certain phe- nomena (not yet explained in an entirely satisfactory manner) produced by the ac- tion of one man upon another. The ori- gin of the term was a fancied analogy between the action of the mineral magnet ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 205 and that of the animal energy, or vis vita, to which these effects were attributed. Experience has shown the analogy to be unfounded. The principal means used to produce the effects of animal magnetism, are such as touching and stroking widi the hands, according to rule (manipulation), breathing on a pereon, fix- ing the eyes upon him, &c.; die magnet- ized pereon must always be of a weaker constitution, and, if possible, of a different wx, from the magnetizer; and it is indis- pensable that he should be of a dispo- sition to believe without doubting. The phenomena themselves consist partly in bodily sensatious (for instance, chilliness, heaviness, flying pains, oppressions, &c), partly in a diminished activity of the ex- ternal senses, partly in fainting, convul- sions, sleep, with lively dreams (magnetic sleep), in which the magnetized pereon is transported to higher spheres, observes the internal organization of his own body, prophesies, gives medical prescriptions, receives inspired views of heaven, hell, purgatory, &c, reads sealed lettere laid on his stomach, and, when awakened, is totally unconscious of what he has expe- rienced. At the same time, the soul be- comes so elevated and refined, that the magnetized individual has an instinctive perception of the presence of the impure, and falls into fits at the approach of dis- believers in animal magnetism, and of all who investigate it by the rules of ordinary reason. Hence it is necessary to keep skeptics at a distance, when it is desired to witness the highest phenomena. The magnetized person shows a remarkable connexion w ith, and dependence on, the magnetizer, tasting what he eats, smelling what he holds before his nose, and no olie else can bring him back from the magnetic state. In the sequel we shall give a brief exposition of the phenomena, as stated by Kluge, who appears, iu his Attempt at au Exhibition of Animal Mag- netism (iu German!, to have given the fullest account of them. A scientific in- vestigation of the influence which we are considering is hardly consistent with the view s entertained of it by its adherents, for they maintain that mere reason can- not approach, nor conceiv e this great mystery; it can be rightly apprehended only by a believ er. S: 'nice the blow which magnetism received in 1^21,*" the number of its adherents has been greatly dimin- ished, and its pretensions have been much checked. The whole of its effects seem * A votary Laving become enceinte by a cele- brated practitioner. VOL. VIII. 18 to be ascribable to a heated imagination, to an excitement, half spiritual, half sen- sual, and to a morbid sensitiveness. Ani- mal magnetism originated thus: Anthony Mesmer (q. v.), in 1772, attempted cures with the mineral magnet, and excited some sensation in Vienna, but at length de- clared, that not the magnet, but a mys- terious power in his own person caused the effects ascribed to the magnet a"d thai this power was related not only to the magnetic power, but to tbe attraction dis- |iersed throughout the universe. But a fraud which he attempted (the pretended restoration of sight to a girl) having been discovered, he proceeded, in 1778, to Paris. The attention which he attracted there, and the final report of a committee of the academy on magnetism, or, as it is also called, Mesmerism, we shall speak of under Mesmer. The great supporters of animal magnetism have recently been Ki- e.-tr, in Jena, and Wolfart, in Berlin ; the former explains the phenomena by the diking difference between life by day and life by night, both in the case of ani- mals and vegetables : the latter adopts the mystical jargon of Alesmer^ (See .'h- chives of Animal Magnetism,Jpy Kieser, Nasse, anel Nees von Ejflfibcck, pub- lished since 1817, iu ntmjjp-s, and since 1S25, under the tide Sphinx, or New Ar- chives of Animal Magnetism ; and Wol- fart's Annals of Animal Magnetism (Le- bens-Magnetismus\ 10 numbers, 1818 it seq.) In 1820, the Prussian government caused a prize to be offered for die best treatise on this subject, but it was sulwe- quently withdrawn. Among the nume- rous works which treat of it, are Dcleuze's Histoire critique du Magnitisme Animal (Paris, 1813); Jos. Ennemoser's Der Mag- netismus in einer Geschichtlichen Entwicke- lung von atten Zeiten und bei cdlen V61- kern (Leipsic-, 1819\ in the spirit of ATes- mer and Wolfart; J. C. L. Ziermann's Geschichtliche Darstellung des Thierischen Magnetismus als HeUmUteVs (Berlin, 1824 y, less prejudiced ; Dd Magnetismo Ani- mate, by Basevi (Florence, 1826).—We now proceed to an outline of the phe- nomena of animal magnetism, as described in the work of Air. Kluge, mentioned above, The phenomena, in the case of the magnetizer and the magnetized, are as follows:—1. The magnetizer. He is, generally, capable of producing a positive effect only so far as he possesses a higher degree of energy and vital power than the pereon magnetized. The man generally effects more than the woman. If the magnetizer is the weaker person, there 206 ANIMAL MAGNETISM. either takes place no apparent effect, or the effects are inverted, viz. the positive effects are apparent in him, and the nega- tive in the pereon magnetized. If the magnetizer undertakes the manipulation of a susceptible subject, he always feels a glow, and the sensation of a gentle flow from his palm, and particularly from the points of his fingers. If he covers his hands with silk gloves, or other electric bodies, he has uot this latter feeling, and his operation is fruitless; but linen or leather gloves do not prevent the effect. After a successful operation, the magnet- izer feels a general unpleasantness, a weakness in the digestive system, and, in general, a loss of power, in proportion to the susceptibility of the magnetized sub- ject, and the duration or frequency of the operation. If the magnetizer, during the operation, is isolated with the magnetized subject by electrical bodies, his loss of power is less, but the effects which he produces are stronger.—2. Phenomena in the Person magnetized. The phenomena produced in the subject by a positive ope- ration, are of a double kind ; either they have reference to the general state of the body, are then not periodical, but last during the whole cure, and, therefore, may be considered as the general effects of magnetism; or they have reference only to particular activities of the organi- zation. Of the former sort are, 1. a gen- eral awakening and strengthening of the vital powers in all parts of the body, with- out considerable excitement, as well in the systems of the nerves and muscles, the vascular and digestive system, as the organs of secretion; 2. a mild excite- ment bver the whole surface of the body, by which every irregularity and local re- action is neutralized and the equilibrium restored; 3. a withdrawing of the height- ened vital power from the suffering organs to others; 4. a diminution or total sup- pression of the excitement producing the morbid activity of the nerves. The mag- netizer not only should have a strong- er body than the pereon magnetized, but also a perfectly healthy one. He must have attainetl the maturity of his bodily powers, but must still be within the age of active life ; the mind, too, must'be sound and strong, in order to master the affections and passions, to have a living faith and a firm will, and thus to attain perfect control over this means of cure, as also over the patient. The phenomena of animal magnetism have been divided into six degrees. Those of the first de- gree are generally the following: first, the feeling of a strong current from the head to the extremities, after which, a higher degree of heat follows, easily observable by the thermometer, greater redness of the skin, with increased perspiration, and a feeling of ease and comfort throughout the whole body. In the second degree, the warmth increases, and appears to the patient to diffuse itself from the stomach, as if from a central point, over the whole body. The pulse becomes generally full- er and stronger, and the breathing easier and deeper. The patient feels a heavi- ness in the eyelids, and an irresistible desire to close them. If he does close them, they seem to him cemented by the strongest power, and, during the remainder of the magnetic effects, it is impossible for him to open them. All the other senses, how- ever, remain active, and their activity is often heightened. The patient knows, therefore, every thing which is done about him, though he is not always capable of speaking. At the close of the magnetic operation, he opens his eyes by himself, or with the assistance of the magnetizer, and feels generally strengthened and well. After this, the patient observes, sometimes, a shining appearance before his eyes, similar to repeated lightning, a pricking in the points of the fingers and toes alter- nately, a heaviness and coldness in the extremities, unpleasant feelings about the region of the stomach, sickness, violent shuddering, wish to cough, &c. The particular signs often accompanying the third degree, tire, especially, swoons, con- vulsive tremblings, real convulsions, cata-1 leptic and even apoplectic fits. Tins state generally begins with all the signs of an approaching drowsiness. Repeated yawn- ing, stretching, heaviness of the eyelids, announce it A deep sigh generally fol- lows, after which the eyes close entirely, and a state begins similar to sleep, in which the patient seems to be deprived of all sensation and consciousness. In the fourth degree, the patient awakens, not from his sleep, but within himself, and regains his consciousness ; he knows him- self again, yet in a changed relation to surrounding circumstances. The exter- nal senses are either closed entirely, or their character is changed, and the inter- nal sense only remains the same. The somnambulid (as he is called in this state), entirely awakened within himself, dis- tinguishes with his eyes nothing but light and darkness, and not always even these, although, as is sometimes the case, the eyelids are open. The ball of the eye is either drawn up convulsively or stiff, the ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 207 pupil widened and without sensation. Next, the sense of feeling is metamor- phosed into that of seeing, so that the somnambulist can distinguish by it, not only the outlines of things, but also colors, with perfect precision. The region of the stomach becomes the central point of all sensation, and it is chiefly through this region that the sense of sight is supplied. The somnambulist, therefore, can ascer- tain the time perfectly well by a watch, closely held to the pit of the stomach. By repeated exercise, the patient obtains this faculty in a higher degree, and what originally appeared to him indistinct be- comes very clear. Persons appear to him more distinct than inanimate subjects. Hearing is likewise performed in this state by the pit of the stomach, and the 6ense of smell becomes sometimes so acute as to distinguish the different in- gredients of compound scents. Objects which the person does not regard in a healthy and natural state, have often veiy sensible, and even dangerous effects on him when in a state of somnambulism. The vicinity of a living being, whom the patient perceives at a distance of 10 to 15 paces, is generally very disagreeable to him. If persons whom he dislikes touch him, paleness and coldness occur in the parts touched, and convulsions are gen- erally the consequence. Among inani- mate subjects, metals have the most un- pleasant effect To the magnet the som- nambulist is still more sensitive thau to- wards other metals. Of every thing which has occurred to the patient during tfiis period, what he has perceived, thought, said or done, he has, when awaking, either no recollection or a very faint one ; but if he is brought again into this state, he recol- lects every thing very well. Iu the fifth de- gree, the patient attains, by his heightened consciousness and the increased strength of his general feelings, to that internal self-contemplation by which he is able to investigate even the minutest parts of his bodily structure. By virtue of this accu- rate knowledge of his internal frame, the dairvoyant, as he is called in this state, not only determines very distinctly the Beat and quality of his disease, but at the t-ame time an instinct developes itself in him, which makes him understand the means necessary for his cure. Besides mentioning the remedies, the clairvoyant also indicates the kind of magnetizing necessary, and thus directs his own cure. This deep insight is not limited to the clairvoyant's self, but extends~to persons brought into magnetic relations with him, whose sensations are always communi- cated to him. Between the magnetizer and the clairvoyant this sympathy is the strongest and- most remarkable. Very often the feeling of disease iu the magnet- izer is not only communicated to the pa- tient, but the disease itsellj which, in some cases, has continued after the patient was awakened. Affections of the soul also pass from the magnetizer to the clairvoy- ant. Sometimes this sympathy reaches such a height, that it remains even wheu the parties are distant from each other. This magnetic sympathy may be still more heightened, and then the clairvoyant has a clear insight into the internal physical state of persons in a magnetic connexion with him, just as he has of his own ; can de- termine their disease, its course and future phenomena, and prescribe the means of cure accordingly. He insists that he per- ceives the diseased state of others pre- cisely as his own by the stomach. His language becomes more elevated than or- dinary, and is marked by fire, spirit, pre- cision. His perception is livelier antl stronger, his thinking freer, deeper, his judgment quicker and more penetrating. He not only perceives the present, and the influence of external relations, much riiore distinctly than before, but penetrates also into the most distant period of past time, by way of memory. There is an obvious in- clination of patients for each other, if they are treated by the same magnetizer, and particularly if they are in a state of som- nambulism at the same time. The pa- tient who has attained internal clearness by the fifth degree, penetrates, in the sixth degree, the darkness of external things, and attains a higher view of the whole of nature. With uncommon clearness he often distinguishes the secrets of the past, what is distant and unknown in the pres- ent, and the events of coming time. If the patient is asked how he knows all this, he generally answers, that it is as if he were told of it by some other person, or that he feels it through the pit of the stomach. He is always fully convinced of the truth of what he thus acquires. In respect to the choice of proper remedies, the clairvoyant is less limited than before. In the former degree, it was necessaiy to put him into connexion with another per- son, by intermediate bodies; but, in this degree, he can be in this relation with any distant person, if he knows him, or feels a lively interest for him, or even if the mag- netizer, or any other person brought into connexion with the clairvoyant by actual touch, knows the distant person, and 208 ANIMAL MAGNETISM—MAGNOLIA. thinks intently of him. The view of the clairvoyant extends even into the future condition of others. Iu this degree, he attains to a higher, fuller life than he had before. The body seems to be intimately amalgamated with the mind, to be blend- ed into tbe most harmonious union with it The individual is removed from eveiy thing coarse aud sensual, and placed in a state of serene and elevated self-contem- plation. The feeling of th9 greatest bodi- ly comfort and purity of soul produces a serene peace withiu him, which expresses itself in the nobler expression of the whole body. In this state, which, according to the clairvoyants, borders on heavenly fe- licity, they are incapable of impurity, and even the guilty obtains the feeling of vir- tue.—Such are the wonders of animal magnetism, of whicli our readers may be- lieve much or litde. The attention which the subject has attracted in Europe is our excuse for the length of this article. The footing whicli it has gained, and the effects which it has produced, exemplify, strikingly, the power of imagination. It would require too much space to describe all the various manipulations and other ope- rations by which the patient is placed in the magnetic state ; for information respecting these, see Kluge's work, already cited. AIagnificat. The words which Alary pronounced when she visited Elizabeth (contained in chap. i. of Luke, 46—55), begin, in the Vulgate, Magnificat anima mea dominum (My soul doth magnify the Lord). Hence the whole of her thanks- giving, on this occasion, has been called the magnificat. The present usage of the Roman Catholic church is, to chant or pronounce the magnificat every day, at vespers. It has often been set to music, and forms part of the musical cyclus of the Catholic church. The magnificat is also often used in Protestant church music, on the European continent. Magnificence (highness, eminence) ; a title applied to the rectors and chancel- lors of the German universities, and to the burgomasters of free cities. A prince who takes the office of a rector is styled magnificentissimus. Magnifying Glass. (See Microscope.) AIagnisa, or AIanika (anciently Mag- nesia ad Sipylum); a town of Natolia, near the Sarabat; 20 miles N. E. of Smyr- na ; lon. 27° 18' E.; lat. 38° 44' N. The streets are wide, the mosques painted white, aud the houses better than in most other towns in this part of Natolia. It is situated at the foot of the ancient mount Sipylus, whose top is always covered with snow. It is celebrated in histoiy by the victoiy of the Romans over Antiochus the Great. Under John Ducas, it was made the capital of the Greek empire. The greatest ornament of the ancient town was a temple of Diana, called Leuco- phryenc, or the White-browed. The envi- rons were formerly celebrated for the production of loadstone, and it is sup- posed the word magnet is derived from it Magnitude, Apparent. If straight lines be drawn from the extremities of a visible object to the centre of the pupil of the eye, the angle formed by them is call- ed the visual angle or the apparent magni- tude of the object. This angle varies with the different distances of objects, being larger when they are near, and smaller when they are remote. Hence our idea of the magnitude of any object, depends not only upoii its true dimensions, but also upon the angle under which we view it; and objects of very different dimen- sions will appear of equal magnitudes, if the visual angles under which they are seen are equal. Thus, for instance, the sun and moon, though their diameters are vastly different, each subtend an angle of about a degree. Besides, numerous preju- dices antl optical illusions, which we can never overcome, n.< N. Its length, on the northern frontier, is 280 miles, on the eastern, 210; greatest length from north to south, 225, antl greatest breadth from east to west, 195 ; square miles, 32,628: population in 1790,96,540; in 1800, 151,719; in 1810, 228,705; in 1820, 298,335; in 1830, 399,462. The jirincipal rivers are the Penobscot, Ken- nebec, Androscoggin, Saco, St Croix and St. John's. The principal bays are Cas- co, Penobscot, Frenchman's, English- man's, Alachias and Passamaquoddy. The chief lakes are Alooschead, Umbagog, Se- bago, Schoodic, and several others farther in the interior. Alaine is rather an elevat- ed country, having generally a diversified surface. A tract commencing on the west side of the district, east of the White mountains in New Hampshire, and holding a north-east direction as far as the heads of the Aroostic, about 160 miles in length, and 60 in its greatest breadth, is mountainous. Katehdin mountain is the most elevated summit in thisrangB. There is also a small mountainous tract in tbe northern extremity. The remainder of the state may be considered, generally, as a moderately hilly countiy. The tract of countiy along the sea-coast from 10 to 20 MAINE—MAINOTS. 219 miles wide, embraces all the varieties of sandy, gravely, clayey and loamy soils, frequently interspersed at short distances ; seldom very rich ; in many places tolera- bly fertile, but generally poor. Of this sectidu, Indian corn, rye, barley, grass, &c, are the principal productions. In the tract lying nortli of this, and extending 50 miles from the sea in the western, 80 in the central, and 90 in the eastern part, the same kinds of soil are found, but they are less frequently diversified, and generally more fertile. The surface rises into large swells of generally good soil, between which, on the margin of the streams, are frequently rich intervals, and in other places sandy or gravely pine plains, or spruce and cedar swamps. Of this sec- tion, the principal productions are grass, Indian corn, wheat, barley, rye, flax, &c. The country beyond the limits above speci- fied, is but little settled. It exhibits great diversities in the appearance of its soil, growth of timber, and also in climate. The land on the Kennebec, and between this river and the Penobscot, is accounted the best iu the state. It is well adapted to the various purposes of agriculture, and, as a grazing country, it is one of the finest in New England. Though the climate of Maine is subject to great extremes of heat and cold, yet the air, in all parts of the country, is pure and salubrious. The summers, in most parts, are favorable to the growth of all the vegetable produc- tions of the Northern States. In some parts, however, Indian corn, and some oth- er plants of a more tender kind, are fre- quently injured, and sometimes destroyed, by frosts late in the spring and early in the autumn. The cold of winter is severe, yet the serenity of the sky, and the invig- orating influence of the atmosphere, dur- ing the same season, make amends, in some degree, for the severity of the weather. Alaine enjoys great facilities for commerce. The coast is indented with bays, abounding in excellent harbors. All the settled parts of the country lie near a market, and the produce of the farmer is readily exchanged for money, at a good price. The principal article of export is timber. Vast quantities of boards, shingles, clapboards, masts, spare, &c. are trans- ported to the neighboring states, to the West Indies and to Europe. Aluch of the fire-wood consumed in Boston, Salem, &c. is brought from Maine. Dried fish and pickled salmon are considerable arti- cles of export. Beef, pork, butter, pot and pearl ashes, and some grain, are also among the exports. Great quantities of lime are annually exported from Thomas- town. The value of the imports for 1829, was $742,781 ; of the exports, £737,832, of which $729,106 was of domestic produce. The tonnage in the beginning of that year was 232,939. Cumberland and Oxford canal extends from Portland to Sebago pond. (See Inland Navigation.) The principal literary institutions are Bowdoin college at Brunswick (students in 1830, 112); Waterville college at Waterville ; the Bangor theological seminary ; the Gar- diner lyceum at Gardiner, founded in 1821, for the purpose of affording a useful edu- cation to the operative and productive classes ; the Wesleyan seminary at Read- field ; anel 29 academies, with funds of the value of $170,000. Each town is re- quired by law to raise a sum equal to 40 cents for each inhabitant, for the support of free schools. In 182(5, there were in the state 2499 school districts, and 137,930 scholars. The sum required to be raised was $119,334, but the actual expenditure was $137,878. Some voyages of discov- ery were made by the English to that portion of the countiy since called Maine, as early as 1602 and 16C3, and it is de- scribed under the name of Mavoosheen. It was visited by French navigators, as De Alonts and Champlain, a few yeare later, but the firet permanent settlements were made in 1630. The government was at firet proprietary, but in 1652, the province of Alassacbusetts bay claimed this territory as included within the limits of their charter. In 1820, it was separated from that state, and received into the Union as an independent state. (See Mas- sachusetts.) [land Isles.) AIainland of Shetland. (See Shd- AIainots ; the inhabitants of the moun- tainous district of the Alorea, called Maina, in the ancient Laconia. According to Leake, Maina is the Italian corruption for the Greek name Mani, and the proper name of the people is Maniati. They have been supposed to be the descendants of the ancient Spartans, but probably are composed of fugitives from all parts of Greece, who found safety in this remote corner, protected by the rocks and the sea. Their number is about 60,000, of whom 15,000 are capable of bearing arms. They are Christians of the Greek church, and never submitted to the Turkish yoke. They are hardy, brave, and skilful in the use of arms, and, with the barbarous practice of robbery, unite the virtue of hospitality. Their hatred against the Turks is implacable, and they were among the first to distinguish themselves in the 220 MAINOTS—MAINTENON. Greek revolution. Previous to that period, Maina was divided into a number of districts, each under a capUano, over whom was a beg, or head chief, residing at Kirriai. Public affairs were discussed in assemblies called syiwds, in which eveiy Alainot had a voice. (See Greece, and Maina.) AIaintenance; an unlawful intermed- dling in a suit, by assisting either party with money, or otherwise, to prosecute or defend it. This was prohibited by the Roman as well as by the English law. A man may, however, maintain the suit of his near kinsman, servant, or poor neighbor, with impunity. (See Barratry, Common.) Maintenon, Francoise d'Aubigne, mar- chioness of, descended of a noble Protest- ant family, was born in 1635, in the prison of Niort, where her father was confined. In 1639, M. d'Aubigne, having been re- leased, set sail for Alartinique with his daughter. After his death, in 1645, 'his widow returned to France, totally desti- tute, and the young Frances was taken into the house of her aunt, a Calvinist, whose creed she soon after adopted. Ev- ery means was used by her mother to reclaim her, and she finally yielded to harsh treatment, and, after a long resist- ance, abjured that creed. The death of her mother left her solitary and dependent, and, although she was received into the house of madame de Neuillant, her god- mother, she was subjected to all kinds of humiliations, and considered herself happy in becoming the wife of the deformed, infirm and impotent Scarron, who, touch- ed with her situation, offered to pay the sum necessaiy to enable her to enter a convent, or. to marry her. Scarron was not rich, but Jiis family was respectable, and his house was frequented by the most distinguished society of the court and the city. His wife conciliated general esteem and affection by her social qualities, her talents, and her modesty. On his death, in 1660, his widow, who was again left destitute, was ou the point of embarking for Portugal as a governess, when madame de Alontespan, the mistress of Louis XIV, procured her a pension, and afterwards had her appointed governess to the duke of Alaine aud the count of Toulouse, her sons by Louis. In this post, she became better known to the king, who was, at firet, prejudiced against her, but who learned to esteem her for her good sense, and the care which she bestowed on the education of the duke of Alaine. He made her a present of 100,000 livres, with which, in 1679, she purchased the estate of Maintenon, and, becoming fond of her society, gradually passed from intimacy to love. 'Madame de Alontespan herself con- tributed much to the elevation of De Alain- tenon, by her capricious and arrogant temper, and, while the latter withdrew the king from his connexion with the former, she supplanted her in his affections. Louis XIV was then at an age when men wish for a wife in whom they may confide tbeir joys and sorrows, and he longed to alleviate the weight of government by tbe innocent pleasures of domestic life. The yielding temper of madame de Alaintenon, who, from youth up, had learned to accommodate herself to the wishes of others, promised him an agreeable com- panion and a trusty friend. Besides this, she had a leaning towards devotion, and the king had himself manifested a similar inclination, as yeare came on. Pere La- chaise, his father confessor, atlvised him to sanction his wishes by a secret but for- mal marriage, which was solemnized in 1685. The archbishop of Paris, Harlay, married them, in presence of the confessor and two witnesses. Louis was then 48, madame de Maintenon 50 years of age. At court, the marriage always appeared doubtful, although a thousand indications betrayed it. Yet the happiness of De Alaintenon was net lasting: she herself says, " I was born ambitious: I resisted this inclination. When the wish, which I no longer indulged, was fulfilled, I thought myself happy: but this intoxication lasted only three weeks." After her elevation, she lived in a sort of retirement from the world. Louis XIV visited her several times a day, and transacted business with his ministers in her apartments, while she read or otherwise employed herself Although, in appearance, she neither knew nor wished to know any thing of state affaire, yet she often had a decisive influence on them. Chamillart was made minister, and Alarsin commander of the army in Germany (1703), and Vendome and Catinat were dismissed, by her influ- ence. The nation accused her of errors, and the excuse of good intentions could not always exculpate her. In all other respects entirely submissive to the will of the king, she was wholly occupied with the means of rendering herself agreeable to him, and this slavery of her age made her more unhappy than the poverty of her youth. "What a martyrdom," said she to lady Boluigbroke, her niece, "to be obliged to amuse a man who is incapable of being amused." The king, who some- tunes teased her with his ill-humor, en- deavored to atone for this by proofs of es- MAINTENON—MAISON. 221 teem, such as he had never shown to any other woman. But these external forms could not console her chagrin. She did nothing for her family, because she feared to attract the notice of the nation: she would receive nothing herself but the estate of Maintenon^ and a pension of 48,000 livres. Among her benevolent plans, was the foundation of the school at St Cyr, for the education of poor girls of good family. Thither she retired, after the death of the king, in 1715, taking part in the instruc- tion and amusements of the pupils, till her own death, in 1719. La Beaumelle pub- lished the Lettres de Madame de Mainte- non (Amsterdam, 1756, 9 vols., 12mo.), but with many arbitrary changes. The edition of 1812 (6 vols., 12ino.) is more complete. La Beaumelle's Mimoires sur Madame de Maintenon et le Siicle passi contains many errors and fictions. La Vie de Madame de Maintenon, by Carac- cioli, contains a full account of the institu- tion at St. Cyr. The Entrdiens de Louis XIV et de Madame de Maintenon sur leur Mariage (Marseilles, 1701) is a scarce book. in 1826, the Lettres inidites de Madame de Maintenon et Madame la Princesse des Ursins (4 vols.), were published at Paris. AIaio, Angelo, formerly a Jesuit, in 1813 was made superintendent of the Ambrosian library at Alilan. In 1819, lie was made keeper of the library of the Vatican in Rome, afterwards librarian, and, in 1825, supernumerary apostolic prothonotary. He has rendered impor- tant services to literature by the discovery of several ancient works in Greek and Latin, in the Palimpsests (q. v.), as they are called, or Codices rescripti, which he rendered legible by chemical means. In 1814, he gave to the world the fragments of three unpublished orations of Cicero, which he discovered in a Codex ; and, in 1815, a number of hitherto unknown ora- tions of Cornelius Fronto, with some let- ters of the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, and other fragments of an- cient authors. In the same year, he pub- lished considerable fragments of eight ora- tions, by Q. Aurel. Symmachus. He also discovered about 60 verses of the Vitula- ria of Plautus, never before printed, aud designs illustrative of the comedies of Terence, with an old commentary, the complete oration of Isa^us on the inherit- ance of Cleonymus, and an oration of the philosopher Thcmistius. In 1816, he dis- covered some books of the Roman anti- quities of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, be- fore unknown, containing that portion of the Roman history which was lost in the 19* xi—xvi books of Livy. In the same libra- ry he found fragments of the Mcesogothic translation of the epistles of Paul, and a manuscript account of the campaigns of Alexander, written by an unknown au- thor, in tbe reign of the emperor Constan- tius, son of Constantine the Great He has also published designs, scholia and fragments of the text, from an old manu- script of Homer; and, in connexion with Zorab, a member of the Armenian college of Venice—Eusebii Chronicorum Canonum Lib. II (Alilan, 1818). Since 1819, be has prosecuted his studies of the Palimpsests with success at Rome. His most impor- tant discoveiy in the Vatican is the work of Cicero, De Republica. In 1823, he published at Rome some newly discovered fragments of the civil law before the time of Justinian, of the rhetoric of Julius Vic- tor, &c.; and, in 1825, Scriptorum Vete- rum nova Collectio e Vatic. Codd. Edita. In 1828, appeared the two first volumes of a collection of all the unpublished works discovered and deciphered by him, —Classicor. Audor. e Vat. Codd. Tomus let II. Besides the writings above-mentioned, a treatise of Gregorius Alartialis, discover- ed by Maio, at Naples, in 1826, a fragment of Sallust, and some other unpublished works, are given in this collection. Maiolika. (See Faience.) Maire, Le, Straits of ; a narrow channel or passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, between Terra del Fu- ego and Staten Land. The siniit, which is bounded west by Terra del Fuego, and east by the west end of Staten Lend, is about 15 miles long, and as many bread. It derives its name from Le Alaire, a Dutch pilot, who discovered it in 1616. AIaison, Nicholas Josi ph, peer of France, marquis, born in 1770, commenc- ed his military career at the beginning of the revolution; and, after having suved during several campaigns as an infantry officer, became aid-de-camp to marshal Bernadotte. In the campaign of 1807, he acquired great praise for his conduct in an attack on the Prussians. He was sent into Spain in the following year, drove the enemy, at Pinosa, from a post which was believed to be inaccessible, and sub- sequently made himself master of one of the suburbs of Madrid. He served in Russia and Germany in 1812 and 1813, took so conspicuous a part in the actions of Polotsk and Toltowa,that he was made general of division ou the field of battle, routed the Prussians at the bridge of Willig, was wounded at the battle of Wa- chaau, and received from Napoleon the 222 AIAISON—AIAI^E. cross of the order of union, and the title of count. In 1814, he was intrusted with the defence of the Netherlands and the French frontier on that side; and, though his force was far inferior to that of the in- vaders, he prevented them from penetrat- ing into France. He gave his assent to the return of the Bourbons, and went to mee the king at Calais. Louis rewarded him with the jieerage, the order of St. Louis, and the grand cross of the legion of honor. In March, 1815, he appointed him governor of Paris, and Maison contin- ued faithful to his cause, when Napoleon returned from Elba; as, instead of joining the emperor, he retired to an estate of his wife's in the Huudsruck. He went back to Paris with Louis, and resumed his functions there, which, however, he re- signed, on being appointed to the eighth division at Marseilles; and, in 1817, he received the title of marquis. He was again intrusted with the government of Paris, but was subsequently succeeded by the duke of Ragusa. His removal is sup- posed to have been intended as a punish- ment for his honorable conduct as a peer, on the trials which took place in August, 1821. In 1828, general Maison was ap- pointed to the French expedition to the Morea, and forced the Egyptians to evac- uate the countiy. After the revolution of July, 1830, he was one of the three commissioners appointed to accompany the deposed king to Cherbourg. He has since been sent ambassador to the court of Vienna. Maistre, Joseph, count de, Sardinian minister, aud member of the royal academy of sciences at Turin, born at Chamberri, 1753, of a French family, was a senator of Piedmont at the time of the French invasion (1792). He left his country in consequence of that event, and afterwards followed his king to Sardinia. In 1804, he was sent ambassador to St Petersburg, returned to Turin in 1817, and died there in 1821. De Alaistre was familiar with the Greek and Latin literature. He was an enemy of liberal principles in religion, politics and philosophy. As a diplomatist, he exerted himself to effect tbe restoration of all his former possessions to his master, and to obtain the transfer of Genoa. Among his political writings are his Eloge de Victor Amadie III; Considerations sur la France (1796, 3 ed., 1814, and also three editions at Paris); Essai sur le Principe Ginirateur des Constitutions polUiques, in which he maintains the divine origin of sovereignty; Soiries de St. Pdersbourg; Du Pape; and Du Congres de Rastadt, the last in conjunction with the abbe de Pradt—His brother Xavier, born at Cham- berri, 1764, major-general in the Russian service, member of the Turin academy of sciences, is favorably known as a writer. The Transactions of the Turin Academy contain several chemical communications from him. He is an excellent landscape painter, and a witty poet His Voyage au- tour de ma Chambre, distinguished for its gayety and philosophy, has been trans- lated into several languages. Le Lipreux de la CUi d'Aosta (translated into English, Philadelphia, 1825) delineates, with much talent and feeling, but in sombre and mys- tic colore, the suffering of a man cut off from all human society. His (Euvres (2d ed., Paris, 1825, 3 vols.) contain also the Expidition nocturne autourde ma Chambre; Les Prisonniers du Caucase; and Lajcune Siberienne (a translation of the two last is called Russian Tales, Phil., 1826). AIaitre; the French for master; a word used in many connexions.—Maitre d'armes is a degree bestowed in France by the so- cieties of teachers of fencing, on such pereons as are deemed capable of instruct- ing in this art—Maitre de requites were officers of the parliament of Paris, before the revolution, who reported on petitions, &c. (requites). Napoleon reestablished the title, and gave it to certain officers be- longing to the council of state. Maittaire, Michael; a learned critic and bibliographer, born in France, in 1688. His parents having fled to England, to avoid the persecutions in France, he was educated at Westminster school and Christ-church college, Oxford, where he took the degree of M. A., in 1696. The preceding year, he had been made second master of Westminster school, which office he relinquished in 1699, and, from that pe- riod, devoted his time to private tuition and the study of literature. His editions of various Greek and Latin authors are es- teemed for their accuracy. Ilis most important literary production is his An- nates Typographici ab Artis Inventione (1719—1741, 5 vols., 4to., augmented by Denis and Panzer). He also wrote a His- toria Stephanorum, Gr. Lingua Dialecti, and edited the Marmora Oxoniensia. AIaize, or Indian Corn (zea mays). The native country of this valuable grain remains still undetermined. It is usually attributed to America, where it was culti- vated by the aborigines at the time of the discovery ; but no botanist has hitherto found it growing wild in any part of the new continent; and most certainly it does not so exist in any portion of the territory MAIZE. 223 of the U. States. It is also certain that its culture did not attract notice in Europe, Asia, or the north of Africa, till after the voyage of Columbus. It was unknown to the ancient Greek and Roman writers, and is not mentioned by tbe earlier trav- ellers who visited China, India, and other parts of Asia aud Africa, and who were very minute in describing the produc- tions of the countries which they visit- ed. Notwithstanding these considerations, some authors have endeavored to prove that it was originally from India, and thence introduced through Persia to Af- rica. Others, again, have attributed its origin to the western coast of Africa.— Like the other cerealia, it belongs to the natural family graminea, being neither more nor less than a gigantic grass. It is annual and herbaceous. The root is fibrous; the stems rise to the height of from four to ten feet, and, like other glasses, are furnished with knots at inter- vals. The leaves are alternate, sessile, sheathing at the base, and are slightly pu- bescent on their superior surface, and cili- ate on the margin; they vary in length from one to three feet, by three or four inches in breadth. The male flowers are disposed on several spikes, which, together, form a large panicle at the summit of the stem. The female flowers are very nu- merous, sessile, and disposed in the axillae of the superior leaves, upon a common 'axis, which is surrounded with foliaceous sheaths or husks; the styles are very nu- merous, six to eight inches long, and hang down like a silken tassel from the extremity of the foliaceous envelope; die seeds or grains are rounded externally, angular and compressed at the sides, and tapering to- wards the base, and are disposed in several longitudinal series. A great number of va- rieties are cultivated, differing in the size, hardness, number and color of the grains, the form of the spikes or ears, and, what is a very important circumstance to the human family, in the time required to bring them to maturity. The grains in some varieties are violet or black ; in others purple, white, or variegated; and some- times grains of different colors are found on the same spike ; but the usual color is golden yellow. Some varieties require five months from the time of sprouting for the perfect maturity of the grains, while the period of six weeks is sufficient for others. Owing to this circumstance, this plant can be cultivated in a far wider range of climate than any other species of grain, not only throughout the tropical regions of the globe, but in the most north- em parts of the U. States; in fine, wherev- er the heat of summer is intense, though it may be of short duration. It is usually ranked the third grain, in point of utility, next after rice and wheat; but the former of these can only be cultivated in the warmer, and the latter only in the tem- perate parts of the earth. Maize is now very extensively cultivated, not only in America, but throughout a great part of Asia and Africa, and also in several coun- tries of the south of Europe, as in Spain and Italy. In many of the provinces of France, it forms almost exclusively the sustenance of the inhabitants. In some parts of America, two crops are obtained in a season, but, as it is found to exhaust the soil very soon, it is usually planted upon the same piece of ground only after an interval of five or six years. It suc- ceeds best in a light and slightly humid soil. The usual, though not the best mode of planting, is in little hillocks raised at intervals throughout the field, to each of which is allotted five or six grains. These last, after being dipped in water, will often sprout after a lapse of five or six days; the young plants are liable to be injured by frost In many countries, after flower- ing, the tops are cut and used for fodder for cattle, and a portion of the leaves stript also; but this last operation should be de- layed till near the time of maturity, which is indicated by the drying of the leaves, and the hardness and color of the, grains. The spikes or ears are gathered by hand, and the husks, when perfectly dpy, stript off, and, together with the stalks, laid by for winter fodder, while the ears are con- veyed to the granary. The green stems and leaves abound in nutritious matter for cattle, and in some countries it is cultivat- ed solely for this purpose, especially after early crops of other v egetables; when planted for this object, it should be sowed very thickly. Corn, when well dried, will keep good for several yeare, and preserve its capability of germination. It is eaten in various manners in different countries, and forms a wholesome and substantial aliment Domestic animals of every kind are also extremely fond of it. According to count Rumford, it is, next to wheat, the most nutritious grain. It is considered as too stimulating for the common food of cattle, and is found to be more stimulating than any other kind of breael used by us. Mixed with rye meal, it forms the com- mon brown bread of New England ; mix- ed with water alone, it makes a very pal- atable species of extemporaneous bread. Ground very coarse and boiled, it forms the 224 MAIZE—MAJESTY. u hominy," which is so great a favorite at the south ; and the fine meal boiled thick in water, is the " mush " of Pennsylvania and the " hasty-pudding " of the Eastern States. In the form of hulled corn or samp, the whole grains furnish a veiy pal- atable, although rather indigestible luxury. The stems contain sugar, and attempts have been made in France to extract it, but the modes hitherto devised have prov- ed too expensive. In more southern lati- tudes, the experiment would, doubtless, be attended with more success; indeed, ac- cording to Humboldt, this branch of man- ufacture is carried on iu Mexico. The ashes contain a large proportion of potash. Of the husks, a beautiful kind of writing- paper has been manufactured in Italy ; and when soaked in hot water, they make excellent mattresses ; a grayish paper may be made from all parts of the plant From some information which has lately reached this country, it would seem that the native countiy of Indian corn has, at last, been ascertained. A variety has been obtained in Paraguay, in which each grain is surrounded by glumes, and this, ac- cording to the report of the Indians, grows wild in the woods. Majesty (from the Latin majestas) sig- nified, in republican Rome, the highest power and dignity—the attribute of the whole community of citizens, the populus. The majestas was also ascribed to the dic- tator, consul and even senate, though, in the case of the latter, the word audoritas was used in preference. The majestas was ascribed to pereons, or bodies of per- sons, so far as they had legislative power, the right to declare war and peace, de- cide on political offences, and elect magis- trates. He who violated this majestas (for instance, betrayed an army, caused sedi- tion, or infringed the existing institutions or the rights of the people) made himself guilty of the crimen majestatis.—See Hau- bold De Legihus cr. Laes. Maj. (Leipsic, 1786, 4to.)—When the republic was over- thrown, the dignity, power and name of majesty passed over to the Roman mon- archs, and from them again to the empe- rors of Western Europe (majestas Augusti). At a later period, under the Roman em- perors, majestas was the name of the im- perial diguity, whilst that of a magistrate was called dignitas. To kings the attri- bute of majesty was given much later. The courtiers introduced the title iu France under Henry II ; yet as late as during the negotiations respecting the peace of West- phalia, we find disputes respecting this title. In the treaty of Cambray (1529), the title of majesty is given to the emperor Charles V only. In the treaty of Crespy (1544), Charles V is styled imperial, Francis I royal, majesty; and in the peace of Cha- teau-Cambresis (1559), the titles of most Christian and Catholic majesty are fouud for the firet time. In England, Henry VIII firet adopted the title majesty. At present, this title is given to all European emperors and kings. The grand seignior is called highness. On die continent of Europe, majesty is used also to denote the royal dignity and the privileges derived there- from, even in the case of princes who have not personally the title. On the other hand, the title of majesty is some- times separated from the legal meaning of the word, as in cases of abdicated mon- archs who retain the title of majesty and sire ; thus king Stanislaus Leczinsky, of Poland. The few courtiers who sur- round the deposed Charles X, give him, also the former dauphin, and the duke of Bordeaux, as Henry V, the title of majesty. To this title, though in itself so exalted, the awkward obsequiousness of former ages, and the indefinite conception of a religious character attached to earthly rulers, added epithets intended to elevate it still higher, as ' most gracious' in Eng- land, ♦ most highest' (Allerhochste) in Ger- many.* Before the word majesty, if used of the emperor of Austria, the lettere K. K. * The pedantic spirit of the Germans, which shows itself in so many high-sounding titles (see Counsellor, and Ceremonial), has given a character of formal and labored reverence to the style of addressing princes, which, to manly and simple reason, is little less offensive than the in- cense offered to an Asiatic monarch. In the titles of the latter, there is, at all events, poetry mixed with the nonsense; but in the former, there is neither reason, nor grammar, nor poetry. In writing, a king in Germany is, at the head of the letter, addressed thus :—Allerdurchlauchtigster, Aller- huclister, Grossjn/ichtigster, Ki)nig, Allergnddig- ster Kimig und Herr—which, literally translated, would give the following double superlatives : Most-serenest, most-highest, great-mightiest king, most-graciousest king and lord. Besides this, the single pronouns he, they, you, &.c, are, too vulgar to designate a king, and whenevet they are used, the prefix most-highest (allerliochst) is added: thus we have most-highest-he ((or he), most-higliest-him, most-highest-them, &,c. A prince is addressed as highest-he, highest-you, &c, and a mere secretary of state as high-yon\ ' high-they. We may well exclaim, Heigh-ho! Ar anecdote is told in Germany, which, whether true or not, illustrates what we have said. The late king of Bavaria—a man, by the way,who hated nothing more than the foppery of royalty—was travel- ling through his country, and {he burgomaster of a small place was, according to custom, to de- liver his address. He thought that kings were addressed orally as they are in writing. He therefore began, " Most-serenest, most-highest, great-mightiest," Sec. Being somewhat bewil- MAJESTY—MAJORCA. 225 are put, which stand for Kaiserlich-Ko- nigliche-Majestat (imperial-royal majesty). The pope has given the epithet of majesty to several monarchs, as Catholic nwtjesty (q. v.) to the king of S\mn,Apostolic nwjesty (q. v.) to the king of Hungary, Most Chris- tian majesty (q. v.) to the king of France, Most faithful majesty (q. v.) to the king of Portugal.—The name of MajestuVs Brief, or charter of majesty, was given to the act by which the emperor Rodolph II granted (June 11, 1609) free exercise of their religion to the adherents of the Augsburg confession in Bohemia. Most of the Bohemians were Protestants. The emperor Matthias abolished the act in 1618, in order to punish the Bohemians for their revolt, which was occasioned by the securing of the succession to king Fer- dinand II. This abolition was one of the principal causes of the 30 years' war, and of the intellectual debasement of that fair country. The Bohemians were converted by the sabre to the Catholic faith, and the spirit and intellect of the nation crushed, so that few beings are lower on the scale of cultivation than a Bohemian peasant. Major, in military language ; the lowest of the staff-officers; a degree higher than captain. There appear to have been officere called majors as early as 1560, in the German and Spanish n*oops; they were then the assistants of the colonels. At present, they are generally the com- mandere of battalions. The French, how- ever, abolished this degree during the revolution ; they have chefs de bataUlon. Their gros major is a half-invalid officer, who commands the depot of the regiment Major; an epithet applied to that of the two modern modes in which the third is four semitones above the tonic or key- note. Those intervals which contain the greatest number of semitones under the same denomination are also called major; as a third, consisting of four semitones, in- stead of three only, is termed a major-third; a sixth, containing nine semitones, instead of eight, is called a major-sixth. Major, in logic ; the firet proposition of a regular syllogism containing the general premise; as, ''All vicious acts are per- nicious " (themajor); "this act is vicious" (the minor); " therefore this act is per- nicious" (conclusion). Majorano Gaetano, known under the name of Caffardli, a celebrated soprano, dercd by the presence of a king, and being accustomed to give such exalted epithets to the Creator only, he continued, carried away by the current of his associations—" Everlasting God and Lord, Almighty Father, Son and Holy Ghost." was born in the Neapolitan territory, 1703. A musician, who had remarked the ex- cellent voice of the'boy, advised his father, a peasant, to send him to school atNorcia, afterwards took him into his own house, instructed him, and presented him to Porpora at Naples, who taught him for six years. At the end of that time, Porpora told him, that he could teach him nothing more, and that he was now the firet singer in Italy and in the world. In 1738, he went toEngland, just after Farinelli's (q. v.) departure, but was not in high favor there. After his return to Italy, he sang in several theatres with extraordinary applause, and contributed to extend the florid style of singing. In 1740, he is said to have re- ceived 700 sequins for a single night at Venice. He accumulated a large fortune, and purchased the estate of Santo-Dorato, from which he took the title of duke. He still, however, continueel to sing in the monasteries and churches, at a great price ; he also visited Paris. On a sumptuous house, which he had built, was the inscrip- tion, Amphion Thebas, Ego Domum. At his death (1783), he left his nephew a for- tune of 12,000 ducats a year, and bis duchy. Majorat ; a term used on the European continent to denote, in its widest sense, the order of succession which is regulated by age, and the right of preference which hence belongs to the oldest. It is di- vided into three kinds :—1. Primogeni- ture, or the right of the first-born, by vir- tue of which the eldest in the eldest line always succeeds to an inheritance. This law regulates the succession to the throne in almost all the European kingdoms of the present day.—2. The majorat, in the narrower sense of the word, gives the in- heritance to the eldest of the relatives of the same rank.—3. Seniority always se- cures it to the eldest in the family, with- out regard to the proximity of relation- ship.—The majorats cannot lawfully be alienated or mortgaged. The increase of majorats in a state has hitherto been re- garded as a species of injustice. The more the wealth of the countiy is concen- trated in a few hands, the more liable is the bulk of the population to be reduced to poverty, and to experience the conse- quent evils of want, ignorance and crime. The example of England may well deter other nations from that defective system of laws, of which the natural consequence is, that more than 150,000 Britons live on the continent, not to grow wealthy, but to consume their wealth. (See the article EntaUments.) Majorca • the largest of the Balearic 226 MAJORCA—MALACHI. islands,Ivingbetween 39° lt7and 39° 57' N. lat, and 2 24'and3°3P E.Ion., beingabout 40 leagues from the Spanish and 50 from the African coast; 1410 square miles, with a population of 181,805 inhabitants. The climate is temperate, the heat being mod- erated by sea-breezes. The island yields excellent grain, flax, figs, olives, grapes, almonds, oranges, melons, &c. The prin- cipal articles ot' manufacture are tapestry, blankets and sashes, linen, sail-cloth, &c. The coral fishery, the making of wine and brandy, also employ the iuhabitants. The administration is composed of a captain- gcu :ral and a royal audience, under whom is the governm -ut of the Baleares. (q. v.) The capita] is Pahoa, with 34,000 inhab- itants. Alcudia, on the north-eastern coast, is the only other city. Major Doiwos (mairt du palais); the title of the highest officer of court and state in the monarchy of the French, who was overseer of the household. The dig- nity of firet duke (i. e. commander of the army) was soon connected with this office. Tin) dignity bocams heredi.ary, and at length P.-pin, who held this office, made himself emperor.—S-e Pepin, and France; see a Iso Gischichte derMerovingiscften Haus- mzier von G. II. Pertz (Hanover, 1819). Malabar (from the Hindoo Malayvar, signifying the mountain, enclosed region) is the appropriate name of the narrow strip of land which lies between the western Ghauts and the sea, on the western coast of dm peninsula of the Deccan. The whole western coast, from cape Comorin to 153 N. hit, is sometimes called the Mal- abar coast, in distinction from the Coro- maudel coast, on the eastern side of the peninsula. The province of Malabar is a small part of this region, containing about 7249 square miles, with a popula- tion of 907,575 persons. It was annexed to the presidency of Madras in 1803. In 1817, the revenue amounted to £225,682. The foreign trade is almost exclusively confined to Bombay, Gnzerat, and the gulf of Persia. Calicut, Mahe (belonging to the French), Tellichery are the prin- cipal cities ; except on the coast, there are no towns nor villages, each land-holder living separately on his own estate. Rice, cocoa-nuts and pepper are the principal productions. The majority of the inhab- itants are Hindoos, and, on account of tbe remote and sheltered situation, they have preserved their manners and customs with greater purity than has been done else- where, the Mohammedans never having entered their territory as enemies till the irruption of Hyder Ali in 1766. There are also about 10,000 Nestorian Christians and 150,000 Roman Catholics. Malacca, or Malaya ; country of India beyond the Ganges, consisting of a large peninsula, connected with Siam by the isthmus of Kraw, which is about 75 miles broad. In all other places, it is surrounded by the sea. It is about 775 miles long, and 120, on an average, broad. It is traversed throughout by a chain of lofty mountains, and is covered with extensive forests and marshes, so that it is difficult to penetrate into the interior. The fruits are excellent and plentiful, but grain is not produced in sufficient quantity to supply the inhabitants. Its political condition alternates between a dependence upon Siam and a division in- to a number of petty independent states. (See Malays.) Malacca ; a seaport of the above coun- try, on the western coast, and on the straits of Malacca; lon. 102° 12' E.; lat 2° 14' N. Many of the houses are well built of stone, and there are several spa- cious and handsome streets. The sur- rounding countiy is fertile and pleasant. There is a good roadstead about one and a half miles distant from the town, biittho' entrance of the river by boats is difficult. The exports are tin, sago, pepper, canes, elephants' teeth and gold dust This place was once possessed by the Portuguese, af- terwards by the Dutch, till 1795, when it was subjected by a British force, but restor ed in 1801, recaptured in 1807, anil again restored in 1815. But it was finally received in exchange for the British settlements in Sumatra, and occupied by the British au- thorities in 1825. Population in 1823, 33,806. Malacca Passage; channel of the East Indian sea, between Polo Way and the coast of Sumatra, about 13 miles long. Malacca, Straits of ; a narrow sea be- tween the island of Sumatra and the coun- try of Malacca, extending from the equi- noctial line to lat 5° N. Malachi, the 12th and last of the minor prophets, contemporary of Nehe- miah, prophesied, according to Jahn,from 412 to 408 B. C. The name signifies angd, or messenger of the Lord. Our en- tire ignorance of his history has given rise to numerous conjectures concerning him. His prophecy is short, his style pro- saic and rough, aud he denounces with vehemence the corruptions and back- slidings of his countrymen. He declares that the Messiah will save the Gentiles, and announces tbe coming of one who shall precede and prepare the way for the Savior. Among the principal commen- MALACHI—MALAYS. 227 tators are Jerome, Pococke, Calmet, Ro- Benmiiller, &c. Malacology (from paXdiciov, Greek for the moUusca); a term now used, particu- larly by the French, for that part of science whicli treats of the mollusca. Malaga ; a maritime town of Spain, on the coast of the Mediterranean; lat 36° 43' N.; lou. 4° 23 W. ; population, 51,900. It has an excellent harbor, and is situated in the midst of a fertile country, producing great quantities of figs, almonds, oranges, lemons, olives, sumach, juniper- berries, wax and honey, which, with dried raisins and wines from die mountains, and cork from the hills, form the foundation of the commerce of Malaga. Besides these ar- ticles, it exports a great variety of manufac- tured goods made here and in the neigh- borhood. The port is enclosed on three sides, and is capable of accommodating 400 merchantmen and 19 ships of war. The city presents a Moorish appearance, with high houses, and narrow, crooked, badly-paved streets. There is, however, a splendid public walk, and a rich, but unfinished cathedral. The vineyards on the neighboring hills produce, annually, from 2000 to 3000 pipes of wine. The first vintage, in June, furnishes the Malaga raisins. The second, in September, fur- nishes a kind of wine resembling Sherry, but inferior to it. In October and No- vember, the sweet Malaga wine is made. Malagrida, Gabriel; an Italian eccle- siastic, notorious for bis intrigues and fa- naticism, about the middle of the last cen- tuiy, born in 1686, and, having become a member of the Jesuits' college, was de- spatched by that fraternity as their mis- sionary to Lisbon. Here he acquired con- siderable popularity by his eloquence, and his pretensions to extraordinary sanctity. Being accused of participation in the pre- tendeel conspiracy of the duke D'Aveiro against the* crown of Portugal, he was thrown into prison by the government But, instead of being tried by the judicial tribunab, he was delivered over to the in- quisition, and condemned as guilty, not of treason, but of heresy, uttering false prophecies, and seeing visions, and was sentenced to the stake, and executed Sep- tember 21, 1761. (See Pombal.) Mal' Aria (Italian, bad air); a state of the atmosphere or soil, or both, whicli, in certain regions in the warm season, pro- duces a lever more or less violent accord- ing to the nature of the exposure. The country of the maP aria, in Italy, is the Maremme (q. v.), which extends from Leghorn to Terracina, about 200 miles, and from the sea to the Apennines, from 25 to 30 miles. The centre of the infected district is Rome. (See Campagna di Roma.) We are still ignorant of the causes of this fatal infection. It exists in the rice grounds of Lombardy, on the highlands near Padua, on the summits of the Radi- cofani, and round the gulf of Salerno. The sky of the devoted spots continues pure, the air calm, the verdure fresh ; but all this serenity and beauty of nature only forms a shocking contrast with the death- like desolation around, or with the sickly appearance of the few peasants who ven- ture to wander in the unhealthy district Bigelow (Travels in Malta and SicUy) gives a similar account of its effects in Sicily. It is found in all parts of the island, infesting not only the valleys, but often elevated situations. The city of Rome, it is well known, has been gradual- ly invaded by it, and a large part of the city has been successively deserted by the inhabitants. In 1406, the Lateran was condemned ; since 1623, the Vatican has become unsafe; since 1710, the Palatine, the circus Maximus, the forum, and, in- deed, the whole of ancient Rome, has been deserted ; even the finest parts of the mod- ern city have become unsafe. (See Rome.) Malays ; according to sir Thomas Stamford Raffles (Asiatic Researches, xii, London, 1818), a people of Asia, who have adopted the religion and language of the Arabians, and intermarried with them, so that they have become separated from their original stock, and form a dis- tinct nation. In the thirteenth century, we find the Malays on the peninsula of Malacca, where they built a city of the same name, and founded an empire. Their sultans subdued Sumatra, where die nation seems to have dwelt previously to their settling in Malacca. They after- wards possessed themselves of the rest of the Sunda isles, of the Philippines, the Mo- luccas, and some of the Australian groups, where Malay tribes are found, resembling, in their features, religion and government, the Malays of Malacca. At that time, they acted a splendid part in Asia; they carried on commerce, in part, with their own ships, and planted colonies. Great numbers of ships from China, Cochin China, Hindostan and Siam filled tin- harbors of Malacca. They are now di- vided into distinct tribes, without any general head. This is partly owing to the superiority which the Europeans, particu- larly the Dutch, have obtained in the In- dian seas, and partly to the feudal sys- tem of the Malays, by which the national « 228 MALAYS—MALDIVE ISLANDS. power has been divided, and a common yelling, Amok,amok,(i.e.kilhkill); whence spirit prevented by the increasing power of the expression, to run a muck. The Ma- the vassals. The superior vassals obey lays are active only in war, where they the sultan or supreme commander only are excited by the thirst of robbery and when they please, and the vassals under blood. At borne, they are indolent, leaving them have similar liberty. The great all the labor to their slaves, and despising body of the nation consists of slaves; agriculture. (See Marsden'9 History of Su- their masters are the oramlai, or nobility, matra, Crawford's Indian Archipelago, &c.) who are independent, and sell their set- Malcolm, sir John, major-general in vices to him who pays them best The the India service, went out to India at the Malays are different from the Hindoos, age of 14, distinguished himself on scver- Birmans and Siamese. They are strong, al occasions, and became lieutenant-colo- nervous, and of a darkbrowifcolor; their nel in the Madras army. He was after- hair is long, black and shining; the nose wards made resident in the Mysore, and, large and flat; their eyes brilliant and full at a later period, minister plenipotentiary of fire. Impetuosity, bordering on fury, from the supreme government of India to U-eachery, impatience of constraint, love the court of Persia. During his mission of plunder and blood, characterize the in Persia, he not only performed his diplo- Malays of Asia. Those in the islands made duties in a satisfactory manner, but of Australia are in general more gentle, also collected an immense store of infor- kind, affable, open and honest, and are mation respecting the history and present distinguished by the finest and most condition of the Persian empire. He was symmetrical persons. The Malays of made knight of the Pereian order of the Asia, including the Eidahans and Dejak- Lion and the Sun, and, in 1812, received kese, in Borneo; the Biajoos (one of the the order of the Bath. In 1818, he re- wildest tribes), and the Macassars, in Ce- ceived the military and civil command of lobes; the Harafores, on the Moluccas; the Central India. " Except sir J. Malcolm," Sabauos, in Magindanao ; the Tagats and says bishop Heber (Travels in India), "I Pampangoes, in the Manillas; the Bisay- have heard of no one whom all parties ans, in the lesser Philippines, have a re- agree in commending. His talents, his markable resemblance in their features, accessibility, his firmness, his conciliating in their form of government (a sort of mannere, and admirable knowledge of the feudal system), and in violence and cruelty, native language and character, are spoken In general they profess the Mohamme- of in the same terms by all." These dan religion, are fond of navigation, war, qualities enabled him to render his ad- plunder, change of place, and of all daring ministration eminently useful iu restoring enterprises. Besides the Koran, the Ma- order, organizing the provinces, and main- lays have various local laws; each state taming tranquillity. Sir John afterwards has its own, relating chiefly to com- returned to England, and, in 1827, was merce. The maritime code of Malacca appointed to the important post of govern- was collected as early as 1276, and con- or of Bombay. In December, 1830, he firmed by Mohammed Shah, sultan of the resigned that office, aud returned to Eng- country. They pay more respect to their land. He is the author of Sketch of the absurd laws of honor than to justice or Seiks(1812); Persia,a poem (1814); His- humanity, and we find force continually tory of Central India (second edition, triumphing, among them, over weakness. 1824, 2 vols., 8vo.), a valuable* contribu- Their treaties and their promises of friend- tion to our knowledge of India; History ship continue only as long as the interests of Persia (second edition, 1829, 2 vols.); which prompted them seem to demand, and Sketches of Persia (1828,2 vols., 8vo.) They are always armed, aud are perpetu- Mal he Naples ; an early name tot- ally at war among themselves, or engaged syphilis, because the disease was spread in plundering their neighbors. When among the besiegers of Naples, and from they find opportunity, they will attack them rapidly communicated to others. European and American vessels by sur- Maldive Islanos ; a cluster of islands prise, and kill the crews, if they succeed in the Indian sea, situated about 270 miles in capturing them. No free Malay is south-west of cape Comorin. The num- seen without a dagger. The people, in her is said to amount to 1000 or more, but general, are veiy skilful in preparing weap- they are for the most part small, and un- ons, particularly daggers. Their constant inhabited. The greatest breadth of the use of opium contributes to infuriate them, chain is from 20 to 24 leagues. The br- and, when maddened by its effects, they habitants appear to be a mixture of Arabs rush out with their daggers in their hands, and Indians of Malabar. They supply MALDIVE ISLANDS—MALESHERBES. 229 vessels with sails, and cordage, cocoa nuts, oil and honey, dry fish, tortoise-shell, and, especially, cowries. They are divided into 17 attoUons, or provinces, and are governed by one king; but each attollon has its particular governor, who roles with great oppression. The subjects are mise- rably poor; and none dare wear any clothing above the waist, except a turban, without a particular license. They have only four ports, iu which their few articles of commerce are collected. They lie in lon. 73° 30' to 75° 45/ E.; and lat. 3° 3tf to 7° 5/ N. No European settlements have been made in them. Malea, cape. (See Matapan.) Malebranche, Nicholas, a French priest of the congregation of the oratoiy, and a celebrated philosopher, was born at Paris, in 1638. His health being delicate, he was classically instructed by a domes- tic tutor, but afterwards went through courses of philosophy and divinity at the colleges of La Marcheandof the Sorbonne. At the age of 22, he determined to em- brace the monastic life, and was admitted into the congregation of the oratory. He applied himself firet to ecclesiastical his- toiy, and afterwards to Oriental learning and biblical criticism ; but, having acci- dentally met with Descartes's treatise On Man, he determined to make himself master of that author's system of philoso- phy. The result of this study was his famous treatise On the Search after Truth, firet printed in 1673, but of which the best edition is that published by himself in 1712, in 2 vols., 4to., antl 4 vols., 12mo. The doctrines of this celebrated work, which contains fine thoughts and uncom- mon reflections, rendered still more strik- ing by his elegant manner of conveying them, are founded upon Cartesian princi- ples, and are, in some particulars, Platonic. It is principally distinguished by the main- tenance of a mysterious union lietween God antl the soul of man, and the doc- trine that the human mind immediately perceives God, "and sees all things in him." His next publication was Christian Conversations (1676). This was followed (in 1680) by a Treatise on Nature and Grace, which led to several controversial pieces between him and Arnauld. Father Malcbranche also wrote several works on physical subjects, and several papere for the academy of sciences, t>f which he was admitted an honorary member in 1699. Malcbranche was highly vene- rated for his elevated genius, and nothing could be more amiable and simple than his conversation and manners. As a phi- VOL. VIII. 20 losopher, although he agreed with those who preceded him, in conceiving ideas to be the immediate objects of perception, he distinguished, more than any previous metaphysician, the object from die sensa- tion which it creates, and thereby led the way to a right understanding, both of our external senses and mental powers. Malesherbes, Christian William de Lamoignon de, an eminent French states- man, descended from a family of dis- tinguished worth and talents. He was the son of William de Lamoignon, chan- cellor of France, and was bom at Paris, in 1721. After studying at die Jesuits' college, he qualified himself for the legal profession, and became a counsellor of the parliament of Paris. In 17.">0, he suc- ceeded his father as president of the court of aids, and was also made superintend- ent of the press, in both which offices he displayed a liberal and enlightened policy, highly honorable to his talents and char- acter. On the banishment of the parlia- ments, and tbe suppression of the court of aids in 1771, Malesherbes was exiled to his country seat, where he devoted his leisure to the study of statistics and agri- culture, and the improvement of his estate and of the country around it After the accession of Louis XVI, he resumed his presidentship over the revived tribunal, and, in 1775, was appointed minister of state. Finding bis plans for the benefit of the nation counteracted by the influ- ence of others, he resigned his post in May, 1776, and went to reside in Switzer- land. He was recalled to the king's councils in 1786, when he drew up two memoirs, On the Calamities of France, and the Means of repairing them; but his advice was rejected, and he therefore took a final leave of the court Returning to the countiy, he continued his patriotic labors, and, in 1790, published an Essay on the Means of accelerating the Prepress of Rural Economy in France. He took no part in the proceedings which led to the overthrow of the monarchical gov- ernment ; but on the decree of the national convention for the trial of the king, he emerged from his retreat to become the voluntary advocate of his unfortunate sovereign. His generous attachment to his fallen master excited the jealousy of the French rulers, and caused his destruc- tion. Shortly after his return home, his daughter, madame De Rosambo, and her husband, were arrested and conducted to Paris; and his own arrest, with that of his grandchildren, soon followed. Almost his whole family were extirpated by the 230 MALESHERBES—MALHERBE. merciless proscription of his persecutors. Malesherbes was beheaded April 22, 1794, and he bore his sufferings with a spirit worthy of his life. Louis XVIII ordered a monument to be erected to him in the great hall of the Palais de Justice. It was completed in 1826, with the inscription by the king—Strenue, semperfidelis rcgisuo, in solio veritatem, prasidium in carcere attulit. M alet, Charles Francois, brigadier-gen- eral, was born at Dole, in 1754. Having entered the military service, be embraced the cause of the revolution with ardor, and rose rapidly in the firet ware of the republic. At the time of Napoleon's as- sumption of the imperial dignity, he openly avowed his republican opinions, and was, in consequence, left without employment. His connexions with in- dividuals known to be hostile to the im- perial government, rendered him an ob- ject of suspicion, and, as no proofs of his guilt could be obtained, he was detained in prison for several yeare. During his confinement, he became acquainted with Lahorie, formerly attached to Moreau's staff, and general Guidal, who had both been in prison several years. In October, 1812, Malet formed the daring plan of overthrowing a prince then at the summit of his power and glory. For this purpose, he engaged the co-operation of his fellow prisonere, and, having obtained permission to be carried to an hospital, he escaped during the night of October 23, and, pre- senting himself to the colonel of a regi- ment of the Paris guards, he persuaded him that the emperor was dead, and that an opportunity was now offered to restore the republic. He also showed him a de- cree of the conservative senate, abolishing the imperial government, and constituting general Malet commander of Paris. He next hastened to the barracks of the 10th cohort, under the command of Soullier, who had either been previously gained, or was easily made to believe what he desiretl —the emperor's death and a change of government Soullier took possession of the H6tel-de-Ville at eight o'clock in the morning, and Frochot, the prefect of Paris, who arrived soon after, was also brought to believe that the emperor had been killed. Measures were taken for establishing a provisional government, antl a detachment under general Guidal has- tened to the Hotel of the Police, seized general Savary, the minister, conducted him to the prison La Force, and installed Lahorie in his place. Malet next pro- ceeded with some soldiers to the quarters of general Hullin (q. v.), but could not convince him that the story of the empe- ror's death was true, nor that the pre- tended decree was genuine. After some altercation, Malet discharged a pistol at him, and wounded him in the jaw, but was immediately seized from behind, and thrown to the ground, by general Laborde, adjutant of the post, who, on hearing of ■die military movements, had hastened to general Hullin's quarters, and had been admitted without opposition by Malet's soldiers. The latter, who appeared to have been ignorant of Malet's designs, consented to conduct him to prison. His accomplices were soon after arrested, and were examined, with him, before a court- martial, the next day. The examination continued two days and three nights. During the whole time Malet displayed the most imperturbable coolness, avowed his designs, and declared himself ready to die. He was shot, with the other conspira- tors, October 27, in the plain of Grenelle. Malherbe, Francis de, a celebrated French poet, was bom in 1555, at Caen, of an ancient but decayed family. His father was a Calvinist, but, having adopted as a principle, that a " gentleman should be of the religion of his prince," he himself ad- hered to the church of Rome. He entered into the service of Henry d'Angouleme, natural son of Henry II, and married the widow of a counsellor, by whom be had several children. He did not visit court until his fiftieth year, when Henry IV re- ceived him into his service, and gave him a liberal pension, chiefly in consequence of the recommendation of cardinal du Perron, who mentioned him as one who surpassed all the French poets who had preceded him. He died at Paris, in 1627. Although the recorded incidents of his life be few, numerous testimonies abound of bis caustic wit, greediness of presents, antl litigious temper; he being generally at war with some or other of his relations. lie was also lax and licentious in respect both to morals and religion. Such was his zeal for the purity of the French lan- guage, that, when near expiring, he re- proved his nuree for using a word not duly authorized. He may be deemed the father of cultivated French poetry, being not only an excellent versifier, but pos- sessed of many of the qualities of a poet; not indeed of the highest class, but he was ingenious, harmonious, elegant, and some- times even elevated. His poetry consists of odes, stanzas, sonnets, epigrams, and other sbort pieces, with a few of a devo- tional cast He also published transla- tions of Seneca De Benificiis, and of a MALHERBE—MALLICOLO. 231 Cordon of Livy, with some lettere. The est editions of his works are those of Paris, 1722, 3 vols., 12mo., and 1757, 8vo. Mall, or Pall-Mall, was a game for- merly much played in England, in which a box ball was struck through a ring. The mall (French, mail) was properly the stick (mallet) used for striking; but the Frencli maU also signified the game itself, more commonly called, by the English, pall-mall, or pail-maU, and the ground or alley on which it was played, which was often planted with trees. The site of the street now called Pail-Mall (pronounced pell-mell) was originally appropriated to playing this game, and derives its name from that circumstance. The walk called the mall, in St. James's park, also receiv- ed its name from having been the royal play-ground in the time of Charles II, when mall was a fashionable amusement The same name has been applied to the public promenade in Boston. Malleability; a property of metals, whereby they are capable of being ex- tended under the hammer. (See Ductili- ty, antl Metal.) This word has of late been used by some philologists, to indi- cate the power of certain languages to form words from given roots by adding pre- fixes and affixes, and thus to express many different shades of the original idea. Mallet, David, a miscellaneous writer, was born at Crief, in the county of Perth, about 1700, and, in 1720, was a tutor in the family of Mr. Home of Edinburgh. In 1723, he accompanieil the two younger sons of the duke of Montrose to Winches- ter school, and, in the same year, published his admired ballad of William and Marga- ret He subsequently made the tour of Europe with his pupils, on his return set- tled in London, and dropped the name of Malloch for Mallet. In 1728, he published a poem, entitled the Excursion, and, in 1731, a tragedy, called Ettrydice, which met with temporary success. A poem on Verbal Criticism followed in 1733, and he was soon after made under-secretaiy to Frederic, prince of Wales. His tragedy of Mustupha was produced with success in 1739, and, the following year, his life of lord Bacon appeared, prefixed to a new edition of the works of that great man. In 1747, he published his largest poem, entitled Amyntor and Theodora. On the death of Pope, Mallet lent himself to the resentment of lord Bolingbroke against the deceased poet, for having clandestinely printed his Idea of a Patriot King. For this service, be was rewarded by Boling- broke with a bequest of his works, the publication of which produced a prosecu- tion. The duchess of Marlborough hav- ing left £1C00 between him and Glover, to write the life of her husband, the latter declined the task, and it was untlertaken by Mallet alone, who received more or less of the recompense, without leaving, on his death, a line towards the work. On the prosecution of admiral Byng, he was employed, by the ministry, to assist in making that unfortunate officer their scape-goat, and was rewarded by a con- siderable pension. On the accession of lord Bute to the premiership, he wrote his Truth in Rhyme, and tragctly of Elvira, to which a political tendency was given, to serve the politics of that nobleman, and he obtained a place in the customs for his recompense. He died in 1765. The religious skepticism which be avowed, may have assisteel to darken the portraits usually given of Mallet; but it is obvious that no partiality could have rendered it amiable. Mallet ; a weapon. (See Mace.) Malleus, in anatomy; a bone of the ear, so called from its resemblance to a mallet, and in which is observed the head, the neck, and handle, which joins the mem- brane of the tympanum. (See Ear.) Mallicolo, or Manicolo ; an island in the South Pacific ocean, which, accord- ing to captain Dillon, should be considered as forming one of the group called Queen Charlotte's islands; lat. 11° 4P S.; lon. 167° 5' E. It has acquired an interest from having been the place where Lape- rouse (q. v.) was cast away, as appears from the results of the expedition of cap- tain Dillon, who went on a voyage of in- vestigation, in 1827 (Narrative, &c, 2 vols., 8vo., London, 1829). The relics whicli he obtained from the island, were identified by Lcsseps (q. v.), who had left Laperouse in Kamtschatka, and by Betham, as hav- ing the armorial bearings of Colignon, botanist on board the frigate. According to the information obtained by captain Dillon, two ships had been thrown ashore; the crew of one perished ; the people of the other built a small vessel, and went to sea; what became of them is not known; of two Frenchmen who had remained on the island, one died about three years before the arrival of captain Dillon ; the other had followed the fortunes of a defeated chief to some other island. Lcsseps has published (Paris, 1831) the Voyage de Lapirouse, with all the docu- ments and results of the researches since made to discover his fate. This island must not be confounded with Malicolo, 232 MALLICOLO—MALPIGHI. one of the New Hebrides, in lat. 16° 301 S., lon. 167° 507 E. Mallodixes, or Malouines. (See Falkland Islands.) Malmaison ; a chateau, two and a half leagues from Paris, and one and a half from Versailles, iu one of the most charm- ing situations in the vicinity of the great metropolis. It was the residence of Jose- phine, who died there in 1814, and whose grave is indicated by a simple monument In its beautiful walks, Napoleon loved to find recreation from the cares of state. It received its name (mala domus) from its having been erected on the spot where the Normans landed on one of their incur- sions in the ninth century. Malmesbury, William of, an ancient English historian of the twelfth century, was bom iu Somersetshire, on which ac- count he was sometimes called Somerset- anus. He relates that, when he was a child, he had a great inclination for learn- ing, which was encouraged by his parents, and it is supposed that he was edu- cated at Oxford. He became a monk of Malmesbury, and was elected librarian of the monastery. He studied all the sciences of his time, but attached himself particularly to history, and finding that a satisfactory account of his own countiy was wanting, he determined to write one, "not," as he himself says, "to display h'is learning, which is no great matter, but to bring to light things that are covered with the rubbish of antiquity." His De Rcgibus Anglorum is a general histoiy of England, in five books, from the arrival of the Sax- ons, in 449, to the 26th Henry I, in 1126 ; a modern history, in two books, from that year to the escape of the empress Maud from Oxford, in 1143; with a church his- tory of England, in four books, published in sir H. SavUe's collection (1596). He discovers great diligence, good sense and modesty. His Antiquities of Glaston- bury was printed by Gale, and his Life of St. Aldhelm, by Wharton. He died in 1148. Malmsey Wine is a sweet wine, made from a grape originally brought from Monembasia, a small town on the south- east coast of the Morea. The English call the place by its Italian name, Malva- sia, and the French, Malvoisie; hence the name of the wine, Malmsey (vin de Mal- voisie). Much of the Malmsey now used is made from a grape grown on rocky ground, in Madeira, exposed to the full influence of the sun. It is left to hang about a month later than the grapes used ft»r the dry wines, and is not gathered until partially withered. (See Henderson, Hist, of Wines, 250.) Maloes, St. (properly, St. Malo) ; a seaport on the western coast of France; lat 48° 39- N.; lon. 2° 1' W.; population, 9860. It is situated on a peninsula, whicli is connected with the main land by a nar- row causeway (the Silloti). The harbor is large and commodious, but difficult of access. The fortifications are extensive and strong. The inhabitants are active, hardy, intelligent seamen, and are occu- pied in the cod and whale fisheries, in the East India and colonial trade. Wine, brandy, tobacco, salted provisions, hemp and tar. are the principal articles of trade. In 1622, this place fitted out 22 privateers; in 1711, it gave 30,000,000 livres to Louis XIV. It is the native city of Maupertuis, Duguay-Trouin, and Carder, the discov- erer of Canada. Malone, Edmund, a commentator and editor of Shakspcare, was born at Dublin, in 1741. After completing bis studies at Trinity college, he entered at the Inner Temple, London, and was called to the bar in 1767. Possessing a competent for- tune, he gave up his profession, and em- ployed himself in literary pursuits. After having been the coadjutor of Steevens, in bis edition of Slcikspeare's plays, Mr. Malone quarrelled with that gentleman, and published an edition of his own, in 11 vols., 8vo., 1790. He also published an Inquiry into certain Papers attributed to Shakspeare (see Ireland); biographical memoirs of sir Joshua Reynolds, Dryden, W. Gerard Hamilton, &c. He died May 25, 1812. Malpighi, Marcello; an eminent Italian physician and anatomist of the seventeenth century. He was born in 1628, near Bologna, and studied in the university of that city. He was admitted M. D. iu 1653, and, three years after, was appointed to the medical chair. The grand-duke of Tuscany invited him to become professor of medicine at Pisa, where he staid three yeare, and, in 1660, returned to occupy his former office at Bologna. He was tempted by a high stipend to accept the professorship of medicine at Messina, in Sicily; but the jealousy of his colleagues rendered him uneasy, and he again settled at Bologna, in 1666. He was elected a fellow of the royal society of London in 1669, and communicated to that associa- tion various anatomical discoveries rela- tive to the minute structure of animal bodies, the results of microscopical obser- vations. Pope Innocent XII, in 1691, called him to Rome, and appointed him MALPIGHI—MALTA. 233 his physician, chamberlain, and domestic prelate, which posts he held till his death, in 1694. His works, relating to anatomy, physiology and vegetable anatomy, com- prise much curious and important infor- mation on the brain, the nerves, the spleen, the uterus, &c.; also on silk- worms, the formation of the foetus in the egg, on glands, on the anatomy of vege- tables, &c. His complete works have been often published (London, 1687, &c). His posthumous works were publisbed at London (1697, folio), and republished at Venice and Leyden. Gasparini published his Consult. Med. Centuria at Padua (1713). Although Malpighi is not free from errors, yet he contributed much to the progress of physiology, and deserves a distinguished place among discoverers. Malplaquet, Battle of (Sept 11, 1709); the bloodiest in the war of the Spanish succession, gained by Marlbo- rough and Eugene, the commandere of the allies, against the French under Vil- lare. After the capture of Tournay, the allies wished to invest Mons, the capital of Hainault To prevent this, Villare marched against them : an older marshal, the noble aud valiant Bouflere, served un- der him as a volunteer. The French army was 70,000 strong, with 80 pieces of cannon. The allies, who numbered about 80,000 men, with 140 pieces of cannon, commenced the attack, near the wood in the neighborhood of the villages of Blangies and Malplaquet Marlbo- rough commaniled the English troops, and the German troops in the English pay, on the right wing. Eugene led the centre ; Tilly and a count Nassau, the left wing, where the Dutch were stationed. Villare commanded the right wing of the French forces ; Bouflers, the left The left wing of the allies was put to flight, and Marlborough had to struggle against the most furious attacks upon the right The Pretender, son of James II, chevalier St. George, charged twelve times, at the head of the French cavalry. Villare then weakened his centre, by despatching re- inforcements for the left wing. At this crisis, Eugene advanced, stormed the en- trenchments which covered the enemy's centre, and drove back the guards. The marshal hastened thither from the left wing, but too late ; he was wounded himself; his centre was broken through, and the wings separated. The battle was lost The field was covered with about 30,000 dead antl dying. The French lost hardly 10,000 ; the allies, more than 20,0C0. The conquerors took no prisonere nor 20* cannon. Bouflers conducted the retreat in good order, between Le Quernoy and Valenciennes. The allies immediately laid siege to Mons, which fell into their hands. Malt is the preparation of barley, from which ale, beer and porter are brewed, all which are generally denominated malt liquors. For this purpose, the barley is steeped in water for three or four days. It is then taken out and suffered to lie until it begins to sprout or germinate. As soon as this process has advanced suffi- ciently, its further progress is prevented by drying it in a kiln, heated by coal or coke, for which purpose the anthracite coal is found to answer admirably well. The grain is now become mellow and sweet, and after having been crushed in a kind of mill, contrived for the purpose, its saccharine and mucilaginous portions are extracted by boiling water. The liquor thus produced has the name of wort, which, having undergone the process of fermenta- tion, and having been flavored by the ad- dition of hops, &c, constitutes ale or beer. What remains of the malt after brewing, is called the grains, which are used for feeding horses and cows. The tax upon malt, in England, constitutes a veiy im- portant item in the English revenue. Besides the use of barley for malt, it is also extensively♦ used for soup, broth, bread, &c, in all the countries of Europe. (See Fermentation.) Malta (anciently, Melita); an island in the Mediterranean, possessed, through several centuries, of a degree of celebrity and power greater than lias ever been attached to any other territorv of so little extent; lat 35° 53' N; lon. 14° 307 E. (of the observatory of the grand master) ; 60 miles from Sicily; 200 from Calipia, the nearest point of Africa ; separated from the small island of Gozo by a strait four miles wide, comprising, with Gozo and the rock Cumino, which lies between, about 170 square miles. The population of the group was, at one time, 114,CC0; at present, 94,000; of which 14,CC0 be- long to Gozo. Besides the natives, there are English (about 700, besides the mili- tary), Jews, Greeks, Turks, Egyptians, Italians, French and Dutch. The Mal- tese, English and Italian are the predomi- nant languages. The soil consists of a thin covering of earth, on a soft, calcareous rock, and is increased by breaking up the surface of the stone into a sort of gravel, and mixing it through the earth. To the south-west, the land rises precipitously more than 1200 feet; to the north-east, it 234 MALTA—MALTE-BRUN. is low. There is but one small stream in the island, which is conducted, by an aqueduct of several thousand arches, and eight miles long, to Valetta; a supply of water is obtained by cisterns, in whicli the rain water is collected. The southern shore is rocky, and without any harbor; that of Marea, on the east, forming the port Valetta, is one of the best in the Mediterranean, being completely land- locked, and capable of containing 500 vessels. The climate is hot, but the heat is mitigated by a sea breeze, which always sets in at night The principal produc- tion is cotton. Melons and oranges, of an excellent quality, are abundant Com is raised in small quantities. Figs are culti- vated with great care, the process of cap- rification (see Figs) being practised. The Maltese are of African origin ; with a swarthy skin, hair inclined to frizzle, anel nose somewhat flattened. They are in- dustrious, frugal, and excellent seamen; but poor, ignorant, superstitious, vindic- tive and dishonest. The upper class speak Italian, but the language of the common people is a patois, compounded of Arabic (which is the fundamental and principal part), German, Greek, Italian, and other languages. The Arabic so far predomi- nates, that the peasants of Malta and Bar- bary can understand each other. They have no alphabet, and, according to the fancy of individuals, adopt those of other tongues. The capital is Valetta, founded in 1566, by Lavalette (q. v.), grand master of the knights of Malta, with a population of 40,000. It is remarkable for the mag- nificence of its buildings, and the position and strength of its fortifications. The church of St John, the patron of the or- der, is a noble building, 240 feet long and 60 wide, which contained great riches, until they were seized by the French. The hotels of the knights corresponding to the eight languages into which the order was divided (see John, St., Knights of) are now occupied by the English officers. The palace of the grand master is an ex- tensive pile, and contains a magnificent armory of ancient and modern weapons. The great hospital afforded accommoda- tions for 2000 patients, who were attend- ed by the knights. The vessels used in the hospital service were of solid silver. Immense granaries, cut out of the rock, were stored with corn, sufficient to main- tain the garrison 20 years. They were hermetically closed, and the grain has been preserved in them, so as to be fit for use after a hundred years. The fortifica- tions are the strongest in the world. Be- sides five forts, commanding the most important points, there are lines of vast strength, enclosing the various quarters, and forming works of such extent as to require 25,000 men to man them, and 100,000 to invest the place completely. Valetta is protected on three sides by the water, and on the fourth, by five lines of fortifications. The ditches are, in some places, 90 feet deep, hewn out of the rock, and the ramparts are mostly formed in the same manner. 1000 pieces of cannon are mounted on the works.—Malta was early in the hands of the Carthaginians, who were dispossessed by the Romans. (On the antiquities, inscriptions, vases, coins, &c, consult the Malta antica Ulustrata, by Bres, Rome, 1816, 4to.) It was occu- pied, in the middle ages, by the Saracens and Normans, and, in 1530, was conferred, by Charles V, on the knights of St. John, who had been expelled from Rhodes by the Turks. It was soon fortified by the knights, and underwent several memorable sieges. In 1798, general Bonaparte took possession of it, on his expedition to Egypt; and, in 1800, the French garrison was obliged, by famine, to capitulate to a British force. In 1814, the possession of it was confirmed to Great Britain by the treaty of Paris.—See Boisgelin, Ancient and Modern Malta (London, 1805, 2 vols., 4to.); and Bigelow's interesting Travels in Malta and Sicily (Boston, 1831); Vas- sal li's Grammatica della Lingua Maltese (Malta, 2d ed., 1827.J Malte-Brun, Conrad, a learned and industrious geographer, and an active po- litical writer, was born in 1775, in the Danish province of Jutland. His family is of considerable consequence in Den- mark. His father destined him to the church; but the son had no taste for the- ology, and, while at the university of Co- penhagen, he gave himself up to literary pursuits, published a volume of poems, and edited a theatrical journal. The fa- ther was of the aristocratic party, which called for a war with France: the younger was a partisan of freedom, and wrote in favor of the emancipation of the peasants and the liberty of the press. A party hav- ing arisen which demanded the establish- ment of a free constitution, Malte-Brun became one of the most active members of it In 1796, he published, against feu- dality, and the coalition of sovereigns, a bitter satire, called the Catechism of the Aristocrats. This drew upon him a pros- ecution, which compelled him to take ref- uge in Sweden ; and, while there, he put to press some poems, which had been read MALTE-BRUN—MAMELUKES. 235 to the academy of Stockholm. When count Bernstorff (q. v.) was on his death- bed, he recommended to the prince-royal to recall Malte-Brun, and employ him in a diplomatic capacity. In consequence of this, the exile returned to Denmark, in 1797, and was favorably received by the ministers; but, having publicly attacked some of their arbitrary measures, he was again under the necessity of taking flight to Sweden, whence he soon after removed to Hamburg. It is said to have been about this period that he became either the founder, or one of the most active members, of a secret society, calletl the united Scandinavians, the object of which was to unite the three kingdomsof the North into one federative republic. At a some- what later period, he was also concerned with another association of the same kind, and this object he seems to have zealously pursued for many years: he did not, in- deed, desist from it till after the downfall of Napoleon. His scheme excited so much alarm, that Paul of Russia and Gus- tavus of Sweden demanded from the Danish government the punishment of those who were engaged in it. A prose- cution was accordingly commenced against Malte-Brun, who was then at Paris, and he was sentenced to banishment He settled at Paris in 1799, and continued tov reside there till his death, in 1826, devoting himself to the labors of literature, particu- larly to geographical subjects. Between 1804 and 1807, he published, in conjunc- tion with Mentelle, Political, Physical and Mathematical Geography (16 vols. Svo.1. In 1807, appeared his Picture of Poland; and, in 1808, he began a periodical work, with the title of Annals of Voyages, Ge- ography aud History, which extended to a large number of volumes. In 1814 and 1815, he produced another periodical, called the Spectator, which was completed in three volumes. His System of Univer- sal Geography is the most complete of all the geographical systems. An English translation has been made, and it bas passed through several editions in the U. States, one of whicli contains many cor- rections by J. G. Percival. Malte-Brun was also connected with tbe Journal of Debates, and other papere. In 1825, he published a treatise on legitimacy. Malthcs, T. R., reverend; the son of Daniel Malthus, esquire, of Albury, near Guildford, a gentleman of considerable erudition, and the suggester of the work on population, ascribed to his son, which appeared anonymously in 1798, and had its foundation in Wallace on the Numbers of Mankind, and Lucas on Happiness. He received his education at Jesus college, Cambridge, of which college he was sub- sequently a fellow. The Essay on the Principles of Population, printed under his name, in 1803, obtained a rapid circula- tion, and was translated into French by Prevost, professor of natural philosophy at Geneva. The fifth edition appeared in 1817 (3 vols., 8vo.). Its leading princi- ple is, that population has a tendency to increase more rapidly than the means of subsistence. It has met with much oppo- sition, and bas lost much of its early rep- utation. His next work was a Letter to Samuel Whitbread, Esquire, on bis pro- posed Bill for the Amendment of the Poor-Laws (8vo., 1807). He has since published Observations on tbe Effect of the Corn-Laws, and of a Rise or Fall in the Price of Corn on the Agriculture and general Wealth of the Countiy (1814); an Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent (1815); the Grounds of an Opinion on tbe Policy of Restricting the Importa- tion of foreign Corn (1815); and Addi- tions to the Essay on the Principles of Population. When the East India com- pany established the college at Hertford, Mr. Malthus was appointed professor of history and political economy ; and, on the subject of this institution, he published a Letter to Lord Grenville (1813); and Statements respecting the East India col- lege (1817). He is also the author of Principles of Political Economy (1620); Definitions in Political Economy (1827). Malvasia ; a district in the Morea. The chief place, called Malvasia di Roma- nia, is situated on an island, ami connect- ed with the continent by a britlge. It is a fortress; has a bishop, and 2000 inhabit- ants. Since the late division of Greece, Malvasia forms a province of the depart- ment Laconia. The well-known cape Malea belongs to Malvasia. The famous Malmsey wine is made here (also on some other Greek islands). A similar kind of wine is also made in Sicily, Sardinia, in Provence and Spain. Among the Sardin- ian wines of this sort, the Malvagia di Sorso is particularly distinguished. The Spanish sort comes mostly from Catalo- nia and Teneriffe. There are both red and white kinds. (See Malmsey Wine.) Mamelukes, Mamlouks, or Mama- lukes (from the Arabic memalik, a slave); slaves from the Caucasian countries, who, from menial offices, were advanced to dignities of state. They did not, howev- er, form a separate body ; but, when Gen- gis*-Khan made himself master of the 236 MAMELUKES—MAMMOTH. greatest part of Asia, in the thirteenth century, and carried vast numbers of the inhabitants into slavery, Nedjm-eddin (Malek Salah), sultan of Egypt, bought 12,000 of them, including natives of Mingrelia and Circassia, but chiefly Turks from Capchak (Kipzak), had them in- structed in the military exercises, and formed a regular corps of them. They soon exhibited a spirit of insubordination and rebellion. Under his successor, they interfered in the government, assassinated the sultan, Turan Shah, and, in 1254, ap- pointed Ibegh, one of their own number, sultan of Egypt. The dominion of the Mamelukes in Egypt continued 263 years. The command was usually held by the bravest of their number. During this pe- riod, they made some important con- quests, and, in 1291, they drove the Franks entirely out of the East. Selim I put an end to this kingdom, after having taken Cairo, the capital, by storm, in 1517. He placed a Turkish pacha as governor over Egypt, but appears to have been compelled, by circumstances, to leave the 24 beys, who governed the different prov- inces, in possession of their power. This state of things continued more than 200 years. But, from the middle of the last century, the number and wealth of the Mamelukes gave them such a superiority over the Turks in Egypt, that the pacha appointed by the Porte was obliged to conform entirely to their wishes. This superiority was owing principally to Ali ■Bey, who ruled with unlimited power, from 1766 to 1773, when he was assassi- nated. The Mameluke, beys, especially Murad Bey, played an important part at the time of the French invasion. The Mamelukes, who were scattered through- out Egypt, and estimated at 10 or 12,000 men, maintained their numbers, principally by slaves brought to Cairo from the re- gions lying between the Black and Caspi- an seas. These were compelled to em- brace the Mohammedan faith, and were all educated as soldiers. After a time, they obtained a share in the government, and some of them even became beys; for none but Mamelukes were capable of holding this office. They formed a fine body of cavalry, and attacked the French, when they landed in Egypt, with the greatest fury; but they were unable to withstand the European artillery, and many of them soon joined the French. The present pacha of Egypt, Mohammed Ali (q. v.), destroyed the beys, in 1811, by a stratagem. Mammalia, Mammiferods Animals, in zoology ; those animals which produce their young alive, and feed them with milk from their own breasts or dugs. Man, quadrupeds, and the cetacea, are mammiferous. (See Animals.) Mammee-Tree, or West India Apri- cot (mammea Americana); a large and beautiful tree, native of tropical America, and interesting from the qualities of the fruit, which is highly esteemed. This fruit is large, roundish, and contains a bright yellow, firm pulp, which is envel- oped with a thick, leathery rind: within this outer rind is a second very delicate one, closely adhering to the pulp, which should be cautiously removed, otiierwise it leaves a bitter taste in the mouth, not very strong at first, but gradually increas- ing, and continuing for two or three days. The taste is peculiar, sweet, and very agreeable, and is accompanied with an aromatic, pleasant odor. The tree belongs to the guttifera, the same family with the mangosteen, and attains the height of 60 or 70 feet. The leaves are oval, obtuse, very entire, smooth, and 6 or 8 inches in length. The flowers are white, an inch and a half in diameter, and diffuse a de- lightful perfume. Mammon; the Syrian god of riches, mentioned in the teachings of Jesus as a personification of worldliness. Spenser has pereonified Mammon in his noblest manner (book ii, canto 7), where sir Guy- on is represented amid the secret treas- ures of the "god of the world and world- lings." Mammoth (Russian momof); a species of extinct elephant (q. v.), found in a fossil state, entirely distinct from the ex- isting species of Asia and Africa. (See Elephant.) It has left proofs of its exist- ence in Europe, in Northern Asia, and in America. A great quantity of fossil ivory is obtained from Siberia, and it is visible, almost every where, on the banks of riv- ers, which undermine the soil. Whole carcasses, covered with flesh and skin, pre- served by the eternal frost of those re- gions, have even been found in the north- ern parts of Siberia. The bones have been occasionally found in all parts of Europe, and have given rise to stories of giants. They have been found in Ken- tucky, South Carolina, and other parts of the U. States, and Humboldt discovered them on the elevated plain of Quito. A mammoth, in complete preservation, was seen by Adams, a traveller in Siberia, who found the skeleton to be 9£ feet high, and 14 long, from the tip of the nose to the coccyx. The tusks were 9 feet long. The MAMMOTH—MAN. 237 scientific name of this animal is clephas primogenius (Bluinenb.), or diphant fossil (Cuv.). It is not to be confounded with the mastodon, a gigantic fossil animal of North America. (See Mastodon, and Or- ganic Remains.) Mammoth Cave ; a stupendous cave in Kentucky, near Green river, 130 miles south-south-west of Lexington. It has been penetrated 9 or 10 miles, and has many windings that have not been ex- plored. The depth is 60 or 70 feet. It contains figures, some of whicli are of immense size and fantastic form; but is more remarkable for its extent than the variety or beauty of its productions, having none of tbe beautiful stalactites found in many other caves. The earth is strongly impregnated with saltpetre, and large quantities of it are manufactured. Man, in natural history, according to some naturalists, although, it must be con- fessed, rather from motives of pride than from anatomical considerations, forms the order bimana, in the class mammalia; ac- cording to others, and more scientifically, is included in the family bimana, in the order anthropomorpha, which contains, also, the two families of quadrumana, or proper monkeys, and lemurs. The family bimana, according to this classification, contains three genera,—man, the orang-outang, and the gibbon. Linnaeus was the firet who ventured to classman (homo, homo sapiens) in a scientific system with other animals; and he ditl not escape the censure of some, as degrading the dignity of the hu- man race by such an approximation ; but classification is a mere statement of a fact in anatomy, and the philosopher, who ob- serves and interprets nature, is not surely to blame. Man, then, whether considered as the head of the animal creation, and a part of it; or as a sole genus and sole spe- cies, distinct from others, anel lord of all; 'whether defined to be a biped without feathers, or a quadruped without hoofs, a monkey with a voice, or a monkey with- out a tail,—if viewed solely in a physical light, anel setting aside his divine reason, and his immortal nature,—is a being pro- vided with two hands, designed for pre- hension, and having fingers protected by flat nails, and two feet, with single soles, destined for walking; with a single stom- ach, and with three kinds of teeth,—inci- sive, canine and molar. His position is upright, his food both vegetable and ani- mal, his body naked. It has been made a subject of dispute, whether there is more than one species in the human race; but it is merely a dispute of words; and if the term species is used in its common scientific sense, it cannot be denied that there is but one species. There are, how- ever, certain and constant differences of stature, physiognomy, color, nature of the hair, or form of the skull, which have given rise to subdivisions of this species. Blumenbach reduces these varieties to five: 1. The firet variety occupies the central parts of the old continent, namely, Western Asia, Eastern and Northern Af- rica, Hindoostan and Europe. Its char- acters are the color of the skin, more or less white or brown; the cheeks tinged with red; long hair, either brown or fair; the head almost spherical; the face oval and narrow ; the features moderately marked, the nose slightly arched ; the mouth small; the front teeth placed per- pendicularly in the jaws; the chin full and round. The regularity of the features of such a countenance, which is that of the European, causes it to be generally considered (by them at least) as the most agreeable. The Hindoos, the Abyssini- ans, the Brebers, or inhabitants of mount Atlas, have features not essentially differ- ing from those of the Europeans, except in the color of the skin, and which, among the Hindoo and Abyssinian mountaineers, is quite fair, Blumenbach calls this vari- ety the Caucasian, from its supposed ori- gin in the Caucasus. 2. The second va- riety was formerly called the Tartar, but improperly, as the Tartars do not belong to it It has more recently been called the Eastern variety. Tbe color in this race is yellow ; the hair black, stiff, straight, and rather thin; the head almost square; the face large, flat and depressed; the features indistinctly marked ; the nose small and flat; the cheeks round and prominent; the chin pointed; the eyes small. This variety comprises the Asiat- ics to the east of the Ganges and of mount Beloor, except the Malays. In Europe, it embraces the Finns and Laplandere; and, in America, the Esquimaux. Other wri- ters have classed the Finns, as descendants of the ancient Scythians, in the first vari- ety. 3. The American variety resembles that last described in several points. Its principal characters are the copper-color; stiff, thin, straight black hair; low fore- head ; eyes sunk ; the nose somewhat projecting ; cheek-bones prominent; the face large. This variety comprises all the Americans except the Esquimaux. There are several branches, however, which dif- fer considerably. 4. The fourth variety of Blumenbach appears yet more arbitra- ry and uncertain than the last. It is called 238 MAN—MANCANDO. by him the Malay, and described as of a tawny color ; the hair black, soft, thick and curled ; the forehead a little projecting; the nose thick, wide and flattened ; the mouth large; the upper jaw projecting. This variety comprehends the islanders of the Pacific ocean. 5. The remaining variety is the Negro. Its characters are, color black; hair black and woolly; head narrow ; forehead convex and arched; cheek-bones projecting; nose large, and almost confounded with the upper jaw; the upper front teeth obliquely placed; the lips thick; the chin drawn in ; the legs crooked. This race is found in Western and Southern Africa, and the great islands of the Pacific, generally in the interior. There are veiy great differences in the tribes included in this variety: the Negro, with the complexion of jet, and wool; the Caft're, with a copper complex- ion, and long hair; the sooty Papous, or New Guineaman ; the native of Van Die- men's Land ; the Haraforas, who are found in Borneo, and the Hottentots, hardly dif- fer more in situation than in features. (See Blumenbach, De Varietate nativa Generis Humani.) Bory de St Vincent, in his Essais Zoologiques sur PHomme, divides the human race into 15 species, and numerous varieties. Man, considered in his nobler character of a social, moral, religious and political being, will be more appropriately considered under other heads. (See Language, Philology, PolU- ical Institutions, Religion.) Man, Isle of (the Monada of Ptolemy); an island belonging to Great Britain, in the Irish sea, nearly equidistant from the coasts of England, Scotland and Ireland ; 30 miles long, and 12, where widest, broad ; 70 in circumference; square miles, 220; population, in 1821, 40,084; chief towns, Castletown (the capital), Douglas, Peel and Ramsay; lon. 4° 307 W.; lat. 54° 15' N. The interior is mountainous. Snowfield, or Snafield, the highest sum- mit >s about 2000 feet above the sea. The soil, not naturally very productive, is greatly fertilized by the abundance of sea- weed cast upon the shore. Agriculture, of late, has made great advances. The productions are barley, wheat, oats, tur- nips, potatoes, flax, cattle, sheep, poultry, &c. The island contains 17 parishes, un- der the jurisdiction of a bishop, styled bishop ofSodor and Man, who is sole bar- on of the island. The Manx language, a kind of Gaelic, prevails in the interior, but English is spoken in the towns. On the south is a small island, called the Calf of Man, which is separated by a narrow channel.—In 1405, the island was granted to lord Stanley, and, in 1735, became vested in the duke of Athol. In 1764, it was sold to Great Britain for £70,000, with all its rights of sovereignty. Man-of-War ; a ship of war; an arm- ed ship. Man-of-War Bird. (See Albatross.) Manakin (pipra, I /in.). This is a small genus of birds peculiar to South America, having a compressed beak, thicker than broatl, grooved; nasal fossae large. Their tail and feet are short. In their general form and proportions, they are not very unlike the titmouse. They are generally small, and inhabit the depths of forests, being seldom seen in cultivated fields. The largest of these birds, the P. mUitaris, is distinguished by a beautiful crest of red feathers upon its head. Its back is of a fine blue, and the rest of the plumage of a deep black.—Closely allied to these birds is one of the most extraordinary of the feathered tribe,—the cock of the rock (ru- picola). This bird is as large as a pigeon, is of a bright orange color, and is furnish- ed with a double crest of feathers on its head, placed in the form of a fan. They live on fruits, scratch the earth like the common fowl, and form their nest of dry wood, in deep holes in the rocks. The female lays two eggs. Manasarowara, a lake of Thibet, among the Himalaya mountains, is one of the most venerated of all the places of pilgrimage resorted to by the Hindoos, who visit it in great numbers, in spite of all the difficulties of the journey. The Thibetians also hold it in great reverence, and come from great distances to throw into it the ashes of their friends. It is about 15 miles long and 11 broad, and, with its borders of lofty crags, and its towering barrier of snow-capped moun- tains, forms a magnificent scene. Its shores are covered with monastic houses. Manasseh ; eldest son of Joseph, bom in Egypt. When brought with Ephraim to receive the blessing of h;s grandfather Jacob, the old man placed his right hand upon the head of the younger, and his left upon that of Manasseh, thus depriving the latter of the precedence due to his priority of birth. The descendants of Manasseh formed a tribe, v/hich, in the promised land, was settled, half beyond the Jordan, and half in the territory of Sama- ria, Sichem and Bethany. (See Hebrews.) Mancando (abbreviated mane, Italian) is used in music to denote that the time of a piece must become slower and slow- er, and the tone by degrees vanish. LA MANCHA—MANCO CAPAC. 239 Mancha, La; a province of Spain in New Castile, almost every way surround- ed by mountains, forming an immense plain, intersected by ridges of low hills and rocks; not an enclosure of any kind, ex- cept mud walls, about the villages; not a tree to be seen, except a few dwarfish ever- green oaks and olive plants, scarce de- serving the name. AU this vast tract of open country is cultivated in corn and vines. A traveller says, " There is no la- borer nor young female peasant, who is not well acquainted with Don Quixote and Sancho," This is the most cheerful countiy of Spain; the inhabitants are af- fable, and great lovers of music and dancing ; population, 214,087 ; square miles, 8000 ; chief towns, Ciudad-Real and Ocana. Manche, Department of La ; in the north-western part of France, on the Brit- ish channel, called in French La Manche. (See Department, and Channel.) Manchester ; an ancient town in Lan- cashire, England, known for its extensive manufactures; 186 miles N. W. of London, :» E. of Liverpool; lat. 53° 29' N.; lon. 2° 14' W. ; population in 1801, 84,000 ; in 1811, 98,000; in 1821, 133,788, and, in 1831, including the neighborhood, 233,380. Manchester stands on the eastern bank of the river Irwell, near its junction with the Irk and the Medlock. The Irwell is ren- dered navigable to Liverpool, and, by means of canals, the town has communi- cation with the waters on both shores of the island. (See Caiuils of Great Britain.) It is also connected with Liverpool by the Liverpool and Manchester rail-road, u-aversed by steam-carriages, moving with an almost incredible speed. On the op- posite bank of the Irwell stands Salford, which, though under a different jurisdic- tion, is so connected with Manchester as al- ways to be comprehended in the same sta- tistical reports. The town presents nothing remarkable in an architectural point of view. It has a college, an hospital for the maintenance of poor boys, a library, and several establishments for the promotion of education and science. The philo- sophical and literary society has published transactions containing some valuable me- moirs. The ground on which Manchester stands is a perfect level, and from whatev- er side it is approached, its crowd of spires, towers, manufactories and ware- houses appears mingling widi the smoke that hangs over it. It is to the cotton- trade that the town owes its wealth and growth. The productive powers of ma- chinery have even expanded in a much greater proportion than the increase of its populaiion. The inventions of Arkwright produced a new era in its history. The processes of carding, spinning, weaving, and many of those of bleaching, dyeing and printing, are conducted by means of machinery, which, in productive power, is equivalent to a population of several mil- lions. Between 1814 and 1828, more than 200 steam-engines were set up, carrying over 30,000 looms for weaving alone. Of 703,200 bales of cotton imported into Liverpool (1825), nine tenths were con- sumed at Manchester. Besides the man- ufacture of every kind of cotton goods, there are iron founderies, shops for making machines, &c.,which consume great quan- tities of the coal abundant in the neighbor- hood. Manchester does not send any member to parliament, but the reform bill proposes to give it two members. (See Parliamentary Reform.) Manchineel (hippomane mancenilla) ; a West Indian tree, celebrated for the poisonous qualities of the milky juice which abounds in every part of it. When a drop of this juice is applied to the skin, it causes the same sensation as a burning coal, antl quickly produces a vesicle. Tbe Imlians use it for poisoning the points of their arrows, whicli preserve their ven- om for a long time. The workmen em- ployed in felling these trees, firet build a fire round the trunks, in order to make the juice evaporate, and cover their eyes with gauze ; but, notwithstanding these precautions, they are subject to be incom- moded with the dust. The accounts, however, which represent it as dangerous to sleep in the shade, or to come in con- tact with the rain which has faUen upon this tree, are highly exaggerated. The inhabitants of Martinique formerly burnt entire forests of the manchineel, in order to free their dwellings from its presence. This tree belongs to the natural family eu- phorbiacea; the leaves are alternate, ovate, serrate and shining ; the fruit has the form, color and scent of a small apple, and contains a nut about as large as a chestnut. It is said that drinking copious- ly of sea-water is the best remedy, when a portion of this fruit has been swallowed. It grows in the West Indies, and other parts of tropical America, in the immediate vicinity of the ocean. Manco Capac, legislator and firet inca of the Peruvians, was the 12th in ascent from the inca who reigned at the time of the Spanish invasion in 1532, an interval computed by the natives at about 400 years. Their tradition was, that this per- 240 MANCO CAPAC—MANDATE. son, with Mama Oella his wife, and sister, appeared suddenly in an island of the lake Titiaca, and declared themselves to be chil- dren of the sun, sent down to civilize and instruct diem. Manco accordingly taught the men agriculture and other useful arts, whilst his wife instructed the women to spin and weave. He taught the Peru- vians to revere internally, as die highest and unknown deity, Pachakamak, i. e. the soul or support of the world; externally, however, and as an inferior and visible deity, the sun, his parent; and he ordered sacrifices to be offered to the latter, as the benefactor of men. Perhaps some stran- ger, from a civilized land, appeared in Peru, and employed religion to procure an ascendency whicli enabled him to form a regular government Manco Capac died after a long and prosperous reign, and, as far as tradition may be relied upon, seems justly to have been entitled to rank among the benefactors of mankind by the benev- olence of his institutions. (See Robert- son's History of America.) Mandamus. A writ of mandamus (we command) is, in general, a command issu- ing from some superior court, as the court of king's bench in England, and, in the U. States, the supreme court of the U. States, or a superior or supreme court of any state, directed to some inferior court, or to some pereon or corporation, requir- ing them to do some particular thing, which such superior court has previously determined it to be their duty to do, or, at least, supposes to be consonant to right and justice. It issues where a party has a right to have a thing done, and has no other remedy, and in some cases where he has another, but a tedious and inade- quate one. It is either in the alternative, ordering the court, corporation or party, to which or whom it is directed, to do the thing specified, or to appear and show cause why it should not be done ; or ab- solute, commanding the thing specified to be done without any condition or alterna- tive. The writ is usually first issued in the alternative, directing the party com- plained of to appear, and show cause against its being issued absolutely, and in case of there being no appearance, or no sufficient cause to the contrary being shown, an absolute mandamus is issued. The cases enumerated for the issuing of this writ, by sir William Blackstone, are— to compel the party applying to be restor- ed to some office or franchise of a public nature, whether temporal or spiritual; to an academical degree; to the use of a meeting-house, &c.: it lies for the produc- tion, inspection or delivery of public books and papers; for the surrender of the regalia of a corporation ; to oblige botlies corpo- rate to affix their common seal ; or to compel the holding of a court It may be directed to an inferior court, ordering it to proceetl in the hearing of a cause, or to enter up a judgment. It is sometimes directed to a corporation, directing them to choose officers. The statute of 2 Geo. II, c. 4, provides for its being issued to command an election of a mayor or other chief magistrate of a city, town or bor- ough ; and so, where one is elected to any office, as town-clerk, or is legally elected member of any public body, as one of the aldermen of a city, and is refused admis- sion or recognition as such, this writ may be issued in his behalf. By an act of the congress of the U. States, passed Sept. 4, 1789, the supreme court has power to issue " writs of mandamus in cases war- ranted by the principles and usages of law, to any courts appointed, or persons holding office under the U. States." Mandan ; a fort and Indian village on the Missouri, 1600 miles from the Missis- sippi, by the course of the river; lon. 100° 50' W.; lat. 47° 20' N. This place is re- markable for the encampment of Lewis and Clarke, during the winter of 1804-5, when on their expedition up the Missouri. They state, that on the 17th of December, the thermometer fell here to 45° below 0. The Mandan Indians are in this vicinity. Mandane; the mother of Cyrus. (See Cyrus, and Cambyses.) Mandarins ; the official nobility in China. (See China, vol. iii., p 145.) Mandate ; an order in Germany, used for a decree of a court of justice, by which, on the application of a plaintiff, something is ordered or prohibited to the opjiosite party. The process is unconditional (sine claiisula) if no legal opposition can be anticipated, conditional (cum clausula) if the other party is at liberty to make re- monstrances.—Mandate was also the name given to a certain kind of paper-money in the French revolution. After the assig- nats, which had been kept in circulation by the violence of Robespierre, had lost all credit, a new money was created,—the mandates,—founded, like the assignats, on the credit derived from the confiscated property, but with the essential difference, that specific pieces of property, enume- rated in a table, were pledged for the re- demption of the bills, whilst the assignats furnished only a general claim. The man- dates could be realized at any moment, as the owner was authorized to take any MANDATE—MANDSHURES. 241 portion of the property enumerated on the table, as soon as he made his intention known, and paid the quarter part of its assigned value without any further for- mality. Firet 600,000,000 of mandates were created, but soon after (March 18, 1796), 2,400,000,000. A forced circula- tion was given to them, by which the government was enabled to defray the expenses of the approaching campaign. This was hardly done, when they also sunk to nothing ; they were, therefore, in part redeemed, while the rest disappeared of themselves. Instead of sinking under this burden, France owed her deliverance to this measure. The evil carried along with its excess its cure. Mandeville, sir John, a celebrated English traveller of the fourteenth centu- ry, was born at St. Alban's. He was of a respectable family, and bred a physician ; but a desire to visit foreign countries in- duced him, in 1332, to set out upon a couree of travels, in which he is said to have spent 34 yeare. During this period, according to his own account, he visited the greater part of Asia, Egypt and Libya, making himself acquainted with many lan- guages, and collecting a great mass of in- formation, true and false, which he com- mitted to writing in Latin, French and English. He died at Liege, in 1372, where a monument is erected to his mem- ory, the inscription on which denominates him John de MandevUle, alias De. Barba, Lord of Campoli. The only genuine edi- tion of his travels, entitled the Voiage and Travaile of Sir John MaundevUe, Knight, was printed from an original manuscript iu the Cotton library (1727, 8vo.). His extreme credulity in the collection of ab- surd and fabulous stories is only surpassed by his unblushing indulgence in the most extravagant fictions. Mandeville, Bernard, a writer and physician of considerable temporary ce- lebrity, was born in Holland about 1670. He was probably of English extraction, as he fixed his residence in England, and wrote his works in the English language. His most celebrated production is the Fable of the Bees, or Private Vices made Public Benefits, firet printed in 1723. The reasoning in this piece is founded on the sophism, that the luxury and superfluity which mark the advanced stages of so- ciety, and the vices which they engender, are often the causes of national prosperi- ty, and hence the necessaiy prevalence of vicious principles in human nature. Consistently with this doctrine, his general views of mankind are of the most dispar- vol. viii. 21 aging tendency; and he declares against all attempts to exalt die humble classes by edu- cation. Many answers appeared, among which was one by bishop Berkeley, to whom he replied in 1723, in his Letter to Dion. His Free Thoughts on Religion (1720),was deemed deistical. He also wrote several other works. He died in 1733. Mandingoes ; a nation of negroes found in different parts of Western Africa, in Sen- egambia and Guinea. They are of the Mo- hammedan religion, and their language is, in some measure, the commercial language of Western Africa. They are superior to most of the African tribes in civilization. Mandola, or Mandoline ; an instru- ment, the name of which is much more musical than its tones. The Italian name is mandola, mandora. It has four strings, belongs to the lute and guitar species, and is played with a quill as well as with the finger. There are also instru- ments of this kind with six or more strings, which, therefore, approach nearer to the nature of the lute (q. v.). It is chief- ly in use in Italy, and is pleasing when it accompanies the easy song of the countiy people. The strings are of steel or brass Mandragora and 3Iandrake ; a name given by the ancients to a root which grew cleft into two parts, and resembled the human form. Hence miraculous powers were attributed to it, and the herb it produced was called circaum. Ac- cording to Josephus (Antiquit., book viii. chap. 2), Solomon had such a plant, which drove away demons. Pliny, in his Nat- ural History (lib. 25, cap. 13) directs how it should be dug up; antl Josephus, who called it bararas, states something similar. This root was supposed to have a double sex, and to make prolific; hence commen- tators on the Bible have conjectured that it was the fruit which Rachel desired of Leah, according to Genesis xxx. 14. Mandrake. (See Mandragora.) Mandshures, or Mantchoos. Two nations, the Mandshures and Tunguses, whose common origin is proved by their traditions, their language and their physi- cal conformation, belong to the Mand- shure race, whicli wanders over the vast deserts in the east of Siberia and north of Mongolia. They were known in the ear- liest times under the name of the Kins, or Niutshes. From A. D. 926 they were trib- utary to the Khitans, and dwelt to the north of Corea, in Eastern Tartan', as far as to the Eastern sea and the Amour. In 1114, they revolted, under Okota, against the Khitans, and, in 1118, established the kingdom of Kin, in China, whicli 242 MANDSHURES—MANEGE. was called from the founder of the dynas- ty. In 1125, Tai-tsong overthrew the kingdom of the Khitans, in the nortli of China; he then attacked die Song, who had called him in to their assistance, com- pelled Wey-tsong to cede to him a part of China, aud deprived his successor of the remainder of northern China, leaving him only the southern part of the countiy. The Mongols, hitherto vassals of the Kins, revolted under the successor of Tai-tsong, and compeUed the latter to cede to them a part of their territory. In 1208, Gengis- Khan refused the payment of tribute; in 1212 and 1213, entirely defeated the Kins, threw off the yoke, and made the Kins themselves his tributaries. In 1215, Ning- tsong, sovereign of China, of the dynasty of Song, refused to pay the tribute. In 1221, the Kins were deprived of part of their territory, by Gengis-Khan. In 1230, Ok- tai continued the war, and reduced the kingdom under Gnai-tsong. After the expulsion of the Kins from China, they firet re-appeared in 1556, under the name of the Mantchoos. They found reception in Lea-Tong, between Sharra-Mongolia and Corea; but, in 1616, they invaded China under Tienming, and made exten- sive conquests. To increase the confu- sion, the rebel Li exciteel au insurrection, attacked the emperor Wey-tsong, in 1643, and defeated him. The emperor hanged himself, and thus put an end to the dynas- ty of Ming, the last family of native princes in China. A reconciliation was now- effected with the Mantchoos. Tsonte drove Li out of Pekin, but died in the midst of his conquests, which were com- pleted by his son, in 1644, since which period the Mantchoos have been the sovereigns of China. There are at pres- ent no Mantchoos within the Russian ter- ritory; a part of them, when the Russians came to Siberia, left their possessions in East Siberia, extending from lake Baikal to the Mongolian mountains, and along the river Amour, and withdrew to the Amour antl China; those who remained, and submitted to the Russian government, fell under the jurisdiction of China, by the treaty of Nertchinsk, by which R ussia gave up aU the Amour and the Mantchoos, who were its subjects. The Stanovoi- krebet mountains now form the bounda- ry of the country inhabited by the Tun- guses, part of whom are tributary to China, part to Russia, and part are inde- pendent. Mane. (See Hair.) Manege, or Manage, is used to denote the art of breaking and riding horses, or the place set apart for equestrian exercises. It is borrowed from the French, who de- rive it from the Italian maneggio. Some writers tlerive if. from the Latin, a manu agendo. Most horses tire, by nature, ex- tremely docile, and, when proper means are used with them, they are very well dis- posed to obey their masters. These ought, therefore, to endeavor, from the com- mencement, to acquire the confidence of the animal, by kind and gentle treatment, and by avoiding all unnecessary severity. Some horses, indeed, are naturally vicious or obstinate, and must be occasionally punished; but the chastisement should lie inflicted with judgment and discrimina- tion. Spirit has been sometimes mistaken for vice, and many horses, not naturally vicious, have been rendered so by severity and injudicious treatment. A horse's education may commence between the ages of two and three years, and it will greatly facilitate future operations if he has been housed during the winter. About this age, a baiter or cavesson (a noose- band) should be put upon the foal, that he may become familiar with it. The groom, too, when he cleans the animal, should lift each of his feet, and strike them gently with a piece of wood or a hammer, after which he will readily submit to be shod when necessary. Next, before feeding, the groom should put a saddle on the back of the foal, and remove it again with great caution. After a while, the girth may be bound over the saddle, and the foal left to stand and feed. Every thing should be taught gradually and gently, to avoid the danger of rendering the animal timid or vicious. The horse should now be made to run at the end of a long rein, held in the hand, a nooseband being put on his nose, and a man following him, if necessary, with a long whip. This ex- ercise should be performed with great gentleness, and but little at a time, that the horse may not be fatigued, stupified or discouraged. After he has acquired a firm, regular, and determined motion, he may be mounted. Only a trench or snaffle antl cavesson should be used at first. The bit and bridle shoukl not be introduced till the horse has been taught to carry his head high, and is free in his motions. A fine carriage is to be given to the horse by bringing his head in such a position as to form a perpendicular line from his forehead to his nose, after which his head should be » brought a little more inwards by pulling the inward rein gently and by degrees, and crossing the outward rein a little over, whereby he acquires the most beautiful MANEGE. 243 Kosition, and is better able to go through is exercises. The natural paces of a horse are a walk, a trot, and a gallop, to whicli some horses, of themselves, add an amble. In a walk, a horse lifts two legs on a side, one after the other, beginning with the hind leg firet; in an amble, two legs on a side at the same time; in a trot, two at tbe same time, and keeps two on the ground crosswise. In galloping straight forward, the horse may lead with either fore leg, but unless the hind leg on the same side follows it, the legs are said to be disunited ; in this pace, all four legs are offthe ground at the same time. In galloping in a circle, the innermost fore leg should lead, or he is said to gallop false. The canter or hand gallop is not considered as a natural pace : it is an easier gallop, in which the hand presses on the bridle, to restrain the speed. When the horse has learned to go forwartl freely, he should be exercised for some time in the manner above pointed out, firet at a walk, and then at a trot The- trot is to render him supple in the shoulders, and to make him go with a free, united and determined action, for whicli no pace is so well adapt- ed. A horse light in hand should be put to the extended trot. When he goes fine- ly, he should be brought together by de- grees, until be bends his legs, and goes unitedly and equally. If, when kept to- gether, he slackens his pace, push him forward, still keeping him gently in hand. If he is heavy in hand, he must be thrown back on his haunches, to .shorten iiis steps and collect his strength. He must not be suffered to sink his neck, and poke out his nose. When he bas been wrought up into a proper position, he should be made still more supple in the shoulders, by the lesson of the ipaule en dedans, which is, per- haps, the most important lesson of any. For this purpose, the bend of the neck must be procured in the manner formerly de- scribed. When he has been ridden in this position till he goes with perfect steadiness and freedom, tiie rider should walk him forwards to the right, and endeavor, al- most imperceptibly, to place him so that the hinder feet keep the straight line of a wall, while the fore feet come Out about a foot and a half inwards, towards the centre. This must be effected by cross- ing the outward rein, in the right hand, towards tbe left, a little backwards, which compels the horse to bring the right shoulder forwards, and to cross the inward leg over the outward. The rider should also press his right leg to the horse's side, which brings iu his shoulders. The same crossing should afterwards be effected in the hinder legs, by bringing in the fore legs, &c. In every exercise, the rider should avoid all unsettled motion and wriggling with the legs. Every thing should be effected by the hands only, and the legs should be used only in case of necessity. After the horse has been taught to go free- ly on this lesson to the right, the rider may change to the left. The horse should be rid- den in the same manner across the course, and exercised alternately to the right anil left, until he crosses his legs with perfect facility. He may now, perhaps, be taught to back. Whenever the rider stops, he should back a few paces, and then put the horse forwards by little at a time. In backing, if he attempts to rear, push him out immediately into a full trot When the horse has been sufficiently practised in the ipaule en dedans, he should be made to traverse a passage with his head to the wall aud with his croup to the wall. The motion of his legs in passaging to the right, is the same with that of the ipaule en dedans to the left, and so vice versa, but the head is always bent and turned differently. In the ipaule en dedans, the horse looks the contraiy way to that whicli he goes; iu passaging, he looks the same way as he is going. The direc- tions for executing this lesson are similar to those of the ipaule en dedans. The equilibrium of the rider's body is particu- larly necessaiy. Bits should not be used until the previous lessons have been well practised with the trench or snaffle. Horses should be taught to leap by rl*~ grees, beginning with small leaps. " The rider must keep bis body back, raise his hand a little, to help up the fore parts of the horse, and be very attentive to his balance, without raising himself in the saddle, or moving his arms. Horses should first leap standing, then walking, then trotting, then galloping. A low bar, covered with furze, is best to begin with, as it pricks the legs of the horse if he does not raise him- self sufficiently, and prevents him from acquiring the dangerous habit of touching. In order to teach borses to stand fire, and to bear the sound of drums and other noises, they should be firet aceustomed to them in the stable at feeding time. All other things necessaiy to make a horse steady may be easily taught by good judg- ment, patience and gentleness. Of all bad tempers and qualities in horses, those which are occasioned by ignorant riders and harsh treatment, are the most com- mon and the worst (For mounting, &c, see Horsemanship.) 244 MANELLI—MANFREDI. Manelli, Pietro ; a comic singer, who, about the year 1750, went at the head of a company of Italian singers to Paris, and gained the public favor by his comic tal- ent. A warm dispute arose between tbe favorers of the modem Italian music and the old French style. The parties were called buffonisls and antibuffonists. The chiefs of the parties were Grimm and Rousseau. The Italian music was victo- rious. Manes, among the Romans ; the souls of the dead. The good spirits were also called lares, and the evil larva. Some regarded them as the good and evil genii, which attend men through life. The manes were reckoned among the infernal gods; but a belief was prevalent, that they sometimes appeared upon the earth in the form of ghosts, particularly on the 30th of August, 4th of October, and 7th of November; whence the Romans con- sidered these unlucky days. The super- stitious notion that the spirits of the de- parted had an important influence on the good or bad fortune of the living, espe- cially of those with whom lhey had been formerly connected, produced a general fear of them, anel made people very cau- tious of offending them. As they were supposed to persecute those who elisturb- ed their remains, tombs were hold sacred, and victims (inferia) aud libations offereel to the manes. When it was not known whether a corpse had been buried or not, a cenotaph was erected, and the manes were solemnly invited to rest there, from fear that otherwise they would wander about the world, terrifying the living, and seeking the body which they had once inhabited. It was also supposed diat they delighted in blood ; various ani- mals were, therefore, slain upon the fune- ral piles,—particularly those of which the deceased had been fond during his life,— and burned with the body. Manes ; founder of the sect of Mani- chBeans. (See Manichees.) Manesse, Rudiger von ; a native of Zu- rich, who, in 1336, when the aristocrats of his city, expelled by the burgomaster Bruns, threatened to return with the support of Austria, received the chief command from his fellow citizens, was victorious, and saved the liberty of Zurich. After the death of Bruns, he was chosen burgo- master. He was a lover of poetry, and formed a collection of 140 love-songs, called after him the Manesse collection. It remained until the beginning of the 17th century in Switzerland, but was car- ried off, and, during the 30 years' war, found its wav to Paris, where it was dis- covered, in 1726, by Ch. von Bartenstein. Part of the manuscript was published in 1748 (2 vols., Zurich); in J75H, and 175!), complete, by Bodnicr and Breitin- ger. It is important in the history of German literature. Manetho ; an ancient Egyptian histo- rian, who was high priest of Heliopolis, in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 304 B. C. He wrote in Greek a history of Egypt, from the earliest times to the last years of Nectanebis, and lire- tended that he had taken it from the sa- cred pillars of the first Hermes Trismegis- tus; the inscriptions on which, after the flood, were translated into Greek, but written in the sacred characters, and de- posited in the sacred recesses of Egypt. The manifest absurdity of this pretension induces several writers to think, that some mistake or corruption has taken place in the passage of Eusebius which relates it. The work of Manetho, which is lost, con- sisted of three parts, the first of which contained the history of the gods or he- rocs, and the second and third that of twenty dynasties of kings, which, having been epitomized by Julius Africanus, are recorded by Eusebius. Several fragments of Manetho are pr served by Josephus, in bis work against Apion. (See Seyf- farth, and Hieroglyphics.) Manfredi, Eustaehio ; an eminent mathematician and astronomer, born in 1674, at Bologna, in Italy. He applied himself to the cultivation of mathematical science, anel, in 1008, was appointed pro- fessor of mathematics in the university of Bologna. In conjunction with Victor Stancari, he commenced a series of as- tronomical observations, of which he af- terwards publishetl an account in his Scheda Mathemalica. In 1703 appeared his treatise on the Solar Maculae; and the following year he was chosen regent of the college of Montalto, and also surveyor- general of the rivers and waters of the Bolognese territories. In 1705, he pub- lished a work on the Reformation of the Calendar; and he afterwards began the composition of his Ephemerides Motuum ccelestium, which he earned on from 1715 to 1725. On the foundation of the insti- tute of Bologna, in 1712, Manfredi wits appointed astronomer to that establish- ment. He was admitted an associate of the royal academy of sciences at Paris, and, in 1729, a foreign member of the royal society of London. He died in 1739. Besides the works already noticed, he was the author of other mathematical and MANFREDI—MANGANESE. 245 astronomical productions; and after his death, appeared a volume of his poems. Manganese, in the condition of an ore, had been used in certain arts, before its nature, as a distinct metal, was known. Scheele and Bergman, from an examina- tion of this ore, inferred that it chiefly consisted of the oxide of a peculiar metal. To obtain the metal pure, the mineral is dissolved in muriatic acid, the oxide of iron precipitated by ammonia, and the solution evaporated to dryness; the residu- um, after heating to expel the muriate of ammonia, is pure oxide of manganese, which is made into a paste, with a small quantity of oil and charcoal, and exposed, in a crucible, to the most intense heat of a powerful wind-furnace; the result of the process is the manganese in the metallic form. Hydrogen gas, passed over the heated oxide, will also reduce it The metal is of a white color, with a shade of gray, having a moderate lustre, which tarnishes, however, on exposure to the air. Its texture is granular; it is brittle and hard; specific gravity, 8.; heated in oxygen or chlorine, it takes fire, and forms an oxide or chloride. The oxides of manganese have exercised the skill of many chemists, and are hardly yet deter- mined beyond controversy. Three, most probably four, well defined oxides may be obtained; and some intermediate oxides, compounded of these, exist in nature. The protoxide is best obtained by trans- mitting hydrogen gas over the deutoxide, peroxide or carbonate of manganese, ig- nited by a spirit-lamp, in a glass tube. It is permanent in the air, but, when heated to 600° Fahr., it absorbs oxygen very rap- idly, and, at a low red-heat, it passes from its green color, almost instantaneously, into black. It consists of manganese 76.82, and oxygen 23.18. It is the basis of all the proper salts of manganese, which, when pure, are colorless. The deutoxide is prepared by exposing the nitrate or peroxide of manganese;, for a considerable time, to dull ignition. It is found native in the prismatoidal manganese ore (gray oxide of manganese), and consists of 70. metal -4- 30. oxygen. When heated with sulphuric acid, oxygen gas is extricated with effervescence, and a protosulphate results. The peroxide exists native and crystallized in perfect purity. It may be artificially prepared, by heating the dry proto-nitrate till a uniform black mass be formed, which must be pulverized, washed while hot with strong nitric acid, and again gently calcined with constant stir- ring. It contains twice as much oxygen 21* as the protoxide. The red oxide is formed by exposing the nitrate, or peroxide of rqanganese, to a white heat, out of the influence of smoky vapors. It has a brownish-red color when cold, and is nearly black while warm. It consists of two proportionals of the protoxide, and one of the peroxide. It dissolves, in small quantity, in dilute sulphuric acid, without disengagement of oxygen gas, forming en amethyst-red liquid. On heating this solution, or dilute sulphuric acid, or the red oxide, oxygen is evolved, the color disappears, and a proto-sulphate remains. Strong muriatic acid dissolves the red oxide into a colored solution, which ex- hales chlorine, and gradually passes into a colorless proto-muriate. A compound, nossessing very singular properties, as re- spects the colore to which it gives rise when in solution, and which, from this circumstance, has received the fanciful name of die mineral chameleon, is formed by fusing together the native black oxide of manganese and potash, or its carbonate, which, on being dissolved in water, com- municates to it a greenish-blue color. The solution, on standing a little time ex- posed to the air, lets fall the oxide #f iron whicli it contains, and the color becomes blue; and, on the addition of wann water, or an acid, the solution assumes a violet color, from which it soon passes to red, brown, black, and lastly becomes colorless. When the color of the solution is bluish- green, the manganese is believed to be united with the alkali, in tbe condition of manganeseous acid; and when it is red, the manganese is supposed to be in the state of manganesic acid. The mangane- seous acid is, according to this view, very easy of decomposition. When combined with potash, it forms a submanganesite; and whenever the potash is saturated, or its action weakened, the manganeseous acid is decomposed into deutoxide of manganese and manganesic acid ; hence the changes of the solution. According to the experiments of Frommherz, the man- ganesic acid has a dark carmine-red color, tastes sweetish at firet, but afterwards bit- ter and astringent, and is destitute of smell. When heated with care, it vola- tilizes. It is decomposed by a current of hydrogen gas, the hydrogen acids, car- buret of sulphur, the metals, and all or- ganic 'substances. The salts of manga- nese are usually prepared from the black peroxide. Tbe acids, which have a strong affinity to the protoxide, expel the excess of oxygen, especially if their action is aided by heat; with other acids, it is ne- 246 MANGANESE. cessary to add a little carbonaceous matter, as sugar, to abstract a portion of oxygen from the peroxide. The principal salt is the sulphate of manganese, which may be thus prepared : the acid acts very slowly on the metal itself; if diluted, however, it acts more quickly, hydrogen gas being disengaged, of a fetid smell. The solu- tion, when concentrated, is of a rose color; when obtained neutral, it affords, on evaporation, granular crystals of a reddish color, transparent and soluble. Its taste is styptic and bitter, and it is very soluble in hot water. Nitrate of manganese may be formed from the carbonate. It is veiy soluble, and difficult to crystallize. It may also be formed by making the acid act on a mixture of peroxide of manga- nese anil sugar or gum; the vegetable substance serving to reduce the manga- nese to a minimum of oxidizement, while much carbonic acitl is evolved. The muriatic acid is equally incapable of com- bining directly with the black oxide, but accortling to the usual law, it de-oxidates it: one part of the muriatic acid is decom- posed ; its hydrogen combines with the excess of oxygen of the black oxide, to form water; the chlorine, the other ele- ment of this portion of the acid, is evolved; and the rest of the muriatic acitl unites with the protoxide of manganese, to form tbe muriate. The solution of muriate of manganese is of a rose color when con- centrated, and affords, by evaporation, small crystals of a pale rose color, which are four-sided tables; they are deliques- cent, very soluble in water, and, by a red- heat, are converted into a red chloride. Carbonate and phosphate of manganese may be formed by double decomposition, being thrown down in the state of insolu- ble precipitates. The salts of manganese suffer decomposition from the alkalies, which precipitate the oxide: they are not decomposed, however, by the inflamma- bles, or the other metals, which is a proof of the affinity of manganese to oxygen. Oxide of manganese combines with those earths capable of vitrification, and with their compounds, and communicates to the glasses which they form a violet tinge; it imparts die same color, also, to borax and other vitrifiable salts. When heated with these fluxes, by the blow-pipe, the color soon disappears in the interior flame, from de-oxidation, but appears again if a little nitre be added. Sulphuret of man- ganese was obtained by Berthier, by heat- ing the sulphate in a charcoal crucible; it was of a gray color and crystalline appearance. Manganese, from its infusi- bility,does not combine readily with many of the metals. It shows, however, con- siderable affinity to iron, occurring fre- quently combined with it in nature. It is contained, also, in those ores of iron which are best adapted to the fabrication of steel, and is supposed to improve the quality of steel. Gold and iron are rendered more fusible by a due addition of manganese; and the latter metal is rendered more duc- tile. Copper becomes less fusible, and is rendered whiter, but of a color subject to tarnish. Manganese is applied to no use in its metallic form. The black oxide is employed by the chemist in preparing oxygen and chlorine gases. It has long been used in the art of glass-making, to counteract the green tinge communicated by the iron contained in the materials—an effect which it produces by yielding oxy- gen to the oxide of iron, and bringing it to a high degree of oxidation; in a larger quantity aelded to glass, it gives a purple color. It is also used to give a black color to earthen ware.—Ores of Manganese. 1. Gray manganese ore is found in pris- matic crystals, whose primary form may be considered as a right rhombic prism of 100° and 80°. It also cleaves parallel with both the diagonals of this prism. The crystals are usually slender and much striated, longitudinally. Fracture uneven; lustre metallic; color dark steel- gray to iron-black ; streak brownish- black ; opaque ; brittle; hardness about that of limestone ; specific gravity, 4.626; it also occurs in twin crystals, in reniform, botryoidal and other imitative shapes, with a surface generally rough and drusy ; composition columnar, of various sizes of individuals, often forming a second granular composition. In the massive varieties, the granular or columnar com- position often becomes impalpable, in which cases the fracture is earthy. Gray manganese ore has been divided into sev- eral sub-species, chiefly in consequence of its mechanical composition. Radiated gray manganese ore comprises long acic- idar, or reed-like prisms, and such mas- sive varieties as consist of columnar parti- cles of composition, while the foliated one refers to short prisms and granular com- positions. Compact gray manganese ore contains varieties composed of impalpable granular individuals, and earthy gray manganese ore, such as have lost their coherence, and appear in the state of an earthy powder. The composition of some varieties belonging to this species, has been found by Klaproth to be— MANGANESE. 247 Black oxide of manganese, 90.50 89.00 Oxygen,...........2.25 1055 Water,............7.00 .50 It is infusible before the blow-pipe, and colors glass of borax violet blue. It is insoluble in nitric acitl. In heated sulphuric acid, it disengages oxygen; and chlorine is evolved, if it is brought into contact with muriatic acid; also, before the blow-pipe, or alone in a strong heat, it gives out oxygen. The gray manganese ore frequently accompanies the haeniatitic iron ores; and sometimes its earthy and compact varieties consti- tute beds by themselves. It also occurs in veins, particularly in porphyry, along Ayith sulphate of barytes. Its most cele- brated localities are Ihlefield in the Hartz, and GShrenstock in Thuringia. It has numerous localities also in Saxony, Bohe- mia, Hungary, France and England. It has been observed in many of the Ameri- can states; but occurs most abundantly in Vermont, at Bennington and Monkton, accompanied with haematite and un- cleavable manganese ore. The uses of this species of manganese ore, wherever it occurs in quantity, are very important for various chemical operations, and for none more so than the manufacture of chloride of lime, the ordinary bleaching powder. Its use in the manufacture of glass, is also very considerable. Black wad de- serves to be mentioned under this species, as a very remarkable substance among those which contain manganese. It oc- curs in renifomi, botryoidal, fruticose and arborescent shapes, in froth-like coat- ings, on other minerals, or massive. Its composition is generally impalpable, and the fracture even or earthy. Color brown, of various shades ; opaque; very sectile; soils and writes; hardness be- low that of talc; specific gravity, 3.7 ; the varieties are very light, when dry ; yet, as they imbibe water with violence, when immersed into it, they sink immediately. Mixed with linseed oil, it undergoes a spontaneous combustion. It consists of— Oxide of manganese,.......68. --------- iron,........... 6.50 Water,...............17.50 Carbon,............... 1.00 Baryta and silica,......... 9.00 It has been found in the Hartz, in Devon- shire and Cornwall in England, also at one locality in the U. States, in Connecti- cut The black wad is couceived to be tbe coloring matter in the dendritic deline- ations upon steatite, limestone and other substances.—2. Pyramidal manganese ore is a rare mineral, occurring crystallized in octahedrons, with a square base, whose pyramids are inclined to each other, at an angle of 117° 30'. Fracture uneven; lustre imperfect metallic; color brown- ish-black ; streak dark-reddish or chest- nut-brown ; opaque ; hardness equal to that of apatite; specific gravity, 4.72. It also occurs massive, possessed of a granu- lar composition. It is probable that the variety from Piedmont analyzed by Ber- zelius, belonged to this species; if so, its composition would be, oxide of manga- nese, 75.80; silica, 13.17; oxide of iron, 4.14 ; and alumine, 2.80. In the oxidating heat of tbe blow-pipe, it yields a fine amethyst-colored glass. It is soluble in heated sulphuric acid. It has been found in veins, in porphyry, along with other ores of manganese, at Oehrenstock, near Ilmenau in Thuringia, and at Ihlefield in the Hartz.—3. Compact manganese ore, or uncleavable manganese ore, occurs in reniform, botryoidal and fruticose shapes, having a columnar or granular composi- tion, sometimes impalpable. Fracture flat conchoidal, or even; lustre imperfect metallic; color bluish-black, passing into dark steel-gray ; streak brownish-black ; shining; opaque; brittle ; hardness nearly- equal to that of feldspar; specific gravity, 4.14. It occurs sometimes accompanied by haematite, but generally along with other ores of manganese, in veins, in the older rocks. It is found at numerous places iu Europe, and in the U. States.— 4. Manganese bleiuie, or sulphurd of man- ganese, is one of the rarest ores of this metal, and has hitherto only been found at Nagyag in Transylvania, and in Corn- wall. It is rarely crystallized, generally occurring massive, in distinct concretions. Color iron-black ; lustre imperfect metal- lic ; streak dark green; opaque; radier sectile; hardness but little superior to that of calcareous spar; specific gravity, 4.014. It consists of protoxide of manga- nese, 85.00, and sulphur, 15.00. Before the blow-pipe, it is melted with difficulty. If reduced to powder, and thrown into nitric, muriatic, or dilute sulphuric acid, it emits sulphureted hydrogen, and is dissolved.—5. Phosphate of manganese occurs massive, with a cleavage iu three directions, perpendicular to each other, one of which is more distinct than the rest. Fracture small conchoidal; lustre resinous ; color blackish-brown; streak yellowish or reddish-gray ; opaque; brit- tle ; hardness above that of apatite ; spe- cific gravity, 3.43. Before the blow-pipe, it melts easily into a black scoria; is read- 248 MANGANESE—MANHEIM. ily dissolved in nitric acid, without effer- vescence, and consists of oxide of iron, 31.00 ; oxide of manganese, 42.00; and phosphoric acid, 27.00. It has hitherto been found only at Limoges in France, and at Washington in Connecticut.—6. Car- bonate of Manganese is found crystallized in rhomboids of 106° 51', and massive. Fracture uneven, imperfect conchoidal; lustre vitreous, inclining to pearly ; color various shades of rose-red, partly inclining to brown; brittle; hardness but little above that of calcareous spar; specific gravity, 3.59; the massive varieties pre- sent globular and botryoidal shapes; composition granular, sometimes small, and even impalpable; it consists of oxide of manganese, 54.60; carbonic acid, 33.75; oxide of iron, 1.87; silica, 4.37; lime, 2.50. It effervesces rather briskly in nitric acid; before the blow-pipe, its color is changed into gray, brown and black, and it decrepi- tates strongly, but is infusible without addition. It is found in the Saxon mines in the neighborhood of Friberg; also at Nagyag in Transylvania. (For an account of the red and reddish-brown siliceous ores of manganese, see SUicate of Manga- nese.) Mangel-Wurzel ; a kind of beet, which does not afford fodder of as good quality, nor in such abundance, as was supposed at the time of its introduction ; but it is valuable from its size and hardy nature. The leaves may be eaten as a substitute for spinach, and continue in season long after that plant has withered. In some parts of Germany, the farmers prefer it, for their cattle, to most vegeta- bles; and, besides, it can be obtained at the latter part of the season, when green fodder is much wanted. Mango ; a celebrated fruit, now pro- duced in most of the tropical parts of the globe. It is a native of India, and was introduced into Jamaica in the year 1782. The taste is delicious, slightly acid, and yields only to the mangosteen. The tree is allied to the sumach, and belongs to the natural order terebinthacea. It attains the height of 30 or 40 feet, has a rapid growth, and is very productive. The leaves are simple, alternate, lanceolate, coriaceous, smooth and entire. The flowers are in- conspicuous, reddish, and disposed in large terminal panicles. The fruit is kidney-shaped, subject, however, to a good deal of variation in size, form and color, and contains a large, flattened stone. More than 80 varieties of mango are cul- tivated, some of which are very beautiful, and diffuse a delightful perfume. Mangosteen. This far-famed fruit is the product of a middling-sized and beau- tiful tree, the garcinia mangostana of bot- anists, and was originally brought from the Molucca islands, but is now cultivated in many parts of the East Indies. The leaves are large, opposite, smooth, coria- ceous and entire: the flowers are terminal aud solitary, and of a deep-red color: the fruit is shaped like, and about as large as, an orange, divided internally into several cells, each containing a single seed. It belongs to the guttifera, a natural family, which is not found beyond the tropics. Itis, on all hands, admitted to be the most de- licious, as well as the most wholesome, of all known fruits, and yet we have not heard of its introduction into any part of inter-tropical America, although great pains have been taken to transport thither so many of the productions of the East. Mangrove (rhizophora); a genus of plants, consisting of trees or shrubs, which grow in tropical countries, along tbe bor- ders of the sea, in places which are liable to be overflowed by the salt water, even as far as low water mark. Their branches are Jong, hang down towards the earth, and, when they have reached it, take root, and produce new trunks. In this manner, immense and almost impenetrable forests are formed, which are filled with vast numbers of crabs, aquatic birds, mosche- toes, and also oysters, which attach them- selves to the branches. The leaves are simple, opposite and entire. The seeds are remarkable for throwing out roots, which vegetate among the branches of the trees, while yet adhering to the foot-stalk. The R. mangle is found in Florida, nearly as far north as the 30th parallel of latitude. This genus, and an allied one, form a nat- ural family by themselves. Manheim ; a city of Baden, capital of the circle of the Neckar, at the conflux of the Neckar with the Rhine; 34 miles N. of Carlsruhe; lon. 8° 28' E.; lat. 49° 29'N.; population, 21,500. In 1606, it was chosen by the elector palatine for the site of a town, being, before, a petty village, with a castle. In 1719, it became the resi- dence of the elector of the Palatinate and his court, and so continued till 1777. In 1802, it was annexed to Baden. It contains a very large palace, is the sec- ond residence of the grand-duke, and the seat of the supreme court of appeal for the grand-duchy. Manheim presents a fine view from a distance. It is divided into four quarters, and is of an oval form. It is built with the greatest regularity; the streets are wide, straight, well paved, the MANHEIM—MANICHEES. 249 houses uniform and neat, and the pub- lic buildings large and handsome; and it is one of the finest towns in Germany. It contains Lutheran, Reformed and Catho- lic churches, a synagogue, and three hos- pitals. The palace contains a gallery of paintings, cabinet of antiquities, and a library of 60,000 volumes. The observa- tory is a noble building, with a curious tower 108 feet high. The lyceum, or gymnasium, for the education of the up- per classes, is superintended by able in- structers. Mania ; a Roman spectre, the mother of the Manes, to whom, in the most an- cient times, human sacrifices, particularly of children, were offered. This took place as late as the time of Tarquinius Superbns. In subsequent times, onions and poppy-heads were sacrificetl instead of children. Little figures, stuffed with wool, were hung outside the house, to ap- pease the Mania; also clews of yam, equal in number to the slaves, to protect them. Mama. (See Mental Derangement.) Manichees, or Manich^ans. Of the founder of this sect—whom the Orientals called Mani, the fathers of the church, Manes, terming likewise his adherents Manichees—history contains two different accounts. The older account, contained in the historians of the Christian church, seems far more credible than the Arabic version of the tenth century, which makes him an accomplished magician, a skilful painter, and a Christian priest, but says nothing particularly new respecting him. According to the first account, he became, when a boy, a slave, under the name of Cubncus, to a wealthy widow in Persia, at whose house he met with tbe four books of Scythiantis, an Egyptian enthusiast, of whom nothing more is known, which had been left her by his scholar Terebinthus, or Buddas, entitled Mysteries, Chapters, Gospel (Artzeng) and Treasury. By the perusal of these books, he was led to his doctrine of the world and of spirits, framed from the dualistic ideas of the Chaldaeans, together with the systemsofthc Gnostics. (See Gnos- tics.) Being left the heir of his mistress at her death, he assumed the name of Mani, and sought to rear, like Mohammed, on the foundation of these books, a new religious philosophy, for which he acquir- ed disciples. The reputation of his wis- dom caused him to be invited to the court of Sapor, king of Persia, where be was imprisoned, because the sick son of this king had died under his care. His schol- ars brought him information of the obsta- cles which Christianity had thrown in the way of his doctrines. The reading of the Holy Scriptures of the Christians now suggested to him the idea that he was called to the purification of Christianity from Jewish and hierarchical deformities, and to the diffusion of a mysterious doc- trine, un revealed by the apostles—nay, that he was the Comforter promised in the New Testament. Having escaped from prison, and collected new disciples at Arabion, a fortress on the frontiers of Mesopotamia, he sought, under the name of an apostle of Christ, and, according to the Arabic narrative, favored by Sapor's successor, Hormizdas (Hormuz), A. D. 272, to convert the Christians in those re- gions to his doctrines. While engaged in these endeavors, he is said to have been twice overcome by Archilaus, a Christian bishop at Kaskar (Charrae) in Mesopota- mia, in two disputations; to have incurred again the suspicion of the Pereian court, and, in the year 277, to have been execut- ed (according to the Christian account, flayed alive), at the command of king Varacces (Vaharem). Proceeding on the ground of an eternal opposition of good and evil, mingling the philosophy of Zer- duscht (Zoroaster) with his arbitrary ver- sions of biblical doctrines, his system pos- sesses but little in common with Chris- tianity, except the language. He assumes two principles, independent of each other; one of good—the God, without form, in the kingdom of light; and one of evil— the hyle, or devil, of colossal stature and human shape, in the darkness of matter; the former strengthened by two emana- tions, created in the beginning, the Son and the Spirit, and superior to the latter, both surrounded by innumerable similar aeons, or elementary natures, proceeding from them, which dwell in the five ele- ments, or spheres, that rise one over the other in the kingdom of good, viz. light, clear water, clear air, genial fire, and pure ether; and, in the kingdom of evil, dark- ness, or earth, troubled water, stormy air, consuming fire and smoke, from each of which proceed congenial creatures. Dur- ing an internal war of the always discord- ant powers of darkness, the defeated party discovered, from the high mountains on the frontiers, the kingdom of light, hither- to unknown to the devil. In order to conquer it, the devil made peace with his species. The good God endeavored to subdue his enemies by means of artifice and love. The prince of darkness, having eventually been defeated in the contest, produced the firet parents of the hu- man race. The beings engendered from 250 MANICHEES. this original stock consist of a body form- ed out of the corrupt matter of tbe king- dom of darkness, anel of two souls, one of which is sensual and lustful, and owes its existence to the evil spirit; the other, rational and immortal, a particle of the divine light, which had been carried away in the contest, by the army of darkness, and immersed into the mass of malignant matter. The earth was created by God out of this corrupt mass of matter, in order to be a dwelling for the human race, that their captive souls might, by degrees, be delivered from their corporeal prisons, and their celestial eleihents extracted from the gross substance in which they were in- volved. With this view, God produced two beings from his own substance, Christ and the Holy Ghost; for the Manichaeans held a consubstantial Trinity. Christ, or the glorious Intelligence, called by the Per- sians Mithras, subsisting in and by him- self, and residing in the sun, appeared in due time among the Jews, clothed with the shadowy form of a human body, to disengage the rational soul from the cor- rupt body, and lo conquer the violence of malignant matter, and he demonstrated his divine mission by stupendous miracles. This Savior was not man: all that the New Testament relates respecting the hu- manity of Jesus was merely appearance, even his death and resurrection; but his sufferings are emblems of the purification by self-denial, death and new life, neces- sary for corrupted men. His crucifixion, in particular, is an allegory of the torments of the soul, which is fastened to matter as to a cross. When the purposes of Christ were accomplished, he returned to his throne in the sun, appointing apostles to {iropagate his religion, and leaving his fol- owers the promise of the Paraclete, or Comforter, who is Mani the Persian. Those souls who believe Jesus Christ to be the Son of God, renounce the worship of the God of the Jews, who is the prince of darkness, and obey the laws delivered by Christ, and illustrated by Mani, the Comforter,, are gradually purified from the contagion of matter; and, their purifica- tion being completed, after having passed through two states of trial, by water and fire, first in the moon and then in the sun, their bodies return to their original mass (for the Manichaeans derided the doctrine of the resurrection of bodies), and their souls ascend to the regions of light But the souls of those who have neglected the salutary work of purification pass, after death, into the bodies of other animals, or natures, where they remain till they have accomplished their probation. Some, however, more perverse and obstinate, are consigned to a severer course of trial, be- ing delivered over, for a time, to the power of malignant aerial spirits, who torment them in various ways. After this, a fire shall break forth and consume the world, and the prince ami powers of darkness shall return to their primitive seats of misery, in which they shall dwell forever. Between these seats and the kingdom of light the souls of those not wholly purified keep eternal watch, that both may remain as they were from the beginning. With this system of religion, which was con- tained iu the books of Scytliianus and Maui's own treatises, letters and apocry- phal writings, but, at present, exists only in the fragments found in the ancient au- thors, especially in St. Augustine against the Manichees, the moral system of this sect corresponds. It divides the Mani- chees into two classes: the elect are to ab- stain from wine, ffesh, and all animal food, marriage and sexual indulgences, from music, the possession of earthly goods, antl all luxury, as well as from war, labor, and doing injury to the vegetable world, and even from (ducking fruits; are to kill no animals but vermin, anel devote their life to pious contemplation. More was allow- ed the auditors, or more imperfect By their labor, they had to support themselves and the elect; in marriage, must abstain from the procreation of children, and place their happiness in poverty. The head of all was Mani, with 12 disciples, among whom Thomas, Buddas and Acuas, from whom the Manichees were also called Acuanites, deserve mention. The Mani- chaean congregations were superintended by bishops, of whom Mani ordained 72; by elders and deacons, all from the class of the elect, in which there were also sainted virgins. These ecclesiastics had, however, merely the authority of teachers, the church government being democrati- cally administered by the congregations. Temples, altars, images, victims, and other sensible aids of divine worship, were not allowed: their worship consisted of sing- ing, prayers, the reading of their sacred books, and lecturing. The supper they celebrated without wine, and, like the primitive Christians, often delayed bap- tism to a mature age. Of the fasts and festivals of the Christians, they observed only that which commemorated the death of Jesus, and Sunday, the latter with strict fasting. In March," they celebrated the anniversary of the death of Mani (Bema), on which day a splendid pulpit, five steps MANICHEES—MANILLA. 251 in elevation, was erected in their simple halls of assembly for Mani, present in the spirit They claimed the title of Chris- tians; but, notwithstanding the reputation of extraordinary purity of morals, conced- ed them even by their enemies, they had to suffer, after the fourth century, more cruel persecutions than other heretics. Till this time, they had spread with great rapidity from Persia, where they had their origin, through Syria and Asia Minor, to Northern Africa, and even as far as Italy. In Northern Africa, where they had many, though not numerous congregations, with separate bishops, they were exterminated, in the fifth century, by the Vandals; in the Roman empire, especially in Italy (whith- er numbers of them had fled from Africa), by the persecutions of Christian emperors and episcopal excommunications. Being finally suppressed in Persia also, they took refuge, after the beginning of the sixth century, partly in the heathen regions of Eastern Asia, where they seem to have had an influence on the formation of La- maism, partly in the obscurity of secret brotherhoods, and appeared, in subsequent centuries, under different names. The Priscillianists, Paulicians and Catharists (q. v.) had much in common with the Manichees : their name was, however, given to heretical sects and societies in the middle ages, as to the Canonici, burnt at Orleans in 1022, frequently without reason, and merely to excite the popular hatred. Manifest is a regular list of a ship's cargo, containing the mark and number of each separate package, the names of the pereons by whom the different parcels of goods are shipped, anil those of the pereons to whom they are consigned; a specification of the quality of the goods contained in each package, as rum, sugar, tea, coffee, &c.; and also an account of the freight that the captain is to receive from the consignee of such goods, on his arrival, corresponding with the bills of lading whicli he lias already signed. The manifest is usually signed by the ship- broker, who clears the vessel out at the custom-house, and by the captain, and serves as a voucher for the latter, where- by to settle his account with his owners, &c. Manifesto ; a declaration publicly is- sued at the commencement of a war, by the contending powers, to show die causes which justify such a measure. The name is taken from the words manifestum est, &c. (it is manifest), the beginning of these declarations, as they were anciently writ- ten in Latin. Manifestoes are in the form of public letters: they commence with a short address to the public in general, and are signed with the name of the sovereign who issues them. Manifestoes, on the European continent, are usually written in French. They have been in use among all nations, till our own day. In France, where so many old forms have been set aside, the place of manifestoes, during the empire, was supplied by mes- sages from the emperor to the senate, proclamations to the army, and statements in the MonUeur. Manilius, Marcus ; a Roman poet, who flourished, probably, in the Augustan age. The circumstances of his life are unknown. He is less remarkable as a poet than as being the Roman who, in imitation of Aratus, undertook a didactic poem on astronomy. Of this poem, we have but five books. It is entitled Astro- nomica. It is valuable chiefly as a work of science: it contains, however, a few beautiful and splendid passages, particu- larly in the introductions. The best edi- tions are by Bentley (London, 1739, 4to.), Stober (Strasburg, 1767), and Pingr& (Paris, 1786, 2 vols.). Manilla ; capital of Lucon (q. v.) and of all the Spanish possessions in the Phil- ippines; lat. 14° 3& N.; lon. 116° W E.; population, including the suburbs, about 60,000, of which 3000 are Spaniards, 7000 Metis, 4000 Chinese, and the rest natives. (See Malays.) Manilla is beautifully situ- ated at the bottom of a bay, on the west side of the island, and is well fortified. The streets are wide, paved and lighted; the houses generally consist of a basement story of stone, and an upper stoiyof wood, commonly widi balconies, and windows of mother of pearl, or some other trans- parent substance. The principal build- ings are the churches and monasteries. The chief manufactures are cigars, and a sort of transparent stuff, which the natives use for clothing. The commerce is very considerable since the port has been open- ed to foreigners. The chief articles of export are sugar, indigo, cotton, tobacco, rice, honey, pearls, &c,: wine, brandy, cotton, silk and woollen manufactured articles, cutlery, &c, form the principal imports. In 1818, 9 Spanish, 5 French, 10 American, 4 Portuguese, 17 English ships, and 13 Chinese junks, sailed from this port. Provisions are abundant and cheap. The environs are fertile and well cultivated. The climate is hot and damp. Manilla has repeatedly suffered from earthquakes. Those of 1645, 1796 and age Manilla—manlius. 1824, were very destructive. A hurricane, 'in 1824, unroofed most of the houses left ' standing. In 1762, it was taken by the English, and ransomed for a million'Ster- ling. (See PhUippines.) Manioc, Mandioca, or Cassava (ga- tropha manUwt) ; a tortuous shrub, allied to the castor-oil plant, and interesting from the nutritious qualities of the roots. It is indigenous to tropical America, and is now cultivated from Florida to Magellan, and iu several countries of Asia and Af- rica. The stem is smooth, branching, six or seven feet high ; the leaves are alter- nate, deeply divided into from three to seven lobes, which are lanceolate, acute and entire; the flowers are disposed in loose compountl racemes, anel the calyx is reddish or pale-yellow ; the fruit is al- most globular, and is composed of three cells, each containing a shining seed about as large as those of the castor-oil plant. It is easily cultivated, grows rapidly, and produces abundantly. It is much less subject to the ravages of animals, or to the variations of the atmosphere, tban most crops, and, besides, accommodates itself to almost every kind of soil. The roots at- tain the size of the thigh, and require at least a year to bring them to perfection ; neither can they be kept iu the ground for a longer period than two years. The cultivated varieties are very numerous. It is said that an acre of manioc will nourish more persons than six acres of wheat. Every part of the plant is filled with a milky juice, which is a veiy violent and danger- ous poison, bringing on death in a few minutes when swallowed ; and it may well excite surprise that human ingenuity should have converted the roots into an article of food. For this purpose the roots were formerly rasped with rough pieces of stone; but they are now ground in wooden mills, and the paste is put into sacks, which are exposed for several hours to the action of a very heavy press. By this means it is deprived of all the poisonous juice, and the residue is called cassava. Cassava flour, when kept free from moisture, continues good for 15 or 20 years. It is very nutritious, half a pound a day being sufficient for any one. The Creole women prefer the cassava to wheat bread, but, to a European, the taste is rather insipid. It is also the basis of several different beverages, some of which are acid, agreeable, and even nutritive. The substance called tapioca, which is frequently imported into Europe and the U. States, and is used for jelly, puddings, iind other culinary purposes, is separated from the fibrous part of the roots by taking a small quantity of the pulp, after die juice is extracted, and working it by hand till a thick white cream appears on the sur- face. This, being scraped off antl washed in water, gradually subsides to the bottom. After the water is poured off', the remaining moisture is dissipated by a slow fire, and the substance, being constantly stirred, gradually forms into grains about tts large as those of sago. This is the purest and most wholesome part of the manioc. Manipulation (from the Latin); work done with the hands. The word is used in pharmacy for the preparation of drugs ; in chemistry, for the preparation of sub- stances for experiments; in animal mag- netism, for the motion of the hands, by * which a pereon is magnetized. (See Mag- netism, Animal.) Manipulus. (See Legion.) Manitou, among some tribes of the North American Indians, is the name for a magical preparation, whose virtues are somewhat like those of an amulet A figure of an animal, a feather, a horn, a bird's beak, or some other object, is con- secrated, with various charms, by the sor- cerer, or doctor of the tribe or village, and worn by the individual for whom it is in- tended as his manUou, or medicine. It seems to be not unlike the fetich (q. v.) of most barbarous people. Manlius, Marcus Capitolinus; a brave, ambitious anel artful patrician and consul of Rome. The Gauls, under Brennus, had captured Rome (B. C. 390), and were besieging the capitol. On a dark night, they determined to surprise the citadel. They hael already reached the foot of the walls; the sentinels, thinking them secure, had fallen asleep, and the enemy had al- ready discovered a vulnerable point, when the garrison was awakened by the cackling of some geese, which were ded- icated to Juno. All rushed to their arms; Manlius was the firet who reached the place of danger. Two of the Gauls had gained the summit; one of them fell under his sword; and the other he thrust over with his shield. His example ani- mated the rest. The capitol was saved, and Manlius received the surname Capito- linus. Having afterwards proposed a law to free the people from taxes, the senate was excited against him, and he was ar- rested and imprisoned as a disturber of the peace. But the people looked up to him as their greatest benefactor, and with one voice demanded his liberation. It was granted; but his restless spirit led him to new enterprises; he even aimed at the MANLIUS—M ANNUS. 253 sovereignty, and the tribunes of the people became his accusers. He was condemned to death, and thrown from the Tarpeiau rock (B. C. 383). Manlius, Titus Torquatus; a Roman consul and general, son of Maulius Impe- riosus. On account of a defect in his speech, his father was unwilling to cany him into the city, and kept him in the countiy among the slaves. This conduct appeared so unjust to the tribune Marcus Pomponius, that he summoned the father before him to answer for himself. The son, indignant that his father should be persecuted on his account, immediately hastened to the house of the tribune with a dagger in his hand, and forced him to swear that he would proceed no further. This filial piety made such an impression on the people, that they chose Manlius military tribune for the next year. He marched with the army against the Gauls; one of whom challenged the bravest Ro- man to single contest Manlius accepted the challenge, conquered his adversary, and encircled his own neck with the col- lar (torquis) of the Gaul, in consequence of which he received the surname of Torquatus, which he transmitted to his posterity. Some years after, he was ap- pointed dictator. He was the firet Roman who ever held this office without having been consul. He was afterwards consul, and heltl the consulship in the Latin war (B. C. 340). Contrary to his express or- dere, that no Roman should engage in combat without command, out of the ranks, his sou, remembering his father's victory, accepted a challenge to single contest from one of the chiefs of the enemy. He came off victorious, and laid the spoils of the enemy at his father's feet. He turned re- luctantly from his son, gave him the crown of victory, and immediately order- ed the lictor to execute upon him the punishment of his disobedience. This instance of severity securetl to Manlius the most implicit obedience. A few days after, he defeated the enemy. In tbe bat- tle, his colleague, Decius Mus, devoted his life to his countiy. The senate voted to him the honor of a triumph. He then re- tired to private life. Manliana edida be- came a proverbial expression for com- mands of severe justice. Manna. This substance, which is so frequently employed in the materia medi- co, and which forms a considerable article of commerce, exutles naturally or from incisions made in the trunk and branches of a species of ash (ornus rotundifolia). It first appears as a whitish juice, thickens vol. viii. 22 on being exposed to the air, and, when dried, forms a whitish or reddish granular substance, which is the manna of com- merce. The tree is a native of Italy, and is cultivated extensively in Sicily. June and July are the two months in which the manna is collected. It is detached from the trees with wooden knives, and is after- wards exposed to the sun for drying. A little rain, or even a thick fog, will often occasion the loss of the collections of a whole day. The taste of manna is sweet, and slightly nauseous. It is a mild pur- gative, and is principally administered to chiIdren. Thefraxinus virgata also yields manna, but it cannot be obtained from any other species of ornus. Manner, in the fine arts, is used in two different meanings: Firet, it signifies the habitual style of an artist or a school of artists. (See Style.) Secondly, manner (also mannerism) is used as a term of re- proach, and designates those qualities of a work of art which do not proceed natu- rally from the subject treated^ but from the individual character of the artist, or the false taste of an age. Such are tbe studied yet untrue performances of certain actors, the phraseology or conceptions of certain poets, the coloring or composi- tion of certain painters, &.c. The two senses of the word are not to be confound- ed.—A history of mannerism in the fine arts would be both interesting and in- structive, a correct view of the aberra- tions of the human mind in any important particular furnishing a valuable warning for the future. Manvert, Conrad, a distinguished Ger- man scholar, was born at Altdorf in 1752. He was firet teacher at the St Sebaldus- school in Nuremberg, and, in 1788, at the ^Egidian gymnasium there. In 1797, he was made professor ordinarius of philoso- phy at Altdorf; in 1808, of histoiy at Land- shut ; and, in 1826, of geography and sta- tistics at Munich. His jirincipal works are, Geographic der Griechen und Rbmer (10 vols., Nuremberg, 1788—1825; 2d edit, from vol. i to vol. iv, 1799—1820): Com- pendium der Teutschen Reichs-Geschichle (ib. 1803; 3d ed., 1819); Statistik des Teut- schen Reiclis (Bamberg, 18C6); Die altests Geschiclde Bojariens und seiner Bewohner (Nuremberg, 1807); Kaiser Ludivig I Voder der Baier, eine gekrbnte Prcisschrift (Land- shut, 1812); Handbuch der alien Geschichte (Berlin, 1818); Die Geschichte Baierns (2 vols., Leipsic, 1826); Geschichte der alten Deutschen, besontlers der Franken (1829). Mannus ; a hero of the ancient German mythology, the son of Thuiskon, revered, 254 MANNUS—MANOR. like Hercules, after his death. From him comes the German word ,l/i//m, signifying a male endowed with power and courage. Manoel, tion Francesco, the most cel- ebrated lyric poet of modern Portuguese literature, born at Lisbon, 1734, died at Paris, 1819. His talent was first known to foreigners, whom he attended as a Cice- rone, after the earthquake of Lisbon inl755. His poems are also popular among his countrymen. That on Virtue has been generally admired. His enemies, jealous of bis reputation, endeavored to render his opinions suspicious, for which they found means in his expressions concerning tole- ration and monks, and in his translation of the Tartuffe of Moliere. Cited before the inquisition, he disarmed (July 4, 1778) the agent of the holy office, and fled to Paris, where he ever after continuetl to reside. He translated Wieland's Oberon. His poems, under the title of Versos de FUinto Elysio, fill several volumes. His odes and his translation of Lafontaine's Fables are particularly esteemed. Manieuvre, in military art ; a move- ment given to a body of troops, accord- ing to the rules of tactics, by which it is intended to gain a decisive advantage over an enemy, or to regain advantages which the enemy has already won. A manoeu- vre may be executed by large or small masses, according to a preconcerted plan, or upon the sudden impulse of genius seizing upon a fiivorable moment: in gen- eral, it may be said, that manoeuvres have become more practicable in proportion as armies have grown larger, and discipline stricter. In an ancient battle, after the combat was well kindled, the commander lost, iu a great degree, the direction of his troops : in modern battles, he is enabled by manoeuvres to exert a much more con- trolling influence, though there are still moments when he is obliged to let the battle rage. (See Battle.) To execute effective manoeuvres in the heat of battle, requires great coolness and clear-sighted- ness in the commander, and thorough training iu the troops. A manoeuvre gen- erally is a test of the excellence of the officere of all degrees.—One of the most important manoeuvres is that of outflank- ing an enemy, in which the general keeps back part of his line (refuses), whilst the other part strives to turn the wing of the enemy, or to attack it with the assistance of a division paitictdarly appointed to get round it, and thus to throw the enemy into confusion. The invention of this manoeuvre is ascribed to Epaminondas ; he owed to it hisrictories at Leuctra and Mantinea. Philip, Alexander, Caesar at Pharealia, Baner at \\ ittstock, Torstenson at Jankowitz, Frederic the Great at Ho- henfriedberg and Leutheii, Napoleon, and other generals, owe their most brilliant suc- cesses to diis manoeuvre. In executing it, the attacking army always receives an ob- lique direction, and the attack is sometimes made en ichelon (q. v.), as at Leuthen. The breaking through the enemy's line (see Line)—a chief manoeuvre in naval warfare —is, in land-battles, one of the boldest and most dangerous. The retreat en ichequier (chess-board) is one of the most advanta- geous, and most fitted to preserve calm- ness and order among the troops. The change of front during the combat is veiy dangerous, and rarely succeeds. The issue of a battle, where the other circum- stances are nearly equal, depends upon the capacity of the troops for manoeuvring : hence manoeuvring in peace with large bodies is veiy necessary, in which the chief movements of both parties must be laid down beforehand ; but the details ought to be left to the moment, so that the judgment of,the officers shall be ex- ercised. In the provinces of Prussia, large bodies of troops are annually assembled for this purpose. In 1823, from Septem- ber 5 to September 20,40,000 troops were collectetl for this object near Berlin. Gustavus Adolphus and Charles XII ex- ercised their troops so well that they were allowed to be the best in Europe ; but Frederic the Great conceived the whole art of war from a new point of view, and from Potsdam, where he superintended the reviews anel manoeuvres of his guards, and the garrison of Berlin, it may be said, proceeded the new art of war. There he perfected die movements which were afterwards introduced into the army at large ; and generals from all Europe were sent to study his manoeuvres. But, as so often happens with the creations of genius, the application of his plans by in- ferior men was attended with a pedantic minuteness of detail with which the^ ar- mies of Europe were embarrassed when the ware of the French revolution took place. The genius of the French gen- erals now reformed the art of war anew ; manoeuvring on a great scale was in- venteel by diem. Napoleon developed it still farther, and the rest of Europe learned it from him. Manometer (Gr. paws, rare, and nirpov, measure); an instrument to measure or show the alterations in the rarity or den- sity of the air. Manor (manerium, from manere, to re- MANOR—MA NSFIELD. 255 main, because the usual residence of the owner) seems to have been a piece of ter- ritory held by a lord or great personage, who occupietl a part of it, as much as was necessaiy for the use of his own im- mediate family, and granted or leased the remainder to tenants for stipulated rents or services. This was the origin of copy- hold estates, viz. those held by copy of the roll of the court of the manor. No man- ors, with all their incidents and franchises, have been granted in England since the reign of Ed ward III. One of the most im- portant incidents lo these aucient manors, was the right to hold a court, called a court- baron, which was held within the manor, and had jurisdiction of misdemeanors and nuisances within the manor, and disputes about property between the tenants. (See Courts.) Another branch of the jurisdic- tion, and entirely distinct from the pre- ceding, was, the receiving of the surren- der of the estate of any tenant, antl admit- ting his grantee or successor in his place, and transacting other matters relating to the tenure or tenancies, for which purposes the court was held l>y the steward of the manor. The steward was also the regis- trar or clerk, in the other branch of the jurisdiction, for the prosecution of suits ; but the freeholders of the manor were in effect the judges in these. Mansfeld ; one of the most ancient families of German counts, takin'g their name from the castle of Mansfeld in the former circle of Upper Saxony.—Peter Ernst von Mansfeld was the natural son of Peter Ernst, count of Mansfeld, gov- ernor of Luxemburg antl Brussels. The archduke Ernst of Austria, godfather to die young Peter, educated him in the Catholic religion. He was of service to the king of Spain in the Netherlands, and to the emperor in Hungary, in conse- quence of which the emperor Rodolphus II legitimated him. But when he was denied die dignity and estates which his father had possessed in the Netherlands, and which had been promised to him, he, in 1610, embraced the Calvinistic doc- trines, antl, joining the Protestant princes, became one of the most formidable ene- mies of the house of Austria. In 1618, he led troops to the assistance of the re- volted Bohemians, fought a long time for the elector Frederic of the Palatinate, de- vastated the territories of the spiritual princes, was several times beaten, but al- ways contrived to make head anew. In 1625, he collected an army by the aid of English and French money, and intended to penetrate into the Austrian hereditary states. April 25, 1626, he was beaten by Wallenstein near Dessau, yet continued his niarch to Hungary, to join Bethlcm Gabor, prince of Siebenburgeii (Transyl- vania) ; but, the latter having changed his views, Mansfeld disbanded his troops, in- tending to go to England by way of Venice. But not far from Zara he fell sick, and died in 1626, in his 40th year. He was buried at !?palatro. At the ap- proach of death, he ordered bis armor to be put on, and stood up, leaning on two of his aids, to await the last enemy. Mans- feld was one of the greatest generals of his time. He rose more formidable from every defeat With great understanding, which he showed in his diplomatic trans- actions, he united overpowering eloquence and inexhaustible cunning. He maintain- ed his troops by plunder, antl was com- pared to Attila.—The Lutheran line of the house of Mansfeld became extinct in 1710; in 1780, the last male of the Catholic line died. His only daughter brought all the allodial estates of the family, by marriage, to the rich Bohemian house of Colloredo, which has ever since borne the name of Colloredo-Mansfeld. The former county of Mansfeld was, in 1814, added to the Prussian government of Mereeburg. This county is interesting to Germans, as Eisle- ben and Mansfeld are situated in it. In the former Luther was born, in tbe latter he went to school. Mansfield Mountain is the highest summit of the Green mountains, and the most elevated mountain in Vermont. The elevation of die north peak, called the Chin, above the state-house at Montpelier. is 4051 feet; above the ocean, 4279 ; ele- vation of the south peak, called the Nose, above the state-house, 3755; above the ocean, 3983. The mountain is situated in Mansfield and Sterling, about 25 miles from Burlington. Mansfield, William Murray, earl of, the fourth son of David, lord Stormont, was born at Perth, in Scotland, March 2, 1705. He received his education at West- minster school, and Christ-church, Oxford. He then made the grand tour, and, on his return, became a student at Lincoln's Inn, and, after the usual term of probation, was called to the bar. He gradually made his way to eminence in his profession, and, in 1742, was appointed solicitor-general, about which time he also obtained a seat in parliament After distinguishing him- self as an advocate at Edinburgh, in 1743, and as one of the managers of the im- peachment of lord Lovat, in 1747, he suc- ceeded sir Dudley Ryder as attorney- 256 MANSFIELD—MANTELETS. general in 1754, and as chief-justice of the king's bench in 175(5; soon after whicli he was created baron Murray, of Mansfield. For a few months, in 1757, he held the office of chancellor of the exchequer. During that interval, he ef- fected a coalition of parties, whicli led to the administration of Pitt, afterwards lord Chatham. The same year, he decliued the offer of the great seal, as he did twice after- wards. A change of parties in the cabi- net, in 1765, which introduced into office the marquis of Rockingham and his friends, for awhile threw lord Mansfield into the ranks of the opposition. The year 1770 was memorable for attacks on bis character in a judicial capacity, in both houses of parliament, which, how- ever, led to no serious result. On the trial of Woodfall, for publishing Junius's Letters, aud on some other occasions, he showed himself the zealous supporter of government In October, 1776, he was advanced to the dignity of an earl of Great Britain. During the riots in Lon- don, June, 1780, his house was attackeel by the Anti-Catholic mob, and his valuable collection of books and manuscripts fell a sacrifice to the fury of the multitude, by whom the mansion was burnt to the ground. He continued for some yeare longer to exercise his judicial functions. In 1788, he resigned his office of chief- justice ; and the remainder of his life was spent in retirement, principally at his seat at Caen-wood, near Hampstead. He tlied March 20, 1793. As a politician, lord Mansfield was a favorer of high maxims of government in general; and iu the law of libel,'he supported the opin- ion, that the jury is the judge of the fact only, and not of the law. lie was, how- ever, an enemy to violent exertion of power, as well as a friend to religious toleration. On various occasions, he op- posed vexatious prosecutions, under in- tolerant laws, and voted in favor of the bill for the relief of the Roman Catholics. His ideas of legislation were, on many points, liberal. As an orator, he display- ed more of persuasive elegance than of boldness ami force; but he might fairly have contested the palm of eloquence with any of his contemporaries, except .lord Chatham. In argument he was acute. Lord Ashburton used to say, that when he was wrong, the faults of his reasoning were not easily detected; and when he was right, he was irresistible. His fame rests chiefly on his conduct as a judge. He would not accept of the legal compensation to which he was entitled for the destruction of his property in 1780. There is a life of him by Holliday (4to., 1797), and by Th. Roscoe, in Lardners Cabinet Cyclopaedia. Manslaughter. (See Homicide.) Ma.nso, John Caspar Frederic, born m the duchy of Gotha, May 26, 1759, and died June 6, 1826, in Breslau,-where he hail been, since 1790, pro-rector, aud since 1793, rector of tbe Mary Magdalen gym- nasium. He wrote a good deal in prose and poetry, but his most important works are, History of tbe Prussian State since the Peace of Hubertsburg (Frankfort on the Maine, 1819 et seq., 3 vols.), and a History of the Ostrogothic Empire in Italy (Breslau, 1824), both in German. Mantchoos, or Mantchews. (See Mandshures.) Mantegna, Andrew, one of the most celebrated of the early painters, was bom at Padua, in 1431. His master, Squar- cione, was induced by the talents which he displayed to adopt him as a son. The youth employed himself principally in drawing from antiques, and, at the age of 16, painted a picture for the grand altar in the church of St. Sophia, at Padua. Man- tegna soon after entered tbe service of Lodovico Gonzaga, at Mantua, where he opened a school. Here he painted his great picture, the Triumph of Julius Cae- sar, for the exhibition of which a palace was erected in Mantua. It consists of several pictures, which have since been transferred to Hampton court Gonzaga conferred on him the honor of knight- hood in reward for his merit Innocent VIII invited the artist to Rome, to paint in the Belvedere, and he afterwards exe- cuted a number of capital works. One of the latest and best was the Madonna della Victoria, now in the Louvre at Paris, in whicli Giovanni Francesco Gon- zaga is seen returning thanks for the vic- tory gained by him over the forces of Charles VIII (1496). There are several other of his works in the Louvre, and an Annunciation in the Dresden gallery. He died at Mantua iu 1506. Mantegna excelled in perspective, which was then a rare merit His manner was stiff and dry, and his imitation of the ancient is every- where manifest His son, Francesco, was also a painter. Mantelets, in the art of war ; a kind of movable parapets, made of planks about three inches thick, nailed one over another, to the height of almost six feet, generally cased with tin, and set upon little wheels, so that in a siege they may be driven before the pioneers, and serve MANTELETS—MANTUA. 257 as blinds to shelter them from the ene- my's small shot Mantinea ; one of the most ancient, and, with Tegea, most important cities of Arcadia, on the frontier of Argolis, on the little river Opliis. The modern Tripoliz- za (q. v.) is built of the ruins of the an- rient cities of Megalopolis, Tegea, Manti- nea and Pallantium. Mantinea was known for its wealth, and famous for the battles fought near it, one B. C. 418, in the 14th year of the Peloponnesian war, the result of which battle was, that Argos seceded from Athens, and joined Sparta ; the other, fought B. C. 363, by Epaminon- das, against the Peloponnesians. Epami- nondas (q. v.) was victorious, but fell. A third battle was fought near Mantinea, B. C. 206, between Machunides, tyrant of Lace- daemon and Philopoemen, general of the Achaean league. The latter was victori- ous, and slew the tyrant with his own hand. Mantis. Few of the insect tribe have attracted more attention than these curi- ous productions of nature, from their singular forms, and still more singular habits. From the manner in which they stretch out their fore legs, they have ac- quired the reputation of diviners, and be- cause they often rest on their hind legs, folding the anterior pair over their breast, the superstitious have supposed them in the act of prayer; hence they are called, in Languedoc, where they are common, by the name of prie-dieu. The genus man- tis has been separated, by modern ento- mologists, into several distinct genera, viz. mantis, spectrum, phasma and phyllium. The first of these contains the celebrated soothsayer (M. rdigiosa), which, as has been said, is vulgarly considered as pos- sessing miraculous powers. This super- stition appears to extend to almost every part of the world in which these insects are found. The Turks regard them as un- der the especial protection of Allah, and the Hottentots pay divine honors to them. The dry leaf mantis (phyllium siccifolia), in its shape and color, is remarkable, in- variably suggesting the idea of a dry and withered leaf. Their mannere, also, in ad- dition to their structure, aid in the delusion. They often remain on trees, for hours, without motion ; then, suddenly springing into the air, appear to be blown about like dry leaves. Tbe Indians of South America, where these insects are very common, believe that they really are at- tached to the tree at firet, and that when they have arrived at maturity, they loosen themselves, and crawl or fly away. In 22* some parts of the East Indies, a species of mantis is kept, like game cocks, for the purpose of fighting, which they do with great ferocity. Mantissa. (See Logarithms.) Mantua ; a delegation of Austrian Italy, in the government of Milan, lying on the north of the duchies of Modena and Par- ma; population, 239,436; square miles, 886. The Po passes through it, and it is also watered by the Oglio, Mincio, Sec- chia, &c. The surface is very level; the soil of great fertility; the principal pro- duct grain; others rice, hemp, flax, fruit and vines. The late duchy of Mantua, or the Mantuan, was of larger extent than the present province. It was annexed to the Cisalpine republic (q. v.) in 1797, and formed a department of the king- dom of Italy until 1814, when it was ceded to Austria, as a part of the Loin- bardo-Venetian kingdom. (See Lom- bardy.) Mantua (Italian, Mantova); a city of Austrian Italy, an episcopal see, and capi- tal of a delegation, formerly a duchy of the same name; 70 miles S. W. of Venice, 70 S. E. of Milan; lon. 10° 46^ E.; lat. 45° 9 N.; population, 25,000, among which are about 2000 Jews. It is situ- ated on two islands formed by the expan- sion of the waters of the Mincio, one aboyt a mile square, the other a little more than half that size: on this is the most closely built part of the city. The ex- tensive suburb of Cerese is on the main land. Mantua is well fortified, and is, by nature and art, one of the strongest places in Europe. Most of the streets are broad, regular and well paved; the houses of stone, and generally well built; and the public squares spacious and elegant It contains a magnificent cathedral, nume- rous churches, convents and hospitals, a public library, an academy of arts and sciences, a gallery of antiquities, and sev- eral valuable collections of paintings. Other public objects of interest are the palaces of justice, of Gonzaga, and of T, so called from its form ; the church of St. Andrew; the Corte, with its halls; the fa- mous bust of Virgil; and the buildings cf the university, which was founded here in 1625. The silk manufactures were formerly flourishing, and are still consid- erable ; those of leather and woollen are also important In the summer antl au- tumn, the city is unhealthy, on account of the marshes in its neighborhood. (See Mai' Aria.) It is a place of great antiquity, said to be older than Rome, and, a cen- tury ago, contained about 50,000 inhabi- 258 MANTUA—MANUMISSION. tants. Virgil was bom at Andes (now Pietola), in the vicinity. Manuel, Jacques Antoine, one of the most eloquent and intrepid defenders of French liberty, was born in 1775, at Bar- celonette, in the department of the Lower Alps, antl was educated at the college of Nimes. He entered as a volunteer in one of tbe battalions of the requisition in 1793, and rose to the rank of captain. After the peace of Campo-Formio, be quitted the army, studied law, was admitted to the bar at Aix, and soon acquired a high reputation for talent. In 1815, he was elected to the chamber of deputies whicli was convoked by Napoleon, and after the abdication of that monarch, M. Manuel strenuously contended for the rights of the young Napoleon. He also moved a spir- ited protest against the force which was used by the allies to bring about tbe res- toration of the Bourbons. This was, of course, an unpardonable crime, and an opportunity was found to display, at least, the disposition for punishing him. In 1815, he settled at Paris, and in the follow- ing year, applied for admission to the Paris bar, that he might be entitled to plead in the courts. The councU of discipline, as it is called, consulted the members of the bar at Aix as to their opinion of his character, in the hope of finding something against him; but, though their answer was favor- able, the council refused to comply with his request This refusal was repeated in 1816. In 1818, he was elected a member of the chamber of deputies by three de- partments, and became one of the most formidable opponents of the ministers, speaking extemporaneously with great facility—a talent possessed by few of the French deputies. On the opening of the budget in 1819, he delivered a speech whicli produced a very lively sensation, and was printed by order of the chamber. " Our political organization," said he, " is at once deficient in its municipal system, whicli is its natural basis ; in the national guard, whicli must be our protection in peace, our defence in war; in the jury, without which the liberty of the press is an empty shadow; and in the respon- sibility of officere, which is the safeguard of all rights." In the ensuing sessions, he continued, in a series of bold and eloquent speeches, to oppose the arbitrary measures which then characterized the policy of the Frencli government On the exclu- sion of Gregoire (q. v.), on the bills for suspending the liberty of person and of the press, on the laws of election, on the reform of the jury, the organization of the council of state, colonial legislation, public instruction, &.c, he maintained the rights of the nation, and defended the charter in spite of the menaces, murmurs, interrup- tions and calumnies of the royalist faction. Calm and immovable, yet fervid and ar- dent, his courage and eloquence were al- ways victorious over the violence of his ene'mies. During the new elections, in 1823, the greatest efforts were made to prevent his being chosen, and after the election a plan was formed for excluding him, as unworthy of a seat. This being found impracticable, his enemies deter- mined to effect his expulsion, and a pre- text was found in his firet speech of the session, on the question of the Spanish war. In the outset he was called to or- der; the president pronounced him in or- der; he was again interrupted by loud cries; he was accused of defending regi- cide ; his expulsion was demanded ; be was prevented from explaining or pro- ceeding, and the president, unable to re- store order, was obliged to adjourn the chamber. The next day, Labourdonnaye moved his expulsion; Manuel defended himself, in an eloquent speech, from the charge brought against him. The motion was sustained and referred to March 3; on that day, Manuel protested against the power of the chamber to expel a repre- sentative of the nation, but his expulsion was voted by a majority. On the next day, he again took his seat, and, being re- quired by the president to withdraw, re- plied that he should yield only to force. The session was then suspended for an hour, the members of the left side re- maining in their seats. In this interval the huissier (sergeant at arms) read to him an order of the president requiring him to leave the hall; but his reply was as before, " I shall yield only to force." The huissier called in a detachment of the national guard, which refused to act; and a body of the gendarmerie was introduced. On being directed by the commanding officer to retire, he refused, and the order was issued to the gendarmes to arrest him. As they approached, he rose and express- ed himself ready to follow them, the mem- bers present accompanying him. Manuel was again chosen to the chamber in 1824. He died in 1827, and was buried in the Pere Lachaise, some obstacles which were in- terposed to the solemnization of his obse- quies being surmounted by the firmness and prudence of his friends. Manumission, among the Romans; the solemn ceremony by which a slave was emancipated. (See Freedman.) Con- MANUMISSION—MANURES. 259 stantine the Great, after his conversion, transferred to the Christian church all such solemn ceremonies of the heathen. Thus he allowed the Christian masters to emancipate their slaves before the altar on festival days, and especially at Easter, by placing the deed of emancipation on the head of the freedman in the presence of the congregation. Manures; vegetable, animal and min- eral matters, introduced into the soil, to accelerate vegetation and increase the production of crops. If the soil to be improved be too stiff, from excess of clay, it will require sand; if too loose, from excess of sand, it will be benefited by clay ; but, when sand is mixed with argil- laceous soil, the latter must be broken and pulverized, which may be effected by exposing it to the frost, and afterwards drying it Marl is a natural compound earth, used with great success in the melioration of soils. It consists of a mix- ture of clay and lime, sometimes contain- ing a little silica and bitumen. Those varieties of it which contain more clay than lime, are advantageous for a dry, sandy soil; while calcareous marl, or that in which the lime predominates, is suited to an argillaceous soil. The great advan- tage of marl is, that it dilates, cracks, and is reduced to powder, by exposure to moisture and air. Marl in masses would be totally useless on the ground; yet it is necessary to begin by laying it on the ground in heaps; for the more it is heaped, the more it dilates, splits, and crumbles to dust; in which state it is fit to spreail upon the ground. Marl is sometimes formed into a compost with common manure, before it is laid on the soil; in this state, however, it should be applied sparingly at a time, and renewed frequently. It operates by subdividing the soil, und hasteniug decomposition ; its calcareous particles disorganizing all ani- mal or v egetable bodies, by resolving them into their simple elements, in which state they combine with oxygen, and facilitating this union. The best time for marling is the autumn. Quick-lime, and especially tiiat derived from fossil, or living shells, is another excellent means of amending soils. It is particularly adapted to cold, marshy soils, abounding in organic mat- ters, as it assists powerfully in the conver- sion of animal and vegetable substances into nourishment for plants. Ashes are very beneficial to the soil, by attracting moisture from the atmosphere, in conse- quence of the alkali they contain, and thus accelerating vegetation. Gypsum is, however, the most universal mineral manure; but chemists are not agreed as to the manner in which it acts on vegeta- tion. It is strewed, in the state of fine powder, over crops, when the leaves are in full vigor towards the latter end of April, or the beginning of May. It is very extensively employed in the Northern States of this country ; and is found to be particularly favorable to crops of rye and clover. Common manure consists of the remains of organized bodies, of every de- scription, whether animal or vegetable, in a state of decomposition (i. e. resolving itself into those primitive elements which can reenter into the vegetable system). The principal result of this decomposi- tion is carbonic acid, which, becoming dissolved in water, finds its entrance into the plant by the pores in the fibres of the roots, and, being every where distributed through the vegetable tissue, deposits its carbon for the growth of the plant, while its oxygen escapes into the atmosphere, through the pores of the leaves. Manure which has not completely undergone the process of fermentation, so that the straw is not yet wholly decomposed, is best adapted to strong, compact soils ; the tubular remnants of straw answer the purpose of so many little props to support the earth, and afford a passage for the air, thus rendering the soil lighter; besitles, the completion of the fermentation taking place after the manure is buried in the soil, has the advantage of raising the tem- perature. Those bodies which are subject to the most rapid decomposition, are most employed for manure. Of this description are animal manures in general, which require no chemical preparation to fit them for the soil. The great object of die farmer is to blend diem with the earthy constituents, in a proper state of division, and to prevent their too rapid fermentation. In maritime districts, fish, when sufficiently abundant, are sometimes used to manure tbe laud. They afford a powerful manure, and cannot be ploughed in too fresh, though the quantity should be limited. 3Ir. Young records an ex- periment, in which herrings, spread over a field, and ploughed in for wheat, pro- duced so rank a crop, that it was entirely laid before harvest During the putre- faction of urine, the greatest part of the soluble animal matter that it contains is destroyed ; it should, consequently, be used as fresh as possible ; but if not mixed with solid matter, it should be diluted with water, as, when pure, it contains too large a quantity of animal matter to form 260 MANURES. a proper fluid nourishment for absorption by the roots of plants. Amongst excre- mentitious solid, substances, one of the most powerful is the dung of birds that feed on animal food, particularly the dung of sea-birds. The guano, which is used to a great extent in South America, and which is the manure that fertilizes the sterile plains of Peru, is a production of this kind. It contains a fourth part of its weight of uric acid, partly saturated with ammonia, and partly with potash ; some phosphoric acid, combined with the bases, and likewise with lime; small quantities of sulphate and muriate of potash ; a little fatty matter; and some quartzose sand. Night-soU, it is well known, is a very powerful manure, and very liable to de- compose. Its disagreeable smell may be destroyed by mixing with quick-lime, af- ter which, if exposed to the atmosphere in thin layers, in fine weather, it speedily dries, is easily pulverized, and, in this state, may be used in the same manner as rape-cake, and delivered into the furrow with the seed. The Chinese, who have more practical knowledge of the use and application of manure than any other peo- ple existing, mix their night-soil with one third of its weight of a fat marl, make it into cakes, and dry it by exposure to the sun. In this state it is free from any disagreeable smell, and forms a common article of commerce of the empire. After night- soil, pigeons' dung conies next in order as to fertilizing power. If the pure dung of cattle is to be used as manure, like the other species of dung which have been mentioned, there seems no reason why it should be made to ferment, except in the 6oil; or if suffered to ferment, it should be only in a very slight degree. A slight, incipient fermentation is, undoubtedly, of use in the dunghills ; for, by means of it, a disposition is brought on, in the woody fibre, to decay and dissolve, when it is carried to the land, or ploughed into the soil; and woody fibre is always in great excess in the refuse of tbe farm. Too great a degree of fermentation is, however, very prejudicial; and it is better that there should be no fermentation at all before the manure is used, than that it should be carried too far. In cases where farm-yard dung cannot be immediately applied to crops, the destructive fermentation of it should be prevented, very carefully, by defending the surface of it, as much as possible, from the oxygen of the atmos- phere ; a compact marl, or a tenacious clay, offers the best protection against the air; but before the dung is covered over, or, as it were, sealed up, it should be dried as much as possible. If the dung is found to heat at any time, it should be turned over, and cooled by exposure to air. When a thermometer, plunged into it, tloes not rise above 100° Fahr., there is little dan- ger of much aeriform matter flying off; if the temperature is above that point, the dung will require to be immediately spread open. Also, when a piece of pa- per, moistened in muriatic acid, held over the steams arising from a dunghill, gives dense white fumes, it is a certain test that the decomposition is going too far; for this indicates that volatile alkali is disen- gaged. The situation in which dung is kept by farmers, is often very injudicious, it frequently being exposed to the direct influence of the sun; whereas it should always be kept under sheds, or, at least, on the north side of a wall. Less perish- able substances, of animal origin, are sometimes used as manure, such as horn, hair, feathers, and bones; but, owing to their dry nature, they require a longer period for their decomposition. They are not calculated for annual harvests, but to fructify the soil for a produce of much longer duration, such as that of olive-trees and of vineyards. Vegetable manure does not undergo fermentation previous to be- ing buried in the soil. Of this kind of manure,green crops, such as clover, lupins and buckwheat, which are ploughed into the soil, are the best, since they contain a considerable quantity of water, and, when buried, serve to lighten the soil previous to decomposition. It is especially adapted to hot climates. Rape-cake, which is used with great success as a manure, contains a large quantity of mucilage, some albu- minous matter, and a small quantity of oil. It should be used recent, and kept as dry as possible, before it is applied. It forms an excellent dressing for turnip crops, and is most economically applied by being thrown into the soil at"the same time with the seed. Sea-weeds, consisting of different species of fuci, alga and con- ferva, are much used as a manure, on the sea-coasts of Britain, Ireland and the U. States. This manure is more transient in its effects, and does not last for more than a single crop, which is easily accounted for, from the large quantity of water, or the elements of water, which it contains. It decays without producing heat, when exposed to the atmosphere, and seems, as it were, to melt down, and dissolve away. It should be used as fresh as it can be procured, and not suffered to lie in heaps, exposed to the air, for six months or a MANURES—MANUSCRIPTS. 261 whole year, as it is often allowed to do by the New England farmers. Soot, which is principally formed from the combus- tion of wood and pit-coal, contains, like- wise, substances derived from animal matters, and is a very powerful manure. It requires no preparation, but is thrown into the ground with the seed.—The fore- going species of manure* have, for the sake of convenience, been described sepa- rately, though they are very rarely em- ployed unmixed by the farmer; on the contrary, the most common manure con- sists of a mixture of animal, vegetable and mineral substances, such as farmyard litter, night-soil, mud from the streets, dust from the roads, or earth from the bottom of ponds and rivers, abounding with organic remains of fish, shells and rotten plants. Before being laid upon land, it usually requires being well turned up and exposed to the air for some time ; but as soon as it is spread, it should be ploughed in, to prevent loss by evaporation. As to the depth below the surface of the ground, to which it should be deposited, it may be remarked, that this should never be below the reach of the roots of the plants it is intended to nourish; for, in proportion as it is dissolved and liquefied, it will natu- rally descend. And it is better to manure lanels in the spring than in autumn, lest the winter rains should dissolve it too much, and endanger its sinking below the roots of the crop. With regard to the quantity of manure, it is a commodity so scarce, that it is not likely to be employed in excess. This occurs, however, some- times in garden culture, and it produces a strong and disagreeable flavor in the veg- etables. But the stock of manure is gen- erally so limited, that it has been the study of agriculturists to discover some means of compensation for a deficiency, rather than to apprehend danger from excess. This compensation has been found in a judicious system of crops. (See Rotation of Crops.) Manuscripts are a principal subject of diplomatics (q. v.). All the existing ancient manuscripts are written on parch- ment or on paper. The paper is some- times Egyptian (prepared from the real papyrus shrub), sometimes cotton or silk paper (charta bombycina), which was in- vented in the East, about the year 706, and used till the introduction of linen pa- per, and in common with this till the middle' of the fourteenth century; some- times linen paper, the date of the inven- tion of which, though ascribed to the firet half of the thirteenth century, on the au- thority of a document of the year 1243, written on such paper, is, nevertheless, exceedingly doubtful. The earliest men- tion of pens is found in the seventh cen- tury. The most common ink is the black, which is very old: the oldest, however, was not mixed with vitriol, like ours but generally consisted of soot, lamp-black, burnt ivory, pulverized charcoal, &c. Ret! ink is also found, in ancient times, in man- uscripts, of a dazzling beauty. Willi it were written the initial lettere, the firet lines, and the titles, which were thence called rubrics, and the writer rubricator. More rarely, but still quite frequently, blue ink is found in ancient manuscripts; yet more rarely, green and yellow. Gold and silver were also used for writing either whole manuscripts (which, from their costliness, are great rarities), or for adorn- ing the initial lettere of books. With re- spect to external form, manuscripts are divided into rolls (volumina, the most an- cient way, in which the Troubadours in France wrote their poems at a much later period), and into stitched books, or vol- umes (properly codices). Among the an- cients, the writers of manuscripts were mainly freedmen or slaves (scriba, librarii). Subsequently, the monks, among whom the Benedictines in particular, were bound to this employment, by the rules of their order. Manuscripts were afterwards im- proved and embellished by correctors and rubricators. But of much greater impor- tance, for estimating the age, value, &c, of a manuscript, than these external cir- cumstances and marks, are the internal, particularly the character of the writing and of the lettere. It is more difficult to form a correct judgment respecting the age of Greek manuscripts from the char- acter of the writing than it is respect- ing that of Latin manuscripts. In gen- eral, it is to be remarked, that, in a Greek manuscript, the strokes are lighter, easier, and more flowing, the older it is , and that they become stiffer in the progress of time. The absence or presence of the Greek accents is in no respect decisive. Moreover, few Greek manuscripts are found of an earlier date than the seventh, or, at most, the sixth century. The char- acters in Latin manuscripts have been classified partly according to their size (majuscula, minuscida), partly according to the various shapes aud characters which they assumed among different nations, or in various periods (scriptura Ronutna an- tiqua, Merovingica, Longobardica, Caro- lingica, &c.; to which has been added, since the twelfth century, the Gothic, so called, which is an artificially pointed and 262 MANL'SCRIPTS—MANUTR'S. angular character); and for all of those species of writing, particular roles have been established, affording the means of estimating the age of a manuscript. Be- fore the eighth century, interpunctions rarely occur: even after the introduction of punctuation, manuscripts may be met withsdestitute of interpunctions, but with the words separate. Manuscripts which have no capital or other divisions, are al- ways old. The catch-word, as it is term- ed, or the repetition of the firet word of the following page at the end of the pre- ceding, belongs to the twelfth or subse- quent centuries. The fewer and easier the abbreviations of a manuscript are, the older it is. Finally, in the oldest manu- scripts, the words commonly join each other without break or separation. The division of words firet became general in the ninth century. The form of the Ara- bic ciphers, which are seldom found in manuscripts earlier than the first half of the thirteenth century, also assists in decid- ing the age of a manuscript Some man- uscripts have at the end a statement when, and commonly, also, by whom, they were written (dated codices). But this signa- ture often denotes merely the time when the book was composed, or refers merely to a part of the manuscript, or is entirely spurious. Since wc have had the evi- dence of the Herculauean manuscripts, we can determine with certainty that none of our manuscrip.s are older than the Christian era. Iu 1825, a fragment of the Iliad, written on papyrus, was dis- covered on the island of Elephantina, in • Upper Egypt, by a French gentleman, travelling in the employment of Mr. Bankes. It contains from 800 to 900 verses, beginning at the 160th, and is handsomely written in capital letters, and is in a good state of preservation, unques- tionably the oldest of all classical manu- scripts, and probably of the times of the Ptolemies.—It was the custom, in the middle ages, wholly to obliterate and erase writings on parchment, for the purpose of writing on the materials anew. These codices rescripti, rasi, are thought great curiosities. This custom ceased in the fourteenth century, prob- ably because paper came then more into use. (See Codex.) Manuscripts, Illuminated ; those manuscripts which are adorned with paintings illustrating the text, or in whicli the initial letters were decorated with flourishes or gilding. This kind of bibli- ographical luxury was not unknown to the ancients, and the art of illumination was much practised by the monks. Their vignettes are, in some instances, of con- siderable historical importance. The specimens from the period between the fifth and tenth centuries are superior to those produced during the succeeding centuries. The term Uluminated is derived from the use of minium, for a red color, by the artists; hence called miniatores, or Uluminatores. An example of Anglo-Sax- on illumination of the eighth century is preserved in the British museum (Cotto- nian MSS.), which employed the skill of four distinguished theologians of the day. Eadfrid, bishop of Durham, wrote the text (the four Gospels); Ethelwold, his successor, illuminated the volume ; Bilfrid, the anachoret, covered it richly with gold and silver plates and precious stones ; and Aldred added glosses. Many MSS. are found with the initial lettere omitted, the writer or copyist and illuminator being distinct persons. We still see traces of this practice in the ornamenting of initial lettere in some printed books. (See Ma- billon, De Re diplomatica.) Manutius, Aldus, or Aldo Manuzio; an Italian printer of the fifteenth antl six- teenth centuries, celebrated as an artist and a man of letters. He was bom at Bassai.o, in tbe Roman territory, about 1447, and was educated at Rome and at Ferrara, where he learned Greek under Baptista Guarino. He became tutor to Alberto Pio, prince of Carpi; and, in 1482, quitted Ferrara, to reside with John Pico, prince of Mirandola. In 1488, he established himself as a printer at Venice, but the first work wdiich he finished was not published till 1494. In the course of the ensuing 20 years, he printed the works of most of the ancient Latin and Greek authors extant, as well as many produc- tions of his contemporaries, antl some treatises of his own composition. Among the latter are a Latin Grammar; a Greek Grammar; a tract on the Metres of Hor- ace, antl a Greek Dictionary. He was the inventer of the italic, or cursive character, hence called Aldine, for the exclusive use of which, for a term of yeare, he obtained a patent from the pope and the senate of Venice, He established a kind of acade- my at his own house, and delivered lec- tures on classical literature, to the general study and improvement of which he greatly contributed. He died in April, 1515, leaving four children by his wife, who was the daughter of Andrea d'Asola, a Veuetian, in partnership with whom he carried on his typographical labors.—Ma- nuzio, Paolo, son of the foregoing, was MANUTIUS—MAP. 263 distinguished as a classic scholar no less than as a printer. He was born at Ven- ice, in 1512, and was brought up under the care of his maternal grandfather. He received a learned education,and, in 1533, reopened the printing-office, which hael for some time been closed, but did not carry on the establishment entirely on his own account till 1540. He opened an academy for the instruction of young per- sons in polite literature; and afterwards made a tour through the cities of Italy, for the purpose of examining the various libraries. After refusing several offers of professorships at Bologna and elsewhere, he was appointed to superintend the print- ing-office attached to a newly-founded academy at Venice, where he continued till 1561, when he settled at Rome, on the invitation of pope Pius IV. He was em- ployed to conduct a press for printing the works of the fathers, and other ecclesias- tical authors; and, at the same time, kept up his establishment at Venice, whither he returned in 1570. Pope Gregory XIII induceel him, by means of a pension, to take up bis abode again at Rome, where he died, in April, 1574. He was the au- thor of Commentaries on the Writings of Cicero ; a treatise De Curia Romano; Proverbs ; Letters, &c.—Manuzio, Aldo, the younger, the son of the preceding, was also a printer. He was born in 1547, and was educated by his father, under whom he made an extraordinary progress in lit- erature. In his 11th year, be produced a Collection of elegant Phrases in the Tus- can and Latin Languages; and other ju- venile publications attest his classical ac- quirements. Ou his father's removal to Rome, he carrieel on the printing estab- lishment at Venice, where, in 1577, he was appointed professor of belles-lettres at the school of die Venetian chancery. In 1585, he succeeded Sigonius in the chair of rhetoric at Bologna; whence he removed to Pisa, to become professor of polite literature, in 1587; and, during his stay there, he received the diploma of doctor of laws, and was admitted a mem- ber of the Florentine academy. In 1588, he went to Rotwe, and accepted a profes- sorship, which had been held by Muretus. He was much favored by pope Sixtus V; and Clement VIII bestowed on him the office of superintendent of the Vatican press. He died in October, 1597, and with him expired the glory of the Aldine press; the valuable library, collected by himself and his predecessors, was sold to liquidate his debts, lie was the author of many works, including Commentaries on Cicero, and Familiar Letters. (See Aldine Editions.) Manzoni, Alessandro, an Italian tragic and lyric poet, of noble birth and elevated sentiments, was born in Milan, and dis- tinguished, while young, by his versi sciolti on the death of Imbonati, and, at a later period, created a new kind of lyrics in his Inni. As a tragic writer, he surpasses any living Italian poet. His tragedies are 11 Conte di Carmagnola (Milan, 1820), and Adelchi (1822). In both of them, he intro- duce s the chorus. The subject of the. first is from Italian wars of the fifteenth century, and has received great applause in Germany (from Gothe) anel England, as well as in his own country. A later work is his Betrothed—/ Promessi Sposi, Storia MUanese del Secolo XVII (1827)—which has introduced the historical romance into Italy. His opere, comprising his poems, tragedies, romance, and some miscellane- ous prose writings, have been published (in 6 vols., 1829). Map ; a projection, on a plane surface, of the whole or a part of the spherical surface of the earth. The earth being a spheroid, its surface cannot be made to coincide rigorously with a plane; and it therefore becomes necessary to have re- course to a projection, that is, a plan on a plain surface, which indicates the relative positions, dimensions, &c, of the different parts of a spherical surface. (See Pro- jection.) The three principal modes of projection are the orthographic, the stere- ographic and the central, distinguished by the different points of view at which the observer is supposed to be placed. Ill the orthographic projection, the surface of the sphere is represented by a plane, which cuts it through the middle, the eye being placed vertically at an infinite dis- tance from the two hemispheres. Iu tbe stereographic projection, the spherical sur- face is represented on the plane of one of its great circles, the eye being supposed at the pole of that circle. The central pro- jection supposes the point of view at the centre of the sphere, and die surface is thus projected on a plane tangent to it. Each of these kinds of projection is sus- ceptible of different modifications. None of the planispheres traced by the three modes already indicated gives a perfect representation of the globe: they alter the figures of countries, either at the centre or on the borders ; they present equal spaces under unequal dimensions, &c. To obviate these difficulties, the conic and cylindric projections are sometimes used; die cone and cylinder being curved sur 264 MAP. faces, which are capable of being perfectly developed on a plane, and, at the same time, approximating to the nature of a spherical surface. These projections have also been subjected to a great variety of modifications, which we cannot here ex- plain. Other forms of tracing maps, which have not the developement of a figure for their basis, have been recommended: such is the proportional projection, in which the principal condition is to repre- sent, by equal spaces, regions of equal ex- tent. (See Mayer's Introduction to the Art of tracing Maps, in German ; Puissant's TraUi de Topographic) In the choice of details to be introduced into a map, the author must be guided by the purpose of his delineations, and needs to be tlirected by experience, learning and judgment. One map is designetl to show the limits of states, the positions of towns and cities, the subdivisions of the country into prov- inces, departments, counties, &c ; another may be devotetl more particularly to de- lineating the natural features of the region, its mountains, rivers, &c.; and details are selectetl accordingly. A military map should indicate every pass, ford, obstruc- tion, &c, which may affect a march, facil- itate or obstruct a manoeuvre. A nautical map, or chart, should indicate every reef, sand-bank or rock, delineating, as far as possible, not only the irregularities of the liottoin, but the direction, &c, of the shores. To the seamen, the nature of the bottom of the sea is interesting only within soundings; but to the physical geogra- pher, it is also important, as illustrative of the whole system of mountains and geo- logical formations on the globe. There are also historical, botanical, mineralogi- cal, &c, maps, designed to illustrate some particular point. Elementary maps for instruction are not intended to advance the science by the publication of new de- tails, but should be adapted to convey the known truths of the science in a simple form; and, for this purpose, a numerous series of small maps is better than a few, constructed on a large scale, with minute exactness. In collecting and combining details, astronomical observations and ge- odesical measurements must be employ- ed, when possible, at least for the promi- nent points, and, where the author is de- serted by these, the accounts of intelligent travellers, of former geographers, &c, must supply the deficiencies.—Maps are engraved on tin, copper, and other metals; also, sometimes, in wood, and, of late, have been lithographed with much success for certain purposes. Soon after the inven- tion of the art of printing, an attempt was made to print maps like musical notes, by Sweynheim; later by Biickink, in 1478; in 1777, by Breitkopf, in Leipsic. Haas, at Basil, produced pretty good speci- mens (see bis Carte des Portages de Po- logne en 1772,1793 et 1795); and, quite recently, the same has been attempted in Boston; but tbe main object of cheap maps thus made, chiefly for children,-— an impressive and clear survey,—seems not entirely attained. If we consider the drawing of the countiy ordered by Joshua (Joshua xlviii, 9) as a map, then the origin of geographical projection is very old. We find traces of maps with the Egyptians, in the times of Sesostris (q. v.), who caused his hereditary domin- ions and his conquests to be represented on tablets for his people. Scylax, Era- tosthenes (270 B. C.) and Hipparchias (130 B. C.) followed him. Certain traces of maps are found in the times of Arista - goras of Miletus, and Socrates, who, by way of a rejiroof to the pride of Alcibiatles, caused him to search for bis own estates on a map. The Romans, at their triumphs, had pictures of the conquered countries carried before them, and had drawings of their territories in their archives, as Varro says. Ceesar himself took part in the sur- veying of different countries. There is a map extant, perhaps of the times of Dio- cletian, certainly not later than Theodo- sius, a military map, for the use of the Ro- man army, called the Peutinger table, from having belonged to a learned scholar of this name. (See Peutinger.) Ptolemy drew maps according to the stereographic projection. Agathoda?mon, an artist of Alexandria, drew 26 maps for the geogra- phy of Ptolemy, and with him die firet peri- od of the histoiy of maps is generally closed. They were drawn from the accounts of travellers without well settled principles. The second period, whicli extends to the beginning of the sixteenth century, the time of the famous Behaim (q. v.), can show metal globes, plain spheres and maps. Nicolaus Donis correcteel the maps of Ptolemy, had them cut in wood, and added five new ones. Sebastian Munstcr follow- ed in his steps. In the third period, maps became more and more perfect Partic- ular credit is due to those of Abraham Ortelius, Gerhard Mercator (born 1512, died 1594), William and John Blau (who produced 616 maps), Sanson, Schenk, Visschen, De Witt, Hondius. After them, John Baptist Homanu became famous, who consulted the most distinguished as- tronomers and mathematicians, and pre- MAP. 265 pored 200 new maps. In regard to the character of the early maps, and early ge- ography in general, the cbapter on the progress of geograpbical science in Lard- ner's Maritime and Inland Discovery con- tains valuable information. The following facts are taken from that source. The most eminent geographers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were men of learning, who, in the spirit of that age, adopted with zeal and obstinacy all the mistakes committed by tli*j writers of an- tiquity, which thereby acquired an au- thority that was very difficult to be over- thrown. The firet requisite, in a correct system of geography, is to determine ac- curately the relative position of places; but, in this, the ancients were guilty of gross errors. The method which they employed to determine the latitude of places admitted of but little precision, and their determination of longitudes was still more erroneous. The countries with which the Greek and Roman writers were best acquainted were those on the Medi- terranean, yet Constantinople is placetl by Ptolemy two degrees north of its true po- sition. The Arab writers increased this ereor to four degrees. The breadth of the Mediterranean was also increased far beyond the truth. Carthage is made 4" 38! south of its true place. The en-ore in longitude were far greater, the length of the Mediterranean being made 62° instead of 41° 28': in other words, it was made 1400 English miles longer than the reality. This enormous error continued in the maps of Europe, with little variation, till the beginning of the last century. The difference in the estimated longitude of Rome and Nuremberg, two of the best known places in Europe, varied above 500 miles, from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century. The error is still more remark- able, as existing in the longitude of places which are nearly in the same latitude. Cadiz and Ferrara, for instance, were placed nearly 600 miles too far asunder; and this error continued till the close of the seventeenth century. Errors of a wilder kind, originating in credulity rather than in inaccurate observation, found a place in the maps of the middle ages, and were slowly banished at a recent date by the improvements of astronomy and navi- gation. Iu a map of the world, published at Venice, in 1546, by Giacomo, Asia and America are united in lat. 38°. Thibet is placed at the junction of the two conti- nents. In another Venetian map, by Tramezini, dated 1554, the distance from Quinsai, in China, to the gulf of Califor- vol. viii. 23 nia, in America, is only 31°, the two con- tinents being unduly stretched some thou- sand miles respectively to the east and the west. The best maps were long deficient in correct distances, particularly in longi- tude. South America is represented by Fischer as 62°, or above 4300 miles across, while North America, on the same map, extends from the mouth of the St Law- rence on the east, to New Albion on the west, through a space of 150°, or above 9000 miles. Honelius, in 1630, ventured, indeed, to abridge Asia of the undue di- mensions given it by Ptolemy, and to re- duce its extension towards the east to 165°. But his example was not followed; and many instances might be adduced, in which the authority of Ptolemy, who was but slightly acquainted with one half of the globe, was blindly submitted to in an age when Europeans yvandered over its whole surface. A great step was made towards the attainment of accuracy, in regard to longitudes, when Galileo dis- covered, in 1610, the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites. Until, however, Cassini pub- lished his tables, in 1668, nothing accurate was known respecting their eclipses and revolutions. Cassini labored indefatigably to improve geography, by allying it strictly with astronomy, and loudly complained that it needed a total reform. Delisle, his friend, set seriously about the task of reconstructing the geographical edifice. In the year 1700, he published his map of the world, as well as separate maps of Europe, Asia and Africa, boldly departing from the examples of his prede- cessors, and making free use of the mate- rials which the improvements in astrono- my hael placed within his reach; so that he may be considered die creator of mod- ern geography. He died in 1726. His distinguished disciple, D'Anville, appoint- ed geographer of the king of France at the age of 22, was remarkable for correct- ness of judgment and fineness of penetra- tion. Though he proceeded much on conjecture, he rarely erred. He compil- ed what Delisle had begun. (For further information on the subject of geography antl geographical works, see Geography, and Gazetteer; see, also, Degrees, Meas- urement of.)—The whole number of maps which have been published muv amount to from 23,000 to 24,000, of which, how- ever, hardly 4600 are original. The first maps engravetl on metal were made by Biickink and Schweynheym, in 1478; the first cut in wood, by L. Holl, in 1482. (See llauber's Essay towards a circum- stantial History of Maps (in German, Uhn, 266 MAP—MAPLE. 1724); Huhner's(q. v.) Museum Geograph- icum.) Among the maps prepared of late years in Great Britain, those of Arrow- smith are distinguished. Tanner, in this country, is well known for his valuable maps of the U. States. Maple (acer); a genus of plants, pecu- liar to the northern and temperate parts of the globe, consisting of trees or arbo- rescent shrubs, having opposite and more or less lobed leaves, and small flowers, which are either axillary or disposed in racemes. The fruit consists of two cap- sules united at base, each containing a single seed, and terminated by a wing-like membrane. In one instance, the leaves are compound and pinnated. Twenty- seven species are known, of which twelve inhabit North America, six are found in Europe, six very beautiful ones in the islands of Japan, and the remainder in different parts of Asia. The red maple (A. rubrum), is one of the most common and most extensively diffused of our na- tive trees. It grows in moist situations, from lat. 49° to the gulf of Mexico, both in the Atlantic and Western States. The bright red blossoms, appearing at a time when there is no vestige of a leaf in the forest, render this tree veiy conspicuous at the opening of spring ; antl again, at the close of the season, it is not less con- spicuous, from the scarlet color which the leaves assume when they have been touched by the frost. The leaves are cordate at base, unequally toothed, five- lobed, antl glaucous beneath. It attains the height of 70 feet, with a diameter of three or four at the base. The wood is easily turned, and when polished acquires a silken lustre ; it is hard and fine-grained, and is employed chiefly for the lower parts of Windsor chairs, sometimes for saddle trees, wooden dishes, and similar purposes. The variety called curled ma- ple, from the accidental undulation of the fibres, is one of the most ornamental woods known, and bedsteads made of it exceed in richness and lustre, the finest ma- hogany. It is sometimes employed for in- laying, but its most constant use is for the stocks of rifles and fowling pieces. The white maple is chiefly remarkable for the beauty of its foliage, the leaves being larger and much more deeply lobed than those of the preceding, and glaucous be- neath. The flowers are inconspicuous, and greenish yellow, antl the fruit is larger than in any other of our species. It is not found so far south as the preceding, and is most abundant west of the moun- tains; its range extending beyond the sources of the Mississippi, and within the basin of the Arkansaw. It attains large dimensions, having a trunk five, and sometimes eight feet in diameter. The wood is little used, but the charcoal is preferred by hatters iu some places. The sugar maple (A. saccharinum) is one of the most valuable of our trees. Besides the sugar which is obtained from the sap, and which might be made in quantities suffi- cient to supply the whole consumption of the U. States, the wood affords excel- lent fuel; and from the ashes are procured four fifths of the potash which forms such an important item in our exports. The sugar is superior in quality to the com- mon brown sugar of the West Indies, and when refined, equals the finest in beauty. It is, however, little used, except in the countiy, and even here will probably give place, at some future time, to that manu- factured from the juice of the cane. The sap of all the maples contains a certain quantity of sugar, but in none, that we know of, does it exist in so great a pro- portion as in this and the following species. A single tree of this species will yield five or six pounds of sugar. The leaves are smooth, and five-lobed, with the lobes sinuately dentate. It grows in cold and moist situations, between the 42d and 48th parallels of latitude, and on the Allegha- nies to their south-western termination, extending westward beyond lake Superi- or, and is abundant in the northern parts of Pennsylvania, the western portion of New York, Upper Canada, New Bruns- wick, Nova Scotia, and in the northern parts of New England. The potash is exported from the two principal northern ports, New York and Boston. To the lat- ter place the wood is brought in great quan- tities from Maine for fuel, and is esteemed hardly inferior to hickory. In Maine and New Hampshire, it is employed in ship- building, for the keel, and likewise in the lower frame; for the axletrees and spokes of wheels; and sometimes, in the coun- try, for the frames of houses. A variety, with undulations, like the curled maple, and containing besides small spots, is call- ed bird's eye maple, antl forms exceedingly beautiful articles of furniture. The char- coal has the preference in the forges of Vermont and Maine. The black sugar maple (A. nigrum) is a more southern tree than the preceding, and is exceeding- ly abundant on the Ohio and the other great ri vera of the West. It has not been observed north of latitude 44°, and does not extend into the lower parts of the more southern states. The leaves rcseni- MAPLE—MARACAYBO. 267 ble, in form, those of the sugar maple, but may be distinguished by the pubescence of the inferior surface. It attains very lofty dimensions. The wood is little used, but is preferred for the frames of Windsor chairs, and furnishes the best fuel, after the hickories. The sap yields abundance of sugar, which is manufactured to a vast amount annually. The ash-leaved ma- ple, or box elder (A. ncgundo), abounds chiefly west of the Alleghanies, where it has a very wide range, extending from lat 53° to the gulf of Mexico, anel also within the chains of the Kocky Mountains. It is easily known by its compound leaves, and becomes a large tree. The wood is fine-grained, but is little used. The striped maple, or moose-wood (A. striatum) is a large shrub, chiefly remarkable from the white lines on the bark, which give it an elegant appearance. It is a northern plant, and in some places the cattle are turned loose into the woods to browse on the young shoots at the beginning of spring. The wood has been sometimes employed for inlaying mahogany, but it is of inferior quality. Six other species of maple inhabit the territory of the U. States; one of them is found on the rocky Moun- tains, and another in the basin of the Ore- gon river. The wood of the common European maple is much used by turners, and on account of its lightness is frequent- ly employed for musical instruments, par- ticularly for violins. Mappe-Mondes ; the French term for maps of the world. (See Maps.) Mara, Gertrude Elizabeth, daughter of a Mr. Schmahling (born, according to some, in 1750, in Cassel; others say in 1743, at Eischbach, in the territory of Eisenach ; others say in 1749), was one of the greatest singers of our time. Her father, city musician in Cassel, instructed her in music. When she was seven years old, she played the violin admirably. In her 10th vear, she performed before the queen, in London, whither she had ac- companied her father, and where she re- mained two or three yeare. In her 14th year, she appeared as a singer at court. In 1766, she went with her father to Leip- sic, and received an appointment there. Fretleric the (rreat, though much preju- diced against German performers, was in- duced to invite her, in 1770, to Potsdam, his residence, showed great admiration of her powers, and gave her an" appoint- ment immediately, with 3000 Prussian dollars salary (about £2000). In 1774, she married a violoncello player named Mara, a man of careless habits, who in- volved her in many difficulties, and she was dismissed by the king, in 1780. In 17.-2, she went to Vienna aud Paris, where she received the title of a first concert singer of the queen. In 1784, she went to London, where she was received with the greatest enthusiasm. For 13 even- ings' performance at the Pantheon coucert, she received 1000 guineas. In J 785 and 1786, she was engaged for the London opera, and appeared at cue of the annual concerts in honor of Handel, as first singer, and, in the winter of 1785 and 1786, was established at the London opera. But her obstinacy offended as much as her powers delighted. In 1802, she went to Paris, and in 1803, to Germany. At a later pe- riod, she went to Petersburg, and, in 1808, she was at Moscow, where she is said to have married her companion Florio, after the death of Mara, from whom she had been separated long before. By the burn- ing of Moscow, sbe lost her house and fortune ; she therefore went to Reval, and gave lessons in music. In 1819, she went through Berlin to England, and, in 1821, returned to Esthonia. The latest accounts of her were, that she celebrated her birth- day at Reval, February 23, 1831, having completed her 83d year, on which occa- sion Gothe offered her a poetical tribute. The fame of this singer is founded not only on the strength and fullness of her tone, and the extraordinary compass of her voice, which extends from g to the triple-marked f (nearly three octaves), but also on the admirable ease, quickness antl spirit, with which she sung the most difficult passages, and her simple and en- chanting expression in the adagio. Her singing of Handel's airs—for instance, " 1 know that my Redeemer liveth"—in the Messiah, was particularly celebrated. Maraboots; among the Berbers (q. v.) of northern Africa, a sort of saints, or sor- cerers, who are held in high estimation, and who exercise, in some villages, a despotic authority. They distribute am- ulets, affect to work miracles, and are thought to exercise the gift of prophecy. The rich presents which they receive from a superstitious people, enable them to live with a good deal of pomp, often keeping an armed force, and maintaining a numerous train of wives and concubines. They make, indeed, no pretensions to ab- stinence or self-denial. Maracaybo ; a town of Colombia, capi- tal of the department of Zulia (see Colom- bia), formerly capital of the province of Maracaybo, in Venezuela; lon. 71° 17' W.; lat. 10° 13' N. It is situated on the 268 MARACAYBO—MARAT. western side of the lake Maracaybo, about 20 miles from the sea. Most of the houses are covered with reeds; but the town is fortified, and the number of the inhabitants, in 1801, amounted to 22,000; which number was afterwards increased to 24,000, by an accession of refugees from St. Domingo. Here is a large paro- chial church, an hospital, and four con- vents. Large vessels cannot come up to the town, on account of the bar at the mouth of the harbor. Maracaybo, a lake, or rather gulf, of South America, about 200 miles long, and 70 broad, running from S. to N., empties itself into the North sea ; the entrance is tlefeuded by strong forts. As the tide flows into this lake, its water is somewhat brackish, notwithstanding the many rivers it receives. It abounds with fish. The lake becomes narrower towards the mid- dle, where the town is erected. Maraniiam, or Maranhao ; a province of Brazil, between 1° 2C and 10° 50' S. latitude, antl 45° 10' and 53° Off W. lon- gitude. It takes its name from an island situated at the mouth of three rivers, about 42 miles in circumference, which is fertile and well inhabited. The island itself is veiy difficult of access, by reason of the rapidity of the three rivers which form it; so that vessels must wait for proper winds and seasons to visit it The natives have about twenty-seven hamlets called oc, or tave, each consisting of only four large huts, forming a square in the middle ; but from 300 to 500 paces in length, and about 20 or 30 feet in depth ; all being built of large timber, and cover- ed from top to bottom with leaves, so that each may contain 200 or 300 inhabitants. The air is serene, seldom incommoded with storms, excessive drought, or moisture, except in the time of the periodical rains, which last from February to June. The soil of the province is very fertile, pro- ducing maize, cotton, sugar, rice, cocoa, pimento, ginger, &c. Population, 183,000, exclusive of the savages. The number of negroes is very great. The capital is Maranhao, or S: Luiz, with 12,000 inhabi- tants ; lat 2° 29' S.; lon. 48° 45' W. Maranon. (See Amazon.) Marat, Jean Paul, whose name is odiously notorious in the most hateful times of the French revolution, was born at Boudry, in Neufchatel, in 1744, and studied medicine at Paris, where he prac- tised his profession at the beginning of the revolutionary movements. Previous to 1789, he had published several works on medical and scientific subjects, which display considerable acuteness and learn- ing. Of a small and even diminutive stature, with the most hideous features, in whicli some traits of insanity were per- ceptible, his whole appearance was calcu- lated to excite at once terror, pity, ridicule and disgust. The first breath of the rev- olution converted the industrious and ob- scure doctor into an audacious demagogue, if not into a ferocious maniac, lie began by haranguing the populace of one of the sections, but was treated with ridicule, and hustled by the crowd, who amused them- selves with treading on his toes. Still he persisted, and finally succeeded, by hi* violence and energy, in commanding at- tention. Danton (q. v.) had just instituted the club of the Cordeliers (q. v.), and col- lected around him all the fiercest spirits, and Marat among the number, who be- came the editor of the Ami du Peuple, a journal which was the organ of that so- ciety, and soon became the oracle of the mob. As early as August 1789, he declar- ed it necessaiy to hang up 800 of the dep- uties, with Mirabeau (q. v.) at their head, in the garden of the Tuileries, antl, though he was denounced to the constitutional as- sembly, and proceeded against by the mu- nicipal authority of Paris, he contrived to escape, with the assistance of Danton, Le- gendre and others, and by concealing himself in the most obscure corner of the city. His journal, meanwhile, continued to appear regularly, was openly hawked about the streets, and assumed a more fu- rious and atrocious tone, as he was in- flamed by the prosecutions of the authori- ties, and encouraged by the increasing strength of his party. During the exist- ence of the legislative assembly, he con- tinued his outrages, figured among the actors of the 10th of August (see France), and in the assassinations of September (1792). He was a member of the terrible committee of public safety, then formed, although without any official capacity, and signed the circular to the departments, recommending a similar massacre in each. Marat was chosen a member of the con- vention ; and in spite of the contempt and abhorrence with which he was received in that body, particularly by the Girondists (q. v.), who endeavored, at firet, to prevent his taking his seat, and, afterwards, to effect his expulsion, soon found encour- agement to proceed with his sanguinary denunciations. The ministers, general Dumouriez (q. v.), and the Girondists, whom he contemptuously called hommes d'itat, were the objects of his attack. Be- ing cliarged, in the convention, with de- MARAT—MARBLE. 269 manding in his Journal 270,000 heads, he openly avowed and boasted of that de- mand, and declared that he should call for many more if those were not yielded to him. . During the long struggle of the Mountain party and the Girondists, his conduct was that of a maniac. The establishment of the revolutionary tribu- nal, and of the committee for arresting the suspected, was adopted on his motions. On the approach of May 31 (see Jacobins), as president of the Jacobin club, he sign- ed an address instigating the people to an insurrection, and to massacre all traitore. Even the Mountain party elenounced this measure, and Marat was delivered over to the revolutionary tribunal, which acquit- ted him; the people received him in tri- umph, covered him with civic wreaths, and conducted him to the hall of the con- vention. July 13, 1793, his bloody career was closed by assassination. (See Corday, Charlotte.) Proclaimed the martyr of liberty, he received the honore of an apotheosis, and bis remains were placed in the Pantheon. It was not till some time after the dispersion of the Jacobins, that the busts of this monstrous divinity were broken, antl his ashes removed, and then it was as a royalist that he suffered this disgrace. Marathon ; a village of Greece, in Atti- ca, about 15 miles N. E. of Athens, cele- brated by the victory gained over the Pereians by Miltiades, 490 B. C. (See Miltiades.) Marattas. (See Mahrattas.) Maratti, Carlo, painter and engraver, born at Camcrino, in the marquisate of Ancona, in 1626, while a child, amused himself with painting all sons of figures drawn by himself on the walls of his father's house. In his 11th year, he went to Rome, studied the works of Raphael, of the Caracci, and of Ciuido Rcni, in the school of Sacchi, anil formed himself on their manner. His Madonnas were par- ticularly admired. Louis XlV* employed him to paint his celebrated picture of Daphne. Clement IX, whose portrait he painted, appointed him overseer of the Vatican gallery. He died at Rome in 1713. Wc are much indebted to him for the preservation of the works of Raphael, in the Vatican, and of the Caracci in the Farnese palace. He also erected monu- ments to those masters in the church della Rotonda. As an artist, Maratti de- serves the title given him by Richardson, of the last painter of the Roman school. His design was correct, and although he was not a creative acinus, he showed him- 23* self a successful imitator of his great pre- decessors. His composition was good, his expression pleasing, his touch judi- cious, and his coloring agreeable. He was acquainted with history, architecture and perspective, and used his knowledge skilfully in his pictures. The good taste which prevails in all his works is remark- able. His chief works are in Rome. He also etched successfully, among other tilings, the life of Mary, in 10 pans. Chi- ari, Berettoni and Passori were his pupils. Maravedie, or Marvadis ; a small Spanish copper coin, of about the value of three mills. Marble, in common language, is the name applied to all sorts of polished stones, employed in the decoration of monuments and public edifices, or in the construction of private houses; but among the materials thus made use of, it is nec- essaiy to distinguish the true marbles from those stones which have no just title to such a designation. In giving a shert but universal character of marble, it may be said, that it effervesces with dilute nitric acid, and is capable of being scratched with fluor, while it easily marks gypsum. These properties will separate it, at once, from the granites, porphyries and silicious pudding-stones, with which it has been confounded, on one side, and from the gypseous alabaster on the other. From the hard rocks having been formerly in- cluded under the marbles,comes the adage, " hard as marble." Marbles have been treated of, under various divisions, by different writers. The most frequent division has been that of two great sec- tions—primitive marbles, which have a brilliant or shining fracture, and secondary marbles, or those- which are possessed of a dull fracture. This classification has grown out of the idea that the former class was more anciently created—an opinion which the deductions of geology, for the/most part, sufficiently confirm, though occasionally we find a marble of a compact and close texture, in old rocks, and, on the other hand, those which are highly crystalline, in very recent forma- tions. Daubentou has founded a classifi- cation of marbles upon the colore w Inch they present; those of a uniform color forming one class; those with two colore, another; those with three shades, a third: and so on. The best classification of these substances, however, is that of M. Brard, which divides all marbles into seven varieties or classes, viz. 1. marbles of a uniform color, comprehending solely those which are either white or black: 270 MARBLE. 2. variegated marbles, or those in which the spots and veins are interlaced and disposed without regularity; occasionally, this variety embraces traces of organic remains; when these are disposed in star-like masses, they are sometimes called madrepore marbles : 3. shell marbles, or those which are, in part, made up of shells: 4. lumachelli marbles, or those which are, apparently, wholly formed of shells : 5. cipolin marbles, or those which are veined with green talc: 6. breccia marbles, or those which are formed of an- gular fragments of different marbles, united by a cement of some different color: 7. pudding-stone marbles, or those which are formed of reunited fragments, like the breccia marbles, only with the difference of having the pebbles rounded, in place of being angular. Before speaking of the localities of the foregoing classes of mar- bles, we shall allude to the ancient or antique marbles, by whicli is understood those kinds made use of by the ancients, the quarries of which are now, for the most part, exhausted or unknown.—Pa- i-ian- marble. Its color is snow-white, inclining to yellowish-white ; it is fine, granular, and, when polished, has some- what of a waxy appearance. It hardens by exposure to the air, which enables it to resist decomposition for ages. Dipce- nus, Scyllis, Malas and Micciades, em- ployed this marble, and were imitated by their successors! It receives, with accu- racy, the most delicate touches of the chisel, and retains for ages, with all the softness of wax, the mild lustre even of the original polish. The finest Grecian sculpture which has been preserved to the present time, is generally of Parian marble ; as the Medicean Venus, the Diana Venatrix, the colossal Minerva (called Pal- las of Velletri), Ariadne (called Cleopatra), and Juno (called Capitolina). It is also Parian marble on which the celebrated tables at Oxford are inscribed.—Pentelican marble, from mount Pentelicus, near Ath- ens, resembles, very closely, the preceding, but is more compact and finer granular. At a very early period, when the arts had attained their full splendor, in the age of Pericles, the preference was given, by the Greeks, not to the marble of Paros, but to that of mount Pentelicus, because it was whiter, and also, perhaps, because it was found in the vicinity of Athens. The Parthenon was constructed entirely of Pentelican marble. Among the statues of this marble in the royal museum at Paris, are the Torso, a Bacchus in repose, a Paris, the throne of Saturn, and the tripod of Apollo.—Carrara marble is of a beautiful white color, but is often trav- ersed by gray veins, so that it is difficult to procure large blocks wholly free from them. It is not subject to turn yellow, as the Parian. This marble, whicli is almost the only one usetl by modern sculptors, was also quarried and wrought by the ancients. Its quarries are said to have been opened in the time of Julius Caesar.—Red antique marble (rosso antico of the Italians; ,-E- gyptium of the ancients). This marble, according to antiquaries, is of a tleep blood-red color, here and there traversed by veins of white, and, if closely inspected, appeare to be sprinkled over with minute white dots, as if it were strewed with sand. Another variety of this marble is of a very tleep red, without veins, of which a specimen may be seen in tbe Indian Bacchus, in the royal museum of Paris.— Green antique marble (verde antico of the Italians), is an indeterminate mixture of white marble and green serpentine. It was known to the ancients under the name marmor Spartanum, or Lacedamonium. —African breccia marble (antique African breccia). It has a black ground, in which are imbedded fragments or portions of a grayish-white, of a deep red, or of a pur- ple wine color. This is said to be oik; of the most beautiful marbles hitherto found, and has a superb effect when accompa- nied with gilt ornaments. Its native place is not known with certainty; it is conjec- tured to be Africa. The pedestal of Ve- nus leaving the bath, and a large column, both in the royal museum in Paris, are of this marble. Marbles of the U. States. Although the U. States are known to be rich in marbles, hitherto veiy little pains have been taken to explore them. The quarries of Penn- sylvania, which are distant about 20 miles from Philadelphia, afford a handsome veined or clouded primitive marble. Very fine specimens have been obtained from these quarries. A very similar variety is quarried, also, in Thomaston, Maine. Of black marble, resembling the Irish luculite, the quarry at Shoreham, Vermont, fur- nishes the chief supply consumed in the U. States. This deposit exists directly upon the borders of lake Champlain, so as to allow the blocks, which may be obtained of any size desired, to be lifted directly from the quarry into boats, for transporta- tion. The greatest part of it, however, is carried to Middlebury, 15 miles from the lake, to be sawn and polished, before it is shipped. The town of Middlebury yields a handsome white and clouded granular MARBLE—MARBOIS. 271 marble; but the largest portion of the dove-colored marble wrought in that place, comes from the neighboring town of 1'ittsford. The towns of Great Bar- rington and Sheffield produce a very handsome dove-colored marble ; that of the former place, in particular, wrought under the direction of Mr. Leavenworth, is certainly tbe most delicately shaded marble of its kind in the U. States. The annual product of his establishment amounts to about 810,000 per annum. The white marbles of Connecticut and New York are highly granular, and, in general, are too slightly coherent in the aggregation of their particles, to be em- ployed in constructions which are ex- posed to the weather; besides, they are often contaminated with crystals and fi- bres of tremolite. The verd antique of New Haven is the rarest and most beau- tiful marble yet discoveretl in the U. States. It consists of an intermixture of white marble and green serpentine, though its most beautiful stains of green and yel- lowish-green, come directly from the ox- ides of chrome and iron, which are every- where disseminated through it. While the quarries were open, it was much used for the construction of chimney-pieces, as well as for slabs for tables and side- boards, and other articles of in-door orna- mental furniture. It was also employed, but with very bad taste, and still worse judgment, for sepulchral monuments ; since its gay colors were ill suited to so grave an application, and its metallic in- gredients, from the action of the weather, soon caused it to part with its polish and become dull. The quarries, though judged inexhaustible, have long since been abandoned, from the expensiveness with whicli they are wrought, and the very limiteel demand which exists in this country for articles of mere decoration. Variegated anel shell marbles exist, in considerable quantities, in the Western States; and a very handsome pudding- stone marble is found in Maryland, at the foot of the Blue Ridge, on the banks of the Potomac, 50 or 60 miles above Wash- ington ; its colore are veiy various and striking, and it has beeii largely made use of in the construction of the columns in the interior of the capitol at Washington. Marblehead ; a post-town of Essex county, Massachusetts, situated on a penin- sula extending more than three miles into Massachusetts bay, and varying in breadth from one to two miles. It is four and a half miles south-east of Salem, antl 16 north- east of Boston. Lat. 42° 32 N.; lon. 70° 51' W.: population in 1810, 5800 ; in 1820, 5630; in 1830, 5150. The town is compactly built, but the streets are crook- ed and irregular. It contains five houses for public worship, and a custom-house ; a printing-office issues a weekly newspa- per. The harbor, a mile long and half a mile wide, is very safe, except from north- east storms. Marblehead was settled veiy soon after Salem, by a number of fisher- men, and the inhabitants have been prin- cipally devoted to the Bank fisheries. In this business, it has greatly excelled all the other towns in America. Previous to the revolution, it was very flourishing; it paid a larger tax, and was supposed to have more inhabitants, than any town in the state, ex- cept Boston. It suffered very severely by the war of the revolution, and again by the last war. At the close of the war in 1814, no less than 500 of its sons were in foreign prisons. The situation of Marblehead is such, that the people of the vicinity never travel through it to arrive at any other town. Thus secluded, the inhabitants have acquired a distinctive character, and a peculiar dialect The harbor is defend- ed by fort Sevvall, which stands on a point of land near the entrance, and is one of the best forts in the country. It has two 24-poundere, and ten 18-poundere. The barracks are bomb-proof, and can ac- commodate a garrison of about 60 or 70 men. Marbod, or Maroboduus. (See Mar- comanni, and Arminius.) Marbois, Francois, marquis of Barbe- Marbois, a French minister and diploma- tist, was born at Metz in 1745, where his father was director of the mint. After finishing his education, the young Marbois became tutor to the children of De Cas- tries, minister of marine, through whose good offices he obtained a post in the French legation to the U. States, during our revolution. Dela Luzerne (q.v.) was then the French minister in this countiy, but Marbois was the principal agent in the most important operations of the embassy. On the return of that minister to France (1784) M. Marbois continued in the coun- try as chargi d'affaires. He was after- wards appointed intendant (governor) of St. Domingo, aud having returned to France in 1791, was immediately sent by Louis, as his ambassador to the German diet. Marbois had hitherto taken no part in the revolutionary events, but in 1795 was chosen a member of the council of elders, and in the struggle between the directory and the councils, having defend- ed the latter, he was, with a number of his 272 MARBOIS—MARCELLUS. colleagues, condemned to deportation to Cayenne. After remaining two years and a half in exile, he received permission to return, and was nominated by the first consul counsellor of state, and, in 1801, secretary of the treasury, which was erected into a ministry. In consequence of some unsuccessful operations, he was removed in 1806, but was made grand-officer of the legion of honor and count of the em- pire. In 1808, he was made president of the cour des comptes, and was now a declared admirer of the emperor. In 1813, his expressions of devotion to the imperial government had introduced him into the senate, and in the next year, his name was found among the first to vote for the deposal of Napoleon. Louis XVIII created him peer of France, and confirmed him in the presidency of the cour des comptes. During the hundred tlays, Napoleon refuseel to see a man whom he accused of ingratitude. In 1815, the second restoration conferred on ltim the dignity of keeper of the seals. Although M. Barbe-Marbois defended the erection of the prevotal courts, he was not willing to go the whole length of the ultra- royalism of the period, and, in 1816, was obliged to surrender his port-folio, and was, soon after, created marquis. Since this period, he has taken a liberal stand in pol- itics. Among his works, besides some agricultural essays, and some productions in polite literature, we may mention his Essai sur les Finances de St.-Dominique ; Essai de Morale ; Complot d'Arnold (Ac- couut of Arnold's Conspiracy, 1816); His- toire de la Louisiane et de la Cession de cette Colonie (1829), a translation of which has been published in the U. States. Marburg ; capital of Upper-Hesse, in Hesse-Cassel, situated on the Lahn, with a population of 6700 inhabitants, a castle, and a university. It is built on the decliv- ity of a hill, on the summit of which is the castle. It has five Catholic, Lutheran and Calvinist churches. The university was founded in 1527, and has an excellent library of over 100,000 volumes, a valua- ble botanical garden, an anatomical thea- tre, and other institutions connected with it. In 1829, the number of students was 347. It is remarkable as being the firet Protestant university founded in Ger- many. Marcellinus Ammianus.' (See Ammia- nus Marcdlinus.) Marcello, Benedetto; a noble Vene- tian, youngest son of the senator Agostino Marcello. He was born in 1686; antl, while a youth, became a great proficient in the science of music, in consequence, it is said, of a reflection thrown upon his deficiency in that respect, at a concert given by his brother Alessandro, which hurt his pride, and stimulated him to exertion. He af- terwards studied under Gasparini, and, re- ceiving a liberal education, distinguished himself as a poet, as well as a musician. In 1716, aserenata of his composition was performed at the celebration of the birth of the firet son of the emperor Charles VI, and excited great applause. Eight yeare after appeared the firet four volumes of his adaptation to music of Giustiniani's Para- phrase of the Psalms, which he afterwards completed in eight more, the whole being published in 1726. Garth, of Durham, has adapted suitable words, from the English translation of the Psalms, to Marcello's mu- sic, with a view to their being performed as anthems in the cathedrals, with great suc- cess. This elaborate work was printed by subscription, in eight folio volumes. Marcello was successively a member of the council of forty, provveditore of Pola, and chamberlain of Brescia, in which city he died iu 1739. Marcellus, M. Claudius ; the firet Ro- man general who successfully encounter- ed Hannibal, in the second Punic war. During his consulship (B. C. 223) he had given the greatest proofs of his valor, in a single combat with Viridomarus, a Gallic chief, whom he slew; the Gauls, discour- aged by the loss of their leader, fled before an inferior Roman force. The result of this victory was the complete conquest of Upper Italy. Marcellus received the hon- or of a triumph, as the decree of the sen- ate expressed it, for his victory over the Insubri and Germans. This is the firet time that the Germans are mentioned in the Roman history, and the last mention we have of a personal contest between generals. Soon after this, the second Pu- nic war broke out, and, after the fatal bat- tle of Cannae, he was sent against Hanni- bal ; and, as praetor, took the command of the troops remaining at Canusium, in the room of Terentius Varro. On receiving information of Hannibal's march to Nola, he hastened to anticipate him, threw him- self into the city, and forced the Cartha- ginians to retreat, with a loss. Hannibal made a second attack upon Nola, and, as the place was untenable, Marcellus re- solved to risk a general engagement on the open plain. His army was inferior in point of numbers, but had the advantage of longer spears. After a hard-fought battle, Hannibal was driven to his camp. MARCELLIS—MARCHES. 273 Marcellus was now chosen consul, with the celebrated Fabius Maximus Cunctator for his colleague. He frustrated a third attempt of Hannibal to regain the city of Nola, and again offeretl him battle, which the latter declined. His activity was in- terrupted for a time by disease. He af- terwards went to his province of Sicily, where the siege of Syracuse was his most remarkable achievement After having used eveiy means (B. C. 214) to capture by force that city, whicb was defended by the mechanical ingenuity of Archimedes, he limited himself to a blockaele, and frus- trated all the efforts of the Carthaginians to relieve it, and succeeded, partly by ar- tifice, and partly by force, in making him- self master of the place (B. C. 212). The city was surrendered unconditionally, and he was unable to save it from pillage, but he gave orders that no Syracusan should be put to death. Many of the inhabitants, however, and among them Archimedes, were killed in the heat of victory. Mar- cellus was filled with regret on account of the death of Archimedes, granted many privileges to his connexions, and caused him to be buried with much pomp. Af- ter having reduced the greater part of the island, and gained a complete victory over the Carthaginians, he returned to Rome, and received the honor of an ovation. He was again made consul (B. C. 211), with M.Valerius Lavinius, and again re- ceived the command in Sicily. But the Syracusans sent ambassadors to Rome to complain of his cruelty, and pray for another general. Marcellus was acquit- ted, but he voluntarily exchanged prov- inces and remained in Italy. The Syra- cusans afterwards repented of their con- duct, and entreated his forgiveness. He pardoned them, and procured them the restoration of their former privileges, and the honor of being considered as allies of Rome. As a mark of gratitude, they de- clared themselves the clients of the Mar- cellian family. In the mean time, Mar- cellus carried on the war against Hannibal in Italy, and fought an undecisive battle at Numistrum. In the succeeding year, he was defeated by Hannibal at Canusium ; but, having rallied the fugitives, and in- spired them with fresh courage, he renew- ed the contest on the following day, and gained the victory, though with a heavy loss. B. C. 209, he was chosen consul the fifth time, with T. Quintius Crispinus. The two consuls united their forces on the Liris, but Hannibal avoided giving battle. The Romans, preparing to encamp upon a neighboring hill, were suddenly surround- ed ; they would, however, have been able to cut their way through, had not the Etrurians, who composed the largest part of the cavalry, immediately surrendered. Marcellus himself fell ; his son and the other consul escaped. Thus died this great general, who made himself formidable to Hannibal himself. He was called the sword, as Fabius was the shield, of Rome. Hannibal took die ring from his finger, and caused the body to be burnt with the most distinguished honors, and sent the ashes to his son, in a costly urn. His family continued to flourish, and furnish- ed many consuls, until it became extinct with tbe son of Octavia, the sister of Au- gustus, whom Virgil has immortalized. March (Latin Mars); originally the firet month of the Roman year; so named, according to tradition, by Romulus in honor of his father, Mare. Till the adop- tion of the new style in England (1752), the 25th of March was new year's day; hence January, February, and the first 24 days of March have frequently two years appended, as January 1, 170£, or 1701-2. (See Calendar.) March ; a movement by regular steps in the manner of soldiers; also a journey performed by a body of soldiers either on foot or on horseback. Soldiers on a march are subject to certain rules very necessary to keep them in good oreler, and fit to meet the enemy. The march in the firet sense of regular step differs on differ- ent occasions. In the parade-march, from 75 to 95 steps, differing in different armies, are made in a minute ; in the quick-march, from 108 to 115 steps; and in the storming- march, 120 steps, in the Prussian army.— March further signifies the music com- posed for such movements ; it is compos- ed in J. or ^ time for the parade-march, and in f for quick-time. There are ma- ny sorts of such marches for festivals, fu- nerals, &c, varying according to their different purposes. Marche ; one of the ancient provinces of France, bounded north by Berry and the Bourbonnais, east by Auvergne, and south by Guienne and Limousin. Its name is derived from its having been on the frontier of these provinces, and it was often called Marche du Limousin. In die middle ages, it had, for some time, its own sovereign counts. Philippe le Bel acquir- ed it by confiscation. It afterwards be- longed to the house of Armagnac, and that of Bourbon-Montpensier. Francis finally united it with the crown domains. (See Department.) Marches (from the Middle Latin, mar- 274 MARCHES—MARCOMANNI. ca, marcha, a boundary); the frontiers of a state. Thus in English history, we read of the lords of the Welsh marches, that is, of the frontiers of England and Wales; the marches of Scodand were di- vided into west and middle marches. The office of the lords marchers was orig- inally to guard the frontiers, (See Mar- quess.) The corresponding word in French is marche (see Marche), in German mark, in Italian marca. In die estates of the church was a province called Marca, divided into the march or marquisate of Ancona and that of Fermo. In the Ve- netian territory was the Marca Trtvisana. In Germany, the mark of Brandenburg (q. v.) or the electoral mark (Kurmark), was divided into the Mittelmark, Neu- mark, Altmark, Vormark and Ukermark, So Steiermark (marquisate of Stiria), Danemark (Denmark). (See Margrave.) Marchesi, Luigi, called also Marche- sini, a celebrated singer, born at Milan about 1755. While a youth, having at- tracted the attention of some cognoscenti, he was encouraged by them to quit his father's house privately, went to Bergamo, and there subjected himself to the necessary mutilation. After completing his studies in Munich (1775—77), he returned to his native countiy, where he was received with the greatest admiration and enthu- siasm. The academy at Pisa caused a medal to be struck in his honor; he after- wards sung in Rome, Vienna, Petersburg, Berlin, and in 1788 went to London,where the directors of the Italian opera gave him £1500 for one winter, with a benefit and his expenses. Marchesi was not less remarkable for the beauty of his pereon and his grace and propriety of gesture, than for his voice. He sang in Vienna in 1801. The time of his death is un- known. Marchfeld ; the Austrian circle under the Mannhartzberg, in the country below the Ens (as it is called); particularly the fertile plain from Bockfliess to the rivers March and Danube, about 23 English miles long and 14 wide—a spot, the posi- tion of which has made it at several epochs the field of decisive battles, and which is therefore of great interest for the military student Ottocar of Bohemia, defeated here, in 1260, Bela IV of Hun- gary, and conquered Stiria, which has since remained united to Germany. In another battle, fought here August 26, 1278, between Ottocar and Rodolph of Hapsburg, Ottocar fell. This day laid the foundation of the house of Hapsburg, which is still seated on the throne of Aus- tria. The third battle on this bloody plain was that of Aspem (q. v.) May 21 and 22, 1809; anil the fourth, the battle of Wagram (q. v.), July Sand 6, 1809. Marcion, Marcionites. (See Gnos- tics.) Marcomanni, Markomanni, i. e. bor- derers (see Marches); a powerful league of ancient German nations. After Cae- sar's death, they lived between the Danube and the Rhine. After the Romans had conquered Noricum and Pannonia, and had become dangerous to the Marcoman- ni from their proximity, the latter retired, and, under their king, Maroboduus, made themselves mastere of the kingdom of the Boii in the present Bohemia, called by the Germans Bojenheim. By artifice and vio- lence, Maroboduus soon formed a union of a number of tribes under his sovereignty, and became dangerous to the Romans, as this league could bring 70,000 disciplined troops into the field. The Romans were prevented from attacking him by an in- surrection of the Pannonians ; for which reason Tiberius concluded a treaty with him, six years after Christ; but he was defeated by the Cherusci under Hermann (Arminius), (A. D. 19)r The same was the fate of bis successor, the Goth, Catual- da. Both fled to the Romans, who as- signed them Ravenna and Aquileia for a residence. Relations of Maroboduus now governed the Marcomanni, who avoided all hostilities against the Romans till the time of Domitian. They subsequently made incursions into the Roman territory. Trajan and Hadrian held them in check. They invaded Pannonia (A. D. 166). Af- ter a long conflict, which is celebrated in Roman history under the name of the Marcomannic war, Antoninus the Philos- opher (q. v.) drove them back beyond the Danube. Commodus purchased peace in 180, which they observed, however, only so long as they were paid tribute, or Rome had a resolute ruler. They devas- tated Noricum and Rhaetia, and even ad- vanced through the passes of the Alps. Under Aurelian, in 270, they filled all Italy with consternation. But in the fifth cen- tury, the name of Marcomanni disappear- ed. The general migration of the nations consigned the names of the ancient tribes to oblivion. After the overthrow of the dominion of the Huns, the Rugii, Heruli, Scyri, Turcelingi made their appearance in the countries of the former Marco- manni. A powerful nation, the Baioarii, we find in the mountains of Noricum and' Rhaetia, which Mannert assigns strong reasons for regarding as the same with MARCOMANNI—MAREMME. 275 the Marcomanni, who had emigrated hither, being driven from their residences by the Rugii, Longobardi, &c. The Ba- ioarii are the progenitors of the Bavarians. (q. v.) Marco Polo. (See Polo.) Marculphus ; a monk, known in the history of the feudal law, for his work, entitled the Formulary, consisting of a collection of formularia or forms of fo- rensic proceedings and legal instruments, including charters, &c. of the kings of France. He lived about the middle of the seventh century. Jerome Bignon published the formulary of Marculphus, with learned annotations, in 1613, reprint- ed in 1666; but the most complete edition is that of Baluze, in the second volume of his Capitularies (1677). Marcus Aurelius. (See Antoninus.) Mardi Gras (Fat Tuesday) is the French name for Shrove Tuesday, be- cause it was formerly, and, in many cases, is still, customary to make this a day of feasting and merriment, by way of prepa- ration for the 40 days' fast of Lent, which immediately follows. Maremme ; tracts of countiy in Middle Italy, partly in the States of the Church, partly in Tuscany, in the region of Sienna, on the Tuscan sea, and on the western declivity of the Apennines, and partly also in Naples. These tracts, by reason of the unhealthy exhalations of a soil abounding in sulphur and alum, cannot be inhabited in summer without danger. This un- healthiness has been especially observed since the 15th century, and has already begun to advance to the Amo, this side of the Volterra, although Volterra rises 3600 feet above the level of the sea. The ■ population of a region, whicli has thus become unhealthy, must emigrate, or be swept away by fever, and this mal' aria already prevails in different streets of Rome, which it will, perhaps, one day render uninhabitable. Whenever, from a diminution of culture, the vegetation con- sumes less of the mephitic air, the evil becomes worse. On the other hand, the Maremme afford, in winter, a luxuriant pasturage for cattle, which graze, in sum- mer, on the Apennines, and, in this season, man himself experiences no difficulty in dwelling there in houses, or in the open air. In the Roman Maremme, which, the former small proprietors having been bought out, have become, for miles, the depopulated possessions of a few princes, a small part of the land is used in years of scarcity, for the cultivation of wheat The earth is ploughcd'irt autumn ; hired laborers, from far and near, take care of the harvest, and, on the field, thresh out the grain, which is then deposited in the great magazines of the estates, whence it is conveyed to Rome or to Ostia, for further transportation. These laborers are so careless, that they sleep under the few trees, or in the open air, and if they are attacked with the fever, after some heavy dews at night, the steward of the estate gives them their dearly earned wages and a loaf, with which they return to their mountains, unless previously overtaken by death. Tbe more salubrious atmosphere of their mountains often restores them but slowly. From the oppressive poverty of die Italian mountaineers (of those, at least, who do not cany on robbery for a liveli- hood), there is never any want of men and women, who come down during the harvest, in die face of death, to collect a few scudi, to pay their rents, and for bread. The younger these laborers are, the more liable are they to the deadly fever. The insalubrity, moreover, betrays itself neither by mist nor by an offensive atmosphere; on the contrary, the air seems very pure, and the horizon of a clear blue. In part of Tuscany, exertions have been made to improve the corrupted air in these pesti- lent regions, by planting trees; by this expedient, the evil has been lessened in a degree, but by no means entirely removed, as is proved, for example, by the environs of the Lago di Bolsena (lake of Thra- symene), which have much wood, but suffer from the mal' aria. There were meadows at Antium, which were in ill report for their unhealthiness, even in the times of the Romans. At present, these same meadows, provided the open air at night is avoided, are perfectly healthy. 2000, and even 1500 yeare ago, the whole Campagna di Roma was very densely in- habited, and a garden; and probably for that very reason, the countiy was as healthy as it now is the contrary. Since the period of the migrations of die nations, husbandly on a small scale, and the use of the spade, which Cato Major esteemed 60 highly, have disappeared; and the more the property in the Campagna di Roma became accumulated in the pos- session of religious corporations and in entailed estates, the more unhealthy be- came the ancient territory of the Romans. According to Lullien de Chateauvieux, the smell and vapors betray, every w here in the Maremme, the presence of sulphureous springs, which form permanent quagmires. But this mal' aria cannot proceed exclu sively from the waters of the marshes, or 276 MAREMME—M ARET. tbe nakedness of the land, for it is equally dangerous on the mountains and in the depths of the forest. The evil probably has its origin in the chemical properties of the soil developed by some latent ope- ration of nature. Unless some mean's of remedying the unhealthy air be discov- ered, or some new volcano shall effect the purification of the atmosphere by erup- tions, it is highly probable that Middle Italy, south of the AJps, may become, after the lapse of centuries, a desert, used in winter for the pastuiage of cattle, and totally uninhabitable in summer. The Pontine (q. v.) and other marshes do not belong to the Maremme. These are a consetpience of the imperfect draining of the lowlands, between the coasts of the sea and the foot of the Apennines. A grand canal along the foot of this chain of mountains, should receive all its waters, and, as its bed would be higher than the level of the Mediterranean, where the former mouths of the rivers have been filled with sand, and have thereby become choked, should cany them, by many broad and deep canals, frequently cleared out, into the sea. And if the lowlands, which it is impossible to drain thoroughly, were planted with thickly-leaved trees, and many small villages were settled there, these swamps would soon become healthy. Marengo ; a village in the plains be- tween Alexandria and Tortona, in the royal Sardinian duchy of Montferrat, celebrated for the battle of June 14, 1800. Bonaparte had passed the Alps, between the 16th and 27th of May, with 60,000 men. Melas, the Austrian general, discovered his danger too late. June 2, Bonaparte had obtained possession of the fortress of Bardo, which commanded the entrance of the valley of Aosta; Murat advanced ou Milan, Suchet took Nice, and Berthier defeated at 3iontebello the lieutenant field-marshal Von Ott June 13, Desaix arrived from Egypt, at the head-quarters of Bonaparte ; the main body of the army was concentrated at Marengo : Desaix commanded the consular guard. On the 14th, the battle was fought, in which Desaix was killed, and the Austrian army, under Melas, was driven beyond the Bonnida, with a loss of 1200 killed, and 7000 taken prisonere.—About noon, on the day of battle, the French columns, under Lannes and Victor, destitute of ammunition, and reduced to half their number, were compelled to retreat. They retired under cover of Kellermann's brig- ade of cavalry. The slow advance of the Austrians, and the false direction of their numerous cavalry, gave the remains of the French army time to rally behind the corps of Desaix, which the firet consul had already ordered to Novi, to cut off the enemy's retreat to Genoa, but vvhich was now recalled in haste. Desaix had taken his position at St Giuliano, on the left side of the road from Tortona to Alexandria, when Kellermann arrived with his brigade of cavalry, having re- ceived from the adjutant Savary the command to support the attack of this general. Thus the battle was renewed. Kellermann had only 400 horse, and those fatigued by an eight hours' contest The infantry of Desaix was about 3000 or 4000 strong. The enemy was certain of victo- ry. Desaix was mortally wounded at the first attack, and his little corps, unable to resist, retreated. Behind the vineyards which covered him, Kellermann saw 6000 Hungarian grenadiers break their ranks in pursuit of the French. He threw him- self into the midst of the enemy, who, tereified by this unexpected attack, cut off from their cavalry, and thinking them- selves sun-ounded, threw down their arms before the little band. The Austrian main body supposed that the enemy had received a'powerful reinforcement, and fell back, in haste and disorder, to Bormi- da. Thus Kellermann decided the vic- tory. This defeat led to the armistice of Alexandria, between Bonaparte and Me- las, according to the terms of whicli the Austrians evacuated, within 14 days, the citadels of Alexandria, Tortona, Milan, Turin, Pizzighitone, Arona and Piacenza, with the fortified places of Genoa, Coni, Ceva, Savona and Urbino, and retired beyond Piacenza, between the Po and the Mincio. Maret, Hugh Bernard, duke of Bassa- no, was bom at Dijou, in 1758, and, after finishing his couree of legal studies, went to Paris, with the intention of purchasing a post, when the meeting of the states- general gave a new turn to his views. Having established a journal called the Bulletin de VAssemblie, in which the de- bates were very accurately reported, his success induced Panckouke to engage him to report for the Moniteur (q. v.), which the former then undertook to pub- lish. In a small house, in the street St Thomas du Louvre, where the office of the paper was kept, he became acquaint- ed with lieutenant Bonaparte. Until 1791, Maret was a member of the Jacobin club, but after the events on the Champs- de-Mars (July 17 of that year), he left it, MARET—MARGARET OF ANJOU. 277 and became one of the foundere of the club of Feuillans, or constitutional mon- archists. Iu 1792, he was sent to Lon- don, to negotiate with the English minis- try, but without success. Lord Grenville sent back his despatches unopened, antl ordered him to quit the kingdom within three days. He was next sent on a mis- sion to Italy; the whole legation was, however, seized by the Austrians on neu- tral territory, and thrown into prison at Mantua, whence they were transported into Tyrol, and released after a confine- ment of two yeare and a half. During his imprisonment, and for several yeare after his release, Maret was actively occu- pied with literary studies, and did not again act an important part in public affaire until after the 18th Brumaire (see France), when he was named secretary of state, with the dignity of minister. From this time, he was high in favor with the firet consul and the emperor, who reposed the most unbounded confidence in his integ- rity, prudence and judgment In 1805, the grand eagle of the legion of honor was confened on him, and, during sever- al succeeding yeare, his services were re- quired in Austria, Poland and Prussia. In 1809, he was created duke of Bassano, and, in 1811, minister of foreign affairs. In the Russian war of 1812—13, he also followed the emperor, and, on the disas- ters in Russia, returned to Paris, when he demanded a new levy of 350,000 men. The portfolio of foreign affairs was with- drawn from him, and given to Caulain- court, in 1814, Maret being, nevertheless, employed in important negotiations with the ministers at Chatillon. On the fall of Napoleon, the duke continued attached to him to the last, and on the emperor's re- turn, again received his former post of secretary of state, anel was created peer of France. After the second restoration, he was banished, but permitted to return in 1820. Marforio ; a colossal statue, represent- ing the river Rhine, in a lying posture, and standing in the court of a wing of the Capitol (q. v.) at Rome. The name Marfo- rio is said to be a corruption of that of the Mamertine prison or of the temple of .liars, which were near the spot where this statue originally stood, on the forum Ro- manum. The Marforio is famous for hav- ing served, like the Pasquino (q. v.), as the place where the Romt.n satirists placed their sallies. Margaret, queen of Denmark, Nor- way and Sweden, very justly called die northern Scmiramis, the daughter of Wal- vol. viii. 24 demar III, king of Denmark, was bora at Copenhagen, in 1353, and married to Ha- quin or Hacon, king of Norway, in 1303. The talents, firmness and beauty of the princess rendered her popular among her countrymen, and, on the death of her father, she succeeded in placing her son Olaus on the throne of Denmark. The death of her husband in 1380, put the government of Norway in her hands, and the plan of uniting the three kingdoms, which was favored by the imbecility of the Swedish monarch, seems now to have occupied the mind of this princess. Olaus died in 1387, and Margaret, by her ad- dress, caused herself to be declared queen. Taking advantage of the domestic dissen- sions in Sweden, and flattering the nobles with the prospect of greater power, she raised a party in that country who recog- nised her as queen; and having defeated the troops of Albert, the Swedish king, at Falkceping, she soon obtained possession of the throne. Looking forward to a per- manent union of the three crowns, she endeavored to effect her purpose by the celebrated act of union, or treaty of Cal- mar (1397). She restored tranquillity at home, and was successful against the for- eign enemies of her kingdom, but her peace was disturbed by the ingratitude of Eric, whom she had nominated her suc- cessor. She died in 1412, after having, by her prudence, energy, address antl fore- sight, raised herself to a degree of power and grandeur, then unequalled in Europe from the time of Charlemagne. (Sec Noricay, Sweden, and Denmark.) Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Reg- nier, or Rene the Good, titular king of Sicily, was manied in 1443, to the imbe- cile Henry VI (q. v.) of England. By the marriage articles, Maine was given up to her uncle Charles of Anjou, and this ces- sion facilitated the conquest of Normandy by the French. The loss of this important province was attributed to Margaret, and the house of commons accused Suffolk, the author of her marriage and the favor- ite minister of the queen, of high treason. He was banished the kingdom. Soon after the sentence, and without having quitted the countiy, he was murdered. In the war of the roses, whicli soon began to desolate England, Margaret played a conspicuous and important part. The bold, active, and even fierce temper of this princess, contrasted singularly with the feeble character of her husband. She was for a long time the life of the Lan- castrian party. She defeated the duke of York, and, placing a paper crown on his 278 MARGARET OF ANJOU—MARGARET OF VALOIS. bead, exposed him at the gates of die city of York. In 1461, the princess defeated Warwick, at St. Alban's, and her victories were always stained with numerous exe- cutions. The son of the late duke of York, the gallant young Edward, soon ap- peared at the heael of the Yorkists, who now became victorious. Margaret's army was annihilated at Towton, and Edward was declared king. (See Edward IV.) The unhappy queen succeeded in obtain- ing assistance from Louis XI of France, but was again defeated, and compelled to flee. After concealing herself iu the wild- est parts of the country, where she was often compelled to suffer the greatest pri- vations, and even endured the greatest in- dignities from the lawless bands, with which the distracted kingdom was then infested, the queen finally took refuge in France. It was not long before Warwick became embroiled with the young king, and determined to replace Henry on the throne. Edward was in turn obliged to escape to the continent, but, having obtain- ed assistance from the duke of Burgundy, reappeared in England after a few months, and defeated Warwick at Barnet, on the very day that Margaret landed in Eng- land with her son then 18 yeare of age. On hearing of the defeat and death of her champion, the courage of Margaret seem- ed for once to forsake her, and she took refuge in the monastery of Beaulieu. But her undaunted and masculine spirit again led her to the field; having collected her partisans, the hostile forces met at Tewks- bury, and the Lancastrians were totally defeated. Her son was carried before the king. " How dare you," said Edward, "enter my realm with banner flying?" "To recover my father's kingdom," an- swered the prince, with the spirit of his mother, "and heritage from his father and grandfather to him, and from him to me lineally descended." Edward pushed him back, and the barbarous birds de- spatched him. Henry soon after died, if he was not murdered, in the Tower, and Margaret remained iu prison four yeare. Louis XI ransomed her for 50,000 crowns, and, in 1482, she died, " the most unhappy queen, wife and mother," says Voltaire, "in Europe." Her courage, her suffer- ings, and her crimes have been delineated with historic truth and poetic beauty by the genius of Shakspeare. Margaret of Austria, daughter of the emperor Maximilian I, born in 1480, was pirnt to France, after the death of her mother, Mary of Burgundy, to be edu- cated at the court of Louis XI, to whose son (Charles VIII) she was affianced Charles, however, having married Anna, heiress of Brittany, she was sent back to her father's court, and was married in 1497 to John, Infant of Spain. On the voyage to Spain, a terrible storm threat ened the destruction of tbe ship. In the mitlst of the danger, while the rest of the company were at their prayers, she is said to have composed her epitapb in the fol lowing words: Cu-git Margot, la gente demoiselle, Diu ifois marie'e et morte pucelle. She arrived in safety, but, October 4,1497, the Infant died. In 1501, she was mar- ried to Philibert 11, duke of Savoy, who died in 1504. Her father then named her governess of the Netherlands, where her administration was distinguished by pru- dence and vigor. She died in 1530. Jean le Maire collected her addresses before the court and the estates, in the Couronne Margaritique (1549), which contains also many poems, and her Discours de sa vie et de ses infortunes. Fonteuelle has matle her a speaker in one of bis witty Dia- logues of the Dead. Margaret ok Valois, queen of Na- varre, sister to Francis I, was born at An- gouleme in 1492. She was brought up at the court of Louis XJI, and married the duke of Alencon iu 1509, became a widow in 1525; and, in 1527, was espoused to Henry d'Albret, king of Navarre. She joined with her husband iu every effort lo make their small kingdom flourish, by encouraging agriculture and the useful arts, and by improving knowledge and civilization. She was fond of reading, and had been led by curiosity to make herself acquainted with the principles of the reformers, to which she became par- tially a convert, and not only afforded protection to reformed divines, but usetl her influence with her brother Francis to the same purpose. She also read the Bible in the Frencli translation, and form- ed mysteries for representation, from the New Testament, which she caused to be performed at court. She wrote a work entitled Le Miroir de VAme picheresse, printed in 1533, which inclined the cen- sure of the Sorbonne. She underwent some ill treatment from her husband on this account, and might have suffered more, but for the interposition of her brother, Francis I, who was much attach- ed to her, and in complaisance to whom she, externally at least, became more strict in ber attention to the ceremonial of the ancient religion. It will appear extraor- MARGARET OF VALOIS—MARIA LOUISA. 279 dinary in the present day, that a princess so contemplative and pious as Margaret of Valois, should be author of a book of tales as free in their tendency as those of Boccaccio. Such is Heptamtron, ou sept Journies de la Reyne de Navarre, which was written during the gayety of youth, but not printed until after her death. She died in 1549, leaving one child, Joan d'Al- bret, afterwards mother of Henry IV. In 1547, a collection of her poems and othei pieces was printed, under the title of Mar- guerites de la Marguerite des Princesses. Margaret, called Madame de Parma, duchess of Parma, the natural daughter of Charles V and Margaret of Gest, was born 1522, and married firet to Alexander of Medici, and afterwards to Octavio Far- nese, duke of Parma and Piacenza. Philip II, of Spain, appointed her to the government of the Netherlands, in 1559, where she acted, under the advice of Gran- vella (q. v.), with considerable prudence, and, perhaps, might have restored quiet, had not the king sent the duke of Alva to aid in suppressing the disaffection. Alva brought such powere, that nothing but the title of sovereign was left to Margaret, who returned, indignantly, to Italy, to her husband, and died at Ortona in 1586. Her son was the famous Alexander Far- nese, duke of Parma. Margaret of France, queen of Na- varre, wife of Henry IV, daughter of Henry II, was bom in 1552, antl was one of the greatest beauties of her age. Her talents and accomplishments correspond- ed to the charms of her person. She Avas married to Henry, then prince of Beam, in 1572; but the duke of Guise was known to be the object of her affec- tions, and, notwithstanding her amiable qualities and brilliant beauty, she never possessed the heart of her husband. (See Henri/ IV.) The gallantries of Henry, which he never pretended to conceal from his wife, could not excuse nor authorize, but doubtless contributed to increase, her own irregularities. On the escape of Henry from Paris, she demanded per- mission of Henry HI to follow him, but was not, for a long time, allowed to de- part. After living several years with the king of Navarre, she returned to Paris, on account of some disgust at the restraints placed on the exercise of the Cath- olic religion, and while there was guil- ty of the greatest licentiousness. Re- jected at once from the court of Na- varre and that of Paris, she maintained herself in the Agenois, in open defiance of her husband and brother. On the acces- sion of the former to the throne of France, he proposed to dissolve their maniage, to which she consented, on condition of re- ceiving a suitable pension, and having her debts paid. In 1605, Margaret returned to Paris, where she lived in great splen- dor, retaining her beauty, wit, and habits of dissipation, and died in 1615, at the age of 63. The house of Margaret was frequented by the wits of the day, and she knew how to unite excessive indul- gence in pleasure with attention to study. Some very agreeable poems by her are extant, and her Mimoires (1661 and 1713) are extremely curious. Margate ; a watering place in the isle of Thanet, Kent, England, 72 miles E. of London, with which it has frequent com- munication by steam vessels. Population, 7843. It has several pleasant promenades, among which the pier is the favorite. It is much resorted to for sea-bathing. Margrave (from the German Mark- grafi count of the mark ; in Latin, Marchio; see Marches); originally a commander in- trusted with the protection of a mark, or a countiy on the frontier. As early as the times of Charlemagne, marks and margraves appear; for instance, the mark of Austria. The margraves stood imme- diately under the German kings and em- perors, and not under the tlukes, in whose countiy the margraviate was situated ; yet there were also some margraves depend- ent on dukes. In the 12th century, mar graviates became hereditary, and, at last, the margraves acquired the rank of princes of the empire, and stood between counts and dukes in the German empire. The word mark signified, anciently, a land- mark, and was then taken for countries on the frontier; as the mark Brandenburg. Maria da Gloria. See Miguel, Don. Maria Louisa, queen of Spain, daugh- ter of Philip duke of Parma, born in 1751, was married to Charles IV, against his wishes, but in obedience to the express commands of his father, in 1765. Maria was prudent, not without address, and much superior to her husband in under- standing. She soon overcame the violent temper of Charles, whicli at firet broke out into acts of personal outrage, and so far prevailed over the formality of the Span- ish court as to have unrestricted access to the king. Every thing was submitted to her approval. For her favorites she took care to secure the favor of the king previ- ously to avowing her own inclinations, and thus had the merit of appearing to yield to the wishes of her husband. Even while princess of Austria, an intrigue with 280 MARIA LOUISA OF SPAIN—MARIA THERESA. die elder Godoy was only terminated by his banishment from Madrid. His place was supplied by his younger brother, don Manuel Godoy (q. v.), who became equal- ly the favorite of Charles. (See Charles IV.) Their intrigues led to the affair of the Escurial, in whicli Maria acted a most unnatural part against her son. (Seei^er- dinand VII.) In 1808, the revolution of Aranjuez took place, Charles abdicated, and Maria threw herself into the arms of the French. Charles was obliged to re- tract his abdication, and that celebrated correspondence with Murat followed, in which Maria Louisa, in a letter written with her own hand, accuses her son of hardheartedness, cruelty ,aiid want of affec- tion for his parents. After the well-known proceedings at Bayonne, Maria Louisa remained in "France a short time with Godoy aud the ex-king, and finally went to Rome, where she dieel in 1819. (See Spain.) Maria Louisa, Leopoldine Caroline, arch-duchess of Austria, duchess of Pat- ina, eldest daughter of the emperor Fran- cis 1 by his second marriage, with Maria Theresa, daughter of Ferdinand, king of Naples, was born in 1791, and married to tbe emperor Napoleon at Paris, April 1, 1810. This connexion seemed to confinn the peace of the continent Napoleon conducted his bride, in a kind of triumph, through the provinces of his empire. March 20,1811, Maria Louisa became the mother of a son. The court of the cm- press was now more brilliant than ever. The next year, Maria Louisa accom- panied her husband to Dresden, and visited, iu company with her imperial parents, her former home. After this she returned to Paris. Before setting out for his final struggle, Napoleon appointed her regent of the empire, with many limita- tions. March 29, 1814, she was obliged to leave Paris with her son, and, April 1, retired to Blois, by the command of her husband. April 11, Napoleon abdicated his authority. She then went to Orleans, and, April 12, attended by prince Ester- hazy, proceeded to Rambouillet On the 16th, she had an interview with her father, at Petit-Trianon, wiiich decided her fate. She was not permitted to follow her hus- band. In May, she passed through Swit- zerland, with her son, to Schonbrunn ; and, March 17, 1816, she entered upon the ad- ministration of the duchies of Parma, Pia- cenza and Guastalla, secured to her by the treaty of Fontaiuebleau (April 11, 1814). April 20, 1816, she made her entry into Parma. In May, 1816, she declared her- self grand-mistress of the Coiistantme or- der of Sr. George, which she had estab- lished. As Spain refused to accede to the acts of the congress of Vienna, it was agreed at Paris, June 28, 1817, between Austria, Russia, France, Spain, England and Prussia, that the duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla, on the death of the arch-duchess Maria Louisa (who no longer bore the title of empress, but that of your majesty), should revert to the In- fanta Maria Louisa, formerly queen of Etruria (princess of Lucca), and her male heirs, and that Lucca should then be an- nexed to Tuscany. Austria, however, re- tained the Parmesan district (surrounded by the kingdom of Lombardy) on the left bank of the Po, and the right of maintain- ing a garrison in Piacenza. The son of Napoleon and Maria Louisa, formerly he- reditary prince of Parma, is no longer called Napoleon, in the state calendar, but Francis Charles Joseph. By the treaty above-mentioned, on the death of his mother, and the reversion of Parma to the house of Bourbon, he will receive the appanage of Ferdinand grand-duke of Tuscany, in Bohemia. In 1818, the em- peror Francis conferred upon the prince, his grandson, the title of duke of Reich- stadt. (q. v.) When his father returned from Elba to Paris, in 1815, a plan was formed for carrying off the young prince from Schonbrunn, where he was under the care of the countess Montesquiou, who had accompanied him from France, The empress Maria Louisa hael also received lettere from her husband, inviting her to come, with her son, to France: but his letters were not answered. The design of carrying off the prince, conceived by the son of tbe countess Montesquiou, was dis- covered at tbe moment of its execution, March 19, 1815. The, prince was trans- ferred to Vienna, and placed under the inspection of Germans. May 29, he was again restoretl to his mother. When she went to Parma, he remained in Vienna, where he is attended entirely by Germans. Maria of Medici. (See Mary of Me- dici.) Maria Stuart. (See Mary Stuart.) Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary and Bohemia, arch-duchess of Austria, and empress of Germany, daughter of the emperor Charles VI, was born at Vienna, 1717, and, in 1736, married duke Francis Stepben of Lorraine (who, in 1737, be- came grand-duke of Tuscany, by virtue of the treaty of Vienna, Oct. 3, 1735); the day after the death of Charles (Oct 21, 1740), ascendetl the throne of Hungary, MARIA THERESA. 28! Bohemia and Austria ; and, November 21, declared her husband joint ruler. She found the kingdom exhausted, the people dissatisfied, the treasury empty, and the army (with the exception of the troops in Italy) only 30,000 strong. The elector, Charles Albert of Bavaria, supported by IVance, laiel claim to the Austrian heredi- tary tenitories, and the electors of Cologne and the Palatinate would likewise not acknowledge the succession of Maria Theresa. Charles Albert of Bavaria was descended from Anna, elder daughter of Ferdinand I, who, by will, had appointed that, upon the extinction of the Austrian male line, the succession to the throne of Bohemia and Austria should devolve up- on his daughters and their heirs. Mean- while Prussia, Poland and Saxony, Rus- sia, the States-General and England, de- clared for the queen. France only delayed to make an express acknowledgment. Just in this situation of the Austrian court, Frederic II renewed his claim to four Silesian principalities, and offered, if he received them, to defend the young queen against her enemies. At the same time (Dec. 23, 1740), he marched with an army into Silesia. Maria Theresa was as much surprised as enraged at this step of the king, and Frederic's offers were re- fused altogether. Meanwhile, the king made rapiel progress in Silesia, where the Protestants, who were much oppressed by the government of Austria, received him with joy. The queen of Hungary, although she could nowhere find an ally, with great resolution refused any kind of submission, and collected an army in Moravia, under general Neipperg. But the want of magazines, and the bad roads, prevented Neipperg from acting effec- tively. The Austrians were beaten at Molwitz, April 10, 1741. Marshal Belle- Isle, in the name of France, now nego- tiated with tbe king of Prussia, at Molwitz, upon the dissolution of the Austrian mon- archy. Philip V, king of Spain, as a descendant in the male line of the house of Hapsburg, by virtue of the family con- tracts of 1617, laid claim lo the throne of Austria; Charles Emanuel, king of Sar- dinia, a descendant of Catharine, second daughter of Philip II, demanded Milan; Augustus III, notwithstanding the treaty just concluded by him with Maria There- sa, made similar demands on account of his wife, eldest daughter of Joseph I. France had already contrived a plan of division; however, Frederic woultl not accede to it, lest France should become too powerful in Germany, but turned to 24* George II of England, hoping, by his means, to induce the queen of Hungary to compliance. But she remained deter- mined to defend the whole kingdom of her fathere, and England promised her a subsidy of £500,000. She had even already formed the design of dividing the states of the king of Prussia, antl invited the king of England firet to invade them. But Great Britain sought merely to nego- tiate a peace. Bavaria, in July, 1741, having begun the war against Austria, and two strong French armies having crossed the Rhine and the Maese ; Frederic, like- wise, having conquered almost all Silesia; the attempt at mediation, on the part of England, proved fruitless. Maria There- sa considered herself not warranted in giving up the smallest part of her kingdom. She became still more fixed in this deter- mination, by the birth of tbe arch-duke Joseph. Her husband had little influence, and interfered little iu the business of government Hardly had the negotia- tions with Frederic been broken off, when Belle-Isle with a French army, and the elector of Bavaria, marched into Austria. Linz was taken, and the elector acknowl- edged arch-duke. The Bavarians and Frencli marched to St Polten, and Vienna was summoned to surrender. The king of England, who wished to send assist- ance to Maria Theresa, was compelled, by a second French army, to conclude a treaty of neutrality, in respect to Hanover, and to promise not to oppose the elevation of the elector of Bavaria to the imperial throne. The electors of Saxony, of Co- logne, and of the Palatinate, acceded to the union against Maria Theresa, Spain, on the point of entering Italy, had secured the neutrality of the pope anil the remain- ing Italian princes, and the king of Sar- dinia was prepared to join his troops to those of the house of Bourbon. In Sile- sia, Frederic was master of the capital, and on the point of uniting himself with the Frencli and Bavarians. Maria The- resa's cause was desperate; forsaken by her allies, without troops, or money, or gootl ministers, she was preserved only by her courage, by the attachment of the brave Hungarians, and by the help of Eng- land, In this necessity, she summoned a diet at Presburg, and appeared before the assembly in mourning, clothed in the Hungarian fashion, the crown of St Ste- phen on her head, and girt with the kingly sword. She addressed a speech, in Latin, tt, the states, in which she described hersifia- tion,and committed herself and her children entirely to the protection of her Hungarians. 282 MARIA THERESA. The youth, the beauty, and the misfortunes of the quee., made a deep impression. The magnates drew their sabres and exclaimed, " Moriamurpro rege nostra Maria Theresa." Till then she had preserved a calm, majes- tic demeanor; now she melted into tears, and the interest was still more increased. The troops furnished by Hungary, by their manner of fighting, aud by their ferocity, spread terror through the German and Frencli armies. In the mean time, the allies quarrelled among themselves, to which the pride of Belle-Isle much con- tributed, who wished to treat the German princes as vassals of France. Bavaria and Saxony contended for the supremacy. The king of Prussia therefore concluded, under British mediation (Oct 9, 1741), a secret treaty with the English ambassador (who was invested with authority, for this purpose, by the queen of Hungary), ac- cording to which Lower Silesia was to be surrendered to Prussia. Soon after (Oc- tober 26), Prague was conquered by the French and Bavarians, and the elector (November 19) was crowned king of Bo- hemia. He was likewise crowned empe- ror of Germany, at Frankfort, Feb. 12, 1742, and took the name of Charles VII. But his troops were defeated near Schar- ding (Jan. 23, 1742), and the electorate occupied by Khevenhiller, who gave up the land to be plundered by his army, and entered Munich upon the same day upon which Charles was crowned emperor. Frederic II, alarmed for Silesia, in conse- quence of the progress of the Austrians, put an end to the truce, pressed forward to Iglau, invaded Austria, and his hussars spread terror even to the gates of V ienna. He was obliged to retire, and Maria The- resa rejected his renewed proposals for peace; but the victory of Frederic at Chotusitz (May 17) hastened the conclu- sion of the preliminaries of peace, at Breslau (June 11, 1742). The queen invaded Upper and Lower Silesia and the county of Glatz, with the exception of the principalities of Teschen, Jagerndorf and Troppau, and the mountains on the other side of the Oppa. The definitive peace was signed the 28th July, under the guar- antee of England. From this time, the arms of Austria were victorious ; prince Charles of Lorcaine drove back the French to Braunau, and blockaded Prague. The general opinion that the balance of Eu- rope depentled upon the continuance of the house of Austria, excited England to arm for Maria Theresa, and Holland paid her subsidies. In Italy, the king of Sar- dinia, injured by Spain, became recon- ciled to Maria Theresa (who ceded to him a part of Milan), and supported the Aus- trian arms against Spain aud France. The internal condition of the latter country, aud the age of the prime minister, cardi- nal Fleury, ineluced this statesman to think of peace. Alalia Theresa rejected the proposed conditions. Maillebois, the French commander, received, therefore, orders to press forward from Westphalia to Prague. But prince Charles of Lor- raine went to meet him with a part of his army, and Maillebois was compelled to give up his intention of relieving Prague. Belle-Isle, however, escaped by artifice with the greater part of his ganison, out of the famished city, and marched to Eger. The whole of Bohemia was now, as far as Eger, in the power of Austria, and Maria Theresa was (May 12) crowned queen of Bohemia. After the death of Fleury (Jan. 9, 1743), the cause of Austria tri- umpheel throughout Europe. England granted new subsidies, and Sardinia re- ceived £200,000 in order to support the queen of Hungary. The States-General supplied 6000 auxiliary troops. The French were now driven out of the Upper Palatinate, by prince Charles of Lorraine, and the Bavarians, beaten in their own territories a short time before, conquered by him. The emperor, Charles VII, con- cluded, therefore, with the queen of Hun- gary, a treaty of neutrality, according to the terms of which he delivered to her, until a general peace, his hereditary states, und renounced his right of succession to the Austrian territories. The victory of the so called pragmatic army, consisting of English, Hanoverians, Austrians and Hessians, over the French, at Dettingen on the Maine (June 27, 1743), where George II of England fought in person, confirmed the queen aud her allies still more in the determination to humble France. But through a want of unanim- ity, the plan, that prince Charles of Lor- raine should enter France, was frustrated. The emperor Charles VII, stripped of his states, had settled, with George II, the pre- liminaries of peace, according to which he broke off bis connexion with France, and agreed to other stipulations favorable for the court of Vienna. In return for these, he was to be recognised as emperor, and, for the support of his dignity and for the recovery of his states, was to receive subsidies. George promised to obtain Ma- ria Theresa's consent, but she insisted on the deposition of Charles, and wished to retain Bavaria. As little was she inclined to transfer to the king of Sardinia the MARIA THERESA. 283 provinces promised him in the Milanese. Sardinia assumed, therefore, a threatening position. This and the representations of England compelled the queen, at length, to compliance. ^\ie gave up to Sardinia the province of Vigevano, together with some other districts, relinquished her claims on the margraviate of Finale, aud gave to king Charles Emanuel III tbe chief command of 30,000 Austrian troops in Italy. But in spite of this, as well as of the previous victory of the Austrians near Campo Santo, over the Spaniards (Feb. 8, 1743), the Spanish and French, under the Iufaut don Philip subjected all Savoy. As now prince Charles of Lorraine could not effect his entrance into France, he returned to Vienna, where he married the arch-duehess Maria Anna, the sister of Maria Theresa, and received, as the re- ward of his service, tbe general govern- ment of the Netherlands. Until 1744, England and France had fought against each other as auxiliaries to the chief con- tending parties. Now followed a formal declaration of war on the side of France, as well against England (March 15) as against Austria (April 11). The French conquered the most important fortresses in the Netherlands, and marshal Saxe threatened to subdue the whole countiy, when prince Charles of Lorraine fell upon Alsace. Already the Austrian light cavalry hail spread terror to the gates of Luneville, and king Stanislaus was compelled to fly from the place. The king of .France, nevertheless, prepared a great force to meet the prince, anil Charles was recalled in order to oppose the king of Prussia, who had again taken up arms. The proud and passionate .Maria Theresa had refused to acknowledge the emperor at the diet of Frankfort Moreover, she let her purpose be too plainly seen of holding Bavaria, of making conquests in France and Italy, of again taking Silesia, and, in connexion with Saxony and England, of dividing the Prussian states. Frederic, therefore, in order to anticipate her, and for the defence of the emperor, formed (May 22, 1744) with the emperor, with Franco, the elector of the Palatinate, and the king of Sweden, as landgrave of Hesse, a union at Frankfort. Accordingly, in August, he made an irruption into Bohemia, with 80,000 men, conquered Prague and the whole province upon the east side of the Moltlau. The Bavarian and Hessian troops, at die same time, pressed forward into Bavaria, and placed the emperor again in possession of his capital. The tenor of them spread even to Vienna, but Maria Theresa remained unshaken. She animated her Hungari- ans at the diet of Bie>lau, and tin se, assisted by Saxony and the Austrians, hurried to die deliverance of Bohemia. Charles of Lorraiue also hastened out of Alsace and Lorraine, to die borders of Bohemia, and the Prussians were again compelled lo quit the kingdom. On the other hand, France conquered Freiburg, the Austrian bulwark on the west, antl pressed forward into tbe Netherlands. Even in Italy, the Austrian commander, prince Lobkowitz, after he had driven back the Spaniards, and almost made prisoner don Carlos, king of Naples, near Belletre, was compelled to retreat to Lombardy, on account of a want of troops. But the death of Charles VII (Jan. 20, 1745) opened a uew field to the ambition oi Maria Theresa. France endeavored anew to w rest from the house of Austria tbe imperial throne. But the cause of Austria prevailed, in spite of French arti fice, at the Russian court. England also assisted the queen, Maria Theresa, again with troops and money. The object of the union of Frankfort having failed, Frederic II sought the intervention of Great Britain, in order to be reconciled with Austria. In the mean time, Maria Theresa concluded a treaty (April 22, 1745) at Fuessen, with the new elector of Bavaria, by which the latter recognised die pragmatic sanction, and pledged him- self to remove the foreign auxiliaries from his states, and to vote for the acces- sion of die duke of Lorraine, the husband of Maria Theresa, to the imperial throne. The queen of Hungary had, besides, con- cluded a quadruple alliance with the king of Poland, with Holland and England (June 8, 1745), at Warsaw, as well as a treaty at Leipsic (May 18), iu which secret articles were introduced respecting the division of the Prussian statts between Austria and Saxony. During diese pro- ceedings, the French made some progress. After die victory of marshal Saxe over the allies, near Fonteuoy (May 11, 1745), the most important places of the Austrian Netherlands fell into the hands of the French. In Italy, where Genoa united itself with Spain, the French and Span- iards took a great part of the Milanese tenitories, and the king of Sardinia was compelled to withdraw to his capital. In Germany also, Frederic delivered himself from a critical situation by his victory over the Austrians and Saxons, at Hohen- friedberg (June 4, 1745). Soon after, the British cabinet concluded, at Hanover, a 284 MARIA THERESA. Bccret treaty with Frederic, in whicli Sile- sia was guarantied to him, in conformity with the peace of Breslau. But the queen of Hungary and the elector of Saxony showed no inclination to nego- tiate. Meantime, Charles of Lorraine was defeated near Son, by Frederic II, and Maria Theresa had merely the consola- tion of having her husband, Francis Stephen, chosen emperor (September 13). October 4, he was crowned with the title of Francis I. At this solemnity, Maria Theresa was the first to exclaim, from a balcony, " Long live the emperor Francis I." Notwithstanding her finances were entirely exhausted, and even the silver vessels of the churches had been sent to the mint, the imperial queen was unwilling to consent to peace. The Prus- sian proposals were altogether rejected, revenge was sought for, and Maria The- resa embraced the bold plan of marching an army, composed of Saxons and Austri- ans, against Berlin. Besides, she expected powerful support from Russia ; but Fred- eric was beforehand with her: he defeated the Saxons, near Henneredorf (November 23), upon which Charles of Lorraine drew back, from Lusatia to Bohemia, and the defeat of the Saxons, near Kesselsdorf (December 15), made the Prussians mastere of the whole electorate of Saxony. The imperial queen did not yield to her own misfortunes, but, moved by the fate of her allies, concluded, under the British media- tion (Dec. 25,1745), the peace of Dresden, in which Frederic received Silesia, and Maria Theresa was recognised as queen of Bohemia, and her husband as emperor. This peace was so much the more neces- sary for Austria, as England, on account of the landing of the Pretender in Scot- land, had been obliged to withdraw her auxiliary troops from the Netherlands, by which means the French had gained a superiority there. May 4, 1746, Louis XV made his entry into Brussels, and, with the exception of Luxembourg, all the Austrian Netherlands was in the hands of the enemy. The loss of a battle near Rocou (October 11), increased the misfortunes of Austria in this quarter. On the other hand, the army of the empress was victorious in Italy, under the prince of Lichtenstein, at San Lorenzo, over the Spaniards and French ; and when, after the death of Philip V, his successor, Fred- eric VI, withdrew his troops from Italy, the Austrians obtained a complete superi- ority, and, particularly, blockaded Genoa. The English blockaded the same by sea, and the city surrendered, almost without any conditions, to the Austrians. But exasperated by extortions, the citizens drove the imperial general Botta(wbo lost 8000 men, his whole artillery and bag- gage) from Genoa and its territories (De- cember 5—9). Meantime England, as well as France and Spain, wished for peace. But the imperial queen had made a defensive alliance with Russia (May 22, 1746), to whicli also Holland and England had acceded. The French, nevertheless, drove the Austrians from Provence, which they had laid waste, and freed Genoa (1747), which had been besieged anew. In the Austrian Netherlands, they made still greater progress. But the advance of the Russians into Germany, and the victo- ry of admiral Hawke over a French squad- ron, by which the naval force of France was destroyed, hastened the peace. April 30, 1748, the preliminaries were signed by France, Great Britain and Holland; then followed the peace of Aix-la-Cha- pelle (November 18), to which, also, Spain, Austria and Sardinia acceded. Maria Theresa was acknowledged as the heiress of her father's kingdom; the Infant don Philip obtained only the duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla; several provinces also ceded to the king of Sardinia by the treaty of Worms, were left to him. Ma- ria Theresa now turned all her attention to the restoration of her finances and the improvement of the army. The yearly income, whicli, in tbe time of Charles VI, had amounted only to 30,000,000, rose, by prudent management, to 36,000,000 guil- ders, although Parma and Silesia, which last alone produced 6,000,000, were lost. The army consisted of 108,000 men, be- sides the troops in Italy and the Nether- lands, and the whole military department, under the direction of Daun, was placed upon a better footing. Maria Theresa also made great changes in the adminis- tration of justice, of the finance, and of the police. Though she unwillingly al- lowed herself to be governed, yet, from her inexperience, she did not rely upon herself, and sought to procure exact in- formation by consultations with her minis- ters, her husband and others. The differ- ence of opinion of two of her counsellors, Wasnerand Bartenstein, frequently led her to waver between opposite measures until she at length confided to the count (after- wards prince) Kaunitz, the chief direction of public affaire. Several causes of dis- union, whicli now arose between Eng- land and Austria, induced the latter to think of a reconciliation with France ; and Maria Theresa, in spite of her pride and MARIA THERESA. 285 her strong principles, consented, upon the advice of Kaunitz, to write very kindly to the marchioness of Pompadour, who, enraptured by this condescension of the greatest queen of Europe, exerted all her influence to effect the connexion which Maria Theresa desired. Yet her endeavors were foiled, at this time, by the counter representations which the friends of Frederic II and the enemies of Austria made to the cabinet of Versailles. In 1755 arose dissensions between England and France, respecting their possessions in America, and Great Britain demanded aid of Austria. This was refused, and thus the foundation for the disunion of these powers, hitherto friendly, was laid. Frederic II made use of this opportunity, and concluded with George II (Jan. 16, 1756) a treaty, in which they mutually agreed to prevent the entrance of foreign troops into Germany. The marchioness of Pompadour, in this year, effected a change in the French ministry, and this made it possible to establish friendly rela- tions between thecourtsof Vienna and Ver- sailles. Maria Theresa concluded now (May 1) the union with France against Fred- eric the Great, which occasioned the seven yeare' war (q. v.; also Frederic II). After the conclusion of this unfortunate war, Ma- ria Theresa's son, the archduke Joseph, was chosen Roman king, March 27,1764, by which means the imperial queen confirm- ed her family in the possession of the Ger- man imperial dignity. Her husband, the emperor Francis, died Aug. 28, 1765, and his death caused her deep and lasting dis- tress. Joseph II was now emperor, but,' although declared by his mother, her col- league in his hereditary possessions, he mingled as little as bis father had done in the internal government Only the direc- tion of the army was given to him. Ma- ria Theresa founded and improved schools, universities and academies, and granted prizes to the students. She rewarded, also, those who made any important im- provements in the arts, and turned her attention particularly to agriculture, which was denominated, upon a medal that she caused to be struck, the support of all the arts. Still greater was her merit in the abolition of many abuses of the church. She forbade the presence of the clergy at the making of wills, deprived the church and the convents of their right of sanctua- ries, and suppressed the inquisition at Milan. She abolished the order of Jes- , uits, and prohibited the admission of indi- viduals of both sexes as members of con- vents before the age of 25 years. She also abolished the rack in all her states. Apparently through the influence of Kau- nitz, she concluded at Petersburg (Aug. 5, 1772), with Russia and Prussia, the agree- ment for the partition of Poland. In this partition, she received Galicia and Lodo- miria (27,000 square miles, with 2,500,000 inhabitants). To induce her to abstain from farther demands, the Porte was compelled to give up Bukowina to hei (Feb. 25, 1777). Austria was now in a prosperous situation. It had 260,000 troops, and an income exceeding its ex- penditures. The politic Choiseul there- fore sought, by the marriage of the dau- phin with the daughter of Maria Theresa (1770), the afterwards so unfortunate Ma- ria Antoinette, to form a closer union be- tween France and Austria ; and the court of Vienna acceded to the proposal, hoping, on the accession of Louis XVI to the throne, to obtain a powerful influence over the cabinet of Versailles. About this time, the death of the elector of Bavaria (Dec. 30, 1777) produced the Bavarian war of succession. (See Teschen, Peace of.) Austria received, on this occasion, the Innviertel; but the decline of her influ- ence over Germany was perceptible. Af- ter this peace, the court of Vienna sought to unite England as well as Russia more firmly to itself, in order to procure for the archduke Maximilian the electoral dignity of Cologne and the bishopric of Munster, which was at last effected, in spite of the opposition of Frederic II. Thus had Ma- ria Theresa obtained for her three younger sons the government of important states: for Leopold, the grand-duchy of Tuscany ; for Ferdinand, by a marriage with the daughter of the duke of Modena, die suc- cession to that duchy ; and for Maximilian, the dignity of elector and bishop of Co- logne and Munster. Of her six daughters, the two younger were united to kings, namely, of France and Naples; and the house of Austria, which, in 1740, seemed on the brink of ruin, was now, by the internal situation of its states, as well as by its foreign family and other connex- ions, at the very summit of power. Ma- ria Theresa died Nov. 29, 1780, at the age of 63. As a ruler, she was unceasingly active. She loved her children with the deepest tenderness. To her servants she was very kind. The welfare of her sub- jects was her highest aim. But she lent an ear too easily to spies and informers, and endeavored to introduce them into the privacy of families. Her great piety bo'dered upon enthusiasm, and made her intolerant; hence the pernicious restraint 286 MARIA THERESA—MARIENBAD. of the press, &c. She wrote two or three books of devotion, of which one was pub- lished at Vienna (1774). She sometimes gave way to her passions, yet knew how to control bereelf quickly. When young, she was one of the handsomest women of her time. In advanced age, she became very corpulent The small-pox, in 1767, and, soon after, a fall from a carriage, which nearly deprived her of sight, de- stroyed her beauty. After the death of her husband, she appeared to be sunk in deep melancholy, and neglected her ap- pearance entirely. She deserves to be re- corded as an instance of conjugal love. Of 16 children, which she bore the empe- ror, 10 survived her. The 4 sons and the 2 younger daughters, we have noticed above. Of the 4 elder ones, the firet was abbess of Prague and Klagenfurt; the sec- ond, Marie Christine (the favorite of her mother), was married to duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen, a son of Augustus III, kiug of Poland; the third was abbess of Inspruck, and the fourth, wife of the duke of Parma. Mariana, Juan, or John, one of the firet Spanish historians, was born at Talavera, 1536, devoted himself to the clerical pro- fession; and entered the society of the Jesuits. At the university of Alcala, he acquired that pure taste and that elo- quence which are found iu his writings. He then journeyed, and taught theology, for 13 yeare, with distinction, in Rome, Sicily and Paris. The climate of the lat- ter city, however, and still more bis inde- fatigable industry, undermined his health, so that he returned, in 1574, into the Jes- uits' college at Toledo, He now wrote his Historia de Rebus Hispania (first ed,, To- ledo, 1592), in elegant Latin, that the great deeds of his countrymen might be- come known to all nations. His tone is impartial, though he ardently loves Spain, and admires Spanish virtue. Though a Jesuit, he complains of pope Alexander VI, and says that he caused Caesar to leave the clerical order contra fas, contra auspicia, contra omnia aquitatis jura. Though a Spaniard, he is not blindly prejudiced for his king. He describes, with sorrow, the conquest of Naples; and bis censure of Ferdinand is moderated only by consider- ing his good qualities as personal, his bad ones as common to all princes. His style is elegant, and often beautiful and concise. His freedom excited the suspicions of the inquisition. He has not, however, much claim to originality. Ranke, in his Zur Kritik neuerer Geschichtschreiber (Leipsic and Berlin, 1824), says that, having made excerpts of Mariana and Zurita through- out, he hardly found a single instance m which Mariana followed sources peculiar to him. Every thing important appears to have been taken from Zurita, because they agree entirely; and Zurita's work pre- ceded Mariana's considerably, having been dedicated to the deputies of Anagon, in 1579, while tbe five last books of Maria- na's Histoiy appeared in 1605. Ranke concludes, therefore, that Mariana cannot maintain a place among the sources of modern histoiy, but admits that his nature and spirit will always render him worth reading. The great success of Mariana's work, and the fear of seeing it badly translated, induced the author to translate it into the Castilian idiom himself, with those improvements which the progress of years had suggested to him. Four editions of the translation appeared during his life- time, each with corrections and additions. Excellent editions of the Spanish work appeared at Valencia (1785 to 1796,9 vols., folio) and at Madrid (1819, 8 vols.). An English translation was matle by captain Stephens, the continuator of Dugdale's Mo- nasticon (London, 1699, folio). Mariana's other writings are, 1. his famous essay De Rege et Regis InstUutione, which ex- posed the author to much inconvenience, and, 11 years after its publication, was condemned to be burned by the parlia- ment of Paris as a revolutionary work, be- cause it maintains that it is permitted to make way with a tyrant. The original edition of this work lias become very rare. 2. De Ponderibus et Mensuris. 3. Seven essays, which appeared together in a folio volume, 1609, at Cologne. Mariana ded- icated his last years to his scholia on the Old and New Testament, the completion of which his infirmities prevented. Yet he caused them to be printed, in 1619, at Madrid. He died in 1623, at Toledo, 87 yeare old. Mariana, or Marianne Isles. (See Ladrones.) Marie Antoinette. (See Antoinette.) Mariegalante ; an island in the West Indies, belonging to France; lat. 16° N.; lon. 65° 507 W.; 5 leagues from Guada- loupe. The chief productions are sugar,cof- fee, and cotton. Population, 11,778; 1555 whites, and 9529 slaves. It is a depend- ent of Guadaloupe. Columbus discovered it in 1493, and called it from his vessel. The French occupied it in 1697, and have lost it several times. In 1825, it suffered severely from the hunicane whicli deso- lated Guadaloupe. Marienbad (German for Mary's bath); MARIENBAD—MARINE 287 a watering-place in the circle of Pilsen, in Bohemia, about 30 miles distant from Carlsbad, in a woody country, ranking with the famous watering-places of Tep- litz, Carlsbad and Franzensbrunn. The mineral wells, at present so important in a medicinal respect, were little known be- fore 1781. (See Heidler, Marienbad, nach eignen bisherigen Beobachtungen und An- sichten arztlich dargesteUt (2 vols., Vienna, 1822). Marienburg ; a town on the Nogat, with 5000 inhabitants, in the Prussian government of Dantzic, province of West- em Prussia. This town is famous for the ruins of one of the finest monuments of German architecture—the castle of the Teutonic knights. The first castle was finished in 1276, but it was completely re- built from 1306 to 1309. The style was truly elevated, accompanied with a rare lightness and elegance of proportions.. The ruins have lately been secured from fbrther decay. Much has been written on them: Jacob's Das Schloss Marienburg (1819); professor Busching's Das Schloss der Deutschen Ritter in Marienburg (Ber- lin, 1823, 4to., with seven engravings); and professor Voigt's Geschichte Marien- burg's, mit Ansichten des Ordenshauses (Konigsberg, 1824). Marietta; a post-town, and seat of justice for Washington county, Ohio. It is beautifully situated on the bank of the Ohio, immediately above the mouth of Muskingum river. This was the earliest town, of much importance, settled in this state. General Rufus Putnam, of Leices- ter, Massachusetts, and 47 others, arrived here as residents April 7, 1788. The site is, in part, frequently overflowed. Dis- tance from Washington, 315 miles, 186 east of Cincinnati, 100 south-easterly from Columbus ; population of the whole town- ship, in 1830, 1914; of the village of Ma- rietta, 1207. Mariette, Pierre Jean, born at Paris, 1694, died iu 1774, was instructed by his father in the art of engraving, and, by his travels in Germany and Italy, rendered himself familiar with the fine arts. In 1750, he purchased the post of royal sec- retary and controleur of the chancery, and devoted himself entirely to his collection of engravings. His works are TraUi du Cabinet du Roi (1750); Lettres a M. de Caylus ; Lettres sur la Fontaine de la Rue deGrcntllt ; ArchUecture Francaise; De- scriptions of D'Aguilles's and Crozat's col- lections, &.c. His taste and learning pro- cured him the friendship of Caylus, Bar- iheleniy and Laborde, l>y whom he was intrusted with the supervision of the Re- cueUdcs Peintures antiques, from drawings by Pietro Santo Bartoli. Marignano, or Melegnano ; a town in Italy, three leagues and a half south-east of Milan; rendered famous by the victory of Francis I over the Swiss aud the duke of Milan. (See Francis I.) Marine. (See Navy.) Marine Law. (See Commercial Law.) Marini, or Marino, Giambattista, stands at the head of a school of Italian poets —the Marinisti. (See Italy, division Italian Poetry.) He was born, 1569, at Naples. Against the wish of his father, who intend- ed him for the study of the law, he follow- ed his inclination for poetry. The duke of Bovino took him into his palace, and the prince of Conca, high admiral of the kingdom, into his service. Here he be- came acquainted with Torquato Tasso, and, in intercourse with him, his powers were developed. At a later period, he found a patron in the cardinal Pietro Al- dobrandini at Rome, with whom he went to Turin, where a flattering poem, on the duke of Savoy, entitled 11 Ritratto, procur- ed him a kind reception, an order, the tide of the duke's secretary, &c. The envy of his enemies, and his satirical humor, in- volved him in various disputes. Margaret, the divorced wife of Henry IV, bad invit- ed him to Paris. After her death, Maria de' Medici became his patroness there. He showed his gratitude in a poem—II Tempio—for which new rewards were be- stowed upon him. Towards the end of 1622, he returned to Italy, was elected president of the Accademia degli Umoristi at Rome, and, after some time, proceeded to his native place. Here he chose the incomparably beautiful Posilippo for his residence, and hoped to enjoy the fortune he had acquired; but death removed him in 1625. Martin's most famous work, the epic Adone, was firet published in Paris. 1623, and has been equally praisetl and blamed, both for its plan and execution. The voluptuousness of many passages has placed it among the prohibited books. The other works of Marini are a narrative poem La Strage degli Innocenti, antl a great collection of miscellaneous poems (published at various times, under the titles of La Lira, and La Zampogna); also Lettere grave, argute, facete, and other compositions in prose antl verse. Some of his sonnets are among the most perfect in the Italian language. He who has read Marini—and there are many who condemn him without having done this —will readily admit that nature endowed 288 MARINI—CAIUS MARIUS. him with the gifts of a poet, but ambition made him fiiij. lie was jealous of the laurels of Ariosto and Tasso, and strove after a new distinction, attempted to pen- etrate deeper into the recesses of the hu- man heart, to enhance the beauty of the beautiful, and to give new zest to voluptu- ous description ; hence the undue freedom of his coloring ; hence his far-fetched metaphors and forced conceits;* yet, in spite of these, talent, wit, aud die power of imparting new charms to common things, cannot be denied him; but the faults of the master became insupportable in his followers, who could imitate indeed his conceits, but could not redeem them by flashes of genius. Marino, San, an Italian republic, in the ancient duchy of Urbino, is the smallest state in Europe. In the fifth century, a stone-mason, named Marino, established himself in a hermitage, on the hill now occupied by the town. His followers were so numerous as to constitute an inde- pendent community, which received its name from the hermit Besides the mountain on which the town stands, the republic possesses two adjoining hills, the whole territory covering an extent of about 30 square miles, and comprising, in the caj)ital and four villages, 7000 inhabitants. The territory is industriously and skilfully cultivated, and yields fruits, silk, oil, wine and corn. The capital is situated on the summit of a mountain, accessible only by one narrow road, and surrounded with walls. The government is in the hands of a senate of 300 elders, and an executive council of 20 patricians, 20 burghers, and 20 peasants. Two gonfalonieri, elected quarterly, are at the head of the executive. The laws are collected iu a code, called Statuta llluslrissima Reip. S. Marini.— See Valli, Originee Govcrno di San Marino (1655); Delfico, Memorie di S. Marino (1804); Simond's Travels in Italy. Marion, Francis, a distinguished Amer- ican officer in the revolutionary war, was born near Georgetown, South Carolina, in the year 1733, He was engaged in agricul- tural pursuits until the year 1759, when* he became a soldier, and served with credit against the Cherokee Indians. As soon as the war between the mother coun- try and the colonies broke out, he was * As an instance of the latter, take the follow- ing : Innanzi ai raggi della cui beltade Lo stupor di stupor stupido cade. Or this : ('on tal lusinghe il lusinghiero amante La lusinghiera Dea lusinga e prega. called to die command of a company in his native state. In 1776, he cooperated bravely in the defence of fort Moultrie, and soon reached the rank of lieuienant- coloncl, commandant of a regiment, in which capacity he acted during the siege of Charleston. He became, subsequently, as brigadier-general in the militia of South Carolina, an indefatigable and most useful partisan. The country from Camden to the sea-coast, between the Pedee and Santee rivers, was the scene of his opera- tions. Many very striking and character- istic anecdotes of his prowess and habits are related in the life of him, written by colonel Hovy, and in Garden's Anecdotes of the Revolutionary War. It is stated that, in addition to his distinction in par- tisan warfare, general Marion acquired much reputation by the assistance which he bestowed in conducting the sieges of the captured posts held by the enemy. At Georgetown, fort Watson, fort Moste, Granby, Parker's ferry, and at Eutaw, he highly distinguished himself Major Gar- den represents him as next, if not altogeth- er equal, to Henry Lee, in vigilance, ac- tivity and enterprise. He died in Febru- ary, 1795, leaving an excellent personal as well as a high military character. Marionettes. (See Puppet-Shows.) Maritime Law. (See Commercial Law.) Marius, Caius; a Roman of Arpinum, in the territory of the Volsci, born of ob- scure parents, whom he assistetl in the labors of the field. With strength of body he united much understanding, firmness of purpose, and a spirit of enterprise. His character was rough, ambitious and un- yielding. Marios devoted himself to a military career, and gave the firet proofs of his courage at Numantia, under Scip- io Africanus, His merits successively raised him through the different ranks, and Scipio foresaw in him a great general. During the consulship of Csecilius Metel- ltis antl L. Aurelius Cotta,* he was made tribune by the influence of the former. In order to check the abuses at the Comi- tia, he proposed the law making the en- trance to the place of voting narrower, so as to protect the citizens from the solicita- tions of the candidates and their friends (lex Maria). The patricians, indignant at a law so injurious to their influence, de- manded of Marius an explanation of his motives. The two consuls declared against him ; but Marius threatened them with the weight of his tribunitial authority, and, without regard to his obligations to Metel- lus, ordered the lictor to conduct the con- CAIUS MARIES 289 sul to prison. Hi3 firmness triumphed, and gained him the favor of the people. He afterwards modified the law proposed by Gracchus for* the division of com among the poor citizens, so as to spare the public treasury. He then stood can- didate for the edileship, but without success. He was, however, appointed pre- tor. Having been charged with procur- ing bis election by bribery, he was acquit- ted, and discharged the duties of his office to general satisfaction, supplying the defi- ciencies of his education by the natural strength of his understanding. The office of pro-pretor of Spain, which was confer- red on him the following year, he dis- charged with great reputation. He de- livered the country from robbers, and en- deavored to civilize the yet savage natives. On his return, he again devoted himself to political affairs; and, by his marriage with Julia, the aunt of Julius Caesar, con- nected himself with the illustrious Julian family. A wider career was now open to him. He accompanietl the consul Q. Coecilius Metellus, as his lieutenant, to the Jugurthine war. His courage and his patience in hardships, in whicli he placed himself on a level with the meanest sol- dier, gained for him the esteem of Metel- lus and the love of the army. But Marius was so ungrateful as to vilify the man who had raised him from obscurity, in order to rise by his fall. Their hatred increased daily. At length Marius asked permission of Metellus to return to Rome, in order to seek for the consulship. Metellus, not without ridicule, refused his request; but Marius continued his importunity, till he obtained his object, a few days before the election of the consuls. In six days he hastened to Rome, and, by calumnies against Metellus, and the most extravagant promises, he gained over the minds of the people so completely, that he was chosen unanimously; and, although Metellus had been appointed proconsul of Numidia for the third time, he obtained the command in that province (B. C. 108). L. Cassius Longinus was his colleague in the consul- ship. As Marius perceived that his ple- beian origin would never permit him to gain the support of the patricians, and that he could expect nothing but from a power- ful party among the common people, he declared himself the enemy of the nobles. In proportion to the violence with which he attacked the nobility in his public speeches, was the favor of the populace. As the rich refused to enrol themselves in his legions, in order to complete the num- ber, he had recourse to the low est class of vol. viii. 25 citizens, who had previously been em- ployed only in cases of the most pressing necessity, and taught the Roman people to enrich themselves by the service. With the speed of lightning, he appeared in Utica, and began the campaign. Iu the mean time, Jugurtha had found an ally in Bocchus, kjng of Mauritania. Two armies opposed the Romans. Marius avoided a general engagement till he was forced to yield to the impatience of his men. He then directed his march through the deserts of Numidia to Capsa, the capital of the countiy, which he stonned and de- stroyed. Terrified by this cruel example, every place which he approached surren- dered. While Marius was prosecuting the war, L. Cornelius Sylla, the questor, ar- rived with a reinforcement of cavalry, and, by his courage, his perseverance against obstacles, and his austere manner of living, gained the friendship of his commander. After the capture of Mulucha, Marius led his troops back to the sea-coast, in order to place them in winter quarters. On this inarch, Bocchus and Jugurtha attacked him, and sunounded him in his intrench- nients. The Romans seemed to be lost; but, during the night, Marius fell upon the enemy, exhausted with dancing and rev- elry, and almost entirely destroyed them. After this defeat, Bocchus made his peace with the Romans, and was persuaded by Sylla to betray Jugurtha to them. Marius divided a part of Jugurtha's territory be- tween Bocchus and Hiempsal II, or Man- drestakand made the remainder a Roman province. Before his return to the capital, be received the unexpected information that he was chosen consul the second time. The people, terrified by the ap- proach of the Cimbri and Teutones, had chosen him contrary to the laws. Marius received in Rome the honor of a triumph. He then marched over the Alps to Gaul, while C. Fulvius Fimbria, his colleague, went to Upper Italy. The Cimbri and Teu- tones, instead of passing into Italy, had invaded Spain, tint! thus given Marius an opportunity to discipline his army. As the terror of the Cimbri was unabated, he was made consul a third and fourth time in succession. The barbarians at length returned from Spain, and threatened to invade Italy from two sides. Marius sta- tioned his army at the confluence of the Rhone and the Iser, while his colleague Lutatius Catulus was to take his position at the foot of the Norican Alps. As it was impossible for ships to enter the mouths of the Rhone, he constructed a canal, the Fossa Mariana, uniting the waters of the 290 CAHJS MARIUS. Rhone with the Meditenanean, to supply the army with provisions from the sea. This work was scarcely finished, when the Ten tones, with the Ambroues, pitched their camps opposite to the Romans. Ma- rius hesitated to meet in the open field so superior a force; and, by cutting off their means of subsistence, he hoped, if not to destroy, at least to weaken, them. But the barbarians determined to continue their course, without regard to the Roman army. Marius pursued and overtook them at Aquas Sextise. He first attacked the Ambroncs, and, on the next day, the Ten- tones, and destroyed both armies (B. C. 102). On the report of this victory, messengers were sent from Rome, to inform him that he was appointed, for the fifth time, to the consulship, and that the honor of a second triumph was decreed him. The Litter, however, he would not accept until he had made himself worthy of it by the de- feat of the Cimbri. These barbarians had entered Italy on the east: Marius united his forces with those of Lutatius, and marched against them. They then sent an embassy, requesting a grant of tenitory in which they might reside. But Marius scornfully announced to them the total destruction of their allies. Exasperated by this news, the Cimbri advanced to meet him. Bojorix, their king, called up- on Marius, to fix upon a time and place for a decisive engagement He selected a plain called Campi Raudii, not far from Vercelli, which would not allow the Cim- brian army (300,000 foot and 15,000 horse) to avail themselves fully of their superior- ity of numbers. The Roman anny was 52,000 strong. Marius reserved to him- self the chief attack, but the battle was decided by Lutatius and Sylla. The de- feat of the barbarians was complete: 150,000 fell, 60,000 surrendered, and the remainder preferred a voluntary death to slavery (B. C. 101). Marius and Lutatius enteretl the city in triumph. The victo- rious general was appointed consul for the sixth time,although the noble Metellus Nu- midicus was his rival. He now entered into a combination with the tribunes of the pre- ceding year: Apuleius Saturninus and the pretor Servilius Glaucia, and, in connex- ion with them, employed every means to gain the people, and deprive the patricians of their privileges. This was effected chiefly by the law, that every order of the people should be confirmed by the senate, within five days after its promulgation. The senators were compelled to swear obedience to this law; and Metellus, refus- ing to do it, was punished with exile. In the mean time, Marius had become an object of suspicion to both parties, by his ambiguous conduct, and, on the next con- sular election, he was not rechoseii. Sat- urninus and Glaucia were the victims ot popular fury. Chagrined at the recall of his enemy MeteHus, Marius went to Asia, under pretence of performing a vow to Cybelc, but, in reality, to gain new impor- tance by kindling a new war. On his re- turn, he was astonished to find himself almost entirely forgotten, and Sylla the favorite of the people. His hatred was excited, and a civil war would have been the consequence, if the consuls had not checked it in its commencement. Soon after this, the social war broke out. Ma- rius gaiued a few victories in an inferior command, but acquired less reputation than might have been anticipated, -His strength was broken by age and sickness, and, in the midst of the war, he resigned his office. This dangerous contest was hardly closed, when the civil war broke out between Marius and Sylla. They were bodi candidates for the command against Mithridates. The consuls favored Sylla. P. Sulpitius, tribune of the people, who favored Marius, attacked them swortl in hand, and drove Sylla from Rome, Marius received the chief command; but the army inarched to Rome under his ri- val, where Marius was committing the greatest violences against the friends of Sylla. Sylla entered the city without re- sistance. Marius and his son fled, and were proscribed. Separated from his son, Marius wandered about on the coasts of Italy, and, after escaping several times the pursuit of his enemies, was found by some horsemen in a marsh. He was conducted naked to Minturnae, where the magistrate, after some deliberation, resolved to obey the ordere of the senate and of Sylla. But the Cimbrian slave, to whom the execu- tion was intrusted, awed by the look and words of Marius, dropped his sword, and the people of Mintumae, moved with com- passion, conducted him to the coast, whence a vessel conveyed him to Africa. He landed amid the ruins of Carthage, and joined his son, who had sought assistance in Numidia in vain. They spent the win- ter together in the island Cercina. When they received information that their party had once more triumphed in Italy, by means of Cinna, Marius hastened to re- turn. He declined the honors offered him, and united himself with Cinna and Sertorius. They resolved to attack the city, which was defended by Octavius. Provisions and soldiers failing in the city CAIUS MARIUS—MARKLAND. 291 the senate, therefore, offered to throw open the gates, on condition that no Ro- man should be put to death without trial. This was granted. Marius was at first unwilling to enter the city, till the act of £roscription against him was repealed. lit while the citizens were assembled to rescind the act, he entered with his infu- riated followers, and, in violation of the conditions, a dreadful massacre took place, to which Sertorius and Cinna finally put an end. He had given orders for the death of every one whose saluta- tion he did not return. Almost all the senators, who were opposed to the popu- lar party, were put to death, and their es- tates confiscated. When the term of Cinna's consulship was completed, he declared himself and Marius consuls. Marius was now 70 yeare of age, and enjoyed this dignity for the seventh time ; but 17 days after he died (B. C. 86), ex- hausted by hispreceding sufferings, and by the anxiety which the threats of Sylla occasioned. Marivaux, Piene Carlet de Chamblain de ; a novelist and dramatic writer, born in Paris, 1688, was led by his inclinations to write for the theatre ; thinking that nothing new was to be done in the way of charac- ter pieces, Marivaux wrote comedies of intrigue. He was not without delicacy, but it was conuected with a certain little- ness. His characters want life, his plots variety. The developenient of the in- trigue is so simple, that the denouement is discoverable from the beginning. He is so liir-fetched and affected, that the French have given his name to a conceit and af- fectation of manner or expression (mari- vaudage). At the time of their appear- ance, his dramas were popular; but a few only have remained on the stage. Among his other productions, the best is his Vie de Marianne, which abounds in interest- ing situations, faithful delineations and tenderness of sentiment ; Le Paysan par- venu ; Le Philosophe indigent, &c, are not of much merit The same forced and conceited style that disfigures his theatri- cal productions, prevails in these ro- mances. He became' a member of the French academy in 1743, and died in 1763. Marjoram (origanum); a genus of la- biate plants, two or three species of which arc cultivated in gardens, and used for culinary purposes. They are very agree- able arbmatics, and diffuse a sweet and pleasant odor. Mark, County of, in tbe former circle of Westphalia, at present in the Pnissian province of Westphalia, government of Mintlen, contains 657 square miles. Part of it is extremely fertile, part mountain- ous. It affords much iron-ore and coals, which furnish fuel for the many manufac- tories in all kinds of wares of metal. About 5000 people are here engaged in manufacturing. In 1801, the inhabitants amounted to 133,000. In 1807, the coun- ty of Mark was added to the grand-duchy of Berg, and formetl the greater part of the department of the Buhr. In 1813, it reverted to Prussia. Mark. (See Marches.) Mark Antony. (See Antonius.) Mark, the Evangelist ; according to the old ecclesiastical writers, the pereon known in the Acts of the Apostles by the name of John Mark, who was, for many years, the companion of Paul and Peter on their journeys. His mother Mary was generally in the train of Jesus, and his house at Jerusalem was open constantly for the reception of the apostles. He was himself present at a part of the events which he relates, and received his infor- mation partly from eye-witnesses. His gospel is plainly intended for Christian converts from paganism. It is not cer- tain, however, whether it was firet read at Rome or Alexandria, where he had estab- lished churches, or at Antioch. He is distinguished from the other evangelists by his brevity, passing over much that re- lates to his character as Messiah, which couid be important only to Jewish con- verts. The genuineness of his gospel has never been questioned with any good grounds. Mark, or Marc, denotes a weight used in several parts of Europe, and for several commodities, especially gold and silver. When gold and silver are sold by the mark, it is divided into 24 carats.—Mark is also, in England, a money of account, and in some other countries a coin. The English mark is two thirds of a pound sterling, or 13s. Ad., and the Scotch mark is of equal value in Scotch money of ac- count. (For the mark-banco of Ham- burg, see Coins.) Mark, Library of St. (See Venice.) Mark, Order of St.; a Venetian or- der, the origin of which is not known. The doge, as well as the senate, elected knights of St. Mark, who enjoyed a pen- sion. Foreigners, also, particularly schol- ars, were elected. Mark, Place of St. (See Venice.) Markland, Jeremiah, an eminent crit- ic, was bom u. 1693, and received t )?- ed- ucation at Cambridge. In 1717, he ob 292 MARKLAND—MARLOWE. tained a fellowship in that university, which he held until his death in 1776. His time was devoted to his favorite studies, uninterrupted by any avocations but those of a college and travelling tutor. His principal works are, an edition of the Sylva of Statius ; Notes on Maxim us Tyr- itis; Remarks on the Epistles of Cicero to Brutus, and of Brutus to Cicero ; vv ith a Dissertation upon four Orations ascribed to Cicero ; an edition of the SupplicesMu- lieres of Euripides; to whicli was an- nexed a tract De Gracorum quintd Declinatione, and other philological works. Marlborough, Duke of. (See Chur- chUl.) Marl. Compact limestone (q. v.), by increase of argillaceous matter, passes into marl. Marl is essentially composed of carbonate of lime and clay, in various proportions. But some marls are more or less indurated, while others are friable and earthy. In some, the argillaceous ingre- iWeut is comparatively small, while in others it abounds, and furnishes the pre- dominant characters. The calcareous and argillaceous marls unite by imperceptible degrees, aud the latter sometimes pass into clay. Marl frequently contains sand and some other foreigu ingredients. Some divide marls into calcareous and argillaceous, others into indurated and earthy. The hardness of indurated marl is inconsiderable. In most cases, it may be scratched by the finger nail, and may always be easily cut by a knife. It has a dull aspect, like chalk or clay, often with a few glimmering spots arising from sand or mica. Its fracture, usually earthy, may also be splintery or conchoidal. It is opaque; its color commonly gray, often shaded with yellow, blue, brown, black, &c. It also presents shades of green, and is sometimes reddish or yellowish-brown. Specific gravity usually between 2.3 and 2.7. It occurs in masses either compact or possessing a slaty structure. All solid marls crumble by exposure to the atmos- phere, usually in the couree of a year, but sometimes a longer period is requisite. The same changes generally take place in a veiy short time, when the marl is im- mcrsetl in water, with which it forms a short paste. It crumbles more easily, and forms a more tenacious paste in propor- tion as it becomes more argillaceous. It is always more or less easily fusible. All marls effervesce with acids, sometimes very brisklv and sometimes feebly, accord- ing to their solidity and the proportion of carbonate of lime, which may vary from 25 to 80 per cent; indeed, in the argilla- ceous marls, it is often much less. Earthy marl differs from the preceding by being more or less friable, or even loose ; but they gradually pass into each other. Like the indurated marl, it may be either calcare- ous or argillaceous. It sometimes greatly resembles clay, but may be distinguished by its effervescence in acids. Marl, like clav, belongs both to secondary and allu- vial earths, where it occurs in masses or in beds. Hence it is found associated with compact limestone, chalk, gypsum, or with sand or clay. It contains various organic remains, as shells, fish, bones of birds and of quadrupeds, and sometimes vegetables. The organic remains are nu- merous and extremely interesting in the marly strata examined by Cuvier and Brougniart in the vicinity of Paris. Marl is found more or less in most countries. Its most general use is as a manure. The fertility of* any soil depends in a great de- gree on the suitable proportion of the earths which it contains; and whether a calcareous or an argillaceous marl will be more suitable to a given soil, may be de- termined with much probability by its te- nacity or looseness, moisture or dryness. To employ niurls judiciously, therefore, the fanner should tie in some degree ac- quainted with the chemical properties or constituent parts of the marl itself, and with die ingredients of the soil. He ma}', in general, determiue the existence of marl by its falling into powder, when dried, after exposure to moist air. To ascertain the proportion of its ingredi- ents, the calcareous part may be ex- tracted from a given weight of the marl, by solution in acids, and the residue, being dried and weighed, will give the quantity of clay with sufficient accu- racy. (See .Manures.) Marlowe, Christopher ; an eminent English poet and dramatist of the Eliza- bethan age, was educated at Cambridge, where he proceeded M. A, in 1587. He afterwards settled iu London, anil became an actor, as well as a writer for the stage. Besides six tragedies of his own compo- sition, and one written iu conjunction with Thomas Nashe, he left a translation of the Rape of Helen, by Coluthus; some of Ovid's Elegies ; the firet book of Lucan's Pharealia; and the Hero and Leander of Musa-us, completed by George Chapman. The exact time of his death is not known; but, according to Anthony Wood, it took place previously to 1593, and was owing to a wound received from the hand of a servant-man, whom he had attacked on MARLOWE—MARMONTEL. suspicion of being rivalled by him in the favors of a mistress. Marly, Marly-le-Roi, or Marly-la- Machine ; a village of France, If league from Versailles, on the edge of the forest of the same name. It still contains some fine country-seats ; but the royal castle built by Louis XIV, and the beautiful gardens attached to it, no longer exist, having been destroyed during the revolu- tion. It is now remarkable only for its water-works for supplying Versailles with water. The celebrated machine, which conducted the water over the Seine, hav- ing fallen to decay, its place is supplied by a forcing pump, which raises the water 500 feet, and an aqueduct of 36 arches. . Marmont, August Frederic Louis Vi- esse de, duke of Ragusa, marshal of r ranee, was bom in 1774, at Chatillon on die Seme, of an ancient family. From his 16th year he served in the artillery, and distinguished himself in the revolu- tionary war, particularly in the campaigns ui Italy, so that Napoleon took him to Egypt. He was one of the few who knew ofgeneral Bonaparte's intention to. return. Marmont supported his general on the 18th Brumaire (q. v.). After having taken part in all the campaigns of Napoleon, he fell into disgrace in consequence of the loss of the battle of Salamanca. Yet, in 1813, he again received a command against the allies. Upon their march to Paris, he was beaten at Fere Champenoise, and concluded, after they had reached the French capital, the armistice and capitu- lation, .March 30, 1814. After this, the sixth corps d'armie, under Marmont, form- ed at Essone the van of Napoleon ; but when (April 4) the marshal declared him- self for the senate, who had pronounced Napoleon's dethronement, his corps left its position, and the emperor abdicated. After the restoration, the duke of Ragusa was made captain of the king's body guard, and, as such, followed the king (March 20, 1815) to Ghent Napoleon would not trust him after the capitulation of Paris. It was generally believed, but incorrectly, that Marmont was bribed to capitulate ; his conduct, however, cannot escape censure. The duke was made peer of France. In 1826, he was sent as ambassador to the coronation of the em- peror Nicholas at Moscow. In 1830, he was appointed to command the king's troops against the people, when a mistaken feeling of honor made him fight for the ministers, whom he abhorred, as M. Arago testified on the trial of the ex- 25* 293 ministers (Oct. 26, 1830).* M. Laffitte's testimony in the same trial (December 16) must also not be overlooked. (For the part which Marmont played during the memorable days of July, 1830, see France, division History of France.) He left r ranee with Charles X, and went to Vi- enna, where he still resides, according to the last accounts. He has promised an account of his command during the late revolution. Marmontel, John Francis ; a distin- guished French writer, was bom in 1723, at Bort, a small town in the Limousin. He was the eldest son of a large family, the offspring of parents in a humble situ- ation of life ; but his mother, a woman of sense and attainments much superior to her rank, favored his ardor for mental cul- tivation ; and by her influence he was sent to the Jesuits' college of Mauriac At the age of 15, his father placed him with a merchant at Clermont; but having expressed his dislike of this occupation^ he was enabled to obtain admission into the college of Clermont, where he gradual- ly acquired pupils; antl his father soon af- ter dying, he showed the goodness of his heart, by taking upon himself the care of the family. He subsequently engaged as a teacher of philosophy, in a seminary of Bemardmes, at Toulouse, and became a distinguished candidate for the prizes at the Floral games, which acquired him the notice of Voltaire, who recommended him to try his fortune at Paris. He accordingly arrived there in 1745, and, after experi- encing some vicissitudes, brought out a tragedy in 1748, which at once raised him into competence and celebrity ; and, hav- ing been recommended to the king's mis- tress, madame Pompadour, he was ap pointed secretary of the royal buildings, under her brother, the marquis de Ma- ngny. Having distinguished himself by writing some of his well-known tales, to assist his friend ttoissy, then intrusted with the Mercure de France, on the death of the latter, it was given to him, and, resigning Ins post of secretary, lie took up his abode with madame Geoffiin. He subsequently lost the Mercure de Fance, by merely re- peating, in company, a joke upon the duke d'Aumont, and was committed to the Bastile, because he would not give up the real author. In 1763, after much op- * M. Arago also testified on this trial, that he was convinced from the information which he had received1 from general Foy. colonel Fabvier, anel the Prussian general Mottling, that Marmont was not bribed at the time ol the capitulation of 294 MARMONTEL—MARMOT. position, he succeeded Marivaux as a member of the French academy. His next literary production was Bilisaire, which, in consetpience of its liberal senti- ments in favor of toleration, was censured by the Sorbonnc, and widely read in eve- ry country in Europe. In order to bene- fit Gretry, he worked up several little sto- ries into comic operas, which were all acted with great success. On the death of Duclos, he was appointed historiographer of France. He took part in the celebrated musical dispute between Gluck and Pic- cini, as a partisan of the latter. In 1783, on the death of D'Alembert, he was elect- ed secretary to the French academy. On the breaking out of the revolution, he re- tired to a cottage in Normandy, where he passed his time in the education of his children, and the composition of a series of tales of a more serious cast than bis former ones ; together with his amusing Memoirs of his own Life. In April, 1797, he was chosen member of the coun- cil of elders; but, his election being sub- sequently declared null, he again retired to his cottage, where he died of an apo- plexy, in December, 1799, in the 77th year of his age. Marmontel holds a high place among modern Frencli authors. Warm and eloquent on elevated subjects; easy, lively, inventive antl ingenious on light ones, he addresses himself with equal success to the imagination, the judgment and the heart His Contes Mo- raux, in general, inculcate useful and val- uable lessons, but their morality is some- times questionable. Some of bis didactic works in prose, continue to be highly es- teemed, and more especially his couree of literature inserted in the Encyclopedic Siuce his death, besides his own memoirs, there have appeared Memoirs of the Re- gency of the Duke of Orleans (printed from his MS., in 2 vols., 12mo.). The works of Marmontel have been collected Xjto an edition of 32 volumes, octavo. Marmora, Sea of, anciently the Pro- pontis ; a sea between Europe and Asia, about 60 leagues in length, and 20 in its greatest breadth. It communicates to the S. W. with the Archipelago, by the Dar- danelles, and with the Black sea to the N. E. by the straits of Constantinople. Constantinople lies on its western shore. The tides are hardly perceptible, the nav- igation easy. A current sets from the Black sea into the sea of Marmora, whicli, in turn, runs into the Archipelago. Marmot (arclomys); a genus of small quadrupeds, somewhat resembling the rats, wlih winch they were ciassed by Lin- na?us. They have two incisors in each jaw, and ten grinders in the upper, and eight in the lower jaw; four toes, and a tubercle in place of a thumb, on the fore feet, and five on the hinder. There are several species, the most striking of which are the Alpine marmot (A. Alpmus), about the size of a rabbit, with a short tail; of a grayish-yellow color, approach- ing to brown towards the head.^ This species inhabits the mountains of Europe, just below the region of perpetual snow, ami feeds on insects, roots and vegetables. When these animals (which live in socie- ties) are eating, they post a sentinel, who gives a shrill whistle on the approach of any danger, when they all retire into their burrows, which are formed in the shape of the letter Y, and well lined with moss and hay. They remain in these re- treats, in a torpid state, from the autumn till April. They are easily tamed. The Quebec marmot (A. empelra) inhabits the northern part of the American conti- nent It appears to be a solitary animal, dwells in burrows in the earth, but has the faculty of ascending trees. Its bur- rows are almost perpendicular, and situ- ated in dry spots, at some distance from the water. When fat, it is sometimes eaten. Its fur is of no value.—Woodchuck (A. monax). This species, which is also known by the name of ground-hog, is common in all the Middle States, living in societies, and making burrows in the sides of hills, which extend a considerable dis- tance, and terminate in chambers lined with dry grass, leaves, &c. They feed on vegetables, and are very fond of red-clover. They are capable of being tamed, and are very cleanly. The female produces six young at a birth. There are many other marmots inhabiting North America which have been considered as belonging to the sub-genus spermophUus. The most celebrat- ed of these is the Prairie dog,or Wistonvvish (A. ludovicianus). It has received the name of prairie dog from a supposed similarity between its warning cry and the barking of a small dog. They live in large com- munities ; their villages, as they are terni- eel by the hunters, sometimes being many miles in extent. The entrance to each burrow is at the summit of the mound of earth thrown up, during the progress of the excavation below. The hole descends vertically to the depth of one or two feet, after which it continues in an oblique direction. This marmot, like the rest of the species, becomes torpid during the winter, and, to protect itself against the rigor of the season, stops the mouth of its MARMOT—MAROT. 295 hole, and constructs a neat globular cell at the bottom of it, of fine dry grass, so com- pactly put together, that it might be rolled along the ground almost without injury. The other American species of this sub- genus are, Parryi guttatus, Richardsoni, Iranklini, Beecheyi, Douglasi, lateralis, Hoodi. (See Richardson, Faun. Am. Bor. and Godman's Nat. Hist.) Marne, a river of France, rises near Langres, runs about 220 miles, and enters the Seine a few miles above Paris. Marocco. (See Morocco.) Maronites ; a sect of Eastern Chris- tians, whose origin was a consequence of the Monothelitic controversy. In the seventh century, the opinion that Christ, though he united in himself the divine and human nature, had but one will (Monothelitism), arose among the Eastern nations, aud was supported by several em- perors, particularly Heraclius. But when their last patron, the emperor Philip Bar- danes, died, in 713, the Monothelites were condemned and banished by his successor, Anastesius. The remnant of this party survived in the MaronUes, so named from their founder Maron—a society of monks in Syria, about mount Lebanon, which is mentioned as early as the sixth century. Another monk, John Maro, or Marum, also preached Monothelitism there in the seventh century. Regarded as rebels by the Melchites, or Christians who ad- hered to the opinions of the emperor, they became, in the country of Lebanon, which is now called Kesruan, a warlike mountain people, who defended their political as well as their religious inde- pendence boldly against the Mohamme- dans, and who, even now, under the Turk- ish government, resist the payment of a tribute, like tbe Druses. The political constitution of the Maronites is that of a military commonwealth. Governed by their ancient customary rights, defended from external attacks, they support them- selves, among the mountains, by husband- ry and the produce of their vineyards and mulberry-trees. A common spirit unites them. In simplicity of mannere, temper- ance and hospitality, they resemble the ancient Arabians. Revenge for murder is permitted among them, and, as a sign of nobility, they wear the green turban. Their church constitution resembles very much that of the old Greek church. Since the twelfth century, they have sev- eral times submitted to the pope, and joined the Roman Catholic church, with- out giving up their own peculiarities. At last, Clement XII induced them to accept the decrees of the council of Trent, at a synod held in 1736, at their convent of Marhanna. Till that time, they had re- ceived the sacrament under both forms. After this synod, their priests still retained the right to marry, after the manner of the Greek church. The use of the Arabic language was preserved in the church service.. Mass, only, was read in the an- cient Syriac. Their head is called the patriarch of Antioch, although his resi- dence is in the monastery of Kanobin, upon mount Lebanon, and he gives an account, every 10 years, to the pope, of the condition of the Maronite church. Under him are the bishops and other clergymen, who form seven degrees of rank. In Kesruan are over 200 Maronite convents and nunneries, which profess the rule of St. Antony, and devote themselves to agriculture and gardening. Since 1548, there has been a Maronite college estab- lished at Rome, for the education of cler- gymen ; yet neither this establishment, nor the mission of papal nuncios, has effected an entire incorporation of this sect with the Romish church ; and those in Kesruan, as well as the large numbers in Aleppo, Damascus, Tripoli, ami upon Cyprus, still retain their ancient habits, and some even their ancient liturgy. Maroons ; the name given to revolted negroes in the West Indies and in some parts of South America. The appella- tion is supposed to be derived from Ma- rony, a river separating Dutch and French Guiana, where large numbers of these fugitives resided. In many cases, by taking to the forests and mountains, they have rendered themselves formidable to the colonies, and sustained a long and brave resistance against the whites. When Jamaica was conquered by the English, in 1655, about 1500 slaves retreated to the mountains, and were called Maroons. They continued to harass the island till the end of the last century, when they were reduced, by the aid of blood-hounds. (See Dallas's History of the Maroons.) . Marot, Clement, a French epigramma- tist aud writer of light lyrical pieces, from whom the French date the beginning of their poetry, born at Cahors, 1505, went to Paris as page of Margaret of France, duchess of Alencon, whose brother, Fran- cis I, he afterwards accompanied to the Netherlands. His amour with the beau- tiful Diana of Poitiers is well known. In 1525, having followed the king to Italy, he was wounded and made prisoner in the battle of Pavia. After his return to Paris, he was suspected of being favora 296 MAROT—MARQUETTE. ble to Calvinism, and was thrown into prison. His time, during his confinement, was spent in preparing a modernized edi- tion of the Romance of the Rose, and the king finally set him at liberty. His con- nexion with Margaret, now queen of Na- varre, with whom he had quarrelled, was renewed, but could not protect him from new difficulties on account of his religious sentiments, and he fled to Italy, and thence to Geneva (1543), where Calvin succeeded in making him a proselyte to the new doctrines. He soon recanted his profession of faith, returned to Paris, and, not long after, again fled to Turin, where he tlied in 1544. Marot had an agreeable and fertile fancy, a lively wit, with a certain levity of character. All his po- ems, even his translation of the Psalms, made in conjunction with Beza, and for a long time used in the Protestant churches in France, are in an epigram- matic maimer. Nature and naiveti are the characteristics of bis style, called, by the French, style Marotique. His works have been repeatedly printed, with those of his father, John, and his son, Michael. They appeared by themselves (Paris, 1824), with his life and a glos- sary. Marpcrg, Frederic William, a Ger- man musician of eminence, born at See- liausen, in the Prussian dominions, in 1718. He passed some portion of his youthful years in the French metropolis, and, on bis return to bis native country, acted in the capacity of secretary to one of the ministers at Berlin, in which capital he was afterwards placed by the government at the head of the lottery department He was the author of many valuable works connected with the science of mu- sic, especially of a history of the organ, from the earliest antiquity, replete with information, but which he, unfortunately, ditl not live entirely to complete. Among his numerous writings are the Art of Playing on the Harpsichord; a Treatise on Fugue (Berlin), considered by Koll- man to be the most profound and master- ly work of the kind in the German lan- guage ; Historical and Critical Memoirs to promote the Study of Musical History, a periodical work, filling five octavo vol- umes; a Manual of Thorough Bass and Composition; Elements of the Theory of Music; Introduction to the Art of Singing; Introduction to the Histoiy and Principles of Ancient and Modern Music; Critical Letters on Music (2 vols.); Essay on Musical Temperament; besides a vast number of single songs, odes, &c. His death took place at Berlin, from a con- sumption, in 1795. MARQUE,LETTERtiE.(SeeZ>e«er of Mart.) Marquesas, Marquis ok Menooza's Islanos, or Mendoca Islands ; a cluster of five islands in the South Pacific ocean, firet discovered by Mendoc, a Spaniard, in 1597, and visited by captain Cook, in 1774. The trees, plants, and other pro- ductions of these isles, are nearly the same as at Otaheite and the Society isles. The refreshments to be got are hogs, fowls, plantains, yams, and some other roots ; likewise bread-fruit and cocoa-nuts; but of these, not many. The inhabitants are the finest race of people in this sea. The affinity of their language to that spoken in Otaheite and the Society isles, shows that they are of die same nation. The men are punctured, or tattooed from head to foot. Lieutenant Paulding, in his ac- count of the cruise of the U. States' schooner Dolphin among the islands of the Pacific ocean (New York, 1831), says, " The men of the Marquesas were in gen- eral quite naked ; but few ornaments were worn by either sex. A few were tat- tooed all over; others but slightly. Some had pricked into their flesh, fish, birds, and beasts, of all kinds known to them. Others were tattooed black, even to tbe inner part of their lips. There are men who pursue tattooing as a regular busi- ness. The men are finely formed, large and active. Their teeth are very beauti- ful. A plurality of wives is not admitted among them. The only arms now gen- erally used are muskets." Population, of the group, vaguely estimated at 50,000. Lon. 138° 45' to 140° 30' W.; lat 8° 301 to 10° 30' S. Marquetry (French, marqueteiie, mar- queter, to inlay); inlaid cabinet work, in which thin slices of different colored wootl, sometimes of ivory, pearl, shell, or metal, are inlaid on a ground. Works in whicli black and white only are employed, are called Morescoes. Marquetry in glass, precious stones, or marble, is more com- monly called Mosaic, (q. v.). Marquette, Joseph, a French Jesuit and missionary in North America, after having visited the greater part of Canada, was sent, by the French authorities, in company with Joliette, to examine the situation and couree of the Mississippi. Marquette and his party (1673) ascended the Outagamis from lake Michigan, and, descending the Wisconsin, reached the Mississippi, and proceeded as far as the mouth of the Arkansas. Their voyage left little room to doubt that it emptied MARQUETTE—MARRIAGE. 297 into the gulf of Mexico, and, not thinking it prudent to continue their course, they returned to lake Michigan, by the Illinois. Marquette remained among the Miamis till his death, in 1675. This event caused his discoveries to be lost sight of until they were again brought into notice by La Salle, (q. v.) Marquette's relation was published by Thevenot (1681), in a supplement to his Recueil de Voyages. Marquis, Marquess (in middle Latin, marchio ; Italian, marchese ; French, mar- ?uis ; German, markgraf) ; a title of innor, next in dignity to that of duke, first given to those who commanded the inarches, (q. v.). Marquises were not known in England, till king Richard II, in the year 1337, created his great favorite, Robert v ere, the earl of Oxford, marquis of Dublin. The title given a marquis, in the S13 le of the heralds, is most noble and potent prince. Marriage, (For the legal relation between husband and wife, in modern civilized countries, especially England and the U. States, see the article Husband and Wife.) No social relation is more univer- sally established than matrimony, resting, as it does, on the fundamental principles of our being, and giving rise to the primary element of all social order and civilization —the, domestic connexions. Misguided philosophers and fanatic sects have, in- deed, at different times, preached against it, and even suspended its exercise, _in a limited circle, for a limitetl time; but such a violation of the order of nature was necessarily brief. As marriage is a con- nexion existing in all ages, and probably in all nations, though with veiy different degrees of strictness, it constitutes one of the most interesting phenomena for the inquirer into the various manifestations and different tlevelopements of the com- mon principles of our nature. In almost all nations, the day of marriage is cele- brated with religious ceremonies. Nothing is more natural than to pray for the bless- ing of Heaven on such a union, and the prayer of a priest is generally esteemed, in the early ages of nations, as most effica- cious. With the most ancient inhabitants of the East, the bride was obtained by presents made, or services rendered, to her parents. (See Jacob.) To this day the same practice prevails among the Circas- sians, and the poorer Turks and Chinese. Respecting the customs of the ancient Persians, Babylonians, Indians, and other inhabitants of Asia, the ancient writers have left us little or no information. It is only known that polygamy was customary with them. The women lived in harems, yet they were probably not so restricted as at present; at least, it was customary for every woman in Babylon, once in her life, to give herself up to any stranger, in the temple of the goddess of love. In Syria and the other countries of Western Asia, girls served, for several years, in the temple of the Asiatic Aphrodite, and be- stowed their favors on the visitors of the temple. In India, and other countries of Upper Asia, the firet enjoyment of a woman, immediately after marriage, be- longed to the Bramins. This connexion with the priests was even sought for with prayers and gifts. Whether the Egyp- tians practised polygamy is uncertain. Diodorus maintains that it existed among all the castes except the priests; Herodotus denies it. A curious custom existed in As- syria (according to Mela, also in Thrace): the marriageable girls were sold by public auction, and the money thus received fur- nished marriage portions for those whose charms were not sufficient to attract pur- chasers. With the ancient Hebrews, the wedding followeel 10 or 12 months after the botroth metit, and wua called mishleh (i, e. festival meal). From the time of Moses, polygamy was prohibited ; and, if Solomon and others took several wives, they rendered themselves guilty of a vio- lation of the laws, particularly if these wives were foreigners. The Hebrews married, as the Jews even now do, very young. On the day of the wedding, the bridegroom proceeded, anointed and orna- mented, accompanied by a friend (para- nymph), and followed by several compan- ions, into the house of the bride, and con- ducted her, veiled, and followed by her companions, with song and music (at a later period also with torches), into his or his father's house, where the wedding feast was celebrated at his expense (generally for seven days; if a witlow was married, only for three), at which the bridegroom appear- ed with a crown; the bride, likewise, wore a high golden crown, resembling the pin- nacle of a wall (see Hirt, De Coronis ap. Hebr. Nupt., Jena, 1740, 4to.), and the conversation was enlivened by songs and enigmas.—See Zorn, De Carm. vet. Hebr. Nupt. (Hamburg, 1722, 4to.) The duty of the paranymph was, to play the part of the host in the room of the bridegroom, and to do as he ordered him (John iii. 29; ii. 9; Judges xiv. 20). Men and women took their meals separately, and had also their separate entertainments. The nup- tial formality seems to have consisted iD pronouncing a blessing over the couple 298 MARK I AGE. After the wedding meal, the bridegroom and bride were led, yet still veiled, into the bridal chamber, where the bridemaids accompanied them with torches and song; hence the parable of the ten virgins, who took their lamps hi order to meet the bridegroom. If the examination made by matrons the next day led to the conclusion that the wife had not been previously chaste, she was stoned.—Compare Hilt, De Ntiptiis Hebr. (Jena, 1754,4to.) The wed- ding ceremonies of the modern Jews devi- ate considerably from those of their fore- fathers. The rabbies, indeed, maintain that they follow strictly die ceremonies observed at the wedding of Tobias, though die Bible says nothing of the greater part of them. The Jews marry very young, antl hold it a direct sin against the com- mandment to " be fruitful and multiply," if they are not married in their 18th year. Marriage is permitted to males at the age of 13 yeare and 1 day, if they appear to have reached the age of puberty. G lis may marry at the age of 12 yeare and 1 day, under the same condition. If the signs of maturity are wanting, or evident impotence exis.s, Jnws are not permitted to marry until the 35th year. Barrenness is esteemed a great misfortune with them, as with the Arabians, and most, perhaps all, Oriental nations, anel perhaps we might say, all nations living in a state in which the natural feelings are unchecked. After the suitor has obtained the consent of the girl and her guardians, the betroth- meut takes place with certain ceremonies. The bridegroom pays (or, at least, formerly paid) a morning gift, so called—a remnant of the custom of buying the daughter from the father. The wedding is not allowed to take place on Saturday (Sabbath), and was usually performed on Wednesdays, because Thursday was a day of justice, and the husband would immediately go to court, and ask for a divorce, iu case the signs of virginity had been wanting. At present, the marriage takes place some- times on Friday. The eve before the wedding, the bride goes into the bath, accompanied by her female friends, who make a great noise. The ceremony of wedding generally takes place in the open air, seldom in a room. The couple sit under a canopy, generally carried by four boys. A large black veil covers both, besides which, each of them has a black cloth (taled), with tassels at the four cor- ners, upon the head. The rabbi, the pre- centor of the synagogue, or the nearest relation of the bridegroom, offers to the couple a cup of wine, and says, " Praised be thou, O Got!, that thou hast created man and woman, and hast ordained mat- rimony." Both drink. The bridegroom then puts a gold ring, without a stone, on the finger of the bride, and says, " With this ring I take thee as my wedded wife, acconling to the custom of Moses and the Israelites." Then the matrimonial contract is read (see Jewish Law), and the bridegroom shakes hands with the parents of the bride. Wine is brought once more, iu a vessel easily to be broken ; six prayers are spoken; the couple drink of the wine, and the cup is thrown violently to the ground, according to some, in remem- brance of the destruction of Jerusalem; according to others, to admonish the com- pany to orderly behavior. The company then proceeds into the dwelling of the bridegroom, where they sit down to din- ner, and he chants a long prayer. After the meal, men and women perform a cer- tain dance, each sex separate. In pres- ence of ten persons of advanced age, another prayer is pronounced over the bride, and she is leel into the bridal cham- ber, from which moment the marriage is considered to be complete. Of the mul- tifarious ceremonies* accompanying the wedding, with the latter Greeks, the germs are to be found as early as the time of Homer, viz. the leading of the bride veiled to the shoulders, from the house of her father to that of her husband, with torches, the singing of joyous songs, play- ing on the flute and harp, dancing, bath- ing of tbe britle, ornamenting her, con- ducting of the couple to their apartment by the, thalamepolos, a female guardian of the bride chamber. At later periods, the ceremonies of the festival were more ex- tended. The day before the wedding, which was celebrated particularly in the month Gamelion, or on the fourth day of each month, the betrothed parties' each cut off a lock of hair, and dedicated it to all the patron gods of matrimony (Jupiter, Juno, Diana, the Fates); the bile of the victims was thrown away; the entrails were observed. The ceremonies were, projieiiy speaking, nothing but a mimic repetition of the first marriage of the gods (gamos hieros). On the day of the wed- ding, the couple put on wreaths of flowers or leaves, sacred to Venus, or having some other relation to marriage. The house was also ornamented with wreaths. Towards evening, the bridegroom took the bride from her father's house, general- ly in a chariot accompanied by a para~ nymphos. If he had been already married, the paranymphos alone conducted her, and MARRIAGE. 299 was men called nymphagogos. The bride (who carried a vessel containing barley, and called phrygetron) was preceded by torch-bearere, music and song, also by females who carried symbols of domestic life, as a sieve, a spindle, &c. When the couple arrived at home, fruits were poured over them, as a symbol of plenty ; the axle of the vehicle in which they had rid- den was burnt, to indicate that the bride could not return, after which the meal followed, in apartments adorned for the occasion, for which friends and relations assembled, dressed in festival dresses. In Athens, a boy appeared during the meal, crowned with thorns and acorns, holding a basket, which contained bread, and calling out, " I left the bad and found the better" (tyvyov kukov, dpov a/tttvvov)—an allu- sion to the life of the primitive inhabitants of Attica, without bread and matrimony. Dances and songs diverted the guests. After the dance, followed the procession into the bride chamber, where the bed was generally covered with a purple cloth, antl strewed with flowers. Another betl was also placed in the same room, for the bride- groom, in case evil omens should prevent the consummation of the marriage. Here the bride washed her feet (in Athens, in water from the fountain CallirehoC), served by the luthrophoros (a boy, always the nearest relative). In Athens, the pair also ate a quince, probably in allusion to Pros- erpine. The bride was nowplacedinthe bed by her nearest relatives, particularly by the mother of the bride, who wound the fillets of her own hair round the torch, and, whilst die bridegroom unloosed the zone of the bride, which was conse- crated to Minerva or Diana, boys and girls danced before the door, stamping and singing songs (epilhalamia, choruses, praises of the young couple, good wishes, iVc.—See Theocn tus, 18th idyl.) A thy- roros (door-keeper) prevented the women from entering to assist the bride. The next morning, tbe same boys and girls sung cpithalamia egertica (awakening songs). Tfie festival lasted for several days, each having its proper name. Very different from all this was the custom of the Lacedaemonians. They retained die ancient form of canying oft* the bride by force. After the bridegroom had earned off the'girl, a female paranymph cut the hair of the bride, put on her a male dress, seated her in a dark room, upon a carpet; the bridegroom then came clandestinely, unbound tbe zone, placed the bride upon the bed, and, soon after, stole away to the common sleeping room of the youths, and repeated these visits several times before the marriage was made known. After this, the solemn conducting home of the bride, accompanietl by sacrifices, took place. The Romans had, in a legal sense, three different ways of concluding a mar- riage—coemtio, confarreatio, and usus—of which the confarreatio was the most sol- emn and most conclusive. At the be- trothment (sponsolia), the day of marriage was settled, great care being taken not to fix upon one of the atri dies (unlucky days), viz. the month of May, the calends, nones and ides, and the days following them, the feast of the Salians, the parenta- lia, &c. On the other hand, a peculiar predilection was entertained for the sec- ond half of June. The day before the wetlding, the bride sacrificed the virgin- like toga pratexta to the Fortuna virgina- lis; her bulla aurea, her strophia and toys to the Lar famUiaris, or to Venus, after she had firet sacrificed to Juno jugo, the goddess of marriages, and after her hair had been divided with a lance (calibaris) into six locks (in allusion to the rape of the Sabines), and arranged according to the fashion of matrons. On the day of the wedding, the bride was ornamented. She covered her hair with the vitta recta, put on a wreath of flowers, the tunic of matrons, and encircled her waist with a woollen zone, tied in a Hercules knot (so called), at which moment she implored the Juno cinxia. A red or fire-colored veil now covered her face (allusion to bash- fulness) ; shoes of a like color were put on. After the auspices were taken, antl sacrifices had been offered to the gods of matrimony, particularly to Juno, the bile being thrown away, the couple seated themselves upon the fleece of the victim, in allusion to the original dress of men, and to the domestic duties of the wife. In the evening, the bride was led home by the bridegroom. Tire bride rested in the arms of her mother, or one of the next relatives, and the bridegroom careied her off, in allusion to the rape of the Sabines. The bride was led by boys; others pre- ceded her, bearing torches. The bride (or female slaves) earned distaffs, wool, &c. The music of the lyre and the flute accompanied the procession, during which the bridegroom threw walnuts among the people. The bride was lifted, or stepped gently over the threshold of her parents' house, and of that where she entered, this part of the dwelling being sacred to Vesta, the protectress of virgins. These thresh- olds were ornamented with flowers, &c. She was followed, or, according to some, 300 MARRIAGE. preceded by the boy Camillus.* Rela- tions and frientls accompanied the proces- sion, where jokes and merriment abound- ed. Arrived at her new house, she hung woollen bands, as sigus of chastity, at the door-posts, and rubbed the posts with the fat of hogs and wolves, to guard against enchantment. Her firet step in the house was made on a fleece (symbol of domes- tic industry). The keys were handed over to her, and both she aud the bride- groom touched fire and water, as signs of chastity and purity. With the water the feet were washed. In the times of the republic^tne bride carried three pieces of the coin called as. One she held in her hand, and gave to the bridegroom, as if purchasing him ; another, lying iu her shoe, she put on the hearth of the new house; the third, which she had in a pocket, she put on a cross-way. After some more ceremonies, followed the wed- ding meal, accompanied by epUhalamia. The bride we.s then conducted by matrons, only once married (pronuba), into the nuptial chamber (thalamus), and laid on the bed (genialis ledus). Virgins now snug epUhalamia, in praise of the couple, aud, in order not to excite Nemesis by such praises, boys used to sing indecorous songs. After the husband had given another feast (repotia), the wife entered oil her new duties.—Of the marriage rites of the ancient Celtic and German tribes, as little is known as of the ancient Asiatic tribes; and, in the little whicli is recorded, the ancient authors contradict each other. They are almost unanimous, however, in stating that the ceremony of buying the wife was customary with them; but it is doubtful whether polygamy existed among them or not Caesar says it prevailed among the Britons; others say the same of the inhabitants of Spain. The Ger- mans and Gauls seem to have had, gen- erally, but one wife; yet exceptions arc known (for instance, Ariovisttts). Accord- ing to the historian Adam, of Bremen, polygamy was common with the ancient Saxons and people of Ditmareh. Among the ancient Germans, the marriage of a free person with a slave was punished. If a slave had seduced a free girl, he was beheaded, and she burnt. They married late: marriage was prohibited before the 30th year. The suitor paid a price to the father of the girl, from which, afterwards, the morning gift, so called, originated. If a girl was betrothed, she was watched by * His office was to carry the bride's ornaments, iiiid the amulets for the future offspring, in a small box. the friends of the wooer ; if the latter delayed the marriage longer than two yeare, the engagement was dissolved. After marriage, the wife was inseparable from the husband: she followed him to the chase, in war, fictory liber- ties and lettere of protections, especially jurisdiction over their own bodies, and the right of settling their own wages. They then united, under written constitu- tions, founded upon the ancient constitu- tion of the Roman and Greek colleges, and the provisions of the civil law. The different tenets of the members, the sci- entific occupation aud elevated views of their leading architects and clergymen, naturally gave rise to a more liberal spirit of toleration, a purer view of religion, and stricter morals, than were common in those times of civil feud and religious per- secution. The lofty notions of Vitruvius (their constant manual), in regard to the dignity of an architect, may have contrib- uted to ennoble their character. Their religious tenets being often objects of sus- picion to the orthodox, they were obliged to keep them secret. Secrecy, moreover, was the character of all the corporations of the middle ages, and, down to the most recent times, the corporations of me- chanics on the continent had what they called secrets of the craft—certain words, or sometimes absurd ceremonies, by which they pretended to know each other. To this we must add, that the corporations of architects, in the middle ages, were de- scended from the times of antiquity, so that their societies had received, in the times when Rome adored all gods, and listened to all philosophical systems, im- pressions derived from the Greek philo- sophical schools, particularly the Stoic, united with some fragments of the Greek and Egyptian mysteries, and subsequently modified by notions acquired in the early times of Christianity, particularly from the Gnostics, which led to certain doc- trines and sacred ceremonies, clothed, according to the spirit of the time, in symbols, and constituting their esoteric mysteries. The watchful eye of the popes induced them to keep these doc- trines closely concealed, in connexion with the real secrets of their art, and its sub- sidiary branches, their rude chemistry, their metallurgy, and natural philosophy, and to preserve their knowledge iu forms otherwise foreign to it, if they wished to escape persecution.* The great impor- tance which architecture assumed in those times, is to be accounted for from the en- thusiasm for splendid houses of worehip, * It is by no means improbable that, in these barbarous ages, their secret doctrines may have degenerated, and become mixed witli corrupt notions, as was the case with the Society of Templars. in which the religious spirit of those times displayed itself to an unparalleled degree. The history of these corporations, as here given, and "their connexion with the present society of free-masons, appeare from what we know of antiquity, from the historv of England, and from the agreement- of the constitutions, symbols and customs of the present free-masons with those of the above corporations.* Three documents have also been pre- s rved, which further prove that historical connexion, as well as the doctrines and customs of those corporations of the mid- dle ages, iu great perfection, and which must be considered as valuable portions of the historv of that period.—See Die drei altestcn "Kunsturkunden der Freimau- rerbruderschaft (2 vols., Dresden, 1819).— Before we speak of these documents, we must mention that some writers speak of the Culdees as having formed a Christian church in England for some centuries before the Saxon conquest (in 449), and sent bishops to the most ancient councils. This church was, together with the Ro- man civilization, suppressed by the Picts and Saxons. The Culdees were obliged to seek refuge in the wildernesses of Wales and Scotland, in Ireland, and in the small islands hi; ween Great Britain and Ireland, chiefly in Anglesey aud Mo- na, where they continued their apostolic institutions and usages, related to tlrose of * The architects, with their assistants and pupils, formed associations, called Illltten, or lodges. At an assembly held at Ratisbon, in 1459, it was agreed that a grand lodge should be formed at btrasburg, as the place of general assembly, and that the architect of that cathedral, for the time being, should be the grand-master The society was composed of masters, compan- ions and apprentices, who had a secret word, with signs of recognition. In 14fi-l and 1469, there were general assemblies at .Strasburg ; but they were afterwards neglected for some time, until the emperor Maximilian I, being at that city in 1498, granted them certain privileges, by charter or diploma, which were renewed and confirmed by subsequent emperors. These diplo- mas, together with the regulations and statutes, were kept in the house of the architect of the cathedral, in a chest with triple locks, of which the two oldest masons kept the keys, so that it required the presence of all before the chest could lie opened. These documents were in existence until the French revolution, when they were destroyed, with many other papers, to pre- vent their falling into the hands of the Jacobin commissioners. Their rules inculcated the neces- sity of leading moral lives; submission to the masters, whom the companions served for five or seven years; attention to their religious duties j and charity to the poorer brethren, &c. Among the symbols were the square, the plumb-rule and the compasses, which are distinguishing marks oi the officers of a free-mason's lodge at this day. MASONRY, FREE. 329 the Oriental church. They tried in vain to convert the rude Saxon kings, but they had not the same means as Augustin, who was sent by die pope, with 40 monks, in 597, to Britain. The Culdees were now again bloodily persecuted by the adhe- rents of the pope. In their persecution, they maintained the spirit of Christianity, and studied in solitude. They at last found access to Alfred and Athelstan. The latter gave employment to many architects, in building convents, castles, &c, and the Culdees made use of their organization, and the independence guar- antied by the king, to teach them their truly apostolic principles. Usher, Led- w ich and Grose treat of this subject. The old writers on the papal side of the ques- tion, are said to have purposely avoided making mention of the Culdees. A fur- ther cause is thus assigned for the supe- rior morals which distinguished the archi- tectural societies in the middle ages. The eldest of the documents above mentioned, is the constitution confirmed, in 920, to all the corporations of architects, by king Athelstan, through bis brother Edwin, at York, the original of which, in Anglo- Saxon, is still preserved in York. The beginning reminds the reader immediate- ly of the most ancient Oriental church. Then follows a histoiy of architecture, beginning with Adam, and comprising quotations from some rabbinical tales, re- specting the building of Babel, the temple of Solomon, with mention of Hiram, lim- ited, however, to the information con- tained in the Bible ; then passing over to the Greeks antl Romans ; mentioning par- ticularly Pythagoras, Euclid and Vitruvius. Then the history of architecture, and the oldest corporations in Britain, js told, agree- ably to the accounts of the best historians, and, among other things, is mentioned, that St. Albanus, an honorable Roman knight, patronised the art about A. D. 300, settled the fundamental institutions of the masons, procured them employment, wages, antl a charter from the emperor Carausius, according to which they should form a society in Britain, under the gov- ernment of architects. The devastation of the countiy, and the destruction of the edifices by the northern tribes and the Angles and Saxons, is related, aud how the pious Athelstan had resolved to restore the ancient and venerable society. After this follow the 1(5 most ancient laws, which agree exactly with every thing that careful investigation can find in the corpus juris relating to the college of architects. This constitution was preserved in Eng- 28* land and Scotland, in its essential features, until the fourteenth century, when the societies passed over into the stationary corporations in cities. It is proved by historical documents, that in Scotland and England, lodges, laboring according to these constitutions, existed in an uninter- rupted series, and often admitted, as mem- bers, learned or influential men, who were not architects, including even kings (ac- cepted masons). The reader will find, in the article Masons, in Rees's Cyclopae- dia, an account of the chief events which happened to the society of masons in England, and of its most influential mem- bers, the grand-masters, &c. The society of masons decreased, and sunk more and more, as the times changed. In 1717, we find four lodges existing, in which the old symbols and customs were still pre- served ; most of their members were merely accepted masons. So far extends the firet period of masonry. In 1717, an essential change was made by three members belonging to some of the four lodges just mentioned, Desaguliers, James Anderson and George Payne. They changed the society into one which had nothing more to do with building,* but of which " brotherly love, relief and truth " were to be the essential characteristics. By retaining the name and customs of the ancient fraternity, the new lodges retained the privileges and charters of those socie- ties. They further thought it well to establish a centre of union and harmony in one grand-master, the eldest mason, who, at the same time, was a master of a lodge; to constitute themselves, pro tem- pore, one grand lodge; to renew the quar- terly communications of the brethren ; to hold the annual meeting and the festival; and to elect a grand-master from among them, until they should have a brother of high rank at their head. In 1721, James Anderson was charged to remodel the old constitutions, and to form thus a general book of constitutions, which alone should be valid for all the special lodges, in future to be established under the authority of this grand lodge. The constitution of York was made, by him, the basis, though he compared a number of other constitu- tions. In 1721, his draft was accepted, with some changes, acknowledged, and printed in 1723. In 1738, a new edition was printed. In the editions of 1756, 1784, and in the latest book of constitu- tions of the grand lodge of old masons at London, united in 1813 (of which the * Sir Christopher Wren was the last grand- master of the ancient fraternity. 330 MASONRY, FREE—MASORA. second part appeared in 1815), the (raits of the ancient York instrument are always to be recognised. The following are the most important duties (charges) of the masons, as they appear in the edition of 1784, and, with few alterations, in the constitutions of 1815: The mason is bound to obey the laws of morality, and, if he understands the principles of the society, he will neither be an atheist nor a profligate. Though the masons of an- cient times were obliged to profess the religion of tbeir country, whatever that might be, it is considered now more beue- ticial to bind them to that religion alone in which all men agree, and to leave to each his peculiar opinions; they are to be men of probity and honor, whatever may be their differences in name or in opuiion. By this, says the constitution, masonry becomes the central point of union, and the means of establishing friendship among pereons who, without it, would live in continual separation. The mason is to be a peaceable subject or citizen, and never to allow himself to be involved in riots or conspiracies against the public peace and the welfare of the nation. No private hatred or feud shall be carried to the threshold of the lodge, still less politi- cal or religious disputes, as the masons, in this capacity, are only of* the above-named general religion: masons are of all nations and tongues, and decidedly against politi- cal feuds, which pever have been tavor- able to the welfare of the lodges, nor ever will be. The second of the above-men- tioned documents was written under Henry VI of England, first printed iu the Gentleman's Magazine, in 1753, p. 417 et seq., and, since then, has been repeatedly reprinted. The last of the three docu- ments is the aucient mode of admitting masons, as it is still exercised by all the masons of tbe ancient English system. It contains some customs of the Roman col- leges, and of the mos-: ancient Christian monks and ascetics. From this ritual, that of the new English grand lodg^, contain- ed iu Browne's Master-Key (London, 1802), differs in some important particu- lars, though they agree in spirit. The firet lodge in France, after the English system, was established in Paris, in J725; in Genuany (in Hamburg;, in 1735; in America, 1730. The more the order was extended, the less intimate became the connexion of the lodges; secessions took place ; new systems were established ; rivalry often occuned; to the three firet degrees, of apprentice, companion and master, additional ones were added ; in fact, it would be difficult at present to give a general character of masons, so numerous are their lodges, and so various their characters. They have, in many places, done much good, by assisting the poor, establishing schools, &c. In some countries, diey have excited the suspicions of the government, have been prohibited and persecuted, as in Spain. Pope Clem- ent XII excommunicated them. As we have already said, the society has been sometimes used for bad purposes. These, however, are declared, by the members, to be foreign from its spirit. According to some masons, the society requires a total renovation. During the time of Napoleon, there often existed lodges in the different regiments. The activity of the masonic societies, in the French revolution ; die use of their forms by the Carbonari; their titles and ceremo- nies, which have too often been made mere instruments of ostentation, we have not room to describe. Of late, the society has attracted a peculiar interest in the U. States, in consequence of the abduc- tion of a certain V/illiam Morgan, attrib- uted to some of its members. The oppo- nents of masonry ascribe this act to the fundamental principles of the society, and therefore consider its existence as incon- sistent with the security of the community. The subject has given rise to a violent contest. The dispute, however, is so re- cent, and is still pursued with so much warmth, that it cannot be considered, as yet, of a historical character, so as to require to be treated of at length in a work like the present A brief statement of the facts of the Morgan case will be found under the head of Morgan. Wc refer the reader, for further information, to Preston's Illustrations of Masonry (8th edition, London, 1812); Lawrie's History of Free-masonry (Edinburgh, I804;; Tho- ry's Histoire du Grand-Orient de France 'Paris, 1812); and his Ada Latomorum '2 vols., Paris, 1815;; Sarscna, oder der vollkommene Baumeister (4th edition); Macbenac, by Lindcner (3d edition, 1819); Freimauer-Encyklopadie, bv Lenning (Leipsic, 1822, 3 vols.): Die'drei altesten Kunsturkunden der Freimaurerbruderschajl (2 vols., Dresden, 2d edition, 1819). Masora; a collection of remarks, crit- ical, grammatical and exegetical, on tin books of the Old Testament, by the Jew- ish doctors of the third and succeeding centuries. After they had long been transmitted orally (hence the name, signi- fying tradition), they were formed into this collection, at the beginning of the sixth MASORA—MASQUE. 331 century, in Tiberias, where there was a celebrated Jewish school, and, from time to time, additions were made. It is di- vided into the great and little: the former contains the whole collection, in separate books; the latter is an extract from the observations, which were written in the margins of the biblical manuscripts. It is important for the criticism of the Old Tes- tament, on account of its indications of the various readings; and it contains many valuable explanations of difficult passages. It is to be regretted that the authors and collectors (the Masorites) spent their time in the most laborious and useless trifling,— counted the verbs and words, and even the consonants, in the Old Testament; found die middle word and letter of each book, and marked the verses which con- tain all the consonants of die Hebrew al- phabet, &c. The Masora was gradually brought into a state of the greatest confu- sion by successive additions, and the er- rors of transcribers: but, in the beginning of the sixteenth centuiy, it was once more reduced to order by Rabbi Jacob Ben Chajim, for Daniel Bomberg, a printer in Venice (Biblia rabbinica Hebr., Venice, 1518,1521,1525—28, folio); and, a century after, John Buxtorf the elder completed the work of his predecessor (Bale, 1618, folio). Masque, or Mask ; a theatrical drama, much in favor in the courts of princes, during the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- turies, in the latter particularly in England. They are the most brilliant and imagina- tive among the entertainments of our En- glish ancestors, and are traced, with much probability, to the religious processions of the church of Rome, in which various scriptural characters were represented, with some occasional tinge of burlesque solemnity. The masque, or, as we should rather call it, in its infancy, the masquer- ade, iu order to distinguish it from the species of drama into which it ultimately ripened, early became a prevalent fashion among the princes and nobles of Europe. The court of Henry VIII, before the ty- rant's sanguinary licentiousness had del- uged it with blood, presented many of these gorgeous spectacles. According to llolinshed's chronicle, the first masque performed in England was in 1510, in the firet year of Henry's reign. In 1530, a masque was performed at Whitehall, " consisting of music, dancing, and a ban- quet, with a display of grotesque person- ages and fantastic dresses." Shakspeare, Beaumont and Fletcher have frequendy introduced masques into their plays. The English masques bear some resemblance to operas, as they are in dialogue, performed .on a stage, ornamented with machinery, dances and decorations, and have always music, vocal and instrumental. The parts in the masques of the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries were usually represented by the firet personages of the kingdom: if at court,.the king, queen and princes of the blood often performed in them. James I canied to its height the glory of the masque. It had hitherto consisted of music, dancing, gaming, a banquet, and a display of grotesque personages and fantas- tic dresses; but it now assumed a higher character, and became " married to immor- tal verse." Previously, "their chief aim," says Warton, " seems to have been to sur- prise by the ridiculous and exaggerated oddity of the visors, and by the singularity and splendor of the dresses. Every thing was out of nature and propriety. Fre- quently the masque was attended with an exhibition of some gorgeous machinery, resembling the wonders of a modem pan- tomime ; for instance, in the great hall of the palace, the usual place of performance, a vast mountain, covered with tall trees, arose suddenly, from whose opening cav- erns issued hermits, pilgrims, shepherds, knights, damsels and gipsies, who, being regaled with spices and wine, danced a morisco or morris dance. They were again received into the mountain, which, with a symphony of rebecs and recorders, closed its caverns, and, tumbling to pieces, was replaced by a ship in full sail, or a castle besieged."" (History of English Po- etry, sec. 44.) This glittering chaos wa> reduced to order by the genius of Ben Johnson; not that he was the first who united poetry with music, dancing antl scenery, but he was more largely employ- ed than any other poet of his time in this branch of the drama. In his masques, along with much that is frigid, wearisome and pedantic, may also be found much fine poetry. The masques, though they make a great show on paper, were probably not a little defective in exhibition. Sir Dud- ley Carleton, an eye-witness, writes to Winwood as follows: " At night, we had the queen's maske in the banqueting- house, or rather the pagent. There was a great engine at the lower end of the room, which had motion, and in it were the images of sea-horses, and other terrible fishes, which were ridden by Moore. The indecorum was, that there was all fish and no water. At the further end was a great shell, in form of a skallop, wherein were four seats, on which sat the queen and her ladies. Their apparel was rich, but 332 MASQUE 1—MASS. too light and courtesan-like for such great ones. Instead of vizzards, their faces and arms, up to the elbows, were painted black, which was disguise sufficient, for they were hard to be known ; but it be- came them nothing so well as their red and white ; and you cannot imagine a more ugly sight than a troop of lean-faced Moore." (Winwood's Memorials, II, 44.) Milton's Comus is the most beautiful of the productions which bear the name of masque. This exquisite specimen of lofty thought, beautiful imagery, and splendid versification, is said, by Gifford, to be de- fective as a masque, and, by D' Israeli, not to be a masque at all, referring, prob- ably, to the deficiency of music and ma- chinery ; but Warton says, with truth, "The intrinsic graces of its exquisite po- etry disdained assistance ; and, whether Comus be or be not deficient as a drama, I am of opinion that our author here is inferior only to his own Paradise Lost" Puritanism banished the Muses, and the masques in their train. Mass ; properly speaking, the prayers and ceremonies which accompany the consecration of the eucharist The word is used generally for all that part of the Catholic service in which the eucharist is offered. The Latin word is missa, which name, in early times, designated the public service of the Christians, celebrated un- der the direction of a leitourgos (see Lit- urgia), generally the bishop himself, with the assistance of several servants of the altar (the elders, deacons and others), in presence of the whole community. Ac- cording to the example given in the Acts of the Apostles (ii, 41—42), and other pas- sages, this service consisted of prayers, singing (chiefly psalms), reading of por- tions of the Bible, preacbiug, and the cel- ebration of the Lord's supper. The peo- ple not only understood what was done, but also sung, responded, prayed, and re- ceived bread and wine in the Lord's sup- per. Very early, however, through the so called disciplina arcani (see the Catho- lic part of the article Lord's Supper), it became customary, and, according to many, universal, during the first three centuries, to divide the divine service into two chief parts, by separating the rest of the service from the celebration of the eucharist Only the faithful, who lived actually in communion with the church, were allowed to be present at the latter: at the former, also, the catechumens (q. v.), the penitents, and even unbelievers; but these classes were dismissed before the celebration of the eucharist was begun, by the words Catechumeni, exite, missa est (i. e. concio, the meeting), or Si quiscate- chumenorum remanserU, exeat foras. Thus they were dismissed (dismissio, missio, missa), from which circumstance, in the sequel, the whole service received its name; hence, again, the division of missa catechu- menorum, and missa fiddium. Quite a similar dismission takes place in the meet- ings of most Protestant sects in the U. States, before the Lord's supper, when all pereons, not in communion with the church there assembled, or with any oth- er, are impliedly requested to leave the church. In the article Lord's Supper, the reader will find the Protestant anil Catholic views respecting the eucharist, the sacrifice of mass, the holy mysteries of the mass, and the decrees of the coun- cil of Trent respecting this, the most es- sential point of Roman Catholic service. It remains, therefore, to give here an ac- count of the celebration of the mass only. When the number of the faithful increas- ed, and communities of Christians rose, not merely in the cities, but also in the villages, the celebration of divine service was intrusted also to priests, who at first officiated only before the whole commu- nity, and on days appointed for the pur- pose; at a later period, also, on ordinary days, and even alone, for their own bene- fit, with the assistance of one altar-servant only. Thus originated, with the high or solemn mass, also the low or private mass, performed by the priest, assisted by one altar-servant only. Tbe Protestants con- sider this, even according to the Catholic doctrine of the mass itself, a great abuse ; and many Catholic authors have concur- red with them, while others maintain that it is indispensable, as it would be impos- sible otherwise to consecrate the host for the sick, &c.; and, besides, say they, the hermits in the deserts must have celebrat- ed private mass. This, of couree, is argu- ing on the ground that the masstin the times of the early anchorites, was already devel- oped. If the mass is of such supernatural efficacy as a great part of the Catholics consider it; if it is an actual and repeated sacrifice of Christ for our sins,—private masses may also be admissible, though the form of the celebration, founded on the supposition of the presence of the people, may be inconsistent with them. The cel- ebration of the eucharist or the mass sep- arate from the preaching, became more and more common, and the actual partici- pation of the people in it gradually lessened. The responses, &c, were made by a ser- vant of the altar, and the priest alone took MASS. 333 the sacred elements,—changes to which the people accustomed themselves the more readily as the knowledge of the an- cient languages, in which the masses were performed (in the Oriental church the Greek, and in the Latin church the Latin), became more and more limited. The choir of priests and servants, includ- ing, at a later period, the singers and mu- sicians, took the place of the people, and the whole difference of the solemn and the private mass came to consist in this cir- cumstance only, the people having ceased to take any part in the mass, and the ser- mon being delivered separate from this ceremony. This state of things has re- mained to this day, at least in by far the greater number of Catholic countries. The mass, then, at present consists of four or three chief parts: 1. the introduction, which forms its chief part, is called the evangelium, and formerly constituted, with the sermon, the mass of the catechumens; 2. the offertorium, or sacrifice; 3, the con- secration, or transubstantiation ; 4, the communion. These four chief parts, of which the latter three are considered the most essential, are composed of several small parts, each having its proper denom- ination ; they are prayers, songs, shorter and longer passages of the Holy Scriptures, and a number of ceremonies, whicli, as the essential point of the mass is the sacrifice of the Lord, consist partly of symbolical ceremonies, commemorative of important circumstances in the Savior's life, or signs of devotion and homage paid to the presence of the Lord in the host. The order of these ceremonies, and of the whole celebration of the mass, is given in the missal (q. v.), or mass-book. The masses are modified according to many circumstances. Thus certain parts are changed according to the saint in honor of whom the mass is celebrated, or the seasons of the year connected with differ- ent events in the Savior's life, or the pur- pose for which the mass is said, as the missa pro defundis (mass for the dead), or that intended for the invocation of the Holy Ghost, antl others. Deviations from the established rite gave rise to the missa bifaciata, trifaciata, multifaciata, formed by uniting two, three and more masses under one canon. Missa prasanctificato- rum is that in which the host has been consecrated one or several days before- hand, which is more common in the Greek church than in the Latin. Missa sicca, or dry mass, is that which was cele- brated without wine ; for instance, on board of vessels, in order to prevent the spilling of the blood. It is no longer in use. The mass of the day is such as is proper to the season, or to the feast which is celebrated. Votive mass is an extraor- dinary mass, besides that of the day, re- hearsed on some extraordinary occasion. High mass is celebrated by a deacon and sub-deacon, and sung by the choristers. Besides these, there are different masses, according to die different rites: the Greek mass, the Latin mass, the Roman and Gregorian mass, Gallican, Gothic mass, &c. One of the greatest objections of the Protestants against the Catholic religion is the doctrine of the mass. They are offend- ed with the doctrine that tbe sacrament of the Lord's supper is made, in the mass, a sacrifice continually repeated for the reconciliation of sins, this appearing to them as the application of Jewish and heathenish ideas of sacrifice to the Lord's supper, while the Bible declares that Christ has offered himself by his death on the cross, once for all, for the atone- ment of sins, and the Lord's supper is no sacrifice to God, but the offering of God's grace to men. To this the Catholics re- ply that, according to Scripture and tradi- tion, the eucharist is a sacrifice; that the body and blood of Christ are actually pres- ent in the eucharist (see Lord's Supper), and that " they do not offer a sacrifice dif- ferent from that of the cross; that it is Jesus Christ himself, who offers himself through the hands of the priests; that he therefore is the principal priest or pontiff and vic- tim, as he was likewise on the cross. Can we," continues the Catholic Diction- naire de Thiologie (Toulouse, 1817), from which the foregoing passage is also taken —"can we testify our gratitude to God better than by offering to him the most precious of all the gifts which he has made to us—his only Son, whom he deigned to grant us, and who gave himself as a vic- tim for our redemption ? We then say, with David, ' For all things come of thee, and of thine own have we given thee.' (/ Chron. xxix, 14.) We therefore have full ground to hope that God, touch- ed by this oblation, will grant us new grace," &.c. Intimately connected with the dogma that the mass is a sacrifice is the dogma of the masses for the dead, which is equally offensive to the Protest- ant. As the Catholic church maintains that the believers who depart from this world without having sufficiently atoned by suffering for their sins, are obliged to suffer in the other world a temporary pun- ishment, it also believes that the sacrifice of the mass, that is, of Jesus Christ, may 334 MASS—MASSACHUSETTS. be made efficacious for the remission of this punishment. Catholics admit that the abuses which have been connected with the mass are enormous; but, say many of them, they have been abolished by the council of Trent Protestants, however, cannot find that these abuses have been eradicated, though they may have diminished. If in Catholic countries —perhaps without exception—masses for the dead can be procured for a certain fee, so that the persons for whom they are said are either entirely released from pur- gatory, or many yeare of their pain remit- ted, this special application of the great offering of Jesus seems to tiiem to deviate most essentially from the tiue meaning of the scriptures. In Italy, for instance, it is very common to find the j>ower of releasing from purgatory a certain number of souls for a certain number of years, atuibuted to a number of masses, said at particular altars; and the cheapness of the price for which such great benefit can be procured for the souls of the departed is not unfrequently extolled. The dispute relative to the mass is by no means re- stricted to the two parties, the Protestants and Catholics. Not a few of the Catholics are desirous of essential changes, particu- larly the disuse of a language which is not understood by the people, and of many masses connected with legends, evidently and acknowledgedly fictitious. Thus Mr. von Reichlin Meldegg, professor of eccle- siastical history and dean of the (Catholic) dieological department at the university of Freiburg, has lately advocated these and other changes, for which, of course, he has been violently attacked by the Roman party. (See a pamphlet enttled Wider rbmische Verketzerungssucht. Gutachten eines aufrichtigen Canonisten (Against the Disposition of Rome to proscribe for Here- sies. Opinion of a sincere Canonist), Leipsic, 1831.)—The advocates of the use of a language, in the mass, which is not understood Tiy the people, maintain that the liturgy of the mass was not always for- eign to the people; that it was translated into Ethiopian, Armenian, Coptic, Russian, Sclavonic, Illyrian, &c, but that it has not been changed as the languages went on changing. " So that the Oriental Chris- tians," they say, " understand the liturgy in use among them no better than the Eu- ropean nations the Latin liturgy."* (See Did. de Thiol., vol. v, p. 291.) Gregory I, or the Great (he died about 604), firet * The Catholics in Silesia have lately petitioned to have the mass said to them in the German lan- guage. settled the ceremouies and usages of the mass. Massa-Carrara ; a duchy of Italy, bounded principally by Tuscany and the duchy of Modeua, celebrated for the pro- duction of die beautiful white Canara marble, much used in sculpture. It is dependent on the duchy of Modena. Massachusetts; one of the U. States, bounded north by \ennont and New Hampshire, east by the Atlantic ocean, south by the Atlantic, Rhode Island and Connecticut, and west by New York; lat. 41° 15' to 42° 54' N.; lon. 69° 54' to 73° 307 W.; length, from east to west, 180 miles; breadth, from north to south, 9b*; area, 7800 square miles ; population, in 1790, 388,727; 1800, 422,845; 1810, 472,040; 1820, 523,287; 1830, 010,014, viz. white males, 294,449; white females, 308,559; free blacks, 7006. The state is divided into 14 counties, and 303 towns. The principal rivers are the Connecticut, whicli is navigable by steam-boats of small draught, the Merrimac, Charles, Concord, Blackstone, Miller's, Chickopee, Deerfield, Westfield, and Housatonic. All these rivers abound in falls, which afford valu- able mill-seats, appropriated to manufac- turing operations. The chief mountains are a part of the Green mountain ridge, which extends from north to south through the western part of the state. The most elevated summits of this ridge are Saddle mountain, near the north-western angle of the state, and Tahconick, on the west- ern border. Mount Tom, and mount Hol- yoke, near the Connecticut river, are re- markable elevations, which afford, from their summits, a beautiful prospect of the surrounding country. A second ridge passes through the state near its centre. The greatest elevation of this ridge is W'a- chuset, in the town of Princeton. The state abounds in small lakes, which are usually called ponds. The largest of these are the Assawampset and Long ponds, in Middleborough, Podunk and Quabaug ponds, in Brookfield, and the Naukeag ponds, in Ashburnham. The last-named are situated more than 1100 feet above the level of the ocean; and several other ponds, in the western part of the state, have a still higher elevation. The soil, for the most part, is fit for culti- vation, and much of it is well, and some of it very highly, cultivated. In the south- eastern counties, the soil is sandy, and not very productive: in the eastern and mid- dle counties, it is in general good, though not luxuriant The same may be said of the soil of the western parts, with the MASSACHUSETTS. 335 exception of extensive tracts, which are mountainous and rocky. The state is in general hilly, but, in the eastern parts of the state, the hills are of moderate eleva- tion. The soil is well adapted to the growth of grass and fruit trees. Nearly all the fruits of temperate climates are cultivated with success, and also Indian corn, rye and other kinds of grain. The mountains of Berkshire afford an abun- dance of iron ore. Bog ore is found in Worcester and Plymouth counties, and it is extensively worked. Anthracite coal is found in Worcester. There is a lead mine in Southampton, to which a subter- ranean passage of 1000 feet in length has been opened, chiefly through solid rock. The cheapness of lead from the mines of Missouri and Illinois has suspended the works upon this mine. Marble and lime- stone are found in exhaustless quarries in West Stockbridge, Lantesborough and Hinsdale. The middle and eastern parts of the state abound in quarries of granite of the best description for building stone. Quarries of soap-stone are found in Mid- dlefield. The occupations of the inhab- itants are agriculture, commerce, naviga- tion, fishing and manufacturing. Agri- culture is pursued almost exclusively by owners of small farms, who labor with their own hands. The commerce of the state extends to all parts of the world. The shipping of this state is more nume- rous than that of any other in the Union, and, in the extent of its foreign commerce, it is second only to New York. The value of imports into the state of" Massa- chusetts in the year ending Sept. 30, 1829, was $12,520,744, of which *12,289,308 in value, were imported in American vessels. The value of exports from the state, in tbe same year, was §8,254,937. The amount of tonnage entered at the ports of the state from foreign ports, in the same year, was 177,550 tons, and the amount which departed from the same ports was 140,187. Of this amount 117,608 tons entered at, and 88,593 departed from, the port of Boston. The amount of shipping own- ed in the state on the last day of De- cember, 1828, employed in the foreign and coasting trade and in the fisheries, was 424,507 tons. The fisheries are chiefly of three kinds, viz. the whale fishery, which is canied on in distant seas, by ships fitted out chiefly at Nan- tucket "and New Bedford; the cod fish- ery, which is carried on partly on the north-eastern coasts of the If. States, and thos. They were also fond of tbe didactic style. The rules by which the members of the societies were to be guided, as to the metre, &c, of their compositions, were written on a table, and called Tabulatur, for the sake of enforcing a strict observance of purity in language and prosody: the chief faults to be avoided were collected; they were 32 in number, and distinguished by particular names. He who invented a new metre, invented also a new tune ; the names of which were the drollest, and sometimes the most senseless imaginable. Besides their stated meetings, they held public meetings, gen- erally on Sundays, and festivals in the afternoon, in churches. In Nuremberg, where the master-singers flourished par- ticularly, such meetings were opened with free-singing, in which any body might sing, though not belonging to the corpo- ration. In this, the choice ofthe subjects was left comparatively uncontrolled ; then followed the chief singing, when only those who belonged to the corporation were allowed to sing, and only on Scrip- tural subjects. The judges were called Merlier, and sat behind a curtain. There were four: one watched whether the song was according to the text of the Bible, which lay open before him; the second, whether the prosody was correct; MASTER-SINGERS—MASTRICHT. 341 the third criticised the rhymes; the fourth, the tunes. Every fault was marked, and he who had fewest received the prize—a chain with medals. Whoever had won a chain was allowed to take apprentices, to have many .of whom was a great honor. Money was never taken from apprentices. After the expiration of his poetical ap- prenticeship, the young poet was admitted to the corporation, and declared a master, after having sung, for some time, with acceptation. These strange societies orig- inated towards the end of the fourteenth century at Mentz, Strasburg, Augsburg, and lasted, in several free cities of the empire, until the seventeenth, in Nurem- berg to the eighteenth century, where, probably, the renown of Hans Sachs (q. v.), the famous shoe-maker and poet, kept them longer in existence. Some of the most famous master-singers were Henry of Meissen, called Frauenlob (that is, woman-praise), doctor of theology at Mentz ; master Regenbogen (Rainbow), a smith; master Hadlaub and Muscablut Mastic ; a resinous substance obtained from incisions made in the branches of the pistachio lentiscus, a small tree, or rather shrub, growing in the Levant and other countries bordering on the Medi- tenanean. This tree belongs to the nat- ural family terebinthacca. It attains the height of 15 or 20 feet; the leaves are al- ternate and pinnate; the flowers are small, inconspicuous, disposed in axillary ra- cemes, and are succeeded by an ovoid drupe, containing an osseous nut. It forms one of the most important products of Scio, and has been cultivated in this and some of the neighboring islands from remote antiquity. Heat seems to exercise a great influence on the resinous product Mastic is consumed in vast quantities throughout the Turkish empire, and is there used as a masticatory by women of all denominations, for the purpose of cleansing the teeth and imparting an agreeable odor to the breath. It was formerly in great repute as a medicine throughout Europe, but at the present time is very little used. 3Iastiff (canis, fam. vUlaticus). This noble variety of the canine race is distin- guished by a large head, dependent lips and ears, and the strength of his form. Like most of the larger kinds of dogs, al- though extremely vigilant over any thing committed to his charge, he is by no means savage: he will not abuse die pow- er with which he is intrusted, nor call it into action, unless provoked by injuries. As early as the time of the Roman empe- 29* rors, mastiffs were held in high estimation at Rome, for their strength and courage, especially those from Britain, where an officer was appointed, for the purpose of breeding them, and transmitting to the im- perial city such as he thought capable of sustaining the combats in the amphithea- tre. Manwood, in his w ork on the forest- laws, says this variety of the dog derives its name from the Saxon masc thefese, or thief-frightener. (See Dog.) Mastodon; an extinct genus of the or- der pachydermata, or thick-skinned ani- mals, often, but improperly, confounded with the mammoth (q, v.") or fossil ele- phant It is found only in a fossil state, several nearly entire skeletons having been discovered in the U. States. Single bones had been early disinterred, but it was not until 1801, that a considerable portion of two skeletons was obtained by Mr. Peale, near Newburgh, New York, and othere have since been dug up in different parts ofthe countiy. There is one with the miss- ing parts supplied in the Philadelphia mu- seum, another at Baltimore, and another belonging to the New York lyceum. The mastodon in Philadelphia measures 18 feet in length, and 11 feet 5 inches in height The tusks are ten feet seven inches long. It seems to have been provided with a trunk, and in its food and manner of liv- ing to have much resembled the elephant. There are no traces within the period of tradition or history of the existence of these animals as a living genus. When and how they perished, if ascertained at all, must be revealed by geological data. (See Godman's American Natural His- tory, vol. 2d.) Mastologt (from jiaorof, breast); that branch of zoology which treats of the mam- miferous animals. Mastricht, or 3Iaestricht (Trajectum ad Mosam); a strong place in the king- dom ofthe Netherlands, on the left bank of the Meuse, capital of the province of Limburg; 15 miles north of Liege, and 46 east of Brussels; lon. 5° 41' E. ; lat. 50° 51' N.; population, 18,410. It is one ofthe most ancient towns of the Nether- lands, and belonged fonnerly to the duchy of Lorrain. It contains ten Catholic antl Protestant churches, and several literary and charitable institutions. It is tolerably well built, sunounded by walls and ditches, and is one of the strongest places in the Netherlands. Near it are large stone quar- ries, in which are subtenaneous passages of great extent, where the farmers frequently store hay, com, and other articles. It has hitherto carried on a brisk trade through 342 MASTRICHT—MATHEMATICS. its port on the Meuse, and regular packet- boats ran to Liege and other places on the river. (For the effects of the Belgian revolution on this navigation, see Nether- lands.) Mastricht has been rendered fa- mous by the numerous sieges which it has sustained. In 1673 and 1748, it was taken by the French, who bombarded it without success in 1793, and again cap- tured it in 1794. Matador (Spanish, one who kills). This word is used in some games with cards. In ombre and quadrille, it sig- nifies one of the three principal cards, which are always the two black aces, the deuce in spades and clubs, and the seven in hearts and clubs. This application is probably taken from the Spanish bull- rights (q. v.), in which the man who gives the deadly blow to the bull is called el matador. Othere derive the name from a band of volunteers, who were establish- ed by the inhabitants of Barcelona, when they fought against Philip V, and whose duty was to punish with death those who murmured against the government. 31atanzas ; a seaport on the coast of Cuba, 30 leagues from the coast of Flori- da, and 20 from Havana; lon. Sl^ti7 W.; lat. 23° 2' N.; population, 11,341, or, in- cluding the garrison and strangers, 14,340 ; 1941 free blacks, 3067 slaves. It is situ- ated on a bay of the same name, which affords one ofthe largest, safest, and most convenient harbors in America, having a good castle for its defence. It has consid- erable commerce, exporting sugar, mo- lasses and coffee. The situation is healthy. Matapan Cape (anciently Tanarum). This cape and Malea, or cape St. Angelo, are the two most southern capes of the 3Iorea, the former in lat 36° 23' 20" N. ; lon. 22° 29'38" E.: the latter in lat. 36° 25' N.; lon. 23° 1^ 8" E. Materia Medica, (See Medicine.) Material and Moral; two terms used in military language, and derived from the French. The former means every thing belonging to an army except the men and horses ; the latter means the spirit of the soldiery, as to cheerfulness, courage, and devotion to their cause. Thus it is said: Though the material ofthe army was in a wretched condition, yet in respect to its moral, it was superior to the enemy. Materialism, in philosophy; that doc- trine which considers matter or corporeal substance the primitive cause of things. He who adopts this doctrine is called a materialist. In respect to psychology, in particular, materialism means the doctrine that die soul is a material substance. Ma- terialism is opposed to the doctnne of the spiritual nature of the soul, or immaterialism. Both may be either em- pirical or transcendental. Materialism is of the first sort, if it founds all its posi- tions and reasonings on experience de- rived from the sensual world, and therefore strives to explain the internal phenomena from the external; it is transcendenta , if it looks beyond experience. Materialism differs according as it considers matter merely, or matter in an organized shape, as the original existence, and in the firet case sometimes adopts an ethereal matter, an invisible fluid, sometimes the light, water, &c, as the primitive substance. It also differs according to the hypotheses by which it explains the origin of things. In regard to the soul, the materialist main- tains that matter produces in itself spiritual changes, or that the soul is a consequence of the whole bodily organization, by which matter is refined and ennobled into mind. Among the advocates of this doc- trine we may mention Priestley. This theory, however, does not explain how matter can think, and how physical mo- tion can produce mental changes, which we do not observe in so many organic be- ings ; how, in particular, a notion of its own activity can originate. Numerous auxiliary hypotheses, therefore, have been devised, as that ofthe vibration of nerves by Hartley. In decided opposition, how- ever, to materialism, is our consciousness ofthe identity and liberty of man, whicli would be annihilated by it, because matter is governed by the necessity of nature, and free will therefore excluded. Mate- rialism is a very ancient view of nature, and the predominant one in the most an- cient Greek philosophy, poetry and my- thology, sunounded, however, by all the graces in which the poetical spirit of this imaginative people could anay it. Mathematical Geography is the ap- plication of mathematics and astronomy to the measurement of the earth. The ancients had made no inconsiderable progress in this science. This science starts from two principles: 1. that the earth is to be considered as a sphere ; and, 2. that the points and circles, imagined on the heavens, correspond with points and circles on the earth. (See Earth, Pole, Equator, Tropics, Meridians, De- gree, Latitude, &c.; see, also, Geography.) Mathematics. If we call every thing, which we can represent to our mind as composed of homogeneous parts, a mag- nitude, mathematics, according to the common definition, is die science of MATHEMATICS. 343 determining magnitudes, i. e. of meas- uring or calculating. Every magnitude appears as a collection of homogene- ous parts, and may be considered in this sole respect; but it also appeare under a particular form or extension in space, which originates from the composition of the hbmogeneous parts, and to which be- long the notions of situation, proportion of parts, &c. Not only all objects of the bodily world, but also time, powers, mo- tion, light, tones, &c, may be represented and treated as mathematical magnitudes. The science of mathematics has to do only with these two properties of magni- tudes, the quantity of the homogeneous parts, which gives the numerical magni- tude, and the form, which gives the mag- nitude of extension. This is one way, and the most common, of representing the subject: there are othere more philosoph- ical, but less adapted to the limited space which can be allowed to so vast a subject, in a work like the present In investi- gating these two properties of magnitudes, the peculiar strictness of the proofs of mathematics gives to its conclusions and all its processes a certainty, clearness and general application, which satisfies the mind, and elevates and enlarges the sphere of its activity.* (See Method, Math- ematical.) According as a magnitude is considered merely in the respects above- mentioned, or in connexion with other circumstances, mathematics are divided into pure and applied. Pure mathematics are again divided into arithmetic (q. v.), which considers the numerical quality of magnitudes, and geometry (q. v.), which treats of magnitudes in their relations to space. In the solution of their problems, * As a branch of intellectual culture, mathe- matics has great excellences and great defects. Its certainty,—the precision of its signs never con- v eying more nor less than the meaning intended,— its completeness in itself, and independence of all other branches, distinguish it from every other science, and nothing accustoms the young mind more to precision and exactness of thought and expression than the study of mathematics. But, on the other hand, these very excellences render it liable to give a partial direction to the mind, to withdraw it from, and unfit it for pursuits of a different character. Hence so many great math- ematicians have appeared to be wholly unfitted for other studies. On the whole, however, its advantages are so great that it can never be dis- pensed with in a liberal education. Nothing ex- pands and elevates the mind more than the ac- quisition of a mathematical truth, a law which is obeyed throughout the universe. The study of the conic sections, as has been already observed (sec Cone), affords a fine illustration of this in- fluence. And there are few instances in which there will be much danger of the pupil being unduly absorbed in the study. the common mode of numerical calcula- tion, and also algebra (q. v.), and analysis (q. v.), are employed. To the applied mathematics belong the application of arithmetic to political, commercial and similar calculations ; of geometry to sur- veying (q. v.), levelling, &e. ; of pure mathematics to the powers and effects, the gravity, the sound, &c, of the dry, liquid and aeriform bodies in a state of rest, in equilibrium or in motion, in one word, its application to the mechanic sciences, (see Mechanics, Hydraulics, Hydrostatics, &c.); to the rays of light in the optical sciences (see Optics, Dioptrics, Perspective, &c.) ; to the position, magnitude, motion, path, &c, of heavenly bodies in the astronom- ical sciences (see Astronomy), with which the measurement and calculation of time (see Chronology) and the art of making sun-dials (see Dial) are closely connected. The name of applied mathematics has sometimes been so extended as to em- brace the application of the science to architecture, navigation, the military art, geography, natural philosophy, &c.; but in these connexions it may more conveni- ently be considered as forming a part of the respective sciences and arts. It is to be regretted that there is as yet no per- fectly satisfactory work, treating ofthe his- tory of this science, so noble in itself, and so vast in its application: even Kastner and Montucla leave much to be desired.« The establishment of mathematics on a scientific basis probably took place among the Indians and Egyptians. The first de- velopementof the science we find among the Greeks, those great teachers of Eu- rope in almost all branches. Thales, and more particularly Pythagoras, Plato, Eu- doxus, investigated mathematics with a scientific spirit, and extended its domain. It appeare that geometry, in those ages, was m6re thoroughly cultivated than arithmetic. The ancients, indeed, under stood by the latter something different from that which we understand by it. In fact, we have not a clear idea of the an- cient arithmetic. Their numerical calcu- lation was limited and awkward, suffi- cient ground for which might be found in their imperfect way of writing numbers, if there was no other reason. Euclid's famous Elements, a work of unrivalled excellence, considering tbe time of its ori- gin, the ingenious discoveries of Archim- edes, the deep investigations of Apollo- nius of Perga, carried the geometry of the ancients to a height which has been the admiration of all subsequent times. Since then it has been made to bear more on 344 MATHEMATICS—MATHER. astronomy, and has become more con- nected with arithmetic. Among the Greek mathematicians are still mentioned Eratosthenes, Conon, Nicomedes, Hippar- chus, Nicomachus, Ptolemy, Diophantus, Theon, Proclus, Eutocius, Papus and oth- ere. It is remarkable that the Romans showed little disposition for mathematics; but the Arabians, who learned mathemat- ics, like almost all their science, from the Greeks, occupied themselves much with it Algebra (q. v.) and trigonometry owe them important improvements. Through the Arabians, mathematics found entrance into Spain, where, under Alphonso of Cas- tile, a lively zeal was displayed for the cul- tivation of this science. After this, it found a fertile soil in Italy; and iu the convents a monk would sometimes follow out its paths, without, however, adding to its territory. This was reserved for later ages. Mathematics owes much to Gmiinden, Peuerbacb, Regiomontanus, Pacciolo, Tartaglia, Cartlanus, Macroly- cus, Vieta, Ludolphus de Ceulen, Peter Nunez, Justus Byrge, and othere. To this period, however, all mathematical operations of any extent required a weary length of detail; when, in the seventeenth century, Napier, by the introduction of logarithms, immensely facilitated the process of calculation; and Newton and Leibnitz, by their infinitesimal calculus, opened the way into regions, into which, before them, no mathematician attempted to penetrate. From this time, the science obtained a wonderful extension and influ- ence, by the labors of such minds as Gali- lei, Torricelli, Pascal, Descartes, L'Hopi- tal, Cassini, Huyghens, Haniot, Wallis, Banow, Halley, James and John Ber- noulli, and others. Thus it became pos- sible for 3Ianfredi, Nicoli, Nic. and Dan. Bernouilli, Euler, Maclaurin, Taylor, Brad- ley, Clairaut, D'Alembert, Lambert, To- bias Mayer, Kastner, Hindenburg (the in- ventor of the combinatory analysis), La- grange, Laplace, Legendre, Gauss, Bessel, and the later mathematicians in the eigh- teenth, and in our centuiy, to make great advances, and to give us satisfactory con- clusions, not only respecting our earth, but also the heavenly bodies, the phenomena and powers of nature, and their useful ap- plication to the wants of life, to establish firmly so many notions, previously vague, and to conect so many ereors. (See the articles on these mathematicians, and the works mentioned in the articles on the various branches of mathematics.) The number of mathematical manuals in- creases daily, without, however, much sur- passing the best of the earlier ones in per- spicuity, noveltv and method, or rendering tl*:m unnecessary to the thorough student 3Iather, Increase, D. D., one of the early presidents of Harvard college, was born at Dorchester, 3Iassachusetts, June 21, 1639, and graduated at Harvard, in 1656. lie was ordained a minister of the gospel in 1661 ; but had preached before with great success at the North church in Boston. In June, 1685, he was called to pre- side over Harvard cohYge,which he contin- ued to do until 1701. His learning, zeal and general abilities were of great utility to the institution. He distinguished himself also as a very skilful and efficient political servant of the commonwealth. When king Charles II signified his wish that the charter of Massachusetts should be re- signed into his hands, in 1683, doctor Mather contended against a compliance. In 1688, he was deputed to England, as agent of the province, to procure redress of grievances. He held conferences with king James on the situation of the prov- ince, and, when William and .Mary as- cended the throne, urged his suit with them in audiences and by memorials. In 1692, he returned to Boston, with a new charter from the crown, which some of his old friends condemned; but the gen- eral court accepted it, with public thanks to the reverend agent, for the industry and ability with which he conducted his ne- gotiations for settling the government of the province. He died at Boston, August 23, 1723, in the 85th year of his age, hav- ing been a preacher tit! years. He is said to have commonly spent 16 hours a day in his study, and his sermons and other publications were proportionably nume- rous. During the witchcraft delusion, which he labored to mitigate, he wrote a book to prove that the devil might appear in the shape of an innocent man, "by means of which a number of pereons, con- victed of witchcraft, escaped the execution of the sentence of death." By some of the biographers, he is styled the father of the New England clergy. An octavo vol- ume entitled Remarkables ofthe Life of Doctor Increase Mather, contains a c ta- logue of 85 of his publications, not in- cluding " the learned and useful prefaces, which the publishers of many books ob- tained from him, as a beautiful porch unto them, and which, collected, would make a considerable volume." Mather, Cotton, D. D., the eldest son of Increase, rivalled or surpassed his father in learning, influence, and the va- riety and multitude of his productions. MATHER—MATILDA. 345 It is recorded in his diary, that, in one year, he preached 72 sermons, kept 60 fasts and 20 vigils, antl wrote 14 books. His publications amount to 382, some of them being of huge dimensions. His reading was prodigious ; his research ex- ceedingly diversified and curious. He was born in Boston, Feb. 12, 1663, aud graduated at Harvard college in 167e'. In lb'81, he was ordained minister of the North church in Boston, as colleague of his father. He died in 172r<, aged 65 years, with the reputation of having been the greatest scholar and author that Amer- ica had then produced. His piety and be- nevolence were almost commensurate with his learning. Credulity, pedantry, quaint- ness, eccentricity, arc blended, in*nm.-t of his works, with marvellous erudition, and instructive details of history aud opinion. He was a fellow of the royal socii ty of London. I lis largest and nio.-t celebrated work is his Magnolia Christi Americana, or the Ecclesiastical Historv of New Eng- land, from 16-25 to 1698, ill seven books, folio. His Life is extant in au octavo vol- ume, written by his son and successor, Samuel 3Iather, D. D., also a learned di- vine and author. Mathias, Thomas James a distin- gr.ie:...: jchola:-, ,vas educated at Eton, and at Trinity college, Cambridge, where be took the degree of B. A. in 1774, and, in 177.3 and 1776, gained some aca- demical prizes. His first publication was Odes, chiefly from the Norse tongue (4to., 1781). This was followed bv a pamphlet on the Evidence relating to Rowle\ 's Poems (1783). For several years after the publication ofthe last of these works, he did not again come forward as an author. He was elected fellow of his college, but, after taking the degree of 31. A., was called away from his fellow- ship, to be clerk to the treasurer of the queen. In time, he rose to be vice-treas- urer—a place he held for manv years—and afterwards, on the queen's death, he had a pension assigned him. In 17!>4 came out, anonymously, the firet part of the Pursuits of Literature, attributed to Mr. .Mathias. The poetry does not often rise above me- diocrity: the notes, however, prove great learning, with keen criticisms on public men and opinions. Three more parts were subsequently published, and a vol- ume was added containing translations of the notes. Some of the persons assailed were so highly indignant, that it would scarcely have been safe for any man at that time to have avowed himself the author. In 1791, Mr. 3Iathias gave to the press the Imperial Epistle from Kien Long to George III, and, in the follow;- mg year, the Political Dramatist of the House of Commons—a satire on Mr. Sheri- dan. In ]79(j, appeared his Letter to die Marquis of Buckingham ; in 1797, a Pair of Epistles to Doctor Randolph and the Earl of Jersey, occasioned by the loss of some lettere which the princess of Wales had addressed to her mother, and, in 1/98, the Shade of Alexander Pope on the Banks of the Thames—a satirical po- em, with notes. These works were all published without his name. Mr. iMatiii- as then turned to literary pursuits of a na- ture Itss calculated to excite enmity. He has made excellent Italian versions of the Lycidas of 31ilton,and the Sappho of 31a- son, and has published, in a uniform and elegant manner, the following valuable works:—Componimenti Lyrici dipiit illus- tn Poeii d'Italia (3 vols!); Aggiunta oi Componimenti (3 vols.); Commentary in- iomo all' Istoria della Poejsia Italiana, par Crcscembini (3 vols.); Tiraboschi Storia della Poesia Italiana (3 vols.); Can- zoni e Prosa Toscane (1 vol.); Canzo- ni Toscani (1 vol.); and Della Ragion Poehca di Gravida (1 vol.). He has also edited (in 2 vols., 4to.) the Works of Thomas Gray, with his Life and Addi- tions, published at the expense of the university of Cambridge. Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany, fa- mous for her connexion with Gregory VII, was a daughter of Boniface, mareuis of Tuscany. She was born in 1046, and married Godfrey the Hump-backed, son ofthe duke of Lonaine, but always lived separate from him, being unable* to ex- change the mild climate of Italy for a northern sky. Being left a widow in her thirtieth year, she engaged devotedly on the side of Gregory Vll and Urban II, against the emperor Henry IV, her cousin. She was almost the inseparable compan- ion of Gregory, always ready to assist him in every thing that he needed. This close connexion gave rise to many unfavora- ble suggestions, which were, however, groundless, although it is certain that their friendship was founded not only on poli- cy, but also on mutual inclination and esteem. 3Iatilda had been accustomed by her mother, to see in the pope a saint, while, at the same time, she reverenced the saint as a father. Gregory had, therefore, found much opportunity to in- fluence the formation of her character. Her mind, moreover, was susceptible of a very high tension, and had been disci- plined to manly firmness. There are, 346 MATILDA—3IATTER. therefore, grounds enough for explaining how she should be able to dare and do so much for Gregory. The donation of all her goods and possessions to the Romanchurch (iu 1077 or 1079, for the original records are lost), was, probably, but the least sacrifice. The sharing with him every danger that she could not avert, and her exhortations to him to encounter that which was una- voidable with steadfastness and courage, show her energy and resignation. She alone stood by him against the emperor in 1081, sustaining him with her.treasures, while Rome was besieged; and, even after the death of Gregoiy, she prosecuted open war against the emperor. She died at Polirone, in 1115, in the Benedictine convent built by herself. Her death gave rise to new feuds between the emperor and pope, Pascal III, on account of the donation above-mentioned. These feuds, finally, resulted in the cession to the pope of a portion of the estates of 3Iatilda. They consisted of Tuscany, 3Iantua, Par- ma, Reggio, Piacenza, Ferrara, 3Iodena, a part of Umbria, the duchy of Spolcto, Verona, and almost all that constitutes the present patrimony of the church, from Viterbo to Oviedo, together with a part of the Mark of Ancona. (See Popes, and Gregory VII.) Matsys, Quintin ; a painter, who was originally a blacksmith, born at Antwerp, in 1460. Different accounts are given of the occasion of his quitting the forge for die pencil; but most of his biographers agree that it was in consequence of be- coming enamoured of the daughter of a painter, whose hand was to be obtained only by a master of the same profession. He chiefly painted portraits and half fig- ures in common life, but sometimes un- dertook great works, of which a descent from the cross, in the cathedral of Ant- werp, is a favorable specimen. His pic- ture ofthe two misers, at Windsor, is also much admired. He died in 1529. 3Iatter ; that which occupies space, or that which the human mind considers as the substratum of bodies occupying space. As matter is perceived by us only in as far as it affects us, we must consider it as something effective in space, which, by its extension and motion, operates accord- ing to laws. From early times, the most various notions have been maintained of the essence of matter and the mode of its operation on the mind. In the most an- cient times, powers, not unlike the soul, were conceived to exist in matter, by means of which it operated on mind. Leucippus and Democritus considered the universe as consisting of empty space and atoms, and explained all living nature by the influence of external powers. In later times, Descartes made a total differ- ence between the material and the simple, or intellectual, and conceived extension to be the only essential property of matter. According to him, matter is not simple, but composed of parts, which, in reality, are indivisible atoms, but, in idea, are still divisible, and have still extension. New- ton, who did not enter into metaphysical investigations on the subject, only states that he considers matter as an aggregate of the smallest parts, which again are material and extended, and, by an un- known power, are strongly connected with each other; whence it follows, that he also belongs to the atomists. The dualism of Descartes (q. v.) involved the metaphysi- cians, on account of the union of the spiritual with the material, in great diffi- culties, and thus caused different meta- physical systems. One of the most re- markable is the ideal theory (q. v.), which absolutely denies the existence of matter, and declares all our notions of material things to be but ideas or images, which the Deity implants in the soul of man; whereupon, Malebranche founded the opinion, that we see all things in God, and that we are authorized to deny the existence of all things except God and the spirits in general. He considers the effect of matter on our mind as an influ- ence of God. Spinoza and Hume went still further in the ideal theory. The for- mer supposed a single substance, whose properties are infinite power of thought and extension, and explained all spiritual and material phenomena as states of this one power of thought and extension. Hume, who neither allows substances, nor subjects, nor any independent beings, considers all things, spiritual and material, as a series of passing phenomena. Leib- nitz (q. v.), who felt how very difficult it was to explain die influence of matter on the mind by dualism, idealism, or materialism, proposed the doctrine of monads, (q. v.) Priestley developed fur- ther the opinion of Boscovich, that mat- ter consists merely of physical points, whicli attract and repel each other, and said that matter is a mere attraction and repulsion, which has a relation to certain mathematical points in space. Notwith- standing the many systems which have ex- isted, matter is still the great riddle of man- kind. It will always be asked, If mind and matter are essentially different, how could they possibly influence each other? and, MATTER—MATTHLE. 347 on the other hand, we cannot reason away the many phenomena which indicate 6uch a difference. Iu philosophy, matter is also opposed to form. Material is that which belongs to matter, as impenetrability, mo- tion, extension and divisibility, and is op- posed to spiritual. Matthew (called also Levi), an evan- gelist and apostle, son of Alpheus, previ- ous to his call, was an officer of the Ro- man customs, and, according to tradition, a native of Nazareth. The accounts of his life are imperfect and uncertain. Tra- dition represents him as having suffered martyrdom in Persia. His Gospel has been supposed, by some critics, to have been originally written in Hebrew, for the use of converted Jews, about A. D. 60. If this is the case, we have now only a Greek translation of it, the original having been lost His narration is not according to the chronological order of events, and in his report of the teachings of our Sa- vior*, he appears to give them not precise- ly as they were delivered, but to arrange and group them according to the subject. The genuineness of the two first chapters has been called in question. Matthew of Westminster, an an- cient English chronicler, was a Benedictine monk of the abbey of Westminster, who lived in the fourteendi century. He com- piled a chronicle, commencing from tbe creation, and extending to the year 1307, which he entitled Flores Ilistoriarum, whence he had the name of Florilegus. This work chiefly relates to English his- tory, and is very freely transcribed from 3Iatthew Paris, (q. v.) It was published in London, 1567, and at Frankfort, 1601. Matthews, Charles, bom June 28, 1776, at the age of fourteen was bound apprentice to his father, James 3Iatthews, a bookseller in the Strand, who died in 1804. By reading plays, he imbibed a strong partiality for them, and his first performance was in a private play. At length, he resolved to make the stage his profession, and performed at Richmond and Canterbury. His father, fronj reli- gious motives, was averse to his son's playing, and, being informed that he was at a certain town for that purpose, went there with the determination of hissing him off the stage ; but, on his return, he told his friend, that, though he saw his name in large lettere in the play-bills, and was resolved to check his career, yet the people so laughed at his performance, that lie could not help laughing himself; and they so applauded that he was obliged to do the same. In 1803, he was engaged at the Theatre Royal, Haymarket, where he appeared in Jabal, in the Jew, and Lingo, in the Agreeable Surprise, Bus- kin, Old Wiggins, Sir Fretful Plagiary, and other similar characters, with so much applause that he soon came to be considered one of the best mimics that ever appeared on the stage, and, in 1804, was engaged at Drury-lane. When that house was burnt down, in 1809, the company performed at the Lyceum thea- tre, and Matthews took the parts in which Bannister had hitherto appeared. His success in Somno, in the Sleep-walker, at the Haymarket tbeatre, ensured him an engagement at Covent-garden theatre, where, however, he remained only three seasons. In 1817, he played his celebrat- ed character of Multiple, in the Actor of all Work, thirty nights, to full houses, in the London, and afterwards, with equal success, in the provincial theatres. His visit to the U. States, iu 1822, was not on- ly highly successful in shaking the sides of brother Jonathan, but furnished him with new materials for fun and frolic, at the expense of brother Jonathan himself, on his return to the other side of the water. Old women, Frenchmen, John Bulls, clowns, cockneys, braggarts, whatev- er is odd, droll, queer, peculiar in manners, characters or situations, supplies him with means of amusement Mr. Matthews is not less agreeable in private fife than enter- taining on the stage, and is well known as an amateur of the fine arts. Matthi£, Augustus Henry, a celebrated German philologist, born at Gottingen, Dec. 25, 17(i9, was educated at the gymnasium and university of his native place, and, becoming a member of the philological seminary, devoted himself particularly to the study of the ancient classics, and the Kantian philosophy, at the same time making himself acquainted with the Frencli, Italian and English languages. In 1789, he went to Amsterdam, as tutor in a family there, and enjoyed the advau-> tage ofthe instructions of Wyttenbach, Do Bosch, and Huschke in his philological studies, and of Van Hement and Hulslioff in philosophy, while the study of histoiy, and English, French and Italian literature, occupied his leisure moments. His Essay on National Character gained the prize at Leyden, in 17!'5 ; but he was desirous of returning to his native country, and, in 1798, went to Weimar, as teacher of the Latin, Greek and Dutch languages, at an institution for the education of young Englishmen. In 1801, he received the place of principal of the gymnasium, at 348 31ATTHLE—31ATURIN. Altenburg, and, the same year, obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy, from the philosophical faculty at Gottingen. His principal works are Observutiones Critica in Tragicos, &c.; Miscellanea Philologica; Homeri Hymni et Batra- chomyomachia (1805); Complete Greek Grammar, translated into English by Blomfield, and into Italian; Euripidis Tragadia (9 vols., 1825—29); Ciceronis Epistola Seleda (second edition, 1825); Lehrbuch fur den ersten Unterrichl in der PhUosophie (second edition, 1827); Grund- riss der Griech. uiul Rbm. Literatur. His elder brother, Frederic Christian, who died in 1822, was also distinguished by several philological works and edition*. 3Iatthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, second son of the gallant Hunniades, a man of great ability, who, by his ware against the Turks, excited the interest of Europe, and, in Hungary, was esteemed the firet of her kings. The enemies of his father kept him imprisoned in Bohe- mia, but, in 1458, at the age of sixteen yeare, he was called to the throne of Hungary. Several Hungarian magnates opposed the election, and invited Frederic III to accept the crown. The Turks, profiting by these dissensions, invaded and laid waste Hungary; but Corvinus, having compelled Frederic III to resign to him the crown of St. Stephen, hasten- ed to meet the Turks, and drove them from the countiy. Between 1468 and 1478, he conquered Silesia, 31oravia, and Lusatia; he was also victorious over the Poles, and took part of Austria, including Vienna, from Frederic III. These ware obliged him to lay heavy taxes on his sub- jects, and he governed arbitrarily, but must be allowed to have been a man of extraordinary powere. During the whole of his disturbed reign, he not only en- couraged science, but cultivated it him- self. It is much to be regretted, that the great library, which he collected at Buda, was destroyed by the Turks, twenty yeare after his death. At Buda, ho reposed from the toils of war, and collected schol- ars around him. In 148S, at a diet at Buda, he established laws against duels, for the better administration of justice, &c. He died in 1490, at Vienna, when occupied with preparations for a new war against the Turks. He left only a natural son, Johannes Corvinus, who was not able to obtain the crown. The candidates for it were numerous. The Hungarians elected king Wladislaus VII of Bohemia. 31atthias, John van Harlem. (See Anabaptists.) Matthissox, Frederic von, was born Jan. 23, 1761, at Hohendodeleben, near 3Iagdeburg, shortly after the death of his father. At the university of Halle, he studied theology, which He soon, however, changed for philology, natural science and belles-lettres. He lived two years with his friend Von Bonstetten, at Nyon, on the lake of Geneva. From Switzerland he went to Lyons, as tutor in a merchant's family in tiiat city. In 1794, he was ap- pointed reader and travelling companion to the reigning princess of Anhalt-Dessau, and spent the yeare 1795—1796 at Rome and Naples, 1799 partly in the south of Tyrol, partly in the north of Italy, and 1801 and 1808 in Frencli Switzerland. After die death ofthe princess of Anhalt- Dessau, he entered, 1812, the service of the king of Wiirtemberg, who conferred on him titles and ordere. In the retinue of the family of William, duke of Wiir- temberg, he went to Italy, in 1819, and lived several months in Florence. As a lyric poet, Matthisson has become a favor- ite of the German public. He excels in expressing the feelings of love and friend- ship, and in the delineation of nature he is a master. His verse is likewise peculiarly distinguished for its euphony and flow of rhythm. Matthisson has also appeared before the public as a prose writer, in his Erinnerungen (Zurich,1810—15, in 5 vols.). This work exhibits throughout a nobleness of sentiment An edition of his works appeared iu 6 vols. (Zurich, 1825). 3Iaturin, Charles; an ingenious but eccentric clergyman of the established church, curate of St. Peter's, Dublin, and author of several popular romances, many of which, especially his Family of Monto- rio, evince great powere of imagination, with a richness of language, but exhibit an almost equal degree of carelessness in the application of both. Besides the one just meutioned, the principal are the Mile- sian Chief; Fatal Revenge; Woman; 3Ielmoth, &c. Bertram, a tragedy, per- formed at Drury-lane theatre, with Kean as the representative ofthe principal char- acter, was the first production which, by its singular success, brought him into no- tice as an author. This effort is said to have produced him £1000. In a subse- quent dramatic attempt (Manuel), he was not so fortunate, and, having anticipated his resources, without contemplating the possibility of a failure, he contracted em- barrassments, from which he was seldom entirely free till his death, in October, 1825. He published, in 1821, a poem, in blank verse, entitled the Universe, which MATURIN—MAUBREUIL. 349 brought him more profit than reputation ; and, in 1824, appeared six of his Contro- versial Sermons, preached at St. Peter's, during the Lent of that year. These ex- hibit him as a well-read scholar, and an acute reasoner, and are, perhaps, the best foundation on which to rest his claims to the notice of posterity. He was remarka- bly felicitous in their delivery, and attract- ed, by his eloquence, unprecedented con- gregations. Madbeuge; a French fortress, on the Sambre, department Du Nord. The Sambre traverses 31aubeuge, and becomes navigable here, seven leagues and a half east-south-east of Valenciennes. Mau- beuge has considerable commerce in wines, spirits, &c.; manufactures,—arms, nails, soap, &c.; and contains 6044 inhab- itants. It dates its origin from the foundation of a chapter of canonesses, in 618, by St Aldegonde. It was the capital ofthe former province of Hamault Louis XIV took it, in 1649, and the peace of Nimeguen, in 1678, confirmed it to France. The Prussians took it in 1815. 3Iaubeuze. (See Mabuse.) Maubreuil, marquis de. Connected with the history of this personage, there are some curious circumstances, which have not yet been explained, but which seem to reflect no great credit on the par- tisans of what is denominated, in politics, the principle of*legitimacy. He was born in Brittany, of a noble family, about the year 1780, entered into the imperial army, in which be made several campaigns, and was subsequently taken into the service ofthe king of Westphalia, who appointed him his equerry. Maubreuil was em- ployed in Spain, as a captain of Westpha- lian light-horse, and his bravery gained for him the cross ofthe legion of honor. He, however, quitted the army to become a contractor; but the ministry having broken some of the contracts entered into with him, he fell into embanassmeiits, and his property was seized by his creditors. His enemies say that, in 1814, he exulted be- yond measure at the downfall of die impe- rial government, and rode through the streets, pointing out to the passengers the star ofthe legion of honor, which he had tied to his horse's tail. If this be true, it was probably the cause of his being em- ployed, in conjunction with a M. Dasies, ou a very extraordinary mission, by the provisional government. The ostensible purpose of this mission, for" which he was authorized to call in the assistance of the armed force and die civil authorities, was to recover the crown jewels, which were vol. viii. 30 said to have been canied away by die family of Napoleon. The marquis and his companion took the route of Fontaine- bleau, from whicli place the emperor had just set out for Elba; and they stopped the ex-queen of Westphalia, the wife of Jerome Bonaparte, who was travelling to Germa- ny, with a passport from the allies. They seized eleven chests, containing valuables belonging to the princess, and sent a part of them to Versailles, and a part of them to the king's commissioner at Paris. The chests were claimed by the princess; asd, on their being opened, a large quantity of diamonds, and a sum of 82,000 francs, were found to have been stolen from them. 3Iaubreuil and Dasies were accused of the theft Dasies was afterwards tried and acquitted, but 3iaubreuil was not al lowed to escape so easily. One of the tribunals declared itself incompetent to tiy him, and he remained in prison till the 18th of March, two days before the arrival of Napoleon at Paris, when the minister at war set him at liberty. A few days after this, he was areested by the imperial government, but was soon discharged. He is said to have gone, under an assumed name, to Brussels, and there he was ar- rested and conducted to Ghent, on suspi- cion of intending to assassinate Louis XVIII. It does not appear that an iota of proof existed against him. Driven to despair, perhaps, by the persecution whicli he endured, he opened his veins in prison, but was saved from death. He was next put into the custody of a party of gen- darmes, and conducted to Aix-la-Chapelle, to be delivered to the Prussians. He es- caped on the road; and it is a singular fact, that he went buck to Paris at the same time that Louis arrived from Ghent, and remained unmolested in the Frencli capital for nearly twelve months. In June, 1816, however, the police seized him, on a charge of his having intrigued against the royal government, and formed the project of carrying off die French princes from St. Cloud. This accusation, too, seems to have been calumnious, for it was dropped; but, in April, 1817, he was once more prosecuted for the theft of the money and diamonds. One ofthe subor- dinate courts having again refused to take cognizance of the cause, he was sent be- fore the royal court. His patience was at length exhausted: he addressed the judges in strong terms, and disclosed the impor- tant secret, that he had not been employed to recover the crown jewels, but to as- sassinate Napoleon,—a mission which he accepted, he told them, only for the pur- 350 3IAUBREUIL—MAUREPAS. pose of saving the emperor. From his prison he repeated this avowal, in a very severe letter to the ambassadors of the al- lied powere. The cause was now referred to the tribunal of Rouen, and from thence to that of Douay. The latter tribunal is said to have been on the point of pro- nouncing sentence, when 3Iaubreuil es- caped from his dungeon for the fourth time. After he had made his escape, the tribunal sentenced him to five years' imprisonment, and a fine of 500 francs. He firet went to Brussels, and then passed over to England, where he published a vindication of himself. In 1825, he re- turned to France, and was again imprison- ed until 1827, when, having been released, he made an attack on Talleyrand, whom he beat severely. On his trial for this offence, he accused the prince of having been tbe cause of all his sufferings, by employing him to assassinate Napoleon. Maubreuil was condemned to five years' imprisonment Talleyrand has never thought proper to clear up the mystery, and the matter still remains unexplained. Bourrienne, in his memoirs of Napoleon, has some remarks relating to the circum- stance of this transaction. Mauviee, or Miami ok the Lakes ; a river that rises in the north-east part of Indiana, and flows through the north- west part of Ohio, into lake Erie. It is formed by the confluence of St Jo- seph's, St. 3Iary's, and Great and Little Auglaize. It is navigable only eighteen miles, on account of rapids. For this dis- tance, its breadth is from 150 to 200 yards. 3IACXDAY-THURSDAY is the Thursday in the Passion week; called Maunday, or Mandate Thursday, from the command which our Savior gave his apostles to commemorate him in the Lord's supper, which he this day instituted ; or from the new commandment that he gave them, to love one another, after he had washed their feet, in token of his love to them. It was instituted by pope Leo, in 692. 3Iacpertuis, Pierre Louis Moreau de, a celebrated French mathematician and philosopher, was born at St. Malo, in 1698, and studied at the college of La Marche, in Paris, where he discovered a strong predilection for the mathematics. At the age of twenty, he entered the army, in which he served four years. In 1723, he was received into the academy of sciences, and, soon after, visited England and Swit- zerland, where he became a pupil and admirer of Newton, and formed a lasting friendship with the celebrated John Ber- noulli (q. v.) and his family. On his re- turn to Paris, he applied himself to hia favorite studies, with greater ardor than ever, and, in 1736, formed one of the sci- entific party appointed to measure a de- gree of the meridian at die polar circle. In 1740, he received an invitation from the king of Prussia to settle at Berlin. On his return to Paris, in 1742, he was chosen director of the academy of sciences, and, the following year, received into the French academy. He returned to Berlin in 1744, and, in 1746, was declared presi- dent ofthe academy of sciences at Berlin, and, soon after, received the order of merit. His unhappy restlessness of tem- per was a source of continued disquiet to him, and a controversy with Konig, which subjected him to the satire of Voltaire, completed his uneasiness. At this time, his health, injured by his northern expe- dition, antl incessant application, began to give way, and he sought relief by repeated visits to his native countiy. His disorder, however, seems to have uniformly revived with his return to Berlin; and he at length died, on his return from one of these ex- cursions, at the house of his friend Ber- noulli, at Basil, in 1759, in the sixty-first year of his age. His works, collected in four 8vo. volumes, were published at Ly- ons in 1756, and reprinted in 1768. Among them are Discourse on tbe dif- ferent Figures of the Stars; Reflections on the Origin of Languages ; Animal Physics ; System of Nature ; On the Progress of the Sciences; Elements of Geography ; Expedition to the Polar Cir- cle; On the Comet of 1742; Dissertation upon Languages; Academical Discourses; Upon the Laws of 31otion ; Upon the Laws of Rest; Operations for determining the Figure ofthe Earth, &c. Maura, Santa. (See Leucadia.) 3Iaurepas, Jean Frederic Phelippeaux, count de, born in 1701, was, at the early age of twenty-four years, minister of the French marine. At his suggestion, cardi- nal Fleury (q. v.) named Amelot minister of foreign affaire, and the latter undertook nothing important without the concur- rence of Maurepas, who finally adminis- tered the foreign department himself. He was hasty in his decisions, without system or foresight, but quick in conception, ami- able, flexible, artful and penetrating. He made up in dexterity what was wanting in reflection, and was one of the most agreeable of ministers. An epigram on madame de Pompadour, of which he was accused of being the author, led to his banishment from the court Louis XIV MAUREPAS—MAURICE OF NASSAU 351 recalled him in 1774, and placed him at the head of his ministry. Removed from public affairs for the space of thirty yeare, Maurepas had lost whatever requisite he had ever possessed for the administration of government. With the imprudence of his youth was now united the feebleness" of age. He retained the confidence of the king till his death, Nov. 21, 1781; but he was destitute of the vigor necessary to avert the troubles which soon after shook the kingdom. France was, however, in- debted to him for some improvements in tbe marine. The 31emoirs of Maurepas, composed by Salle, his secretary, and edit- ed by Soulavie, are amusing, but careless- ly written. Vergennes (q. v.) succeeded him in the ministry. (See Louis XVI.) Mauri, and Mauritania. (See Moors.) Maurice; count of Saxony, commonly known as marshal Saxe. (See Saxe.) Maurice, duke, aud, after 1548, electoi of Saxony (ofthe Albertine line), born in 1521, displayed, from his early years, great talents, united with a restless, active and ardent spirit In 1541, the death of his father, Henry the Pious, placed him at the head of the government, at the moment when the religious disputes had divided the German princes. Although a favorer of Protestantism, he refused to join the Smalcaldic league of Protestant princes, for the defence of the new doctrines, either out of attachment to Ferdinand, king of Hungary and Bohemia, against whose brother Charles V (q. v.) the league was organized, or because he foresaw that it could not stand. In 1546, he concluded a secret treaty with the emperor, and was obliged to execute the ban of the empire against John Frederic, elector of Saxony (ofthe Ernestine line), and take possession of his tenitories. In 1548, the emperor confereed on him the electoral dignity of Saxony, and the greater part ofthe hered- itary estates of the late elector. Charles now thought die moment was come to execute his project of annihilating the rights and privileges of the German princes, and rendering himself absolute master of Germany; and, although he artfully maintained a show of protecting the Catholics, labored only for his own selfish interests. Maurice was not slow to penetrate the crafty policy of the ambitious monarch. Convinced that a forcible re- sistance would become necessaiy, he made his preparations, in 1550, under the pretence of executing the decree of the diet against 3lagdeburg, concluded a se- cret treaty with Henry II of France, and some of the German princes (1551), and conducted so warily, that he had nearly succeeded in making Charles, who lay sick with the gout at fnspruck, his prison- er (1552). In justification of this unex- pected act of hostility, Maurice alleged the detention of his father-in-law by the em- peror, contrary to solemn promises. The emperor, upon this, set free the princes whom he held captive, and proposed terms of accommodation by his brother Ferdinand. The result of this negotiation was the famous treaty of Passau ^q. v.), July 31, 1552. Maurice, who had thus recovered the favor of the Protestants, now thought proper to give the emperor, likewise, a proof of his attachment, by serving against the Turks. Nothing, how- ever, was effected, and he soon after re- turned to Saxony. July 9, 1553, he de- feated Albert, margrave of Brandenburg- Kulmbach, who refused to accede to the treaty of Passau, at Sievershausen, and died of a wound received in that battle, two days after. Maurice possessed the talents of a great prince and general, with a [irudence that enabled him to take ad- vantage of circumstances. Notwithstand- ing the shortness of his reign, Saxony is indebted to him for many useful institutions. Maurice of Nassau, prince of Orange, the youngest son, by a second marriage, of William I, prince of Orange, bom at Dillenburg, 1567, was studying at Leyden, in 1584, when his father was assassinated. The provinces of Holland and Zealand, and, soon after, Utrecht, immediately elect- ed the young prince stadtholder, and his talents, as a general, surpassed all expecta- tions. In 1590, he took Breda by surprise, and delivered Guelderland, Overyssel, Friesland and Grouingen from the Span- iards. With the chief command, by land and sea, of all the forces of the United Provinces, he also received the stadthold- ership of Guelderland and Overyssel, that of Friesland and Groningen being conferred on his cousin William, count of Nassau. Previous to the truce of twelve years, concluded in 1609, about forty towns, and several fortresses, had fallen into his hands. He defeated the Span- iards in three pitched battles, besides the nava! victories which were gained by the vice-admirals of the republic, on the coasts of Spain and Flanders. Thus be- come the object of general affection and respect to his countrymen, his ambitious spirit now aimed at the sovereignty. To effect his purposes, he took advantage of the religious quareels ofthe Arminians and Gomarists, or the Remonstrants and Coun- ter-Remonstrants. (See Arminians.) He 352 MAURICE OF NASSAU—MAURY. supported the Gomarists, even to acts of violence (see Banuveldt), but, notwith- standing all his efforts, he was compelled to abandon bis project. He died at the Hague, April 23, l(i25, and w;.s succeeded by his brother Frederic Henry. The life of this stadtholder was an almost unbroken series of battles, sieges, and victories. War he understood as a master, and conducted like a hero. His army was considered as the best school ofthe mili- tary art. The generals educated under him have contributed to extend his fame. Like Montecuculi, he possessed the rare art of conducting a march and pitching a camp; like Vauban, the genius of fortifi- cation and defence ; like Eugene, the skill to support the most numerous armies in the most unproductive and exhausted countiy ; like Vendome, the good fortune to obtain more from the soldiers than he had a right to expect; like Conde, that unerring coup (TaU which determines the issue of the battle; like Charles XII, the power of rendering the troops insensible to cold, hunger, and sufferings; like Tu- renne, that of sparing human life. In the opinion of Folard, Maurice was the greatest infantry general that had existed since the time of the Romans. He had learned the art of war from the ancients, and extended it by tbe results of his own and others' experience. Mauritius. (See France, Isle of) Maurokordatos. (See Mavrocordato.) Mauromicualis. (See Mavromichali.) Maurus, Rahauus, a German scholar, ofthe age of Charlemagne, who did much to promote the improvement of his nation, was a native of Mayenee, received his ed- ucation in the Benedictine monastery at Fulda, and subsequently went to Tours, to complete his studies under Alcuin. After his return, in 804, he became super- intendent ofthe monastic school at Fulda, from which proceeded many distinguished scholars. After many adversities, which the diffusers of light, in the dark ages, always had to encounter, he was conse- crated, in 822, abbot of Fulda, and, during the twenty years that he held this office, the beneficial influence of his literary school, and of his truly Christian church- discipline, continued to increase. Dissat- isfied with the turbulence ofthe times, he was desirous of finishing his life as a her- mit; but king Louis the German obliged him, in 847, to accept the archbishopric of Mayenee. In this dignity he died in 856. His Latin writings, mainly of a theological character, appeared at Cologne in 1627, in folio. In the diffusion and formation of the German language he was very active, anil so far succeeded as to introduce preaching in German. He also compiled a Latin and German glossary ofthe Bible, preserved in several manuscripts,—a valu- able monument of the old German lan- guage, which has been printed m Schil tcr's° Thesaurus, and in Eckardt's Com- mentarii de Reb. Iranc. Maury, Jean Siffrein, bom at \ aureas, in Provence, in 1746, of obscure parent- age, took holy orders, and soon received several benefices. His eulogy on Fene- lon,aud his talents as a preacher, attracted the public notice, and, previous to the breaking out of the revolution, had pro- cured for him the place of a court-preach- er, the priory of Lyons, the dignity of ab- bot of Frenade, and a seat in the French academy. He showed his gratitude for this patronage of government, by exercising his courage and his eloquence in defence of the throne. In 1789, the abbe Maury was chosen deputy of tbe clergy of Pe- ronne to the States-General, and became a formidable antagonist to the opposition by bis eloquence, bis extensive and profound knowledge, and, particularly, by his pres- ence of mind, and his imperturbable firm- ness. The union ofthe three estates in a national assembly i.i. t with the most vig- orous resistance from him, and, after it was determined upon, he quitted the' as- sembly and Versailles, but afterwards re- turned, and took an active part in that body. He defended the necessity of the royal veto, and opposed the conversion of the church property into national domains. When the latter subject was discussed for the third time, Nov, 9,1789, 3Iaury pro- duced a violent excitement in the assem- bly by his speech, and, on leaving the house, was saluted by the crowd with the cry, A la lanterne I'abbi Maury. Eh bien, replied he coolly, le voUd, I'abbi Maury; quand vous le mettriez a la lanterne, y ver- riez-vous plus clair ? This reply produced a general laugh, and the abbe was saved. On the dissolution of the assembly, in 1792, he retired to Rome, and received a bishopric in partwus from the pope, who sent him to Frankfort as apostolic nuncio at the coronation of Francis II. He was soon after (1794) created bishop of Monte- fiascone and Corneto, and cardinal. Dur- ing the revolutionary storm, Maury re- mained at Rome, devoted to the duties of his charge and to study. His pastoral letters contained expressions of his abhor- rence of the cruelties committed in France, and of his adherence to the Bour- bons. Thus far he had displayed a con- MAURY—MAVROCORDATO. 353 sistency of character, as even his declared enemies acknowledged. But when Na- poleon usurped the imperial dignity, in 1804, Maury considered the cause of the Bourbons as hopeless, and thought it an act of prudence on his part to submit to the government, which was recog- nised by the French nation, and by nearly all the powers of Europe. He might justify this measure by his previous adherence to monarchical principles, and might hope to be useful in extending the papal prerogatives in France, which had been much limited by the concordate of 1801. Perhaps, also, his ambition was flattered with the prospect of thus reach- ing the highest spiritual dignity in Catho- lic Christendom. However this may be, he wrote in terms of the highest admira- tion to Napoleon, and proffered his alle- giance as a French subject. In 1804, he accompanied the pope to Paris, and was present at the coronation of the emperor. In 1808, he was created archbishop of Paris, and was thenceforward the most devoted servant of his master. All his pastoral lettere, and his discourses, recom- mended the most unconditional obedience to the decrees of Napoleon, and his ad- dresses to the emperor abounded in the most abject terms of adulation. In 1814, he was obliged to leave the arcbiepiscopal palace in Paris, and the capital would no longer recognise him as archbishop, since he had no papal brief to produce. He hastened to Rome, but there was thrown into the castle of St. Angelo, for having accepted the archbishopric without the consent ofthe holy see. After subjecting himself to various humiliations, he.was again acknowledged as cardinal, but died at Rome, in 1817, without recovering his archbishopric, or his former consideration. .Mausoleum (pavouXhov), from Mausolus, a king of Curia, to whom a sumptuous sepulchre was raised by his wife Artemi- sia. King Mausolus is said to have ex- pired in the year 353 B. C.; and his wife was so disconsolate at the event, that she drank up his ashes, and perpetuated his memory by the erection of this magnifi- cent monument, which became so famous as to be esteemed the seventh wonder of the world, and to give a generic name to all superb sepulchres. (See an essay of count Caylus, in the 2tith volume oi' the Mim. de VAcadimie des Belles-Lettres; and Aulisio, De Mausolei Architectura, in Sallengre, Thes. III.) Other famous mau- soleums are the mausoleum of Augustus, built by him in his sixth consulate, on the Campus Martius, between the Via Fla- 30* minia and the Tiber. The ruins are still seen near the church of St. Roque, and one of the obelisks which stood before this superb building was found in the reign of pope Sixtus V, and placed before the church of St. Maria 3Iaggiore. This mau- soleum contained the ashes of Augustus, Marcellus, Agrippa, Germanicus, and of some later emperors. The Mausoleum Hadriani is now the castle of St Angelo. 3Iavrocordato, Alexander (called, by courtesy, prince*), one ofthe ablest leadere of the Greeks, in their recent revolution, is descended from an ancient Fanariot family, which has given several inter- preters and hospodars to the Porte. He was born about 1790, and early displayed proofs of a strong and penetrating mind, with an inclination for the severe studies. His acquaintance with the Eastern and European languages affords a remarkable instance of his powers of acquisition. He speaks seven languages with facility and correctness. His knowledge of Turkish histoiy is also profound. His political education early initiated him into the art- ful and tortuous policy of the Fanariots, and rendered him a more skilful states- man than the rude chiefs of Greece. Mavrocordato was, for some time, chief minister to his uncle, the hospodar of Walachia, and afterwards accompanied him into Western Europe—Switzerland, Italy and France. On the breaking out of the Greek revolution, Alexander, who was in France, hastened to Marseilles, and, partly at his own expense, and partly by the contributions of his friends, loaded a vessel with amis, and sailed for Greece. His arrival at 3Iissolonghi (J821) was hailed by his countrymen with the great- est enthusiasm. Presenting himself to Demetrius Ypsilanti, who was before Tri- polizza, 3Iavrocordato desired to be em- ployed in some useful way, and received a commission to direct the insureection then beginning in Etolia. He traversed Etolia, Locris, Bceotia, and penetrated to Arta, to confer with tbe Suliots; he also endeavored to turn the situation of Ali Pacha (q. v.) to the. advantage of the Greeks, and encouraged the Albanian chiefs in their disaffection. He next pro- ceeded to organize an internal govern- ment for Greece, as the only means of sustaining a concert in the resistance against the Turks. Aware of the impor- * The hospodars of Moldavia and Walachia were usually styled princes, and courtesy extend- ed the title to their sons, &c. Hence Ypsilanti, Mavrocordato and Canlacuzene are so called, but without any proper claim to the title. 354 MAVROCORDATO—MAXIMILIAN I OF GERMANV. tance of Patras (q. v.), he used every effort to cause the siege of that place to be pushed with vigor, and visited the camp to animate the soldiers and unite the leadere. While he was thus engaged, the Turks sallied out and surprised the Greeks. Mavrocordato narrowly escaped, and lost his manuscript histoiy of the invasion of Europe by the Turks—a work which his access to documents in Con- stantinople rendered extremely valuable. The general assembly of Greece convened at Epidaurus, in December, 1821, and chose Mavrocordato tbeir president. A committee, consisting of tbe president, Theodore Negris, archbishop Gennanos, Caradja and Colletti, was appointed to draft a constitution, which was reported and accepted at the beginning of the new year (1822), and Mavrocordato was elected jM-esident of the executive body. (See Greece, Revolution of.) The exertions of Mavrocordato to introduce order into the civil and military administration, and his conduct at Missolonghi (q. v.), are related in the article on the Greek revolution above referred to. Iu 1823, the military party had gained the ascendency in the national assembly, and 3Iavroniichalis was chosen president ofthe executive body, to which Mavrocordato, for the sake of pre- serving order, accepted the place of chief secretary. On the departure of Coloco- troni for the army, Mavrocordato was chosen president of die senate, on bearing of which, the former immediately has- tened back, at the head of a body of troops, vowing vengeance on the senate and Mavrocordato. The latter was, in consequence, obliged to flee, and he re- tired to Hydra. Here he exerted himself to induce the Hydriot navarchs to de- spatch a fleet to the relief of Missolonghi; and having been himself invested with tbe command of Western Greece, he effected that purpose. In January, 1824, lord Byron arrived in Greece, and found an efficient and ready friend in Mavrocordato, in opposition to the views of Stanhope. In 1825, Mavrocordato was made secre- tary of foreign affairs, and soon recovered his former ascendency in the government Conduriottis, who was then president, chose him for his military counsellor on the expedition against Ibrahim Pacha, and although the result was unfavorable, yet Mavrocordato showed himself an active and able commander. But tbe fall of Navarino afforded an opportunity of ex- cluding him from the administration, and a commission to regulate the government was appointed by the national assembly. He has not since taken an active part in public affairs. 3Iav romichalis, Pctro (often called / e- tro Bey), at the beginning of the Greek revolution, was bey or governor of Mania, the Turks having bet n accustomed to appoint a Greek to that post, to collect the revenues, because the inhabitants would not submit to the direct govern- ment of iMussulmans. His influence was such among the Mainots that he might have prevented them from joining the revolt, and thus have retained a lucrative situation; but on the first symptoms of resistance, he hastened to join his country- men, and his subsequent exertions, the generous sacrifices of himself and his liunily, the heroic courage and death of his sons and relations, entitle him to a respect, of which even his ignorance and narrow policy in government ought not to deprive him. In 1822, he contributed essentially to the relief of 31issolonghi, and, in 1826, on the change of administra- tion, which threw out Mavrocordato and his party, Mavromichalis was a member of the commission of government then established. His son George Mavromi- chalis was a member of the new govern- ing commission, whicli was formed in 1827, on the dissolution of the former. He had commanded at Navarino, and displayed the courage characteristic of the family at the siege of that place. Joan- nes, his youngest son, a brave and merito- rious young man, fell at Navarino, in 1825. Another, Constantine, fell before Modon, in 1821, having too far outstrip- ped his men in pursuit of the enemy. (See Greece, Revolution of.) Maxex ; a village in the circle of 3Ieis- sen, kingdom of Saxony, famous for the surrender of the Prussian general Fink, with 12,000 men, to the Austrian general Daun, Nov. 21, 1759, in the seven years' war. 31aximiakus, Herculius; the colleague of Diocletian. (See Diocletian.) .Maximilian I, emperor of Germany, son anil successor of Frederic III, bom in 1459, mareied, in 1477, Mary of Burgundy, heiress of duke Charles the Bold, the son of which marriage (the arch-duke Philip) was the father of Charles V and Ferdi- nand I. 31aximilian was elected king of the Romans, in 1486, and ascended the imperial throne in 1493, under very unfa- vorable circumstances. Germany, under the reign of his predecessor, had become distracted and feeble, Maximilian's mar- riage had, indeed, brought the territories of Charles to the house of Austria, but he MAXIMILIAN I OF GERMAN*'—MAXIMILIAN I OF BAVARIA. 355 had been unable to maintain them against Louis XI (q. v.), who had stripped him of Artois, Flanders, and the duchy of Bur- gundy, while Charles VIII obtained the hand of Anne of Brittany, whom Maxi- milian had married by proxy. In 1494, the latter was married, a second time, to Bianca Sforza of Milan. Maximilian was enterprising, politic, brave, and of a noble and generous temper; yet his best plans often failed through his excessive ardor and his want of perseverance, and the miserable administration of his finances often deprived him of the fruits of his most fortunate enterprises. In 1493, he defeated the Turks, who had invaded the empire, and, during the remainder of his life, he was able to repel them from his hereditary territories; but he could not prevent the separation of Switzerland (q. v.) from the German em- pire, in 1498 and 1499. His plans for limiting the power of Louis XII in Italy, and compelling him to renounce his claims on Milan, involved him in perpet- ual wars, without securing to him the possession of 31ilan. Not less unsuccess- ful was the league of Cambray against Venice, whicli he concluded (1508) with the pope, Spain, France, Mantua and Modena. (See League.) Maximilian after- wards took the field against France, and, for the purpose of raising money, ceded Verona to the Venetian republic for 200,000 ducats. His measures in the domestic affaire of the German empire, which, for 300 years, had been the theatre of barbarism and anarchy, were more creditable. What his predecessors had so long vainly attempted, 31aximilian suc- cessfully accomplished. In 1495, he had put an end to internal troubles and violence, by the perpetual peace ofthe empire, de- creed by the diet of Worms. (See Germany, History of.) To supply the defects of die German laws and prevent the gross abuses of justice, he adopted, at the same diet, the Roman and canon laws, as subsidiary authorities, in the decision of differences, and instituted the imperial chamber (see Chamber, Imperial), as the supreme tribunal of the empire. He put a stop to the monstrous abuses of the Westphalian Femgerichte, although he was unable entirely to abolish those secret tri- bunals. (See Feme.) The institution of the Gentian circles, which were intended to secure internal peace and safety, origi- nated from him, as did many other useful institutions for the improvement of the government, and the promotion of science and art. Maximilian was himself a poet, and was the author of a circumstantial but romantic account of his own life, firet published in 1775, under the title Der weiss Kunig, by 31. Treitzsaurwein (his private secretary), with Wood-cuts by Hanns Burgmair. He was, for a long time, considered the author of the Theu- erdank (q. v.), of which he is the hero; but his secretary Pfinzing is now known to have been the writer. Maximilian died in 1519, and was succeeded by Charles V. Maximilian II, German emperor, son of Ferdinand I, born at Vienna (1527), was chosen king of the Romans in 1562, and succeeded his father in the imperial dignity in 1564. He was a pattern of a wise, prudent and good prince. Although he did not join the Lutherans, yet he favored some of their opinions, and grant- ed to his subjects, in bis hereditary domin- ions, a greater religious freedom than they had previously enjoyed. His toleration was extended to all his territories, and led him to promote the religious peace of 1566. Soliman II, the Turkish sultan. made war upon him, in support of the claims of John Sigismund, prince of Transylvania, to Hungary, but the death of the sultan put an end to the war in 1567, his successor, Selim, having agreed to a truce of eight yeare. The latter renewed the war in 1576, in which year 31axiniilian died. He left two daughters and six sons, the eldest of whom (Rodolph) succeeded him, not only as emperor, but also in the Austrian hereditaiy estates. (See Austria.) 31aximilian the Great ; elector of Bavaria. (See Bavaria.) Maximilian I, Joseph, late king of Ba- varia, was born May 27, 1756, in Schwet- zingen, a village not far from Manheim. His father was the palatine Frederic, Aus- trian field-marshal. In 1777, Maximilian was made colonel of a French regiment in Strasburg. In 1795, his brother Charles died, and he became duke of Deuxponts. In 1799, when the Sulzbach palatine line became extinct by the death ofthe elector Charles Theodore, the succession passed to the line of Deuxponts. Thus Maxi- milian became elector. By the peace of Presburg (1805), he became king. (See Bavaria.) In 1818, he gave a constitution to his kingdom, after having improved it in many respects. He died Oct. 13,1825. Maximilian, who, when young, little ex- pected to rule over Bavaria, retained al- ways the frankness of a soldier. He had a good heart, and was beloved by his subjects. Education, agriculture, the fi- nances, and the administration in general, 356 MAXIMILIAN I OF BAVARIA—MAXIMUS TYRIUS. were improved under his reign. His daughter Augusta Amalia, born June 21, 1788, is the widow of the duke of Leueh- tenberg (Eugene Beauhamais); his daugh- ter Charlotte Augusta, born February 8, 1792, was married, in 1816, to Francis I, emperor of Austria. 31aximilian was succeeded by his son Louis I, bom Au- gust 25,1786. 3Iaximinus, Caius Julius Verus, the son of a peasant of Thrace, was originally a shepherd, and, by heading his country- men against the frequent attacks of the neighboring barbarians and robbers, in- ured himself to the labors and to the fa- tigues of a camp. He entered the Roman armies, where he gradually rose to the first offices. On the death of Alexander Severus, slain in a mutiny of his troops excited by Maximin,he caused himself to be proclaim- ed emperor, A. D. 235, and immediately made his son his colleague. The popularity which he had gained when general of the armies, was at an end when he ascended the throne. He was delighted with acts of barbarity, and no less than 400 pereons lost their lives on the false suspicion of having conspired against the emperor's life. Some were exposed to wild beasts; others expired by blows; some were nailed on crosses; while othere were shut up in the bellies of animals just killed. The patri- cians were peculiarly the objects of his cruelty, as if they were more conscious than othere of his mean origin. In an expedition in Germany, he cut down the corn, and laid waste about 450 miles, with fire and sword. Such a monster of tyranny at last provok- ed the people of Rome. The Gordians were proclaimed emperors; but their pa- cific virtues were unable to resist the fury of 3Iaximin. After their fall, the Roman senate invested twenty of tbeir number with the imperial dignity, and intrusted to their hands the care of the republic. These measures so highly ireitated Maxi- min, that at the firet intelligence he howl- ed like a wild beast, and almost destroyed himself by knocking his head against the walls of his palace. When his fury was a little abated, he marched to Rome, re- solved on slaughter,but his soldiers asham- ed of accompanying a tyrant whose cruel- ty had procured him the names of Busiris, Cyclops and Phalaris, assassinated him in his tent before the walls of Aquileia, A. D. 238. He was then in the 65th year of his age. The news of his death was received with the greatest rejoicings at Rome; pub- lic thanksgivings were offered, and whole hecatombs flamed on the altars. Maxi- min has been represented by historians as of a gigantic stature: he was eight feet high, and die bracelets of his wife served as rings to adorn the fingers of his hand. His voracity was as remarkable as his cor- pulence: he ate 40 pounds of flesh a day, aud drank 18 bottles of wine. His strength was proportionable to his gigantic shape: he could draw a loaded wagon; with a blow of his fist he often broke the teeth in a horse's mouth, and cleft young trees with his hand. Maximum (the greatest); in general, that magnitude above which no aggrandize- ment or increase exists or is allowed to ex- ist. Thus, in the time ofthe French rev- olution, all the necessaries of life had a price set upon them, above which they were not allowed to be sold: this was called the maximum. This regulation was soon seen to be so prejudicial to agriculture and trade, that it was abolished. In mathe- matics, where an extensive application is made of the notion of greatest and small- est (maximum and minimum), by the great- est or smallest value of a variable quantity is understood that value which is greater or smaller than any preceding or follow- ing one in the series of the values of this quantity,however near either may be taken to that greatest or least value. The ques- tion of the conditions of the maximum and minimum, the determination of whicli belongs to the differential and in sonic more difficult cases to the integral calculus, (q. v.), is of the highest importance. In order to illustrate the subject by a simple case, let it be required to divide a number, 8, for instance, iu such a manner that the product of the parts shall be a maximum; the method of maximum and minimum shows that the number must be divided into two equal parts, for 4 times 4 are 16, while 3 times 5 are only 15, twice 6 only 12, &c, so that, according to our above definition, 16 is the maximum in the series of numbers successively obtained. (See the treatises on the differential calculus, and Tomasini's treatise De Maximis et Minimis ad InstUutiones geometricas accom- modatis Specimen, Pisa, 1774). 3Iaximus Tyrius, a celebrated philos- opher of the second century, was a na- tive of Tyre in Phoenicia, whence he took his name. It is generally supposed that he flourished under Antoninus. He ap- pears to have adopted the principles ofthe Platonic school, with an inclination to scepticism. He left forty-one Disserta- tions on various philosophical topics, still extant, and written with extreme elo- quence. They were published in Greek, by Stephens, in 1557, and in Greek and Latin, by Heinsius, in 1607. MAY—MAYER. 357 Mat, the fifth month in the year, has 31 days (in Latin, Majus, from whicli 3Iay has been generally derived; the nanfes of the other months being also of Latin ori- gin). Several etymologists maintain, how- ever, that the Gorman May, or Mai, is not derived from the Latin, but that May and Majus may both belong to one original root. As early as in the Salic laws, this month is called Meo, and it would appear that the idea of youthful beauty and love- liuess, so naturally connected by northern nations with the month of 3Iay, gave rise to its name. In the Low Saxon, Moj, in Dutch, Mnoy, is beautiful, agreeable; in Swedish, Mio, in Icelandic, Mior, small, pretty, agreeable; iu ancient Swedish, M6,a virgin (connected with maid, maiden). In Lower Brittany, Mae signifies green, flourishing, and Maes, a field, meadow ; German, Matte; in Lorraine, lo Mai and Me, in ancient French Mds, Mis, signify a garden. Whether all these must be re- ferred to one Teutonic root, and whether this, again, is connected with the Indian Maya (see Magic), the goddess of nature, cannot be investigated here. May, Cape ; on the coast of New Jersey, at the mouth of the Delaware bay, on its northern coast. It is 18 miles N. E. of cape ITcnlopen on the southern shore. Lon. 74° 52' W.; lat. 38° 57' N. May Fly. (See Ephemerides.) 31ay, Thomas, a poet and historian, the eldest son of .sir Thomas 3Iay, was born about 1595. He studied at Cambridge, and was afterwards admitted a member of Gray's Inn; but never seems to have followed the law as a profession. His father having spent nearly all the family estate, be enjoyed but a scanty inheritance. May was much noticed by Charles I, and die wits of his early courts. He was the author of three tragedies and two come- dies, also of several poetical translations, as Virgil's Georgics, with annotations; Lu- can's Pharealia; to the latter of which he supplied a continuation of his own, both in Latin hexameters and in English. Of his original poems, the jirincipal are Reign of Henry II, and the Victorious Reign of Edward III, each in seven books. Ac- cording to lord Clarendon, disgust at be- ing denied a small pension, induced him, on the breaking out of the civil war, to enter into tbe service of parliament, to which he was appointed secretary; and his well-known Histoiy of the Parliament of England, which began November 3, 1640, became extremely obnoxious to the royal party, who vilified both the author and his production, without measure. He afterwards made an abstract of this his- tory, under the title of a Breviary of the History of the Parliament of England (1650, 8vo.), and died a few months after its publication, aged fifty-five, 1650. He was buried in Westminster abbey, by the order of parliament, which also erected a monument to his memory. This was removed at the restoration, and his body disintened, and thrown, with many others, into a pit, dug for that purpose, m St. Margaret's church- yard. 3Iayence. (See Mentz.) Mayer, John Tobias, a celebrated as- tronomer, born at 31arbach in Wurtem- berg, February 17, 1723, passed his early yeare in poverty at Esslingen. By his private industry, without attending any academy, he made himself a mathemati- cian,and became known by several original essays in this department, such as Allge- meine Methode zur Aufibsung Geometr. Probleme (Esslingen, 1741); after which, he went to Nuremberg, and entered the establishment of Honiann, where he dis- tinguished himself by his improvement of maps. At the same time, he did uot neg- lect to improve himself in other branches of study : he acquired, for instance, an el- egant Latin style, which, in his circumstan- ces, did him much honor. These various merits procured him an invitation to Got- tingen, as professor of mathematics, in 1750, and the royal society of sciences of that place chose him a member. About this time, astronomers were employed on the theory of the moon, to assist in finding the longitude at sea. Mayer overcame all difficulties, and prepared the excellent lunar tables, by which the situation of the moon may at any time be ascertained to a minute, for which tables, after his death at Gottingen, February 20, 1762, his heirs received 3000 pounds sterling, as a part of the reward proposed by the English par- liament for a method of finding the longi- tude at sea. These tables have immortal- ized him. To the same department be- long his Theoria Luna juxta Systema Newtonianum (London, 1767, 4to.) and Tabula Motuum Solis et Luna (London, 1770, 4to.) He also rendered other ser- vices to astronomy, especially by his im- provement of instruments for measuring angles, and the introduction of the multi- plication circle (which was afterwards made more perfect by Borda, so as to be adapted to the most delicate operations of astronomy), by the theory of refraction and eclipses, by catalogues of the fixed stars, &c. The manuscripts left by liim 358 MAYER—MAZARIN. are preserved in the observatory at Gottin- gen. A part only of them have appeared, Opera inedUa, ed. Lichtenberg (Gottingen, 1774, fol.). Mayer, or 3Iayr, Simon, a distinguish- ed German composer, born near Ingolstadt, in 1764, resided a long time in Italy. He was liberally educated, but his inclination for music seduced him from the sciences, and, at the age of 25 years, he went to Bergamo, where count Pesenti assisted him, and enabled him to study at Venice, under the chapel-master Bertoni. The death of his patron obliged him to con- nect himself with the theatre, and in 1802 the place of chapel-master in Bergamo was given him. He composed a great number of serious and comic operas, ora- torios, cantatas, &c. His principal operas are Lodoiska; Misterj Eleusini; La Gi- nevra di Scozia; Medea in Corinto ; La Rosa bianca e la Rosa rosso; and Adelasio ed Aleramo. 31 ayhew, Jonathan, D. D., son of a dis- tinguished clergyman and successful mis- sionary among die Indians, was born'at Martha's Vineyard, in the year 1720, and educated at Harvard college, of which he received the honors in 1744. In youth he manifested talents, and great proficiency in his studies: he was ordained the min- ister of the West church in Boston, June 17, 1747. In this station he continued during the rest of his life. He died sud- denly July 9,1766, in the forty-sixth year of his age. He published a number of sermons and some controversial tracts, by which he gained as high a reputation as was possessed by any American writer or clergyman of his time. His style is ner- vous and chaste: he displayed on every oc- casion critical and extensive learning, and singular independence of spirit. 3Iost of his writings passed through several edi- tions in England. The university of Ab- erdeen sent him a diploma of doctor of divinity. He entered frequently into pol- itics, and was termed a whig ofthe firet mag- nitude, or rather a principled republican. In one of his early sermons, he held a lan- guage which is remarkable considering the time at which it was uttered. " Hav- ing (said he) been initiated, in youth, in the docuines of civil liberty as they were taught by such men as Plato, Demosthe- nes, Cicero, and other renowned persons among the ancients, and such as Sydney, Milton, Locke and Hoadley among the moderns, I liked them; they seemed ra- tional. And having learned from the Holy Scriptures that wise, brave and virtuous men were always friends to liberty—that God gave the Israelites a king in bis an- ger, because they had not sense and vir- tue enough to like a free commonwealth, and that where the spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty,—this made me conclude that freedom was a great blessing," &c. The transaction in Doctor 3Iayhew's life which attracted most attention to him was his controversy with the reverend 3Ir. Apthorp, respecting tbe proceedings ofthe British society for the propagation of the gospel in foreign parts. He condemned their proceedings in a masterly pamphlet, and contended that the society were ei- ther deceived by the representations of the pereons whom they employed, or gov- erned more by a regard to Episcopacy than to charity. Several members of the society in America wrote replies, and even doctor Seeker, archbishop of Can- terbury, embarked in the dispute, in favor of the society. Doctor 3Iayhew rejoined with much cogency, vivacity and wit He was an avowed and determined enemy to religious establishments and test acts, and wished to prevent the introduction of bishops into the colonies. Maypu, Battle of, sealed the inde- pendence of Chile. It was fought April 5, 1817, Osorio commanding the royal- ists, and San 31artin and Las lleras the patriots. Of the five thousand men com- manded by Osorio, two thousand fell on the field, and two thousand five hundred were made prisoners; anjl the victory not only gave liberty to Chile, but enabled tbe Chileans to send a liberating expedition against Peru. (See ChUe, Peru, San Mar- tin.)—Stevenson's South America, vol. iii, p. 183. 31azarin, Julius, firet minister of Louis XIV, and cardinal, was bom of a noble family, at Piscini, in Abruzzo (according to Flassan, at Rome), in 1602. He studied law at the Spanish university of Alcala de Heuares, after leaving which, he entered the military service of the pope. He was a captain in a corps in the Valteline, when he was commissioned by general Torqua- to Conti to negotiate the truce at Rivalta, Sept. 16,1630, between the French, Span- ish and imperial generals. The nuncio Bagni represented him as a distinguished man to Louis XIII and cardinal Riche- lieu. When the war broke out respecting the succession of the duchy of 3Iantua, 31azarin, as papal minister, repaired to Louis XIII at Lyons, and had a long con- ference with cardinal Richelieu. Having failed in his attempts to effect a peace, he returned to Italy. The French stationed be- fore Casal were on the point of renewing MAZARIN. 359 hostilities, when Mazarin effected a truce of six weeks between them and the Spanish forces. On the expiration ofthe truce, he proposed to the French to-consent to a peace, which they refused, except on the hardest conditions. He induced the Span- ish general, however, to agree to them, and returned on horseback, at full speed, between the two armies, who were already engaged, waving his hat, and exclaiming " Peace ! peace !" while the bullets were whizzing round his head. The action was suspeuded and peace established. By this negotiation, 3Iazarin gained the friendship of Richelieu, and, in 1641, Louis XIII in- duced Urban VIII to create him cardinal, immediately whereupon he was appointed a member ofthe council of state. Riche- lieu, on his death-bed, recommended him so strongly to the king, that, in his will, Louis nominated him a member of the council of regency. After the death of Louis XIII, in 1643, queen Anne of Aus- tria, as regent, gave him the post of first minister. Mazariii was, at that time, gen- erally regarded as the lover of the queen, and, from this intimacy, some have at- tempted to derive the origin of the iron musk, (q.v.) He at first conducted with much modesty. But, notwithstanding this moderation, whicli did not last long, a powerful party was formed against him. lie was hated as a foreigner, and his per- son, his manners, his pronunciation, were made subjects of ridicule. The people, moreover, groaned under the burden of taxes. These circumstances resulted in a civil war. (See Fronde.) The queen was obliged to fly to St. Germain with the king, and the minister, whom the parlia- ment regarded as a disturber of the public tranquillity. Spain took part in the coin- motions, and the arch-duke, governor of tin; Netherlands, assembled troops. This obliged the queen, who was neither able nor desirous to wage war, in 1649, to come to a compromise with the parlia- ment The parliament retained the liber- ty of convening itself, of which it had been attempted to deprive it, and the court kept its minister, whom parliament and people had attempted to overthrow. But the prince of Conde, to whom the state was indebted for this reconciliation, showed little moderation to either party. Mazarin was ridiculed by him, the queen treated with disdain, and the government mocked. .Mazarin, forced to be ungrate- ful, then fore persuaded the queen to give orders for the arrest of him, with his brother, the prince of Conti, and the duke of Longiieville. But, in 1651, the parlia- ment issued an edict, banishing Mazarin from the kingdom, and obliged the court to release the princes. They entered Par- is as if in triumph, while the cardinal fled, firet to Liege and then to Cologne. But even from thence did this minister rule the court and France. In February, 1652, the king, now arrived at age, recalled 3Iazarin, who, as Voltaire says, came to Fiance "less like a minister resuming his office than like a ruler taking possession again of his stales." He was accompanied by a small army of 7000 men, which he kept on foot, at his own expense, that is, with the public money, which he appro- priated to his own use. On the first infor- mation of his return, Gaston d'Orleans, brother of Louis XIII, who had demand- ed the removal of the cardinal, levied troops in Paris, and the parliament renew- ed its decrees, banished Mazarin, and set a price on his head. At the same time, the prince of Conde, in league with the Spaniards, put himself in motion against the king, whose army wras com-. mantled by Turenne, who had left the Spaniards. Several indecisive battles were fought: the war ceased and was renewed at intervals. The cardinal found it necessaiy again to leave the court, and repaired to Sedan, in 1652, after which the king again took possession of Paris. To restore entire tranquillity, Louis had issued a proclamation, in which he dis- missed his minister, while he praised his services, and lamented his banishment. But quiet Itaving returned, the king invit- ed him, in February, 1653, back to Paris. Louis received him like a father, the peo- ple like a master. The princes, the am- bassadors, and the parliament, hastened to wait upon him. The disturbances iu the provinces were soon entirely quelled, and Conde, who had fled to the Spanish Netherlands, was declared guilty of trea- son. Mazariu now prosecuted the war against Spain with redoubled zeal, and, for that end, formed an alliance, in 1656, with Cromwell. By this means, he ob- tained for France an honorable peace. He negotiated himself, in 1659, with the Spanish minister Haro, on the isle of Pheasants. This peace of the Pyrenees was followed by the marriage ofthe king with the Infanta. Both negotiations did great honor to 31azarin's policy. He was now more powerful than ever: he appear- ed with regal pomp, being regularly at- tended by a company of musketeer guards, in addition to his body-guard. The queen mother, on the contrary, lost her influence. During this time of repose, 360 MAZARIN—3IAZEPPA. nothing was done by 3Iazarin for the ad- ministration of justice, for trade, naval power and finances. Neither were his eight yeare of unlimited dominion marked by a single honorable institution. The college des quatre nations was firet estab- lished by his testament The finances he administered like the steward of an in- volved master. He accumulated over 200,000,000 livres, in doing which, he often made use of means unworthy of an hon- orable man. According to Flassan, he had an income of 1,800,000 livres, and a property of twenty-two millions, equiva- lent to about double the sum ofthe money of our time. This disquieted him, when he perceived his end approaching. Col- bert therefore advised him to make the king a present of all his treasures, who would infallibly return them to him. The king accepted the present, and the cardi- nal" had already begun to feel ineasy, when the king returned it to him, after the lapse of three days. Mazarin died March 9, 1661. He left as bis heir the marquis La Meilleraie, who married his niece Hortensia 3Iancini, and assumed the title of duke of 3Iazarin. He had, besides, a nephew, the duke of Nevere, and four other nieces, who were married to the prince of Conti, the constable Co- lonna, the duke of 3Iercceur, and the duke of Bouillon. Charles II (Stuart), in the time of his embarrassments, bad sued for one of them; his affairs having im- proved, Mazarin offered her to iiim, but now received a negative answer. 3Iaza- rin and Richelieu have often been com- pared together: "3Iazarin," says Henault, "was as mild as Richelieu was vehement. One of his greatest talents was his accu- rate knowledge of men. His policy was characterized rather by finesse and for- bearance than by force. The last he made it a rule to use only when other means were inadequate; and his un- derstanding gave him the courage which circumstances required. Bold at Casal, quiet and active at Cologne, enterprising, as when he accomplished the arrest of the princes, but insensible to the ridicule of his enemies and the boastings of his col- leagues,—he heard the murmurs of the people as from the shore he would have heard the ragings of the billows. In Richelieu there was something greater, more comprehensive, less constrained ; in Mazarin, more adroitness, more caution, and less variation. The one was hated; the other was derided; but both ruled the state." Mazarin flattered the enemies whom Richelieu would have ordered to be beheaded. His talents were not suffi- ciently prominent to conceal his ambition, cupidity, timidity, artfulness and mean- ness. 'His greatest merit was his skill in diplomacy. For this he possessed all the necessary finesse, pliancy, and knowledge of human nature, and exhibited them in the peace of Westphalia and that of the Pyrenees. He added Alsace to Frauce, and perhaps anticipated that France might some day give laws to Spain. The out- ward appearance ofthe cardinal was very prepossessing: with the finest counte- nance, he united the most agreeable tone in conversation, which won all whom he wished to please. He allured men with hopes. His heart was cold, equally des- titute of hatred and friendship. His com- posure was to be disturbed by no passion, and no one could elicit from him a secret. Towards private pereons, he often forgot his promises, but public treaties he con- scientiously observed, in order to restore the influence of France, whicli Richelieu had neglected. 3Iazarin's letters respect- ing the negotiations of the peace of the Pyrenees have been several times printed. (See Aubery's Hid. du. Card. Mazarin (Amsterdam, 1751, 4 vols.); and Parotide du Card, de Richelieu et du Card. Mazarin, by Richard (Amsterdam, 1716); alsoRetz's Memoirs.) 3Iazeppa, John ; hettman of the Cos- sacks, born in Podolia, of one of the many poor noble Polish families, who were obliged to seek for employments in the houses of the more wealthy. He was page to John Casimir, who was fond of pleasure, but, at the same time, a lover of the arts and of literature. 3Iazeppa had therefore an opportunity of acquiring va- rious useful accomplishments. An in- trigue- was the foundation of his future elevation. A Polish nobleman, having surprised 3Iazeppa with his wife, bound him, naked, in revenge, upon a wild horse, and committed him to his fate. The horse was from the Ukraine, and directed his course thither. Some poor peasants found him, half dead, and took care of him. He remained among them, and their warlike, roving life suited his disposition. He made himself conspicu- ous and beloved by his dexterity, bodily strength and courage. His knowledge and sagacity procured him the posts of secretary, and adjutant to the hettman Samoilowitz, and, in 1687, he was elected in his place. He gained the confidence ofYeter the Great, who loaded him with honore, and he was finally made prince of the Ukraine. His restless spirit now 3IAZEPPA—MEACO. 361 made him resolve to throw off the yoke of subordination. He joined with Charles XII, who had just given a king to Poland, and aimed, by his assistance, to withdraw himself from his allegiance to the czar, and to unite the Ukraine, under certain conditions, to the crown of Poland. These and other intrigues of Mazeppa against Peter were at last revealed to the latter by Kotschubey, general ofthe Cossacks, and Isra, governor of Poltawa. Peter put no confidence in these charges, but sent both the accusers to Mazeppa himself for pun- ishment. He had the audacity to cause them to be executed. At length the eyes of Peter were opened: many partisans of Mazeppa were arrested and executed, and he himself was hung in effigy. He then went over, with a few adherents, to Charles XII, and took an active part in the unfortunate campaign in the Ukraine. After the defeat at Pultavva, 3Iazeppa fled to Bender, where he died 1709. Lord Byron has made Mazeppa the hero of a poem. 31azzola, or 31azzuoli, Francesco (called 11 Parmegiano), one of the most distinguished painters of the Lombard school, born at Parma, in 1503, was the son of Filippo 3Iazzola, a painter, surnam- ed Dall' Erbette. In his sixteenth year, he executed a Baptism of Christ, which displays his remarkable talents. Correg- gio's presence in Parma, in 1521, gave him an opportunity of becoming acquaint- ed with the style of that master. In 1522, 31azzola painted, among other works, a Madonna, with the holy Children, a St. Jerome, and a St. Bernardin of Feltri, a celebrated oil-painting, which is preserved in the monastery Della Nunziate, but which has suffered from time and unskil- ful hands. In Rome, which the young artist visited in 1523, with the hope of at- tracting the notice of the pope Clement, the works of Raphael made a deep im- pression upon him, the influence of which is perceptible in his subsequent paintings, in which he aimed at a union of Correg- gio's grace with Raphael's expression. On the capture of Rome, in 1527, he suffered great losses, and, after that event, went to Bologna. Among his most celebrated paintings, executed in that citv, are his St Roch, the Madonna della Rosa, now at Dresden, and St 3Iargaret He soon returned to Parma, and there executed the Cupitl making a Bow, and painted several works for the church Della Steccata. But his health was feeble, and he was impris- oned by the overseers of that building, who had advanced him the money for vol. viii. 31 works which he neglected to finish. Be- ing set at liberty, on condition of complet- ing them, he fled to Casalmaggiore, where he died, in 1540. His works are not nu- merous, much of his time having been wasted in the search after the philoso- pher's stone. With a thorough knowl- edge of his art, Mazzola united great cor- rectness of drawing. Algarotti and Mengs accuse him of being sometimes guilty of affectation in his attempts at grace, and Fiorillo objects to his too great use of curved lines, and to his involving the limbs. His fire, grace, conect drawing, boldness of touch, and ease of composition, are undeniable, Mazzuchelli, Giammaria, count, a no- bleman of Brescia, who flourished in the early part of the eighteenth centuiy, was the author of Notizie istoriche e critiche intorno alia Vita, alle Invenzioni ed agli Scritti di Arehimede Siracusano; La Vita di Pietro Aretino. He also commenced a large and valuable biographical work, Gli Scrittori d'ltalia, of which he only fin- ished the two firet letters of the alphabet, leaving a large collection of materials for the subsequent parts. 3Iazzuchelli died in 1765. During his life, was published his Museum Mazzuchellianum, seu Numis- mata Virorum Dodrina prastantium (1761, folio.) 3Ieaco, or Kio ; a city of Japan, in Ni- phon, 160 miles south-west Jeddo; lon. 153° 3& E.; lat 35° 24' N. It was once the metropolis of the whole empire: it is still the ecclesiastical capital, the residence of the dairi, or spiritual sovereign, and is the centre ofthe literature and science of the empire, the imperial almanac being published bere, and most of the books lhat circulate through Japan. It is situ- ated near the middle ofthe south coast, in a fertile and spacious plain, surrounded by higli mountains, for the most part cov- ered with stately temples, monasteries, burying-places, and pleasure-houses. Three rivers unite their streams in the centre ofthe city, whence the place is di- vided into upper and lower towns. This two-fold city appears to have been about twenty miles in length, and nine or ten in breadth, when in its full splendor, besides its large suburbs, and the imperial palace, which is a city by itselfj and divided from the rest. The streets are generally narrow, but straight. Population, near 500,000, exclusive of several thousands that com- pose the dairi's court, and the bonzes ami nuns, who amount to above 52,000. Its temples are numerous, and some of them very magnificent Meaco, though much 362 MEACO—3IEASURES. decayed, in consequence of the civil wars, is the grand store-house of the manufac- tures of Japan, and of foreign and home merchandise, and the principal seat of its commerce. (See Japan.) Mead, Richard, a celebrated English physician, bom 1673, was the son of a dis- senting minister, studied at the univereities of Utrecht and Leyden, and became an intimate with his fellow-pupil Boerhaave. He afterwards travelled in Italy. He re- turned to England in 1696, and became very distinguished in his profession. In 1702, he published 3Iechanical Account of Poisons, whicli he, long after, republish- ed in an improved form. On the alarm occasioned by the plague at 3Iarseilles, in 1719, he published a Discourse concern- ing Pestilential Contagion, which passed through many editions. He interested himself much in the introduction of inoc- ulation for the small-pox, and assisted in the preliminary experiments made on condemned criminals. In 1727, he was appointed physician to king George II. Among his later writings are his treatises De Imperio Solis ac Luna, in Corpora hu- mana et Morbis inde oriundis (1746); De Morbis Biblicis (1749); and Monita Medi- co (1750). He died in 1754. Meadow Lark (sturnus ludovicianus, Lin.; alauda magna, Wils.). This well- known and beautiful species is found in every part of the U. States, in pasture- fields and meadows, especially the latter, from whicli circumstance its common name is derived. The meadow-lark is seldom or never seen in woods, except where they are open, and, instead of un- derwood, the ground is clothed with glass. After the building season is over, these birds collect in flocks. When they alight, it is generally on the highest part of the tree or shrub, whence they pour forth a clear but melancholy note. Their nests are generally built in or below a thick tuft of grass, and are composed of dry grass. The eggs are four or five in number, white, marked with specks, and sev- eral blotches of reddish-brown, partic- ularly at the larger end. Their food con- sists of caterpillars, grub-worms, beetles, &c. The meadow-lark is about ten inches and a half in length. The throat, breast, and belly, are of a bright yellow, ornamented by an oblong crescent of a deep velvety black, on the lower part of the throat (See Wilson's Ornithol.) Meadville; a post-town, and capital of Crawford county, Pennsylvania, 37 miles south of Erie; lat. 41° 37' N.; lon. 80° 11' W.; population, in 1830,1070. It is very pleasantly situated, regularly laid out, and contains a court-house, a bank, an areenal, a college, a highly respectable academy, and two printing-offices. It is a flourishing town, connected with Erie, Pittsburg and Philadelphia, by turn- pikes. Alleghany college, at 3Ieadville, was incorporated in 1817. The college edifice, named Bentley hall, is 120 feet by 40, of three stories, and has an elevated and pleasant situation. The library con- sists of about 8000 volumes. The institu- tion is under the direction of a board of fifty trustees. Commencement is held on the first Wednesday in August The funds of the institution are not adequate to its objects; and, in 1830, only nine stu- dents had graduated at Alleghany college. 31eal-Tub Plot. (See Popish Plot.) 31ean; the middle between two ex- tremes : thus we say, the " mean motion of a planet," its "mean distance," &c, to signify a motion, or distance, which as much exceeds the least motion or distance as it is exceeded by the greatest. The mean, or mean proportion, is the second of any three proportions. In an arithmetical proportion, the mean is half the sum ofthe extremes; in a geometrical, the mean is the square root of the product of the ex- tremes. Mean time is the mean or average of apparent time. (See Time, and Equa- tion of Time.) 31easles (rubeola, from ruber, red); an exanthematic disease, which appears to have been unknown to the ancient phy- sicians; the time of its first appear- ance in Europe is uncertain. It is com- municated by the touch of infected per- sons or things. It is sometimes epidemic. Pereons of all ages are liable to its attacks; but it is more common in infants, and rarely affects an individual a second time. The symptoms are hoarseness, cough, drowsiness, and, about the fourth day, an eruption of small red spots (hence the name measles; Gentian, Maseru, spots), which, after three days, end in scales. There is more or less of fever, attended with the usual febrile affections. The measles, even when violent, are not often of a putrid tendency, although such a dis- position sometimes prevails. In the case of the simple measles, the best treatment - is abstinence from food, and the use of mild, mucilaginous, sweetened drinks. Bleeding is only proper in the inflamma- tory measles. Some writers have treated the measles as merely an inflammation of the skin; but this is only a symptom of the disease, and not the disease itself. Measures. The general principle that MEASURES. 363 simplicity and uniformity are the result of advancement in civilization, is striking- ly exemplified in the case of measures. Formerly, every province, and almost every place of'timportancc, had its own measures, which proved a most perplexing hinderance to commercial intercourse. In modern times, many attempts at uniform- ity have been made. Two modes most naturally suggested themselves,—either to declare the measures of one place or prov- ince the universal measure (as has been done iu England, where, by an act of parliament, in June, 1824, the standard London measures and weights were de- clared to be the standards for weights and measures throughout the realm, and in Prussia, where the Berlin weights and measures were made the rule for the whole kingdom), or to establish new measures, founded upon unalterable prin- ciples, upon tbe laws of nature, as has been done in France. The latter is obvi- ously the most rational and most just, be- cause it is arbitrary to make a whole country follow the measures ofthe capital, or of a province, if these measures them- selves have nothing in particular to rec- ommend them. In the article France, division Decimal Measures, is given a brief account of that admirable system, the phil- osophical character of which is bringing it more and more into use among the learned of the European continent (For more information respecting it, see Delambne's Base du Systime milrique; Giodisie, by Puissant; and Manuel des Poids et Me- sures, by Tarbe.) The English yard is de- termined by oscillations of a pendulum at London. This is still an arbitrary stand- ard, as the oscillations vary in different parallels of latitude. It is not, indeed, so arbitrary as the taking the foot of Louis XIV for a measure, yet it is not so philo- sophical as the French. In the U. States, the English system of measures and weights has been followed.—See the interesting Report upon Weights and Meas- ures, by John Uuincy Adams, when sec- retary of state (Washington, 1821), in con- sequence of an act of congress.—Meas- ures are either r\. length; 2. surface; 3. solidity or capacity; measures ofi, 4. foree,orgravity,orwhatis commonly called weight; 5. angles; 6. time ; and their respective standards are, in Eng- land and the U. States, a yard, square yard, or the ysVtr of an acre, a cubic yard, a gallon, pound weight, degree, minute. The English act already alluded to, for es- tablishing uniform measures throughout the realm, and called the act of uniformity, took effect Jan. 1,1826. The system thus established is called the imperial system. Its rationale is as follows: Take a pendu- lum which will vibrate seconds in London, on a level of the sea, in a vacuum; divide all that part thereof which lies between the axis of suspension and the centre of oscillation into 391,393 equal parts; then will 10,000 of those parts be an imperial inch, twelve whereof make a foot, and thirty-six whereof make a yard. The standard yard is " that distance between the centres of the two points in the gold studs in the straight brass rod, now in the custody of the clerk of the house of commons, whereon the words and fig- ures ' Standard yard, 1760' are engraved, which is declared to be the genuine stand- ard ofthe measure of length called a yard; and, as the expansibility of the metal would cause some variation in the length ofthe rod in different degrees of tempera- ture, the act determines that the brass rod in question shall be of the temperature of 62° (Fahrenheit). The measure is to be de- nominated the imperial standard yard, and to be the only standard whereby all other measures of lineal extension shall be com- puted. Thus the foot, the inch, the pole, the furlong, and the mile, shall bear the same proportion to the imperial standard yard as they have hitherto borne to the yard measure in general use." The act also makes provision for the restoration of the standard yard, in case of loss, destruc- tion, or defacement, by a reference to au invariable natural standard, which is to be that proportion which the yard bears to the length of a pendulum, vibrating sec- onds of time in the latitude of London, in a vacuum at the level of the sea; which is found to be as thirty-six inches (the yard) to 39.1393(the pendulum); thus a sure means is established to supply the loss which might by possibility occur. Take a cube -of one such inch of distilled water, at 62° of temperature, by Fahrenheit's thermom- eter ; let this be weighed by any weight, and let such weight be divided into 252458 equal parts, then will 1000 of such parts be a troy grain ; and 7000 of those grains will be a pound avoirdupois, the operation having been performed in air. Ten pounds, such as those mentioned, of dis- tilled water, at 62° of temperature, will be a gallon, which gallon will contain 277 cubic inches, and fYs^ parts of another cubic inch. The standard pound is deter- 364 MEASURES. mined to be that standard pound troy weight, made in the year 1758, in the cus- tody of the clerk of the house of com- mons ; such weight is to be denominated the imperial standard troy pound, antl is to be " the only standard measure of weight from which all other weights shall be de- rived, computed and ascertained ; and one twelfth part of the said troy pound is to be an ounce, and one twentieth part of such ounce a pennyweight, and one twenty- fourth part of such pennyweight a grain ; so that 5760 such grains shall be a pound troy, and 7000 such grains a pound avoir- dupois, and one sixteenth part of the said pound avoirdupois au ounce avoirdupois, and one sixteenth part of such ounce a drachm." If the standard pound shall be lost, destroyed or defaced, the act directs that it shall be recovered by reference to the weight of a cubic inch of water; it having been ascertained that a cubic inch of distilled water, weighed in air by brass weights, at the temperature of 62° (Fah- renheit), and the barometer at 30 inches, is equal to 252.458 grains; and, as the standard troy pound contains 5760 such grains, it is therefore established that tbe original standard pound may be at any time recovered, by making another weight to bear the proportion just mentioned to a cubic inch of water. The standard gallon is determined by the act to be such meas- ure as shall contain ten pounds avoirdu- pois of distilled water, weighed in air, at the temperature of 62° (Fahrenheit), and the barometer at 30 inches; and such measure is declared to be the imperial standard gallon, and the unit and only standard measure of capacity to be used, as well for wine, beer, ale, spirits, and all sorts of liquids, as for dry goods not meas- ured by neaped measure; and all other measures are to be taken in parts or mul- tiples ofthe said imperial standard gallon, the quart being the fourth part of such gallon, and the pint one eighth part, two such gallons making a peck, eight such gallons a bushel, and eight such bushels a quarter of corn, or other dry goods, not measured by heaped measure. The standard for heaped measure, for such things as are commonly sold by heaped measure, such as coal, culm, lime, fish, potatoes, fruit, &c, is to lie "the afore- said bushel, containing eighty pounds av- oirdupois of water, as aforesaid, the same being made round with a plane and even bottom, and being nineteen and a half inches from outside to outside;" and goods thus sold by heaped measure are to be heaped " in the form of a cone, such cone to be of tbe height of at least six inches, the outside ofthe bushel to be the extremity of the base of such cone." Three such bushels are to be a sack, and twelve such sacks a chaldron.—Stricken Measure. The last-mentioned goods may be sold either by the heaped measure, or by the standard weight, as before-men- tioned ; but for every other kind of goods not usually sold by heaped measure, which may be sold or agreed for by measure, the same standard measure is to be used, but the goods are not to be heaped, but stricken with a round stick, or roller, straight, and of the same diameter from end to end. Copies and models of the standard of length, weight and measure, are to be made and verified under the di- rection of the treasury, and every county to be supplied with them for reference whenever required. Existing weights ami measures may be used, being marked so as to show the proportion they have to the standard measures and weights; ta- bles of equalization of the weights are to be made by tbe treasury ; tables, also, for the customs and excise, by which the duties will be altered so as to make them equal to what they are at present, in con- sequence of the alterations in the weights and measures. T!i; measures now in use in England and the U. States are as follows: 1. MEASURE OF LENGTH. 12 inches ' ~ 1 foot 3 feet — 1 yard 5 1-2 yards ~ 1 rod, or pole 40 poles , zz 1 furlong 8 furlongs =: 1 mile G9 1-15 miles — 1 degree of a great circle of the earth. An inch is the smallest lineal measure to which a name is given, but subdivisions are used for many purposes. Among mechanics, the inch is commonly divided into eighths. By the officere of the reve- nue, and by scientific persons, it is divided into tenths, hundredths, &c. Formerly, it was made to consist of twelve parts, called lines; but these have properly fallen into disuse. Particular Measures of Length. ! "a" = ! H.""*"! used for measur- quarter = 4 nails 1 . , ft of a„ yard = 4 quarters I ^ 1 ell — 5 quarters ) , , , . . . (used for the height of 1 hand =4 inches j horses 6 1 fathom — 6 feet, used in measuring depths. .... __ C 7 92-1001 used in land mea3ure, — ^ inches I to facilitate compu- \ tation ofthe content, 10 square chains be- 1 chain rr: 100 links J ing equal'to an acre. MEASURES. 365 2. MEASURE OF SURFACE. 4. Jl£.ilOUl 144 square inches 9 square feet 30 1-4 square yards 40 perches 4 roods, or 160 perches 640 acres zz 1 square foot — 1 square yard zz 1 perch, or rod zz 1 rood zz 1 acre zz 1 square mile. 6. MEASURE OF TIME. 3. MEASURES OF SOLIDITY AND CA- PACITY. Division I.—Solidity. 1728 cubic inches zz 1 cubic foot 27 cubic feet =1 cubic yard. Division II. Imperial measure of capacity for all liquids, and for all dry goods, except such as are comprised in the third division : 4 gills — 1 pint zz 34 2-3 cubic in., nearly 2 pints zz 1 quart — 69 1-3 " " " 4 quarts zz 1 gallon — 277 1-4 " " " 2 gallons zz 1 peck —554 1-2 " " " 8 gallons zz 1 bushel =2218 1-5 " " 8 bushels zz 1 quarter zz 10 1-4 cubic feet, nearly oquarterszz 1 load zz51 1-3 " " " The four last denominations are used for dry goods only. For liquids, several de- nominations have been heretofore adopted, viz. for beer, the firkin, of 9 gallons, the kilderkin, of 18, the barrel, of 36, the hogs- head, of 54, and the butt, of 108 gallons. These will probably continue to be used in practice. For wine and spirits, there are the anker, runlet, tierce, hogshead, puncheon, pipe, butt and tun; but these may be considered rather as the names of the casks in which such commodities are imported, than as expressing any definite number of gallons. It is the practice to guage all such vessels, and to charge them according to their actual content Division III. Imperial measure of capacity, for coals, culm, lime, fish, potatoes, fruit, and other goods commonly sold by heaped measure: 2 gallons zz 1 peck zz 704 cubic in., nearly 8 gallons — 1 bushel zz 2815 1-2 " 3 bushels' zz 1 sack zz 4 8-9 cubic feet,nearly 12 sacks zz 1 chaldron zz 58 2-3 " " " (For measures of weights, see Weights.) 5. ANGULAR MEASURE ; or, Divisions of the Circle. 60 seconds zz 1 minute 60 minutes zz 1 degree 30 degrees zz 1 sign 90 degrees zz 1 quadrant 360 degrees, or 12 signs zz 1 circumference. Formerly, the subdivisions were carried on by sixties ; thus the second was divided into 60 thirds, the third into 60 fourths, &c. At present, the second is more generally divided decimally into tenths, hundredths, &c. Tbe degree is frequently so divided. 31* 60 seconds 60 minutes 24 hours 7 days 28 days 28, 29, 30, or 31 days 12 calendar months 365 days 366 days zz 1 minute zz 1 hour zz 1 day zz 1 week zz 1 lunar month zz 1 calendar month zz 1 year zz 1 common year zz 1 leap year. In 400 years, 97 are leap-years, and 303 common. The second of time is sub- divided like that of angular measure.— We shall now give a table of itinerary measures of different countries, exhibiting the number of each answermg to 100 English miles; also the length of a single measure of each sort in English yards: Arabia, Bohemia, Brabant, Burgundy, China, Denmark, England, Flanders, France, Miles Lis Miles No. of each = 100 English Miles. Length of a 81,93 17,36 28.93 28,46 279,80 21,35 100,00 86,91 25.62 1 Geographical Miles Do. marine Germany, Hamburg, Hanover, Hesse, Holland, Hungary, India, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Oldenburg, Persia, Poland, Portugal, Prussia, Rome, Russia, Saxony, Scotland, Silesia, Spain, Suabia, Sweden, Switzerland Turkey, 28,97 41,28 21,72 17,38 25,66 21,35 15,23 16,68 27,52 19,31 60,43 57,93 86,91 18,00 16,26 I 27,33 28,97 21,72 26,03 20,78 86,91 1109,18 150,81 17,76 88,70 " 27,67 fLeguas com-} mon, of 800 S- 23,73 < varas ) balir1'500,157'97 Miles 17,38 15,04 " 19,23 Berries 96,38 Miles 80,05 Do. legal, of ) 2000 toises 5 Miles geog. Do. long , Do. short Miles Cos Miles ( Parasang, or ( farsang \ Miles short ( Do. long Legoas Miles t Modern miles < Ancient do. £ of 8 stadia Versts Miles 2148 10137 6082 6183 629 8244 1760 2025 6869 4860 6075 4263 8101 10126 6859 8244 11559 10547 6395 9113 2894 3038 2025 97fcl 10820 6440 6075 8101 6760 8468 2025 1612 1167 9905 1984 7083 7416 4635 10126 11700 9153 1826 1409 * There are 25 leagues in a degree. A French post is equal to 2 leagues, or to 5,52 Eng. miles. 366 MEASURES. FOOT MEASURES OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES REDUCED TO ENGLISH FEET. Eng. Feet. Amsterdam,.................,930 Antwerp,..................,940 Augsburg,..............» . . . ,972 Barcelona, .................,992 Bale, ....................,944 Berlin,....................,992 Berne,....................,962 Bologna,.................1,244 Bremen,...................,955 Breslau,..................1,125 Brussels,..................,902 China, mathcm.,.............1,127 China, imperial,.............1,051 Constantinople,..............2,195 Copenhagen,...............i>045 Cracow,..................1,169 Dantzic....................,923 Dresden,..................,929 Florence,..................,994 Frankfort,..................,933 Hamburg,..................,933 Leghorn,..................,992 Leipsic,..................1,034 Leyden, .................1,023 Liege,....................,944 Lisbon,...................,952 Lyons, T..................1,119 Madrid...................,915 Marseilles.................. ,814 Mentz,....................,988 .Moscow...................,928 Munich....................,947 Nuremberg,.................,996 Padua, ..................1,406 Palermo,..................,747 Paris,................... 1,066 Rhinland,.................1,023 Prague,...................,987 Rome,.....................966 Stockholm,................1,073 Strasburg,..................,956 Trent, ...................1,201 Turin,...................1,676 Tyrol,...................1,096 Venice,..................1,137 Verona,..................1,117 Vicenza,.................1,136 Vienna,..................1,036 Ulm,........-.............,826 Urbino,..................1,162 Utrecht, ..................,741 Warsaw,.........t.......1,169 Wesel....................,771 Zurich....................,979 OTHER MEASURES, REDUCED TO ENGLISH FEET. Eng. Feet. Amsterdam ell,..............2,223 English fathom,..............6, French metre,.....,.........3,198 French toise,...............6,396 Venice ell, ................2,089 Vienna ell,................2,557 ANCIENT MEASURES. Arabian foot,...............1,095 Babylonian foot,.............1,144 Egyptian foot,...............1,421 Greek foot,................1,007 Hebrew foot,...............1,212 Eng. Feet. Hebrew sacred cubit,............2,002 Hebrew great cubit,...........12,012 Roman foot,......!......,965 to ,970 Egyptian stadium............,730,8 Roman mile of Pliny,..........4840,5 Roman mile of Strabo,.........4905, Pythian or Delphic stadium, ...... 576,877 The mean, or nautical, or Persian sta- dium, ................. 532,147 Great Alexandrian, or Egyptian stadium,710,659 JEWISH ITINERARY MEASURE. Eng. Miles. Paces. Feet. Cubit...........0 0 1,824 Stadium,.........0 145 4,6 Sabbath day's journey, . 0 729 3,0 Eastern mile,......1 403 1,0 Parasang,........4 153 3,0 A day's journey, ... .33 172 4,0 The following comparative view of the weights and measures of England and France, was published by the royal and central society of agriculture in Paris, in their annuary for 1829: MEASURES OF LENGTH. English. French. 1 inch (1 -36th of a yard) 2,539954 centimetres 1 foot (l-3dofayard) 3,0479449 decimetres 1 yard imperial 0,91438348 metre 1 fathom (2 yards) 1,82876696 metre 1 pole, or perch (5 1-2 yd.) 5,02911 metres 1 furlong (220 yards) 201,16437 metres 1 mile (1760 yards) 1609,3149 metres French. English. 1 milimetre 0,03937 inch 1 centimetre 0,393708 inch 1 decimetre 3,937079 inches C 39,37079 inches 1 Metre •? 3,2808992 feet C 1,093633 yard 1 myriametre 6,2138 miles SQUARE MEASURE. English. French. 1 yard square $ O'836097 metre J ^ I square 1 rod (square perch) 5 25,291939 metres x n v ' ( square 1 rood (1210 yards sq.) 10,116775 ares 1 acre (4840 yards sq.) 0,404671 hectares French. English. 1 metre square 1,196033 yard square 1 are 0,098845 rood 1 hectare 2,473614 acres SOLID MEASURE. English. French. 1 pint (1-8th of a gallon) 0,567932 litre 1 quart (l-4th of a gallon) 1,135364 litre 1 gallon imperial 4,84345794 litres 1 peck (2 gallons) 9,0869159 litres 1 bushel (H gallons) 36,347664 litres 1 sack (3 bushels) 1,09043 hectolitre 1 quarter (8 bushels) 2,907813 hectolitres 1 chaldron (12 sacks) 13,08516 hectolitres French. English. , ... , < 1,760773 pint 1 hlre ) 0,2200967 gallon 1 decalitre 2,2009667 gallons 1 hectolitre 22,009667 gallons MEASURES—MECHAIN. 367 pounds) 1 ton (20 cwt.) French. 1 gramme 1 kilogramme WEIGHTS. English Troy. Frendi. 1 grain (l-21th of a pen- ) n /«...,., __ nyweigfat) { °'06477 gramme 1 pennyweight (l-20th > . CK.e/. of an ounce) \ 1,55456 gramme 1 ounce (l-12th of a/qlnnlo pound troy) £ 31,0913 grammes , . , • , C 0,3730956 kilo- 1 pound troy, imperial j ^^ English Avoirdupois. French. 1 drachm (l-16thofan? , „,, mm__ . x > 1,7712 gramme ounce) v ' b I ounce (1-lGth of a ) aa ooni __„___. pound) £28/3384 grammes 1 pound avoirdupois im- } 0,4534148 kilo- perial ) gramme 1 iJZS? ^^ {112j 50,78246 kilogrammes 1015,649 kilogrammes English. C 15,438 grains troy < 0,643 pennyweight (. 0,03216 ounce troy C 2,68027 pounds troy < 2,20548 pounds av- (_ oirdupois. (For more particular information on the subject of weights, see the article Weights.) Mecenas. (See Macenas.) Mecca, or Mekka ; a city of Arabia, capital of Hedsjas, about 50 miles from Jidda, its port, on the Red sea, 180 south of Medina; lat. 21° 18' N.; lon. 40° IS' E.; population, formerly, 100,000 : ac- cording to Burckhard, who visited it in the character of a devout Mussulman, now about 30,000, with accommodations for as many pilgrims. It was known to the Greeks by the name of Macoraba, and is called, by the Mussulmans, Omm-Alcora, or Mother of Cities, because it was the birth-place of Mohammed. It is situated in a dry, barren and rocky country, in a narrow valley, enclosed by mountains. The water is brackish, and the pastures distant, and every thing unfavorable for the support of a large population. It is two miles long, and one broad; the streets regular and handsome, being sanded, level and convenient; the houses of stone, of three or four stories, built in the Persian or Indian, rather than tbe Turkish style, having neat fronts, ornamented externally with paintings and mouldings. Many quarters are now abandoned to ruins, and of the houses that remain, two thirds are unoccupied. Mecca is a city of the great- est celebrity among the Mohammedans, and contains the three holiest things in the Mohammedan world,—the well Zemzem, the Caaba (or house of God), and the Black Stone. Zemzem is believed, by the followers of Mohammed, to be the identical spring which gushed forth in the wilderness for the relief of Hagar and Ishmael; and marvellous efficacy is as- cribed to its waters, in giving health to the sick, imparting strength of memory, and purifying from the effects of sin. The Caaba, or Kaaba, is of great antiquity. (See Kaaba.) The Black Stone, the princi- pal wonder ofthe place, is said to have been brought by the angel Gabriel, and to have been originally of a dazzling whiteness. The grand ceremony through which the pilgrims pass is that of going seven times round the Kaaba, kissing each time the sacred stone. It is generally supposed to be a meteoric stone. Forty eunuchs are at present maintained there, by the reve- nues of the temple and the gifts of the pious. Mecca is entirely supported by pilgrims from every part of the Moham- medan world ; but the number is now much less than formerly, owing partly to the decay of religious zeal, and the de- cline of power and wealth ofthe Moham- medan states; and partly, also, to Mecca's being subject to the incursions ofthe Wa- habees. The commerce, now greatly di- minished, consists chiefly in the produc- tions and manufactures of India. Notwith- standing the sacred character of the city, it bas now little reputation for learning, and Burckhard found no book shops in the place. No Christian is allowed to en- ter Mecca, and its territory is regarded as sacred to a certain distance round, which is indicated by marks set up. Tbe male Meckaways are all tattooed at the age of forty days, to prove their origin in the holy city. Mecca was taken by the Waba- bees, in 1804, but soon after recovered by the sherif Galib. It was again captured in 1807, and again delivered by Moham- med Ali, pacha of Egypt, in 1818. (Forthe ceremony which takes place on tbe arri- val ofthe pilgrims, sec Arafat.) Mechain, Pierre Francois Andre, an astronomer, bom Aug. 16, 1744, at Laon, went to Paris in 1772, and was there fa- vorably received by Lalande. His discov- ery and calculation of two comets, in 1781, rendered him generally known; and he was among the first to delineate tbe probable orbit of the newly discovered planet Uranus. In 1782, the academical prize for the best essay on the return of the comet of 1661 was awarded to him; and, when it appeared again, eight years afterwards, his calculations were proved to be correct. In the course of eighteen years, Mechain discovered fourteen com- ets, the orbits of which he calculated. No important celestial phenomenon escaped * 368 MECHAIN—MECHANICS. his notice, and his observations were re- corded in the Connaissance des Temps, which was edited by him from 1788 to 1794. When the constituent assembly or- dered the preparation of a new system of measures, based on the meridian of the earth, Mechain was one of the astrono- mers appointed to measure the arc of the meridian between Dunkirk and Barcelona. He received, for his part of this difficult operation, the portion of country lying between Barcelona and Rhodez, where no measurements had previously been made. Political causes also contributed to embar- rass his progress; and the Spanish gov- ernment not only interrupted his triangu- lation, but detained him for some time prisoner. He was enabled to resume his labors in 1803, with the intention of ex- tending them to the Balearic isles. He died at Valencia, in 1804, of the yellow fever, a victim of his exertions in the cause of science. Besides his treatises in the Connaissance des Temps, and his me- moirs on the different comets, we find, also, the results of his observations in the Base du Systime mitrique decimal, by De- lambre (Paris, 1806—10, 3 vols.). Mechanics (from i*vxavi> a machine or contrivance) is the science which treats of forces and of motion. (See Force.) It had, probably, its origin in the construc- tion of machines, and an important branch of it, practical mechanics, investigates their construction and effects. Forces, acting upon bodies, may either produce rest or motion. In the former case, they are treated of under statics, in the latter, under dynamics (q. v.). Hydrostatics (q. v.) and hydraulics (q. v.) respectively treat «f'fluids, at rest, or in motion.—When a body is acted on by two or more forces, which counteract each other, so that no motion is produced, the body and tbe forces are said to be in a state of equUibri- um. The conditions of equilibrium form the subject of statics. 1. A body acted up- on by two equal and'opposite forces will remain at rest. In this case, either ofthe two opposite forces may be made up of several parallel forces. It is then said to be the resultant of those forces. 2. If two forces act, with reference to each other, obliquely upon a body, they may be coun- teracted by a third (called also their result- ant). If the two forces be represented, hi direction and intensity, by two contiguous sides of a parallelogram, their resultant will be represented, in direction and intensity, by its diagonal. This is called the paral- lelogram of forces. 3. If several forces, act- ing at once upon a polygon, can be repre- sented, in direction and intensity, by sov- eral sides of a polygon, they may be coun- teracted by a single force, acting in a di- rection and with an intensity represented by the side which would be necessary to complete the polygon.—All the changes which come under our observation, are the consequence of motions produced by the action of a few great elementary forces. The consideration ofthe motions which take place among the ](articles only of one or of several bodies, comes within the department of chemistry. Those motions which affect masses are the ap- propriate subject of the second part of me- chanics. All motions are found to take place in conformity to a few universal principles. Deduced from observation, and confirmed by experiment, these principles have often been placed at the beginning of treatises on mechanics, under the name of the laws of motion. If not expressed in this manner, the trutbs they declare, making an essential part of the principles of the science, are necessarily introduced under some otber form. Their compre- hensiveness suits them to our purpose, and they are here quoted in the language of Newton. I. "Every body perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed thereon." This is called the law of inertia, and expresses the entire indifference of matter to motion or rest. The proposi- tion that a body will never begin to move of itself needs no proof. It is the conclu- sion of universal observation. Wherever we observe motion, we conclude that there is a power in action to produce it. The other part of the law, that motion is, in its nature, as permanent as rest, and that it is in a right line, is far from being a self-evident, or even an obvious truth. Limited observation would lead to the conclusion that all matter has a tendency to rest, and such has long been, and still is, a common error. The same limited observation led some of the an- cient astronomers to imagine that all bodies, when forced into a state of motion, naturally moved in curve lines. There is, however, abundant proof of the perma- nence of motion; and if friction and the resistance of the air, the two most univer- sal obstacles to the motion of bodies near the surface of the earth, could be entirely removed, instances of permanent motion would be still more numerous. In pro- portion as they are removed, or as bodies are beyond their influence, we observe a tendency in motions to become more and MECHANICS. 36T, more permanent. A marble, rolled on the grass, soon stops; on a carpet, it moves longer; on a floor, still longer; and on smooth, level ice, where the wind is not unfavorable, it continues very long in mo- tion. Iu a vacuum, where the resistance of air is not felt, two windmills, whose pivots have equal friction, and whicli are set in motion by equal forces, continue to move equally long, whatever be the po- sition of their vanes. In the air, the one whose vanes cut the air, will move much longer than tbe one whose vanes are op- posed to it. A pendulum in a vacuum, having only the stiffness of the riband by which it is suspended to overcome, will v ibrate for a whole day. A spinning top, in the same situation, retarded only by the friction of its point, continues spinning for hours. In all these cases, the con- tinuance of the motion is proportioned to the diminution of friction and resistance. We can hardly avoid the conclusion, that a body once put in motion, would, if left to itself, continue to move with undimin- ished velocity. The heavenly bodies, moving in free space, subject to no op- posing influence, keep on in their path with a velocity which has remained un- abated since first they were launched from the hand of the Creator. They move, not, indeed, in straight lines, but in curves, as they are drawn towards each other, and towartls a centre, by the universal force of gravity. (See GravUy.) This force does not diminish their velocity, but deflects them continually from the right line in which they tend to move. If this central force were suspended, they would all shoot forward into space, and the harmo- ny of their motions would cease. Some force similar to this central tendency is always in action, whenever we see bodies move in curve lines. The stone, to which a boy gives accumulated force by whirl- ing it round in a sling, is, for a time, kept in its circle by the central force represented by the string; when let loose, it darts for- ward in the air, turning not to the right or left, until the atmospherical resistance de- stroys its motion, or the force of gravity bends it to the ground. A full tumbler of water, placetl in a sling, and made to vibrate with gradually increasing oscilla- tions, may, at last, be made to revolve in a circle about the hand, each drop tending to move out in a straight line from the centre, and therefore remaining safe in the tumbler, whose bottom is always farthest from the centre. In a corn mill, the grain is poured gradually into a hole in the centre ofthe upper mill-stone. The weight ofthe stone pulverizes the corn, while it- circular motion throws it out, as fast as it i.- ground, into a cavity around the stone. When a vessel, partly full of water, is sus- pended by a cord, and made to turn rap- idly round, the water, in its tendency to move out in a straight line, recedes from the centre, and is gradually heaped up against the sides of the vessel, sometimes even leaving a portion of the bottom dry. Water, moving rapidly in the stream of a river, or the tide ofthe sea forced violent- ly through a narrow passage between op- posite rocks, not unfrequently forms a whirlpool on the same principle. Bent out of its course by a projecting ledge, it de- parts, as if reluctantly, from a straight line, and heaps itself up towards the circum- ference of the circle in which it is com- pelled to move. To this cause, too, it is owing, however little we might expect such a consequence, that a river, passing through an alluvial soil, and once turned from its onward channel, continues to pursue a meandering course to the sea. Driven, by any cause, to one side, it strikes the bank with all its violence, is repelled, and rebounds with the same force to the opposite side, continually wearing the two banks, and leaving a larger space on the inner side of the bends. The force with which a body constrained to move in a circle. teTi<]« tn go off in a straight line, is called the cen- trifugal force. Advantage is taken of it in many processes of the arts, and in all circular motions of machinery. The clay of the potter is placed on the centre of a swiftly revolving table, and while his hand shapes it, the centrifugal force causes it to assume the desired dimensions. A globe, or sheet of molten glass, is in a similar maimer made to expand itself. The legs of a pair of tongs, suspended by a cord, and made to revolve by its twisting or untwisting, will diverge in proportion to the velocity of the revolu- tion. The steam governor of Watt is constructed and acts on this principle. Weights are attached to two rods, to which circular motion is communicated by the machinery which is to be governed. If the motion be so rapid as to cause these rods to diverge from each other beyond a certain angle, they act upon a valve which partly closes, and diminishes the supply of steam. With a slower motion, the rods col- lapse, and the valve is opened. In conse- quence of the centrifugal force occasioned by the rotation ofthe earth, the weight of bodies at the equator is diminished the 289th part. If the earth revolved oil its axis 370 MECHANICS. in 84 minutes, the loose parts near the equator would be projected from the sur- face. Another consequence or particular of the law of inertia, is, that motion is communicated gradually. A force which communicates a certain quantity of mo- tion in one second, will impart double the quantity in two seconds. A ship does not yield at once to the impulse of the wind, when the sails are set; its motion increases as new portions are successively imparted. A horse does not start at once with a carriage into his utmost speed; his force is at first spent in giving morion to the inert mass. Afterwards, with far less exertion, he keeps up tbe motion, being required to supply that portion only which is destroyed by the obstacles of tbe road. The motion communicated to a body, if not destroyed by some force, is accumulated. Thus a nail is driven in by all the force of the hand, accumulated through the whole time ofthe descent of the hammer. The knowledge of this fact gives the means of increasing the effective force of a moving power in a very great degree. A force of 50 pounds communicated eve- ry second to a loaded wheel, will, if not diminished by friction, or other cause of waste, enable it to overcome a resistance of 500 pounds once in every ten seconds. Such a wheel is called a fly wheel, (q. v.) II. "The alteration of motion is ever pro- portioned to the motive force impressed, aud is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed." This is only a statement, that a double force gen- erates a double motion ; that motion cannot increase or diminish itself, nor turn to the right or left, without cause. Inconsequence of this, two or more forces acting at ouce on a body in different directions, cause it to take a direction different from that of either force, and, if one of them is a variable or constantly acting force, to move in a curve line. This is called the composition of forces; the single motion impressed up- on the body being considered as com- posed of the several motions which the forces acting separately would have pro- duced. A boat rowed, at the rate of three miles an hour, directly from the bank of a river which runs at the rate of two miles an hour, is acted on at once by the force of the rowers and that of the cur- rent, and will be found, at the end of an hour, three miles from the bank, and two miles beiow the point from which it started, having moved in a diagonal line between the directions of the two forces. (See Forces.) The resolution of forces is the reverse of this. A single force is con- sidered as resolved into two or more oth- ers. A ship, sailing on a side wind, is sent forward by a part only of its force. The other part "has no effect, or that only of driving her out of her course. III. "To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction ; or the mutual actions of two boilies on each other are equal and in opposite directions." If you press a stone with your finger, the finger is equally pressed by the stone. A horse drawing upon a load, is drawn backward by its whole weight, and if he succeed in mov- ing it, it can only be with a velocity pro- portioned to the excess of his strength over the reaction of the load. A magnet and piece of iron attract each other equal- ly; and if, when in the sphere of mutual attraction, one is fixed and the other free, which ever is free will be drawn to the other. Two equal boats, drawn towards each other by a rope, act in the same man- ner ; if both are free, they meet in the middle. When a gun is discharged, it re- coils with a force equal to that with which the ball is propelled, but with a velocity as much less as its weight is greater. If, iu the side of a vessel of water, hanging perpen- dicularly by a cord, a bole be opened, the vessel will be pushed back from the per- pendicular by the reaction of the jet of water, and will remain so while it flows. A consequence of this law is, that the earth is attracted by each body on its sur- face as much as it attracts, and that when a stone falls towards the earth, the earth rises to meet it.—The force with which a body acts is estimated by its velocity and mass conjointly, and is called its momen- tum. Thus, if two balls, of one and two pounds weight, respectively, be moving with the same velocity, the larger has twice the momentum of the smaller, since each pound of the larger litis the same velocity as the ball of a single pound. A body of small weight may therefore be made to produce the same mechanical effect as a large one, by sufficiently increasing its velocity. The cannon ball of modetn times is not less effectual in battering down walls than the massy battering ram of the ancients.—The forces which may be employed to give motion to machines are called mechanical agents^ orfirst movers. They are water, wind, steam, gunpowder, and the strength of man and other animals. They may be indirectly referred to three in- dependent sources—gravity, heat, and ani- mal strength. (See these several articles.) Gravity. A body falling from a state of rest, descends 16 feet, nearly (16.095), in one second; but, as all the motion MECHANICS. 371 Which is communicated by gravitation remains in it, and it receives an accession of motion every indefinitely small portion ofthe first second, it is moving more rap- idly at the end of the second than at any previous time, and, with that motion alone, if it continued uniform, would descend through twice 16, or 32 feet, in the next second; but, during this next second, as much motion is communicated as during the first, and consequently the body de- scends through three times 16, or 48 feet, in this next second. The whole of this accumulated motion would, alone, carry it through four times 16, or 64 feet, in the third second, and the continued action of gravitation carries it once 16; so that it actually descends five times 16, or 80 feet, during the third second. In the fourth second, it vvould, in the same manner, de- scend seven times 16 feet; in the fifth, nine times 16, &c, the series of odd num- bers expressing the distances passed through in the successive seconds. By By means of this table, a traveller, stand- ing on the summit of a cliff, might ascer- tain its height above the plain or torrent be- low, with considerable accuracy, by letting fidl a stone, aud observing the time of its full. It vvould only be necessary to make allowance for the resistance of the air, which, for small velocities, is not very great. (See Projectiles.) The same cause which communicates motion to a falling body, would gradually destroy that of a body ascending. A ball projected up- wards with the velocity of 1000 feet per second, would, therefore, rise with a uni- formly retarded motion to the height from which a body must fall to acquire that ve- locity. The phenomena of accelerated and retarded motion are beautifully ex- hibited by At wood's machine for that purpose. In moving down an inclined plane, a solid body is urged by a portion of the force of gravitation, whicli is con- tinually smaller as the plane is nearer to a horizontal position. (See Inclined Plane.) When it is horizontal, the whole weight of the body is sustained by the plane. The velocity acquired by bodies moving down planes of different inclinations, is the same as they would have acquired by falling freely down a distance equal to the perpendicular height ofthe plane.—It is necessary, in the construction of ma- chines, carriages, buildings, bridges, and adding these numbers, we find that, at the end of two seconds, the body will have descended four times 16 feet; at the end of the third, nine times 16; at the end of the fourth, 16 times 16, &c.; the whole distance fallen through at the end of any number of seconds being found by mul- tiplying the square of that number by 16 feet. Such is the simple and remarkable law of the descent of bodies by the uni- formly accelerated velocity produced by gravitation. The velocity acquired in one second is sufficient, of itself, to carry a body through twice 16 feet; that acquired in two seconds would carry it four times 16 feet; that acquired in three seconds, through six times 16 feet, &c.; the velocities possessed at the end of any number of seconds being represented by twice that number multi- plied by 16 feet. The following table ex- hibits, 1. the space fallen through in the successive seconds; 2. the whole space fallen through at the end of a number of seconds; and, 3. the final velocity: ships, and in many other cases, to ascer- tain exactly the centre of gravity of the whole and of each part; since, if the centre of gravity, in any body or system of bodies, be supported, the whole must remain firm, and in a state of rest, in every possible position. (See Gravity, Centre of.) The various problems arising from this necessity have been solved with great accuracy, and on fixed principles. In all regular solids, of uniform density, wheth- er bounded by straight or curve lines, the centre of gravity coincides with the cen- tre of magnitude. If a body of any shape be suspended, freely, from any one point of its surface, the straight line ex- tending from that point to the centre of the earth will pass through the centre of gravity. This line is called the line of direction. The centre of gravity may, therefore, sometimes be found practically, bv suspending a body successively from two of its points, and observing the poin where the lines of direction cross each other. The centre of gravity of a triangle is at one third the distance from the mid- dle of the base to the vertex; that of a cone and of a pyramid, at one fourth the same distance. Stability, in every case, depends upon the position of the centre of gravity in reference to the base. The nearer it is to the base, and the farther the line of direction falls from Time, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 seconds. 1. Successive Spaces, 13 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 times 16 feet. 2. Total Spaces, 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 " " 3. Final Velocity, 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 " " 372 MECHANICS. each part ofthe perimeter of the base, the greater is the stability. The sphere rests equally in every position, because the centre of gravity is at the same distance from every part of the surface. It is un- stable in every position, as it rests on a single point of the plane; and it yields to the smallest force, as the centre of gravity does not rise when the sphere revolves. In order that the pyramid or cone may be overturned, the centre of gravity must rise almost perpendicularly, and move for a great distance before it ceases to tend to fell back to its place. Hence their stabili- ty, and hence the propriety of giving to steeples, monuments, and other buildings of great height, a pyramidical or conical figure. Those carriages are most secure which are hung low, and have the wheels far apart. Whatever raises the centre of gravity or narrows the base, allows the tine of direction more easily to pass with- out it, and diminishes stability. Hence we see the imprudence of rising in car- riages or boats which are in danger of being overset, and hence the danger of of high loads on wagons, where the roads are not perfectly level. The force of gravity is not often employed directly as a mechanical agent, or prime mover. Those most frequently employed to give motion to machinery are water, wind, heat, and the strength of animals. Water acts by its weight and by the veloci- ty which it acquires from falling, in con- sequence of its weight. Wind acts by its volume or mass and its velocity. Both these agents are variable, anil both act in a straight line. Heat, as given out by combustible materials, produces steam, or gas, or gives motion to air by making it fighter, and thus causing it to rise. The steam or gas, when formed, has a tenden- cy to expand itself, presses against the sides of the vessel which contains it, and endeavors to escape with a force propor- tioned to the heat and pressure to which it is exposed. When allowed to escape in only one direction, it necessarily gene- rates motion in a straight line. Steam, as usually employed, generates motion, which is alternately in one direction and the opposite. The strength of animals is commonly made to act upon some centre of resistance, by drawing, pushing, or pressing, and produces variable motions, naturally hi a straight line, but often in a curve. The motions or pressures pro- duced by all these agents are capable of being compared with those produced by weights. They might all be referred to a common standard, the unit of which should be the force required to raise a given weight a certain number of feet in a given time. The mechanical agents are employed to measure time, to move ships and car- riages, to raise weights, to shape wood and work metals, to overcome the resist- ance of air, of water and of cohesion, to draw out and form materials, and to com- bine them into new fabrics. To apply them to accomplish any one of these ef- fects requires the intervention of some mechanical contrivance. Such a me- chanical contrivance, whether consisting of a few or of many parts, is called a ma- chine. A machine has been defined, "a system of bodies, fixed or movable, so connected together that a movement im- pressed on one of them shall be transmit- ted to the others." The object of a ma- chine is often vaguely supposed to be to produce or augment power. It can never have this effect. The resistance of the fixed and the friction of the movable parts will always consume a part of the power of the prime mover. The real object of every machine is to increase or diminish the velocity of the moving force, to change its direction, to accumulate its action and expend it at a single effort, to distribute the force among a great number of small re- sistances, or to divide the force of a re- sistance so that it may be overcome by a series of actions, or by the continued ac- tion of the moving power. A machine may combine the action of several movers, and employ one to regulate the others, so that the final effect shall be perfectly uni- form. The pendulum, the governor and the fly-wheel are employed for this purpose. By the mechanical powers, are signified the simple machines to which all ma- chines, however complex, may be refer- red. They are essentially three in num- ber, but usually considered seven ; 1. The lever, the wheel and axis; 2. the inclined plane, the screw, the wedge; 3. the rope and the pulley. The Lever is a bar, resting on a support, called a fulcrum, or prop, for the purpose of raising, by a power applied to one end, a weight at the other. An iron crow used by workmen to raise heavy stones, affords a good instance of a lever. Tbe stone is the weight; the block on which the crow rests, is the fulcrum ; the strength of the men, the power. To gain any advan- tage by its use, the fulcrum must be nearer to the weight than to the power. If the distance from the power to the fulcrum be five times greater than the distance from the weight to the fulcrum, a force of one MECHANICS. 373 pound in the power will balance a pres- sure of five pounds in the weight. But in this case the end of the long arm of the lever will, as it turns on the prop, pass through a space five times greater than that ofthe short arm. By such a lever a man could raise 1000 pounds with the same exertion as would be required to raise 200 without a lever, but he could raise it only a fifth part so high in the same time. What he would gain there- tore in power, would be lost in time. In theory, a lever is considered inflexible and without weight. There is an equilibrium when the power and weight are inversely as their distances from the fulcrum.— Leverage is the distance of the power from the fulcrum. Tbe mechanical advan- tage or purchase is proportional to this dis- tance, compared with that of the weight from the fulcrum. Levers are of three kinds, according to the relative position of the power, the prop and the weight. In the first, the prop is between the power and the weight. To it belong scissors, snuffers, pincers (in which the pivot or joint is the prop,) the handspike, the brake of a pump, &c. A hammer with its claw, is a bent lever of this kind. In the second, the weight lies between the ful- crum and the power. This includes the oar, where the boat is the weight to be moved; the door, of which the hinge is the fulcrum ; the wheelbarrow, nut-crack- ers, bellows, and the knife attached at one end, used to chip dye-woods. In a lever of the third kind, the resistance is at one end and the fulcrum at the other. To this belong the pitchfork and spade, the one hand being the power, and the other the fulcrum, sheep-shears, with a bow at one end, giving a greater facility of mo- tion. The bones of animals are levers of this kind, and are moved by muscles so attached as to give rapidity of motion at the expense of power. The ox-yoke is of this kind; the neck of each ox being the fulcrum with reference to the exertion of the other. The stronger of two oxen must have the short ami of the lever, that they may be able to pull together. So a load supported on a" pole and borne by two men, must divide the pole unequally, if either is to be favored.—The mechanical advantage may be multiplied to any ex- tent by a combination of levers of the first kind. Such a combination is used to prove the strength of iron cables.—To the lever are referred the various instruments employed for weighing. The most per- fect of these is the common balance. For entire accuracy, the arms should be of vol. viii. 32 precisely the same length, and, as nearly as possible, inflexible, light and strong. The axis on whicli it turns, and the points of suspension at the ends of the arms, should be sharp, and rest upon polished plates of steel. The Whed and Axle consists of a wheel attached to a smaller cylinder, and moving on the same axis. The weight to be raised has a cord winding round the cyl- inder, and the power is attached to the circumference of tbe wheel. It may be regarded as a continual lever, each spoke ofthe wheel representing the long arm, and the radius of the cylinder the short arm. The mechanical advantage depends on the ratio of the diameter of the wheel to that of the cylinder. In the ship's windlass, movable bars or handspikes are substituted for a wheel. The capstan is a vertical wheel and axle, used on board ships to weigh the anchor.—The wheel and axle may turn on different centres, aud have their circumferences con- nected and made to act on each other, by means of a strap or belt, or by a sys- tem of cogs or teeth. This arrange- ment is called a wlieel and pinion. (See Wheel-Work.) The efficacy of the wheel and axle may be increased, either by en- larging the diameter of the wheel, or di- minishing that ofthe cylinder. The Chi- nese capstan furnishes the means, without resorting to either alternative, of increas- ing the mechanical efficacy to any degree. It consists of two cylinders of nearly equal diameters, turning upon the same axis, the weight being supported by the loop of a very long cord, one end of which unwinds from the smaller cylinder, while the other end is coiled upon the larger. The elevation of the weight by each revolution is equal to half the dif- ference of the two circumference?, the mechanical advantage depending upon the smallness of this difference. Inclined Plane.—When a drayman lays a plank from the street to the higher level of the floor of a store-house, that he may be able to roll in a heavy cask, he employs the principle of the inclined plane; and the more gradual the inclination of tbe plank, the more easily will he effect his purpose. That is, the advantage gained by the in- clined plane is greater, the more the length of the plane exceeds its height. A road which is not level, is an inclined plane. When a road mounts over a hill, instead of winding round its foot, a team of horses with a load of a ton weight, must exert strength sufficient to lift the load perpendicularly into the air, to a 374 MECHANICS. height equal to that of the top ofthe hill, instead of that moderate exertion which is necessary to overcome the friction of the axis of the wagon, and the slight ine- qualities of a level road. Hence the ab- surdity of constructing roads in hilly coun- tries, to pass directly over the tops of hills, instead of winding, by small circuits, along their base. A body descending freely on an inclined plane, moves with a velocity as much less than that with which it falls freely, as the height of the plane is less than the length. If the ele- vation were one sixteenth of the length, the body would roll down one foot in the first second, and four in two. It is on this principle that the equality in the vi- brations of a pendulum maybe explained. A long vibration takes no more time than a short one, because the body begins to fall, in this case, down a steep plane, and acquires great velocity. In a short vibra- tion, the beginning of its path is a very gradual descent. A short pendulum vi- brates more rapidly than a long one, be- cause it has a shorter distance to move in a path of the same steepness. A body moving down an inclined plane, moves four times as far in two seconds as in one. A pendulum, to vibrate once in two sec- onds, must be, therefore, four times as long as one which beats seconds. The most remarkable application of the in- clined plane is in the construction of the marine raU-way, on which, by the power of a few horses, a ship of 600 tons is drawn, with all its cargo, out of the water, high enough to allow workmen to pass under its keel. The Screw.—Imagine an inclined plane to pass round an immense building, like the tower of Babel, affording means of ascending to the top, and you have the first idea of the screw. It is an inclined plane, wrapped spirally round a solid cyl- inder. The advantage gained by it de- pends on the slowness of the ascent, that is, on the number of turns or threads, as they are called, in a given distance. It is always used in combination with a lever. It is a machine of great power, commonly employed to produce compression or to raise heavy weights. Hunter's screw is a compound of two screws, with threads of different degrees of fineness, one mov- ing within the other, the end advancing, at each revolution, through a distance equal to the difference ofthe threads. The Wedge is a double inclined plane, used commonly to cleave wood or stone, and sometimes to elevate a large mass, as part of a building, or ship. The effect of a wedge depends, apparently, upon friction, elasticity, and the slowness with whicli motion is communicated to a mass of matter. When a wedge is driven in, the particles immediately in contact with it are, for a moment, displaced, the fric- tion against it prevents it from receding, and when the displaced particles endeavor to resume their relative position, the rift is lengthened. To the wedge may be re- ferred various cutting tools, such as axes, knives, swords, chisels; and nails and spikes to be driven into wood, as well as pins, needles, awls, &c. The saw and the file and rasp are modifications still more remote. The colter of a plough, the blade of a spade, and other instru- ments to penetrate the earth, are in the shape of a wedge. The Rope is considered, iu theory, as destitute of weight, and perfectly smooth and flexible. In this case, as in that of the other mechanical powers, the allow- ances to be made in practice for weight, rigidity, friction, &c, are ascertained by experiment, and combined with the re- sults of theory. If a rope be stretched horizontally between two fixed points, by equal weights attached to the ends, any very small weight applied to the rope between these points will bend the rope, and thus raise the weights. If we sup- pose the rope to have been perfectly hori- zontal, the weight applied acts upon those at the ends with a mechanical advantage which may be considered infinite, as it acts at right angles to the directions ofthe opposite actions of those weights. This is a necessary consequence of the princi- ples of the resolution of forces. The action of one or two forces can have no effect in counteracting a third, unless they act in such a direction that their action can be resolved into two, one of which is opposite to the direction of the third force. While the rope is horizontal, the two weights counterbalance each other, but produce no further effect, until the rope is bent into an angle. A bending of the rope must, therefore, take place, in conse- quence of the action of any force, how- ever small. By bending the rope, it must raise the weights, and support them at a point above their former position, thus producing an equilibrium with them, however great they may be. This ar- rangement is one form of what is called the funicular machine. A necessary con- sequence of the principle on which it depends is, that when a rope or chain, of any material whatever, is stretched hori- zontally, its weight alone will prevent its MECHANICS—MECHELN. 375 being perfectly straight, and no force is sufficient to straighten a rope unless it hangs perpendicularly. Advantage is often taken of this power by seamen in tightening ropes, which have previously been drawn as closely as possible by the direct action of their strength. The Pulley is a small wheel, moving on an axis or pin, which is fixed in a frame called a block. The circumference of the wheel has a groove for a rope to move in. The pulley is said to he fixed or movable, according as its block admits of motion or not. A fixed pulley gives no mechanical advantage, but it enables us to apply force more conveniently, by changing its direc- tion. A man standing on the deck of a ship is able, by means of one fixed at the top of the mast, to raise a weight to that point by drawing downwards. In the same manner, ore is raised from mines, and water from deep wells. The wheel, in the grooved circumference of wLich the rope passes, gives facility to its motion by preventing the necessity of its bending suddenly round a sharp edge, and dimin- ishes the friction by transferring it from the rope to the axis ofthe wheel. One or more grooved wheels, called sheaves, set in a block, and moving freely round an iron axis, constitute a pulley, and the combina- tion of pulley and ropes, a tackle. If the rope, instead of being attached to the weight, passes through a movable pulley attached to the weight, and terminates in a book or ring in the upper block, the tackle becomes an engine by whicli another advantage is gained. As, in this case, the weight is supported by two parts of a rope, each part sustaining one half, the power necessary to support one of tbei-e parts, is equal to only one half the weight supported, and, by drawing upon one end of the rope, with a power a little greater than one half of the weight, the whole weight will be raised. It is on this principle that advantage is gained by the pulley. If the weight were supported by the four parts of a rope, which passed through two fixed and two movable pul- leys, each part sustaining one fourth of the weight, a power equal to one fourth part of the weight, attached to the free end ofthe rope, would balance the whole weight, and something more than one fourth would raise it. This advantage is purchased by the space through which the power must move, and the time occu- pied by the motion. To raise a weight 50 feet," by the combination last mentioned, the power must move over a space of 200 feet. The pulley is employed to elevate large weights to the tops of buildings, or to upper lofts in store-houses. Its nu- merous varieties are chiefly used on board ships. A great many experiments made by Rondelet, have shown that, for most purposes, the best proportions for the wheel of a pulley are, 1. that its diameter should be five times its thickness ; 2. that the diameter of the pin should be one twelfth of that of the wheel; 3. that the wheel should have about one twelfth of its thickness on each side for its play in the block. Additions might be made to the fist of mechanical powers, with as much pro- priety as some of those enumerated are retained. The engine of oblique action, called usually the toggle joint, might be called a mechanical power. It is, however, more properly, a combination of levers, acting ou the principle of the funicular machine. (For the hydraulic press, sec Hydraulics.) Several popular treatises on mechanics have appeared within a few years. The last, and one of the best, is the volume on mechanics in Lardner's En- cyclopaedia, republished in Boston by the Society for the Diffusion of useful Knowl- edge. Arnott's Physics contains a valu- able treatise, suited to the general reader. The treatise on mechanics, in the Library of Useful Knowledge, is short and clear. The Cambridge Mechanics is a very full view of the subject, compiled from the best continental authors. The Principia of Newton, the Micanique Analytique of Lagrange, and the .Micanique Cileste of Laplace, occupy the highest place among works of abstract science. The transla- tion of the latter by Bowditch, has brought the work within the reach of many to whom the original was inaccessible. Mecheln, or Mkckenen, Israel of ; two artists, father and son, the former of whom appears to have been a painter, the latter a goldsmith, and one of the earliest and most distinguished engravers. They lived between 1450 and 1503. The son was born at Mecheln, near Bocholt. From his drawing, we may conjecture that he was a scholar of Van Eyk. Of the circumstances of his hfe, httle else is known than that he lived, during his lat- ter years, at Bocholt, and died there in 1503. His engravings are rare, and much sought after; yet they bear the marks of a rude taste and imperfect drawing, incor- rect perspective, and other traits which characterize the period. They are chiefly valuable for the minute accuracy of their execution, and as monuments of the his tory ofthe art. 376 MECHLIN—MECKLEXBUKG-SCHWERIX. Mechlin, or Mf.ciif.ln (in French, Ma- lines) ; a city lately belonging to the king- dom of the Netherlands, iu tie- Belgic province of Antwerp, five leagues south of the city of Antwerp, and tour and a half north-east of Brussels, on the Dvle and the Louvain canal ; archiepiscopal see; population, 18,000. The streets are broad and well paved, and the buildings handsome: the cathedral, with a tower 348 feet high ; the Beguine house, which serves as an asylum for 800 widows or aged women ; the arsenal, with u cannou foundery; the archbishop's palace, &c, are the principal. The lace, woollen, calico and hat manufactures are extensive, and the tanneries and breweries are con- siderable. Its commerce by the Dyle, which is navigable for large ships, is im- portant in grain, oil, flax and bops. The time of its foundation is not known: it is an old city, and was surrounded by ram- parts in the tenth century. It has been repeatedly inundated by the Dyle, and captured by the Spanish, Dutch, English and French. The latter destroyed its fortifications in 1804. (See Netherlands.) Mechoacan, or Valladolid; one ofthe states ofthe .Mexican republic, formed, in 1824, of the former province or intendan- cy of Mechoacan or Valladolid, bounded bv the states of Guanaxuato and Mexico, aiid the Pacific ocean ; lat. 18° to 20° 307 N.; lon. 104° 20' to 108° 507 W. Its productions are cotton, corn, sugar-cane, indigo, gold, silver, copper, lead, &c. Mechoacan was an Indian kingdom at the time ofthe airival of the Spaniards in Mexico, and was conquered by one ofthe generals of Cortez, in 1524. There are, at present, three tribes of Indians'forming the greatest part of its population within its limits—the Tarascos, the Otomites and Chicbimeks. The population was esti- mated by Humboldt, in 1803, at 376,400. (See Mexico.) Capital, Valladolid. (q. v.) Meckel, John Frederic, doctor and professor at Halle, the third of this name of a family which has rendered much ser- vice to anatomy and medicine, was born at Halle, in 1781. His grandfather, John Frederic, who died in 1774, acquired the reputation of one of the first anatomists, by several treatises in the Transactions of the Academy of Berlin, especially by his dissertation DeQuinto Pare NervorumCere- bri {Gottingen, 1748). His father, Philip Frederic, who died in 1803, was professor of surgery and midwifery at Halle, and united the reputation of a scientific teacher with that of a popular and suc- cessful practitioner. The son, after mak- ing himself known as a scion worthy of his family, by his inaugural dissertation De Conditionibus Cordis abnormibus, un- dertook a course of scientific travels through Germany, Italy and France, lie prosecuted chiefly the study of compara- tive anatomy, for which he has unques- tionably done more than any of his coun- trymen. In his translation of Cuvier's Comparative Anatomy (Leipsic, 1809—10, 4 vols.), he embodied, in notes and ob- servations, a mass of most valuable infor- mation. His Contributions to Compara- tive Anatomy (Leipsic, 1809—13, 2 vols.) soon followed, rich in original and saga- cious views; after whicli he began to compose a System of Comparative Anat- omy, the first part of which (Halle, 1821) has excited great expectations of the rest. His Manual of Pathological Anatomy (Leipsic, 1S12—18, 3 vols.), bis Manual of Human Anatomy (Halle, 181.5—20,4 vols.), the Tabula Anatomico-pathologiea (Leip- sic, 1817—26; 4 vols., fol.), the Descriptio Monstrorum (Leipsic, 1826, with plates, 4to.), all bear witness of the most labori- ous investigation, of rare sagacity, and of a deep insight into the laws of life, which he developes in a masterly manner. An idea, principally formed and practically illustrated by him, with success, is, that tbe human organization is developed, in its formation, by degrees, and these grada- tions correspond to tbe permanent forms ofthe different kinds of animals; and in monstrous births, he sees merely forma- tions whose developement has ceased prematurely. As professor of anatomy and physiology at Halle, Meckel is one of the first omamentsof this university. His anatomical museum is unique among pri- vate collections of its kind in Germany. It was founded by his grandfather, and enlarged by his father, and he is himself continually enriching it with invaluable additions, especially for comparative anat- omy. He has travelled, for scientific purposes, extensively, through Germany, Holland, France and England, He also made, in 1824, a tour through Naples and Sicily; all which have yielded many rich accessions to his science and his collec- tions. Mecklenburg-Schwerin ; a grand- duchy in the north of Germany, lying be- tween the Baltic, the kingdom of Hano- ver and the Prussian territories; a mem- ber of the Germanic confederation. The population is 430,927, principally Luther- ans (3058 Jews); the superficial extent of the grand-duchy, 4833 square miles ; rev- enue of the state, 2,200,000 guilders; MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN-MEDIA. 377 debt, between 8 and 10 millions; capital, Schwerin, with 11,230 inhabitants. The grand-duke has two votes in the plenum, and, with the grand-duke of Mecklenburg- Strelitz, the 14th vote in the diet. The two duchies have also a common supreme court of appeal at Parehim. The popula- tion of Mecklenburg-Schwerin is princi- pally agricultural ; tbe manufactures are inconsiderable; the foreign commerce is carried on chiefly from the ports of Ros- tock and Wismar; corn and cattle are the principal articles. Mecklenbcrg-Strelitz ; a grand- duchy in the north of Germany, divided into two parts by the grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. (q. v.) It has 75,500 inhabitants on a superficial area of 1590 square miles. It has one vote in the German plenum. The capital is Neustre- litz, with 5400 inhabitants. The produc- tions, and the condition and employment of the inhabitants, are the same as in Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Medallions. The term medallion is applied to those productions of the mint which, if gold, exceed the aureus in size ; if silv er, the denarius ; and if copper, the first, or large brass. Antiquaries have long differed as to the purposes for which they were designed; they are generally, however, supposed to have been struck, like the medals of our time, to commemo- rate some remarkable event. Yet circum- stances are not wanting to render it proba- ble that they were intended for circulation as money. Perhaps both objects were united, at least in many instances, a large number of pieces, of a definite value, be- ing coined in memory of a great event, and thus adapted, at the same time, for current use. Medallions are not numer- ous. The Creek, or those struck in the Greek provinces of the Roman empire, are more common than the Roman, but of inferior workmanship. A gold medallion exists of Augustus, and one of Domitian; but few, in any metal, are found prior to the reigns of Adrian and Antonine ; those in brass are the largest, many of them be- ing several inches iu diameter. (See Nu- mismatics.) Medals. (See Numismatics.) Medea ; daughter of Aetes, king of Col- chis. By some, her mother is said to be Idyia, daughter of Oceanus; by others, Hecate. Mythology ascribes to her a pro- found knowledge of tbe secret virtues of vegetables, by means of which she prac- tised witchcraft. She saved the lives of many foreigners by her prayers and the aid which she rendered them, but there- 32* by incurred the suspicions of her father, and was thrown by him into prison, from which she escaped to the temple of the sun. Her connexion with Jason (q.v.), the leader of the Argonauts, is celebrated. For ten years she lived with him in wed- lock, after having supported him in every danger, till the charms of Glauce, or Creu- sa, the daughter of king Creon, kindled a new passion in him, and he discarded the unhappy Medea. According to some, Jason separated from her because of the reproaches heaped on him for having a foreign sorceress for wife. Under the semblance of patient resignation, she brooded on revenge. With this purpose, she sent the bride, as a wedding gift, a garment whicli, when she put it on, en- veloped her in a consuming flame, so that she died a death of the utmost anguish. Another account is, that she sent her rival a poisoned crown of gold by her step-sons. She reduced Creon's palace to ashes by a shower of fire, murdered her two children by Jason, aud then mounted her dragon- chariot, and escaped. Some say tiiat she went to Hercules, others to Athens, to king iEgeus, by whom she had Medos. From Athens, also, she was banished as a sorce- ress. She finally returned to her home, where she reinstated her father, who had been dethroned by his brother Perses, af- ter which she died. According to later ac- counts, she became reconciled with Ja>on, and was deified by the Colchians. Me- dos is said to have taken possession ofthe kingdom of his grandfather, and to have called it, from himself, Media. The story of Medea has often been a subject of poe- try, especially of tragic poetry. The tra- gedies of this name, by iEschylus and Ovid, have perished, as well as the Col- chides of Sophocles. The Medeas of Eu- ripides and Seneca are alone extant. The story has lately been made the subject of a tragedy by Grillparzer. Media ; the largest and most important province of the ancient Persian empire, bounded east by Hyrcania and Parthia, south by Persis and Susiana, west by As- syria and Armenia, and north by the Cas- pian sea; so that it comprised the modern Iran, Aderbidshan, Ghilan, and the west- ern half of Mazanderan. According to Hammer, it belonged to Aria, or Ariana, of the Zend, the land of the Medes, in its widest extent. This Aria is bounded by the ancient Bactria, the centre ofthe great national intercourse of Asia, of the reli- gion of the Magi, and of the ancient Per- sian civilization. (See Zoroaster.) Me- dia, on account of its mountains, was not 378 MEDIA—MEDIATION. easily accessible, was inhabited by war- like people, and, in part, well cultivated. Even before the Persian period, it was an independent kingdom. Its history begins with Dejoces, who, according to Herodo- tus, collected the people in villages and towns, and accustomed them to laws. He is said to have conquered Ecbatana. Nintis, the founder of the Assyrian mon- archy, conquered this country. After the downfall of the Assyrian empire, a gov- ernor of the province of" Media succeeded in rendering it once more independent, and it soon became the most powerful of tbe states which had arisen from the ru- ins of the Assyrian monarchy. Accord- ing to tradition, as given by Herodotus, another Dejoces begins a series of Median kings at Ecbatana, whicli continues unin- terrupted from 700 B. C. to 500 B. C. The last were Phraortes, Cyaxarcs and Astyages. Respecting the then existing connexion of Media with Bactria and In- dia, nothing certain is known. Cyrus (q. v.) subjected the Mcdes to the Persians. This latter people had, till then, been con- sidered by the former as of little impor- tance, on account of their poverty. The conquered soon became the teachers of the conquerors, not only in the arts and manners of private life, but also in their public policy. After Cyrus, Media re- mained connected with the other parts of the Persian empire, excepting that the north-western parts, which, before the time of Cyrus, seem to have belonged to Assyr- ia, were separated, for a time, from the Per- sian monarchy. When Alexander had conquered the Pereian empire, he gave to Media a native governor, named Atropa- tes, who maintained himself in the north- ern mountains, even after the death of Alexander, when Media had received a Macedonian governor. His posterity in- herited his power, and, in spite of their dangerous neighbors, the Parthians, Ar- menians and Romans, maintained posses- sion of it, partly by prudence, partly by arms. In the time of the first Roman emperors, Media was still independent; at a later period, it came under the yoke of the Parthians. Media consisted of Southern, or Proper Media, also called Great Media, whose capital was Ecbatana ; of the country of Atropates, (Atropatene), and of the northern parts, along the shores of the Caspian sea, called North Media. Median Wall, hi ancient geography, also called Wall of Semiramis (not built, however, by Semiramis), is reported to have been 300 feet high, about 140 miles long, and 20 feet thick, in Mesopotamia, running north-west from the Tigris, about 30 miles distant from the present Bagdad ; erected against the invasions of the Me- dians. It was built of brick and asphaltum. Mediation, Mediator. In interna- tional politics, a power which endeavors to prevent, by peaceable interference, an approaching war, or close one which has broken out, is called a mediator. Me- diation is essentially different from ar- bitration, which takes place if two powere submit points in dispute between them to the decision of a third power, which is to confine itself strictly to the points at issue, —a proviso which often affords a dissatis- fied party a pretext for rejecting the decis- ion.* Mediation generally takes place in consequence of a request. In 1818, Spain asked the mediation of the powers assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle in her quar- rel with her American colonies, which, however, was refused, on the ground that the aid desired would amount to assis- tance in making a re-conquest. The Poles, in 1831, sought for the mediation of England between themselves and Russia. France has been, very often, the mediator between Russia and Turkey, or Austria and Turkey, from interested motives, to prevent Russia or Austria from becoming too powerful. Several powers may act jointly as mediators. Mediation, particu- larly of late, has often been performed by congresses, as, for instance, in the case of the treaty of London (July 6, 1827) for the pacification of Greece, or the pending mediation of the congress at London be- tween Holland and Belgium. This kind of mediation, however, was introduced by a most arbitrary declaration at Aix-la- Chapelle, that the five great powers of Europe, Austria, France, Great Britain, Russia and Prussia, would be the media- tors in all disputes between minor powers. Their ministers in Paris, Frankfort and Vienna were provided with the necessary authorities. This led to the adoption of the principle of armed intervention at Lay- bach and Verona. (See Intervention.) Napoleon took the title of mediator of Switzerland. (See SwUzerland.) By a law of the German empire, disputes between the members were left to the decision of a third member—a proceed- ing called Austragalinstanz. (See Ger- man Empire.) The same rule has been established in the Germanic confederacy. Mediator, in theology, is an appellation * A late decision ofthe king ofthe Netherlands, umpire between the U. States and England, in the dispute respecting the boundary line between New Brunswick and Maine, has given rise to murmurs on this ground. MEDIATION—MEDICI. 379 which is given in a peculiar sense to Jesus Christ, the Instructer and Savior of man- kind. Divines, however, have differed in their sentiments in respect to the nature and extent of this office, and the mode'of its accomplishment. Mediatisation. When the German empire, whose unity and power had been long before destroyed, was formally dis- solved (in 1806), it would have been im- possible to suffer such a number of small sovereignties to exist by the side of each other as remained in Suabia, Franconia, Bavaria, and on the Rhine, even after the secularizations of the ecclesiastical gov- ernments in 1803. It was a work of ne- cessity, and of duty to the subjects, to ag- gregate them in larger masses; and, in the previous history of the empire, good pre- cedents were found for changing smaller estates from immediate members of the empire to mediate, that is, to dependencies on the larger governments. The number of the estates of the empire formerly ex- empted in this manner was very consid- erable, especially in the Austrian coun- tries. But what made this proceeding odious in 1806 was, partly, the want of a principle ; for large possessions, like Ftirst- enberg, with 74,000 inhabitants, Leiningen, with 83,000, were mediatised, while much smaller ones retained their sovereign- ty ; partly the manner in which the legal relations of the former sovereigns towartls their new superiors were settled. The proceeding itself, however, was unavoida- ble, as appeared in 1815, when it was not only found impossible to restore the sove- reignty of the mediatised princes, but new ones were added to the number (Salm, II- senberg, von der Leyen). But, by the 14th article ofthe German act of confederation, provision has been made to fix the legal re- lations of the mediatised sovereignties. Medici. It is not uncommon for fami- lies, from the common ranks of society, to attain to great opulence by indusuy and good fortune. But wealth imparts influ- ence, and this, rank and distinction. In democratic states, then, it is not wonderful, that we find families of originally little im- portance, after some generations, appear- ing among the rulers of the state, and even at the head of it. The histories of the Grecian and Italian republics are full of such examples. But, owing to the fluctuating nature of wealth and popular favor, such houses generally decline as rapidly as they rose into consequence. If, therefore, a family from the class of com- moners flourishes for centuries amidst the continual vicissitudes of conflicting par- tics, if its influence during this time grad- ually becomes supreme, and it maintains this power for centuries, we can confi- dently conclude, that the heads of the family must have been distinguished for wisdom and good fortune. Such is the case with the family of the Medici. The Medici, when they first appeared in Florentine history, in the beginning ofthe fourteenth century, were already rich and important, having recently acquired afflu- ence by commerce. Corso Donato, the head of the party of the Neri, had expelled the Bianchi from Florence, but found himself neglected by his former friends, the chiefs ofthe nobility ; he therefore at- tached himself, for the purpose of forming a new party, to some wealthy families be- longing to the commoners. Among these. the Medici are the first named, although, according to some, they were in favor of the recall of the banished Bianchi. Howev- er that may be, they conducted with so much sagacity, that they soon became one of those families from which the popular oligarchy of Florence was composed. They principally contributed to the eleva- tion of Walter of Brienne, duke of Ath- ens, to the head of the state, who, bow- ever, made use of his power to humble the ruling families, and caused Giovanni de' Medici, who had not defended Lucca against the Pisans with sufficient firmness, to be beheaded. The Medici, therefore, with some other families, entered into a conspiracy against him, which was dis- covered to him by Matteo di Marozzo ; but, luckily for the Medici, the tyrannical duke, in a fit of caprice, to appear mag- nanimous, did not investigate the case. This proved his ruin ; for when the dis- satisfaction at last broke out into open re- bellion, the Medici were among the lead- ers. Thenceforth we find them always in public affaire. After the banishment of the duke, the old nobility were again ad- mitted to participate in the government, from which they had been excluded fty- fifty yeare; but abusing their new liberty, they were guilty of such violence and ex- cesses, that Alamanno de' Medici, the oldest of the family, called the people to arms, and drove out the nobles. During the next ten years, when Florence was disturbed anew by the Ricci and Albizzi factions, and distracted by the Ammoni- zioni (as the exclusion of certain individ- uals and families from public honors un- der the pretence of Gibelinism, was called), the Medici joined the Ricci, which was the weaker party. A son of Alamanno, named Bartholomew, entered 380 MEDICI. into a conspiracy against the Albizzi about the year 1360, but escaped, on its discove- ry, from the fate of his accomplices, by placing himself in time under the protec- tion of his brother Salvestro, who was a magistrate. Salvestro himself, when gon- falonier of justice, in 1378, procured a law by which the Albizzi were humbled, and the Ammonizioni were moderated. The party of the Albizzi being afterwards wholly annihilated, and the popular party having gained the supremacy, Salvestro attained the great distinction which laid the foundation for the future influence of his house. The moderation of Salvestro and his family preserved them from fall- ing, even when, a few years later, the party which hail elevated him prepared its own ruin by its arrogance. Thus the Medici, undisturbed in then- greatness and affluence, saw the Albizzi, Strozzi, Scab, Alberti, fall around them ; for they did not, like the latter, aspire to the supreme pow- er of the state. Yet they also, at least for a period, became the victims of republican party spirit. In an insurrection of the people against the principal citizens and the revived party of the Albizzi, 1393, the furious populace obliged Veri de' Medici, Salvestro's son, and at that time head ofthe family, to be their leader, aud to compel the signoria to grant their de- mands. Veri might easily have then be- come the master of Florence; but he made use of his influence with the people only as a mediator, and calmed the dis- turbance. But the signoria failing to fulfil their promises to the people, he and his adherents loudly expressed their dissatis- faction. The suspicious government took advantage of some threats, uttered by a friend of the Medici, to banish all those members ofthe family who were lineally descended from Salvestro, with their friends. Some of these exiles, and among them Antonio, in concert with their friends in Florence, attempted, in 1397, to return and seize the government. They forced their way into the city, but found no assistance, and were obliged to take refuge in the church S. Reparata, where a part of them were killed, and a part made prisoners and executed. After the detection of another conspiracy, excited by the duke of Milan, in 1400, among the Florentine exiles in Lombardy, and in which inhabitants of Florence were to have cooperated, the Medici were again banished, with the exception of a few. But these few, who continued to enrich themselves by successful commerce, re- stored the distinction of their house on a firmer basis, Giovanni de' Medici was, in 1402, 1408 and 1417, member of the signoria, in 1414 belonged to the council of the Ten, and, finally, when the ruling aristocracy was convinced of his modera- tion and of his impartiality, became, in September and October, 1421, gonfalonier of justice. The people vainly expected from him the formation of an opposition party, which he was too prudent to at- tempt ; on the other hand, he was hon- estly devoted to the Albizzi. He died in 1429. Of his sons, Cosimo (Cosmo) and Lorenzo, the former begins the splendid series of the celebrated Medici; the latter was the ancestor of the grand-duke of Tuscany. Cosmo had already a seat in the signoria, in 1416. Though he made httle direct opposition to the ruling party, yet the great liberality which his immense wealth allowed him to exercise, collected a numerous party around him, which, en- vious ofthe Albizzi, neglected no means to weaken them. This does not, indeed, appear to have been effected by the insti- gation of Cosmo, and his party was not even called after him, but after a certain Puccio Pucci, who, with Averardo de' Medici, was most zealous to gain him par- tisans ; yet he was considered by the Al- bizzi the chief of the party, and their most dangerous enemy. He was finally seized and imprisoned, without being proved guilty of any crime, except his popular affability, and succeeded only by bribing the gonfalonier Bernardo Guadagni in having the sentence of death, which was preparing for him by Rinaldo Albizzi, converted into banishment to Padua (1433). Yet his friends were so numerous, that a year after, a signoria, which con- sisted wholly of them, recalled Cosmo, and banished Rinaldo and his adherents. By this victory, the party of the Medici acquired the ascendency. Nevertheless, Cosmo scorned to use force against his enemies; but some suspected persons were banished in 1442. The worthy Ne- ri Capponi endeavored to oppose the pol- icy of Cosmo, who was a friend of Fran- cesco Sforza. But Cosmo was contented with protecting himself against his ene- mies by the number of his friends, and was able to check the arrogance of the latter, which he most feared, by inspiring them with a dread of the former. The ruling party in Florence was accustomed to obtain for some of their number, from the people, the grant of full powers (balia) to appoint the magistrates for some years., Cosmo himself caused Neri to be appoint- ed one of these commissioners, and thus MEDICI. 381 attached him to his own part}', which haz- arded nothing in receiving the weaker one of Neri. When, after the death of Neri, the term of the balia was expired, he did not make use of his power to effect a pro- longation of it, as heretofore some less sagacious chiefs had done, but waited qui- etly, until the great mass of those, who vainly expected honore from the people, but might have hopes of receiving them from him, effected the renewal of the former oligarchy for eight years, in 1458. Indeed, it was always his policy to let others work for his advantage, while he remained in apparent indifference and in- activity himself. As Puccio Pucci was formerly called the head of his party, so, at present, Cosmo ruled the republic, from 1458, through Luca Pitti, he himself re- maining in the back ground. From thence be observed his friends and his en- emies, and endeavored to keep the former within the bounds of moderation, which are essential to the existence of a constitu- tional aristocracy, and much more to that of an insecure oligarchy. He was less suc- cessful in this, in his later years, particu- larly on account of the imperious charac- ter of Luca Pitti. He therefore laid it down as a rule, never to distinguish him- self in his mode of living by expense or by a splendor that vvould excite envy. His superfluous wealth he expended upon public buildings, with which he adorned Florence, and in a splendid munificence, not only towards his adherents, but es- pecially towards artists and learned men; among whom Argyropylus, MarciliusFici- niis, &c, enjoyed a liberal share of his fa- vors ; for he himself was a cultivated and accomplished friend to science, without be- ing a less active merchant, or a less saga- cious statesman. It would have been easy for him, who in Europe was consid- ered as tbe prince of Florence, to ally himself with princes ; but he married his sons and bis grand-daughters to tbe daugh- ters and sons of Florentine citizens. With equal wisdom he managed the foreign af- fairs of the republic, iu its difficult rela- tions with Naples, Milan and Venice, in which his commercial connexions with all countries and bis vast credit firmly sup- ported him. (The learned Pignotti is more rigid and impartial than Roscoe in his judgment upon Cosmo.) After Cos- mo had done every thing which he could to establish his house in the popular favor, he died iu 1464, with anxious thoughts respecting the future; for "his kinsman, the 'sagacious Bernardo de' Medici, who had gained so much honor in the war against Milan and Naples, and his son Giovanni, had both died before him ; his other son, Piero, on account of his ill health, seemed little capable of being at the bead of the state ; the sons of Piero, Giuliano and Lorenzo, were still minors. Piero, in the coninienccmentofbiscour.se, lost much of the favor which the Floren- tines would readily have transferred to him from bis adored father, in consequence of following the evil suggestion of a false friend, Diotisalvi Neroni, who advised him, in order to restore his finances, which had suffered from the munificence of his father, to exact the payment of many sums of money, which his father had lent to citizens. The growing dislike of the peo- ple towards him on account of this meas- ure, and also the betrothment of his son Lorenzo with Clarice (of tbe noble house of Orsini), were eagerly taken advantage of by Neroni aud the ambitious Luca Pitti, in conjunction with the true patriot Nicolo Soderini, and Agnolo Acciajuoli, the per- sonal enemy of the Medici, to effect his downfall. They prepared a list of names personally subscribed by the enemies of the Medici. Piero, to whom this was made known, procured a similar list of the names of his friends and parti- sans, which many subscribed under the influence of fear, who had already enrolled themselves among his adversaries. After unsuccessful attempts, by moderate meas- ures, to change the government, the male- contents resolved to put Piero to death in his own house at Carreggi, and to take possession of the government with the assistance of the marquis of Ferrara. But the design was revealed to Piero, whereupon, in August, 1466, with a nu- merous body of armed men, he went to Florence. Guarded by these, he kept quietly in his own house. His enemies also armed themselves, but were discour- aged by the detection of Luca Pitti. Pie- ro having professed his moderation to a deputation of eminent citizens, and de- clared that he did not desire the renewal ofthe expired balia, the people would un- dertake nothing against him ; his enemies therefore dispersed, and their leadere fled from Florence. The balia was then re- newed to the party of the Medici, and they became from this time supreme. But the other members ofthe balia abused this power in the most arbitrary manner, and Piero, being almost constantly confin- ed to his bed, was unable to prevent them ; he was, therefore, on the point of recalhng his banished enemies, in order, by their means, to check the violence of his friends, 382 MEDICI. when death prevented him (1469). The secret enemies of the Medici, on account ofthe youth and inexperience of his sons, Lorenzo and Giuliano, thought the time favorable for a new attempt to overthrow that powerful house. In conjunction with pope Sextus IV and the archbishop of Pisa, Francesco Salviati, the Pazzi, the family next in consequence to the Medici, formed the plan of an assault on Lo- renzo and Giuliano, which, after many disappointments, was carried into execu- tion April 26, 1478, in the church S. Re- parata. They failed, indeed, in their at- tempt on Lorenzo; but Giuliano was mur- dered. The people immediately armed themselves in the cause ofthe beloved Med- ici, his assassins were put to death, and the house of Pazzi was overthrown. Loren- zo, now the only head of his house, and more than ever confirmed in the govern- ment ofthe republic, ruled it in a manner worthy of his grandfather, whom he sur- passed in wisdom and moderation, as in magnanimity and munificence ; but par- ticularly in his active zeal for the arts and sciences. By alliances with Venice and Milan, he protected Florence against the machinations of the pope and the king of Naples. I le then made a journey to Na- ples, and induced the king, the bitterest enemy of himself and his country, to be- come bis warmest friend, and an ally against the attacks ofthe implacable pope and the faithless Venetians. By his hon- orable and wise policy, he placed the bal- ance of power in Italy on a footing, which, until his death, ensured to her full securi- ty and ample scope to extend and confirm her prosperity. Great losses induced him to give up commerce, which the Medici had always carried on, though, indeed, by agents who were frequently treacherous or inefficient. These losses had reduced him to such a want of money, that he was often compelled to borrow large sums from the public treasury; yet, when he withdrew his property from trade, he was sufficiently wealthy to purchase princely domains, and not only to adorn them with palaces of regal splendor, but also to or- nament Florence with elegant edifices. In the long peace, which his wisdom pro- cured for the republic, he entertained the Florentines with elegant and splendid fes- tivals, himself with the society of the most distinguished literati of his age, whom (as, for instance, Demetrius Chalcondylas, Ag- nolo da Montepulciano, Christopher Lan- ding and, above all, the great John Pico of Mirandola) his fame and his invitation had attracted to Florence, and his princely munificence rewarded. He increased the Medicean library, so rich in manuscripts, founded by Cosmo in 1471. He also opened a school of the arts of design, in a palace adorned with ancient statues and excellent paintings. All, who in this age had gained a reputation in Florence for great talents, shared his patronage. Loren- zo was therefore surnamed the Magnifi- cent. Honored by all the princes ot Eu- rope, beloved by his fellow-citizens, In- died in 1492, and with him the glory of his country.—See Fabroni's Vita Laur. Medicis (Pisa, 1784,2 vols., 4to.), and Wil- liam Roscoe's Life of Lorenzo de' Medici. The Operc di Lorenzo de' Medici, del- ta U Magnifico, were published at Flor- ence in 1826, in a splendid edition, at the expense of tbe grand-duke, Leopold II, and contain the first complete collec- tion of his poems (4 vols., quarto). Lo- renzo left three sons, Piero, married to Alfonsina Oreini; Giovanni, at the age of 14 cardinal, and afterwards pope Leo X ; and Giuliano, duke of Nemours. Piero, the new head ofthe state, was wholly unqual- ified for the place. In two years, he had alienated the duke of Milan and the king of France from the republic, and, by his imprudence and weakness, but particu- larly by the disgraceful peace of Serezna, had made himself despised and hated by the Florentines, who would willingly have honored his great father in him. He was, in consequence, divested of the gov- ernment, and banished, with his whole family. After several attempts, by fraud or force, to return, Piero lost his life (1504) in the battle of the Garigliano, being drowned in this river, where he was with the French army. In 1513, bis brother, the cardinal Giovanni, by an insurrection raised by the popular preacher Hierony- mus Savonarola, obtained a reestablish- ment in his native city, and when he be- came pope, in 1514; he elevated his fami- ly again to its pristine splendor. Piero's son, Lorenzo, created by the pope duke of Urbino, was the head of the state, though always without the princely title, and with the preservation of the republi- can forms. He died in 1519. Julius, a natural son of the Giuliano who was murdered in 1478, ascended the papal throne, in 1523, under the title of Clement VII, and, in 1533, Catharine, Lorenzo's daughter, became the wife of Henry II, king of France; after which events, the speedy dissolution of the semblance of lib- erty at Florence was readily foreseen. The Florentines, indeed, seemed on the point of recovering their ancient freedom, when MEDICI. 383 they banished, in 1527, the vicious Ales- sandro ; but tbis was the last ebullition of republican spirit At the persuasion of Clement VII, Charles V besieged Florence in 1531, and after its capture reinstated Alessandro, made him duke of Florence, and gave him his natural daughter, Marga- ret, in marriage. At first, the nation lov- ed him for his affability; but finally, he gave himself up to a licentious course of life. He was the first independent duke of Florence. When Alexander, the last descendant of the great Cosmo, had been murdered by Lorenzo de' Medici (a lineal descendant from Cosmo's brother Loren- zo), in 1537, the Florentines made a weak attempt to reestablish the republic; but Charles V again attacked them, and his power promoted Cosmo I (who belonged to another branch) to tbe dukedom of Florence. Cosmo I possessed, as did his successors, the art, but not the virtues, of the great Medici to whom he owed his power. To confirm his greatness, he made it his chief object to exterminate the Strozzi, the hereditary enemies of his house, in 1554. To protect the commerce ofthe Levant against the Turks, he founded a new religious order, that of St. Stephen. He was a great amateur and collector of antiquities and pictures, and founded the extensive collection of statues of cele- brated men, and constantly increased the collection of statues in the garden of Lorenzo the Magnificent. The foun- dation of the Florentine academy, and of the academy of design, in 1562, is due to him. After he had made himself master of Sienna, with the assistance of Spain, in 1557, and by several other acquisitions had extended the dominions of Florence, be obtained from pope Pius V the title of grand-duke of Tuscany ; but his son and successor, Francis, first procured, from the emperor Maximilian II, whose sister Jo- anna he married, the confirmation of this title, in 1575, for a large sum of money. Francis's second wife, the celebrated Ve- netian, Bianca Capello, was declared, by the senate of her countiy, daughter ofthe republic, in order to make her worthy of this alliance. His daughter Maria became the wife of Henry IV of France. This branch of the Medici had not, like that which became extinct with Alessandro, given up commerce ; even when princes, Cosmo I, Francis, and his brother Ferdi- nand I (at that time cardinal), who suc- ceeded him, likewise an ardent lover of the arts, as also Cosmo II, the son of the last (who succeeded in 1609), continued eniraged in it, and Francis even continued the retail traffic, which Ferdinand gave up. Under these grand-dukes the arts and sciences flourished at Florence, and, in this circumstance, as well as in the art- ful policy of the government (especially in the delicate situation of affairs between France and Spain), was recognised the spirit of the great Medici of the fifteenth century. But the state of things was changed under Ferdinand II, son of Cos- mo II, who, in 1621, came to the govern- ment at the age of eleven years. During his minority, the clergy, and through it the papal see, acquired a very pernicious in- fluence in the administration, and persuad- ed hiin, contraiy to the policy of his father, to throw himself into the arms of Spain and Austria—an alliance made use of by these courts to drain immense sums of money from the treasury of the Medici, which was thought to be inexhaustible. He governed 49 yeare, and his son, Cosmo III, austerely brought up, and destitute of all political capacity, 53 years, from 1670 to 1723—a centuiy in which Tuscany was reduced to the most deplorable state, by an enormous national debt, and by an exhaustion of all the sources of national wealth. Fortunately for this country, John Gasto, son of Cosmo III, was the last of his family, once so glorious, but now degenerated beyond hope of recove- ry. He died in 1737, after an inefficient reign, and, in compliance with the terms of the peace of Vienna (1735), left his duchy to the house of Lorraine. Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine and grand- duke of Tuscany (afterwards the emperor Francis-I), made a contract with the sister of John Gasto, the widowed electress of the Palatinate, the last of the name of Medici, by which he acquired the various allodial possessions of her house, and also the celebrated works of art and antiqui- ties collected by her ancestors. Under the 26 years' reign of his son, the wise and virtuous Leopold, Tuscany recovered from a decline that had lasted for more than a century. (See Tuscany, and Clay- ton's Memoirs of the House of Medici.) Medici, Luigi, don, minister of the king of Naples, descended from the ducal house of Ottojano, was duke of Sarto, high steward of the king of Naples, and, for some time, president of the ministry. He succeeded Acton (q. v.), and rendered service, in 1805, by improving the state of tbe finances. During the reign of Jo- seph Bonaparte and Joachim Murat, he resided in England, and returned with the Bourbons to Naples, where he was minister of the police, when Murat, in- 384 MEDICI—MEDICINE. duced by false reports, purposely spread in order to lead him to his ruin, passed from Corsica to the Neapolitan territory. Medici ordered the coasts to be watched, and Murat was taken and shot. The minister's report on this event is contained in the papers of that time (1815). In 1818, Medici concluded a concordate with the pope. He now improved the system of coinage, &c. In 1819, the king, on his proposal, ordered "that all judges should decide causes according to the literal meaning of the laws, and, wherever this was not clear, should follow reasonable interpretations, and not the commentaries of jurisconsults; after which, the reasons of the sentence should be printed." To clear the prisons, filled with captive rob- bers. Medici sent 2000 criminals to Brazil, according to a treaty concluded with the court of Rio Janeiro. Yet his administra- tion, particularly the reestablislmient of convents, in 1819, met with much censure. The people were dissatisfied with the new tax on landed property (fundaria). Tbe revolution broke out at Nola, July 2,1820. The ministry of the police had previously been given to the prince of Canosa, who, unlike Medici, united with the secret society of the Calderari, in order to sup- press the Carbonari, whilst Medici had sent the most ardent members of these societies to the insane hospitals. Medici gave in his resignation, and retired to Rome, where he remained for some time after the return of the king to Naples. But when the violent measures of the prince of Canosa appeared to be ill adapt- ed to restore order, the king, on tlw advice of Austria, resolved to form a new minis- try (June 1822), the president of which was prince Alvaro Ruffo, and the finances were once more given to Medici: milder measures were now adopted. To cover the deficit in the revenue, a loan had been contracted with the house of Rothschild. When the king, with prince Ruffo, went to the congress of Verona, and afterwards to Vienna, Medici was apjiointed presi- dent ofthe council of ministers. He saw himself obliged to contract a new loan with the house of Rothschild, for two millions and a half pounds sterling, for which, customs and other indirect taxes were pledged. Under the reign of Fran- cis I, Medici retained his high post. He went with his king to Madrid, and is said to have been consulted respecting the regulation of the embarrassed finances of Spain. He died in 1830. Medicine ; the science of diseases, and the art of healing or alleviating them. It is founded on the study of man's physical and moral nature, in health antl in disease. Created by necessity, the offspring of in- stinct, observation, time, and reflection, it began in ages previous to the records of his- tory ; it has struggled at all times, and con- tinues to struggle, with favorite theories; has been influenced by all systems of phi- losophy and religion, by truth and supersti- tion ; and bas, with the slowness which marks all the important advancements of mankind, but lately emerged from some of the prejudices of thousands of years, and will long continue subject to others. Like other sciences, medicine has gained mure from the single discoveries of close observers than from centuries of theory. For the few hundreds of years in which men have begun to apply themselves more to actual observation, and the hu- man body has been carefully studied, medicine, like all the natural sciences to which it is so near akin, has made great progress. The higher kinds of skill and knowledge, in the earlier stages of nations, are in general exclusively appropriated by the priests, and this has been the case with medicine and the other branches of natural science. The knowledge of medicine was a secret of the Egyptian priests, and, in Greece, it was carefully concealed, and transmitted from son to son, by the family of the Asclepiades, an order of priests of yEsculapius (Asclepios). To these belonged the great Hippocrates. (q. v.) He undertook, in the fifth cen- tury B. C, after making himself master of the medical knowledge preserved in the temples at Cos and Cnidos, to become the founder of scientific medicine, by separating the results of actual experience from vain speculation. His doctrine may be called the empiric rationalism; and, nu- merous as are the systems that have flourished since, in ancient and modern times, mankind has always returned to his principle of making observation the only rule in the treatment of diseases. The doctrine of Hippocrates was blended, by his immediate successors, with the Platonic philosophy, whereby was form- ed the (so called) ancient dogmatic system. In Alexandria, which was, from 300 B. C, the seat of learning, medicine was one of the branches studied, but soon degenerated into mere dialectics and book learning. Hence we find it soon followed by the empiric school (286 B. C), the methodic school (100 B. C.), the pneumatic school (68 B. C.), and, at length, by the eclec- tic school (81 A. D.), whicli took from all the othere. A philosophical and great MEDICINE. 385 mind was required to put an end to so copfused a state of medical science, and such a mind appeared in Galen (q. v.) of Pergamos. His system acquired an al- most undisputed preeminence during the middle ages, and down to the sixteentii centuiy. For some time (in the seventh century), the intellectual Arabians culti- vated the sciences, and with them medi- cine. They also founded their medicine on that of Galen, but fashioned the science according to their notions, and left it not unimproved in respect of practical appli- cation and pharmacology. Arabian medi- cine reached its highest point under Avi- cenna (born 980), who, for some time, was esteemed even higher than Galen ; the opinion of the latter's superiority, however, eventually revived. The West- ern medicine begins with the medical school of Salerno, perhaps existing as early as in the ninth century, but well established in 1143 aud 1238, where medi- cine was taught according to the princi- ples of the Greeks. During the rest of the middle ages, there existed a Galen o- Arabian science of medicine, mostly fos- tered by jgnorant monks, and only gradu- ally struggling on, after suffering, per- haps, more than any other science, from every superstition and every misconcep- tion of nature. In the fourteenth centu- ry, anatomy was improved by Mondini; later, the knowledge of medicaments, by the discoveiy of new and distant coun- tries, practical medicine, by the appear- ance of new diseases, and not a little by the frightful syphilis. The love of Greek literature was revived by the scholars driven from Greece by the conquest of Constantinople (in 1453), and men hav- ing begun to read the Greek medical wri- ters, especially Hippocrates, in the origi- nal language, a more scientific and liberal spirit of* investigation took the place of slavish adherence to antiquated preju- dice. Thus the fall of the Galenic sys- tem was prepared, which was completed in the sixteenth century, and forms the essential part ofthe reformation produced by Theophrastus Paracelsus (1526). The chemico-theosopliical system of this en- thusiast was refined anil arranged by J. B. von Hehnont (who died in 1644), until, deprived of its theosopbical character, it passed over into the chemieo-material sys- tem of Francis Sylvius (who died in 1672), and, at length, into the psychiatric system (from larpixv, cure) of Stalil (who died in 1734). Yet, soon after Harvey's (q.v.) great discovery of the circulation of the blood (in 1619), the iarronialhematical vol. viii. 33 doctrine, under Alphonso Borrelli (who died in 1679),developed itself, which finally took the shape of the dynamic system of Er. Hoffmann (died 1742), from which the dynamic schools of modern times pro- ceeded, for the history of which we must refer the reader to the works mentioned below. For the newest systems, as the homoeopathic system of Hahnemann (see Homaopathy, and Hahnemann), or that of M. Broussais, a Frenchman, who strives to trace all diseases to inflamma- tion of the bowels, we must refer to the publications of the authors, and to the medical periodicals.—See Kurt Spren gel's Geschichte der Arzneikunde (third edition, Halle, fifth vol., 1827; translated into French, Paris, 1816); J. F. K. Hecker's Geschichte der HeUkunde (Berlin, 1822, vol. 1); Hamilton's Hirtoiy of Medicine (Lon- don, 1831,2 vols., 8vo., &c.) The various medical sciences, or those closely connect- ed with them, and more or less requisite for a thorough knowledge of medicine, may be thus enumerated:—the whole range of natural sciences, as zoology (in- eluding comparative anatomy and physi- ology, mineralogy, geology, botany, natu- ral philosophy, chemistry, &c.: psychol- ogy, which teaches the various phenom- ena of soul and mind : anatomy, which teaches the form and situation of the or- gans by the examination of dead bodies, and is divided into osteology, treating of the bones ; syndesmology, of the ligaments; myology, of the muscles ; splanchnology, ofthe intestines; angiology, ofthe vessels; neurology, of the nerves ; and adenology, ofthe glands : organic physics, treating of the mechanical operations of the human body, the power, gravity, &c, of its parts: physiology, whicli treats of all the phe- nomena of life in connexion.* Such is the basis of all those branches of science which may be more particularly called medical, and which we will now enume- rate. The science of health, that is, of that in which it consists, its conditions, and its signs, is called hygiene, or, as far as it relates to the regulation of the diet, diatetics. Pathology, on the other hand, is the science of disease, of that iu whicli it consists, its origin, &c. Nosology treats of the various sorts of diseases, their ori- gin and symptoms, and strives to arrange diseases into one whole. Pathological aimtomy teaches the mechanical altera- tions and changes of structure. Semiotics * Some add here, anthropochemie or the chemistry of the human body, the chemical com- position of all its parts—a most important branch, but usually treated under general chemistry. 386 MEDICINE-MEDITERRANEAN SEA. teaches to infer from the various symp- toms, the nature of the disease ; diagnos- tics, to distinguish the symptoms of differ- ent diseases; and prognostics, to infer, from the past and present state of a dis- ease, its future course. Therapeidics is the science of the cure of diseases, often divided into general, treating of the sub- ject of cure in general, its character, &c, and special, of the cures of the particular diseases. Surgery treats of mechanical injuries, and the mode of relieving dis- eases and derangements by mechanical means. Obstetrics treats of the modes of facilitating delivery. Materia medica is the science of medicines, their external appearance, history, and effects on the human organization. Pharmacy teaches how to preserve drugs, &c, and to mix medicines. Clinics (q. v.), or medical practice, applies the results of all these sciences to real cases. We should men- tion, in this connexion, the history and literature of medicine, the history of dis- eases, a very interesting branch, political medicine, which is divided into medical police and forensic medicine, that branch which enables the physician to give to courts and other legal authorities proper explanations in regard to personal injuries, particular appearances of the body, &c, as whether a wound was mortal, how in- flicted, whether a child was dead before born, &c. In many countries, physicians are appointed by the government for this purpose. We must lastly mention mid- wifery, as taught, in many countries, to women, who make a regular study and business of it. A student of medicine ought to be well versed in the two learned languages, and cannot dispense with a re- spectable knowledge of English, French, German and Italian. Among the works which treat of medicine at large are Dic- tionnaire des Sciences Midicales, par une Sociiti de Midecins d Chirurgiens (Paris, Panckoucke, containing 60 vols., 1812 to 1822), and Journal complimentaire du Did. des Sciences Med. (from 1818 to 1824, 17 vols., still continued); Encyklop. Worterbuch der Medicin. Wissenschajlen (edited by the professors of the medical facultyat Berlin— Grafe, Hufeland, Link, Rudolphi, von Sie- bold, Berlin, vol. i, 1827); also Good's Book of Medicine.—Medical Geography is geog- raphy applied to medicine, treating all the subjects of geography which have any in- fluence upon the health, the bodily struc- ture, activity of mind, and the diseases of men. It is a science of great interest.—See Geographical Nosology (in German), Stutt- gart, 1823, by Schnurrer.—Medical Topog- raphy is the description of single places or uacts of country as to the circumstances which make them interesting in a medical point of view—the winds, rivers, springs, mountains, the sea, woods, plains, struc- ture of the houses, way of living of the people,their amusements and customs; in short, eveiy thing which affects the health of tbe inhabitants. Geographical situa- tion, elevation, &c, belong to a complete medical topography. (See Metzler's Guide for the drawing up of Medical Topogra- phies, in German.) Medietas Lingua; a jury or inquest, whereof the one half consists of denizens, the other strangers, in pleas wherein the one party is a stranger. Medina, or Medina el Nebi (the city of the prophet); before the days of Moham- med, Jathreb, anciently Iatrippa; a city of Arabia, in Hedsjas, 70 miles E. of Jambo, its port on the Red sea, 180 N. of Mecca ; lon. 40° 107 E.; lat. 25° 13' N.; popula- tion, about 8000. It is regarded by Mo- hammedans as sacred, from its containing the tomb of Mohammed. Most of the houses are poorly built, and the place is of no importance, except from its con- taining the sepulchre of Mohammed. This sepulchre is held in high veneration by Mohammedans, yet the visiting it is not considered necessary or highly meritori- ous, and Medina is much less visited by pilgrims than Mecca. Neither the tomb nor the mosque in which it is enclosed, is distinguished by any magnificence; but it was remarkable for an immense treasure of pearls, precious stones, &c, accumu- lated for ages by tbe contributions of rich Mohammedans, until it was pillaged by the Wahabees, a few years since. (Sec Mohammed.) Medina Sidonia, Alfonso Perez Guz- man, duke of; admiral of the armada. (q. v.) Philip II received him, after his disaster, with unexpected favor. Medina died in 1615. Mediterranean Sea (Nostrum Mare, Iidcrnum Mare, with the Romans); the large mass of waters between Europe, Asia and Africa, which receives its name from its inland position, communi- cating with the great ocean only by the straits of Gibraltar^ (q. v.) Its northern shore is irregular, forming large gulfs, whicli have received separate names : be- tween the western coast of Italy and the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, it is called the Tuscan, or Tyrrhenian sea (Mare In- ferum); between Italy and Illyria and Dalmatia, the Adriatic, or Gulf of Venice ; farther south, to the west of Greece, the MEDITERRANEAN SEA—MEDULLA. 387 Ionian sea (the two latter formed the Mare Supcrum of the Romans); to the north- east of Greece, between Turkey in Eu- rope and Natolia (Asia Minor), the Archi- pelago, or AZgean sea. Its southern shore is less indented. It receives the waters of the Black sea, by a current which sets constantly through the Dardanelles, and thus mingles the waters of the Danube, the Po, and the Nile, with those of the Dnieper and the Ebro. Its length from cast to west is about 2000 miles; its gen- eral breadth varies from 7—800 to 4—500 miles; between Genoa and Biserta it is about 375 miles; between the southern part of Italy and cape Bon, not quite 200 miles. The principal islands of the Medi- terranean are the Balearic isles, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Elba, the Lipari islands, Malta, the Ionian isles, Candia (Crete) and Cyprus. (See these articles.) The winds are irregular, the tides variable and slight, rarely exceeding two feet of rise and fall, and the sea is generally short and rough. A strong central current sets into the At- lantic through the straits of Gibraltar; on each shore are superficial counter currents setting from the ocean into the sea; but a rapid under current sets out. In a com- mercial point of view, the Mediterranean Ls of the greatest interest; its shores con- tain numerous relfihratpH ports, and its waters are covered with the ships of all the western nations. The different mari- time powers maintain a naval force in the sea, which till lately has been in- fested with pirates. Its coasts were the seats of some of the earliest civilized nations, the Egyptians, Phoniicians, Car- thaginians, Greeks and Romans.—See Steel's Chart of the Mediterranean (Lon- don, 1823). Mediterranean Pass. In the treaties between England and the Barbary states, it used to be agreed, that the subjects of the former should pass the seas unmo- lested by the cruisers of those states; and, for better ascertaining what ships and vessels belonged to British subjects, it was provided, that they should produce a fiass, under the hand and seal of the lord ligh admiral, or the lords commissioners of tbe admiralty. The passes were made out at the admiralty, containing a very few words, written on parchment, with ornaments at the top, through whicli a scolloped indenture was made ; the scol- loped tops were sent to Barbary, and be- ing put in possession of their cruisers, the commandere were instructed to suffer all pereons to pass who had passes that would fit these scolloped tops. Medium (Latin, middle or mean), in science; tbe space or substance through whicli a body moves or acts. Thus air is the medium through which sound is transmitted, light passes, &c. A trans- parent medium is that which allows the free passage of rays of light; a refracting medium is one whicli turns them aside in their course.—Medium, in logic. (See Syl- logism.) Medium, Circulating. (See Circu- lating Medium.) Medlar (mespUus Germanica); a small European tree, allied to and somewhat resembling the quince, and belonging to the natural family rosacea. The flowers are moderately large, white, and solitary at the extremities of the branches; tbe calyx and peduncles are cottony; the fruit, in the cultivated varieties, is large, and, before it is perfectly ripe, has an exces- sively austere and astringent taste. The medlars do not ripen naturally on the tree, but are collected in the autumn, and spread upon straw till they become soft, and approach the state of decomposition. They have now a sweet, vinous flavor, which, however, is not to the taste of most people. Medoc ; formerly a countiy of France, in the western part of Guienne, between the Gnronnft and the sea, in the present department ofthe Gironde. A great part of it is covered with woods and marshes, but, along the Garonne, the soil is fertile, and yields excellent wines. (See b jrde- lais Wines.) Medulla, in anatomy; the fit sub- stance which fills the cavity of a love bone. (See Bones, and Marrow.) Medulla, in vegetable; physiology, the pith of plants, is lodged in the centre or heart ofthe vegetable body. In the parts most endued with life, like the root, or especially young growing stems or branches, the medulla is usually of a pulpy substance, but tolerably firm, though rather brittle. Its color is pale green, or yellowish, with a watery transparency, the substance being very juicy. Its juices partake but little, or not at all, of the peculiar flavor of the plant, they be- ing more of the nature of sap. In branches or stems more advanced in growth, the medulla is found of a drier, more white, and evidently cellular texture. In this state, it is well known in the full grown branches of elder, the stems of rushes, &c. In these, it is dry, highly cellular, snow white, extremely light and compressible, though but slightly elastic. In the greater number of plants, no vessels 388 MEDULLA—MEGATHERIUM. are perceptible in the pith, but in some, entire vessels, conveying proper juice, are present, as in the gum elastic fig-tree, the proper juice of which'is seen exuding from different points of the pith, in a hori- zontal section of the stem. Little is yet known, with certainty, concerning the functions of the pith. It appears, on the whole, to be a mere reiteration of the cellular envelope, and subservient to the vessels which surround, and occasionally pass through it. 3Iedusa. (See Gorgons.) Meerman, John, a Dutch scholar and statesman, born at the Hague, in 1753, was the only son of Gerard Meerman, known as the author of a Thesaurus Ju- ris civUis el canonici, and Origines Typo- graphica, and who had been created bar- on of the German empire. The son re- ceived his early education at the Hague and at Rotterdam, and, while hardly ten yeare old, translated and published, with- out the knowledge of his father, Moliere's Mariage Force. He then studied at Ley- den, at Leipsic under Ernesti, and at Gottingen under Heyne. After travelling through England, Italy and France, he took tbe degree of doctor of laws, at Ley- den. The number of his writings, on different subjects, proves his extensive knowledge, and his zeal for virtue and piety. In 1787, in company with his wife, he visited England, Scotland, and Ireland, Germany, Italy, and Northern Europe, and published full and accurate accounts of his travels, in 11 volumes. His time and labore were also employed in the service of the state, the church, and literary institutions. Under the reign of Louis* Bonaparte, he was director of the fine arts and of public instruction in tbe kingdom of Holland. Some years before his death, the dignity of senator of France was conferred on him, and he was called to Paris. After the restoration, he returned to his country, and died in 1816. Besides his Travels, his History of William, count of Holland, and an edition, with notes, of the Histoire des Voyages fails par VEm- pereur Charles V, by J. Vandenesse, de- serve mention. As director of the arts and sciences, he also rendered important itssistancc in the preparation of the Jaar- bceken van Wetenschappen en Kunsten in het Konigryk Holland over de Jaren 1806—7. His widow, an esteemed poetess, has written his life. His valuable library, the catalogue of which is a literary curiosity, was sold by auction, at the Hague, in 1824, and brought 171,000 Dutch guilders, 32,000 of whicli were paid for the manu- scripts. The prices have been printed. AIeersciiaim. (See MagnesUe.) Megara; one of the Furies. (See Eumenides.) Magalonv. (See Megatherium.) Megalopolis (i.e. large city); a city of Arcadia, one of tbe largest cities of Greece, on the Helisson, containing many temples, a stoa, tS:c. Tbe theatre of Megalopolis was the largest in Greece. The city was built at the suggestion of Epaininondas, after the victory of the Thebans at Leuctra, about '368 B. C, as a city of the Boeotian league, and was peo- pled from 38 cities. It is, at present, the inconsiderable place Sinano. Philopce- men, Polybius, and other distinguished men, were born here. Megalosaurus (Greek, giant lizard); an extinct species of lizard, of an enormous size, which, according to Cuvier (Re- cherches sur les Ossements FossUes, vol. ii. part 2, p. 343), would be as large as a whale, if we assign to it the proportions which its characters indicate. It was discovered in England, by Mr. Buckland, and has also been found in France and Germany. Megara ; a daughter of Creon, king of Thebes, given in marriage to Hercu- les, because he had delivered the The- baus from tbp tyranny of the Orchome- nians. When Hercules went to hell, by order of Eurystheus, violence was offered to Megara, by Lycus, a Theban exile, and she would have yielded to her ravisher, had not Hercules returned that moment and punished him with death. This murder displeased Juno, and she rendered Hercules delirious, so that he killed Megara and the three children he bad by her, in a fit of madness, thinking them to be wild beasts. (See Hercules.) Some say that Megara did not perish by the hand of her husband, but that he afterwards married her to his friend Iolas. Megara. (See Megaris.) Megaris, a small state of ancient Greece, west of Attica, occupied the up- per and wider part of the isthmus of Corinth. The capital city, Megara, was rendered illustrious, not only by the firm- ness with which it maintained its inde- pendence, but also by a school of philoso- phy, founded by one of its citizens, Eu- clid (q. v.), a disciple of Socrates. Pau- sanias (i, 40—44) enumerates its many splendid public buildings.—See Reinga- num's Das alte Megaris (Berlin, 1825). Megatherium, or Giant Sloth; an extinct genus of the sloth family, of which fossil remains have been found only in MEGATHERIUM—MELBOMIUS. 389 America. Two species have been dis- covered, the M. Cuvieri and the M. Jeffer- sonii; the latter was first described by president Jefferson, under the name of megalonyx, or gnat claw (Transactions of the Am. Phil. Soc, iv. 246). The mega- therium unites some of the generic char- acter of the armadilloes with some of those of the sloth; its size must have been equal to that of the rhinoceros. Three specimens of the first species have been discovered in South America, and one in Georgia. The only fragments of the second species hitherto discovered, were found in Green Briar county, Va., in a saltpetre cave. (See Godman's Am. Nat. History, vol. ii, 173—201.) Megrim ; a species of headache ; a pain generally affecting one side of the head, towards the eye, or temple, and arising, sometimes from the state of the stomach, sometimes from rheumatic and gouty af- fections. In Frencli it is called migraine, derived from hemicrania, from the Greek hi" (signifying, in compound words, half) and Koavwv (the skull). It affects chiefly per- sons of weak nerves. Mehemed Ali Pacha. (See Moham- med, Viceroy of Egypt.) Mehul, Stephen Henry, a celebrated musical composer, and member ofthe in- stitute of France, born at Givet, in 1763, received his firet lessons from a blind or- ganist at his native place, and became such a proficient that, at the age of 12, he was appointed joint organist to the abbey of Valledieu. The desire of improving his talents attracted him to Paris in 1779. He there studied under Edelmann, and, af- terwards, under Gluck ; and, after the de- parture of the latter for Vienna, Meliul presented to the royal academy of music the opera of Cora and Alonzo; but his Eu- phrosine and Coradin was first performed at the comic opera, in 1790. This was followed, at different periods, by Strato- nice, Irato, Joseph, and many other ope- ras, besides the ballets of the Judgment of Paris, Dansomanie, and Perseus and Andromeda. Meliul was one of the three inspectors of instruction at the conserva- tory of music, from its creation, in 1795, till its suppression, in 1815. He was then appointed superintendent of music at the king's chapel, and professor of composi- tion at the royal school of music He was chosen a member of the institute in 17!>ti, and of the academy of fine arts in 1816, and was also a knight of the le- gion of honor. He died at Paris, 1817. Mehul read before the institute two re- ports Sur I'Etat Aduel de la Musique en 33* France, and Sur les Travaux des Eleves du Conservatoire a Rome. Meibom, John Henry (in Latin, Meibo- mius), a celebrated physician, was a native of Helmstadt, where he was born in 1590. After travelling in Italy, and taking his doctor's degree at Basil, be returned home, and occupied a medical chair in the uni- versity of Hehnsttidt. In 1626, he was appointed physician of Lubeck, where he died, in 1655. His works are Aurelii Cassiodori Formula Comitis Archiatrorum (1668,4to.); De Usu Flagrorum in Re medi- co et venerea; Jusjurandum Hippocratis, Gr. et Lot., with commentaries relative to the history of Hippocrates, his disciples, &c. After his death appeared his treatise De Cereyisiis, Potibusque tt Ebriaminibm extra Vinum aliis.—His son, Henry Mei- bom, also a physician, was born at Lubeck in 1638, and became professor of medi- cine iu the university of Helmstadt. In 1678, he was made professor of poetry and histoiy. He was the author of nu- merous medical and anatomical disserta- tions, and distinguished himself by his in- vestigation of the sebaceous glands and ducts in the eyelids, tbe valves of the veins, and the papillae of the tongue. His principal historical publication, Rerum Germanicarum Tomi tres, is a collection of writers on German histoiy. He also wrote many pieces concerning the dukes of Brunswick and Lunenberg, and, in 1687, lie published Ad Saxonia inferioris Historiam Introdudio. Henry Meibom died in 1700. Meibomius, Marcus, a learned philolo- gist, born at Tonningen, in the duchy of Holstein, in 1630. Settling at Stockholm, he acquired the favor of queen Christina, whom he inspired with much of the same enthusiasm, with respect to the ancients, which possessed himself. Having pre- vailed upon his royal mistress to be pres- ent at a concert, which he proposed to conduct entirely upon the plan of the an- cient Greeks, and at which professor Nau- diius was to dance a Greek dance, the ridi- cule of some ofthe courtiers at the absurdi- ty ofthe performance, excited his anger so violently, that, forgetful ofthe presence of the sovereign, he struck M. Bourdelot, a physician, who, as be fancied, encouraged it, a violent blow in the face. This indis- cretion induced him to quit Sweden for Denmark, where he obtained a professor- ship in the college established for the edu- cation of the young nobility at Sora, was eventually advanced to the rank of a roy- al counsellor, and made president of the customs. His inattention to the duties of 390 MEIBOMIUS—MELA. his post soon caused his removal, on which he repaired to Amsterdam, and be- came historical professor there, but lost this appointment, also, by his petulance in refusing to give lessons to the son of one of the principal burgomasters. After visiting France and England, Meibomius returned to Amsterdam, and died there, in 1711. His principal work is an edition of the seven Greek musical writers, Aristox- cnus, Euclid, Nicoinaclms, Alypius, Gau- dentius, Bacchius, and Aristides Quintilia- nus, with an appendix, containing the De Musica of Martianus Felix. His other writings are Dialogues on Proportions, On the Construction ofthe Trireme Galleys of the Ancients, and an edition of Diogenes Laertius (2 vols., 4to.). Meinau ; a charming island in the beau- tiful lake of Constance, belonging to Con- stance, with 50 inhabitants and an ancient castle. It is much resorted to by travellers in Switzerland. Meiners, Christopher, born at Otten- dorf, kingdom of Hanover, in 1747, stud- ied at Gottingen from 1767, and afterwards became one of the most valuable teachers there. His works are very numerous, on various subjects, and of unequal merit. As an academical teacher, his activity in organizing and promoting the prosperity of his university was untiring, and it is much to be regretted that bis history of the university was left incomplete. His favorite study was the history of human civilization, and particularly of religion, to which some of his earliest writings, among them his Historia Doctrina de Deo vero, relate. His latest work on this subject, Allgemeine kritische Geschichte der Religion (Hanover, 1806, 2 vols.), is, however, more defective in acuteness of criticism and clearness of arrangement than bis previ- ous writings. Some of his earlier treatises bear the impress of a judicious, calm and independent thinker. From his writings on the middle ages, and particularly from his learned lives of the restorers of learn- ing iu the 15th and 16th centuries, a new Bayle may find materials for attack and defence. A French translation of his His- tory of the Origin, Progress and Decline of Learning in Greece and Rome procur- ed his election into the national institute. He died in 1810. Meiningen, Saxe (in German, Sachsen- Meiningen-HUdburghausen); a duchy in the German confederation, belonging to the ducal house of Saxe-Meiningen, of the Gotha branch of the Ernestine line. (See Saxony.) The popidation of the duchy is 130,500, on an area of 870 square miles, about one half of which was ac- quired in 1826, by the extinction of the male Saxe-Gotha line. The duke, in con- junction with the other princes of the Saxon Ernestine Hue, has the 12th vote in tbe diet, and has by himself one vote in the plenum. The religion is Lutheran. In 1824, a new constitution was granted by the duke to the part of the present duchy then under his government, admit- ting the peasants to the ducal diet as a third estate. The contingent to the army ofthe confederacy is 1150 men ; income, 750,000 guilders; debt, 2,500,000. The capital is Meiningen, with 4500 inhabit- ants, containing a large and handsome du- cal palace, with a library of 24,000 vol- umes and the state archives. (See Germa- ny.) Long. 10° 24' E.; lat. 50° 33 N. Meiomte. (See Scapolite.) Meissen, the oldest city in the kingdom of Saxony, was built by the emperor Hen- ry I, in 922, as a bulwark against the in- cursions of the Sclavonians. It lies on the left bank of the Elbe; population, 4100. In the vicinity is a school, estab- lished by the elector Maurice, in 1543, in the building of the ancient Afra monaste- ry. Lon. 13° 27' E.; lat 51° 19' N. The cathedral, an old monument of German art, is a remarkable building. The por- celain manufacture has been canied on here since 1710. Meissner, Augustus Gottlieb, born at Bautzen, in 1753, studied law and the belles-lettres at Leipsic and Wittenberg from 1773 to '76, and died at Fulda, where he was director of the high semi- naries of education, in 1807. He was al- so, for some time, professor of aesthetics and classical literature at Prague. His works were, at one period, very popular in Germany. A glowing imagination, an easy style, grace, wit, and a brilliant man- ner, united with a delicate tone of gallan- try, were the causes of his success. His principal productions are comic operas, in the Frencli style; Sketches, a miscellane- ous collection of anecdotes, tales, &c.; several historical romances, as Alcibiades, Bianca Capello, &c. He also translated Hume's History of England. Mela, Pomponius; a geographer, who flourished during the firet century of the Christian era. Little more is known of him than that he was a native of Spain, and the author of a treatise, in three books, in the Latin language, De Situ Or- bis, containing a concise view of the state of the world, so far as it was known to the ancient Romans. Among the latest and best editions of this work are that of MELA—MELANCHTHON. 391 Abr. Gronovius, (Lugd. Bat., 1782, 8vo.), and the very complete one of C. H. Tzschuckius (Leipsic, 1807, 7 vols., 8vo.), and the more compendious one by Wei- chert (Leipsic, 1816). Melampus ; the son of Amythaon and Idomenea, and brother to Bias. Fable relates many wonderful things of his skill in the healing and prophetic arts. Two serpents which, when a youth, he had taken under his protection and brought up, having licked his ears while he was sleeping, he found that they were opened in such a manner that he was able to un- derstand the voices of birds and insects, and could reveal to mankind every thing that these voices indicated concerning the future. Bias f.-ll in love with the fair Pe- ro, daughter of Neleus, king of Pylos, the uncle of the two brothers, but he requir- ed, as a nuptial present for his daughter, the herd of oxen belonging to Iphiclus, a Thessalian prince. Melampus undertook to steal the herd for his brother, but was detected and imprisoned. He, however, succeeded, by his prophetic art, in gaining the favor of Iphiclus, who gave him his liberty, and sent the oxen, as a present, to Bias. Melampus married Ipliianassa, the daughter of Proetus, kbig of Argos, and received with her, as a dowry, a third part of the kingdom. The time in whicli he bved is unknown ; he is generally consid- ered, however, as having been a wise man, who was well skilled in all the ancient mythology, and who introduced the wor- ship of several of the gods, together with the Eleusinian mysteries, into Greece, on which account he received divine honors. Melancholy. (See Mental Derange- ment.) Melanchthon, Philip, Luther's fellow- laborer in the reformation, was born Feb. 16, 1407, at Bretten, in the palatinate of the Rhine His father, George Schwartz- erd, was keeper of the armory of the count palatine, and died in 1507, and his mother, Barbara, was a near relative of the learned Reuchlin. He was distinguished, at au early age, by his intellectual endow- ments. His rapid progress in the ancient languages, during his boyhood, made him a peculiar favorite with Reuchlin. At his advice, he changed his name, according to the custom of tbe learned at that time, from Schwartzerd (Blackearth), into the Greek name Melanchthon, of the same signification, and, in 1510, went to the university of Heidelberg. Here he was preeminent in philological and philosoph- ical studies, so that, in the next year, he was deemed qualified for the degree of bachelor of philosophy, and was made instructer of some young counts. But as this university denied him the dignity of master, on account of his youth, he went to Tubingen, in 1512, where, in addition to his former studies, he devoted himself particularly to theology, and, in 1514, af- ter obtaining the degree of master, de- livered lectures on the Greek and Latin authors. His profound knowledge is proved by a Greek grammar, which he published about this time. The ability of bis lectures soon gained him universal esteem, and the great Erasmus himself gave him, in 1518, the praise of uncom- mon research, correct knowledge of clas- sical antiquity, and of an eloquent style. Tubingen had to lament the loss of its chief ornament, when Melanchthon, being invited, on Reuchlin's recommendation, to Wittenberg, appeared, in 1518, at this university, in his 22d year, as professor of the Greek language and literature. His enlightened mind soon decided him in favor ofthe cause of evangelical truth ; and his judgment, ripened by classical study, his acumen as a philosopher and cri^c, the uncommon distinctness and order of his ideas, which spread light and grace over whatever he discussed, the caution with which he advanced from doubt to certainty, and the steadfast zeal with which he held and defended the truth when found,—this combination of great qualities and merits, at all times rare, contributed greatly to the progress and success of the reformation, in connexion with Luther's activity, spirit and enter- prise. Melanchthon's superiority as a scholar, his mild, amiable character, the moderation and candor with whicli he treated the opposite party, made him pe- eitiiarly suitable for a mediator. No one knew better than he how to soften tbe rigor of Luther, and to recommend the new doctrines to those who were pre- possessed against them. His Loci theolo- gici, which appeared first in 1521, opened the path to an exposition of the Christian creed, at the same time scientific and in- telligible, and became the model to all Protestant writers of dogmatics. He urged decidedly, in 1529, the protest against the resolves of the diet of Spire, wiiich gave his party its name. He drew up, in 1530, the celebrated Confession of Augsburg. This and the apology for it, which he composed soon after, carried the reputation of his name through all Europe. Francis I invited him to France, in 1535, with a view to a pacific confer- ence with the doctors of the Snrbonnr-, 392 MELANCHTHON. and he soon after received a similar invi- tation to England. Political reasons pre- vented him from accepting either of the invitations. He went to Worms in 1541, and, soon after, to Ratisbon, to defend the cause of the Protestants, in the confer- ences commenced there with the Catho- lics. But, unfortunately, the wisdom and moderation, which he there manifested, failed, on account of the opposition ofthe papal legate, to produce the peace which he so earnestly desired; and while the reasonable part of the Catholics learned, on this occasion, to respect him more highly, he had to endure, from his own party, bitter reproaches, for the steps for effecting a compromise, upon which he bad ventured after mature deliberation. The same thing happened to him, when, having been invited to Bonn, in 1543, by the elector Hermann of Cologne, he tried to introduce the elector's plans of reforma- tion in a conciliatory spirit towards the Catholics. Meanwhile, neither Luther, nor any other of his friends, who knew his noble heart and upright piety, ever entertained a doubt of the purity of his intentions, or his fidelity to the gospel. Much as Melanchthon had to suffer from Luther's vehemence, the friendship of these two noble spirited men, agreeing in sentiment and belief, remained unbroken till Luther's death, whom Melanchthon lamented with the feelings of a son. A great part of the confidence which Luther had enjoyed, now fell to him. Germany had already called him her teacher, and Wittenberg revered in him its only sup- port, and the restorer of its university, after the Smalcaldic war, during which he fled hither and thither, and spent some time in Weimar. The new elector, Maurice, also treated him with distinction, and did nothing in religious matters without his advice. But some theologians, who would fain have been the sole heirs of Luther's glory, could not forgive him, that love to Wittenberg had induced him to submit to this prince, who had rendered himself suspected by the whole Lutheran church, and that the Protestants neverthe- less persisted in regarding him as one of the pillars of their faith. They attacked his dogmas, and raised suspicious of his orthodoxy. Melanchthon had indeed shown, in his negotiations with the Catho- lics, that many an ancient usage, and even a conditional acknowledgment of the pa- pal authority, did not seem to him so dangerous as to Luther. Moreover, the gradual approach of his views (respecting the presence of Christ in the supper) to the Swiss reformers, was known, and the alteration which he had, in consequence, made in the article of the Augsburg con- fession concerning the supper, was cen- sured by friend and foe. He also ex- plained the doctrine of justification more definitely, and, according to his convic- tions, more scripturally, both in the later editions of his Loci theologici, and in other public writings, and explicitly avowed his deviation from the Augustine system, by the assertion that the free will of mau must and could cooperate in his improvement,—as all will perceive who read his works with attention. His habit of continually advancing in his researches, and correcting his opinions, had, unques- tionably, a greater share in this change than his natural timidity and love of peace; although, from the last cause, he often used milder language than was agreeable to the rigid Lutherans ; but that from fear of man, or a weak spirit of compliance, he ever yielded, in any essen- tial point of evangelical truth, cannot be maintained. The introduction of the Augsburg Interim into Saxony, in which, after long deliberation, Melanchthon acqui- esced in 1549, under conditions which averted the danger of a relapse into ancient abuses, seemed, to the more zealous, the most fitting occasion of assailing him. The vexatious disputes respecting the greater or less importance of indifferent mattere,considered in religious ceremonies, in which he was involved by Flacius; the complaints which Osiander urged against him, in 1557, on account of his doctrine of justification; and, finally, the contro- versies respecting the cooperation of free will in man's improvement, in whicli Flacius engaged him shortly before his death, brought great trouble on his over- labored and sensitive spirit. The investi- gation of his orthodoxy, which was insti- tuted at Naumberg, in 1554, resulted in his entire justification ; but the reconcilia- tion which took place there with his ene- mies, was, nevertheless, merely apparent; and their opposition frustrated the last attempt, which he made in 1557, at a con- vention at Worms, hi the name of his party, to produce a compromise with the Catholics. The unity of the church was, therefore, Melanchthon's last wish, when he died at Wittenberg, April 19, 1560, 63 years of age. A son survived bim, who inherited the virtues but not the genius of his father, and a daughter, married in Wittenberg. His eldest daughter died in 1547; his wife, in 1557. The over- anxious mind of this good and amiable MELANCHTHON—MELCHTHAL. 393 woman had often saddened his domestic peace; but he was no where more amiable than in the bosom of his family. Modesty and humility were exhibited in his bodily appearance. No one, who saw him for the first time, would have recognised the great reformer, in his almost diminutive figure, which always continued meagre, from his abstemiousness and industry. But bis high, arched and open forehead, and bis bright, handsome eyes, announc- ed the energetic, lively mind, whicli this slight covering enclosed, and which light- ed up his countenance when he spoke. In his conversation, pleasantries were in- termingled with the most sagacious re- marks, and no one left him without having been instructed and pleased. He loved to see society at his table, and was so liberal towards the needy, that he some- times involved himself in embarrassments. His ready benevolence, which was the fundamental trait of his character, em- braced all who approached him. Open and unsuspicious, he always spoke from the heart; piety, a dignified simplicity, and innocence of mannere, generosity and candor, were to him so natural, that it was difficult for him to ascribe opposite qualities to any man; often deceived and abused, lie was long in learning the arts and ignoble passions which so often stood in the way of his best intentions. But this unsuspecting, benevolent character, gained him the devoted love of his disciples. From all tbe countries of Europe, students flocked to Wittenberg, in order to assem- ble around him; and tbe spirit of profound and impartial investigation which he in- culcated, iiad a beneficial influence long after his death ; and his exertions to pro- mote education in general are never to be forgotten. If, therefore, stronger energies antl greater deeds must be allowed to other distinguished men of his age, he will always be considered the most amia- ble, pure and learned. .Melanges (French, signifying miscel- lanies) ; particularly used in French litera- ture on the titles of miscellaneous works, as Melanges tires d'une grande Bibliothique (70 vols., Paris, 1779—1788). Melamte. (See Garnet.) Melas (Greek, black); a word which, entire or abbreviated, appeare in many compound words used in English, as mel- ancholy ; chiefly, however, scientific terms, botanical, zoological, mineralogical and medical names. Melas ; an Austrian general, who, in 1793 and 1794, was employed as major-general, and then as lieutenant field-marshal on the Sambre, and in the countiy of Treves. In 1795, he was re- moved to the army of the Rhine, and, in March, 1796, to that of Italy, which he commanded for a short time, and after- wards served under different generals, who succeeded him. In 1799, he was at the head of the Austrian army, which acted in concert with the Russians under Suwarrow. He distinguished, himself at the battle of Cassano; was present at those of Trebia and Novi; beat Championnet at Genola (November 3), and took Coni. In 1800, he lost the battle of Marengo. He died in 1807. Melasses. (See Molasses.) Melcarthus. (See Hercules.) Melchisedek (i. e. king of righteous- ness) is called, in Genesis (xiv, 18), king of Salem, and priest of the Most High God. He is there said to have offered Abram bread and wine, after the victory of the latter over the four kings, to have blessed him, and to have received tithes of the booty. Jesus is called (Heb. vi, 20, vii, 1—22) a high-priest, after the order of Melchisedek. The meaning of this expres- sion, and the dignity, kingdom, &c, of Melchisedek, are not satisfactorily ex- plained by critics. Melchites (Syrian, Royalists) was the name given, in the sixth and seventh cen- turies, to those Oriental Christians who, in compliance with the imperial ordere, sub- mitted to the decrees of the council of Chalcedon. (q. v.) It was, at a later peri- od, given to the Jacobites in Mesopota- mia, and to the Copts in Egypt, who were united with the Roman church. - Melchthal, Arnold of (so called from the place of his residence in the canton of Underwalden); one of the founders of the freedom of Switzerland. The governor of the district, under Albert of Austria, having caused a yoke of oxen to be taken from the plough of Arnold's father, a rich proprietor, the menial ofthe tyrant added the words, "The peasants may drag the plough themselves, if they want bread." Arnold, exasperated by the insult, wounded the servant, and saved himself by flight; but his father experi- enced the vengeance ofthe governor, who deprived him of sight. Arnold now con- spired with two friends, Furst and Stauff- acher, and all three bound themselves by an oath, on a night of November, 1307, at Grutlin (Rtitli), on the banks of the lake of Waldstetter (see Lucerne), to effect the deliverance of their country. They prom- ised each in his own canton to defend the cause of the people, and, with the assist- 394 MELCHTHAL—MELICERTA. ance of the communes, to restore it, at every sacrifice, to the enjoyment of its rights. It was expressly agreed not to injure the count of Hapsburg in his pos- sessions and his rights, not to separate from the German empire, and not to deny their dues to the abbeys, or the nobles. They were to avoid, as far as possible, shedding the blood of the territorial offi- cers, since their only object was to se- cure to themselves and their posterity the freedom inherited from their forefathers. (See SwUzerland.) Melcombe, lord. (See Dodington.) Meleager ; the son of CEneus, king of Calydon; according to some, of Mare and Althaea. After the birth of the child, the Parcse came to Althaea, and determined his fete. Clotho said that he would be mag- nanimous, Lachesis that he would be val- iant, and Atropos that he should not die until the brand which lay upon the hearth was consumed. Althaea immediately snatched the brand from the fire, and preserved it with the utmost care. Mele- ager soon distinguished himself as a hero. He accompanied the Argonautic expedi- tion, gained the prize for throwing the dis- cus at the funeral games established by Acastus, and distinguished himself partic- ularly at the Calydonian hunt. (See Caly- don.) He killed the boar, and gave the 6kin of the animal, as the highest token of regard, to his beloved Atalanta, who had given the beast the first wound. The brothers of his mother, Idrus, Plexippus and Lynceus, conceiving themselves to have been injured, robbed Atalanta ofthe skin, while she was returning home to Arcadia. Meleager, unable to persuade them to restore the skin, slew them all three. Althaea, furious with grief for the death of her brothers, seized the fatal brand, and cast it into the fire; upon which Meleager died in great agony. This story is differently told by other writers. Two excellent statues of Meleager have come down to us from antiquity. Meleager, a Greek poet, in the firet century before the commencement of the Christian era, a native of Gadara in Syria, and a resident at Tyre, died in the isle of Cos, whither he had removed in the latter part of his life. His compositions, con- sisting of short pieces, or epigrams, are among the most beautiful relics preserved in the Grecian Anthology (q. v.), and, in the simple elegance of their style and sen- timent, are finely contrasted with the pro- ductions of more recent bards in the same collection. Some of the verses of Mele- ager have been translated into English by the reverend R. Bland and others, in Se- lections from the Anthology. Meleda, or Melita ; a small island of the Adriatic, on the coast of Dalmatia; lon. 17° 3C E.; lat. 42° 4S7 N. From 1822 to 1825, loud explosions were repeatedly heard on the island, attended with a con- siderable agitation, and supposed to be oc- sioned by the shocks of an earthquake, or by discharges of some kind of gas formed in the interior of the earth. (See Partsch's Account (in German, Vienna, 1826.) Some writers consider it the place of St. Paul's shipwreck. (See Melita.) Meletians ; the followers of Meletius, bishop of Lycopolis, in Egypt, who, in die year 306, during the persecution under Diocletian, had a dispute with Peter, bish- op of Alexandria, on the subject of the readmission of some lapsed Christians, whom he (Meletius) rejected. Meletius was deposed by Peter, but paid no atten- tion to the sentence, and even assumed the right of consecrating presbyters, which, by the laws of Egypt, belonged only to the bishop of Alexandria. His gravity and eloquence drew many to his party. The dissensions thereby caused among the Egyptian clergy lasted, even after the council of Nice had forbidden • Meletius to exercise the episcopal duties, till almost the end of the fourth centuiy. The Meletians joined with the Arians against the party of the orthodox Athana- sius, bishop of Alexandria, but without adopting their heresy. Schismatics of the same name arose at Antioch, when Mele- tius of Melitene, in Armenia, was chosen bishop (360) by the Arians, and was after- wards driven out, on account of his ortho- doxy. Those who considered him as the true bishop, and adhered to him alone, when he returned in the reign of Julian, were called Meletians. At his death, which took place hi the year 381, this name was discontinued ; yet the dissen- sions of the church at Antioch did not cease till a later date. The Roman and Greek churches reckon this Meletius among their saints. MELICERTA, MELICERTES, OrMELICER- tus ; son of Ino, or Leucothea, who, being persecuted by Juno, leapt into the sea. (See Ino, and Athamas.) Melicerta was changed into a sea-god, and received the name of Palamon. Sailors reverenced him as their protector, who canied their shattered ships safely into port, whence he was called Portumnus (q.v.) by the Ro- mans. He is commonly represented with a large blue beard, a key in his hand, or hanging over his shoulder, and MELICERTA—MELMOTH. 395 swimming. The chief deities of the sea are described riding in a chariot. In ma- ny seaport towns, temples were erected in honor of him, and, on the island of Tenedos, children were offered to him. Melilot (melilotus officinalis); a legu- minous plant, somewhat resembling clo- ver, and formerly referred to that genus. It is a native of Europe, and is now natu- ralized in some parts of the U. States. The root is biennial, and gives out one or several stems, which attain the height of one or two feet, and are provided with trifoliate leaves; the leaflets are serrated on the margin ; the flowers are small, nu- merous, pale yellow, and are disposed in long racemes in the axils of the superior leaves; they are succeeded by an almost globular pod, containing a solitary seed. When fresh, the plant has a slight odor, whicli becomes stronger, and very pleas- ant, after it has been dried. It seems to render hay more agreeable to the taste of cattle, who, in general, and more especial- ly sheep and goats, are very fond of it. It is adapted to every kind of soil, but, in general, is not cultivated separately. The celebrated Gruyere cheese is said to owe its excellence partly to the flowers and seeds of this plant, which are bruised and mixed with the curd. Melinda ; a kingdom of Zanguebar, on the eastern coast of Africa, in the Indian ocean, having the kingdom of Magadoxo on the north, and that of Zanzibar on the south. Little is known of the country, except its sea-coast. The mass of the pop- ulation is composed of native negroes, but the rulers anil principal people are Arabs. Melinda, the capital, is situated on the In- dian ocean, in lat. 3° 15' S., lon. 40° 5' E. It is large, well built, and contains a great number of mosques. Its commerce is considerable, and is in the hands of Asiat- ics, being rarely visited by Europeans. Tbe exports are gold, copper, iron and wax; provisions are abundant, aud easily obtained. Vasco de Gama was well re- ceived here, but the arrogance ofthe Por- tuguese soon became insupportable to the inhabitants; a war ensued, and the city was captured by the Portuguese, who re- tained possession of it till 1698, when it was retaken by the Arabs. Melissis, son of Ithagenes, and a na- tive of Samos, flourished about 444 B. C. He is distinguished in the history of his country as a statesman and naval com- mander. As a philosopher, he is consid- ered as lielonging to the Eleatic (q. v.) school; he differed from Parmenides in many points, by developing the Eleatic system with still stricter consistency. Par- menides allowed credit to experience ob- tained through the senses; Melissus repre- sented all existence as one eternal, unlim- ited and immutable, yet material being, and rejected the experience obtained through the senses ; he also maintained that nothing could be known, with cer- tainty, respecting the gods. Melita. It is related, in the Acts of the Apostles, that Paul, on his voyage to Rome, was cast away on the island of Me- lita. This has generally been considered to be tbe island of Malta, the ancient name of which was MdUa; but some critics have attempted to prove that it was an island on the coast of Dalmatia, in tbe Adriatic. (See Paul, Meleda, and Mal- ta.) Mellite, or Honey-Stone, in mine- ralogy, takes its name from its yellow color, like that of honey. Its primitive figure is an octahedron. The crystals are small; their surface is commonly smooth and shining. Internally, it is splendent. It is transparent, passing into the opaque, and possesses double refraction. It is soft- er than amber, and brittle. Specific grav- ity 1.5. to 1.7. It becomes electric by friction. It occurs on bituminous wood and earthy coal, at a single locality in Thuringia. It consists of 46 mellitic acid, 16 aluinine, and 38 water. Mellitic Acid ; discovered by Klap- roth in the mellite, or honeystone. It is procured by reducing the mellite to pow- der, and boiling it with about 72 times its weight of water; the alumine is precipi- tated in the form of flakes, and the acid combines with the water. By filtration and evaporation, crystals are deposited, in the form of fine needles, or in small, short prisms. It is composed of carbon, hydro- gen and oxygen. In combination with the earthy alkalies and metallic oxides, it forms compounds called mellates. Melmoth, William, son of an eminent advocate, author of a work entitled The Great Importance of a Religious Life, was born in 1710, and received a liberal edu- cation, but does not appear to have stud- ied at cither of the universities. He was bred to the law, and, in 1756, received the appointment of commissioner of bank- rupts, but passed the chief part of his life in literary retirement at Shrewsbury and Bath. He first appeared as a writer about 1742, in a volume of Letters, under the name of Fitzosborne, which have been much admired for the elegance of their style, and their calm and liberal remarks on various topics, moral and literary. In 396 MELMOTH—MELODY. 1757, this production was followed by a translation of the Letters of Pliny the younger (in 2 vols. 8vo.j, which has been regarded as one of the happiest versions of a Latin author in the English language, although somewhat enfeebled by a desire to obliterate every trace of a Latin style. He was, also, the translator of Cicero's treatises De AmicUia and De Senedute. These he enriched with remarks, literary and philosophical, in refutation of the op- posing opinions of lord Shaftesbury and Soame Jenyns, the first of whom main- tained that the non-existence of any pre- cept in favor of friendship was a defect in the Christian system, while the second held that very circumstance to form a proof of its divine origin. His last work was memoirs of his father, under the title of Memoirs of a late eminent Advocate and Member of Lincoln's Inn. Mr. Mel- moth died at Bath, in 1799, at tbe age of 89. Melo-drama (from the Greek^Aoj, song, and 6papa); a short, half-musical drama, or that species of drama in which the declamation of certain passages is inter- rupted by music. It is called monodrama if but one person acts, duodrama if two act, It differs from the opera and ope- retta in this, that the persons do not sing, but declaim, and the music only fills the pauses, either preparing or continuing the feelings expressed by the actors. Gen- erally, the subject is grave or passionate. The German melo-drama is of a lyrical character, with comparatively little action. Objections have been made to it on this ground, that it affords too little variety; that the music only renders it more mo- notonous, because it expresses only the feeling or passion already expressed in words; that the couree of feeling is inter- rupted by the music; and that the actor is embarrassed during the music, being obliged to fill the pause in his recitation by pantomimic action. The firet idea of a melo-drama was given by J. J. Rous- seau, in his Pygmalion. The proper, in- ventor of the German melo-dramas, how- ever, was a German actor named Brandes, who wished to prepare a brilliant part fot- itis wife, who excelled in the declamation of lyric poetry. Brandes arranged a can- tate of Geretenberg, after tbe fashion of Pygmalion. (i. Benda (q. v.) composed the m usic for it This kind of performance met with great applause, and Goller wrote his Medea; others followed. But the inter- est in these pieces was not of long contin- uance, because ofthe want of action. In modern times, some ballads (for instance, of Schiller) have been set to music, in a melo-d ramatic way. Parts of operas have been, likewise, composed in this way, as, for instance, the scene of incantation in Weber's Freischutz, and some scenes in the Preciosa, by the same. Schlegel, in his Lectures on Dramatic Art and Lite- rature, says, " Under melo-drama, the French do not understand, like the Ger- mans, a play, in which monologues al- ternate with instrumental music in the pauses, but a drama in high-flown prose, representing some strange, romantic scene, with suitable decorations and ma- chinery." Such was its character from 1790 to 1820, and this sort of exhibition became popular, also, in other countries. On the inclination for it something better might be built, for most melo-dramas are tasteless and extravagant. The new me- lo-dramas, whicli have proceeded from the boulevards in Paris, are rude dramas, in which music is interspersed, now and then, in order to heighten the effect. Melody ; in the most general sense of the word, any successive connexion or series of tones ; in a more narrow sense, a series of tones which please the ear by their succession and variety; and, in a still narrower sense, the particular air or tune of a musical piece. By melody, in its general, musical sense, the composer strives to express particular states of feel- ing or disposition, which, in pieces of several voices, is chiefly effected by the principal melody, or chief voice, to whicli the other voices, with their melodies, are subordinate.* Tbe elements by which tho composer is enabled to express a beautiful variety of sentiments and feel- ings, b}r means of the melodious connex- ion of tones, are the variety of tones in themselves, and the variety of transitions from one tone to another, to which is still to be added the variety of the movements * In regard to the relative importance of melody and harmony, we may observe, that it is in vain to talk of such things as har- mony and melody as more or less important, since an impartial judgment acknowledges the necessity of both, though Rousseau, in the begin- ning of the contest between tbe melodists and harmonists, declared harmony the invention of Gothic barbarism, necessary only for dull north- cm ears. One of the most scientific musicians of France says, "Melody is, for music, what thought is for poetry, or drawing for painting; rhythm is, in music, what metre is in the art of versification, or perspective in drawing; in fine, harmony, by its cadenci s, the variety of its con- cords, the fullness of its modulation, the nature oi its rests at the end of phrases, and, above all, by the steadiness which it alone can give to intona- tion, is the first and essential requisite of tho enjoyments of the sense of hearing, is the logic of the art of music." MELODY—MELON. 397 in which music proceeds (rhythm). Mel- ody and rhythm are the true means to awaken delight, and where they are wanting, the greatest purity of harmony remains without effect. The proper es- sence of melody consists in expression. It has always to express some internal emotion, and every one who hears it, and is able to understand the language, must understand the feeling expressed. But as melody, in the hands of the composer, is a work of art and taste, it is necessaiy that, like every other work of art, it should form a whole, in which the various means are combined to produce one effect. This whole must be such that the hearer is kept constantly interested, and can give himself up, with pleasure, to the impres- sions which he receives. The particular qualities of a good melody are these:—It is indispensable that it should have one chief and fundamental tone, which re- ceives proper gradations by a variation adapted to the expression. This can be effected only by letting the tones proceed according to a certain scale; otherwise there would be no connexion between them. The chief tone, again, must be appropriate to the general idea to be ex- pressed, because every kind of tone has its own character, and the finer the ear of the composer is, the better will he always discover the tone wanted. In very short melodies, or tunes, consisting merely of a few chief passages, the same fundamental tone may remain throughout, or perhaps pass over into its dominante; but longer pieces require change of tone, that the har- mony also may receive modifications ac-' cording to the feeling. Thirdly, a good melody requires rhythm, (q. v.) A regular advance from one part to another, whether in music or motion (dancing), affects the mind agreeably, whilst irregular progress fatigues. The love of rhythm is one of the most general feelings of human nature. We find rhythm every where, antl to music it is indispensable, as tones with- out regularity of measure would distract and weary. Hence music is divided into portions or bars; these, again, are divided so as to prevent monotony, without dis- turbing the general regularity. Accents are given to certain parts, and it is possible greatly to assist the expression of feeling, by slow or quick, gay or solemn move- ments, and by the variety of accents, and the even or uneven time. (q. v.) Much might be said respecting the skill of the composer to adapt his music, not only, in general, to the idea to be expressed, but also, in song, to the single words, to the vol. viii. 34 pause, which the hearer wishes here, or the speedy movement, which he desires in other places; the necessity of the repeti- tion of words, if the feeling is long and varied, while the word is short; the child- ish impropriety of representing, as it were by imitative sounds, the ideas presented by particular words, which is much the same as if a declaimer, eveiy time that he pronounces the word ocean, were to en- deavor to represent the roaring of the waves; the parts where dissonances are admissible, &c; but it would carry us much beyond our limits. Meloe. These insects have the elytra, or wing covers, short, extending about half the length ofthe body ; the antennae, or feelers, are jointed, of which the middle divisions are the largest. They are slow and heavy in their motions, and have a large head. They feed on the leaves and flowers of different vegetables. They do not occur in as large numbers as some of the genera closely allied to them, viz., cantharis and lytta, but have, in common with these insects, the property of blister- ing the human skin. Linnaeus included the well-known and valuable Spanish fly in this genus; but it was very properly separated from it by Fabricius, and placed in the genus cantharis, of which it forms the type. (Sec Cantharides.) These in- sects emit an oleaginous, yellowish, or reddish liquid, from some of the joints of their feet. In some parts of Spain, they are used in place of the cantharides, or mixed with them. Mr. Latreille is of opinion that these are the insects spoken of by ancient writers, under the name of buprestis, and which they considered as veiy injurious to cattle, and as often caus- ing their death, when swallowed with their food. The M. proscarabaus, which is a native of Europe, exudes a large quantity of a fat, oily matter, which has been highly recommended as a stim- ulating application to poisoned wounds. There are many species of this genus found in the U. States, the largest of which is the M. purpurcus. Mr. Say has de- scribed many of them in the Journal of the Academy of Natural Science, to which we refer for detailed accounts of them. As these insects possess the vesicating property to a considerable degree, they might, where they occur in sufficient quantities, form a very good substitute for the cantharides ofthe shops. Melon. The musk-melon is the prod- uct of the cucumis melo, a rough, trailing, herbaceous plant, having rounded, angular leaves, and yellow, funnel-shaped flowers. 398 MELON—MELUSINA. Though originally from the warmer parts of Asia, its annual root and rapid growth enable it to be cultivated in the short sum- mers of northern climates; but the flavor of the fruit is much heightened by expo- sure to a hot sun. The form of the fruit is, in general, oval, but varies exceedingly in the different varieties, which are very numerous. In some, the external surface is smooth; in others, rugged or netted, or divided into segments by longitudinal grooves. The odor ofthe fruit is delight- ful. The flesh is usually yellow, and has a sugary and delicious taste. It has been cultivated in Europe from time immemo- rial.—The water-melon is the product of the C. cUrullus, a vine somewhat resem- bling the preceding, but having the leaves deeply divided into lobes. It is smooth, roundish, often a foot and a half in length, and has a thin, green rind. The seeds are black or red. The flesh is usually red- dish, sometimes white, icy, and has a sugary taste; it melts in the mouth, and is extremely refreshing. It is cultivated, to a great extent, in all the warm coun- tries of both continents, and even in high northern latitudes. It serves the Egyp- tians for meat and drink, and is the only medicine used by them in fevers. These two plants, together with the cucumber, gourd, &c, belong to the natural family cucurbitacea. 3Ielos (now Milo); an island of the ^Egean sea, about 60 square miles in ex- tent, with about 500 inhabitants. The island has a wild, uncultivated appear- ance, sulphureous springs abound, and volcanic exhalations buret from the rocky and sterile soil. Oil, wine, cotton and fruits, such as oranges, melons (which de- rive their name from the island), figs, &c, are produced. Lon. 24° 22/ E.; lat. 36° 407 N. The chief town, Milo (formerly Melos), is now occupied by only 40 fami- lies. In 1814, baron von Haller discover- ed, on the site of the ancient city, an am- phitheatre of marble, with numerous frag- ments of statues and columns, which were bought by the present king of Bavaria. In the vicinity a Greek peasant has since found (1820) a statue of Venus, with three Hermes (q. v.) figures three feet high, which were bought by the marquis de la Riviere, French ambassador at Constanti- nople, and are now in the royal museum at Paris. The Venus is of the finest Pa- rian marble (Grechetto), to which the color of ivory has been given; it is called by the Parisian amateurs, la Femme du Torse. Though much injured, the head is not separated from the body. As she held the apple, she was a Venus vidrix; and she appears to have been modelled after the naked Venus of Praxiteles.—See Clarac's and de Quincy's Descriptions (Paris, 1821) ; othere have supposed it to be a statue of Electra. (See Venus.) Melpomene; one of the Muses, daugh- ter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She pre- sided over tragedy. Horace has addressed the finest of his odes to her, as to the pat- roness of lyric poetry. She was generally represented as a young woman with a se- rious countenance. Her garments were splendid; she wore a buskin, and held a dagger in one hand, and in the other a sceptre and crowns. Melrose ; a town in Scotland, on the Tweed, 35 miles south of Edinburgh; lon. 2° 47' W.; lat. 55° 38' N. ; population, 3467. A short distance from the town, on the Tweed, is the abbey of Melrose, one of the largest and most magnificent in the kingdom. It is one ofthe most beau- tiful Gothic structures in Great Britain, the admiration of strangers, and much vis- ited by travellers. It was built by king David, in 1136, in the form of St. John's cross ; 258 feet long, and 137£ broad. The tower is mostly broken down. It was a famous nursery of learning and religion. Melun (Melodunum); an ancient city of France, on the. Seine, nine leagues from Paris ; lat. 48° 32' N.; lon. 2° S97 E. It has some manufactures, and three an- nual fairs; population, 7250. The Seine here forms an island, ami is crossed by two stone bridges, one of which has an arch of 159 feet 10 inches span, and 14 feet 10 inches high. Louis XIV and his court resided here some time, during the war of the Fronde. Abeillard established his school here in the twelfth century. Melusina ; a well known pereonage in the fairy world ; according to some, a kind of female sea-demon, according to others, the daughter of a king of Albania, and a fairy. Paracelsus makes her a nymph. She is generally considered a powerful fairy, who married a prince of the house of Lusignan. She was, like most fairies of her time, obliged, on certain days ofthe month, to take the shape of a fish, at least in respect to half her body ; she had, therefore, strictly enjoined the prince, her husband, with whom she lived most hap- pily in the castle of Lusignan, to leave her alone on such days, and not to dare to look at her. The prince, however, like other mortals, was curious, entered her chamber on one of the forbidden days, and saw her in her state of metamorpho- sis. She immediately uttered a shriek, MELUSINA—MEMOIRS, 399 and disappeared ; but ever after, when an important death was about to take place in the family of Lusignan, and when they became related to the kings of France, also iu the royal family, she appeared in a mourning dress, on a lofty tower of the castle, until, at last, this tower was demol- ished, in 1574, by order of the duke de Montpensier, which she strove in vain to prevent, by frequent apparitions. Various versions of this story exist. Melvil, sir James, a statesman and historian, was born at Hall-hill, in Fife- shire, in 1530; and, at the age of 14, be- came page to Mary, queen of Scots, then wife to the dauphin of France. After having travelled and visited the court of the elector palatine, with whom he re- mained three yeare, on the accession of Mary to the throne of Scotland, Melvil followed her, and was made privy coun- sellor and gentleman of the bed-chamber, and continued her confidential servant until her imprisonment in Lochleven castle. He was sent to the court of Eliza- beth, and maintained correspondences in England in favor of Mary's succession to the English crown. He died in 1606. He left a historical work in manuscript, which was published in 1683, under the title of Memoirs of Sir James Melvil, of Hall-hill, containing an impartial Account of the most remarkable Affairs of State during the last Age. Melville Island, in the Polar sea; one of the north Georgian group, between 74° and 76° 507 N. lat., and 105° 40/ and 113° 4C W. lon. It is surrounded with enor- mous masses of ice, and the only vegeta- tion is moss. Captain Parry discovered it in 1819, and passed the winter of 1819- 20 there. Its only inhabitant in winter is the white bear. (See Polar Seas.)—Mel- vUle is also the name given to an island of tbe Indian ocean, near the northern coast of New Holland; lat. 11° 20* S, ; lon. 130° 407 E. It was discovered by captain King, in 1818, and, in 1824, the* English government formed a colony there, for the purpose of establishing commercial rela- tions with the Malays. The settlement re- ceived the name of King's cove, and the harbor that of Port Cockburn. Memel; the most northern town of Prussia, at the mouth of the Dange, on the Kurische Haff; lat. 55° 42> N. ; lon. 21° 3'E.; population 8400, engaged in ship- building, manufactures and commerce. The harbor is good, safe, and strongly for- tified. About 600 ships enter and leave it yearly. Its exports are corn, hemp, skins, with flax seed and wood from Lithuania. Memel, (See Niemen.) Memnon, according to fable, was the son of Tithonus and Aurora, and the brother of Emathon. According to some, he was king of Ethiopia, according to othere, of the Assyrians. He built a splendid pal- ace and a labyrinth at Abydos, in Egypt, and another palace at Susa, in Persia, which city received from him the epithet of Memnonia. Priam, king of Troy, in- duced him, by the present of a golden vine, to come to his assistance against the Greeks. He performed many valiant ex- ploits, and wounded Achilles himself, by whom he was finally killed. Jupiter, be- ing requested by Aurora to honor her son with some peculiar mark of distinction, caused an innumerable crowd of birds to arise from his ashes (Memnonides), which annually returned to his grave, and fought with each other, thus solemnizing, as it were, funeral games in honor of his mem- ory. After his death, he was worshipped as a hero. At Thebes, on the left bank of the Nile, in the ruins of the Memnonium (palace of Memnon), are still to be seen the remains of colossal statues of Mem- non. One of these uttered a joyful sound when the sun rose and shone upon it, but when the sun set, the sound was mourn- ful. It is also related, that it shed tears, and gave out oracular responses in seven verses. This sound was heard till the fourth century after Christ. Descriptions of this sounding statue, and accounts of the sound heard, are to be found in the works of Pausanias and Strabo, and among modern authors, in those of Pococke and Norden. There have been many hypoth- eses concerning its nature, and also con- cerning the story of Memnon. Bottiger, in his Amalthea (vol. ii, page 174), shows that Memnon and Phamenophis were the same, and that the statue of Memnon rep- resents a hero worshipping the sun, a king or priest saluting the god. Belzoni de- posited in the British museum, in 1818, the head of such a statue of Memnon, which is called the younger Memnon. Memoirs, Historical, are writings in whicli a pereon sketches the events expe- rienced and witnessed by himself to fur- nish matter for his own reflection. They differ from a complete histoiy or chroni- cle in the limited nature of their subject, treating only of particular events or per- sons ; their authors, too, have either taken part, personally, in the scenes described, or have been connected with the actore so intimately as to have derived their infor- mation from the most trust-worthy sources. We are not to expect from them the same 400 MEMOIRS. precision of arrangement and style which is required in a regular historical work. They are, however, more valuable in pro- portion as this license is not abused, aud the relation is easy without being negli- gent. They furnish the inquirer with in- teresting individual anecdotes, often ex- pose the most secret motives, disclose the whole character of events, which are often barely mentioned, entirely omitted, or merely hinted at with a timid circumspec- tion, in books of general history, develope details of secret plots and projects, of which the result only is noticed in history, and, under certain limitations, they are en- titled to a high degree of credit. They are no less interesting on account of show- ing the individual character of the writer in his manner of relating events, even supposing his views to be partial, limited, and affected by party prejudices. These qualities give them an advantage over other kinds of historical writings, since they satisfy the mere reader for amuse- ment, as well as the student ; the one by the pleasing negligence of their manner, and the other by the value of their mate- rials ; although it must be acknowledged, that to the latter, the historical criticism of them is a difficult task. Xenophon's Anabasis, and Caesar's accounts of his campaigns (Commentaries) are generally considered as the nldest memoirs. But France is the native soil of mimoires, in the historical literature of which countiy, they form a national peculiarity, and where, since the end of the fifteenth cen- tury, they have been continually becoming more numerous. The memoirs of Philip de Confines, Brantomc, Sully, Joinville and cardinal tie Retz (see these articles, and French Literature) deserve particular no- tice. The memoirs of Martin du Bellay, which relate to the period from 1513 to 1516 (Paris, 1569, folio, edited in a mod- ernized form, by Lambert, Paris, 1753, 7 vols.), are distinguished for vigorous de- lineation and the national feeling which they display. Blaise de Montluc, in his memoirs, 1521—69, called, by Henry IV, the soldier's bible (Paris, 1746,4vols., 12mo.), is no less frank in revealing his own faults than in commending his own virtues; live- ly and striking description is blended with the verboseness of au old soldier. Mi- chel de Castelnau is distinguished for the highest political honesty, for the sound- ness, maturity and clearness of his judg- ment, as much as for his dignified and tranquil manner (Memoirs, 1559—70, Brussels, 1731, 3 vols., folio). Margaret of Valois, the wife of Henry IV, relates the histoiy of her youth (1561—81) with much, although somewhat artificial ele- gance aud feminine adroitness, but at the same time, evident good nature (Hague, 1715,2 vols.). Aubigne (1550—1600, Am- sterdam, 1623,3 vols., folio),with nil his par- tiality, his effrontery, his freedom border- ing on calumny, and his far-fetched and often unintelligible expressions, is an au- thor of great importance for the history of his times, but must be consulted with caution. Rochefoucault, a nobleman of the acutest wit, and a deep knowledge of In.-man nature, who described the dis- turbances of the Fronde (1648—52) with the hand of a master, has, notwithstanding bis obvious partiality, great clearness and sagacity in narrating and developing events, furnishes admirable portraits ofthe principal personages described, and is dis- tinguished for animation and natural col- oring. His style (which is often, with little propriety, compared to that of Taci- tus) is plain, manly and sententious, and his language pure, measured and concise (Trevoux, 1754, 2 vols., 12mo.; Paris, 1804, 18mo,). Among the other nume- rous French memoirs, those of D'Etrees, De Brienne, De Torcy and Montyon are of especial interest for diplomatists. We may mention also those of St. Simon, Duclos and madame D'Epinay. To these may be added also the works ofthe Abbe Soulavie; the Confessions of Jean Jacques Rousseau; the Correspondence of Grimm and of La Harpe; the Diary of Bachaumont; the Considirations sur la Rivolution of Madame de Stael; Garat's work on Suard and the 18th century; the Mimoires of Madame Laroche Jacque- lin, &c. Within a few years there have been begun in Paris four great collections of memoirs, which are of high importance for libraries and collectors ; the first is Collection complde des Mimoires rdatifs a VHistoire de France depuis le Regne de PhUippe Auguste jusqu' au Commencement du dix septiime Siicle; avec des Notes sur chaque Auteur et des Observations sur chaque Ouvrage, par Monsieur Petitot. This collection consists of 42 volumes, and is completed. The second is a se- quel and continuation of the-preceding, under the title of Collection, etc. depuis I'Avenement de Henri IV, jusqu' a la Paix de Paris, conclue en 1763, and is also ar- ranged and edited by Petitot. The 23d volume of this second series appeared in April, 1823. Foucault has published these two collections with the greatest ty- pographical accuracy. The third is a col- lection of memoirs, published and unpub- MEMOIRS—MEMORIAL. 401 fished, relating to the French revolution. This collection, edited by Berville and Barriere, may be regarded as a chefd'auvre of its kind. Each work is preceded by a life of the author ; the very correct text is accompanied by emendatory, explanatory and supplementary notes, and at the close are generally the pitces justificatives, se- lected and arranged with great judgment and accuracy. This collection is to con- sist of the memoirs of Madame Roland, the marquis of Ferrieres, Linguet, Du- sault,the marquis of Bouille, baron Besen- val, Bailly, Rabaud de St. Etienne, Mou- lder, the marquis of Lally-Tollendal, the marquis of Rochambeau, Riouffe, Rivarol, Louvet, general Puisaye, the marquis of Montesquiou, Camille Desmotilins, St. Just, Necker, Clery, Mallet du Pan, Bar- baroux, Freron, Garat, general Doppe, Beaumarchais, Ramel, Ay me, Marmontel, Phelippeau, Antonelle, Courtois, Dumou- riez, madame Campan, Morellet, and many others. The fourth collection contains memoirs of the English revolution, trans- lated and edited by Guizot. This collec- tion is also conducted with great judgment, accompanied with introductions, notes, and documents, and deserves a place in every large library. It consists of 25 vol- umes, containing the memoirs of Thomas May, or the histoiy of the Long Parlia- ment, those of sir Philip Warwick, who flourished in the reign of Charles I, sir John Berkley, Thomas Herbert and Price, Hollis, Fairfax, Huntington, Mrs. Hutchinson, Ludlow, lord Clarendon, Burnet, Temple, Reresby, and others. In German, works of this description are very rare. Among the most in- teresting of these are memoirs of the margravine of Bayreuth, the sister of Frederic the Great, originally written in the French language ; and among the most important are those of Frederic the Great himself, Histoire de mon Temps (His- tory of my own Times), &c. Dohm's highly valuable 3Iemoirs are of a different class from those of whicli we treat here, consisting of a series of historical treatises upon the events of our times, in which Dohm has taken more or less part,or respect- ing which he has made investigations. The banishment of Napoleon to St. Helena and his subsequent death have given rise to the publication of many works of this sort, from which we have obtained valu- able accounts of the most important oc- currences and most prominent characters of our times. (See the works mentioned in the article Napoleon.) Among the English works of this description, we may 34* mention Burnet's Memoirs of his own Times; Pepys's Memoirs, comprising his Diary, from 1659 to 1669; Evelyn's "Me- moirs, comprising his Diary, from 1<4I to 1705—6 ; Horace Walpole's Me- moirs of the last ten Yeare of George II; Calamy's Life and Times (1671 to 1731) ; Life of Edward, Lord Her- bert of Cherbury; Melvil's Memoirs relating to the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth, Mary, Queen of Scots, and James I ; Lil- ly's Life and Times, from 1602 to 1681 ; Memoirs of Gilbert Wakefield ; Claren- don's Life; Life of Richard Watson, Bishop of Landaff; 3Iemoire of William Hayley,—all written by the men whose names they bear. Among the American works of this class are Winthrop's Jour- nal ; Mather's Magnalia; Memoirs of R. II. Lee; of Josiah Quincy, Jun. &c.; Jefferson's posthumous works contain much information respecting the writer's times. Short literary treatises, especially those papere read before literary societies, are also called memoirs. The Mimoires de I'Acadimie des Inscriptions d Belles-let- tres (Memoirs ofthe Academy of Inscrip- tions and Belles-lettres), and other collec- tions of this description, are well known. Memorial ; in general, whatever serves to preserve the memory of any thing; also a written representation ; e. g. state papers, in whicli the usual forms, or most of them, especially sealing, are wanting. They are much used in the negotiations of minis- ters, sometimes in the replies and resolu- tions of sovereigns, for the purpose of avoiding all disputes in regard to rank and ceremonials. There are three sorts: 1st. those containing an address, date and sig- nature, in which the waiter speaks in the firet person, and the second person is used ofthe individual addressed (memorials in the form of lettere); 2d. those which also contain an address, date and signature, but in which the writer speaks of himself in the third person (memorials proper) ; 3d. those which have no address, and often no signature, and in which the writer and the pereon addressed are both spoken of in the third pereon (notes). These papere are either written and delivered by the court or by the mimsiei. To the former belong (a.) circulars to the diplomatic corps, that is, to the foreign agents residing at a court, communicating or requesting information, commonly with the signature of the secretary or minister of foreign af- faire; also (b.) the answer of a court to the memorial of an ambassador ; (c.) notes to a foreign cabinet, or to a foreign ambassador, to be transmitted with a me- 402 MEMORIAL—MEMORY. morial to his cabinet. The communica- tions of ambassadors to the courts at which they reside, arc generally memori- als, but sometimes mere notes; lettere are no longer in use. Memory ; that faculty of the mind which receives ideas presented to the un- derstanding, retains them, and exhibits them again. Its power of recalling ideas is sometimes exercised with, some- times without, an act of volition. Its strength may be greatly increased by judi- cious culture. Memory is so prominent a faculty of the human mind, so necessary, both in the most common transactions and the highest pursuits of life, so curious in its phenomena, aud, at times, so capricious, that it formed, even at a very early period, a subject of philosophical research ; and, to a certain degree, more is known about it than about any other faculty ; but, be- yond this point, it is as incomprehensible as the other powers. It is easy to talk of the memory in metaphors, to speak of im- pressions on the mind, storehouse of ideas, recalling ideas, &c.; but what is this im- pression ? where is it made ? and what does the word signify, as applied to the mind ? It is only a metaphor, taken from the physical world, to illustrate an act of the mind, which we can only represent figuratively, and reasoning on this assump- tion is but a petitio principii. Without memory, the whole' animal world vvould be reduced to a kind of vegetative fife, such as we observe in the lowest classes of animals, because any variety of action pre- supposes memory.* Memory embraces * It often seems necessary to refer to the memory certain acts of animals, which most people svvcep- ingly refer to that unsatisfactory principle termed instinct. Even those actions ot animals which would seem most naturally to emanate from in- stinct,as the fleeing of feeble beasts at the approach of stronger ones,appear not to be instinctive. Cap- tain Clapperton found the cranes in the interior of Africa so tame that they showed not the slightest fear. Mr. de Bougainville found the hares and foxes devoid of all fear when he discovered the Falkland Islands, and the birds allowed them- selves to be taken by hand. Similar facts arc re- £orted by lieutenant Paulding (in his Cruise of the ►olphin, New York, 1831), and many other trav- ellers. It would appear, then, that the fear ap- parently natural to many animals is not so, but that, finding themselves attacked, they have re- membered the fact at the next approach of their enemy, and, by degrees, contracted their timo- rous habits, which their young, being accustomed to observe, also contracted. Indeed, observation would seem to warrant us in attributing to them, not merely this power of association, but even the power of combining ideas to produce results. If, for instance, my dog sees, from my motions, that I am about to take a walk, and, having been often prohibited to accompany me, steals quietly all ideas received from the senses, as well as those of an abstract character; alj feelings and emotions. The power of memory, in regard to ideas received from the senses, appeare to be strongest in re- gard to the sense of sight. We are able to remember a temple, a picture, a land- scape, a face, with great clearness and truth. The ideas of sounds are, also, very strongly retained, the memory of them being more perfect in proportion as the sense of hearing is more nice. Music may be remembered very distinctly. It is not so with the three other senses, smell, feeling, and taste. The ideas received through these senses, it would appear, cannot be remembered with the same live- liness. It is difficult to recall, with much distinctness, tbe pain of a wound; we usually retain little more than the general idea of suffering,* So particular tastes are not easily recalled. Exercise, indeed, may give the memory considerable pow- er even over these ideas. The taste of his favorite dishes dwells in the mind of the gourmand, and, without making pre- tensions to gourmanderie, a man may re- member, with some distinctness, the flavor of a canvass-back duck. The impres- sions of smell are still more difficult to be recalled. Still, however, though the un- aided memory does not easily recall ideas received from the senses, yet when exter- nal means of comparison are presented, they are immediately revived. If we smell a flower in this spring, we recollect, at once distinctly, the smell of the same in the last spring, and are in no danger of confounding flowers of different kinds. So with taste. These phenomena are ea- sily explainable, from the fact that the ideas presented by sight and hearing, the two nobler senses, admit most readily of ab- straction, and are, therefore, most easily reproduced in the mind, without the phys- ical aid of comparison. Ideas received from objects of sense are sometimes curi- ously associated with othere, so that the recurrence of the first immediately sug- gests the second. The cases are more striking, of course, in proportion as the organs are more acute. If; for instance, out of the room, and awaits me at a certain cor- ner which 1 generally pass on my walks, who can deny this animal, not only memory, but also the power of drawing conclusions from what he rec- ollects ? * Pain, indeed,when associated with the nobler senses, may be retained with considerable dis- tinctness, as the discords which offend a musical ear, or the sharp grating of a hard-pointed slate pencil on a slate, which offends every car. MEMORY. 403 any thing veiy agreeable, or disagreeable, happens to a man at the veiy moment of hearing a peculiar sound, or eating some- thing of a peculiar taste, the recurrence of this sound, or taste, involuntarily awak- ens, in some organizations, an agreeable or disagreeable feeling. The writer can testify from experience, that the effect is sometimes so instantaneous as to prevent the cause from being recognised till after considerable reflection. Considering how many ideas, or notions, we receive through the senses, and how necessaiy it is that we should readily remember them, to avoid the necessity of moving constantly in the same circle, it is ofthe greatest impor- tance that our senses should be active, nice, and discriminating, which, undoubtedly, depends, in a great measure, upon their original organization ;* but they are suscep- tible of great improvement by exercise ; and it is to be lamented that this point is so much neglected in the case of most children educated in populous cities. How dull are their senses allowed to grow, and bow dull are the impressions they give ! The importance of strengthening the mem- ory, by direct exercise of its powers, is undoubtedly great, and we may be allow- ed to say a few words respecting what we conceive to be a popular error at the pres- ent time. It is constantly repeated that the highest aim of education is the devel- opement of the intellect, and that mere learning by heart tends to benumb tbe ac- tive powers; the consequence of which has been that the strengthening of memo- ry is, generally speaking, much neglected. The suggestion is undoubtedly true, to a certain extent, and it would be well if it were acted on, in some particulars, more consistently than it is. The system of re- citation, for instance, whereby the repeti- tion of the words of an author is substitut- ed for an understanding of his meaning, is carried to an injurious extent here and in England. In all branches of study where the great object is that the pupil should form clear conceptions for himself, as in history, geography, natural philoso- phy, &c, the mere committing and recit- ing of stated lessons cannot fail to be in- jurious ; but, on the other hand, memory * This diversity is obvious to all, in the different sensibility of different persons to the pleasures of music and the beauties of nature. The same diversity undoubtedly exists in the senses of smell, taste, &c.; and perhaps it is not unchari- table to surmise that the indulgences of the table are, in some instances, despised less from philo- sophical moderation, than from an obtuseness of the organ of taste. is a most important instrument both for the business of life and for self-improve- ment ; and, certainly, it is one of the chief objects of education to perfect an instru- ment which is capable of being strength- ened by exercise almost beyond concep- tion. Such exercise, however, is greatly neglected, in the present systems of educa- tion. The books of reference which now abound make strong powers of memory apparently less necessaiy than formerly, but it should be remembered that the cir cle of knowledge is expanding every day, that the connexion of the various branches of science becomes more intimate every- day, and that every day more knowledge is required for a given standing in society. Classification is the great basis of memo- ry. From early childhood, we involunta- rily classify; but effort is required to give the memory the full advantage which it may derive from this process. It w ould be impossible for a shepherd to remember every one of his sheep, as is so commonly the case, had not his mind separated the generic marks from the special, and, by similarities and differences (classification), obtained the means of giving each animal a particular character. A similar process takes place in the mind ofthe learned his- torian. How could such a man remem- ber, without classification, the wide range of facts which he must embrace ? He has acquired the habit of giving to every re- markable fact its proper place in the series of bis knowledge, where it is firmly re- tained by the relations in which it stands to others, as affirming or contradicting them. This process of classification takes place, in different degrees, in every step of the intellectual scale, from the deepest philosopher to the lowest laborer; and the memory of every one, in any branch, is the better the more he classifies. A sail- or, who cares not for politics, and hears of a change of ministry, has forgotten it, per- haps, the next day, because it was a mere isolated fact, totally unconnected with the general train of his ideas; whilst the same sailor, perhaps, would recollect, with the greatest distinctness, how one of his broth- er sailors off such an island, made him- self the laughing-stock of his comrades by his clumsy way of handling a rope. A courtier will remember for life a smile from his monarch, or an unfortunate sneeze which befell him at court when taking a glass of wine. It is all-impor- tant, tlien, that instructers should habitu- ally accustom their pupils to this process of classification ; but, at the same time, the process of committing to memory is 404 MEMORY—MEMPHIS. also one which should be steadily pursued. The poets and orators afford the pupil abundant materials for such an exercise.— The caprices of memory are often curi- ous. How strange are the associations of ideas which often take place in spite of us! Every one must have experienced such. The writer recollects a melancholy instance, in the case of an insane boy in an hospital, whose derangement was referred to an irreverent association with the name of God, which occurred to him while singing a hymn in church, and of which he could not divest himself, the painful- ness of the impression making it occur to him more forcibly every time he sung in church, till his reason became unset- tled. We might observe, in this connex- ion, that, though man can recall past im- pressions by a voluntary act of recollec- tion, yet he has not the same power to di- vest himself of the impressions which the memory presents, by a voluntary forget- fulness. This effect he can produce only by fixing the attention on some other sub- jects, which may withdraw the attention from the disagreeable idea. Another ca- price of the memory is, that we often try to think of a name, or fact, for days and weeks, without success, and, after the lapse of some time, when we have given up the attempt, it all at once suggests it- self, when we are occupied with some- thing totally different. To say that the mind continued its action unconsciously suggests no idea. We cannot compare the process to that of a dog separating it- self from the chase in which the rest of the pack are engaged. We have no con- ception of such divided action of the in- tellect Any metaphorical explanation of this sort conveys no more idea than Plato's explanation of weak and strong memories, comparing them to wax tablets, the one harder, the other softer. The progress of philosophy has been much hindered by mistaking illustrations for arguments. An- other circumstance worthy of remark is, that old people lose their memory for re- cent events, but retain a lively impression of the events of their earlier yeare, which shows how much remembrance is influ- enced by the liveliness of the original im- pression. It is remarkable, also, how some people, in consequence of diseases, mostly nervous fevers and apoplexies, lose the memory of every thing which happened before their sickness, as if it were erased from the Platonic tablet. The editor found his memory seriously impair- ed after a wound which had severed sev- eral nerves in the neck, but by degrees, though slowly, he recovered it Instan- ces have been recorded in which some sudden and violent derangement of the system has produced a state in which a person would remember every thing which happened the day before yester- day, &c, but nothing which happened yesterday, &c. The next day, the rela- tive periods of memory and forgetfulness continuing the same, he would remember what, die day before, he had forgotten. We might add to those views of the im- portance of memory which naturally sug- gest themselves to every one, that nations, as well as individuals, often suffer from a deficiency of recollection. How often must the historian exclaim, Oh, if they would but remember!—(For the various modes of considering this faculty, see the popular treatises on intellectual philosophy. Locke's chapter on Retention is not very satisfac- tory ; Dugald Stewart's treatise is princi- pally valuable as a practical elucidation of its operations. For instances of persons distinguished for memory, see Mnemonics.) Memphis ; an ancient city of Egypt, whose very situation has been a subject of learned dispute. According to Herod- otus, its foundation was ascribed to Menes, the firet king of Egypt. It was a large, rich and splendid city, and the second capital of Egypt. Among its buildings, several temples (for instance, those of Phtha, Osiris, Serapis, &c.) and palaces were remarkable. In Strabo's time (A. D. 20) it was, in population and size, next to Alexandria. Edrisi, in the twelfth centuiy, describes its remains as extant in his time. "Notwithstanding the vast extent of this city," says he, " the remote period at which it was built, the attempts made by various nations to de- stroy it, and to obliterate every trace of it, by removing the materials of which it was built, combined with the decay of 4000 yeare,—there are yet found in it works so wonderful as to confound the reflect- ing, and such as the most eloquent could not describe." Among the works speci- fied by him, are a monolithic temple of granite 13£ feet high, 12 long, and 7 broad, entirely covered within and without with inscriptions, and statues of great beauty and dimensions, one of which was 45 feet high, of a single block of red granite. These ruins then extended about nine miles in every direction, but the de- struction has since been so great, that, although Pococke and Bruce fixed upon the village of Metrahenny (Moniet-Rahi- net) as the site, it was not accurately as- certained until the French expedition to MEMPHIS—MENASSEII BEN ISRAEL. 405 Egypt, when the discoveries of numerous heaps of rubbish, of blocks of granite covered with hieroglyphics and sculpture, and of colossal fragments scattered over a space three leagues in circumference, seem to have decided the point. (See Jacotin's account of these ruins in the Description de VEgypte.) Memphis ; a town in the north-west angle of Mississippi, upon a high bluff, which used to be called Fort Pickering. This bluff is a fine, commanding eleva- tion, rising more than 100 feet above the level of the river. At the lowest stages of the water, strata of stone coal are dis- closed in the bank. The situation of Memphis seems very favorable to the growth of a town, and it is now rapidly increasing. Opposite, in Arkansas, is the uncommonly high, rich and extensive bottom land of Wappanocka. Back of the town, is a fertile, rolling country, heavily timbered, and abounding in springs. The bluffs extend three or four leagues above and below the town. Here is the great road for crossing from Tennessee and Alabama to Arkansas. These facts indicate that the local situation of Mem- phis is peculiarly favorable to health, and to extensive commerce. Mk-mpiiremagog ; a lake in North America; the greater part of it lies in Canada, and the rest in Vermont. It is 35 miles long and three miles wide, antl communicates with the river St. Law- rence by the St. Francis. It receives the rivers Black, Barton and Clyde from Vermont Lat. 45° N.; lon. 72° 8' W. Men. ; an abbreviation of the Italian meno, less, used in music, as men. presto, less rapid ; men. allegro, less lively. Menaciianite. (See Titanium.) Menage, Gilles, a distinguished man of lettere of the seventeenth century, was born at Angers, 1613, in which city his father was king's advocate. After finish- ing his early studies with great reputation, he was admitted an advocate, and pursued his occupation.for some time at Paris; but, disgusted with that profession, he adopted the ecclesiastical character, so far as to be able to hold some benefices, without cure of souls. From this time, he dedicated himself solely to literary pursuits; and, being received into the house of cardinal de Retz, soon made himself known by his wit and erudition. He subsequently took apartments in the cloister of Notre Dame, and held weekly assemblies (Mercuriales) of the learned, where a prodigious memory rendered his conversation entertaining, although pedan- tic. He was, however, overbearing and opinionative, and passed his life in the midst of petty hostilities. He precluded himself from being chosen to the French academy, by a witty satire, entitled Re- quite des Didionnaires, directed against the Dictionary of the academy. He died in Paris, 1692, at the age of 79. His prin- cipal works are Didionnaire etymologique, ou Origines de la Langue Francaise; Origines de la Langue Italienne ; Miscel- lanea, a collection of pieces in prose and verse; an edition of Diogenes Laerlius, with valuable notes; Remarques sur la Langue Frangaise; Anti-Baillet, a sa- tirical critique; Historia Mulierum Phi- losophorum; Poisies Latines, Italiennes, Grecques, et Frangaises. After his death, a Minagiana was compiled from notes of his conversation, anecdotes, remarks, &c, which is one of the most' lively works of the kind. Menai Strait, and Bridge. Menai strait is a strait about half a mile across, between tbe island of Anglesea and the coast of Wales. (For an account of the celebrated bridge over this su-ait, see Bridge.) Menander, the most celebrated of the Greek writers of the new comedy, born at Athens, 342 B. C, is said to have drowned himself on account of the suc- cess of his rival Philemon (q. v.), at the age of 52 years, though some accounts attribute his death to accident. The su- perior excellence of his comedies, the number of which exceeded 100, acquired him the title of prince of the new comedy. We have, unfortunately, nothing but a few fragments remaining of them. Le- clerc collected them (Menandri et Phila- monis Reliquia, Amsterdam, 1709). They are also contained in Brunck's Poeta Gnomici. Terence imitated and trans- lated him, and, from his comedies, we may form some idea of the character of those of Menander. (See Drama, and Greek Literature.) Menasseh Ben Israel, a celebrated rabbi, was born in Portugal, about 1604. His father was a rich merchant, who, suffering greatly, both in property and pereon, from the inquisition, fled into Holland. At the age of eighteen, the son was made preacher and expounder of the Talmud, at Amsterdam. In 1632, he published, in the Spanish language, the firet part of his work entitled Conciliador, &c, of which, the next year, a Latin ver- sion was printed by Dionysius Vossius, entitled ConcUiator, sive de Convenientia Locorum S. Scriptura qua pugnare inter 406 MENASSEH BEN ISRAEL—MENDELSSOHN. se videntur, Opus ex vetustis et recentiori- bus omnubus Rabbinis magna Industria etc Fide congestum. He also published three editions of the Hebrew Bible. In the time of Cromwell, he went to England, and obtained for his nation more privileges than they ever before enjoyed there. He died at Amsterdam in 1659. His other works are the Talmud Corrected, with Notes ; De Resurredione Morluorum; Es- peranza de Israel, dedicated to the parlia- ment of England, in 1650, one object of which is to prove that the ten tribes are settled in America; and an Apology for the Jews, in the English language, re- printed in vol. ii ofthe Phoenix. Mendelssohn, Moses, a celebrated Jewish philosopher, was born Sept. 12, 1729, at Dessau, Germany. His father, Mendel,* a school-master, though very poor, gave him a careful education. He himself instructed the boy in Hebrew and the rudiments of Jewish learning; othere instructed him in the Talmud. The Old Testament also contributed to the forma- tion of his mind. The poetical books of those ancient records attracted the boy par- ticularly. The famous book of Maimoni- des, More Nebochim (Guide ofthe Erring), happening to fall into his hands, excited him firet to the inquiry after truth, and to a liberal way of thinking. He studied this work with such ardent zeal, that he was attacked by a nervous fever, whicli, care- lessly treatetl, entailed upon him for the rest of his life a crooked spine and weak health. His father was unable to support him any longer, and he wandered, in 1742, to Berlin, where he lived several years in great poverty, dependent on the charity of some persons of his own religion. Chance made him acquainted with Israel Moses, a man of philosophical penetration, and a great mathematician, who, perse- cuted every where on account of his lib- eral views, lived also in utter poverty, and became a martyr to truth. This man often argued with Mendelssohn on the principles of Maimonides. He also gave him a Hebrew translation of Euclid, and thus awakened in the youth a love for mathematics. A young Jewish physician, named Kisch, encouraged him to study Latin, and gave him some instruction in this language; doctor Gumpery made him acquainted with modern literature. Thus he lived without any certain sup- * It was very customary among the German Jews to add the syllable sohn (son) to the name of the father. A similar usage exists among many Asiatic tribes, and among nations in gen- eral in their early stages. port, all the time occupied with study, until a silk manufacturer of his tribe, at Berlin, Mr. Bernard, appointed him tutor of his children. At a later period, he took him as a partner in his business. In 1754, he became acquainted with Lea- sing (q. v.), who had a decided influence upon bis mind. Intellectual philosophy became now his chief study. His Letters on Sentiments were the firet fruit of his labore in this branch. He became now also acquainted with Nicolai and Abbt (q. v.), and his correspondence with the latter is a fine monument ofthe friendship and familiarity which existed between these two distinguished men. Mendels- sohn contributed to several of the firet periodicals, and now and then appeared before the public with philosophical works, which acquired him fame, not only in Germany, but also in foreign countries. lie established no new system, but was, nevertheless, one of the most profound and patient thinkers of his age, and the excellence of his character was en- hanced by his modesty, uprightness, and amiable disposition. His disinterested- ness was without limits, and his benefi- cence ever ready as far as his small means would allow. He knew how to elude with delicacy the zealous efforts of La- vater (q. v.) to convert him to Christiani- ty; yet his grief at seeing himself so un- expectedly assailed, brought on him a severe sickness, which long incapacitated him for scientific pursuits. In his Jeru- salem, oder uber religiose Macht und Judkn- thum, he gave to the world, in 1783, mauy excellent ideas, which were much misun- derstood, partly because they attacked the prejudices of centuries. In some morn- ing lessons he had expounded to his son, and other Jewish youths, the elements of his philosophy, particularly the doctrine of God. He therefore gave the name of Morning Hours (Morgenstunden) to the work containing the results of his in- vestigations, of which his death prevent- ed him from completing more than one volume. F. H. Jacobi having addressed to him a treatise On the Doctrine of Spinoza, he thought himself obliged to defend his deceased friend Lessing against the charge of having been an advocate of Spinoza's doctrines. Without regarding the ex- hausted state of his health, he hastened to publish his piece entitled Moses Mendels- sohn to the Friends of Lessing, and be- came, in consequence, so much weaken- ed, that a cold was sufficient to put an end to his valuable life, in 1786. The German language is indebted to him, in MENDELSSOHN—MENDOZA. 407 part, for its developement. In the philo- sophical dialogue, he made the first suc- cessful attempt among the writers of his country, taking for his models Plato and Xenophon. Besides the works already mentioned, he wrote PhUosophische Schrif- ten (Berlin, 1761 and 1771, 2 vols.); his masterpiece, Phadon, or On the Immor- tality of the Soul, which has gone through several editions since 1767, and has been translated into most modern European languages; and his translation of the five books of Moses, the Psalms, &c. Mendez-Pinto, Ferdinand, a cele- brated traveller, was a native of Portugal. In 1537, be embarked in a ship bound for the Indies ; but, in the voyage, it was attacked by the Moore, who carried it to Mocha, and sold Ferdinand for a slave. After various adventures, he arrived at Ormus, whence he proceeded to the In- dies, and returned to Portugal in 1558. He published a curious account of his travels, which has been translated into French and English. Mendez-Pinto, from his excessive credulity, has been classed with the English sir John Man- deville, and both are now chiefly quoted for their easy belief and extravagant fiction. Mendicant Orders. (See Orders, Re- ligious.) Mendoza, don Diego Hurtado de ; a Spanish classic, distinguished, likewise, as a politician and a general, in the brilliant age of Charles V. He was descended from an ancient family, which had pro- duced several eminent scholars and states- men, and was born at Granada, in 1503. As a poet and historian, he contributed to establish the reputation of Castilian litera- ture ; but his public life displayed nothing ofthe finer feelings of the poet, the impar- tial love of truth of a philosopher, or the clear discernment of the experienced statesman. Stern, severe, arbitrary, haugh- ty, he was a formidable instrument of a despotic court. When don Diego left the university of Salamanca, where his tal- ents, wit and acquirements had rendered him conspicuous, he served in the Span- ish army in Italy, and, in 1538, Charles V apjiointed him ambassador to Venice. In 1542, he was imperial plenipotentiary to the council of Trent, and in 1547, ambas- sador to the court of Rome, where he persecuted and oppressed all those Ital- ians who yet manifested any attachment to the freedom of their country. As cap- tain-general and governor of Sienna, he subjected that republic to the dominion of Cosmo I of Medici, under Spanish su- premacy, and crushed the Tuscan spirit of liberty. Hated by tbe liberals, held in horror by Paul III, whom he was charged to humble in Rome itself, he ruled only by bloodshed ; and, although constandy threatened with the dagger of assassins, not only for his abuses of his power, but also on account of his love intrigues in Rome, he continued to govern until 1554, when he was recalled by Charles V. Amidst the schemes of arbitrary power, Mendoza employed himself in literary la- bor#, and particularly in the collection of Greek and Latin manuscripts. He sent learned men to examine the monastery of Mount Athos, for this purpose, and took advantage of his influence at Soliman's court for the furtherance of the same ob- ject After the abdication of Charles V, he was attached to the court of Philip II. An affair of gallantry involved him in a quarrel with a rival, who turned his dag- ger upon him. Don Diego threw him from the balcony of the palace into the street, and was, in consequence, thrown into prison, where he spent his time in writing love elegies. He was afterwards banished to Granada, where he observed the progress of tbe Moorish insurrection in the Alpujarra mountains, and wrote the history of it. This work is considered one of the best historical writings in Span- ish literature. He was also engaged till the time of his death (1575) in translating a work of Aristotle, with a commentaiy. His library he bequeathed to the king, and it now forms one of the ornaments of the Escurial. (For a criticism on his writings, the reader may consult Bouterwek and Sismondi.) His poetical epistles are the first classical models of the kind in the literature of his countiy. They are most- ly imitations of Horace, written man easy style, and with much vigor, and show the man of the world. Some of them delin- eate domestic happiness and the tenderer feelings with so much truth that we can with difficulty recognise the tyrant of Si- enna. His sonnets are deficient in eleva- tion, grace and harmony. His canzoni are often obscure and forced. In the Spanish forms of poetry, redondUlas, quin- tUlas and vUlancicos, he surpassed his pred- ecessors in elegance of diction. His sat- ires, or burlescas, were prohibited by the inquisition. As a prose writer, he forms an epoch ; he has been called the father of Spanish prose. His comic romance, written while he was yet a student,—Vida de LazarUlo de Tormes (Tarragona, 1536, continued by Luna, Saragossa, 1652),—has been translated into foreign languages. The hero is a cunning beggar, and the life 408 MENDOZA—MENGS. of the various classes of the people is de- scribed in it with great spirit and truth. The numerous imitations of Lazarilio de Tormes produced a peculiar class of writ- ings in Spanish literature—gusto picarres- co, so called. (See Spanish Literature.) His second great work, the History of the War of Granada, may be compared with the works of Livy and Tacitus. Though Mendoza does not pronounce judgment, yet it is easy to see, from his relation, that the severity and tyranny of Philip nad driven the Moors to despair. The Span- ish government would not, therefore, per- mit the printing of it till 1610, and then only with great omissions. The first com- plete edition was published in 1776. His complete works also appeared at Valen- cia, in 1776. Menedemus of Eretria, in Eubcea ; founder of the Eretrian school of philos- ophy, which formed a branch of the So- cratic. He was a pupil of Plato and Stil- po, and ascribed truth only to identical propositions. Diogenes Laertius wrote his life. He is said to have starved himself to death because he could not engage Antig- onus to restore freedom to his country. Menelaus ; son or grandson of Atre- us, aud brother of Agamemnon. From his father-in-lavv,Tyndareus, whose daugh- ter Helen he married, be received the kingdom of Sparta. He was at Crete, for the purpose of dividing the inheritance left by his paternal grandfather, Cretus, when Paris carried off his wife Helen, with a part of his treasures and some fe- male slaves, and conveyed them to Troy. On learning this, Menelaus, with Palame- des, went to Troy, to demand satisfaction; and this being refused, he summoned the Greek princes to revenge the affront, ac- cording to their promise. He himself led 60 ships to Troy, and showed himself a brave warrior. Homer gives him the title of fiow iyados, on account of the loudness of his cry in battle, and describes him as mild, brave and wise. After the conquest of Troy, Menalaus took Helen, to return with her to his native land. Eight yeare lie wandered before he reached home. He firet went to Tenedos, then to Lesbos and Eubcea, but, being tossed about by 6torms and tempests, he had to land in Cypria, Phoenicia, Egypt and Libya, and was, in several instances, detained for a long time. On the island of Pharus, on the Egyptian coast, he surprised Proteus asleep, by the aid of Eidothea, his daugh- ter, and compelled him to disclose the means which he must take to reach home. Proteus likewise informed him that he should not die, but would be translated alive into Elysium, as a demigod and the husband of Helen. Menes. (See Hieroglyphics, division Chronological Periods of Egyptian Histo- Mengs, Anthony Raphael, one of the most distinguished artists ofthe 18th cen- tury, born at Aussig in Bohemia, 1728, was the son of an indifferent Danish art- ist, who had settled in Dresden, From the sixth year of his age, the young Ra- phael was compelled to exercise himself in drawing, daily and hourly, and, a few yeare later, was instructed by his father in oil, miniature and enamel painting. The father hardly allowed him a moment for play, set him tasks, which he was required to accomplish within a given time, and severely punished him if he failed. In 1741, the young artist accompanied his father to Rome, and studied the remains of ancient statuary, the works of Michael Angelo in the Sistine chapel, and finally, the inimitable productions of the divine Raphael in the Vatican. He was left to pass the day there with bread and water, and in the evening his studies were exam- ined with the greatest severity. In 1744, his father returned with him to Dresden, and Augustus soon after appointed him court-painter. A second visit to Rome was occupied in renewing his former studies, studying anatomy, &c. His first great compositions appeared in 1748, and met with universal admiration. A boly fami- ly was particularly admired ; and the young peasant girl who served him as a model became bis wife. On his return to Dresden, the king appointed hiin princi- pal court-painter. In 1751, he was engag- ed to paint the altar-piece for the Catho- lic chapel, with leave to execute it in Rome. At this time, he made a copy of Raphael's School of Athens for the duke of Northumberland. The seven years' war deprived him of his pension, and, in 1754, he received the direction of the new aeademy of painting in the Capitol. In 1757, the Celestines employed him to paint the ceiling of the church of St Eu- sebius, his first fresco. He soon after painted, for cardinal Albani, the Parnas- sus in his villa, and executed various oil paintings. In 1761, Charles III invited Mengs to Spain, where his principal works at this time were an assembly of the gods and a descent from the cross. Returning to Rome, he executed a great allegorical fresco painting for the pope, in the camera de' papiri, and, after three years, returned to Madrid. At this time, MENGS—MENOMONIES. 409 he executed the .apotheosis of Trajan, in fresco, his finest work. He died in Rome, in 1779, leaving seven children, thirteen having died previously. His expensive manner of living, and his collections of drawings of masters, vases, engravings, &c, had absorbed all his gains, although during the last 18 yeare he had received 180,000 scudi. A splendid monument was erected to his memory by his friend the cavalier d'Azara, at the side of Ra- phael, and another by the empress of Rus- sia, in St. Peter's. Mengs's composition and grouping is simple, noble and studied ; his drawing correct and ideal; his expres- sion, in which Raphael was bis model, and bis coloring, in every respect, are ex- cellent. His works are finished with the greatest care. His writings, in different languages (published, in Italian, by Aza- ra, 1783), particularly bis Remarks-on Cor- reggio, Raphael and Titian, are highly instructive. His friend, the celebrated Winckelmann (q. v.), rendered him valua- ble assistance in the preparation of them. (See Gothe's Winckdmann und sein Jahr- hundert.) Menilite. (See Opal.) Meninski, or Menin, Francis (Francis a Mesgnien), a celebrated Orientalist, was born in Lorraine, in 1623, and studied at Rome, under the learned Jesuit Grattini. At the age of 30, he accompanied the Polish ambassador to Constantinople, and, applying himself to the study ofthe Turk- ish language, became first interpreter to the Polish embassy at the Porte, and, soon after, was appointed ambassador plenipo- tentiary to that court. He was natural- ized in Poland, and added the termination ski to his family name of Menin. In 1661, he became interpreter of the Ori- ental languages at Vienna, and was in- trusted with several important commis- sions. In 1669, going to visit the holy sepulchre of Jerusalem, he was created a knight of that order, and, on his return to Vienna, was created one of the emperor's council of war. His jirincipal work was his Thesaurus Linguarum Orientalium, published at Vienna in 1680. A new edi- tion of this v aluable work was begun in 1780, but remains still unfinished. Me- ninski died at Vienna in 1698. Menippus, a cynic, and disciple of the second Menedemus, was a native of Ga- dara, in Palestine. His writings were chiefly of a satirical kind, insomuch that Lucian styles him " the most snarling of cynics," and, in two or three of his dia- logues, introduces him as the vehicle of his own sarcasms. It appears that his vol. viii. 35 satires were composed in prose; on w hich account those of Varro were denominated Menippean ; and, for the same reason, that of satire M'nippie was given, in France, to the celebrated piece written against the league.' Menippus is said to have hanged himself, in consequence of being robbed of a large sum of money. He had been originally a slave, but purchased his freedom, and was made a citizen of Thebes. None of his works is now extant. Menno, Simonis (Le.the son of Simon), born in Friesland, in 1505, joined the Anabaptists in 1537, having been previ- ously a Roman Catholic priest. After the suppression ofthe disturbances at Munster, Menno collected the scattered remnants of the sect, antl organized societies, for which he secured the toleration of the govern- ment. His peregrinations for many yeare, in Holland and the north of Germany, as far as Livonia, contributed to increase the number of his followers, and to dissem- inate his doctrines among those who were not satisfied with the progress ofthe Prot- estant churches in reform. Except in some opinions concerning the incarnation of Christ, to which he was probably led by the controversy concerning the bodily presence of Christ in the eucharist, and in the ail ministration of baptism to adults only, his tenets agreed, in general, with those of the Calvinists. Menno died at Oldeslohe, in Holstein, 1561. His follow ere are called Mennonites, an account of whom has been given in the article Ana- baptists. Menologicm (from ii^ri, the moon, and \oyos, discourse, report, &(-.), in the Greek church, has about the same signification as martyrologium (q. v.) in the Roman church. The Menologium is a book in which the festivals of every month are recorded, with the names and biographies of the saints and martyrs, in the order in which they are read in the masses, the ceremonies ofthe day, &c. Menovio.mes, Menomenies ; a tribe of Indians, residing in the North-West Ter- ritory, to the south of lake Superior and west of Green bay, called by the French Mangeurs de FoUe-Avoine (or Eaters of * The title of this ingenious and amusing satire is Satyre M^nippie de la Vertu du Catholicon d'Espagne, ou de la Tenue des Etats a Paris en 1593, par MM. de la Ste. Union (Paris, 1594) The title is a satire on Philip II, king of Spain head of the league, who masked his projects un der pretexts of zeal for the Catholic religion. It is the work of several hands, and was, according to Voltaire, of not less advantage to Henry IV than the battle of Ivry. 410 MENOMONIES—MENSURATION. Wild Oats). They belong to the great Chip- peway family. (See Indians, American.) Menou, Jacques Francois, baron de, born in Touraine in 1750, entered the military service at an early age, and rose rapidly to a high rank. In 1789, the noblesse of Touraine chose him their dep- uty to the states-general, where he was one of the earliest to unite with the third estate. Menou turned his attention par- ticularly to the new organization of the army, and proposed to substitute a general conscription of the young men, in the room of the old manner of recruiting. His subsequent votes and propositions, in favor of vesting the declaration of war in the nation, of arming the national guard (1791), &c, were generally ou the revolu- tionary side ; but when the more violent opinions began to prevail, he joined those who endeavored to moderate the excite- ment. In 1792, he resumed his military duties, and was second in command of the troops of the line, stationed near Paris. In this capacity, he accompanied the king to the assembly, and was afterwards repeatedly denounced to the convention as an enemy to the revolution. He, how- ever, escaped condemnation, and, in May (2prairial), 1795, commanded the troops who defended the convention against the insurgents of the faubourg St Antoine. On the 13th Vendemiaire, he was likewise in command, but would not allow his troops to attack the section opposed to the convention, and Bonaparte firet gained ce- lebrity by undertaking that attack. Menou afterwards accompanied general Bonaparte to Egypt, and distinguished himself by his courage on several occasions. After the return of Bonaparte, he married the daughter of a rich bath-keeper of Rosetta, submitting to all the ceremonies of the laws of Mahomet, and adopting the name of Abdallah. On the death of Kleber (q. v.), he took the chief command, and, after a gallant defence ?n Alexandria, was obliged to capitulate to the English. Bonaparte received him favorably, on his arrival iu France, and appointed him gov- ernor of Piedmont Menou was after- wards sent to Venice, in the same capaci- ty, and died there in 1810. Menschikoff, Alexander, the son of a peasant, born near Moscow, in 1674, was employed by a pastry-cook to sell pastiy in the streets of Moscow. Different ac- counts are given of the first cause of his rise. According to some statements, he overheard the project of a conspiracy by the Strelitz, and communicated it to the czar; other accounts represent him as having attracted the notice of Lefort (q. v.), who took him into his service, and, dis- cerning his great powers, determined to educate him for public affaire. Lefort took the young Menschikolf with him on the great embassy in 1697, pointed out to him whatever was worthy of his attention, and instructed him in military affaire, and in the maxims of politics and government. On the death of Lefort, Menschikoff suc- ceeded him in the favor of the czar, who placed such entire confidence in him, that he undertook nothing without his advice; yet his passion for money was the cause of many abuses, and he was three times subjected to .a severe examination, and was once also condemned to a fine. The emperor punished him for smaller of- fences on the spot; but much of his selfish- ness and faithlessness was unknown to his sovereign. He was much indebted, for support, to the emjiress Catharine. I lo became firet minister and general field- marehal, baron and prince of the German empire, and received ordere from the courts of Copenhagen, Dresden and Ber- lin. Peter also conferred on him the title of duke of Ingria. On the death of Peter, it was chiefly through the influence of Menschikoff that Catharine was raised to tbe throne, and that affairs were conduct- ed during her reign. (See Catharine I.) When Peter II succeeded her on the throne, Menschikoff grasped, with a bold and sure hand, the reins of government In 1727, when his power was raised to the highest pitch, he was suddenly hurled from his elevation. Having embezzled a sum of money which the emperor had intended for his sister, he was condemned to perpetual exile in Siberia, and his im- mense estate was confiscated. He passed the rest of his life at Berezov, where he lived in such a frugal way, that, out of a daily allowance of ten roubles, he saved enough to erect a small woodeir church, on wbich he himself worked as a carpen- ter. He sunk into a deep melancholy, said nothing to any one, and died in 1729. Menschikoff was selfish, avaricious, and ambitious, implacable and cruel, but gra- cious, courageous, well informed, capa- ble of large views and plans, and perse- vering in the execution of them. His services in the promotion of civilization, commerce, the arts and sciences, and in the establishment of Russian respectability abroad, have been productive of permanent effects. Menses. (See Catamenia.) Mensuration is the art of ascertaining the contents of superficial areas, or planes; MENSURATION—MENTAL DERANGEMENT. 411 of solids, or substantial objects; and the lengths, breadths, &c, of various figures, either collectively or abstractedly. The mensuration of a plane superficies, or sur- face, lying level between its several boun- daries, is easy: when the figure is regular, such as a square, or a parallelogram, the height, multiplied by the breadth, will give the superficial contents. In regard to triangles, their bases, multiplied by half their heights, or their heights by half their bases, will give the superficial measure. The height of a triangle is taken by means of a perpendicular to the base, let fell from the apex or summit. Any rec- tangular figure may have its surface esti- mated, however numerous the sides may be, simply dividing it into triangles, by drawing lines from one angle to another, but taking care that no cross lines be made: thus, if a triangle should be equally divided, it may be done by one line, which must, however, be drawn from any one point to the centre of the opposite face. A four-sided figure will be divided into two triangles, by one oblique line connecting the two opposite angles; a five-sided figure (or pentagon) by two lines, cutting, as it were, one triangle out of the middle, and making one on each side; a six-sided figure (or hexagon) will require three diagonals, which will make four triangles; and so on, to any extent, and however long, or short, the several sides may be respectively. The most essential figure is the circle, of which mathematicians conceive it impossible to ascertain the area with perfect precision, except by the aid of logarithmic and alge- braic demonstration. It may be sufficient in this place to state, that 84^ of the diam- eter will give the side of a square, whose area will be correspondent with that of a circle having 10 for its diameter. Many circular or cylindrical figures come un- der the measurer's consideration—mirrors, arched passages, columns, &c. The con- tents of a pillar are easily ascertained, even though its diameter may be perpetu- ally varying; for if we take the diameter in different parts, and strike a mean be- tween every two adjoined measurements, and multiply that mean area by the depth or interval between the two, the solid con- tents will be found. Tbe contents of pyramids are measured by multiplying the areas of their bases by half their lengths, or their lengths by half the areas of tbeir bases. Cones, whose sides are straight, are equal to one third the solid contents of cylinders, equal to them in base and altitude. Solids, which have a certain degree of regularity, may be easily measured: thus a cube is computed by multiplying firet its width by its length then their product by its height: thus a cube, measuring four feet each way, would be 4 X 4 = 16 X 4 = 64. This is the meaning of what is called the cube root. (See Cube.) Parallelopipedons, or solids of a long form, such as squared timbers, are measured by the same means. For the mensuration of growing timber, various modes have been devised. After a tree has been felled, its girth is usually taken at each end, and at the middle, when there is no particular swell, or the top extremity does not suddenly decrease. But where the irregularity is great, it is better to take many more girths, and, summing up the whole, to divide their amount by the number of girths taken, so as to establish a mean measurement. Di- vide that mean measurement by 4, to find the side of a square to which the tree will be reduced when prepared for the sawyer. If the whole solid contents are to be esti- mated, divide by 3, instead of by 4, and taking the third part, thus given, for a diam- eter, proceed in the way already shown, to find the side of a square, equal to the cir- cle of whicli that ascertained third part is the diameter. Solid bodies, or areas, such as hoy-stacks, interiors of barns, granaries, &.c, come under the rule laid down for cubes, &c. When any sides fall in regularly, as in garrets, &c, the inclined part must be treated as a pyra- mid, or as a quoin (or wedge), and the whole be summed up together. The contents of casks, tubs, &c, are found bj the process of gauging. (For that part of the subject which appertains to the ad- measurement of lands, as also to the dis- tances, heights, &c, of remote objects, accessible or otherwise, see Surveying.) Mental Derangement, Insanity. By these general terms we understand every form of intellectual disorder, whether consisting in a total want or alienation of understanding, as in idiocy, or in the dis- eased state of one or several of the facul- ties. Medical writers have adopted dif- ferent systems of classification, in their u-eatment of this subject; but perhaps the most convenient is that whicli comprises all mental diseases under the four heads of mania, melancholy, demency or fatuity and idiocy. Lunacy, in its proper sense, implies an influence ofthe changes ofthe moon (Latin, luna) on the state of £•♦- mind or body, of which modem science cannot recognise the existence. It is true that many diseases are periodical in 412 MENTAL DERANGEMENT. their returns, and it is not improbable that paroxysms of violence among insane persons, may be really increased at the time of a full moon, by the effect of the shadows of clouds, and other objects, as ghosts are generally seen by moonlight; but any other lunar influence neither ex- perience nor science can discover. The causes of insanity are divided, by modern writers, iuto physical and moral. Every excess of passion, joy, grief, anger, fear, anxiety, &c, may become a moral cause of insanity. Great political or civil rev- olutions have always been observed to be attended with numerous cases of mental derangement Pinel observed this phe- nomenon in France, after the revolution of 1789, and Dr. Rush describes similar effects, in the U. States, after the war of the revolution. Strong religious excite- ment often produces similar results, al- though, in many cases, religious enthusi- asm is only a form ofthe malady, and not a cause. Madden (Travels in Egypt, Nubia, &c, 1830) states that insanity is rare among the Mohammedans, and attributes it to their consoling belief in the certainty of their salvation. Dr. Rush thinks that the disease is more common among civilized communities than with savages, on ac- count of the greater influence of moral causes on the former. The physical causes of insanity are various and nume- rous; diseases of various kinds, and of different organs, bodily injuries or wounds, excessive indulgence in eating, drinking, and other sensual pleasures, privation, exposure to extreme cold or heat, &c, are among them. Insane persons are often, however, in good health, and dis- section does not always detect a disor- dered condition of the organs. Philoso- phy is not sufficiently acquainted with the mutual action and reaction of the body and the mind on each other, to decide how far the disordered state of the one is consistent with the sanity ofthe other; nor is it certain that there is any one organ or function which must be diseased to affect the mind. Climate, age, occupation and sex, are often mentioned as causes influ- encing insanity. But climate does not appear to be an exciting cause, although the moral, civil, religious, or physical con- dition of a nation may have rendered the disorder more frequent in some countries than in others. The seasons, however, appear to exercise au influence, and it is generally observed that the cases of insan- ity are most numerous in the hottest part of the year. Suicides are most frequent when the thermometer is above 84°. Al- though many circumstances, both phys- ical and moral, appear to render the fe- male sex most liable to' insanity, it does not appear that the number of insane females is greater than that of males: drunkenness being more prevalent among the latter, may be one cause of this. In both sexes, the most active period of life, from 30 to 40, presents the greatest num- ber of cases. In regard to occupation, sufficient data do not exist to show that there is any decided predominance of cases in any particular employment. Idi- ocy is either a congenital or an acquired defect of the intellectual faculties, or, as Pinel defines it, an obliteration, more or less absolute, of the functions of the un- derstanding and the affections ofthe heart. Congenital idiocy may originate from a malformation of the cranium, or of the brain itself; the senses are often wanting, or defective, and life is commonly of short duration. Acquired idiocy proceeds from mechanical injury ofthe cranium, or from an injury or a disease of the brain, from excess in sensual indulgences, intemper- ance, fatigue, and from moral causes. In this, the senses may be partially affected, or quite destroyed, and life often contin- ues to old age. Absolute idiocy admits of no cure ; but it sl.oiild not too hastily be concluded that a patient is in this state. The term demency (fatuity, the pwpta ofthe Greeks, and dementia of later writers) is applied to a complete or partial hebetude of individual faculties, particularly those of association and comparison, producing confusion of thoughts, loss of memory, childishness, a diminution or loss of the powers of volition; it differs from idiocy in being curable. Persons are reduced to this state, because exterior objects make too weak an impression on them; the sensations are, therefore, feeble, obscure and incomplete; the patient does not form a correct idea of objects, nor compare, associate or abstract ideas. It is often merely an attendant of other diseases, or other forms of insanity, and is frequently quite temporary, though it often becomes permanent.—Mania (Greek, pavta, mad- ness) is a species of mental derangement, characterized by the disorder of one or several of the faculties, or by a blind im- pulse to acts of fuiy. Adults are the principal subjects. A nervous tempera- ment, an irritable constitution, predispose to it. Females are more exposed to it than males, particularly at the period when menstruation begins or ceases, dur- ing pregnancy, and after delivery. Violent emotions, a dissipated life, excess in any MENTAL DERANGEMENT—MENTOR. 413 indulgence, sometimes produce it. The disorder of the intellectual faculties is manifested by extravagant, gay, gloomy or furious emotions ; the gestures and words seem automatic. Sometimes the conver- sation is rational, but the patient burets out, at intervals, into paroxysms of rage, at- tacking every thing which he meets ; the moral affections also seem deadened, and the most ferocious hatred is displayed towards the most natural objects of love. It Is sometimes cured, but sometimes remains stationary, and sometimes is con- verted into demency. Repeated bleeding, hellebore, cold water poured upon the bead, scourging, and other means of terror, were formerly employed as remedies. At present, solitude, warm baths, low diet, &c, are more commonly applied. Melancholy (from itt\as, black, and x°*i> bile), called also monomanie (Greek, n°vv, only, and fiavia, madness); a species of menial disorder, consisting in a depression of spirits. Some dark or mournful idea occupies the mind exclusively, so that, by degrees, it becomes unable to judge rightly of existing circumstances, antl the facul- ties are disturbed in their functions. The powers ofthe soul become weakened, we might say crippled. If these feelings are allowed to attain a height at whicb the power of self-control is lost, a settled gloom takes possession of the mind. Consciousness, however, may still con- tinue ; the pereon knows his state. But if consciousness is also lost, if this state becomes continual, the melancholic pa- tient is insensible to the world around him; he only lives within himself, and there only in the circle of one fixed idea. In this disordered state of the feelings, the other faculties may still continue to act, although the mode and result of their operation will necessarily be influenced by the existing disease. There may be reflection in tbe actions of the patient, but the reflection proceeds from false prem- ises. Several kinds of melancholy are distinguished ; tfce distinctions are found- ed, however, mostly on the cause of the disease. A very common cause of mel- ancholy is love. He who loses the great object of bis wishes and affections, which has absorbed, we might almost say, the whole activity of his soul, feels more than jealousy at the success of a fortunate rival; existence ajipeare to him a blank, and himself the most unhappy of men. Another frequent cause of melancholy is gloomy views of religion. A constant excitement of the feelings by the awful picture of the eternal punishment of sin, 35* often produces absolute despair. The use of such means, to prepare the mind for the reception of deep religious principle, has not unfrequently led to distraction and suicide. Repeated failures in enterprises pursued with anxious zeal, may also re- duce the faculties of a man so much, that he becomes wrapt up solely in the idea of his misfortune. Melancholy patients often flee from men, haunt solitary places, such as grave-yards, and are given to noc- turnal rambles. The course of the dis- ease is various ; sometimes it lasts a series of years; sometimes it ceases of itself, or is cured by medical aid; more frequently it passes over into other kinds of insanity, or into bodily diseases, as dropsy of the chest, consumption, dropsy in the head, apoplexy, &c. It is said that melancholy peojile rarely suffer from the gout, or are attacked by epidemic diseases. Several physical eauses are enumerated as induc- ing it, particularly a superfluity of black bile (hence the Greek name.) Various derangements in the physical system tend to occasion it, as debility of the nerves, s violent flow ofthe blood to the heart, su- perfluity of thick blood. (For the light in which the law regards melancholy pa- tients, see the article Non Compos.) Bur- ton's Anatomy of Melancholy consists chiefly of extracts from ancient authors, illustrating the causes, effects and cure of that morbid affection. The author's own reflections are few, but they are original, ingenious and striking. The subject of insanity is fully treated in the following works : Burrow's Commentaries on the Causes, Forms, Symptoms and Treatment of Insanity (London, 1828); Pinel, Traih sur VAliination Mentale ; Voisin, Des Causes Morales d Physiques des Maladies Mentales (1826); Willis, Treatise on Men- tal Derangement (1823).. Mentchikof. (See Menschikoff.) Mentor, son of Alcimus, the confiden- tial friend of Ulysses, who intrusted to him the care of his domestic affairs, during his absence iu the war against Troy. The education of the young Telemachus fell to his charge, and when the latter set out on his voyage in search of his father, Mi- nerva accompanied him under the form of Mentor (Odyssey, ii, 390; iii, 12, &c), acting the part of a prudent and expe- rienced counsellor to the young hero. Tins character of a sage adviser is more fully developed in the Tilimaque of Fene lon, in which Mentor plays a conspicuous part. Mentor has thence acquired the metaphorical sense of a wise and faithfin counsellor or monitor. 414 MENTZ—MENZEL. Mentz, or Mayence, or Mainz ; a city of Germany, in Hesse-Darmstadt, former- ly capital of an electorate and archbish- opric, situated at the conflux of the Rhine and Maine, called in Latin Moguntia, or Moguntiacum ; lon, 8° E.; lat. 49° 59' N.; population, 25,251. It is the strongest town in Germany: towards the river less defence is necessaiy, but on the land side the works are extensive and compli- cated. The fortress belongs to the Ger- manic confederation. The town is built nearly in the form of a semicircle, the Rhine forming the base. The interior is by no means handsome. The streets are crooked, narrow, and gloomy, and the houses mostly old fashioned. It contains a cathedral, a lyceum, schools of medi- cine, a cabinet of coins and medals, a cab- inet of natural history, a gallery of paint- ings, and a library of 90,000 volumes. The trade consists partly in wine, and partly in commission business, connected with the navigation of the river. The town is famous for the beauty of its envi- rons and prospects. A university was founded here by Charlemagne in 800, and reestablished in 1482, by the archbishop Diether, ofthe house of Isenburg, but has been since converted iuto a lyceum. The honor of the invention of printing was claimed by John Faust (q.v.), a goldsmith of Mentz, and by John Guttenberg. (q. v.) The archbishopric of Mentz was an ex- tensive electoral principality. The arch- bishop was also elector, and ranked as the first archbishop in Germany. The archbishopric was suppressed in 1802, and the city of Mentz is now only a bish- op's see. (See Germany.) Menu. The Hindoo mythology men- tions fourteen of these mystical personages, of whom seven have already reigned on the earth. The celebrated code of laws, or the Manava Dherma Sastra, which goes under the name of Menu, is attributed to the first of the name, or Swayambhoura, the son of Brama. The name is derived from men, signifying intdligence (Latin mens, mind), and sir W. Jones suggests that it is connected with Menes, the name of the firet king of Egypt and Minos (q. v.), the Cretan lawgiver. The code, which has been translated into English by sir W. Jones (Works, voL iii), is tbe basis of the whole civil and religious policy of the Hindoos. Menu appeare in it relating the history ofthe creation ofthe universe to the Rishis, or holy saints; he then commands Brigu to repeat the divine laws of Brahma. These laws relate to the divisions into castes, education, marriage, diet, purifica- tion, devotion, private and criminal law, penances and expiations, transmigration, &c. The last .Menu, whose reign is not yet over, was Satyavrata, or Vaivaswata, whose history is given as follows, in the Bhagvat:—Brahma, being inclined to slum- ber, the demon Hayagriva stole the Vedas from his lips. Heri, the preserver of the universe, discovering this deed, assumed the shape of a small fish, and appeared to the holy king Satyavrata, who was so de- vout that his only sustenance was water. Having grown to an enormous size in a few days, he was recognised by the pious king, to whom he declared that in seven days the earth should be plunged in an ocean of death, and promised to send a large vessel for his deliverance ; into which, continued the god-fish, thou shalt enter with seven saints and pairs of all brute animals; and thou shalt fasten it with a large sea-serpent to my horn, for I will be near thee. Satyavrata complied with these directions, and the primeval male, speaking aloud to his own divine essence, pronounced for his instruction a sacred purana, explaining the principle of the soul, the external being. Heri then slew the demon, and recovered the sacred books, and Satyavrata was appointed the seventh Menu ; but the appearance of the honied fish was Maya (or delusion). Menzaiia.no ; a town of Italy, on the Mincio. On the 28th of December, 1801, a bloody battle was fought here between the French and the Austrians: the Frencli conquered, and made 8000 prisoners. Menzaleh, or Menzala ; a large lake in Egypt, running parallel with the Medi- terranean, from which it is divided by a narrow slip of land, 60 miles in length, and from two to twelve in breadth, over- flowed and filled by the waters of the Nile. It was anciently called Tanis, from the town of that name. Its waters are soft in the time of inundation, and become brackish as the river retreats within its channel. Numerous boats continually fish on the lake. Length ofthe lake from north-west to south-east 43,000 fathoms, breadth from 12,000 to 26,000. Menzel, Frederic William; private secretary in the royal cabinet at Dresden, whose treachery hastened the breaking out ofthe seven years' war. Frederic II, sus- pecting that negotiations were going on against him between the courts of Peters- burg, Vienna and Dresden, directed his minister at the court of Saxony to procure information on the subject. Chance made the ambassador acquainted with Menzel, whose expensive and dissipated habits had MENZEL—MERCANTILE SYSTEM. 415 plunged him into embarrassments, to re- lieve which be had been induced to pur- loim from the public treasury. The un- happy man hoped to preserve himself by a greater crime, and, in consideration of a large sum of money, delivered to the Prus- sian ambassador copies of the secret cor- respondence between Saxony, Russia and Austria, relating to Prussia. His con- science, indeed, was awakened, but he could not turn back without forfeiting the protection of the ambassador in case of detection. During a journey to Warsaw, in the retinue of the king, traces of his guilt were at length discovered. Menzel himself was surprised by the report ofthe discoveiy of his treachery in a social par- ty. He attempted to save himself by flight, but was arrested at Prague, on the demand of the court of Saxony, and imprisoned, first at Brtinn, but after the conclusion of the peace of Hubertsburg, in the castle of Konigstein. Here he lived 33 yeare, at first in the strictest custody. During his imprisonment at Briinn, he cherished the hope that Prussia would stipulate for his liberation at the conclusion of peace. Through the favor of king Frederic Augus- tus I,bis condition was somewhat alleviated in the latter part of his life; he received bet- ter food, and permission to take the air now and then ; he was also relieved of the heavy chains which he had worn many yeare. He died in May, 1796, at the age of 70 years. Menzel, Charles Adolphus, was born in 1784, in Grunberg, Silesia. He studied in Halle, devoting bimself particularly to history. He has published several histor- ical works, whicli, though not equal in deep research to those of many contempo- rary writers of Germany, are valuable for their descriptive merit, particularly his Histoiy of the Germans (Breslau, 1815 to 1823, 8 vols., 4to.), which comes down to the death of Maximilian I. As a continua- tion of Becker's Universal Histoiy, he has written a History of modern Times since the Death of Frederic II (Berlin, 1824, 2 vols.). His last work, Modern History of the Germans, from the Reformation to the Act of Confederacy (vol. i, down to 1532, Breslau, 1826), is to be considered a con- tinuation of his History of the Germans. Menzikoff. (See Menschikoff.) Mephitic (from the Latin mephitis, an offensive odor) is used to signify those kinds of air which will not support.com- bustion or animal life, or, more generally, offensive exhalations of any sort. Modern chemistry bas given particular names to manv of these. (See Carbon, and Sulphur.) There was a Roman goddess called Me- phitis, who was worshipped as a protec- tress from such exhalations. Meqcinez ; a city of Morocco, in Fez, situated in a plain surrounded with fer- tile valleys and eminences, watered by a number of rivers; 35 miles south-west of Fez, 165 north-east of Morocco ; lon. 5° 307 W.; lat. 35° 5& N.; population stated by Jackson at 110,000; by Hassel at only 15,000. It is frequently the residence of the emperor. It is surrounded with walls, and the palace is fortified with bastions. The Jews have a quarter appropriated to themselves, walled in and guarded. The Moors at Mequinez are much more affa ble than in the southern provinces. Mercantile System, in political econ- omy, is one that prevails to a greater or less extent in eveiy country of Europe. It was introduced in France by Colbert. (q. v.) As originally understood and acted upon, it embraces some fallacious doc- trines, and carries some just ones to excess. The notion, for example, that wealth is de- rived mostly from foreign commerce, and depends upon an annual importation of specie, called the balance of trade, is errone- ous. This balance was understood to be the bullion or coin received by a country in exchange for a part of its exports, and the foreign trade *was supposed to be ad- vantageous and promotive of the national wealth in proportion as the returns of trade were made in the precious metals, instead of other merchandise, whereas an exchange for iron, tin, leather, or any other useful merchantable commodity, is quite as advantageous, as the importation of specie. It will depend upon the wants of the community whether the importa- tion of one or another article will most promote the national wealth. It would be quite absurd, therefore, to attempt, by legislation, to force trade to yield a bal- ance in specie. As far as this was a di- rect object of the commercial system, it was accordingly mistaken. If a nation needs other things more than specie, such prices will be offered as will induce their importation. But this notion of the im- portance ofthe balance of exports and im- ports is not without its truth in a certain respect. It is undoubtedly an evil for one nation to be constantly indebted to another. It will be found true between individuals, different districts of the same countiy, antl also between different nations, that the in- debted party is the one most liable to make sacrifices. If a people or district, or an individual, will keep in advance of their means, and anticipate the income of the 416 MERCANTILE SYSTEM—MERCER. coming year, the consequence will be a perpetually straitened and embarrased state. This was always the case with the British American colonies, and even of the states for many years after the estab- lishment of the American independence. The liberal credits in England enabled them to anticipate their income, and they were, accordingly, always largely indebted to England, and thus constantly straiten- ed and distressed, notwithstanding the country was, during the same time, rapid- ly growing in population and wealth. It is desirable that the commerce of a coun- try should be so conducted as not to keep the country constantly indebted. If we were, therefore, to consider the balance of trade to be a constant standing balance of debt due to, or from, a country, in this sense it would be a subject of great importance. The consequence of large foreign credits, and ofthe desire to consume more of foreign products than the people have present produce of their labor suf- ficient to pay for, is occasionally to drive specie from the country; and the more extensive the credits, the more complete and exhausting will be this drain when it happens. This has been a subject of very frequent experience in the trade be- tween the U. States and Europe. The only way of preventing its recurrence is to produce at home so great a proportion of the commodities wanted for consump- tion, that the exportable produce will be amply sufficient to pay, in the foreign mar- kets, for the foreign products needed. But whether legislation shall be at all, and if at all, to what extent, directed to the advancement of commerce, or any other branch of industry, so as incidental- ly aud consequentially to affect the kind and amount of exchanges with foreign nations, are much agitated questions. The practice of the whole civilized world is to legislate with a reference to national indus- try, and such it always has been. The real ground of doubt seems to relate to the prop- er objects and extent of this legislation. Mercator, Gerard, a mathematician and geographer, bom at Rupelmonde (not, as usually stated, at Ruremond), in the Low Countries, in 1512, studied at Lou- vain, applying himself whb such intensi- ty as to forget to take the necessary food and sleep. His progress in the mathe- matics was very rapid, although without a teacher, and he soon became a lecturer on geography and astronomy, making his in- struments with his own hands. Gran- vella (q. v.), to whom he presented a ter- restrial globe, recommended him to Charles V. Mercator entered into the emperor's service, and executed for him a celestial globe of crystal, and a terrestrial globe of wood. In 1559, he retired to Duisburg, and receivetl the title of cos- mographer to the duke of Juliers. His last yeare were devoted to theological studies. He died in 1594. Mercator pub- lished a great number of maps and charts, which he engraved and colored himself. He is known as the inventor of a method of projection called by his name, in which the meridians and parallels of latitude cut each other at right angles, and are both represented by straight lines, which has the effect of enlarging the degrees of lati- tude, as they recede from the equator. His first maps on this projection were published in 1569; the principles were first explained by Edward Wright, in 1599, in his Corrections of Errors in Nav- igation, whence the discovery has some- times been attributed to him. His Tabu- la Geographica (Cologne, 1578) is the best edition of the maps of Ptolemy, and has been merely copied by his successors. His Atlas has been often republished. Mercer, Hugh, a brigadier-general in the American revolutionary army, was a native of Scotland. He was liberally educated, studied medicine, and acted as a surgeon's assistant in the memorable bat- tle of Culloden. He emigrated from his country, not long after, to Pennsylvania, but removed to Virginia, where he settled and married. He was engaged with Washington in the Indian wars of 1755 &c.; and his children are in possession of a medal which was presented to him by the corporation ofthe city of Philadelphia, for his good conduct in the expedition against an Indian settlement, conducted by colo- nel Armstrong, in September, 1756. In one ofthe engagements with the Indians, gen- eral Mercer was wounded in the right wrist, and being separated from his party,he found that there was danger of his being surrounded by hostile Indians, whose war- whoop and yell indicated their near ap- proach. Becoming faint from loss oi' blood, he took refuge in the hollow trunk of a large tree. The Indians came to the spot where he was concealed, seated themselves about for rest, and then disap- peared. Mercer left his hiding-place, and pursued his course through a trackless wild of about one hundred miles, until he reached fort Cumberland. On the way he subsisted on the body of a rattlesnake, which he met and killed. When the war broke out between the colonies and the mother country, he immediately joined MERCER—MERCURIALE. 417 the American standard, relinquishing an extensive medical practice. Under Wash- ington, whose favor and confidence he en- joyed beyond most of his fellow-officers, he soon reached the rank of brigadier-gene- ral, and, in that command, distinguished himself, particularly in the battles of Tren- ton and Princeton, in the winter of 1776-7. In the affair of Princeton, general Mercer, who commanded the van ofthe American army, after exerting the utmost valor and activity, had his horse killed under him ; and, being thus dismounted, he was sur- rounded by some British soldiers, with whom, when they refused him quarter, he fought desperately, until he was completely overpowered. They stabbed him with their bayonets, inflicted several blows on his head with the butt-end of their mus- kets, and left him for dead on the field of battle. He died in about a week after, from the wounds in his head, in the arms of major George Lewis, the nephew of general Washington, whom the uncle commissioned to watch over his expiring friend. The mangled corpse was removed from Princeton, under a military escort, to Philadelphia, and exposed a day in the coffee-house, with the design of exciting the indignation of the people. It was followed to the grave by at least 30,000 of the inhabitants.—General Mercer, though a lion in battle, was uncommonly placid, and almost diffident in private life. He was beloved and admired, as an accom- plished, polished and benevolent gentle- man. Some interesting anecdotes of him are related in the 3d chapter, 1st vol. ofgen- eral Wilkinson's Memoirs. That writer ob- serves—" Iu general Mercer, we lost, at Princeton, a chief, who, for education, tal- ents, disposition, integrity and patriotism, was second to no man but the com- mander-in-chief, and was qualified to fill the highest trusts of the countiy." Gen- eral Mercer was about 56 yeare of age when he thus perished. Mercia, the largest kingdom of the Saxon* heptarchy, comprehended all the middle counties of England, and, as its frontiers extended to those of the other six kingdoms, as well as to Wales, it de- rived its name from that circumstance (Anglo-Saxon Merk, marches,q. v.). It was reduced by Egbert (q.v.), king of Wessex. (See Turner's Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons.) Mercier, Louis Sebastian, a French writer, remarkable for the eccentricity of his sentiments. He was born at Paris in 1740, and, at the age of 20, published a volume of heroic epistles, after which he renounced poetry for criticism. In his Essai sur VArt dramatique, he attacked the reputation of Corneille, Racine and Voltaire, proposing to replace their works by bis own productions; and, as the come- dians paid no attention to his diatribe, he published a virulent manifesto against them. In 1771 appeared, under the title of L'An 2440, a declamatory tract, which was suppressed by authority. In 1781 was published, anonymously, the two firet volumes of his Tableau de Paris ; after which he removed to Switzerland, and at Neufchatel printed ten more volumes of that work, whicli was favorably received, both in France and hi other countries. Returning home at the beginning of the revolution, he declared himself a friend to liberty, and, in concert with Carra, published Les Annates Politiques, and Chronique du Mois,—journals whicb dis- played both moderation and spirit. He became a member of the convention, in whicli he voted for the detention, instead of the death, of Louis XVI. In 1795, he passed into the council of five hundred, and was subsequently professor of history at the central school, and a member ofthe institute at its formation. Mercier died at Paris in 1814. Among his numerous works are Mon Bonnet de Nuit (Neuf- chatel, 1783, 4 vols., 8vo.); De Vlmpossi- bUiti des Systemes de Copernic et de Newton (1806,8vo.); and Satire contreRacine et Boi- leau(1808). (See Erech'sFronceLitteraire.) Mercure de France ; a journal, re- markable for its antiquity. It is a con- tinuation ofthe Mercure Galant, and forms 1800 small volumes. The Mercure Galant was established in Paris by J. Donneau de Vise, in 1672, and continued until 1716 (forming 571 12mo. volumes). The periodical then took the title of Mercure de France, and appeared, uninterruptedly, from 1717 to 1778, in 603 volumes. Panc- koucke edited it from 1778 to 1792 (174 volumes 12mo.). It then became a daily, and sometimes a weekly paper. A new series, until 1797, comprises 40 volumes, 8vo. It was continued, though once in- terrupted, to 1803. At a later period, the Minerve Franpaise appeared, as a continu- ation. Another periodical adopted the title Mercure de France. So long a con- tinuance must necessarily give value to the contents of a journal, although they may not have been of the most interesting character at the time of their publication. Mercury is, in France, as well as in Ger- many, a very common name for peri- odicals. Mercuriale ; the first Wednesday after the great vacations of the French parlia- 418 MERCURIALE—MERCURY. ments. On this day, they held a full ses- sion, in order to discuss the deficiencies in the administration of justice, and par- ticularly in the couree of business, and to take measures for correcting them. The firet president and the crown-advocate (q.v.) had alternately the duty of reporting to the meeting. From the day of assem- bly, their speeches were called mercurials. This name was also given to a reproof or rebuke, because the members, on this day, received their reprimands. (See Crown- Advocate, Parliaments, and France.) Mercury (called, by the Greeks,Hermes) was the son of Jupiter and Maia, the daughter of Atlas. According to tradition, Arcadia was his birth-place. Four hours after his birth, he left his cradle, and in- vented the lyre, whicli he made by killing a tortoise, and stringing the shell with seven strings. He then sang to it the loves of Jupiter and his mother Maia. Having concealed the lyre in bis cradle,' he began to seek for food; for which pur- pose, he went, in the evening, to Pieria, and stole fifty oxen of the sacred herd of the gods, which he drove backward and forward to confound their tracks; then, going backward himself, he drove them backward also; and, after having killed two of them near the river Aljiheus, roasted them by a fire procured by rub- bing two sticks together, and sacrificed a part to the gods. He concealed the re- mainder in a cavern. He also carefully destroyed all traces of them. The next morning Apollo missed his oxen, and went in search of them ; but he could discover no traces of them until an old man of Pylos told him that he had seen a boy driving a herd of oxen in a very strange manner. Apollo now discovered, by his prophetic art, that Mercury was the thief. He hastened to Maia, and accused the infant, who pretended to be asleep, and, not terrified by the threat of the god, that he would hurl him into Tartarus, steadily maintained his innocence. Apollo, not deceived by the crafty child, carri- ed his complaint to the god of gods. Mercury lied even to him. But Jupiter penetrated the artifice of the boy, and perceived him to be the offender; yet he was not angry with him, but, smiling good-naturedly at his cunning, ordered him to show the place where the oxen were concealed. To secure him, Apollo bound his hands; but his chains fell off, and the cattle appeared, bound together by twos. Mercury then began to play upon his newly-invented lyre, at whicli Apollo was so much enraptured, that he begged the instrument of the inventor, Jeariiedof him how to play on it, and gave him a whip to drive the herds, thenceforth belonging to both in common. Apollo was still more astonished when tbe inge- nious god also gave the flute its tones. They then concluded a contract with each other: Mercury promised never to steal Apollo's lyre or bow, and never to ap- proach his dwelling: the latter gave him, in return, the golden wand of peace, tbe caduceus. (q. v.) The ancients represent Mercury as tbe herald and messenger of the gods. 1 le conducts the souls of the departed to the lower worltl (whence he is" called Psychopompos), and is therefore the herald of Pluto, and the executor of his commands. His magic wand had the power to close the eyes of mortals, to cause dreams, and wake the slumbering. The qualities requisite for a herald he possessed in the highest perfection, and bestowed them on others,—grace, dig- nity, and insinuating mannere. He was also the symbol of prudence, cunning and fraud, and even of perjury. We must remember that rude antiquity did not, as we do, associate any thing dishonorable or base with these ideas. Whoever was distinguished for artifice and deceit, as, for example, Ulysses, was a favorite of Mercury, and enjoyed his assistance. Mercury was also distinguished as the god of theft and robbery, especially when fraud and cunning were employed. The exploits of his childhood have this sym- bolical signification. Among the actions of his manhood, the following are exam- ples of his cunning: He accompanied Hercules when he carried off Cerberus; delivered Jupiter from the cave into which Typhon had cast him ; rescued Mars from the prison in which the Aloides, Otus and Ephialtes had confined him ; killed Argus, the keeper of the unhappy lo; assisted Perseus, when he went to kill Medusa, and lent him the helmet of Pluto, which ren- dered him invisible, and his winged san- dals ; to Nephele, the mother of Phryxus and Helle, he gave the ram with the golden fleece, upon which she carried off her children, when they were about to be sacrificed to the gods, at the instigation of their step-mother Ino. In the wars ofthe giants, he wore the helmet of Pluto, which rendered him invisible, and slew Hippo- lytus. When Typhon compelled the gods to fly before him, and conceal themselves in Egypt, he metamorphosed himself into an ibis. He is also mentioned by Homer as the patron of eloquence, and still more particularly by Hesiod. Of his invei.- MERCURY—MERCURY, OR QUICKSILVER. 419 tions Homer makes no mention. Later writers ascribe to him the invention of dice, music, geometry, the interpretation of dreams, measures and weights, the arts of the palestra lettere, &c. He was also re- garded as the patron of public treaties, as the guardian of roads, and as the protector of travellers. (See Hermes.) Fable relates many of his amours. His children were numerous: among them were Pan and Hermaphroditus. Mercury was worship- ped in all the cities of Greece, but Arca- dia was the chief place of his worehip. His festivals were called Hermaa, and were solemnized in various ways. He had several temples in Rome, and his festival took place on the 15th of May (which month received its name from his mother Maia). At this festival, the mer- chants particularly offered him sacrifices, that he might prosper them in their trade, and render them successful in their enter- prises. Art has variously represented Mercuiy; first, in the rude Hermes, (q. v.) In the monuments of the more ancient style, he apjiears with his beard just be- ginning to grow; at a later period, the prevailing representations of him were as an adroit herald and athlete, and he ac- quired the appearance of extreme youth. In this character, also, room was allowed to fancy. He was represented as a boy, in the prime of youth, and also in the full power of early manhood. Among the curled locks of the boy appear two pro- jecting wings. His tlress consisted of a short leather tunic. In his left hand, he bears a purse, and, holding his right fore- finger against his chin, smiles archly at some device in his mind. As a youth, we find him represented in a variety of attitudes, sometimes with the puree in his hand, sometimes with the caduceus, and sometimes with his winged cap, standing, sitting, or walking. The artists of later times placed him among the youthful ami beardless gods. The most prominent traits of his character are vigor and dex- terity. His short hair lies curled over his head and forehead ; his ears and mouth are small; his positions, whether standing or sitting, always simple and easy; his head inclined forwards, and his look thoughtful. In his beautiful and vigorous frame, we see the inventor of gymnastics; in his attitude, air and aspect, we see the prudence, cunning and good nature of one who can easily gain every body, and ac- complish every thing. In the representa- tion of Mercuiy, the relations of corporeal beauty and mental dexterity are wonder- fully preserved. He '•■ either entirely na- ked, or clad only in the chlamys, which is not often put on with any regularity, but is merely thrown over his shoulders or wound round his aims. His head is sometimes bare; sometimes he has a pair of wings fastened on his temples, and sometimes the cap is placed on his head, to which are occasionally added wings (petasus). The hat, which particularly denotes a wanderer, has, in works of statuary, a flat top and narrow brim: upon vases, however, his hat is represented with wide, hanging flaps, and a pointed top. If the wings are not attached to a band about his head or hat, they are fastened either to his ankles or the soles of his feet, or to the caduceus alone. Artists made the cock his symbol, on account of its vigilance, or love of fighting (in allusion to gymnastics); the tortoise, on account of his invention of the lyre; the purse, be- cause he was the god of traffic; a ram and a goblet, because he was the director of religious ceremonies and sacrifices; the trunk of a palm-tree, upon which his stat- ues lean, because he was the inventor of arithmetic and writing (upon palm-leaves); the harpe, or sickle-shaped knife, because he was the slayer of Argus; and the hound (only upon Alexandrine coins), to indicate sagacity and vigilance. Mercury; a planet. (See the article Planets.) Mercury, or Quicksilver ; the hy- drargyrum of the Latins, from ISwp, water, and apyvpiov, silver, in allusion to its fluid- ity and silvery appearance. Tbe name quicksilver is derived from the alchemists, who regarded this metal as silver in a fluid state, quickened by some inherent princi- ple, which they hoped either to fix or ex- pel. It was known to the ancients, espe- cially to the Greeks and Romans, who employed it in gilding and in the extraction of the precious metals. It is distinguish- ed from all other metals by its extreme fusibility, which is such that it does not take the solid state until cooled to the 39th degree below 0 (Fahrenheit), and, of couree, is always fluid in the temperate climates of the earth. Its color is white, and rather bluer than that of silver. In the solid state, it is imperfectly malleable; specific gravity, 13.6. It is volatile, and rises in small portions at the common tem- perature of the atmosphere. At the tem- perature of 656°, it boils rapidly, and rises copiously in fumes. When exposed to such a heat as may cause it to rise quickly in the vaporous form, it gradually becomes converted into a red oxide, provided oxy- gen be present. This was formerly 420 MERCURY, OR QUICKSILVER. known by the name of precipUate per se. A greater heat than 600°, however, revives this metallic oxide at the same time that this oxygen is again liberated. Mercuiy, if quite pure, is not tarnished in the cold by exposure to air and moisture; but if it con- tain other metals, the amalgam of those met- als oxidizes readily, and collects as a film upon its surface. It is said to be oxidized by long agitation in a bottle half full of air, and the oxide so formed was called, by Boerhaave, Ethiops per se; but it is very probable that the oxidation of mercury, observed under these circumstances, was solely owing to the presence of other metals. The oxides of mercury are two. The protoxide, which is a black powder insoluble in water, is best prepared by mixing calomel briskly in a mortar with pure potassa in excess, so as to effect its decomposition as rapidly as possible. The protoxide is then to be washed with cold water, and dried spontaneously in a dark place. It consists of one equivalent, or 200 parts of metal, and one equivalent, or 8 parts of oxygen. The peroxide, which is commonly known under the name of red precipUate, is prepared, as already mentioned, from the combined agency of heat and air, or by dissolving mercury in nitric acid, and exposing the nitrate so formed to a temperature just sufficient to drive off the whole of the nitric acid. It contains double the quantity of oxygen found in the protoxide. It is acrid and poisonous, and carries these qualities into its saline combinations; whereas the pro- toxide is relatively bland, and is the basis of all the mild mercurial medicines. Of the combustibles, mercuiy unites only with phosphorus and sulphur. The phosphu- ret is formed by heating either of the ox- ides along with phosphorus in a retort filled with hydrogen gas, or under water, with frequent agitation: the oxide is re- duced, and a phosphuret is the result. It is of a black color, is easily cut with a knife, and, in the air, exhales vapors of phospho- rus. There are two sulphurets, the black and the red, or the proto-sulphuret, and the deuto-sulphuret. The first is formed by rubbing vigorously in a glass or porcelain mortar three parts of sulphur and one of mercury, or by adding mercury at inter- vals, and with agitation, to its own weight of melted sulphur. The second, which is commonly called cinnabar, or vermUion, is formed by subliming the proto-sulphuret. Large quantities of it are manufactured in Holland. The ordinaiy process consists in grinding together 150 pounds of sulphur and 1080 of quicksilver, and then heating the mixture in a cast-iron pot, two and a half feet in diameter and one foot deep, precautious being taken that the mixture does not take fire. The calcined Ethiops is then ground to powder, and introduced into pots capable of holding twenty-four ounces of water each, to whicli are at- tached subliming vessels, or bolt heads of earthen ware. The sublimation usually takes thirty-six hours, when the sublimers are taken out of the furnace, cooled, and broken. The acids sustain an important relation to mercury. All of them either dissolve the metal or unite with its oxides. Sulphuric acid exerts little or no action up- on it in the cold, but, if heat be applied, it is decomposed, the mercury is oxidated, sulphurous acid is disengaged, and the ox- ide combines with the remaining acid. This proto-sulphate of mercury crystallizes in slender prisms, forming a mass, soft, and partly liquid. It is very acrid, deli- quescent, and soluble in water. If it is urged with a heat gradually raised until the mass becomes dry, the metal is more highly oxidated, and a portion of the acid is dissipated. On pouring boiling water on this dry mass, it acquires a lively yellow color, forming an insoluble pow- der, known by the appellation of turbith mineral, or yellow sulphate of mercury. The water, in this process, produces the usual effect which it has when it decom- poses metallic salts. Exerting a stronger attraction to the acid than to the metallic oxide, it combines principally with the former, but, from the influence of quantity on chemical affinity, the acid carries with it a portion of the oxide, and conversely, from the operation of the same force, the oxide which is precipitated retains a por- tion of the acid combined with it. The neutral sulphate is thus resolved into a super-sulphate, which the water dissolves, and a sub-sulphate, which remains undis- solved. This sub-sulphate is chiefly used in preparing corrosive sublimate and cal- omel. Nitric acid acts on mercuiy with facility, oxidating it, and combining with the oxide, formiqg a perfect solution. The product of this action varies considerably, particularly with regard to the state of ox- idation, according to the circumstances under whicli it is exerted. If the acid is diluted with rather more than an equal part of water, and if the action is not ac- celerated by heat, the protoxide only is formed, and the salt is the proto-nitrate of mercury. If the acid is less diluted, and if its action on the metal be promoted by heat, the peroxide is produced, and the compound is the per-nUrate of mercuiy. MERCURY, OR QUICKSILVER. 421 Both these solutions, when concentrated, crystallize, a mass being deposited, con- sisting of a congeries of slender prisms. Both salts are corrosive, deliquescent, and soluble in water. If the solution of the per-nitrate is poured into water, a partial decomposition happens, similar to that of sulphate of mercury, and a yellow insolu- ble sub-per-nitrate of mercury is precipi- tated. Nitrate of mercuiy is decomposed by the alkalies and earths; and in these decompositions are well displayed the dif- ferences which arise from different states of oxidation of the metal. By potash, so- da or lime, added to the solution of the proto-nitrate, a precipitate of a grayish color, with a tinge of yellow, is thrown down: from the solution ofthe per-nitrate the precipitate is yellow, more or less bright These precipitates are sub-nitrates, the oxide, separated by the alkali, retain- ing a portion ofthe acid combined with it. The action of ammonia on these solutions is more peculiar. From the solution con- taining the mercury at a high state of oxi- dation, it throws down a white precipitate, which is a ternary combination ofthe ox- ide, with portions of the acid and alkali. From the solution at which the metal ex- ists at the minimum of oxidation, it throws down a precipitate of a dark gray or blue color. The gray precipitate by ammonia (oxidum hydrargyri cincreum of the phar- macopoeias) is a preparation much used in medicine. It is a mild mercurial, and is very similar, in its operation on the system, to the mercurial preparations formed by trituration. To obtain it of uniform com- position, it is necessary to use every pre- caution to moderate the action of the nitric acid on the metal, as by free dilution with water, and by avoiding the applica- tion of heat. A fulminating preparation of mercury is obtained by dissolving 100 grains in one and a half ounce by measure of nitric acid. This solution is poured cold into two ounces by measure of alco- hol in a glass vessel, and heat is applied till effervescence is excited, though it ordina- rily conies on at common temperatures. A white vapor undulates on the surface, and a powder is gradually precipitated, which is immediately to be collected on a filter, well washed, and cautiously dried. This powder detonates loudly by gentle heat or slight friction. It has been very much used of late as the match-powder, or priming, for the percussion caps of the detonating locks of fowling-pieces. Two grains and a half of it, mixed with one sixth of that weight of gunpowder, form the quantity for one percussion cap, ac- vol. viii. 36 cording to the researches of Aubert, Pe- lissier and Gay-Lussac. In preparing this powder in quantities, the fulminating mer- cury should be moistened with thirty per cent, of water, then triturated in a mortar, and thereafter mingled with the sixth part of its weight of gunpowder. Matches of this kind resist damp very well, and take fire after several hours immersion in wa- ter. The detonating match, or priming powder, made with chlorate of potash, sulphur and charcoal, bas the inconven- ience of rusting and soiling the fowling- pieces, and thence causing them to miss fire; whereas, with the above fulminating powder, 100 shots may be discharged successively. The mercurial percussion caps are sold now in Paris for three francs and a half per thousand. The acetic and most other acids combine with the oxide of mercuiy, and precipitate it from its so- lution in the nitric acid. Muriatic acid does not act on mercury. When mercury is heated in chlorine, it burns with a pale- red flame, and the substance called corro- sive sublimate is formed. This deuto-chlo- ride may also be formed by mixing togeth- er equal parts of dry bi-deuto-sulphate of mercury and common salt, and subliming. The corrosive sublimate rises, and incrusts the top of the vessel, in the form of a beautiful white semitransparent mass, composed of very small prismatic needles. Its specific gravity is 5.14. Its taste is acrid, stypto-metallic, and eminently disa- greeable. It is a deadly poison. Twenty parts of cold water dissolve it, and less than one of boiling water. It is composed of 73.53 mercury and 26.47 chlorine. It may be recognised by the following char- acters : It volatilizes in white fumes, which seem to tarnish a bright copper-plate, but really communicate a coating of metallic mercury, which appears glossy white on friction. When caustic potash is made to act on it with heat hi a glass tube, a red color appeare, which by gentle ignition vanishes, and metallic mercuiy is then found to line the upper part of the tube in minute glob- ules. Solution of corrosive sublimate reddens litmus paper, but changes sirup of violets to green. Bicarbonate of pot- ash throws down from it a deep brick-red precipitate, from which metallic mercuiy may be procured, by heating it in a tube. Lime-water causes a deep-yellow precipi- tate, verging on red. Water of ammonia forms a white precipitate, which becomes yellow on being heated. With sulphurct- cd hydrogen and hydrosulphurets, a black, or blackish-brown precipitate appears. Nitrate of silver throws down the curdy 422 MERCURY, OR QUICKSILVER. precipitate characteristic of muriatic acid; and the proto-muriate often gives a white precipitate. From 6 to 12 grains were the mortal doses employed by Orfila, in his experiments on dogs: they died in hor- rible convulsions, generally in two hours: but when with a larger quantity, the whites of eight eggs were thrown into the stom- ach, the animals soon recovered after vomiting. The effect of this antidote is to convert the corrosive sublimate into cal- omel. Sulphureted hydrogen may also be employed along with emetics. The proto-chlori.de of mercury (mercurius dul- cis, or calomel), is usually formed from the deuto-chloride, by triturating four parts of the latter with three of quicksilver till the globules disappear, and subjecting the mixture to a subliming beat By leviga- ting and edulcorating with warm water the sublimed grayish-white cake, the por- tion of soluble corrosive sublimate which had escaped decomposition is removed. It may also be made by adding solution of proto-nitrate of mercuiy to solution of common salt; the proto-chloride, or calo- mel precipitates. The following is the pro- cess used at Apothecaries' Hall, London : —50 pounds of mercury are boiled with 70 pounds of sulphuric acid to dryness, in a cast-iron vessel; 62 pounds of the dry salt are triturated with 40£ pounds of mer- cury until the globules disappear, and 34 pounds of common salt are then added. This mixture is submitted to heat in earth- en vessels, and from 95 to 100 pounds of calomel are the result. It is washed in large quantities of distilled water, after having been ground to a fine and impal- pable powder. When proto-chloride of mercury is very slowly sublimed, four- sided prisms, terminated by prisms, are obtained. It is nearly tasteless and insol- uble, and is purgative in doses of five or six grains. Its specific gravity is 7.176. Exposure to air darkens its surface. It is not so volatile as the deuto-chloride. Ni- tric acid dissolves calomel, converting it into corrosive sublimate. Proto-chloride of mercury is composed of mercury 84. 746, and chlorine 15.254. There are two iodides of mercury; the one yellow, the other red; both are fusible and volatile. The yellow, or protiodide, contains one half less iodine than the deutiodide ; the latter, when crystallized, is a bright crim- son. They are both decomposed by con- centrated sulphuric and nitric acids. The metal is converted into an oxide, and iodine is disengaged. They are likewise decom- posed by oxygen, at a red heat.—Mercuiy, on account of its fluidity, readily combines with most of the metals, to whicli it com- municates more or less of its fusibility. When these metallic mixtures contain a sufficient quantity of mercury to render tbem soft at a mean temperature, they are called amalgams. It very readily com- bines with gold, silver, lead, tin, bismuth, and zinc ; more difficultly with copper, ar- senic, and antimony ; and scarcely at all with platina or iron. It does not unite with nickel, manganese, or cobalt; and its action on tungsten and molybdena is not known. Looking-glasses are covered on the back side with an amalgam of tin. (See Silvering.) The medicinal uses of mercury have already been alluded to. The amalgamation of the precious metals, water gilding, the making of vermilion, the silvering of looking-glasses, the con- struction of barometers antl thermometers, are the principal uses to which this metal is applied. Scarcely any substance is so liable to adulteration as mercury, owing to its property of dissolving completely some of the baser metals. This union is so strong, that they even rise along with it in vapor when distilled. Its impurity, however, can generally be detected by its dull aspect; by its tarnishing, and becom- ing covered with a coat of oxide, on long exposure to the air; by its adhesion to the surface of glass; aud, when shaken with water in a bottle, by the speedy formation of a black powder. Lead and tin are fre- quent impurities, and the mercury becomes capable of taking up more of these, if zinc or bismuth be previously added. In order to discover lead, the mercury may be agitated with a little water, in order to oxidize that metal: pour offthe water, and digest the mercuiy with a little acetic acid ; this will dissolve the oxide of lead, which will be indicated by a blackish precipitate, with sulphureted water; or to this acetic solution add a little sulphate of soda, whicli will precipitate a sulphate of lead, containing, when dry, 70 per centum of metal. Bismuth is detected by pouring a nitric solution, prepared without heat, into distilled water ; a white precipitate will appear, if this metal be present. Tin is manifested, in like manner, by a weak so- lution of proto-muriate of gold, which throws down a purple sediment; and zinc by exposing the metal to heat.—Ores of Mercury. The native mercury and the sul- phuret are the only two ores explored for the extraction of this metal. The firet of these is found in globules, disseminated through different rocks, adhering to the sides of cavities and fissures in the form of little drops, and rarely accumulated in basins MERCURY, OR QUICKSILVER—MERCY. 423 of considerable dimensions, so asto admit of being dipped up in pails; though it never occurs in sufficient quantity to form the sole object of exploitation. Occasion- ally it is found amalgamated with silver, containing one third its weight of this metal; in this condition, it is rarely observed crystallized under the form of the rhom- bic dodecahedron. The sulphuret is the common ore, which furnishes nearly all the mercury of commerce. It occurs, crystallized, in rhomboids, and six-sided prisms and tables; color cochineal-red; lustre adamantine and splendent; trans- lucent ; streak scarlet-red, shining; harder than gypsum, sectile, and easily frangible ; specific gravity, 6.7 to 8.2. It also occurs massive and compact, and often blended with bituminous matter, which communi- cates to it a liver-brown or black color, whence the name of hepatic cinnabar. This ore is very rich, and affords, by anal- ysis, 84 or 85 per centum of mercury; that which is bituminous gives 81 per centum. The muriate of mercury, or horn quicksilver, is so rare, and presents it- self in such small quantities in the mines, as scarcely to receive the attention of the miner, and it is sought after only by the mineralogist. It occurs in incrustation, and rarely crystallized in quadrangular prisms, terminated by pyramids. It is translucent, with a lustre between adaman- tine and vitreous, and is sectile. It con- sists of 76 oxide of mercuiy, 16.4 muriat- ic acid, and 7.6 sulphuric acid. The ores of mercuiy are more frequent in seconda- ry than in primitive rocks, and are found particularly in sandstones, bituminous shales, and argillite, often accompanied by organic remains. In general, mercuiy is a metal which cannot be said to have a wide distribution, and the mines which furnish it in quantity are few. The prin- cipal are those of Idria, in the Austrian dominions, discovered in 1497, and which chiefly afford a bituminous sulphuret of this metal. These mines have already been explored to a depth not far from 1000 feet. They are capable of furnishing an- nually 6000 quintals of metal; but the Austrian government, in order to maintain the value of die metal, have limited their produce to 1500 quintals per annum. Their total produce from 1809 to 1813, a period of 56 months, was 1,419,425 pounds of mercury; 2/0,029 pounds of vermil- ion ; 76,225 pounds of lump cinnabar; 6,400 pounds of calomel ; 2,867 pounds of red precipitate, and 2,450 pounds of corrosive sublimate. The memorable conflagration of these mines in 1803 was extinguished only by filling their cham- bers and galleries with water, and the mercury which was sublimed during that catastrophe occasioned the most dreadful diseases among more than 900 persons. Next to the mines of Idria come those of Almaden, in the province of Manche, in Spain, and which are nearly as rich as those of Idria. Their mean annual pro- duct is about 5000 quintals of quicksilv er. These celebrated mines, near which are also those of Cuebas and Almadenejos, were known to the Romans, and, it is pre- sumed, are those alluded to by Pliny, un- der the name of the mines of the territory of Sisapanus. After having been, for a great number of years, leased out to the merchants of Ausbourg, they are now ex- plored on account of the government, and their product is exclusively applied to the amalgamation of gold and silver in the mines of Mexico and South America. The mines ofthe palatinate, situated upon the left bank ofthe Rhine, approach next in importance to those of Idria and Alma- den. Their annual product is estimated at about half that of the Spanish mines. There exist in Hungary, in Bohemia, and in many other parts of Germany, small ex- ploitations for mercury, of which the total yield is about 400 quintals per annum. The mines of Guanca Velica, in Pern, have afforded an immense supply of quicksilver for the purposes of amalga- mation in the new world. Between the yeare 1570 and 1800, they are said to have furnished 537,000 quintals of this metal; and their actual product is, at present, rat- ed at 1800 quintals. The ores of mercu- ry are found in several places in Mexico, but are nowhere wrought to any extent. In 1590, mercuiy was sold in Mexico at £40 10s. per cwt.; in 1750, it had dimin- ished to £17 15s.; in 1782, a further-re- duction had taken place, the price then being £8 17s. 6d. The consumption was estimated in the year 1803 (for Mexico), when the mines were in full work, as be- ing 2,000,000 pounds per annum. We have no ores of mercuiy in the U. States. Mercy, Francois de, one of the most distinguished generals in the 30 years' war, was born at Longwy, in Lorraine, and rose in the service of the elector of Bavaria, through the successive ranks. After having defeated general Rautzau at Tuttliugeii, he was appointed, with the rank of Bavarian lieutenant-general and imperial field-marshal, to the command ofc the combined forces, and captured Rotweil anil Ueberlingen. In the suc- ceeding year (1644), Friburg fell into his 424 MERCY—MERIAN. hands, and he threw up a fortified camp in its vicinity. The great Conde attacked him in this position, and, after a combat of three days, compelled him to retire. Turenne pursued him, but the retreat was so ably conducted, that the French general was unable to obtain any advan- tage over him. 3Iay 5 (April 25), 1645, he defeated Turenne, at Marienthal (Mer- gentheim), and fell, August 3, in the bat- tle of Allersheim, near Nordlingen. He was buried on tbe field, and a stone was raised with the inscription Sta, viator, he- roem calcus. Rousseau, in his Emile (liv. iv), very justly remarks, that the simple name of' one of his victories would have been preferable to this pompous sentence, borrowed from antiquity. Mercy, Floritnoud Claude de, a grand- son of the preceding, born in Lorraine, 1666, entered the service of the emperor Leopold, 1682, and distinguished himself as a volunteer in the detence of Vienna against the Turks. His gallantry, par- ticularly in the battle of Zenta, 1697 (see Eugene), was rewarded with the rank of major. He afterwards served with equal distinction in Italy and on the Rhine. In 1705, he stormed the lines of Pfaffenho- fen, and compelled the French to retreat under the cannon of Strasburg. In 1706, he covered Landau by his skilful ma- noeuvres, and supplied it with provisions and troops. In 1707, he defeated general Vivans, at Offenburg; but, in 1709, hav- ing penetrated too far into Alsace, was entirely defeated at Rumereheim. In 1716, he commanded against the Turks, as field-marshal, and took part in the vic- tories of Peterwardein and Belgrade. In 1719, he commanded, with equal success, in Sicily, against tbe Spaniards, and, dur- ing the peace, exerted himself in improv- ing the condition ofthe Bannat. In 1734, he received the command in Italy, and occupied the duchy of Parma; but fell, while leading the attack, in pereon, on the village of Croisetta. His remains were interred at Reggio. Merganser (mergus); a genus of aquatic birds, consisting of five species. These birds are wild and untamable, migrating, according to the season, from cold to temperate climates. They keep in flocks, the adult males usually by fliem- selves, leaving the young with the females. They are extremely voracious, destroying immense numbers of fish. They build among grass, near fresh water: the nest is lined with down, and contains from eight to fourteen eggs. The male keeps near the nest, though the female alone incubates. They swim with the body very deep in the water, the head and neck only appearing; dive by plunging, and remain under water for a long time. They walk badly ; fly well, and for a long time. Their flesh is dry, and of a bad flavor. The species inhabiting the U. States are tbe goosander (M. merganser); minor white, uninterrupted; bill and feet red; nostrils medial; found in both con- tinents ; not uncommon in the U. States. Red-breasted merganser (M. serrator); minor white, crossed with black; bill and feet red; nostrils basal; a long, slender, pendent crest; found in both continents; common in the Middle States during the spring and autumn. Hooded merganser (jV. cucullatus); minor white, crossed with black; bill blackish red ; feet flesh- color; a large circular crest; peculiar to North America, breeding in the north, wintering in the south; common in the Middle States during the spring and au- tumn. Smew or white nun (M. albcllus); minor black, crossed with white ; bill and feet bluish. This species is also found in both continents, and is the most beautiful of the genus. It is more common in Europe than in America. In the Middle States, it is very rare. (See Wilson's Or- nithol., Pennant's Arctic Zool.) Merian, Matthew, senior, born at Basle, in 1593, studied at Zurich, under Dietrich Meyer, and at Oppenheim, under Theodore de Bry, settled at Frankfort on the Maine, and died in 1651. His principal engrav- ings consist of views ofthe chief cities of Europe, particularly those of Germany, with descriptions, and are remarkable for the excellence of their perspective. His other works are landscapes, historical scenes, the chase, &c.—His son Matthew, born at Basle, 1621, was a good painter of portraits. He studied at Rome, 1644, travelled in England, the Low Countries, France, &c, and died in 1(587.—Maria Sibylla, a daughter of the elder Matthew, was born at Frankfort, in 1647. She studied under her step-father Morefels, and Mignon, and was distinguished by the taste, skill aud accuracy with which she painted flowers and insects in water colors. Her zeal for this department of painting induced her to make a voyage to Surinam, for the purpose of observing the meta- morphosis of the insects of that countiy; and, after a residence of two yeare, she returned with a large collection of draw- ings of insects, plants and fruits on vel- lum. Her works are Erucarum Ortus, Alimentum, et Metamorphosis ; History of the Insects of Europe; and Metamor- MERIAN—MERLIN. 425 phosis Insedorum Surinamensium, with 60 plates. She died at Amsterdam, 1717. One of her daughters published a new edition ofthe last named work, which her mother was preparing at the time of her death. Merida, or Yucatan; one ofthe states of the Mexican confederacy. (See Yuca- tan, and Mexico.) Meridian, in astronomy (from the Lat- in meridies, mid-day), is a great circle of the celestial sphere, passing through the poles of the earth and the zenith and nadir, crossing the equator at right angles, and dividing the sphere into an eastern and western hemisphere. When the sun is on this circle, it is noon or mid-day, to all places situated under that meridian, whence the derivation of the word, as above stated. Meridian, in geography; a correspond- ing terrestrial circle in the plane of the former, and which, therefore, passes through the poles of the earth. All places situated under the same meridian have their noon or midnight at the same time; but, under different meridians, it will ar- rive sooner or later, according as they are situated to the eastward or westward of each other; viz. tbe sun will be upon that nieridiau soonest which is most to the eastward, and that at the rate of an hour for every 15 degrees. First .Meridian is that from which all the othere are reckoned, whicli, being to- tally arbitrary, has been variously chosen by different geographers. Ptolemy makes his first meridian pass through the most western of the Canary islands; othere have chosen cape Verd; some the Peak of Teneriffe, othere the island of Ferro, & c.; but most natioijs now consider that the first meridian which passes over their me- tropolis, or their principal observatory. Thus the English reckon from the me- ridian of Greenwich; the French from Paris ; the Spanish from Madrid; the Americans from Washington, &c. .Meridian of a Globe is the brazen cir- cle in which it turns, and by which it is supported. The Brazen Meridian is di- vided into 360 equal parts, called degrees. In the upper semicircle of the brass me- ridian these degrees are numbered from 0 to 90, or from the equator towards the poles, and are used for finding the lati- tudes of places. On the lower semicircle of the brass meridian, they are numbered from 0 to 90, from the poles towards the equator, and are used in the elevation of the poles. Meridian Line is a nortli and south line, 36* the exact determination of which is ofthe greatest importance in all cases relating to astronomy, geography, dialling, &c, be- cause on this all the other parts have their dependence. Tbe most celebrated me- ridian line is that on the pavement of the church of St. Petronio, in Bologna, which was drawn to the length of 120 feet, by tbe celebrated Cassini. Without know- ing the meridian line of a place, it would be impossible to make a dial, set a clock, or measure degrees on the earth's surface. (For the measurement of degrees of the meridian, see the article Degrees, Measure- ment of.) Meridian Line, on a dial, is the same as the 12 o'clock hour line. Magnetic Meridian ; a great circle pass- ing through the /magnetic poles. (See Magnetism.) Meridian Altitude ; the altitude of any of the heavenly bodies when they are upon the meridian. Merino Sheep. (See Sheep.) Merlin, Ambrose, a British writer, who flourished about the latter end of the fifth century. The accounts we have of him are so mixed up with fiction, that to disentangle his real life from the mass woultl be impossible. He was said to be the son of a demon and a daughter of a king of England who was a nun. His birth- place was Carmarthen, in Caledonia. He was instructed by his father in all branches of science, and received from him the pow- er of working miracles. He was the great- est sage and mathematician of his time, the counsellor and friend of four English kings, Vortigern, Ambrosius, Uther Pen- dragon, and Arthur. Vortigern, at the advice of his magicians, had resolved to build an impregnable tower, in order to secure himself against the Saxons; but the foundation was scarcely laid, when the earth opened by night and swallowed it up. The magicians informed the king, that to give firmness to the foundation, he must wet it with the blood of a child born without a father. After much search, the young Merlin was brought to the king. After Merlin had heard the dictum of the magicians, be disputed with them, and showed them that under the foundation of the tower was a great lake, and under tbe lake two great raging dragons, one red, representing the British, one white, representing the Saxons. Tlie earth was dug open, and no sooner were the drag- ons found, than they commenced a furi- ous battle; whereupon Merlin began to weep, and to utter prophecies respecting the future state of England. The mira- 426 MERLIN. cles ascribed to him are numerous. He is said to have escaped from the Saxons in a ship of glass. Instead of dying, it was supposed that he fell into a magic sleep, from which, after a long period, he would awake; and to this fable Spenser alludes in his Faery Queen. In the British museum is Le Compte de la Vie de Merlin et de ses Faiz et Compte de ses Prophicies (2 vols., folio, on vellum, with- out date or place). We have also the Life of Merlin, surnamed Ambrosius, by T. Hey wood. (See Warton's Histoiy of Po- etry, and Spenser's Faery Queen, &c.) 3Ierlin, Philip Antony, commonly called Merlin de Douai, was born in 1754, in the village of Arleux, in Flanders. His father, who was a farmer, had him placed in the rich abbey of Anchin, near Douai. The monks taught him to read and write, sent him to college, and educated him to the profession of the law. The young Merlin was no sooner admitted an advo- cate, than his benefactors gave him the direction of the legal concerns of their wealthy house, and obtained for him the same charge from the chapter of Cambray. In 1789, be was chosen deputy to the states- general by the tiers-itat of Douai. When Nccker called for a patriotic contribution, in the midst of the distresses of the treas- ury, M. Merlin offered to the public wants a fourth of his revenue, amounting to 10,000 francs. He was a member of the committee formed to prepare the means of abolishing the feudal system, and drew up many able reports on this subject. After the session, he was appointed presi- dent ofthe criminal tribunal of the North, and, in 1792, deputy to the convention for that department He voted for the death of the king, without appeal to the people, and without respite. He endeavored to obtain a law, providing that no deputy should be sent before the revolutionary tribunal until the assembly itself should have decreed his accusation. Robespierre and Couthon opposed the law, with men- aces against its advocates, and the propo- sition was lost From that time till the 9th of Thermidor, Merlin was silent on all the most severe of the revolutionary measures; but, immediately after that day, he spoke against the terrorists. He was afterwards successively president of the convention, and member of the com- mittee of public safety. In March, 1795, he proposed a decree of accusation against Barrere, Billaud de Varennes, Collot d'llerbois, and Vadier; and demanded a new organization of the revolutionary tribunal, with a view to lessen its power. When the sections of Paris were prepar- ing to attack the convention, M. Merlin was one of the first to denounce the city ; and, September 30, 1795, obtained a de- cree that the armed force should be at the sole disposal of the representatives of the people, and that any other authority which should call it into action should be punish- ed with death. On the 5th of Brumaire, ne presented in the tribune a code of crimes and punishments, which was de- creed in two sittings, and remained in force until 1811. In 1795, the directory appointed 31. Merlin minister of justice. After the 18th of Fructidor, in the events of whicli M. Merlin was one of the prin- cipal movers, he was appointed a mem- ber of the directory, in the room of M. Barthelemy, but resigned his seat in the executive government in 1799, and re- tired to Douai. Napoleon recalled him from his retreat, and, under the imperial government, be became advocate-general, commandant of the legion of honor, and received the dignity of count. In 1806, he was appointed a member of the coun- cil of state, in which he acquired much influence. On the return of the king, in 1814, 31. 3Ierlin was permitted to resign, with a pension. On the return of Na- poleon from Elba, M. Merlin hastened to offer him his homage, and was made one of his ministers of state; and he was af- terwards chosen member of the chamber of representatives for the department of the Nortli. He had been a member ofthe institute from its commencement. M. 3Ierlin quitted France in 1816, with the design of passing to America; but bemg shipwrecked, he obtained permission to reside in the Netherlands. Among his writings are Traiti des Offices de France (4 vols.); Recueil des Questions de Droit (6 vols., 4to.); and Repertoire de Jurispru- dence (16 vols., 4to.). 3Ierlin, Anthony Christopher, of Thi- onville, was born in that town in 1762. He embraced the revolutionary cause, was deputy to the legislative assembly in 1791, and, iu 1792, to the national con- vention, and contracted a close intimacy with Chabot and Bazire. On bis arrival in the capital, M. Merlin joined the Jaco- bin club, and was one of the fiercest ene- mies of the Feuillants. On the 10th of August, he was remarked as one of the heads of the patriots, and he was sup- posed to have given the advice to M. Rcederer, to conduct the king to die hall of the assembly. He offered personally to serve in the tyrannicide corps of 1200 men, proposed by Jean Debry. At die MERLIN—MEROE. 427 time of the king's trial, he was on a mis- siou to Mentz, but wrote from that city that he voted for the death of the tyrant. M. Merlin was shut up in 3Ientz when it was besieged, and contributed greatly to its defence. In La Vendee, also, he dis- played the utmost courage as commis- sioner of the convention in the army whicli had been sent home from Mentz, and was employed against the rebels. Robespierre struck down his most inti- mate friends; and, although Merliu did not openly join in the struggle between that unsparing demagogue and his rivals, yet he readily joined the conquerors, and for ever quitted the Jacobins of the 3Ioun- tain party. He was a member of the council of five hundred, but his influence had decreased; and, for a long time sub- sequently, he took no part in public affairs. During the invasion of 1814, he raised a corps of partisans destined to oppose the Russian colonel Guesmard, but had little success in this service. In 1815, the friends of Napoleon invited him to put himself at the head of a similar corps, but he declined it. Merlon, in fortification, is that part of a parapet which is terminated by two embrasures of a battery. Its height and thickness is the same with that of the parapet; but its breadth is generally nine feet on the inside, and six on the outside. It serves to cover those on the battery from the enemy; and it is better when made of earth, well beat and close, than when built with stones, because they fly about, and wound those they should de- fend. .Mermaid (from the Anglo-Saxon mere, sea); a fabulous creature, which seamen have described as having the head and body of a woman with the tail of a fish. 3Ierniaids are represented as having long green hair, breasts and arms, and as some- times seen floating on the surface of the ocean. Shakspeare gives them a voice: I heard a mermaid, on a dolphin's back, Uttering such dulcet aud harmonious breath. Thai the rude sea grew civil at her song. Oberon, in Midsummer Night's Dream. This remuids us of the ancient syrens, who, however, were winged and clawed. (See Syrens.) Mermen have also been seen, if we may trust the sailors. The stories have probably arisen from the ap- pearance of Phocae, antl similar creatures. 3Ieroe; a city and state of ancient Ethiopia, in the north-easterly part of Africa, upon a fruitful peninsula, surround- ed by sandy deserts, and bounded by the Astapus (Bahr el Abiad), the White river. or properly the Nile, on the west, and the Astaboras (now the Tacazze) on the east, as far as tbe modern province of Gojam. It now forms the district of Atbar, between 13° and 18° nortli latitude, with a town of the same name, and lies in the kingdom of Sennaar, which constitutes a part of Nubia. The people ofthe ancient priest- ly state of 3Ieroe, according to Herodotus, vyere Negroes, and are the only black na- tion of which we have any account, that has made much progress in intellectual cultivation. They had a fixed constitu- tion, a government, laws, and religion. The government was in the hands of a caste of priests, which chose a king from their own number, who was obliged to live and act according to certain prescrib- ed rules. The priests at Meroe could doom the king to death in the name of the gods, and he must submit It was cus- tomary for the friends (ministers) of the king to share the same fate with their master, even death. Ergamenes, king of Meroe, in the third centuiy B. C, during the reign of Ptolemy II, in Egypt, firet made himself independent of this oppres- sive priesthood by murdering the priests in the golden temple. Meroe was the centre of the great caravan trade between Ethiopia, Egypt, Arabia, Northern Africa and India. Several colonics went from 3Ieroe, and the firet civilized state in Egypt, that of Thebes, which, as a resort for the caravans, always remained inti- mately connected with Meroe, and was governed by priests, must have originated thence. The priests were of a lighter complexion than the others, and were probably descended from India, from which, generally speaking, Meroe and tlie Ethiopian coasts must have received their firet inhabitants. Ammonium (see Amman, and Oasis) also was a small priestly state, with a king, founded by Egyptians and by Ethiopians from Meroe. Meroe and Axum (in Abyssinia) which appeare to have been also a colony from Meroe, remained the centre of the south- ern commerce till the time of the Arabi- ans. The existing monuments of their architecture, and many other vestiges of them, prove their early religious and social cultivation. Frederic Cailliaud of Nantes has given us the latest accounts of these memorials of Indian and Ethiopian anti- quity in his Voyage a Meroe, au Fleuve Blanc, &c, en 1819—22 (Paris, 1824, in 3 parts, with engravings and maps, 2 vols., folio). Cailliaud took advantage of the Nubian campaign of Ismail, the son of the 428 MEROE—MEROVINGIANS. pacha of Egypt, in 1821, to ascend the Nile farther than his predecessors had done. Gau (q. v.) reached only the second cata- ract ; Browne, in 1793, went only to Cobbe, in Darfour (lat. 16° N.); Bruce went from Sennaar to the coast of the Red sea, as far as 13° 307; but Cail- liaud penetrated into southern Ethiopia, following the principal branch of the Nile to 10° north, 100 leagues above Sen- naar, and 300 leagues farther from the soudiern boundary of Egypt, than Gau, into a new countiy hitherto unknown to the geographers. He made obser- vations and collections illustrating the physical geography and natural history, besides obtaining materials for an authen- tic map ofthe country through which he passed; but he attended particularly to the monuments and ruins ofthe most an- cient architecture. His work, edited by Jomard, therefore forms a sequel to that of Gau, since Cailliaud begins where Gau finished. Cailliaud was well prepared for this second journey, and kept an accurate journal. With his companion Letorzec he settled more than fifty points astro- nomically, collected plants, animals, and minerals, and particularly took drawings of the remains of temples, pyramids, colos- suses, bass-reliefs, and Greek and hiero- glyphic inscriptions. He described and sketched about 100 ancient monuments, and discovered, on his way to Meroe, nearly 80 pyramidal sepulchres. The most remarkable are the temples of Naga and Soleb, the ruins of Subah (lat. 15° N.), the pyramids at Parkal and Shendy (Chandy), where the ancient Meroe was probably situated. Here he also found the beetle worshipped by the Egyptians (Scarabaus, or Atenchus sacer), a gold beetle, from which it may be concluded that the Egyptians derived their worehip from the Ethiopians. The latter still wear about their necks the image of the Scarabaus. Cailliaud also found in the region of the ancient 31eroe the hump-backed ox, and the true ibis, as it is delineated on the Egyp- tian monuments. Among the more recent travellers to Nubia are the Prussian natu- ralists doctor Ehrenberg and doctor Heinprich, who, in 1823 et seq., un- der royal patronage, examined the coasts of the Red sea as far as Nubia and Sen- naar. Hemprich died at 31assuah, the principal port of Abyssinia, June 30,1825. Ehrenberg returned, in 1827, to Berlin. Edward Rtippel, a native of Frankfort on the 31aine, in 1823, penetrated as far as Dongola, in the upper part of Nubia, and, in 1825, returned to Cairo from an excursion in Nigritia. He then visited the coasts of the Red sea, went thence to Abyssinia, and, in June, 1827, again returned to Cai- ro, A Russian by the name of Ssenkow- skey, who, since 1820, has travelled over some parts ofthe East and Africa, return- ed to St. Petersburg in 1822, and publish- ed his travels* iu the Russian language, which, among many other things, proba- bly contain good accounts of Nubia. Merope ; the daughter of Cypselus, king of Arcadia, and the wife of Cres- phontes, king of 31essene. She bore him many children, of whom the youngest was ^Epytus (according to some, Tele- phontes). Cresphontes having made many changes in favor of the common people, the nobles conspired, and slew him, with all his children except iEpytus, whom Merope concealed, and afterwards sent to her father, by wbom he was se- cretly educated. Polyphontes, who as- sumed the government in Messene, caused a search to be made for him every where in vain, and offered a reward to whoever should kill him. As soon as the youth was grown up, he went secretly to Mes- sene, with the determination of revenging his father's death. He there demanded of Polyphontes the price which was set upon his own life, pretending that lie had killed ^Epytus. Merope, expecting a change in the government, had already sent a messenger to bring back her son. The messenger returned with the repoit that ^Epytus had disappeared. She did not therefore doubt that the stranger was actually the murderer of her son, and she determined to kill him while he was asleep". She was on the point of execut- ing her design, when she recognised her son, and concerted measures with him to take vengeance on Polyphontes. She pretended a reconciliation with him, and promised to reciprocate his love. Poly- phontes immediately prepared a sacrifice; but, while he was at the altar, iEpytus killed him, and ascended his paternal throne. This story has been dramatised by Voltaire, Maffei, Alfieri, &c. 31erovingians ; the first dynasty of Frankish kings, which ruled in "the north- ern part of Gaul, since called France. They derived their name from Merowig (Meroveus), the grandfather^ Hloilovvig (Clovis). They ruled from 496 till 752, when they were supplanted by the Karo- lingians (Carlovingians). Thierry (Let- tres sur I'Histoire de France) has shown that this revolution was a national change, the second dynasty being eastern Franks (Austrasians), who had become 3IEROVINGIANS—MES31ER. 429 predominant over the Neustrians, or Western Franks, to whom the 31erovin- gians belonged. (See France.) 3Ierrimack ; a river which rises in New Hampshire. The most northern branch of it, the Pemigewasset, rises from the White mountains and Moosehillock, and, after a couree of about seventy miles, is joined by the Winnipiseogee at Sanborn- ton, and then the river takes the name of Merrimack. The couree of the river con- tinues southerly about eighty miles, to 31assachusetts, when it turns to the east, and, after running about fifty miles fur- ther, falls into the Atlantic at Newbury- port. It is navigable for vessels of 200 tons to Haverhill. By means of this river and the Middlesex canal, an extensive boat navigation is opened between Boston and the state of New Hampshire as far as Concord. The canals constructed to ren- der the river navigable are Bow canal, a few miles below Concord; Hookset canal, six miles lower; Amoskeag canal, eight miles lower; Union canal, below Amos- keag ; a canal round Cromwell's falls, be- tween 3Ierrimack and Litchfield; Wicasee canal, around Wicasee falls, fifteen miles lower; and three miles still lower, com- mences the Middlesex canal. Merscii, van der, leader ofthe Brabant patriots, in 1789, was born at 3Ienin, and entered the French service, in which he acquired the title of the brave Fleming. He afterwards served in the Austrian ar- my, in which he rose to the rank of lieu- tenant-colonel. In the beginning of the opposition to Austria in the Low Coun- tries, the command of a hastily raised body of troops was given to him, with Avhich, though undisciplined and inferior to the enemy, he made a successful attack on the imperial forces at Hoogstraaten, near Antwerp. After some other suc- cessful operations, which placed Ghent and Brussels in his hands, the chief com- mand ofthe Belgian troops was intrusted to him. Party divisions soon, however, found their way into the government, and the enemies of Van der 31ersch succeeded, by their intrigues, in removing him from his command, and, although they could prove nothing against bim, threw him into prison. He remained in confinement un- til the Austrians recovered possession of die country, and died at Menin, in 1792, esteemed and regretted. Merseburg; on the Saal, over which is a stone bridge, seat of government of a circle of the same name, in the Prussian duchy of Saxony, with 8800 inhabitants. It is an old, badly built town. It has a good gymnasium, an obstetrical institute, several religious establishments, and some manufactures. The cathedral has four handsome towers, and an organ of a re- markable size. The bishop Ditmar (died 1018), one of the best historians of the middle ages, lies buried here. 3Ierseburg is celebrated for its beer. Lon. 12° C E.; lat. 51° 21' N. Meru, 3Iount, in the Hindoo cosmolo- gy and mythological geography; the sa- cred mountain, on whose summit resides Siva, situated in the centre of the earth, and sustaining and uniting earth, heaven and hell. It is surrounded by seven zones, or dwipas, and seven seas,—the salt sea, the sea of intoxicating liquor, the sea of sugar, the sea of clarified butter, the sea of curds, the sea of milk, and the fresh water sea. Its four sides of four different colors, are directed to the four cardinal points, and watered by four rivers, issuing from a common source. 3Ieschid, or Mesghid, or Iman Ali, or Mesched Ali ; a town of Arabian Irak, 90 miles south of Bagdad ; lon. 43° 34' E.; lat. 32° 51 N. ; population, 6000. It is near a large lake, called Rahemat, which communicates with the Euphrates by a canal. This town was built on the spot where Ali, the cousin, friend, and one of the successors of Mohammed, was interred. His tomb is annually visited by a great number of Pereian pilgrims, who esteem this point of devotion equal to a pilgrimage to 31ecca. Meschid, or Mesched ; a city of Persia, in Chorasan ; lon. 57° E.; lat. 37° 35' N.; population stated at 50,000. Five of its twelve quarters are now in ruins. The city is surrounded by a strong wall, seven miles in circumference, but the houses are meanly built. Velvet, ofthe finest quality, and fur pelisses, mucb esteemed, are man- ufactured here. There is also a manufac- ture of beautiful pottery. In time of peace, caravans pass continually through this town, from Bukharia, Balk, Candahar, Hindoostan, and all parts of Persia. Mesentery (mesenterium, from the Greek pecos, middle, and ortpoi, intestine); a membrane in the cavity of the abdomen, attached to the lumbar vertebra, and to which the intestines adhere. Its uses are to sustain the intestines in such a manner that they may possess both mobility and firmness, to support and conduct the blood- vessels, lacteals and nerves, to fix the glands, and give an external coat to the intestines. 3Iesmer, Frederic Anthony; a German physician, author of the famous doctrine 430 3IES3IER—MESOPOTA3IIA. of animal magnetism, called also Mesmer- ism. He was born at Mersburg, in Sua- bia, in 1734. He firet made himself known in 1766, by the publication of a thesis De Planetarum Infiuxu, in which he maintained that the heavenly bodies exer- cised an influence on the bodies of ani- mals, and especially on the nervous sys- tem, by means of a subtile fluid diffused through the universe. But this whimsical association of the Newtonian philosophy with the reveries of astrologers being too abstruse for general reception, be added the notion of curing diseases by magnet- ism, and went to Vienna to put bis ideas in practice. Father Hell had previously performed some pretended cures by the application of magnets, and he, consider- ing Alesmer as a rival, charged him with borrowing, or rather stealing, his inven- tion. The new empiric thought it pru- dent, therefore, to renounce the use of common magnets, and declare that bis operations were conducted solely by means of the magnetism peculiar to ani- mal bodies. He had little success at Vi- enna, and his applications to the acade- mies of sciences at Paris and Berlin, and the royal society of London, were treated with neglect. After an abortive attempt to cure Mile. Paradis, a celebrated blind musician, by tbe exercise of bis art, Mes- mer quitted Vienna for Paris, in 1778. There he for some time in vain endeavor- ed to attract the notice of men of science; but at length he succeeded in making a convert of 31. Deslon, who, from being his pupil, became his rival, and whom he then represented as an impostor. < Mes- mer had the impudence to demand from the French government the gift of a cas- tle and estate, as a reward for his pretend- ed discoveries; and the baron de Breteuil actually carried on a negotiation with this pretender, offering him a large pecuniary reward, if he would establish a magnetic clinicum, and instruct three pereons chosen by government, in his process. The latter condition induced him to reject the pro- posal, and he removed, with some credu- lous patients, to Spa. A subscription was opened, to induce him to return to Paris and reveal the principles of his professed discovery. He consequently went thith- er, gained a number of proselytes, and received 340,000 livres. Government at length appointed a committee of physi- cians, and members of the academy of sciences, among whom was Franklin, to investigate the pretensions of Mesmer; and the result of their inquiries appeared in an admirable memoir, drawn up by M. Bad- ly, which completely exposed the futility (if animal magnetism, and the quackery of its author. He afterwards resided some time in England, under a feigned name, and then retired to Germany, and, in 1799, published a new exposition of his doctrine, which attracted no notice. He died at his native place, in 1815, He was the author of Mimoire de F A. Mesmer sur ses De- couvertes, and other pieces. (See Magnet- ism, Animal.) Mesne; he who is lord of a manor, and has tenants holding of him, yet himself holds of a superior lord. 3Iesne Process; an intermediate pro- cess which issues pending the suit, up- on some collateral interlocutory matter. Sometimes it is put in contradistinction to final process, or process of execution; and then it signifies all such process as intervenes between the beginning and end of a suit Mesopotamia (Greek, signifying the land between the rivers, called, by the Arabians, Al Gezira, or the island). The Greeks called by this name the extensive region enclosed by the Tigris and Euphra- tes, and bounded on the nortli by the Taurus and Masius. The northern part of this countiy was mountainous, and rich in grain, wine and pasturage ; but tbe southern part was flat, dry and unfruitful. The principal cities were ('harran, or Char- rse, Edessa, Zoba (Nisibis), Antioch, Myg- doniae,and Singara. This country has al- ways been inhabited by husbandmen, who lived a settled life, and by shepherds, who wandered from place to place. The 31eso- potamians sprang from the Chaldeans, the primitive inhabitants, from the Cush- ites, who, iu the reign of Nimrod, built the 'cities of Edessa and Nisibis, and from the descendants of Shem, ofthe tribe of Tha- ra. The latter firet inhabited the re- gion around Ur Chasdim, and then dwelt in and around Haran or Charrae ; but, in process of time, they spread throughout the whole country, even into Chaldea and Syria, so that the Cushites were compel- led either to retire before them or submit to them. It was originally a part of Nim- rod's dominion. After an interval of more than 700 years (B. C. 2000), Kusan Rischataim reigned in Mesopotamia, who extended his dominion over the Euphra- tes. The Israelites, who then possessed Palestine, were compelled to pay him tribute for the space of eight years. In the golden age of the Assyrian power (790 yeare B. C), Mesopotamia was entirely subjected to that empire, and suffered the fete of its subsequent conquerors. Tra- MES0P0TA31IA—MESSALINA. 431 jan subjected it to the dominion of Rome, A. D. 106, but the Persians did not suffer her to remain long in undisturbed pos- session of it. When the Arabs, in 651, established a new empire upon the ruins of the kingdom of the Sassanides, 3Ieso- potamia was also obliged to submit to the storm. In the year 1040, it fell into the hands of the Seljooks. From that time it had many rulers, in rapid succession. Genghis Khan made himself master of it in 1218, but, in the year 1360, it fell into the hands of Tur Ali Bey. 40 years after- wards, Mesopotamia was conquered by Tamerlane, and, in 1514, Ismael Sophi incorporated it with the Persian empire. The Persians were, however, in 1554, compelled to cede more than half of it to the Turks; and though they again, in 1613, recovered the lost portion, they were unable to withstand the attacks of Amurath IV, who united this, in 1637, with many other provinces, to his empire. The present extent of this country is com- puted at about 36,000 square miles, with 800,000 inhabitants. The capital, Diar- bekr, situated on the Tigris, with 38,000 inhabitants, a considerable manufacturing and commercial city, is the seat of a san- giack. (See J. S. Buckingham's Travels in Mesopotamia, [Aleppo, Diarbekr, Mosul, Bagdad, the Ruins of Babylon, &c] Lon- don, 1827, quarto). 3Iess, in sea language, denotes a par- ticular company of the officere or crew of a ship, who eat, drink and associate together, whence messmate, one of the number thus associated. In military lan- guage, mess denotes a sort of military ordi- nary, for the maintenance of which every officer, who takes his meals there, gives a certain proportion of his pay. These associations of officere, in the English ar- mies, exist not merely in time of peace, but even in the field; and foreigners are surprised at the degree to which the na- tional love of comfort prevails, even amid the fatigues of service, leading the officere to carry with them loads of table equipage, thereby adding to the cumbrous baggage of au English army. In all the descrip- tions of the English military life, the mess is conspicuous; and it may easily be im- agined that these social meetings, when the toils of service are suspended, and the pleasures of the table are heightened by music; when the restraints of military eti- quette are relaxed, and a soldier-like frank- ness prevails ; when the young express their hopes, and the older relate their ex- periences,—are among the bright spots of British military life. Several armies, par- ticularly the Prussian, have attempted, in time of peace, to imitate the English mess, but without being able to copy it fully. 3Iessa di Voce (Italian) signifies, in music, the gradual swell and diminishing of the tones. It takes place in notes of long duration, especially upon fermates (q. v.), and in tbe preparation of a cadence. On the duration of the note, the gradation in the piano, crescendo, forte and decrescendo must depend. In shorter notes, less gra- dation takes place. The messa di voce requires the singer to have his breath en- tirely under his control. If well execut- ed, it has a very fine effect; but it is not to be confounded with the erroneous practice of many singers, to begin every tone piano, and gradually to increase in strength; neither ought it to occur too fre- quently. Messalians (in the Syriac), or Euchetes (in Greek, that is, praying people), also En- thusiasts, and Pneumatists (as they called themselves); the members of a heretical sect, which arose in Mesopotamia about the year 360, and was introduced by Adelphius (one of their teachers), in the fourth century, into Syria. The Messa- lians insisted upon the incessant exercise of prayer, which they considered as alone sufficient for salvation. They did not labor, but supported themselves by beg- ging, and gave themselves up to fanciful speculation, which explains both their confused notions of Christianity, founded on Oriental mysticism, and resembling Manicheism, and also their expectation of being able by prayer to arrive at such a degree of perfection that in it all sin vvould be of necessity removed. With this are also connected those ascetic, and, in part, indecent excesses and strange convulsions, of which they were accused, those divine revelations and visions, of which they boasted, and their contempt of the church. Notwithstanding the opposition and de- nunciations of councils, emperors and bishops, Messalians of both sexes con- tinued to exist, although not in large num- bers, among the Oriental Christians, till the end of the seventh century. The modern 3Iessalians, or Bogomili, who are often improperly confounded with this sect, are more nearly connected with the Paulicians. (q. v.) Messalina, 1, Valeria. This notorious Roman empress, the daughter of 31essala Barbatus, and wife to the emperor Clau- dius, has left behind her the infamy of hav- ing surpassed, in licentiousness, the most abandoned women of any age. She had all the males belonging to the household 433 MESSALINA—MESSIAH. of the emperor for her lovers; officers, soldiers, slaves, players—nothing was too low for her. Not satisfied with her own shame, she even compelled the most noble Roman ladies to commit, in her presence, simi lar excesses. Whosoever did not coi n- ply with her wishes she punished with death. She at length went so far as, dur- ing the lifetime of her husband, publicly to marry Caius Silius, a senator. Narcis- sus, a freedman and favorite ofthe empe- ror, formerly a paramour of the empress, discovered to Claudius, who was then absent from Rome, this new act of infamy on the part of Messalina. But Claudius delayed to punish her, and Narcissus, seeing that his own life was at stake, if the empress should succeed in recovering the fevorof her weak aud infatuated husband, gave ordere to his friends to murder her secretly (A. D. 46).—2. Statilia 3Iessalina; the third wife of Nero, on whose death she returned to private life. She then devoted herself to the study of eloquence and the fine arts, and acquired some celebrity. Messana. (See Messina.) Messe Concertate (Italian); masses in which the recitation is intermixed with choruses. Messe di Capella ; an expression ap- plied by the Italians to masses sung by the grand chorus. In these composi- tions, various fugues, double counter- points, and other elaborate qualifications, are always required. Messenia ; a countiy of ancient Greece, in the southern part of the Peloponnesus. Its capital was Messene (3Iavromati), with the mountain fortress Ithome; Mothone (Modon), Korone (Coron) and Pylos (Nav- arino), with die strong-hold Phene, now Calamata, were its principal ports. On its southern coast lay the 3Iessenian gulf (now the gulf of Coron). A ridge of mount Taygetus separated Messene from Sparta. Messenia is celebrated for the long struggle of its inhabitants with the Lacedaemonians, in defence of their lib- erty. In the firet Messenian war (743— 724 B. C), the Lacedaemonians with the Athenians invaded ftlessenia, notwith- standing the proposal of the Messenian king to submit their differences to the arbitration of the Areopagus, or the Am- phictyonic council. For 20 years, the Messenians defended themselves valiantly, under their king Aristodemus, who, in consequence of an answer ofthe Delphic oracle, which promised them the victory on condition ofthe sacrifice of a virgin of the royal family, offered his own daugh- ter as the victim. Her lover, to save her life, declared her to be pregnant by him- self, and Aristodemus, to prove her inno- cence, stabbed her with his own band, and caused her to be opened and sacri- ficed. The Messenians, though for some time successful, were finally obliged to submit by the loss of Ithome. About 40 yeare after, they again rose; and thus commenced the second Messenian war (685 B. C), which ended in their subju- gation. (See Aristomenes.) A part of the Messenians are said to have emigrated to Sicily, and there to have founded Messana (see Messina), on the site of the ancient Zancle (668 B. C). After 200 yeare of servitude, the Helots (q. v.) and Messe- nians took up arms. This third Messe- nian war lasted ten yeare (465—455 B. C), and resulted in the expulsion of the 3Ies- senians from the Peloponnesus. Epami- nondas restored them. They rebuilt Mes- sene (369 B. C), and maintained their independence till the country was con- quered by the Romans. The Messenians remained true to their customs, mannere and language, through all changes of for- tune. Delavigne (q. v.) has called his elegies Messeniennes. In modern Greece as organized since the revolution, two of the seven departments of the Morea, in the south-western part of the peninsula, have received the names of Upper Messenia and Lower Messenia. Messenius, John, bom at W'adstena, in East Gothland, in 1584, was a Swedish historian. He was in the confidence of the great Gustavus Adolphus (q. v.), and became professor of law and politics at Upsal. His fame exposed him to envy, and his enemies accused him, in 1615, of corresponding secretly with the German emperor Sigismond, on which he was sentenced to imprisonment for life. He died in confinement, in 1637. Of his writings, the principal is Joan. Messenii Scondia (not Scaudia) Ulustrata, seu Chro- nologia de Rebus Scondia, hoc est Suecia, Dania, Norwegia, &c. (Stockholm, 1710, 14 vols., folio). His son Arnold was exe- cuted in 1651, on account of a libel against the queen and the senate. This libel was written by John, son of Arnold, who was then but 17 years old. The father, how- ever, had been accessary to it. John shared his fate. Messiah; a Hebrew word, signifying the anointed; in the Greek translation Xpi°-™s, whence Christ. In the Old Testa- ment, the word is applied to the whole Jewish people, to the priests, to the kings ("the Lord's anointed"—in the original, MESSIAH—METAL. 433 "3Iessiah"), and even to Gentile kings. In the books of the prophets, however, it began to be applied, by way of eminence, to the Savior and Redeemer of the Jewish nation, and, in this sense, is used in the New Testament, with the extension of its meaning so as to signify the Savior of all men. The Jews deny that the 31essiah is yet come, and still expect the restoration of their state and nation from his arrival. (See Jews, aud Jesus.) Messier, Charles, an astronomer, bom at Badonviller, in Lorraine, in 1730, went to Paris at the age of 20, and was em- ployed by the astronomer Delille, in copy- ing and drawing maps. Delille, who was struck with his zeal in the study of astron- omy, obtained a situation for him, and, in 1758, the observation ofthe comet, which then occupied the attention of astrono- mers, was intrusted to him. He was one of the first to discover the comet whose return Halley had predicted in 1759; and he carefully observed the new ly-discov- ered planet Uranus. A telescope, a quad- rant, and a pendulum, were his only in- struments. His sight was remarkably keen, and enabled bim to discover objects of search before other observers. The revolution deprived hiin of his former ap- pointments, but he continued his observa- tions through the reign of terror, and was afterwards appointed a member of the institute, ofthe board of longitude, and of the legion of honor. He died in 1817, at the age of 86. His observations are con- tained in the Mimoires of the academy, and in die Connaissance des Temps. Messina (anciently Messana); a city on the eastern coast of Sicily, lying on the strait called the Pharos of Messina,w ith a safe and commodious harbor; lat X8° 11' N.; lon. 15° 34' E. It is the see of an archbishop. The streets are broad, well laid out, and paved with lava, cut into blocks two feet square. Since the earthquake of 1783, the houses have been rebuilt, of fewer stories. The population is 55,000; 30 convents and about 60 churches, four seminaries of education, several asylums for the poor, hospitals, and monti di pietd, a senate-house, a royal aud an episcopal palace, are amoug the public buildings. It has an extensive transit trade between Italy and the Levant, and exports silks, wines, oil, fruits, wool, &c. The cathe- ifral is dedicated to the v irgin, who is the patroness of the city, under the title of Madonna della Letiera, and contains a let- ter in the hand-writing ofthe virgin to the 3Iessiuians, a lock of her hair, an arm of St. Paul, and the skull of 3Iary 31agdalen! vol. viii. 37 The city was ravaged by the plague in 1743, and almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake in 1783. (See Sicily.) Mestizos, or Metis (Spanish, mixed). In countries where Spanish Europeans have settled and intermingled with the natives, the descendants are called Mesti- zos. In 3Iexico, the European Spaniards were called Chapetones, or Gachupines. The pure descendants of Europeans are called Creoles (q. v.), in similar countries. The Mestizo is described as having a trans- parent skin, a thin beard, small hands and feet, and a certain obliquity of the eyes. If a Metis marry with a white, the fruits of the union differ but slightly from a European. Mesto (Italian) ; a term significative of a pathetic and melancholy style of per- formance. Mestre de Camp ; formerly the title of the commanding officer of a regiment of cavalry in the French service. He was distinguished by this appellation on account of there being a colonel-general in the cavalry. The chief of a regiment of infantry was also formerly so called. 3Iesue ; a name given to the author of several ancient Arabic works on medicine, which were early translated into Latin. They are founded on the principles of Galen, and enjoyed great authority for a time, in the middle ages, and were com- mented upon down to the sixteentii cen- tury. There is much uncertainty re- specting the name itself, aud the life of the author. It seems necessary to sup- pose the existence of two physicians of this name, an elder one, who was body physician to the famous caliph Haroun al Raschid (q. v.), and to several other ca- liphs, and died at Bagdad about A. D. 851. Haroun al Raschid, and his successor, Almamon, employed him to translate sev- eral works from the Greek. The younger Mesue was born in the eleventh centuiy. He is saitl to have been a Christian, and a pupil of Avicenna. His works on medi- cine, translated into Latin, were common text-books in the medical schools of tbe middle ages, and were commented upon as late as the seventeenth centuiy. Mesurado, Cape. (See Liberia.) Meta ; a Greek jireposition (utrd) of a great variety of meanings. It is used in numerous compound words, which have been adojited in English, and, in this case, generally means with, over, beyond, after. 3Ietal ; the most numerous class of undecompounded chemical bodies, dis- tinguished by the following general char- 434 METAL—3IETAM0RPH0SIS. acters: 1. They possess a peculiar lustre, which continues in the streak and in their smallest fragments. 2. They are fusible by heat, and in fusion retain their lustre and opacity. 3. They are all (except selenium) good conductors, both of elec- tricity and caloric. 4. Many of them may be extended under the hammer, and are called malleable; or under the rolling-press, and are called laminable; or drawn into wire, and are called ductUe. 5. When their saline combinations are electrized, the metals separate at the negative jiole. 6. When exjiosed tothe action of oxygen, chlorine, or iodine, at an elevated tem- perature, they generally take fire, and, combining with one or other of these three elementary dissolvents, in definite jiroportions, are converted into earthy, or saline-looking bodies, devoid of metallic lustre and ductility, called oxides, chlorides, or iodides. 7. They are cajiable of com- bining in their melted state with each other, in almost every proportion, consti- tuting alloys. 8. Most of them combine, in definite proportions, with sulphur and phosphorus, forming bodies frequently of a semi-metallic lustre; and others unite with hydrogen, carbon and boron, giving rise to peculiar gaseous or solid com- pounds. Their names are as follows: 1. platinum, 2. gold, 3. silver, 4. palladi- um, 5. mercury, 6. copper, 7. iron, 8. tin, 9. lead, 10. nickel, 11. cadmium, 12. zinc, 13. bismuth, 14. antimony, 15. manga- nese, 16. cobalt, 17. tellurium, 18. arsenic, 19. chromium, 20. molybdenum, 21. tung- sten, 22. columbium, 23. selenium, 24. os- mium, 25. rhodium, 26. iridium, 27. ura- nium, 28. titanium, 29. cerium, 30. potas- sium, 31. sodium, 32. lithium, 33. calci- um, 34. barium, 35. strontium, 36. mag- nesium, 37. yttrium, 38. glucinum, 39. aluminum, 40. zirconium, 41. silicium, 42. thorinum.* The first 12 are malle- able, and so are the 30th, 31st, and 32d, in their congealed state. The first 16 yield oxides, which are neutral, salifiable bases. The metals 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22 and 23 are acidifiable by combination with oxygen. Of the oxides of the rest, up to the 30th, little is known. The remaining metals form, with oxygen, the alkaline and earthy bases. 3Ietalliques; a kind of Austrian stocks, so called because the interest is paid in the jirecious metals, and not, like the in- terest of other stocks, in paper money. The name was afterwards used also in * To this list we must now add vauadium, a new metal, just discovered by Scstrom, director of the iron mines of Fahlun, in Scandinavia. other countries, for instance, in Russia, for stocks of a similar kind. Metalloid, in chemistry ; a name giv- en at firet to the metals which have been obtained from the fixed alkalies and some ofthe earths. These bodies, having been found to be completely metallic, are now classed with the other metals, and no dis- tinction is necessary. Metallurgy,3IetallurgicChemistry, is that part of chemistry which teaches the combinations and analyses of metals. It has been much cultivated of late. 3Ietamorphosis (from the Greek /itra (seeMeta) and i*opv, the form); a change of form, used also for an entire change of the subject. The active imagination of nations in an early stage of histoiy, in- dulges itself in representing metamorpho- ses of men, beasts, plants, stones, &c, and these productions of youthful imagina- tion enter into their religion, philosophy, poetry (generally at first identical). Sur- rounded by the constant metainorjihoses of nature, and seeking, as man always does, to connect effects and causes, yet unable, from his limited knowledge, to satisfy his desires, he is led to ascribe many changes, which riper ages find to be the conse- quences of eternal laws, to sudden meta- morphoses. To these he resorts to ex- plain the mysteries of his jiresent con- dition (which perplex the mind of man in the infancy of society as well as in ad- vanced cultivation), and, by a series of metamorphoses, accounts for the unde- finable connexion between man, nature aud providence. To all this we must add the great interest which attends the story of metamorphoses. Even in this reflecting age, in which cool understand- ing seems to have acquired the ascenden- cy, who can read, without interest, the tales of strange transformations contained in the Arabian Nights—those wild pro- ductions of a creative imagination ? Of the metamorphoses of the Greek mytholo- gy, while some startle the sober taste of our age, others belong to the sweetest productions of poetry. The jiojiular be- lief in metamorphoses has by no means subsided entirely in all Christian coun- tries. In natural history, the word mi tu- morphosis is used sometimes for any change in the organization of matter, as, for instance, the transformation of food or rain into animal or vegetable organic sub- stances, but more particularly for those sudden changes in the form of things, which are obvious and interesting even to ordinary observation, as the change ofthe pujia iuto a butterfly. METAPHOR—3IETAPHYSICS. 435 Metaphor (Greek, iicralpu>, I carry); a figure of rhetoric, by whicli a word is transferred from die subject to which it properly be- longs, and applied to another whicli has some similitude to its proper subject, with a view to give impressiveness to the latter. The metaphor may be merely in an epi- thet or an auxiliary term, as "winged haste," the "spring of life," &c, or in the main subject of a sentence, as when a hero is called a lion, a minister a pUlor of the state, &c. In respect to the points of comparison, the metaphor may either put something animate or intellectual for something inanimate and material; for uistance, "the wrath of the sea," "the bountiful earth," to represent nature as if endowed with will; or, vice versa, may substitute the physical for the spiritual, as, " the stars of his merits will shine from tbe night of the grave." As the impres- sions which we receive through the senses are tbe liveliest, the designation of things spiritual by images taken from the mate- rial world may often produce a striking effect. Thirdly, a metaphor may consist in the transfer of a term from one thing to another, felling under the same great division of material or spiritual, but sub- stituting the more familiar for the less, as when we speak of the "silver moon." Brevity and power are the characteris- tic excellences of the metaphor; nov- elty shows the original wit Unex- pected contrast may produce an effect sublime and ridiculous in the highest degree. Jean Paul, in his Vorschule der AesthetUc says," The metaphor is the jiroof of the unity of both worlds (spiritual and physical). The metaphors of all nations are similar, and none calls error light, or truth darkness." Liveliness of concep- tion, comprehensiveness of view, and ac- tivity of imagination, are necessaiy to jiroduce good metaphors, which often jiroduee great effects, sometimes to the prejudice of sober reasoning. He who wishes to study metaphors must read the Old Testament anil Shaksjieare. A slight consideration will show us how constant- ly we speak in metaphors, and that we convey most abstract ideas by metaphors ofthe second kind; thus, He is cold towards me, He is large minded, &c. It is main- tained by many, that all language began by the designation of objects and actions affecting the senses, and that when the mind began to abstract, man was obliged to use his stock of words for abstract ideas, so that all words, if we had the means to trace them, would be found to refer originally to things material, whicli, it cannot be denied, is often the case. In the speculative sciences, morals, meta- physics, politics, &c, metaphors, instead of being confined to the rank of illustra- tions, have often been treated as if they had an independent meaning, and have been made the foundation of reasonings. No philosophy deserves this rejiroach more severely than the most recent phi- losophy of Germany, which often takes ingenious metaphors as explanations of truth. Metaphtsics. What am I ? What is all that sun-ounds me ? What is mind, soul, existence, percejition, feeling, thought? What is evil? What is time, space, cause, effect ? What is truth ? What is necessity ? What is freedom? Can we know any thing with certainty? Questions of this character are continually suggesting them- selves to the mind of man. It is one of his distinguishing characteristics to look for causes, and to establish relations among the numberless phenomena around him, and within him; to separate the generic from the special, and to reduce the whole system of things to harmoni- ous order. His acquisitions and ad- vancement arc all owing to this disposi- tion, ineradicably planted in his soul by. his Creator. The rudest speculations of uncivilized man, and the profoundest systems of philosophy, are alike proofs that this desire cannot be extinguished, this anxious feeling cannot be lulled into apathy. All investigations relating to these great questions belong to what has been called, though arbitrarily,metaphysics. Such speculations it is neither possible nor desirable to check, though they may result in but distant approximations to truth. Revealed religion does not attempt to repress them, and even if the end of the whole should be that the search was vain, this itself would be a fact of the highest interest A man who contemns metaphysics must think his own nature unworthy of examination. Metaphys- ical inquiries, indeed, have often been disfigured with overstrained subtilty and revolting sophistry, and too often arbitraiy analogies, bold comparisons, and unmean- ing mysticism have claimed and receiv- ed "homage as having unlocked the long hidden truth; but the same has taken place in regard to religion and politics, and all the great subjects which strongly stir the soul of man. Ill a historical point of view, all these aberrations, and even absurdities, mournful as they may 436 METAPHYSICS-METASTASIO. be, are interesting.—Among the writings of Aristotle, on natural subjects, are some whicb treat particularly of the original causes of all existence. When the various treatises of that philosopher were firet arranged by his commentators, the latter received a place after the othere, and, not having a special title, were desig- nated in the older manuscripts as t« pcrd ru ^voikA, that is, after the treatises on nature; and of this the schoolmen formed the barbarous word metaphysica; and as the subjects whicli Aristotle treats in these chapters are purely speculative, meta- physics was considered the science of general speculation, and of tilings placed beyond the reach of the senses. This science was not new; its elements were spread through all jihilosophical systems; and that which bears the name of Aristotle, being but a collection of considerations on the principles of things, on general terms, axioms, causes, the jirojierties of existence, substance, matter, motion, space, time, God, the immaterial and eternal intelli- gences who jireside over the movement of the heavenly spheres, forms but jiart of it; for metaphysics comprehends every thing which can occupy the human mind, God, nature, the soul, and all the concep- tions whicli result from the rational exer- cise of our faculties. Few philosophers have embraced the whole of the vast domain of metaphysics; generally they have attached themselves to one of its parts, and have treated it according to their different genius. Some have aban- doned themselves to the jiromptings of a lively and exalted imagination; others have devoted themselves to a cool analy- sis; some have employed themselves in sjieculation, others in observation; and in regard to observation, some have confined themselves mostly to facts perceptible by the senses; some to the phenomena with- in us, moral and intellectual. We do not mean that any class has exercised itself exclusively in either of these ways, but each has had a favorite path, to which the others were subordinate. Thus the Oriental philosophy observes little, reasons freely, analyzes not at all, and imagines constantly. It creates and sets in action supernatural beings, suggests mysterious causes and arbitrary analogies, and peo- ples space with spirits standing between God and men. The dogma of the two principles and the system of emanations form the basis of this theological philoso- phy. Traces of these sublime visions apjiear in the metaphysics of Pythagoras and Plato. Aristotle, in the treatises above mentioned, generally gives what other philosophers have said resjiecting subjects lying beyond the reach of our senses, and often only hints at what is to be sought, without declaring that it is found. The great authority which Aris- totle enjoyed in the middle ages, and the little actual knowledge respecting the laws of existence, induced his pretended follow- ers to form from his jihilosophical fragments what they thought a connected and well founded system, which served as a canon for the philosophy of the time. Even the oldest commentators of Aristotle di- rected their endeavors to this jioint; but metaphysics, as an independent science, was developed by the schoolmen of the middle ages (Thomas Aquinas, Duns Sco- tus, William Occam, and othere), and was cultivated (if, indeed, this word can be given to their way of treating science) so much the more as all other sciences had been forgotten. Not until the seventeenth century was the metaphysics ofthe school- men undermined by the introduction of a critical spirit of investigation. Lord Ba- con, 31ore, Hobbes, ajipeared in England ; Th. Campanella, in Italy; Descartes, in France, as adversaries of the Aristotelian school-philosophy. More details and a continuation of the historical sketch will be found in the article Philosophy, In- tellectual, as well as some account of the most important systems of meta- physics. It has become customary to designate the theoretical princijiles of any branch of knowledge as the meta- physics of a science. The French, in particular, have considered metaphys- ics in this light, and have been in the habit of despising abstract speculation, though a different spirit seems to have arisen among their latest philosophical writers. Metapontus ; a son of Sisyphus, who married Theana. (See Theana.) Metastasio, Pietro Antonio Domeni- co Buonaventura; born at Assisi, 1698. His true name was Trapassi, and his father was a common soldier. His poeti- cal talents were early awakened, particu- larly by the reading of Tasso, and, while yet a child, were displayed in making rhymes, and in improvisations: the latter, however, he was soon obliged to re- nounce, on account of his sensibility to nervous excitement. The celebrated Gravina, who accidentally became ac- quainted with his talents, took him under his protection, called him (by a transla- tion of his name into Greek) Metastasio, paid great attention to his education, and, METASTASIO—METELLI. 437 on his death, in 1717, left him his whole estate. The young poet, being thus placed in an easy condition, devoted him- self to his favorite study, and, under tbe guidance of the celebrated singer Maria Romanina (afterwards Bulgarelli), created the modern Italian opera. He had al- ready produced an opera, II Giustino, in his fourteenth year. In 1724, he began his career as a dramatic poet, with the Didone abbandonata, which was brought out at Naples with Sarti's music, and in which he is thought to have depicted his own connexion with Romanina. His success was such that Charles VI in- vited him to Vienna in 1729, and ap- pointed him poet laureate (poetacesareo) with a pension of 4000 guilders. Thence- forward no gala took jilace at court which was not graced by his verses. Ferdinand VI of Sjiain, who was de- lighted with his oj>eras, in which Farinel- li (q. v.) performetl, sent the poet a flatter- ing token of ajjjirobation. Metastasio constantly declmed all the distinctions which Charles VI and 31aria Theresa were desirous to confer on him, and died in 1782. Pius VI, who was then at Vien- na, visited bim in person, and sent him his apostolical benediction in articulo mor- Hs. The most important of 31etastasio's works are his operas and musical cantatas, which have apjieared in numerous edi- tions. A ninth edition of his Opere dra- maliche was published in Venice in 1748; a better edition is that of Turin (1757, 14 vols.). His complete works, published in Venice (1781, 16 vols.) contain his life. His Opere posthume appeared at Vienna (1795, 3 vols.). Metastasio's purity, clear- ness, elegance and grace of style, the har- mony, sweetness, ease, and expressive rhythm of bis arie, canzonets ami songs, have rendered him a classic among the Italians. No poet, perhaps, has ever pos- sessed in a higher degree the jiovver of embracing the most essential circum- stances of a poetical situation in a narrow comj»a6s. The songs, with which his jiereonages retire, are almost always the most concise and natural expression ofthe state of the feelings. His representations of the jiassions are, however, general; his jiathos equally destitute of individual character, and of general contemjilation. He is throughout musical, and never jiicturcsquc. His melodies are light and pleasing, but are frequently rejicated with little variation : when one has read several of his jiieces, one is acquainted with all. The gallantly of bis heroes and the fondness of his heroines are, perhaps, 37* less to be blamed than the choice of sub- jects whose serious character makes trifling out of place. His tragic attemjits failed. His astonishing success through all Europe, and particularly at courts, was owing partly to his being not only in office, but in manner, a court poet. Bril- liant and superficial, arraying prosaic thoughts in a poetical style, always pre- serving a courtly elegance, with a con- stant observance of the conventional pro- prieties of high life, he could not fail to please in the courtly world. Few of bis operas have maintained a jilace on the stage, on account of the change in the musical taste. Metastasis, in medicine; the trans- fer of a disease from one part of the body to another, or such an alteration as is suc- ceeded by a solutiou. 3Ietaurus ; a town with a small river of the same name in the country of the Bruttii. The river 3Ietaurus falls into the Adriatic. 3Ietelin. (See Lesbos.) Metella ; the wife of Sylla. 31etelli ; the surname of the family of the Coecilii, at Rome, the most known of whom were a general, who defeated the Achaeans, took Thebes, and invaded 3Iacedonia, &c.; Q. Cacilius, who ren- dered himself illustrious by his successes against Jugurtha, the Numidian king, from which he was surnamed Numidicus. lie took, in this'expedition, the celebrated Marius (q. v.) as bis lieutenant, and soon had cause to repent of the confidence he had placed in him. 3Iarius raised him- self to power by defaming the character of bis benefactor, and 3Ietellus was recalled to Rome, and accused of extortion and ill- management. 3Iarius was appointed his successor to finish the Numidian war, and Metellus was acquitted of the crimes laid to his charge before the tribunal of tbe Roman knights, who observed that the probity of bis whole life, and the greatness of his exploits, were stronger proofs of his innocence than the most powerful argu- ments.—Another, who saved from the flames the Palladium, when Vesta's tem- jile was on fire. He was then high priest. He lost his sight and one of his arms in doing it, and the senate, to reward his zeal and piety, jiermitted him always to be drawn to the senate-house in a chariot, an honor which no one had ever before enjoyed. He also gained a great v ictory over the Carthaginians, &c.— Q. Cacil- ius, a general who conquered Crete and Macedonia, and was surnamed Mart- donicus. 438 METEMPSYCHOSIS—3IETE0RIC STONES. Metempsychosis (Greek, from ^ra,be- yond, ev, in, and i/^ou, I animate); trans- migration ; the passage of the soul from one body to another.—Metensomatosis (from iitra, beyond, and cvmupan^, I em- body) lias a similar meaning. Generally the doctrine of transmigration of souls imjilies some change in the soul itself for better or worse, for purification or punishment. (See Transmigration of Souls.) 3lETEMPTOsis,(fromp"-i, after, and nm™, I fall); a term in chronology expressing the solar equation necessary to prevent the new moon from happening a day too late.—Proemptosis signifies the lunar equation necessaiy to prevent the new moon from happening too soon. 31eteor. (Greek, itcreupa, in tbe air.) The term meteors is often applied to all the phenomena which take jilace in the atmosphere, but is sometimes restricted to the ajipearances of luminous bodies flying or floating in the atmosphere, or in a more elevated region, including those brilliant globes or masses of matter whicli are occasionally seen moving rapidly through our atmosjihere, and whicli throw off with loud explosions fragments that reach the earth, and are called falling stones; also those fire-balls whicli are usually denominated falling stars, suppos- ed to be owing to gelatinous matter, in- flated by phosphureted hydrogen gas (see Falling Stars); also the lights which appear over moist grounds and burial grounds, called ignes fatui, which are as- cribed to the same cause. Falling stars appear under a variety of circumstances, but particularly in autumn and spring, when the sky is clear. Their size and brilliancy are variable. They always move with great celerity. They are higher than the region of the clouds, be- cause they are never seen in a cloudy sky. Electricity, spontaneous combustion of matter in the atmosphere, or the incan- descence of little globes of a nature similar to that of the bolides, are the agents to whicli jihilosophers in general, though without sufficient reasons, attribute the origin of these meteors, with the true na- ture of which we shall not become ac- quainted without more numerous and ex- act observations. Meteors, in the most general sense of the word, may be reduc- ed to four classes—igneous or fiery mete- ors, including, besides those above men- tioned, lightning, St. Elmo's fire; lumi- nous meteors, as the rainbow, haloes, au- rora borealis, zodiacal light, parhelia, or mock-suns, paraselenes, or mock-moons; aqueous meteors,—tlewr, hoar frost, mist, clouds, rain, snow, hail, &c.; and atrial meteors, as winds, water-spouts. It will be seen that these phenomena are of very different natures, and owing to different causes. The only connexion between them is that of a common medium, and we therefore refer to the separate articles for information concerning them; also to Electricity. (See also the articles Me- teoric Stones, and Meteorology.) Meteoric Iron. (See Iron, Native, and Meteoric Stones.) Meteoric Stones, or Aerolites, are solid, semi-metallic substances, which fall from the atmosjihere. The descent of such bodies bad been long reported; but the fact was not considered authentic till within a few years. The larger stones have been seen as luminous bodies mov- ing with great velocity, descending in ob- lique directions, and frequently with a loud, hissing noise, resembling that of a mortar-shell when projected from a piece of ordnance; they are sometimes sur- rounded with a flame, tapering off to a narrow stream at the hinder jiart, are heard to explode, and seen to fly in pieces. Of course, these appearances have been observed only in the night ; when the stones have fallen in the day time, the meteor has not been observed, but the re- jiort and the shower of stones only have been noticed. The same meteoric mass has often been seeu over a great extent of countiy; in some instances, a hundred miles iu breadth, and five hundred in length, which implies that they must have had a great elevation. Indeed, from va- rious calculations, it appears, that during the time in which tiiey are visible, their perpendicular altitude is generally from 20 to 100 miles; and their diameter has, in some instances, been estimated to be at least half a mile. Their velocity is as- tonishing. Though rarely visible for more dian a minute, yet they are seen to traverse many degrees in the heavens. Their rate of motion cannot, according to. calculation, be generally less than 300 miles in a minute. From the dimensions of these moving bodies, which certainly have not been overrated, since they have been known to illuminate, at once, a re- gion of one or two hundred miles in ex- tent, we are warranted in the conclusion that the stones which come to us from them, form but a very small portion of their bulk, while the maui body holds on its way through the regions of the heav- ens. The velocity with which the pieces strike the earth is very great, frequently METEORIC STONES. 439 penetrating to a considerable depth, and when taken up, they have been found, in some cases, still hot, and bearing evident marks of recent fusion. Such falls have happened in cloudy as well as in clear weather, which leads to the belief that they are wholly unconnected with the state of the atmosphere. The most re- markable circumstance respecting them is, that they invariably resemble each oth- er in certain easily cognizable characters, both as respects their external projierties and chemical composition, so as to render it possible for a mineralogist or a chemist to recognise them with certainty, though he should have no information of their origin or fall. Those specimens in which earthy matter preponderates, resemble jiretty closely certain varieties of the trachytic rocks, or ancient lavas, but they invariably contain, disseminated through their substance, an alloy of iron and nick- el, which has as yet never been discover- ed among the productions of our earth. The earthy minerals of which they are composed, are feldsjiar, olivine and au- gite—the former greatly preponderating; and of metallic substances, besides the native iron, magnetic iron pyrites is a frequent ingredient. The alloy of iron and nickel often contains chrome, man- ganese and cobalt in minute jirojiortions. This alloy varies in the proportion which it bears to the earthy matters, in stones which have fallen at different times: sometimes it is scarcely to be detected without the aid of the microscope; at other times it forms more than one half the bulk ofthe stone, and immense mass- es are found consisting entirely of native iron:—such masses are called meteoric iron, while the exjiression meteoric stones is ajijilicd more strictly to those in whicli the earthy minerals preponderate. These last are invariably coated, on the outside, with a thin, black incrustation, and have in general a spherical figure, in which we often observe indentations, simUar to those whicli are presented by a mass that has been impressed with the fingers. These constant characters, as respects their fall, and chemical and mechanical composition, indicate a common origin, and have given rise to a variety of hy- jiotheses to account for their phenomena. We can only hint at these hypotheses. Some attribute them to terrestrial, and others to lunar volcanoes. They have again been supposed to be concretions formed in the regions of our atmosjihere ; while others have considered them as small planets circulating about the sun or earth, which, coming in contact with our atmosphere, take fire from the resistance and friction which they meet with in passing through it.* With regard to the first sujiposition, viz. that these stones proceed from terrestrial volcanoes, it will be sufficient to observe, that no remarka- ble erujition has been known to have happened at or near the time of their fall, and that such bodies have been found at the distance of some thousand miles from any known volcano; besides, the immense force that would be necessary to jiroject bodies of such enormous di- mensions as these meteors are known to possess, far exceeds any force that we can conceive of, not to notice the want of similarity between meteoric stones and ordinary volcanic exuviae. As to the theory that they proceed from volcanoes in the moon, it has a greater degree of probability. The same force that would jiroject a body from the moon to the earth, would not, if it were exerted at the earth's surface, send the same body to die distance of ten miles, in consequence of the superior gravity of our planet and the density of the atmosphere. It is com- puted that a body projected from a favora- ble sjiot on the moon's surface,—say the centre of her disk opposite the earth,— with a velocity about four times that com- monly given to a cannon ball, or 8220 feet per second, would carry it beyond the centre of attraction, and consequently in- to the sphere of the earth's activity; whence it must necessarily either fall to the surface of the earth, or circulate about us as a satellite. A body so projected from the moon to the earth, would take three days in its jiassage ; wbich is not so long but that it might retain its heat, par- ticularly as it is doubtful whether in pass- ing through a vacuum, or veiy attenuated medium, it would be possible for the ca- loric to escajie, not to say that it might ac- quire a fresh accumulation of heat, by passing through the denser parts of our atmosjihere. Besides, eruptions, resem- bling those of our volcanoes, have been frequently observed in the moon; and her atmosjihere is extremely rare, present- ing but little resistance to projected bodies. This theory might perhaps be tenable if we had only to account for those showers * Since the discovery of Sir H. Davy, that the earths are metallic oxides, it has been suggested that the bases of the earths may originally exist in the meteor in the metallic state, and that when the body arrives within our atmosphere, a sudden and violent combustion is produced by the strong affinity of these metals to oxygen. 440 METEORIC STONES—3IETEOROLOGY. of stones which come to our earth's sur- face ; but these, it has been seen, are a very trifling part ofthe main masses from which they descend, and which are be- lieved to be in some instances more than a mile in circumference. And since it is conceived that we experience a shower of these stones every few months in some part of the world, it is obvious that at this rate the whole mass of the moon must soon be shot away. Nor is this all. Among a number of bodies, thrown at random from the moon, it is not probable, that one in 10,000 would have precisely that direc- tion and that rate of motion which would be requisite to cause it to pass through our atmosphere, without falling to the ground. With regard to the theory of these bodies being concretions formed in the air, there is one principal objection, viz. that the velocity with which they strike the earth, estimated by the depth to which they have been known to pene- trate, is so great as to indicate their having fallen from heights far exceeding the lim- its of the terrestrial atmosphere. The remaining theory, especially that modifi- cation of it which conceives these mete- oric masses to be terrestrial comets, aji- jiears encumbered with fewer difficulties than either of the others. The solar comets, it is well known, revolve round the sun in very eccentric orbits. In one part of their revolution, they sometimes come so near as almost to strike his body. They then move off, far beyond the or- bits of all the planets; and in some in- stances are gone hundreds of years, be- fore they return. The earth, it is im- agined, in like manner, is furnished with its system of comets, whose size and pe- riods of revolution are proportioned to the comparative smallness of the primary body about which they revolve, and which, like the solar comets, fly off in very elliptical orbits; and during the greatest part of their circuit are too far distant to be visible. In their approach to the earth, they fall within our atmos- jihere ; by the friction of the air they are heated, and highly electrified, and the electricity is discharged with a very vio- lent report, accompanied with the detach- ment of a portion of the mass, which de- scends in fragments to the earth. This hypothesis certainly accounts, in a very happy manner, for most of the phenome- na attending the fall of aerolites. The velocity of the meteor corresponds with the motion of a terrestrial comet, passing through the atmosphere in an elliptical orbit. A body moving near the earth widi a velocity less than three hundred miles in a minute, must fell to its surface by the power of gravitation. If it move in a direction jiarallel to the horizon, more than four hundred and thirty miles in a minute, it will fly off in the curve of a hyperbola ; and will never return, un- less disturbed in its motion by some other body besides the earth. Within these two limits of three hundred miles on the one hand, and of four hundred and thir- ty on the other (some allowance being made for the resistance of the air and the motion ofthe earth), the body will re- volve in an ellipsis, returning in regular jieriods. Now, the velocity of the mete- ors, wltich have been observed, has gen- erally been estimated to be rather more than three hundred miles hi a minute. In some instances it is perhaps too great to suffer the body ever to return; but in most cases, it is calculated to be such as would be necessary hi describing the lower part of an elliptical orbit.—Various lists of the jieriods, places and appear- ances of these showers of stones have been given from time to time in the scientific journals. The latest and most complete is that published in the first volume ofthe Ed. Phil. Journ., compiletl partly from a printed list by Chladni, and partly from a manuscript one of 31r. Allan, read some years ago at the Royal Society of Edin- burgh. Meteorology (from pLtrtupos, raised in the air, and \oyos, discourse); the science which treats of the phenomena whicli oc- cur in the atmosjihere, of their causes and effects. 3Ien, in all conditions of society, are led by motives of necessity or comfort to study the indications of the weather in the different appearances of the skies. The mariner, the shepherd, the husband- man, the hunter, have the strongest mo- tives to examine closely every varying aji- pearance which may precede more impor- tant changes. The result of these obser- vations forms a body of maxims, in which facts are often stated correctly, but mixed with ereoneous deductions and supersti- tious notions, such as the credulity of igno- rant people always renders them ready to adopt. Hence the disposition to refer the ordinary changes of the weather to the influence of the moon, and even the stare, and to look for signs of apjiroaching con- vulsions, even in the moral world, in hor- rid comets and strange meteors. The jirogress of science, which tends to sepa- rate the casual precursors from the real causes of jihenoinena, refutes these false reasonings, dissipates the empty terrors to METEOROLOGY—METHOD. 441 which they give rise, and aims, by more jiatient, long continued and wide extend- ed observations, to deduce the general rules by which the phenomena of the at- mosphere ajipear to be regulated. Mete- orology borrows from chemistry her anal- ysis to determine the composition of the air itself, and of the substances which it contains, and by which it is acted upon ; die manner in which thedifferent jirocesses of evaporation, freezing, thawing, &c, go on, and how they affect the state of the atmos|ihere ; the action of those invisible agents, light, heat, electricity, &c, and their tremendous effects. From physics meteorology takes the mechanical action of these and similar powers and sub- stances, the weight and velocity of the air, the laws of the reflection, refraction, and motion of light, &c. By these aids this science explains the formation, fall or de- position of hail, snow, rain, dew, and frost (see these articles, and those on Clouds, Evaporation, Freezing, and Caloric); the action of thunder and lightning (see Elec- tricity) ; the jirevalence and jnojierties of certain winds (q. v.); the effect of the po- sition of a countiy and the nature of its surface on its climate and productions (see Climate, Temperature, and Mountains); tbe nature and causes of meteors (see Meteors, and Meteoric Stones), &c. To jirejiare tbe way for these and similar inquiries, it is necessaiy previously to determine the ex- tent and constitution of the medium in w Inch the jihenomena take place (see Air, and Atmosphere), nd to indicate with pre- cision, antl observe with minuteness and accuracy, its precise condition at the time of their occurrence, by jihilosophical in- struments. Some of these have long been known, but othere are either of recent ori- gin, or have received a more delicate con- struction from recent observers. The or- dinaiy observations are generally confined to the weight and temjierature of the air (see Barometer, and Thermometer) ; but other data are imjiortant, and have of late yeare received more attention than for- merly. The dryness or humidity of the atmosphere (see Hygrometer) ; its bright- ness, or degree of illumination (see Plio- tometer); the tint or shade of the cerulean hue of the sky (determined by the cya- mometer, invented by Saussure); the va- riable disposition to chill the surface of the earth by impressions of cold transmit- ted from the higher regions (determined by tbe aethrioscope),—are all to be taken into consideration. The daily evaporation from the ground is to be measured by the atmometer ; the quantity of rain which falls is to be registered by the ombrome- ter, or rain-gauge (q.v.); the amount of dew dejiosited should be observed (see Drosometer), and tbe direction, force and velocity of the wind indicated by the ane- mometer and anemoscope. (See Saus- sure's Essais sur V Hygromitrie; De Luc's Idies sur la Meteorologie ; Cotte's Traiti de Metiorologie ; Lampadius's Grundriss der Atmosphdrologie; article Meteorology in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana (1830, second division); Daniell's Meteorological Essays and Observations.) The value of a meteorological register depends on the accuracy with which it is kept. The ob- servations should be made in a place rath- er elevated, and exposed freely on all sides to the aspect of the sky, and should be rejieated either at equal intervals during the day and night, or, at least, at those hours which rejiresent most nearly the mean state of the atmosphere. The po- sition and exjiosure of the splace should also be made known. These requisites are seldom attained, and very few registers of the weather are entitled to much confi- dence. Accurate observations, made in all jmrts of the world, and in a regular and scientific manner, are yet necessary for the systematic classification of all me- teorological phenomena into a complete science. 31ethod ; a convenient arrangement of things, jiroceedings, or ideas; in logic and rhetoric, the art or rule of disposing ideas in such a manner that they may be easily comprehended, either in order to discover the truth, or to demonstrate it to othere. Method is essential to science, and gives to our knowledge its scientific character. Scientific authors make use of different methods, according to the object which they have in view. The ajiparently strict- est is the mathematical, which is cajiable of giving the greatest possible clearness to its theorems by a series of explanations and deductions ; but it ought to be observ- ed that this method is only adapted to a science which has to do with numbers and magnitudes, and has had unfortunate consequences when nothing was consider- ed true but what could be mathematically jiroved, antl when the mathematical meth- od was applieduo intellectual philosophy. Methods have made epochs in philosophy, proceeding from the spirit of the systems to which they were applied. Thus there are the sceptic method (see Scepticism), the critical method (see Kant), and the dogmatic method, which, in philosophy, is the method that starts from acknowledged general principles,—all of which are limit- 442 METHOD—METHODISTS. ed and partial. The truly philosophical method is determined by the nature ofthe science. As to the way of jiroeeeding, the method may be analytical (i.e. it starts from particular cases, and seeks from them to deduce general causes) or synthetic (i.e. it infers the consequences from the causes); but it must always proceed from element- ary principles admitted by all, with logical strictness, in order to remain scientific. The popular method starts from the well known and the individual, and is general- ly analytical. Orators, both lay and cler- ical, and teachers of youth, make use of this less scientific method. As to external form, the teacher may speak uninterrupt- edly (this is adapted for adults and aca- demical lectures), or proceed by way of interrogation. In those branches the ele- ments of which lie in the operations of the human reason, as in morals, mathematics and religion, tbe catechetical method will be found best, because it addresses the rea- son or heart of the pupil directly, and by questions calls into action the powers of his understanding. The catechetic meth- od deserves the name of Socratic only when the teacher limits himself to direct- ing, by his questions, the course of the jiujiil's thoughts, but allows the conclu- sions to be formed by the operation of the scholar's own mind. Every art and science requires its own method of teach- ing, whicli, indeed, should be accommo- dated to the individual characters of the teacher and pupil. In order to teach the first elements to many jiupils, Lancaster's method will be always found useful. (See Mutual Instruction.) Pestalozzi strives, in his method-whatever the branch of instruc- tion may be, always to keep in view the el- evatiou ofthe whole being, the strengthen- ing of all the powers, and, as far as possi- ble, to make the pupil's own powers co- operate in the work of instruction. (See Pestalozzi.) A mistaken benevolence has at times undertaken to make all study amusing, and to beguile the pupil into knowledge without the necessity of labo- rious exertion on his part. Such a meth- od, however, tends to prevent the develope- meutof the faculties, and to unfit the mind to cojie with difficulties. Private instruc- tion requires different methods from pub- lic instruction; in fact, circumstances will constantly vary the methods of a skilful teacher. Methodists ; those defenders of the Catholic church who, in the 17th century, attempted to bring to a close the contro- versy with the Protestants, by new meth- ods of reasoning ; in later times, a reli- gious sect which arose in the bosom ofthe English church in the early part of the l^th centuiy. Some young men at Ox- ford united themselves together, in 1729, for the purjio.se of .strengthening each other's pious resolutions, and observing the religious services with strictness. They aimed particularly at a more rigid compli- ance with the jirecejits of the New Testa- ment than was usual in the church, and devoted themselves to works of love, such as instructing jioor children, visiting the prisons, &c. Their more worldly fellow students, among other names indicative of their peculiarities, called them Method- ists, on account of their methodical ob- servance of the rules of religion and the regularity of their lives. This name was adojited by themselves, and has since been continued to their followers. Of the mem- bers of this small society, the principal were John Wesley (q. v), the founder, bis broth- er Charles, and George Whitefield (q. v.), who joined it in 1735. In 1735, Wesley came out to Georgia, to engage in the con- version of the heathens. Here he remain- ed two years, and, becoming acquainted with some of the Moravian Brothers, was much struck with their severe simplicity and pious devotion. (See United Breth- ren.) lie then visited Herrnhut, after his return to England, and determined to model his own society somewhat after the same plan. Whitefield's jireaching bad already jirejiared the peojile for this un- dertaking. Wesley collected a small soci- ety in London, which held its conferences in a jirivate house, without any disposition, at this time, to secede from the church. But the clergy of the establishment hav- ing refused their pulpits to the Methodist preachers who endeavored to gain over their hearers to their society, and the con- course of auditors being too great to be accommodated in any church, they began to preach in the open air, antl to organize a sejiarate church on the primitive apos- tolical model. The jieculiar character of this field-preaching, which was distin- guished from tbe jihilosophical indiffer- ence of that of the established clergy by its vehemence, religious enthusiasm and popular style, and which dwelt more on the fall and dejiravity of man, on the atonement, on the restoration through the merits of a crucified Savior, on repent- ance, and on regeneration, with all the el- oquence which a sincere zeal could in- spire, had a great effect in increasing the numbers of tbe society. Whitefield, the boldest and most zealous apostle of Meth- odism, in eloquence, courage and fire the METHODISTS. 443 Paul of his sect, often collected hearers to the number of 12,000 in the fields, church- yards, and even at fairs, and, by the thun- ders of his eloquence and the terrors of his denunciations, produced such an effect ujion his audience, that many of them were thrown into convulsions, and, amidst cries and groans of anguish, were turned to faith and holiness on the sjiot/ These sudden conversions were considered as the outpourings of grace, and came to be considered by the Methodists as desirable results of their jireaching. They soon, however, gave up the practice of field- preaching, and built houses of worehip (tabernacles), partly to protect themselves from exposure to the weather, and jiartly to avoid the outrages which they experi- enced from the rabble. Although they suffered much from the violence of the populace, yet, as the government made no opjiosition, they now proceeded to the regular establishment of their church con- stitution, which was modelled on the plan ofthe Moravian Brothers, but divided into two distinct parties, the Wesleyans, or Ar- menians, and the Whitefieldiaiis, or Cal- vinists. Their liturgy was that of the es- tablished church, with some alterations. It apjieare, from the Sunday Service ofthe Methodists of 1826, that the offices for the ordination of priests and deacons, and for the consecration of bishops, are altered into forms for the ordination of deacons, elders and sujierintendents; the 39 articles are, by omissions, reduced to 25 ; the Ni- cene and Athanasian creeds are rejected, the ajiostles' creed only being retained ; and the apochryphal books of the Old Testament are rejected. In 1797, the New Connexion, as it is called, arose out of a sejiaration from the Wesleyan establish- ment, on grounds of church discipline and government, and not of doctrine. Alex- ander Kilham was their head and founder. The stejis by which the Wesleyan Meth- odists became a distinct religious body might have been anticipated. The socie- ties collected in London and other places were divided into little companies of from 10 to 20 pereons, called classes, and given iu charge to a leader. The leader presid- ed in a weekly meeting of his class for spiritual conversion and prayer, and re- ceived their charitable contributions. Gen- eral meetings of the society were called body bands; and, as the persons who were employed to preach to them soon became regular preachers, the countiy was divided into circuits, consisting ofthe societies of a certain district. These cir- cuits were under tvvr or more preachers, one of whom was at the head of the cir- cuit, with the name of superintendent. The conference consists of a certain num- ber of the preachers, who meet annually to discuss the affairs of the connexion. The distinctive character of Methodism is to be sought for, not so much in its doc- trines as in the application of them, which it endeavors to make for the purpose of producing strong excitement ; and those whom it has awakened to a sense of their sins it subjects to a course of disci- pline intended to unite them closely with tbe connexion. The fruits of White- field's preaching were, perhaps, not less than those of Wesley's, his folio were being about as numerous in England as those of the great patriarch of Methodism. The rise of Methodism, though it cannot be denied to have been attended with some irregularities and extravagances, was a re- v ival of religion in England. Since the reformation there had been no such efforts made in the cause of religion ; no jireach- ing so awakening, so little sectarian; no preachers with more zeal, singleness of jiurjiose and power of exhortation. It awoke the slumbering church from its lukewarnmess and dissenters to more bold and united efforts of Christian zeal. It addressed the ignorant, the poor, the hard- ened, in such a manner as to interest their feelings and command their attention. It has done, and is doing, much to instruct as well as to excite them. It made its way at first through jiersecution and outrage, and, after spreading over its native coun- try, it has established missions in the most distant parts of the old and new world, among the slaves of the West Indies and the savages ofthe South sea. (SeeSouth- ey's and Moore's Life of Wesley; Crow- ther's Portraiture of Methodism ; Gillie's Life of Whitefield; the works of Wesley and Whitefield.) At an early period ofthe his- tory of the connexion, the attention of Mr, We ley was directed to the British colo- nies of North America. In the Southern and Middle States, where sufficient pro- vision bad not been made to supply the spir- itual wants of an increasing population, Methodism was particularly calculated to be eminently useful. It was introduced into those jiarts by preachers ordained by Wesley, and has spread extensively. Some difference in discipline and government was introduced into the American con- nexion, among which that of the Episco- jial government was the jirincipal. The firet Methodist soe'ety was established at New York, in 1766, by preachers from Ire- land, and after the revolution, the first 444 METHODISTS—METTERNICH. bishop was consecrated. There are, how- ever, some modifications in the church dis- cipline ofthe Methodists in different parts ofthe Union. (For an account of American Methodists, see Appendix, end of this vol.) Metis (Greek, /«jnf, wisdom); the mother of Minerva, daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, the wisest of gods and men. (See Jupiter, and Minerva.) Ritter thinks that the name of the Palus Mceotis is de- rived from her, and places her sanctuary at the mouth of the Borysthenes, where she was worshipped as the great mother. Meto, or Meton, was a celebrated mathematician of Athens, who flourished 432 years B. C. In the first year of the eighty-seventh Olympiad, he observed the solstice at Athens, and published his cycle of nineteen yeare, by which he endeavor- ed to adjust the course of the sun and moon, and to make the lunar and solar" years begin at the same point of time. This is called the golden number, from its great use in the calendar. Meton was Rviiig about 412 B. C, for, when the Athenian fleet was sent to Sicily, he es- caped a share in that disastrous expedi- tion by counterfeiting insanity. Meton vmy; a figure in rhetoric, by which the name of an idea or thing is substituted for that of another, to whicli it has a certain relation. Such relations are substance and quality, cause and effect, precedence and subsequence, &c.; thus if we say, the tears of "joy," instead of the "joyous person," or respect for " gray hair," instead of "old age," or "olive- branch" for " peace," " stage" for the whole establishment connected with the- atrical performances, &c. It is one of the most common figures in rhetoric. Metope (pira, between, and 6nfi, a hole), in architecture ; the interval or square space between the triglyphs, in the Doric frieze. The ancients were in the habii of ornamenting these parts of their build- ings with carved works, or with paintings representing the heads of oxen, vessels, and other articles used in heathen sacri- fices. The difficulty of disposing the trig- lyphs and metopes in symmetrical pro- portion may have beeu the cause of their omission in the Ionic and Corinthian ordere, Metoposcopy (from the Greek iifrontov, the forehead, and cKoniw, I observe); the pre- tended art of divining from the wrinkles of the forehead. The Romans, believing in every kind of divination, practised this, but not so much as the jieople of the middle ages. It seems singular that met- oposcopy never was so much in vogue as chiromancy (q. v.), though there might be some possibility of divining, in part, the character of a man from his forehead and its wrinkles, while the lines in the hand have no connexion with it. Metre; the French unit of measure. (See France, division Decimal System.) Metre, in versification. (See Prosody, and Rhythm.) Metropolitan is the Greek name of an archbishop. The chief place of a province is called, in Greek, metropolis, and, as the bishojis ofthe chief places, or capitals, were distinguished by superior rank (see Bishop), they also received a distinguished title. The metropolitan is above the bishop, but below the patriarch. The title of patriarch, however, is in use only in the Eastern churches.—Metropoli- tan church is the archiepiscopal church. Metternich, Clemens Wenceslaus Nepomuk Lotharius, count, since 1813 prince of Metternich, since 1816 duke de Portella, in Sicily, knight of the order of the golden fleece, jirivy-counsellor, minis- ter of state, also minister of foreign affaire, with the title, since 1821, of imjierial-rov al house, court and state chancellor, in short, the Austrian fac-totum, was born May 15, 1773, at Coblentz, on the Rhine* In 1788, he entered the university of Stras- burg. At the coronation of the emperor Leopold II, he was one ofthe masters of ceremonies, after which he studied law at Mentz, until 1794, travelled to England, went to Vienna, became Austrian minister at the Hague, and married, in 1795, the countess Eleonore von Kaunitz, grand- daughter of the famous prince Kaunitz. (q. v.) This lady was the heiress of the lordship of Austerlitz. She died March 19, 1825, at Paris. The prince then mar- ried Antonia, countess de Beitstein, who died Jan. 17, 1829; and he has since mar- ried the countess Melaina Zichy, daughter of count Zichy Ferrares. Prince Metter- nich began his diplomatic career at the congress of Rastadt, as minister of the college of the Westphalian counts. In 1801, the Austrian court appointed him minister at Dresden. He was the chief agent in uniting Austria, Prussia and Rus- sia, by the treaty of Potsdam, Nov. 3,1805, against Napoleon, for which he received tbe grand cross ofthe order of Stephen. The battle of Austerlitz, and the treaty signed at Vienna, by Haugwitz for Prussia with * His father, Francis George Charles, prince of Metternich, was born also at Coblentz, in 1746. He had several high employments in the Austrian service. At the congress of Rastadt, he was the principal commissioner of Austria, and, in 1810, in the absence of his son, was at the bead of for- eign affairs. He died Aug. 11,1818. METTERNICH. 445 France, blighted the fruits of the above- mentioned treaty. In 1806, count Met- ternich went to Paris as ambassador, in the place of count Cobenzl, where he was very active in promoting the interests of Austria, and where his diplomatic talents attracted the notice ofthe most influential jiersons. Oct. 10, 1807, he signed, at Fontaiuebleau, the convention, whicli put a stop to the disputes occasioned by the occupation ofthe Bocche di Cattaro (q. v.) by Russian troops, and which made the Isonzo the frontier of die kingdom of It- aly. What he had begun in 1805 he con- tinued in 1808 with rare, activity and shrewdness. He never fully gave up his plans against France, because, whether republic or empire, the basis of the new order of things in France, was odious to him, firmly attached as he was to the old system of feudalism or aristocracy, of which Austria may be considered the most obstinate champion; and, as Metter- nich is the most influential man in Aus- tria, he will be one of the most interesting personages of this age to the future' histo- rian. Metternich has followed his system with remarkable consistency and activity. He is tho powerful agent of the holy alli- ance, (q. v.) Spain rose against France. Aug. 15, 1808, that public audience took jilace, in whicli Metternich withstood, for about an hour, the warm attacks of Najio- leon, on the jiolicy of Austria, which, he declared, would not leave him at jieace. The camjiaign of 1809 broke out, and, shortly before the battle of Wagratn, count Metternich arrived in Vienna, from which he jiroceeded to the court of the emjicror of Austria at Comorin. Passjiorts had long been denied him at Paris Count de Stadion resigned his place as Austrian minister of foreign affaire, July 9, and count Metternich was apjiointed, in Octo- ber, in his place. He and the French minister Champagny conducted the nego- tiations for peace, at Hungarian Altenburg. The treaty was finally signed at Vienna, by prince Liechtenstein. Napoleon's pro- |iosal for the Austrian princess took place Feb. 7, 1810: Metternich accomjianied the new emjiress to France. When the war in the north began, it was Austria's difficult task to manage affaire so that, in spite of all treaties and obligations, antl the family relations, she should stand in a po- sition to reconquer her former dominions, and set Europe free from French influ- ence. Baron Fain, in the Manuscrit de 1813, attacks the conduct of Austria on this occasion. Metternich must be allow- ed to have disjilaycd great talent in this vol. viii. 38 critical state of things. Austria's "armed mediation" was acknowledged by Alex- ander and Prussia, after a conference of Metternich with the former at Opot- schna. Invited by Napoleon to Dresden, Metternich arrived June 25, and here signed, June 30, a treaty, according to which France also acknowledged the me diation. Metternich conducted the media- tion in Prague. But the negotiations for peace not having been opened by the term fixed, Aug. 10, Metteniich drew up, in the night ofthe 10th, the declaration of war, on the part of Austria, against France; and, on the morning ofthe 11th, the Rus- sian and Prussian troops inarched over the Bohemian and Silesian frontier. Sept. 9, 1813, Metternich signed the quadruple alliance at Teplitz. On the evening of the portentous battle of Leipsic, the empe- ror of Austria bestowed on him and his heirs the dignity of jirince. He was ac- tive in the negotiations at Frankfort, Freiburg, Basel, Langres and Chaumont He directed the negotiations at the head- quarters of the emperor Francis, during the congress of Chatillon (q.v.),and, from Dijon, the negotiations with Monsieur (Charles X), who had arrived at Nancy. He proceeded to Paris, signed the con- vention of Fontainebleau with Najioleon, and, May 30, the peace of Paris, aftei which he was sent to London. The uni- versity of Oxford conferred on him the degree of doctor of laws. Oct. 8, 1814 the congress of Vienna was ojiened, and the presidency was unanimously assigned to him. With Talleyrand and Welling- ton, he proceeded to the king of Saxony, then at Presburg, in order to effect peace between Saxony and Prussia, by obtaining a cession of territory from the former to Prussia. He was again Austrian plenipo- tentiary at the second jieace of Paris, Nov. 20, 1815, then at Milan, to conclude the treaty with Bavaria, which was ratified April 14, 1816. In 1817, he accompanied the Austrian princess, destined for the Portuguese prince-royal (don Pedro), to Leghorn, and then negotiated with the Roman see. In 1818, he was Austrian minister at Aix-la-Chajielle (q. v.); in 1819, he presided at the congress of Carlsbad (q. v.), and, in January, 1820, directed the ministerial negotiations (see Congresses) for the completion of the act of the Ger- man confederacy, and the adojitiou of measures against the liberals. He pre- sided at Troppau (q. v.) and Lay bach. (q. v.) He afterwards went, on the invita- tion of the king of England, to Hanover, and again conducted the negotiations at 446 METTERNICH—MEULEN. Vienna and Verona, (q. v.) In Septem- ber, 1823, when the emperors Francis and Alexander met at Czernowitz, jirince Metternich was prevented by sickness from jiartaking in the deliberations, but, soon after, transacted business with the Russian minister, count Nesselrode. He continued in his post with unabated ac- tivity, and we may soon see him engaged anew in important diplomatic transactions. His latest work is the treaty between Aus- tria and Sardinia, according to which the latter power engages to keep 60,000 men in readiness for Austria in case of war, probably in return for an assurance, on the part of Austria, that she will make no furtber attempts to wrest the crown from the present king of Sardinia, as it is well known that she strove to exclude him, when prince Carignano, from the succes- sion, and to secure the crown for the duke of Modena-Reggio, an arch-duke of Austria, cousin to the present emperor. Prince Metternich is knight of all the highest orders of Europe, with the excep- tion of that of the garter. The king of Spain bestowed on him the dignity of a grandee ofthe first class, with tbe title of duke. In 1816, the king ofthe Two Sici- lies made him duke of Portella, with 60,000 ducati income. In 1816, the emperor Francis jiresented him with Johannisberg (q. v.), where the best hock is produced. Though actively engaged in the foreign affaire of his country, prince Metternich has also taken a great jiart in the internal, as the management of the finances, &c. After the death of count Zichy, the em- peror conferred, in 1826, the presidency of the council of ministers for home af- fairs also on Metternich. His biography is given in the Taschenbuchfur die Vater- lundische Geschichte, 1827. The prince has three children, two daughters and one son, who was born in 1829. His sister is wife to Ferdinand, duke of Wiirtemberg. Mettrie, Julian Oflrie de la. (See Lamettrie.) Metz (anciently, Divodurum; later, Me- diomatrici, and Metta); a strongly-fortified city, in the western part of France, on the Moselle, 30 leagues north-west from Stras- burg, 61 north-east from Paris; popula- tion, 45,276; lat. 49° 7> N.; lon. 6° 11' E. It is the seat of military, religious and civil authorities, and contains numerous litera- ry, scientific and charitable institutions. It is a military jilace ofthe first class, highly important both for offensive and defensive measures. Its fortifications are very ex- tensive, and constructed on the modern system, under the direction of Vauban aud Belle-Isle. Besides manufactures of cot- ton, woollen, silk, &c," it has numerous and extensive public works in the war department It is a very old place, found- ed at an early period by the Gauls, and adorned by the Romans with fine monu- ments. It was a free city of the German empire, from the eleventh centuiy, but was occujiied by the French troops, in 1552, and confirmed to France in 1648. About a league from the city, are the ruins of a Roman aqueduct, called, by the peo- ple, the devU's bridge. In 1822, some re- mains of antiquity were discovered in the ancient citadel, which have been described by Devilly (Metz, 1823). Metzu, Gabriel, a painter, bom at Ley- den, in 1615, lived in Amsterdam, where he died in 1658. His models were Douw, Terburg and Mieris. His style, however, was nobler. He jiainted subjects from common life,—fruit-women, chemists in the laboratory, physicians attending the sick, &c. His manner is free and pleas- ing, and his imitation of nature true. His coloring was admirable. A lady tuning her lute, and another washing her hands in a silver basin held by her woman, are among his best pieces. His works are scarce, as he spent much time on them, and highly valued. Meudon ; a village and castle, two leagues from Versailles, and the same dis- tance from Paris. The old castle, built in the fifteenth century, and which, in the seventeenth, belonged to Louvois, was de- molished in 1804. The chateau, built by Louis XIV, is situated on a rising ground, and commands a view of Paris, the Seine, and the environs. There is a fine terrace in front, and a small jiark planted by Len- otre. Napoleon improved the works, and assigned it as the residence of his sou, while at the breast. During the expedi- tion to Russia, the empress resided there. Meulen, Antony Francis van der, a battle painter, born at Brussels, 1634, was a pupil of Peter Snayers. Some of his compositions, having been earned to France, attracted the notice of Lebrun, and Colbert invited the young artist to Paris, with a pension of 2000 livres, and a residence at the Gobelin manufactory. His talents as a battle painter recommended him to Louis XIV, who always took him on his expeditions, and often pointed out the subjects which he desired him to rej)- resent. The painter had thus an oppor- tunity of perfecting himself in his depart- ment of the art, and is considered, on ac- count of his truth of expression, one ofthe best battle painters. He was also distin- MEULEN—MEUSEL. 447 guished in the representation of scenes from common life, and in landscape paint- ing. Among his most celebrated works, are the entrance of Louis XIV into a con- quered city; the entrance of the same jirince into Areas; the siege of Maestricht; a horseman, with a glass in his hand, speaking to a young girl, who is tuning her guitar, &c. He also executed many excellent views of ther oyal chateaux in France. The expression of his horses is particularly admired, and Lebrun intrust- ed to him the execution of the horses in his paintings of the battles of Alexander. Van der Meulen died in 1690, The most celebrated engravers of his time executed a series of 152 engravings from his works, among which those of his pupil Baudoins, which now fonn the 16th, 17th and 18th volumes of the great collection called Cabinet du Roi, are distinguished. Meung, or Meun, John de, a French poet, surnamed, from his lameness, Clopi- nel, was born at Meung sur Loire, about 1250. He was well informed, and, by bis poetical talents and vivacity, rendered himself a favorite at the court of Philip le Bel. He was satirically inclined, and ex- ercised his wit upon the ladies of the court, who were so irritated against him, that a jiarty of them seized him, and re- solved to give him a severe flogging; but his wit came to his assistance, and he es- caped castigation by desiring the most un- chaste to give the first blow. He died about 1322, directing, by his will, that he should be buried in the church of the Do- minicans at Paris, and leaving to that or- der a heavy chest, not to be opened until after the funeral. The friars, expecting a treasure, opened the chest, but found only some old slates, scrawled with sums and figures. In revenge, they disinterred the body; but the jiarliament of Paris obliged them to bury it again with fresh honore. His principal work was his continuation of the Roman de la Rose, begun by Wil- liam de Lorris, which comprises more than diree parts of the whole. It is not so jioetical as the other, but has more sat- ire and knowledge ofthe world. He was also the author of a translation of Boethius de Consolatione; the Letters of Abelard ; a work on the Responses of the Sybils; and a satirical jiiece, styled the CodicU of John de Meung, prefixed to Lenglet du Fresnoy's edition of the Roman de la Rose, &c. Melrsius, John; a Dutch critic, bom in 1579, at Losdun, near the Hague. At six- teen, while a student in the imivereity of Leyden, he published his firet work, an edition of Lycophron's Cassandra. He was afterwards selected by the celebrated Barneveldt, as travelling tutor to his sons, whom he accompanied over great part of the continent On his return to Hol- land, after a ten years' absence (1610), he was elected professor of histoiy and of Greek at Leyden, with the title of histori- ographer to the states general. The fall of Barneveldt (q. v.) obliged him to resign his situation; and, accepting an invitation ofthe court of Denmark, he proceeded to Copenhagen. Here he soon became es- tablished at the college erected for the ed- ucation ofthe young nobility at Sora, in a similar post to that which he had occupi- ed in Holland. His works are a History of Athens; On the Athenian Archons; On the People of Athens; On the Festi- vals ofthe Greeks ; On the Dances ofthe Ancients; new editions of several clas- sics ; a History of Denmark, &c. The only complete edition of his works is that of Florence, in 12 folio volumes, 1743. Meursius died in 1639, leaving a son, who died at an early age, in 1653, the author of several valuable antiquarian treatises. Meurthe ; a department in the north of France. (See Lorraine, and Depart- ment.) The chief place is Nancy. Meuse, in Dutch, Maas, (Mosa); a navigable river, which rises in the depart- ment of Upper Marne (Chamjiagne), in France, passes through the provinces of Namur, Liege, and Limburg, separates those of Guelderland and Holland from South Brabant, and divides, at Gorcum, into two branches, the northern and southern, which empty into the North sea by several mouths. It passes by Namur, Liege, Mastricht, Ruremoude, Venloo, Gorcum, Dordrecht and Rotterdam, in the Low Countries. Meuse ; a department in the north of France, with 306,339 inhabitants; chief place, Bar-le-Duc. (See Lorraine, and Department.) Meusel, John George, was born in 1743, at Eyrichshof, in Franconia, and, in 1764, entered the university of Gottingen; in 1766, that of Halle, where he lectured until he was appointed, in 1769, professor of history in the university of Erfurt. From 1780, he lived in Erlangen, where he died Sept. 19, 1820, having continued active, in lecturing and publishing, almost to his death. He wrote statistical and historical works, and comjiiled several collections relating to the history of litera- ture, literary men, and the arts. His Ge- lehrtes Deutscldand (5th ed., Lemgo, 1796, et seq.—the 21st vol. was edited by Erech 448 MEUSEL—MEXICO. (q. v.), Lemgo, 1827); his Lexicon of all the German Authors who died from 1750 to 1800 (Leipsic, 1802, et seq.); his new edition and rifacciamento of Struvius's Bib- liotheca Historica, 21 vols., not finished, are proofs of his accuracy and industry. In the department of the fine aits, he pre- pared several valuable works. In the department of statistics, he wrote Anlei- tung zur Kenntniss der Europaischen Staa- tenhistorie (5th ed., Leipsic, 1816); Litera- tur der Statistik(Leipsic, 1806—7, 2 vols.); and Lehrbuch der SlatistUc (3d ed., Leip- sic, 1805). He was less happy as a histo- rian, being oppressed by the immense mass of his materials. Mexical, or Mescal; a spirituous drink, extracted from the aloe (Maguey, Agave Mexicana), which is consumed in large quantities by the Mexicans. It is also called aguardiente de Maguey. (See Pulque.) Mexico. The rejiublic of the United States of Mexico (Estados Unidos Mexica- nos), whicli comprises the former viceroyal- ty of New Spain, is bounded E. by the gulf of Mexico and Louisiana, W, by the Pa- cific ocean, N. by the U. States of North America, and S. by Guatemala. It lies between 87° and 124° E. Ion., and 15° and 42° N. lat, extending over 27 degrees of latitude, or 1876 miles from north to south. Its greatest breadth is in lat 30°, accord- ing to Humboldt, 364 leagues (25 to a de- gree). Our acquaintance with a great portion of the countiy is very imperfect, and, even in those parts which have been most attentively examined, few of the positions tire accurately determined. Al- most the whole of the immense region lying north of 28°, comprising 14 degrees of latitude, is uninhabited by whites, and has never been explored. Humboldt cal- culates the superficial area at 118,478 square leagues of 25 to a degree; but this estimate does not include the space between the northern extremity of New Mexico and Sonora, and the boundary line of the U. States. About one third of this territory lies within the torrid zone, but the pecu- liar geological structure of the republic exerts the most striking influence upon the climate. The Cordillera of Mexico separates into two branches, which, di- verging to the north-east and north-west, form, as it were, the declivities of an ele- vated platform, or table-land, which, in the more central parts, is raised to an elevation of 7000 feet above the level of the sea, and extends to the north as far as the limits of the torrid zone. This re- markable elevation modifies the effect of the geographical jiosition of the countiy in such a manner that, while the towns on the central jilateau enjoy a mild tem- perature, those on the eastern aud western coasts are exjiosed to a torrid sun, and the intervening space is filled with almost every modification of heat. In ascending from" the low country, the climates suc- ceed each other in layers, and in two days the whole scale of vegetation is pre- sented to view. Again above this table- land rise ridges, or single prominences, in which the same appearances are exhib- ited. Durango is situated 6848 feet above the level of the sea; Zacatecas, 8169; Catorce, 9254 ; to the south, Jalapa,4335; Perote, 7724; La Puebla, 7200; Cuerna- vaca, 5428 ; to the west, Valladolid, 6434; Guanaxuato, 6825; Queretaro, 6362; in the centre, Mexico is situated in a large valley, or basin, 7000 feet above the sea. Some of the haciendas, or residences, are about 10,000 feet high, and, in some in- stances, carriage roads pass over still more elevated positions. The principal sum- mits are, Popocatejietl, 17,884 feet; Ori- zava, 17,373; Cerra de la Leona, near Catorce, 10,645 ; and Istaccihuatl, 15,704. There are five volcanoes in activity, all near the 19th parallel of latitude—Orizava, Popocatepetl, Tustla, Colima and Jorullo; earthquakes are frequent, but not destruc- tive. The inhabitants designate these successive climates by appropriate names: the low, hot country is called tierra cali- ente; tbe higher regions, tierra fria (cold country); and the intermediate regions, tierra templada (temperate country). Our division of the year, into four periods, is there unknown, the only distinction being into the rainy season (estacion de las aguas), which commences about the end of May, and lasts four months, and the dry season (el estio), which comprises the rest of the year. Mexico suffere for want of water. The rivers are few and insignificant, if we except the Colorado, the del Norte and the Grande. The lakes, which abound, appear to diminish gradually ; the princi- pal are, Chapala, Zumpango, S. Christoval, Tezcuco, &c, in the valley of Mexico; Cayman and Parras, in the Bolson de Mapimi; and the Timpanogos, further north. Among the various productions are maize and other corn, the banana, manioc, tropical fruits, cotton, coffee, su- gar, tobacco, indigo, vanilla, cochineal, &c. Maize is produced in almost every part of the country, and in great abundance ; its flour forms the chief food of the bulk of the inhabitants. Wheat succeeds veiy well on the table-land, but in the tierra cali- MEXICO. 449 ente, the ear will not form, and the diffi- culty of communication between the coast and upper countiy is such, that the former may be sujiplied, at a cheaper rate, from the U. States of North America. Sugar is raised in great quantities; enough is raised on the plateau, for the supply of its inhabitants, and tbe producers on the coast depend upon a foreign market; but, since 1822, the amount produced has much diminished. Coffee has been more recently introduced ; the use of it has not been general in the interior till within a few yeare; extensive plantations were laid out in 1818 and 1819, near Cordova and Orizava, to which constant additions have been snice made. Cotton was found among the indigenous jiroductious of Mexico, and was generally used by the inhabitants. Up to the close of the last century, the annual amount of the cotton manufactures was estimated at $5,000,000. They have, however, gradually disap- peared, but the raw material may be au important article of export, if projierly attended to. The domestic animals of Mexico are the same as iu this country. The wool of the Mexican sheeji is of an inferior quality. It has recently been dis- covered that the silk-worm is indigenous in some jiarts of the country, and the silk produced is of an excellent quality, similar to that of the bombyx mori of China. The cultivation of the mulberry, and the breeding of silk-worms, were introduced by Cortez, but were afterwards prohibited by the mother country. The total agri- cultural produce of Mexico was estimat- ed, by Humboldt, at S29,000,000. The amount of the mineral jiroductions has licen differently estimated. Mr. Ward calculates the total annual produce, from 179(5 till 1810, at about £24,000,000, of which £22,000,000 were exported. The registered coinage, in that period, was $342,114,285. In a second jieriod of 15 years (1811 to 1825 inclusive), the total amount of coinage was only S.l5-'3,270,972, the cajiital invested in mining having been much diminished by tbe emigration of cajiitalists during the revolution. The whole amount of circulating medium, in 1810, is estimated by Mr. Ward to have been about £72,000,000, and the average annual exports, since 1810, at si3,587,052. Mexico will not probably, at least during the present century, become a manufac- turing countiy, her mineral and agricul- tural wealth being sufficient to obtain for her all the necessary articles from other countries. Neither will she be a great maritime power. The Mexican ports on 38* the Atlantic side are most of them inse- cure, and many of them are mere road- steads. On the western coast there is, however, a series of magnificent jiorts, from Acapulco to Guaymas, many of which have never yet been entered. The commercial intercourse, on the western side, is much less important than that of the eastern coast, most of the countries with which it can be maintained on the Pacific (Columbia, Peru, Chile, China and Calcutta), producing nearly the same agri- cultural articles. Hides, tallow and wheat arc, however, exported in considerable quantities. The returns are so imjierfect, and the state of the country has been so fluctuating, that it is not easy to deter- mine any thing with regard to the amount ofthe exports and imports, for any recent period. The Spanish colony of Mexico was, for a long time, divided as follows: 1. the kingdom of Mexico; 2. the kingdom of New Galicia; 3. the new kingdom of Leon ; 4. the colony of New Santander; 5. the jirovince of Texas; 6. the province of Cohahuila ; 7. province of New Biscay; 8. province of Sonora; 9. jirovince of New Mexico; 10. province of Old and New California. In 1776, a new division was established, into, 1. the viceroyalty of New Spairy consisting of the intendancies of Mexico, Puebla, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Meri- da or Yucatan, Valladolid, Guadalaxara, Zacatecas, Guanaxuato, S. Luis-Potosi, and die two provinces of Old California and New California; 2. the internal prov- inces depending on the viceroyalty (Pro- vincias internas del Vireynato), comprising the jirovince ofthe new kingdom of Leon, and the province of New Santander, and, 3. the internal juovinces dependent on the governor of Chihuahua (Provincial inter- nas de la commandancia general) consisting ofthe intendancies of New Biscay, or Du- rango, and Sonora, antl the jirovinces of Cohahuila, Texas and New Mexico. This rejiublic is now divided into 19 states and 5 territories. The states are, Yucatan, or Merida, Tabasco, Las Chiapas, Oaxaca, Veracruz, Tamaulipas (New Santander), San Luis-Potosi, New Leon, Cuhahuila and Texas, La Puebla, Mexico, Vallado- bd (Mechoacan), Guadalaxara (Xalisco), Sonora and Cinaloa, Queretaro, Guanaxu- ato, Zacatecas, Durango, Chihuahua. Old and New California, Colima, Tlascala and Ivew Mexico are tenitories, their jiopula- tion not being sufficient to enable them to return members to the congress. The firet census, which was taken in 1793, gave a population of 4,483,529. As the natives suspected die object to be taxation,this uum- 450 MEXICO. ber was probably below the truth. Hum- boldt thinks that it exceeded 5,000,000, and estimated the number, in 1803, at 6,500,000, whicli agreed very well with tbe results of the census of 1806. Ward estimates it at about 8,000,000, in 1827. Previous to the expulsion of the Span- iards, in 1829, the population was com- posed of Europeans (Chapetones or Ga- chupines); Creoles, or native whites of pure European descent; Indians, or the indigenous races; Mestizoes, or a mixed breed of whites and Indians ; Mulattoes, or descendants of whites and Negroes; Zambos, or Chinos (Chinese), descendants of Negroes and Indians ; and African Negroes. The descendants of Mulattoes and whites were called quarteroons; and those of a quarteroon and a white, quin- teroons. These distinctions were fostered by the colonial policy of Spain, for the purpose of keeping up a rivalry of castes : and the king had the privilege of confer- ring the honors of whiteness upon an individual of any color, by a decree of the Audencia, que se tenga par bianco (that he should be held as a white). The revolu- tion, which divided the population into Europeans and Americans, has contrib- uted to efface these prejudices. Guerrero had a strong mixture of black blood, and several pure Indians have taken part in the government. The principal seat of the white population is the table-land, towards the centre of which the Indians are likewise numerous. The northern frontier .is inhabited chiefly by whites, while the coasts are principally occupied by Mulattoes and Zambos, who are well adapted to the tierra caliente. The In- dians form about two fifths of the whole population, and are divided into a great number of tribes, whose mannere, lan- guage, degree of civilization, &c, are ex- tremely different. No less than 20 lan- guages, entirely distinct from each other, are found among them, and of 14 of them grammars and dictionaries have been compiled. The Catholic religion is the religion of the state. No other is tolerated. The old ecclesiastical divisions are re- tained, forming one archbishopric (that of Mexico), and nine bishoprics, comprising 1073 parishes. The clergy is composed of about 8000 individuals, including 4000 monks and nuns, in 206 convents. The clergy are not well educated, and the great mass of the Mexican population is in a state of deplorable ignorance. Tbe policy of the mother countiy was calcu- lated to keep down all that portion of the inhabitants who now form the population of the republic. All civil, military and ecclesiastical dignities were in the hands of Europeans, and any attempt towards instructing even the higher classes was discountenanced. The natural sciences were taught, and have been cultivated with some success. The moral state of the countiy is also far from being favor- able. An attempt was made, at one time, to establish a navy, and, in January, 1827, it consisted of one ship of the line, two frigates, five corvettes and brigs, and a few smaller vessels; but even this force has not been kejit uji. The army, in 1827, consisted of 58,955 men, of whom 32,161 were actually under arms. The confu- sion which has prevailed for some time in the country, renders it imjiossible to give much statistical information of a recent date. The revenue, under the old gov- ernment, was 820,000,000 ; during the revolution, it became exceedingly embar- rassed, and did not exceed $4,000,000 or $5,000,000. Inl825, it was $10,500,000, and the expenditure was nearly $18,000,000. Several loans were made iu 1823 and suc- ceeding years, but at an enormous rate of interest. Under the government of Sjiain, Mexico was one of the four great vice- royalties of Sjianish America. The vice- roy was endowed with all the prerogatives of the king. The only checks ujion him were the residencia, or investigation into his conduct on his return home, and the audiencia, composed of Europeans, and of which he was himself president. The recopilacion de las leyes de las Indias was the name given to the heterogeneous mass of decrees by which the colonies were governed. Sjiecial/ucros, or privi- leges, were confereed on different profes- sional and corjiorate bodies, which ren- dered the confusion complete. All the higher officere, in church and state, were Europeans. A system of dilapidation, be- ginning with the chiefs, extended through all the offices of government, and a mon- strous corrujition perverted the whole administration. The colony was not allowed to manufacture any article which could be sujiplied by the mother country, the whole trade was confined to a single port in Spain, and all foreigners were rigidly excluded. Books were prohibited, schools discouraged or suppressed, and ev- ery measure taken to prevent information from being sjiread among the inhabitants. The jiresent form of goveniment is that of a federal republic (republica representa- tiva popular federal), each member of whicli manages its own internal concerns. The legislative power is vested in a con- MEXICO—MEXICO, HISTORY OF. 451 gress, divided into two chambers, the house of representatives (camara de dipu- tados), and a senate (senado). The for- mer is composed of members elected for two years, by the citizens ofthe states, one member for every 80,000 inhabitants. The senate is composed of two senators for each state, elected by the state legis- latures, the one first named for four years, and the other for two yeare. The con- gress is a high court of impeachment, and its powers are to maintain the union, reg- ulate commerce, promote information, open roads and canals, lay taxes and im- posts, declare war, approve treaties, &c. The supreme executive power is vested in a president, chosen by the legislatures of the states for four yeare. He has powere very similar to those of the jnesident of die U, States. The council of govern- ment (consejo de gobierno) exists only dur- ing the intervals of the sessions of con- gress, and is composed of one senator from each state, with the vice-president of the republic at its head. Its duties are to watch over the observance of the federa- tive act and the federal laws, to advise the president, to call out the militia, to approve the nomination of officers, &c. For the despatch of business, the govern- ment is divided into departments, with secretaries at their head. The judicial power is lodged in a supreme tribunal of justice, and in inferior courts, as determin- ed by congress. The supreme court takes cognizance of all matters between differ- ent states, or individuals of different states, admiralty cases, treason, construction of the constitution, &c. It may itself be called to account, by a tribunal constituted for the purpose by the chamber of depu- ties. The states are organized in a simi- lar manner, with much the same powere and rights as dioseof the North American Union.—See Acta Conslitutiva (Jan. 31, 1824), y ConstUucion Federal de los Es- tados Unidos Mcxicanos (Mexico, 1828). This constitution was sanctioned Oct. 4, 1824. (For information on subjects con- nected with Mexico, see Bullock's Six Months' Residence, &fc, in 1823; Hall's Journal on the Coasts of ChUe, Peru and Mexico, in 1820—22 ; Lyon's Journal of a Residence in Mexico ; Beaufoy's Sketches ; Poinsett's Notes; the works of Robisou, Brackenridge and Hardy; Ward's Mexico ['id ed., London, 1829); Humboldt's Es- sai Politique sur le Royaume de la Nou- velle Espagne ; 2d ed., 1828.) Mexico, Geology of. (See North America.) Mixico, History of. Numerous remains of antiquity which have been discovered in different parts of the country testify to the state of civilization at whicli the na- tives had arrived previous to the arrival of the Spaniards. In 1519, Cortez (q. v.) dis- covered the country, and having landed on the western coast, founded the city of Veracruz, and penetrated into the country of Anahuac, occujiied by the Aztecs. Montezuma (q. v.) then reigned over the country. The capital, Tenochtitlan, bore the title of Mexico, which signifies the residence of the god of war, and which was finally extended to the whole region. (See Mexico^ Antiquities of.) After the death of Montezuma, the capital was taken by the Spaniards (1521), and the whole coun- try fell into their hands. Cortez called it New Spain, and was created captain-gen- eral, but, in 1535, was displaced by a vice- roy. We have already given some ac- count of the colonial policy of Sjiain, and the condition of the colony under the Spanish dominion. Such was the condi- tion of the countiy for three centuries (see Robertson's History of America; Clavige- ro's Storia Antica del Messico, translated into English ; Solis's Historia de la Conquista de Mexico; new edition, with notes, Ma- drid, 1825), when the events of 1808 in the Spanish peninsula led to a change in the state of affairs. The Mexicans were, in general, loyally disposed to their sove- reign, but the assumption of authority by a new body, the cortes, and their unwise and inconsistent proceedings tended to alienate their feelings of attachment. Don Jose Iturrigaray, the viceroy, in order to conciliate the Americans, projiosed to con- stitute a junta, formed of representatives from each province, and composed equal- ly of natives and Europeans, which should organize a provisional government. The latter, however, fearftil of dosing some of their former superiority, arrested the vice- roy, and sent bim out of the countiy. The new viceroy, Venegas, displayed an offensive partiality for the Sjianiards, and exasperated the Creoles by the severity of his measures. An extensive conspiracy was organized, and the insurrection broke out in September, 1810. A priest, Hidal- go, a man of strong mind anil great firm- ness, put himself at the head ofthe insur- gents; but, after some fighting, and the commission of great atrocities on both sides, Hidalgo was captured and put to death in 1811. Morelos, a priest in the southern part of the country, who had been named captain-general ofthe south- west by Hidalgo, had meanwhile raised a considerable force, and, meeting with a 452 MEXICO, HISTORY OF. series of successes, he advanced (in Janu- ary, 1312) to within a short distance of the capital. In this expedition, Victoria (q. v.) firet distinguished himself. More- los was obliged to retire, but captured Oaxaca and Acajiulco. A national con- gress was assembled at Chilpanzingo, Sep- tember, 1813, which declared Mexico in- dependent. The forces of the insurgents were afterwards almost entirely annihilat- ed by Iturbide (q. v), and Morelos was himself shot in 1815. Victoria retired to the mountains, where he remained con- cealed 18 months. Guerrero (q. v.) alone maintained a small force in the south. In 1817, general Mina (q. v.) landed with a small body of foreigners, and gained some temporary success; but he was made pris- oner in July of that year, and shot. Thus in 1819 all the insurgent chiefs had been pardoned or executed, except Guerrero. In 1820, the cortes having ordered the sale of the church property, Apodaca, the viceroy, refused to acknowledge the cor- tes ; he employed Iturbide to reduce Guer- rero, but that general joined the insurgent chief, projiosed the plan of Iguala (q. v.), and proclaimed the independence of his country, February 24,1821. At this time, the constitutional viceroy, O'Donoju, ar- rived in the country, and concluded with Iturbide the peace of Cordova, by which it was stipulated that the Spanish army should evacuate Mexico. The viceroy and Iturbide were associated in the gov- ernment, and the army was called tbe ar- my ofthe three guarantees, the objects to be maintained being the independence of Mexico as a separate monarchy under a Bourbon prince, the maintenance of the Catholic religion, and the union of all classes. A congress was assembled Feb- ruary 24, 1822, to settle the jirinciples of the constitution. But the cortes having declared the past proceedings null, Iturbi- de caused himself to be proclaimed em- jieror May 18, 1822, under the title of Au- gustin the First. A powerful party oppos- ed the new state of things. After a bloody stniggle, the emjieror offered to abdicate iu March, 1823, and was allowed to depart for Europe. A new form of goveniment, on federal republican jirinciples, was now established. Iturbide retumed to the country in 1824, but was immediately arrested and shot. On the banishment of the emperor, a poder executivo,or executive, was formed, consisting of Vittoria, Bravo and Negrete, and, in 1824, the constitution was adopted and proclaimed. Vittoria was chosen president and Bravo vice- president of the new republic. The firet constitutional congress convened January 1,1825, and held an extraordinary session in August of tbe same year. In Decem- ber (20th), the castle of Ulloa was surren- dered by the Spaniards, and the whole Mexican soil was now delivered from Eu- ropean hands. The prospect of tranquil- lity which was held out by the complete liberation of the country and organization of the government was soon interrujited by the violence of parties. The animosi- ty of the Escoceses and Yorkinos re- sulted in acts of outrage and bloodshed, and the land has been distracted with civil war. The Escoceses (Scotch) was a ma- sonic society of Scotch origin, composed of large proprietors and persons of dis- tinction, who were mostly men of mode- rate principles, but decidedly favorable to the cause of independence. Many of them had, at one time, been in favor of a Spanish prince as constitutional king of Mexico, and they were therefore often styled Borbonistas by their adversaries. The Yorkinos constituted a masonic soci- ety, which derived its origin from a ma- sonic lodge in New York, through the agency of Mr. Poinsett, American minis- ter at Mexico. These two political par- ties (for such they had become) were ar- rayed against each other on occasion of the choice ofthe second president in 1828, and also differed as to the policy to be purefted in the treatment ofthe Spaniards who resided in the countiy, the Yorkinos being in favor of their entire expulsion from the countiy. The result ofthe elec- tion, after an arduous contest, was the tri- umph of the Escoces party, whose candi- date, general Pedraza (q. v.), was chosen, by a majority of two votes, over general Guerrero, the Yorkino candidate. Gene- ral Santafia (q. v.), at the head of a body of troops, declared that this vote was not an expression of the will of the majority, and jiroclaimed Guerrero president. This movement was unsuccessful, but another was soon organized, and an armed body demanded the expulsion of the Spaniards. After some fighting, the government was obliged to yield, and general Pedraza, to avoid bloodshed, advised his friends to submit, and expressed bis determination to leave the country. Guereero was ac- cordingly inaugurated president in Ajiril, 1829, and a law was passed ordering all Spanish residents to quit the countiy. In the summer of 1829, an expedition was fitted out in the Havana, under the com- mand of general Barradas, to undertake the conquest of the Mexican republic. A force of 4000 men was landed at Tarn- MEXICO, HISTORY OF—MEXICO, ANTIQUITIES OF. 453 pico July 27, but on the 10th of Septem- ber surrendered to general Santafia. But the dangers of a foreign invasion were no sooner jiast than domestic dissensions were again renewed. Guerrero, who had been invested with dictatorial powers on the approach of the invaders, was unwill- ing to resign them, and this was made a jiretcxt for the opposition of the discon- tented. Bustamente, the vice-president, placed himself at the head of a body of troojis in December, 1829, and issued a proclamation denouncing the abuses of the executive. He immediately advanced upon the capital, and was joined by the forces there. Guerrero, finding himself deserted, abdicated the presidency, and Bustamente was elected by the army his successor. In the latter jiart of 1830, new disturbances commenced, and a civil war ensued. Guerrero, who was made prison- er in February, 1831, was condemned to death for bearing arms against tbe estab- lished government, and shot. Since this period, Bustamente has remained at the head ofthe government, as vice-president, and the most recent information at the time wo write (September, 1831) repre- sents public confidence as restored, agri- culture and commerce reviving, and the country recovering its prosperity. The national congress convened on the firet of July, and was opened with a sjieccb from the vice-president, in which he congratu- lates them on the complete establishment of tranquillity, and declares the nation to be in a condition to develope all the ele- ments of prosperity which its situation, climate, natural wealth and free institu- tions entitle it to expect. (Besides the works jireviously referred to, the reader may consult don Carlos Maria Bustamen- te's Cuadro Historico, or Mendibil's Resu- men Historico de la Rev. de los Estados Unidos Mexixanos, extracted from it.) Pro- posals have lately been issued for publish- ing a new map of Mexico by S. M. L. Sta- jiles, who has spent five years in the re- jiublic. .Mexico, Antiquities of. Our knowledge of the early condition ofthe country since called Mexico, is derived, in part, from the Mexican pictures, many of whicli were destroyed by the Sjianiards. They con- tain chronological histories, and qojiies of some of them were made by native Mexi- cans at the time of the destruction of the originals. The greatest of these was a cel- ebrated table iu the jiossession of Siguenza y Gongora, professor of mathematics in the university of Mexico in 1698. The original is lost; but a cojiy of undoubted authenticity exists, of which Humboldt has given an account. It begins with the deluge of Coxcox, or, according to the Aztec cos- mogony, the fourth destniction of the world. Coxcox, with his wife, was saved from destruction, their descendants receiv- ed the gift, of speech, and fifteen families arrived in Mexico. According to a Mex- ican author, who wrote soon after the conquest (lxtUoxchitl), the firet age, Tlato- natiuh, or age of giants, lasted 5206 years ; the second, Tlctonatiuh, or age of fire, 4804; the third, Ehecatonatiuh, the age of winds, 4010 ; the fourth, or age of water, described in the above-mentioned painting, 4008 years. The Toltecs migrated from a countiy north of Mexico, in A. D. 544, and in 1051, their monarchy was destroy- ed. The Aztecs arrived there, from Azt- lan in 1178, and in 1325 founded Tenoch- titlan, or the city of Mexico. Clavigero enumerates the collections of paintings which have been jireserved ; they were executed on skins, cotton cloth, and the leaves of the maguey or agave. At the time of the airival of the Spaniards, the Aztecs had attained such a degree of civil- ization that the right of private property was understood, cities built, professions and distinctions of rank existed, the aits were cultivated with considerable suc- cess, &c. Among tbe most remarkable monuments of architecture are the teo- callis, or jiyramids. The jiyramid of Cholula comprises a square, of 1773 feet, and is 177 feet high. It is formed of un- burnt bricks and clay, and is attributed to the Toltecs, who preceded the Aztecs in the countiy. The object is unknown. About two miles from Pueblo are a num- ber of jiyramids, described by Humboldt. The first, the house ofthe sun, has a base of 682 feet in length, and is 180 feet high. The second, or house of the moon, is 150 feet high. They are both truncated, as is that of Cholula, and are also of Toltec or- igin. A group of little pyramids sureounds them, which are supposed to have been tombs. In the wall of the cathedral at Mexico is fixed a circular stone, covered with hieroglyphical figures, by which the Aztecs designated the months. Near it is a second stone, on whicli human sacrifices were performed. In the Dominican con- vent is a large idol, rejiresenting a serpent devouring a human victim. Mr. Bullock obtained leave to examine another, which was concealed under the gallery of the university ; it represented the goddess of war, and was 61 feet high and 9i| broad, and was comjiosed of a deformed human figure, a tiger and a rattle-snake. (For in- 454 MEXICO, ANTIQUITIES OF—MEXICO. formation on the subject of this article, the reader may consult the works of Robert- son, Clavigero, Humboldt, &c., mention- ed in tbe article Merico; also Ranking's Conquest of Pern and Mexico by the Mon- gols (London, 1827), and Antiquities of Mexico (7 vols., folio, London, 1830), con- taining fee similes of the Mexican paint- ings in the royal libraries of Paris, Dres- den, Berlin, the imperial library of Vienna, the Vatican, the Bodleian library, Oxford, &c, with inedited Mexican histories.) Mexico, or Mejico, one of the states of the Mexican confederacy, with a popula- tion of about 1,000,000 inhabitants, is di- vided into eight districts ; between 16° 30' and 20° N. lat, and 102° 5C and 107° 20' W. lon. It lies principally on the cen- tral jilateau, but its western coasts on the Pacific are low. It is bounded north by Queretaro, east byPuebla, south and south- west by the Pacific, and west by Vallado- lid. Its capital is Tezcoco, Mexico, the chief city, having been declared a federal city. The magnificent port of Acapulco lies on its western coast A great number of valuable mines fie within its territories, and its rich soil yields a valuable agricul- tural produce. The legislative assembly is comjiosed of 19 deputies; and the dis- tricts are placed each under a prefect, whose duty it is to establish village schools, form a census, &c. Its constitution was adojited in 1827. The former intendency of Mexico comjirised the states of Mexico and Queretaro. Mexico, New; a territory of the Mexi- can confederacy, lying north of the state of Chihuahua, between 31° and 38° N. lat, 107° 50' and 111° 5& E. lon. It is trav- ersed by the Rio del Norte, which flows into the gulf of Mexico. The population is not more than 50,000, of whom about half are Indians ; capital, Santa Fe. Mexico, formerly Tenochtitlan, capital of the Mexican confederacy, see of an archbishop, lies 7400 feet above the level ofthe sea; lat. 19° 25' 45" N.; lon. 103° 45' 30" VV. The streets are broad, airy, and run at right angles; the houses spa- cious, but low, rarely exceeding one story, with flat roofs: it is the most magnificent city of America, and among the capitals of Europe, there are few that can support a comjiarison with it. It is situated at about an equal distance from Veracruz and Acajiulco, in an extensive valley, sur- rounded with lofty mountains, and con- taining several lakes, among which are Tezcuco aud Xochimilco. It is on the site of the ancient city of Tenochtitlan, but the waters of lake Tezcuco, on which it borders, have so far subsided that the islands on which the old city was built are now confounded with the main land. The three causeways which connected them still remain, and four have since been built, which are well paved, and bor- dered with trees, forming avenues to the city. Humboldt estimated the jiopulation, in 1803, at 137,000 ; Poinsett, in 1822, at between 150 antl 160,000, and later esti- mates have stated it at 168,000. The princi- pal public buildings are the cathedral, about 500 feet in length, the jialace of govern- ment, the college of mines, a noble build- ing, but now somewhat dilapidated ; the mint, with a front of 360 feet by 250 feet in depth, the Franciscan and Dominicau convents, &c. There are, besides, 48 con- vents, bosjiitals, churches, theatres, &c. The public walks are the Alameda and the Paseo. The rides to the Cbajiulte- pec, or summer palace of the "viceroy Gal- vez, beautifully situated on an eminence, near which is an aqueduct of 900 arches, and to Tacubaya, a village about four miles from the capital, which contains the countiy residence of the archbishoji, are very pleasant. The canal of Chalco, which extends from the lake of that name to the capital, is covered, morning and evening, with canoes ofthe peasants, con- veying fruits, flowers and vegetables to market ; near it are the remains of tbe Cltiiiampas, or floating gardens, which are surrounded with a broad ditch, and are now, if they were not always, firmly fixed. The inhabitants display a good deal of splendor in tbeir dress and equipages, but many of the wealthiest have been obliged to leave the country by the wars of the revolution. The lazzaroni population, which, in 1824, amounted to 20,000 indi- viduals, called by the Mexicans leperos, is described by Ward as presenting a most disgusting appearance of filth and rags. Measures have since been taken by the government to reform them, by compelling them to labor. Mexico enjoys a mild cli- mate, and a pure and healthy atmosjihere: it is subject to inundations from the lakes, and numerous works, such as canals, dikes, &c, have been erected as a jirotec- tion against such a calamity. Tenochtit- lan was founded by the Aztecs, in 1325, and was a rich, flourishing, populous and active city, the seat of government and of religion, at the time of its discovery by the Spaniards. It was taken by Cortez, in 1521, after a siege of 75 days, and a most dreadful slaughter of the inhabitants. The besiegers rased the buildings as they advanced, in order to approach the princi- MEXICO—MEZERAI. 455 pal quarter with safety. The ancient city was thus entirely destroyed, and the pres- ent city arose on its ruins. (See Mexico, and Mexico, Antiquities of) Mexico, Gulf of; a large bay or gulf of the Atlantic, extending north and south, from the coast of Florida to the coast of Tabasco and Yucatan, about 600 miles, and from the island of Cuba westward to the coast of Mexico, about 700 miles. Cuba divides it into two straits, one to the south, between cape Antonio and cape Catoche, 45 leagues wide, through which it communicates with the Caribbean sea, and another to die north, 40 leagues in width, called the gulfor straU of Florida. It receives the waters of the del Norte, Sabine and Mississijipi. The Mexican ports on this gulf are mere roadsteads. The principal are Tampicoand Veracruz. Havana and Pensacola are magnificent harbors. The principal current in the gulf is the Gulf stream, which takes its name from that circumstance; it is produced by the equatorial cun-ent from east to west, enters the gulf between the capes Anto- nio and Catorce, winds round its shores, and flows out by the channel of Florida, where Humboldt found its velocity to be five feet a second, against a strong north wind. (See Current.) Meyer, Jonas Daniel, born at Arnheim, in Guelderland, 1780, studied at Amster- dam and Leyden. He was at firet an ad- vocate in Amsterdam, in 1811 etseq., occu- pied several important judicial offices, and, in 1817, retired to private life. Doctor Meyer is a distinguished writer on law, politics and legislation. His Esprit, Origine et Progris des Institutions judiciaires, &c. (Hague, 1819—23, 6 vols.) is a valuable work. He has recently published a work On Codification, particularly in England. Meyerbeer; a distinguished German comjioser, of Jewish descent. He has lived a long time in Italy, devoted to Ital- ian music. His father was a banker at Berlin, and his brother, Michel Beer, was a poet of considerable reputation. Mey- erlieer was born in 1791, at Berlin. When but nine yeare old, he ajijieared before the Berlin public as a player on the piano- forte. In 1810—1811, he and Weber studied comjiosition with Vogler. Under the tlirection of this teacher, be composed his cantata God and Nature, and the ope- ra of Jejihtha. The former acquired him great ajijilause at Berlin, the latter was ill-received at Munich. Other operas of his being unsuccessful, he went, in 1815, to France, and thence to Italy, in order to acquire more knowledge of singing. He first appeared in that country at Padua, with the opera RomUda e Costanza (in 1817). It met with great applause. His Margaritta a?Anjou, and his Emma di Res- burgo, were still more successful ; but his Crociato in Egitto exceeded all, and was received in Paris and Germany with equal delight. In 1825, he returned to Germany. Mezerai, Francis Eudes de, a cele- brated French historian, born in 1610, at Ry, in Lower Normandy, was son of a surgeon in that place. After studying at Caen, he went to Paris, and obtained the post of captain of artillery, in which ca- pacity he served two campaigns. He then quitted the army in disgust, and shut him- self up in the college of St. Barbe, where he devoted himself to close study, and projected his History of France. Encour- aged by the countenance and pecuniary aid of cardinal Richelieu, he published his firet folio volume in 1643, which was fol- lowed by the second and third in 1646 and 1651. The court rewarded him with a pension of 4000 livres, and the title of historiographer. His success induced him to compose an abridgment, under the title of Abrigi Chronologique de I'Histoire de France, which is superior to the original. In the latter he gave an account of the origin of the pubUc imposts, accompanied by some reflections, which offended the minister Colbert. The author promised to correct these in a second edition. He performed his promise, but at the same time informed his readers, that he was compelled to do so ; the result of which was the loss of half his pension in the firet instance, and, on farther complaint, of the whole. In 1675, the Frencli academy gave him the place of perpetual secretary, in which character he prepared a sketch of its projected Dictionary. He died in 1683. Mezerai was a man of great singu- larity in temper and manner, being caus- tic, censorious, and little attentive to .the common forms of social life. As a histo- rian, he is regarded as being more bold than accurate, with a style harsh and in- correct, but clear, energetic, and occasion- ally exhibiting a vigorous conciseness, not unworthy of Tacitus. His materials were taken at second hand, and never from original sources. The latest edition of the Abrigi is that of 1755, in 14 volumes, 12mo., in which the suppressed passages of 16(58 are restored. Mezerai also wrote Traite de V Origine des Francois, with some translations; and a number of satirical pieces against the government, under tho name of Sandricourt, have also Usen at- tributed to him. 456 MEZZO—MICAH. MEZzo;anItalianadjective,which means half, and is often used in musical lan- guage, as mezzo forte, mezzo piano, mez- zo voce, which imply nearly the same thing, viz. a middle degree of piano or soft.— Mezzo soprano; a pitch of voice between the soprano or treble and counter-tenor. Mezzofante, abbate; tbe most distin- guished linguist of our age, as to the abili- ty of speaking numerous languages. His acquaintance with languages is immense. He speaks and writes fluently not less than eighteen ancient and modern languages, and twenty-two different dialects of Eu- rope. Lord Byron (see Moore's work) calls jirofessor Mezzofante " a monster of languages, the Briareus of parts of speech, a walking polyglot, and, more, who ought to have existed at the time of the tower of Babel, as universal interpreter." Mezzo- fante is professor of Greek in the universi- ty of Bologna, and was appointed, in 1831, to the high office of apostolic prothonotaiy by the pope. Mezzotixto. (See Engraving.) Mi; one of the six monosyllables adapt- ed by Guido to his hexacbords, and which was apjilied to the third and seventh notes ofthe natural diatonic scale. Miami of the Lakes. (See Maumee.) Miami Canal. (See Canals, and Inland Navigation.) Miami ; a river of Ohio, which rises in Hardin county, and runs south-westerly into the Ohio river at the south-west cor- ner of the state. Its length is about 100 miles. Its navigation is not easy, but it affords numerous sites for mills and man- ufactories. Miami, Little ; a river which rises in Madison county, Ohio, and runs in a south- westerly direction about 100 miles, and falls into the Ohio river seven miles above Cin- cinnati. It is one ofthe best mill-streams in this state, but affords little navigation. Miami University. (See Oxford.) Miasma (from the Greek pao/tu, any thing polluting); a term used in the doc- trine of contagious and epidemic diseases, with different meanings. Some authors use it precisely like contagion; with othere it signifies the contagious matter of chronic diseases; with othere, that contagious matter which collects in the atmosphere— flying contagion. Some understand by miasma, the vehicle of contagion ; for in- stance, the pus of small-pox, which con- tains the proper contagious matter. Miasma also signifies certain matter, in the atmos- phere, owing its origin to putrefied animal or vegetable bodies, or to the exhalation of animal bodies, and jiroducing sjiecific dis- eases. It would be well to contradistin- guish miasma from contagion,and designate by the former term all the poisonous mat- ter of diseases, which is not generated in fivinganimal bodies, but has, in some other way, entered the atmospheric air. One of the most powerful correctors of mias- matic effluvia is chloride of lime, which is getting much into use among naviga- tors and other persons exposed to such effluvia. Miaulis, Andrew Vokos, a native of Hydra, was originally a poor sailor, who gained some projierty by his boldness and activity in the coasting trade. During the wars of the Frencli revolution and those of Napoleon, he carried on a commerce with the Frencli and Spanish jiorts in spite ofthe English cruisers, built the first ship at Hydra (q. v.), but was shipwrecked on a voyage to Portugal, with the loss of all his fortune. He, however, recovered from his losses, and was held in great es- teem by his countrymen. Though averse to beginning the struggle for Greek free- dom, at the moment when it was com- menced, the firet blow was no sooner struck, than he embarked heartily in the cause, and has ever been foremost in ex- posing himself, in sacrificing his fortune, and in giving an example of obedience to the government, and of disinterestedness. " Such is the man," says Howe (Greek Revolution), " who commanded the Greek fleet; and so irreproachable is his charac- ter, that even in Greece, where the people are so suspicious of their leaders, no voice is ever raised against Miaulis." As admi- ral of the Greek fleet, in 1823, 24, 25, 26, he displayed the greatest coolness, cour- age and prudence, and soon became the terror of the Turks. (See Greece, Revo- lution of.) Miaulis is now (1831) about 63 yeare old. Mica. (See Appendix, end of this vol.) Micah, the sixth of the minor proph- ets, was a Morasthite, ofthe tribe of Juda. He jiropbesied in the reigns of Jothatn, Ahaz and Ilezekiah, from 749 to 679 B. C. Nothing is known of his life or death. His projihecy is directed against Samaria and Jerusalem, whose sufferings, he declares, shall be greater than those of Babylon aud the other gentile cities. The village of the Savior's birth is designated by him (v. 2)—" But thou, Bethlehem Ephratah, little among the thousands of Judali, out of thee shall come forth a ruler in Israel, whose generation is of old, from everlasting." His style is pure and correct, his images bold, his denunciations full of strength and bitterness. MICHAEL- Michael (Hebrew, he who is equal to God) is spoken of in Daniel (x, 13 and 21, xii, 1) as one of the " chief jirinces," and the "great prince." In Jude (v, 9), he is called the " archangel who disputed with the devil about the body of Moses." In die Revelation (xii, 7), it is said " there was war in heaven : Michael and his angels fought against the dragon." From this expression, it has been inferred that he was the chief of the celestial hierarchy; and it is in this character that the Catholic church pays him religious honore. Milton (vi) calls him "of celestial armies prince," and " prince of angels," and attributes to him the command of the heavenly forces in the war with Satan. Michael, St. (S. Miguel), the largest of the Azores, was discovered in 1444, and taken possession of by Cabral, in the name of Portugal, to which power it now belongs; lat 37° 50' N.; lon. 30° 30' W.; 25 leagues S. E. from Terceira. In the interior it is mountainous, some of the peaks rising to a height of more than 7000 feet, and evidently of volcanic origin. Earthquakes are frequent, and the soil is in many places composed of volcanic [iroducts. In the valleys it is fertile, and produces corn, potatoes, oranges, grapes, peaches, and plums. The coasts abound with fish, and there are many mineral springs in the interior. The climate is mild and agreeable. The commerce is considerable, principally with England, Portugal and the U. States. The popula- tion is about 80,000; capital, Ponta Del- gada. (See Azores, and Portugal. See also Wrebster's Description of St. Michael, Boston, 1821.) In August last (1831), the troojis of dona Maria took possession of St Michael. Michaelis, John David; professor at Gottingen, a celebrated theologian and Orientalist, born at Halle, Feb. 27, 1717, where his father, Christian Benedict, was a distinguished professor of the same branches. John David received his first instruction from his father, and afterwards studied in the orphan house at Halle. After taking his degrees, he made a jour- ney to England and Holland, where he formed connexions with several learned individuals in London and Oxford, and in Leyden. After his return to his native country, he jirosecuted his studies with great ardor, and, in consequence of the death of professor Ludwig, was intrust- ed with the preparation of a catalogue raisonni of the Halle university library. Through the influence of the baron von Munchhausen, Michaelis, in 1745, was vol. viii. 39 MICHAUD. 4." made professor of philosophy at Got- tingen, where, in 1751, he was appoint- ed, with Haller, to draw up the con- stitution of the new royal society of sci- ences, of which he was secretary and director, until some differences with one of his colleagues induced him to resign his posts and leave the society. From 1753 to 1770, he was one of the editors of the Gottingen Literaiy Notices, and from 1761 to 1763, was librarian to the university. After the death of Gesner (1761), he undertook the direction of the philological seminary, from which so many eminent philologians have proceed- ed. During the troubles of the seven years' war, Michaelis was employed in making preparations for an exjiloring ex- pedition into Arabia, which was after- wards undertaken by Niebuhr, and which contributed many important explanations to obscure passages of scripture. He died in 1791. His labors in biblical criti- cism and histoiy are of great value. His principal works are Mosaisches Recht (6 vols.; second edition, 5 vols., 1776— 80, translated into English, under the title of Commentaries on the Laws of Moses); Introductions to the Study of the Old and New Testaments (the latter has been translated by Marsh); Spicilegium Gcogr. Hebraorum ; Translations of the Old and New Testaments, with grammatical and lexicographical jiroductions. Heyne and Eichhorn have furnished tributes to bis memory, and he himself left an autobi- ograjihy. Michaud, Joseph, a member of the French academy, and a man of some literary fame, well known as a violent partisan of the Bourbons, was born in 1771, and, in 1791, went to Paris, where he immediately began to write in the royalist journals. He was obliged to conceal himself during the reign of teiror; and, under the directorial government, he was several times imprisoned, and was once condemned to death by a military commission. At the time of his condem- nation, he was the editor of the Quotidi- enne. He took flight, but, the sentence being subsequently annulled, he returned. After the 18th of Fructidor, he was among the jiereons who were ordered to be transported to Cayenne, but he con- trived again to escape, and found a refuge in the mountains of the Jura. Of these events he has given an amusing account in a poem, entitled the Spring of a Pro- scribed Man. During the reign of Najio- Ieon, M. Michaud was the secret agent of Louis XVIII, and the count D'Artois. 458 MICHAUD—MICHAUX. He, however, celebrated the marriage of the emperor and Maria Louisa, in a poem called the Thirteenth Book of the ^Eneid, or the Marriage of ./Eneas and Lavinia. Napoleon, nevertheless, who suspected him to be an enemy, would never grant him any favor. Louis XVIII appointed him one of his supplementary readers, censor-general of the journals, and officer of the legion of honor. After the second abdication of the emperor, M. Michaud was elected a member of the chamber of deputies, but sat during only one session. He is the author of many pamphlets and poems, and of a Literary Journey to Mount Blanc, and in some Picturesque Parts of Savoy; History of the Empire of Mysore (2vols.); the History of the Crusades, (7 vols.); and of a great num- ber of articles in the Universal Biography. In 1830, he set out on an expedition to the East, in order to visit the places memorable in the crusades, preparatory to a new edition of his histoiy. Michauo, Louis G., younger brother of Josejih Michaud, served in the army, and attained the rank of captain during the early campaigns ofthe revolution; but, in 1797, gave up his commission, in order to settle at Paris, as a partner with M. Giguet in the printing business. He and his partner being royalists, their jiress was fre- quently employed in printing papers sent to them by Louis XVIII and his brother; and, for an offence of this kind, M. Mi- chaud, in 1799, suffered three months' im- prisonment in the Abbaye. After the restoration, 31. Michaud became king's printer. In 1816, however, he lost his place, in consequence of his having print- ed various publications hostile to the charter. Michaud is the author of a His- torical View ofthe firet Ware of Napoleon (2 vols.), and is the publisher of the cele- brated Biographie Universelle (Paris, 1811 —1828), to which there were over 300 contributors. Michaud is the author of numerous articles. Michaux, Andre, a celebrated travel- ler and botanist, born at Sartory, near Versailles, in 1746, was early led by the example of his father and his own inclina- tions to devote himself to agricultural pur- suits, but at the same time did not neglect to cultivate the sciences and polite litera- ture. The loss of his wife, soon after an early maniage, interrupted his prospects of domestic happiness, and carried him to Paris, where he became acquainted with Lemonnier, and acquired a taste for botany. He attended the lectures of Jus- sieu, and, in 1780, visited Auvergne, the Pyrenees and Spain, in company with Delamarck and Thouin, on a botanical excursion. In 1782, Lemonnier obtained for him permission to accomjiany Rous- seau, who was appointed Pereian consul, to Persia, and after spending two yeare in those parts, Michaux returned with a fine collection of plants and seeds. In 1785, he was sent to America for the purjiose of sending out trees and shrubs for the establishment at Rambouillet, landed at New York, and visited New Jersey, Penn- sylvania and Maryland, &c. In 1787, he formed a new establishment at Charles- ton for the procuring and jireserving plants, and visited Georgia, Florida, the Bahamas, &c. In 1792, he examined the more northern parts of the continent, to the vicinity of Hudson's bay. The two gardens whicli he had established at New York and Charleston were now in a flourishing condition, and had done much towards advancing arboriculture in the U. States. Soon after his return to Philadelphia, Michaux was sent to Louisi- ana by the French government on a pub- lic mission, and, in July, 1793, crossed the Alleghanies, and descended the Ohio. The project in relation to whicli he had been sent having been abandoned, he re- turned, in December, to Philadelphia, by the way of Virginia. The next year, be again crossed the mountains, and ex- amined the western parts ofthe U. States. The difficulties which he had to encoun- ter in these exjieditions may be easily imagined. In 1796, he returned to Eu- rope, was shipwrecked on the coast of Holland, but saved the greater part of his valuable collection, and, on his arrival in Paris, found that out of 60,000 stocks which he had sent out to Rambouillet, only a very small number had escaped the ravages of the revolution. Michaux was unable to obtain the arrears of his salary for seven yeare, or any employ- ment from the government, and occupied himself in preparing materials for his works on North America. In 1800, how- ever, he was attached to the expedition of Baudin to New Holland; but, after visiting Teneriffe and the Isle of France, he left the party, and went to Madagascar, where he soon after died of a fever (No- vember, 1802], His works are Histoire des Chines de I'Amirique Septentrionole (Paris 1801, folio, with 36 plates, repre- senting 20 species and 16 varieties); and Flora Boreali-Americana (2 vols., 8vo., 1803, with 52 plates, comprising 1700 plants, and about 40 new genera). Michaux, Francois Andre, son of the MICHAUX—MICHIGAN. 459 preceding, is the author of the North American Sylva (5 vols., 8vo., Philadel- jihia, 1817, 150 colored engravings); and of Travels in Ohio, Kentucky and Ten- nessee (London, 1805). (See North Ameri- can Review, vol. xiii.) Michel Angelo, or Michelangelo. (See Angelo.) Michigan ; a territory of the U. States. This tenitory may be viewed in two as- {>ects—one, as presented by its political imits, established by the acts of congress of January, 1805, and April, 1818; the other as exhibited by the natural bounda- ries by which it will probably be defined when it enters the confederacy; and known by the appropriate and more usual designation of Michigan Proper. The whole extent of countiy called Michigan, lies between 41° 3& 58" and 48° 37' N. lat, and 82° 157, and nearly 95° W. lon. from Greenwich. That portion lying W. of 87° 10* lon., comprises the extensive district attached to Michigan, and con- templated to be set off and organized as a new territory. This latter region, bor- dering east on lake Michigan, north on lake Superior (nearly half of which item- braces), and the chain of small lakes con- necting that Mediterranean with the heads of the Mississippi, and west and north- west on the Ujiper Mississippi, has been little explored. Judging from known portions of it, however, it must gradually assume, as its resources are developed by the progress of improvement, great inter- est and importance. The countiy in- cluded between the Fox and Wisconsin rivers, and the western shore of lake Michigan, bears a highly inviting charac- ter. The soil is a rich, black alluvial, in-igated by innumerable veins of water. The face of the country is unbroken by hills of any magnitude. From its north- ern extremity south to the Milwalky and the beads of Rock river, it is covered w ith a dense forest, opening, as traced far- ther down to the southern bend of lake Michigan,into fertile and extensive jirairies. It is not marked by that sterility whicli usually distinguishes mineral regions. Explorers have noticed, as a feature of geological interest, the entire absence of pebbles upon the surface of these prairi96, and to a depth of two or three feet. The succeeding stratum is of clay. More than 36,000,000 pounds of lead were yielded, by the mining district, from the autumn of ^4 to that of '29. The southern shore of lake Superior affords strong indication of copper. By the treaty of Prairie du Chien, 1829, the U. States purchased of the Winnebagoes, Chippewas, Ottawas and Potawatamies, a tract of about 6,000,000 acres of land, of which 2,300,000 are sup- posed to be within the limits of the con- templated territory. About 132,000 in the vicinity of Green bay have also been ceded. The former cession comprehends nearly all the mining district of the Upper Mississijipi. It is occupied principally by the Winnebago, Chippewa and Sioux tribes of Indians. The white population, confined chiefly to Green bay and the mining district, is estimated at 6000. Military posts are established at Green bay, Prairie du Chien, fort Snelling, on the St. Peters, and fort Winnebago, at the portage of the Fox and Wisconsin rivers. Settlements are formed, more or less ex- tensive, at Green bay; Pembina, on Red river of lake Winnejieg; Prairie du Chien, on the Mississip' /, and the lead mine, bounding on the Mississippi and Wiscon- sin.—Michigan Proper lies between 41° 38' 58" and 4< J 507 N. lat, and 82° 157 and 87° 107 W. Ion., and is bounded N. by lake Superior, E. by St. Mary's river, lake Huron, St. Clair river, lake St. Clair, Detroit river, and lake Erie; S. by Ohio and Indiana; and W. by a line dividing lake Michigan N. and S. to Big Beaver island ; and thence running due N. to the national boundary in lake Superior. These limits comprehend about 60,500 square miles, of which a third, pprhaps, is cover- ed with water. They comprise two pen- insulas:—the larger, being the peninsula. of Michigan, bounded E by lakes Erie, St. Clair and Huron, an i W. by lake Michigan, containing aboi 136,000 square miles ; tbe smaller, bounded S. by the straits of Mackinac, E. by the river St. Maiy, N. by lake Superior; containing about 2000 square miles. The former is about 280 miles long, N. and S., and from 180 to 200 broad, E. and W. From the base of the jieninsula, as far N. as Grand and Saginaw rivers, the country has been ceded by the Indians. The jurisdiction of Michigan extends over all the tenitory ofthe U. States E. of the Mississippi and N. of Illinois. As generally indicating its geological and mineralogical character, we may remark, that the rock is covered with a bed of alluvial earth, from 30 to 150 feet deep. The rocks belong to the seconda- ry class. The strata, in the southern part of the territory, are supposed to dip S. E. at an angle of about i° with the horizon. Ferriferous sand rock, saliferous rock, and mill-stone grit, are found alternating on the surface, at various points in the middle and western parts of the peninsu- 460 MICHIGAN. la. Salt springs occur on the branches resembles, in its soil, forests, form and of many of the interior rivers. Bog iron climate, the northern jiart of the peninsu- ore, lead ore, gypsum and bituminous la of Michigan. In the southern part of coal are found, though in inconsiderable the territory, the climate is temjierate; in quantities. Peat is abundant in many the northern, cold. Snow falls at Detroit parts of the territory. The face of the from 6 to 18 inches deeji, and remains country is generally level or gently undu- two or three weeks. The transition from lating. A strip of table land, stretching the cold of sjiring to the heat of summer N. and S., and assuming, as it is traced is rapid ; from summer to winter, gradual N., the character of a ridge, div ides the and prolonged. As general characteris- watere emptying eastward into lakes Erie, tics, the spring is wet and backward; St. Clair and Huron, from those passing summer, dry ; autumn, mild ; winter, westward into lake Michigan. Its eleva- cold and dry. The average temperature is, tion is estimated to be 300 feet above the in the spring, 50° of Fahrenheit; summer, level of the lakes. South of a line drawn 80°; winter, 20° ; autumn, 60° to 65°. Tbe due W. from the southern extremity of rivers, with the exception of St Mary's, lake Huron, the country consists of open St. Clair, and Detroit, which form con- land, known by the name of Oak-plains, necting links in the great chain of lakes, The soil is a loam, with varying jiropor- are small. They rise near the dividing tions of clay. It becomes fertile by culti- ridge, and run, with a rapid current, E. vation, and is good farm land, "in the or W. Their numerous branches fur- country bordering on the Kalemagoo and nish abundance of mill-seats in all parts St. Joseph rivers, prairies of a black, rich, of the country. . From the greater prox- alluvial soil and unusual jiroductiveness, imity of the ridge to the eastern border frequently occur. The northern jiart of of the jieninsula, the streams running E. the peninsula is in the occupation of In- are of course shorter than those which dians, and has been little explored, except take a contrary direction. They are also, along the borders. The land is in many in general, smaller, and navigable to less places more elevated than that farther extent Thunder bay river, emptying south, and is covered with the trees usu- into Thunder bay, and Cheboiyan river, ally found in those latitudes. The In- into the straits of Mackinac, are the only dians raise com in abundance. The considerable streams N. of Saginaw peninsula between the straits of Macki- bay. nac and lake Superior, as far as is known, The Detroit river is about 25 m. long; average br. ly1^ m.; average depth, 6 fathoms; current, 2 m. per hour. " St. Clair, 40 m. long; ship-channel, 35 m.; average br. \ m.; aver- age depth, 8 fathoms; current, 3 m. per hour. " St. Mary's, 50 m. long; ship channel, 35 m.; average br. 1 m.; cur- rent, exclusive of rapids, lh m. Lake St. Clair, 24 ni. long; br. 30 m.; circum. 90 m.; depth, 20 feet. " Huron, 280 m. long; coasted, S. shore, 360 in. long; br., exclusive of the vast bay, on the N. E. coast, 90 in.; medium depth, 900 feet. " Michigan, 300 m. long; br. 60 m.; medium depth, 900 feet. " Superior, 420 m. long; coasted, S. shore, 530; br. 170; med. depth, 900 feet. Comparative Estimated Elevation ofthe Lakes above the Atlantic, at High Tide. Superior. Mean fall of St Mary's from point Iroquois, 60 m. (excl. of rap.), 12 ft. 16 in. Sault (fall) St. Mary's, as ascertained by gen. Gratiot, Eng. dep., \ m. 22 10 Sugar island rapids, 4 ft.; Nibish, 5,.........9 Huron. St. Clair rapids, h m., 1 ft., 6 in.; 1£ m., 1 ft, 6 in., as ascertained by Mr. Lyon,................3 St Clair river, 30 m., 4 in. per m.,..........10 St. Clair. Detroit river, 25 m., 3 in. per m.,...........6 3 Erie. Above Atlantic at high tide, as ascertained by N. Y. canal com., 560 Elevation of lake Superior,.............623 ft. 7 in. These estimates, except where exact and fall of water occurs daily, though ir- knowledge has been obtained, can be regularly, at Green bay. It has also been regarded as approximations only. A rise observed at the southern point of lake MICHIGAN. 461 Huron. Experiments which have been instituted, have failed to determine wheth- er it can be regarded as a tide. The animal and vegetable productions are such as are usually found in the same latitudes. Game, fish, and aquatic birds, are in great abundance and variety. The civil divis- ions of the territory are those of counties and townships. The legislative power is vested in a governor and council; the latter elected biennally, and restricted to annual sessions of 60 days each ; the ex- ecutive, in a governor appointed for terms of three years ; the judicial, in a supreme court, consisting of three judges, whose terms of office are four years; circuit courts, held by two ofthe superior judges; and subordinate jurisdictions, as county courts, magistrates, &c. Detroit is the seat of government. It is situated on the right bank ofthe river, 18 miles from lake Erie, and 7 from lake St. Clair. Its site is an elevation of about 30 feet above the level ofthe river. It contains about 400 bouses, and 3000 inhabitants. The plan ofthe town, upon the river, and for 1200 feet back, is rectangular; in the rear of this, triangular. The streets are from 50 to 200 feet wide. Three roads, construct- ing by the general government, terminate in the centre of the town ;—the Chicago, leading to Illinois; the Saginaw, to the head of Saginaw bay ; the fort Gratiot, to the foot of lake Huron. A United States' road, leading from Detroit to Ohio, has been completed. Ninety vessels, of which 40 belong to Detroit, trade to that jiort. Their tonnage is about 6000. Those be- longing to the port discharge there regu- larly, and have their outward cargoes supplied by the countiy. Steam-boats go regularly to Buffalo, arriving and de- parting daily. There are nine ; aggregate tonnage, 2000. With every natural fa- cility for becoming a place of importance, the condition of Detroit has hitherto de- pended on the precarious support afford- ed by the fur trade, the disbursement of public moneys, while a military post, and the liberal appropriations by government for public objects. The impulse and effect produced by the settlement and cultivation of the surrounding country, was wanting. This, though recent in Michigan, has commenced, and is rapidly increasing. A strong and increasing tide of immigration has set in. The causes of jirosperity once in action, their results will probably be shown there, as they have usually been manifested elsewhere. The population of Michigan Projier ex- ceeds 40000. Regular settlements were 39* first made in the beginning of the last century. The government, under the dominion of the French, was arbitrary, uniting the civil and military authority in the power of a " commandant." Lands were held of the king, and undergrants, temporary or permanent, were made by his governor-general, to which feodal rent was usually incident. The rules regu- lating the rights of property, particularly in regard to the marriage relation, succes- sion and devises, were those ofthe French customary law, called coutume de Paris, as far as applicable to the circumstances of the country. These were abrogated, as to further recognition in the territory, in 1810. In 1763, the French possessions in Canada were ceded to England. By the treaty of Paris, 1783, this countiy was transferred to the U. States. From this jieriod, the English government ceased to exercise a criminal jurisdiction over it. In 1796, under Jay's treaty of ^4, pos- session of these upjier posts was deliver- ed to the American government The North-western territory was ceded by Virginia, New York, Massachusetts and Connecticut to the U. States, and, in 1787, congress passed an ordinance for its government; amended in 1789, to adapt it to the new government ofthe U. States, which had taken effect in the interim. The expense* of the territorial govern- ment, consisting of the salaries of the governor, secretary, council, sujierior judges, district attorney and marshal, all apjiointed by the general goveniment, are defrayed by the U. States; those of the county and townshij) governments by di- rect tax. A delegate to congress is elect- ed biennially, who may debate, but not vote. The qualifications necessary to suffrage are—to be a free white male of age; citizenship; a year's residence in the tenitory; payment of a county or ten-itorial tax. By the articles of com- pact, slaveiy is prohibited. The number of Indians within the peninsula, is esti- mated at 9000; within the territory of Michigan, at 40,000. Those in the penin- sula are Chijipewas, Potawatamies and Ottawas, and are kindred tribes. The Potawatamies live on reservations of land iu the St. Josejih countiy. The Ottawas and Chippewas of Thunder bay, Sagi- naw, and river au Sable, own all the peninsula nortli and west of a line drawn from the forks of Grand to the source of Thunder bay river. They are hunters and trappers. The Ottawas are the most agricultural hi their habits, and a band of this tribe have a flourishing settlement at 462 MICHIGAN—MICROSCOPE. L'Arbre Croche, on the western coast of lake Huron. The borders of St Clair river and lake, rivers Detroit, Raisin, Clin- ton, and Plaisance bay, at the mouth of the Raisin, are settled by Frencli inhab- itants. They occupy a belt of land on the borders of these streams, three miles broad. They are civil, honest, unobtru- sive and industrious, with little educa- tion, and essentially deficient in enterprise. Michigan, Lake ; one ofthe five great lakes in the northern part of the United States, and wholly within the territory of these states. It has the Michigan Terri- tory on the east, Indiana on the south, and is connected on the north-east with lake Huron, by the strait of Mackinac. Its length is nearly three hundred miles, its breadth about sixty miles, and its aver- age depth about 900 feet. The distance from the southern extremity to the Mis- sissippi is 161 miles. Lon. 84° 40' to 87° 8' W.; lat 41° 15'. to 45° 35' N. It con- tains, according to Hutchins, 10,868,000 acres. The waters are clear and wholesome, and contain many kinds of fish. In the north-west jiart there are two large bays, Noquet's and Green. (For other particulars, see Michigan Territory.) Michilimackinac,oiMackinac; a post- town and military post in Michigan. It is situated upon au island in the strait connecting lake Huron and lake Michi- gan ; the best authorities now give to the town and island the name Mackinac, and to the county of which the town is the capital, and the strait in which it is situ- ated, that of Mackilimackinac. The com- mon pronunciation is Mack-i-naw, and the name is not unfrequently written in this manner. The island is about nine miles in circuit. The town is on the south-east side of the island, on a small cove, which is surrounded by a steep cliff, 150 feet high. It consists of two streets jiarallel with the lake, intersected by oth- ers at right angles, and contains a court- house, a jail, and several stores. The jiojmlation of the county, in 1830, was 877. It is much resorted to by fur-trad- ers, and during the summer is visited by thousands of Indians, on their way to Drummond's island. On a cliff above the town is the fort. The highest sum- mit of the hill is 300 feet above the lake; und it affords an extensive view of the lakes Michigan and Huron. Lon. 84° 40' W.; lat. 45° 54' N. Michilimackinac,Straits of; a chan- nel connecting lake Michigan with lake Huron, 40 miles long from east to west, and 4 miles wide in the narrowest part. Mickle, William Julius, an English poet, the son of a Presbyterian^ clergy- man, was born in Scotland, in 1734, and received his education at Edinburgh. At first he engaged in business as a brewer, but not succeeding, he devoted himself to literature, and removing to London, was noticed by lord Lyttleton. In 1765, he was employed as corrector of the press in the Clarendon printing-office at Oxford, where he published a poem entitled the Concubine, in imitation of Spenser, re- published with the title of Sir Martyn. He afterwards edited Pearch's Collec- tion of Poems, 4 vols, supplementary to that of Dodsley. In 1775, appeared his principal production, a translation of the Lusiad of Camoens. Prefixed to the poem is a historical and critical Introduc- tion, including a life of Camoens; and the work itself is executed in a manner highly creditable to the talents of the translator. In 1778, Mr. Mickle accom- panied commodore Johnson as his secre- tary on a mission to Lisbon ; and dietl in 1788. His poetical works were published collectively, in 3 vols. 8vo., 1807, with a biographical memoir. Micrometer ; an instrument fitted to telescopes in the focus of the object- glass, for measuring small angles or dis- tances, as the ajiparent diameters of the jilanets, &c. Various forms have been given to this instrument by different au- thors, and various claims have been urg- ed for the honor of the invention. It seems, however, to belong to Gascoigne, an Englishman, though it is doubtful whether Huygens did not also invent the one which he used, without any knowl- edge of that of the former. Under all the forms of this instrument, the princi- ple of ojieration is the same, which is, that it moves a fine wire parallel to itself, in the plane of the picture of an object, formed in the focus of the telescope; and with such accuracy as to measure with the greatest precision its perpendicular distance from a fixed wire in the same plane, by which means the apparent di- ameters of the planets, and other small angles, are exactly determined. This may be illustrated as follows:—Let a planet be viewed through a telescope, and when the parallel wires are opened to such a distance as to appear to touch exactly the two opposite extremities of the disc of the planet, it is obvious that the perpendicular distance between the wires is then equal to the diameter ofthe object in the focus of the object-glass. Microscope. The histoiy of the mi- MICROSCOPE. 463 croscope is veiled in considerable obscu- rity, and among the moderns the discov- ery of this instrument has been claimed by several individuals. The ancients ap- jiear to have been acquainted with it in one of its forms; for Seneca says, "Lettere, though minute and obscure, appear larger and clearer through a glass bubble filled with water." In the middle ages this knowledge was lost. The in- vention of the modern instrument is at- tributed by the celebrated Dutch mathe- matician Huygens, to a countryman of his, named Drebell, who constructed them about 1621, or 31 years after the invention of the telescope. Borelli at- tributes it to Jansen, the reputed contriver of the telescope; Viviani to Galileo. The firet microscope, consisting of two double convex lenses, seems to have been made by F. Fontana, a Neapolitan, who dates his invention from 1618. The nu- merous forms of microscopes may be in- cluded under the heads of single, com- pound refracting and compound reflect- ing microscojies. The theory of the single microscope may be thus explained. We all know that at a small distance we see more distmctly than at a large. If we look at two men, one 200 feet distant, the other 100 feet, the former will ajipear only half die height of the latter, or the angle which the latter subtends to the eye of the observer will be twice that sub- tended by the former. Hence we must conclude, that the nearer we can bring an object to the eye, the larger it will appear. Now if to render the jiarts of a minute object distinguishable, we bring it veiy near the eye (suppose within one or two inches), it will become veiy indistinct and confused, in consequence of the great divergence of the rays of light from the object, and the power of the crystalline lens ofthe eye not being sufficient to col- lect the rays whereby an image of the object may be formed on the retina at the proper distance on the back of the eve. Now if we employ a single micro- scope, which consists of a convex lens usually made of glass (though any other transparent substance would have the same jiovver in a greater or less degree), and mounted in a brass setting, and place it between the object and the eye, the former being in the focus of the glass, the diverging rays from the object will be refracted antl rendered parallel by the lens, and thus we shall obtain a distinct and near view of the object. The in- crease of ajijiarent magnitude obtained by the employment of lenses, is jiroportion- ed to the difference of the distance of an object from tile lens and the distance when seen without its assistance. This latter distance (the distance of distinct vision of minute objects with the naked eye) varies in different persons, and at different periods of life. Some measure therefore must be assumed as a standard, before we can express the amplifying power of a lens so as mutually to have the same idea of the magnitude of an ob- ject. Some authors adopt ten inches as the standard of the focus of the eye, un- der ordinary circumstances, and its deci- mal character makes it a convenient mul- tiplier or divisor. With this decimal standard we can determine the magnify- ing power of lenses of any focal length, or formed of any substance (media). Thus if we have a lens which requires for distinct vision the object to be one inch from its centre (in a double convex), we must divide the standard ten by one which will give ten as the magnifying power. If the lens require the object to be l-25th of an inch distant, its magnify- ing power will be 250. We have called the magnifying power in the first instance ten, because the length of the object is increased ten times ; but as its breadth is also increased ten times, the real magni- fying jiovver of the lens is ten times ten, or a hundred. The common form ofthe magnifiers employed for microscopes is double-convex, and they should be made as thin as possible; for the wandering or spreading out of the rays proceeding from an object when refracted by a lens with spherical surfaces, whereby an in- distinctness is produced in its image, will be decreased, as the square of the thick- ness of the lens employed, and the loss of light in passing through the lens is less in proportion as it is diin.—Within a few years, diamonds have been formed into lenses in consequence of their high re- fractive power, whereby we can obtain lenses of any degree of magnifying pow- er with comparatively shallow curves, and as the dispersion of color in this sub- stance is as low as in water, the lens is nearly achromatic. Next to the diamond the sapphire possesses all the powers re- quisite for the formation of perfect mag- nifiers, and presents less difficulty in their construction; hence the expense of em- ploying it is considerably less.—A com- pound refracting microscope is an instru- ment consisting of two or more convex lenses, by one of which an enlarged im- age of the object is formed, and then by means of the other emjiloyed as aft eye- 464 MICROSCOPE—MICROSCOPICAL ANIMALS. glass, a magnified representation of the enlarged image is obtained. The dis- tance at which the two lenses of a com- pound microscope are placed from each other must always exceed the sum of their focal lengths, in order that the im- age may be formed by the object-glass in the anterior focus of the eye-glass. Compound microscopes have been con- structed of almost all possible dimensions, from a few inches in length to that of 20 feet; but from experience it appeare that whenever their magnitude is augmented beyond a certain point, the effect is di- minished, though we suppose the am- plifying power of both microscopes the same.—The solar microscope consists of a common microscope connected with a reflector and condenser, the former be- ing used to throw the sun's light on the latter, by which it is condensed to illumi- nate the object placed in its focus. This object is also in the focus of the micro- scopic lens on the other side of it, which transmits a magnified image of it to a wall or screen (sometimes a combination of two magnifying lenses is used). The magnifying power will be greater in pro- portion as the focal distance of the object- glass compared with the distance of the wall or screen from the object-glass is less. The principle of the lucernal mi- croscope is the same, except that a lamp is used instead of the sun to illuminate the objects; this lamp is enclosed in a lantern, to screen the light from the observers. Microcosm(from/uxpo;, little, and Koopos, the universe); the name given to man in the tunes when astrology flourished, as it was sujiposed that his organization accu- rately corresponded to the organization of the universe, called in this case macrocos- mos (from paxpos, meaning great, and Koopoi, the universe). The different parts and limbs of man were made to correspond to the different parts ofthe universe; and en- gravings are found in works of tbat time, in which man stands in the centre of the universe, surrounded by lines indicating the various connexions of the heavenly bodies with his limbs. This idea owes its origin partly to the importance which early ages attributed to the position of man in the universe. The earth is at first always conceived of as the centre of the universe ; the heavens are a mere dome over the earth, to give light, &c.; and man, the jiresent lord of the earthly creation, is considered actually the lord o all the creation. Close relations be- tween him and the vast cosmological phenomena are then imagined. But the frogress of science makes man modest. t shows liim that he belongs only to one period of a small planet—Micro- cosm is still used in a figurative sense for man. Microscopical Animals, or Animal- cules. Animalcule in a general sense de- notes a small animal. It is here used to denote one so minute that its form antl parts cannot be distinguished without the aid of the microscojie. Microscopical animals may be described as more or less translucid, destitute of members, and in which no vestiges of eyes have yet been discovered. They are contractile in whole or in part, possessed of the sense of touch, and nourish themselves exclu- sively by absorption. If particles of ani- mal or vegetable matter arc a few days infused in the most limpid water, on aji- plying the smallest portion of it to the microscope, innumerable such animals of various shapes are discovered. These have been denominated infusoiy animal- cules. They are also found in the mud of ditches, the scum of stagnant waters, &c. The origin of animalcules is a point of extreme difficulty, because their exist- ence seems solely dependent on the ad- ventitious union of animal or vegetable substances, and a simple fluid. There is great reason to conclude that their germs exist, not only in the air, but also in the macerating substances, or even in the fluid itself, and are gradually unfolded according to circumstances. Among these, heat and putrescence seem the most indispensable. The degree of heat to which infusions may be exposed, and still produce animalcules, is very different. The smaller species still originate after infusions have been subjected to 212° Fahr. in close vessels. These appear to be capable of withstanding a much great- er degree of heat than the larger animal- cules. Milk, blood, urine and other ani- mal fluids abound with animalcules after standing a certain time, though in their natural state they do not contain them. There is no certain law with regard to the jiarticular species produced by any particular infusion. In general, several different species will be exhibited, whicli disappear and are succeeded by others; and sometimes where there are myriads of one kind, a solitary animalcule of a remote genus is found among them. Vinegar is full of minute eels, which are also found in paste. Midler conceives that the sea abounds in animalcules pecu- liar to itself, and Spallanzani observes that vegetable substances dissolving in MICROSCOPICAL ANIMALS. 465 sea water produce swarms of animal- cules. The minuteness of animalcules surpasses the concejition of the human mind. Leeuwenhoek calculates that the piize of some is to that of a mite, as the size of a bee to that of a horse ; a hun- dred others will not exceed the thickness of a single hair; and ten thousand of a different sjiecies may be contained in the sjiace occupied by a grain of sand. The most powerful microscopes can only dis- cover jioints in motion in the fluid, gradu- ally decreasing until they become imper- cejitible to the view. The shape of ani- malcules is infinitely diversified: one is a long slender line ; another is coiled up like an eel or a serjient; some are circu- lar, elliptical or globular; others resem- ble a triangle or a cylinder. Some re- semble thin, flat plates, and some may be compared to a number of thin articulated seeds. One is like a funnel; another like a bell; others cannot be compared to any object familiar to our senses. Cer- tain animalcules, such as the proteus diffluens, can change their figure at pleas- ure, being sometimes extended to an immoderate length, at other times con- tracted to a point. One moment they are inflated to a sphere, the next com- pletely flaccid ; and then various eminen- ces will project from the surface, altering them apparently into animals entirely dif- ferent. Their peculiar motion is not less remarkable. In several species it consists of incessant gyration on the head as a centre, or round a particular point, as if one of the foci of an ellipse. The pro- gression of othere is by means of leaps or undulations; some swim with the velocity of an arrow; the eye can hardly follow them; some drag their bodies along as if with painful exertion, and others seem to remain in perpetual rest. Their food is not yet indisputably ascertained. Proba- bly it consists both of animal and vegetable matter; and they also prey on each other. They jiropagate by eggs, by living foetuses, and by a portion of the body being de- tached. Whether they have any union of sexes, like the larger animals, is keenly contested. The mode of the multiplica- tion of animalcules, by division into two or more parts, was firet observed by M. de Saussure. If one of the kinds of animal- cules jiropagating in this manner is isolat- ed in a watch glass, the traces of a con- traction around the middle of the body becomes visible, whicli marks incipient division. The stricture soon increases insensibly, and the animal then somevyhat resembles a blown bladder tied tight across. The contraction gradually aug- ments, and the animalcule is at length changed into two spherules connected by a single point. At last they separate, and two perfect animals are produced. Other kinds divide in different mannere, which we have not room to describe. We will mention only the volvox globator, a globular animalcule of a greenish color, visible by the naked eye. It is frequently found in the water of ditches and marshes abound- ing with growing vegetables, as well as those in a decomposing state. Its mode of jirogression is by revolving on itself like a sjihere ; whence its name. This animalcule consists of extremely transpa rent membranaceous substances, contain- ing minute globules irregularly dispersed within it On examination with a very powerful magnifier, the globules appear to be so many young volvoxes, each provided with its diaphanous membrane, and within that again is involved another race of de- scendants. Some observers have discov- ered even down to the fifth generation in the parent; othere have not been able to see farther than the third. When the volvoxes have attained a certain maturity, the included young begin to move; they detach themselves from the parent, and successively escaping from the investing membrane, swim about. When ali have left it, the common envelope, or mother, becomes motionless, burets and disappears. Then the new volvoxes rapidly increase in size; their included globules likewise grow, they begin to move, the parent burets, and the young swim at large. By isolating these animals in watch-glasses, the thirteenth successive generation from a single parent has been obtained. The dangers to whicli animalcules are exposed infinitely exceed those attendant on the larger animals, not only from the noxious qualities imparted to infusions but from evaporation. According to Miiller, sev- eral of the larger species are destroyed, and totally dissolved, by simple contact with the air. Some he has seen decom- posed on approaching the edge of a drop; and othere, amidst the rapidity of their couree, have been dissolved in a moment Too much heat and cold are alike fatal to them; the dnguilla of vinegar, however, can endure a great degree of cold. Doc- tor Power remarks that the vinegar may be frozen and thawed several times over, and they will still remain as lively as ever. Some animalcules can be revived after the vital functions have been suspended for a long, perhaps an unlimited, time. This is the case, for instance, with the wheel ani- 466 MICROSCOPICAL ANIMALS—MIDDLE AGES. mal, a singular animalcule. When the water containing this animal evaporates, it becomes languid, the shape altera, and the animal to appearance dies. Its figure is now so diminished and distorted as to have little resemblance to the living ani- mal. It grows dry and hard; yet the an- imal may still be revived, on being mois- tened, after days, months, and even yeare. It has been said that those which have been dead for yeare, revive as soon as those that have been dry only a few hours. Fontena revived them after being dry for two years. The presence of sand with the water is absolutely necessary for their revival. Animalcules are found in the seminal fluid, but in none ofthe other fluids ofthe animal body, if recent Midas, the son of Gordins and Cybele, was an ancient king of Phrygia, of whom many fables are related. His story has the naiveti of a nursery tale. While he was yet in the cradle, the ants put corn in bis mouth, and the soothsayers prophesied that he would acquire great riches. When he was king, and Bacchus was travelling through Phrygia, Silenus lost his way, and strayed to the court ofthe king. Mi- das hospitably entertained .him, and con- ducted him back to Bacchus, who permit- ted Midas to choose whatever recompense he pleased. Midas requested that every thing he touched might become gold, and the god granted his wish. But when even his food was transformed into gold at his touch, he implored Bacchus to take back die fatal privilege. The god then com- manded him to go up the river Pactolus, and to dip his head in the sources of the stream, and afterwards to bathe in it. The property of transforming every thing into gold was then transferred to the wa- ters ofthe Pactolus. Pan and Ajiollo ap- pointed Midas and Tmolus their umpires in a musical contest Midas gave to the syrinx of Pan the preference over the lyre of Apollo, and was therefore punished by the latter with a pair of ass's ears. Hence the phrase ears of Midas, often bestowed upon ignorant critics. Midas now ex- erted himself to conceal this oniament of his head by his royal cap ; but he was obliged to uncover his head under the hands of his hair-dresser; and, although the king ordered secrecy under the se- verest penalty, yet the secret weighed up- on the barber so heavily that, to unburden his mind, he dug a hole in the ground, and whispered in it," king Midas has ass's ears," and then covered uji the hole. Soon after weeds sprang up on this spot, which, when moved by the wind, mur- mured the words of the barber. Thus the secret was divulged. Middle Ages ; that period, in the his- tory of Europe, which begins with the final destruction of the Roman emjnre, and, by some historians, is considered to end with the reformation ; by others, with the discovery of America; by othere, with the conquest of Constantinople ; and again, by some, with the invention ofthe art of printing; all of which may be right, acconling to the special purpose of the historian. In general, it may be said, the middle ages embrace that period of histoiy in which the feudal system was estab- lished and developed, down to the most prominent events which necessarily led to its overthrow, though its consequences and influence are still veiy observable in the states of Europe. (See Feudal System, and Chivalry.) The firet centuries of the middle ages are often termed the dark ages, —a name which they certainly deserve. Still, however, the destruction ofthe Roman institutions, by the irrujition of barbarous tribes, is often unduly lamented, and the beneficial consequences attending it over- looked. 'True it is, that many of the acquisitions, which had cost mankind ages of toil and labor, were lost in the general wreck, and only regained by the efforts of many successive generations; tbe flowers of civilization were trampled under foot by barbarous warriors; the civil devel- opement of society suffered a most severe shqick ; those nations to which Roman civilization had extended previous to the great invasion ofthe Teutonic tribes, were thrown back, in a great measure, to their primeval barbarism,* and the unru ly passion for individual independence in the north- ern tribes, greatly retarded the develope- ment of public and private law, and, in some countries, has entirely prevented a regular civil constitution. Though we admit all this, we ask whether those who deplore the irruption of the barbarians, are well aware of the enormous degree to which Roman civilization had degene- rated ? While, however, the injury which the world suffered from the destruction of Roman civilization, has been often over- rated, there is, on the other hand, a class of pereons, who laud the condition of Eu- rope during the rudeness of the feudal ages, in a spirit of romantic exaggeration, * These nations, in point of civil institutions, had undoubtedly advanced much beyond the German tribes, whom the victories of Arminius (which preserved them independent of Rome) had, at the same time, prevented from receiving the benefits of the Roman law and social organi- zation. MIDDLE AGES. 467 much like that of certain philosophers, who have treated the savage state as that best fitted to nourish and preserve vir- tue, the one showing ignorance of his- tory, the other of man. Any one may speculate as he pleases on such subjects, but such speculations are foreign to the spirit of history, whose jiroper office is to state facts, and show the influence of past ages on the succeeding. The feudal sys- tem filled Europe with powerful bar- ons, possessing large landed estates, and commanding the services of numerous armed adherents, and with inferior lords, protected by the former. They were all jiossessors of land, with arms perpetually iu their hands, too proud to follow any laws excejit those of honor, which they had themselves created, and despising all men of peaceful occupations as ignoble, created to obey and to serve. If, there- fore, the classes not belonging to the mili- tary caste wished to preserve their inde- jiendence, they could succeed only by union, which would afford them the means of mutual protection, and enable them to exercise their various callings unmolested, and thereby acquire wealth in money and goods, which would serve as a counter- jioise to the landed possessions ofthe feu- dal aristocracy. This necessity gave rise to cities. Small cultivators, at first under the protection and superintendence of the counts, bishops and abbots, to whom they subsequently became so formidable, arose, and attained (particularly in the eleventh centuiy) through their own industry and skill, to a state of prosperity, which enabled thern to purchase their freedom, and soon to obtain it by force. They did not re- main stationary; but small states began to grow into great ones; and the most of them became so bold as to acknowledge. no superior except the highest authority, of the countiy to which they belonged/ Strong, high walls, impenetrable by the rude military art of the time, secured, in conjunction with the valor ofthe citizens, the freedom of the cities, and protected them from the tyrants of the land; well- ordered civil institutions preserved peace and prosjierity within, and were secured by the wealth acquired by trade and man- ufacturing industry. Many of the nobility themselves, attracted by the good order and prosjierity of the cities, established themselves there, and were ambitious of obtaining the offices of government in these commonwealths. In fact, they soon usurjied the exclusive jiossession of them, in many of the cities. The looser the social organization in any state, and die more intolerable the pride of the nobility, the greater became the prosperity and power ofthe cities, which grew, at length, so great that, in Germany and Italy, these republics were formidable even to tbe emperor. In Arragon, the third estate was fully developed as early as the twelfth centuiy. In England the cities, in con- junction with the barons, obtained the Magna Charta, in 1215, and, in -France, they increased, in consequence, from the circumstance that Louis the Fat and his successors, particularly Philip the Fair, 200 yeare after him, found it their best policy to jirotect them against the nobility, and thereby increase tbeir own means of resisting that order. But the cities of these countries never attained the importance of those of Germany and Italy. What single cities could not accomplish, was effected by the union of several; as the league ofthe Lombard cities in Italy ; the Hanseatic, Rhenish and Suabian leagues, hi Germany (see Italy, and Hanseatic League), appeared, at tbe same time, as great and formidable powere. Under the protection of such associations, and shel- tered by the walls ofthe cities, all arts and trades, and every kind of civilization, made rapid progress. Many of the im- portant inventions, which we now prize so highly, originated among the citizens of these small free states, or were suggested by their active commercial and manufac- turing spirit With constitutions similar to those of antiquity, the same spirit ap- peared to be awakened; all the virtues and vices of Athens, Sparta and Rome, are found in the free states of Italy, where even the climate resembled that ofthe re- publics which had perished 1500 years before. There was the same love of country, strict morals, and valor, the same (but more violent) party contests, the same changes of administration, and ambitious intrigues, the same (though differently di- rected) love of arts and knowledge. But the communities were not exempt from the influence of the domineering spiiit of the times, which they opposed. The overwhelming power of individuals, so dangerous to all free states, became, through this spirit, doubly formidable, and comjiel- led the oppressed portion of the citizens, in the same distress which had given rise to their parent city, to have recourse to the same means of relief. They bound themselves together for the protection of their rights. Such associations, usually formed among jieojile of the same trade, and having for their object, next to secu- rity from external enemies, the mainte- 468 MIDDLE AGES. nance of internal order in these stormy times, were called corporations, or guUds, and were under the direction of a master. The strictest regulations appeared neces- sary for the attainment of this object No one, without serving an apprenticeship of years, and advancing through certain degrees, could become a member. At a later period, admission into the corpora- tion was purchased by individuals who did not follow the business of the mem- bers, but wished to share in the advan-" tages of the associations. For in the fourteenth century, the corporations be- came so powerful as to. obtain almost exclusive possession of the government of the cities, which, until this period, the nobility had mostly retained in their own hands. The corporations now taught them that, as they contributed not to the prosperity of the city by their industry, it did not become them to govern it. The nobility, so far as they continued in the city after this removal from jiovver, jire- served themselves in close connexion, and those who resided in the country formed confederacies against the power of the cities. Associations which, to the best men, appeared the only means of security from the disorders of the time, became so universal, that, almost every where, pereons ofthe same trade or profession were close- ly united, and had certain laws and regula- tions among themselves. Knowledge it- self, in the univereities, was obliged to do homage to this spirit, and the liberal arts themselves, in the latter part of the middle ages, were fettered by the restraints of corpo- rations (see Master-singers), so that knowl- edge as well as arts was prevented from attaining that perfection which the secure life of the city seemed to promise them; for nothing more impedes their progress than that pedantiy, those prescriptive and compulsory rules,that idolatrous veneration for old institutions, which are insejiarable from such associations. So also the most remarkable institution of that time, its char- acteristic production—chivalry—exhibit- ed all the peculiarities ofthe corporations. War was the profession of the nobles. No one of their order, who was not a knight, could bear a lance or command cavalry; and the services of years, as an attendant or squire, were necessary to entitle even one of the highest order to be dubbed a knight. But squire, knight and baron were all inspired with the same spirit of honor, pride, love and devotion. The religious zeal of the middle ages produced actions almost inconceivable to the cooler spirit of our time. We see hundreds of youths and maidens, in the flower of their age, shutting themselves up in gloomy walls, or retiring to wild deserts, antl spending their lives in prayer and penance; we yearly see thousands, barefoot and fasting, travelling many hun- dred miles, over sea and land, to pray at the grave of their Master; we see hundreds of thousands thronging thither, from age to age, with the cross and sword, at the risk of life, to deliver the Holy Land from the pollution of infidels. This enthusias- tic spirit was peculiarly suitable to soften the ferocity of the age; but ambitious men artfully turned it to their own selfish jiurposes. Intolerance, the destruction of the Jews and heretics, the luxurious splen- dor of die papal court, and the all-embrac- ing system of the hierarchy, were the unhappy fruits of this mistaken spirit. In opposition to the secular power, resting on the feudal system, and supported only by armies of vassals, the pope formed, from the archbishojis, bishojis and jiriests, still more from the generals of religious orders, provincials, abbots and monks, an immense army, invincible through its power over the conscience, and through the spiritual weap- ons which belonged to it and to its head. From the general belief in bis jiossession ofthe power to make happy and unhappy in both worlds, to bind and loose for eter- nity, the pope ruled, with absolute sway, the minds of Christians. All the kings of the West acknowledged him as the living vicegerent of Christ. Many were vassals to him; many tributary; almost all obe- dient and subject to him, or, in a short time, victims of a vain resistance. At the time in which little idea was entertained of restraining princes by constitutional laws, and when the spirit of the times allowed them to dare whatever they could do, it was an inestimable advantage that the jiope aided the people for centu- ries in opposition to their usurpations; but the luxury, cruelty, ambition, and hostility to the diffusion of knowledge, which per- vaded the clergy, from the pojie down to the lowest mendicant friar, has left a deep stain upon these times. In vain did men like Arnold of Brescia and the Waldenses, Wickliffe, Huss, and their followers, en- deavor to overthrow the hierarchy by reminding the people ofthe simplicity and purity of the primitive church. They found their contemporaries, accustomed to the supremacy of the church, not yet ripe for freedom of mind, and inattentive to their remonstrances; and their noble en- deavors, in a great measure, failed. The hierarchy was able to erect new bul- r MIDDLE AGES. 469 warks against new enemies; mendicant ordere and the inquisition were instituted to prevent the dawning light of the thir- teenth century from entering the kiugdom of darkness; excommunications and in- terdicts held Christendom in terror; till at length, when the signs of the times, the diffusion of a free spirit of investigation, the establishment of a more rational order in monarchies, and the cooling of religious enthusiasm, announced that the middle ages were drawing to a close, Luther proclaimed tiiat Europe would no longer be held in leading-strings. The ages of whicli we have been speaking, so full of battles and adventures, of pride and dar- ing, of devotion and love, must have been poetic times. The knights were particu- larly disposed to poetic views by lives spent between battle and love, festive pomp and religious exercises. Hence we see poets first appearing among the knights in the twelfth century. In south- ern France, where chivalry was firet established, we see the first sparks of mod- ern poetry. The Provencal Troubadours, who principally sung at the court of Be- rengarius of Toulouse, are the founders of it. Soon after them, the French Trou- veres (minitriers) and the German Minne- singers sang in their mother tongue ; the Italians at first, from mistrust of their vul- gar tongue, in the Provencal; and the English, from the same cause, in the French language. But the minstrels soon formed, among the latter also, a na- tional poetry; and the Italians, at a later jieriod, after the great Dante brought the Tuscan dialect into honor, obtained, by the improvement of it, a high poetic fame. In Spain, the Catalonian jioetiy was the same as the Provencal, but the Castilian and Portuguese borrowed more from the Arabians. With lyric poetry the epic was also develojied in great beauty and power. Its mystic tone, its indefinite longing for something more elevated than the reali- ties of earth, entitle us to distinguish this epic from the ancient, by the name of romantic. (See Romantic.) The romantic epics ofthe middle ages are mostly confined to three cycles of stories. Italy remained a stranger to these, but her great Dante was worth them all, and stood high above them, though the tone of love and devo- tion whicli predominates in his poem, sjirung from the character of the times. The first of these cycles of stories is the tru- ly German Niudungen, and the stories of Siegfried, AttUa, Dietrich of Berne, Olnil, Hugdietritch and Wolfdidrich, and other heroes of the time of the general migration vol. v in. 40 ofthe nations, which belong to it. Next to these stories stand the equally old tales of the British king Arthur, his Round Table, and the Sangraal, which, in accordance with old British or Cymric fables, were sung in France, and afterwards by German minstrels, and to which Titurel, Parzival, Tristan, Iwain, Lohengrin, Gawain, Dan- id of Blumenthal, the Enchanter Merlin, and othere belong. To these two was added a third, originally French, collection of stories, of Charlemagne and his Peers, of Roland, the Enchanter Malegys, and the Four Sons of Haymon. The romance of Amadis de Gaul belongs peculiarly to the Spanish, and to neither of these three collections. (See Chivalry.) Besides these subjects, the poetic ajipetite of the middle ages seized upon the historic events of ancient and modem times, par- ticularly the deeds of Alexander the Great, and the crusades, likewise upon Scripture histoiy, and even upon the subjects of the ancient epics of Homer and Virgil, for new poetical works. But whether from political causes, or, as we believe, from the downfall of chivalry, and from an in- creasing sjiirit of reflection, the last cen- turies of the middle ages were highly unfavorable to poetry. The voice of the minstrel was almost entirely silent in Ger- many, France and Spain, even in the four- teenth centuiy ; but Italy had now its Pe- trarch and Boccaccio,andEngland itsChau- cer. In the thirteenth centuiy, there was not a stoiy in the cycles above-mentioned, whicli was not eagerly sung by many poets; and more than 1400 love songs, by 136 poets of this century, are contained in the Manesse collection alone (see Manesse); but hardly a single poet ajipeared among the knights, after the fourteenth century. The epic poems of former times gave place to prose romances, in which tbeir stories were diluted, and the lyric poetry, in France and Germany, fell into the rude hands of the Master-singers (q. v.), who, by a studied observance of rules, preserved its formal existence. So did it continue till the fifteenth century, which, attentive only to the great events that were in jirejiaration, and the struggles which jireceded them, and actuated by the spirit of reflection from whicli they proceeded, was far removed from that free flow of feeling which had given birth to the poetry ofthe past time. It was not till the end of the middle ages, when the early spirit of poetry lived only in remem- brance, that Ariosto took the stories of Charlemagne's jiecrs from the nursery, and gave them new dignity. Sjiain and 470 MIDDLE AGES. England received a new national poetry from Cervantes and Shakspeare. But how great is die difference between these creative geniuses, complete masters of their subjects, who poured forth their whole souls in their poetry, so that one knows not which most to admire, the feeling which insjiires, the fancy which adorns, or the understanding which regu- lates them, and whose humorous (often ironical) tone proclaims them the off- spring of modern times, and those simple poets of the middle ages, who took the world as it was, and were rather the or- gans of the spirit of poetry in the people, than independent poets! Among the arts of die middle ages, architecture was dis- tinguished by its peculiar character. /In the noblest buildings of antiquity, the form of the firet rude dwelling-houses is not to be mistaken; they appear only as the ornamented forms of abodes which ne- cessity created, and can only be called fine buildings; but the Gothic architec* ture of the middle age was founded on a deep and great conception. This concep- tion, which appeare in the union of the grandeur of great masses with the most finished delicacy of parts, was the repre- sentation of the world. The other arts, which, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, came from Greece into the Western world, attained their greatest splendor, in the middle ages, upon the Lower Rhine and in Italy. (See German Painting, and Italian Art.) The weak side of the middle ages is the scientific The youthful spirit ofthe timo, bent upon action, could not devote itself to a seden- tary life and continued study. The efforts of Charlemagne, to encourage science and instruct the jieople, hardly jiroduced any effect beyond'his life ; for they were not in the spirit of the time. Several centuries after him, die German tribes considered no knowledge of use, but that of managing the lance and the steed. The barbarism was so great, that most of the laity, even the most distinguished, could scarcely read or write. He who was instructed in these, was considered a distinguished scholar, and he who obtained more knowl- edge, particularly in mathematics or natu- ral science, exposed himself to the danger of being burnt as a sorcerer. But the monks, by their retired situation, and the leisure which they enjoyed, as well as by the necessity of some knowledge of the Latin language, which the Roman Catho- lic ritual required, were driven to a more literary employment, to which they were educated, in the schools of the cathedrals and convents. But their literary labors were confined to the copying of the old writers, particularly the fathers of the church, and to accounts of the occur- rences of the times in meagre chronicles. Nevertheless we are indebted to them. Through their activity the valuable re- mains of ancient times, materials and in- citements to new improvements, have been, in a great measure, preserved to us; and from their annals we gather our only knowledge of the events and mannere of that time. Moreover the Latin literature, which was common to all the people of the West, not merely in the affairs of the church, but in science and juiblic transac- tions, jiroduced a certain agreement in their general character, which contributed much to promote intercourse and improve- ment. The East has no middle age, like that of Europe ; yet the introduction of Mohammedanism and the Arabic lite- rature, make epochs there. But as the sjiirit of man is hostile to a partial devel- ojiement, in the eleventh century the need of thinking was again felt in Europe; the taste for knowledge awoke, here and there, jiartly by means of the monasteries, but afterwards through the arts and industry which prevailed in the cities; study was encouraged by Henry II of England, the Hohenstaufen, St. Louis, the Alphonsos and other intellectual [irinces. From these times (the periods of Lanfranc, Abelard, John of Salisbury, and othere), the middle ages jiroduced distinguished individuals, whom the coldness of their contempo- raries in the cause of science only urged to a more ardent pursuit of it Meantime the necessity was felt of defending the doctrines of the church against unbelief and heresy. This led to the sharjiening of the intellect by dialectics; hence the church dogmatics, or theology, was form- ed, from which philosophy at length pro- ceeded. As, in scholastic theology, the dogmas ofthe church were early received as authority; so, in the domain of laws, the Roman code soon obtained a complete ascendency ; and the jurisconsults of that time were never weary in studying it, learning it by heart, and explaining it by glossaries and illustrations. The students of philosojiby pursued the same course with the subtle Aristotle, for whom the middle ages, although acquainted with him only through Arabic translations, or rifacimentos, had an unbounded respect. Unfortunately, however, for the progress of jihilosojihy, these commeutaries, glosses and abridgments occasioned the neglect of the original. When the union of schol- MIDDLE AGES—MIDDLEBURG. 471 ars, in particular places, gave birth to universities, these received the stamji of the time, both in the corporate character whicli was given them, and the absorbing interest which was taken in the study of dialectics. Only jurisprudence, theology, and what was called philosophy (which was, in fact, the art of itisjiuting with sub- tilty upon eveiy subject), were taught; and these sciences, especially since the mid- dle of the twelfth century, had degenerated into a mere tinkling of scholastic sophistry. Medicine, as regards any useful purpose, was taught, at this time, only by some Arabs, and students* of Salenio who had been instructed by them; in other re- sjiects, it was a slave of astrology, and an object of speculation to ignorant impos- tors, principally of the Jewish nation. Philology flourished in the time of Lan- franc and Abelard, but was again forgot- ten in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Notwithstanding the unprofitable charac- ter of what was taught at this time, teach- ers stood in high esteem, and the highest academic rank was considered equal to knighthood. The univereities, on their side, showed themselves worthy such honor by their independence of pope and prince. With all its worthlessness, the disputa- tious spirit of the time had this good effect, that truths were advanced and maintained in the univereities, which were alarming to the vigilant hierarchy; and Luther's theses, in Wittenberg, contributed in no small degree to bring on the reformation, and thereby to the shedding of new light upon science. Yet the reforniation did not (as many are inclined to believe) give the first signal for higher intellectual en- deavors and freedom of thought; it was rather produced by this striving and this freedom, which had originated some cen- turies before, with the flight of the Greek scholars from Constantinojile, and the in- vention of the art of printing, had been encouraged by the lovers of science among the princes of Italy, and had shone forth, even in Germany, in the brotherhood of Deventer, in Wessel, Erasmus, Celtes, Reuchlin, and othere. But with the ap- pearance of these men, with the rise of the sun of the new day, the romantic twi- light ofthe middle ages faded away.—We shall now give briefly the chief ejiochs of the histoiy of the middle ages, leaving more copious details to the articles on particular countries and men. The for- mation of separate Germanic states suc- ceeded the general irruption ofthe barba- rians, and was followed, after some hun- dred yeare, by the universal monarchy of Charlemagne. This had only a short continuance; but it left the idea of the unity of the whole of Christendom under a sjiiritual head, and under tbe temjioral protection of the newly-revived Roman empire—an idea which had a powerful influence during the whole of the middle ages. New modifications ofthe European states after the fall of the Carlovingians: the devastations of new tribes of barba- rians ; of the Saracens in the south, of the Normans in the north and west, and the Hungarians in the east, all of whom, at length, became subject to the German- ic power. Colonies of the Normans in France, Italy and England. From these romantic adventurers especially proceeded the spirit of chivalry which made its way through all Europe. Christianity gained a footing among the Sclavonian tribes. Struggles between the spiritual and secu- lar power convulsed Christendom. The idea of their unity, as well as of knight- hood, is ennobled in the crusades, whose success these discords frustrated. Origin of the cities and of the third estate. Com- merce with the East, by means of Italy and the Hanse towns. Corruption of the clergy, at two epochs, after Charlemagne and after Gregory VII. Mendicant ordere, and the inquisition. Decline of the imperial dignity in Germany and Italy. Desola- tion of these countries by private warfare. Other kingdoms are now enabled to ob- tain more solidity. The flourishing of new arts and knowledge. Universities. The popes humbled by their dependence upon France and the great schism. Councils at Constance and Basle. Sub- jection of the Greek empire ; hence tbe formidableness of the Turkish power to the west of Europe ; and hence, also, the diffusion of learning by the fugitive schol- ars of Constantinople. Printing. The discovery of the New World, and of a way by sea to the East Indies. Reform- ation. (See Hallam's View ofthe State of Europe during the Middle Ages (3d edit., London, 1822); Berington's Literary His- tory ofthe Middle Ages, etc. (London, 1814); Sisniondi's Hist, des Ripubliques Italiennes (3d edit, Paris, 1825); Ruh's Handbuch der Geschichte des Mittelalters (Berlin, 1818); Rehm's Handbuch der Geschichte des Mit- telalters (Marb., 1821 seq., 2 vols.) Middleburg; capital of the province of Zealand, kingdom of Holland, situated in the centre ofthe island of Walcheren; lon. 3° 37' E.; lat. 51° 3C N.; population, 13,200. The town-house Was formcriy a rich and celebrated abbey, founded in the year 1256. It has six Calvinist churches, 472 MIDDLEBURG—MIDDLETON. and an athenaeum or academy, which affords nearly the same couree of instruc- tion as a university. The fortifications of Middleburg were formerly very strong, but are not now kept in rejiair. It preserves its circular mound of earth, divided into bas- tions, and surrounded by a broad and deep ditch. (See Netherlands.) Middlebury ; a post-town, and capital of Addison county, Vermont, on both sides of Otter creek; 32 miles south of Burlington, 32 north of Rutland, and 51 south-west of Montpelier; lon. 73° 107 W.; lat. 43° 5& N: population, in 1820, 2535 ; in 1830, 3468. It has extensive manufac- tures and considerable trade. It contains a court-house, two academies (one for males and one for females), a college, a printing-office (which issues a weekly newspaper), three churches, one for Con- gregationalists, one for Methodists, and one for Episcopalians. Tbe width ofthe river here is about 170 feet, and there are falls of 20 feet perpendicular, which afford water-power for many mills, &c. There are two cotton manufactories, a nail manufactory, and a marble manufactory. The marble here wrought is found with- in a few feet ofthe manufactory. It is of good quality, and in great abundance. The amount manufactured annually has been sold for about $8000. Besides these, there are various other manufactures in the village. Middlebury college was incor- porated in 1800. It is pleasantly situated, on ground elevated 342 feet above lake Champlain, and is a respectable and flour- ishing seminary. The funds of the col- lege are not large, having been formed solely from individual grants. There are two college buildings, one of wood, three stories high, containing a chapel and 20 rooms for students; the other, a spa- cious edifice of stone, 108 feet by 40, four stories high, containing 48 rooms for stu- dents. The college library contains (in 1831) 1846 volumes; the students'libra- ries, 2322. The number of students is 99; whole number that has been graduated, 509. The philosophical apparatus is toler- ably complete. The board of trustees, styled " the president and fellows of Mid- dlebury college," is not limited as to num- ber. The executive government is com- posed of a president, five professors, a lecturer on chemistry, and two tutors. The commencement is held on the third Wednesday in August There are two vacations; one from commencement, five weeks, the other from the first Wednes- day in January, eight weeks. Middleton, Conyers, a learned English divine antl polemical writer, was born at York, in 1683, and was the son of an Ejiiscopal clergyman. He became a stu- dent, and afterwards a fellow of Trinity college, Cambridge, in which situation he attracted some notice by his quarrel with the celebrated doctor Bentley (q. v.), the master of his college. In 1724, he visited Italy, and, on his return, published a tract, designed to show that the medical profes- sion was held in little esteem by the an- cient Romans; and, in 1729, appeared his Letter from Rome, on the conformity be- tween jiopery and paganism. Not long after, he obtained the Woodwardian pro- fessorship of mineralogy, which he held till 1734, when he was chosen librarian to the university. In 1735, he published a Dissertation concerning the Origin of Printing in England. His greatest literary undertaking was the History of the Life of M. T. Cicero (2 vols., 4to., 1741), in whicli he disjilays an intimate acquaint- ance with bis subject, accompanied with a degree of elegance in his style and lan- guage which entitle him to rank among the principal modern historians of Eng- land. In 1743, he published the Epistles of M. T. Cicero to Brutus, and of Brutus to Cicero, with the Latin Text and Eng- lish Notes, a prefatory Dissertation, &c. In 1747, doctor Middleton published his Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers which are supposed to have subsisted in the Christian Church from the earliest Ages through several suc- cessive Centuries. This treatise brought on the author the imputation of infidel- ity, and occasioned a warm controversy, which was continued after his death, in 1750. His miscellaneous works have been published in 2 vols., 4to., and 5 vols., 8vo. Middleton, Arthur, a distinguished patriot in the revolutionary war of the U. States of America, was of a highly re- spectable English lineage. His grandfa- ther Arthur was a man of high standing and great influence in the colony of South Carolina; and his father, Henry, was one of the presidents of the firet continental congress. The son was born in the year 1743, on the banks of the Ashley river, South Carolina. He was sent, at an early age, to England, to be there educated. He was firet placed at the well-known school of Harrow on the Hill, whence, at the age of fourteen, he was transferred to that of Westminster. In both, he made great proficiency in the Greek and Latin clas- sics. Having passed regularly through Westminster school, he was entered, be- MIDDLETON—MIDWIFERY. 473 tween the age of eighteen and nineteen, in Trinity college, Cambridge. He left this institution in bis twenty-second year, with the reputation of a sound scholar and mor- al man. After visiting many parts of Eng- land, he passed two years in making the tour of Europe. In 1773, he fixed his residence at his birth-place. In the fol- lowing year, he engaged wannly on the side of the colonies, in the disputes between them and the mother country. As a member of the firet council of safety chosen by the provincial congress of South Carolina, he advocated and sug- gested the most vigorous and decisive measures. After serving on the commit- tee to prepare and report a constitution for South Carolina, he was elected by the as- sembly one of the representatives of the state in the congress ofthe U. States, then convened at Philadelphia. In this capaci- ty, he signed the Declaration of Indepen- dence. He and Hancock formed a joint domestic establishment, and exercised a munificent hospitality, which was deemed salutary in uniting socially the members from the two extremities of the Union. Mr. Middleton held his seat until 1777, always strenuous in the cause of inde- pendence. The post of governor of South Carolina was offered to him in 1778, but he declined it because he could not ajiprove the new constitution which was that year framed for the state. In 1779, he distinguished himself in the de- fence of Charleston against the British, who afterwards ravaged his plantation and rifled his mansion. In the following year, be became their prisoner; in November, 1780, was sent to St. Augustine, and, in 1781, was included in a general exchange of prisoners, and sailed for Philadelphia. Soon after his airival in that city, he was ajijiointcd by the governor of South Caro- lina a representative in congress. In 1782, the general assembly of the state elected him to tbe same station. When the rev- olutionary contest terminated, Mr. Middle- ton returned to his native state. He af- terwards served in the legislature of South Carolina, for the jiurjiose of effecting a rec- onciliation of parties. The remainder of I lis life was spent in elegant and philo- sophical ease. Mr. Middleton incurred an immense loss of jiroperty by his course during the revolution. In November, 1786, he was seized with an intermittent fever, whicli caused his death Jan. 1, 1787. He has been justly described as "a model of private worth and public virtue; accomjilished in letters, in the sciences 40* and fine arts; a firm patriot, and enlight- ened philanthropist" Middletown ; a city, port of entry, and capital of Middlesex county, Connecticut, on the west bank of Connecticut river, 34 miles above its mouth; 15 miles south of Hartford, and 25 north-north-east of New Haven ; lon. 72° 54' W.; lat. 41° S57 i\.: population, in 1820, 2618, and, including the township, 6479; in 1830, including the township, 6892. The Indian name was Mattabeseek. It is a pleasant town, and has considerable trade and manufactures. It contains a court-house, a jail, two banks, add houses of public worship for Congre- gationalists, Baptists and Methodists. In 1816, Middletown. owned more shipping than any other town in Connecticut. Ves- sels belonging to Hartford, and other towns on the river, are registered here. The river is navigable to Middletown for vessels drawing ten feet of water. Two miles above the city, within the township, there is a village called Middletown Upper Houses, containing a post-office. Two miles from the city, there is a lead mine, which was wrought during the war. A col- lege has been established at Middletown, styled the Wesleyan University, which com- menced instruction in the month of Au- gust, 1831. Midiamtes ; an Arabian tribe, repre- sented, in the Old Testament, as the de- scendants of Midian, son of Abraham by Keturab (Gen. xxv, 2), and described as engaged at an early period in a commerce with Egyjit. They dwelt in the land of Moab (Arabia Petraea), to the south-east of Canaan. One jiortion of them inhabit- ed the country to the west of mount Sinai; another portion dwelt on the east of the Dead sea. The Midianitish women hav- ing entered the Jewish camp and seduced the Israelites, Moses was directed by the Lord to send 12,000 men into their coun- try, and cut off all the inhabitants, except the virgins. This order was executed, and the victors brought off a rich booty of 32,000 virgins, 675,000 sheep, 72,000 oxen, and 61,000 asses. Midwifery is the art of aiding and facil- itating childbirth, and of providing for the jireservation of the health and life of the mother during and after her delivery. It is founded on physiological and pathologi- cal science. Midwifery, in some form, has been employed from the most ancient times, even among the rudest nations, although it was at firet very defective, aud consist- ed, probably, only in tbe most obvious and indispensable manual applications and 474 MIDWIFERY. * aids. Even in the most cultivated nations of antiquity, this art was in a low state. The Israelites had their midwives. The first accounts of scientific male midwifery are to be found among the Greeks of the age of Hippocrates (who died 357 B. C). From the writings of that period, we learn that the obstetrical art had then reached a higher degree of cultivation among the Greeks than in most parts of Europe during the last century. Notwith- standing, there was much that was wrong and injudicious in their system, and only a small part ofthe proper means of assist- ance was made use of. They often con- tented themselves with invoking Ilithyia, the goddess of childbirth. Among the Romans, midwifery was confined to a few simple aids, and sacrificing to Juno Luci- na, and other deities who presided over childbirth. It was not till a later period, that the Roman women commonly em- ployed midwives; but, in difficult cases, the physicians were called in. These were either Greeks living in Rome, under the dominion of the Roman emperors, or they drew their knowledge chiefly from Greek authors. To this epoch belong jiarticularly Soranus (100 A. D.) and Moschion, who composed the first man- ual of midwifery which has come down to us. In the middle ages, the science was very much neglected: it was confined to the cutting ofthe foetus from the body of the mother, in case of her death before deli veiy. In consequence of the injudi- cious interference of the pojies, who con- ferred the professorships in the newly- established schools on the monks, and gave them the privilege of practising physic, while they strictly prohibited the practice of surgery and anatomy, both to the physicians and laity (1215), the obstet- ric art became more confined to internal and superstitious ajiplications, and, indeed, generally sunk into the hands of women, monks, peasants, and other ignorant per- sons. Wlien they had exhausted their medical skill, the saints were invoked, images and relics were hung upon the woman in labor, &c. The art continued in this state till the sixteenth century. At this time, the improvements in printing and engraving gradually introduced a bet- ter era, since the surviving works of the Greeks, Romans and Arabians were mul- tiplied, the intellectual intercourse among men became more genera], and the spirit of inquiry was awakened, and found a wider field. At this period, the business of midwifery was so exclusively iu the hands of women, that it was disgrace- ful for a man to engage in it. Such an undertaking was considered as an abomi- nable attempt on the virtue and honor of the female sex, and he who ventured upon it, as a magician. In Hamburg, in 1521, one Veites was condemned for this of- fence to the flames. Several books, how- ever, were jiublished for the better instruc- tion of midwives in their profession. The firet was byEucharius Roslein,at Worms, called the Rose- Garden for Midwives and pregnant Women (1513). The science of anatomy, which was now more freely studied and patronized, also contributed much to the improvement of midwifery, in which Vesalius, in Padua (1543), par- ticularly distinguished himself. The phy- sicians and surgeons turned their attention only to the theoretical part of the science, but the latter gradually proceeded to the practice of it, by performing the Caesarean operation on women who had died in childbirth (which was now not only j>cr- mitted, but commanded by law), and gradually undertaking other operations on women jiregnant and in labor. Francis Rousset, a surgeon in Paris, published a treatise, in 1581, in which he brought sev- eral proofs of the possibility of safely jier- forming the Cesarean operation on the living mother, and it was he who firet gave this operation its present name. After the jiublication of this treatise, the operation was frequently performed on the living subject, both in and out of France, and sometimes even when it was not unavoidably necessary. Pineau, a sur- geon in Paris, first suggested, in 1589, the section of the pubes, by the observations which he communicated on the separation whicli takes jilace between the bones ofthe pelvis, for the purpose of facilitating birth, when made difficult by the extreme nar- rowness ofthe pelvis. In Germany, mid- wifery long remained in an imperfect state: the midwives were generally ignorant, and men were seldom employed; while, in France and Italy, it was already a common thing to call in the aid of physicians and surgeons. A surgeon of Paris, Clement, distinguished in the jiracticeof midwifery, who had attended La Valiere, the mis- tress of Louis XIV, in her delivery, firet received the name of accoucheur as a title of honor. The surgeons were so well jileased with the name, that they gradually adojited it as a general appellation. Henry of Deventer, a surgeon of Holland, was the first who, in 1701, endeavored to es- tablish midwifery on scientific jirincijiles. MIDWIFERY—MIGNARD. 475 In France, where the art had risen to higher perfection than in other countries, a school for midwives was established in the Hold Dieu, in 1745. The history of the origin and invention of the forceps, that highly useful instrument in midwife- ry, is involved in some obscurity. Be- tween 1660 and 1670, Chamberlen, a Lon- don surgeon, professed to have invented an instrument with which he was able to terminate the most difficult labors without injuring either the mother or child; but he kept this discovery to himself, and, in 1688, went to Amsterdam, where he sold it to certain practitioners, who turned it to their profit. It was thus kept secret among certain jiereons for a long time. At last, Palfyn, a famous anatomist and surgeon of Ghent, in Flanders, got some knowledge of the instrument, and caused one to be made, 1723. Some sjiecies of forceps appear to have been known even in the time of Hippocrates; but the merit of Chamberlen's invention consisted in making tbe blades sejiarable, and capable of being locked together after having been introduced into the vagina, and placed one on each side of the head of the child. It was afterwards very much improved, es- pecially by Levret, in Paris, 1747, Plevier, in Amsterdam, 1750, and Smellie, in Lon- don, 1752. The art of midwifery was also perfected by the writings and in- structions of these men. Germany, too, produced several men of eminence in this department of the medical art, who were not only famous for their operative skill, but contributed much to the advancement of midwifery by their observations, and to the diffusion of correct principles on the subject by their lectures and writings. The establishment of several schools of midwifery also facilitated the study ofthe art, and brought it to the degree of perfec- tion which it now boasts. Those physi- cians of recent date, who have contributed most to this art in Germany, are the two Starks in Jena, Osiander in Gottingen, Siebold in Wurzburg, Wigand, Nagele, Boer, J org, &c. The couree now adopted seems to be the true one, viz. by the culti- vation of all the branches of knowledge connected with this department, to deter- mine the cases in which art may and ought to be passive, and leave the work to nature, and those in whicli nature is insuf- ficient to accomplish the delivery alone, or at least without injury to the mother or child. Mieris, Francis, a very, celebrated painter of'the Dutch school, was the son of a jeweller at Leyden, where he was born in 1635. He was the pupil of Vliet, Gerard Douw, and Van den Tempel, and he is generally considered as the princijial scholar ofthe second. His works consist of portraits, and scenes in common life. He possessed the1 delicate finish of Gerard Douw, with more taste in his designs; his coloring, too, is more clear, and his touch more spirited. He usually worked for a ducat an hour; but, through his intemper- ance, he always remained in jioverty. One of his finest jiroductions was a picture of a young lady fainting, a physician at- tempting to recover her, and an old wo- man standing by; and for this 3000 florins were vaiuly offered by the grand-duke of Tuscany. Mieris died at Leyden, in 1681. —He had two sons,—John, the elder, who gave great promise of excellence, but died in 1690, at Rome: the younger, WUV m Mieris, was the pupil of his father, i 1 adopted his style, in which he show 1 great talent. He died in 1741.—His soi ^ Francis Mieris, the younger, was also u painter, but was not very successful. He published several works relating to the history of the Low Countries, and the lives of their sovereigns. Mignard, Pierre ; a French painter, born at Troyes, in 1610. His father, dis- covering early indications of his talent for painting, placed him, when eleven years old, at Bourges, in the school of Jean Boucher; and the young artist next stud- ied the works of Primaticcio, Rosso and Nicolo dell' Abbate, in Fontaihebleau. He afterwards became a pupil ofthe cele- brated Vouet, and, in 1636, went to Rome. where he formed himself by the study of the masterpieces of Raphael and Titian. His historical paintings and .portraits, among which were those of Urban VIII and Alexander VII, soon gained him rep- utation ; and he also painted a great num- ber of portraits in Venice. In 1658, Col- bert engaged him to return to France in the service of Louis XIV, and Mignard was placed at the head ofthe academy of St. Luke, and, after the death of Lebrun, with whom he was constantly at war, be- came chief painter to his majesty. At this time, he executed one of the greatest fresco paintings which France possesses —the dome of the Val-de-Grace. It rep- resents the region ofthe blest: in the cen- tre of a great number of saints, martyre prophets, &,c, is queen Anne (of Austria) presenting to God the model ofthe new church. He also adorned the palace of St. Cloud with numerous mythological jiaintings, executed several works at Ver- sailles, and jiainted portraits, &c. Besides 476 MIGNARD—MIGRATION OF ANIMALS. the posts already mentioned, the direction ofthe royal collections of art, ofthe acad- emy of jiainting, and ofthe Gobelin man- ufactory, was conferred on him. He con- tinued actively engaged in his art until his death, in 1695. In respect to inven- tion and composition, Mignard is not en- titled to rank among profound and origi- nal geniuses; jet the grace and loveliness which characterize his works, particularly bis Madonnas, the brilliancy and harmony of his coloring, and the ease of his pencil, atone for many defects. His talent for imitation of other mastere was remarkable; he deceived the ablest judges, and, among them, his rival Lebrun, by a Magdalene in the manner of Guido. Migration of Animals. The migra- tion of animals, that is, the travelling of a large number of the same species toward a certain place of destination, or in a cer- tain direction, is one of the most remark- able phenomena iu natural histoiy. Mi- gration takes place vv ith quadrupeds, fishes, birds and insects. As to the first, it does not appear that any of them migrate peri- odically and regularly, like many species of fish and birds, for which a sufficient reason may be found in the almost unin- terrupted passage which air and water permit, whilst the land offers many im- pediments to change of place. Yet some quadrujieds are suddenly seized by the desire of migration. The lemming rat, which is found in the northern parts of Europe, migrates at irregular periods, when a severe winter is apjiroaching, in incredible numbers, and always in a straight line, stopping not for rivers or lakes. Some other quadrupeds, also, occa- sionally move in large numbers, and for considerable distances; but these expedi- tions do not take place at regular jieriods, and seem to be owing to accidental causes. The buffaloes (properly bisons), in the western wilds of North America, and the wild horses, sometimes take long journeys in large bodies. Some fishes, also, remove into warmer situations during winter; thus the salmon leaves the rivers and shores, on the approach of winter, to seek the warmer waters of the deep sea. Other fish do the same. The cod-fish move, in great numbers, about the month of May, from the northern seas toward Newfoundland. The shoals of herrings, which periodically traverse the ocean, are innumerable. The same is the case with the mackerel, jiilchard, anchovy, &c. That insects migrate is well known, for instance, locusts (q. v.), ants (q. v.), &c, and move, with surprising obstinacy, in a given direction. The animals, however, with whose migrations man is most familiar, and which ajijiear to migrate most regu- larly, are some species of birds. The facts which are known relative to this point are very curious, and yet leave a vast field for interesting observation. Some birds regularly return, after a certain ab- sence, not only to the same country, but to the same spot where they built their nests before, or where they were bred. Many storks, which become half tame in Germany, have been marked, and found to return regularly to their old nests, built on a wheel, whicli the jieasants of that country, particularly in the north, place, for that purpose, on the comer of tbe roofs of their houses. The same is related of swallows, and other birds of jiassage. Other birds do not return to a particular country, but travel, according to circum- stances, from one to another. Among the former are some whicli remain in the countiy of their nativity only as long as is necessary to breed and bring up their young ; others are absent but for a very short time. The loriot remains but three months in the middle regions of Eurojie, whilst the lark is absent but for a very short time. Mr. Brehm, a German, has collected many interesting facts respecting tho birds of passage. Generally speaking, they are determined as to tbe jilace where they build their nests, by the means of subsistence which they find, as, for in- stance, the grosbeak, goldfinch, pigeons, cranes, landrails, several species of herons, woodcock, geese, ducks. In 1819, the fruit of the pine tree being scarce in the north of Eurojie, whilst it was very abun- dant in the central jiaits, large numbers of the crossbill, whicli chiefly lives upon this food, were found in the latter regions. The drought, in 1819, made the meadows around Altenburg, in Saxony, very dry, and no landrails (in general frequent there) were seen during that season. They had fled to the valley of the Rhine, where the drought had been less. The cold in the winter, also, has much influence on the migration of birds. The winter of 1821— 1822 was very mild in Middle Europe, whilst, in the north, it was unusually cold, in consequence of which many birds were seen in Germany which hardly ever quit the northern regions. Some birds of Bo- hemia went to Switzerland, and some birds arrived in France which never had been seen there before. The contrary took place during the following winter, when the mercury stood, in Germany, much lower than in Sweden. Hunters, MIGRATION OF ANIMALS. 477 and other people living much in the open air, know that certain birds do not mi- grate, except on the ajiproach of a severe winter. How are these birds led to mi- grate at such seasons ? The general and easy answer is, by instinct. But what is instinct ? Certainly we cannot mean, by this term, a constant direct interposition of Providence, which drives the birds away because a severe winter is coming on. Instinct, whatever it may be, must be guided by general laws. In what way, however, the birds are led to guard against the severity of the approaching season, whether by a peculiar sensibility to the causes from which its severity will pro- ceed, or in other ways, we know not. In the article Instinct, it has been maintained, that much of the conduct of animals ne- cessarily implies reflection. The vicissi- tudes ofthe atmosphere, on the arrival of the migrating time, have also a great in- fluence upon them. Most birds perform their migration during the night; some species, however, by day. Othere stop not, either by day or night. To the class which fly by day belong the birds of prey which obtain their food by day—the crow, pie, titmouse, wren, woodpecker, chaf- finch, goldfinch, lark, swallow, and some othere. Those which travel by night are the owl, blackbird, &c, and a great num- ber of aquatic birds. Those which stop not, day or night are, the heron, wagtail, yellow-hammer, plover, stork, crane, wild goose, swan. It is very remarkable, that individuals of those species which travel day and night, and which, by some cause, are prevented from migrating, remain, during all the time of the migration of their species, awake, and only occupy themselves with taking food. These birds like particularly to travel in bright moon-light. Many birds obtain their food on the wing. The swallows, traversing the sea, catch insects, and fishing birds catch fish, whilst they continue their jour- ney. If the titmouse, wren, woodpecker and jiie rest, for some time, on the branches of trees, tiiey soon resume their flight, after having fed. Those birds whicli habitually ahght on sjiots where tiiey find nourishment in abundance, never remain longer than two days in succession, if nothing ojiposes the continuance of tbeir flight. It is a curious fact, that, at these times, many birds utter cries such as they are never heard to make at any other time. Unless obligetl by fogs to keep near the ground, birds generally fly very high dur- ing their migration. Of all migrating birds the cranes are, perhaps, the most remarkable. They seem to be most en- dowed with foresight. They call each other by certain cries, several days before they depart, assemble, and make a great noise, as if consulting, after which they range themselves in two lines, forming an angle, at the vertex of whicli is the leader, who appeare to exercise authority and give orders, for instance, to form a circle in a tempest, or to be watchful if eagles approach, &c. ; he also gives the sign to descend and take food. If he is tired, he places himself at the end of the line, and the bird next behind him takes his place. They utter, during the night, more jiierc- ing cries than during the day, and it seems as if ordere and answers were given. Wild geese and ducks travel in a similar way. To enable birds to fly with ease, and to continue long on the wing, they must fly against the wind, in which respect flying is directly ojiposite to sail- ing. Sportsmen are well acquainted with this fact. If the wind is unfavorable for a time, the migration is retarded, yet never entirely given up, 01 ly the birds arrive much leaner, fatiguet by tbeir efforts. It is astonishing how tender birds, as the lin- get, for instance, set out from the extrem- ity of Norway, and brave a long jour- ney even over the ocean. The quails, who are heavy in their flight, wait on the shores of the Mediterranean, often a long time, for a favorable wind, of whicli they immediately avail themselves, halting on all die islands. If the wind suddenly changes, many are drowned in the sea. Certain birds, as the moor-hen, rail, &c, being unable to fly for any considerable distance, travel partly on foot. Some even (as the great auk, or penguin, diver and guil- lemot) migrate by water. Ornithologists have observed that, on the old continent, birds migrate in autumn to the south-west, and in spring toward the north-east; yet the courses of rivers and chains of moun- tains exercise considerable influence on the direction of their flight On the new continent, the points of direction are not the same. Cajitain Parry has satisfied himself that the biids of Greenland go to the south-east. Il is remarkable, also, that the young of certain sjiecies do not make the same journey as the old birds; they go more to the south, so that it is very com- mon to find, in the south of Europe, only the young birds of a certain species, whilst the older ones remain more to the north. In other species, the females go farther south. It was formerly believed that the birds of the tropical regions never migrate, and that they never pass the 478 MIGRATION OF ANIMALS—MIGUEL. line; but Humboldt has shown that this is not the case. He observed, moreover, that the migration there took place with the periodical rise of rivers. Miguel, Maria Evarist, king of Portu- gal, the fifth child and second son of John VI, king of Portugal and emjieror of Bra- zil (died 1826), and of Charlotte Joachime (died 183J), Infauta of Sjiain, daughter of Charles IV, was born Oct. 26, 1802. Doubts are said to have been entertained by bis father of the legitimacy of his birth ;* but he was the favorite of his mother, and brought up under her eye. Imbued with all her political and religious prejudices, the young prince was a zealous opjiouent of the constitutional jirinciples, which predominated in Portugal, after his return from Brazil (1821), whither the royal family had fled in 1807. (See Bra- zil, and Portugal.) He, therefore, engaged in a plot for a counter-revolution, and, in April, 1824, publicly declared against the constitutional systc :i. Several thousand of the troojis bad a, eady joined him, and the royal jiereou wa in the bands of the consjiiratore, when tl • French ambassador, Hyde de Neuville, having obtained access to the king at the head of the diplomatic corps, and received assurances that every thing had been done without his j)rivity,the designs ofthe cons|)iratore were frustrated. Don Migrtel threw himself at the feet of his father, who, for greater security, had taken refuge on board of an English ship lying in the Tagus, and now banished the prince and his mother from the kingdom. The former embarked for Nantes, whence he went through Strasburg, Carlsruhe, Stuttgard and Munich, to Vienna, where he resided several yeare. On the death of his father, Isabella Maria, his sister, was declared regent of the kingdom, in the absence of the rightful heir, dom Pedro, emperor of Brazil. (See Pedro.) The emperor disposed of the crown of Portugal (July 3, 1827), which, by the Brazilian constitution, he was incapable of wearing while on the imperial throne, in favor of his daughter dona Maria da Gloria (born April 4, 1819), giving, at the same time, a constitution to the kingdom, and jiroviding for the marriage of dom Miguel with the young queen, on condi- tion of his maintaining the new consti- tution. Miguel returned from Vienna through Paris and London, and arrived in Lisbon Feb. 26, 1828. He immediately assumed the administration ofthe govern- ment, and took the oath to the constitution. * Rumor named the French ambassador at the court of Lisbon as the father of the prince. But it was soon evident that his views remained unchanged; he had learned nothing and forgotten nothing during his exile. The oath was in bis eyes a mere ceremony; absolutism again became the order of the day; the ministry was changed to make room for instruments of his arbitrary designs ; the chamber of deputies was dissolved by a decree of March 13 ; the law of election changed by another of the 17th ; and the influence of the queen-mother was very visible. On the birth-day of the prince, Ajiril 21, disturbances took place at Lisbon, and the senate ofthe city petitioned Miguel to declare himself absolute king. Petitions to this effect were got up, and Miguel, ap- jiarently yielding to the instances of his subjects, issued a decree (May 3), convok- ing the cortes of Lamego, the ancient three estates ofthe kingdom, by whom he was declared king of Portugal and Al- garves. Some ojiposition was made by the constitutionalists in different parts of the kingdom, but their efforts were un- successful, and they were treated with the greatest cruelty. Meanwhile dona Ma- ria had sailed from Brazil; but, on arriv- ing at Gibraltar, it was determined that she shoukl not proceed to Lisbon un- der the existing circumstances. She was accordingly carried to London, whence she returned to Brazil, iu August, 1829, but again arrived in Eurojie, with her father, in the summer of 1831. Dom Miguel continued to jiursue his career of usurpation and despotism, while persecu- tion, confiscation or death was the lot of the patriots. In November, 1828, he was severely wounded by the oversetting of the carriage in which he was riding out with his sisters, but recovered after a long confinement. In March, 1829, his troojis took possession of the Azores, with the exception of Terceira, whicli was bravely defended by the ganison. In private life Miguel has shown himself an unfeel- ing tyrant; his elder sister, Isabella Maria, was thrown into prison, and he has even been accused of an attempt to poison both of his sisters, who, it is certain, were dan- gerously sick in the autumn of 1829. His barber, a favorite, whom he had createtl baron of Quelluz, suddenly disappeared about the same time. (For his recent his- tory, we refer to the articles Pedro, and Portugal.) The whole kingdom has been made a scene of terror, distrust and deso- lation. Its prisons are crowded with per- sons whose only crime is an attachment to constitutional principles. In 1830, the number of persons confined for what are MIGUEL—MILAN. 479 called political crimes, was 24,000, besides which nearly 20,000 Portuguese were con- cealed in the mountainsof their native coun- tiy or wandering in foreign countries. His outrages on French residents have lately led to a demand of satisfaction on the part of the French government. A Frencli fleet forced its way to Lisbon, and satisfaction has been given. A fleet of U. States' ships has also sailed for Lis- bon, to obtain satisfaction for injuries to American commerce. Milan, Duchy of, or the Milanese; formerly a duchy in the north of Italy ; one of the finest and most fruitful countries in Europe ; bounded on the west by Pied- mont and Montferrat, south by the Geno- ese territory, east by the territories of Par- ma, Mantua and Venice, and north by Switzerland. Its extent was 3820 square miles ; princijial productions corn, rice, wine, fruits and silk. The firet duke of Milan was Gian Galeazzo Visconti, who was named to that dignity by the emperor Wenceslaus, in 1395. The duchy was composed of a number of the most flour- ishing cities of Lombardy, in which the Visconti acquired the sovereignty, partly by means of fiefs, and partly through the favor of the citizens and the emperor. The male line of the Visconti became ex- tinct in 1447, and, although the rightful claim then fell to France, Francesco Sfor- za, the husband of a natural daughter of the last duke, obtained possession of Milan for himself and his family, and they held it until the end of the fifteenth centuiy. Lou- is XII and his successor, Francis I, then attemjiting to enforce their claims, the duchy was alternately in the hands of the French and the Sforzas. Francis I, by the peace of Madrid (1526), was oblig- ed to give up all his Italian possessions; and, the male line of the Sforzas having become extinct in 1535, Charles V granted the duchy to his son, Philip II of Spain; and it continued to be an ajijiendage to the Sjianish crown till the war of the Sjianish succession, in 1706, when it came into the possession of Austria. By the peace of Vienna (1735) and the conven- tion of Worms (1745), portions of it were ceded to the king of Sardinia, In 1796, the French occupied the countiy, and by the peace of Cainpo-Formio (1797), it was annexed to the Cisaljiine rejniblic. Al- though the Austrians and Russians anni- hilated this rejniblic in 1799, yet Bona- parte again became master of Italy by the battle of Marengo, changed tbe name into Italian rejiublic (1801), and into that of kingdom of Italy (1805), of whicli the duchy of Milan constituted an important part until the events of 1814. Austria then united Milan and Mantua with the Lom- bardo- Venetian kingdom, the western part of which, the government of Milan, con- tains 2,194,000 inhabitants, and 8437 square miles. Sardinia also recovered its former portion of the Milanese territory (3095 square miles), by the treaty of Paris, in 1814. (See Austria, Italy, Lombardy, and Sardinia.) Milan (Milano, in German MaUand, anciently Mediolanum); capital of the Lombardo-Veiietian kingdom, situated in a fertile and jileasant plain, on the left bank ofthe Olona, 140 leagues from Vi- enna, 110 from Rome, 160 from Paris; lat. 45° 28' N.; lon. 9° 11' E.; population, 129,000. It is one of the richest, most splendid and populous cities in Italy ; and, in spite of time and wars, has jireserved a great part of its magnificence. Of the antiquities the only remains are the ruins of the Therma;, which are usually called the colonne di S. Lorenzo. Milan is rich in architectural monuments of modern times, among which the celebrated cathedral is the most remarkable: the fbundation was laid in 1386, and, after St. Peter's, it is the largest church in Italy. It is built entirely of white marble, and its interior and exteri- or produce an indescribable effect The oldest architects, who worked upon it, adopted the later Gothic style ; but in the middle of the sixteenth century, Pellegri- no Tibaldi erected the front in a more an- cient style, and thus destroyed the unity ofthe whole. Napoleon almost complet- ed it at an immense exjiense. The emperor Francis apjiropriated 12,000 lire monthly, to finish it. While the exterior dazzles and astonishes the beholder by the pure brilliancy of the marble, the Gothic orna- ments and the statues (of which there are 4000), he is not less strongly affected by the interior, which rests upon 52 mar- ble columns. It is described by Fran chetti in Descrizione storica del Duomo di Milano, with engravings. Rupp and Bra- inati also published a description in 1823, under the title Descrizione storico-critica del Duomo di Milano. One of the oldest churches in Milan, tiiat of St. Ambrose, into which you descend by several steps, is remarkable for a number of antiquities, but is dark, and without beauty. Of the numerous other churches, many are splen- did. The former Dominican convent, Ma- donna delle Greizie, contains, in its refecto- ry, the celebrated fresco of Leonardo da Vinci, the Last Sttjijier, now much injur- ed, but yet beautiful. The former Jesu 480 MILAN—MILITARY COLONIES OF RUSSIA. it's college of Brera, a magnificent build- ing, remarkable also for its observatory, still contains several establishments for die arts and sciences; among them a picture gallery and a library. The former is par- ticularly rich in works ofthe mastere ofthe Lombard and Bolognese schools; the latter is valuable. The Ambrosian library, found- ed by the cardinal Borromeo (who was bishop of Milan in 1595, and died in 1631) contains, besides the books, a treasure of valuable manuscrijits (among them, those of Leonardo da Vinci), paintings, sketches (Raphael's cartoons of the school of Ath- ens), antiques, and casts in plaster. The abbate Angelo Maio (q. v.), who was ap- pointed librarian in 1819, has made some important discoveries among these manu- scripts. (See Library.) The military geographical institute of Milan, founded in 1801, has published an atlas ofthe Adriat- ic sea and other charts. Among the char- itable institutions, the great hospital is the most remarkable, on account of its archi- tecture, magnitude, and the care paid to the patients (4000). The Lazaretto, a large quadrangular building, formerly used during the prevalence of tbe plague, has now a different destination. The theatre della Scala of Milan, is one of the largest in Italy, and, perhaps, in Europe. It was built by Piermarini, hi 1778, and is supe- rior to all others in its accommodations. The operas and ballets are here exhibited in a style not surpassed for brilliancy and completeness in Italy. Besides this, there are the theatres Re, Canobiana, Carcano, &c. MUan contains a great number of palaces, and other handsome buildings, but the streets are not in general broad or straight. The Corso (the Porta Orientate), with which the public gardens form a beautiful promenade, is particularly fine. The gardens are not so much frequented as the Corso, in which the fashionable world parades afoot and on horseback, but principally in rich equipages, every even- ing. The principal articles of commerce are corn, rice, silk and cheese. The num- ber of manufactories is considerable. The arts and sciences are held in high esteem, and the Milanese school of engraving is favorably known. The environs of the city are fertile ; two large canals are con- nected with the Ticino and the Adda, and the Alps of Switzerland are visible. Milesian Tales. (See Romance.) Mildew. (See Fungi.) Mile. (See Measures.) Miletus ; a city of Asia Minor, on the Meander, the Ionian Athens (see Ionia), and, next to Ephesus and Smyrna, the most celebrated and important commercial city of Ionia. It early acquired wealth and power, founded a great number of colonics, and carried on long and exjiensive wars with the Lydian kings. After the conquest of Lydia by Cyrus, Miletus, with the rest of Ionia, was also reduced to the Pereian dominion. The city was treated with clem- ency, and continued to enjoy its former prosperity, although often shaken by inter- nal dissensions, until the Ionian war, when it was razed to the ground (B. C. 494). The inhabitants rebuil: the town, but it never recovered its ancient importance. Mile- tus was the birth-place of Thales, of Anax- imander, ^Eschines, and the celebrated Aspasia. The Milesian woollen manufac- tures were famous in ancient times. Milford Haven ; a deep inlet of die sea, in Wales, county of Pembroke. Sev eral plans have been proposed, at different times, for imjiroving its accommodations. These plans have given rise to the new town of Milford, or Milford Haven; a town which was founded in 1790, on the northern shore, and has risen with great rapidity. The houses are built with neatness, and even elegance. It has a church with a lofty tower, a custom-house, a plain but com- modious building, and a dock-yard, which forms a principal feature in the plan. A line of packets has been formed here, under excellent regulations, for convey- ing the mail and passengers to Water- ford, in Ireland. An establishment has been also formed for the southern whale- fishery. There is also an extensive estab- lishment of quarantine* Six miles west by north of Pembroke. Miliary Fever ; a name given to fe- vers of every description, when accompa- nietl by an eruption of miliary vesicles, so called from resembling millet seed. Military Colonies of Russia. The Russian military colonies differ much from those of Alexander of Macedon and of the ancient Romans, and also from the Military Frontiers of the Austrian empire, and the distributed troops of Sweden. Russia has endeavored, by the settlement of entire regiments in particular districts, under a peculiar military, civil and police government, to unite the character of crown peasants and paid soldiers, whereby agriculture, population and civilization may be advanced, and the standing army of the empire increased without burden- ing the revenue. Count Araktschejeff, who rose by merit from a low rank in the army to that of general of artillery, is the author of this system, and for a time MILITARY COLONIES OF RUSSIA. 481 directed its execution. When the emperor Alexander, at the termination ofthe wars with Napoleon, desired plans for diminish- ing the great expense of a standing army, Araktschejeff advised him to quarter the soldiers among the crown peasants, to build military villages on a given plan, to allow to each house a certain number of acres of land, and to devise a code of laws for the goveniment of this institution. The soldier was thus to become a peas- ant of the crown, and the crown peasant a soldier, and both were to be made to contribute to dieir own support by the cultivation of the soil, and the whole male population of the colonies was to be drilled in the military exercises, and be kept as a reserve for field-duty. On ac- count ofthe vast extent ofthe empire, the recntits hitherto levied had often been totally separated from their homes; they joined their regiments, and, after 25 yeare of service on the frontiers of Turkey, Persia, Poland, Norway and China, for- got that they had families and a country. It was therefore considered desirable that the whole military force of the Russians along the boundaries of Poland, Turkey, and the vicinity of Caucasus, should be collected into military colonies, by which not only the jiopulation and cultiva- tion of the country should be promoted, and the families of the soldiers in actual service be provided for, but also the sol- diers themselves in times of peace, and in the midst of their wives and children, and around their own firesides, should acquire an attachment to their country. Such colonies were firet established in the gov- ernment of Novogorod ; the soldiers were placed in certain villages, which were the property ofthe crown; the peasants were gradually brought under military govern- ment, obliged to wear their hair short, and to shave their beards, and were also drill- ed in military exercises, so that, in case of the death, absence on service, or sickness of the quartered soldier, the peasant could immediately take his place. Some disor- ders, the consequence of this project, were soon suppressed, and the whole system graduelly developed. According to this system, the name, age, property and fami- ly of each inhabitant of the selected vil- lages are specified; the older jieasants are declared the chief colonists, and houses built for them, in regular rows constituting streets. Each chief colonist is equipped in uniform, trained to military exercises, and receives a house with 15 desatiius of land, on condition of maintaining one sol- dier (and his horse, if cavalry is colonized). vol. vm. 41 The soldier quartered on him is called the agricultural soldier, and assists him in the tillage of the fields and in domestic la- bors. He also selects one of his family as an assistant, commonly the eldest son, who, after the death of his father, with the approbation ofthe colonel ofthe regiment, inherits his real estate. The second son, or some other relation, comes into the " reserve," and also dwells in the house ; the third is also made an agricultural sol- dier; the others are cantonists, &c. A family is divided into three classes. The boys, until they are eight years of age, are allowed to remain with their parents; they are then sent to the military schools, where they are habituated to strict disci- pline : at die age of 13 yeare, they become cantonists, and at the same time are edu- cated as peasants and soldiers, and at 17 yeare, they form a part of the military colony, whicli is governed by a peculiar code. Each colony has its own court of justice, at which the highest officer pre- sides, and the rest follow according to rank. No girl is permitted to marry any one but a soldier. No person is allowed to enter the military district without a special pass from the military authority. The duties connected with the post- houses are also committed to the care of the soldiers. After 20 or 25 years' service, the agricultural soldier may renounce his double duty as a soldier and a farmer, or declare himself an invalid. His place is then filled by one of the reserve. Thus bad Russia, in 1824, already established a kind of military caste, and, as it were, a military zone, whicli extends from the Baltic to the Black sea, along the western frontier ofthe empire, in the governments of Novogorod, Cherson, Charkow and Ek- aterinoslaw, and constitutes the proper countiy of her standing army. In this belt of land, all the male children are bom soldiers ; in their 17th year, they are placed under the standards, constantly drilled in military exercises, and remain soldiers till they are 60 years of age. As soldiers, they cease to be boors. They are divided into regiments, companies, &c, for whose support a part ofthe crown- lands is set apart. From the produce of the lands granted them, the soldiers ofthe colony must sujijiort themselves and their horses, while not in active service; then they receive j>ay. It is calculated, that the number of these agricultural soldiers, when the system is fully carried into exe- cution, will amount to "3,000,000, half of whom can be drafted for service. The colonies already established, in 1824, con- 482 MILITARY COLONIES OF RUSSIA—MILITARY DISTRICT. tained about 400,000 male inhabitants, in- cluding 40,000 cavalry. In July of the same year, the emperor visited in pereon many of the colonies, and publicly ex- pressed his satisfaction with their condi- tion. As this system is extended, the con- scription and recruiting hitherto practised must gradually fall into disuse. The em- pire, on its only assailable side, is thus in a continual state of defence; this living rampart also compensates for the want of fortresses, of which there are none of much importance in Russia. General count Araktschejeff was, till the death of Alexander, the commander-in-chief of all the military colonies of the empire. In January, 1824, all the military cantonists ofthe military orphan schools (in whicli reading, writing and arithmetic are taught on the Lancastrian plan, and the soldiers' catechism explained), were made subordi- nate to the commander-in-chief of the mihtary colonies. Of the cantonists, a considerable number yearly enter the mil- itary service, in the place of those of the reserves, who have been drafted to supjily the numbers of the agricultural soldiers. The boys then succeed to the places va- cated by these cantonists, and so on. A military education is the peculiar sujiport of this system, which subjects the peasant to a military police. For the education and support of the boys and cantonists, the revenue obtained from the release of recruits is applied. By the ukase of Dec. 29, 1823, the possessore of landed projierty in the thinly settled governments were released from the duty of levying recruits, by the payment of a certain sum of money; 3500 of" these releases, at 2000 roubles pa- per money each, were issued, which pro- duce an income to the state of 7,000,000 of .roubles. The expenditures for the mil- itary colonies amounted, according to the report of the commander-in-chief, in the year 1822, to 4,962,475 roubles,and the total expenditure since their organization, to 1824, amounted in all to 15,780,115 rou- bles. Of the 6,000,000 of crown peasants, 4,000,000 are sufficient to furnish quarters to the whole army. Thus Russia, togeth- er with her present army of 8—900,000 men (according to the rolls, though not in actual service), would have one equally strong in her colonists, which can be recruited from the cantonists and the body of reserve, without interruption, and in the best manner. A very desjiotic authority will, however, be requisite to preserve a body of 2,000,000 of soldiers, who have houses and families, under military disci- pline and restrictions. This system, since the death of the emjieror Alexander, has beeu extended no farther, but, as far as it was already in existence, has been retain- ed, and was for a time under the direc- tion of general Diebitsch. Mr. Lyall, an Englishman, in 1822, visited the Russian military colonies, and gave an account of them in his Travels through Russia (Lon- don, 1824). Military District, or Military Frontier (in German, MUitairgrenze); a district of the Austrian monarchy, con- taining 18,230 square miles, with 99,000 inhabitants; which stretches 920 miles along the Hungarian and Transylvanian frontiers, as far as they border on the Turk- ish territory. It has a military constitution, and the inhabitants are soldiers and peas- ants at the same time. They have re- ceived the hereditary use of the land, for which they are obliged to render certain services to the government, amongst which the military service is the most important They form thus an uninter- rujited cordon against the Turks, and the Austrian government has an army always ready without great exjiense. The sol- diers actually in service belonging to this district amount, in peace, to 45,000 men. In 1815, they amounted to 62,000 men. These frontier soldiers protect their coun- try against the Turks and the plague, without pay. When they are marched against enemies in a different quarter, they have the common pay of other sol- diers. In the 30 years' war, in the Aus- trian war of succession, and in the seven years' war, their services were impor- tant; and still more so in the repeated contests between Austria and Turkey. At the beginning of the French revolu- tionary war, no less than 100,000 of them appeared in the field. They have shown themselves undeviatingly faithful to their monarch. Their military officere exer- cise also the civil and judicial authority. The highest office is called the general- commando, under whom stand the com- mandos of the regiments. The whole country is divided into five generalships (generalate), which, in 1815, . contained three fortresses, eleven cities (or, as they are called, mUitary communities, whicli have their own magistrates), 24 market towns and staff quarters, and 1995 villages. In the generalship of Carlstadt and Wa- rasdin, the most important places are Karlobago, Zengh and Bellowar; in the generalship of Banat, Petrinia and Kos- tainicza ; in the Sclavonic generalship, or that of Peterwardein, Old • and New Gra- disca, Peterwardein, Carlowitz and Sem- MILITARY DISTRICT—MILITARY SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES. 483 lin ; to which also belong the Tschaikists; in the Hungarian Banat generalship, Pancsowa, Weisskirchen and Karansebeo. In the Transylvanian generalship there are no places particularly worthy of notice. Next to agriculture and the raising of cattle, the cultivation of wine and garden fruits is canied on extensively. Flax, hemp, tobacco, and many other important plants, are cultivated. The countiy is rich in valuable minerals. Mining, particular- ly in tbe present Banat and the Tran- sylvanian frontiers, was in a flourishing condition even in the time ofthe Romans; but these mines are, at present, little worked. Manufactures are in a low con- dition. The mechanics, as well as the merchants, live chiefly in the communities, so called. The inhabitants belong prin- cipally to four races. The most numerous are the Sclavonians; after these, the Wala- chians; then follow the Hungarians and Szekler; after these, the Germans. The majority belong to the Greek church ; the Roman Catholics, however, are almost equally numerous. There are also Greek Catholics, Calvinists, Lutherans, and Uni- tarians. In the time of the Romans, this countiy belonged partly to Illyria and Pan- nonia Savia,partly to the kingdom of Dacia, and shared the changes of those countries. Sigismund of Hungary laid the founda- tion of the military frontier when he founded the capitanat of Zengh. In the middle of the sixteenth century, the fron- tier seems to have been already divided into two chief districts. The Croatian frontier was the firet; the othere were established much later, when, by the peace of Carlowitz, Austria received from Turkey several provinces entirely un- peojiled. In no part of Hungary does the population increase so rajiidly; and yet the frontier has to furnish many troops in all the ware of Austria, and many young people, unable to obtain land for the sup- port of a family, emigrate into other parts of the monarchy. The Transylvanian frontier was established the latest (See Statislik der Militairgrenze des bstreich. Kaiserthums, by Ilietzinger, Vienna, 1822.) Military Geography. (See Military Sciences, and Geography.) Military Orders. (See Orders.) Military Roads are, 1. such roads as are destined chiefly to facilitate the move- ments of military bodies; for instance, some of the sujierb roads which Napo- leon constructed in Italy, to effect an easy military connexion with France; 2. roads on which, according to treaty, foreign troops may march to a certain place of destination, in traversing the states of a friendly jiower. Military Schools and Academies ; schools in which soldiers receive instruc- tion, or in which youths are educated for the army. Among the fonner are the soldier-schools, in which, as is the case in many armies, particularly in the Prussian, the private soldiers learn reading,' writing and arithmetic ; they are also, in the last named country at least, often instructed in singing, so that it is common, in the Prussian army, for a battalion to have its choir, which sings during divine ser- vice, and on other occasions. Instruction has become so general in the Prussian army, by means of regimental and battal- ion schools, that during the last yeare of peace, the army was considered an insti- tution for the instruction of the whole countiy, as every Prussian is obliged to serve for a short time in the standing ar- my. In some annies conversazioni have been introduced, in which the officers hold discourse with die sergeants and privates, on subjects connected with the service. When the officere in the armies of the European continent were taken from the nobility only, academies were established by government to educate young noblemen. They were called in Germany Ritterakademien, and some- times were of a high character. These establishments must be distinguished from the cadet-houses, so called, where, gene- rally sjieaking, the children of officers only are educated for the "army. In many countries, noblemen only are admitted into these also. In several French cities, companies of cadets existed when Louis XV, in 1751, firet established an icole royale militaire for 500 young noblemen, from eight to eleven yeare old. The principal features of its organization have been retained in most similar institutions. —See Recueil d'Edits, Diclarations, Regle- mens et Ordonnances du Roi, concernant VHotel de I'Ecole roy. militaire (Paris, 1762). The (so called) Ritterakademien originated later. Frederic the Great estab- lished the icole militaire at Berlin, for the further accomplishment of young officere. Even before the seven years' war, every Frencli city in which a regiment of artil- lery was garrisoned, had its artillery school. Saxony followed in 1766, Aus- tria and Prussia later. At present, the two last have excellent artillery scbools, as well as others in the department of engineering. Since 1815, the standard of scientific education of officere has been much raised in several armies; in none, 484 MILITARY SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES—MILITARY SCIENCES. however, so high as in the Prussian, in which no person can be promoted with- out a severe examination. Besides the regimental schools in this army, mention- ed above, every division has its school, to which young sergeants, &c, are admitted (if they appear, on examination, to pos- sess the necessary elementary knowledge), in order to jirejiare themselves for exam- ination for a lieutenancy. Mathematics, histoiy, geography, statistics, the applied mathematics, modern languages, particu- larly French, and the military sciences (q. v.), are here the chief subjects of study. The artillery corps and engineer corps have their sejiarate schools for young officere, to prepare themselves for exam- ination for the rank of captain. The captain must continue his studies by him- self, to stand an examination for the rank of major. Ofthe troojis of the line, every regunent is allowed to send a few of its young officers, who must have shown great diligence, talent, and considerable acquirements, to the general military school in Berlin—an institution of a very high character. Here the highest branches of mathematics, geology and mineralogy, chemistry and natural philosophy, history, politics, the military sciences, languages, &c, are taught in a course which occupies three years. The officere also attend such lectures in the university as they choose. It is evident how much such establishments must raise the standard of learning in the whole army, and, indeed, the corps of officere contains some of the most accomplished men in Prussia. In France, the former cadet houses have been called, since the revolution, military schools. (For the military academy at West Point, see West Point.) Military Sciences have, by some of the latest writers, been divided into the following heads:—1. Tactics, i. e. the sci- ence ofthe drilling of an army, as well as of disposing and directing it in battle, re- quiring, of couree, an acquaintance with the different kinds of arms. The artiller- ist devotes himself particularly to the ord- nance, and the various branches of science requisite for its proper management. The lower, or elementary tactics, treats of the drilling and formation of soldiers, and accustoming them to the movements of small and large divisions, and varies in character with the different regulations of different armies. Tactics proper treats ofthe mode of disposing troops in the actual combat, and of the jieculiar use of each species of force, cavalry, infantry, both heavy and light, and artillery. With them is nearly connected the choice of camps, or castrametation (q.v.), though, since the introduction ofthe system of requisition, this branch of military science has gone almost entirely out of use. Tbe knowl- edge of the employment of pontons seems also to fall within this dejiartment. 2. Strategy, the science of forming the plans of ojieration, and of directing armies accordingly. It has been but lately treat- ed as an inde|iendent branch, since von Bulow wrote on the subject. Many milita- ry writers will not as yet admit such a division ; but little doubt can exist that it will be universally adopted. (See, among other works, Principles of Strate- gy, elucidated by the Description of the Campaign of 1796, in Germany, Wy the archduke Charles, q. v.) 3. The branch whicli treats of the just understanding and proper use ofthe surface of the earth for military jmrposes. The tactics of our time can overcome a number of obstacles, arising from tbe character of the ground, which were formerly considered insur- mountable ; still, however, this dejiart- ment of military science, embracing, as it does, a knowledge ofthe usual character of the ground under given circumstances, the couree of rivers, of mountains, valleys, geological formations, &c, remains indis- jiensable for a useful officer. To this branch belongs, or, at least, with it is inti- mately connected, reconnoitring, survey- ing, drawing of topographical maps, &c. 4. Military Architecture, or Fortification, which teaches how to fortify any given point by artificial means, so that a few pereons may be able to defend themselves against the attacks of many. It embraces the construction of proper fortresses (fortification permanente or royale), the attack and defence of fortified places, and the knowledge of field fortification (for- tification passagire), which treats of the construction, attack and defence of re- doubts in the field, raised for transitory purposes, and not so solid as in standing fortifications. 5. Military History and Biography, which embraces a knowledge of all important ware, and also of the va- rious organizations of armies, the princi- ples upon which war has been canied on, the different arms used, and the conse- quences attending their use, &c.; also the lives of the greatest generals, and the re- sources which they found in situations where many leaders would have despair- ed. The history of military literature, to a certain extent, is indispensable for a young officer, that he may be directed to the best works of the different nations. MILITARY SCIENCES—MILITIA. 485 Of the auxiliary sciences, the most im- portant is mathematics, which is indis- pensable for a scientific soldier; military geography, embracing a knowledge of" roads, rivers, valleys, &c, the law of nations, modern languages, and gymnas- tics. The branches of study now enu- merated are more or less essential to the well educated soldier; but they cannot make a general, any more than the study ofthe thorough base can make a Mozart, or the knowledge of perspective, anatomy and colore, a Raphael. Although it would be a useless waste of time to set about prov- ing that scientific study is essential to a commander, yet the greatest general must find the most important resources in his own genius; and this must act with un- failing promptness. An- artist, if unsuc- cessful, may renew his efforts; but in war, the fate of a battle may depend .upon an instant decision, and a failure is ruin. Militia (from the Latin mUitia); in the modern adaptation ofthe word, a body of armed citizens regularly trained, though not in constant service in time of peace, and thereby contradistinguished to stand- ing armies. It includes all classes of the citizens, with certain exceptions, who are drilled at particular periods in peace, and liable, according to certain laws, to inarch, in cases of emergency, against the enemy, in some countries, however, not beyond the frontiers. The regular organization of the militia distinguishes it from the levie-en-masse. (q. v.) The militia exists in different countries under different names; thus, in France, the national guards are what, in the U. States, are called mUitia (see Guards, National); in some countries, they are denominated burgher-guards; in Austria and Prussia, Landwehr (defence of the country), while the levie-en-masse is called, in these two countries, Landsturm. In the articles Army, and Army, Standing, is given a brief sketch of the different organization of armies from the feudal militia to tbe standing armies of the last century, and from them again to the citizen soldiers of later times. The reader will also find there the titles of several works whicli afford interesting information on this sub- ject In the article Feudal System, the or- igin ofthe armies in the middle ages was briefly touched on. When tbe feudal system had rendered almost every noble- man on the European continent an inde- pendent monarch in miniature, he kejit his own warriors in his castle or territory, and the difficulty of assembling a large general army, even for a good purpose, was im- mense. In the cities (q. v.) where a more republican spirit prevailed, all the citizens were obliged, at least, to take part in the defence of their city,—a duty which they were not seldom called upon to perform. The introduction of standing armies, chiefly in consequence ofthe endeavor of monarchs to render their governments more and more independent upon the na- tion at large, caused the citizens to take less and less share in the military service, and, in many cases, excluded them from it entirely; yet, while, in some countries, the services of the citizen soldiers were becoming every day of less importance, so that burgher-militia even became a term of contempt in many places, other gov- ernments began to foster the national militia. The Swedish army was, at an early period, a kind of general militia. The army consisted of twenty-one regiments, of whicli each owner of landed property was bound to maintain one man. They assembled every year for three weeks, and, during this time as well as in war, received full pay (as is now the case in Prussia). The Danish army was formed on a somewhat similar plan, about a third of each regiment consisting of enlisted for- eigners, while two thirds were Danish subjects, who, like those in Sweden, were supported by the owners of landed prop- erty, but, in return, were obliged to assist the latter in the cultivation of their estates. In Germany, similar jilans were adopted. The jirivates and non-commissioned offi- cers ofthe militia followed their agricul- tural or mechanical pursuits, and were generally under the command of officere out of active service. They were only obliged fo serve within the country. Frederic the Great used them to garrison the fortresses: the same was the case with the Austrian militia during the war of succession. The bad organization and unmilitary spirit of these troops rendered them the butt of the troops of the line. In some cases, it was even considered allow- able, by the laws of war, not to give them any quarter, when they were employed out ofthe limits of their countiy, and were taken prisonere. They became extinct almost every where on the European continent Similar, but better organized, was the English militia. The origin of this national force is generally traced back to Alfred. The feudal military tenures succeeded, and, although the personal ser- vice whicli this system requiretl degen- erated by degrees into pecuniary commu- tations, or aids, the defence of the king- dom was provided for by laws requiring 486 MILITIA. the general arming of the citizens. Un- der Edward III, it was provided that no man should be comjielled to go out ofthe kingdom at any rate, nor out of his shire, but in cases of urgent necessity, nor should provide soldiers, unless by consent of par- liament We firet find lord-lieutenants of counties, whose duty was to keep the counties in military order, mentioned as known officers in the fifth'year of Philip and Mary. When Charles I had, during his northern expeditions, issued commis- sions of lieutenancy, and exerted certain military powere, which, having been long exercised, were thought, by one party, to belong to the crown, it became a question, in the long parliament, how far the power over the militia did inherently reside in the king, which, after long agitation, ended by the two houses denying the crown this prerogative, and taking into their own hands the entire power ofthe militia. After the restoration, when the military tenures were abolished, the sole right ofthe crown to govern and command the militia was recognised. The most characteristic fea- tures of the English and Scottish militia at present are, that a number of jiereons in each county is drawn by lot, for five years (liable to be prolonged by the circum- stance of the militia being called out aud embodied), and officered by the lord-lieu- tenants and other principal land-owners, under a commission ofthe crown. They are not comjiellablc to leave their county, unless in case of invasion or actual rebel- lion within the realm, nor, in any case, to march out ofthe kingdom. When drawn ©ut, they are subject to military law. In all cases of actual invasion, or imminent danger thereof, and in all cases of rebel- lion or insurrection, the king may embody die militia, and direct them to be led into any jiart ofthe kingdom, having commu- nicated the occasion to parliament, if sit- ting, or, if not sitting, having declared it in council, and notified it by proclamation. In Tyrol, a general arming against the French was effected in 1799. When, in 1808, the arch-duke Charles was placed at the head of military affaire, a general Landwehr was organized throughout the Austrian provinces. In 1809, these troops fought well, and amounted, at that time, to 300,000 men; after 1811, only to 71,500; but, after 1813, the Landwehr was again placed on its old footing, and, quite lately, parts of it have been called out to increase the army, which stands ready to overrun Italy, In Hungary, the common law obliges every nobleman to serve himsalf and to bring his vassals into the field, if called upon. This levee is called an "insurrec- tion ofthe nobilitv." In 1809, this insur- rection consisted" of 17,000 horse and 21,000 foot. In 1807, a general militia was organized in Russia, which, in 1812, was of considerable service against tlie French. Prussia has carried the Land- wehr to greater perfection than any other countiy: in that country, the militia forms the main body of the anny. In 1813, every male pereon under forty-eight years of age was obliged to serve against the French in the militia. The national mi- litia, at that time, included both infantry and cavalry. 'H\e lower commissioned officere were elected by the militia-men, and die higher by the estates of each cir- cle. When Napoleon returned from Elba, Prussia had 150,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry of the militia under arms. After the peace of 1815, the Landwehr was es- tablished on its present footing. Every Prussian, with the single exception of mediatized jirinces, is obliged to serve for three years in the standing army, between his seventeenth and twenty-third year. Part of this time, however, he is generally on furlough. If a jierson equips himself and undergoes an examination, by whicli he proves that he has received a certain education, he has to serve one year only in the standing army. After this time, every Prussian belongs, until his thirtieth year, to the first class ofthe Landwehr,at- tends frequent drills on Sunday after- noons, and has to serve for three weeks every year, when the Landwehr is called together for great manoeuvres. Every man is in the Landwehr what he was in the standing army—foot-soldier, horse- man or artillerist. Government hires horses for the time of manoeuvring, and, as they are well fed and ridden by experi- enced men, the owners generally like to let out their horses for the occasion. Ev- ery Prussian, from his thirtieth year until his fortieth, belongs to the second class of militia. This is not called together in time of peace, and, in war, only in time of the greatest emergency, and then only for local or provincial service. Thus Prussia is enabled to assemble a very large army in proportion to its population, whether to the injury of the nation is a question not to be discussed here. In re- gard to the militia of the U. States it is provided, by act of congress of 1792, that all able-bodied, white male citizens, be- tween the ages of eighteen and forty-five, with certain exceptions (officers of gov- eniment, members of congress, mariners in service, &c. &c.) shall be enrolled in MILITIA. 487 the militia. The persons so enrolled are to provide themselves with the common arms of infantry, and with ball cartridges, &c, at their own expense. These are arranged into brigades, regiments, compa- nies, &c, as the legislatures ofthe several states may direct Each battalion is to have at least one company of grenadiers, light-infantry or riflemen, and each divis- ion at least one comjiany of artillery and one troop of horse. Proper ordnance and field artillery is to be provided by the gov- ernment of the U. States. The cavalry and artillery troojis are to consist of vol- unteers from the militia at large, not ex- ceeding one company to each regiment, and are to equip themselves, with the ex- ception ofthe ordnance above mentioned. Whenever the U. States shall be invaded, or in imminent danger of invasion from any foreign nation or Indian tribe, the president is authorized to call forth such number of the militia of the state or states most convenient to the scene of action as he may judge necessary. In case of any insurrection in any state against the state government, he may, on ajijilication from the legislature of such state (or from the executive, when the legislature cannot be convened) call forth such number of the militia of any other state or states as may be applied for, or as he may judge neces- saiy to suppress the insurrection. So, whenever the laws of the U. States are opposed in any state by combinations too powerful to be sujipressed by the ordinaiy couree of judicial proceedings, or by the powere vested in the marshals, the jiresi- dent may call forth the militia of such state, or any other state, to suppress them, and may continue the militia in service for thirty days after the commencement of the next session of congress. During the last war with Great Britain, it was pro- vided, by an act which expired with the war, that, when tbe militia were in pay of the U. States, and acting in conjunction with the regular troops of the U. States, they were to be governed by the rules and articles of war in like manner with the regular forces, and subject to be tried by courts martial, these courts martial, how- ever, to be composed of militia officere. It was also jirovided that the militia, when called into the service of the U. States, might, if the president of the U. States was of opinion that the public interest re- quired it, be comjielled to serve for a term not exceeding six months in any year. The sum of $200,000 is apiirojiri- ated annually for the purpose of providing arms and equipments for the whole body of the militia of the U. States, whicli are divided among the states and territories respectively, in proportion to the number of effective militia in each. In all the states, the governor is commander-in-chief of the militia, with more or fewer restric- tions. In Massachusetts, he has power to exercise, assemble and govern them, and to employ them to resist invasion or det- riment to the commonwealth, but cannot inarch them out of the limits of the state without their free consent, or the consent ofthe general court, except that he may transport them by land or water out ofthe state, for the defence of any part of the state to which access cannot otherwise conveniently be had. By the constitutions of many of the states, especially those which are of recent origin, the governor is not commander-in-chief of the militia, when they are in the actual sen ice of the U. States. This is to prevent collision between the general government and that of the separate states, such as took place between the government of Massachusetts and that of the U. States, during the last war with Great Britain. Such a provision exists in the constitutions of Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Delaware, South Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Missouri, Maine. In some of the states, the gov- ernor is not to command personally, ex- cept when so advised by the legislature. This is the case in Vermont, Maryland, Kentucky, Indiana, Louisiana. In North Carolina, the governor cannot embody the militia of his own authority for the jmblic safety, except in the recess of the general assembly. In some of the states, the or- ganization of the militia is not provided for by the constitution, but left to be set- tled by the legislature: this is the case in Pennsylvania, Louisiana, Mississippi, Illi- nois, Alabama. In most of the states, however, particular provision is made for the election or appointment of officere of different degrees. In Massachusetts, the captains and subalterns are elected by the written votes of their companies, the field officere of regiments by the written votes ofthe captains and subalterns of their re- spective regiments, the brigadiers by the field-officers of their respective brigades. The governor commissions these officers. The major-generals are appointed by the senate and house of representatives, each having a negative on the other, and are commissioned by the governor. If the clectore of brigadiere, field-officers and cajitains neglect to choose, the governor, with the advice ofthe council, fills vacan- 488 MILITIA—MILK. cies. In New Hampshire, the general and field-officers of the militia are nomi- nated by the governor and council. The captains and subalterns are nominated by the field-officers, and, if approved by the governor, appointed by him. The com- manding officers of regiments appoint their adjutants and quarter-masters, the brigadiere their brigade-majors, the major- generals their aids, the captains and subal- terns their non-commissioned officere. In Vermont, the militia companies elect their captains and other officers, and the cap- tains and subalterns nominate and recom- mend the field-officers, who appoint their staff-officers. The superior officers are appointed by the governor and council. The provisions of the New York consti- tution are much the same as those of Massachusetts. In New Jersey, the cap- tains and inferior officere are chosen by the companies, but field and general offi- cere by the council and assembly. In Maryland, the officere of the militia are appointed by the governor. In North Carolina, the senate and house of com- mons appoint the generals and field-offi- cers of the militia. In Georgia, the gen- eral officere of the militia are to be elected by the general assembly, and commission- ed by the govemor. The other officere are elected as the legislature may direct. In Kentucky, the commanding officere of the respective regiments appoint the regi- mental staff, brigadier-generals their brig- age-majore, major-generals their aids, and captains the non-commissioned officers of companies. A majority of the field-offi- cers and captains in each regiment nomi- nate the commissioned officere in each company, who are commissioned by the governor. Iu Tennessee, field-officers, captains, subalterns and non-commissioned officere are elected by the citizens sub- ject to inilitary duty in the districts of these officere, brigadier-generals by the field-offi- cers of their respective brigades, major- generals by thefield-officereof their resjiect- ive divisions. The governor appoints the adjutant-general, the major-generals ap- point their aids, the brigadier-generals tiieir brigade-majors, and the commanding officers of regiments their adjutants and quarter-masters. In Ohio, captains and subalterns are elected by their companies, majore by the captains and subalterns of the battalion, colonels by the majore, cap- tains aud subalterns ofthe regiment, brig- adier-generals by the commissioned offi- cers of their respective brigades; major- generals and quarter-master-generals are appointed by the joint ballot of both houses of the legislature. The governor appoints the adjutant-generals; the major- generals appoint their aids and other divis- ion officers, the brigadiere their majors, commandere of regiments their adjutants, quarter-masters, and other regimental staff-officers, and the captains and subal- terns the non-commissioned officere antl musicians. In Indiana, the elections are much as in Tennessee, except that briga- diere are chosen by all the commissioned officers of their respective brigades, and major-generals by the commissioned offi- cers of their respective divisions, x In Missouri, die constitution provides that field-officers and company-officers shall be elected by the pereons subject to mili- tary duty within their respective com- mands ; brigadier-generals by the field- officers of their respective brigades, and major-generals by the brigadiere and field- officers of their respective divisions, until otherwise directed by law. General and field-officers appoint their staff-officers. The governor appoints an adjutant-gener- al, and all other militia officere whose ap- pointments are not otherwise provided for. In Maine, the system is much as in the last-mentioned state, except that the ma- jor-generals are elected by the senate and house of rejircsentatives. The constitu- tions of some of the states exempt from militia duty, with more or less qualifica- tion, pereons conscientiously scrupulous about bearing arms. This is the case with those of Maine, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, In- diana, Missouri, Illinois, Alabama. (See MUitary Colonies, Military Dictricts, Army, and Army, Standing.) Milk; a secretion peculiar to the fe- males ofthe class mammalia, or those ani- mals which feed their young from their teats, and which takes place, in some of them, only during and after the time of gestation. It differs as procured from dif- ferent animals, but its general properties are the same in all. When this fluid is allowed to stand for some time, it under- goes spontaneous changes, and is resolved into its component parts: a thick yellow- ish substance collects on the surface, which is cream, and the milk beneath be- comes thinner than before, and is of a pale bluish color. When cream is kept lor some days without being disturiied, it gradually becomes thicker, till at last it acquires the consistence of cheese; and hence one method of making cream- cheese, merely by putting cream into a linen bag, and leaving it there till it be- comes solid. When cream is shaken, it MILK—MILL. 489 is resolved into its component parts. The process by which this is accomplished is called churning, by which two substances are obtained, butter and butter-mUk. In the making of butter, cream is allowed to stand for some time, during which an acid is generated. It is then put into a churn and shaken, by which the butter is gradu- ally sejiarated. What is left (the butter- milk) has a sour taste, but by no means so mucb so as that of the cream before the churning. Butter is sometimes also made from cream whicli has not become sour, but the process is much more tedious, the acid formed in the other case favoring its separation. Butter is merely an animal oil, solid at a natural heat, but held in solution in milk, by some of the other substances. As thus jirocured, it is not pure, but may in a great measure be freed from its impurities, by washing it with cold water; and though apt to become rancid, yet, when mixed with salt, may be kept any length of time. Milk from which butter has been taken, undergoes sponta- neous changes. It becomes much sourer, and congeals into a mass ofthe consistence of jelly. When heated, the fermentation of this coagulum is hastened, and by the addition of certain substances, it very soon takes place; thus acids and spirit of wine curdle it, which is owing to the albumen it contains being acted on by them, in the same way as blood or white of eggs. By for the most powerful coagulator, howev- er, is the substance called rennet, whicli is the decoction of the stomach of animals, as a calf. When the milk is previously heated, and rennet added, it is almost in- stantly coagulated. If after this it is cut, a thinnish fluid oozes from it, and if it be put into a bag and squeezed, the whole of this is forced out, and a wbitish, tough matter is left; the former is whey, the latter curd. On this depends the process of making cheese, whicli varies in rich- ness, according to the mode followed in prejiaring it. When milk is heated gradu- ally, and merely to the temperature at which it curdles, aud if the curd be freed gently from the whey, it retains almost the whole ofthe cream, which adds to its rich- ness and flavor. But when it is curdled quickly, and the whey is speedily removed by cutting the curd, a great deal, or nearly the whole of the cream is carried off, and the cheese is poor, and has not the rich flavor of that made in the other way. The latter is the method generally followed in Scotland, where both cheese and butter are got from milk; for the whey jirocured in the pro- cess yields a considerable quantity of the latter; and hence the comparative poorness of Scottish cheese. In making cheese, having obtained the curd, and freed it from its whey, the remaining jiart of the pro- cess is merely to subject it to pressure, by which the whole of the whey is forced out, the color being communicated by the addition of coloring matter: that generally used is annotta, which is mixed with the milk. Whey has a pleasant taste, and contains a considerable quantity of a sweetish substance, called sugar of milk ; hence it is frequently used as drink, and from its nutritious quality, it is adminis- tered to delicate people ; hence the use of asses' milk, which contains a large quan- tity of it. It is from its containing this saccharine matter, that it is sometimes, as in some of the northern counties of Scot- land, made to undergo fermentation, by which a veiy weak spirituous fluid is ob- tained. By evaporation it affords a minute quantity of saline matter and a considerable portion of sugar of milk. When whey or milk is exposed to a temperature between 60° and 80° it undergoes a spontaneous change, attended by the production of an acid, which was originally examined by Scheele, and has been termed lactic acid. Milky Way. (See Galaxy.) Mill ; originally, a machine, adapted to divide, crush, or pulverize any substance ; but more entensively applied, in modern times, to almost all machinery consisting of wheel-work, whether intended to change the form, or merely the position of the substance operated upon. The term as thus used is very indefinite, both in regard to the moving power and the application of the power or the pro- cess. Mills therefore take different names, from the jirocess, as stamping-mills, saw- mills, fulling-mills, grinding-mills, &c.; from the moving power, as wind-mills, water-mills, hand-mills, steam-mills, &c.; or from the material operated upon, as cotton-mills, flour-mills, sugar-mills, oil- mills, &c. This great variety in the na- ture and uses of mills renders it impossi- ble to give descriptions of them under one head. The general jirinciples ofthe ma- chinery and the moving jiowers will be found described under the heads Me- chanics, Hydraulics, Machinery, Pneumat- ics, Steam, Wheels, &c, and their jiarticular applications to different materials will be treated of under the approjiriate heads. One of the earliest and most universal applications of machinery of this kind is to the comminution of grain. Among the rudest nations we find this done by jiounding it between two stones ; but with 490 MILL—MILLENNIUM. the first advances of art, a simple hand- mill is constructed, composed of an im- movable nether-stone (Gr. /xvXr,) and an upper-stone (nbkos or bv0i), put in motion by the hand. These machines were used by the Hebrews and Greeks, and common- ly moved by slaves or criminals. Asses were afterwards employed. According to the Greek mythology Pilumnus, Myles, or Mylautes, invented the mill. Water- mills (mola aquaria) seem to have been used by the Romans. Wind mills (q. v.) were invented in the time of Augustus. Among the moderns the common mill for grinding grain is constructed with two circular stones placed horizontally. Buhr- stone is the best material of which mill- stones are made, but sienite and granite are frequendy used for Indian corn and rye. The lower stone is fixed, while the upper one revolves with considerable velocity, and is supported by an axis pass- ing through the lower stone, the distance between the two being capable of adjust- ment according to the fineness whicli it is intended to produce in the meal or flour. When the diameter is five feet, the stone may make about 90 revolutions in a min- ute without the flour becoming too much heated. The corn or grain is shaken out of a hopper by means of projections from the revolving axis, which give to its lower part, or feeder, a vibrating motion. The lower stone is slightly convex, and the upper one somewhat more concave, so that the corn, whicli enters at the middle of the stone, jiasses outward for a short distance before it begins to be ground. After being reduced to powder, it is dis- charged at tbe circumference, its escajie being favored by the centrifugal force, and by the convexity of the lower stone. The surface of the stones is cut into grooves, in order to make them act more readily and effectually on the corn; and these grooves are cut obliquely, that they may assist the escape of the meal by i browing it outward. The ojieration of bolting, by which the flour is separated from the bran, or coarser particles, is per- formed by a cylindrical sieve jilaced in an inclined position and turned by machine- ry. The fineness of flour is said to be greatest when the bran has not been too much subdivided, so that it may be more readily separated by bolting. This takes jilace when the grinding has been per- lbrtned more by the action of the particles upon each other, than by the grit of the stone. Fortius sort of grinding, the huhretone is peculiarly suited. The patent improvements of Evans consist of a series of machines calculated to save hand-labor, by performing every movement of the grain and meal from one part of the mill to another, or from one machine to anoth- er, by the force of the water.—For infor- mation on this subject, the reader may consult Evans's Millwright's Guide (6th edit Philadelphia, 1829), or Buchanan's Mill Work (London, 182;), 2 vols.). Milledgeville; a post-town, capital of Baldwin county, and metrojiolis of the state of Georgia, situated on the west bank ofthe Oconee, in lat. 33° & N.; lon. 83° 207 W. It is 87 miles south-west of Augusta. The public buildings are a state- house, a state arsenal, an academy, a court-house, a jail, four printing-offices, and houses of worship for Methodists, Baptists and Presbyterians. A branch of the state bank, and one ofthe Darien bank, are located here. Four weekly papere are published. The river here is 552 feet wide, 6 feet deep, and is navigable for boats of 70 tons. Above tbe town are rapids. About 8000 bags of cotton are annually deposited here, for the Darien and Savannah markets. The population of Milledgeville has not increased for several years. In 1824, it was estimated at 2000. The village of Macon, 34 miles south- west of Milledgeville, has become tbe principal scene of business fortius part of the state, and the political metropolis has ceased to be regarded with interest by new settlers. (See Sherwood's Gazetteer of Georgia.) Millennium (thousand years); gen- erally taken for the thousand yeare in which some Christian sects expected, and some still expect, the Messiah to found a kingdom on earth, full of splendor and happiness. This ojiinion originated from the expectations ofthe Jews, in regard to a Messiah. Excited and nourished by their prophets, endeared to them by their suf- ferings during and after the Babylonish captivity, and by the national pride, which their misery served to increase, those ex- pectations took a more and more decided- ly sensual turn in the time of Jesus, partic- ularly under the oppression ofthe Roman government. (See Messiah.) Jesus de- clared himself to be the expected Mes- siah, announcing his new religion as the fulfilment of the promises given by the prophets of the Old Testament Not- withstanding his exjiress declaration, that it was not his intention to establish a worldly kingdom, but a spiritual kingdom of truth and virtue, and notwithstanding the doctrine of his apostles, that a lasting happiness could only be expected in a MILLENNIUM. 491 better world, the new Christians could not refrain from expecting the glorious re- turn of Jesus, as described by the apostles, on earth, and from interpreting the ex- pressions of Jesus, which seem to favor such a hope, according to their wishes, bent on worldly happiness. These ex- pectations, entertained by the converts from Judaism to Christianity, were blended with the images of a golden age, which had been imbibed by the converts from paganism, who still cherished the fictions of heathen mythology. Besides, it was natural, that the situation of the first Chris- tians, groaning under the oppression of then; heathen mastere, should contribute to increase their desire for a new state of things. Chiliasm, or the expectation of the blessed millennium, became, there- fore, a universal belief among the Chris- tians of the firet centuries, which was strengthened by the prophecies contain- ed in Revelation (chap. xx. xxi.) of the signs which are to precede and indicate the happy times of the millennium. This belief was clothed in still more lively colore by the descriptions of such a state in some jiseudo-prophetical writings, forged towards the close of the firet, and the beginning of the second century, under the names of personages of the Old Testament and apostles (as the Testament of the twelve Patriarchs, the 4th book of Esra, the Revelation of Peter, &c), and in the Sibylline books of the Christians, the Ejiistle of Barnabas, the Pastor of the Pseudo-Hennas, aud in the Talmud. How eagerly such descrijitions were re- ceived, is shown by the unanimity with which the doctrine ofthe millennium was adojited and promulgated by the Christian teachers of the firet centuries. Not only the heretic Cerinthus, who had imbibed this doctrine from Judaism, but also ortho- dox teachers, as Papias of Hieropolis, Ire- nneus, Justin the Martyr, &c, delighted in the dreams ofthe glory and happiness of the millennium. Before it began, human misery, according to their opinion, was to rise to the highest degree ; then the over- throw of the Roman empire would fol- low, and from its ruins would proceed a new state of things, in which the faithful who had risen from the dead, with those still living, vvould enjoy ineffable happi- ness. At that blissful period, every ear would produce 10,000 grains, and every grain 10 jxiunds of wheat flour, every vine would yield millions on millions of measures of wine, the innocence of Para- dise would be united to eveiy intellectual and sensual pleasure, the victory of the faithful over the unbelievers be complete, and the blessed reside in the heavenly Je- rusalem, which would descend from heaven in extraordinary splendor and gran- deur, to receive them in its magnificent habitations. The Millenarians founded their belief on the Mosaic history of the creation. Considering this history as a prototype of the fate of the world, and concluding from Psalm xc, that 1000 years make with God one day, they beheld in the six days of creation, 6000 years of ter- restrial labors and sufferings, and in the seventh, the day of rest, a period of 1000 years, in which the reign of" Christ should be established.—The Gnostics, despising matter, were adversaries to the dogma of the millennium, and the more zealously it was defended by the Montanists (for in- stance, Tertullian), the more suspicious did it gradually become to the orthodox also. The philosophic school at Alexandria, particularly Origen, opposed it in the third centuiy by arguments, which were soon adojited by all the fathers. Lactantius was the last distinguished teacher of the primi- tive church who adhered to the idea of a millennium. When Christianity became the predominant religion of the Roman emjiire, the doctrine lost its interest for the multitude; victory, liberty and secu- rity, which the millennium was exjiected to bring, being now actually enjoyed by the Christians. The belief of the resur- rection of the body, however, which could not be dispensed with in the jileasures which the Millenarians promised them- selves, passed from them into the dogmas ofthe church, though the fathers of a later period sujiported it on different grounds from the Millenarians. Jerome and Au- gustine zealously ojiposed the gross ideas of the few enthusiasts, who, in the fifth centuiy, were still exjiecting this period. Since that time, the church has rejected the dogma of the millennium, together with other Jewish notions. The expecta- tion ofthe last day in A. D. 1000, gave it some weight for a short time only, and similar hopes excited by the cmsades were soon disappointed by the event At the time ofthe reformation, the doctrine of a mil- lennium was in some degree revived, by its ajiplication to tbe overthrow of the papal dominion. But it was only some sects of fanatics, such as the Anabaptists, and some mystical enthusiasts, in whom the seventeenth centuiy was rich, that adhered to these notions. During the religious and civil wars in France and England, the persecuted sought consolation in the dreams of a millennial kingdom: the rap- 492 MILLENNIUM—MILLET. tures of the Mystics and Quietists among the Catholics led to a similar result, and the most learned and zealous friends of Chiliasm rose among the Lutherans dur- ing and after the 30 years' war. The disciples of Weigel and the adherents to the religious principles of Petersen, went the farthest; yet even many moderate and sober theologians, misled by idle specula- tions on the prophetic books of the Bible, particularly on the book of Revelation, which, up to the middle of the eighteenth century, formed a favorite occupation among a certain class of divines, indulged themselves in the ideas of a millennium. As the philosophical vindication of this doctrine, which was attempted in England by Thomas Burnet and Winston, could not satisfy the orthodox Christians on ac- count ofthe scepticism of its authors, sev- eral apocalyptics, among whom Bengel (q. v.) formed a separate school, exhausted their efforts in endeavoring to calculate, at least, the time in which the kingdom of Christ should commence. Bengel is of opinion, that this period will begin in the year 1836, and last 2000 yeare. While his disciples were flattering themselves with very sensual descriptions of the kingdom of Christ, Lavater and Jung Stilling, who possessed more imagination, but even less coolness and learning, in- dulged similar visions and predictions, with which they entertained their ad- herents up to the nineteenth century. Of all the vagaries of a disordered fancy, the doctrine of a millennium is one of the most useless, and, at the same time, one of the most dangerous. Avereioii to all that exists, hatred of contemporaries, in- dolence and spiritual arrogance—these are its fruits; and the exercises of peni- tence, to which it leads, are nothing but the effects of terror, and without moral worth. Quite lately a sect (if this name can be given to the Mormonites) has sprung up in the U. States, believing, as far as we are informed, in the near apjiroach of the millennium, whose enjoyments are to be of a sensual and worldly character. Miller, Edward, M. D., au eminent physician and professor at New York, was born at Dover, in the state of Delaware, May 9,1760. In 1778, he undertook the study of medicine. He began practice in Delaware, but made himself advantage- ously known in other states, by a dis- quisition on the Origin of the Yellow Fever, one of the earliest and ablest pub- lications in support of the doctrine of do- mestic origin. In 1796, doctor Miller re- moved to the city of New York. Within a few weeks after, he formed, in concert with doctor S. Mitchill and doctor E. II. Smith, the jilan of a jieriodical work, to be devoted to medicine. The first num- ber was issued in 1797, under the title ofthe Medical ReposUory. No work of a similar kind had ajipeared in America. It excited medical inquiries, and recorded their re- sults. It occasioned the establishment of similar journals in other parts of the U. States. Doctor Miller lived to see its fif- teenth volume brought nearly to a close. In 1803, he was appointed resident phy- sician for the city of New York. He witnessed, as such, several pestilential seasons. The fruits of his observation and reflection he embodied in a Re- port on the Rise, Progress and Termina- tion of die Yellow Fever, to which a high degree of merit is ascribed. In 1807, be was elected professor of the jiractice of jihysic in the university of New York. In 1809, he became clinical lecturer in the New York hospital. Notwithstanding the laborious duties of those offices, and the calls of an extensive practice, he kept up an active correspondence with many dis- tinguished physicians and men of letters in the princijial parts of Europe antl America. Professional honors were con- ferred upon him from all quarters. He • died of typhus fever, March 17, 1812, in the 52d year of his age. His printed works have been collected and published in one large volume. Miller, Joseph, a witty actor, whose name has become jiroverbial in the Eng- lish language, was born in 1684, it is suji- posed in London, and was a favorite low comedian about the time that Congreve's comedies were fashionable, to the success of which, it is said, his humor much con- tributed. In these he performed Sir Jo- seph Wittol, in the Old Bachelor, and Ben, in Love for Love. Another of his favorite characters was Teague, in the Committee. He died in 1738. The jests which have immortalized his name, were collected by John Mottley, author of the life of Peter the Great, and other works. Joe Miller's Jests had run through eleven editions in 1751. A copy of the original edition was lately valued at ten guineas, in the catalogue of an eminent bookseller. Millet is a coarse, strong grass (holcus sorghum), bearing heads of a fine rountl seed, a little larger than mustard seed. The plant, although coarse, makes good food for horses and cattle, and the seed is equally good for them; it is excellent lot- fattening poultry, and is sometimes made into bread. It is also used for making MILLET—3IILNER. 49S puddings, for which purpose it is by some jireferred to rice. Milliard (French); one thousand mil- lions. Millin, Aubin Louis; jirofessor of an- tiquities at Paris, member of the academy of inscriptions and of the legion of honor, and, after the deafh of Barthelemy, conser- vateur of the imperial (royal) cabinet of medals and antiques. Millin was bom in Paris, in 1759, and at firet devoted himself to the study of natural history, but after- wards to that of philology, and finally to archaeology. In his earlier writings he aji- peared as a partisan of rejiublican princi- ples ; among these are his Almanac Re- publicain, and other works, which he did not include in the later catalogues of his publications. In the reign of Napoleon, he made two antiquarian excursions in France and Italy, where he discovered several remains which had been overlook- ed by the Italians. He was one of the most learned archaeologists that France has produced. He edited the Magazin Encyclopidique nearly 20 years. Among his principal works are his Didionnaire des Beaux Arts; Monuments Antiques in- idits; Galirie Mythologique; Peinture des Vases Antiques ; Voyage dans les Diparte- ments du Midi de la France ; Histoire Mi- tallique de la Revolution Francaise; Histoire Mitallique de I'Empereur Napoleon. His lectures, whicli were fashionably attended, contributed, with his works, to diffuse a taste for the study of antiquities in France. His services as conservateur of the cabi- net of antiques, of which he made a sys- tematic arrangement, also deserve to be remembered. He died in 1818. Millot, Claude Francois Xavier; a learned and ingenious French author, bom in 1726, at Besancon. He was educated at the Jesuits' college, and became a mem- ber of that fraternity, but quitted it, and settled at Parma, where the patronage of the duke de Nivernois obtained him the historical professorship. This situation he filled with much ability and reputation for some yeare, when the prince of Conde offering to his acceptance the appointment of tutor to the young duke d'Enghien, he returned to Paris. His works, some of which are much esteemed for the spirit and elegance of their style, consist of a Histoiy of the Troubadours (in 3 vols.); Memoirs, Political and Military, for the History of the Reigns of Louis XIV and Louis XV (6 vols.), Elements of Univer- sal History (9 vols.); Elements ofthe His- tory of England (3 vols.); Elements of the History of France (3 vols. 12mo.), be- vol. viii. 42 sides some academical pajiere, and a few translations from the Latin. His death took place in the French capital, in 1785. Mills, Charles, a lustorian, born at Greenwich, in 17e'8, was articled to an at- torney in London. Ill health and the at- tractions of literature prevented him from engaging in practice, and, in 1817, he pub- lished a History of Muhammedanism, which met with a favorable reception. He afterwards produced the History of the Crusades (1819) ; Travels of Theodore Ducas, at the Revival of Lettere and Arts in Italy (1821), and the History of Chival- ry (1825). He died October 9, 1826. Milner, John, a celebrated Catholic di- vine and writer on theology and ecclesi- astical antiquities, was bom in London, in 1752, and finished his studies at Douay. In 1777, he was ordained a priest, and, in 1779, appointed jiastor to the Catholic chapel at Winchester. Doctor Milner's study of ancient ecclesiastical architecture procured for him admission into the royal society of antiquaries in 1790. He con- tributed many valuable communications to the Archaologia, and published a Disser- tation on the modern Style of altering Cathedrals, as exemplified in the Cathedral of Salisbury (1798). The same year, he [lublished his Histoiy, Civil and Ecclesias- tical, and Survey of the Antiquities of Winchester (2 vols., 4to.), and subsequently a Treatise on the Ecclesiastical Architec- ture of England during the Middle Ages (8vo.). Some observations in the history of Winchester gave offence to doctor Sturges, a prebendary of the cathedral, who animadverted on them in a tract entitled Reflections on Pojiery. Doctor Milner replied to this attack in his Letters to a Prebendary, which display great learn- ing, ability anil acuteness. In 1801, he published his Case of Conscience solved, or the Catholic Claims jiroved to be com- patible with the Coronation Oath. On the death of bishop Stapleton, doctor Milner was appointed to succeed him as vicar apostolic in the midland district, with the title of bishop of Castabala. He for some time refused that dignity, but at length he was prevailed on to accept it, and was consecrated in 1803. In 1807 and 1808, he visited Ireland, that he might be enabled, from personal observation and intercourse, to form an opinion concerning the charges brought against the Roman Catholics of that countiy. As the result of his re- searches, he published his interesting In- quiry into certain vulgar Opinions con- cerning the Catholic Inhabitants and the Antiquities of Ireland. At this period, he 494 MILNER—MILTIADES. was appointed agent in England to the Irish Catholic hierarchy. His solicitude for the interests of religion in both coun- tries induced him to take a journey to Rome in 1814, and he remained there about 12 months. In 1818, he published a treatise entitled the End of Religious Con- troversy, containing a defence of those arti- cles ofthe Catholic faith usually regarded as objectionable by Protestants. This was succeeded by his Vindication of the End of Religious Controversy against the Ex- ceptions of the Bishop of St. David's and the reverend Richard Grier; and a Part- ing Word to Reverend R. Grier; with a Brief Notice of Doctor Samuel Parr's Post- humous Letter to Doctor Milner. His death took place in 1826. Milo ; an island in the Greek Archipel- ago ; the ancient Melos. (See Melos.) Milo, a native of Crotona, in Italy, was a scholar of Pythagoras, and one of the most celebrated Grecian athletes. He bore off the prize six times in the Olympic games. Of his jirodigious strength many instances are cited. When the temple in whicli Pythagoras was teaching his pupils was on the point of falling, Milo seized the main pillar, and delayed the destruction of the edifice until all present had escaped. He once carried a bull to the sacrifice on his shoulders, and killed it with a blow of his fist. His strength, however, was the cause of bis death. Seeing in a forest a strong trunk of a tree, which it had been in vain attempted to split with wedges, he determined to pull it asunder ; but his strength was insufficient The wedges which had kept the cleft open had drop- ped out, and he remained with his hands fastened in the fissure. No one coming to his assistance, he was devoured by wild beasts. According to the tradition of the Pythagoreans, Milo was pursued to his house in Crotona by Cylo, shut up, and burned. Miloradowitch, Michael Andree- witch, count of, a distinguished Russian officer, was born in 1770 ; served in 1787 against the Turks, in 1794 against the Poles ; rose rapidly; commanded, in 1799, the vanguard of Suwarrow's army in Italy, as major-general; fought, in 1805, as lieutenant-general in the battle of Aus- terlitz. In 1808, he fought victoriously against the Turks, and, in 1812, organized the firet corps de reserve, and led it to the main army before the battle of Mosaisk. He was of great service during this whole campaign against the French, as also in the succeeding war in 1813. He contrib- uted essentially to the victory of the allies at Culm (q. v.), commanding, under the grand-prince Constantine, a corps de re- serve, consisting of Prussiau grenadiers and cuirassiers, and the Russian and Prus- sian guards. In the battle of Leijisic, he was again active, and marched with the armies into France. After the peace, he wasappointed military commandant of St. Petersburg. In the insurrection of the troops, in 1825, at the ascension of the emperor Nicholas, he was killed by a pistol-shot. As an active commander of vanguards he had few equals. Miltiades ; an Athenian general, who lived about B. C. 500. He had already successfully established an Athenian colo- ny in the Chereonesus, and subjected sev- eral islands in the iEgean to the dominion of his countiy, when Darius, at the head of a formidable army, undertook the sub- jugation of Greece. Miltiades, Aristides and Themistocles animated the Atheni- ans, disheartened by thesujieriornumbere of the enemy, to resistance. Each of the 10 tribes jilaced 1000 men under the di- rection of a leader. This little army ad- vanced to the plains of Marathon (B. C. 490), where 1000 foot soldiers, sent by their allies the Plataeans, joined them. Miltiades was in favor of an attack; Aris- tides and some of the other generals sup- ported him; Others, on the contrary, wish- ed to wait for the auxiliaries from Lace- daemon. The general-in-chief (pole- march), Callimachus, however, concur- red with the proposal of Miltiades, and the attack was determinetl upon. The chief command, which belonged to all the generals alternately, was unanimously conferred on Miltiades, who nevertheless made no use of it, but waited for the day which regularly called him to the head of tbe army. He then drew up his troops at the foot of a mountain in a wooded plain, to impede the action of the enemy's cav- alry. The Plataeans occupied the left wing; Callimachus commanded the right, and Aristides and Themistocles the centre of the army. Miltiades himself was in every part where his jiresence was neces- sary. The Greeks began the attack at full speed ; the Persians defended them- selves with coolness, but with obstinacy, until, after a contest of several hours, both their wings gave way. In the cen- tre, Datis, the Persian general, with his best troops, pressed Aristides and Themis- tocles hard; but being attacked in the rear by the Greeks, he was compelled to fore- go his advantages. The rout was now general. Those who escajied the sword were obliged to flee to the waves ; of MILTIADES—MILTON. 495 these, many fell into the hands of the Greeks. The Persians lost 6400 men, the Athenians 192. Miltiades was himself wounded. Glorious as this victory was, it would have been fatal to Athens, had it not been for the activity of Miltiades. Datis determined to fall upon Athens in his retreat, and his fleet had already pass- ed cape Sunium, when Miltiades, receiv- ing information of it, immediately put his troops in motion, and arrived under the walls of the city in time to compel the enemy to return to the coast of Asia. Mil- tiades was then highly honored, but was soon both envied and persecuted. His enemies represented that he might easily be tempted to possess himself of absolute power. An unsuccessful enterprise, of which he was the projector, facilitated their success. He had desired that a fleet of 70 ships should be placed at his dispo- sal, and promised, by means of it, to put the Athenians in possession of great wealth and advantages. His design was probably to plunder some of the Pereian cities on the coasts, and to punish those islands of the JEgean sea which had tak- en part with the Persians; but he failed in his attack on Paros, and was compel- led to refund the exjienses of the expedi- tion, and died of his wounds in prison. Milton, John, one of the most emi- nent of English poets, sprang from an ancient family, formerly proprietors of Milton, near Thame, in Oxfordshire. His grandfather, who was under ranger of the forest of Shotover, being a zealous Roman Catholic, disinherited his son, the father of Milton, for becoming a Protest- ant, on which account he was obliged to quit his studies at Oxford, and settle in London as a scrivener. This gentleman, who was a good classical scholar, and re- markable for his skill in music, had two son-; and a daughter: John, the poet, Christopher, who became a judge in the court of commoH jileas, and Anne, who married Edward Phillips, secondary at the crown office. John Milton wTas born at his father's house in Bread-street, De- cember 9, 1608. He received his early education from a learned minister of the name of Young, and was afterwards placed at St. Paul's school, whence he was removed, in his seventeenth year, to Christ's college, • Cambridge, where he graduated M.A, and distinguished himself by the purity and elegance of his Latin versification. The original purpose of Milton was to enter the church; but his dislike to subscrijition and to oaths, whicli, in his opinion, required what he termed "an accommodating conscience," pre- vented the fulfilment of this intention. On leaving college, therefore, he repaired to his father's house, who, having retired from business, had taken a residence at Horton, in Buckinghamshire. Here he passed five years in a study of the best Greek and Roman authors, and in the composition of some of his finest miscel- laneous poems, including his Allegro and Penseroso, Comus and Lycidas. That his learning and talents had by this time attracted considerable attention, is proved by the production of Comus, at the so- licitation of the Bridgewater family, which was performed at Ludlow castle, in 1634, by some of its youthful mem- bers; as also by his Arcades, jiart of an entertainment, performed before the countess-dowager of Derby, in the same manner, at Harefield. In 1638, having obtained his father's consent to travel, he visited Paris, where he was introduced to Grotius, and thence proceeded successive ly to Florence, Rome, and Naples, in which latter capital he was kindly enter- tained by Manso, marquis of Villa, the patron of Tasso. His general reception in Italy was also highly complimentary, although he would not disguise his re- ligious opinions. After remaining abroad for fifteen months, he returned to Eng- land, giving up his intention of visiting Sicily and Greece, in consequence of ac- counts of the state of affaire of his own country. "I esteemed it dishonorable," he writes, " for me to be lingering abroad, even for the improvement of my mind, while my fellow-citizens were contend- ing for their liberty at home." He set- tled in the metropolis, and undertook the education of his two nephews, the sons of his sister, Mrs. Phillips. Other pa- rents being also induced by his high character to apply to him, he engaged a house and garden in Aldersgate-street, and opened an academy for education. However engrossed by tuition, he soon found time to mingle iu the controversial struggles of the day, and published four treatises relative to church government, which produced him antagonists in bish- op Hall and archbishop Usher. A fifth production followed, entitled Reasons of Church Government urged against Prelacy, in which he promises to under- take something, but yet he knew not what, which " might be of use and honor to his country;" a calm anticipation of great performance, which he amply re- deemed by his Paradise Lost. About this time, his father, who was disturbed 496 MILTON. in his residence by the king's troops, came to reside with bis son John, who, in 1643, united himself in marriage with Mary, daughter of Richard Povvel, Esq., a magistrate in Oxfordshire. In more than one respect, this was an unsuitable connexion; for the father of the lady being a zealous royalist, who practised the jovial hospitality of the country gen- tlemen of that party, the residence of her husband so disgusted the bride, that hi less than a month, under die pretence of a visit, she left him, and remained for the rest of the summer with her parents. His letters and messages for her to return home being treated with neglect, Milton at length became incensed, and regard- ing her conduct as a desertion of the marriage contract, he sought to punish it by repudiation. To this matrimonial disagreement is to be attributed his trea- tises, the Doctrine and Discijiline of Divorce; the Judgment of Martin Bucer concerning Divorce; and Te- trachordon, or Exposition upon the four chief Places in Scripture which treat of Marriage. The Presbyterian assembly of divines, then sitting at Westminster, alarmed at this reasoning, had the author called up before the house of lords, which, however, instituted no process. Convinced by his own arguments, Milton began to pay attention to a young lady—a step which alarmed the parents of his wife, who, having become obnoxious to the ruling powers, had need of the good offices of their son-in-law with his party. Thus disposed, they surprised him into an interview with Mrs. Milton, whom, on her expression of penitence, be not only received again with affection, but also took her parents and brothers, in the most generous manner, into his own house. He continued to employ his pen on public topics, and, in 1644, published his celebrated Tractate on Education. The Presbyterians, then in power, having continued the subsisting restraints upon the press, he also printed, in the same year, his Areopagitica, a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing,—a spirit- ed and energetic defence of a free press. In 1645, he published his juvenile poems, in Latin and English, including, for the first time, the Allegro and Penseroso. Milton's notions of the origin and end of government carried him to a full ajijiro- bation of the trial and execution of Charles I, which he sought to justify in a tract, entitled the Tenure of Kings and Magistrates. Even in the title-page he asserts the right to put " a tyrant or wicked king" to death on due conviction, "by any who possess the power," should the ordinary magistrates have no means to do so. He farther employed his pen iu the same cause by the composition of a History of England, of which, how- ever, he had only completed six books, when he was interrupted, by being nomi- nated Lathi secretary to the new council of state. He had scarcely accejited the appointment, when he was requested to answer the famous book, attributed to Charles I, entitled Ikon Basilike. This task he accomjilished in a work, which he called konoclastes, or the Image- breaker, which is considered by many writers as one of the ablest of his politi- cal tracts. His celebrated controversy with Salmasius soon after followed, which originated in the latter's defence of Charles I, and of monarchs, under the title of Defensio Regis, written at the instigation of the exiled Charles II, Milton entitled his reply, Defensio pro Populo Anglicano. It was published in 1651, and though tainted with party viru- lence and the discreditable personal acri- mony which distinguished the controver- sies of the times, exhibits a strain of fer- vid eloquence, which completely over- whelmed the great but inadequate pow- ers of his ojiponent He acquired by this production a high reputation both at home and abroad, and was visited on the occasion by all the foreign ambassadors then in London; he also received from the government a present of £1000. He, however, bought this triumph tlear, as an affection of the eyes, previously produc- ed by intense study, terminated, as his physicians jiredicted, in an irremediable gutta serena, owing to his exertions on this occasion. It is unnecessary to ob- serve how nobly and feelingly he has alluded to his blindness in more than one passage of his exalted poetry. His loss of sight did not, however, impede his facility of composition, and in 1652 he wrote a second Defence of the People of England, against an attack by Du Moulin, under the name of More, similar to that of Salmasius. In 1652, Milton lost his wife, who had borne him three daughters, and soon after married ano- ther, who died in childbed the same year. To divert his grief for this loss, he re- sumed his Histoiy of England, and also made some progress in a Latin dictiona- ry, and still composed much of the Latin correspondence of his office. On the death of Cromwell, he employed his pen with great alacrity to check the increasing MILTON. 497 feeling in favor of the restoration. On the restoration, .Milton took refuge for some time in the house of a friend. His Defences of the People and Icono- clastes were called in, and ordered to be burnt; but the author was reported to have absconded; and in the act of in- demnity which followed, his name form- ed no exception. He ajipears, however, to have been some time in the custody of the sergeant-at-arms, but was at length discharged, as it is said, owing to the friendly interposition of sir William Davenant, who had received similar kind offices from Milton, when endangered by his adherence to the royal cause. In reduced circumstances, and under the discountenance of power, he now re- moved to a private residence, near his former house in the city, and, bis infirmi- ty requiring female aid, was led, in his fifty-fourth year, to take, as a third wife, Elizabeth Minshull. He now resumed the poetical studies which he had for some years laid aside, and, left in repose to meditate upon the lofty ideas that filled his mind, produced his immortal Para- dise Lost, which was finished in 1665, and first printed in 1667, in a small 4to. The sum which he obtained for it was five pounds, with a contingency of fifteen dependent upon the sale of two more imjiressions, the cojiyright, however, re- maining his own. Paradise Lost long struggled with bad taste and political prejudices, before it took a secure place among the few productions of the hu- man mind which continually rise in esti- mation, and are unlimited by time or place. In 1670 appeared his Paradise Regained, which he is said to have pre- ferred to its predecessor. With Para- dise Regained, ajipeared the tragedy of Samson Agonistes, composed upon the ancient model, and abounding in moral and descriptive beauties, but ex- hibiting little pure dramatic talent, either in die developement of plot or delineation of character, and never intended for the stage. In 1672, he composed a system of logic, after the manner of Ramus; and the following year again entered the field of polemics, with a Treatise of True Religion, Heresy, Schism, Tolera- tion, and the best Means of Preventing the Growth of Popery. A publication of his familiar epistles, in Latin, and of some academical exercises, occupied the last year of his life, which repeated fits of the gout were now rapidly bringing to a close. He sank tranquilly under an exhaustion of the vital powers in No- 42* vember, 1674, when he had nearly com- pleted his sixty-sixth year. His remains, with a numerous and splendid attend- ance, were interred in the church of Crijiplegate, where the elder Samuel AVhitbread has erected a monument to his memory. Dr. Sprat, bishop of Roch- ester, as dean of Westminster, denied hiin a monument in the abbey, where, however, in 1737, one was erected to his memory by auditor Benson. Milton was distinguished in his youth for personal beauty; his habits of life were those of a student and philosopher, being strict- ly sober and temperate ; his chief relaxa- tions consisted of music and conversa- tion. His temper was serene and cheer- ful; and although warm and acrimo- nious in controversy, he appears to have indulged no private enmities, and to have been civil and urbane in the ordinary in- tercourse of society. Of the sublimity of the genius, and the depth and variety of the learning of Milton, there can be no difference of opinion ; and in respect to the first, his own countrymen, at least, will scarcely admit that he has ever been equalled. Had he never even written Paradise Lost, his Allegro, Pense- roso, and Comus, must have stamped him a poet in the most elevated sense of the word. In his prose writings his spirit and vigor are also striking, • and his style, although sometimes harsh and uncouth, is pregnant with energy and imagination. Moving in the ranks of party himself, no man's fame has been more rancorously attacked than that of Milton, by political animosity; but after all the deductions it has been able to make, as a man of genius he will ever rank among the chief glories of the Eng- lish nation. The best editions of the poetical works of Milton are those of Newton, Hawkins and Todd (6 vols., 8vo., with his life in one volume). His prose works have been published by Sym- monds, with an account of his life (7 vols., 8vo.) Thomas Warton published an edition of the minor poems with a valuable commentary. In 1825, an un- published work on the Christian Doc- trine was discovered among some state papers, and published in the original Latin, and in an English translation, by- Mr. Sumner, a royal chaplain. This publication led to a new discussion, not only of the theological tenets, but of the general merits of Milton, in the English and American periodical works of the time. The most celebrated treatises thus produced were the one in the Edinburgh ■198 MILTON—MINA. Review by Mr. Macaulay, and the one in the Christian Examiner (Boston) by the Rev. Dr. Channing. Mimes (wv, imitation). The Greeks gave this name to short plays, or theatri- cal exhibitions, the object of which was to represent some action of a simple na- ture. They consisted merely of detached scenes, generally of a comic character, and often of a dialogue composed extempora- neously ; they were commonly exhibited at feasts,but appear to have alsobeen occasion- ally represented on the stage. The mimes of Sophron of Syracuse were a kind of comic delineations of real life in rhythmical Doric prose, which Theocritus imitated in his Idyls. Among the Romans, the mimes were, at firet, irregular comedies, calculat- ed to amuse the people by their broad hu- mor ; they afterwards assumed a more ar- tificial form. The actore who performed them were also called mimes, and differed from the pantomimes (q.v.), who represent- ed every thing by action. Decimus Labe- rius (50 B. C.) and Publius Syrus, his con- temporary, were the principal mimogra- jihers, or authors of mimes. (See Ziegler, De Mimis Romanorum, Gottingen, 1789.) Mimic (See Pantomime.) Mimnermus ; the name of an ancient Greek poet and musician, known, accord- ing to Athenaeus, as the inventor of the jientameter measure in versification. Stra- bo assigns Colophon as the city of his birth, which took place about six centu- ries before the commencement of the Christian era. Horace speaks in the high- est terms of his love elegies, which he prefers to the writings of Callimachus, while Propertius places bim before Ho- mer in the expression of the softer pas- sions. Both he and his mistress, Nanno, are said to have been musicians by profes- sion, and to have been celebrated for their performance on the flute, especially, ac- cording to Plutarch, in a particular air, called Kradias, used at the Athenian sacri- fices. A few fragments only of his lyric poems have come down to posterity, as preserved by Stobaeus ; they are, howev- er, of a character which leads us to sup- pose that the high reputation he enjoyed was not unmerited. Nothing is known of the time or manner of his death. (See Schonemann's De Vita et Carm. Mim- nermi, Gottingen, 1824.) Mimosa. (See Sensitive Plant.) Mina, don Francisco Espoz y, one of the most distinguished of the Spanish pat- riots, is a native of Navarre, and was bom, in 1782, at a small village about two miles from Pampeluna. By some he has been represented as the son of a peasant, but he is, in fact, of a family of sonic con- sequence. During the war against the French, his nephew, don Xavier Minn, then a student at the university of Sara- gossa, raised a guerilla corps, with which he performed several spirited exploits. Xavier being taken juisoner, in March, 1810, the command of the corps was transferred to Francisco, who soon render- ed his name the terror of the French. Brave, active, indefatigable, full of re- sources, and possessed of admirable pres- ence of mind, he incessantly harassed and wore down the strength ofthe enemy,not only in Navarre, but in the neighboring provinces of Alava and Arragon. Such was the rapidity of his movements that nothing could escape him. The loss which the Frencli sustained in this kind of warfare was incalculable, while his was trifling, as the accuracy of the intelli- gence which he received prevented him from being ever surprised; and when he was far outnumbered, his troops disband- ed by signal, and reunited again in a few hours, and resumed offensive operations. It was in vain that, resolving to extermi- nate his division, the enemy poured 25,000 men into Navarre. He not only stood his ground, but eventually remained master ofthe province ; he was, in fact, often de- nominated the king of Navarre. In 1811, the regency gave hiin the rank of colonel; in 1812, that of brigadier-general, and soon after, that of general. His force, in 1813, consisted of 11,000 infantry and 2500 cav- alry, and with this he cooperated in the blockade of Pampeluna, and recovered Saragossa, Monzon, Tafalla, Jaca, and va- rious other places. When the peace was concluded, he was besieging St. Jean Pied de Port. After having put his division into quarters, he went to Madrid, and had the mortification to find that he had beeii laboring only for the reestablishment of despotism. Disgusted with the conduct of Ferdinand, and having fruitlessly re- monstrated with him, he endeavored to persuade the other Spanish generals in die capital to join with him and make an ef- fort in the cause of freedom; but his efforts were rendered abortive by the influence ofthe priesthood. Mina then hastened to Navarre, with the intention of putting himself at the head of his division ; but he found that the new cajitain-general had dismissed the troops which composed it He, however, gained over the garrison of Pamjieluna, and was on the point of pro- claiming the constitution, when his plan was frustrated by the pusillanimity of MINA—M IN AS GERAES. 499 some of the officers. He had now no re- source but to seek an asylum in France, and he reached Paris in safety. While he was residing in the Frencli capital, he was arrested by a commissary of police, whom the Spanish ambassador, count de Casa Flores, had pereuaded to commit this act of insolence and injustice. Louis turned the commissary out of his place, insisted on the ambassador being recalled, and not only released Mina, but granted him a pension of 6000 francs. The Spanish general was not ungrateful. He refused to have any intercourse whatever with Na- poleon, quitted France, and joined the king at Ghent, and returned with him to Paris. Till the army at Cadiz raised the standard of freedom, he continued to live very pri- vately in France; but as soon as that event took place, he hurried back to Navarre, collected a few hundred of his follow- ers, issued a jiroclamation calling on the rest to join him, and was advancing against Pampeluna, when a deputation was sent to him by the inhabitants to inform him that the city had accepted the constitution. After the king had submitted to the new order of things, Mina was appoiuted cap- tain-general of Navarre (1821). His tal- ents were soon required in the field. A few fanatics and lovers of despotism hav- ing succeeded in exciting a formidable in- surrection in Catalonia, Mina was intrust- ed with the command of the army des- tined to act against them. The rugged nature of the country in which he had to act, the weakness of his own army, and the strength of the rebels, rendered his ojierations seemingly tardy at the outset, and the ultra-royalists began to manifest the utmost confidence and exultation ; but they soon discovered that they had woful- ly miscalculated. Mina was too jirudent to commit any thing to chance, when a rejmlse might have been productive of dis- astrous consequences; but as soon as he had prejiared every thing for the conflict, he attacked the bands of the traitore with his wonted impetuosity, routed them in several encounters, and drove them, in the utmost confusion, over the Pyrenean fron- tier into the French province of Rousillon. This success gained him the rank of lieu- tenant-general in 1823. His humauityand prudence obtained him the general esteem, and he had already effected a levy against the French invasion, but was so feebly sujiported that he was convinced of the inutility of his efforts, and submitted to Moncey, October 17. He embarked for London, where he was received with ev- ery token of respect. Mina afterwards resided in England and France until 1-30, when, encouraged by the events of the summer of that year, he placed himself at the head of a body of exiles, and entered Spain. Dissensions among the patriots deprived Mina of the influence necessary to produce unity of action ; but, although most of the measures adopted were dis- approved of by him, he exerted himself with undiminished zeal, and rendered im- portant services. His policy was to throw himself into the mountains, and protract the struggle by maintaining a guerilla war- fare. The patriots, on the other hand, de- termined to come to action, in which they were defeated, and they were saved onlv by the skilful conduct of Mina from en- tire destruction. He arrived on the Frencli frontier in a state of complete des- titution. As he was the chief object of pursuit, he had encountered hardships and perils of the most appalling nature. On passing the frontier, Mina and the oth- er patriots were disarmed and conduct- ed into the interior. (See Spain.)— His nephew, don Xavier (born in 1789), was a student of theology in 1808, when he left his college, and became a guerilla chief. Having been made jirisoner by the French, he was sent to France, where he remained until 1814. After the unsuccess- ful attempt at Pampeluna, he fled with his uncle to France, and, in 1816, embarked for Mexico to join the insurgents against the mother countiy. Here he fell into the hands ofthe Spaniards, and was shot, No- vember 11,1817. Mina (pva), among the Greeks; a weight of a hundred drachmae (q. v.) ; also a piece of money valued at a hundred drachmae; 60 of them were equivalent to a talent. Minaret ; a round tower, generally sur- rounded with balconies, and erected near the mosques in Mohammedan countries, ■ from which the muezzin summons the people to prayer, and announces the hours, bells, as is well known, not being in use among the Mohammedans. (See Mosque.) Minas Geraes ; a province ofthe cen- tral part of Brazil, so called from the rich- ness and variety of its mines. It is be- tween 14° and 23° south latitude and 45° 20' and 52° 30' west longitude, to the south of the provinces of Pernambuco and Ba- hia. It is in general mountainous, with an agreeable and healthy climate, and a fertile soil, yielding a great variety of fruits, aro- matic plants, &c. Its mineral productions are gold, iron, lead, quicksilver, arsenic, bismuth, antimony, diamonds and other precious stones, salt, suljihur, &c. It con- 500 MINAS GERAES—MINE. tains a population of 514,500 inhabitants, of whom 131,000 are whites, 150,000 free mulattoes, 51,544 free blacks, and 182,000 slaves. Chief town, Villa-Rica. Mincio (Mincius); a considerable river of Italy, which flows from lake Garda, and, after forming the lake and marshes that surround Mantua, falls into the Po eight miles below the city. Its banks are re- markably fertile, and are celebrated by Virgil, who was a native of this countiy, for the beauty of their scenery. Mindanao, or Magindanao ; one ofthe Philippine islands, and next to Lucon in point of size, of a triangular, form, about 300 miles long and 105 broad, with many deep bays; discovered by the Spaniards who accompanied Magellan, in 1521. It lies south-east of Manilla, at tbe distance of 600 i.tiles. All the country, except up- on the sea-coast, is mountainous, yet it abounds in rice, and produces very nour- ishing roots. There aie infinite numbers ofthe palm-trees, called sago. (q. v.) This island likewise produces all sorts of fruits that are to be found in other islands of this archipelago, but the cinnamon-tree is pe- culiar to Mindanao, and grows on the mountains without cultivation. In the sea between this island and that of Xolo, very large pearls are taken. Lon. 122° to 126° 27' E.; lat 5° 407 to 9° 55' N. The popu- lation is about 1,000,000.—Mindanao, the jirincipal town and the residence of the sultan, is on the Pclangy, about six miles from its mouth; lon. 124° iff E.; lat 7° W N. The town properly called Mindanao contains only about 20 houses, but Selangan, ojiposite to it, makes with it but one town. (See PhUippines.) Minden ; a town of Prussia, in the prov- ince of Westphalia, government of Min- den, on the left bank of the Weser; lat. 52° 17' N.; lon. 8° 53' E. ; population, 8960. It is one of the oldest towns in Germany, and was formerly the see of a 1 lishopric, secularized in 1648. Its fortifi- cations have been repaired since 1814; the stone bridge over the Weser is 600 feet long by 24 wide. It lies partly on a jilain and partly on a mountainous ridge, in which is a singular opening, called Por- ta Westphalica, through which the Weser flows. Minden was twice captured by the French in the seven years' war (1757 and 1759), and a third time in 1814. The gov- ernment of Minden formed a part of the kingdom of Westphalia in 1807, and, in 1810, ofthe French department ofthe Up- per Ems. In 1814, it was restored to Prussia. Mindoro. (See Philippines.) 3Ii\e, in military language ; a subton-a- neous passage dug under the wall or ram- part of a fortification, or under any build- ing or other object, for the purjiose of blowing it up by gunpowder. The gun- powder is in a box, and the place where the powder is lodged is called the chamber (in Frenchj/ourneau). The passage leading to the powder is termed the gallery; the line drawn from the centre ofthe chamber perpendicularly to the nearest surface ofthe ground is called the line of least resistance. It has been found, by experience, that the figure produced by the explosion is a pa- raboloid, and that the centre of the pow- der, or charge, occupies the focus. The pit, or hole- made by springing the mine, is called the excavation. The fire is com- municated to the mines by a pipe, or hose, made of coarse cloth, whose tliameter is about 1£ inch, called a saucisson (for the filling of which near half a jioundof jiovv- der is allowed to every foot), extending from the chamber to the entrance of the gallery, to the end of which is fixed a match, that the miner who sets fire to it may have time to retire before it reaches the chamber. The saucisson is laid in a small trough, called an auget, to prevent it from contracting any dampness. This is made of boards. The mines of a for- tress are called countermines, the gallery of which runs under the covered way along the outer margin of the fosse. From this, ramifications, called rameaux, extend under the glacis, from which again little jiassages are made on both sides, to afford means for listening and finding out the en- emy's subterraneous movements. If tbe powder is lodged so deep under the ground that its explosion is not perceptible ou the surface, it yet shakes the ground all around, and destroys the hostile mines in the neigh- borhood. This is the globe de compression, invented by Belidor. The mining-war has many peculiarities. The miners are often armed with short weajions, as pistols and cutlasses, in order to defend them- selves, if they meet a hostile mine. The mines are often so long that it is necessary to convey fresh air by artificial means to the most advanced workmen, and those who faint are jiassed back from one to the other; the same is done with the dead, if a combat ensues below. Frequently, al- so, balls, made of all kinds of substances which produce an offensive smoke, are lighted, in order to stop the enemy, provid- ed the mine permits the party who leave the ball an easy retreat Sometimes mines are dug in the field, with a view of blow- ing up such of the enemy as can be allur- MINE. 501 ed to the spot. In such case, a small body of men must sometimes be placed there, in order to induce the enemy to attack them ; these are sacrificed with the enemy. Mine ; an excavation for obtaining min- erals from the bowels of the earth. The minerals are found in veins, strata, lumjis, and contain gold, silver, platina, quicksil- ver, lead, iron, copjier, tin, zinc, calamine, bismuth, cobalt, arsenic, manganese, anti- mony, inolybdena, and other metallic sub- stances ; also sulphur, brown-coal, jiit- coal, bitumen, alum, and all combinations of sulphuric acid with metallic bases. The mines are generally denominated from the substances obtained from them ; for in- stance, gold, silver, iron, lead, coal, alum, salt-mines, &c. We must distinguish, 1. the mines in primitive mountains; 2. those in flcetz mountains; 3. those in alluvions. Of the firet sort the most important are the following:—1. The mines in the Cor- dilleras, in Sjianish America. There are few regions so remarkable for their rich- ness in minerals as this chain of moun- tains. The most important mines are the silver mines ; yet there are also several gold, quicksilver, copper and lead mines. In Chile, especially in the province of Co- quiinbo, are several silver and some im- portant cojijier mines. The richness of the silver mines of Potosi (Buenos Ayres) may be judged of from the fact that over 1300 millions of dollars have been coined there since the year 1545; but tbe ores are now poor. Copper, lead and tin are also found in Buenos Ayres, the latter, howev- er, in beds of sand or clay, from which it is obtained by washing. On the opposite side of the chain, in a low plain, are the silver mines of Guantajaya, famous for the large lumps of solid silver, which they formerly furnished, and of which one weighed eight hundred pounds. In Peru, there are 40 districts particularly famous for their gold and silver mines. Gold is found especially in the provinces of Guai- las and Pataz, and silver in the districts of Guantajaya, Pasco and Chota. The mines of Pasco, which 25 years ago produced more than two millions of dollars yearly, had been, like most of those of South Amer- ica, very negligently managed, till, in 1816, miners from Cornwall began to work them by means of steam-engines. The mines of the province of Chota now furnish about 42,000 pounds troy of silver every year. The quicksilver mine of Guanca- velica, in Peru, is the only one of this kind in the new world. In the province of Gu- antajaya, rock-salt mines also are found. Nortli of the province of Chota, the Cor- dilleras are not so rich in metals. In New Grenada there are several silver mines; at Aroa, in Caraccas, a copper mine exists, whicli yields 1400—1600 cwt. of metal yearly, and at Santa Fe rock-salt and pit- coal are found. Although Mexico con- tains Various metals, very little except sil- ver has been obtained from that countiy Almost all the mines are situated in the Cordilleras, and consist of 3000 pits; which comprise 4—5000 beds, or layers, anil may be divided into eight large dis- tricts (reales), beginning from the south :— a. the district of Oaxaca, on the southern boundary of Mexico, which, besides the silver mines, contains the only gold mine of this state ; b. the district of Tasco, 50 —70 miles south-west from the city of Mexico ; c. the district of Biscania, about 50 miles north-east from the capital, con- tains the mines of Pachuco, Real del Monte, Moran, all very rich ; d. the district of Zimajian contains, besides many silver mines, beds of lead and arsenic; e. the district of Guanaxuato contains the rich- est mines of Mexico, and among othere those of Guanaxuato, Catorce, Zacatecas and Sombrerete. This district produces half of all the silver of 3Iexico. In the neighborhood of this district copper mines are also worked, yielding annually 4000 cwt There are also mines of tin and quicksilver, f. The district of New Ga- licia, where the rich mines of Bolanos are. g. The district of Durango and Sonora. h. The district of Chihuahua. Besides the mines contained in these districts, there are several othere in Mexico. The working of all the mines of Sjianish America has been very imperfectly car- ried on until the present times. Some years ago, several joint-stock companies were established in England and on the Rhine, for the purpose of conducting them better. Many of the companies suffered large losses. The produce of silver in Spanish America at the begin- ning of the present centuiy, according to A. von Humboldt, was 3,259,153 marcs, about 2,036,970 lbs. troy, of the nominal value of about 31,120,000 dollars. Of this sum, Mexico yielded 2,196,140 marcs; Pe- ru, 573,958 mares; Buenos Ayres, 463,098 marcs, and Chile 25,957 marcs. Gold is principally obtained in America by wash- ing. The principal gold-washings are on the western side of the Cordilleras; in New Grenada, from the province of Bar- bacoa to the isthmus of Panama; in Chile, and on the shores of the gulf of Califor- nia; or on the eastern side in the upper valleys of the Amazon. The washings of 502 MINE. New Grenada also furnish platina.—2. The mines of Hungary, including those of Transylvania, and of the Bannat of Temeswar, compose four great districts:— a. the north-western, which includes the mines of Schemnitz, Kremnitz, Koenigs- berg, Neusohl, ScbmcelnitZjBethler, Rose- nau, &c, which chiefly furnish gold, sil- ver, copjier, lead, &c ; b. the north-east- era, containing the mines of Nagybanya, Kapnick, Felscebanya, Wiszbanya, Ola- posbanya and Olapos, which all yield gold, besides the mines of Marmarosch, which furnish great quantities of iron; c. the eastern district, in which the mines of Nagyag, Korosbanya, Voereesjiatak, Boitza, Csertesch, Fatzbay, Almas, Porkura, Bot- schum and Stonischa deserve notice, which chiefly furnish gold and cojijier; near Vayda-Huniad and Gyalar are im- jxirtant iron mines; d. the south-western district, or the mines of the Bannat of Temeswar, yields silver and copper in Ora- vitza, Moldawa, Szaska and Dognaczka, while in Dombrawa and Ruchereberg,iron, quicksilver and cobalt are obtained. Hun- gary contains also mines of pit-coal and rock-salt, the latter especially on the banks of the Danube, the Marmarosch and the Nera. The whole produce of Hungary amounts to 5200 marcs (3250 lbs. troy) of gold, 85,000 marcs (53,125 lbs. troy) of silver, 36,000—40,000 cwt. of copper, 6—8000 cwt. of lead, and about 60,000 cwt of iron.—3. The mines of the Al- tai mountains (q. v.) are very important; they constitute the districts of Kolyvan, Zmeof, Tcherepanofsky, Smenofsky, Ni- kolaisky, Philipofsky, &c, with a yearly produce of upwards of 3000 marcs (1875 lbs. troy) of gold (in later times, more), 60,000 marcs (37,500 lbs. troy) of silver, and a considerable quantity of copper, iron and lead.—4. The mines of the Ural (q. v.) are dispersed, at different distances, around Ekaterinburg; those of Tourinsky produce about 20,000, and those of Gou- mechefsky 40,000 cwt. of copper yearly. The iron, whicli is obtained in the regions of Balgodat and Keskanar, amounts to more than 1,000,000 cwt. yearly. Near Berezov, 500 marcs (312 lbs. troy) of gold were formerly produced; but the quantity is now far more considerable. —5. The mines of the Vosges and the Schwarzwald (Black-forest). In the for- mer, nothing but iron is found; in the latter, silver, at Badenweiler, Hochberg and Wolfach, amounting to 1800 marcs (1125 lbs. troy); at the firet of these places, moreover, 800 cwt of lead are obtained yearly, and at Wittichen, cobalt; besides iron in different places.—6. The mines ofthe Hartz : a. the silver, lead and copjier mines, &c, of the Upper Hartz, in the environs of the mining towns of Clausthal, Zellerfeld, Lautenthal, Wilde- mann, Grund and Andreasberg; b. gold, silver and cojijier mines, near Goslar ; c. copjier mines in the neighborhood of Lauterberg; d. iron mines at Lauterberg, Walkenried, Elbingeroda and Blanken- burg; e. silver, lead and iron mines, in the vicinity of Magdesprung : annual produce, about 10 marcs (ti£ lbs. troy) of gold, 30,000 marcs (18,750 lbs. troy) of silver, 2000 cwt of copjier, 50,000 cwt. of lead, 30,000 cwt of litharge, 200,000 cwt. of iron.—7. Mines in the eastern part of Germany: a. in the Saxon Erzgebirge, at the towns of Freiberg, Marienberg, Anna- berg, Ehrenfriederedorf, Johanngeorgen- stadt, Schneeberg, annual yielding of 52,000 marcs (32,500 lbs. troy) of silver; at Altenberg, Geyer, Ehrenfriedersdorf, Zinnwald, annually 3—4000 cwt. of tin; at Schneeberg, annually 8000 cwt. of co- balt, 600 cwt of copper, 80,000 of iron; b. in Bohemia : silver, at Joachimsthal, Mies, Przibram, &c, 13,800 marcs (86*25 lbs. troy); tin, at Schakenwald, &c, 2000 cwt.; cobalt, 4000 cwt; lead, 1800 cwt.; iron, 190,000 cwt. ; c. in the Fiehtelge- birge, principally iron, annually about 50,000 cwt.; d. in Moravia, at Iglau, &c, 4—5000 marcs (2500—3125 lbs. troy) of silver; e. in the Riesengebirge, at Jauer, Kupferberg, Reichenstein, 330 cwt of copper, 560 cwt. of smalt; 1900 cwt. of arsenic, 1200 cwt. of sulphur, 20,000 cwt of vitriol.—8. Mines in the middle and north-western parts of France. Those at Villefort, in the department of the Lozere, yield 2000 cwt of lead, and 1600 marcs (lu.°0 lbs. troy) of silver; at Poullaouen and Huelgoat, in Bretagne, 10,000 cwt. of lead, 2000 marcs (1250 lbs. troy) of silver. —9. Mines of Great Britain : iron, in Wales, 150,000 tons; Shropshire and Staffordshire, 180,000 tons; Yorkshire and Derbyshire, 50,000 tons; Scotland, 20,000 tons; total, 400,000 tons: cojiper, 10—11,000 tons: lead, in Northumber- land, 12,000 tons: North Wales and Shropshire, 8000 tons; Yorkshire, 4500 tons; Derbyshire, 4000 tons; Scotland, Devon, Cornwall, South Wales, 3000 tons; total, 31,500 tons: tin, in Cornwall and Devon, 2800—5000 tons.—10. Mines of Scandinavia: Norway produces 1600 marcs(1000 lbs. troy) of silver; at Kongs- berg, in 1768, 40,000 marcs (25,000 lbs. troy), 7200 cwt. of copper, 140,000 cwt. of iron, 4000 cwt. of smalt, 10,000 cwt. of MINE. 503 alum ; Sweden, 2—3000 marcs (1250— 1875 lbs. troy) of silver, 18—20,000 cwt. of copjier, 1,500,000 cwt of iron.—11. Mines ofthe Pyrenees: these are insignificant, and iron only need be mentioned.—12. Mines of the Alps: they are not, by any means, proportioned to the immense masses of those mountains; the silver mines of Allemont, in Dauphine, annually produce 2000 marcs (1250 lbs. troy); the iron mines of Allevard, in the department of the Isere, the lead and silver mines of Pesey, in Savoy, formerly jiroduced 4000 cwt. of lead, and 2500 marcs (1562 lbs. troy) of silver annually; the iron mines of Cogtia and Traverselle, in Piedmont, annually yield ujiwards of 200,000 cwt. of iron ; the copper mines at Falkenstein and Schwatz, in the Tyrol, formerly were of importance; the gold mines, atGastein and Muerwinkcl, in Saltzburg, annually yield 118 marcs (74 lbs. troy) of gold ; the iron mines in Saltzburg and the Tyrol, annually produce 60—70,000 cwt.; the iron mines, in Stiria, 450,000 cwt; those in Carinthia, 260,000 cwt.; and those in Caruiola, 10Q,000 cwt.; the copper mines at Schladming in Stiria, at Kirschdorf in Carinthia, at Agardo in the territory of Venice, and at Zamabor in Croatia, fur- nish copper containing silver; the zinc mines at Raibel in Carinthia, annually produce 3400 cwt; the lead mines at Villach and Bleiberg, &c, about 50,000 cwt.; the quicksilver mines at Idria, about 1500 cwt.; the rock-salt mines, at Hallein, Berchtesgaden, Aussee, Isebel, Hallstadt, &c, upwards of 3,000,000 cwt. of salt— 12. Mines of the countries bordering on the Rhine, and of the Ardennes: copper is obtained from the mines of Rheinbrei- tenbach and Dillenburg, about 1200 cwt yearly; lead and silver, from the mines of Holzapfel, Pfingstwiese, Laewenburg, Augstbach, Elirenthal ; of the former, 12,000 cwt; of the latter, 3500 marcs (2187 lbs. troy); iron of an excellent quality, and in great quantity, is procured in the Stahlberg, in the environs of tbe town of Siegen, on the batiks ofthe Lahn and Sayn, at Hohenkirchen in Hesse, on the Ilundsritck, in the Eifel, in the terri- tories of Luxemburg, &c.; calamine, in the vicinity of Limburg, in the Nether- lands, 14—15,000 cwt. yearly ; in the neighborhood of Aix-la-Chajielle, 30— 40,000 cwt. ; in the county of Mark, 2600 cwt ; lead, at Vedrin, not far from Na- mur, 4000 cwt, together with 700 marcs (437 lbs. troy) of silver.—13. Mines of va- rious countries: the environs of Nert- schinskoi in Siberia, are very rich in use- ful minerals, and yield 30—35,000 marcs (18,750—21,750 lbs. troy) of silver. The mineral wealth of Spain and Portugal is now almost exhausted; the quicksilver mines of Almaden fonnerly furnished 20,000 cwt. ; the lead mines only are still productive, yielding annually more than 90,000 cwt There are copper mines in Japan, China, Persia, Arabia, in Tartary, in the islands of the Indian Sea, in Bar- bary, Morocco, Abyssinia, &c. ; tin is produced in China, Pegu, the peninsula Malacca, Sumatra, Banca, &c, in the latter countiy alone, 70,000 cwt.: zinc is said to be abundant in India; quicksilver, in China and Japan ; Brazil furnishes 28,000 marcs (17,500 lbs. troy) of gold yearly, which is more than is obtained from any other country; Africa at least 7000 marcs (4375 lbs. troy), and Southern Asia at least 2000 marcs (1250 lbs. troy) yearly. The island of Elba contains a great deal of iron.—II. The mines in Flcetz mountains are highly important, above all, the coal mines—the princijial wealth of England—this country alone furnishing 400,000,000 cwt. ; France, 20,000,000; the Netherlands and the countries along the Rhine, 62,000,000; Silesia, 6,000,000; Saxon v, 1,200,000 ; Austria, 680,000 ; Bavaria, 320,000 ; Han- over, with the rest of Germany, 6,000,000. The greater part of the iron that is pro- cured in England, is from the coal-moun- tains. The same is the case in other countries, for instance in Silesia. The lead mines in the vicinity of Aix-la- Chapelle, which annually furnish 14— 16,000 cwt. of lead, and upwards of 20,000 cwt. of lead ore, called alquifou, used for glazing earthen ware, are in Flcetz moun- tains ; also the copper mines in the teni- tory of Mannsfeld, at Frankenberg, Bieber and Riegelsdorf in Hesse, the former yielding 10,000 cwt of copper and 8000 marcs (5000 lbs. troy) of silver; the im- portant iron mines on the Stahlberg, in the Hessian seignory of Schmalkalden ; the lead mines at Tarnowitz, in Upper Silesia, annually yielding 5300 cwt of lead and 1500 marcs (937 lbs. troy) of silver; the calamine and zinc mines, in Upper Silesia and Poland, which annually afford 80,000 cwt. of calamine and 25,000 cwt of zinc; the zinc mines of England and other countries, already mentioned ; the rock-salt mines in the southern part of Germany, in Cheshire, at Vic in France, at Wielizka and Bochnia, the latter afford- ing almost 2,000,000 cwt—III. Of no less importance is the mineral wealth of the alluvial regions. Platina, the greater part 504 MINE—MINERALOGY. of gold, a considerable quantity of tin and iron, also diamonds and most ofthe other precious stones, are concealed in sand, clay, &c.,andobtained by washing.(q.v.) (Forlhe mineral wealth ofthe U. States, see tiiat arti- cle ; also the articles on the separate states, particularly lllinois,Michigan,and Missouri, for lead, and Pennsylvania for coal, &c.) Mining. The science of mining in- cludes the scientific knowledge requisite for opening and working mines, as well as for preparing ores for use. It requires a knowledge of mineralogy and geology (q. v.), and of the different processes requisite in mine working, for searching after useful minerals, bringing them to the surface, mechanically and chemically separating them, and removing all difficul- ties that occur in the couree of the work, the sinking of shafts, propping up the superincumbent earth, so as to give secu- rity to the miners, &c. This security is obtained partly by the form of the pits, by propping with stones, by suffering pil- lars of stone to remain standing, by suji- ports of timber or masonry. Mining al- so includes the building of machinery, the preparation of the ore for smelting, or the mechanical separation of the use- less minerals from the useful, as well as of the different kinds of the latter from each other. The preparation of the ore consists, in the firet place, iu breaking asunder the larger pieces, and then purifying them, by means of water, from the earth which adheres to them ; in the separation of the coarser substances from the finer, by means of a sieve, that moves up and down in water; in the breaking of the ore in stamping-mills, which consist either of hammers or iron cylinders, driven up and down, and in the separation of the finely interspersed metal from the stone or earth, with which it is surrounded, by washing the broken ore in troughs or on inclined tables crossed by a current of water; the heavier ore remains, while the lighter earthy and stony substances are carried away by the water. Mining also includes the final purification of the ore, by means of acids, by amalgamation, by fusion, &c. Mining Academies. In Germany, where the science of mining had its origin, acad- emies exist, in which young men are in- structed in the science of mining, and educated as superintendents of mines, founderies or salt-works. These institu- tions have been imitated in other coun- tries. Such academies exist at Freiberg in Saxony, at Schemnitz in Hungary, at Petersburg, at Paris, at St Etienne, &c. Mineral Caoutchouc (See Bitu- men.) Mineralogy, or the Natural Histo- ry of the Mineral Kingdom, consider- ed as a pure science, is of very recent date. The observations made at first re- lated simply to the usefulness of minerals to the purposes of society, and it was not before the lapse of many ages that they came to be investigated on account of their great variety and the beautiful ar- rangements of which they are susceptible. The opvKTa and /icraXXcvra of Aristotleevince no valuable observations on the jiart of that philosopher concerning minerals, and are chiefly mentioned by him because he believed the former to be derived from the earth, and the latter from water. The allusions to mineral substances found in the writings of Theophrastus, Pliny, Dios- corides and Galen are of more interest to the antiquarian and philologist than to the natural historian. No attempt to classify tiiese bodies was made previous to the in- troduction of alchemy into Europe by the Arabians; and to Avicenna belongs the merit ofthe firet arrangement. He divid- ed minerals into stones, metals, sulphure- ous fossils and salts—a division whicli was generally adopted by the chemists of those times, though opposed by the naturalists, who confined their investigations to the characters derived from the external forms of minerals and their supposed medicinal virtues, but without deriving from them any just grounds of classifica- tion. According to one or the other of these vicious methods was the science of mineralogy treated, down to the 16th cen- tury, its cultivators either implicitly adopt- ing the ideas ofthe chemists, or announc- ing themselves as little better than mere empirical collectors of curiosities. Agric- ola (who was bom in 1490, and died in 1555) directed his views to the uniting these two classes, though he inclined more strongly to the side of the scholiasts than to that of tbe chemists. All minerals (cor- pora subterranea) are divided by him into simjile, or such as consist of homogeneous particles, and compounded, or such as are formed of heterogeneous parts, taken in a mineralogical acceptation of the terms. The minerals belonging to the former of these divisions are found in four different forms, viz. 1. terra; 2. succus concretus; 3. lapis ; 4. metallum. Terra he defines as corpus fossUe quod potest manu subigi, cumfuerit aspersum humore, out ex quo cum fuerit madefactum,fit lutum. These earths he divides partly according to some exter- nal characters, partly after their localities, MINERALOGY. 505 in cases where their names are derived from the countries or places in which they are found:—Succus concretus est corpus fossile siccum et subdurum, quod aquis as- persum aid non mollitur, sed liquescit, out, si mollitur, multum vel pinguUudine differt a terra, vel materia ex qua constat. The fossils of this class Agricola divided into macra and pinguia. The former consists of a juice, partly mixed with earth (salni- trum), partly with metal (chrysocoUa, aru- go, ferrugo, caruleum), partly mixed both witn earth and metal (atramenlum, sutori- um, alumen, &c.); to the latter he refers suljihur, bitumen, sandarach, and auripig- mentuin. The stones are the third class of Agricola's system. Lapis est corpus fossile siccum et durum, quod vel aqua lon- ginquo tempore vix mollit, ignis vehemens redigit in pulverem; vel non mollit aqua, sed maximo ignis liquescit colore. The stones are subdivided into lapis, gemma, marmor, and saxum. His definition of met- als, being his fourth class, is corpus fossile natura vel liquidum vel durum quidem, sed quod ignis liquescit colore. lie enume- rates 10 metals. The last class of Agrico- la's system comprehends mixed and com- pound fossils:—1. Mixtures of stones and juices (succi); 2. of earth and metal; 3. of stone and metal; 4. of juice, stone and metal. To die second and third divisions he refers the various ores. (A translation of Agricola's system into German was published, with considerable additions, by Lehmann, at Frevberg, in 1809.) Most of the writers on mineralogy who suc- ceeded Agricola until the middle of the following century adopted his system, oc- casionally making some trifling alterations, in conformity to the slow jirogress of chemistry. Becher (whose Physica Sub- terranea was published in 1667) made the first important innovation upon the classi- fication of Agricola. He considered wa- ter and earth as the remote, and vitreous, inflammable and mineral earths (sal, sul- phur, mercurius) as the jiroximate constit- uent parts of all minerals, which he ac- cordingly arranged under three classes; I he firet comprehending those stones in which the vitreous earth constitutes the principal ingredient; the second and third class containing the substances in which the two remaining earths predominate. Broinelius, who published a book entitled Catalogus Rerum Curiosarum (Gothen- burg, 1698), referred sulphur and the bi- tuminous substances to the same class, which he called sulphurea antl pinguia. Magnus von Bromel, a Swede, who was the pupil of Boerhaavc, published a system vol. viii. 43 of mineralogy—Inledring tU Kunscah om Mineralicr, &c. (Stockholm, 1730), in which he not only availed himself of all the improvements made by his predeces- sors, but also proposed a new chemical di- vision of stony substances into such as are refractory (apyri), or calcinable, or vitres- cible in the fire, to which were added the figured stones (figurati). After Von Brom- el, the great Swedish reformer in natural history appeared, whose admirable views respecting the philosophy of the natural sciences have contributed more to the perfection of our science than the labore of all who preceded him ; and yet Linnae- us ajipears to have possessed but very lit- tle knowledge of minerals, but the com- plete success with whicli he applied the method of natural history to the vegetable kingdom rendered it easy for subsequent naturalists to apply his principles to the mineral kingdom. Linnaeus, too, has the merit of calling the attention of naturalists to the important characters derived from the diversity of crystallization. Mineral- ogy, however, remained, from the time of Linnaeus to that of Werner, almost exclu- sively in the hands of chemists, who ap- pear to have regarded tbe science in no other light than as an appendage of chem- istry, and who, while they degraded all regard to the natural jnoperties of mine- rals, believed that chemical knowledge was alone capable of affording the basis ofthe classification, nomenclature and di- agnosis of the mineral kiugdom. To this class of the cultivators of mineralogy be- longed Henkel, Pott, Wallerius and Cron- stedt. In 1774, Werner published his work On the external Properties of Mine- rals (Von den dussern Kennzeichen der Fos- silien)—a work of great merit and value at that juncture, as it served to call the atten- tion of naturalists to the only correct method of arriving at a knowledge of this department of nature. The external char- acters of minerals had before been almost wholly neglected; in this work they were described with uncommon minuteness, though they were employed by him in his system without a just regard to their rela- tive importance. The greatest defect, however, in the views of Werner arose from his reluctance to ascertain the prop- erties of minerals through the aid of in- struments. He scarcely availed himself of any other means than such as were de- rived directly through the eye, the hand, and the tongue. Hence those characters, depending upon the value of angles and different degrees of hardness and specific gravity, and which are now acknowledged 506 MINERALOGY. to be of the highest value in mineralogy, were turned to comparatively little ac- count. For a knowledge of Werner's system of mineralogy, we are indebted to his translation of Cronstedf's mineralogy (to which he subjoined notes), to his cata- logue of the mineral collection of M. Pabst von Ohain, and to several memoirs in the Bergmannische Jour%ial. In addition to these sources, several expositions of his system have been made by his jiupils, the best of which is that published by profes- sor Jameson. The fundamental principle laid down by Werner in the classification of minerals, is their natural affinity, which he allows to be founded on die chemical nature of their component parts. These be distinguishes into essential and acci- dental component parts, of the former of which only does he take notice in his ar- rangement. The essential component parts are subdivided into jiredominantand characteristic ones, and generally the char- acteristic happen to be, at the same time, the predominant constituents. His classes are four, which are founded on what he calls the fundamental constituent parts, viz. the earthy, saline, inflammable and metallic, each class being named after that fundamental constituent part which jire- dominates in and characterizes it. Thus he derives his classes of earths, salts, in- flammables and metals. These classes are subdivided into genera, which are found- ed ujion the variety in the component jiarts of the minerals comprehended in each class, there being as many genera as there are predominating, or, at least, char- acteristic constituent parts discovered in their mixture. But neither Werner nor his pupils have been very strict in adher- ing to this rule for the formation of the genera, these, as well as the species, having more frequently been established by them upon the natural instead of the chemical properties. Werner's system was essentially deficient in respect to uni- ty, in consequence ofthe regard which he allowed to the chemical relations of min- erals, and, like those whicli preceded his time, it was rather a mixture of chemistry and mineralogy than the rejiresentation of a pure science,—an objection wdiich applies with scarcely undiminished force to the next great system, which was jire- sented to the mineralogical world by Haiiy at the commencement of the pres- ent century. Mineralogy, however, is un- der immense obligations to the abbe Haiiy for his researches respecting the geomet- rical character of minerals. His labore, connected with crystallography, gave an entirely new aspect to the science, and communicated to its results a degree of that precision and certainty which belong to geometry. Still his want of knowledge of the princijiles of natural history jire- veuted him from remedying the faults of his predecessors. His system, like that of Werner, is founded upon two sciences, and consequently wants the order, the connexion and consistency of parts which belong to the idea of a science. He de- fines a species in mineralogy to be "an as- semblage of bodies,the integrant molecules of which are similar to each other, and have the same composition." The follow- ing outline of Hatiy's system is taken from his Traiti de Miniralogie (Paris, 1822):— Class I. Free acids. Class II. Metallic substances, but destitute of a metallic ap- jiearance. This class contains eight gen- era, viz. lime, barytes, strontites, magne- sia, alumine, jiotash, soda, and ammonia ; and to it is subjoined an appendix, con- sisting of one order characterized by the presence of silex in all its compounds, and which embraces a larger number of spe- cies than the whole class to which it is aji- jiended. Class III. True metallic suli- stances. This class contains 18 genera, characterized by the different metals. Class IV. Unmetallic, combustible sub- stances.—In jiroceeding to notice the labore of jirofessor Mohs, we come to an era in the history of mineralogical science. This eminent jihilosopher, no less distinguished as a cultivator of the mathematics than of mineralogy, published at Dresden, in 1822, bis Grundriss der Mineralogie, a work re- plete with new and jihilosophical views of our science. His first object is to fix the exact limits of mineralogy, and to ex- clude from it a variety of foreign matter belonging to other sciences, which had before rendered it a heterogeneous mass of information, incapable of derivation from constant jirinciples by any regular process of reasoning. He then jiroceeds to develope the science under the follow- ing heads:—1. terminology ; 2. theory ofthe system; 3. nomenclature; 4. char- acteristic; 5. physiography. Under the first of these he exjilains those jiroperties of minerals whicli manifest no change, either in the projierties themselves, or in the substauces which jiossess them during their observation or examination, ami which properties alone form the object of consideration in mineralogy, viewed as a pure science. They had before been treated of under the denomination of ex- ternal or physical characters, though, from the stress which had been laid upon chem- MINERALOGY. 507 ical characters, the greater part of them had been but very imperfectly determin- ed ; and this part of the subject is called terminology, because, besides the general investigation of those properties, it em- braces also the explanations of the expres- sions which, for the sake of precision, are used in a determinate and peculiar sense. Decomposed and imperfectly formed min- erals, or those which are destitute of sev- eral of the properties peculiar to these bodies, are not regarded as suitable objects for the consideration of the science ; in which respect they are treated like muti- lated, defective or monstrous plants or animals in botany and zoology. And in order to study tbe productions ofthe min- eral kingdom in their purest state, Molis takes notice of those jiroperties wdiich be- long to minerals occurring in single indi- viduals, separately from those which be- long to several individuals of the same quality, formed in a common space, one being the support of, or at least contigu- ous to, the other,—of the former of which only does he make use in the determina- tion of the species, while he pays no at- tention to the properties of minerals com- posed of individuals belonging to differ- ent species (mixed minerals), these last falling within the province of geology. This is a distinction of the highest impor- tance and utility, in rendering all the de- partments of mineralogy mutually consis- tent, though one which had been almost wholly disregarded by all his predecessors. According to this system, the individual of the mineral kingdom, or the simple mineral, is the sole object of mineralogy, and the natural properties of the simple mineral are the only ones to which, in this science, we ought to direct our attention. It will be obvious, therefore, that all infor- f mation thus derived must be of one kind, and consequently its aggregate conforma- ble to the logical idea of a science. Mohs has particularly distinguished himself in treating of that part of terminology which relates to the regular forms of minerals. The fundamental forms, from which he derives all the occurring forms among minerals, are but four in number, viz. the scalene four-sided pyramid, the isosceles four-sided pyramid, the rhombohedron, and the hexahedron ; and the geometrical constructions by which he illustrates the simple forms capable of appearing in the individuals of one and the same sjiecies, or which may produce combinations with one another, entitle him to the firet rank as a crystallographer. The natural-histor- ical properties of compound minerals are treated of in the most precise manner, the previous neglect of which had involved the science in numerous important errors. But one ofthe greatest improvements un- der this head was the establishment of an accurate scale for the degrees of hardness. This was effected by choosing a certain number of suitable minerals, of which eve- ry preceding one is scratched by that which follows it, while the former does not scratch the latter; and the degrees of hardness are exjiressed by means of num- bers prefixed to the different individuals of the scale. Thus 1 expresses the hardness of talc ; 2...............gypsum; 3..............calcareous spar; 4...............fluor spar; 5...............apatite; 6...............feldspar; 7...............quartz; 8...............topaz; 9...............corundum; 10..............diamond. The second general head under which mineralogy is developed, according to Mohs, is the theory of the system, which contains the reasoning or philosophical part of the science. It determines the idea of the species; fixes the principle of classification; and upon the idea of the species it founds, according to this princi- ple, the ideas of the genus, the order, and the class; and lastly, by applying all these ideas to nature, the outline of the system thus constructed is furnished with its con- tents, in conformity to our knowledge of the productions of nature, as obtained from immediate inspection. The idea of the species is here, for the first time, sci- entifically obtained, and is founded upon all the series of natural properties without the introduction of any considerations for- eign to natural histoiy, which had proved the source of the contamination that the science had before suffered from heteroge- neous principles. The principle of classi- fication consists in the resemblance of natural properties, since in every science the classification must rest upon such rela- tions as are objects of the science. On the different degrees of resemblance are founded the higher ideas ofthe theoiy of the system. An assemblage of species connected by the highest degree of natu- ral-historical resemblance is termed a ge- nus; an assemblage of similar genera an order ; of similar ordere a class ; and the collection of these ideas conformably to the degree of their generality, and apjilied to the jiroductions of the mineral king- 508 MINERALOGY. dom, constitutes the mineral system. The mineral system is therefore the systematic exhibition of the natural resemblance as observable in the mineral kingdom, or of the connexion established by nature among its products by means of this re- semblance. For this reason it is called the natural system, because, in fact, it ex- presses nature in this very remarkable re- lation. The third idea of the science, as developed by Mohs, is its nomenclature, which relates to the connexion of its uni- ties with certain words, through whicli the ideas and representations may be so ex- pressed as to be conveniently applied in writing and speaking. Nothing is better calculated to furnish us with an idea of the situation in which mineralogy had be- fore been placed, than the consideration of its former nomenclature, and of the method employed in giving new names. Those were regarded as the best which had no signification, as is obvious from the frequency with which designations were adopted derived from colore, jiersons, local- ities, and other accidental circumstances; and, as respects those names which referred to the connexion of the different minerals in regard to their resemblance, these were still more objectionable, since the connexion expressed by them was ei- ther entirely incorrect, or without refer- ence to the system in which the names were applied. The nomenclature there- fore required to be wholly remodelled, none deserving of the name having before existed,—the reason of which appears to have been that mineralogy had not before been treated as a science, but as an aggre- gate of various kinds of information, a sort of mixture which would admit every kind of knowledge to be introduced, and in which nothing could be placed wrong, because in such a disposition there could be no order. The order is the highest idea expressed in the nomenclature of Mohs, and in the selection of the names of the ordere he has invented but two which are entirely new, having employed as many designations from ancient mine- ralogy as would answer the purpose. The names receive their signification in agree- ment with the ideas of the ordere; thus pyrites embraces the minerals hitherto called by that name. A mineral which may with propriety bear the name of a metal must really be a metal, or it must present the properties peculiar to metals. Mica signifies a mineral which may be cleaved with facility into thin, shining laminae ; the order mica therefore contains only such species as present cleavage in a high degree of perfection. The name of the genus is a comjiound name, formed by connecting another word with the name of the order. Thus we have lead glance, augite spar, iron pyrites. The generic name also refers to the properties of the genus, and expresses, as much as jiossible, some striking feature of its resemblance with other bodies. Such is the name gar- net-blende. The genus designated by this name belongs to the order blende; the in- dividuals which it contains veiy often look like garnet The denomination of the species is produced by the nearer restric- tion of the generic name by an adjective. The adjective with which the species is designated within its genus is taken from its natural properties, and in general refers to one of those properties of the sjieciea which is most useful in distinguishing it from other species ofthe same genus; hence the systems of crystallization and the relation of cleavage are the most fre- quently employed,—examjiles of which are hexabedral, jirisinatic, rhombohedral iron jiyrites ; rhombohedral, octahedral, dodecaliedral, prismatic iron ore, &c.— The great advantage of the systematic nomenclature is, that the names produce an image of the objects to whicli they refer, whicli the trivial nomenclature can never do; for example, if we hear the name peritomous titanium ore, and have only an idea of the order ore, this at once will produce a general image of the species, which will be still more restricted if we have some idea of the genus titanium ore; but, on the other hand, if we hear the name rutile, and do not know the spe- cies itself to which it belongs, we never can imagine any thing like a representa- tion of the object, though, for the rest, our knowledge of mineralogy may be very extensive. The terminology, the theoiy g ofthe system, and the nomenclature, form the constituents of theoretical mineralogy. Practice, or the ajiplication of it to nature, requires the characteristic, the object of which is, to furnish us with the peculiar tenns or marks, by which we are able to distinguish objects from each other, so An- as they arc comprehended in the ideas es- tablished by the theory ofthe system. In order to find the name of a mineral when its properties are ascertained, we make use of the characteristic, which consists of an assemblage of general ideas, corre- sponding to the system, and expressed by single distinctive marks. With these ideas are connected the names and de- nominations as far as the nomenclature extends and requires, not above the order, MINERALOGY. 509 nor uelow the species; and they are by degrees transferred to the individual, in jiroportion as it enters within the compass of those general ideas. The characteris- tic is only useful when we have the min- eral in our hands, and is not to be studied to obtain a knowledge of the contents of the mineral kingdom, since the characters of its classes, ordere, genera and species, consisting of single marks or properties, are not calculated to produce rejiresenta- tions or images of the objects to which they refer. Physiography, the last head of scientific mineralogy, consists of the assemblage of the general descriptions, and is intended to produce a distinct im- age of minerals. We cannot, by its as- sistance, find the place of a given mineral in the system, or, in other words, recog- nise it; for it is independent of that con- nexion, among minerals, upon which the system is founded. Mobs was the firet writer who drew the line between the determinative and the descriptive parts of mineralogy—a distinction which is of the utmost consequence to the jierfection of the science. The foregoing heads or de- •jiartments of mineralogy are all equally important and indisjiensable for confer- ring upon the science the character of a whole, though, in the application of the science, the parts are used separately, and, in a measure, independently of each oth- er, according to the object in view. Those who wish to determine an individual oc- curring in nature, will find the character- istic the most important department, for neither of the others can be of the least use to them; while those who intend to arrive at a general conception of the species from knowing its name, or one ofthe individuals belonging to it, will find their views forwarded only by the physi- ography; for neither the characteristic nor any other department of mineralogy, contains any information answering the purpose in view. Mineralogy, thus de- veloped, fulfils perfectly the demands which-natural history makes of its several departments. But it enables us to answer no question which lies beyond the limits of natural history. Nobody will ever be able to infer from the mere natural-his- torical consideration of a mineral, any tiling with regard to its chemical, geologi- cal, or economical projierties. The nat- ural histoiy system has its provinces ex- actly determined, within which it serves eveiy purpose, but admits of no applica- tion without; and these commendable properties are conferred upon mineralogy, as the natural historv ofthe mineral king- 43* dom, solely by making it correspond to tbe jihilosophical idea of a science. It contains merely natural-historical infor- mation ; i. e. such as proceeds from a comparison of natural-historical proper- ties, and all the rest is foreign to it The developement of the whole, in its single departments, is in itself systematical; and what it contains of real systems, the sys- tems of crystallization, and the mineral system itself, really deserve that name; because they are the result ofthe applica- tion of one single idea to the whole com- pass of a certain kind of information. The science itself forms a whole, being intimately connected in all its depart- ments, and strictly separated from all other sciences, which is a necessary con- sequence of a systematic mode of treat- ment. The method employed is so sim- ple, that, on that very account, it is immu- table ; nor can there be any doubt, that other methods, compounded of different principles, from the want of consistency jnevailing in their different departments, will finally also be reduced to this method We conclude our abstract of the system of Mohs, by presenting the reader a list of his genera, as represented in the trans- lation of the Grundriss der Mineralogie, by Haidinger (Edinburgh, 1825). CLASS I. Order 1.—Gas. Genera. 1. Hydrogen. 2. Atmospheric air. Order 2.—Water. Genus. 1. Atmospheric water. Order 3.—Acid. Genera. 1. Carbonic acid. 2. Muriat- ic acid. 3. Sulphuric acid. 4. Boracic acid. 5. Arsenic acid. Order 4.—Salt. Genera. 1. Natron salt 2. Glauber salt 3. Nitre salt. 4. Rock salt 5. Ammo- niac salt. 6. Vitriol salt. 7. Ejisom salt. 8. Alum salt 9. Borax salt. 10. Brythine salt. CLASS II. Order 1.—Haloide. Genera. 1. Gypsum haloide. 2. Cryone haloide. 3. Alum haloide. 4. Fluor haloide. 5. Calc haloide. Order 2.—Baryte. Genera. 1. Parachrose baryte. 2. Zinc baryte. 3. Scheelium baryte. 4. Hal baryte. 5. Lead baryte. 510 MINERALOGY—MINERAL WATERS. Order 3.—Kerate. Genus. 1. Pearl kerate. Order 4.—MalachUe. Genera. 1. Staphyline malachite. 2. Li- rocone malachite. 3. Olive malachite. 4. Azure malachite. 5. Emerald mal- achite. 6. Habroneme malachite. Order 5.—Mica. Genera. 1. Euchlore mica. 2. Cobalt mica. 3. Iron mica. 4. Graphite mi- ca. 5. Talc mica. 6. Pearl mica. Order 6.—Spar. Genera. 1. Schiller spar. 2. Disthene spar. 3. Triphane spa*-. 4. Dystome spar. 5. Kouphone spar. 6. Petaline spar. 7. Feld spar. 8. Augite spar. 9. Azure spar. Order 7.—Gem. Genera. 1. Andalusite. 2. Corundum. 3. Diamond. 4. Topaz. 5. Emerald. 6. Quartz. 7. Aximite. 8. Chrysolite. 9. Boracite. 10. Tourmaline. 11. Gar- net. 12. Zircon. 13. Gadolinite. Order 8.—Ore. Genera. 1. Titanium ore. 2. Zinc ore. 3. Copper ore. 4. Tin ore. 5. Schee- lium ore. 6. Tantalum ore. 7. Ura- nium ore. 8. Cerium ore. 9. Chrome ore. 10. Iron ore. 11. Manganese ore. Order 9.—Metal. Genera. 1. Arsenic. 2. Tellurium. 3. Antimony. 4. Bismuth. 5. Mercuiy. 6. Silver. 7. Gold. 8. Platina. 9. Iron." 10. Copper. Order 10.—-Pyrites. Genera. 1. Nickel pyrites. 2. Arsenic pyrites. 3. Cobalt pyrites. 4. Iron pyrites. 5. Copper pyrites. Order 11.—Glance. Genera. 1. Copjier glance. 2. Silver glance. 3. Lead glance. 4. Telluri- um glance. 5. Molybdenum glance. 6. Bismuth glance. 7. Antimony glance. 8. Melaue glance. Order 12.—Blende. Genera. 1. Glance blende. 2. Garnet blende. 3. Purple blende. 4. Ruby blende. Order 13.—Sulphur. Genus. 1. Sulphur. CLASS III. Order 1.—Resin. Genus. 1. Melichrone resin. Order 2.—Coal. Genus. 1. Mineral coal. Among the works on mineralogy, the following are worthy of notice: TraUi de Mineralogie, par A. Brongniart (Paris, 1807); a Familiar Introduction to the Study of Crystallography, by Henry James Brooke (London, 1823); an Ele- mentary Introduction to the Knowledge of Mineralogv, &c, by William Phillips (London, 1823); Handbuch der Mineralo- gie, von C. A. S. Hoffmann (Frieberg, 1811, and continued by A. Breithaupt); Mohs's System of Mineralogy, translated bv William Haidinger (Edinburgh, 1825); Traiti de Crystallographie, par M. I'Abbe Haiiy (Paris, 1822); Traiti de Miniralogic, par M. I'Abbi Haiiy (Paris, 1822); Hand- buch der Oryktognosie, von Karl Cdsar von Leonhard (Heidelberg, 1826); Brewster's Treatise on Mineralogy (Edinburgh, 1827); Die Mineralogie der A. Hartmann (Ilme- nau, 1829). The study of minerals has received considerable attention during the last twenty yeare, iu die U. States, though, for the most jiart, that attention has been devoted to the discoveiy of localities and the formation of cabinets. Already we have discovered nearly all the sjiecies found in other quarters of the globe, as may be noticed by consulting the different articles in the department of mineralogy in this work; and several entirely new species have been added to the science by American mineralogists. The only considerable work ujion the science which has as yet apjieared in the U. States is that of professor Cleaveland, and which was founded, for the most part, ofu the systems of Brongniart and Haiiy. It has jiassed through two editions, and its author is now understood to be preparing an improved edition for the jiress. Mineral Waters are those waters whicli contain such a proportion of for- eign matter as to render them unfit for common use, antl give them a sensible fla- vor and a specific action upon the animal economy. They are very various, both in their composition and temperature, and, of couree, in their effect upon the system; they are generally, however, so far im- pregnated with acid or saline bodies as to derive from them their peculiarities, and are commonly divided into four classes: acidulous or carbonated, saline, chalybe- ate or ferruginous, and sulphureous. In regard to temperature, they are also divid- ed into warm, or thermal, and cold. The substances which have been found in min- eral waters are extremely numerous, but MINERAL WATERS—MINERVA. 511 those which most frequently occur are oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and sulphur, in different combinations ; lime, iron, magne- sia, &c. Mineral waters are also divided into artificial and natural, the former being produced in the laboratories of the chem- ists, and sometimes merely imitations of the natural waters by a combination of tbe same ingredients, and sometimes compos- ed of different ingredients, or of the same in different proportions, in such a manner as to form compounds not known to exist in nature. The saline springs consist, in general, of salts of soda and lime, or of magnesia and lime, with carbonic acid and oxide of iron. The princijial are those of Pyrmont, Sedlitz, Epsom, &c. The fer- niginous waters have a decided styptic taste, and are turned black by an infusion of gall-nuts. The iron is sometimes in the state of an oxide, held in solution by carbonic acid ; sometimes exists as a sul- phate, and sometimes both as a sulphate and carbonate; the waters of Vichy, Spa, Forges, Passy, Cheltenham, Tun- bridge, Bedford, Pittsburgh, Yellow- Springs, in Ohio, Virginia, Pennsylvania, &c, are among them. The acidulous waters are characterized by an acid taste, „and by the disengagement of fixed air. They contain five or six times their vol- ume of carbonic acid gas; the salts which they contain are muriates and carbonates of lime and magnesia, carbonate and sul- phate of iron, &c.; the waters of Bath, Buxton, Bristol, Vicfty, Seltz, New Leba- non, &c, are acidulous. The sulphure- ous waters are easily recognised by their disagreeable smell, their property of tar- nishing silver and copper, &c.; the springs at Saratoga and Ballston, Harrow- gate, Moffat, Aix-la-Chapelle, Aix, and numerous others, are of this class. Minerva (called by the Greeks Athene, Pallas Athene); one of the principal dei- ties ofthe heathen Olymjius, whose origin many mycologists derive from Egyjit According to tbe fable, Jujiiter (q. v.), hav- ing obtained the sovereignty of the skies by his victory over the Titans (q. v.), chose Metis (q. v.), daughter of Ocean, for his wife. An oracle of Gaea and Uranus had, however, predicted that Metis vvould firet bear him a daughter, and dien a son, who should dejirive him of the sovereignty. To avoid this, Jupiter endeavored, by wiles and flattery, to get possession of her pereon, and then swallowed her with her yet unborn daughter. When the period of herdelivery arrived, Jupiter experienced a sharp pain in his head, and, having caused Vulcan to split open his skull,was astonish- ed at the sight of a virgin in complete ar- mor, who danced about with a warlike enthusiasm, brandishing her spear, and clashing her arms, as if on the point of attacking an enemy. In her character of a wise and prudent wanior, she was con- trasted with the fierce, furious and blood- thirsty Mare (q. v.), and made her firet ap- pearance in the battles of the gods. Iu the ware ofthe giants, she slew Pallas and Enceladus. In the ware of mortals, she aids and protects heroes. She conducted Hercules to Olympus, instructed Bellero- phon (see Hipponoiis) how to tame Pega- sus, and conquer the Chimaera, accompa- nied Perseus on his expedition against the Gorgons, conferred immortality on Ty deus, honored Achilles, accompanied Ulysses, protected his wife, and guided his son Telemachus under the figure of Mentor. She also favored the inventors of warlike instruments, built the Argo, and taught Ejieus to construct the wooden horse, by means of which Troy was cap- tured. She is likewise represented as the patroness of the arts of peace ; and, as a virgin, is distinguished for her skill in all the employments, in which, in the heroic age, the daughters of kings occupied themselves. The loom, the spindle, the embroidering needle, are her attributes; and, as the wives of the heroes prepared the garments of their households, so she made the dresses of the goddesses; hence her epithet Ergane. Skilful artists were, therefore, under her protection, though she would not tolerate any marks of pride. (See Arachne.) All the peaceful arts which display an active and inventive spirit, found a patron in her. The sculp- tor, the architect and the painter, as well as the philosopher, the orator and the jioet, considered her their tutelary deity. As bodily health is necessaiy to the successful exertion of the inventive powers of the mind, she is also represented among the healing gods, and in this character is call- ed Paonia. In all these representations she is the symbol of the thinking faculty, the goddess of wisdom, science and art; tbe latter, however, only in so far as in- vention and thought are comprehended. Athens, the city of the arts and sciences, was her favorite residence. She is also styled the inventress ofthe flute ; but hav- ing seen, in a fountain, how much the jilayingupon that instrument distorted her face, she threw it into the water, with maledictions on the person who should take it out. Marsyas (q. v.) suffered the effects of this malediction. Despising love, she consecrated bereelf to perpetual 512 MINERVA—MINHO. virginity ; and the unhappy wretch, who directed towards her a glance of desire, suffered the severest penalties for his rash- ness. Tiresias (q. v.), who surjirised her in the bath, was struck blind.—The arts have embodied this conception of pure reason in the images of the goddess. A manly gravity, and an air of reflection, is united with female beauty in her features. As a warrior, she is represented complete- ly armed, her head covered with a gold helmet, from which streams a crest of horse-hair, her hand bearing her lance, and her body mailed with the armor of her father. As the goddess of peaceful arts, she appeare in the dress of a Grecian matron. To her attributes belong, also, the vEgis, the Gorgon's head, the round Argive buckler, and the owl, as the sym- bol of vigilance (on coins, the cock). As the preserver of health, she is also repre- sented as feeding a dragon, and the olive- branch is a symbol of the peaceful com- merce, which is rendered prosperous through her favor. An Athenian tradition relates that Neptune and Minerva (Athene) once contended which should give the name to their city ; the gods, to decide the dispute, declared that it should be called from the one who should produce the most useful gift for the human race. Neptune, therefore, struck the ground with his trident, and the war-horse sprang forth; Minerva threw her spear, and from the spot where it fell sprouted forth the peaceful olive-tree. Her jiresent was de- termined to be the most salutary, and the city received her name. All Attica, but particularly Athens, was sacred to her, and she had numerous temples there. (See Parthenon.) Her most brilliant fes- tival at Athens was the Panatbenaea. Another festival was the solemn washing of her statues at Athens, and more partic- ularly at Argos, which was done yearly in running water, by the hands of virgins. The Romans worshipped her at firet only as the goddess of war (Bellona); but she afterwards became one of the guardian gods of Rome. The principal temple in the capitol was dedicated to her, in com- mon with Jupiter and Juno, and a yearly festival was observed in honor of her, which continued five days (Quinquatrin). Mi.ngotti, Catharine; an eminent sing- er, bora at Naples in 1728, of German parents. After the death of her father, who was in the Austrian military service, Catharine entered an Ursuline convent. The music made such an impression ujion her, that she implored the abbess, with tears, to allow her to receive musical in- struction, that she might be able to accom- pany the choir : her request was granted. At the age of fourteen she returned to her mother, and some yeare after married Min- gotti, a Venetian, who had the direction of the opera at Dresden. On her first apjiearance in Dresden, she attracted gen- eral admiration, and Porpora (q. v.), who was then in the king's employ, procured her an engagement at the theatre. Her reputation soon extended through Europe, and she was engaged to sing at the grand ojiera in Najiles, where she was received with undivided ajiplause. On her return to Dresden, in 1748, Hasse was at the head of the chapel, and endeavored to jilace difficulties in her way, which she escaped with such success as to silence her enemies, and even Faustina. In 1751, she went to Sjiain, under the direction of Farinelli, visited Paris and London in 1754, and afterwards the different cities of Italy, but always considered Dresden as her home during the life of Augustus. After his death, she resided at Munich. She died in 1807. Mingotti spoke* Ger- man, French and Italian, with elegance, Spanish and English with ease, and un- derstood Latin. Her style of singing was grand and dramatic, and such as discov- ered her to be a perfect mistress of her art. She was a judicious actress, her in- telligence extending to the poetry, dec- orations, and every jiart ofthe drama. Mingrelia ; an Asiatic province of Russia, bounded north by the Caucasus, which sejiarates it from Circassia, west by the Black sea, south by Guria, and east by Imeretia. It is in general mountain- ous, with a fertile soil, producing excellent fruits. Wine, honey, silk and women are the chief articles of commerce. The pojmlation is composed of about 14,000 families—Georgians, Armenians, Tartars and Jews. The Greek church is the predominant religion. The inhabitants are divided into three distinct castes, the Dchinandi, or that of jirinces, the Sskkour, or nobles, and the Moniali, or commons: the last are the cultivators of the soil. Mingrelia is governed by a prince, called the Daiian, who, in 1803, declared him- self the vassal of Russia. In 1813, Persia renounced all claims of sovereignty over it, in favor of Russia. Mi.Mio,or, in Spanish, Miho (Minius), a river of Sjiain and Portugal, which rises near Mondoiiedo, among the mountains in tbe north of Galicia, crosses that prov- ince nearly from north to south, till it ar- rives at the frontiers of Portugal, where it takes a western direction, and forms the MINIIO—MINISTER, 513 boundary between the two kingdoms. It flows into the Atlantic at Guardia. It is only navigable to a small distance for boats, on account of the sand-banks. It gives its name to the ■northernmost prov- ince of Portugal, called also Entre Douro e Minho, remarkable for its fertility and delightful climate, of which Braga is the capital, and Ojiorto (q. v.) the principal port. (See Portugal.) Miniature Painting; that branch of painting, in water colors, in which the colore are put on by the mere point of the brush. It differs from other kinds of jiainting in being much finer, and there- fore must be looked at near, so that it is used to represent subjects on a small scale, commonly on vellum or ivory. Hence the name miniature painting, for the smallest kind. The ground of the vellum or ivory is used forthe highest lights, and some artists use no white coloring matter at all, supplying its jilace entirely by this ground. The best colors are those which have the least body, as carmine, ultramarine, lac, &c, which are dissolved in water, and then separated and dried. Miniature painting requires much time ou account of the paints of which it con- sists, which must be delicately put on, so near each other that they ajipear as one continued color. As early as the ninth and tenth centuries,miniature pictures are found as ornaments of manuscrijits in Italy, France and Germany.—See Rive's Essai sur VArt de virifier I'Age des Miniatures peintesdansles Manuscrits (Paris, 1782). In general this kind of painting was anoccu- jiation of the monks; and as the art was called Uluminare, so the artists received the names illumhuitores, or miniatorcs, because they used for the ornaments of the manu- scripts tbe red color, minium, more than any other ; hence the name miniature paint- ing. This species of painting flourished particularly in the fourteenth century, un- der Charles V in France, and reached still greater perfection under Charles VIII and Louis XII, but sunk after the inven- tion of jirinting, and of paper, and the rise of the art of engraving. In modern times, it has been employed chiefly for portrait painting. Among the distinguish- ed miniature painters deceased are Mengs, Chodowiecki, Fiiger, Westermann, Nixon and Shelly. Augustin and Isabey (q. v.) are now the firet miniature painters in Paris. Minim ; a character or note, equal in du- ration to the sixteentii jiart of a large, one eighth of a long, one fourth of a breve, and one half of a semibreve. Minim Friars (from minimi, Latin, least); brethren of St. Franciscus a Paula (whence they are called also Paulini, or Paulani), an order instituted in the middle ofthe fifteenth centuiy, who have establish- ed convents in most European countries since 1493. They owe their reputation of particular sanctity to their rigorous fasting, as they are not allowed to take any thing but bread, fruits and water. Their dress is black, and, like that of the Franciscans, provided with a scourge. Their life is dedicated entirely to solitary devotion. They belong to the mendicant ordere, and possessed, in the eighteenth centuiy, 450 convents in 30 provinces. In 1815, Ferdinand IV of Naples restored to them their original convent. (See Francis of Paula.) In the Neapolitan ter- ritory, they are called Paolotti. Minion (from the French mignon, ad- jective and substantive); a favorite, on whom benefits are undeservedly lavished. —In typography, minion signifies a certain kind of type. " Why," says Johnson, in his Typographia, or the Printer's Instruct- er, " this letter was denominated minion, we have not yet been informed; probably it was held in great estimation on its firet introduction, and consequently received the title minion [darling]." Iu size, it is between nonpareil and brevier; as, for in- stance, a b c. Minister ; properly a chief servant; in political language, one to whom a sove- reign intrusts the direction of affairs of state. In modern governments, die heads ofthe several departments or branches of government are ministers of the chief magistrate. It is also used for the repre- sentative of a sovereign at a foreign court. (See Ministers, Foreign.) In England, the words ministry and ministers are used as collective names for the heads of depart- ments, but the individual members are not so designated. In the U. States, the heads of the departments are called secretaries, but are not termed ministers. In most large countries we find a minister for for- eign affaire (whose duties are included in those of the secretary of state in the U. States), a minister ofthe interior (in Eng- land, secretary for the home department; in the U. States there is no such depart- ment, and the secretary of state has charge of the affaire which would fall to such minister). The minister ofthe interior has the management of all domestic affairs, roads, canals, &c, levying taxes (in many cases); in short, every thing whicli does not belong to the other departments; and it may easily be imagined how the importance 514 MINISTER. of this department varies, as the govern- ment is more or less absolute, and dispos- ed to exercise a more or less minute con- trol over its subjects. In Prussia, where the goveniment interferes in all the con- cerns of life, the minister of the interior is a most important pereon. On the conti- nent of Europe, where the judiciary is considered a branch of the executive ad- ministration, there is always a minister of justice, whose office is incompatible with the independence of the judiciary and with the whole idea of the administration of justice entertained in England and the U. States (though in the former countiy the highest judge, the lord high chancellor, is a member of the ministry). There is, further, a minister of finance (in England, the chancellor of the exchequer, in the U. States, the secretary of the treasury). In some states there is, besides the minister of finance, a minister of the treasury. There is also a minister or secretary of war, and in maritime states, a minister or secretary of the navy, and sometimes a minister for the colonies. There is often a separate minister of commerce (in Eng- land, the president of the board of trade); a minister of the police (firet established by the directory in France). In many countries on the European continent, where the idea of a well regulated govern- ment is unhajipily confounded with a concentration of all powers in a few individuals, there is, also, a minister of public worehip, who has the direction of all ecclesiastical affairs. This department though it also exists in Catholic countries, as in France, yet has received the greatest developement in Protestant countries, in which the monarchs have declared them- selves the heads of the church, and the officers of religion are considered, to a certain degree, servants of the government. We often find a minister of instruction, generally the same with the minister for ecclesiastical affairs. A minister of the household often directs the private affairs of the monarch. Though the name of the ministers in most countries correspond, yet their power is very different in a bu- reaucracy (q. v.), where it extends in minute ramifications through the whole organiza- tion of society, and, in a country like England or the U. States, where the con- cerns of the jiarticular corporations are independent of their control. In the for- mer class of governments, each minister is a sort of viceroy in his dejiartment One of these ministers is, in many coun- tries, prime-minister, or premier, who, in constitutional monarchies, is considered as the chief pereon in the administration. Sometimes he has no particular depart- ment In France, he is called minister president. In England, the prime-minister is the one who receives the king's order to form a ministry* and therefore to appoint men of his own sentiments. He is gener- ally the first lord of the treasury. In some countries, there is, also, a jiresident of the ministry. In the U. States, there is no such post as that of premier, because eve- ry thing is done in the name of the presi- dent, who, in many points, corresponds to the premier of a constitutional monarchy. The British king's cabinet ministers vary somewhat: under the duke of Wellington, they were the following : 1. Firet lord of the treasury; 2. lord high chancellor ; 3. chancellor of the exchequer; 4. secretary of state for foreign affairs ; 5. secretary of state for the colonial department; 6. secretary of state for the home depart- ment ; 7. president of the council; 8. president of the board of trade and treas- urer of the navy ; 9. lord privy seal and president of the board of control (Indian affairs); 10. secretary at war; 11. chan- cellor of the duchy of Lancaster; 12. master of the mint. The French min- istry consists of, 1. the minister of the interior; 2. minister*of finance; 3. keeper ofthe seals and minister of justice; 4. minister of public instruction and ec- clesiastical affaire; 5. minister of com- merce and public works; 6. minister of the marine and colonies; 7. minister of war ; 8. minister of foreign affaire. The American cabinet consists ofthe secreta- ries of state (foreign and home affairs), of the treasury, of war, and of the navy. The attorney-general and sometimes also the postmaster-general are members of the cabinet The chief-justice of the sujireme court of the IJ. States is never a member of the cabinet. He is merely a judicial officer, and not removable, except by impeachment The lord high chan- cellor is the only judge in England who belongs to the ministry. In France and England, the members are appointed solely by the king; in the U. States, the concur- rence of the senate is necessary for the appointment of the secretaries, and all other officers nominated by the president. No case, however, has yet existed in which the senate has refused to concur in the appointment of the secretaries, because it has been thought unfair to deny the pres- ident the choice of his own cabinet, as all the resjionsibility rests upon him. The modem idea of constitutional mon- archies, in which two most heterogeneous MINISTER—FOREIGN MINISTERS. 515 principles, the inviolability ofthe law, and that ofthe monarch,who thus stands above the law, were to be reconciled, jiroduced a skilful contrivance—the responsibility of ministers—in order to leave the inviolabili- ty ofthe monarch uninfringed, and yet to put a check upon the arbitraiy use of his jiovver. Europe owes this developement of constitutional law, as most of the im- provements in her political institutions, to England. One or more ministers in France and England (and many other countries) countersign the royal ordere, and by thus doing become responsible for the contents. Eveiy reader recollects the late case in France, in which the ministere were called to account for the royal ordi- nances. (See France, and Polignac.) This responsibility is always a delicate thing, because it is imjiossible to define with ex- actness what constitutes unconstitution- ality and a violation of the public interest; and, hard as it may appear in the abstract, the question must be left to the bouses of legislature to decide, in case of an im- peachment of the ministers. In general, however, there is little danger of the min- isters being impeached, except for very flagrant violations of law, or in times cf very violent jiarty spirit. Peculation also forms a ground of impeachment. In the U. States, no such responsibility rests on the secretaries, nor is tbeir countersign requisite, for the siinjile reason that the president himself is answerable for every thing which he does, and may be im- jieached. (See Impeachment.) Though the constitutional monarch has the full right to ajipoint and discharge his ministers according to jileasnre, he is, nevertheless, oblige! to ajijioint such as will satisfy public ojiinion, or the legis- lature will not grant supplies, and, in fact, will not cooperate with the administra- tion. This denial to grant supjilies, which is the great support of the peojile against the government, was called, some time ago, in France, an outrageous inter- ference with the king's prerogatives. In England, the command of a majority in the houses has become indispensable for the ministere, so that the loss of a bill brought in by them is regularly followed by the resignation of the premier. This applies, however, only to what are denom- inated cabinet questions, in respect to which it is considered necessaiy that the ministiy should be united. Where a dif- ference of opinion is openly professed by the ministere themselves, the question is not a cabinet question, and the failure of a bill proposed by a minister respect- ing it is not considered fetal to the ad- • ministration. Thus the Catholic eman- cipation was for a long time not a cabinet question ; and when Canning lost his bill, in 1827, lie, nevertheless, did not give in his resignation. The situation of the constitutional monarch in France and England, and many other reasons in the organization of the governments of those countries, render it necessary for the min- istere to be jiresent at the parliamentary debates, and tosujijiort their measures: in fact, one member of the cabinet, the lord high chancellor, is, ex officio, president of the house of lords. In England, those of the ministiy who are peers sit in the house of lords ; the othere sit in the bouse of commons, in virtue of being elected members; but it is considered indispen- sable that they should be there. They could not be admitted into the house ex- cept as members. The prime-minister, if a peer, sits in the lords : Pitt and Can- ning, who were commoners, sat in the commons. In France, the ministers are also generally members of one or the other house, but they need not be mem- bers, because the constitution gives them the right of being heard in either house, by virtue of their office. The ministere have their bench in France. In the U. States, no secretary can sit in either house, as the constitution prohibits any officer of government from being chosen a rep- resentative or senator. In Russia, the cabinet is different from the ministry. The former has the management of the emperor's private affaire and of foreign politics, and its members are called cabinet ministers ; the members of the ministry, so called, are termed state/ ministers. Some governments have also conference ministers, who have no real dejiartments. The love of titles has produced a great mixture of these designations in different countries. In France, it was formerly customary to appoint an ex-minister min- ister of state, with a pension. Those who were ministers of state before the revolution of 1830, have remained so; but the ex-ministers, since 1830, have re- turned to their jirivate stations. In Eng- land, the privy council is to be distin- guished from the ministiy. The former contains a very large number of mem- bers. Ministers, Foreign. In the article Diplomacy, some account has been given of the history of embassies : it remains here to speak of the different classes of foreign ministers as they now exist. Ev- ery person sent from one sovereign gov- 516 FOREIGN MINISTERS. eminent to another, and accredited to the latter, in order to transact public business, of a transient or permanent character, in the name of his government, with that to which he is sent, is a foreign minister. Sometimes such ministere are sent merely ' to be present at the coronation of a foreign prince; sometimes to settle disputed points; at other times to reside permanently with the foreign government Generally, they are divided into three classes. Those of the firet class, called ambassadors, are not merely the agents of their government, but represent their sovereign personally, and receive honore and enjoy privileges accordingly. The French, English, Span- ish, Russian, Austrian governments send ambassadors to each other; the Prussian government does not send ministere of this rank. The second class are those called by the joint title of envoys extraordinary and ministers plenipotentiary; they repre- sent their goveniment; such are sent by the U. States. The third class consists of the ministers resident (ministres risidens, ministres charges d'affaires), to whom less honor is generally paid. They, however, like the former, are on the European con- tinent styled by courtesy excellency. Of still lower rank are the chargis d'affaires. According to the regulations adopted by the congress of Vienna, the number of" classes has been reduced, so that there are at present only ambassadors, envoys extra- ordinary and ministere plenipotentiary, and cliargis d'affaires. Pereons who are sent merely to conduct the private affairs of their monarch or his subjects in a foreign place are called agents, or residents; and where they are occupied chiefly with sub- jects of a commercial character, they are called consuls, (q. v.) They are not con- sidered diplomatic pereons, and do not en- joy privileges accordingly. The legati a latere (q. v.) enjoy the privileges and hon- ore of ambassadors. Ambassadors and even ministere plenipotentiary have young gentlemen with them, called altachis, who have no particular charge, but merely this title to connect them with the legation, and to give them thus admission into the highest society. Sometimes they are sons of noble families, who are prejiaring them- selves for diplomatic offices, but think it beneath their dignity to accept an appoint- ment as secretary of legation. The suite of ambassadors always includes more in- dividuals than the business of the embas- sy requkes, a certain degree of pomp lie- ing considered necessary. An ambassador has generally three, always two secretaries of legation; other ministers often but one. A foreign minister receives letters of cre- dence from his court, which, after having delivered an attested copy of it to the sec- retary of state, he gives himself to the monarch, or head of the government, if he is an ambassador, in a public audience, if not, in a private audience. After the re- cejition of the credentials, the minister is said to be acknowledged. In some coun- tries, he puts the arms of his nation or sovereign on his mansion. After his credentials have been received, he makes formal visits to the other ambassadors, to be recognised by them as such. From the moment that a minister enters the ter- ritory of the sovereign to whom he is sent, his pereon is held sacred and inviolable, and he acquires imjiortant privileges. To these belongs, firet of all, his freedom from territorial restrictions; that is, he is not regardeibas an inhabitant of the country, but his person, suite, house, equipage, &c, are considered as never having left the country to which he belongs, and as being without the jurisdiction of that in which he actually resides. From this follows the free- dom of foreign ministers from the civil and criminal law; and the same ajiplies to their suite; and all property belonging to him as minister is free from all taxes, &c. No common police-officer, tax-gatherer, or other public servant, can enter his hotel, and make inquisition, as in the house of a private citizen. But whether his hotel shall be a place of refuge for transgres- sors, and whether the delivery of them may be refused to the officere of the state, are questions equally doubtful and imjior- tant. The privilege formerly appertaining to ambassadors, by means of which, upon hanging up the arms of their sovereign, they could exempt from the laws of the land the whole quarter of the town or city in which their hotel happened to stand, is abolished as an abuse. The freedom from taxes of all property belonging to the em- bassy has been subjected to many restric- tions, in consequence of the occurrence of abuses of this privilege. Foreign min- istere are not free from bridge and turn- pike tolls, or letter-postage. One of their especial privileges is that of worshipping according to the forms of their own reli- gion in countries where their religion is not tolerated. In transacting business, they sometimes have immediate inter- course with the sovereign himself, and then address him in a private audience orally, or by the delivery of memorials; but more commonly their intercourse is through the minister for foreign affairs. This state of things continues till the ter- FOREIGN MINISTERS—MINNESINGERS. 517 minationof the embassy, which may occur in different ways, either by the expiration of the term of the credentials, by a recall, by a voluntary or compulsory departure, or by the decease of the minister. A re- call occurs when the object of the em- bassy is obtained or defeated; sometimes it takes place in consequence of a misun- derstanding, and sometimes from private reasons. A minister often voluntarily leaves a court, without being recalled, when he thinks he suffers personal inju- ries, contrary to the laws of nations. There are cases, however, in which a min- ister is compelled to leave a court, when it is termed a removal. In general, an em- bassy is considered as ended from the mo- ment when the minister shows his letters of recall, or receives his passports for his journey home. When these are furnish- ed him, he must leave the fcountry, but his jiereon remains inviolable even in case of war, and he is allowed to retire unmolest- ed. The Ottoman Porte alone claims to be excepted from this regulation, since it imprisons in the Seven Towers the minis- ters of states with which any misunder- standing happens to occur. At the peace with Russia, however, in 1813, it engaged never to exercise this power f«r the future upon Russian ambassadors. The same inviolability of pereon is enjoyed in the other European states, although only in time of peace, by couriers and expresses, as also by pereons who, without any pub- lic character as envoys, are intrusted by their governments with the transaction of affaire of importance, and requiring secre- cy and despatch ; but these are not allow- ed to assume the state of a minister, and, in their relations to other citizens, are re- garded as private pereons merely. All these regulations have naturally been in- troduced among the European powers since the establishment of the permanent residence of foreign ministers, that is, since the peace of Westphalia. Republics do not send ambassadors, ia the European sense of the word. Venice, indeed, for- merly sent ambassadors; but the U. States send only ministere plenipotentiary and chargis d'affaires, although the constitution uses the term ambassador. Prussia alone, among the principal European powers, neither sends nor receives ambassadors. A histoiy of European dijilomacy, since the peace of Westphalia, would be a very imjiortant work, in regard to politics, na- tional law, tind the progress of civiliza- tion, and is still a desideratum. Flassan has made some excellent contributions towards it (A useful work, and one vol. viii. 44 which gives instruction and examples in regard to all the relations and objects of embassies, is the Manuel diplomatique, ou Pricis des Droits et des Fonctwns des Agens diplomaiiques, suivi d'un RecueU tFActes et d'Offices, pour servir de Guide aux Per- sonnes qui se destinent a la CarriirepolUique, by Charles von Martens (Leipsic, 1822). The law of European embassies has been particularly treated of by F. von Moshamm (Landshut, 1806). Mink (mustela). The animal known in the U. States under the name of mink is so similar to the European quadruped of the same name that they have been gene- rally confounded with each other. The common name of both species is derived from the Swedish mcenk. The American animal is the M. vison of naturalists, aud is generally to be found on the banks of streams, especially near farm-houses and mills. It swims and dives well, and can remain under water for a considerable time. It preys upon small fish, muscles, &c, but also commits depredations, on the poultry yard, and will devour rats, mice, &c. The mink, when in-hated, exhales a very fetid smell, almost equal to that of the skunk. It is easily tamed, and is capable of strong attachment, but, like the cat kind, is readily offended, and will bite on a sudden provocation. The fur is of little value.—The European mink (M. lulreola) inhabits the northern parts of Eu- rojie, and, like the American species, lives on the banks of streams, feeding on frogs, craw-fish, &c. It is of a brownish-red color. It has a strong musky smell, and its fur is very fine. Minnesingers, The ancient German word minne was used originally to denote love and friendship, even divine love. At a later period, the German jioets of the middle ages expressed by it particularly a pure, faithful, and generally happy love between the two sexes. Walther von der Vogelweide distinguishes the high from the low minne (a distinction similar to that of the ancients), and defines the former to be the hapjiiness of two hearts which give and receive equal bliss. Love, the vital element of chivalry, was with the German poets something purer, more ideal, more deeji, than with the French. The name minnesingers is given to the lyric German poets of the middle ages in general, on ac- count of love being the chief subject of their poems. They are also called Sua- bian poets, because the Suabian dialect prevails in their poems. At the beginning of the 12th century, when the art of poe- try came from the south of France to Ger- 518 MINNESINGERS—MINOS. many, it found a welcome reception at the court ofthe Hohenstaufen (q.v.), theSua- bian emperors of Germany. The minne- singers were knights, or at least men of noble descent, who lived and sung at the courts of princes who loved and protected the arts, such as the emperor Frederic II, the duke Leopold IV of Austria, king Wenceslaus of Bohemia, duke Henry of Breslau, and othere. After the fashion of the Provencal Troubadours, the minne- singers engaged in poetical contests for the gratification of princes and ladies of the court Some among them were poor, and earned their living by reciting their songs from court to court; but most of them sang merely for pleasure, when their swords were unemployed. Not a few princes took part in these songs. This jioetiy was essentially chivalric, and breathes the romantic spirit of that ex- traordinary age. Glowing devotion to the virgin Mary and the Catholic religion ; ideal love for a chosen lady; the charms of spring, always so intimately connected with romantic and lyric poetry ;—these formed the constant subjects of their verse. Every poet sung his compositions and accompanied them himself. The most extensive collection of these smaller po- ems which we possess, and which con- tains from 1400 to 1500 pieces by 140 poets, was collected by the burgomaster of Zu- rich, Rtidiger von Manesse, in the begin- ning of the 14th century; at the close, therefore, of the flourishing jieriod r this species of poetry. (See Manesse.) L. Tieck has jniblished 220 poems, modern- ized from that great collection, under the title of Minndieder aus dem Schwa- bischen ZeUalter (Berlin, 1803). There is a new critical edition by Von der Hagen. The earliest of the minnesingers now known is Henry of Veldeck, who flour- ished about 1180. Most of the distin- guished ones lived towards the end ofthe 12th and at the beginning ofthe 13th cen- turies. Towards the end of the 13th cen- tury, after the close of which they gradu- ally became silent, lived Conrad of Wurz- burg and John Hadloub. (For the epic poetry of Germany in the same age, see Nibelungen, Hddenbuch, and German Po- etry.) The knights sunk once more back to almost total barbarism, and poetry fled into the cities, where it was cultivated by mechanics in a mechanical way. (See Mastersingers, also Chivalry, and Min- strels.) Minnow ; the name applied to several species of small fresh-water fish, and even to the young of larger kinds. The min- now of England, from whence we derive the term, is a small Cyprinus, as are also some of the minnows of the U. States. Taking diese fish is one of the favorite amusements of children. This first essay in angling is generally performed with a bended pin, baited with a small earth- worm. The word minnow is derived from the French menu, small. Minor ; the Latin for less, used in con- tradistinction to major, as Asia Minor, mi- nor excommunication, minor offences. Minor, in logic. (See Syllogism.) Minorate; the contrary of majorate, i. e. the privilege of the youngest son to inherit the real estate of the father, with the obligation, however, to pay a certain sum to his brothers and sisters. This is actually the custom in some places of Ger- many. Minorca ; an island in the Mediterrane- an, belonging to Spain, one of those an- ciently called Baleares (q. v.), about 30 miles in length, and about 10 in breadth ; 30 E. N. E. Majorca, (q. v.) The surface is uneven, the soil not generally fertile, the water scarce and hard, the air moist. Some wine is exjiorted, but the quantity of grain is not sufficient for the inhabitants. The island owes its political importance to the valuable harbor of Port Mahon. (q. v.) One of the most profitable commodities of the coun- tiy is salt Population, 44,167 ; square miles, 240; lon. 4° 107 E.; lat. 39° 59' N. Minorites. (See Franciscans.) Minority, in law; the age of minors. According to the Roman law, full age takes place, with both sexes, at the 25th year; in Prussia, at the 24th; in France, Saxony, England, and the U. States, at the 21st. Monarchs, in almost all countries, come of age much sooner than other per- sons, very often in their 18th year. The golden bull declares the German electors of age at 18. (See Age; and, for minori- ty in the English law, see Infant.) Minos ; 1. a king ofthe island of Crete, who lived about 1406 B. C, and is not to be confounded with his grandson of the same name. He is celebrated as a wise lawgiver, and for his strict love of justice. To make the Cretans formidable and powerful, by union and military spirit, he obliged them often to eat in common, and constantly exercised them in military du- ties. Tradition has adorned the history of this king with various additions. Ac- cording to it, he was a son of Europa and Jupiter, from whom, every nine years, he received his laws in a cavern on mount Ida. After his death, Minos was made, with iEacus and Rhadamanthus, a judge MINOS—MINT. 519 in the infernal world. All three sat at the entrance to the kingdom of shades. Minos, as the chief justice, delivered the sentence.—2. /A grandson of the preced- ing, who also ruled over Crete, and was the husband of Pasiphae, whose unnatural passion gave birth to the Minotaur, (q. v.) Minot, George Richard, an American historian, was bom at Boston, in Decem- ber, 1758, and completed his studies at Harvard college. He embraced die pro- fession of the law, which he practised with much credit In 1792, he was appointed judge of probate for the county of Suffolk, Massachusetts. Judge Minot cultivated, successfully, literature and science. He was one ofthe foundere ofthe Massachu- setts historical society. He published a very interesting narrative of the insurrec- tion in Massachusetts in 1785, and various orations which he pronounced in public; but his chief production is a valuable Continuation (in 2 vols.) of Hutchinson's History of Massachusetts. He died in January, 1802. A full account of his labore and character is contained in the eighth volume of the Collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society. Minotaur. Fable makes this being the son of Pasiphae and a bull, and as- cribes to him the body of a man with the head of a bull. He ate human flesh, on which account Minos confined him in the labyrinth built by Daedalus, and at first exposed to him criminals, but afterwards the youths and maidens yearly sent from Athens as a tribute, until at length The- seus (q. v.), who was comprehended among the youths, and was instructed and armed by Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, killed him, and freed the Athenians from this tribute. xMinster (Anglo-Saxon, Mynster, from monasterium) anciently signified the church of a monastery or convent, afterwards a cathedral, (q. v.) In German, the word is written Munster. Both in German and English, this title is given to several large cathedrals, as, York minster, the minster of Strasburg, &c. It is also found in the names of several places, which owe their origin or celebrity to a monastery, as, Westminster, Leominster, &c. Minstrel (French, menistrier,frommin- isterialis); a name introduced into Eng- land by the Normans, and which compre- hended singers and performers of instru- mental music, together with jugglers, dancers, sleight-of-hand performers, and other similar persons, whose trade it was to amuse the great. The character of the minstrels differed much at different peri- ods; and while we find them, at one time, the friends and favorites of princes, we see them, in the reign of queen Eliza- beth, classed with beggars and vagabonds, and forbidden to exercise their trade. The minstrels often sang the compositions of othere, but they were often the authors of the poems which they recited. (See Percy's and Ritson's works on minstrelsy; see, also, the articles Minnesinger, and Troubadours.) Mint (mentha); a genus of labiate plants, distinguished, however, by having the corolla divided into four nearly equal lobes. The stamens are four, two of them longer than the othere. The species are herbaceous, nearly all perennial, having square stems, which bear opposite and simple leaves; the flowers are small, ver- ticillate, collected into bunches in the axils of the leaves. Sixty species are known, all growing in temperate climates, and most of them European. Two or three species only inhabit the U. States. They abound in resinous dots, which con- tain an essential oil. They have an agreeable odor, and have been celebrated, from remote antiquity, both in mythology and from their useful quabties. They partake, in the highest degree, of the tonic and stimulating properties which are found in all labiate plants. To the taste they are bitter, aromatic and pun- gent. The M. piperita, or pepper-mint, is the most jiowerful, and, on this account, is most generally employed in medicine. The M. viridis, or spear-mint, is milder, more agreeable, and is veiy commonly employed for culinary purposes. The latter plant is now naturalized, and very frequent in many parts of the U. States. Mint ; a place where money is coined by jiublic authority. In Great Britain there was formerly a mint in almost every county; but the privilege of coining is now a royal prerogative in that countiy, and the prerogative of the sovereign power in other countries. The only mint now in Great Britain is in the Tower of Lon- don. The mint in the U, States is in Philadelphia. Coining, among the an- cients, and, indeed, among die modems till within the last 280 years, appeare to have been very mdely and imperfectly performed, by placing the blank piece of money between two dies, or steel punches, containing the design of the coin, and striking upon the upper one with a ham- mer. This hammer-money is always im- perfect, from the uncertainty of placing the two dies exactly over each other, and also from the improbabUity of a man 520 MINT—MINUCIUS FELIX. being able to strike a blow with such force as to make all parts ofthe impression equally perfect The coining-press, or mill, is of French origin, and is generally said to have been firet tried in the palace of Hemy II of France, in 1550 or 1553. Itcontinued in use till 1583,when Henry III reestablished die hammer-coinage, on ac- count of its superior cheapness. The mill, or press, was introduced from France into England in 1562, hi the reign of Elizabeth; but, after about ten years, it was given up for the same reason as in France. In France, it was reestablished completely in 1645, by Louis XIV. In 1623, it was established anew in England, by Briot, a French artist It was used there, alter- nately with the hammer, for 40 yeare. Under Charles II, in 1662, it obtained the complete ascendency, and has remained in use ever since. The improvements made in it by Mr. Boulton have made it the cheapest method, as well as the most perfect. In coining by the mill, the bars, or ingots of gold or silver, after having been cast, are taken out of the moulds, and their surfaces cleaned. They are then flattened by rollers, and reduced to the proper thickness to suit the spe- cies of money about to be coined. To render the plates more uniform, they are sometimes wire-drawn, by passing them through narrow holes in a steel plate. The plates, whether of gold, sil- ver, or copper, when reduced to their proper thickness, are next cut out into round pieces, called blanks, or planchets. This cutting is performed by a circular steel punch ofthe size ofthe coin, which is driven downward by a powerful screw, and passes through a corresponding cir- cular hole, carrying before it the piece of metal whicli is jiunched out. The pieces which are thus cut, are brought to the standard weight, if necessary, by filing or rasping; and the deficient pieces, together with the corners and pieces of the plates left by the circles, are returned to the melter. The milling, by which the in- scription, or other impression, is given to the edge of the coin, is performed by rolling the coin, edgewise, between two plates of steel, in the form of rulers, each of which contains half of the engraved edging. One of these jilates is fixed, and die other is movable by a rack and jiin- ion. The coin, being placed between them, is earned along by the motion of the rack, till it has made half a revolution, and received the whole impression on its edge. The most important part of the coining still remains to be done, and con- sists in stamping both sides with the ap- jiropriate device, or figure, in relief. For this purpose, the circular piece is placed between two steel dies, upon which the figures to be imjiressed are sunk, or en- graved in the manner of an intaglio. The two dies are then forcibly pressed to- gether, by the action of a powerful screw, to which is attached a heavy transverse beam, which serves the purjiose of a fly, and concentrates the force at the moment of the impression. The coin is now fin- ished, and is thrown out when the screw- rises. In the coining machinery erected by Boulton and Watt, and introduced at the mint in England, the jirocess is per- formed by steam power, and both the edges and faces of the money are coined at the same time. By means of this ma- chinery, eight presses, attended by boys, can strike 19,000 pieces of money in an hour; and an exact register is kept by the machine of the number of pieces struck. For the coining of medals the process is nearly the same as for that of money. The principal difference consists in this, that money, having but a small relief receives its impressions at a single stroke of the engine; whereas in medals, the high relief makes several strokes neces- sary ; for which purpose the piece is taken out from between the dies, heated, and returned again. This process for medal- lions is sometimes repeated as many as a dozen or more times, before the full im- pression is given them. Some medallions, in a very high relievo, are obliged to be cast in sand, and afterwards perfected by being sent to press. Mintarees, or Minetarres (called, also, the Big-Bellies); a tribe of Indians, in the northern part of the Missouri Terri- tory. (See Indians, American.) Minucius Felix, Marcus; a native of Africa, who, about the close ofthe second and the commencement of the third centu- ries of the Christian era, attained to a con- siderable degree of reputation at Rome as a rhetorician. He was a Christian, and wrote a dialogue in defence of his religion, entitled Octavius, of which Jerome and Lactantius speak highly. This work, however, was long considered to be the composition of Arnobius, till, in 1560, Baudouin restored it to its real author. Another treatise, De Fato, has also been ascribed to him; but from the difference of style which it exhibits, when compared with the other work, some doubts are en- tertained as to its authenticity. There are two English translations of the Octa- vius. MINUET—MIRABEAU. 521 Minuet (French, menuet); a French dance, in slow time, which requires great grace and dignity of carriage. It was, therefore, considered as the touchstone of an elegant dancer, and is admirably adajited to cultivate ease and grace of mo- tion. It was the favorite dance in the time of Louis XIV, but has since been supplanted by contra-dances, quadrilles, &c. According to Brossard, the minuet was originally from Poitou, and is said to have had, at firet, a quicker motion. Ac- cording to Schubart, Lully (1603 to 1687) was the inventor of the minuet, and Louis XIV is said to have danced the firet in 1660, at Versailles. The name is derived from menu (little), on account of its short, measured steps. Minute ; a division of time, and of an- gular measure. The degree is divided into 60 minutes. The divisions of de- grees are fractions, whose denominators increase in a sexagesimal ratio ; that is, a minute is = -^\j, or second = -g^u* &('- of a degree. Minutes are expressed by acute accents, thus' the seconds by two" ; the thirds by three "'. In the computation of time, a minute is the 60th part of an hour. Minutoli, Henry, baron Menu von, was born at Geneva, of a Savoyard family, m 1772; entered the Prussian military ser- vice, and was, at a later period, tutor to prince Charles, son ofthe king. In 1820, he married the widow of baron Von Watz- dorf. She accompanied him on his sci- entific expedition to Egypt, made under the royal patronage. He returned in 1822. A part of his collections was lost by shipwreck; the king of Prussia jiur- cbased the remainder for the new museum in Berlin, for about $15,000. Among his works are, Considerations on the Military Art (3d ed., 1816); On the Ancient Paint- ing on Glass (in connexion with Klaproth); Journey to the Temple of Jupiter Ain- mon, in the Desert of Libya (Berlin, 1824); Additions to my Journey, &c. (1827); and Description of an old Heathen Burial Place, discovered at Stendal in 1826 (Ber- lin, 1828). The baroness has also pub- lished Souvenirs d'Egypte (Paris, 1826: English, London, 1827). The travellers arrived at Alexandria, from whence the baroness went to Cairo, while her husband visited Cyrene (q. v.), determined the po- sition of the oracle of Jupiter Amnion, at Si wall (in 29° 12' N. lat.), and, after return- ing to Cairo, visited Thebes. The works above mentioned contain numerous en- gravings. Miny.b ; 1. the Argonauts were so called, either because the bravest of dieir 44* number were descended from Minyas, or because they were natives of the land of the Minyae, who had occujiied the coun- tiy from Iolchos to Orchomenus.—2. A jieople of Boeotia, near Orchomenus. Their state was, at an early period, powerful, and was founded by a Pelasgic tribe. They derive their name from Minyas, one of their kings, whose father, Orchomenus, built the city of that name.—See Midler's Orchomenos und die Minyer (Gottingen, Miquelets ; the inhabitants of the Southern Pyrenees, in Catalonia, and in the French departments ofthe Upper and Eastern Pyrenees, on the heights of the chain of mountains which forms the boun- dary between France and Spain. They are mostly herdsmen, hunters, coal-burn- ers, &c. They are warlike, and inclined to jilunder. They also accompany travel- lers on the mountain-passes, and receive high pay for their protection. In war, they are dangerous jiartisans, who often descend into France in troops. In the war with Napoleon, they made them- selves formidable to the French troops in Catalonia. Miquelon; an island in the Atlantic ocean, near the southern coast of New- foundland, belonging to France ; lat. 47° 4' N.; lon. 56° 20' W. To the south of it lies Little Miqueion (Petite Miquelon), which, since 1783, has been connected with it by a sand-bank. These islands are under the direction of the command- ant of St. Pien-e (see Pierre, St.), and are occupietl only by a few families engaged in the fisheries. Mirabeau, Honore Gabriel Ricquetti, count of, so famous for his influence in the French revolution, was born March 9, 1749, at Bignon, in Provence, and died at Paris, April 2, 1791. He sprang from a celebrated family. Nature gave him vio- lent passions and a robust frame. Educa- tion might have made him a truly great man; but the propensities of his genius were checked, and the developement of his energies perverted. When 14 yeare of age, he entered a military boarding school, where he studied mathematics, made some jirogress in music and draw- ing, and became a proficient in bodily exercises. But as his moral education was entirely neglected, the most vehement passions grew with his growth. While yet a boy, he published a eulogy on the great Conde, and some pieces in verse. On leaving school, he entered the military service; and his intercourse with young and dissipated officers made him familiar 522 MIRABEAU. with all their vices. His active mind, however, could not remain idle, and he read all the books which he could procure on the military art. He also fell in love; and his passion was marked by all the impetuosity of his character. His father, who systematically thwarted his inclina- tions, now procured his confinement in a fortress on tbe island of Re. He was even on the point of having him sent to the Dutch colonies. But the friends of the family succeeded in preventing ir. This abuse ofthe paternal power decided the son's hatred of despotism. After his liberation, he went, as a volunteer, to Corsica. He distinguished himself, and obtained a commission as captain of dra- goons; but as his father refused to pur- chase him a regiment, he abandoned, though unwillingly, the military jirofes- sion. During the war in Corsica, he wrote a memoir respecting it, with re- marks on the abuses of the Genoese aris- tocracy, and gave it to his father, who de- stroyed it. In conformity with the re- quest of his father, he now settled in Limousin, and employed himself in culti- vating the earth and in conducting law- suits. But he soon became weary of his situation. His domestic circumstances, moreover, were unhajijiy. In 1772, he had received, in Aix, the hand of Made- moiselle de Marginane, an amiable young lad}', with jirospects of large fortune. But his extravagant propensities soon in- volved him in a debt of 160,000 livres. His contentious and inflexible father took advantage of the embarrassments of hisson, and obtained, from the Chatelet in Paris, an interdict, hy which he confined him to his estate. Here he published his Essay on Despotism. He soon after left his place of confinement, to avenge an insult offered to his sister ; and a new lettre de cachet imprisoned him, in 1774, in the castle of If, from whence he was trans- ferred to Joux, near Pontarlier, in 1775. Here he first saw his Sophia, the wife of the president Monnier, a man of advanced age. She was well affected towards him. His passion for her soon became ex- tremely violent. But St. Maurice, the commander of the fortress, was his rival. In order to escape from the persecutions of this man and his father, he fled to Di- jon, whither his mistress followed. He was seized, and his father obtained new letters of arrest. Meanwhile M. de Malesherbes, who was then minister, and felt much good will for the young Mira- beau, gave him a hint to escape from the country. He fled to Switzerland, and Sophia rejoined him there. He tiien took refuge in Holland with his mistress. The offended husband entered a com- plaint for seduction. Mirabeau was con- demned to death, and was decapitated hi effigy. In Holland, he went under the name of St. Matthew, and lived unno- ticed with Sophia, his books, and some friends. During the yeare 1776 and 1777, he supported himself and his mistress al- together by his literary labore. Among other things, Mirabeau translated, in con- junction with Durival, Watson's History of Philippe II. Learning that his fother accused him of the blackest offences, he avenged himself by sending abroad libels against him. His father now effected a violation of international law, and a police officer was sent to Holland, with lettere of arrest, signed by Amelot and Ver- gennes. Mirabeau and his mistress were arrested, in 1777, without the consent of the Dutch governor. Mirabeau was in- carcerated at Vincennes; but Sophia, being far advanced in pregnancy, was resigned to the inspection ofthe jiolice. After her delivery of a daughter, she was conveyed to the convent of St. Clara, at Gien. Dur- ing an imprisonment of three years and a half, at Vincennes, Mirabeau wrote the celebrated Lettres a Sophie; Lettres origi- nates de Mirabeau (1792, 4 vols.). Of these, Lettres icrites du Donjon de Vin- cennes (1777—1780, 3 vols.), a new edi- tion ajipeared in 1820. Their accent is jiassionate, and the style is various, flow- ing and forcible. Mirabeau's health was much affected by his confinement, and, under many bodily sufferings, he wrote, with the assistance of Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible, his Erotica Biblion, a very free picture of the excesses of physical love, among different nations, jiarticularly the Jews. At the same time, he projected a grammar and a treatise on mythology, translated Johannes Secundus, and exposed the abuses of despostic authority in his energetic work on Lettres de Cachet. As he was denied paper, he tore out the blank leaves in the beginning and end of the books allowed him. He concealed the leaves in the lining of his clothes, and left the prison with the manuscript of his Lettres de Cachet thus sewed in. His long incarceration had wearied his persecutors. The judges also saw that the conduct of Mirabeau's father, whose own character was far from moral, could only proceed from revenge and hatred. The son was therefore released, in 1780, and seems to have become reconciled with his father, for he Uved with him, and left the pater- MIRABEAU. 523 nal mansion only to obtain the revocation of the sentence of death pronounced against him in Pontarlier, in which he succeeded in 1782. At the same time, Sojihia recovered her dovviy and freedom. Mirabeau now returned to Provence, and tried to effect a reconciliation with his wife. But nothing could overcome the opposition of his wife's relatives. He therefore had recourse to the law, and a jirocess took place which was honorable to neither Jiarty, and which his wife gained. Mirabeau now went to London. His lettere show that his ojiinions respecting England were not, in general, very fa- vorable. He wrote there the Considira- tions sur VOrdre de Cincinnatus—an or- der of which he disapproved, as the be- ginning of a military aristocracy in the U. States. He likewise wrote against the plan of Joseph II to make the Scheldt free, and, against Linguet's famous work,—his Doutes sur la Liberti de I'Escaut. He was also a coadjutor in the Freuch journal, published in London, Le Courrier de I'Eu- rope. In his subsequent writings on the Caisse d'Escompte, the Banque de St. Charles, the Actions des Eaux, he discuss- ed the grounds of public credit, and of speculations in the public stocks, accord- ing to Adam Smith's principles, with much eloquence. This and the satirical por- traits of famous pereons, brought his works into rejiute. He nevertheless so- licited in vain, of the minister of finance, Calonne, the office of consul in Dantzic or Hamburg. He now lived some months of 1786 in Berlin, and theii went to Bruns- wick, but returned to Berlin in the same year, probably with secret commissions from his court. In Berlin he collected information and projected the plan of the ingenious, but far frbm faultless work, De la Monarchic Prussienne, which was exe- cuted by his friend Mauvillon. (q. v.) His description of Frederic II is especially admired. In 1787, Mirabeau returned to France. Calonne having convoked the notables, Mirabeau brought out his Dinon- ciation de VAgiotage, au Roi et aux Nota- bles. The king, on account of the offen- sive character of this pamjihlet, ordered the author to be imprisoned ; but he escaped, and wrote a continuation of his Dinontiation de VAgiotage. He now wrote his Avis aux Bataves. At that time there also appeared (von Dohm asserts, V. 409, without the consent of Mirabeau) the lettere on the Prussian court, written in.confidence to Calonne, entitled His- toire secrete de la Cour de Berlin, ou Cor- respond. (Tun Voyageur Frangais, depuis le 5 JuUl. jusqu' au 19 Janv., 1787 (1789, 2 vols.). This work was an indiscreet disclosure of his political manoeuvres, ami was written in the tone of a libel. It excited general rejirehension of a man so unscnipulous as to make ofthe secrets of hospitality, and the confidence of his friends and the government, an offering to the public appetite for scandal. The work was condemned, by the parliament, to be burnt by the common hangman. When the estates were actually convoked, he went to Provence for the purjiose of being elected; but the noblesse of the prov- ince refused him a place among them, on the ground that none were entitled to it but the possessore of fiefs. He was now chosen, by acclamation, a deputy of the third estate, where he soon obtained an immense influence. The 23d of June was one of the most remarkable days of his political career. It was decisive of the fate of the monarchy. The king, after making important concessions in this memorable sitting, had ordered the assembly to sepa- rate. The assembly, however, remained together in tbeir seats. The marquis of Breze, master of ceremonies, came to remind the assembly of the ordere of the monarch. Mirabeau, in the name of his colleagues, made the celebrated answer, " The commons of France have resolved to deliberate. We have listened to the king's exjiosition of the views whicli have been suggested to him ; and you, who have no claim to be his organ iu this assembly.— you, who have here no place, nor vote, nor right of speaking,—you are not the person to remind us of his discourse. Go, tell your master that we are here by the order of the people, and that nothing shall drive us hence but the bayonet." Mirabeau had already made an unsuccessful attempt to establish an understanding with the min- istere, with a view of relieving the dis- tracted state of his pecuniary affaire. Negotiations were afterwards entered into between him and the court He required a pension of 40,000 francs a week, and the promise of such a dijilomatic or minis- terial post as he should select, after the reestablishment of the royal authority. These demands were conceded, and he received the pension for several weeks. It was agreed that a dissolution of the as- sembly should be effected by an expres- sion of the will of the nation, and that a new assembly should be convoked, com- posed of men of more moderate opinions. While the negotiations were pending, Mirabeau redoubled his activity in the as- sembly, and at the Jacobin club. Sus- 524 MIRABEAU—MIRACLE. picions were already entertained of his defection from the revolutionary party, and clamors had already been raised against him, when a fever closed his stormy life, April 2, 1791. The news of his decease was received with eveiy mark of popular mourning: his funeral was solemnized with the utmost pomp. His body was deposited in the Pantheon, from which, however, in 1793, his re- mains were taken and dispersed by the populace, who then stigmatised him as a royalist.—Mirabeau was the creature of his passions; the early restraints, which had been imposed upon him, served only to inflame them ; and, with all the re- sources of genius, a decision and energy of will which yielded to no opposition, an audacity of purpose which shrunk before no difficulties, he united an insatiable am- bition. His orations are collected in the work entitled Mirabeau peint par lui-meme (1791, 4 vols!), and in the Collection compl. des Travaux de Mirabeau a VAssemblee nationale par Mijan (1791, etc., 5 vols.), in Esprit de Mirabeau (1804), Lettres inidUes de Mirabeau, publ.par Vitry (Par- is, 1816, 2 vols.), in his (Euvres oratoires (complete, at Paris, 1819, 2 vols.), and OSuvres choisies de Mirabeau (Paris, 1820). Concerning his connexion with the court, the Memoirs of Mad. Campan (Paris, 1823, 3 vols.), contain some remarkable disclo- sures. The fifth livraison of the Mimoires des Contemporains (Paris, 1824) consists of four parts, containing Mim. sur Mira- beau d son Epoque, sa Vie littiraire dprivie, etc. Miracle (Latin, miraculum, a wonder, a prodigy; in the original Greek, annttov, rtpas) is usually defined to be a deviation from the course of nature, or an event in a given system which cannot be account- ed for by the operation of any general jirinciple in that system. But this defini- tion seems to omit one of the elements of a miracle, viz. that it is an event produced by the interposition of an Intelligent Power for moral jiurposes; for, otherwise, we must consider every strange phenomenon, which our knowledge will not permit us to explain, as a miraculous event. To the atheist, who does not admit the existence of a Supreme Intelligence, a miracle is an impossibility, a contradiction in terms. A miraculous event cannot, indeed, prove the existence of God, for it presupposes it; but it may prove the moral government of the world by the Deity, or the divine character of a communication which claims to come from him. It is in this light that we must consider miracles as the proofs of a revelation; and, in fact, a rev- elation is itself a miracle. If one claims to be a teacher from Got!, he asserts a mi- raculous communication with God: this communication, however, cannot be visi- ble, and visible miracles may therefore be necessary to give credibility to his preten- sions. To those who deny the possibility of miracles, a revelation is impossible. The use, then, of a miraculous interposi- tion in changing the usual couree of nature is to prove the moral government of God, and to explain the character of it. As to the nature of miraculous events, we may distinguish those which do not appear su- pernatural in themselves, but are rendered so by the manner in which they are pro- duced, as cures of diseases by a touch or a wortl, and those which are supernatural in themselves, as in the burning bush whicli was not consumed, the stopping of the couree of the sun, &c. In proof of miraculous occurrences, we must have recourse to the same kind of evidence as that by which we determine the truth of historical accounts in general; for, though miracles, in consequence of their extraor- dinary nature, challenge a fuller and more accurate investigation, still they do not admit an investigation conducted on dif- ferent principles, testimony being the only assignable medium of proof for past events of any kind. While some writere have entirely denied the possibility of miracles, othere have, with the same result, denied the possibility of proving the occurrence of a miracle. Hume's argument on this point is, that it is contrary to experience that a miracle should be true, but it is not contrary to experience that testimony should be false: it is therefore more im- probable that the miracle should be true than that the testimony should be false. Without dwelling on the ambiguity ofthe expression "contrary to experience," it may be replied that the improbability arising from a want of experience of such events is only equal to the probability of their repetition, this being the jirecise measure ofthe improbability of their per- formance. To assert that, because mira- cles have occureed, they ought to occur again, or frequently, is to render a miracle impossible ; for an event which is fre- quently occurring would cease to be a miracle. The existence of a Supreme In- telligence being allowed, the infrequency of miracles, or their being against our ex- perience, is no argument against their oc- currence. Hume asserts that a miracle is a contest of improbabilities; and there is no need of denying this assertion, as is MIRACLE—MIRAGE. 525 usually done : the improbability of a mira- cle is weakened by considering it an event in the moral system of the universe—not a causeless phenomenon, or a useless violation of nature; and the improbability that the testimony to it should be false is strengthened by the publicity of the event, the intelligence and honesty of the wit- nesses, the consideration of the results which followed it, &c. Further than this, the testimony, under these circumstances, is a fact which it is more easy to account for by allowing the event testified to to have actually taken-place, than to have recourse to any other hypothesis. In ex- amining the different objections which have been urged against miracles, it will be seen that they arise, in general, from a neglect of the existence of a moral sys- tem : when it is objected that they are against the usual course of nature, that is, against all we know of the government of God, it is forgotten that they are entirely in accordance with his moral government, and that experience as fully proves the existence and nature, as plainly teaches the character, of this government, as of the physical system of the world. Most of the miracles, of which histoiy is full, may, indeed, be put aside from want of sufficient testimony, from their being use- less, unnecessary, or even unworthy of a wise and good Being, from the circum- stance that the workers of them did not lay any claim to divine agency, from their having been without results, &c. We may also reject those which are referable to false perceptions; those which are merely tentative, that is, belonging to a series of attempts of which some were unsuccessful; those which are doubtful in their nature ; those which are merely exaggerations of natural events, &c, es- pecially if they are unconnected with oth- ere of a different character, or with moral effects: so miracles which are in support of an established creed, pretended to be wrought by men vested with a divine character in the presence of credulous dev- otees, if they do not belong to any of those above cited, are to be looked ujion with suspicion. But, when miraculous powere are claimed to be exerted by the ojiponents of what is established in public opinion and supported by public authority, in the face of opposition and incredulity, by men without influence or friends, and when they convince and confound their bitterest enemies, and jiroduce a change in their lives and characters as a jiroof of their convereion,—when these wimesses, with no interested motives, but with the cer- tain prospect of suffering and persecution, come forward and testify their belief, and when all these results are declared to have been produced to prove the divine origin of doctrines calculated to elevate human- ity, and tbe divine mission of teachers, who spoke as no man had ever before spoken,—we are not surely to refer these to the illusions of credulity, or the jugglings of imposture. It is not possible, in a work of this nature, to go into a minute exami- nation of particulars. The subject is fully and ably treated in Campbell's Dis- sertation on Miracles, in Reply to Hume; in Paley's Evidences of Christianity; in Butler's Analogy of Natural and Revealed Religion, and numerous other works, to which we must refer the reader. Mirage ; an optical phenomenon, pro- duced by refraction. The unusual eleva- tion or apparent approximation of coasts, mountains, ships, and other objects, has long been known under the name of looming; and, if the same phenomenon is accompanied by inverted images, it is called a mirage. The mirage is frequently observed on the surface of the sea by sailors, and on dry sandy plains, as in diose of Egypt, where it was repeatedly seen by the French, during their campaign in that country. The appearance pre- sented is that of a double image of the object in the air; one of the images being in the natural position, the other inverted, so as to resemble a natural object and its inverted image in the water. It may be produced whenever the rays of light meet in an oblique direction, the surface of a less refracting medium than that in which they were previously moving: they are thus turned back into the original medium in the same direction in which they would be impelled by reflection taking place at the common surface ofthe two mediums. The surface of the earth or sea, becoming heated, communicates a portion of its caloric to the superincumbent layer of air, which thus becomes less dense than the superior layers. The rays of light which proceed from an object in the heated layer will then be bent downward, and thus ar- rive at the end in such a direction as to cause the object to appear above its actual position. In the desert, where the surface is perfectly level, a plain thus assumes the appearance of a lake, reflecting the shad- ows of objects^ within and around it, and the thirsty traveller is often tantalized with this appearance, which recedes, as, by approaching it, he changes the angle of direction of the rays which enter his eye. The mirage is commonly vertical, 526 MIRAGE—MIRANDOLA. that is, presenting the appearance above- described of one object over another, like a ship above its shadow in the water. Sometimes, however, the images afe hor- izontal. On the surface of the sea, the phenomenon may also be produced by the difference of moisture in die layer of air in contact with the water and the superior layer. (See Optics.) Miranda, don Francisco, the earliest martyr of freedom in Spanish America, was born at Caracas, of au ancient Span- ish family. His grandfather was govern- or of the province of Caracas. At the age of twenty, he travelled through a great part of America on foot, and afterwards received the commission of colonel in the Spanish service. The governor of Guati- mala employed him on several important occasions. In 1783, he visited the U. States, and then travelled on foot through England, France, Italy and Spain, against which he cherished the bitterest hatted. In 1789, he was at Petersburg, and Cath- arine endeavored to engage him in her service, but the events in France drew bim to Paris. Here he was employed on a mission to Pitt, and, through Petition's influence, was appointed major-generaL Under Dumouriez, he was second in command in Champagne and Belgium, and his skill as an engineer and tactician, united with his uncommon talents, obtain- ed for him the esteem of the republicans in Paris, as well as the respect of the ar- my. Wben Dumouriez entered Holland, Miranda was tfirected to besiege Maes- tricht, but, being unsupported by general Valence, was obliged to abandon the siege. In the battle of Neerwinden, he commanded the left wing: Dumouriez imputed to him the loss of the battle; but the charge was refbted by Miranda, in an able and ingenious defence. Dumouriez and Miranda had both declared against the Jacobins; but the former now became an object of suspicion to Miranda, who communicated his fears to his friend Pe- tition, then a member of the committee of public safety, and Miranda was ordered to arrest the commander. (See Dumou- riez.) The Girondists, however, soon fell before the Mountain party, and Miranda was obliged to appear before the revolu- tionary tribunal. He was not convicted of the charges brought against him, and the fall of Robespierre delivered him from prison. Having, however, become sus- pected by the directory, he was again thrown into prison, and, in 1797, was con- demned to transportation, but fled to Eng- land. In 1803, he returned to Paris, and was again banished, for taking part in an opposition to the first consul. General Miranda now devoted himself, with all the energy of his character, to the accomplish- ment of his long cherished scheme of overthrowing the Spanish dominion in America. Having procured some secret assistance, he sailed from New York in 1806, with one ship and a number of vol- unteers, and touched at St. Domingo, where he chartered two schooners. On arriving offthe coast, the two latter were capturetl by Spanish guardacostas^ and he was obliged to escape with his ship. In August, he landed in Venezuela; but his attempts to rouse the inhabitants were altogether unsuccessful, and he found himself compelled to reembark. In 1810, he renewed his attempt with more suc- cess (see Colombia), but was finally obliged to capitulate to the Spanish general Mon- teverde, who, in violation of the articles of his surrender, treated him as a prisoner. Miranda was sent to Spain, and confined in the dungeons of the inquisition at Ca- diz, where he died, after four years' im- prisonment. The monks caused his body to be thrown out without burial. Mi- randa was a man of great energy and sa- gaeity, full of resources, bold, active and intelligent. Mirandola, Giovanni Pico della, count and prince of Concordia, surnamed the Phanix, one of the brightest ornaments of literature at the time ofthe revival of let- tere, born in 1463, was the youngest son of Gianfrancesco della Mirandola and Julia, of the noble family of Boiardo. His youth was marked by an early display of talent, and, being destined for the church, he was placed at Bologna, to pursue the study of the canon law, at the age of four- teen years. Two years were spent in this course, when his growing repugnance to the study, and his inclination to philosoph- ical and scientific subjects, led him to visit the different parts of Italy and France for the purpose of observation, and to attend the most celebratedvschools and most dis- tinguished professors. After seven years ofthe most assiduous application, he went to Rome, and, in 1486, proposed 900 theses on all subjects, which he declared himself ready to defend, according to the custom of the times, in public. He chal- lenged all the learned from all countries to dispute with him, and offered to pay the expenses ofthe journey to those who came from a distance. No one ventured to appear against him, and the envious endeavored to implicate him in a charge of heresy. Mirandola repelled the charge, MUtANDOLA-MHtROR. 527 in his Apologia, a work full of profound erudition. To deprive his enemies of every pretext for their accusations, he de- termined, although not insensible to love and its pleasures, to lead the most rigid course of life, and to devote himself en- tirely to lettere. In consequence of this resolution, he threw into the fire five books of amatory poems in Italian, the loss of which is much to be regretted. None of his writings on this subject has been preserved, except a commentary on a canzone of Girolamo Benivieni, in which he follows the notions of the New Platonists in respect to love. Having next applied himself to the study of bibli- cal literature, he published the fruits in his Heptaplus, a mystical or cabalistic ex- planation of die history ofthe creation, in which he derives Plato's doctrines from Moses. Two yeare after, he published a treatise in ten chapters—De Eide et Uno—in which he aimed to unite the opinions of Plato and Aristotle. Miran- dola died at Florence, in 1494, where he had lived some time in terms of intimacy with some of the most learned and distin- guished men of the age, particularly Lo- renzo de' Medici and Politian. At the time of his death, he was employed in great literary enterprises, to which his treatise against astrology must be consid- ered as preparatory. He was considered by his contemporaries a miracle of learn- ing and genius. Paolo Giovio says that the immortal gods had united in him all rare gifts of mind and body. In judging of his works, it is necessary, however, to remember the state of letters at the time when he lived. His nejihew Gianfran- cesco Pico was a disciple of his, but not equal to his master. MirE) Noel de; a good engraver of Rouen, among whose works are orna- mental engravings accompanying die writings of Rousseau, Voltaire, Boccaccio and Lafonteine. His last works form part of the beautiful Galerie de Florence. He died in 1801. Mirevelt, Michael Janson, a famous portrait painter, bom at Delft, in 1568, was the son of a goldsmith. He first intended to become an engraver unJer Wierinx, but, at a later period, studied the art of jiainting under a jiainter named Blocklandt He is said to have jiainted 10,000 portraits, and to have received a high price for them. Mirevelt was a Meimonite, of a very amiable disposition. He died in his native city, in 1641. His eldest son, Peter Mirevelt, is also esteemed as a painter. Miriam, the sister of Moses, directed the Hebrew women in their rejoicings after the passage ofthe Red sea. Having spoken against Moses, on account of his marriage with an Ethiopian woman, she was struck with leprosy, and shut out of the camp seven days. (Num. xii.) She died at Kadesh. (Id. xx, i.) Mirkhond, or Mirchond. (See Per- sian Literature.) Mirror. Mirrors are surfaces of pol- ished metal, or glass silvered on its poste- rior side, capable of reflecting the rays of light from objects placed before them, and exhibiting to us their image. There are three classes of mirrors, distinguishable by the figure of their reflecting surface: they are plain, concave and convex. The reflexion of light by either of these mir- rors observes the constant law, that the angle which the incident ray makes with the reflecting surface is equal to the an- gle of reflection. When a person views himself in a looking-glass, if he measures the size of which he appeare on the glass, the image will always be one half his real magnitude; for, as the image appears be- hind the glass exacdy at the distance of the object before it, the mirror will be half way between the pereon and his image; so that it will cut across the cone which comes from his image to his eye, half way between its base and its ajiex: the base of the cone is the image seen, the apex is at the pupil of the eye, where all the rays from the image are united in a point Concave mirrors are those whose polished surfaces are spherically hollow. The properties of these min-ore may be easily understood, when we consider their surface as composed of an indefinite num- ber of small planes, all of which make a determinate angle with each other, so as to throw all the rays to a point This point is called the focus of the mirror, where an image of the object will be formed in an inverted position. The dis- tance of this focal point from the surface ofthe mirror when the curvature is mod- erate, will be equal to half its radius. Concave mirrors are of great importance in the construction of reflecting telescopes, in which they are commonly called spec- ula. (See Telescopes.) The employment of concave mirrors in collecting the heat of the sun's rays from the whole of its surface to a single point, thus accumulat- ing a very great degree of heat, for the combustion and fusion of various natural substances that are infusible in tbe greatest heat capable of being jiroduced from ordi- nary fire, may be exemplified, among those 528 MIRROR—MISERERE. of modem date, by the burning mirror of M. de Villette. The diameter of this metal speculum was three feet eleven inches, and the distance of its focus from the surface was three feet two inches. The composition of this metal was of tin and copper, which reflects the light very powerfully, and is capable of a high degree of polish. When exposed to the rays ofthe sun, by doctors Harris and Desaguliers, a silver sixpence was melted in seven and a half seconds when placed in its focus. A copper half-penny was melted in sixteen seconds, and liquefied in thirty-four seconds ; tin was melted in three seconds, and a diamond, weighing four grains, lost seven eighths of its weight The intensity of beat obtained by burning mirrors or lenses, will always be as the area of the reflecting surface exposed to the sun is to the area of the small circle of light collected in its focus; thus the diameter of the spot of light at the focus of Villette's mirror, was 0.358 of an inch, and the diameter ofthe mirror, forty-seven inches: hence the area of these circles was as 0.3582 to 472, that is, the intensity of the sun's rays was increased 17257 times at the focal point The loss of light occasioned in passing through the medium of which the lens is composed, together with that lost by reflection from the surface of mirrors, must, however, be deducted from this theoretical calculation. (For further information, see Burning Mirrors.) Concave mirrors afford many curious illustrations of their peculiar prop- erties ; for example, when a pereon stands in front of a concave mirror, a little further from its surface than its focus (or half the radius of its concavity), he will observe his own image pendent in the air before him, and in an inverted position. This image will advance and recede with him; and, if he stretch out his hand, the image will do the like. Exhibitions have been brought before the public, in which a sin- gular deception was obtained by a large eoncave mirror. A man being placed with his head downwards, an erect image of him was exhibited in its focus, while his real person was concealed, and the place ofthe mirror darkened: tbe specta- tors were then directed to take a plate of fruit from his hand, which, in an instant, was dexterously changed for a dagger, or some other dangerous weapon. Convex mirrors are chiefly employed as ornaments in apartments. The objects viewed in these are diminished, but seen in an erect position. The images appear to emanate from a point behind the mirror: this point, which is its focus, will be half the radius of convexity behind their surface, and is called the negative or imaginary focus, because the rays are not actually collected as by a concave mirror, whose focus is called real.*—In the earlier periods, with which histoiy makes us acquainted, mir- rors were made of metal: the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans made use of metallic mirrors. Pliny, in his natural histoiy, also mentions the use of obsidian for this pur- pose. Gold and silver, highly polished, were employed by the Romans for mir- rors, which were richly ornamented with precious stones. The forms were various, but most commonly oval or round. Mischna, or Misna ; the code or collec- tion of the civil law of the Jews. The Jews pretend that, when God gave the written law to Moses, he gave him also another, not written, which was preserved by tradition among the doctors of the synagogue, till rabbi Juda, surnamed the Holy, seeing the danger they were in, through their dispersion, of departing from the tradition of their fathere, reduc- ed it to writing. The Misna is divided into six parts: the firet relates to the dis- tinction of seeds in a field, to trees, fruits, tithes, &c. ; the second regulates the manner of observing festivals; the third treats of women and matrimonial cases; the fourth, of losses in trade, &c.; the fifth is on oblations, sacrifices, &c.; and the sixth treats ofthe several sorts of puri- fication. (See Talmud.) Misdemeanor, in law; a crime of a lower nature. Crimes and misdemeanors, |iroperly speaking, are mere synonymous terms, though, in common usage, the word crime is made to denote such offences as are of a deeper and more atro- cious dye; while smaller faults and omis- sions of less consequence, are comprised under the gentler name of misdemeanors only. Miserere (Latin, have mercy); the name of a celebrated church song, taken from the fifty-seventh psalm, beginning, in the Vulgate, Miserere mei, Domine. The mis- erere forms part of certain liturgies, and various great composers have taken it as a subject The miserere of Allegri (q. v.) is particularly famous; and this alone, sung by the papal choir, in the capeUa Sistina, in the Passion week, would repay the trouble of a visit to the " eternal city."— * The reflecting surface of a cylinder has been occasionally used in optical amusements for giving to anamorphoses (distorted or deform- ed pictures) regular shapes, when reflected from such surface. MISERERE—MISSAL. 529 Miserere is also the name given to pictures representing the dying Savior.—A tereible disease, produced by an obstruction of the bowels, is also called by this name. Misericordia (mercy; in Greek, rX«oS) was pereonified as a deity. She had a celebrated altar in the market-place of Athens, constituting an asylum.—Miseri- cordias Domini is the name given to the second Sunday after Easter, because the mass for this day begins with Misericor- dias Domini caniabo in aternum.—Miseri- cordc (French) was also the name of the dagger of the knights in the middle ages. Fauchet derives its name from its putting men out of pain when ireecoverably wounded, or from the sight of it causing the vanquished to ciy out for mercy. Mishna. (See Mischna.) Misitra, or Mistra ; a city of Greece, in the Morea, capital ofthe department of Laconia. It lies nearly a league from the ruins of Sparta, which have supplied mate- rials for its construction. Before the Egyp- tian expedition to the Morea, it contain- ed 6000 inhabitants and several churches, literary institutions and manufactories; it is now a heap of ruins, inhabited by about 150 families. Misletoe (viscum album); a European plant, growing parasitically on various trees, and celebrated on account of the religious purposes to whicli it was conse- crated by the ancient Celtic nations of Europe, particularly when it was found growing on the oak. At the time of the winter solstice, the Druids, who were the priests and magistrates of these people, went into the forests accompanied by the populace, and, at the foot of an old oak bearing this plant, built an altar, sacrificed victims, and performed various other reli- gious rites and ceremonies. Some relics of this superstition still remain in France; and it is also the custom in England to hang up branches of this plant at Christ- mas, mixed with other evergreens. From the same cause, for a long time, it sustain- ed a high reputation as a medicine. It is a jointed, dichotomous shrub, with sessile, oblong, entire, and opjiosite leaves, and small, yellowish-green flowers, the whole forming a jiendent bush, from two to five feet in diameter, and, in winter, covered with small white berries. These berries are very glutinous, and contain a single heart-shaped seed. The roots ofthe mis- letoe insinuate their fibres into the woody substance of trees, and the plant lives en- tirely at the exjiense of their saji, as the stems and leaves are incajiable of absorb- ing moisture. All the attempts which vol. viii. 45 have hitherto been made to raise this plant from die earth have failed. Though the misletoe is common enough on certain species of trees, it is very seldom found on the oak, and a specimen of this is pre- served in France as a great rarity. Bird- lime is» made from the berries and bark, which are boiled in water, beaten in a mortar, and washed ; but this article is usually manufactured from the bark of the holly. The American misletoe grows on trees from about lat. 40° to the gulf of Mexico, and also in the West India islands. Misnomer, in law; a misnaming or mistaking a person's name. The Chris-. tian name of a pereon should always be perfect; but the law is not so strict in re- gard to surnames, a small mistake in which will be overlooked. Misprision ; a neglect, oversight or contempt (from mespris, French, con- tempt). Thus concealment of known treason or felony is misprision. In a larger sense, misprision is taken for many great offences which are neither treason, nor felony, nor capital, but very near them; and every great misdemeanor which hath no certain name appointed by law is sometimes termed misprision. Missal (from the Latin missale), in the Catholic liturgy; the book which contains the prayers and ceremonies of the mass. It was formed by collecting the separate liturgic books formerly used in the reli- gious services, particularly the Oratorium, Ledionarium, Evangeliarum, Antiphonari- um, the Canon, &c, for the convenience of the priest. The greater part of these prayers and ceremonies are very ancient, and some of them have come down from the times of the popes Gelasius I and Gregory the Great (q. v.); some are even older. Considerable deviations and cor- ruptions, which had, in the course of time, crept into the Missal, induced the council of Trent to request of the pope a revision of it. Pius V, in 1570, required the Missal, which had been revised under his direction, to be adopted by the whole Catholic church, with the exception of those societies which, for more than two centuries, had followed another ritual with the consent of the papal see. This form of the Roman Missal has been retained until the present time ; the changes made by pope Clement VIII and Urban VIII (the latter under the direction of Bellarmin) extending little beyond altera- tions of single expressions and the addi- tion of a few new masses,"which are by no means among the best. The earliest 530 MISSAL—MISSIONS. printed missal is the Missale per totius An- ni Circulum More Ambrosiano compositum (Milan, 1475, fol.), which was followed by the Missale secundum Consuetudinem Ro- mana Curia (Rome, 1475). These, and earlier ones, composed for particular churches, especially if on parchment, are objects of bibliomania. (For the Bedford Missal, see Bedford.) The latest edition of the Missale Romanum is that of Dijon and Paris (1828, 4to.) .* (See LUurgy.) Missal, in German, is also the name of the largest letters, because formerly the missalia, or mass-books, which contain the songs and ceremonies of the mass, were written or printed with them. It is the same with the French caiwn, which prob- ably derived its name from being early employed on some work relating to the canons ofthe church. Missalia (Latin); the money paid to a clergyman for a mass read for the dead, at a Catholic funeral. Missions ; Missionaries. Even in the early ages of Christianity, it was usual for Christians, either at their own impulse, or at the desire of the community, to go into neighboring and distant lands, to preach the gospel; and, except in a few particular cases, Christianity has been jiropagated, not by arms, but by jiereua- sion. Thus Augustine (q. v.), with 40 as- sociates, was sent by Gregory the Great, to preach the gospel among the wild Saxons of Britain (597). The German church was also established, in the eighth century, by similar preachers of the gos- pel, who were afterwards called missiona- ries. More has been done for the sup- port of missions by the Catholic church than by the Protestants. Various reasons may be assigned for this : the interests of * Baron Reichlin Meldegg, doctor of theology, and professor of ecclesiastical history at the university of Freiburg, in his Proposals for the Reformation of the German Catholic Church, observes, "Some of the masses of the Roman Missal are founded on stories not sufficiently authenticated, some on evident fables, for in- stance, the mass of the Lancea Christi, of the Inventio Cruets, of several saints, Sec. Others contain prayers gross in their expressions, as, for instance, Corpus tuum, Domine, quod sumsi et sanguis, quern potavi, adhcereat visceribus meis, et fac, ut in me non remaneat scelerum macula, quern pura et sancta refecerunt sacramehta. On the other hand, how simple, beautiful and touch- ing is the prayer immediately after the adminis- tration of the host, quod ore sumsimus, Domi- ne, pura mente capiamus, et de munere temporali fiat nobis remedium sempiternum!—See Wider ROmische Verketzerungssucht (Leipsic, 1831), p. 72. Some maintain that the bishop, with his clergy and the consent of government, has the right to change the missal. the papal hierarchy, in this case, coincided with the interests of religion; and, before England had acquired the superiority by sea, Catholic Europe was more closely connected with the other jiarts of the world than the Protestant countries were; moreover, the Cathofic church had monks, whom the pope could send wherever he pleased ; and, finally, it was more wealthy than the Protestant church (see Propa- ganda, and Jesuits); not to mention, that zealous Catholics, pereuaded that this was the only saving faith, had a much stronger incitement to undertake the difficult work of convereion than Protestants. The jirincipal missions of the Catholic church, are those to China, the East In- dies, antl Japan. In the last named country, though Christianity had once made considerable progress, it is now entirely extirpated. But in China and on die Coromandel coast, the settlements established for the diffusion of Christianity still continue. The events which fol- lowed the French revolution contracted the funds of the missions, and checked their activity. According to the Nouvelles Lettres idifiantes des Missions de la Chine et des hides Orientates (Paris, 1818—20, 5 vols.), there are yet tiiree bishoprics in China, endowed by the crown of Portu- gal—those of Macao, Pekin and Nankin. The bishop of Pekin, however, lives at Macao, because no missionary is jiermitted to reside hi Pekin, except the mathemati- cians, physicians and artists in the service of the court Besides the seven provinces which belong to these three bishoprics, there are other provinces ofthe Chinese em- pire belonging to the mission of the iviques vicaires aposfoliques. Of the state of the Catholic mission in the East Indies, the abbe Dubois, a Frencli missionary, in his Lettere on the State of Christianity in India, &c, gives a not very encouraging account. Christianity ajipears to have made more progress in East Tonquin, where there are 780 churches and 87 monasteries. China and Tonquin together contain 380,000 Christians. According to the missionary reports up to Sept. 24, 1824, there were in China alone 46,287 Christians, 26 Chinese and 3 Eurojiean priests, and 29 schools for boys, and 45 for girls. In 1824, a seminary was also insti- tuted, in which 12 scholars are taught Latin. The Russian ecclesiastical mis- sion, established in China in 1727, is not intended for the conversion of the Chi- nese, but for tbe instruction of young Russian clergymen in the Chinese lan- guage. In 1822, a new Catholic mission MISSIONS. 531 was instituted in Thibet A princess, whom an Italian had converted to Chris- tianity, appointed him her firet minister, and requested of the Propaganda 80 mis- sionaries for the conversion of her subjects. Five Capuchins were accordingly sent The splendor of the Catholic worship at- tracted and won over the gentle and igno- rant children of nature in Brazil, Mexico, the countries lying on the Andes, and Paraguay, and several missions have, therefore, been introduced there. The new republics propose to restore them as schools. The Catholic church has also shown great zeal in endeavors to win back the favor of the people, and to re-. store the lost influence of the church in revolutionized France and Italy. The theocratic faction, as it was called, which included state and church in its plans of reform, cooperated in these attempts. Preparatory to the jubilee year (1825), there were missions in Rome, which were devoted to religious exercises, and which proclaimed absolution. According to the Almanac du Clergi de France pour I'An 1824, a congregation of missions was established in France as early as 1816, which, unlike the old French seminary for foreign missions (in China, Cochin- China, Tonquin, Siam and Pondicherry), was destined solely to restore the Roman Catholic religion in France to its former im- portance. Besides this, there was a congri- galion du St. Esprit, destined for the service of the hospitals and missions. For this do- mestic mission in France, a maison princi- pale, with a seminary for novices, was in- stituted, which, in some dioceses, furnished priests to the destitute parishes. To ac- complish, at the same time, a political and religious restoration, a crowd of Jesuits had entered France with the Bourbons; they were called peres de lafoi; they ed- ucated a great number of pupils, not only in theology, but in other branches of knowledge, and, by this means, kindled a religious enthusiasm, which, in some in- stances, amounted to fanaticism. In the seminary of St. Sulpice, at Issy, near Paris, such enthusiasts were educated as missionaries. They lived by the most rigid rules, and studied with great fervor. As the fathers of the faUh could procure little aid from the bishops in general, they formed a sort of separate church, and de- pended upon the aumonerie, whicli was restored much upon the same footing on which it existed under Louis XVI. The friends of this religious connexion took advantage of that tendency to mysticism which prevailed in Europe, and which was principally observed among the women—a consequence of the revolution, which shook many weak minds. The missionaries sent by the congregation were often merely fanatical preachere of re- pentance, and made the greatest impres- sion upon the female sex. Their religious exercises, in the churches at Paris and other places, repeatedly produced great disturbance of the public peace. In 1824, the number of missionaries in their 372 chapels amounted to 379. These peres de la foi were enemies of the charter (be- cause it established religious toleration), of a representative government, and even of the Gallican church. The provincial of the Jesuits, at Paris, who had a college in the village of Mont Rouge, near Paris, exercised a sort of secret spiritual govern- ment, which extended over several prov- inces of the kingdom, principally the southern and western, and was connected with the Spanish apostolical junta.—Upon the state of the Catholic missions, see the Choix des Lettres edifiantes icrites des Mis- sions itrangeres (2d edit of the above- cited Ldtres idifi, &c, Paris, 1824). They consist chiefly of geographical, historical, political and literary information, relative to the missionary countries, China, India, the Levant, and America.—Among the Protestants who have distinguished them- selves in the work of missions, are the British, the Danes, and the Germans. In 1699, the Society for promoting Christian Knowledge was founded in England; and, in 1701, the Society for the Propaga- tion of Christianity in Foreign Parts. In 1704, the richly endowed Royal Danish Missionary Society was founded by Fred- eric IV, which still continues its exertions at Tranquebar, on the Coromandel coast, and in whose service Knapp, Ziegenbalg, Franke, and othere, distinguished them- selves. Franke, in Halle, took the first steps towards the education of missiona- ries ; Ziegenbalg established the first soci- ety, in 1707; and the firet report appeared at Halle, in 1718. In 1794, the Society for the Conversion of Negro Slaves in the West Indies was established, among whose undertakings the sending of Chris- tian preachere to Southern Africa and Australia is particularly worthy of note, The United Brethren began their missions in 1732, and soon sent missionaries into all parts of the world. Missionaries have not only been sent to the heathen, but also to ignorant and mistaken Christians; and the whole system has, undoubtedly, con- tributed much to the diffusion ofthe gos- pel, though it cannot be denied that, in 532 MISSIONS. the choice of persons and means of instruc- tion, and in the objects proposed and the institutions founded, many mistakes have been committed, through partial views or misdirected zeal. As the English find Christianity the most effectual means of civilization, particularly in their colonies, the government has aided the missionary societies in their objects. Among the religious associations in Great Britain, which collect yearly about £400,000 by voluntary contributions, are the following: 1. The London Missionary Society, found- ed 1795, which has 253 branches in all parts of the world. 2. The Church Mis- sionary Society, for Africa and the East, which supports 80 missionaries in 45 places. 3. The Society for the Propaga- tion ofthe Gospel in Foreign Parts, which has confined itself principally to North America, and employed, in 1823, over 80 missionaries. 4. The London Auxiliary Society in Aid of the Baptist Highland Mission. 5. The Home Missionary Soci- ety, founded in 1819, has 25 missionaries preaching in 206 villages ; 50 Sunday schools, containing 2868 children ; and labors to form village libraries. This so- ciety was very necessary, as there were found to be 314 villages with 110,344 souls, in England, destitute of religious instruction. 6. The London Association in Aid of the Moravian Missions, which employs 161 missionaries. 7. The Wes- leyan Methodist Missionary Society, which has more than 50 regular missionaries, and over 25,100 proselytes, principally among the slaves in the colonies. Its schools contain over 8000 children. It also main- tains missionaries at Paris, and in the south of France. 8. The Baptist Mission- ary Society (1792) has more than 10,000 children, hi the East Indies, under its di- rection. 9. The Missionary and Tract Society of the New Jerusalem Church, founded in 1821. 10. Continental So- ciety incorporated in 1818 ; they have 11 missions. 11. A London Society for promoting Christianity among the Jews, which sends missionaries to Poland and Holland; and a Ladies' Missionary So- ciety instituted for similar purposes, which has twelve missionaries, among whom are five converted Jews. The former has in its service a German, Joseph Wolf, of Halle, descended from Jewish parents, who was converted to the Catholic church, instructed in Tubingen, and at Rome, in the Seminarium Romanum, where, having expressed doubts ofthe infallibility of the {iope, he was thrown into prison: he then eft the Roman Catholic church, and, without acknowledging himself a member of any established church, entered, under the character of a Biblical Christian, into the service of this society, which sent him to Asia: at Bassora, he had discussions with the Sabians, or Christians of St John, which are printed in the Jewish Expositor. 12. The Edinburgh Mission- ary Society, founded 1796, has missions in Tartaiy, and in the Susoo country, in the neighborhood of Sierra Leone. From 1701 to 1817, 11 missionary societies (5 in England; 1 in Scotland: 1 in Den- mark ; 1 in Germany—that of the United Brethren; 3 in the U. States) founded 10 missions, which, in 1819, occupied 439 missionaries, most of whom belonged to the United Brethren, and 303 of whom were supported by the British societies, 85 by the German, and 37 by the socie- ties in the U. States. They also supported a great number of physicians, farmers, laborers, and their families. More than 150 missionaries labored in Asia, above 70 in Africa, and above 200 in America. In 1824, the whole number of missionaries exceeded 500, of whom 370 were sup- ported by the British. In Paris, the Cal- vinistic and Lutheran churches united to form a missionary society. Their object, however, has been not so much the con- version of the heathen as the instruction of poor children, and they have already opened schools for several thousand chil- dren. In Germany, where the United Brethren educate most ofthe missionaries for their own and other missions, there are also societies for the education of mis- sionaries in Berlin, Basil, and other places, which obtain their funds for instruction by voluntary contributions. The Berlin Missionary Union, established by the king of Prussia in November, 1823, numbered then over 300 contributors. The British societies also support an institution for the education of missionaries at Sierra Leone. Among the means by which missionary societies aim to accomplish their objects, one is the translation and distribution of the Bible. (See BUde Societies.) Al- though the judgment of the missionaries, especially in the East Indies, has not always been equal to their zeal, yet the vital power of Christianity has displayed itself in an extraordinary manner in many countries. The inhabitants of the Soci- ety islands, particularly those of Otaheite (q. v.), have embraced Christianity, and much progress has also been made in the Sandwich islands by the American and English missionaries, and books have been published in their language. Similar re- MISSIONS. 533 suits have attended the labors of the Wes- leyan Methodists, in the East Indies, as, for instance, at Trincomalee and Colom- bo, on the island of Ceylon. A school has been established by them, for the gratuitous instruction of poor Cingalese children. Among the most active pro- moters of Christian civilization, in the British East Indies, by the establishment of missions and schools, was Dr. Middleton, bishop of Calcutta, who died in 1822. Dif- ferent sects have supported missionaries in the same places, as, for instance, in Madras, Calcutta and Bombay, without any inter- ruptions from sectarian disputes, and have assisted one another with the utmost cor- diality. For the better promotion of their common object, the Danish East Indian mission has even given up to the English Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, 11 societies of native Chris- tians about Tranquebar, in establishing which the Danish missionary Schwartz had been veiy active. The English Ben- gal Missionary Society has also been very active in the East Indies. According to its fifth report (1823), it had erected four chapels and schools. Attached to one of the schools there is a jirinting-office, at which 117,000 copies of the Holy Scriptures, in English and the native tongues, have been printed at the expense of the society. The condition of the chief Danish missionary society, at Seram- pore, in Bengal, on the Hooghly, which attends particularly to the instruction of heathen and Mussulman boys, is repre- sented to be favorable. From their printing- office, translations of the whole or parts of the Holy Scriptures have been issued in 27 languages of Central India. Among the English missionaries at Serampore, Marsham, the celebrated author of the Clavis Sinica, has particularly distin- guished himself by his researches in Hindoo literature. The great number of languages, especially in Malabar, is a great impediment to the success of the missionaries, who, it is desirable, should be able to operate by precept as well as by example ; and many local obstacles—the power of the Bramins, the division into castes, &c.—are also impediments in their way ; but their schools, and the simplicity of their fives, tend to imjirove the char- acter of the natives. Of South Africa, where the chief missionary station (since 1802) is Bethelsdorf, and where the United Brethren now support missions at three places (see Latrobe), an agent of the Brit- ish Missionary Society—Campbell—has given an account (London, 1815). Mis- 45* sionaries have sometimes united with their main object an attention to the ethnogra- jihy and geography ofthe country, which deserves the highest commendation—such as Loskiel in North America, and the Danish missionary Monrad, who was in Africa from 1805 to 1809, and published Materials for a Description of the Coasts of Guinea (Copenhagen, 1822). The missionaries have also rendered great ser- vice to the study of languages, as, for example, in the work of Blumhardt (in- spector ofthe missionary school at Basle), Comparative Observations upon the Con- nexion between the Indian Languages, which are almost all related to the San- scrit (Basle, 1819). In the convereion of the South sea islanders, the American and English missionaries have been very successful. The spiritual head of Chris- tian Australia, Mareden, is one ofthe most intelligent missionaries. He does not at- tempt to convert savages without prepara- tion, but provides for their instruction, and endeavors to guard against the new vices which attend the beginnings of civ- ilization. (See New South Wales, and New Zealand.) Among the latest mis- sions of the United Brethren (see UnUed Brethren, and Greenland), that established among the Calmuck tribes deserves to be mentioned. They sent two missionaries, Zwick and Schill, from Sarepta, in 1823, to the Calmucks, among whom, by the aid of the Russian Bible Society (which caused the Bible to be translated into Cal- muck), they distributed the Holy Scrip- tures. Their report is given in the Bibli- cal Journal, published at Petersburg(1824). The great opposition of the Calmuck priests, however, induced the khans to threaten an emigration, and the mission was given up from political views. On the other hand, the missionary Corruthers exerted himself, with great zeal, in the convereion of the Tartars in the Crimea, and a new station has been established on the Caucasus. The whole number of missions of the United Brethren cost, in 1823, about $33,000, besides the support of 55 retired missionaries and 53 children. The society receives the largest contribu- tions from Holland, Denmark and Swe- den. Concerning the conversion of the Jews to Christianity, in London, Berlin, Petersburg, Dresden, Breslau, Minden, Konigsberg, Posen, &c, the first public report of the Berlin Society, established in 1822, appeared in 1824. It has issued a stereotype edition of the New Testa- ment, in the Hebrew language, and sent a missionary to the Polish Jews, who had 534 MISSIONS—MISSISSIPPI (RIVER). succeeded in gaining attention in more than one synagogue. There are, at pres- ent, in Germany, over 30 missionary and auxiliary missionary societies, who are connected with the missionary society of Basle. The Basle society issues a litho- graphed correspondence ; other societies, at Hamburg, Leipsic, Berlin, &c, publish yearly reports; and othere, as at Stuttgart and Konigsberg in Prussia, publish mis- sionary journals. In St. Gall there is a ladies' missionary society. The great missionary school established at Basle (1816) not only educates the pupils (of whom, in 1824, diere were 33, in four classes, instructed in all departments of theology; in the explanation of scriptural passages from the Hebrew and Greek ; in the Latin, English and Arabic tongues; in the comparison of the Koran with the precepts of the Bible; in geography, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy; in rhetoric, singing and drawing) for the English and Dutch missions, but has also, since 1822, maintained missionaries at its own expense, at the stations on the Caspian and Black seas. One of these missionaries, Aug. Dietrich, has under- taken, with Mr. Macpherson, the superin- tendence of the Persian translation of the New Testament, and has also superintend- ed the publication of several biblical ex- tracts and precepts into the Pereian lan- guage, and translated the work of Grotius on the truth of the Christian religion into Arabic. The missionary school established at Berlin, under the direction ofthe preach- er Janicke (1800), has already sent more than 20 pupils to the East Indies, Sierra Leone and the Cape. The Russian gov- ernment has employed, in the German colonies planted about 30 yeare ago, from Odessa to Gandscha in Georgia, and Astrachan, missionaries from Basle, as colonial preachers, who have the spiritual charge of the Germans, and endeavor likewise to operate on the adherents of the old Eastern sects, particularly the Ar- menians, and to gain access to the Moham- medans among the Persians. The trans- lation of the New Testament into modern Persian, by the missionary Martin, has been distributed, and eagerly, but secretly read. To effect these objects, the Rus- sian emperors have confen*ed privileges, not only on the Scottish missionary colo- iies at Kara, but also on the evangelical missionary colony established (1822) in the Caucasian village of Schuschi, prin- cipally inhabited by Armenians. The Moravian United Brethren now employ 171 preachere of the gospel, in 33 mis- sions in the West Indies, North America and South Africa. According to the 72d number ofthe Transactions of the Evan- gelical Missionary Societies in the East Indies, there are now upon the main land of India 49 missions, 12 on Ceylon, and three on other islands. In Ceylon diere are 75 missionary schools, with more than 4000 scholars. The principal missionary societies in the U. States are the following: American Board of Foreign Missions, founded in 1810; income, hi 1829—30, $106,928: American Baptist Board of Foreign Missions, founded in 1814; income, 1830, $12,000 : Board of Missions ofthe General Assembly, found- ed 1818; income, 1830, $12,632: Method- ist Missionaiy Society (1819), income, 1830, $13,128 ; American Home Missionary So- ciety (1826), income, 1830, $33,229. The whole income of the various Missionary, Tract, Education, and Bible societies, for 1830, was about $500,000. The Ameri- can Board of Foreign Missions has six stations in India, one at Canton, four in the Mediterranean, six in the Sandwich islands, and 35 among the Indians of the U. States, employing 59 missionaries, and 175 assistant missionaries. The board has printing establishments at Bombay, Malta, and in the Sandwich islands, from which the Bible has been issued in eleven languages. The number of scholars in their schools is 47,550. The expenditure during the 20 years from its foundation was $915,750. The annual reports ofthe different, societies contain all the necessary information relative to their means and suc- cess. Besides the works already referred to in the article, the reader may consult Lord's History of Missions, and Brown's History ofthe Projiagation of Christianity. Missilonghi. (See Missolonghi.) Mississippi, the largest river of the U. States, and one of the largest in the world, rises in about lat. 49°, and lon. 96° 47', and flows south-south-east till it falls into the gulf of Mexico, in lat 29° &, and lon. 89° 30\ The length is usually given at 3000 miles; some make it less. We speak without reference to the great branch of it called Missouri. The coun- try in which the most northern branches of the Mississippi have their rise, is an elevated table land, abounding with marshes and lakes, that are filled with wild rice. From the same plateau flow the numerous branches of Red river and other streams, whicli fall into lake Win- nipeck, and thence flow into Hudson's bay. It is not easy to decide which of the numerous small lakes of this table MISSISSIPPI (RIVER). 535 land should be honored as the principal source of the Mississippi, for travellers are not agreed in detennining which of the numerous streams flowing from these lakes is the main river. We follow Mr. Schoolcraft's map in giving the latitude and longitude of La Bush lake to the ex- treme source of the Mississippi. After a winding couree of nearly 700 miles, its waters are precipitated over St Anthony's fid Is, a cataract of 16 or 17 feet perpen- dicular. About 12 miles above these fells, it receives St. Peter's river from the west, whicli is regarded by some as the principal river. The width of the Missis- sipjii, for 12 miles above St. Anthony's falls, is about half a mile. Below the falls, it is contracted, for some distance, to 200 yards. The large and navigable tributaries which it afterwards receives, are so numerous that we can only men- tion a few of the jirincipal. About lati- tude 44°, the St. Croix comes in from the east, said to be navigable by boats 200 miles. In 42°, the Wisconsin, also from the east, opens an easy communication with the waters which flow into lake Micbigan. Near 40°, on the west side, is the Des Moines, 150 yards wide, and navigable by boats for a great distance. In 39° enters the Illinois from the east, 400 yards wide, navigable by boats for more than 300 miles. A little below 39°, tbe mighty Missouri comes in from the west, which is both longer and broader than the Mississippi above their junction, and imjiarts its own character to the stream below. In 38°, the Kaskaskias en- ters from the east, which traverses a most delightful country, and is navigable more than 100 miles. Between 37° and 36°, the magnificent Ohio also comes in from the east. This is much the largest eastern branch. On the west side, between 35° and 34°, is the St Francis, which is 200 yards wide, and is supposed to be naviga- ble 300 miles. White river enters on tbe same side, in about 34°, and is supposed to be 1200 miles long. Between 34° and 33°, the Arkansas comes also from the west. It is 500 yards wide, and supposed to be 2500 miles long. Between 33° and 32° is the Yazoo, on the eastern side, between 200 and 300 yards wide. A little above 31°, the Red river conies in from the west. It is nearly as long, and brings as much water as the Arkansas. Here the Missis- sippi cairies its greatest volume of water. Even aliove Red river, in high floods, water escajies from the Mississippi on the west side, in many jilaces, which never returns ; and below Red river, there are many and large outlets, but no consid- erable streams flowing into it. Only four or five miles below Red river, the Atcha- felaya carries off, at some seasons, as much water as the Red river brings in. A little below the town of Baton Rouge, on the eastern side, flows out bayou Manshac, or Ibberville river, and passes through lakes Maurepas, Ponchartrain and Borgne, to the gulf of Mexico. Ba- you Plaquemine and bayou La Fourche flow out from the western side before we come to New Orleans; but there is no outlet below the city till we arrive at the divisions which form the four moudis of the Mississippi. From the falls of St. An- thony to a few miles below the river Des Moines, the Mississippi is about half a mile broad. Below the rapids which occur at this place, its average breadth, before it receives the Missouri, is a full mile ; and its transparent waters, its gen- tle current, the number and beauty of its islands, the variety and magnificence of the natural scenery upon its borders, ren- der it admirable beyond description. Its current here is about two miles an hour, and its average dejith is about four feet. Where the Mississipjii receives the Mis- souri, it is a mile and a half wide. The mouth of the Missouri is about half a mile wide. When these are united, they constitute a stream that is about three quarters of a mile in breadth, very deep, with muddy waters, and a furious, boiling current. Its average width, during the remainder of its couree, does not exceed a mile. The influx of the other mighty rivers only increases its depth and the boiling and whirling motion of its waters. Its medial cureent is about four miles an hour, but it is often much greater. We know not that it has been sounded in such a manner as to justify any estimate of its average depth. At Natchez, about 400 miles from its mouth, we have fre- quently heard it stated that its depth is found to be from 100 to 150 feet. Be- tween New Orleans and its mouths, we have seen a large anchor dropped three times by a vessel descending widi the current, at places far distant from each other, and it did not reach the bottom, in either case, with less than 60 fath- oms of cable. In estimating the width of die river, we refer to the space between the banks of its regular channel. At every flood, it overspreads a vast country, principally on its western side, which is from 10 to 50 miles in breadth through the last 500 miles of its couree; and most of the water which overflows below Red 536 MISSISSIPPI (RIVER AND STATE). river goes to the gulf of Mexico, without returning to the river. The country thus overflowed is generally without any hab- itable spots, but is covered with cypress, cotton-wood, or coarse grass; and its waters abound with alligators. After die Mississippi receives the Missouri, its course is so serpentine, as to present very few "reaches," or places where it is so straight, that an extent of three or four miles can be seen at one time. In many places, the low alluvial tract on its borders is 30 or 40 miles in breadth. The boun- daries of this river-valley are called bluffs; and these are often very steep, and some- times 200 or 300 feet in height. In sev- eral places, the river ranges, for a con- siderable distance near these bluffs, alter- nately on one side and the other; and, in a few places, it leaves the whole alluvial tract on one side. From the sources of the river to the mouth ofthe Missouri, the annual flood ordinarily commences in March, and does not subside till the last of May; and its medial height is 15 feet Between the Missouri and the 'mouth of the Ohio, the annual flood is 25 feet. For a great distance below this jioint, it is 50 feet; but it subsides above Natchez, and thence gradually to the mouth ofthe river. At Baton Rouge it is about 30 feet, and about 12 at New Orleans. Between the Missouri and Ohio, the most shallow parts of the channel have six feet of water when it is lowest. Thence to the St. Francis, there are several shoal places, where, at low water, pilots are perplexed to find a sufiicient depth. Below that point, there is no difficulty for vessels of any draught, except to find and preserve the right channel. There are no tides in the Mississijipi. A variation of a few inches in the height of the water is generally ob- served during the night, and sometimes during the day; but even at the very mouths of the river, the water is at all times fresh, and no ebb and flood are seen corresponding with those of the sea. The muddy waters of the river are per- ceived by those who approach it, when the mariner is still out of sight of land. It will be seen from the description here given, that the Mississijipi is not to be es- timated by its apparent magnitude, but by the prodigious number and size of the rivers whose waters it receives. The im- mense valley of which it receives the waters, extends from the Alleghany to the Rocky mountains, and from latitude 49° to the gulf of Mexico, in 29°. Its navigation is at all times attended with some danger, on account of the raging power of its current, and the numerous trees which it dislodges on its banks, and bears away in its tide. Steam-boats are admirably fitted to avoid these dangers; and the navigation above New Orleans is every year becoming more confined to them. Flat boats still bring down much produce, but no other vessels than steam- boats are often seen ascending.—For a more full description of this mighty river, and of the Mississippi valley, we with great pleasure refer the reader to Flint's Geography of that countiy. A consider- able part of this description has been se- lected from that excellent work. Mississippi ; one of the U. States of America, between 30° and 35° N. lat, and 88° and 91° W. Ion. Its average length is about 300 miles, and its average breadth 160; square miles, 45,760. It is bounded on the north by Tennessee, east by Alabama, south by the gulf of Mexico and Louisiana, and west by Louisiana and the Mississippi river. Mississipjii and Alabama constituted one state till 1817. Population of both in 1800, 8,850; in 1810, 40,352. Population of Mississippi alone in 1816, 45,929; in 1820, 75,448; white males, 23,286; white females, 18 "390; slaves, 32,814 : persons engaged in agri- culture, 22,033; in manufactures, 650; in commerce, 291; militia, 5,292. In 1830, there were 38,497 white males; 32,121 white females; 33,072 male slaves; 32,587 females slaves; 292 free colored males; 237 free colored females; total, 136,806. There are several distinct ranges of hills, of moderate elevation, besides a singular succession of eminences called bluffs, which, in some cases, approach to the river, and at other places, are seen seve- ral miles from it. On the border of the river are those called Walnut HUls, Grand Gulf Natchez, White Cliffs and Loflus Heights. Two ranges of hills divide the state nearly in its whole extent, and sepa- rate it into sectional divisions. In ad- vancing from the bottoms of the Missis- sippi, there is every where, at a greater or less distance from the river, an ajipearauce of bluffs, which, when mounted, spread out into a kind of table surface, waving agreeably; but, in many instances, the richest table lands have precipitous benches, which expose the land to be washed, and divided by deep ravines. In the northern part of the state, inhab- ited by the Cherokees and Choctaws, the land rises into pleasant and regular undu- lations. The soil is deep, black, and rich ; and, in its natural state, both here and in the more southern parts ofthe state, much MISSISSIPPI (STATE). 537 of it is covered with cane-brake. The country inhabited by the Chickasaws, in the north-west part ofthe state, is charm- ingly variegated with swells and valleys of great fertility, and abounds with fine springs. In the lower parts of Mississip- pi, bordering on the river, neither rocks, stones of any size, nor even gravel, are often seen on the surface of the ground. Some jilaces are exceptions to this re- mark, but, in other parts, a pereon may perform a day's journey without finding any stones which have not been brought from distant places. In general, the sur- face of this state is mo6t agreeably diver- sified with ridges, hills and valleys, and the soil is remarkably fertile. The Mis- sissippi river washes die whole western border of the state. Following its very meandering couree, this distance is about 700 miles. The curves of the river often bring it back with very little jirogress, after a course of seven or eight leagues. The greater part of this long line of river coast consists of inundated swamps, sel- dom seen except by people travelling on the river. These swamps are gene- rally covered with dense forests. The Yazoo is the largest river that has its whole couree in this state. The Pearl is next in importance, and traverses the centre of the state from north to south. Some legislative efforts have been made to improve its navigation. The Pasca- goula rises in lat. 33°, and has a course of 250 miles before it enters the gulf of Mexico. It is capable of considerable navigation. At its mouth, it widens into an open bay, on which stands the town of Pascagoula, whither many people from New Orleans resort during the sickly months. The Big Black has a couree of 200 miles, and is navigable for boats 50 miles. It enters the Mississippi just above Grand gulf. The Homochitto is also a considerable river, and flows into the Mississippi above fort Adams. The other rivers and creeks are comparatively small. The quantity of land embraced within the state is 31,074,234 acres. Of this, the Indians still claim 11,514,517 acres, and the U. States claim 16,885,760 acres; leaving Only 2,673,957 acres prop- erly belonging to the citizens of the state. Mississippi has only about 30 miles of sea-coast, and has no harbor except Pasca- goula. Along the coast are a few islands of little importance. Back from the coast, the countiy, for a considerable distance, is a sandy, level, pine forest; but this part of the state is healthy, and the timber is very valuable. The climate of this state is generally best suited to the growth of cotton. Its western border is so much ex- posed to inundation, that it cannot be ex- pected to be very healthy until levees are raised to keep the great river within its proper banks. In the most fertile parts of the state, the forests present an immense growth of oak, hickory, lime, sassafras, cotton-wood, magnolia, poplar, and other valuable trees ; and the swamps abound with cypress. In moist land, the trees are covered with long moss, hanging often five or six feet from the branches, and giving to the forests a very singular and rather gloomy appearance. The palmetto is seen in the southern section, and the family of laurels in various parts. The laurel magnolia (magnolia grandifiora) is frequently seen in great perfection; and the forests abound with beautiful flowers, which remind the northern traveller that he has entered upon a new climate. The sugar-cane grows only on the southern borders of the state. The orange and the live-oak are principally confined to the lower waters of the Pascagoula and Pearl rivers. In the middle regions, figs, tobac- co, maize, sweet potatoes, rice, indigo, squashes, melons, plums and peaches will grow well; but excepting maize, peaches, melons, potatoes, and squashes, they are but little cultivated. Grapes of various kinds grow wild, and the vines are seen, in great numbers, hanging from the branches of the highest trees, like the ropes of a ship. Many of them are two or three, and some are six or eight inches in diameter. Almost every species of the grape would probably come to maturity in this state. But the principal attention of the Mississippians is directed to the growth of cotton. This is the grand sta- ple of the state. Although its price has diminished nearly two thirds within a few yeare, yet it is more profitable than any other production. Most of the good planters raise Indian com enough for their own use, aud also raise hogs enough to supply them with bacon. These are the principal and most wholesome articles of food for this climate, but the wealthy plant- ers are supplied with an abundance ofthe necessaries and luxuries of life. Apples and pears grow imperfectly in a few places. Probably they might flourish on some of the northern highlands. Natchez is much the largest town, and the principal seat of commercial transactions. Mouticello is a pleasant, flourishing village on Pearl river, and was lately the seat of government. Jackson, near the head of Pearl river, has been selected as the permanent seat of 538 MISSISSIPPI (STATE)—MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. government. It has a central, healthy and pleasant situation, but has not yet many inhabitants. Vicksbui ., below the Walnut Hills, on the Mississijipi, has risen up within a few years, and has already be- come a place of great trade. Greenville, Woodville and Winchester are flourish- ing villages. Gibson Post is a village of considerable importance ; it is situated on bayou Pierre, about 35 miles above Natchez. Shieldsborough, on the west side of the bay of St Louis, is often re- sorted to by the inhabitants of New Or- leans during the sickly months. War- renton is another thriving village on the Mississippi, from which large quantities of cotton are exported. There are ample public funds for the endowment of schools, but the blessings of education are not generally diffused. The legislature has done little towards requiring the establish- ment and support of suitable schools. This is also true of most ofthe Southern and Western States ; and a large part of the children are consequently but imper- fectly educated. An institution, called a college, has been incorjiorated at Shields- borough. Jefferson college is at Wash- ington, six miles from Natchez. Schools of good reputation have been sujijiorted at Natchez, Woodville and Monticello. The principal religious denominations are Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians, Catho- lics and Episcopalians. The principal tribes of Indians are the Choctaws and Chickasaws. The former are estimated at 4000: the latter at more than 20,000. This state was included within the coun- try which was discovered and possessed by the French, who formed a settlement at Natchez about the year 1716. In 1763, it was ceded to the English with the rest of the French jiossessions east of the river. There were few white inhabitants before the end of the last century. In 1798, the country was erected into a ter- ritorial government, and into a state gov- ernment in 1817. (For the constitution, see ConstUutions ofthe United States.) Mississippi Valley. This name is ajiplied to the vast country which is watered by the Mississippi river and its numerous tributary streams, and which is included between the Alleghany and the Rocky mountains. Mr. Flint considers that it properly includes the tracts watered by the comparatively small rivere, as the Mobile, Pearl and other rivers of West Florida on the east side, and the Sa- bine, Brassas and Colorado of Texas on the west side, which enter the gulf of Mexico without uniting with the Missis- sippi. Including the valleys of these sejiarate streams, the great Valley of the Mississijijii is bounded south by the gulf of .Mexico, and extends on the south-east to cape Florida. Running along that cape in a northern direction, the boun- dary on the east jiasses those table eleva- tions which separate the waters of the Mobile and Tombigbee from those of the rivers of East Florida. Thence running through the country of what are called the Indian nations, and touching the north-westem extremity of Georgia, the eastern boundary becomes plainly de- fined by the Alleghany mountains. There are no mountains or ridges on the north, to mark a general boundary be- tween this Valley and the basins of the lakes, or between the waters of the Mis- sissipjii and those which flow northward into lake Winnipeck, Hudson's bay, and the Arctic ocean ; but the Valley is to be considered as terminating on the north, where it begins to receive its waters. The western boundary is, for the most part, distinctly marked by the Rocky mountains. One of the southern ridges of these mountains divides the waters of Arkansas and Red rivers from those of the Rio del Norte, and traverses the Mexican states of Texas and Coahuila to the low marshes and jirairies on the gulf of Mexico. Thus the Valley of tbe Mississippi extends twenty degrees in latitude, without including cape Florida, and about thirty degrees in longitude. From Oleanne point on the Alleghany, to the highest point of boat navigation on the Missouri, is 5000 miles. Be- tween the extreme jioints of navigation on the Tennessee, and on the Arkansas and the Red river, the distance is at least 3000 miles. Unlike most other long and large rivers, the Mississippi rises in veiy cold regions, and flows towards the equator. It thus waters an immense valley, possessing almost every variety of climate, and furnishes the means of easy and most profitable intercourse be- tween the various sections of so vast a region. If we except the Amazon, prob- ably no other valley on the globe will compare in size with that of the Missis- sippi ; and it probably surpasses all othere in the richness and variety of its soil, and its general adaptation to the support and comfort of civilized men. In extent, it is like a continent; in beauty and fertility, it is the most perfect garden of nature. (For the leading features of the various sections of this Valley, the rivers, climates and productions^ MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 539 see the separate articles. The history has been given under Louisiana territo- ry, but some further details respecting the earlier periods may be interesting.) Sebas- tian Cabot is supposed to have, sailed along the coast of Florida but a few years after America was discovered by Columbus. The Sjianiards contend that Florida was discovered in latitude 30°, in the year 1512, by Juan Ponce de Leon. Some say that he discovered it on Easter day, and gave it the name of Florida, from the Spanish name of that festival— pasqua de filores—the festival of flowers. Others say that he named it Florida, the country of flowers, from the great profu- sion of flowers with which the trees, shrubs and plants abounded. Between 1518 and 1524, Grijalva and Vasquez, both Spaniards, landed in Florida. From mismanagement with die natives, their expedition failed in its purposes. In 1528, Pamphilo de Narvaer obtained a grant of Florida. He penetrated the country as far as the Indian village Appa- lacha. The natives there defeated his party. He was succeeded by Ferdinand de Soto, governor of Cuba, who sailed from Havana with nine ships, about a thousand men, two or three hundred horses, and other live stock. He was attacked by the Indians immediately after he landed; but he coveted rather than feared opposition, and marched far into the interior, even to the countiy of the Chickasaws. He was probably the first white man who saw the Mississippi. He crossed it near the entrance of Red river; but soon after sickened and died. The number of his followers had been much reduced, and those who remained were glad to abandon the project of colonizing Florida. In 1564, the French built fort Charles, near the present site of St. Augustine, and a number of families were established there ; but this was not a permanent settlement. About fifty years afterwards, in 1608, a fleet arrived in the St. Lawrence, commanded by ad- miral Champlaine, and founded the im- portant city of Quebec. Thus the first permanent settlement of the French in America was in the inclement climate of Canada: the Spaniards made their first colonial experiments in Florida, and on Biloxi, at places which are remarkable for their sterility: the English made their first settlements at Jamestown and Plym- outh, neither of which places then offered much encouragement of fruit- fulness or of peace. The most dreary and sterile regions were first setded. The French first extended their discov- eries from Canada, by the lakes, to the river Wisconsin, and thence to die Mis- sissippi, in 1673. June 15th of that year, Marquette and Joliette, two French mis- sionaries, reached the great river. In 1680, Louis Hennepin, a Franciscan friar from Canada, is said to have de- scended with two men in a boat from the mouth of the Illinois to the mouth of the Mississippi in sixteen days. On his re- turn, he ascended the river to the falls of St. Anthony, if we may credit his assertion. After he reached Canada, he immediately embarked for France. Here he published a splendid account of his travels, and gave the country on the Mississippi the name of Louisiana, in honor of his sovereign, Louis XIV. But it was not till 1699, that the mouths of the Mississippi were well explored by the French. Two frigates arrived, die Ba- dine, commanded by M. Ibberville, and the Marin, commanded by M. le comte de Lugere ;and a party succeeded in find- ing the river, and ascending it to the bayou Manshac, or Ibberville river. Ibberville passed down this bayou through lakes Maurepas and Ponchartrain, which he named. He afterwards made discoveries further to the eastward, and built a fort at Biloxi. Here he left a small colony, and returned to France. This was the commencement of French establishments in this quarter. Bienville, who belonged to this colony, continued to explore the coast. During the summer season, he discovered an English vessel in the Mis- sissippi, about twenty-eight leagues from the sea. The English captain was in doubt whether this were really the Mis- sissipjii river; and, on inquiry of Bien- ville, he was assured that it was not, and that the countiy in which he now was, had long been in the possession of France. Then directing him far to the westward for the great river, he induced the captain to turn and leave the river; and the place of this stratagem is called the English Turn to this day. It is about fifteen mties below New Orleans. In 1702, Biloxi was evacuated, and the col- ony removed to a fort on Mobile river, about eighteen leagues from its mouth. Many losses and embarrassments were suffered by the colonists in consequence of the jealousies of the Indians. In 1713, establishments had been made at several points in Louisiana, and 31. de la Motte Cadilla was sent over as gov- emor. The census of this period gives about 400 souls, of whom 20 were ne* 540 MISSISSIPPI VALLEY—MISSOLONGHI. groes. They had 300 horned cattle. In 1717, the French secured the possession of Natchitoches on Red river. The same year M. de la Motte was relieved from his command, and succeeded by M. de l'Espignai. In August of that ' year, a census gave the colony 700 inhab- itants, and 400 cattle. During this year, 1717, Bienville, in selecting a spot for a central town to an agricultural colony, fixed upon New Orleans, and left 50 men there to clear the land and build houses. By au arrival from France, 800 settlers were added to the colony; and 250 more were added in 1719, be- sides 500 negro slaves. From this period, the arrivals became too numerous to be here enumerated; and the settlements were multiplied at various places in West Florida, along the Mississijipi, and on the Red river. For several succeeding years, the colonists suffered greatly from con- tentions with the savages, from diseases, and from scantiness of provisions. They were not much inclined to the only labor that could render their condition truly prosperous. One tribe of Indians after another, however, yielded to their arms; and more slaves were brought to perform the labor. In 1729, the Natchez In- dians massacred nearly all the whites of Natchez, and those on the Yazoo and Washitta. The Chickasaws then united with die French, and almost wholly ex- terminated that powerful nation, the Natchez. In 1736, a rupture broke out between the' French and Chickasaws ; and in two very severe engagements Bienville was repulsed with great loss. No other events of great interest occur- red till the war between France and Great Britain in 1754. The results of this war, as they affected the settlements and claims of the two nations in the various positions of North America, are given in the article Louisiana Territory. The few facts which we have condensed into this article, are principally selected from the first volume of Flint's Geogra- phy of the Western States. Missolonghi, or Missolungiii ; till 1826 the principal stronghold of the Greeks in Western Greece (in the an- cient ^Etolia). Surrounded by morasses, Missolonghi is situated on an alluvial tongue of land, on a shallow bay, west of the entrance of the gulf of Patras and of the outlet of the Evenus (now the Fidaris), and east ofthe mouth ofthe Achelous (now Aspropotamo), and was the bulwark of Western Greece in the late struggle with Turkey. The dikes formed by the alluvion, secure the lower parts of the place against inundations, and the lagoons and shallows jirotect the city against an attack by sea. Missolon- ghi, also called by the Greeks Little Veniie, was, originally, a fishing village, with about 300 inhabitants. At the en- trance to the fishing stations lies the islaud of Anatolico, likewise fortified. Both places can be approached only by fishing boats ; the roadsteads for larger vessels are four or five miles distant. Pre- vious to 1804, Missolonghi, which was protected from the pestilential atmos- jihere of the marshes and lagoons by a north wind that blows every afternoon, contained about 4000 inhabitants (among whom were rich merchants and ship- masters), most of whom left the place on account of the war. It was then gov- erned chiefly by its own laws, merely paying to the pacha of Negropont the customary poll tax. In 1804, it fell under the dominion of Ali Pacha, (q. v.) Mis- solonghi and Anatolico raised the ban- ner of the cross June 7, 1821, when the Hydriot fleet appeared in their waters. After the bloody campaign of 1822, in Acarnania, the commander-in-chief, prince Mavrocordato (q. v.), threw him- self (Nov. 5th), with 380 men and 22 Suliots, under Marco Botzaris, into Mis- solonghi, which was tiien untenable and almost deserted, and defended it, with but little artillery and ammunition, against Omer Vrione, pacha of Janina, and Rut- shuk Pacha, till, on the 23d Nov., it was relieved and reinforced by sea. Mavro- cordato afterwards repulsed several as- saults, and compelled the Turks to raise the siege Jan. 6, 1823. Missolonghi, with Anatolico, was then fortified under the superintendence of English officers, part- ly at the expense of Murray, an English- man, so that it was rendered one of the strongest places of Greece. Missolonghi sustained a second siege of 59 days, in Sept., Oct. and Dec, 1823, when Mustai, pacha of Scutari, with Omer Vrione, in- vested it by land, and Algerine vessels by sea. It was defended by Constantine Botzaris, brother of the hero of Carpi- nitzi. Mavrocordato hastened to its re- lief, with Hydriot vessels, and the plague desolated the camp of the barbarians. Mustai, in his hasty retreat, lost his ar- tillery and his army. Mavrocordato now remained master of the place, and di- rected affairs in Western Hellas. There was also in Missolonghi a school of an- cient Greek. Missolonghi was also the death-place of lord Byron, who arrived MISSOLONGHI—MISSOURI (STATE). 541 at the end of January, 1824, and died, Ajiril 19th of the same year. Mavro- cordato was called to Nauplia, and in 1825, deprived of his office by the party of Colocotroni. The seraskier Res- cind Pacha now appeared before Misso- longhi, with 35,000 men. The brave Noto Botzaris (uncle of Marco) defended the place successfully, and the assaults of the seraskier, aided by the fleet of the capudan pacha, after the walls had suffered from a bombardment of forty days, were repulsed in the beginning of August, 1825. Ibrahim Pacha, with the Egyptian army, then joined in the siege. But all assaults were baffled: continued bombardments at length re- duced the place to a heap of ruins, and the heroic garrison determined to force a passage through the besiegers. This was attempted at about eight o'clock in the evening of April 22, 1826, while the sick, aged and wounded, with many women, remained behind in a large mill, which contained a quantity of powder, and which they prepared to blow up as soon as it was entered by the Turks. An old wounded soldier took his seat on a mine, and fired it as soon as they entered the town. About 1800, under the command of Noto Botzaris and Kitros Travellas, reached Salona, and afterwards fought at Athens.—See Fabre's Hist, du Siege de Missolunghi (Paris, 1826); Howe's Greek Revolution (New York, 1828). Missouri ; a very large river of the United States, which unites with the Mississijipi a little below latitude 30°. It rises in the Rocky mountains, and takes the name Missouri in latitude 45° 107 N. and longitude 110° W., where the three branches, Jefferson, Gallatin, and 3Iadi- son, unite. The spring sources of the Missouri, and those of the Columbia which flow west to the Pacific, are with- in a mile of each other. The three head branches of the Missouri are navigable for a considerable distance before their junction. Where the river makes its es- cape from the Rocky mountains, it jire- sents a scene of remarkable sublimity. For a distance of nearly six miles, the rocks rise perpendicularly from the wa- ter's edge, 1200 feet. The river is com- pressed to the width of 150 yards, where it rushes through these gates of the Rocky mountains. About 110 miles from this chasm, are the stupendous cataracts of the Missouri. The greatest cascade is 87 feet perpendicular, and the next is 47. Within a space of 18 miles, the river de- scends 357 feet These falls are almost vol. viii. 46 the only obstruction to the navigation of the river, even to its head branches, 521 miles above the falls. These distances are given from Lewis and Clarke; and, according to their estimates, the whole length of the Missouri, above its junction with the Mississippi, is more than 3100 miles. Add to this the distance from the mouth of the Missouri to die gulf of 3Iexico, and the sum wdl be nearly 4400 ntiles. We have no means, at present, of giving a more probable esti- mate. The number of large rivers which flow into the Missouri is so great, that we can enumerate only a small part of them. Yellow Stone, Platte, Osage, and Kansas, are noticed separately. The Chienne is considered navigable by boats 800 miles; White river, 600; and several others are broad, deep streams, navigable for more than a hundred miles. Through most of its course, the Missouri is very rapid and turbid. The alluvial tract on its banks is narrower than that ofthe Missis- sippi. There are marry settlements on the banks for 400 miles from its mouth, and a few are found more than twice that distance. Beyond the state of Missouri, the river and its branches have generally but narrow margins of fertile land. In many places, the prairies come even to their banks; and emigrants pass onward, and leave such unjiromising lands for future generations. The Missouri is much longer than the Mississippi before their junction, and has a much greater volume of water. It is about half a mile wide at its mouth, but is wider for a great jiart of its couree. Missouri, one of the United States of America, is situated between 36° and 40° 30' N. latitude, and between 88° 17' anil 94° 307 W. longitude. Its length is 270 miles, and its breadth 220, and it con- tains 38 million acres ; bounded north and west by 31issouri Tenitory; east and north-east by the Mississippi, which separates it from Illinois; south-east by the Mississippi, which separates it from Kentucky and Tennessee ; south by Ar- kansas Territory. Population in 1820, 66,586, of whom 10,222 were slaves. Pereons engaged in agriculture, 13,559; in manufactures, 1887; in commerce, 480. Population in 1830, 140,074, of whom 24,990 were slaves. The south- east jiart of the state has a very exten- sive tract of low marshy country, abound- ing in lakes, and liable to inunda- tion. Back of this there is a region of hilly and mountainous countiy, ex- tending to the Osage. The best land 542 MISSOURI (STATE). in the state is north of the Missouri. This part contains large tracts of alluvial and hilly prairies, and is no where moun- tainous. The soil here is excellent. It is less clayey and stiff dian that of Ohio and Kentucky. There is also an im- mense prairie commencing in the west- ern part of the state, and extending far into the 31issouri Territory. The soil of the upland prairies is far inferior to that of the alluvial prairies. The staple pro- ductions have been wheat and Indian corn, during the short period that any part of Missouri has been cultivated. Its soil will also produce the other kinds of grain in perfection, and also the va- rious fruits which grow in the states hav- ing the same latitude. Tobacco thrives well,*and cotton yields a tolerable crop. Flax and hemp are likely to become largely cultivated. Indeed, many parts of this extensive state are likely to rival the best tracts east of the Mississippi in the abundance of their productions. The prairies, being entirely destitute of trees and shrubs, are ready for the plough; and there are such extensive tracts of this land in this state, which are admirably suited to the growth of wheat, that many nations might here be supplied. In the spring, every prairie is a jierfect flower garden, exceeding other gardens in ex- tent scarcely more than in the variety and beauty of its flowers. Many of the species are seen through summer and autumn. The climate is extremely fickle and variable, and the changes of temjier- ature are very great. The jirevailing winds follow the direction of the Missis- sipjii Valley; those from the northward are cold, and the southern are warm. Winter commences in its severity about Christmas, and is frequently so severe, that the Missouri is passable on the ice with loaded teams, for many weeks. The summers are very warm. Less rain falls here than in New-England or the South- ern States ; and the atmosphere is much drier. Of the minerals and fossils al- ready discovered, the principal are lead, coal, plaster, iron, manganese, zinc, an- timony, cobalt, various kinds of ochre, common salt, nitre, jilumbago, porphyry, jasper, chalcedony, and marble. Lead ore is dug in various jiarts of the state, but there is a district extending nearly a hundred miles in length, and forty in width, which is particularly distinguished for its lead mines. The centre of the part which has been most explored, is about seventy miles south-west from St. Louis, and about half as far from Hercu- laneum on the Mississippi. The French dug lead from these mines 100 years aga Somewhat more than 3,Q00,000 pounds are annually smelted, giving employment to about 1200 workmen. Shot-towers are erected at Herculaneum and other places, and great quantities of shot are exported. The mine country is remark- able for its salubrity, tbe fertility of its soil, and its beautiful streams. There is doubtless ore enough, of excellent quality, to supply the whole world with lead. " The great river 3Iissouri traverses this state. The Osage is its principal southern branch, and will be described separately. Several considerable rivers unite their waters with the Missouri on the northern side, and others with the 3Iississippi. The Maramec runs through the mineral district, and enters the 31is- sissippi eighteen miles below St. Louis. It is between 200 aud 300 yards wide, and navigable by boats at some seasons 200 miles. Many of the small rivers are dry a part of the summer. St. Louis is the commercial capital, and is the largest town of the United States west of the Mississippi. St. Genevieve, about one hundred miles west of the Mississippi, and sixty-four below St. Louis, is settled principally by French. It has about 1500 inhabitants, and considerable trade in lead. Jackson, the county town of Cape Girardeau county, is a thriving village. Potosi, in the mining district, is a con- siderable town. Herculaneum is the prin- cipal place of deposit for the lead from the mines. New Madrid is, next to Nat- chez, the most noted landing place for boats on the Mississippi. It suffered greatly from an earthquake in 1811. St. Charles, about twenty miles above St Louis, contains about 1200 inhabitants. Jefferson, a new town at tbe mouth of the Osage, is the present seat of govern- ment. Franklin, 150 miles by land above St. Louis, is a considerable village. The most numerous denominations of Chris- tians in Missouri, are Methodists, Pres- byterians and Catholics. Religious in- struction and good schools are less es- teemed and less common in this new state than in most others in the Union. St. Louis college, a Catholic institution, was founded in 1829. The college build- ing is a brick edifice, fifty feet by forty; but this is not sufficiently commodious, and preparations have been made for en- larging it. It is situated very pleasantly in the neighborhood of the city. It has a president, six professors, and 125 stu- dents. Two other professors are about MISSOURI (STATE)—MITE. 543 to be added. The library contains 12C0 volumes. This institution is likely to be- come very useful to the state. Corpora- tions have been formed for nine acade- mies. St. Louis was founded in 1764; tbe princijial inhabitants were from Canada. Phis country was settled but slowly until it was purchased by the U. States; since that period, immigration has almost annu- ally increased. In 1820, Missouri became an independent state, and it will, doubt- less, become one of the most populous in the Union. (For the constitution, see Constitutions of the UnUed States. A good descrijition of Missouri, and of all the states of the Mississipjii Valley, may be obtained from Flint's Geography, &c.) Missouri Territory ; a tract of coun- try belonging to the U. States, 900 miles long, and 800 broad ; bounded by the British possessions on the north ; the North-West Territory,Illinois and Missouri on the east; the territories of die Mexican republic on the south and south-west; and west by the Rocky mountains. The belt of land on the west border of the Mississipjii, that is wooded, is generally from two to four hundred miles broad. Then commence the immense prairies, which constitute so striking and impres- sive a feature in the vast countiy that spreads westward to the Rocky mountains. For the most part, this countiy is a plain, more or less covered with grass, and, in many places, fertile; but other parts, of great extent, are almost a moving sand. Countless numbers of buffaloes, elk, and other wild animals, graze upon it. The principal sources of the Missouri, Arkan- sas, and Red river, are found in this terri- tory, and several large branches of the Mississippi, above the Missouri, come from the north-western part of the same vast country. The Rocky mountains are yet but imperfectly known. Their bases have generally an elevation of 3 or 4000 feet above the ocean, and some of them are estimated at 12,000 feet in height. Fol- lowing up the valleys of the sources of the Platte to the opposite valleys of waters that flow west, a good road is found, easi- ly passable with loaded wagons. Thus an easy communication is provided between the navigable rivers of the Oregon territo- ry, on the borders of the Pacific ocean, and those which flow into the gulf of Mexico. There are other ranges of moun- tains, which traverse different parts of this territory, as the Black hills, the Ozark mountains, the Masserne, &c. There are fertile belts of land on the margins of most of the rivere, antl some of them have a great extent of rich country. Generally, as we recede from the rivere, the soil be- comes poor, and very extensive deserts are found in the southern regions. There are very few settlements of whites in this vast country, and none so considerable as to have any established government At Council Bluffs there is a military post, having one regiment of infantry. Many tribes of Indians still possess extensive tracts. The Sioux are the most numer- ous ; the whole number is estimated at between 140,000 and 150,000. 31istletoe. (See Misletoe.) Mite. Several minute species of in- sects are known under the name of mites, most of which, however, belong to the ge- nus acarus of Linnaeus. The most of these animals are very small, or almost microscopic. They occur every where, some being of a wandering character and to be found under stones, leaves, the bark of trees, or in provisions, as meal, cheese, jiepper, &c.; others are stationary and parasitic, on the skin of various animals, sometimes proving of serious injury to them. It is even asserted, and with great apjiearance of truth, that the itch is owing to these animals. From the experiments of several inquirers, it appeare that they not only have been seen in the pustules of the itch, but also that they are capable of giving it to a healthy individual by be- ing placed on his skin. This is, however, denied by other and very high authority. The mites inhabiting cheese are so minute that to the naked eye they appear like moving particles of dust They are very quick-sighted, and when once they have been touched with a pin, it is curious to observe tbe cunning which they display to avoid a second touch. They are ex- tremely voracious, and will even prey on each other, and are so tenacious of life that they have been kejit alive for many months between the object-glasses of a microscope. The species which is found in meal occasions considerable injury. Leuwenhoek states that they may be ex- pelled by placing a few nutmegs in the vessel or sack containing the meal. A German writer, named Funke, advises a cheaper remedy, which consists ofthe de- corticated, thick branches of the lilac, or elder, which are to be put in the flour, and will, it is said, completely prevent their depredations. (See Tick.) Mite ; a small coin, formerly current, equal to about one third of a farthing; it also denotes a small weight used by the moneyers. It is equal to the 20th jiart of a grain, and divided into 24 doits. 544 MITFORD—MITHRIDATES. Mitford, William; an eminent histor- ical and philological writer, bom in Lon- don, February 10, 1734. He studied at Queen's college, Oxford, and then at the Middle Temjile, but early quitted the pro- fession of the law, and obtained a com- mission in the Southampshire militia, of which he became colonel. In 1785, he was chosen member of jiarliament, in which he sat till 1818. His death took place in 1827. He was jirofessor of an- cient history at the royal academy; and, besides his princijial work, the History of Greece (1784—1810, 4 vols., 4to.; since re- printed in 8vo.), he published an Essay on the Harmony of Language (1774, 8vo.); a Treatise on the .Military Force, and jiar- ticularly the Militia of this Kingdom (8vo.); Observations on the History of Christian- ity (8vo.); a work on architecture, and another on the corn-laws. Mithra ; the sun, or the genius of the sun, with the Persians, which was wor- shipped as a deity, at a later jicriod, also in Greece and Rome. iMithra. stands as a mediator between Ormuzd and the world. His symbols are the sun (of truth and justice) on his head, the mace (jiovver) in his hand, or the sacrificing dagger, and the bull of the world, on whose hack he lies. He is not to be confounded with the Mi- tra, or Anahid, the Pereian Venus. Even in Germany, there are traces of his wor- ship, in the provinces anciently under the dominion of the Romans. Mithridates ; the name of several kings of Pontus, among whom Mithrida- tes the Great or the Vlth, was the most renowned. Ambition, cruelty, a spirit which nothing could bend, united with a jiowerful genius, were the characteristics which early developed themselves in his character. His father was murdered B. C. 124, and Mithridates ascended the throne at the age of 13 years. His mother and instructer plotted against his life; but he caused the former to be thrown into pris- on (although she had been made co-regent with him), where she died, according to some, of ill treatment, but according to others, of poison. He hardened his body against exposure, and endeavored to ren- der himself insensible to the effects of poi- son (whence the name of a supposed an- tidote, Mithridate). When he became of age, he travelled through Asia, partly to learn the customs, laws, mannere and lan- guages of the inhabitants (and he is said to have spoken twenty-two languages), and partly to examine the territories of his neighbors, of which he meditated the conquest. After an absence of three years, he returned, and put to death his wife, who had been unfaithful, aud had attempted to jioison him. He then attack- ed Pajihlagonia, and divided it with his ally, the king of Bithynia. The Romans, who had declared the country free, threatened him with a war; but 3Iithri- dates was so little alarmed at this threat, that he even jiossessed himself of Galatia, which had placed itself under the protec- tion of Rome. He next directed his atten- tion to Capjiadocia ; but, fearing the power of Ariaratbes, who was in possession of this countiy, and his connexion with the Romans, he had recourse to treachery, and caused him to be assassinated. At the same time, Nicomedes, king of Bithynia, entered Cappadocia, drove out the son of the murdered king, and mareied Laodice, the widow of Ariaratbes and the sister of Mithridates. The latter then took the op- portunity of reentering Cappadocia, con- quered it, and replaced his nephew on the throne; but he soon comjielled the young jirince, by his dishonorable requisitions, to a declaration of war. They marched against each other, with about equal forces. Mithridates then offered terms of peace, and invited the young prince to a conference, in which he killed him with a dagger, in the sight of both armies. The Cappadocians, seeing their master fall, were seized with terror, and Mithrida- tes jiossessed himself of the country, al- most without opposition. Nicomedes now concerted with his wife the plan of sub- orning a young man to represent the third son of Ariaratbes, and caused him to send to Rome to implore assistance. Laodice' herself performed a journey to Rome, in order to confirm his story. Mithridates took advantage of this fraud to en- deavor to prove to die Romans that the young prince to whom he had given up Cappadocia (who was his own son, to whom he had given the name of Ariara- tbes) was the real son of Ariaratbes. The Romans, having discovered this double fraud, took Cajipadocia from Mithridates and Paphlagonia from Nicomedes; and the Cappadocians elected Ariobarzanes their king. Scarcely had Sylla, whose amis had elevated the latter to the throne, left Asia, when Mithridates, with the assistance of Tigranes, king of Armenia, replaced his son upon the Cappadocian throne. He also, at the same time, took Bithynia, and gave that country to his brother Soc- rates Christos. The Romans, however, soon restored things to their former condi- tion. Mithridates then declared himself against the Romans, and, because they MITHRIDATES. 545 would not acquiesce in his demands, he suddenly fell upon Cappadocia and Bithyn- ia at the same time. His forces amount- ed to 250,000 foot, 50,000 horse, 130 char- iots armed with scythes, and 400 ships. Those of the Romans, with the Bithynian auxiliaries, were not much inferior, and were commanded by Cassius, Aquilius andOppius. Mithridates was successful at the opening of the war. He not only defeated Nicomedes,but also Aquilius, con- quered Bithynia, and captured a great part of the Roman-fleet Phrygia, Caria, Mysia, Lycia, Pamphylia, Paphlagonia, and all the country as far as Ionia, fell into bis hands, and hailed him as the savior of Asia. The Roman generals Oppius and Aquilius were also given up to him as jirisonere by the inhabitants of Laodicea and Lesbos; and he caused melted gold to be poured down the throat of the latter, in derision of the avarice of the Romans. The free cities of Asia, Magnesia, 31ity- lene, Ephesus, &c, opened their gates to the victor, who collected treasure suffi- cient to maintain his army five yeare. He caused all the Roman citizens in Asia Mi- nor, with their wives and children, to be put to death. Dionysius and Plutarch give the number of those who perished at 150,000 ; Appian at 80,000. Mithridates next conquered the islands of the ^Egean sea. Rhodes, however, held out so firm- ly that he returned to Pergamus. From hence he sent his general Archelaus, with 120,000 men, to Greece. Athens fell by treachery into his hands, and various oth- er places were taken, while another of his generals, Metrophanes, ravaged Eubcea. On the news of the defeat of the latter, Mithridates sent his son Ariaratbes, with a powerful army, into Macedonia, which, with Thrace, was speedily conquered. His arms were every where victorious, until, at length, the report that he threaten- ed Italy itself, led the Romans to adopt more decisive measures. Sylla embarked for Greece, reduced Athens by famine, destroyed the army of Archelaus in a bloody contest at Chajronea, and emanci- pated all Greece by two v ictories in Bceo- tia. Fimbria, with no less success, reduc- ed Asia Minor, and besieged Mithridates himself in the fortress of Pitane, who final- ly fled to his ships. The Pontic fleet was also twice defeated by Lucullus. Thus pressed on every side, Mithridates com- missioned Archelaus to conclude a treaty, which Sylla granted, under severe condi- tions, B. C. 89. Mithridates was limited to his hereditary kingdom of Pontus, and compelled to deliver into the hands ofthe 46* 'Romans 80 ships of war manned, and to pay 2000 talents. Sylla had scarcely left Asia before Mithridates attacked Colchis, and refused to fulfil the conditions of the peace. The Roman general, Mursena, who entered and ravaged Pontus, was de- feated, and many cities of Asia had de- clared themselves for the victor, when Aulus Gabinius, sent by the dictator Sylla, appeared. Cappadocia was evacuated by Mithridates; but, on the other hand, be subdued theBosphorians (B.C. 82), and had no sooner heard ofthe death of Sylla (B. C. 78), than hedetennined to recover the coun- tries be had ceded, and, in order to dis- tract the Romans, entered into a treaty with Sertorius, the chief of the Marian faction in Spain. His son-in-law Tigra- nes, king of Armenia, entered into his designs, and marched to Cappadocia, while Mithridates himself, after the subju- gation of Paphlagonia, conquered Bithyn ia and the provinces of Asia. A new war with Rome was now unavoidable. The consuls Lucullus and Cotta went against Mithridates, the latter as com- mander ofthe fleet, and the former as gen- eral ofthe land forces. Cotta was unsuc- cessful; Lucullus, on the contrary, cau- tiously avoided a general engagement with the superior forces of the enemy, but at the same time gained so many impor- tant advantages, by sea and land, that he soon entered Pontus as a conqueror. While he was besieging Amisus, Mithri- dates collected an army, and gained a de- cided victory ; yet Lucullus succeeded in regaining what he had lost, and Mithrida- tes found himself compelled, by the revolt of his own troops, to fly to Tigranes, in Armenia, who received him, but did not make common cause with him. Lucul- lus, who had, in the mean time, transform- ed Pontus into a Roman province, de- manded the surrender of Mithridates, which Tigranes refused, because, as he said, although he disapproved the conduct of Mithridates, he nevertheless esteemed it dishonorable to deliver up so near a con- nexion to his enemies; but, as he foresaw that the Romans vvould not be contented with this answer, he agreed with Mithri- dates that he should return to Pontus with 10,000 men, collect an army, and return with it before Lucullus, who was besieg- ing Sinope, should come into Armenia. Siuope, however, surrendered sooner than they expected, and Lucullus defeated Ti- granes before his junction with Mithridates. Tigranes, nevertheless, collected a new army, which Mithridates led into Pontus. Lucullus, however, checked his progress 546 3IITHRIDATES-MITRE. by a victory; but, during the winter, Mith- ridates strengthened his forces, and soon entirely defeated the lieutenants of Lucul- lus, and then directed his march towards Armenia Minor, to form a junction with Tigranes. In the mean time, die consul Manius Acilius Glabrio had taken the chief command, in the place of Lucullus. The allied kings took advantage of the confusion incidental to this change, and reconquered the greatest part of Pontus, Bithynia, Capjiadocia and Armenia Minor. Pompey then appeared at the head of the Roman army. After he had in vain offer- ed him peace, and sought a decisive bat- tle, he besieged Mithridates in his camp, not far from the Euphrates. The king thence retreated, but was pursued, attack- ed in a defile, and totally routed at Nicoji- olis (B. C. 66); he escaped with only 800 horse. Tigranes would not receive him, and he fled to Colchis. Pompey followed him, and he took refuge in the dominions of a Scythian prince. He was now thought to be dead, until he suddenly reappeared in Pontus, collected troops, and, at the same time, offered terms of jieace lo Pom- pey ; they could not, however, agree, and the war broke out afresh. The force of the Romans in Pontus was small, and Mithridates made some progress. The in- habitants, however, soon revolted from him, and his neighbors refused him their assistance ; nevertheless, his unbending spirit rejected the proposals of jieace made by Pompey. He put to death his son Machares, made himself king in Bos- phorus, and formed the bold project of penetrating into Gaul (where he had sent ambassadors) at the head of his army, and marching, with the inhabitants, into Italy ; but, having encamped at the Cimmerian Bosphorus, an insurrection broke out in his army, at the head of which was his son Phamazes. Unable to reduce the rebels to their duty, and having taken poi- son without effect, Mithridates threw him- self upon his sword, that he might not fall alive into the hands of the Romans (B. C. 64). This celebrated monarch ruled Pon- tus 59 years. Mithridates ; the title given to the Allgemeine Sprachenkunde of Adelung aud Vater, in which the Lord's prayer is ex- hibited in nearly five hundred languages and dialects. (See Vater.) Mitra ; a head-dress of the ancient Pereian kings. (See Infula.) 3Iitra ; the ancient Pereian goddess of love. Mitre (Greek p^pa), in costume ; a sa- cerdotal ornament, worn on the head by bishops and certain abbots on solemn oc- casions, being a sort of cap, pointed and cleft at top. The high-priest among the Jews wore a mitre, or bonnet, on his head. The inferior priests of that nation had likewise their mitres, but in what particu- lars they differed from that worn by the high-priest, is not now certain. Some writere contend that the earlier bishojis wore mitres; but this circumstance is also euvelojied in a good deal of doubt. Among the primitive followers of Christianity, there was a class of young women who professed a state of virginity, and were solemnly consecrated thereto. These wore a purple and golden mitre, as a badge of distinction. His holiness the pope uses four different mitres, which are more or less rich, adorned according to the nature of the festivals on which they are assumed. The cardinals formerly wore mitres, and some canons of cathe- drals in Roman Catholic countries have the jirivilege of wearing the mitre, which is also borne by several families of distinc- tion in Germany as their crest. But we must look back into remoter ages, in order to fiud the origin of the use of the mitre. It would seem to have obtained primarily in India. According to several authors, it was first a jiart of female costume, and when worn by a man was considered as indicative of effeminacy. The fillet, with which Bacchus is often represented as having his head bound, has been denomi- nated mUrephora. A jieculiar kind of head-dress, covering the whole head, is often found depicted on ancient coins, &c, with pendents, or pointed dewlaps, by means of whicli, perhaps, this kind of mi- tre was tied under the chin. This was probably the Phrygian mitre ; for we find Paris with this head-dress on a gem pub- lished by Natter, and subsequently by Winckelmaun, in his Monumenti Inediti (No. 112). Priam, and the Amazons, up- on the Homeric monuments, and the Par- thian kings, upon several medals, have a similar mitre. The mitre is very fre- quently met with in early Christian man- uscripts, in illuminated missals, and upon the oldest ecclesiastical monuments; this, however, might be expected, since its usage has always been principally ecclesi- astical. A statue of St. Peter, erected in the seventh centuiy, bears this mark of dis- tinction, in the shape of a round, high, and jiyramidal mitre, such as those worn by each of the popes since. Perhaps this statue offers one of the earliest instances of its usage in tbe Christian churches. (See Infula, and Tiara.) MITTAU—MNEMONICS. 547 Mittau (in Lettonian, Jelgava); a city of Russia, chief city ofthe government of Mittau (see Courland); lat. 56° 39* N.; lon. 23c 43' E. It is situated in a low and marshy countiy, about nine leagues from Riga. The population is 12,000, com- posed of Russians, Germans, Lettonians and Jews. The old ramparts have been destroyed. It contains numerous charita- ble and literary institutions. The old castle, founded by tbe duke Ernest John, was occupied by Louis XVIII for several years. Mittau, the ancient residence of the dukes of Courland, was captured by the Swedes in 1701, and recovered by the Russians in 1706. Mittimus ; a writ by which records are transferred from one court to another. The precept directed to a gaoler, under the hand and seal of a justice of the jieace, for the receiving and safe keeping of a felon, or other offender, by him com- mitted to gaol, is also called a mittimus. Mizzen ; the aftermost or hindennost of the fixed sails of a ship. (q. v.) Mizzen 31ast ; the mast which suji- ports all the after sails. (See Ship.) Mnemonics (from the Greek iivrmovdu, to remember); the art of assisting the memory. In the article Memory, the live- liness with which ideas are often recalled by accidental associations, has been spoken of. This very naturally led men to attach ideas, words, &c, purposely, to certain things familiar to the mind, in order to be assisted by the latter in remembering the former. One kind of mnemonics, and jierhaps the earliest, is to attach the idea to bo remembered to some imjiression ofthe senses, such as the external objects which are most familiar to our eyes (to- pology, from rdnoi, place): some pereons make use of a picture, arbitrarily drawn, to which they attach the subjects to be remembered, in a certain order (symbolics, from referahle to a broad one: the ordinary breadth is about twenty fathoms, and the depth about sixteen. To drain a moat that is full of water, a trench is dug deeper than tbe level of the water, to let it run off, and then hurdles are thrown upon the mud and slime, covered with earth or bundles of rushes, to make a sure and firm passage. Mobile ; a city, port of entry, and cap- ital of Mobile county, Alabama, on the west side of Mobile river, at its entrance into the bay. It is 30 miles north of Mo- bile point, which is on the east side ofthe mouth ofthe bay; 55 miles west by north from Pensacola; and 160 east from New Orleans; lat. 30° 407 N.; lon. 88° 21' W. In 1813, this town came into the posses- sion of the U. States, and then contained about 300 inhabitants. In 1822, its popu- lation was estimated at 2800; and in 1830, MOBILE—MOCKING BIRD. 549 it contained 3194.—Mobile is situated con- siderably above the overflow of the river, in a dry aud pleasant place ; but access to the city is rendered somewhat difficult by a swampy island opposite. It has, more- over, swampy lands and stagnant waters back of it; and near it is a sterile country of pine woods. The city has several times been ravaged by the yellow fever, and has once been almost wholly destroyed by fire. Advantage was taken of the sickli- ness of Mobile, a few yeare since, to estab- lish the town of Blakely, on the eastern and opposite side of the bay, and ten miles distant from 3Iobile. Besides being healthy, this site has many veiy important advantages over Mobile; but the jiroject of establishing it as a substitute for Mo- bile, entirely failed. Only New Or- leans and Charleston are before Mobile in the cotton trade, and Charleston is de- clining, while 3Iobile is rapidly increasing. The value of exjioits of domestic |iroduce from Alabama in 1829, was $1,679,385; and nearly the whole of this must have been ship|ied at Mobile. This city has a regular steam-boat communication with New Orleans through lake Ponchartrain. During most of the year, steam-boats are constantly plying between this place and the towns on the river, and many vessels are loading at the wharves for distant ports. 3Iobile; a river of Alabama, formed by the union of the Alabama and the Tombeckbee. It takes the name of Mo- bile where these two rivers unite at fort Miinms. It enters 3Iobile bay by two mouths. The Alabama is the eastern branch, and rises in the Alleghany ridges of Georgia. It receives a number of small streams, and becomes navigable for small sea vessels at fort Claiborne. Simi- lar vessels ascend the Tombeckbee to the mouth of the Black Warrior, 80 miles above St. Stephens. At moderate stages of water it affords steam-boat navigation to Tuscaloosa, 320 miles from ftlobile. Both these rivere are very favorable to boat navigation. The lands on their bor- ders are excellent, and produce great quantities of cotton. Mobility; a contingent jiroperty of bodies, but most essential to their consti- tution. Every body at rest can be put in motion, and if no impediment intervenes, this change may be effected by the slight- est external impression. Thus the largest cannon ball, suspended freely by a rod or chain from a lofty ceiling, is visibly agi- tated by the horizontal stroke of a swan shot which has gained some velocity in its descent through the arc of a pen- dulum. In like manner, a ship of any burden is, in calm weather and smooth water, gradually pulled along even by the exertions of a boy. A certain measure offeree, indeed, is often required to com- mence or to maintain the motion; but this consideration is wholly extrinsic, and depends on the obstacles at firet to be overcome, and on the resistance which is afterwards encountered. If the adhesion and intervention of odier bodies were ab- solutely precluded, motion would be gen- erated by the smallest pressure, and vvould continue with undiminished energy. Mocha, or Mokka ; a town on the Arabian sea, in the province of Yemen, with a commodious harbor, and about 6000 inhabitants, including several hun- dred Jews and about 500 Banians. It is frequented by merchants from the Barba- ry States, Egypt, Turkey and India, and by English, French and North American ships. The coffee which bears the name of the town, is brought down from the interior ofthe country by caravans. Gum Arabic, copal, mastich, myrrh, frankin- cense, indigo, senna, and other articles, are exported. The imports are chiefly Indian commodities. The trade is most active between May and August, in which period about 100 ships enter the port. There are several mosques, caravansaries and European factories here. Lon. 43° WE.; lat. 13° Iff N. 3Iocking Bird (lurdus polyglottos). This capricious little mimic is of a cine- reous color; paler beneath. It inhabits America from New England to Brazil, but is rare and migratory in the Northern States, whilst it is common and resident in the Southern. This bird, although it cannot vie with most of the American species in brilliancy of plumage, is much sought for on account of its wonderful faculty of imitating the tone of every inhabitant of the woods, from the twitter of the humming-bird to the scream ofthe eagle. But its notes are not entirely imi- tative ; its own song is bold, full, and ex- ceedingly varied, during the utterance of which it appeare in an ecstasy of delight. In confinement, it loses little of its power or energy. To use the words of Wilson, " He whistles for the dog; Caesar starts up, wags his tail, and runs to meet his master. He squeaks out like a hurt chicken, and the hen hurries about, with hanging wings and bristled feathers, clucking, to protect her injured brood. The barking of the dog, the mewing of the cat, the creaking of the passing wheel-barrow, follow with great truth and rapidity. He repeats the 550 MOCKING BIRD-MODEL. tune taught him by his master, though of considerable length, fully and faithfully. He runs over the quiverings of the cana- ry, or the clear whistlings of the Virginia nightingale or red-bird, with such superior execution aud effect, that the mortified songsters feel their own inferiority, and become altogether silent; while he seems to triumph in their defeat, by redoubling his exertions."—The female lays from four to five eggs, of an ash-blue color, marked with patches of brown ; she in- cubates fourteen days, and is extremely jealous of her nest, being very apt to desert it if much disturbed. During the period when the young are in the nest, neither cat, dog or man can approach it without being attacked. When intended for the cage, they are either taken from the nest when they are very young, or at a later period by trap-cages. Modality. Kant uses this word for that category (see Kant) which determines die relation of all the ideas of the judg- ment to our understanding. The logical modality of Kant is, therefore, the manner in which the understanding conceives the connexion and relation of ideas in a judg- ment ; whether we leave something unde- cided, as in problematical judgments, or give the thing as true, as in assertory judgments, or are obliged to consider a certain connexion of ideas to be true, as in apodictical judgments. (For further information, see the article Kant.) MonE; a particular system, or c6nsti- tution of sounds, by which the octave is divided into certain intervals according to the genus. The doctrine of the ancients respecting modes is rendered somewhat obscure, by the difference among their authors as to the definitions, divisions and names of their modes. Some jilace the specific variations of tones, or modes, in the manner of division, or order of the concinnous parts; and othere merely in the different tension ofthe whole; that is, as the whole series of notes are more acute or grave, or as they stand higher or lower in the great scale of sounds. While the ancient music was confined within the narrow bounds of the tetrachord, the heptachord, and octachord, there were only three modes admitted, whose funda- mentals were one tone distant from each other. The gravest of these was called the Dorian; the Phrygian was in the middle, and the acutest was the Lydian. In dividing each of these tones into two intervals, place was given to two other modes, the Ionian and the jEolian; the first of which was inserted betweeu the Dorian and Phrygian, and the second be- tween the Phrygian and Lydian. The system being at length extended both upward and downward, new modes were established, taking their denomination from the five first, by joining the prepo- sition hyper (over or above) for those added at the acute extremity, and the preposition hypo (under) for those below. Thus the Lydian mode was followed by the Hyper-Dorian, the Hyper-Ionian, the Hyper-Phrygian, the Hyper-^Eolian, and the Hyper-Lydian, in ascending; and the Dorian mode was succeeded by the Hy- po-Lydian, Hypo-^Eolian, Hypo-Phrygi- an, Hypo-Ionian, and the Hypo-Dorian, in descending. The moderns, however, only reckon two modes, the major and the minor. The major mode is that di- vision of the octave by whicli the intervals between the third and fourth, and seventh and eighth, become halftones, and all the other intervals whole tones. The mi- nor mode is that division by which the intervals between the second and third, and fifth and sixth, become half tones, and all the others whole tones. Another distinction also exists between the major and minor modes; the major mode is the same, both ascending and descending; but the minor mode in ascending sharjiens the sixth and seventh, thereby removing the halftone from between the fifth and sixth to the seventh and eighth. Model ; an original of any kind pro- posed for cojiy or imitation. It is used, in building, for an artificial pattern formed in stone or wood, or, as is most- common- ly the case, in jilaster, with all due parts and proportions, for the more correct exe- cution of some great work, and to afford an idea of the effect to be produced. Models in imitation of any natural or arti- ficial substance are usually made by means of moulds of jilaster of Paris. In painting, this is the name given to a man or woman who is procured to exhibit him or herself, in a state of nudity, for the advan- tage of the students. These models are provided in all academies and schools for painting, and the students who have ac- quired a tolerable use ofthe pencil are in- troduced to this kind of study. By this means, the details and proportions of the human shape, the play ofthe muscles, the varieties of exjiression, &c, are displayed and inculcated far better than by any course of lectures or any study of former works. It is desirable that the living models used in an academy, or even in a private paint- ing room, should be changed as frequent- ly as possible, or the student is in danger MODEL—MODENA. 551 of falling into mannerism. Millin sjieaks of a model, of the name of Deschamps, who did duty iu this way upwards of 40 years in the academy at Paris, and com- ments on the facility with which this per- son's form and features might be recog- nised, in every variety of subject or of ex- jiression, in the paintings of the students of that jieriod. In sculpture a model im- jilies a figure made of wax or terra cotta, or any other malleable substance, whicli the artist moulds to guide him in fashion- ing his work, as the painter first makes a sketch, or the architect a design. When a model of any existing object is to be taken, the original is firet to be greased, in order to prevent the plaster from sticking to it, and then to be placed on a smooth table, jireviously greased, or covered with a cloth, to guard against the same accident; then surround the original with a frame or ridge of glazier's putty, at such a distance as will admit ofthe plaster resting upon the ta- ble, on every side ofthe subject, for about an inch, or as much as may be thought suf- ficient to give the jiroper degree of strength to the mould. An adequate quantity of plaster is then to be poured as uniformly as possible over the whole substance, until it is every where covered to such a thickness as to give a proper substance to the mould, whicli may vary in proportion to the size. The whole must then be allowed to continue in this way till the plaster shall have attained its firmness; when, the frame being removed, the mould may be inverted, and the subject taken from it; and when the jilaster is thoroughly dry, it should be well seasoned. Modena ; a sovereign duchy of Italy, lying in a fruitful jilain of Lombardy, watered by the Panaro, and bordering on Tuscany, Lucca, Bologna, Mantua and Parma. By an act of the congress of Vienna, Reggio, Mirandola, Correggio (birth-place of the celebrated painter), Carpoli aud Rivoli, together with Massa and Carrara, and the former Imperial Fiefs, are united with the duchy of Modena proper to constitute one government; su- perficial extent of the whole, 2000 square miles; population, 375,000. The territory is fertile and well cultivated, the climate, in general, temperate and healthy, and the jirincipal productions corn, rice, fmits, wine, oil, silk, honey, iron, marble, &c. Tbe income ofthe state is about 1,500,000 florins; the armed force 2080 men. The ruling house is of the Austrian line of the house of Este (see Este); the government is absolute, and the administration is con- ducted by one minister and two secreta- ries; the Austrian civil code is in force. The present ducal house is descended from Caesar of Este, a cousin (by a mor- ganatic marriage) of the last duke of the former line of Este, which became extinct in 1598. The pope Clement VIII then took possession of Ferrara, which had pre- viously formed a part of the Modenese territories, as a reverted fief of the papal see. In 1653, Correggio was added to the duchy by grant of the emperor of Germany, Mirandola, in 1710, and Novel- lara, in 1737. Hercules III (died in 1803) married the heiress of the duchy of 31as- sa-Can-ara, and left an only daughter, who was married to Ferdinand, archduke of Austria, brother of Leopold II. In 1796, the French took possession ofthe countiy, and it was included in the Cisalpine re- jiublic, and afterwards in the kingdom of Italy. The present duke Francis IV, the son ofthe arch-duke Ferdinand, is prince of Hungary and Bohemia, and arch-duke of Austria. He was bom in 1779, and, in 1812, married a daughter of the king of Sardinia. In 1814, he entered into jiossession of the estates of his grand father, by virtue of a reversionary invest- ment conferred on his father by the emperor, and his claims were confirmed by the congress cf Vienna. He assumed the name of Este, and thus became the founder of the Austrian line of Este. His mother also entered upon the govern- ment of the duchy of 3Iassa-Carrara, which she inherited from her mother, and to which the congress annexed the fiefs in the Liuiigiana: on her death, in 1829, these |iassed to her son. The house of 3Iodena-Este also holds the rich fidei- commJssa^see Fideicommissum)of the house of Obizzi, in Treviso. The present duke has a son, born iu 1819, and two brothers. In consequence of the arbitrary character ofthe duke's government, an insurrection was organized, and the citizens of 3Iode- na, Reggio, Massa-Carrara and other jilaces took arms, with the purpose of extorting from their rulers a more liberal form of government, in February, 1831. The duke was obliged to flee ; but in March the Austrian troops entered Modena, at the request of the duke, and restored the authority of the government Modena (Mutina); capital of the duchy ofthe same name, situated in a fertile plain, on the Canal of Modena, which unites the Secchia and the Panaro, 23 leagues from Florence, 36 from Milan; lat.44° 3& N.; lon. 10° 54' E. It is the see of a bishop, and contains an old cathedral, at the foot of the tower of which hangs the bucket 552 MODENA—MODULATION. which was the subject of war between the Bolognese and Modenese, and of a mock heroic poem, by Tassoni, entitled La Secchia Rapita (the Rape ofthe Buck- et), with a large number of churches. The ducal palace has a fine collection of ' pictures, and a good library of 80,000 volumes. There are also a univereity and other institutions, literary and charitable. The fortifications are inconsiderable ; the population about 25,000. Natives, Sigo- nius, 3Iuratori, Tassoni, Fallopius. Modern ; that which belongs to recent times. The term modern history is used in different senses. The Germans often date the end of modern history with the French revolution, and call the rest the most recent history. In the history of art, literature, customs, &c, modern is fre- quently used in contradistinction to an- cient or classical, (q. v.) " Modern civili- zation," says A. W. Schlegel, "arose from the blending together of the elements of Northern origin and the fragments of an- tiquity." (See Romantic.) Iii science, mod- ern is also used in contradistinction to an- cient ; thus we speak of modern philosophy. Modillion ; an ornament resembling a bracket, in the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite cornices. In Grecian archi- tecture, however, the Ionic order is with- out modillions in the cornice, as are also the Roman examples of the same order, with the exception of the temjile of Con- cord, at Rome, whicli has both modillions and dentils. 31odon (Mothone); a strong city and port ofthe Morea, on the Mediterranean ; lat 36° 51' N.; lon. 21° W E. It is en- tirely surrounded by the sea, and connect- ed with the main land by a wooden bridge. The port is unsafe, but important on account of its road and its proximity to the gulf of Coron. The city is small and badly built; the streets narrow and dirty- The Greeks became mastere of it in the war of Gre- cian independence, and, in 1825, 3Iiaulis burnt a Turkish fleet in the road. Ibra- him Pacha took possession of Modon soon after his arrival in the 3Iorea, but was compelled by the French to evacuate it in 1828. Previously to the war, the in- habitants amounted to about 7000. (See Morea.) In 1829, they did not exceed 500. Modulation, in music, is, in its most extensive meaning, the diversified and proper change of tones in conducting the melody, or the progression of tones in general, and the sequences of concords. In its narrower sense, modulation signifies that succession of tones by which a mu- sical passage proceeds from one key into another. In quite short pieces, also in long comjiositions, in which the compo- sition remains for some time in the princi- pal tone before it passes to another, good modulation consists only in continuing for some time melody and harmony in the assumed tone, with proper changes and variety, antl at last concluding in that tone. For this it is requisite that, at the very beginning, the concord should be- come distinctly perceptible by the sound of its essential tones, the octave, fifth and third ; and further, that the melody, as well as harmony, should be carried through the tones of the assumed scale, and that no tones foreign to it should be heard, either in the melody or in the harmony. A variety of concords, nevertheless, is necessary, that the ear may enjoy the necessary variety. The composer ought not, after the fashion of some contracted harmonists, to dwell always on two or three concords, or repeat them in transpo- sitions, much less to return and conclude in the principal tone before the jiiece or the firet strain is finished. The rule to let only those tones be heard which belong to the assumed scale is to be understood thus,—that a tone foreign to the scale ought to be used merely in passing, and to be left again immediately; thus, for in- stance, in the scale C sharp, one could cer-i tainly go through G sharp into A flat, anil through F sharp to the dominant, and from this back again to the principal tone, without violating, by these two tones; for- eign to the fundamental tone, C sharp, the effect of this scale, or destroying it It is only necessaiy to avoid tones totally foreign to the scale of C sharp; as, for in- stance, C sharp or D sharp. The second kiud of modulation, or that which is so called, in a more restricted sense, requires more knowledge of harmony, and is sub- ject to greater difficulty. It consists in the art of giving to longer pieces the necessaiy variety, by more frequent change of tones, and requires a knowledge of the relation among the various keys, and of the tones connecting them. As it is in- dispensable, in longer pieces, to cany melody and harmony through several keys, and to return at last to the funda- mental, it is necessaiy, in respect to such modulation, duly to consider the character ofthe composition, and, in general, wheth- er the modulation has merely in view a pleasing variety, or whether it is intended to serve as the support of a grand and bold expression. Considerations of this kind give to the composer the ndes for particular cases, and show where he may MODULATION—MCERIS. 553 depart widely from the principal tone, and where he may remain near it; where he may thus depart suddenly, and perhaps with some harshness, and where his de- partures ought to be slow and gradual; because such departures are the most im- portant means of musical expression. In pieces of a mild and quiet character, it is not permitted to modulate so often as in those which have to exjiress violent and great passions. Where every thing relat- ing to expression is considered, modula- tion also must be so determined by the ex- pression that each single idea in the melo- dy shall appear in the tone whicli is most proper for it. Tender and plaintive mel- odies ought only to dwell on the flat tones, while the lighter sharp tones, which must be touched in the modulation, on account of the connexion, ought to be left imme- diately afterwards. It is one of the most difficult parts ofthe art to remain steadily without fault in a modulation. It is there- fore to be regretted that those who write on the theory of the art, dwell so little on this important subject, and believe them- selves to have done enough, if they show how the composer may gracefully leave the jirincipal tone, jiass through the circle of all the twenty-four tones, and return at last to the firet tone. Piccini had the best views of modulation. "3Iodulating," he says, " is to pursue a certain path. The ear will follow you ; nay, it wishes to be led by you, yet ujion condition that, after you have led it to a certain point, it shall find something to reward it for its jour- ney, and to occujiy it for some time. If you do not consider its claims, it suffers you to go on, at last, without regard, and every endeavor to attract it again is but lost labor." To conduct a melody ac- cording to a given modulation; never to deviate from it, except for good reason; and in the right time to return to it in the projier way, and without harshness; to make use of changes in the modulation only as means of expression, and, perhaps, for the necessary variety,—such are the real difficulties of the art; while to leave immediately a key which has hardly been perceived, to ramble about without rea- son or object; to leap about because the composer does not know how to sustain himself; in one word, to modulate in or- der to modulate, is to miss the true aim of the art, and to affect a richness of inven- tion in order to hide the want of it. 3Iodule ; an architectural measure; die lower diameter of a column being divided into two parts, one is a module; and each module is divided into thirty minutes; vol. viii. 47 thus neither is a determinate, but a pro- jiortionate, measure. The term is also sometimes used with reference to the dif- ferent sizes of medals. Miellendorf, Richard Joachim Hen- ry, count von, a Prussian general, bom in 1*724, was educated at Brandenburg, and, in 1740, admitted among the pages of Frederic II, whom he accompanied* in the firet Silesian war, and was at the battles of Molwitz and Chotusitz. His behavior procured him promotion, and, in 1746, he obtained a company in the guards. He served at the siege of Prague, in 1757, and at the battle of Rossbach and that of Leuthen; for his conduct on which last occasion, he was rewarded with the order of merit. He was made a colonel in 1761, afterwards lieutenant-general,and, in 1783, governor of Berlin. In the reign of Frederic William II, he was appointed general of infantry, and commanded the Prussian troops emjiloyed in 1793, in the disgraceful dismemberment of Poland, on which occasion Mollendorf did every thing in his power to alleviate the misfortunes ofthe Poles. On his re- turn home, he was created a field-marshal, and, soon after, made governor of South Prussia. He opposed the war with France which followed ; but he succeed- ed the duke of Brunswick in the com- mand ofthe Prussian army on the Rhine, in 1794, when he gained the victory of Kaiserslautern. He was one of die prin- cipal advisers of the treaty of Basle, in 1797, after which he was made grand- marshal. Not being able to prevent, by his advice, hostilities with France, in 1806, though far advanced in years, he accepted a command, and, joining the ar- my ofthe duke of Brunswick, was present at Jena and Aueretadt, where he was wounded. He retired to Berlin, and, sub- sequently, to Havelberg, where, accord- ing to an odd Prussian usage, he held a prebend in tbe ecclesiastical chapter. He died there, Jan. 28, 1816. Mieris ; a lake of Egypt. According to Herodotus, with whose account Diodo- rus and 3Iela agree, it was, in his time, 3600 stadia, or 450 miles, in circum- ference, and about 300 feet deep. He states it to have been entirely the product of human industry. Modem travellers describe it as at present about thirty or forty miles long and six broad, and assert it to be a natural basin. The works, therefore, which Herodotus attributes to king Moeris, must have been the canak which connected the lake with the Nile, and the mounds, dams and sluices which rendered it subservient to the purposes of 554 MGERIS—MOHAMMED. irrigation. (See the works of Pococke, Denon, Belzoni, &c, on Egypt.) 31(esia ; a country lying north of Thrace and 3Iacedonia, and south of the Danube, corresponding to the modem Servia and Bulgaria. It was at a remote period inhabited by Scythians, with whom the Getae were afterwards united. The country was conquered by the Roman emperors. The barbarians early conquer- ed this region, and it remained in the hands of Sclavonians and Bulgarians. (See Servia, and Bulgaria.) 3Iiesogoths. (See Goths.) 3Iogador, or Magadore (called by the natives Suera, or Suerrcdi); a seaport of Mo- rocco,100 miles west-south-west of 3Ioroc- co; lon. 9° 207 W.; lat 31° 30' N.; pop- ulation, according to Jackson, 10,000; to Robbins, 30,000. It was founded in 1760, by Sidi Mohammed, who spared 110 pains to make it the principal seat of commerce in the empire; and most ofthe commerce between Europe and the empire of Mo- rocco is carried on through 31ogador. It is built in a low, flat desert of accumulat- ing sand, which separates it from the cul- tivated country. Supplies are brought from gardens from four to twelve miles distant. The town has a beautiful appear- ance from the sea, the houses being all of stone, and white ; but the streets, though regular and straight, are narrow and dirty, and the houses present a mass of dead wall. The houses of the foreign mer- chants are spacious. The roofs are flat, and the terraces serve as a walk in the evening. It consists of two parts, one of wltich may be called the citadel, contain- ing the custom-house, treasury, residence ofthe alcaide, and the houses of the for- eign merchants. The Jews, who are not foreign merchants, reside in the outer town. The harbor is about two miles in circuit; but, as the water, at ebb-tide, is only ten or twelve feet deep, large ships must anchor one and a half mile distant from the battery. The exports consist of almonds, gums, bees-wax, goat-skins, ol- ive oil, ostrich feathers, pomegranate-peels, and dates. (See Morocco.) Mogrebbins ; Arabs of the western part of Egypt. Many of them are found at Cairo, and are distinguished for their industry. Mogul. (See Mongols.) Mohammed, the founder of a religion which has spread over a great part of the East, and has been productive of much good by the abolition of the worship of idols, was a scion of the Arabic line of Koreish, and the family of Hashem, cele- brated in their countiy as the princes of the holy city of Mecca, and guardians of the kaaba. The date of his birth is plac- ed with most probability in A. D. 569. 3Iecca was his native place. His grand- father, Abdul 3Iotalleb, a rich and noble citizen, had thirteen sons. One of them, Abdallah, married Ainira, and died while his son Mohammed, or Mahomet, was still a child. As he left little property, 31obammed was educated firet by his grandfather, and, after his death, by his oldest uncle, Abu Taleb. This uncle, a merchant, destined 31ohammed for the same employment, and was accompanied by him on a commercial journey to Syria. On this occasion, he visited a Nestorian monastery, where he was especially dis- tinguished by one of the monks, and re- ceived impressions which perhaps con- tributed to give the tone to his subsequent character. The 3Iohamniedan writere are very prolix in their descriptions of the wonderful qualities of mind and body for which their prophet was eminent from his youth ; he shared, however, the general ignorance of his countrymen. His uncle had recommended him as agent to a rich widow, named Khadijah, and he acquitted himself so much to her satisfac- tion, that she married him, and thus placed him in easy circumstances. She was fifteen years older than he, but, from gratitude or prudence, he lived with her in happy and faithful wedlock, and, till her death, restrained the sensual appetites which he afterwards indulged. He was still a merchant, and made a second jour- ney to Syria, where he again had inter- views with the Nestorian monks. He seems to have had, from his youth, a pro- pensity to religious contemplation, for he was every year accustomed, in the month Ramadan, to retire to a cave near Mec- ca, and dwell there in solitude. At what time the idea of a new religion came into his mind, whence, in the midst of an idol- atrous people, be derived the conviction of the unity of God, and to what degree he blended the ambitiontoassumetheprophet- ic character with the struggle for personal aggrandizement, are questions to which only conjectural answers can be given. That an untaught Arab should conceive elevated views ofthe state of man in hisage, and found on them comprehensive projects, is not credible: in all probability, his first plans were limited to his countrymen. That he was honest in his zeal to abolish idolatry, and disseminate a purer doctrine, although he sought to obtain this object by deception, may be easily believed, if 310HAMMED. 555 we remember the many examples of a similar inconsistency in other legislators and religious refonners. Mohammed be- gan his pretended mission A. D. 609, in the fortieth year of his age. He firet con- verted his wife Khadijah, to whom he communicated the particulars of an inter- view with the angel Gabriel, by whom he wis declared an apostle of God. Through her instrumentality, her uncle or cousin Waraka was gained, who is said to have been a Christian, and well acquainted with the Old and New Testaments. These were followed by Mohammed's servant, Zeid, to whom he gave his freedom, and by his young nephew, the fiery Ali. Of great importance was the accession of Abubeker, a man of estimable character, who stood in high respect, and pereuaded ten of the most considerable citizens of Mecca to follow his example. They were all instructed by Mohammed in the doc- trines ofthe Islam, as the new religion was styled,which were promulgated as the grad- ual revelations of the divine will, through the angel Gabriel, and were collected in the Koran, (q. v.) Tlu*ee years jiassed in the quiet dissemination of his doctrines: in the fourth, Mohammed invited his rel- atives of the family of Hashem to an en- tertainment, openly announced to them his prophetic mission, and asked which of them would undertake the office of his vizier. All were silent, till the youthful Ali declared his readiness to do so, and, at the same time, his resolution to inflict vengeance on all who should dare to op- jiose his master. In vain did Abu Taleb, the father of Ali, dissuade them from the undertaking. But, although he remained himself unconverted, he did much to pro- mote the new doctrines, by protecting Mohammed against his enemies, and affording him refuge in times of danger. On several occasions Mohammed was at- tacked by the adherents of idolatry with ojien force, and comjielled to change his residence; but he often had the satisfitc- tion of converting his bitterest enemies. In the tenth year of his prophetic office, he suffered a severe loss in the death of Abu Taleb and his faithful Khadijah. Deprived of their assistance, he was com- pelled to retire, for a time, to the city of Tayef. On the other hand, he was read- ily received by the pilgrims who visited the kaaba, and gained numerous adhe- rents among the families in the neighbor- hood. At this time occurred Moham- med's famous nocturnal journey to heaven on the beast Alborak, under Ga- briel's guidance, respecting which the Koran contains some obscure intimations. In the twelfth year, the Islam was also spread among the inhabitants of Medina (Yathreb), several of whom swore fidelity to the prophet, and proffered their assist- ance. Mohammed now adopted the res- olution of encountering his enemies with force. Only the more exasperated at this, they formed a conspiracy to murder him : warned of the imminent danger, he left 31ecca, accompanied by Abubeker alone, and concealed himself in a cave not far distant. Here he spent three days undis- covered, after which he arrived safely at Medina, but not without danger. This event, from which the Mohammedans commence their era, is known under the name ofthe Hegira (q.v.), which signifies filigM. In Medina, Mohammed met with the most honorable reception: thither he was followed by many of his adherents. Mohammed now assumed the sacerdotal and regal dignity, married Ayesha, daugh- ter of Abubeker, and, as the number of the faithful continued to increase, declared his resolution to projiagate his doctrines with the sword. The hopes of booty added new fervor to the religious zeal of his jiartisans. Their first great military exploit was the spoiling of a rich caravan, led by Abu Sophian, die chief of the Ko- reishites, with a strong guard. Moham- med surprised them, with an inferior force, in the valley of Beder, and inflicted on them a total defeat. He took a rich booty, and a number of prisoners. Other successful enterjirises followed ; but, in the third year ofthe Hegira, Abu Sophian, with 3000 soldiers, attacked Mohammed with 950 on mount Ohud, not far from Medina. A desperate conflict ensued, in which the Moslems were utterly beaten, and the wounded prophet hardly saved his fife. This misfortune naturally shook the authority of him whose pretended mission from God should have secured him the victory. But by attributing the fault to the sins ofthe Moslems, by prom- ising the slain a paradise provided with all sensual enjoyments, and inculcating an unconditional predestination,he succeeded in restoring his tottering credit Good need had he of it in the following year, 625, when Abu Sophian ajipeared before Medina with 10,000 men. Mohammed prudently limited himself to the defensive; but the enemy raising the siege, after twenty days, on account of internal dis- cord, ftlohammcd, under the pretence of a divine command, led his party against the Jewish race of Koreidha, who had made common cause with the enemy. After 556 MOHAMMED. twenty-five days, the Jews were compel- led to surrender their chief fortress to the will of the conqueror, who took the most bloody revenge, slaughtered between 600 and 700 men, and carried away the wo- men and children into captivity. Some yeare afterwards, he also took Khaibar, the principal seat of the Jewish power in Arabia, by which means he completed the subjugation of this unhappy people. It is probable that the many murders and cru- elties practised on his enemies were suffi- ciently justified in the eyes of his follow- ers, by his divine mission; but they must have been highly offended by the viola- tion of all right and decency, of which he was guilty in his passion for Zeinab, the wife of his emancipated slave and adopted son Zeid, while a particular chajiter was introduced into the Koran, to give him power to marry her; this he did public- ly, without regard to a degree of relation- ship which the Arabs had hitherto held inviolable. This weakness, with respect to the female sex, increased with the yeare and authority of Mohammed. Be- sides the numerous wives, whom he took at different times, he indulged in several transient amours, such as are forbidden in his own laws, and always justified his in- continency by new chapters in the Koran. That such shameless pretences could have any effect rather proves the credulity and fanaticism of the people than his own tal- ents of deception. At the same time, his doctrines and authority gained ground among the neighboring tribes. The exjie- ditions of his officere rarely failed to pro- duce a considerable booty. He was him- self almost worshijiped by his partisans. His views, meanwhile, continued to ex- pand, and, iu the seventh year of the He- gira, he sent a summons to the principal neighboring princes, particularly Chosrou Parviz, king of Persia, Heraclius, em- peror of Constantinople, 31okawkas, ru- ler of Egypt, the king of Ethiopia, and the princes of various districts of Ara- bia, to embrace the new revelation of the divine law, made through him. The manner in which this embassy was received differed according to the power and pride of those to whom it was direct- ed. The more remote and powerful gave no heed to it: on the contrary, the weaker and nearer, who were informed of his increasing power, had cause to fear his arms. It was of particular importance to him no longer to be an exile from Mecca, the holy city, which was in a high degree the object of the adoration of the Arabs. He appeared, therefore, at the head of 1400 men, with the ostensible purpose of peaceably visiting the temple of iMecca. The Koreisbites opposed his entrance, and compelled him to a treaty, in the seventh year of the Hegira. For three days only, he and his jiartisans were to be allowed to pay their devotions, unarmed, in the kaaba; on the fourth day, he was to withdraw. He succeeded, however, on this occasion, in converting three per- sons of influence among the Koreishites, who had afterwards still greater renown among the Moslems—Caled, Amru and Othman. In the eighth year of the He- gira, a Mohammedan army, under Zeid's command, advanced against the city of Muta, in Palestine, where the governor of the emperor Heraclius had murdered a 31oslem ambassador. Zeid was slain, and the defeat of the 3Ioslems was prevented solely by the courage of Caled, who, on this occasion, obtained the appellation of " sword of God." A breach of compact on the part of the Koreishites gave 31o- hammed the desired opportunity to lead against Mecca 10,000 well-armed soldiers, inspired by pious zeal. The terrified Ko- reishites made little resistance, and re- ceived life and liberty only on condition that they embraced the Islam. The idols of the kaaba were demolished, but the sa- cred touch ofthe prophet made the black stone again the object ofthe deepest ven- eration. The temple became the principal sanctuary of the religion of Mohammed, and its jirofessore alone are allowed access to the holy city of Mecca. This impor- tant event took place in the eighth year of the Hegira. The destruction of some celebrated idols, and the subjugation of various Arab tribes, now employed the Moslem arms. In the valley of Honain, not far from Mecca, where Mohammed incurred great personal danger, he achiev- ed the victory only by the utmost exer- tions. The following year the Moham- medans call the " year of embassies," be- cause a number of Arab tribes announced by deputies their submission and conver- sion. At the head of 30,000 men, among whom were 10,000 cavalry, Mohammed was resolved to anticipate the hostile plans ot the emperor Heraclius. He inarched into Syria to Tabuk, half way to Damascus, but returned to Medina, and contented himself with summoning the emperor in writing to embrace his doc- trines. After his return, he promulgated a new chapter of the Koran, revoked all regulations in favor of idolaters, and de- clared all the compacts concluded with them null. He might now be regarded as MOHA31MED. 557 master of the whole of Arabia, although all the inhabitants had not yet received his religion. He allowed the Christians a free exercise of their worehip on the pay- ment of a tribute. In the tenth year of the Hegira, Mohammed undertook his farewell pilgrimage to Mecca. On this occasion, he was surrounded with the utmost splendor, and attended by 90,000, or, as some say, 150,000 friends. This was the last important event of his life. He died soon after his return to Medina, in the arms of his wife Ayesha, in the eleventh year ofthe Hegira, in his sixty- third year. Of all his wives, the firet alone bore him children, of whom only his daughter Fatima, wife of Ali, survived bim. The Mohammedan writere un- doubtedly exaggerate the corporeal and mental endowments of their jirophet: it is, however, very credible, that there was a prepossessing majesty in his appearance, and that he united much natural elo- quence with a decisive and enterprising mind. By these gifts, he succeeded in exalting himself above his equals, and gaining confidence and pojiularity. Com- pared with his countrymen, he stands pre- eminent; comjiared with other legislators and monarchs, he holds but an inferior rank. Whether he himself believed what 'he promulgated as a divine revelation is a hard question to answer. Most proba- bly he ought to be regarded as a religious enthusiast, who deemed himself actually inspired by the Divinity, but was not so entirely blinded as to overlook the means of making his doctrines acceptable to the jieople, and of confirming his domin- ion over their minds. Thence the fabri- cation of his interview with the angel Ga- briel ; thence his visionary journey through the seven heavens of paradise ; thence his indulgence of the sensual desires of a sensual people. The firet tenet of his creed was, "Allah alone is God, and Mo- hammed is his prophet." At the same time, 3Ioses and Christ were regarded, in his system, as divinely inspired teachers of former times, and he by no means de- nied the authenticity of the sacred histo- ries and revelations of ancient Judaism and Christianity, which he only believed to be corrupted. The paradise which he promised to his faithful adherents was a heaven of sensual pleasure; he himself perhaps anticipated no other. His moral- ity was compiled from the ancient Jewish and Christian systems. Tbe faithful ado- ration of Allah as the only God, unwaver- ing obedience to the commands of the prophet, the necessity of jirayer, charity to the poor, purifications, abstinence from forbidden enjoyments (especially from strong drinks—this prohibition was caused by the quarrels that arose among his ad- herents), bravery, upholding even to death the cause of God, and entire resignation to unavoidable fate, are the chief points of his moral system. Of solemnities, fasts and usages such a religion for a sen- sual people could not be destitute; but the injunction of a pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina was unquestionably a political measure, in order to sanctify for ever the original seat of the Islam, and to secure permanently the political and religious importance of Arabia. These doctrines are contained in the Koran, to which was soon after added a second collection,— Sunna (second book of the rules of life, founded on Mohammed's example). But all Mohammedans do not receive the lat- ter: those who do, are therefore called SunnUes. One ofthe principal means of the rapid and extensive diffusion of his doctrines and dominion was force, all who did not submit of their own accord being compelled to do so at the edge of the sword. Rarely do we find in his history any traces of his having made use of wo- men for promoting his plans, although he allowed polygamy, with some restrictions, and concubinage without any bounds. That he pereuaded his first wife that the attacks of epilepsy which he had were celestial trances, and that she first procur- ed him adherents by the propagation of this fable, seems to be a tale, devised by his Christian opponents, to expose the propket to contempt. Certain it is that he himself declared he did not work mir- acles. His disciples, nevertheless, ascribe to him the most absurd miracles; for ex- ample, that a part ofthe moon fell into his sleeves, and that he threw it back to the heavens; that stones, trees and animals proclaimed him aloud to be the prophet of God, &c.; but of such fables we find abundance in the legends ofthe Christian saints. In a moral view, he can never be compared with the divine Founder of Christianity. His system has been widely propagated in Asia and Africa. The rev- erence which the faithful Moslems pay to the prophet, and all that is connected with him in the remotest degree, is as great as the reverence of relics bas ever been in Christendom: thus, for example, the camel which carries the Koran to the kaaba, and, in the territory of Mecca, an enormous number of doves, which must not even be scared from the fields, much less be killed, because they are thought 558 MOHAMMED—MOHAMMED II. to be descended from the dove that ap- proached the ear of Mohammed, are ob- jects of the most sacred reverence. But the wonder-loving populace alone gives credence to the fable that Mohammed's coffin is suspended in the air: on the contrary, he lies buried at Medina, where he died, and an urn, enclosed in the holy chapel, constitutes his sepulchre, which is surrounded with iron trellis work, and is accessible to no one. The (so called) Tes- tament of Mohammed is a spurious work of later times. 3Iohammed's doctrines have given rise to many sects, among which the Sunnites and Shiites, the chief •ines, still entertain the most violent mu- tual hatred among the Persians and Turks. (See Hist, of Mohammedanism, &c, by Charles Mills; also the articles Koran, and Islam.) Mohammed II, Turkish emperor, sur- named Bujuk, the Great, bom at Adriano- ple in 1430, succeeded his father, Amurath II, in 1451. He renewed the peace made by his predecessor with the Greek empe- ror, but resolved to complete the conquest ofthe enfeebled Greek empire by the cap- ture of Constantinople. The Christian powere in Europe remained quiet specta- tors. April 6,1453, Mohammed appeared before Constantinople, to which he laid siege with an army of 300,000 soldiers, and by water with 300 galleys and 200 small vessels. The besieged had drawn strong iron chains before the harbor, and made a brave resistance, though they had but about 10,000 men to opjiose so great a force. But Mohammed, having contrived to get a part of his fleet over land into the harbor, and caused a bridge of boats to be constructed and occupied with cannon, the Greeks were overcome, after a defence of 53 days, and the empire came to its end. The city was taken by storm on the 29th May, and abandoned to pillage. The emperor Constantiue Palaeologus fell, at the commencement of the assault, sword in hand. In a few hours, the conquest of the city was completed. The conquerors gave themselves up to all cnielty and ex- cess. During the sack, a young princess, named Irene, was brought to Mohammed, and for three days he compelled her to satisfy his passion. Some janizaries murmured, and a vizier even dared to re- prove him. Mohammed immediately sent for the captive, took her by the hair, and murdered her before the discontented, with the words " Thus 3Iohammed deals with love." When he entered the city, he found it desolate; but as he designed it for the principal seat of his empire, he strove to attract new inhabitants by prom- ising the Greeks full religious liberty, and permitting them to choose a new patri- arch, whose dignity he himself increased. Constantinople under him soon became again flourishing. He restored the forti- fications, and, for greater security, caused the forts called the Dardandles (q. v.) to be erected at the mouth of the Hellespont. Mohammed pursued his conquests, which were checked for a time by Scanderbeg, prince of Albania, who was favored by the mountainous character of the country. The sultan finally concluded peace with him, but after Scanderbeg's death, in 1466, soon subjugated all Albania. His fbrther advances into Hungary were prevented by the celebrated John Hunniades, who oblig- ed him, in 1456, to raise the siege of Bel- grade, in which he had lost 25,000 men, and had been himself severely wounded. The son ofthe great Hunniades, king 3Iat- thias Corvinus, also kept the Turks from Hungary, and even took from them Bos- nia. On the other hand, 3Iohammed con- quered, in a short time, Servia, Greece, and all Peloponnesus, most of the islands of the Archipelago, and the Greek empire of the Comneni, established in the begin- ning of the 13th centuiy, at Trebisond, on the coast of Asia 3Iinor. The Christian powere began to be ajiprehensive of the progress of his arms, and, at the instiga- tion of pope Pius II, in 1459, a crusade against the Turks was resolved upon at Mantua, which was never, however, exe- cuted, on account of the had constitution of most of the European states. From the republic of Venice Mohammed tore Negropont, in 1470. He also stripped them of other jiossessions, and took (Jaffa from the Genoese, in 1474. Frequent ware with the Persians prevented the fur- ther prosecution of his enterprises against the Christian powers. In 1480, he attack- ed the island of Rhodes, but was repulsed by the knights, with great loss. He now turned his arms against Italy, took Otran- to, and would probably have pursued his conquests in this countiy but for his death, in 1481, on an expedition against Persia. During his reign of 30 yeare, he had con- quered 12 kingdoms and upwards of 200 cities. On his tomb he ordered the words to be affixed, " I would have taken Rhodes and conquered Italy," jirobably as a stim- ulus to his successors. His character was distinguished by talents, ambition, courage, and fortune, and disgraced by cruelty, perfidiousness, sensuality, and con- tempt of all laws. He spoke Greek, Ara- bic, and Persian; understood Latin; drew MOHAMMED II—MOHAMMED ALI. 559 and painted; had a knowledge of geogra- phy and mathematics, and of the history of the great men of antiquity. In short, he would have been a hero, had not bis cru- elties blackened his reputation. Policy sometimes kept in check the impetuosity of his character; but he was too often the slave of passions, though all the cruelties ascribed to him are not to be credited. Mohammed IV, bom in 1642, was rais- ed to the throne while a boy of seven yeare, his father, Ibrahim, having been murdered in an insurrection of the janizaries. His grandmother, an ambitious woman, man- aged the government, but perished in a revolution of the seraglio. The celebrated grand-vizier Mohammed Kuperli (or Ku- prili) was now placed at die head of the government. To this great minister, and to his equally great son and successor, the Turkish empire was indebted for the con- sequence which it maintained till the end of the 17th centuiy. Mohammed was himself an insignificant pereonage, whose Jirincipal passion was the chase. Kuper- i turned his chief attention to the restora- tion of the internal tranquillity of the em- pire, to which he sacrificed a great nu m- lier of pereons. The war begun in 1645 against the Venetians, mainly respecting the island of Candia, was, therefore, but weakly prosecuted. But, in 1667, Ach- niet Kuperli, one of the greatest Turkish generals,undertook the famous siege of this island (see Candia), which lasted two years and four months. The capitulation was signed September 5,1669, at the same time with the terms of peace between Venice aud the Turks. A war had already broken out (1660) with the emperor Leopold, on account of Transylvania. The Turks had made considerable progress in Hungary, when they were totally defeated, August 3, 1664, by Montecuccoli, at St. Gothard. Nevertheless, to the astonishment of all, the emperor accepted the disadvantageous truce of Temeswar, of 20 days, proffered by the Turks. Never had the Turks ap- proached so near the boundaries of Ger- many as now. The anarchy which pre- vailed in Poland under king 31ichael, and the disturbances of die Cossacks, gave oc- casion, in 1672, to a war of the Turks against Poland, which had to purchase peace on ignominious conditions. But the great Polish general John Sobieski re- venged the ignominy of his nation by a decisive victory at Choczim, in 1673, aud, in 1676, obtained from the Turks an hon- orable peace. Sobieski also contributed most essentially to the relief of Vienna, which was besieged for more than six weeks by the grand vizier Kara Musta- pha, with 200,000 men, in the war caused, in 1683, by the malcontents in Hungary. The Turks were attacked in their camp, September 2, by the allied Christian army, and defeated, with extraordinary loss. The grand-vizier atoned for his ill success with his life. The emperor, Poland, Rus- sia, and Venice, now concluded an alli- ance against the Turks, who suffered losses in every quarter:—for example, they were utterly defeated at 31ohacz by Charles, duke of Lorraine. As all these misfor- tunes were attributed to the effeminacy and inactivity of the sultan, Mohammed IV, he was deposed in 1687, and died, in prison, in 1691. Mohammed Ali (also Mehemmed Ali) Pacha, viceroy of Egypt, is of Turkish origin, and was born at Cavala, in 31ace- donia, in the year 1769, By his boldness, sagacity and courage, he has raised him- self from an humble station to that of a sovereign, before whom Arabia and Nubia tremble, and who is flattered by his proud master, the Porte. He has ruled Egypt since 1806, on Eurojiean principles. From his youth, Mohammed exhibited an extra- ordinary penetration, uncommon dexterity in all bodily exercises, and a fiery ambi- tion. The Turkish governor at Cavala gave this poor young orphan a common education, and then an office and a rich wife. Reading and writing he leanit after he had become a pacha. A merchant of Marseilles, named Lion, who lived in Ca- vala, and was his patron, inspired him with an inclination towards the French, and with religious tolerance. On this ac- count the residence of strangers in Egypt has been facilitated. In 1820, the viceroy gave the family of Lion jnoofs of his grat- itude. His firet employment was the to- bacco trade, and he is now engaged in great commercial enterprises, extending even to India. His firet campaign was in Egypt, against the French (1800), as com- mander-in-chief (binbashi) of the contin- gent of Cavala. The cajiitan pacha, who was a witness of his bravery in the battle of Rahmanieh against general La- grange, elevated him to a higher jiost, in which he also acquired the favor of the Albanian troops. He established his rep- utation as a soldier in the long contest of the jiachas with the mamelukes, after the French had abandoned Egyjit in 1802; but soon after the governor hecame jealous ofthe ambitious Mohammed, aud, to get rid of him, obtained his appointment as pacha of Saloniki. 31ohammed's influ- ence was already so great, that the bihab 560 MOHAMMED ALI. itants of Cairo took arms in his favor, and the ulemas and sheiks represented by agents to the divan of Constantinople, that Mohammed alone was able to restore or- der and tranquillity to Egypt, which the governor Khurschid Pacha plundered and oppressed. At the same time, they con- ferred on him the office of governor; but the prudent Mohammed refused the ex- ternal dignities of the office, although in secret he directed affaire. At length the Porte (April 1,1806) confirmed him as gov- ernor of Egypt, and elevated him to the rank of a pacha of three tails. He main- tained himself in this office by the attach- ment of the Albanians and the influence of France, when the Porte had been pre- vailed on by the English to appoint, in his stead, the mameluke Elfy Bey, governor of Egypt. Mohammed soon restored the distracted countiy to order, accustomed the undisciplined troops to obedience, and compelled the English, who, in March, 1807, had occupied Alexandria, after several battles, to leave Egypt in September. He then reduced the mame- luke beys to subjection, and, in Rlarch, 1811, on a festive occasion, perfidiously murdered 470 of them; the rest were decapitated. They were accused of se- cret plots. The French mamelukes alone remained unmolested. (See Mamelukes.) From this time tranquillity reigned in Egypt The campaign of Ibrahim Pacha, the second son of the viceroy (the first died in the field), against the Wahabees, in 1816, had a successful issue; he de- prived that sect of Mecca and Medina, conquered their capital, Derayeh, in 1818, and sent their leaders prisoners to Con- stantinople. The expedition to Nubia and Sennaar, in 1821, which the French trav- eller Cailliaud (see Meroe) accomjianied, in the expectation of discovering gold mines, ended with the murder of the leader, Ismael Pacha, the youngest son of the viceroy. At the same time Moham- med directed the internal administration of affairs. Armies and fleets, fortifications, and the maintenance of the troops, were established upon the European plan ; tele- graphs and Congreve rockets were pre- pared ; the ulemas were transformed into paid officers; agriculture was extended, the races of sheep and horses improved ; commerce and manufactures flourished ; Europeans were protected and rewarded, and learned travellers encouraged. Is- mael Gibraltar and others were sent, in 1818, to Europe, in order to form alli- ances ; the canal of Mahmoud was dug, connecting Cairo with Alexandria; olive and mulberry trees, hitherto unknown in Egypt, were planted, sugar refineries, and saltpetre manufactories, and cannon foun- deries established, quarantine rules and vaccination introduced, schools founded, &c.—The British, French and other na- tions now sought the friendship of Mo- hammed. The Porte was terrified at his power, as he had, during the straggle with the Greeks, established himself in Candia. He was, however, appointed commander- in-chief against the Greeks in 1824; but he sent his son Ibrahim, at the head of an army of 16,000 men, together with a fleet under the command of Ismael Gib- raltar, who was to conquer the Morea, and establish a negro colony there. The lat- ter, with the capudan pacha, was defeated in several naval actions, in September, 1824, by the Greek admiral Miaulis, and Canaris, the commander ofthe fire-shijis; but a second Egyptian expedition suc- ceeded, in March, 1825, in effecting a landing at Modon, and captured Navarino, Tripolizza, and other places. Ibrahim then laid waste the Morea, and sent its in- habitants as slaves to Egypt. In October, 1827, a third expedition of the viceroy was blockaded in the harbor of Navarino by the English admiral Codrington and the French admiral De Rigny, in consequence of the treaty of July 6, 1827, and it was required of the viceroy by the allied pow- ers, that he should refrain from every act of hostility towards Greece. The com- bined Turkish and Egyptian fleets were shortly after destroyed at this place. (See Navarino.)—Mohammed is, in reality, the sovereign of Egypt, though he preserves the external marks of respect towards the grand seignior. He is a despot, and is obliged to be so ; but at the same time he possesses political knowledge, and often exhibits magnanimity. He is the absolute lord of the soil and all its productions. He holds the monopoly of the productions of Egypt, and of the East India goods which pass through Egypt; only a few houses, designated by himself, are permit- ted to take part in the commerce. The purchase of ships of war in France, and his expeditions against the Morea, ex- hausted his treasures, and caused oppres- sive taxes. In Egypt, he protects the Greeks as well as the Franks; he causes young Turks to be educated in Paris in the European manner; the Christians possess his confidence, but there is no se- curity for the permanence of his plans. Ibrahim himself appears not to approve of his father's projects of colonization and civilization. Had Mohammed Ali never M0HAM31ED ALI—MOHS. 561 been stained with treachery and murder, he would perhaps deserve to be called the second Saladin of Egypt.—See Mengin's Histoire de VEgypte sous le Gouvernement de Mohammed Aly, etc. (Paris, 1823,2 vols.); Histoire de la Rigineration de VEgypte, by Planat, a staff-officer in the pacha's ser- vice (Geneva, 1830); the travels of Mad- den, Lushington, Hanniker, Minutoli, &c. Mohammed has a grandson, whom he is carefully educating, and two married daughters. (See the articles Egypt, Nu- bia, Wahabees, Greece, Revolution of). In 1827, he had twelve regiments organized, clothed in uniform, and armed after the European manner, each regiment con- sisting of 4000 men. They were raised by impressment, from the Arabs and peasantry. Mohammed, Sheik; the founder of the famous sect of the Wahabees, who derive their appellation from Abd el Wahab, the father of 31ohammed. (For an account of him, see the article Wahabees.) 3Iohammedan Era. (See Epoch.) Mohawk ; a large branch of the Hudson or North river of New York, which rises in the north-east part of Oneida county, about twenty miles north of Rome, to which place it runs nearly south, and then turns eastward towards the Hudson, which it enters by several mouths, between Troy and Waterford, after a couree of about 135 miles. Its source is within a short distance of Black river, of lake Ontario ; and from Rome it winds along through a deep valley, bordered in many places by high and broken hills, and in othere by extensive and very valuable alluvial tracts. The stream of the 31ohawk is unequal, with many breaks and rapids, and two considerable falls. The following esti- mates are from Spaftbrd's Gazetteer of New York:—From Rome to Utica, 16£ miles, is a descent of 26 feet; Utica, to the German flats, 16 miles, 19i feet; Ger- man flats canal to head of Little falls, 6 miles, 42 feet; Little falls to Palatine bridge, 19£ miles, 34 feet; Palatine bridge to Schenectady, 40 miles, 76£ feet; Sche- nectady to head of Cahoos, or Cohoes, fells, 12 miles; falls 70 feet; and thence to the Hudson, 2 miles, is a descent of about 70 feet With the aid of canals, the Mohawk is navigable from Schenectady to Rome; but it serves the purposes of navi- gation principally by feeding the nume- rous canals which cross it or range near its borders. It is remarkably well adapted for supplying water-jiower for all manu- facturing jiurposes. The land on its bor- ders is very rich. It is excellent for wheat, and good also for all common pur- poses of agriculture. Mohawks ; a tribe of North American Indians, belonging to the confederacy of the Five (afterwards Six) Nations. (See Iroquois.) With the rest of the confede- racy, they adhered to the British interest during the war of the revolution, and left the country, on its termination, for Cana da, where lands were assigned them on the Grand river. Their village is com- posed of houses built of logs, with few of the conveniences of civilized life. The Mohawks lived originally on the river which still bears their name, and were re- markable for their courage and ferocity. Brandt was a Mohawk chieftain. Mohicans, or Mohegans ; a tribe of Indians formerly occupying the western parts of Connecticut and Massachusetts. (See Iroquois.) Mohs, Frederic, professor of mineralo- gy at Vienna, was born in Anhalt-Bern- berg, about 1774, and was destined for a mercantile career, which, however, his in- clination for the sciences, particularly the mathematical, induced him to abandon. After studying two years at Halle, he went to Freiberg in 1798, and there became ac- quainted with the Wernerian geognosy, and made himself familiar with practical mining. In 1802, 31ohs went to Vienna, and there drew up (1804) a description of Van der Null's mineralogical cabinet, in which appear the germs of his method, as afterwards develojied in his later works. His zeal for the study of mineralogy led him to make several scientific tours in dif- ferent parts of Austria, and in 1810—11, the Austrian government'employed him in similar expeditions in the public ser- vice. On the establishment of the insti- tution at Gratz, the jirofessorehip of min- eralogy was conferred on Mohs, who con- tinued to lecture there until 1818, when he made a tour through Great Britain, and examined the mines of that countiy. His Versuch einer Elementarmethode zurNatur- historischen Bestimmung der Mineralien had been published in 1813. In Edin- burgh, he renewed his acquaintance with Jameson (q. v.), who had studied with him at Freiberg, and whom he found to entertain views similar to his own on the subject of the natural history of minerals. In the same year (1818), Mohs was ap- pointed royal Saxon commissioner of the mines, and professor of mineralogy at Frei- berg, and, in 1826, was created professor of that science at Vienna. The principal works of Mohs are his Charakteristik des Naturhistor. Mineralsystems (Dresden 562 MOHS—MOLDAVIA. 1820; new edition, 1821), and Gntndriss der Mineralogie (1822—24). (See Mine- ralogy.) Moidore, or Moed'or, or Moeda ; a gold coin formerly used in Portugal (from 1690—1722) of the value of six dollars. Moines, Des, the largest western trib- utary of the Mississippi above the Mis- souri, enters the Mississippi in about lati- tude 40°. It is 150 yards wide at its mouth, and is sujiposed to be 800 miles long, and navigable for boats for 300 miles. Moira, Earl of. (See Hastings, Fran- cis.) Moitte, Jean Guillaume, a French statuary, was bom at Paris, in 1747, of a family which produced several distin- guished engravers and architects, and early displayed so much talent for drawing, that Pigalle, then the most eminent sculptor in Paris, requested that he might receive the young artist as a pupil. In 1768, Moitte went to Italy, and studied the remains of ancient art, without, however, neglecting the study of nature. He returned to France in 1773, was one of the first mem- bers ofthe national institute, received the cross ofthe legion of honor from Napole- on, and died in 1810. His works are dis- tinguished for correctness of design, ele- vated conception, beauty of proportion, variety of expression, and delicacy of taste. A statue of a sacrificaleur (1783); the bass-reliefs of several ofthe barriers of Paris; that ofthe frontispiece ofthe Pan- theon, representing the country crowning the civic and warlike virtues (destroyed after the restoration, when the Pantheon was consecrated as the church of St. Ge- nevieve); that for the tomb of Desaix; several bass-reliefs in the Louvre, repre- senting the muse of history, with Moses and Numa; warriors devoting themselves for their country, in the chamber of peers, —are among his principal productions. Mola, Peter Francis, an eminent paint- er, was bom at Coldra in 1621, or at Lu- gano in 1609. He was the pupil of the cavalier D'Arpino and of Albani. On leaving the last master, he went to Venice, and studied under Guercino, perfecting himself in coloring from the productions of the Venetian school. On his return to Rome, he painted several scriptural pieces for popes Innocent X and Alexander VII, of which that of Joseph discovering him- self to his brothers, in the Quirinal, is the most esteemed. He is still more distin- guished as a landscape painter, for his va- ried composition anel vigorous touch. In 1665, he received an invitation to the court of Louis XIV, with which he was about to comply, when a sudden disorder carried him off. There was another Mo- la (John Baptist), said by some to be his brother, who acquired some reputation in history and landscape; but he is much inferior to the preceding. Molai, James de, the last grand-master of the order of the knights Templars, of the family of the lords of Longwic and of Raon. He was admitted into the order about 1265, and, on the death of William de Beaujeu, was unanimously elected to the office of grand-master. The wealth and power of the Templars, their pride and their dissolute mannere, created them a multitude of enemies, and led to their destruction. In 1307, an order was issued for the general arrest of the knights throughout France. They were accused of heresy, impiety, and other revolting crimes. Fifty-seven were burnt in 1311, and the order was abolished the following year, by the council of Vienne. 31olai, with his companions, Guy Daujihin of Auvergne and Hugh de Peralde, was detained in prison at Paris till 1313, when their trial took place before commissioners appoint- ed by the pope ; and, confessing their crimes, they were condemned to perjietual seclusion. Molai and Guy, having subse- quently retracted their confessions, which they had made in the hope of obtaining their freedom, were executed as relapsed heretics. They perished in the flames at Paris, March 18, 1314, declaring their in- nocence to the last. (See Templars.) Molar Teeth. (See Teeth.) Molasses, or 31elasses ; the liquid or uncrystallizable part of the juice of the sugar-cane, which sejiarates from the granulated part or sugar. (See Sugar.) The name is also applied to the similar portion of any other vegetable juice from which sugar is obtained. Moldau ; a river of Bohemia, which rises in the Bohmerwald (Bohemian for- est), flows north through Bohemia, by Budweis and Prague, and empties into the Elbe opposite to Melnik, and thus furnishes Bohemia a communication with the North sea. A project was formed for uniting the Moldau, by means of a canal, with the Danube; but, on account of the difficulty of cutting through the mountains, a rail- road has been considered a more practica- ble undertaking. (See Austria.) Moldavia (in German, Moldau; Turk- ish, Bogdan); a province of the Ottoman empire, with the title of principality, ex- tending from lat. 45° 12', to 48° 5* N., and from k>n.25°10' to 28° 20v E.; bounded MOLDAVIA—MOLE. 563 on the east by the Russian province of Bessarabia, from which it is separated by the Pruth, on the south by Bulgaria and Walachia, and on the west by Transylva- nia ; sujierficial extent, 17,000 square miles; population differently stated at from 360,000 to 500,000. Previously to the treaty of 1812, it extended eastward to the Dniester, with a superficial area of about 34,000 square miles, and a popula- tion of 800,000. The western part ofthe country is mountainous, branches of the Carpathian chain projecting towards the interior; the southern is low and marshy. The winters are severe; the heat is great in summer, but the nights are cool. The soil is fertile, but war and an oppressive government have prevented it from being well cultivated. Corn,fruits, wine,honey, wax, and tobacco of an inferior quality, are among the principal productions; the gold, silver and iron mines are not worked ; mineral salt and salt-petre are produced in large quantities. The greater part of the countiy is devoted to pastur- age, and immense numbers of horses, black cattle, sheep and swine are raised by die inhabitants. The horses are strong, active and gentle, and 10,000 have been exported annually to Austria and Prussia. The cattle are of an excellent quality, and have been sent generally to Poland and Russia. The inhabitants are strongly at- tached to the Greek church. The Mol- davians are supjiosed to be descendants of the ancient Dacians, whose country they occupy, of Roman colonists, and of the Sclavouians, who conquered Molda- via. Their language is a comijit Latin, mixed with Sclavonic. They call them- selves Rumuni, or Rumniasti, jirobably a corruption of Romani. They are describ- ed as ignorant, indolent, treacherous and vindictive; although not slaves, they have always been the subjects of the severest opjiression. The different professions and trades are almost entirely in the hands of Armenians, Jews, Italians and Rus- sians. The capital of the province is Jassy (q. v.), which is also an archiepisco- pal see; Okna and Galacz are the oilier principal towns; the Pruth and the Se- reth, both emptying into the Danube, are the chief rivers. Moldavia has generally shared the fate of Walachia, with which, under die Romans, it formed the province of Dacia Transalpina (beyond the Carpa- thian). Bogden, a Walachian chief, established himself in the countiy in the twelfth century, and from him it was called Bogdiana, but afterwards received die name of Moldavia, from the river Mol- dava, a branch ofthe Sereth. Although the Walachians and Moldavians were of the same origin, and spoke the same language, they were often at war with each other, and formed two independent states. (See Walachia.) In the fourteenth century, Moldavia became tributary to the kings of Hungary, and in the beginning ofthe six- teenth century, became a dependant of Turkey. The inhabitants were permitted to retain their laws and privileges, and the free exercise of their religion, and to ap- point their way wode, or hospodar. In the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Porte assumed the right of appointing the hospodar, and from that time the dignity was sold to the rich Greeks of Constanti- nople, who practised every means of ex- tortion upon the inhabitants. In 1812, the region lying to the east of the Pruth was ceded to Russia. In 1821, the hos- podar Michael Suzzo, a Greek, received the Greek insurgents with open arms, and raised the standard of revolt. Turkish armies were poured into the unhap- py jirovince, which became a scene of the most barbarous atrocities. (See Greece, Revolution of, and YpsUanti). It was not evacuated until 1826, after tho most pressing demands of Russia. It was then stipulated that the hospodars should be chosen by the Boyards, from their own number, for a term of seven years, sub- ject to the confirmation of the Porte. In 1828, the Russians occupied Moldavia without resistance. By the peace of Adrianojile, 1829, it is provided that the hospodar shall be named for life; that the province shall pay a tribute of 165,000 piasti-es to Turkey, and be subject to no requisitions ; that no Turk shall reside in the country, which remains in the hands of Russia till indemnification for the ex- penses of the war shall be made by the Porte. (See Russia, and Ottoman Em- pire.) Mole (talpa). The animal so well known in the U. States under the name of mole, belongs to a wholly different ge- nus of quadrupeds from the common mole of Europe, and has been very ap- propriately named shreto mole (q. v.), by the late doctor Godman. It appeare ex- ceedingly doubtful whether the true mole has ever been found in this country, all the evidence of its existence here being furnished by a manuscript note of Bartram, which, in all probability, referred to the shrew-mole, as the true mole has never been detected by any of our recent nat- uralists. Tbe mole is from five to six inches in length: its head is large, without 564 MOLE. any external ears, and its eyes so very minute, and concealed by its fur, that it is a vulgar opinion, that it is deficient in these important organs. Its fore-legs are very short, and extremely strong and broad, turned outwards, by which confor- 1 mation it is enabled to burrow with great ease. The snout is slender, strong and tendinous, and it has no external appear- ance of a neck. The females bring forth four or five young, about the month of April, for the preservation of which, the parents construct a habitation, with great intelligence and care. They firet raise the earth by forming an arch, leaving par- titions or pillars at certain distances; beat and press the earth, interweave it with the roots of plants, and, at last, render it so hard and solid, that the rain cannot pene- trate. They then raise a small hillock under the principal arch, on which they construct the nest for their young. This internal hillock is pierced with sloping holes, which serve as passages for the pa- rent animals to go out These paths are firm, and extend about twelve or fifteen paces, issuing from the nest like rays from a centre.—Moles live in pairs, and are chiefly found in places where the soil is loose and soft, and affords the greatest quantity of worms and insects. They exhibit great dexterity in skinning the worms, which they always do before they eat them, stripping the skin from end to end, and squeezing out all the contents of tbe body. The skin of the mole is ex- tremely tough; its fur is close set, and as soft as the finest velvet: it is usually black, but has sometimes been found spot- ted with white, and, more rarely, altogeth- er of that color. Though common in almost all parts of Europe, it is said to be entirely unknown in Ireland. Linnaeus says that it passes the winter in a state of torpidity: in this, however, he is contra- dicted by Buffon, who states, that it sleeps so little in winter, that it burrows in the same manner as in summer. The de- struction caused by these little animals is sometimes very great; and such arc their numbers, that Buffon caught 1300 of them in three weeks. In Holland, we are also told that they were so numerous, in 1742, as to destroy the hopes of the agricultur- ists. Even in ancient times, it appeare that they were considered as pests, and a temple was erected, in JEoha, to Apollo Smintheus, or the destroyer of moles. From an account given by Mr. Bruce, in the Transactions of the Lmnsean Society of London, it appeare that the mole is able to swim great distances. Doctor Darwin has given a very interesting paper on these animals in his Phytologia, and of the best methods of capturing them, to which we refer those of our readers who wish for fuller information. 31ole Cricket (gryUusgryllo-talpa, L.). The legs and fore-feet of these insects are very large and strong, and placed, like those of the mole, so as to be useful in bun-owing. They commonly live under ground, through which they can burrow with great rapidity. The female forms a nest of clay, about as large as a hen's egg, and deposits in it nearly a hundred and fifty eggs, about the size of a grain of rice. These the mother defends with extreme vigilance ; and some of her contrivances for the preservation of her offspring are very curious. Wherever a nest is situated, fortifications, avenues and entrenchments surround it: there are also numerous winding passages which lead to it, and the whole is environed by a ditch, which pre- sents an impassable barrier to most insects. They are very destructive in gardens, by dividing or injuring the roots of plants; but it appears that this is done less for nourishment than in making their bur- rows, as their principal food consists of insects and worms. The male has a chirp, or note of a low, jarring sound, which may be heard in the evening and night. At the approach of winter, the mole crick- ets remove their nests to so great a depth in the earth as to avoid any injury from the frost. When the mild season returns, they raise it in proportion to the advance of the wann weather, and at last elevate it so near the surface as to permit the sun and air to act on it. Their favorite resi- dence is in hot-beds, where they occasion havoc. In France, they are known under the name of courlUieres. (See White's Natural History of Selborne; and a paper by M. Feburier, Nouv. Cours d'Agricult.) No method has yet been discovered of preventing the depredations of these per- nicious vermin. But as most of this kind of insects are averse to the smell of hog's dung, the use of this article would probably expel them from infested places. Mole ; a mound or massive work form- ed of large stones laid in the sea, extended either in a right line or an arch of a circle, before a port, which it serves to defend from the violent impulse of the waves, thus protecting ships in a harbor. The word is sometimes used for the harbor itself. The Romans used it for a kind of mausoleum, built like a round tower on a square base, insulated, encompassed with columns, and covered widi a dome. MOLE-MOLIERE. 565 Mole, Matthew, president ofthe parlia- ment of Paris, and an eminent statesman, ^vas born in 1584. His father, also pres- ident of parliament, had distinguished himself by his prudence and courage in that station, during the troubles of the league; and the son gained not less honor during the disturbances of the Fronde. His integrity and fearlessness often resist- ed the arbitrary measures of the despotic Richelieu; and under the no less ambitious, but less vigorous Mazarin, he acquired the esteem of all parties. In 1614, Mole was named procureur-giniral, and, in 1641, firet president of the parliament, through the influence of Richelieu, whom he had opposed in the process against the marshal de 3Iarillac. The disturbances of the Fronde (q. v.) soon after commenced. In this contest of factions, Mole defended, with equal prudence and sagacity, the interests of justice and freedom, as well as those of the court, and, when Paris be- came the theatre of tumults, conducted with so much firmness and dignity, that his bitterest enemies could not withhold from him their approbation; and even Conde and cardinal de Retz were forced to esteem him, although his unshaken recti- tude, and devotion to the welfare of the nation and the safety of the throne, fre- quently frustrated their designs. At one time, indeed, wearied with the intrigues of the interested and ambitious, and un- jirotected by the feeble and wavering court, he voluntarily resigned the seals, and rejected tbe offer of a cardinal's hat for himself, and of the place of secretary of state for his son, by which Anne of Austria wished to indemnify him for the loss of his office. But he was soon obliged to resume the difficult station, and was more than oiice threatened with personal violence by the furious partisans of the Fronde, whom he overawed by his inflex- ible dignity. These unhappy disputes between the parliament, the court, and the leaders ofthe Fronde, did not cease until after Louis XIV had assumed the reins of government: under his brilliant and artful despotism the freedom of the par- liament and ofthe nation perished togeth- er. Mole died in 1656. In the Memoirs of De Retz, and the other records of the time of the regency of Anne of Austria and Mazariu, Mole's influence in the troubled state is every where perceptible, and all voices agree that a better man could not have been at the head of affaire in that stormy period. Molecule, in chemistry, is used to sig- nify the constituent particles of bodies. vol. viii. 48 Chemists have divided them into inte- grant molecules and constituent molecules. The fonner are such as have the same properties as the mass, and are therefore compound or simple, as the mass is one or the other. Thus a mass of pure metal consists of integrant molecules, each of whicli has the metallic properties of the mass. A mass of alloy, in the same man- ner, is composed of integrant molecules, each of which is compounded of the dif- ferent substances forming the alloy. If we decompose a compound integrant molecule, we obtain the constituent mole- cules of which it consists. An integrant molecule of water is composed of constit- uent molecules of oxygen and hydrogen. Moles Adriani ; the mausoleum of Adrian, in Rome, consisting of a square basement, of 170 feet in length, on which rises a round tower, 115 feet in diameter. In the ware with the Goths, it was used as a fortress, and the popes converted it into a castle, which received the name of St. Angelo, from the statue of the archan- gel Michael on its summit. Moliere, Jean Bajitiste Pocquelin de, the celebrated comic writer, born at Paris, Jan. 15, 1622, was designed by his father, valet de chambre and upholsterer to the king, for the same occupation. In his fourteenth year, he enjoyed the instruc- tions ofthe Jesuits, and made great prog- ress. Gassendi, Chapelle, Bernier, were his teachers. When his father had be- come debilitated, he had to discharge his office about the pereon of Louis XIII. In 1641, he accompanied the king to Nar- bonnc. The French theatre had at that time begun to flourish, through the talents of the great Corneille, and the young Pocquelin, who had imbibed a strong pas- sion for the stage, now formed a company of young pereons of similar tastes, and ex- changed his family name for that of Mo- liere, either from regard to his parents, as his profession was then deemed disrepu- table, or in imitation of other actors, and resigned the office of his father. His company soon became distinguished. During the troubles of the Fronde, he is lost to our view; but after the restoration of order, we find him at the head of a stroll- ing troop, which acted the £tourdi, at Ly- ons, in 1662. This is the firet comedy written in verse by Moliere. The truth of the dialogue, the inexhaustible skill of a valet, who is continually employed in rectifying the blunders of his master, the interest of the situations arising therefrom, have kept this piece on the theatre, not- withstanding die want of connexion be- 566 MOLIERE. tween the parts, the coldness of the per- sonages, antl the incorrectness of the style. Moliere gained equal applause as a poet and a dramatist, and drew all the spectators from another comjiany at Ly- ons. Till that time, all the French jiieces had been full of improbable intrigues. The art of representing character and mannere on the comic stage was reserved for Moliere. This art, the germ of which is seen in the Etourdi, united with the variety of incident, kept the attention of the spectators awake, and concealed the faults of the piece. The Etourdi was acted with equal applause in Bezieres. Here the prince Conti, who had known Moliere at school, had just assembled the estates of Languedoc. He received the poet as a friend, and intrusted him with the charge of amusing the town and the assembly. Le DipU Amoureux, and Les Precieuses Ridicules were brought forward on the theatre of Bezieres, and were ad- mired. In the Depit Amoureux, the inci- dents are better arranged than in the Etourdi. In the actions of the person- ages, a genuine comic vein is exhibited, and their language displays much spirit and humor; but the plot is too complicat- ed, and the denouement not sufficiently probable. The plot in the Pricieuses Ridicules is more simple. A delicate sat- ire on the prevailing affectation of the character of bet esprit and of a romantic style, on the pedantry of learned females, and affectation in language, thoughts and dress, is the object of this comedy. It produced a general reform when it was brought forward in Paris. The specta- tors laughed, recognised themselves, and clapped. Louis XIV was so well pleased with the performances of 3Ioliere's com- pany, that he made it his own company, and gave its director a pension of 1000 francs. The Cocu Imaginaire appeared in 1660. This piece also contains a fund of sportive humor, and keeps the spectators continually amused. Censure was not silent on its appearance, but was not lis- tened to. Don Garde de Navarre, in imi- tation ofthe Spanish, was criticised with more justice. It is a cold attempt at a more elevated style. The Ecole des Maris, the idea of which is drawn from the Brothers of Terence, contains a simple and entertaining plot, and a natural de- nouement. The theatre still resounded with the applause with which this piece was received, when, Les Fdcheux projected, executed, and committed to memory by the actors, within a fortnight, was performed at Vaux, at the residence of Fouquet, intendant of finances, in the presence of the king and court. This comedy is almost destitute of plot, but the intention was to interest the spectators by the multiplicity of characters, die truth of the jiortraits, and by the elegance of the language. It is said that the king, on go- ing away from tho firet performance, hap- pening to see the count Soyecourt, a tire- some narrator of his exploits in the chase, said to 31olitre, " There is an original that you have not copied." In twenty-four hours, the scene ofthe hunter was inserted; and, as 3Ioliere was not acquainted with the terms ofthe chase, he requested Soye- court himself to explain them to him. The Ecole des Femmes (1662) met with critics, who, overlooking the art which prevails in the management of the inferior personages, and in the natural and quick transition from one surprise to another, animadverted upon some negligences of style. Moliere answered them by his spirited CrUique de I'Ecole des Femmes. The Impromptu de Versailles was a repri- sal, occasioned by an attack of Boureault, who had written a piece against hun, en- tilled Le Portrait du Peintre. The court was very much pleased, in 1664, with La Princesse d 'Elide, a comic ballet, prepared for an entertainment given by the king. Paris, which saw this ballet without the sjilcndor which had embellished it at Ver- sailles, received it less favorably. Another ballet, Le Mariage force, is drawn from Ra- belais. Don Juan, ou le Festin de Pierre, excited much reprehension by the impiety of some of the expressions placed in the mouth ofthe profligate hero. Moliere re- trenched the objectionable parts in the sec- ond representation. L'Amour Medecin is one of the over-hasty works, which are not to be strictly criticised. It was writ- ten, studied and represented within five clays. In this piece, Moliere, for the firet time, attacks the physicians, which, it is said, he was induced to do by the fact that an ignorant and avaricious practitioner cheated him by overcharges. His great jiiece, Le Misanthrope, was but moderate- ly well received at first, but, in the sequel, was justly considered as one of the finest productions of modem comedy. It must, nevertheless, be allowed that it has been more admired in the closet than it has pleased on the stage—the reason, Vol- taire believes to be, because the plot is delicate and ingenious, rather than lively and interesting; because the dialogue, with all its beauty, does not always seem neces- sary, and therefore retards the action ; and because tbe denouement, though skilfully MOLIERE. 567 introduced, leaves the spectator unexcit- ed. He adds that the Misanthrope is a more delicate and a finer satire than those of Horace and Boileau, and at least equally well written, but that there are more interesting comedies, and that the Tartuffe, for example, unites the same beauties of style with a much more lively interest. In 1665, appeared the Midecin malgri Lid, a farce full of humor. Le SicUien, ou VAmour Peintre, is a short piece which pleases by its grace and gal- lantry. But his reputation was carried to its highest summit when the Tartuffe appeared. Weak minds and pretended saints cried out against the author; but the jiiece was played and applauded, after it had been kept back for yeare by the clamor. In this, hypocrisy is fully un- veiled ; the characters are equally various and true; the dialogue is elegant and nat- ural ; the denouement alone is unsatisfac- tory. An impious and obscene farce, entitled Scaramouche, having been rejirc- sented at court, the king said to the great Conde, as he was leaving the theatre in his company, " I should like to know why the people, who are so much scan- dalized at Moliere, say nothing about Scaramouche." " The reason is," replied the prince, "that Scaramouche ridicules only God and religion, about which these people care nothing, while Moliere's piece ridicules themselves." In 1668, 31oliere published his Amphytrion, a free imitation of Platttus. With the exception of a tedious scene between Jupiter and Alc- mene, nothing can be more humorous. L'Avare (the Miser), an imitation of the Eudio of Plautus, is, in the leading char- acter, a little overdone; but the multitude is only to be struck by strong traits. Rousseau censured this piece, because the paternal authority is undervalued in it George Dandin, ou le Mari confondu; Monsieur de Pourceaugnac; Les Fourbe- ries de Scapin, are rather amusing than instructive. Le Bourgeois GentUhomme, though mixed with some buffooneries, is highly comic, and full of power. 31oliere bestowed more care on his Femmes Sa- vanles, a witty satire on affected taste and pedantic learning, which at that time prevailed in the Hotel de Rambouillet. The incidents are not all well connected; but the subject, dry as it may be in itself, is exhibited in a truly comic form. The developement is admirable, and has been a hundred times imitated. The same is true of the Malade imaginaire, in which the quackery and pedantry of the physi- cians of the times are fully delineated. With this piece the author concluded his career. He was indisposed when it was performed. His wife and Baron urged him not to play: " What," he replied, " will all the poor workmen do ? I could not forgive-inyself for neglecting, a single day, to give them bread." The exertion with which he played produced convul- sions, which were followed by a hemor- rhage. He died after the lapse of a few hours, Feb. 17, 1673. The academy did honor to itself and Moliere in 1778, by erecting a bust of him, with the verse of Saurin: Rien ne manque a sa gloire; il manquait a la nGtrc. The archbishop of Paris at first refused him burial; but the king himself insisted on it, and he was interred in St. Joseph. Moliere is the true father of the French comedy. His works may be consider- ed as a histoiy of the mannere, fashions and tastes of his times, and as the most faithful jiicture of human life. Bom with an observing mind, skilful in catching the outward marks of the passions and emo- tions, he took men as they were, and, like a skilful jiainter, exhibited the most secret recesses of their hearts, and the tone, the action and the language of their various feelings. "His comedies," says Laharpe, " properly read, may supply ex- jierience, because he has depicted not mere passing follies, but human nature, which does not change. Of all who have ever written, 3Ioliere is the one who has best observed men without seeming to do so. His knowledge of human charac- ter seems to have come by intuition. His pieces are as pleasuig when read as when performed. 3Ioliere is a writer for those of rijiened age and the gray- haired. Their exjierience corresponds to his observations and their memory to his genius." In his domestic relations, Moliere was not fully happy : he who made merry on the stage with the weaknesses of other men, could not guard against his own weakness. A violent passion induced him to many the daughter of the actress Bejart, and he thereby incurred the ridi- cule which he had so often cast on hus- bands of a disproportioned age. He was more bajipy in the intercouree of his friends ; and the marshal Vivonne, the great Conde, and even Louis XIV, admit- ted him to a footing of intimacy. As an actor, Moliere was not to be surpassed in high comic jiarts, such as Amolphe, Or- gon, Harjiagon, &c. In 1773, Bret pub- lished an edition of his works at Paris (in 6 vols.), with interesting commentaries. 568 MOLIERE—MOLUCCAS. (See Pachereau's Hist.de la Vied des Ou- vrages de Moliire (Paris, 1825.) Molina, Juan Ignacio, a Jesuit, was bom in Chile, and, after a long residence in that country, was obliged to leave the Spanish territories, on account of the dis- solution and expulsion of his order. Mo- lina retired to Italy, and published, in Ital- ian, his valuable Civil and Natural Histoiy of Chile (Bologna, 1782 and 1787,2 vols.); which has been translated into Spanish, French, German, and English (Middle- town, Connecticut, 1808). Molina, 3Iolinists. (See Jansenius, and Grace.) Molinos, 31ichael. (See Quidism.) Molla; a spiritual and judicial officer among the Turks, who has civil and crim- inal jurisdiction over towns or whole dis- tricts, and is therefore a superior judge, under whom are the cadis, or inferior judges. Over the mottas are the cadUes- kers, or supreme judges of the empire, who sit in the divan. 31olle (soft, or sweet); a relative term, used by the French, signifying a fiat sound, that is, a sound which is half a tone lower than the sound with which it is compar- ed,—as B flat, or B moUe, is a semitone beneath B natural, or B durum. This term, as its sense intimates, is applied to the flat sounds on account of their supposed softness or sweetness, in comparison with the effect of the natural and sharp tones. Mollusca, in the Linnaean system; an order of the class vermes; in Cuvier's classification, one of the four great divis- ions of animals, comprehending the great- er part of the mollusca and testacea of Linnaeus. The body of the mollusca is fleshy, soft, and without articulated mem- bers, though sometimes containing hard parts internally, and sometimes covered completely by hard shells. They have arterial and venous vessels, within which the blood undergoes a true circulation. They resjiire by branchiae ; the brain is a distinct mass, from which the nerves and medulla oblongata proceed; there are gan- glia in different parts of the body. The senses vary; some of them have distinct organs of sight and hearing, while othere appear to be confined to the senses of touch and taste. (See Animal.) Moloch (Molach, or Molech, lord and king); an idol ofthe Ammonites ; accord- ing to some writere, a symbol of the sun. His image was an iron statue, with a hu- man body, the head of an ox, and extend- ed arms. The statue was heated by a fire placed in the lower part, and children were placed, as offerings, in the arms ofthe horrid king, where they perished, while the priests drowned their cries with the noise of musical instruments. Molossus. (See Rhythm.) Molto (Italian, very, or much); a word used in conjunction with some other, by way of augmentation, as molto allegro, very quick, molto adagio, very slow. Moluccas, or Spice Islands ; an ar- chipelago between Celebes and New Guinea, having the Pacific ocean on the north, the straits of the Moluccas separat- ing them from Celebes on the north-west, and the sea ofthe Moluccas on the south- west, between lat. 3° N. and 5° 30' S., and lon. 124° 20' and 132° 20> E. The Little Moluccas are Ternate, Motir, Machian, Bachian, and Tidore ; the Great Moluccas are Gilolo (q. v.), Ceram, Amboyna (q. v.), Banda (q. v.), &c. Most of the islands have volcanic traces, and many of them have active volcanoes. The heat is exces- sive, but is often moderated by the fre- quent rains, and, during a part of the year, by the jirevalence of the north wind: the climate is healthy. The productions are sago, bread-fruit, cocoas, and all sorts of tropical fruits: the clove-tree is most jilen- tiful in Amboyna, and the nutmeg-tree iu Banda. Ebony, iron-wood, teak, a sjie- cies of laurel yielding an aromatic oil, with other rare and valuable trees, are found in the forests. The barbaroussa, opossum, birds of paradise, cassowaries, &c, are among the animals. Hidden rocks, sand-banks, and shoals, make the navigation in this sea of islands danger- ous. The aborigines are called Harqfo- res, or Alfores, and are an agricultural peo- ple. The Malay is the prevailing lan- guage in the Moluccas. There are also many inhabitants of Chinese, Japanese and Arabian extraction. When the Por- tuguese discovered the Moluccas (1511), the Arabians were already settled here, and Mohammedanism, much mingled, however, with paganism, had become the prevailing religion. The inhabitants were severely oppressed by the Portuguese, who perpetrated the most revolting cruel- ties in these islands, remote from the seat of the general administration (Goa), and no less harshly treated by the Dutch, who converted the produce of the soil to their own use, for more than 150 years, pre- vented the free cultivation of the land, and opposed every attempt to establish manufactures, and any kind of improve- ments which could supply the wants of the people. The Portuguese had almost entirely the monopoly of the spice trade till the beginning of the 17th century, MOLUCCAS—MOLYNEUX. 569 when the Dutch took the islands from them. The new masters kept possession till 1796, since which time the islands have been twice conquered by the English. By the peace of Paris, they were again re- stored to the Dutch. These occupy only Amboyna and Banda, but the chiefs of I he other islands are more or less tributa- ry to them. After the Dutch had been about twenty-six yeare in possession of the Moluccas, and the monopoly of the spices, they found it advantageous to trans- jilant the spice-trees to the southerly group of islands, Amboyna and Banda. In 1638, an agreement was made with the king of Ternate, who was subject to them, and the petty rulers of the other islands, by which it was stijiulated that all the sjiice-trees on the islands belonging to them should be rooted up, antl that no more should be jilanted ; in consideration of which an an- nual sum was paid to the king and the no- bility of Ternate, and the other princes. To insure the fulfilment of this agreement, the Dutch erected three strong fortresses in Ternate, and about nine othere in the other islands. The spice-trees, which again sprung up in these islands, were de- stroyed every year, as far as the woods and wild beasts permitted them to be reached ; and, in order to see that this was properly executed, and to jirevent the smuggling of spices, the governor of Amboyna went through his government every year, with a squadron of 20—50 shijis. But, not- withstanding these precautions, the spice- trees, the natural growth of the islands, continually sprung up where the power of the Dutch could not penetrate, and the English carried on considerable smuggling business with the oppressed natives. In other respects, the Moluccas are sparingly endowed by nature. They are wanting in water, and are obliged to jirocure rice and other necessaries of life from Celebes. The want of water is, in some measure, supplied by cocoa-trees, which grow in abundance, and the fruit of which con- tains a nourishing drink. Molwitz ; a village in the circle of Breslau, near Brieg, celebrated for the bat- tle between the Prussians and Austrians, April 10,1741, which was tenninated in favor of the former by the exertions of Schwerin. Frederic II (the Great) was present He acknowledged that he did not then understand the art of war, and had committed important mistakes, but observed, at the same time, that the battle had been a good school for him and his soldiers. Molybdenum ; a metal which has not 48* yet been reduced in masses of any consid- erable magnitude, but has been obtained only in small, separate globules, of a black- ish, brilliant color. It is extremely infusi- ble. By heat, it is converted into a white oxide, which rises in brilliant, needle- formed flowers. Nitric acid readily oxi- dizes and acidifies the metal; nitre deto- nates with it, and the remaining alkali combines with its oxide. Molybdenum unites with several of the metals, and forms with them brittle compounds. The sjiecific gravity ofthe pure metal is 8.611: it has three degrees of oxidation, forming two oxides and one acid. The molybdic acid is composed of 48 parts of molybde- num and 24 of oxygen; it has a sharp, metallic taste, reddens litmus paper, and forms salts with alkaline bases; specific gravity, 3.4. It is very sjiaringly soluble in water; but the molybdates of potash, soda and ammonia, dissolve in that fluid, and the molybdic acid is precipitated from the solutions by any of the strong acids. The protoxide of molybdenum is black, and consists of one equivalent of oxygen and one equivalent of molybdenum. The deutoxide is brown, and contains twice as much oxygen as the protoxide. Berzelius has formed three chlorides of this metal, the composition of which is analogous to the compounds of this metal with oxygen. The native sulphuret of molybdenum is composed of 48 parts, or one equivalent of molybdenum, and 32 parts, or two equivalents of sulphur. It occurs in most primitive countries, disseminated in gran- ite, or gneiss rocks, in thin plates of a fo- liated structure, soft, flexible, slightly soil- ing the fingers, and greasy to the feeling; color pure lead-gray ; lustre metallic; spe- cific gravity 4.591. It does not melt be- fore the blow-pipe, but emits sulphureous fumes. It is no where found in large quantities, although known to exist in nu- merous places. Its principal European localities are Altenberg, in Saxony, and Schlaggenwald and Zinnwald, in Bohe- mia. In the U. States the largest and best pieces have been found in the gneiss quarries of Haddam, Connecticut, where plates half an inch thick, and four inches over, have been met with. At this place, it often exhibits the low six-sided prism. It also occurs at Brunswick, in Maine, in the same rock, and at Chesterfield, Massa- chusetts, in granite. Molyn, Peter. (See Tempesta.) Molyneux, William ; a mathematician and astronomer, bom at Dublin, in 1656, whence he removed to the Inner Temple, London, in 1675. Being possessed of a 570 MOLYNEUX—MOMUS. competent fortune, he never engaged in the law as a profession, but, returning to Ireland in 1678, occupied himself with researches into various departments of natural philosophy, particularly astronomy. Having been appomted joint-surveyor of jiublic works and chief engineer, he had a commission to examine the principal for- tresses in Flanders. After his return, in 1686, he published his Sciothericum Teles- copicum, containing an account of a teles- cope-dial of his invention. In 1689, he re- moved to London, on account of the po- litical commotions of Ireland, and, in 1692, published a treatise on dioptrics, under the title of Dioptrica Nova (Ato.). Going back to his native country, he was chosen mem- ber of parliament for Dublin, in 1692; and, in 1695, he was elected representa- tive of the university. He died October 11, 1698. Mr. Molyneux was a fellow of the Royal Society, and a contributor to the PhilosophicalTransactions.—Hisson,Sam- uel Molyneux, who was secretary to George II, when prince of Wales, was also a cul- tivator of the mathematical sciences, and made some imjirovement in the construc- tion of telescopes, of which doctor Robert Smith published an account, in his treatise on optics. Molza, Francesco Maria, an Italian poet, was bom at Modena, in 1489, of a distinguished family, lived principally in Rome, on terms of friendly intercouree with the most eminent scholars, and died 1544. His talents would have opened to him a brilliant career, had not his excesses obstructed his progress. Among his po- ems, the stanzas on the portrait of Giulia Gonzaga, and the Ninfa TUrerina, a poet- ical picture in ottave rime, are the most highly esteemed. His CapUolo in Lode del Fichi is full of indelicacies; Annibal Caro wrote a commentary upon it. 31ol- za is favorably known as a Latin poet A complete collection of his works first aji- peared in 1747, with an account of his life, by the abbate Serassi. Moment ; an indefinite small portion of time, having the same relation to duration as a point has to a line. Momentum, in mechanics, is the same with impetus, or quantity of motion, and is generally estimated by the product of the velocity and mass of the body. This is a subject, however, whicli has led to va- rious controversies between philosophers, some estimating it by the mass into the velocity, as stated above, while othere maintain that it varies as the mass into the square of the velocity; but this difference seems to have arisen rather from a mis- concejition ofthe term than from any oth- er cause, those who maintain the former doctrine understanding momentum to sig- nify the momentary impact, and the latter as the sum of all the impulses, till the mo- tion of the body is destroyed. Momiers ; a Protestant sect, of recent origin, in Geneva and some other parts of Switzerland, founded by Empeytaz, a stu- dent of theology and follower of the bar- oness von Kriidener (q.v.), about 1813. He held conventicles for the edification of those who were not satisfied with the or- dinary religious exercises; and, when he had completed his course of theology, the consistory of Geneva required of him a promise to discontinue these private meet- ings. This Empeytaz refused, and pub- lished a work on the divinity of Christ, in which he charged the clergy of Geneva with denying the divinity of Christ. The clergy of Geneva then required of all young candidates a promise to abstain from treating of the nature of Christ, original sin, grace and predestination, in the pulpit. This excited some discontents, and Malan, a clergyman of Geneva, at the head of the dissatisfied, and in connexion with Mr. Drummond, an Englishman, with Empey- taz and others, formed a new church, or Orthodox church, and attacked their ad- versaries in pamphlets, with charges of Arianisrn, Socinianism, deism, and athe- ism. The Genevese clergy kept silence ; and, since 1823, Malan has erected a house of worehip, and ad ministere the Lord's supper. His doctrines are of a mystical character. The name Momiers was at first given to the sect by way of contempt (from momerie, mummery), but has since been used as their approjiriate designation. (See Hist, veritable des Momiers (Paris, 1824); Geschichte der sogen. Momiers (Ba- sil, 1825.) Momus; the god of satire and pleas- antry among the ancients. He was son of Nox, according to Hesiod. He blamed Vulcan, because, in the human form, which he had made of clay, he had not placed a window in the breast, by whicli whatever was done or thought there might be easily brought to light. He censured the house which Minerva had made, because the goddess had not made it movable, by whicli means a bad neighborhood might be avoided. In the bull which Neptune had produced, he observed that his blows might have been surer if his eyes had been placed nearer the horns. Venus her- self was exposed to his satire; and when the sneering god could find no fault in the body of the goddess, he observed that MOMUS—MONASTERY. 571 the noise of her feet was too loud for the goddess of beauty. These illiberal reflec- tions upon the gods were the cause that Mom us was driven from heaven. He is generally represented raising a mask from his fece, and holding a small figure in his hand. Mona ; the ancient name of the island of Anglesea. (q. v.) The marquis of An- glesea (q. v.) was created duke of Mona in 1831. Monaco ; an Italian principality, lying between the Sardinian jirovince Nizza (Nice) and the 31editerranean, with a pop- ulation of 7000 inhabitants, and a superfi- cial area of 535 square miles. In the 10th century, the emperor Otho I conferred it on a jirince of the house of Grimaldi, which became extinct, in the male line, in 1731. In 1641, the reigning prince, hav- ing put his territories under the jirotection of France, was created duke of Valenti- nois. The daughter of the last prince having married Francis de 31atignon (1716), the princely and ducal titles passed to the Frencli family of Matignon. In 1793, Monaco was incorjiorated with France, but, in 1814, was restored to its princes, and placed under the protection of Sardinia. The capital, 3Ionaco (3Ionceci Arx), with 1200 inhabitants, is a fortified place, situated on the sea, in the midst of olive, orange and lemon-groves. Lat 43° 45* N.; lon. 7° 22' E. 31onadnock Mountain, usually called the Grand Monadnock, is situated in the towns of Jaffrey and Dublin, Cheshire county, New Hampshire. It is about 22 miles east of Connecticut river. The mountain is about five miles long, from north to south, and three miles broad, and its height is 3450 feet above the level of the sea. It affords a very extensive jiros- jiect Monads. (See LeibnUz, vol. vi, page 492.) 3Ionaldeschi. (See Christina, queen of Sweden.) 3Ionarchy. (See Political Institutions.) 31onastery. 31onastic seclusion is found, even hi the times previous to the Christian era. The inclination to a soli- tary life arose with the corruptions of society. The better disposed persons, who felt themselves unequal to resist these corruptions, sought, in solitude, a protec- tion against temptation. That indisposi- tion to action, and that fondness for un- disturbed contemplation, whicli is still remarked among the Hindoos, existed among the earliest inhabitants of Southern Asia, and gave rise to the most ancient Oriental philosophy, whose tendency to a contemplative life, aspiring to shake off the fetters of the body and sense, gave to retirement from the world the charm of a peculiar sanctity. To this was added the ojiinion, that transgressions may be best atoned for by abstinence from all the jileasures of life, and from all society of men, and thus, according to an ancient notion, popular throughout the East, the Deity might be appeased. Anachorites, hermits, recluses and monks are therefore found, in the ante-Christian times of Asi- atic antiquity (see Gymnosophists); and, at the present time, the countries which profess the religions of Brama, Fo, Lama and Mohammed, are full of fakirs and santons, tanire, or songesses, talapoins, bonzes and dervises, whose fanatical and absurd penances are rather arts of deception than fruits of piety. The an- cient Hebrew jieople, also, had such devo- tees, as its Nazarites, to whom Moses gave peculiar privileges; and tbe life of the Essenes and Therapeutes, who flourished m Palestine and Egypt about the times of Jesus, was entirely formed on the idea of separation from the world, and of monas- tic discijiline and piety, which we after- wards see prevalent in the better period of Christian monasticism. Among the Christians, whose religion strictly distin- guishes the corjioreal and die spiritual, and, moreover, since the third century, has been impregnated with Gnostic and New Platonic ideas of incorporeality and elevation above the world of sense (see Saints), solitary life began to be esteemed, as early as the fourth centuiy. (See Chrys- ostom.) Monasteries were firet founded in the deserts of Upper Egyjit, where Antony, commonly called the Great, collected a number of hermits, about the year 305, who, for the sake of enjoying the benefits of retirement from the world in each other's society, built tbeir huts near each other, and performed their de- votional exercises in common, as the monks of Palestine did at a later period, and as those of Abyssinia do at the pres- ent day. More close than this connexion, which was called Laura (see Anachoret), was tiiat founded by his disciple Pacho- mius, in the middle of the fourth century. He built a number of houses, at a small distance from each other, upon the island of Tabenna, in the Nile, each of which was occupied by three or four monks (monachi) in cells, who were all under the superintendence of a prior. These priories formed together the canobium, or monastery, which was under the care 572 MONASTERY. of a superior, the abbot (from abbas, father), higumen or mandrite, and were obliged to submit to uniform rules of life. At the death of Pachomius, in 348, the monastic colony, at Tabenna, amounted to 50,000 persons. The districts in Palestine, Syria and Armenia were filled with Coenobites, and institutions of the same kind arose in and about the towns, iu which a strict confinement within the walls of the establishment, was to preserve the in- mates from the temptations of the world around them, and to supply the place of the solitude of deserts. Hence the name of cloisters, from claustra, enclosures. The monastic life*, at first freely chosen by men alone, and therefore restraineil by such laws only as each one thought fit to imjiose upon himself, for promoting the ends of solitary life, was subjected, by St. Basil, to stricter rules, about the middle of the fourth centuiy, when female monasteries, or convents of nuns (a word said, in Cop- tic, to signify pure), were instituted, and pereons of all ages and stations entered the establishments. By means of these rules, the same discipline was kept tup in all the monasteries through the East. Still there was not, in the fourth or fifth centuries, any thing like regular monastic vows, or public profession ; except that the entrance into a monastery was regard- ed as a tacit devotion of one's self to a life of purity and abstinence from worldly pleasures, and a jiromise of obedience to the rules and restrictions of the institu- tion. These vows were introduced in the sixth centuiy, by St. Benedict It may be chiefly ascribed to his strict and ju- dicious regulations, firet established in a monastery founded by him at Monte Casi- no, near Naples, in 529, and afterwards introduced into all the monasteries of the West, that these houses now became the dwellings of piety, industry and temper- ance, and the refuge of learning, driven to them for shelter from the troubles of the times. Missionaries were sent out from them; deserts and solitudes were made habitable by industrious monks; and, in promoting the progress of agriculture and civilizing the German and Sclavo- nian nations, they certainly rendered great services to the world, from the sixth cen- tury to the ninth. But it must be admit- ted that these institutions, so useful in the dark ages of barbarism, changed their character, to a great degree, as their wealth and influence increased. Idleness and luxury crept within their walls, together with all the vices of the world, and their decay became inevitable, when, by a custom first introduced by the Frank- ish kings, and afterwards imitated by oth- er princes, of bestowing monasteries upon the nobility for the sake of tbeir income, they came under the care of lay abbots or superiors, who, thinking only of the en- joyment of the revenue which they yield- ed, did nothing to maintain discipline among the monks and nuns, daily be- coming more irregular, and when they were robbed and oppressed, or left wholly to their own government (in consequence ofthe privileges and exemptions they had obtained) by the bishops, who were orig- inally their overseers, but had now lost their fondness for a monastic life. A few only, by means of the convent schools (founded by Charlemagne, for the educa- tion of the clergy), as, for instance, those at Tours, Lyons, Cologne, Treves, Fulda, Osnabriick, Paderbom, Wiirzburg, &c, maintained their character for usefulness and respectability till the ninth and tenth centuries. The monastery at Clugny, in Burgundy, firet led the way to the re- form, so generally acknowledged to be necessary. This was founded in the year 910, and was governed by the rules of St. Benedict, with additional regulations of a still more rigid character. A considerable number of monasteries in France, Spain, Italy and Germany, were reformed on this model, while others gave to the Bene- dictine rules a new form, and founded, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, several ordere with affiliated monasteries, which, as branches of the old Benedictine order, comjiosed so many monastic communities, closely united by a proud and jealous spirit of confederation. With the reputa- tion of renewed sanctity, the monasteries acquired new influence and new jiosses- sions. 3Iany of them ("exempt monas- teries") released themselves from all su- jierintending authority, except that of the jiojie himself, and acquired great wealth in the time of the crusades, when those who adventured upon these expeditions left them their estates in trust till their return, or even the reversion of them in case of their death abroad. The privilege of inviolability, which had been granted, by common consent, to all monastic estab- lishments, during the feuds of the middle ages, had induced many, who could find no better security for their property, in those days of rapine and violence, to place it under their protection. In this manner it happened that, as the zeal for reforma- tion abated, and their influence was con- firmed, new abuses sprung up in these establishments; and, as the authority of MONASTERY—MONBODDO. 573 their spiritual and temporal lords was les- sened by numerous exemptions, and was of little avail, when opposed by the com- bination of powerful religious orders, who had acquired great strength in all the countries of Europe, from the protection ofthe popes, the character of each mon- astery came, at last, to depend chiefly upon that of the abbot who was at its head. The number of monasteries was much diminished at the time ofthe refor- mation, when the rich estates ofthe estab- lishments which were deserted by the monks and nuns, in Protestant states, were in part apjiropriated by tbe sovereign to his own use, and partly devoted to the founding and supporting of institutions for the jiurjioses of education, or trans- ferred to univereities aud academies, were bestowed as rewards upon deserving ec- clesiastics (as was the case with the ab- beys in Lower Saxony and Wurtemburg), or were enijiloyed for the support of noble ladies until they married, as in Hesse, Holstein, Mecklenburg, &c. (For the suppression of the monasteries in Eng- land, under Henry VIII, see Henry VIII, vol. vi., p. 255.) In Catholic countries, they retained their original constitution till the 18th century; but, from the influ- ence of the spirit of the age, they sunk in the public estimation, and were obliged, as the papal power diminished, to submit to many restrictions, imposed upon them by Catholic princes, or to purchase im- munity at a high price. The benefits which they had formerly conferred upon the world, as the preservers of literary treasures; as places of refuge for the poor and the jiereecuted ; as institutions for the education of youth; as places of retire- ment for pereons of distinction who had outlived their usefulness, or were weaiy ofthe world ; as schools for the mild cor- rection and improvement of erring mem- bers of thehuman family,—appeared unim- portant in the eyes of politicians and phi- losophers, when compared with their in- jurious effect upon the increase of popu- lation by their encouragement of celibacy; upon the public welfare, by their inces- sant grasping at the estates of wealthy pereons, who had committed their chil- dren to their care ; upon industry, by the idleness of their inhabitants; and upon public morals, by the sins which were notoriously committed within their walls. In this light were monasteries regarded by the greater jiortion of enlightened men, when, in 1781, the houses of some ordere were wholly abolished by Joseph II, and those which he suffered to remain were limited to a certain number of inmates, and cut oft* from all connexion with any foreign authority. In France, the aboli- tion of all orders and monasteries was decreed, in 1790, which example was fol- lowed by all the states incorporated with France, as well as by all the other Catho- lic states upon the continent of Europe, in the nineteenth centuiy under the pro- tection of Napoleon, with the exception of Austria, Spain, Portugal, Naples, Po- land and Russia. This measure seems to have been the result of financial calcula- tions rather than the dictate of true hu- manity. In Prussia, jirovision was made for the monks who were dispossessed; and, after Joseph's example, the wealth obtained by secularizing the monaste- ries was appropriated to the support of churches and schools; but where the French system prevailed, these estates were thrown into the public treasury. Late events have much improved their condition in Italy; and Pius VII, in his concordate with France, Bavaria and Na pies, made provision for the maintenance of those already existing, and the founda- tion of new ones in those countries. In Austria, many monasteries have been suf- fered to become extinct Not a few of these institutions render themselves useful, by the instruction of youth, especially of die female sex, and by taking care of the sick. (For the monastic vows, see the next article; for further information, see Orders, religious, Abbot, Anachoret, &c.) Monastic Vows are three in number; poverty, chastity and obedience. The vow of poverty prevents the monks from holding any property individually ; mo- nasteries, however, may hold corjiorate property; for the Roman Catholic church makes a distinction between the high, higher and highest degrees of poverty. In the first case, a monastery may pos- sess portions of real estate, yet not more than enough for its support; as the Car- melites and Augustines. In the second, a monastery cannot hold any real estate, but only personal property; as books, dresses, supplies of food and drink, rents, &c.; as the Dominicans. The third permits neither the holding of real nor of personal property; as is the case with the Franciscans, and especially the Capu- chins. The vow of chastity requires an entire abstinence from familiar inter- course with the other sex; and that of obedience, entire compliance with the rules of the order, and the commands of the superior. Monboddo, lord. (See Burnett, James.) 574 MONCONTOUR-MONEY. Moncontour ; a village of France, in Vienne, about twenty-five miles N. W. of Poictiers. Henry III, when duke of Anjou, defeated Coligny here in 1569. (See Coligny.) Monday (moon and day; Saxon Mo- nandag; German Montag, Latin luna dies; all of the same signification); the second day of our week, formerly sacred to the moon. (See Week.) Monday, Plough. (See Plough Monday). Mondovi, a city in the Sardinian ter- ritories, capital of the province of the same name, in Coni (Cuneo), thirty miles south of Turin; a bishop's see ; popula- tion, 21,550. It is situated on the top of a steeji hill, and surrounded by fortifica- tions. Among the public buildings, the principal is the cathedral. The battle of Mondovi, gained by general Bonaparte in 1796, rendered the Frencli masters of Piedmont Monembasia, the Greek name for the place called in the English books Malva- sia. The population given under Malva- sia is that ofthe place before the late des- olating war. The present jiopulation is but 200. Money ; the common medium of ex- change among civilized nations. Money must consist of a material, 1. which has a value of its own ; 2. which every man is willing to accept in exchange for his property; 3. whose value is readily as- certained. If this material is moulded into a particular form, and stamped with a mark denoting its value, so that it is appropriated expressly to the exchang- ing of articles having value, it is called money, in distinction from other arti- cles which have value, but which are not used as a medium of exchange. The materials of which money is made, as well as the coin, are merchandise, like other articles that are bought and sold. Different nations, in the early periods of their cultivation, have chosen for money different materials, all having more or less ofthe above-mentioned peculiarities, All nations advanced in trade and the arts, give preference to metals, especially the precious metals; for, 1. they derive value from the smallness of their quanti- ties, compared with the demand for them in the ornamental and useful arts. 2. They are very little subject to corrosion and destruction by use. 3. They are sus- ceptible of minute division, and may be used in small quantities or masses. 4. They are easily transported, as their transportation to any distance will cost but a small part of their value. 5. The quantity is increased by labor. The ad- vantage of using the jirecious metals for a universal currency is still greater, when it is not left for every jirivate man to di- vide the pieces of metal, to weigh them, and fix their fineness, but persons are ap- pointed under the authority of the law, to decide what pieces shall be circulated as money, to stamp them so as to fix their weight and fineness, and to furnish them with the superecrijition of the authority by which they are authorized. Such pieces are called coins (q. v.; for the process of coining, see Mint). Instead of money, the merchant often receives a promissory note or bill: this substitute is sometimes improperly termed money. It is manifest that promissory notes or bills of exchange are of the same value with the real money only while they can be readily exchanged for coin, and that they must lose their value in proportion as the credit of those who issue them, sinks. This is true of all jiaper money (see Circulating Medium), and all metallic money whose current value is higher than its real value, all notes or bonds taken instead of money. That any sort of money may be received for its real value, or that which it rej>resents, and trade be carried on by means of it, it is necessary that its value should be acknowledged wherever it is used. A distinction, however, is made between money which is received in only one trading-place or small circle, issued in time of peculiar necessity, denominated tokens, &c, also coins current in only one countiy, and money which is every where acknowledged and received, such as bars of gold and silver, of a certain weight and fineness, also Dutch ducats, Spanish dollars. The exchangeable value of gold and silver, like that of all other commodities, depends, in the firet place, on their plenty or scarceness, or, in other words, the quantity supplied in compari- son with the quantity wanted, or for which there is a demand; and, in the second place, upon the labor necessary in extract- ing the ore from the mines, and refining it. As a general rule, it may be assumed that if, taking the aggregate of silver mines, and that of iron mines, the expense, that is, the labor, including the use of" machine- ry, necessary to extract a pound of silver from the ore, and refine it, is twenty times the expense, or labor, of smelting, forging and refining a pound of iron, silver will be worth twenty times as much as iron. The comparative value of gold and silver will depend upon the same causes as that of MONEY. 575 either compared with iron, copper or tin. In the U, States, the value of gold, com- jiared to that of silver, is as 15^f to 1; in England, as 15-£ to 1; in France, as lS^-f % to 1; and in Geneva, as 15|f to 1. The comjiarative value is necessarily very nearly the same all over the world, since each metal costs but a trifle for transport- ation, and both are articles of value every- where. The quantities of gold, in its va- rious forms of coin and bullion of all de- scrijitions, including bare, plate, &c, has been estimated to be 10,000,000 of pounds, troy weight A scarcity of money can occur only when, 1. the material of which it is manufactured is deficient, or, 2. when those who are in want of it have nothing to give in exchange to its possessors. In the last case, there is no real deficiency of money, for there are individuals who, by the terms of the supposition, possess the money: there is only a deficient demand for goods on hand, and those only are in want of money who are unable to dispose of these goods. Scarcity of money, there- fore, is only a relative expression ; i. e. there are certain jilaces or persons without mon- ey to obtain certain articles which they de- sire to possess. All mechanics, artisans and manufacturers want money enough to jiur- chase the raw materials which they con- st! me, and to pay the wages of their laborers. 3Ierchants need money to pay manufac- turers and producers for their goods, ard to transport them where they are wanted and the last consumer needs it to give in exchange for what he eats, drinks, wears, &c, to the dealer of whom he procures the requisite articles. Now, if any one of these classes has not the money required for any of those purposes, there is a scar- city of money for that class of individuals. In these and similar cases, the scarcity of money does not suppose a real scarcity of gold and silver, or a deficiency of coined metals. The scarcity arises from the want of industry, or means, in any class of citizens, to procure the money in circu- lation, or from their industry being direct- ed to the production of such articles as there is no present demand for among the actual possessore of money; as when, for instance, in grain-growing countries, there is a deficiency of purchasers of the grain produced, there not being consumers enough of the grain, who can obtain or produce desirable articles in exchange for it. In such a case, the producers of grain can obtain money only by exportation of the article to foreign ports. And if it happens that the foreign lands to which it is exported are already provided with grain from some other quarter, it will re main unsold—not because there is no money, but because there is no motive to induce its possessors to part with it for grain. In places where manufactures of any kind prosper, a certain quantity of money is required to provide the materi- als. This sum is easily ascertained, ac- cording to a certain average, and there is no scarcity of money for these purposes, as long as this sum is on hand. But when the manufacture is increased, by the op- eration of particular circumstances, and the place produces more goods than com- mon upon this- account, a scarcity of money may easily occur among those de- voted to this branch of business. If now these pereons possess goods or credit, they make use of both to obtain the money re- quired from other parts; which will de pend, again, upon their being able to pay the expenses of transporting their goods, or to give to the holders of money a high- er interest than they can elsewhere obtain. Money, in these cases, becomes of more value in these jilaces than in those where it is not so much in demand; and it fol- lows, from this, that money will leave the places where it is plenty to seek those where, from the want of it, more will be paid for its use; and, in this manner, a scarcity of money will work its own cure. 3Ioney is profitable to any country only by means of its circulation (q.v.); for cir- culation makes money the continually re- peated cause of the production of new jiortious of property; and, on this account, a very small sum of money, which is in constant circulation, is of far more benefit to a countiy than the possession of the largest sums whicli remain locked up, and do not change owners. A great quantity of money, therefore, is of no service to a country, unless there are desirable things iu that country, for the purchase of which it is to be paid, and thus transferred from one to another. When, therefore, more money flows into any country than will pay for what the countiy actually pro- duces, money becomes of less value, and the money price of merchandise greater. In this case, it is better to procure the goods from countries where their money price is less. The money will thus bo exported again, and procure a return of cheap goods in its place. But, by this process, the industrious part of the popu- lation are injured, and those only receive profit who make these exchanges of money for foreign goods. The laboring classes therefore experience a scarcity of money, because the articles which diey produce 576 MONEY—MONGE. do not command a ready sale. In this manner, all the gold and silver obtained by Spain and Portugal from South Amer- ica passed into foreign countries in ex- change for foreign necessaries. The only true means, then, to remove and to prevent permanently a scarcity of money, is to improve the state of domestic and internal industry; and their opinion is wholly des- titute of foundation, who believe that a mere plenty of money is sufficient to de- velope a healthy state of domestic indus- try ; for the money does not produce the goods, but follows their production. And money will not stay in a countiy that does not contain goods upon which it may be expended, but it seeks those countries which produce the objects of desire. The worst of all means of sup- plying a scarcity of money is the multi- plication of those things (as paper of all kinds) by which it is represented, or which are used as substitutes for it; for these circulating media are only worth so much as can be obtained in real value for them, and the scarcity ofthe precious metals in the countiy, jireventing those who desire it from exchanging their money for them, the value of this paper medium falls at once, and often to such a pitch that a million of these dollars shall not be enough for the purchase of one silver dollar. Nor does it help the case to base the value of this money upon any thing else than the jirecious metals ; for, if their value is tx- |>ressed in any article not so easily disjios- ed of as gold or silver, as grain, for in- stance, these bills for grain are worth no more than the grain itself; and, if grain falls in value, these grain-bills must of necessity sink with them; and, if the grain cannot be used as a means of payment, then they lose their value altogether. A circulating medium fixed upon so inse- cure a basis can never take the place of real gold and silver. The truth of all these remarks is strikingly illustrated by the histoiy ofthe continental paper issued by the American congress, during the rev- olution, and by that of the celebrated French assignats, which, resting upon the credit of a people without money, and without means of getting it, were soon found to be of little worth, or of none at all. Nor is this contradicted by the fact that the paper ofthe bank of England re- mained good during the stoppage of spe- cie payments; for the wealth and the productiveness of that nation are so great as to render all transactions safe in any paper authorized by its government; and that wealth and industry combined place it in a situation so far removed from most countries, that it only forms, in this re- spect, a fair exception to a general law. Money, Standard of. (See Standard.) Monge, Gaspar, a celebrated mathema- tician and natural philosopher, born at Beaune, in 1746, studied in the colleges of the fathere of the oratory at Beaune and Lyons with such success that he be- came a teacher at the age of sixteen. He was afterwards employed at the military school of 3Iezieres, where he assisted Bos- sut, the professor of mathematics, and af- terwards Nollet, jirofessor of physics, whom he succeeded. In 1780, he remov- ed to Paris, on being admitted into the academy of sciences, and became the co- adjutor of Bossut, in a course of lectures on hydrodynamics at the Louvre. He quitted 3Iezicres entirely in 1783, on being appointed examiner of the marine, when he comjiosed a Treatise on Statics, after- wards used for the polytechnic school. In 1789, like other friends of freedom, Monge indulged in expectations of the regenera- tion of France. Through the influence of Condorcet, he was made minister of the marine, in 1792, and he held, at the same time, the portfolio of minister of war, during the absence of general Servanwith the army. He thus became a member of the executive council of government, in which capacity he signed the order for the execution of Louis XVI. Shortly after, be resigned his functions, in consequence of which he was exposed to the jiereecu- tion of tbe ruling party of the Jacobins, against which he successfully defended himself. He was then emjiloyed, together with other men of science, in improving the manufacture of gunpowder, and other- wise augmenting the military resources of the country. The Normal school was founded, with which Monge became con- nected ; and he then published his Giomi- trie descriptive, one of his principal works. Together with Berthollet and Guyton Morveau, he principally contributed to the establishment ofthe jiolytechnic school; after which, in 1796, he was commission- ed to go to Italy, and collect the treasures of art and science from the countries con- quered by the French; and the labore of Monge and his colleagues gave rise to the splendid assemblage of works of taste and genius, which for a time ornamented the halls of the Louvre. In 1798, he went with Bouajiarte to Egypt, where he was again employed in the service of science. On his return to France, he resumed his functions as professor at the polytechnic school, in the success of which he greatly MONGE—MONGULS. 577 interested himself. The attachment which he manifested to Bonaparte led to his be- ing nominated a memher of the senate, on die formation of that body. The emjieror bestowed on him the title of count ofPe- lusium, the senatorial lordship of Liege, made him grand cordon of the legion of honor, gave him an estate in Westphalia, and, a little before he set out on his Rus- sian expedition, a present of 200,000 francs. The fell of his benefactor involv- ed him in misfortunes. He was expelled from the institute in 1816, one of his sons- in-law was exiled, and he was deprived of all his employments. His faculties be- came disordered, and he died July 28,1818. Besides the works above noticed, 3Ionge published Description de VArt de fabriquer les Canons (4to.), and Application de VAnalyse a la Giomitrie des Surfaces (4to.), as well as a multitude of memoirs on mathematical and physical science. His pupil Dupin has published an Essai his- toriaue sur les Services et les Travaux sci- entifiques de Monge. Monguls ; a great nation in the north- east of Asia, whicli, after having been, at two different times in the middle ages, dis- tinguished for its conquests, has been sunk, for three centuries jiast in inactivity, and is now hardly known in Europe, but by name. The Monguls have been fre- quendy confounded with the Tartars dwelling in South-western Asia, with whom, however, they have nothing in common but a nomadic mode of life, and an irregular, savage method of wag- ing war, pillage being their sole object. They differ from them essentially, by a dingy complexion, small eyes, and their corporeal structure in general, as well as by their language and mannere. Their early history is obscure. In the thirteenth cen- tury, they spread their conquests and dev- astations from the depths of Northern Asia over Russia, and other parts of Europe. They came from the regions which they now, in part, inhabit, Mon- golia, north of the great wall of China, be- tween the present Eastern Tartaiy and Bu- charia. For their power and consequence they were indebted to the genius of a single extraordinary individual, Genghis Khan (q. v.), who having been, originally, merely the chief of a single 3Iongul horde, compelled the other hordes to submit to his power, and then, in 1206, conceived the bold jilan of conquering the whole earth. In a short time he subjugated two great Tartar empires in the east and west of Asia, destroyed hi six campaigns the mighty monarchy ofthe sultans ofChow- vol. viii. 49 aresmia, who reigned over Turkestan and all Persia as far as India, and during the same period sent part of his subjects, un- der the command of his eldest son, in 1223, to devastate Russia. After the death of Genghis Khan, in 1227, Lis sons pursued his conquests, subjugated all China, subverted the caliphate of Bagdad, and made the Seljook sultans of Iconium tributary. In 1237, a 3Iongul army again invaded Russia, conquered Moscow, and desolated a great portion of the countiy. Having subjugated Russia, the 3Ionguls entered Poland in 1240, burned Cracow, and advanced in Silesia to Liegnitz, where they conquered Henry, duke of Breslau, in a bloody battle, April 9, 1241. But want of provisions soon compelled them to leave the countries which they had laid waste with fire and sword. In Germany, and even France, where the former inva- sions of the Huns were held in remem- brance, the fear of them was so great, that fasts and prayers were appointed to avert their approach. They were prevented from taking advantage of the general consternation to extend their conquests, by the disjiutes which arose respecting the succession to the throne, after the death of Khan Octai, the immediate suc- cessor of Genghis Khan. The empire of the 3IonguIs still held together, and at the end of the thirteenth century was at the summit of its power. At that time, it ex- tended from the Chinese sea and from India, far into the interior of Siberia, and to the frontiers of Poland. The principal seat of the great khan was China ; the other countries were governed by subor- dinate khans, all of whom were descended from Genghis, and were more or less de- pendent on the great khan. The most powerful of the 3Ionguls were the Kapt- shaks, who lived on the Wolga, and were the scourges of Russia, and the Dshaga- tais, who lived between the river Oxus and Tartary. But this division ofthe em- pire among several petty princes was the cause of the gradual decay of the power and consequence of the Monguls in the fourteenth century. In the fifteenth cen- tuiy, various hordes of this nation were subjugated or destroyed by the Russians, whose conquerors they had previously been. In China, the empire of die 3Ion- guls had been overturned, in 1368, by a revolution. But, about 1360, there ap- jieared a second formidable warrior of the tribe ofthe Dshagatai, Timurlenk (Tam- erlane, q. v.), called also Timur Beg. He was of obscure descent, but, as the dynasty of the Monguls of Dshagatai had fallen 578 MONGULS—MONITOR. into decline, raised himself by his talents and courage to the sovereignty of the whole nation. In 1369, he chose the city of Samarcand for the seat of his new government The other 31ongul tribes, with Persia, Central Asia and Hindostan, were successively subjugated by him. In 1400, he attacked, in .Natolia, the sultan Bajazet I, who had been hitherto victori- ous against the Christians in Europe, and before whom Constantinople trembled. The battle of Ancyra (Anguri), 1402, was decided against Bajazet ; he suffered a total defeat, and was even made prisoner by Timur. The story of the severity which the conqueror is said to have used towards his prisoner, is not well substan- tiated. For a time, the Christian powere were thus freed from a formidable enemy. After Timur had conquered and desolated all Natolia, he died on an expedition to Chi- na, March 19,1405,69 years of age. After his death, the monarchy of the 3Ionguls was divided into several states. Baber (Ba- bur),adescendantofTimur,founded, in In- dia, in 1519, a powerful monarchy, which existed till the close ofthe eighteenth centu- ry, as the emjiire ofthe Great Mogul. (See Hvulostan.) The Mongul tribes now in existence live partly under Russian, part- ly under Chinese dominion. Those which remain of the tribe of the Kap- tshaks live intermingled with the Cal- mucks, in the government of Irkutsk ; their number, with that of the Calmucks, is estimated at 300,000. The rest, which ■are under Chinese sovereignty, but are governed by four different khans, live in Mongolia, which is bounded by Tungusia, China, Little Tartary and Siberia. They itll profess the religion of Fo (q. v.), lead a nomadic life, but, by means of caravans, carry on some trade with Russia, in woollen and cotton goods of their own manufacture. (See the Hist, des Monguls depuis Tschinguiz-Khan jusqu'd Timour- Lane (Paris, 1824), and Isaac James Schmidt's excellent Forschungen im Ge- bieteder dllern, rdigibsen, politischen und literar. BUdunsgesch. der Mongolen und Tibeter (St. Petersburg, 1824). Schmidt's German translation of Ssanang Ssaetssen's Histoiy of die Eastern Monguls, accompa- nied with a commentary, and with the Mongul original, has been printed at Pe- tersburg, at the expense of the emjieror. Baber's interesting Memoirs, written by himself, have been translated from the Dshagatai Turkish into English (London, 1826), by Leyden and Erekine with an introduction, very important for the histo- ry of the Monguls. Moniteur. Nov. 24, 1789, a journal was commenced at Paris, the Gazette Na- tionale, ou le .Moniteur Universel, which was intended to give an account of foreign events, but more esjiecially of the doings of the national assembly, antl on tbe 7th Ni- vose of the year VIII, it was declared an official pa|ier. Since that time it has been the most important, and the only official, journal of the Frencli government Since Jan. 1, 1811, it has dropped the title Ga- zette Nationale, and retained only that of Moniteur Universel. The occurrences that took place between 1787 and the opening of the national assembly, have been subse- quently added in an introduction, published in the year IV (Paris, 1 vol., fol.). In the year IX (Paris, 2 vols., folio), ajijieared the Revolution lYangaise, ou Analyse complete et imparticde du Moniteur, par Ordre Chro- nologique, anil in the following year, the Table Alphabilique du Moniteur (likewise in 2 vols., fol.), but neither of which, unfor- tunately, comes down farther than the close of' the year VII. The Moniteur ap- peare every day in a large folio sheet, often accompanied with supplements. It con- tains, in the two divisions appropriated to foreign and domestic news, not only the official ordinances and documents of the government, appointments, removals from office, promotions, &c, with notices on the arts, literature and the drama, but also such political information as the govern- ment intends shall be regarded in France as official. The Moniteur had a great cir- culation in France and Eurojie generally, and also in America, during the revolution. Entire sets are rare. The yeare VII and VIII (1796—1800) in particular, of which a smaller impression was made, are often wanting. Among the daily jiajiers of mod- ern times, the Moniteur maintains a melan- choly celebrity. It has exhibited, in the same nation, the picture of the most un- bridled jiojiulur rage, and of opjnessive monarchical despotism. It is one of the most important collections of public doc- uments for the historian of the great changes in Europe since the beginning of the French revolution. Monitor ; a genus of large lizards, which have teeth in both jaws, and none on the jialate; most of them have the tail compressed laterally : they derive their name from a popular belief that they give warning of the ajiproach of crocodiles, by making a kind of whistling noise. They are found in most parts of the world, and the fossil remains of species much larger than any now existing, have been discovered in various places in Europe. MONITORIAL INSTRUCTION—MONKEY. 579 Monitorial Instruction. (See Mu- tual Instruction.) 31 one. (See Monastery, and Orders, religious.) 3Ionk, George, duke of Albemarle, an English military officer, distinguished in histoiy for the prominent part he acted in the restoration of Charles II, was the son of sir Thomas Monk. He was born Dec. 6, 1608. Entering into the army at an early age, he served under sir Richard Grenville, in an expedition to Spain, and in 1630, went to the Netherlands, where he was promoted to a captaincy. He was engaged in the unfortunate expedi- tion of Charles I against the Scots in 1639, at which period he was made lieu- tenant-colonel. On the rebellion taking place in Ireland, he was sent thither, and his services were rewarded with the post of governor of Dublin. Hostilities occur- ring between the king and the jiarliament, colonel Monk brought over his regiment to his majesty's assistance. He was ap- jiointed major-general in the Irish brigade ; and, being emjiloyed at the siege of Nant- wick, was made a prisoner, and commit- ted to custody in tbe Tower of London. He devoted his leisure to writing, and composed Observations on Military and Political Affairs, published not long after his death. Having been detained about three yeare in confinement, he accepted a commission from the parliament, on con- dition of being employed only against the Irish insurgents. He distinguished him- self repeatedly in this service; but, having made a treaty with the Catholic chieftain O'Neal, which gave offence to the English parliamentary government, he resigned his command, and retired to his estate. After tbe entire overthrow of the royal party, Monk was emjiloyed with Cromwell in Scotland, and was present at the battle of Dunbar. His coadjutor returning to Eng- land, he was intrusted with the chief com- mand. War taking jilace with the Dutch republic, he engaged in the naval service, and, together with admirals Blake and Dean, commanded in two engagements, in whicli they triumphed over the enemy, commanded by the famous Van Tromp. On the reestablishment of peace, Monk re- turned to Scotland, where, at the head of the English army, he maintained the au- thority of Cromwell in that country. On the decease of the protector, the resigna- tion of jiower by his son, and the contest of parties which subsequently took place, he availed himself of the commanding situation which he occupied, to crush the republicans, and promote the recall and restoration of the Stuart family to the throne, in the jiereon of Charles II. The dukedom of Albemarle, tbe order of the garter, and the office of privy-counsellor, rewarded the loyalty of the restorer of Charles II. During the Dutch war, Monk was again employed in the naval service, and in 1666 defeated the Dutch fleet com- manded by his former antagonist, Van Tromp, and admiral De Ruyter. He died January 3, 1670, and was buried in West- minster-abbey. He was manied to a woman in low life, who maintained a com- plete ascendency over him. Monkey (simia, Linn.). The monkey tribe forms by far the largest portion ofthe great order of quadrumana, and, in addition to hands on all the extremities, with long and flexible fingers and opposable thumbs, they generally possess also the following characteristics:—The incisor teeth are four in each jaw, and their molars resemble those of man: these are five in number on each side of each jaw in the monkeys of the old continent, and in one tribe of the new; the remainder of the American spe- cies have a sixth. The canines vary in size, from a powerful tusk to a trifling projection beyond their other teeth. The nails of all their fingers, as well as those of the thumbs, are invariably flat and expanded. The head is subject to great variations, in some approaching the human in form, and passing through every intermediate gradation, till it becomes as flat as that of tbe dog. But of all their organs there is none whicli exhibits so re- markable a discrepancy as the tail: this is wholly wanting in some; forms a mere ru- diment in others; is short and tapering in a third grouji; moderately long and cylin- drical in a fourth; in a fifth, extremely long, and covered with hair ; whilst, again, in another grouji, it is long, denuded of hair beneath and at tip, and jirehensile. On these characters naturalists have made several classifications of them, each dif- fering from the other as to the value of certain distinctions. The following is that given by Cuvier, in the last edition of his Rigne Animal;— SIMIiE. I. Subgenus. Apes proper, or of the an- cient continent. 1. Subdivision. Orangs. Simla, Erxl. Pithe- cus, Geoff. 2. " Gibbons. Hilobates, Ilig. 3. " • Guenons. Monkeys. Cer- copithecus, Erxl. 4. « Semnopithecus, F. Cuvier. 5. " Macaques. Macacvs. 580 MONKEY—MONMOUTH. 6. Subdivision. Magots. Inuus, F. Cnvier. 7. '•' Cynocephalus, Cuvier. 8. " Mandrils. II. Subgenus. Apes of the new continent. 1. Division. Sapajoos. 1. Subdivision. Mycetes, Ilig. Howling apes. 2. " Ateles, Geoff. 3. " Brachytdes, Spix. 4. " Sagotnrix, Geoff. Gastri- margus, Spix. 5. " Cebus, Geoff. 2. Division. Sakis. 1. Subdivision. Brachiurus, Spix. 2. " Callithrix, Geoff. 3. " JYocthora, F. Cuvier. But although thus diversified in their forms, they all possess some general char- acteristics. They are all mischievous, filthy, lascivious and thievish. They all employ their fore-feet as hands. When injured or offended, they use threatening gestures, chatter their teeth ; and when jileased, appear to laugh. The disjiositions of many ofthe species are extremely per- verse, whilst others are so mild and tracta- ble as to be readily tamed and taught a variety of tricks. They are all fond of hunting for vermin, both in their own fur and in that of their companions, possess a very delicate sense of feeling, and are able to leap with surprising agility from tree to tree. 31ost of the species are gregarious, associating in large troops; but each troop is invariably formed of the same species. The monkeys proper are the most lively and active, their jirehensile tail answer- ing the purpose of an additional hand. In many parts of India, monkeys were made objects of worehip, and magnifi- cent temjiles erected to their honor. When the Portuguese plundered the island of Ceylon, they found, in one ofthe temples dedicated to these animals, a small golden casket, containing the tooth of a monkey. This was held in such es- timation by the natives, that they offered 700,000 ducats to redeem it The viceroy, however, ordered it to be burnt. Some years afterwards, however, a Portuguese having obtained a similar tooth, pretended that he had recovered the old one, which so rejoiced the priests, tiiat they purchased it from him for a sum exceeding 50,000 dollars. (See Ape, Baboon, Orang Otang.) Monmouth ; a town in Monmouth county, New Jersey, noted for the battle between the British troops under sir Henry Clinton, and the Americans under general Washington, June 28, 1778. Different divisions ofthe American army were com- manded by Lcc, Lafayette, Greene,Wayne, Stewart and Scott The number of each army appeare to have been about 11,000. The battle commenced late in the fore- noon, and continued until dark. During the night, the British secretly left the field. The American army had eight officere and sixty-one privates killed. The British army lost about three hundred. The flay was intensely warm, and many died from fa- tigue and thirst. Colonel 3Ioncton, a highly valued British officer, was killed. Monmouth, James, duke of, the son of Lucy Walters, one of the mistresses of Charles II, as is generally reported by that prince, although some circumstances render it highly probable that one of her former lovers was the father of the duke. He was born atltotterdam,in 1649, and was always acknowledged by Charles, who had him carefully educated in France, as his natural son. After the restoration, he was sent home, and created earl of Orkney and duke of 3Ionmouth, and received the garter. " He possessed," says Hume," all the qualities which could engage the af- fections of the populace—a distinguished valor, an affable address, a thoughtless generosity, a graceful person. He rose still higher in the public favor by reason ofthe universal hatred to which the duke (of York), on account of his religion, was exposed. Monmouth's capacity was mean ; his temper pliant; so that, notwith- standing his great popularity, he had never been dangerous, had he not implicitly re- signed himself to the guidance of Shaftes- bury, a man of such a restless temjier, such subtle wit, and such abandoned prin- cijiles. That daring politician had flat- tered Monmouth with the hopes of suc- ceeding to the crown." This character explains his whole life. In 1679, he re- ceived the command against the Scotch covenanters, whom he defeated at the bat- tle of Bothwell bridge, but was dejirived of his command, and sent out of the king- dom, the same year, to quiet the fears of the duke of York. He soon after return- ed, and engaged in several conspiracies with Sidney, Shaftesbury, and other lead- ers, some of whom were desirous of es- tablishing a republic; others merely wished to exclude the duke of York, while Mon- mouth entertained secret hopes of acquir- ing the crown. One of these plots, some ofthe parties to which were also concern- ed in the rye house plot, being discover- ed in 1683, Monmouth concealed himself for some time, but was afterwards jiar- doned, on expressing his penitence. No sooner had he obtained his pardon than MONMOUTH—MONOGRAM. 581 he disavowed having made any conces- sions to the court, and was, in conse- quence, ordered by Charles to depart from the kingdom. On the accession of James II, Monmouth, finding himself pursued by the king's severity, was induced, con- trary to his judgment and inclination, by the impatience of some of his partisans, to attemjit an invasion of England. He arrived at Lime with hardly a hundred followers (June, 1685); but his numbers were soon increased, and he assumed the title of king, and asserted the legitimacy of his birth. His forces were defeated at Sedgemore Bridgewater, and the duke himself was made prisoner, having been found in the disguise of a jieasant, lying at the bottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger, fatigue and anxiety. He refused to betray his accomplices, and conducted himself with much firmness on the scaf- fold, where his head was severed from his body, after four unsuccessful blows. The people, of whom he was still the favorite, believed that the pereon executed was not Monmouth, but one "of his friends, who resembled him so nearly as to pass him- self off for the duke, and suffer in his stead. It was probably this belief which has led some to conjecture that the famous Iron 31ask wastheduke of Monmouth. Monnier, Pierre Charles Le ; astrono- mer, member of tbe academies at Paris, London and Berlin, was born at Paris in 1715, and early displayed a decided in- clination for astronomical studies. In his sixteenth year, he made observations on Saturn, and in his twentieth year commu- nicated to the academy of sciences in Par- is his Nouvelle Figure de la Lune, avec la Description des Taches. The academy admitted him into their number, and, in 1735, he went with Maupertuis to Lap- land. In 1748, Mounier observed the an- nular eclipse of the sun, in Scotland, and was the firet who measured the moon's diameter on the sun's disk. In 1750, Louis XV employed him to run a meridi- an line through the castle of Bellevue. Lalande, with whom he was afterwards on unfriendly terms, was his pupil, and always spoke of him with the highest es- teem. Lemonnier was of an impetuous and capricious temper; and after his death several valuable works were found among his papere, which, in spite of all entrea- ties, he had obstinately refused to publish, and which he threatened to bum. Among them was a catalogue of fixed stare, the plan of which he had exhibited to the academy in 1741. He was indefatigable in his labors, and his whole life was de- 49* voted to science, which is indebted to him for many improvements. He was the first to determine the difference of refrat tion in summer and winter. He corrected the tables ofthe sun, and the catalogues of the stars, fixed with greater accuracy the in- clination of the ecliptic, and ascertained the elevation of the pole at Paris. He introduced into France the transit-instru- ment constructed by Graham, and pointed out the irregularities in the motion of Saturn, produced by the attraction of Ju- piter. He died in 1799. Of his nume- rous works, his Histoire Cileste and his Thiorie des Cometes deserve to be par- ticularly mentioned. Monochord (from the Greek); an an- cient instrument, or machine, so called, be- cause it is furnished with only one string. Its use is to measure and adjust the ratios of the intervals, whicli it effects by the means of movable bridges, calculated to divide the chord at the pleasure of the sjieculatist The monochord appears to have been in constant use with the an- cients, as the only means of forming the ear to the accurate perception, and the voice to the true intonation, of those minute and difficult intervals which were then practised in melody. 31onochrome (Gr. novos, single, and xpufa, color), in ancient painting ; a paint- ing with one single color. This descrip- tion of art is veiy ancient, and was known to the Etruscans. The firet specimens of the art of painting were of one tint only, which was most commonly red, made either with cinnabar or minium. Instead of red, white paint was sometimes used. Quintilian says of Polygnotus, and Pliny of Zeuxis, that their jierfbrmances of this kind were of the latter description. The antique tombs of the Tarquins, in the neighborhood of Corneto, offer several figures painted in white upon a dark ground. The firet four plates in the first volume of the paintings of Herculaneum contain several monochromes upon mar- ble. The most numerous monuments existing of this kind of painting are on terra cotta. Monocrat has been used by a few writers to designate with one word an ab- solute monarch. They object to autocrat, as not sufficiently precise, since there might be also an autocratic body, that is, several or many pereons who govern with- out any dependence on those who are governed. 31onodrama ; a drama in whicli oidy one pereon plays. Monogram (^oioj, single, or only, and 582 MONOGRAM—MONOPHYSITES. yptn) ; a treatise on a single subject in literature or science ; thus we say, a monograph on violets, a monograph on Egyptian mum- mies. The advantage of a treatise of this nature is, that it allows more minuteness of detail in reference to all the properties and relations of the subject of the mono- graph. Papers in the memoirs or transac- tions of literary and scientific societies, and in periodical journals, are often mono- graphs, and have contributed much to the progress of modem science. SIonolithic (from novo;, single, and \i6os, stone); consisting of a single stone. According to Herodotus, there was a monolithic sanctuary attached to a temple at Sais, dedicated to Minerva, 21 cubits long, 14 wide, and 8 high, which was brought from Elephantine. The carriage of it employed 2000 men three yeare. Some striking specimens of monolithic temples are still found in Egypt, and, like the monolithic obelisks, bear testimony to the wonderful ajiplication of mechanical power among the ancient Egyptians. (See Obelisks.) Monologue (^oi-oj, single, Xoyos, dis- course) ; in distinction from dialogue (q. v.), in the drama; the same as solilo- quy. (See Soliloquy.) Monomany (from ,,ovoi and pavia); the name given, by some physicians, to that form of mania, in which the mind of the patient is absorbed by one idea; for in- stance, if the patient believes that he is God, or Christ, an emperor, &c. (See Mental Derangement.) Monongahela ; a river which rises from the Laurel mountains, in Virginia, runs north into Pennsylvania, and unites with the Alleghany, at Pittsburg, to form the Ohio. It is navigable for batteaux and barges 32 miles, to Brownsville, and still further for lighter boats. Its length is about 300 miles. 3Ionophysites ; the members of the party who, according to the language adopted in the fifth century, maintain that there is but one nature in Christ, that is, that the divine and human natures were so united as to form but one nature, yet without any change, confusion or mixture of the two natures. They were con- demned as heretics, at the council of Chalcedon, in 451, which maintained that in Christ two distinct natures were united in one person, and that without any change, mixture or confusion. This distinction without a difference gave rise to a violent MONOPHYSITES. 583 dispute. The Asiatic and Egyptian cler- gy were inclined to the Monophysites, and were unanimous in maintaining the unity of nature as well as of person in Jesus, while the Western contended for the de- cree of the council. The edict called Henoticon, issuetl by the emperor Zeno, in 482, was not able to quiet the combatants, and, after long and often bloody contests, the orthodox church, by its sentences of excommunication, occasioned a fonnal se- cession on the part of the Monophysites. This separation took place in the first half of the sixth century, when the protection which the 3Ionophysitcs had hitherto re- ceived at times from the court at Constan- tinople, necessarily ceased from the close union of the emperor Justinian with the Roman church. Neither did they re- main united among themselves. In 483, the Acephali (q. v.) had already seceded, and formed the real strength of Monophy- sitism. In 519, new controversies arose among them respecting the question whether the body of Christ is corruptible or not. The Severites, adherents of a deposed patriarch of Antioch, Severus, who belonged to the Acejihali, answered in the affinnative ; the Julianists, or Ga- janites, adherents of the bishops Julianus, or Gajanus, in the negative. The former were, therefore, called Phthartolatrians (Corrupticola, servants of corruptibility); the latter, Aphthartodoceta (teachers of in- corruptibility), or Phantasiasts, who again divided respecting the question whether the body of Christ was created, and formed the parties ofActisteta, those who beld it increate, and the Ctistolatrians, who believed it created. The Severites, also called, from one of their bishops, Theodosians, acquired the superiority, and pronounced excommunications against the Agnoeta, who also arose among them (so called, because they denied the omnis- cience of Christ as a man). About 560, a Monophysite, Askusnages, and after him Philoponus, the greatest Christian philoso- pher of that century, conceived the idea of styling the tlu-ee pereons of the Deity three Gods. These tritheists and their adherents, even in the eyes of the Mo- nophysites, were the rankest heretics, and were the occasion of many Monophy- sites turning Catholics. In Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia, the Monophysite con- gregations, however, remained the strong- est, had patriarchs at Alexandria and Antioch, existing, without interruption, by the side of the imperial or orthodox patri- archs ; and, after the Syrian, Jacob Bara- dseus, who died 588, had established their religious constitution, formed the inde- pendent churches of the Jacobites and Armenians (q. v.), which separated from the Greeks as well as the Romans, and have, for that reason, been able to main- tain themselves since the seventh century, even under the dominion of the Moham- medans. Excepting their peculiar doc- trine of one nature in Christ, they coin- cide, in the main points of belief, with the Greek church; their worehip also resem- bles the Greek, rather than the Roman, but has, from their national character and their superstition, received variations, which are most striking in the religious constitution of the Egyptian Jacobites. These Copts are in communion with the Syrian Jacobites, but have their own patriarch at Cairo, the patriarch of Alexandria, who has ten bishoprics under hiin. The Bible and liturgical books they possess in the old Coptic language, which is the same as the Egyptian current under the Ptolemies, at the time of the dominion of the Greeks, and has, there- fore, some similarity with the Greek, but is now a dead language. They bap- tize their children always in the church, and never till they are forty days old, and frequently not till they are seven yeare of age; but immediately after baptism, they receive the wine of the eucharist. The Lord's supper they celebrate only in the great fasts, use, in the celebration, leaven- ed bread, which is broken, and taste the wine with sjioons. According to a cus- tom tiiat had its origin in times of perse- cution, they attend divine worship in the night, between Saturday and Sunday. It consists merely of service at the altar, of singing, prayer, and reading by the priests, who are, moreover, extremely ignorant, and cannot preach. The patriarch preach- es but once a year. Relics, poorly exe- cuted, images in their churches, the wor- ship of saints, &c, they have in common with the Greeks. Circumcision is cus- tomary only with the Copts in Upper Egyjit In their thinly-peopled convents, monks reside with women and children. A fourth Monophysite church is the Abys- sinian, which receives its spiritual head from the Copts. (See Abyssinia.) Con- nected with the 31onophysite controversy was die question started in the beginning of die seventh century, whether, in Christ the united divine and human nature had but one, or two wills. This gave rise to a dis- pute, which the emperor Constans tried in vain to appease, by his edict, called Typus. The decision of the Trullan council, at Constantinople, in 680, that there were 584 MONOPHYSITES—MONOPTERAL TEMPLES. two wills in Christ, because he had two natures, made the Monothelites (advocates of the doctrine of one will) heretics, but could not prevent the formation, from their remains, ofthe sect ofthe Maronites. (q. v.) Monopoly is an exclusive right, secured to one or more persons, to carry on some branch of trade or manufacture, in con- tradistinction to a freedom of trade or manufacture enjoyed by all the world, or by all the subjects of a jiarticular country. Thus the East India trade is a monopoly in England, as far as it is confined, by law, to the East India company, though foreigners are allowed to trade to the British East Indies; but the West India trade, as far as it is open to all British subjects, is not a monopoly, though for- eigners may be (as they, indeed, hereto- fore have been) excluded from it The most frequent monopolies, formerly grant- ed in Europe, were the right of trading to certain foreign countries, the right of im- porting or exporting certain articles, and that of exercising particular arts or trades, in certain towns or boroughs. These species of monopoly are now generally understood to be injurious. They still subsist, however, to a very considerable extent in Europe, but they have never been introduced into the U. States. There is, however, one species of monopoly sanctioned by the laws, not only of the U. States, but of all countries that have made any advances in the arts, namely, the exclusive right of an invention or im- provement for a limited number of years. The exclusive right of an author to the publication of his own work, is hardly n monopoly, but rather a right of jiroperty, resting ujion the same principle as the right to lands or chattels. The law, there- fore, by giving an author the exclusive right to the publication of bis own work, for a limited number of yeare, makes no grant; it is only allowing him what is his own, for a limited time. But tbe exclu- sive right to tbe use of an invention or improvement, is a monopoly, since it de- prives othere, for that jieriod, of the chance of the advantage of making the same improvement, discovery or inven- tion themselves. It is taking away a right which they before had. The reason for this is, the encouragement of inventions and improvements, in the jiolicy of which all the world concur. This is the .only kind of monopoly recognised in the U. States, and the only one generally ac- knowledged, in Europe, to be useful and expedient. Monopteral Temples. (See Archi- tecture, vol. i, j). 341.) APPENDIX. Louis XII, king of France from 1498 to 1515, called by his subjects le peredupeuple, was horn in 1462. Before his accession to the throne, which took place after the death of Charles VIII, he was duke of Orleans, and first prince of the blood. The lessons of his German mother, Mary of Cleves, and the misfortunes which he underwent at a later period, corrected the faults of his education, which had been purposely neglected, in compliance with the will of Louis XI. (q. v.) On ascending the throne, he pardoned the wrongs which he had suffered before his accession. " The king of France," said he, " must not revenge the injuries done lo the duke of Orleans." He showed himself grateful to-* ward his friends. The ambitious Georges d'Amboise, his minister, archbishop of Rouen and cardinal legate, enjoyed his full confidence. After the death of this minister, in 1510, Louis took the reins himself. He reestablished discipline in the army, and brought the turbulent stu- dents of Paris to order—a task which was not without difficulty, on account of their great number, and the privileges which they enjoyed. He much improved the administration of justice, lessened the taxes, and would never consent to in- crease them, though he was engaged in many ware. The expense of these he supjilied by making a number of offices venal, and selling some crown estates. He united the duchy of Brittany for ever with the crown, by marrying, in 1499, the widow of Charles VIII, the beautiful Anne, duchess of Brittany, the object of his love even before his separation from the excellent, but extremely plain Jeanne, daughter of Louis XI, whom he had been forced to marry, and who had borne him no children. In order to enforce the rights which he inherited from his grand- mother, Valentina Visconti, to the duchy of Milan, against Louis Sforza, called Moro (see Sforza), he sent, in 1499, an army over the Alps, which conquered the duchy of Milan within twelve days; after which Genoa also surrendered to him. In vain did Louis Moro attempt to main- tain himself by the assistance ofthe Swiss; he was taken jirisoner, in 1500, at Novara, and died, in 1510, in confinement at Loches iu France. In 1500, Louis XII concluded a treaty with Ferdinand the Catholic, by which the kingdom^f Na- ples was divided between them. King Frederic of Naples jiroceeded to France, where Louis gave him a considerable annuity. But Ferdinand possessed him- self of the whole kingdom of Naples, and retained it by the treaty of 1505. Louis had promised to marry his daughter Claude to the grandson of the German emperor, Charles of Luxemburg, after- wards Charles V (q. v.), and to give her Brittany, Burgundy and Milan as a dowry. But die estates assembled in 1506 at Tours, begged on their knees the father of his people, as they called him, to marry his daughter to Francis, count of Angou- leme, of the family of Valois. Louis consented; the estates declared the first contract of marriage void, and contrary to the fundamental laws of the realm, and Francis married Claude. Louis now de- voted himself jiarticularly to the education of this prince, who was to succeed him (see Francis I), but at first with so little success, that on one occasion he sorrow- fully exclaimed, "Nous travaUlons en vain; ce gros gargon gdtera tout. The league of Cambray (see League), established by pope Julius II against Venice, in 1508, involved France in a new war. Louis now commanded the army in person, and was victorious over the Venetians, at 586 APPENDIX. (LOUIS XII—LOUIS BONAPARTE.) Agnadello, in 1509, where he fought with great bravery. Julius II, however, fearing the power of France in Italy, concluded the holy league (see League) with Venice, Switzerland, Spain and England, against Louis XII, in 1510. In vain did the king, in conjunction with the emperor Max- imilian, assemble, in 1511, a council at Pisa, iu order to reform the church, in its head-and members, and to dcjiose Julius II; the pope laid an interdict on France, in 1512, and declared Louis XII to have forfeited his crown. The Frencli armies could not maintain themselves after the death of their general, Gaston de Foix (q. v.); they were beaten by the Swiss, at Novara, in 1513, and retreated over the Alps; after which 3Iaximilian, son of Louis 31oro, took jiossession of Milan, and Genoa made herself independent of France. The Swiss, at the same time, penetrated into France as far as Dijon, and Henry VIII (q. v.) of England de- feated the French, in 1513, at Guinegate (Journie des Espirons, because the French made more use of their spurs in flight than of their swords in fight). Ferdinand the Catholic, also, in 1512, had taken Upper Navarre, which, until then, be- longed,^ogether with Lower Navarre, in France, to the house of Albret. Louis XII now renounced the provinces on the other side of the Alps and the Pyrenees, became reconciled with Leo X, the suc- cessor of Julius II, and concluded, in 1514, a general peace with Henry VIII, whose sister Mary he married, after the death of Anne, after which he united his second daughter, Renee, to the arch-duke Charles (Charles V). From love to his beautiful wife (only 16 yeare old), Louis (then 53 yeare of age) changed his whole mode of life, to the injury of his health, and thus accelerated his death. He died Jan. 1,1515.—Louis XII possessed many of the qualities of a good ruler. He was open, honest, economical, just, kind- hearted and magnanimous; he was a friend of science, and attracted learned men to his country, particularly from Italy; and France owes to him its firet scientific collections. He loved to read Cicero's De Officiis, De Senectute, and De Amicitia. Trajan was his model. France enjoyed, under him, a degree of prosperity and security which it had never possessed before. In regard to the foreign relations of the country, Louis had not sufficient talent to oppose the crafty Julius II, Fer- dinand the Catholic, and cardinal Wolsey. His generals, Trivulce, De la Tremouille, Gaston de Foix (nephew of Louis XII), Bayard and others, maintained, even in misfortune, the glory of the French arms. —See P. L. Roederer's Louis XII et Fran- gois I, ou Mimoires pour servir a une nouvdle Histoire du Regne de Louis XII et de F-ancois 1 (Paris, 1825, 2 vols.). Louis Bonaparte, count of St Leu, fourth son of Charles Bonaparte, was born at Ajaccio, Sept. 2, 1778. Those who believe that the extinction of feudal prin- ciples must necessarily take place in Eu- rope, and that the principles ofthe French revolution (though at firet vaguely under- stood, and often pervertedly applied) must make a new era in the constitution of Europe, will consider it as one of the most important points of investigation, in Napoleon's life, how far he remained merely a Frenchman, sacrificing other nations to elevate his own, and how far he may be considered as having acted with a view to the interests of Europe in general, which his station, as dictator of Europe, called on him to cherish. For the investigation of this point, the life of Louis Bonaparte will have a jieculiar in- terest. Louis Bonajiarte went, at an early age, to France, chose the military career, and was educated at the military school at Chalons. In his Riponse a Sir Walter Scott, he speaks with great affec- tion of the jiaternal care which Napoleon took of him in his youth, when he lived with him in France. Louis accomjianied his brother to Italy and Egypt, as aid-de- camp. From Egypt he returned with despatches to the directory, March 14,1799. Soon after the 18th of Brumaire, Napo- leon sent him to Berlin, where he re- mained for a year. He was afterwards appointed general of brigade, and, in 1802, manied the step-daughter of Napo- leon, Honensia Beauharnais—a match which proved unhappy. When Napo- leon assumed the imperial dignity, he made his brother Louis constable, and, in 1805, governor-general of Piedmont. But, on account of his health, Louis soon left Turin. Schimmelpennink, the grand jiensionaiy of Batavia, wishing to resign his office, on account of his blindness, Napoleon improved the opjiortunity to make his brother Louis king of Holland (June 6,1806). Louis refused to accept the crown; he alleged his ill health and the damp atmosphere ofthe country ; but Napoleon told him, " Qu'U valait mieux mourir roi, que de vivre prince." Other reasons determined Louis to accept the crown, though he could be, in fact, noth- ing more than a French prince. The pre- vious negotiations with respect to this sub- APPENDIX. (LOUIS BONAPARTE.) 587 |ect were kept an entire secret from him. After his accession, he desired to identify himself with his people ; but, in his situa- tion, this was impossible; and therefore his reign, although he respected the pub- lic opinion of the nation, and earnestly endeavored to improve every branch of' the administration, had, on the whole, neither freedom nor dignity. He often took stejis which offended the feelings of die nation; for instance, his attempted levy of orphans for the military service. Other plans of his, such as the removal ofthe seat of government from the Hague to Utrecht, and subsequently to Amster- dam, were not merely without advan- tage, but detrimental. But he made a noble, though vain resistance, to what was termed the haute politique of France, in as far as Holland was concerned. On one occasion, he generously declared, "Qu'cn acceptant le trone de Hollande, il s'itaitfait HoUandais." The sujiplies demanded by France on the one side, and the strict measures against British commerce, which he was compelled to adojit, on the other, rendered the restoration of the prosperity of Holland impossible. Louis was, how- ever, successful in preserving Holland from a general bankrujitcy. Though the foreign relations of the country demanded unceasing attention, the completion of a new criminal and civil code was accom- plished, and a uniform system of weights and measures, on the model of the French, was adojited. In bis personal character, the king displayed moderation, modesty, active humanity (for example, on occasion of the explosion of powder in Leyden, and of the inundations in the winter of 1808), and placability in. regard to the affronts which he received. But as he would not enforce the continental system in Holland with severity, and defended his people against the ever-increasing en- croachments of his brother, a dispute en- sued between them; Louis was ordered to Paris, where it was with the greatest sacrifices that he effected a prolongation of the existence of the Dutch state. This, however, was of short duration. Having been advised that French troops were on their way, under Oudinot, to occupy Am- sterdam and the sea-board, he abdicated the sovereignty, July 1, 1810, created his absent wife, agreeably to the constitution, regent, in the name of his minor son (whom the emperor, without the knowl- edge ofthe father, had appointed, March 3, 1809, grand-duke of Berg and Cleves, re- serving to himself the guardianship of him), left Holland, accompanied by two friends, and, under the name of count of St. Leu, repaired, by way of Teplitz, to Gratz, where he devoted himself to literature, and wrote several works. The struggle of interests which necessarily ensued be- tween Napoleon and his brothers, whom he recognised as kings, is strikingly exhibited in die lettere written by Napo- leon's own hand to Louis, and preserved in Bourrienne's Memoirs. They show that it was nearly impossible that the interest of the emperor of France should agree with that of the king of Holland. Louis had not enriched himself in Hol- land. The income of the civil list, for the month of June, he returned to his son. And when Holland was incorporated with France, he forbade the institution of any appanage for himself, the queen and his children ; he resigned to his wife his estate at St. Leu, near Paris, his palace in Paris, and several houses in Holland. In October, 1817, he ceded St. Leu to the duke of Leuchtenberg, Eugene Beauhar- nais. In the years 1813 and 1814, Louis repeatedly offered the emperor his ser- vices, with a view, however, to the re- placing of Holland under a French dy- nasty, which, however, Napoleon decid- edly refused. After the reinstatement of the house of Orange, he thought himself freed from all obligations to Holland, and went to Paris, Jan. 1, 1814. His meeting with Najioleon, concerted by the empress Maria Louisa, was cold. He earnestly exhorted his brother to peace. March 30, be accompanied the emjiress to Blois. In April, he retired to Lausanne, and thence, in November, 1814, to Rome. In 1815, he remained in Rome, Having sejiarated from his wife, he demanded that she should give up to him his son (formerly grand-duke of Berg, under Najioleon's guardianship), with whose education he has occupied himself at Rome. The letter to 31. Bonald, on the education of his son, bears favorable testimony to the qualities of his mind and his heart. His romance Marie, ou les Peines d'Amour, ou les Hollandaises (3 vols., 1814), contains a picture of Dutch mannere. He has given a detailed his- tory of the circumstances of himself and his family, especially of his administration of Holland, in his Documens historiques et Rifiexions sur le Gouvernement de la Hol- lande, par Louis Bonaparte, Ex-Roi de Hollande (3 vols., London, 1821), which is entirely his own, even to the preface. Against the jiarticipation ascribed to him, in a work on the British parliament (His- toire duParlementd'Angleterre, with notes, 588 APPENDIX. (LOUIS BONAPARTE—LUC1EN BONAPARTE.) pretended to be by Napoleon), Louis has protested, in the Paris ConstUutionncl. His Riponse a Sir Walter Scott appeared in 1829. In this work, he acknowledges himself as author of the following works only: 1. and 2., Marie, and the Documens ' historiques already mentioned; 3. Mimoire sur la Versification, contenant un RecueU WOdes publiies pricidemment en Brochure et des Essais de Vers sans Rime; 4. Es- sai sur la Versification (2 vols., in 8vo.), contenant V Opera de Ruth, la Tragidie de Lucrece; ces deux Piices icrites en Vers sans Rime, et la Comidie de VAvare de Mo- liire reduUe en Vers de la mime Espece; 5. Nouveau RecueU de Poesies publiees a Florence VAnnie derniere, et contenant la Suite du Lutrin Poeme, en 5 Chants, &c. ; 6. Riponse a Sir Walter Scott. Lucien Bonaparte, third son of Charles Bonaparte, since 1814 prince of Canino (an estate in the papal territory, whicli he purchased in 1808, and which the pope afterwards made a jirincipality), was born at Ajaccio, in 1772. The effective assist- ance which he rendered to Napoleon on some of the most important occasions in the earlier period of his career, and the misunderstanding which, at a later period, took place between these two brothers, render Lucien an object of much interest. We cannot enter minutely into these par- ticulars, which will form subjects of study for the future historian, but must confine ourselves to a short biographical notice. Lucien Bonaparte received his education at the college of Autun, in Burgundy. At the commencement of the revolution, he embraced with enthusiasm the party of the people. He became engaged to mad- emoiselle Boyer, whose brother was a land-owner and innkeeper at St. Maximin, in the department of the Var. The mar- riage took place in 1795. In the same year, he was appointed to a place in the commissariat of war. In 31arch, 1797, he was chosen deputy of the department of Liamone to the council of the five hun- dred. July 18,1797, he appeared, for the first time, in the tribune. He opposed the regulation for shutting up the shops on the 10th day of each dicade, as arbitraiy; at- tacked with energy those who had wasted the public money ; aud, on the anniversa- ry of the establishment of the republic, exhorted his colleagues to bind themselves by an oath to die for the constitution of the year III; though he soon after coope- rated in overthrowing its supporters, 3Ier- lin, La Reveillere, and Treilhard. His in- fluence soon increased, and he formed a party, which afterwards promoted the views of his brother. Not long before the memorable 18th Brumaire, he became president of the council, and jirepared the proceedings of that day. Being unable to appease the agitation caused by general Bonaparte's entrance info the assembly, he abandoned his seat, laid aside the badges of his dignity, mounted his horse, rode at full speed through the ranks of as- sembled troops, and exhorted them to save their general, whose life was in great dan- ger. (See Napoleon, and Sieyes.) After the consular government was established, Lucien was made minister of the interior. While in this station, in 1799, he encour- aged, with great zeal, the arts, sciences, and public instruction. He established a sec- ondprytaneum at St. Cyr,and organized the prefectures. In October, 1800, he went, as ambassador, to 3Iadrid, where, by his ad- dress and captivating demeanor, he soon gained the entire confidence of king Charles IV, of the queen, and the prince of peace, and supplanted the British influ- ence at the court of Madrid. He was al- so active in the creation of the kingdom of Etruria, and in the cession of Parma to France. September 29, 1801, Lucien, with the prince of peace, signed, atBada- joz, the treaty of peace between Spain and Portugal; and, by virtue of a secret preliminary treaty, the prince-regent paid 30 millions of francs, which were equally divided between Spain and France. On his return to Paris, he became a tribune (May 9, 1802). He advocated the plan of the establishment of the legion of honor, of which he was appointed grand-officer. February 3, 1803, the institute chose him member of the class of political antl mor- al sciences, and shortly after he received the senatorehip of Treves; after which he took possession of the donations made to the legion of honor in the departments of the Rhine, and in Belgium. Lucien, whose firet wife died in 1802, having married, at the end of the year 1803, the beautiful widow ofthe banker Joubertou, against the will of Napoleon, withdrew to Italy, in 1804, and purchased the villa de' Nemori, in the neighborhood of Rome, where he devoted himself to his family, and to the arts and sciences. Whether this marriage alone, or, as has been assert- ed by many, his disapprobation of Napo- leon's policy, was the cause ofthe misun- derstanding between the two brothers, we have not the means of determining. At a meeting of the two brothers at Mantua, in November, 1807, the emperor proposed to him the marriage of Lucien's eldest daughter, then 12 years of age, with the APPENDIX. (LUCIEN BONAPARTE.) 589 prince of Asturia; but the proposal was rejected. 3Iademoiselle Tascher (who af- terwards became the wife of the duke of Arenberg, but is now divorced) was next offered to prince Ferdinand; but the prince refused her, because he wished to connect himself with Napoleon's family only. By this opposition Lucien excited the anger of the emperor, and became desirous to repair to the U. States, in order to remain undisturbed. He applied to 3Ir. Hill, the English ambassador at the Sardinian court, for passports from the English government, and, having received satisfac- tory assurances from him, embarked, Au- gust 5, 1810, at Civita Vecchia, with his family, a retinue of 35 persons, and his personal property. A storm compelled him to put into Cagliari; but the English agent at that place denied him passports, and he was not even permitted to land. On leaving the harbor, his vessel was seized, and Mr. Adair, who was then proceeding to Constantinople as British ambassador, caused him, at Mr. Hill's suggestion, to be conveyed to Malta, where Lucien assign- ed to the London cabinet, as the sole mo- tive for his departure to America, the wish to live there in safety, as a private individ- ual. He was not, however, jiermitted to repair thither, but was taken to England, in December of the same year, where he was treated with respect Lord Povvis, at first, gave up to him his seat of Stone- house, at Ludlow; he then removed to a seat which he had purchased in Worces- ter, where he remained under surveillance, having an English colonel for a compan- ion. Some time after, the question was moved in parliament whether Lucien Bo- naparte, as he had actually believed that he had obtained English passports, was to be considered as a prisoner of war. Af- ter protracted debates, he was declared a prisoner of war, on the ground that he had not renounced the dignity of French senator ; but no alteration was made in his treatment. Napoleon's downfall, in 1814, restored him to liberty, and he returned to Rome. While in London, he published his epic poem, Charlemagne, ou I'Eglise dilivrie (in 24 cantos, dedicated to the pope). Napoleon's opinion of this poem may be found in Las Cases' Memorial. When Napoleon had regained possession ofthe French throne, after his return from Elba, Lucien, at the suggestion of the pope, proceeded to meet the emperor, in order to obtain an order that 3Iurat, who then occupied Rome, should evacuate the States of the Church (with the exception of a militaiy road through the Mark of vol. viii. 50 Ancona). This order he obtained at an interview with Napoleon. All the other requests which he made in favor of the pope were also granted, after which he remained in Paris. Lucien then had to enter the chamber of peers, where he sat, not among the princes, but among the other peers. The second class of the na- tional institute, of which he was a mem- ber, sent a deputation to welcome him. In this deputation was Suard, who, in February, 1815, had made the proposal, received with dissatisfaction by all the members, to exclude Lucien from their body, because he bore the name of Bona- parte. The second restoration of Louis XVIII compelled him to return to Rome; but the Austrian general, count Bubna, caused him to be confined in the citadel of Turin, where he was treated with re- spect. The allies restored him his free- dom, in September, 1815, on his declara- tion, Qu'U s'itait constammcnt opposi aux vues ambUieuses de son frere et qu'en der- nier lieu U ne s'itaU joint a lui qu'afin de le ramener a des sentimens de modiration, and on the mediation of the pope, though the papal see was obliged to pledge itself that neither he nor any one of his family should leave the States of the Church. He has since lived in Rome, or on his es- tates in the neighborhood, among which the Ruffinella has become the seat of the most refined taste. In 1817, Lucien soli- cited jiassports, for himself and one of his sons, to the U. States, which were, how- ever, refused by the ministere of the allied powere.—His son, Charles Bonaparte, was finally permitted to go to the U. States, and lived there for some time with his uncle Joseph (q. v.), whose eldest daughter he married. He published, whilst in the U. States, his splendid work on American Or- nithology, and was elected member of the philosophical society at Philadelphia, and that of natural liistory. He has since re- turned to Europe. His title is prince of Musignano.—Distinguished as were Lu- cien's talents as an orator, his poetical powere were far less splendid. In 1819, he published at Rome a second heroic po- em, in 12 cantos—La CyrnOde, ou la Corse sauvie—in which he celebrates the expul- sion of the Saracens from Corsica (an- ciently Cyrnos). By the ordinance of March 21,1816, Lucien was excluded from the list of the members of the French academy. The Mimoires sur la Vie pri- vie, politique et lUtiraire de Lucien Bona- parte, Prince de Canino, ridigis sur sa Correspondance et sur des Pieces authen- tiques d inidUes (London, 1818, and Paris, 590 APPENDIX. (LUCIEN BONAPARTE—MADISON.) 1819, 2 vols.), of which Alfonse de Beau- champ is mentioned by some as the au- thor, was firet printed in London, in 1815, but immediately supjiressed. It was pub- lished, for the second time in London, by Colburn, in 1819, and, on the whole, con- tains valuable contributions to the history of the day. Lucien has made important excavations on his estate near 3Iontalto, in the ancient Etruria (see the article Etruria), and has published an account of the collection of antiquities obtained, un- der the title Musium Etrusque de Lucien Bonaparte, fouiUis de 1828—1829 (with 40 plates of the inscriptions), and has also begun a splendid work, in folio, which will contain a hundred colored plates, repre- senting the paintings on the excavated Etruscan vases, &c. The latter appeare in monthly numbers, of five plates each, sold by Piatti in Florence. According to the latest accounts, his family had arrived in England, where he was expected soon to follow them. Madison, James; a bishop of the Prot- estant Episcopal church in Virginia, was bom August 27, 1749, near Port Republic, in the county of Rockingham, Virginia. His father was for a long time clerk of the extensive district known as West Au- gusta, of whicli Rockingham county formed a part. At an early age, the son was sent to an academy in Maryland, where he remained for several yeare, and received instruction in the classics. He then entered the college of William and Mary, where he was matriculated in 1768, and from whicli he obtained several hon- orable testimonials of his proficiency. One was the gold medal assigned by lord Botetourt for the encouragement of clas- sical learning, which was awarded to him in 1772. He studied law under 3ir. Wythe, and was admitted to the bar; but he never relished the profession, so that, after one successful effort in an admiralty case, he abandoned it, and devoted him- self to the church. In 1773, he was chosen professor of mathematics in Wil- liam and Mary's college, and, in 1777, was made president of that institution, being then but 28 yeare of age. The statutes of the college required that the jiresident should be 30, but the rale was suspended in his favor. In the same year, he visited England, in order to qualify himself still more for the duties of his station. He continued abroad, jirincipally in London, until the latter part of 1778, and during his absence enjoyed the ad- vantage of the aid and instruction of Ca- vallo in natural philosophy, and of other distinguished men in various branches of science. On his return home, he took charge of the college, and commenced that long career of usefulness, which en- titles him to be considered as one of the greatest benefactors of Virginia. Through- out the whole revolutionary war, he was unceasing in his exertions to sustain the college; and it was only for a short period during the struggle, that its exercises were intennitted,viz. the autumn preceding and the winter and spring succeeding the siege of Yorktown. Until 1784, he was not only president, but professor of mathe- matics and natural philosophy. In that year, he gave up the mathematical de- jiartment, and became professor of natural and moral philosophy, of the laws of na- ture and nations, &c, and continued in this office until the jjeriod of his death. In 1788, he was chosen bishop of the Protestant Episcopal church, and in the following year again went to England for the purpose of consecration. Whilst there, he formed an extensive acquaint- ance amongst the most distinguished lite- rati, with many of whom he kept up an uninterrupted coreespondence during the subsequent part of his life. At the end of eight months, he returned to the U. States. Various univereities and literary societies subsequently conferred their honors on him. Under the care of bishop 3Iadison, the college of William and Mary advanced steadily in reputation, and became the alma mater of many eminent men. He was indefatigable in his lectures, and, when in good health, is known to have been engaged in the lecture-room from four to six hours every day throughout each week. He first introduced a couree of systematic lectures on political econo- my into the college. In the department of natural jihilosophy, he excelled; his enthusiasm there throwing a peculiar charm over his lectures. As a bishop, also, he was ardent in the performance of his duties, and his sermons caused him to be ranked among the firet pulpit orators of this country. This excellent man died March 6,1812, in his 63d year, after a pain- ful ilhiess of many months. His remains were deposited, by vote of the faculty of William and Mary's college, in the chapel hall, and a marble monument was erected over them. In person, bishop Madison was tall and slender, of a delicate consti- tution ; and nothing but the most temper- ate and abstemious habits could have prolonged his life to threescore years. In disposition, he was mild and benevolent; and few men have equally deserved APPENDIX. (MADISON—MICA.) 591 esteem for virtues social, domestic and personal. His mannere were simple, but courteous and winning. He was a de- voted friend to our revolution and to lib- eral principles of goveniment. The eulo- gium which bishop 3Iadison pronounced ujion general Washington is one of the finest discourses called forth by the death of that illustrious man. 3Iethodist Episcopal Church in the U. States, The firet Methodist society in the U. States was formed in New York, in 1766, by some Methodist emigrants from Ireland. Their numbers increased so rapidly that, in 1768, they erected a meeting-house. Several jireach- ere were soon after sent out from Eng- land, and the firet conference was held at Philadelphia, in 1773, under the superin- tendence of Thomas Rankin, who had been appointed, by Wesley, to the general oversight of the societies in this country. During the war, all the English preachere, except Mr. Asbury, returned home. At the close of the revolution (1784), the societies having been hitherto dependent on other churches for the administration of the ordinances, as their teachers were merely lay preachere, Wesley sent out doctor Coke with directions to consecrate Mr. Asbury superintendent or bishop of the American church, which was done at a conference held in Baltimore, in 1784: twelve of the preachere were, at the same time, ordained elders. The form of gov- ernment is Episcopal; the title, the 31eth- odist Episcopal church. Three ordere of ministers are recognised—deacons, el- ders and bishops. " Any pereon who thinks himself moved by the Holy Ghost to preach the gospel, on apjilication to his preacher, is licensed, if judged fit, to ex- hort ; after exercising his talents as an ex- horter for sufficient length of time, he is licensed as a local preacher by the local preachers' conference, and may be ad- mitted as a travelling preacher by the annual conference. After travelling two years, he is ordained a deacon, and in two years more becomes an elder." The local preachere above-mentioned are pereons occupied with some secular business, who preach on Sundays. The annual con- ferences are meetings composed of all the travelling preachere, in full connexion, or who are to be received into full connex- ion. There are at present nineteen. The general conference is composed of rejire- scntatives from the annual conferences, and is held once in four years, and has power to make rales and regulations for the churches, with certain limitations. Each society is divided into classes of about 12 persons, under a leader, whose duty it is to see each pereon in his class at least once a week, to exhort, reprove, advise them. The band societies are composed of three or four true believers, who have confidence in each other, and must be all men or all women, all married or all un- married. They meet at least once a week, to engage in religious exercises, and ad- vise and exhort each other. The whole number of members (in 1831) is 513,114 ; preachers, 2010: the whole number of hearers who attend 31ethodist preaching in the U. States is about 1,000,000. The Meth- odists in this countiy are Wesleyans. A 3Iethodist theological seminary has been opened at Middletown (Ct), during the present year. (See the Doctrines and Dis- cipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and the Yearly Minutes of the Annual Conferences.) Mica, the name of a very familiar species in mineralogy, often improperly called isinglass, is possessed of the follow- ing properties : primitive form, an oblique rhombic prism of 60 and 120°; its ordina- ry forms are a regular six-sided prism, so short as to be called a six-sided table; a six-sided table in which the termi- nal edges are truncated, and an obfique six-sided jiyramid, with alternate broader and narrower lateral planes; cleavage highly perfect; lustre pearly, often in- clining to metallic; color various shades of gray, generally passing into green, brown, and black, also into white and red: streak white gray ; transjiarent or trans- lucent. It is less transparent in the direc- tion of die axis than perpendicular to it, and presents different colore in these di- rections, for instance, oil-green in the first, and liver-brown in all the others ; sectile; thin laminae are elastic; hardness rather below that of calcareous spar; the acute edges of the laminae, however, will some- times scratch glass ; specific gravity 2.949. Mica is not common in well defined crys- tals, but more often occurs massive, hav- ing a columnar or granular composition, the faces of composition being irregularly streaked and rough. Much diversity ex- ists among the analyses which have been made of mica, from various localities, by different chemists, as will be seen from the annexed table. 592 APPENDIX. (MICA.) Ingredients. Micafrom Zinnwald. From Siberia. From \ St. Gothard; From Kimito. 20.00 47.00 15.50 0.00 1.75 0.00 0.00 14.50 0.00 34.25 48. 4.50 0.00 a trace 0.50 0.00 8.75 0.00 22.00 40.25 8.75 13.00 2.00 0.00 1.75 7.25 3.24 0.00 19.50 26.50 25.40 25.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 36.80 46.36 4.53 0.00 0.00 a trace 0.00 9.22 1.81 Klaprcth. Klaprotk. PesclUer. Peschier. Rose. Before the blow-pipe, several varieties firet lose their transparency, and then melt into a scoria, white or colored, or eveu black; others are infusible; and they show, in general, as much difference in this re- spect as in their composition. Mica forms one of the constituent parts of various rocks, as granite, gneiss, mica-slate' and porphyry. It sometimes occure in masses of considerable dimensions, containing imbedded crystals of garnet, tourmaline and topaz. Remarkable varieties of mica are found in Siberia, particularly at a place called Witim, where it exists in plates one or two feet broad, and which are perfectly cleavable, and nearly or quite transparent, in thin lamina?. At Zinn- wald, in Bohemia, it is found in very per- fect crystals, possessing two axes of double refraction. It also occurs in the Horlberg in Bavaria, in Moravia, in Switzerland, at Mount St. Gothard, and at Mount Vesu- vius. At the last mentioned locality it is found in the drusy cavities of the ejected specimens of lava, in crystals with one axis of double refraction, and often pos- sessed of remarkable transparency. In the U. States, handsome varieties of mica have been discovered in numerous locali- ties, among which may be mentioned the distinct prismatic crystals of Acworth, New Hampshire, implanted on feldspar, and shooting into quartz; the dark-green distinctly cleavable variety, forming a large vein at Monroe, New York; the rose-red rhoinboidal crystals of Goshen, Mass.; and the emerald-green variety, in scales, from Brunswick, Maine. As a va- riety of mica, lepidolUe requires to be mentioned. It has been treated by some authore as a distinct species, but without any sufficient reasons. It occurs in granular compositions, of a peach-blossom red color, sometimes passing into several pale shades of green. Its chemical con- stituents are, according to Wenz, Alumine..........33.61 Silex............49.06 Oxide Manganese.....1.40 Magnesia............41 Lithia............3.60 Potash............4.18 Fluoric acid.........3.45 Water............4.18 and a trace of iron. Before the blow-pipe, upon charcoal, it intumesces, and fuses very easily into a transparent globule. It is found near Rozena in Moravia, and at Uto in Sweden, in primitive rocks. In the U. States, it occure in Maine, at Paris, in large pieces of unusually fine colors, and frequently embracing crystals of red, green and blue tourmaline. It is cut into snuff-boxes and various ornaments. Per- fectly cleavable varieties of brown and gray mica are used in Siberia, in Mexico and Peru, instead of window glass. It is particularly employed in the construction of lanterns, and where glass would be liable to crack from sudden changes of temperature; also on board ships of war, where its elasticity enables it to with- stand the concussion produced by the discharge of artillery, which would be sufficient to shatter ordinary window glass. It is sometimes used for various optical purposes, and enters into the compositioa of the artificial avanturine. CONTENTS. LPage. innaeus (see Linne) .....3 Linne (Charles).........." Linne (Elizabeth Christina von).................4 Linseed Oil (see Flax) ....." Lint..................5 Lintz................" Li-nus................" Lion.................." Lion's Gulf.............7 Lion's Share............" Lipano (countess of)......" Lipari................." Lipinski (Charles)........" Lipogrammatic Compositions " Lippe..................3 Lippi (several of this name) . " Lipsius (Justus).........." Liqueur................ 9 Liquidambar Styraciflua, or Sweet Gum........... . " Liquorice.............." Linodendron (see Tulip-Tree) " Lisbon................" Lisle.................10 List..................11 Listel................." L'lstesso Tempo........." Litany................ " Litchfield.............. " Lit de Justice...........12 Literary History........." Literary Property........14 Literature.............16 Lithia................." Lithic Acid............." Lithochromics..........." Lithography............ " Lithotomy.............18 Lithotrity ............." Lithuania.............." Litmus................ 19 Litre (see France, division Decimal Measure)......" Litter ................" Little Rock............ " Littleton (Thomas)......." Littorale.............. " Liturgia.............." Liturgy................20 Livadia...............21 50* Live Oak (see Oak)......22 Liver................." Liverpool (a town in Engl and) " ------- (Charles Jenkinson, earl of).......23 -------(Robert Banks Jen- kinson, earl of) . 24 Liverwort............." Livery................" Livia Drusilla...........25 Livingston (Philip)......." -------- (Robert R.) . . . . " —------- (Brockholst)____26 Livius (Andronicus)......" ----- (Titus)........... " Livonia...............27 Livre................. " Livy (see Livius)........ " Lizard (an animal)......." -----r (cape).......... . 28 Llama................ " Llaneros ..............29 Llanos................30 Llorente (don Juan Anto- nio) ..............." Lloyd (Henry)..........31 ----- (James)..........32 Lloyd's Coffee House....." ----- List............ " Loan, Public............ " Loanda...............33 Loango (country of Africa) . 34 ------(city)........... " Lobau................'; Lobcira (Vasco)......... " Lobel (Martin de)........ " Lobelia............... " Lobster...............35 Loch (the Scotch for lake) . . " ----Katrine..........." ----Leven (see Leven). . . 36 ----Lomond.........." Lock................." Locks................ " Locke (John)..........." Locker...............39 Lockman (see Lokman, and Fable).............. " Locomotion............" Locomotive Engine.......40 Locris................ " Locust (an insect)........ " Locust (Tree) ..........43 Loder (Ferdinand Christian von)............... . 44 Lodge................ " Lodi................." Log..................45 Log-Board . . . .'.........46 --- Book............." --- Line............." Logan (James).......... " -----(doctor George,) .... " Logarithm.............47 Logau (Frederic, baron of) . 48 Logge di Raffaello....... " Logic ................49 Logier (John Bernard) .... 50 Logos................" Logthing..............52 Logwood.............. " Lohenstein (Daniel Caspar von)................" Loir-and-Cher.......... " Loire (river) ..........." ----(Department),......53 Loiret................ " Loizerolles (M. de)......." Lok( see Northern Mythology) " Lokman .............. " Lollards (see Beguines, Fra- ternities, and Oldcastle) . . " Lolli (Antonio).........." Lolme, de (see De Lolme). . 54 Lombard-House........." -------School (see Italian Art, in the article Italy, and Paint- ing, History of) . 55 -----— Street......... " Lombards, Longobardi, or Langobardi........... " Lombardy............." Lomenie de Brienne (Stephen Charles).............56 Lomonosoff (Michael Wasilo- witz)...............57 Lomus................58 Lon, or Lun............ " London ............... " Londonderry (marquis of) . . 68 Longchamp............" Longevity.............C9 Longhi (Joseph) .........73 594 CONTENTS. Longimetry............ 73 Longinus (Cassius)....... " Long Island........... " ----■------Sound...... 74 Longitude, Geographical .. " Longus............... 75 Longwood (see St. Helena) " Loo-Choo (islands)...... Look-out ............. Loon................ Loos (Daniel Frederic) ... 76 Lope de Vega.......... Lord ................ 79 Lords, House of (see Parlia- ment, in the article Great Britain)............. Lord's Supper ......... Lorenzo de' Medici (see Medici)............. 83 Loretto .............. " L'Orient.............. " Lorme Marion de (see De- lorme)............. " Lorraine, Claude (see Claude Lorraine) ........... " Lorraine.............. " Lory................ 84 Lot driver of France)..... " ---(in Scripture)....... " — (choice by)......... " — (piece ofland) ...... 85 Lot-and-Garonne....... " Loth................ " Lotichius (Peter):....... " Lotion............... " Lottery.............. " Lotus................ 87 Loudon (baron of)....... 88 Louis IX (St.) ......... 89 -----XI ............. " -----XII (see Appendix, end of this volume) . 92 -----XIII........... . « -----XIV............ 93 ----XV............. 98 ----XVI............103 ----XVII.......___108 ----XVIH .......... " -----Ill (of Germany) ... 116 ----IV(" « , ... « Louis Bonaparte (see Ap- pendix, end of this volume) " Louis-Philip I.......... " -----(the baron).......120 Louis, St. (chief town of Mis- souri) .............. " Louisa, Augusta Wilhelmina Amalia.............121 Louisburg............. " Louis d'or............ " Louisiana Territory. ...... " --------(State).......124 --------(Code of)......125 Louisville............126 Louse...............128 Loutherbourg (Philip James) " Louvain.............. " Louvel (Pierre Louis) .... 129 Louverture (see Toussaint- Louverture).......... " Louvet de Couvray (John Baptist)............ " Louvois (marquis of).....130 Louvre ..............131 Lovat (lord)........... " Lover's Leap.......... Low Countries (see Nether- lands) .............. Low Dutch and High Dutch Low Water (see Tide) . . . Lowell............... Lowendal (count of)..... Lower Empire ......... Low German.......... Lowlands............. Lowry (Wilson, F. R. S.) . Lowth (Robert)......... Loxodromic Curve...... Loyola (Ignatius de)..... Lubber............... Lubber's-Hole ......... Lubeck.............. Luca Giordano (see Gior- dano) .............. Lucanus (Marcus Anneeus). Lucayas (see Bahamas). . . Lucca ............... Lucchesini (marquis of) . . . Lucerne.............. Lucia, St............. Lucian............... Lucien Bonaparte (see Ap- pendix, end of this vol- ume) .............. Lucifer.............. Lucilius (Caius Ennius) . . . Lucina.............. Luckner (Nicholas)...... Lucknow ............. Lucon ............... Lucretia............. Lucretius (Titus Carus). . . Lucullus (Lucius Licinius) . Luddites............. Luden (Henry)......... Ludlow (Edmund)...... Luff................. Lugdunum (Latin name of several cities)........ Lugger. . . .;.......... Lug-Sail............. Luke (St.)............ Luke of Leyden........ Lully (Raymond)....... (Jean Baptiste)..... Lumbago............. Lumpers............. Lump-Fish............ Lump-Lac (see Coccus, end ofthe article) ........ Luna................ Lunar Caustic (see Nitrate of Silver)........... Lunar Year (see Year) . . . Lunatics, in medicine (see Mental Derange- ment) ........ in law (see Non Compos)..... 131 it 132 142 145 146 147 Lund Luneburg. Lunette . . Luneville . Lungs Lupercalia Lupine . . Lupulin . . (Peace of). 148 149 Lusatia..............149 Lusiad (see Camoens) .... " Lusilania............. " Lustration............ " Lustre (see Lustration) .. . 150 Lute................ " Luther (Martin)........ " Lutherans.............153 Luthern..............154 Lutzen............... " Lutzow's Free Corps, or Volunteers...........155 Luxation ............. " Luxembourg........... " ----------(Hdteldu Petit) " ----------(duke of)---- "_ Luxemburg...........156 Luxor................ " Luynes (duke de)....... " Luzac (John).......... " Luzerne (Anne Cesar de la) 157 Lycanthropy........... " Lyceum.............. " Lycia............... " Lycophron............158 Lycurgus (the Spartan law- giver) ....... " ------- (an Attic orator) . 160 Lydia................ " Lydiat (Thomas)........161 Lydus .............. " Lying-to.............. " Lyman (Phinehas)...... " Lymph...............162 Lynceus (see Danaldes) . . " Lynch (Thomas, junior)... " Lynchburg............ " Lyndhurst, lord (see Copley) " Lynn................ " Lynx................163 Lyonnais............. " Lyonnet (Peter)........ " Lyons (city)........... " ----- (gulf of).........164 Lyre................165 Lyrics................ " Lysander............166 Lysias...............167 Lysimachus............ " Lysippus.............168 Lyttleton (lord George) ... " M. M (letter).............169 Mab................ " Mabillon (John).........170 Mably (Gabriel Bonnot de) " Mabuse (John de)....... " Macaber.............. " Macao............... " Macarthy (sir Charles).... 171 Macartney (George, earl) . " Macassar (city)......... " ------— (straits of)..... " Macauley (Catherine) .... " Macaw ..............172 Macbeth.............. " Maccabees............ " Maccaroni............ " Maccaronic Poems......173 Macchiavelli (Niccolo). .. . " Macchiavellism.........176 Macdonald( El ienne-Jacques- Joseph-Alexandre) ..... " Mace (club)...........177 ----(spice)..........178 Macedonia............ " Maceration............ " Machaon (see iEsculapius). 179 Machinery............ " --------(Accumulating Power)..... " ---------(Regulating Pow- er) ......; • " ---------(Increase of Ve- locity) ...... " ---------(Diminution of Velocity)----180 --------(Spreading the Action)..... " --------(Saving Time). . " --------(Exerting Forces) " --------(Executing Ope- rations) ..... " --------(Registering Op- erations) .... " --------(Economy of Ma- terials) ..... " --------(The Identity of the Result] . . " --------■ (Accuracy of the Work)...... " --------, in poetry (see Poetry).....181 Mack (Charles, baron von). " Mackean (Thomas)...... " Mackenzie (Henry)......182 --------(sir Alexander) . " Mackenzie's River.......183 Mackerel............ " Mackinac (see Miehilimacki- nac)............... " Mackintosh (sir James) ... " Macklin (Charles).......184 Macknight (James) ...... " Maclaurin (Colin)....... " Macpherson (James).....185 Macrobiotics........... " Macrobius (Aurelius Ambro- sius Theodosius)...... " Madagascar........... " Madame..............186 Madder.............. " ———- (composition of, and its employment in dyeing)........187 Madeira (island)........188 - (river)........189 Madison (bishop. See Ap- pendix, end of" this volume) " Madness (see Mental De- rangement) .......... " Madoc............... " Madonna............. " Madras (Presidency of) . . . " Madrid..............190 Madrigal............. " Madura............. " Maeander.............191 Maecenas (C. Cflaius) ... " Maelstrom............ " Maenades............. " Maeonides (see Homer) ... " Mseotis...............192 Maese (9ee Meuse)...... " Maestricht (see Mastricht).. " Maestro.............. " Maffei (family of)....... " Mafra...............193 CONTENTS. Magadoxo............193 Magalhaens (Fernando de). " Magazines (see Periodicals) " Magdalen (Mary)....... " Magdalen Societies...... " Magdalena............194 Magdalene Islands...... " Magdeburg (fortress of) . . . " , Centuries of (see Centuries of Magdeburg) . " Magellan (see Magalhaens) " -------, Straits of...... " Magellanic Clouds...... " Magellona, tbe Beautiful . . " Maggiore Lake (see Lago Maggiore)........... " Magians.............. " Magic............... " Magindanao (see Mindanao) 195 Magister Artium (see Master of Arts)........ " -------Equitum (see Mas- ter of the Horse) " -------Matheseos (see Pythagoras) ... " Magistrate............ " Magliabecchi (Antonio) . . . 196 Magna Charta Libertatum . 197 Magnaean Institute....... " Magna Graecia.......... " Magnates.............198 Magnesia............. " Magnesian Minerals......199 Magnet...............200 Magnetic Needle........204 Magnetism, Animal...... " Magnificat............208 Magnificence........... " Magnifying Glass (see Mi- croscope)............ " Magnisa.............. " Magnitude, Apparent..... " Magnolia............. " Magog (see Gog)........209 Magpie............... " Magyars...............210 Mafia................ " Mahabharata (see Indian Literature).......... " Ma he .(town and fortress of)................ " Mahmoud I............ " --------II........... " Mahogany............214 Mahomet (see Mohammed) " Mahon (Port Mahon)..... " Mahrattas............ . " Maia.................216 Maid of Orleans (see Jeanne d'Arc).............. " Maiden............... " Mail, Coat of.......... " Mail, and Mail Coaches (see Posts)..............217 Maimbourg (Louis)...... " Maimon (Moses Ben)..... " ------(Solomon).......218 Maina............... " Main de Justice......... " Main-Mast............ " Maine (river).......... " -----(province of France) " -----et Loire (department of France)........... " 995 Maine (state of).........218 Mainland of Shetland (see Shetland Isles).......219 Mainots.............. " Maintenance...........220 Maintenon (marchioness of) " Maio (Angelo)..........221 Maiolica (seeFaience). ... " Maire, Le, Straits of..... " Maison (Nicholas Joseph). . " Maistre (Joseph, count de) . 222 Maitre............... " Maittaire (Michael)...... " Maize................ " Majesty..............224 Major (in military language) 225 ----(in music)........ " ----(in logic)......... " Majorano Gaetano....... " Majorat.............. " Majorca.............. " Major Domus..........226 Malabar.............. " Malacca (country)....... " -------(town)......... " - Passage....... " -------, Straits of...... " Malachi.............. " Malacology............227 Malaga............. . " Malagrida (Gabriel)...... " Mal'Aria............. " Malays............... " Malcolm (sir John).......228 Mal de Naples......... " Maldive Islands......... " Malea, Cape (see Matapan) 229 Malebrancne (Nicholas) ... " Malesherbes (Christian Wil- liam de)............ " Malet (Charles Francois) . . 230 Malherbe (Francisde). ... " Mall (or Pali-Mall)......231 Malleability............ " Mallet (David)......... " -----(a weapon. See Mace) " Malleus.............. " Mallicolo............. " Mallouines (see Falkland Islands).............232 Malmaison........... " Malmesbury (William of) . . " Malmsey Wine......... " Maloes (St.)........... " Malone (Edmund)....... " Malpighi (Marcello)...... " Malplaquet, Battle of.....233 Malt................. " Malta................ " Malte-Brun (Conrad).....234 Malthus (reverend T. R.) . . 233 Malvasia............. " Mamelukes............ " Mammalia (Mammiferous Animals)............236 Mammee-Tree.......... " Mammon............. " Mammoth............. " Mammoth Cave.........237 Man................. " ---, Isle of............238 Man-of-war............ " Man-of-war Bird (see Alba- tross) ............... " Manakin.............. " 696 Manasarowara.........238 Manasseh.............. « Mancando............. « Mancha, La..........239 Manche (Department of La) " Manchester............ " Manchineel............ " Manco Capac.......... " Mandamus.............240 Mandan.............. » Mandane (see Cyrus, and Cambyses).......... " Mandarins (see China.vol.iii, p. 145).........____; « Mandate.............. " Mandeville (sir John).....241 (Bernard)..... " CONTENTS. Mantua (city of).........257 Manuel (Jacques Anloine) . '•' Manumission...........258 Manures..............259 Manuscripts............261 (Illuminated) . . 262 Jdus)........ " . 2G3 Mandingoes Mandola, or Mandoline ... " Mandragora and Mandrake " Mandrake (see Mandragora) " Mandshures........... « Mane (see Hair)........242 Manege, or Manage..... " Manelli (Pietro).........244 Manes............... " -----(founder of a sect. See Manichees)...... " Manesse (Rudiger von) ... " Manetho.............. " Manfredi (Eustachio)..... " Manganese............245 Mangel Wurzel........248 Mango............... " Mangosteen........... " Mangrove ............ " Manheim............. « Mania (a spectre) .......249 -----(see Mental Derange- ment)............... " Manichees............ " Manifest...............251 Manifesto............. " Manilius (Marcus)....... " Manilla............... " Manioc, Mandioca, or Cas- sava ...............252 Manipulation........... " Manipulus (see Legion)... " Manitou.............. " Manlius (Marcus Capitoli- nus)............... " ------(Titus Torquatus) . 253 Manna............... " Manner............... " Mann^rt (Conrad)....... " Mannus.............. " Manogl (don Francesco). . . 254 Manoeuvre............ " Manometer............ " Manor............... " Mansfeld (family of) .....255 Mansfield Mountain...... " -------(earl of)....... " Manslaughter (see Homi- cide) ...............256 Manso (John Caspar Fred- eric) ................ " Mantchoos (see Mandshures) " Mantegna (Andrew)...... " Mantelets............. " Mantinea.............257 Mantis............... " Mantissa (see Logarithms). " Mantua (delegation of Italy) " Manutius (Aldus) Manzoni (Alessandro) Map................ " Maple................2G6 Mappe-Mondes (see Maps) 267 Mara (Gertrude Elizabeth). " Maraboots............ " Maracaybo (town)....... " (lake).......268 Maranham Maranon (see Amazon) ... " Marat (Jean Paul)....... " Marathon.............269 Marattas (see Mahrattas). . " Maratti (Carlo)........ " Maravedie ........... '' Marble............... " Marbles of the U. States . . . 270 Marblehead...........271 Marbod (see Marcomanni, and Arminius)........ " Marbois (Francois)...... Marburg..............272 Marcelhnus Ammianus (see Ammianns Marcellinus). . ■ " Marcello (Benedetto). . . Marcellus (M. Claudius). March (a mouth)........273 -----(in military language) " Marche.............. " Marches.............. " Marchesi (Luigi)........274 Marchfeld............. " Marcion (see Gnostics) ... " Marcomanni........... " Marco Polo (see Polo) .... 275 Marculphus........... " Marcus Aurelius (see Anto- ninus) .............. " Mardi Gras........... " Maremme............. " Marengo..............276 Maret (Hugh Bernard) ... " Marforio..............277 Margaret (of Denmark) ... " -------(of Anjou)..... " (of Austria).....278 (of Valois)..... " (of Parma).....279 280 -------(of France) Margate.............. Margrave............. Maria da Gloria (see Miguel, Dom).............. Maria Louisa (of Spain). . . -------- (Leopoidine Caroline, of Austria) . . . Maria of Medici (see Mary of Medici)........ " — Stuart (see Mary Stu- art) ........... " — Theresa s........ " Mariana (Juan).........286 ---- or Marianne Isles (see Ladrones)... " Marie Antoinette (see Antoi- nette) .............. " Mariegalante........... " Maricnbad.............286 Marienburg............287 Marietta.............. " Marielte (Pierre Jean) .... " Marignano, or Melegnano . " Mdrine (see Navy)...... " Marine Law (see Commer- cial Law)........... " Marini, or Marino (Giambat- tisla).............. " Marinb (San)..........288 Marion (Francis)........ " Marionettes (see Puppet- Shows)............. " Maritime Law (see Commer- cial Law)........... " Marius (Caius)......... " Marivaux (Pierre Cariet de) 291 Marjoram............. " Mark (county of)........ " ----(see Marches)...... " ----Antony (see Antonius) " ----(the Evangelist)..... " or Marc......... " — (Library of St. See Venice)......." — (Order of St.)...... « (Place of St. See Ven- ice) ............ » Markland (Jeremiah)..... " Marlborough (duke of. See Churchill)...........292 Marl ................ « Marlowe (Christopher).... " Marly.................293 Marmont (marshal)...... " Marmontel (John Francis) Marmora, Sea of........294 Marmot.............. " Marne...............295 Marocco (see Morocco) ... " Maronites............. " Maroons............... " Marot (Clement)........ " Marpurg (Frederic William) 296 Marque (Letter of. See Let- ter of Mart) .......... " Marquesas Islands....... " Marquetry............ " Marquette (Joseph)...... " Marquis, Marquess.......297 Mamage............. " Marrow (see Bone, and Me- dulla) ..............302 Mars (mademoiselle Hyppo- hte-Boutet)........ " ---- (god of war)....... " ' Hill (see Areopagus)'. 303 Marsden (William)...... " Marseillaise Hymn...... " Marseilles.............304 Marsh (Herbert)........ " Marshal.............. " •(Earl. See Earl Mar- shal) .......... " - (Provost. See Pro- vost Marshal).... " Marsham (sir John)...... " Marsi (two tribes of this name)..............306 Marsigli (count of)...... " Marston (John)......... " ------Moor.......... " Marsupials............ " Marsyas............. " CONTENTS. 597 Mart, or Marque, Letter of (see Letter of Mart or Marque)............306 Martello Towers........ " Marten...............307 Martens (George Frederic von)............... " Martha (Sister)......... " ------(Santa).........308 ----—'s Vineyard....... " Martial (Marcus Valerius) . " Law. 310 Martignac (see France, and Polignac)...........309 Martin (St.)........... -----(popes of this name). —— don Juan, El Empe- cinado (see Diez) . . -----(Louis Claude, St.) . " ——— (Christopher Rein- hard Dietrich) .... " ----- (John) .......... " Martinet.............. " Martini (John Baptist) .... 311 Martinico, or Martinique . . Martyn (Henry)........ Martyr, Peter (an Italian writer) . . . ------------(a Protestant divine) . . . Martyrs..............312 Martyrs, JE ra of (see E poch) ------(Festivals of the). . Marvell (Andrew)....... Mary (in Scripture)......313 ----of Medici ........314 ----I (of England)____315 ----II(« « ) ----Stuart...........316 Mary's College (Mount St.) 317 ------ " , St. (see Bal- timore) ........ ,; ------Falls (St.)....... " ------River (SL)....... " Maryland............. " Masaccio.............318 Masaniello (see Massaniello) " Mascaret.............319 Maseres (Francis)....... " Masham (Abigail)....... " Masinissa............ " Mask (the Iron) ........ " Masks, or Larvae........322 Mask, a species of drama (see Masque).........324 Maskelyne (Nevil)....... " Mason (Charles)........ " -----(William) ....... " -----(John Mitchell) .... 325 Mason's and Dixon's Line (see Mason, Charles) ... " Masonry (Free)........ " Masora..............330 Masque, or Mask........331 Mass................332 Massa-Carrara.........334 Massachusetts.......... " ------------Bay......336 Massagetae............ " Massafians (see Messalians) " Massaniello........... " Massena (Andre).......337 Massillon (Jean Baptiste) . . 338 Massinger (Philip)....... " Mast (see Ship)........339 Master and Servant . . ——- in Chancery . . , ------of Arts...... -----of the Horse . . -----ofthe Ordnance ------of the Rolls . . . Master-Singers......, Mastic........... Mastiff............ Mastodon.......... Mastology ......... Mastricht, or Maestrieht Matador........... Matanzas.......... 339 340 341 342 Matapan (cape)........ Materia Medica (see Medi- cine) ............... Material and Moral...... Materialism (in philosophy) Mathematical Geography. . Mathematics........... Mather (Increase)....... - (Cotton) Mathias (Thomas James) . Matilda ............. Matsys (Quintin)....... Matter.............. Matthew (in Scripture) . . . of Westminster . Matthews (Charles) Matthias (Augustus Henry). Matthias Corvinus....... -------, John van Harlem (see Anabaptists)...... Matthisson (Frederic von) . Maturin (Charles)....... Maubeuge ............ Maubeuze (see Mabuse). . . Maubreuil (marquis de) . . . Maumee, or Miami of the Lakes.............. Maunday-Thursday...... Maupertuis (Pierre Louis Moreau de).......... Maura, Santa (see Leuca- dia)................ Maurepas (count de)..... Mauri, and Mauritania (see Moors) ............. Maurice of Saxony (count) (duke) of Nassau Mauritius (see France, Isle of) ................ Maurokordatos (see Mavro- cordato) ............ Mauromichalis (see Mavro- michali)............. Maurus (Rabanus)....... Maury (Jean Siffrein) .... Mausoleum............ Mavrocordato (Alexander) . Mavromichalis (Petro).... Maxen............... Maximianus (Herculius). . . Maximilian I........... II.......... the Great .... I (Joseph) Maximinus (Caius Julius Verus) ............. Maximum............. Maximus Tyrius........ May (month)........... May (cape)............ 344 345 it 346 it 347 it 348 a u it 349 it 350 351 352 355 356 357 May Fly (see Ephemerides) 357 ----(Thomas) ........ " Mayenee (see Mentz) .... " Mayer (John Tobias) .... " -----, or Mayr (Simon)... 358 Mayhew (Jonathan)..... " Maypu (Battle o0....... " Mazarin (cardinal)...... " Mazeppa (John)........360 Mazzola, or Maazuoli (Fran- cesco) .............361 Mazzuchelli (Giammaria, count)............. " Meaco, or Kio......... " Mead (Richard) ........362 Meadow Lark......... " Meadville............. " Meal-Tub Plot (see Popish Plot)...........:.. » Mean ............... " Measles.............. " Measures............. " Mecenas (see Maecenas) . . 367 Mecca, or Mekka....... " Mechain (Pierre Francois Andre)............. " Mechanics............368 Mecheln, orMeckenen (Isra- el of) ..............375 Mechlin, or Mecheln.....376 Mechoacan, or Valladolid . " Meckel (John Frederic) ... " Mecklenburg-Schwerin ... " Mecklenburg-Strelitz.....377 Medallions............ " Medals (see Numismatics) . " Medea............... " Media............... " Median Wall ..........378 Mediation, Mediator..... " Mediator (in theology) ... " Mediatisation..........379 Medici (family of)...... " -----(Luigi, don)......383 Medicine.............384 Medietas Linguae.......386 Medina, or Medina el Nebi . '•' Sidonia (duke of) . " Mediterranean Sea Pass Medium (in science) . Circulating (see Cir- 387 lating Medium) Medlar............... Medoc............... Medulla (in anatomy) .... ------(in vegetables) . . . Medusa (see Gorgons) .... Meerman (John)........ Meerschaum (see Magnesite) Megasra.............. Magalony (see Megatherium) Megalopolis........... Megalosaurus.......... Megara (daughter of Creon) - (see Megaris) .... 388 Megaris Megatherium, or Giant Sloth Megrim.............. Mehemed Ali Pacha (see Mohammed, Viceroy of 389 lehul I Mehul (Stephen Henry) . . Meibom (John Henry) . . . Meibomius (Marcus) .... r 598 Meinau...............390 Meiners (Christopher) .... " Meiningen (Saxe)....... " Meionite (see Scapolite) . . " Meissen.............. " Meissner (Augustus Gott- lieb) .... . ......... « Mela (Pomponius)....... " Melampus............39] Melancholy (see Mental De- rangement) .......... " Melancthon (Philip) ..... " » Melanges.............393 Melanite (see Garnet) .... " Melas (a Greek word).... -----(an Austrian general) Melasses (see Molasses). . . Melcarthus (see Hercules) . Melchisedek........... Melchites............ Melchthal (Arnold of) .... Melcombe, lord (see Dod- ington)............. Meleager (son of CEneus) . -------(a Greek poet) . . Meleda, or Melita....... Meletians............. Melicerta,Melicertes, or Me- licertus............. Melilot............ Melinda.......... Melissus........... Melita............ Mellite, or Honey-Stone Mellitic Acid ....... Melmoth (William) . . . Melo-drama........ Melody ........... Mcloe............ Melon............ Melos............. Melpomene........ Melrose........... Melun............ Melusina.......... Melvil (sir James) .... Melville Island......... " Memel (a town in Prussia) . " ------(see Niemen)..... " Memnon ............. " Memoirs (Historical)..... " Memorial.............401 Memory..............402 Memphis (an ancient city of Egypt).......404 -------(a town in Missis- sippi) ..............405 Memphremagog........ " Men................. " Menachanite (see Titanium) " Menage (Giles) ........ " Menai Strait and Bridge . . " Menander............. " Menasseh Ben Israel..... " Mendelssohn (Moses).....406 Mendez-Pinto (Ferdinand) . 407 Mendicant Orders (see Or- ders, Religious)....... " Mendoza (don Diego Hurla- do de).............. " Menedemus of Eretria .... 408 Menelaus............. " Meues (see Hieroglyphics) . " Mengs (Anthony Raphael) . " MenDite (see Opal)......409 394 11 a it a 395 a a it 39C 397 398 it n 11 399 CONTENTS. Meninski, or Menin (Francis) Menippus............. Menno (Simonis)........ Menologium........... Menomonies, Menomenies . Menou (baron de)....... Menschikoff (Alexander) .. Menses (see Catamenia) . . Mensuration........... Mental Derangement, or In- sanity .............. Mentchikof (see Menschi- kbff)............... Mentor.............. Mentz, or Mayence,or Mainz Menu................ Menzabano............ Menzaleh, or Menzala .... Menzel (Frederic William). -----(Charles Adolphus). Menzikoff (see Menschikoff) Mephitic.............. Mequinez............. Mercantile System...... Mercator (Gerard)...... Mercer (Hugh)......... Mercia.............. Mercier (Louis Sebastian) . Mercure de France...... Mercuriale............ Mercury (the son of Jupiter) ■-------, a planet (see the article planets) . , or Quicksilver . . Mercy (Francois de) -----(Floriniond Claude de) Merganser............ Menam (Matthew)...... Merida, or Yucatan...... Meridian............. Merino Sheep (see Sheep) . Merlin (Ambrose)....... ------(Philip Antony) . . . ------(Anthony Christo- pher) Merlon .............. Mermaid............. Meroe............... Merope............... Merovingians.......... Merrimack............ Mersch (van der)....... Merseburg............ Meru (Mount).......... Meschid, or Mesghid, or Iman Ali, or Mesched Ali................ Meschid, or Mesched..... Mesentery............ Mesmer (Frederic Anthony) Mesne............... Process......... 409 It It 410 U 411 413 414 it 11 415 it it u 41 (i 417 11 it 418 419 423 424 425 (1 11 42C u 427 ii 428 429 Mesopotamia Mess................ Messa di Voce......... Messalians............ Messalina (two of this name) Messana (see Messina).... Messe Concertate....... di Capella....... 430 432 Messenia Messenius (John) Messiah....... Messier (Charles) 433 Messina.............. Mestizos, or Metis....... Meslo ............... Mestre de Camp........ Mesue............... Mesurado, cape (see Libe- ria) ............... Meta................ Metal............... Metalliques............ Metalloid............. Metallurgy, Metallurgic Che- mistry .............. Metamorphosis......... Metaphor,............. Metaphysics........... Metapontus............ Metastasio (Pietro Antonio Domenico Buonaventura) Metastasis ............ Metaurus............. Mctclin (see Lesbos)..... Metella.............. Metelli............... Metempsychosis........ Metemptosis........... Meteor............... Meteoric Iron (see Iron, Na- tive, and Meteoric Stones) Meteoric Stones, or Aero- lites ............... Meteorology........... Method .............. Methodists............ Metis................ Meto, or Meton......... Metonymy............ Metope .............. Metoposcopy.......... Metre (French unit of meas- ure) ............ _____(in versification, see Prosody, and Rhythm) . . Metropolitan........... Metternich (count)....... Mettrie, Julian Offrie die la (see Lamettrie)....... Melz................ Metzu (Gabriel)........ Meudon .............. Meulcn (Antony Francis van der)............ Meung, or Meun (John de) . Meursius (John)........ Meurthe.............. Meuse (a river)......... (French department) 433 434 it n n 435 « 436 it 437 u It tt 438 440 441 442 444 Meusel (John George) Mexical, or Mescal...... Mexico (republic)....... , Geology of (see North America) . . , History of....... , Antiquities of 446 447 448 ii 451 u 453 454 ------, or Mejico (a state of the Mexican confed- eracy) ......... ; New (a territory of the Mexican con- federacy) ...... " , (capital of the Mex- ican confederacy). " ., Gulf of.........456 Meyer (Jonas Daniel) Meyerbeer........ CONTENTS. 599 Mezerai (Francis Eudes de) 455 Mezzo................456 Mezzofante (abbate)..... " Mezzotinto (see Engraving) " Mi.................. " Miami of the Lakes (see Maumee)....... " -----Canal (see Canals, and Inland Naviga- tion).......... " -----(a river of Ohio) ... " -----, Little (a 'river of Ohio) ......... " ----- University (see Ox- ford) .......... " Miasma.............. " Miaulis (Andrew Vokos) . . " Mica (see Appendix, end of this volume) ......... " Micah................ " Michael..............457 ------St. (an island) . Michaelis (John David) . Michaud (Joseph)..... -------(Louis G.)..... 458 Michaux (Andre)......., ------- (Francois Andre) . Michel Angelo, or Michelan gelo (see Angelo)......459 Michigan (a territory of the U. States)..... ---.----Lake.........462 Michilimackinac (a town) . . " -------------(Straits of) " Mickle (William Julius) ... " Microcosm............464 Micrometer............462 Microscope............ " Microscopical Animals, or Animalcules .........464 Midas................466 Middle Ages........... " Middleburg............471 Middlebury............472 Middleton (Conyers)..... " --------(Arthur)...... " Middletown............473 Midianites............ " Midwifery............ " Mieris (Francis)........475 Mignard (Pierre)........ " Migration of Animals.....476 Miguel (Dom)..........478 Milan (Duchy of) or the Mi- lanese ..........479 —- (a city)......... " Milesian Tales (see Ro- mance) .............480 Mildew (see Fungi)...... " Mile (see Measures)..... " Miletus............... " Milford Haven (an inlet of the sea in Wales) - (a town)........ " Miliary Fever.......... " Military Colonies of Russia " -------District, or Military Frontier.......482 -------Geography (see Mil- itary Sciences, and Geography) .... 483 ——— Orders (see Orders) " -------Roads......... " -------Schools and Acad- emies ......... " Military Sciences.......484 Militia...............485 Milk ................488 Milky Way (see Galaxy . . 489 Mill____.........:.. . " Milledgeville...........490 Millennium............ " Miller (Edward)........492 ——(Joseph)----..... " Millet................ " Milliard..............493 Millin (Aubin Louis)..... " Millot (Claude Francois Xa- vier) ............... " Mills (Charles)......... " Milner (John).......... " Milo (an island)........494 ----(a Grecian athlete)... " Miloradowitch (count of) . . " Miltiades............. " Milton (John)..........495 Mimes...............498 Mimic (see Pantomime)... " Mimnermus........... " Mimosa(see Sensi^e Plant) " Mina (don Francisco Espoz y)............. " ----(among the Greeks) . 499 Minaret.............. " Minas Geraes.......... " Mincio...............500 Mindanao, or Magindanao . " Minden .............. " Mindoro(see Philippines). . " Mine (in military language) " — (an excavation for ob- taining minerals) . . . 501 Mining...............504 ■ ■ Academies....... " Mineral Caoulchouc (see Bitumen)............ " Mineralogy, or the Natural History of the Mineral Kingdom............ " Mineral Waters.........510 Minerva..............511 Mingotti (Catharine) .....512 Mingrelia............. " Minho............... " Miniature Painting.......513 Minim ............... " -----Friars .......... " Minion............... " Minister.............. " Ministers (Foreign)......515 Mink................517 Minnesingers.......... Minnow..............518 Minor (a Latin word) .... -----, in logic (see Syllo- gism) .............. Minorate............. Minorca.............. Minorites (see Franciscans) Minority.............. Minos (two of the name) Minot (George. Richard). . . 519 Minotaur........... Minster.............. Minstrel.............. Mint (a plant).......... ----(a place where money is coined)........ Mintarees, or Minetarres . . 520 Minucius Felix (Marcus) . . Minuet............... Minute............... Minutoli (Menu von)..... Minyae............... Miquelets............ Miquelon.......... Mirabeau (count of)...... Miracle............... Mirage............... Miranda (don Francisco) . . Mirandola (Giovanni Pico della).............. Mire (Noel de)......... Mirevelt (Michael Janson) . Miriam............... Mirkhond, or Mirchond (see Persian Literature) .... Mirror............... Mischna, or Misna....... Misdemeanor .......... Miserere.............. Misericordia........... Mishna (see Mischna) .... Misitra, or Mistra....... Misletoe.............. Misnomer............. Misprision ............ Missal (in the Catholic litur- .syj----•...... in German)..... ti Missalia Missions, Missionaries .... Missilonghi (see Missolonghi) Mississippi (river)....... --------(state).....i. - Vslley....... Missolonghi, or Missolunghi Missouri (river)......... ------ (state) ......... Territory 521 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 534 Ii 536 538 540 541 543 Mistletoe (see Misletoe) . . . Mite (insect) .......... ----(a coin).......... Mitford (William) ....... Mithra............... Mithridates (the name of several kings) ---------(Allgemeine Sprachenkunde) Mitra (a head-dress)..... ----(goddess)......... Mitre................ Mittau........... Mittimus ......... Mizzen (sail)....... -----Mast....... 544 546 547 Mnemonics . . Mnemosyne . . Mo ........ Moab....... Moallakat Moat, or Ditch Mobile (city) . (river) . Mobility , Mocha, or Mokka..... Mocking Bird........ Modality............ Mode.............. Model ............. Modena (duchy of Italy) (a city)....... Modern Modillion Modon . . 548 549 it it 550 it it 551 552 600 Modulation............552 Module.............. Mcellendorf (count von) . .. Moeris...............653 Mossia...............554 Moesogoths (see Goths) . . . Mogador, or Mogadore . . . jMogrebbins........... Mogul (see Monguls)..... Mohammed (prophet) .... --------- II.........558 --------- IV.........559 ----------- (sheik)' '. '.'.'.'.'. 561 Mohammedan Era (see Ep- och) ............... " Mohawk.............. " Mohawks............. " Mohicans, or Mohegans ... "■ Mohs (Frederic)........ " Moidore, or Moed'or, or Mo- eda................562 Moines (Des).......... " Moira, Earl of (see Hastings, Francis)........-. . . . " Moitte (Jean Guillaume) . . " Mola (Peter Francis)..... " Molai (James de)........ " Molar Teeth (see Teeth) . . " Molasses, or Melasses .... " Moldau.......,....... " Moldavia......'....... " Mole (an animal)........563 ----Cricket.......... 564 ----(a mound of stones in the sea)............ " Mole (Matthew)........565 Molecule............. " Moles Adriani.......... '' Moliere (Jean Baptiste P.) " Molina (Juan Ignacio) .... 568 CONTENTS. Molina, Molinists (see Jan- senius, and Grace).....568 Molinos, Michael (see Quiet- ism) ............... " Molla................ " Molle................ " Mollusca............. " Moloch .............. " Molossus (see Rhythm) ... " Molto............... " Moluccas, or Spice Islands " Molwitz..............569 Molybdenum .......... " Molyn, Peter (see Tempes- ta)................ " Molyneux (William)..... " Molza (Francesco Maria) . . 570 Moment.............. " Momentum............ " Momiers ............. " Momus .............. " Mona................ 571 Monaco .............. " Monadnock Mountain .... " Monads (se# Leibnitz, vol. vi, page 492)......... " Monaldeschi (see Christina, queen of Sweden)..... " Monarchy (see Political In- " stitutions)........... " Monastery............ " Monastic Vows.........573 Monboddo, lord (see Bur- nett, James) ......... " Moncontour...........574 Monday.............. " -----, Plough (see Plough Monday) ............ " Mondovi............. " Monembasia........... " Money............... " Money, Standard of (sec Standard)...........676 Monge (Gaspar)........ " Monguls. .. i..........677 Moniteur.............578 Monitor.............. " Monitorial Instruction (see Mutual Instruction).....579 Monk (see Monastery, and Orders, Religious) . . " -----(George)......... " Monkey.............. " Monmouth (a town)......580 -------- (duke of)..... " Monnier (Pierre Charles Le) 581 Monochord............ " Monochrome........... " Monocrat............. " Monodrama........... " Monogram............ " Monograph............582 Monolithic............ " Monologue............ " Monomany............ " Monongahela.......... " Monophysites.......... " Monopoly.............584 Monopteral Temples (see Architecture, vol. i. p. 341) " Appendix............585 Louis Xll......... " -----Bonaparte.....586 Lucien Bonaparte.... 588 Madison (bishop) .... 590 Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States..........591 Mica............. " I_ ^"J2a SZtn) J1 J 6 JLe y% c> e? <> J- X u* .... \ (, p f^ JgSZj, /J-3* & O 3 £v J j$ ~t* &y J.) * o -7 tl J 4*. 'Lr/ / £ 2 9 ^"^ ?- 7 >>, * /- tf / ? r ' 7'^fi-. .$• m%$ Wt ■t m